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 or ILLINOIS 
 
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 https://archive.org/details/libraryofunivers03unse 
 
L I B E A K T 
 
 OP 
 
 UHIVERSAl KROWLEDGE. 
 
 A EEPEIET 
 
 OF THE LAST (1880) EDINBURGH AND LONDON EDITION 
 OF CHAMBERS’S ENCYCLOPEDIA.' 
 
 CopiottS bp ^mmran ®bitors. 
 
 FIFTEElSr VOLUMES. 
 
 VOLUME HI. 
 
 New Yoke: 
 
 S. W. GREEN’S SON, 
 
 74 AND 76 BEEKMAN STREET. 
 1882. 
 
AMEEICAN PTJELISHEE’S NOTICE. 
 
 This work, although based upon Chambers’s Encyclopaedia, whose distinguished 
 merit is widely known, differs from it in important respects. It could scarcely be 
 eitpected that an Encyclopaedia, edited and published for a foreign market, would give 
 as much prominence to American topics as American readers might desire. To supply 
 these and other deficiencies the American Editors have inserted about 15,000 titles, 
 arranging the whole, including Chambers’s Supplement, in a single alphabet. The 
 total number of titles is now about 40,000. The additions give greater fullness in the 
 departments of biography, geography, history, natural history, and general and applied 
 science. Scrupulous care has been taken not to mutilate or modify the original text of 
 the edition of 1880 ; no changes have been made except such verbal alterations as are 
 required by the omission of the wood-cuts. The titles of articles from Chambers’s 
 Encyclopsedia, either from the main work or from the Supplement, are printed in bold- 
 faced type — AMEEICA. The titles of the American additions, whether of new topics or 
 of enlargements of the old, are printed in plain capitals — AMERICA. Should it appear 
 that an article from the English work and its American continuation disagree in anjr 
 points, the reader will readily refer the confiicting statements to their proper sources. 
 
 The labor of consultation will be much reduced by the catch-words in bold-faced 
 type at the top of the page, being the first and last titles of the pages which face each 
 other; and by the full title-words on the back of the volume, being the first and last 
 titles contained therein. 
 
 The word ante refers to Chambers’s Encyclopaedia, as represented in this issue. 
 Whenever the word {ante) follows a title in the American additions, it indicates that 
 the article is an enlargement of one under the same title in Chambers’s Encyclopaedia — 
 usually to be found immediately preceding. 
 
 Copyright, 1880, by 
 
 THE AMERICAN BOOK EXCHANGE. 
 
 Electrotyped, Printed and Bound at the Establishments of the Publisher, 
 S. W GREEN’S SON. 
 
 74 and 76 Beekman Street, and 13 and i5Vandewater Street, 
 
 New York City. 
 
LIBMRY OF UNIVERSAL KNOWLEDGE 
 
 B RAZEK sea, the large metal vessel, probably of copper, oval shaped, with 12 oxen 
 for a pedestal — the beasts standing in a circle with their heads outward, and the 
 vessel resting on their rumps. It was in the priest’s court of Solomon’s temple, 
 and held water for the use of the servitors. 
 
 BRAZIL', the most extensive state of South America. Towards the interior, it 
 borders on all the other states of South America except Chili and Buenos Ayres — on 
 Uruguay, the Argentine Confederation, Paraguay, Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, the United 
 States of Colombia, Venezuela, and Guiana, English, Dutch, and French; while its 
 sea-board, beginning about 200 m. to the n. of the Amazon, and reaching to within the 
 same distance of the Plata, projects into the Atlantic fully 1000 m. to the e. of the 
 direct line — pretty nearly a meridian — between its two extremes. This immense coun- 
 try extends between lat. 4° 30' n. and 33° s. and between long. 35° and 70° w., being, 
 in round numbers, 2600 m. long and 2500 broad. The area, according to official ac- 
 counts, is 3,200,000 sq. miles. But B. was not always, in point of extent, what it now 
 is. The Portuguese, who, in 1500, accidentally discovered the s. e. coast of the country 
 (but that only after one of the Pinzons had, on behalf of Spain, followed the shores 
 of the continent from its eastern angle to the mouth of the Orinoco), claimed all between 
 the Plata and the Amazon. Soon, however, the Spaniards of Buenos Ayres, feeling 
 that the complete command of their mighty river was to them a necessary of life, colon- 
 ized the left bank by founding Montevideo. But nearly twenty years earlier, B. had 
 acquired more territory on the Amazon than it was to abandon on the Plata, having, in 
 1509, wrested from France, then at war with Portugal, what may now be designated 
 Brazilian Guiana. It was only in 1531 that the Portuguese, busy as they were in 
 India, here planted their first settlement. In 1578, B. fell, along with Portugal itself, 
 under the power of Spain — a connection which, besides being essentially detrimental, 
 speedily threw it as a prey into the hands of the Dutch republic ; and though Portugal 
 regained its own independence in 1640, it was not until 1654 that B. was entirely recov- 
 ered from the Hollanders. Thenceforward, the colony entered on a new era. Sup- 
 planted, in a great measure, throughout the east by the Dutch, the mother country was 
 now directing most of its attention to its possessions on either side of the Atlantic. 
 About a century and a half later, a still more beneficial change — and that, too, arising 
 from the mother country’s own disasters — was inaugurated in the colony. In 1808, 
 under the pressure of French invasion, the monarchy, in the persons of the royal family, 
 was virtually transferred from Portugal to B., an event which, doubtless through 
 British counsels and influence, was immediately followed by the opening of the ports to 
 foreigners. As a remoter benefit, too, of an incident which had no parallel either in 
 English or in Spanish America, B. , on shaking off, like its neighbors, the European 
 yoke altogether, found a merely nominal revolution sufficient for its purpose, establish- 
 ing, or rather accepting, an hereditary empire instead of restless and precarious repub- 
 licanism; and ever since the transition-period of 1821-25, this consolidated government, 
 with subordinate institutions for local objects, has secured to B.’s twenty vast provinces 
 comparative unity and peace. A war was undertaken in 1865, in concert with the 
 Argentine republic and Uruguay (formerly a province of B.), against Paraguay, which 
 terminated in the defeat of the Paraguayans; and in 1872 Paraguay ceded to B., as a 
 war-indemnity, the long-disputed territory comprised between the Paraguay and the 
 Parana, n. of the Apa and Igatim. This territory has an extent of about 16,000 sq. 
 miles. 
 
 The executive authority is vested in the emperor, who, besides being aided by a 
 council of state, must act through responsible ministers. The legislature consists of 
 two chambers, which sit four months every year. Both the deputies and the senators, 
 who must have annual incomes respectively of 800 millreas and 1600 are indirectly 
 elected by voters, who must possess 200 millreas per annum — the former for four years, 
 and the latter for life. The senate, however, appears to represent the crown as well as 
 the people, inasmuch as each constituency merely nominates three individuals for his 
 majesty’s choice of one. Justices of peace, also, are appointed by the respective com- 
 
Brazil. 
 
 4 
 
 munities; and in the courts generally, whether civil or criminal, there prevails trial by 
 jury. The budget of 1878-79 gave a revenue of 103,300,000 paper millreas, and expendi- 
 ture, 107,732,068 (the paper millrea is about half the value of the silver coin, which is 
 about 2s.); the public debt in 1877 was 701,952,781 millreas — nearly £35,000,000. The 
 standing army is fixed at 15,000 men on the peace-footing, and at 32,000 on the war- 
 footing; and the standing naval force is fixed at 4000 men, which may be raised to 8000 
 in time of war. The navy in 1877 consisted of 56 vessels, including 53 steamers and 11 
 ironclads. 
 
 The population in 1872 amounted to 10,108,291 negroes, mulattoes, and Europeans, 
 besides about 1.000,000 aboriginal Indians, who are here proportionally fewer than in 
 most parts of South America, Of the total pop. 1,510,806 were slaves. The Africans 
 continued to be imported till 1854, and their amalgamation with the Europeans pro- 
 duced perhaps the finest variety of the mulatto in the world. A law for the gradual 
 emancipation of the slaves was passed in 1871. It enacts that henceforth the children 
 born of slave women shall be “considered of free condition,” but bound to serve the 
 owners of their mothers for the term of 21 years, under the name of apprentices. 
 Roman Catholicism is the prevailing religion. Notwithstanding the recent efforts of 
 the legislature for the advancement of education, it is still very defective. In 1874, the 
 attendance at the public schools was only 140,000, 
 
 But physically, as well as politically and socially, B. differs in many respects from 
 most of the other divisions of the new continent. It knows nothing of the volcanoes 
 and earthquakes of the Pacific coast; with winds blowing constantly from the Atlantic 
 ocean, it is exempted from those droughts which are always blighting one or other of 
 the slopes of the Andes, the remoter slope in Peru and Chili, and the nearer in Buenos 
 Ayres and Patagonia; its mines, again, are as famous for gold and diamonds as those of 
 the western Cordilleras for silver. In its hydrography, B. contrasts unfavorably with the 
 other divisions. While the Amazon and the Plata, the Mississippi and the St, Lawrence — 
 not to mention countless rivers of inferior magnitude on both shores — are for the most 
 part practicable almost to their sources, the streams of B., with the exception of the 
 Amazon, are mostly impeded throughout by cataracts and shallows, thus counterbalanc- 
 ing, as it were, its matchless seaward facilities by the deficiencies of its inland communi- 
 cations. Further, the most navigable of these streams, instead of entering the open sea, 
 mingle their waters with those of the Plata or of the Amazon — the Parana and the 
 Uruguay joining the former, and the Madera, the Tapajos, the Zingu, and the Tocan- 
 tins, the latter; and even among those that do send their tribute at once to the ocean, a 
 similar direction is sometimes impressed by the dividing ridges — the San Francisco, for 
 instance, by far the largest of them, running to the northward parallel with the s.e. 
 coast through 11° of lat,, and leaving only 4° of long, for its remaining course to the 
 Atlantic. A humid surface and a luxuriant vegetation conspire to render ordinary roads 
 all but impassible. B. possessed, at the commencement of 1878, railways of a total 
 length of 791 m. , and it has also a system of telegraphs, the lines at the same date being 
 3875 m. in extent. Telegraphic communication has been established between B, and 
 Europe; the first message was despatched by the cable to Lisbon, June 23, 1874. 
 
 Among the mineral treasures, besides gold and diamonds already mentioned, iron of 
 superior quality is abundant ; and salt, also, is extensively produced in saline marshes 
 by the alternate processes, according to the season, of inundation and evaporation. The 
 productions of the soil, which are, of course, equally various and rich, will be more 
 satisfactorily considered under the heads of the respective localities. Suffice it to say, 
 that the cotton is naturally excellent, and that the tea-plant of China has been intro- 
 duced, though hitherto with indifferent success. The exports are necessarily different 
 from the diferent sections of the country. From the n,, they are coffee, cotton, cocoa, 
 sugar, and tobacco ; from the s, , hides, tallow, horns, etc. ; and from the middle, drugs, 
 diamonds, gold-dust, dyes, rice, manioc, tapioca, spirits, and rosewood. Their total 
 value in five years, 1873-77, averaged £17,500,000; the corresponding imports averaging 
 £17,000,000. The chief centers of foreign trade, and, along with San Paulo in the inte- 
 rior, the principal cities of the empire, are Para, MaranhSo, Bahia, Pernambuco, and 
 Rio de Janeiro. This last-named port, which is likewise the seat of government, is the 
 favorite halting-place of the outward-bound vessels for India, China, and Australia. 
 
 BRAZIL {ante) comprises 3,288,000 sq.m.; and the several islands adjoining in the 
 Atlantic, the most important of which is Fernando Noronha, 250 m. e. from cape St. 
 Roque, and the penal settlement of the empire. The boundaries of B. are sufficiently 
 described, ante. The most striking physical feature of the country is the Amazon river, 
 which with its numerous tributaries affords 30,000 m. of navigation within the territory 
 of the empire. (See Amazon.) Next in importance is the Tocantins river, which rises 
 in the s. central part of the country, and flows directly n. for 900 m., uniting with the 
 Para branch of the Amazon. The river Araguaya, parallel with and w. of the Tocan- 
 tins, divides about midwaj’’ in its course, and afterwards unites, inclosing between its two 
 channels the remarkable Bananal island, 220 m. in circumference, and containing a lake 
 80 m. in extent. The Turyassu, Maranhao, and Paranahyba are the largest of the other 
 rivers of the n.e. slope. The San Francisco occupies a wide inclosed basin of the eastern 
 highland, and has a course n. and e. of 1800 m., navigable 160 m. from the ocean. 
 
5 
 
 BraKll. 
 
 Further s. on the coast slope are the Paraguasu, the Rio de Contas, the Belmenti, the 
 Rib Doce, and the Paranahyba do Sul, all of them to some extent navigable. The great 
 rivers of the southern watershed are the Parana and the Paraguay (q.v.). The Parana 
 rises in a broad basin which extends for 700 m. in width across s. Brazil. The Paraguay 
 has its source in several small lakes between 13° and 14° s., taking in as it flows south- 
 ward a number of large and small streams, and affording uninterrupted navigation 
 through nearly its whole course, large steamers running up about 1000 m. in a direct 
 line from Buenos Ayres, and smaller craft going 300 m. further. The other large rivers, 
 such as the Xingu, Tapajos, Madeira, Purus, Jurua, Javari, Zapura, Negro, Jamuda, 
 etc. , are tributaries of the Amazon. 
 
 In respect to elevation, the surface of the country is divided into the higher regions 
 of plateaus, ridges, and broad open valleys, occupying the whole of the country s. of the 
 latitude of cape St. Roque, and the vast lowland plain of the Amazon, extending across 
 the continent to the base of the Andes of Peru, Ecuador, and Colombia, rising in the 
 extreme n. to the ranges which form the boundary of Venezuela and Guiana. The 
 highest and most important mountains in B. are the Serra da Mantiqueira and the Serra 
 do Espinha 9 o, between 18° and 23° s., and from 100 to 200 m. from the sea-coast. The 
 highest peak has been estimated from 8900 to 10, 300 feet. There is a coast range of moun- 
 tains beginning n. of Rio Janerio, and running both n. and s. not far from the ocean; 
 but none of the peaks exceed 7500 feet. The remarkably even character of the great level 
 of the river provinces may be known from the fact that where the Amazon enters B. 
 at Tabatinga, more than 1500 m. in a direct line from the ocean, the river banks are not 
 more than 250 ft. above sea-level. The rock formation of the mountains is chiefly 
 gneiss. Clay-slates are found between the Parana and the Paraguay, and true carbonifer- 
 ous strata occur in the coal basins s. of the tropic. Carboniferous rocks occur, but Jurassic 
 rocks do not appear. Coral reefs occur along the n. coast. The limestones of the upper 
 San Francisco basin contain the celebrated bone caverns which have been described by 
 Lund, the Danish naturalist. In some of these the remains of extinct animals of high 
 antiquity have been found, such as those of the mastodon, mylodon, giyptodon, toxo- 
 don, and megatherium; and with these, stone implements and remains of man so liuried 
 with the bones of the extinct fauna as to lead to the conclusion that man was contempo- 
 raneous with them. There are no signs of recent volcanic action in B. , but warm 
 springs are found in several places, saline and alkaline, varying from 88° to 119°, the 
 warmest at an elevation of 6000 ft. above the sea. 
 
 In minerals^ and jewels B. is very rich. Diamonds were found, in 1786, 300 m. n. of 
 Rio, and at later periods in many other sections. The emerald, ruby, sapphire, topaz, 
 beryl, tourmaline (black, blue, and green), amethyst, garnet, rock crystal, chalcedony, 
 opal, agate, and carnelian are more or less plentiful. There are several large coal basins, 
 and also sulphur, saltpeter, and salt. Gold is abundant in many of the provinces, 
 always accompanied by silver. Silver alone was found in large quantities more than 
 .200 years ago. There are rich mines of mercury not far from the capital ; and copper, 
 lead, iron, and manganese are also abundant. 
 
 The climate of this immense country is naturally widely varied. In the northern 
 lowlands, between the tropics, it is very hot, with but two seasons in the year — the dry 
 and the wet. In the higher lands it is milder, and in the extreme s. the four seasons are 
 tolerably well marked. The wet season lasts from Dec. or Jan. until May or June, with 
 occasional intervals of flne weather. The other half of the year is dry, but not without 
 occasional showers. The amount of water in the wet season is enormous, often pro- 
 ducing a rise of 40 ft. in the great rivers, and heavy rains are accompanied with abund- 
 ant lightning and thunder. At Maranhao the annual rain-fall has been as high as 280 
 in., while at Rio Janeiro it is but 59 or 60 inches. Temperature is remarkably even, 
 particularly in the Amazon basin. A record kept at Para between 1861 and 1867 showed 
 the annual mean of 80° with extremes of 68° and 95°. The greatest ranges are in the 
 <;entral and southern tablelands and mountain ridges, where the coast temperature is 
 hot and the air humid, while in the interior there may be snow and a little ice. The pre- 
 vailing winds are the trades from the e., sweeping in the moisture of the Atlantic, and 
 reaching inland along the whole valley of the Amazon to the Andes. These winds greatly 
 mitigate the heat of the dry season. In the interior the course of wunds is n. or s., blow- 
 ing usually toward the sun. Along the ocean the usual interchanging land and sea 
 breezes are of regular daily occurrence. Malarial fevers prevail in some of the low and 
 marshy districts, but, as a whole, B is a healthy country. There have been epidemics 
 of cholera and yellow-fever ; but the ordinary mortality of cities and towns compares 
 favorably with that of European cities. 
 
 Vegetation in B. is wonderfully proliflc. Except on the loftiest mountains and in 
 some stony districts, the country is luxuriant with vegetable life. In the mountain 
 passes, near the sea-shore, the joint effect of heat and moisture produces a growth 
 beyond man’s efforts to restrain. Trees cut and split for fences send forth shoots and 
 branches immediately, and this whether the position of the fragments be that in which 
 thej’- originally grew, or inverted. Along the Amazon the loftiest trees destroy each 
 other in consequence of near proximity. In the province of Maranhao roots of grasses 
 and other plants extending from the shores of pools weave themselves into vegetable 
 bridges, along which the wanderer treads, unaware that he has left solid land until he 
 
Brazil. 
 
 6 
 
 sees the jaws of a cayman protruding through the herbage beneath him. Along th# 
 coast mangroves are numerous and prominent, and so rank is their growth that the 
 seeds begin to sprout before they drop from the parent stem, while the drooping 
 branches strike into the soil and take root. Behind the mangroves come the palms in 
 great variety, while the underwood is chiefly crotons. Brushwood and herbage are 
 seldom seen ; everything tends to the gigantic in size. The most varied forms group 
 awkwardly together, crossed and intertwined with leaves. The preponderance of trees 
 with feathery foliage, and glossy, fleshy leaves, lends alternately a tender and luxuriant 
 character to the scene, which in every other respect is painful from its monotony. 
 Cocoa trees, the vanilla, the cinnamon tree, various kinds of pepper, and Brazilian cassia 
 are found. . Above the falls of the large rivers the vegetation is generally different; and 
 so is that of the southern pampas or prairies. There are found beautiful flowers, and 
 at intervals groves of small trees growing far apart, while solitary myrtles, fruit trees, 
 and occasionally a cactus add variety to the prospect. The cactus is prolific on the 
 hot steeps of Pernambuco, and the medicinal ipecacuanha flourishes in Terro do Mar. 
 In the valley of the Paraguay there is a profusion of water plants, in one river so many 
 and so strong as seriously to obstruct navigation. The cocoa tree is in abundance near 
 the sea-shore; Brazil-wood, noted for its dyes and its value as timber, also grows near 
 the sea. Besides these there are the rosewood tree, the trumpet tree, the soap tree, the 
 laurel-pear tree, and abundance of palms. The carnauba palm is one of the most 
 useful trees; every part is valuable, even the wax yielded by its leaves being an article 
 of commerce. More important still is the caoutchouc, or india rubber tree, the gum of 
 which exported from B. annually amounts to more than $5,000,000. The banana tree 
 furnishes the food of a great portion of the population. Other important fruits are the 
 mango, pine-apple, custard-apple, guava, melons, and nuts. 
 
 Although not more than one acre in 200 in all B. is under cultivation, it ranks high 
 as an agricultural country for some articles. The chief productions are coffee, sugar, 
 cotton, manico or cassava flour, tobacco, rice, maize, fruits, and spices. Wheat and 
 flour are imported from the United States. 
 
 The varieties of animal life in B. are probably more numerous than in any other part 
 of the globe. Of beasts of prey the jaguar, or South American tiger, is the most formid- 
 able ; besides this animal there are the tiger cat, the puma, the ocelot, the red wolf, and 
 the Brazil fox or wild dog. Large herds of peccary roam in the forests, where also are 
 tapirs, largest of South American animals. The water hog, abundant on the river 
 banks, is the largest rodent. Various species of deer inhabit the plains. Of edentata 
 there are several species of armadillos, the ant-eater, and the sloth ; and of marsupialia 
 there are many kinds of the opossum family all over the country. Of monkeys the 
 variety is surprising; the largest belong to the genus stentor, and are known as 
 howling monkeys. The simia iacchus is found in no other region. There are many 
 species of bats; while of birds the variety is wonderful, from the ouira, an eagle far 
 larger and more powerful than the most important of European birds of prey, to 
 humming-birds not larger than humble-bees. Among larger birds is the rhea, a species 
 of ostrich. Most birds of B. are noted for beauty of plumage. Red, blue, and 
 green parrots haunt the tree-tops; pigeons in great varieties throng the woods; orioles 
 resort to the orange groves; chattering manakins mislead the sportsman; and the metallic 
 tones of the uraponga resound through the forests like the strokes of a hammer on 
 an anvil. The toucan is prized for its feathers, which are of lemon and bright red 
 color, with transverse stripes reaching to the extremities of the wings. One beauti- 
 ful specimen of the humming-bird has the native name of the “ enanthe engera, ” or 
 “winged flower.” Serpents are found in great varieties, the most venomous being the 
 rattlesnake and the jararaca. Others, such as the boa, attain enormous size. There 
 are also many varieties of annoying insects along the rivers ; one of them, the puim, so 
 small as to be nearly invisible, inflicting a painful and sometimes dangerous bite. The 
 red ant is a destroyer of vegetation, and large districts are sometimes laid waste by 
 its ravages. Spiders attain enormous size, but few of them are venomous. Butter- 
 flies are innumerable, and of the most surprising beauty. A dozen varieties of wild 
 bees, most of them honey-makers, have been noted. Caymans and lizards abound. 
 The supply of turtle in the Amazon and its tributaries appears inexhaustible. The 
 sea and the streams abound in fish, among which naturalists have within the past 
 few years found many hundreds of kinds before unknown. One of the largest, the 
 pira rucu, is the principal food of large numbers of people along the Para and the 
 Amazon. The more important domestic animals are the horse, ox, and sheep. Immense 
 numbers of wild horses roam the great southern prairies, found generally in droves 
 of 20 or 30. Cattle also roam wild^, and are killed in great numbers for their hides, 
 horns, and tallow, which form a large proportion of the exports of the country. 
 
 The population of B. presents a number of distinct types, as well as many varieties 
 blended therefrom. In the eastern or maritime provinces the aboriginal Indians have, 
 to a great extent, become amalgamated with the settled population ; but in the great 
 forests and plains of the interior, they are nearly all in a savage condition. In 
 general description the Indians are copper-colored, of medium height, thick-set, broad- 
 chested, and muscular, with small hands and feet, and well-shaped limbs; hair black, 
 thick, and straight; features broad, cheek-bones not generally prominent; eyes black. 
 
7 
 
 Brasil. 
 
 and sometimes oblique like those of the Chinese; in disposition apathetic and unde- 
 monstrative. Though considerably differing in different sections they appear to 
 belong to one original stock, called the Tupi-Guavani. Tlie only tribe that has 
 almost entirely resisted the inroads of civilization is that of the Botocudos (q.v.), 
 living in the forests of the Rio Doce, who are sunk in the lowest barbarism, and are 
 fast dying out. From the mixture of the natives with Europeans, mainly with the 
 Portuguese, are descended the Mamlucos, who first became prominent in raids and con- 
 quests in the southern provinces. Negroes, originally from Africa, form a large propor- 
 tion of the population; and from these and whites have sprung mulattoes of all shades. 
 The B. creoles, who call themselves Brazilerios, descendants of these mixed races, are 
 little inferior in capacity, physical strength, or intelligence to the true Portuguese. A 
 great social reform was begun by the law enacted in Sept., 1871, providing that after 
 the date of the act all children born of slave parents should be free, and that all slaves 
 belonging to the state or the emperor’s household should likewise be free; and the same 
 law set apart an emancipation fund to be applied to the ransom of slaves owned by 
 private persons. Since that time emancipation has gone on rapidly, the work having 
 been greatly assisted by private philanthropy, and by many of the slaveholders them- 
 selves. The importation of slaves was forbidden in 1853, and since then more than a 
 million persons have obtained their freedom. The rapid progress of emancipation after 
 1871 caused some difliculty in the supply of labor; but the ultimate effect has been to 
 give new avenues for the employment of capital, promote internal improvements, and 
 induce desirable emigration from Europe. Enterprises of all kinds have multiplied, and 
 public instruction has received a vigorous impulse. Until after 1872, when a full census 
 was begun, every estimate of the population of B. had been based upon the official re- 
 turns of 1817 and 18. In the first census the total was put at 4,396,000; in 1850, a round 
 number, 7,000,000; and in 1860, 8,000,000. In the following table for 1872 the figures 
 for the provinces marked * are estimated on the best available knowledge; those not 
 marked are the census figures : 
 
 POPULATION. 
 
 
 Provinces. 
 
 Alto Amazonas 
 
 Grao Pard 
 
 Maranhao 
 
 Piauhy 
 
 Cearfi, 
 
 Rio Grande del Norte. . 
 
 Parahyba 
 
 Pernambuco 
 
 Alagoas 
 
 Sergipe 
 
 Bahia 
 
 Espiritu Santo 
 
 Rio de Janeiro 
 
 (Municipality of R. J.), 
 
 Sao Paulo 
 
 Parana 
 
 Sta. Catharina 
 
 Rio Grande do Sul 
 
 Minas Geraes 
 
 Ooyaz 
 
 Matto Grosso 
 
 Totals 
 
 Sq, Miles. 
 
 Free. 
 
 Slave. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Chief Towns. 
 
 753,469 
 
 56,631 
 
 976 
 
 56,610* 
 
 Mandos. 
 
 412,677 
 
 232,622 
 
 27,199 
 
 259,821 
 
 Para, or Belem. 
 
 141,651 
 
 284,101 
 
 74,939 
 
 359,040 
 
 S. Luis do Maranhao. 
 
 81,779 
 
 178,427 
 
 23,785 
 
 202,222 
 
 Therezina. 
 
 50,262 
 
 689,773 
 
 31,913 
 
 721,686* 
 
 Fortaleza. 
 
 20,130 
 
 220,959 
 
 13,020 
 
 233,979 
 
 Natal. 
 
 20,346 
 
 341,643 
 
 20,914 
 
 362,557 
 
 Parahyba. 
 
 46,257 
 
 752,511 
 
 89,028 
 
 841,539* 
 
 Recife. 
 
 11,642 
 
 312,268 
 
 35,741 
 
 348,009* 
 
 Maceio. 
 
 12,038 
 
 139,812 
 
 21,495 
 
 161,307 
 
 Aracajd. 
 
 204,803 
 
 1,120,846 
 
 162,295 
 
 1,283,141 
 
 Bahia. 
 
 17,030 
 
 59,478 
 
 22,659 
 
 82,137* 
 
 Victoria. 
 
 18,490 
 
 456,850 
 
 270,726 
 
 727,576 
 
 Rio de Janeiro. 
 
 
 226,033 
 
 48,939 
 
 274,972* 
 
 (City.) 
 
 90,541 
 
 680,742 
 
 156,612 
 
 837,354* 
 
 Sao Paulo. 
 
 108,557 
 
 116,162 
 
 10,560 
 
 126,722* 
 
 Curitiba. 
 
 18,924 
 
 144,818 
 
 14,984 
 
 159,802 
 
 Desterro. 
 
 110,216 
 
 364,002 
 
 66,876 
 
 430,878 
 
 Porto- Alegre. 
 
 237,481 
 
 1,642,449 
 
 366,574 
 
 2,009,023 
 
 Ouro Preto. 
 
 263,373 
 
 149,743 
 
 10,652 
 
 160,395* 
 
 Goyaz. 
 
 £!CiQ HKK 
 
 DOO,D&0 
 
 53,758 
 
 6,667 
 
 60,417* 
 
 CuryabA 
 
 3,288,110 
 
 8,223,620 
 
 1,476,567 
 
 9,700,187 
 
 
 The constitution of B., dating from Mar. 25, 1824, establishes four powers in the 
 state — the legislative, the executive, the judicial, and the moderating power, or royal 
 prerogative. Senators are chosen for life at electoral meetings specially convened, each 
 of which nominates three candidates, leaving the choice of them to the sovereign or his 
 ministers. A senator must be of native birth, 40 years old, and must have an annual 
 income of $800; there are 58 of them, and their salaries are $1800 per annum. Members 
 of the house, or congress, are elected for four years. The empire is divided into elec- 
 toral districts, in which every 30 voters select one elector, and the electors, varying in 
 number according to population, nominate a deputy from each district. The house is 
 composed of 122 members. A voter must have an income of (about) $112; an elector of 
 $225, and a deputy of $450 per year. All registered voters must vote, or suffer a pen- 
 alty. Minors, monks, and servants may not vote ; and naturalized foreigners, and persons 
 not of the state religion (Roman Catholic), are ineligible as deputies. The deputies 
 have a salary of $1200 per annum, besides traveling expenses. Sessions are limited to 
 four months. Each house chooses its own officers, and at the opening and closing of a 
 session both houses sit in a general assembly for the disposal of important business. 
 For ordinary purposes, they sit separately. Taxation, provision for the army and navy, 
 ‘•'bd, if it should become necessary, the choice of a sovereign, originate in the house of 
 
 * There are probably 1,000,000 Indians not taken Into account. 
 
Brazil. 
 
 Brazing. 
 
 8 
 
 deputies. The senate deals with offenses committed by members of the imperial family, 
 and by senators and deputies if committed during the session, and is invested with the 
 right of convoking the legislative assembly should the emperor fail to do so for two 
 months after the period fixed by law. The executive power is in the sovereign, assisted 
 by the ministers and a council of state. The ministers are responsible for treason, 
 corruption, abuse of power, and all acts contrary to the constitution, or the liberty, 
 security, and property of citizens; a responsibility from which they cannot escape on 
 the plea of orders from the sovereign. The executive functions consist in the convoca- 
 tion of the ordinary meetings of the legislative assembly ; the nomination of bishops, 
 governors of provinces, and magistrates, the declaration of peace or war, and the gene- 
 ral execution and superintendence of all measures voted by the legislature. The moder- 
 ating power, vested in the sovereign, gives him authority not only to select ministers 
 and senators, but to temporarily withhold his sanction from legislative measures, to 
 convoke extraordinary sessions of the legislative assemblies, to dissolve the chamber of 
 deputies, and to grant amnesty and pardon. There are 7 ministries — war, foreign, 
 interior, marine, finance, justice and public works, agriculture and commerce. The 
 ministers are assisted by a council of state consisting of 12 ordinary and 12 extraordinary 
 members, all named by the emperor, and holding office continuously. They are usually 
 ex-ministers. The heir to the throne, if of age, is by right a councilor of state. At 
 the head of each province is a president appointed by the general government; and 
 each province has its local legislature, or provincial chamber, called the legislative 
 assembly of the province. The members of the latter are nominated by the electors 
 who choose deputies to the national assembly, but the members of the provincial 
 chambers are chosen directly by the electors for two years. The power of these provin- 
 cial bodies over local affairs is analogous to that of the general assembly over affairs of 
 the empire. 
 
 The Roman Catholic is the established religion, but all others are tolerated “with 
 the domestic or private forms of worship in buildings destined for the purpose, but 
 without the exterior forms of temples.” No one can be persecuted for religious acts or 
 motives. The Roman Catholic clergy are maintained by the state ; but funds are also 
 voted for the assistance of other sects. No ecclesiastical decree can have force without 
 permission of the emperor or of the general assembly. Marriages of Protestants cele- 
 brated in foreign countries are respected. The empire constitutes an ecclesiastical 
 province of the Roman see, with an archbishop, 11 bishops, 12 vicars general, and about 
 1300 curates. Public education is in three distinct divisions — primary, secondary, and 
 scientific. The first is gratuitous, and “will become compulsory as soon as the govern- 
 meut considers it opportune.” Thus far it is very backward. 
 
 The trade and commerce of B. have rapidly increased within the past decade. In 
 1877, there were 1438 m. of railroad open for trafiBc, and 800 m. in course of construc- 
 tion. Telegraphs, though comparatively new, reported 3890 miles. There were at the 
 close of 1876, 1018 post-offices, and 13,165,000 letters for the year. Weights and measures 
 are those of the French metric system. The standard of value is the gold octava of 22 
 carats, equal to 4 milreis, or 4000 reis; value at the U. S. mint, $2.18, 
 
 BRAZIL', a city in Clay co,, Ind., on the St. Louis, Yandalia, Terre Haute, and 
 Indianapolis railroad, 57 m, w.s.w. of Indianapolis; pop '70, 2186; in ’80, 3530. There 
 are coal and iron mines near the place, and the people are largely engaged in mining and 
 manufacturing. There are six churches, two banks, four weekly newspapers, and a 
 number of good schools. 
 
 BRAZIL', Island of, one of the mythical islands of the Atlantic set down by early 
 cosmographers. The Arabic geography of Edrisi (middle of the 12th c.) describes several 
 such islands, and in Mercator’s atlas, 400 years later, the northern Atlantic (now known 
 to be nearly clear of islands) is as full of islands as the sky is of stars. Among these 
 mythical places were the isle of St. Brandon, said to have been discovered by the Irish 
 in the 6th c., of which many wonders were told; the island of Anlilia; the island of the 
 Seven Cities, said to have been the place of refuge of Christians flying from the Saracen 
 conquerors of Spain; the island of Mayda, or Asmaide; and the isle Verde, behind 
 which the inhabitants of the Hebrides imagine they see the sun disappear at setting. 
 None, however, were more famous than the isle of Brazil, the name of which connects 
 it with the red dye-wood of the same appellation. The island was assigned to several 
 places, in one map being attached to the Azores, and finally getting the name of Ter- 
 ceira. The baseless tradition was not finally and officially exploded until the publica- 
 tion of the British admiralty charts of 1865. 
 
 BRAZIL CABBAGE, or Chou Caraibe, (caladium mgitti folium, or xanthosoma sagitti- 
 folia), a plant of the natural order aracece, nearly allied to cocco (q.v.), and very similar 
 to it, although it differs in having arrow-shaped pointed leaves. It^ is supposed to be 
 originallj^ a native of tropical America, but is now in common cultivation throughout 
 the whole tropics; not onlj'’ the root being used for food like that of cocco, but also the 
 leaves, boiled as greens. Both root and leaves are almost entirely destitute of the 
 acridity so generally characteristic of the order. 
 
 BRAZILIAN GRASS, an incorrect popular name applied to a substance used in the 
 manufacture of a very cheap kind of hats, knows as B. G. hats, and also as chip hata 
 
9 
 
 Brazil. 
 
 Brazing. 
 
 It consists of stripes of the leaves of a palm, chamcBrops argentea, which are imported 
 into Britain for this manufacture, and chiefly from Cuba. See Cham.®rops. 
 
 BRAZILIAN PLUM. See Hog Plum. 
 
 BRAZIL NUTS are the seeds of the hertholletia excelsa, a majestic and beautiful tree 
 of the natural order lecythidacecB (q.v.). The tree grows to the height of 100 or 120 ft., 
 and abounds on the banks of the Orinoco and in the northern parts of Brazil. It pro- 
 duces a round woody pericarp or seed-vessel, almost as large as a man’s head, within 
 which are many of the seeds or nuts. The pericarp is very heavy and solid, requiring 
 a blow of a sledge-hammer to break it; and at the time when this great fruit is ready to 
 fall, it is dangerous to walk under the tree. The seeds, which are popularly called nuts, 
 and much resemble fruits of that description, are wrinkled and triangular, having a hard 
 shell and a pure white kernel, which, when fresh, is very agreeable. They are chiefly 
 exported from Para and French Guiana, and are well known in our shops. They yield 
 a large quantity of oil, which is good for burning. The nuts or seeds of the lecythis 
 ollaris, or Pot Tree, are produced in a pericarp which resembles a rusty iron pot with 
 a lid, the lid dropping off and letting the seeds out, which are oblong, grooved, and 
 esteemed of a very superior quality to the common B. N. ; but they have not yet become 
 an article of commerce, as the tree grows chiefly in the interior parts of the country, 
 from which the nuts are only occasionally sent to the coast. 
 
 BRAZIL WOOD, a dark-red or yellowish-brown dye-wood, which forms a consider- 
 able article of export from Brazil, where some of the trees which yield it are very abun- 
 dant. It is the produce of different species of msalpinia (q.v.). The best kinds are those 
 called Pernambuco wood, all saints’ wood, and St. Martha wood. Much of the B. W. 
 of commerce is obtained from ccesalpinia Bradliensis, a tree which is a native of the 
 West Indies, commonly growing in dry places and among rocks, and seldom exceeding 
 30 ft. in height. It has bipinnate leaves, with many smooth, obtuse, oblong leaflets, 
 and no terminal leaflets, the flowers in pannicles, with downy stalks. The heart-wood 
 alone is of any value. — Pernambuco Wood is the produce of cmalpinia echinata, a 
 prickly tree, with prickly pods, and of which the red and yellow flowers have a deli- 
 cious smell, resembling that of the lily of the valley. The sap-wood is extremely thick, 
 and the valuable heart- wood bears a small proportion to the whole diameter of the stem. 
 — The sappan wood (q.v.) of the East Indies nearly approaches B.W. in quality. It is the 
 produce of cmalpinia sappan, a small thorny tree. — The Braziletto Wood, sometimes 
 also called B. W., which is brought from the Antilles, is much inferior. Ccesalpinia crista 
 probably yields some of the inferior West Indian Brazil wood. — It is a curious circum- 
 stance, that B. W. is said not to take its name from Brazil, but to be mentioned under 
 the name Braxilis in documents much older than the discovery of America, the sappan 
 wood of the East Indies being probably intended, and the name of Brazil has even been 
 supposed to be derived from that of this product of its soil. 
 
 When freshly cut, the color of B. W. is yellow; but when exposed to air, moisture, 
 and light, it becomes red, and is generally sent into market ground down to the size of 
 ordinary sawdust. When treated with water, alcohol, or ether, the weathered B. W. 
 readily yields up its red coloring matter, called Brazelein. The latter is supposed to be 
 produced from the oxidation of a colorless substance called Brazilin, which exists in the 
 original yellow wood of the tree. Strong decoctions of B. W. are used by the dyer and 
 calico-printer in the fabrication of reds, browns, etc. ; it is also used in the manufac- 
 ture of red ink. See Ink. 
 
 ^ BRAZING, or Brass Soldering, is the process of uniting together two pieces of brass, 
 two pieces of copper, or one of each, by means of a hard solder, partaking more or less 
 of the composition and properties of ordinary brass. The edges or parts of metal to be 
 joined are first filed bright, so as to be thoroughly clean, then there is strewed over the 
 gap or crevice a mixture of the solder and borax. The solder employed varies in com- 
 position according to the kind of work, and may be rendered more fusible by the addition 
 of a larger amount of zinc, but the general proportions are (1) 16 copper, 16 zinc, and 1 
 tin; (2) 12 brass, 4 zinc, and 3 tin; or (3) 18 brass, 3 zinc, and 2 tin. When the whole has 
 been fused together, it is allowed to cool, and is then filed down to a coarse powder, in 
 which state it is used. The borax is employed to form a glaze over the brightened sur- 
 faces, and thus prevent the oxidation of the metal, which would seriously interfere with 
 B., and even stop the operation. An outward coating or layer of charcoal is likewise 
 serviceable in the exclusion of the air during the B. of large pieces of metal. Where a 
 very high heat is required in the process, a little powdered glass is mixed with the borax. 
 The mixture of solder and borax may be applied dry, but it is better to moisten it with 
 water, and to lay it on the filed surfaces with a spoon. The whole is then gently heated, 
 when the water evaporates and leaves a crust of borax and solder. The work may now 
 be strongly heated before the blow-pipe, or over a clear fire, and at a bright red heat the 
 solder fuses, and the zinc begins to burn with a pale-blue flame. At this stage, the 
 solder or becomes liquid enough to permeate the joint or crevice; but should it be 
 
 tardy in acting thus, several slight taps will insure the proper result. The whole is now 
 cooled, and, towards the close, the articles may be introduced into cold water for more 
 rapid reduction in temperature. Pieces of metal which have undergone the process of 
 
Brazoria. 
 
 Breach. 
 
 10 
 
 B. are so firmly united that they may be rolled and re-rolled without the parts yielding; 
 See Solder. 
 
 BRAZORIA, a co. ins.e. Texas on the gulf of Mexico; 1260 sq.m. ; pop. ’80, 9780 — 7531 
 colored. The International and Great Northern railroads intersect the county. It has a 
 level surface of oak forest and prairie. Agriculture is the main occupation. Co. seat, 
 Brazoria, 48 m. s. of Houston. 
 
 BRAZOS, a co. in s.e. Texas, on the B. river; 578 sq.m.; pop. ’80, 13,580— 6257 
 colored. The surface is undulating and fertile; chief business, agriculture. 'The Hous- 
 ton and Texas railroad traverses the county. Co. seat, Bryan. 
 
 BEA'ZOS DE DI'OS, a river of Texas, North America, the second, if not the first, in. 
 magnitude that flows within the state. It runs towards the s.e., rising in the table-Jand 
 of Bexar co., and falling into the gulf of Mexico about 40 m. to the s.w. of Galveston. 
 With a course of about 900 m., it is navigable at all times to a distance of 40 m. from its 
 mouth, and at certain seasons to a distance of 300 miles. The valley of the river, the 
 lower half being merely an alluvial plain, presents extensive forests, interspersed With 
 plantations of maize, sugar, and cotton. 
 
 BRA'ZOS DE SANTIA'GO, a port of entry in Cameron co., Texas, on the gulf of 
 Mexico, 35 m. e.n.e. of Brownsville. It has some foreign and considerable coasting 
 trade. 
 
 BBAZZA, an island in the Adriatic, belonging to Dalmatia, Austria, in lat. 43° to 44° 
 n., and long. 16° to 17° east. It has an area of about 170 sq.m., and a pop. of 16,000; 
 and is separated from the mainland by a channel of some 8 or 10 m. in breadth. Its 
 surface is mountainous, and extensively wooded; vines, yielding excellent wine, are 
 grown in the valleys, and figs, saffron, almonds, and oil are produced in considerable 
 quantities, but not much grain is raised. Bees and silk-worms are reared in large num- 
 bers. B. is also celebrated for its cheese, and the delicacy of the flesh of its lambs and 
 kids. Excellent building-stone, which is largely exported, is found in the e. part of the 
 island. St. Pietro di Brazza is the chief town. 
 
 BREACH, in siege-works, is a gap in any of the defensive walls or gates of a city; 
 and breaching is the operation by which the gap is produced by the guns of the besieg- 
 ers. Breaching batteries are employed, consisting of several pieces of ordnance, so 
 chosen as to kind and size, and so placed as to distance, as to burst a hole through the 
 defenses in the shortest practicable time. The greatest effect is produced by lodging 
 the balls in two vertical lines, from the parapet of the wall downwards, and in a hori- 
 zontal line, connecting the lower ends of those vertical lines; and then overturning the 
 mass of material thus loosened by an irresistible salvo or volley. When a hole has once 
 been made, by thus knocking away the masonry or earthwork, the breaching is con- 
 tinued until the crumbling mass has so accumulated as to form a practicable slope, up 
 which the storming-party of the besiegers may run. See Assault. During the Penin- 
 sular war there were some formidable examples of breaching. At Badajoz, 14,000 shot 
 brought down 180 ft. of wall in 104 hours, from a distance of 450 yards. At Ciudad 
 Rodrigo, 6700 balls brought down 105 ft. of wall in 32 hours, from a distance of 560 
 yards. At St. Sebastian, 13,000 shot brought down 100 ft. of wall in 62 days, from a 
 distance of 620 yards. It was calculated, from these and other instances, that 10,000 
 24-lb. shot, or 240,000 lbs. of iron, will breach 100 ft. of wall from a distance of 500 yards 
 — the wall being of fair average masonry, and the height and thickness a fair average of 
 those used in fortifled towns. It must be remembered, however, that this estimate was 
 made before the days of rifled cannon and Armstrong guns; and, on the other hand, 
 that the walls adverted to were not constructed of granite. 
 
 BREACH, in law, signifies a breaking or violation of a right or of an obligation or 
 engagement legally binding; and in this sense it has numerous applications, of which 
 the following are those more particularly treated in law-books : 
 
 Breach of Arrestment, in the practice of the Scotch law, is the disregard or 
 violation of the process of arrestment, or attachment, by the arrestee, or party in pos- 
 session of the arrested or attached property, but who, notwithstanding, pays the sums 
 or delivers the goods arrested; and such B. is viewed by the courts as a contempt. But 
 at present the only consequence of the B. is, that the person guilty of it, where it is a 
 question as to money, is liable in damages to the extent of the funds paid away, and the 
 costs. Where goods are arrested, and the arrestment is removed on bail (or “loosed on 
 caution,” as the Scotch lawyers say), if the goods themselves cannot be recovered, or 
 their value cannot be clearly ascertained, the surety or “cautioner” is held to be liable 
 for the original debt. See Arrestment. In England, the disputing or disobeying a 
 rule or order by a judge for attachment of a debt very nearly means the same thing. 
 See Attachment, Garnishee 
 
 Breach of Close is a trespass by which an unwarrantable entry is made on another 
 man’s land, for satisfaction of which injury an action will lie to recover damages. It is 
 called a trespass for breaking a man’s close, because every man’s land is, in the eye of 
 the law, inclosed and set apart from his neighbor’s; and that either by a visible and 
 
11 
 
 Brazoria. 
 
 Breach. 
 
 material fence, as one field is divided from another by a hedge; or by an invisible 
 boundary, existing only in the contemplation of the law, as when one man’s land adjoins 
 to another’s in the same field. The, liability to this injury attaches not only to the party 
 himself trespassing, but also to trespass by his cattle. And the law gives the party injured 
 a double remedy in this case, by permitting him to distrain the cattle till the owner 
 shall make satisfaction, or else by leaving him to the ordinary remedy by action for the 
 daniage done. 
 
 But in some cases this trespass is justifiable; as where it is done in exercise of a 
 right of way, right of common, or the like; or where a man comes to demand or 
 pay money payable on the particular land; or to execute, in a legal manner, the 
 process of the law; or by the license of the plaintiff himself. Also, a man may justify 
 entering into an inn or public-house without the leave of the owner first specially 
 asked; because when a man professes the keeping of such an inn or public-house, he 
 thereby gives a general license to any person to enter his doors. So a landlord may 
 justify entering to distrain for rent; and a reversioner to see if any waste be committed 
 on the estate, for the apparent necessity of the thing; and it has been held that the 
 common law warrants the hunting of ravenous beasts of prey, as badgers and foxes, in 
 another man’s land, if no greater damage be done than is necessary, because the de- 
 stroying such creatures is said to be profitable to the public. But in cases where a man 
 misdemeans himself, or makes an ill use of the authority with which the law intrusts 
 him, he is accounted a trespasser ab initio; as if one comes into a tavern, and will not 
 go out in a reasonable time, but remains there all night, contrary to the inclinations of 
 the owner; such wrongful act is held to affect and have relation back even to his first 
 entry, and make the whole a trespass. But a bare nonfeasance, as not paying for the 
 wine he calls for, will not make him a trespasser, for this is only a B. of contract. See 
 Blackstone and Stephen’s Com. respecting “civil injuries.” 
 
 In the Scotch law, the term close is not used, and not known — but there any vio- 
 lation of a right of property in land may be redressed by legal process, and in many 
 cases form the ground of an action for the recovery of damages. See Close. The 
 term inclosure, in Scotch law, has a different meaning, although the penalties for break- 
 ing such inclosure are somewhat analogous to those for breach of close. See below, 
 Breaking Inclosure, and see Trespass. 
 
 Breach of Covenant is one of those civil injuries by which is meant a violation of 
 a covenant or agreement contained in a deed of conveyance, either to do or omit to do 
 something, and which B. gives a right of action against the party who made the cove- 
 nant and his representatives. See Covenant. 
 
 Breach of Contract is a general description of injury, by which is understood the 
 violation of any contract or legal engagement, and for which, at law, damages may be 
 recovered, according to the nature of the breach and character of the contract. In 
 1854, jurisdiction was conferred upon the courts of common law, by which a plaintiff 
 can compel a defendant to fulfill any actual duty. But till the constitution of the new 
 high court of justice in 1873, it was only in the courts of equity that complete relief 
 was given by enforcing the specific performance of contracts. See Contract; Dam- 
 ages; Specific Performance; Equity, Courts of; Chancery, Court of. 
 
 In Scotland, although there is no distinction between law and equity, the remedy for 
 this injury is very much the same. The party wronged may either conclude for damages, 
 or ad factum prestandum, or for both these remedies. 
 
 Breach of Duty may be legally defined as either the non-execution of an office, or 
 the performance of it in such a way that the conditions on which it is undertaken are 
 violated. Such misconduct may either violate the conditions of an express contract, 
 or it may be equally opposed and do equal violence to any implied engagement or 
 assumpsit, as it is technically called in the law of England, not from the express deter- 
 mination of any court or the positive directions of any statute, but from natural reason 
 and the just construction of law, which assumes and intends that every man has engag;ed 
 what his duty or justice requires at his hands. And he must do this with integrity, dili- 
 gence, and skill; for if, by his neglect, injury accrues to individuals, they have their 
 remedy against him in damages. See Contract, Duty, Obligation, Damages, 
 Equity, Performance of Contracts. 
 
 Breach of the Peace is an offense against the public tranquillity and safety, and is 
 either felonious or not felonious. But the law on this subject will be best considered 
 under Peace, Offenses against the Public. 
 
 Breach of Pound is an indictable offense, and means the breaking pound (q.v.) 
 or place where cattle or goods distrained are deposited, in order to rescue them. When 
 once impounded, such goods or cattle are understood to be in the custody of the law, 
 and an action for treble damages will lie for illegally taking them out of pound upon a 
 distress for rent. Further, it is enacted by the 6 and 7 Viet. c. 30, that if any person 
 shall release, or attempt to release, cattle lawfully seized by way of such distress, from 
 the pound or place where they shall be impounded, or on the way to or from such pound 
 ' or place, or shall destroy such pound — he shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding £5, 
 and in default, may be committed to the house of correction. See Stephen’s Com., vol. 
 iii. , and see Distrain, Distress, Pound. 
 
 BREACH OF PROMISE TO MARRY. See Promise and Marriage. 
 
Breach. 
 
 Bread. 
 
 12 
 
 BREACH OF THE PEACE {ante), in general any riotous behavior, or annoying 
 conduct, such as fighting, shouting, disturbing others assembled or singly, etc. In com- 
 mon practice almost any conduct that can be called “disorderly” is in some sense a 
 B. of the P, Unless occasioning some serious revolt, a B. of the P. is only a mis- 
 demeanor. 
 
 BREACH OF TRUST. See Trust. 
 
 BREAD. The earliest and most primitive way of making B. was to soak the grain in 
 water, subject it to pressure, and then dry it by natural or artificial heat. An improve- 
 ment upon this, was to pound or bray the grain in a mortar or between two flat stones, 
 before moistening and heating, and from this h'aying operation some etymologists pro- 
 pose to derive the word bread (as if brayed). A rather more elaborate bruising or 
 grinding of the grain leads to such simple forms of bread as the oat-cakes of Scotland, 
 which are prepared by moistening oat-meal (coarsely bruised oats) with water containing 
 some common salt, kneading with the hands upon a baking-board, rolling the mass into 
 a thin sheet, and ultimately heating before a good fire, or on an iron plate, called a 
 girdle, which is suspended above the fire. In a similar manner, the barley-meal and 
 peas-meal bannocks of Scotland are prepared; and in the East Indies (especially the 
 Punjab and Afghanistan), as well as in Scotland, flour is kneaded with water, and rolled 
 into thin sheets, as scones. The passover cakes of the Israelites were also prepared in this 
 way. A similar preparation of wheat-flour, but where the sheet of dough is made much 
 thicker, forms the dampers of Australia. The Indian corn-meal, kneaded with water and 
 fired, affords the corn-bread of America. The kinds of B. referred to above are designated 
 unleavened, as no leaven has been added to the dough to excite fermentation. Even in 
 the time of Moses, however, leaven was employed in making bread. It is held probable 
 that the Egyptians were the first to use leaven ; that the secret afterwards became known 
 to the Greeks; and that the Greeks communicated the process to the Romans, who spread 
 the invention far and wide in the northern countries during their campaigns. 
 
 The grain of wheat is generally employed in the manufacture of B. among the 
 better classes and more advanced nations, though rye, barley, Indian corn, and rice 
 are also extensively used. The average composition of the grain of wheat when dried, 
 so as to evaporate about 14 per cent of moisture, is — 
 
 Gluten and albumen 13^ 
 
 Starch 54| 
 
 Gum, sugar, oil, and fiber 30 
 
 Saline matter 3 
 
 The proportion of these ingredients varies, however; and though the native country of 
 wheat is unknown, yet it is found that within the wheat zone (see Wheat), the quality 
 improves as we travel south. Thus, Scotch wheat is inferior to English, the latter to 
 French, that to the Italian ; and the finest wheat in the world is grown in Barbary and 
 Egypt. The principal constituents of wheat may be separated from each other without 
 much difficulty. Thus, if wheat-flour be placed in a cloth-bag with the mouth well closed, 
 and the whole introduced into a basin of water, and pressed by the fingers for some 
 time, the starch is squeezed through the cloth as a fine white powder, and the gluten is 
 left in the cloth as a viscid or sticky substance. Again, if wheat-flour be burned on a 
 porcelain plate on a fire, or oven, or gas-lamp, till it can burn no longer, it leaves behind 
 a small amount of ash or saline matter. 
 
 Previous to being employed in the fabrication of B., the grain of wheat undergoes 
 the process of grinding, with the double object of reducing it to a fine state of division, 
 and separating the more hard and indigestible parts. See Mill. During the grinding 
 operations, the wheat as it passes from grain to flour nearly doubles its bulk. The pro- 
 ducts come from the dressing- machine divided into different qualities, a quarter of wheat 
 yielding — 
 
 Bushels. Pecks. 
 
 Fine flour 
 
 Second flour 
 
 Fine middlings. . . 
 Coarse middlings. 
 
 Bran 
 
 Twentypenny 
 
 Pollard 
 
 5 3 
 
 0 3 
 
 0 1 
 
 0 Oi 
 
 3 0 
 
 3 0 
 
 3 0 
 
 14 3i 
 
 In the making of B. in Great Britain, the finest flour is employed in making 
 or the fine 4-Z6. loaf; a coarser flour is made into seconds or household B. ; and a stiff 
 coarser into thirds or coarse bread. There is no bran in firsts, but a greater or less pro- 
 portion of the finer bran in seconds and thirds. In the making of good B. three things 
 are absolutely requisite: flour or meal, yeast or leaven, and water containing salt. The 
 yeast (q.v.), or leaven (q.v.), is added to give a start to the fermentation (q.v.) process, 
 thereby supplying carbonic acid, which communicates a spongy or light texture to the 
 bread. Leaven is the more primitive ferment, and is simply a portion of moistened 
 
13 
 
 Breach. 
 
 Bread. 
 
 flour or dough in which the putrefactive agencies have begun to work. It may be pro- 
 cured by allowing moistened flour to lie in a warm apartment (summer heat) for six or 
 eight days, and when sufficiently formed, has an acid taste and reaction, and a some- 
 what fusty odor. When brought in contact with a new portion of flour and water, and 
 incorporated therewith by kneading, it very quickly acts as a ferment, and develops 
 partial fermentation in the whole. Hence it is that where leaven is used, it is custora- 
 i.ry to retain a portion of the leavened dough for the next baking. On the continent, 
 leaven is still very extensively emplo}^ed, especially in districts far from breweries. In 
 Britain, yeast is generally used as the ferment. 
 
 The materials being at hand, and the proper benches, utensils, and oven being within 
 reach, the baker takes a quantity of water and adds to it the yeast and salt ; after which 
 the flour is added, and the whole thoroughly and laboriously kneaded together till it 
 assumes a ropy consistence. It is then called the sponge, and is placed in a kneading- 
 trough in a warm place, which is styled setting the sponge. In a short time, the yeast 
 begins to act on the gluten, starch, and sugar of the flour, compelling the latter to pass 
 into alcohol and carbonic acid gas in every part of the dough, which thereby becomes 
 inflated with innumerable air cavities. When the fermentation has sufficiently advanced, 
 the baker takes the sponge, adds more flour, water, and salt, and a second time subjects 
 the whole to a thorough process of kneading, to prevent portions being so far fermented 
 as to become sad, and again allows the mass to lie in a warm place for a few hours. The 
 dough swells considerably from distension by gas, and is weighed out into lumps of 
 the proper size, which are shaped into loaves, constituting the hatch, or placed in tin 
 pans, and are allowed to lie for a short time till they get further distended. The 
 oven has previously been heated by flues, by heated air, or by wood being burned 
 within it, to a temperature of at least 320° F., which is the lowest temperature at which 
 B. can be baked, and ranging up to 572° F. ; and when it has been thoroughly cleaned 
 out, the loaves are introduced and placed on the floor, and the oven shut up. The heat 
 acts in dissipating much of the water from the dough, in distending the air cavities 
 more fully, and in partially hoiling the starch and gluten of the dough, and developing 
 some gum from the starch. Indeed, though the temperature of the oven is much higher, 
 yet the loaves beyond the mere crust are bathed in an atmosphere of steam, and are 
 never heated above 212°, as has been proved by direct experiments with the thermome- 
 ter. One effect of the heat is to arrest any further fermentation (q.v. ; see also Yeast). 
 After several hours’ baking in the oven, the length of time being determined by the 
 temperature, the loaves are withdrawn, and allowed to cool. The brown appearance of 
 the crust of loaves, and the pleasant taste of the crusts, are due to the action of the heat 
 on the starch and the formation of dextrine (q.v.), a sort of gum. The number of 
 quartern (4 lb.) loaves which a sack of flour weighing 280 lbs. yields, is 90. It will be 
 apparent, therefore, that as 280 lbs. of flour yield 360 lbs. of B., that a good deal more 
 water must be present in the latter than in the former; and indeed, ordinary good 
 wheaten B. contains about 45 per cent of water. This water is retained even after 
 the loaf is apparently dry, and even mealy, as the gum and gluten have a great affinity 
 for water. 
 
 Improvements in the process of making B. are occasionally effected. Thus a form 
 of yeast, called German barm or yeast (q.v.), has been introduced, which is more cleanly 
 than ordinary yeast or leaven, but appears to be too rapid in its power of causing fer- 
 mentation to be manipulated easily in the making of ordinary loaves, though it does 
 well for pan-loaves and fancy B. in general. Ovens heated by flues are being con- 
 structed, instead of the primitive method of heating them by wood, which smokes the 
 whole oven. Instead of raising the dough by the action of yeast, which decomposes a 
 part of the flour and causes the loss of about 2 per cent, bicarbonate of soda and 
 hydrochloric acid are sometimes employed. The proportion by this process are 4 lbs. of 
 flour intimately mixed with 320 grains of bicarbonate of soda ; to this is added a mixture 
 of 300 grains of common salt in 35 ozs. of water and 6i fluid drams of hydrochloric 
 acid, sp.gr. 1.16, and the whole is kneaded and placed in the oven. When the mix- 
 ture is made, the acid acts on the bicarbonate of soda, forming common salt, which is 
 left in the dough, and carbonic acid is liberated at every point, and communicates a 
 spongy texture to the dough. The disadvantage attendant on this mode of raising the 
 dough is that it is apt to leave too much common salt in the bread. This is obviated by 
 using water charged with carbonic acid, as described under Aerated Bread. Sesqui- 
 carbonate of ammonia is employed to some extent in the preparation of rusks, ginger- 
 bread, and other light fancy B. ; when heated, it entirely passes into gas, and thus yields 
 a very spongy mass. Short-hread is prepared from flour which has been incorporated with 
 butter. See Unfermented Bread. 
 
 The appearance which good wheaten B. ought to present, is that of a vesicular or 
 spongy mass, from which layers can be readily detached ; and this, known to bakers as 
 piled B., is the best index of good wholesome and easily digested bread. When the 
 layers cannot be detached, and the loaf cannot be crumbled down by the fingers into a 
 coarse powder, or the fragments be thoroughly soaked and be readily diffused through 
 water, but become a permanent tough mass of dough, the B. is imperfectly made. 
 
 Eye B. is very extensively used in northern European countries, where the soil being 
 sandy is admirably adapted for the growth of that grain. It yields a flour darker than 
 
Bread. 
 
 Bread-fruit. 
 
 14 
 
 wheat-flour. It is almost equal in nutritive value to wheaten bread. Barley and oats, 
 which when used as B. are generally made into cakes or bannocks, possess also a 
 composition not unlike wheat. Indian corn, which thrives luxuriantly on the Ameri- 
 can soil, and is largely used there for B., as also to a considerable extent in the old 
 world, is little different from wheat in the proportion of its ingredients. Rice is occa- 
 sionally employed in making B. , but it is not nearly so nutritious as wheat. 
 
 But although, with the exception of rice, the various kinds of grain do not sensibly 
 differ in the amount of nutritious matter contained in the meal, yet there is a great 
 difference as to the quality of yielding a light, spongy bread. In this respect, the flour 
 of wheat excels all others. This quality seems to, depend upon the mechanical 
 structure of the gluten of wheat, which gives a glutinous, sticky consistency to the dough, 
 rendering it impervious to the carbonic acid gas formed in it during the fermentation, 
 so that the gas thus imprisoned swells it up. The meal of other grains forms a more 
 granular and less tenacious dough, which allows the gas to escape with more or less 
 ease as it is formed. It is thus impossible to make a light, spongy loaf of oatmeal, 
 however finely it might be ground. In the case of whole-meal B. or brown B., the 
 rough, hard particles of the bran interfere with the ordinary tenacious quality of 
 wheaten-flour, and make the dough slightly porous, so that much of the gas escapes, and 
 thus this kind of B. is never so much raised as B. of fine flour. 
 
 Brown, Composition, or Whole Flour B. is made from the ground but undressed 
 wheat, and therefore contains the bran as well as the flour. Some years ago it was 
 suggested, that as the bran contained more nitrogenized matter than the flour, the whole 
 meal must be more nutritious than the finer flour alone. But that opinion is now 
 ■considerably modified; for while it is true that the whole meal (bran and fine flour) 
 contains chemically more nutritive matter than the fine flour alone, j^et the gritty parti- 
 cles that are present in the former, cause an unnatural irritation in the alimentary canal, 
 and lead to a quicker evacuation of the but partially digested and absorbed food. This 
 explains why brown B. possesses laxative properties, and why laborers fed on it consider 
 that it makes them hungry soon again; they feel that it does not last in the stomach, and 
 consequently think it has little nourishment in it. 
 
 The adulterations of B. are various. Very commonly boiled potatoes are added to the 
 flour and water in the making of the dough, and some consider that this yields a lighter 
 and more palatable bread. It must remembered, however, that the addition of any 
 substance of a nature foreign to the composition of any material is an adulteration (see 
 next article); and that though potatoes may be supposed to improve the B., yet good B. 
 can be made without them, and the addition of the potatoes lessens the nutritive value 
 of the wheat-flour. Alum is occasionally added to the dough, to increase the whiteness 
 and improve the general texture of the B. ; and this it appears to do by arresting the 
 passage of the starch into gum and sugar, which tends to take place during the process 
 of baking. In Belgium, sulphate of copper is often used for a similar purpose, but it is 
 not employed in this country. All such admixtures are destructive of the nutritive 
 value of a certain part of the B., and are injurious to the animal system. For the 
 nutritive qualities of B. see Nutrition and Food, and for biscuit-bread, see Biscuit. 
 
 The law on the subject of bread, so far as relates to England and Scotland, is regu- 
 lated by a local act for London, the 3 Geo. IV. c. 106, the provisions of which are 
 imitated by a general act for the country, the 6 and 7 Will. IV. c. 37. These provisions 
 are as follow: B. may be made of flour or meal of wheat, barley, rye, oats, buckwheat, 
 Indian corn, pease, beans, rice, or potatoes, or any of them, or with any common salt, 
 pure water, eggs, milk, barm, leaven, potato or other yeast, and mixed in such propor- 
 tions as bakers may think fit, and with no other ingredient or matter whatsoever ; and 
 with the exception of French or fancy B. and rolls, the B. so made must be sold by 
 weight, and in no other manner. It has been settled by many recent cases that bakers 
 must weigh the bread before selling it, whether asked by the customer or not to do so. 
 For this purpose, they must provide in their shops, on or near the counter, a beam and 
 scales, with proper weights, or other sufficient balance, in order that the same may be 
 weighed in the presence of purchasers — a regulation that also applies to delivery of B. 
 by cart or other conveyance; it being directed that the scales and weights shall be 
 constantly carried in the cart or other conveyance, under a penalty, in either case, not 
 exceeding £5. From this regulation, however, fancy B., or French B., or rolls, are also 
 excepted. The act further provides that B, made of mixed meal or flour — that is, B. 
 made wholly or partially of pease, or beans, or potatoes, or of any sort of corn or grain 
 other than wheat — shall be marked with the large Roman letter “ M,” under a penalty, 
 in case this rule be neglected, of a sum not exceeding 10s. for every pound-weight of 
 such mixed B. sold, and so on in proportion for any less quantity. From this regula- 
 tion, however, is excepted B. made of the meal or flour of wheat, in the making of 
 which potato-yeast shall be used. 
 
 The following are the enactments against the adulteration of B. ; 1. No baker shall, 
 in the making of B. for sale, use any mixture or ingredient whatsoever other than those 
 above mentioned, under a penalty for every offense not exceeding £10, nor less than £5, 
 with the alternative of imprisonment, with or without hard labor, for any time not 
 exceeding six calendar months ; and the offender’s name, place of abode, and offense 
 may be published in the local newspapers. 2. Any person adulterating corn-meal or 
 
Bread. 
 
 Bread-fruit, 
 
 flour, by the introduction of any ingredient not being the real produce of the corn or 
 grain; or any person selling meal or flour of one sort of corn or grain as the meal or flour 
 of another sort, whether separate or mixed, shall forfeit and pay, according to the discre- 
 tion of the magistrate or justice, a sum not exceeding £20, nor less than £5. 3. Magis- 
 
 trates or justices of the peace, and also peace-oflicers authorized by warrant, may, at 
 seasonable times in the daytime, enter a baker’s premises, and search for adulterated 
 flour or B. ; and if any be found, the same may be seized, and carried with all convenient 
 speed to the nearest resident magistrate or justice of the peace, to be disposed of as he may 
 think proper, the penalties varying from £2 to £10, with alternative imprisonment for 
 six months; the offenders’ names may also be published. Parties obstructing such search 
 of bakers’ premises, or upon the occasion of the search, carrying away the adulterated 
 flour or B., are liable to a penalty not exceeding £10. Should it, however, appear that 
 any offense against the act shall have been occasioned by the willful act or the neglect of 
 the baker’s journeyman or other servant, the magistrate may issue his warrant for 
 bringing such servant before him, and, on conviction, may adjudge him to pay a 
 reasonable sum to his master, by way of recompense. The adulteration of food act 
 gives a more efdcient mode of prosecuting these offenses, and exposing them, when 
 detected. 
 
 The act further provides that bakers shall not bake bread, rolls, or cakes, on the 
 Lord’s day; or, on any part of that day, after half-past one o’clock in the afternoon, sell 
 such bread, rolls, or cakes; or bake meat, pies, or other victuals; or in any other manner 
 exercise the trade of a baker, save and except so far as may be necessary by way of 
 preparation for the following day’s baking. For a first offense against this regulation, a 
 penalty of 10s. shall be paid; for a second offense, 20s.; and for a third and every subse- 
 quent offense, respectively, the penalty of 40s., together with the costs of prosecution, a 
 portion of the penalty to be paid to the prosecutor, and the residue to be applied towards 
 the poor-rate of the place. This regulation as to Sundays does not extend to Scot- 
 land. 
 
 The law of Ireland on the subject of this article is contained in several acts of the 
 Irish parliament, the leading provisions of which are similar to the above. 
 
 BBEAD, Army. In camps and in barracks of any size, the bread for the army is 
 baked on the spot by bakers of the supply sub-department of control organization. 
 Though perhaps a little rough in its manufacture, the article supplied is made from the 
 best ingredients, and is genuine and wholesome. On a march, the control bakeries sup- 
 ply bread at the several halting-places. In smaller barracks, bread has to be obtained 
 by contract, but the most vigorous supervision is exercised to secure proper quality. 
 Formerly, army bread was notoriously bad. A contractor would sometimes send in a 
 tender so low, in order to obtain the contract, that he could not possibly make good 
 bread at a profit ; and then he relied on small fees paid him by the soldiers as a means of 
 obtaining better. This discreditable state of things was ascertained by a committee of 
 inquiry some years ago ; it was found that the average of army bread was not equal in 
 quality to that of work-house bread. Steps were forthwith taken to remedy the evil ; expe- 
 riments were made to determine whether troops could bake their own bread in the field, 
 and the result was the adoption of the present system of army baking. With the 
 improvement of the bread, a visible amelioration in the health of the soldiers has taken 
 place. 
 
 BREAD-FRUIT TREE, Artocarpus incisa, a tree of the natural order artocarpacece (q.v.), 
 a native of the islands of the Pacific ocean and of the Indian archipelago — one of the 
 most important gifts of nature to the inhabitants of these regions, its fruit supplying the 
 principal part of their food, and its inner bark a considerable part of their clothing, 
 whilst its timber and its milky juice are also employed for economical purposes. The 
 genus to which it belongs {artocarpus, Gr. , bread-fruit) is distinguished by having the 
 male flowers in catkins, with a 2-leaved perianth and one stamen; the female flowers 
 naked; the fruit roundish, fleshy, and tuberculated. The bread tree is a rather slender 
 tree, of 40 to 50 ft. high, often rising almost half its height without a branch. It has 
 large, pinnatifid leaves, frequently 12 to 18 in. long, dark green, and glossy. The fruit is 
 generally oval, or nearly spherical, and about the size of a child’s head. It is a sorosis, a 
 compound or aggregate fruit formed from numerous flowers on a common axis, and is cov- 
 ered with a roughish rind, which is marked with small square or lozenge-shaped divi- 
 sions, having each a small elevation in the center ; is at first green ; when imperfectly 
 ripened, brown; and when fully ripe, assumes a rich yellow hue. It is attached to the 
 small branches of the tree by a short thick stalk, and hangs either singly or in clusters 
 of two or three together. It contains a somewhat fibrous pulp, which, when ripe, 
 becomes juicy and yellow, but has then a rotten taste. At an earlier stage, when the 
 fruit is gathered for use, the pulp is white and mealy, and of a consistance resembling 
 that of new bread. In a still less mature state, the fruit contains a tenacious white milk. 
 The common practice in the South Sea islands is to cut each fruit into three or four pieces, 
 and take out the core; then to place heated stones in the bottom of a hole dug in the earth; 
 to cover them with green leaves, and upon this to place a layer of the fruit, then stones, 
 leaves, and fruit alternately, till the hole is nearly filled, when leaves and earth to the depth 
 of several inches are spread over all. In rather "more than half an hour, the bread-fruit is 
 
Uread-ntn. 
 
 Breakwater. 
 
 16 
 
 ready ; “ tl^ outsides are, in general, nicely browned, and the inner part presents a whiie 
 or yellowish cellular pulpy substance, in appearance slightly resembling the crumb of a 
 wheaten loaf. It has little taste, but is frequently sweetish, and more resembles the 
 plantain than bread made of wheat-flour. It is slightly astringent, and highly nutritious. 
 Sometimes the inhabitants of a district join to make a prodigious oven — a pit 20 or 30 
 ft. in circumference, the stones in which are heated by wood burned in it, and many hun- 
 dred bread-fruits are thrown in, and cooked at once. Baked in this manner, bread-fruit 
 will keep good for several weeks. Another mode of preserving it is by subjecting it in 
 heaps to a slight degree of fermentation, and beating it into a kind of paste, which 
 although rather sour, is much used when fresh bread-iruit cannot be obtained. There 
 are numerous varieties of the bread tree in the South Sea islands, and they ripen at dif- 
 ferent seasons. The tree produces two, and sometimes three, crops a year. In the 
 West Indies and South America, into which it has also been introduced, the bread-fiuit 
 has not come much into use as an ordinary article of food; but various preparations of 
 it are reckoned delicacies.— The fibrous inner bark of young bread-fruit trees, beaten and 
 prepared, is used for making a kind of cloth, which is much worn by the common peo- 
 ple in the South Sea islands, though inferior in softness and whiteness to that made from 
 the paper mulberry (see Mulberry, Paper).— There exudes from the bark of the 
 bread tree, when punctured, a thick mucilaginous fluid, which hardens by exposure to 
 the air, and is used, when boiled with cocoa-nut oil, for making the seams of canoes, 
 pails, etc., water-tight, and as bird-lime.— The timber is soft and light, of a rich yellow 
 color, and assumes, when exposed to air, the appearance of mahogany. It is used for 
 canoes, house-building, furniture, and many other purposes. It is durable when not 
 exposed to the weather. — The Jack (q.v.) or Jaca {A. integHfolia), and the Dephal (A. 
 lakoocha), both large East Indian trees, belong to the same genus with the bread-fruit 
 tree. 
 
 BREAD-NUT, the fruit of hrodmum alicastrum, a tree of the natural order artocarpacece, 
 and therefore allied to the bread-fruit, a native of Jamaica. The genus hrosimum is dis- 
 tinguished by male and female flowers on separate trees, in globose catkins, with peltate 
 (shield-like) scales for perianth, and the fruit a one-seeded drupe. The bread-nut tree 
 has ovate-lanceolate evergreen leaves; it abounds in a tenacious gummy milk. Its 
 leaves and young shoots are much eaten by cattle, but deleterious qualities are devel- 
 oped in them as they become old. The nuts, boiled or roasted, form an agreeable article 
 of food, and are eaten instead of bread. Their taste resembles that of hazel-nuts. — To 
 this genus the polo de mca, or Cow Tree (q.v.), of Demerara is supposed also to belong. 
 
 BREAD-ROOM. In the navy, the biscuits are called bread, and the place where they 
 are stored is the^ bread-room; it is carefully constructed, warmed before being filled, and 
 kept as much as possible free from damp. 
 
 BREAD-ROOT. See Psoralea. 
 
 BREADTH, in art, is a term which, though often used in a very indefinite manner, is 
 not without a definite meaning. It signifies that peculiar disposal of the background of 
 a picture which, without sacrificing or even concealing details, gives to the whole unity 
 and harmony of effect. With the older landscape-painters, it was a common fault to 
 produce the effect of distance either by a certain trick of light and shadow, or by one 
 uniform hazy color in which the individual objects were entirely lost to view, and 
 breadth became vacancy. In this respect, their pictures contrast unfavorably with those 
 of such modern painters as Turner, of whom Mr. Buskin has very truly said that “the 
 conception of every individual inch of distance is absolutely clear and complete in the 
 master’s mind — a separate picture fully worked out: but yet, clearly and fully as the 
 idea is formed, just so much of it is given, and no more, as nature would have allowed 
 us to feel or see ; just so much as would enable a spectator of experience and knowledge 
 to understand almost every minute fragment of separate detail, but appears to the 
 unpracticed and careless eye just w’hat a distance of nature’s own would appear — an 
 unintelligible mass. Not one line out of the millions there is without meaning, yet there 
 is not one which is not affected and disguised by the dazzle and indecision of distance. 
 No form is made out, and yet no form is unknown.” On the subject of breadth Mr. 
 Buskin has, moreover, the following very judicious remarks: “It were to be wished that 
 our writers on art would not dwell so frequently on the necessity of breadth, without 
 explaining what it means, and that we had more constant reference made to the princi- 
 ple, which I can only remember having seen once clearly explained and insisted on — 
 that breadth is not vacancy. Generalization is unity, not destruction of parts ; and com- 
 position is not annihilation, but arrangement of materials. The breadth which unites 
 the truths of nature with her harmonies is meritorious and beautiful, but the breadth 
 which annihilates those truths by the million is not painting nature, but painting over 
 her; and so the masses which result from right concords and relations of details are 
 sublime and impressive, but the masses which result from the eclipse of details are con- 
 temptible and painful.” 
 
 BREAD-TREE. See Gaffer Bread. 
 
 BREAKERS, in maritime language, are the waves that break violently over rocks 
 lying a short distance under the surface of th« sea. They cover that particular part of 
 
17 
 
 Bread-imt. 
 
 Breakwater. 
 
 the sea with a foam, and produce a hoarse and often terrible roaring. “ Breakers 
 ahead” is one of the most alarming announcements made by the lookout men of a 
 ship, seeing that the B. denote the existence of sunken rocks which may, perchance, 
 pierce the hull of the vessel. 
 
 BREAEINCr BULK, in the Scotch law, signifies making use of an article supplied in 
 bulk, or in quantity ; by which act one is said to break bulk, and is, in consequence, 
 prevented from afterwards objecting to it, and returning it to the seller. See Sale op 
 Goods. 
 
 BREAKING INCLOSURES is an expression to be found in Scotch law-books, and 
 means the destruction or invasion of planting and inclosures by persons or their cattle. 
 The punishment for this offense is provided for by several old Scotch statutes, the prin- 
 cipal of which are two passed in 1661 and 1685 respectively. The penalties are pecu- 
 niary, with right to detain the cattle found trespassing, until such penalties, along with 
 the damage and costs, are paid. See Plantation. 
 
 BREAKWATER is a barrier intended for the protection of shipping in harbors or 
 anchorages. It sometimes happens that, in front of a semicircular bay, a small island 
 is so situated as to form a natural breakwater. This is to some extent the case with the 
 isle of Wight, which occupies such a position as to protect Portsmouth and Southamp- 
 ton from the south. In many other places, however, bays and harbors are without such 
 screens. A pier may be so placed and constructed as to serve also the purpose of a B., 
 but the term B. is generally confined to a structure used solely for protection, and not 
 for berthage or traffic, and breakwaters are frequently insulated, so as to be cut off from 
 any communication with the shore unless by water. 
 
 Plymouth B. is the best known of these engineering works. The sound or harbor, 
 being open to the s., was so much exposed to storms that, early in the present century, 
 it was determined to construct a B. across its mouth, with openings between it and the 
 shore, on either side, for the ingress and egress of shipping. The works were com- 
 menced in 1812. The operations consisted in transporting along a tram-road large blocks 
 of limestone got from a neighboring quarry, shipping them in vessels fitted with trap- 
 doors, and by means of these depositing them in the shape of a huge mound in the 
 required situation. As soon as the stones began to appear above water, a perceptible 
 benefit resulted in the relative calmness of the sound during the prevalence of storms; 
 but the structure was frequently very roughly handled by the waves, which altered and 
 flattened its shape. A severe storm in Nov., 1824, threw a great portion of the stones 
 over into the sound. It was not until 1841 that the works were finally completed, by 
 the deposition of more than 3,000,000 tons of stone, and the expenditure of nearly 
 £1,500,000. The B. is nearly a mile long, the central portion is 1000 yards; and two 
 wings, of 350 yards each, extend from the ends of this at a slight angle. The open 
 channels at each end, between the B. and the shore, are each about half a mile wide, 
 and their depth is respectively 40 and 22 ft., at low water. The B. is 133 yards wide 
 at the base, and 15 at the top — the two sides being made very sloping for the security of 
 the stones. The slopes and top are faced with masonry. The water-space protected by 
 this B. comprises 1120 acres, and it is generally admitted that the money has been well 
 spent on the work. 
 
 Holyhead B. is formed of stone quarried in Holyhead mountain, drawn along a tram- 
 way on a timber structure, and cast into the sea. It more resembles a pier than the B. 
 at Plymouth, for it is attached at one end to the shore, and is intended to convert Holy- 
 head bay or roadstead into a harbor of refuge. The works consist of a mound of loose 
 stones up to low water, and ashlar upright walls with a parapet above that line, with a 
 railway on the top for trains. 
 
 Portland B. Is of very great value, in converting into a harbor of refuge the expanse 
 of water between the Dorsetshire coast and the isle, or rather peninsula of Portland. 
 An act of parliament was obtained in 1847, authorizing the works. The B., starting 
 from the n.e. point to the isle, stretches nearly due n. for more than 2 m., with one 
 or two inttrvening openings for the ingress and egress of shipping. The works were 
 conducted more easily than those of any other great B. ; for the isle contains an abund- 
 ance of stone easily quarried, and the steep shores afforded facility for transporting the 
 stones by their own gravity to their destination. The work — which is an upright ashlar 
 superstructure, with a parapet founded on a mound of rubble stones — was done chiefly 
 by convict labor; the depth is about 50 ft. at low-water. From the nature of the opera- 
 tion, any part of the B. became useful as soon as constructed, increasing the safety of 
 Portland bay as a harbor of refuge. 
 
 Dover B. progresses slowly, and has involved an enormous outlay. There is no stone 
 near to form a mound, as in the other breakwaters spoken of, and, in consequence, the 
 work requires to be brought up in soild ashlar from the bottom by the diving-bell, with 
 the interior formed of blocks of concrete. It has never been clearly stated whether the 
 government regards thisB. as a protection to a great naval station and fortified harbor, or 
 as a chief feature as a harbor of refuge for commercial fieets. In 1844, a commission of 
 inquiry recommended that £2, 500, 000 should belaid out in forming a harbor of refuge at 
 this place. In 30 years the work has not been finished, the great depth and frequent storms 
 « constituting terrible obstacles. The water is very deep — viz., 42 ft. at low-water; the 
 U. K. III.— 2 
 
Breakwater. 
 
 Breast-summer. 
 
 18 
 
 accumulations of shingle very troublesome ; and several years must elapse before it can 
 be made evident whether the Dover B. is worth the national money expended upon it. 
 
 Alderney B. is a great work, consisting of ashlar walls and parapet, built on a stone 
 mound up to low-water from a depth of 72 feet. Small breakwaters have been con- 
 structed at Cette near Marseilles, at the mouth of the Delaware in the United States, and 
 at Buffalo in lake Erie ; but they do not call for description. 
 
 Cherbourg B. is the greatest and the most costly ever constructed. Nearly 100 years 
 ago, M. de Cessart proposed to the French government the formation of a B. at Cher- 
 bourg, to be commenced by the construction of a number of hollow cones formed of 
 timber-framing, sunk in a line as close as they could be placed to each other, and then 
 filled with stones. These cones, of which there were to be 64, each about 70 ft. high, 
 150 ft. in diameter at the base, and 60 ft. at the top, were intended to form a nucleus to 
 the stone breakwater, to prevent the stones, during its formation, being knocked about 
 and too much spread out by the action of the waves. In 1784 to 1788, 16 cones were con- 
 structed, and 13 of them sunk ; but so great was the destruction which they underwent 
 during stormy weather, that the government at len^ :h abandoned the plan, and carried 
 on the stone breakwater without the aid of the cones. It was completed under Napoleon 
 III. at a] cost exceeding £3,500,000. The B. itself was finished in 1853, but since that 
 year large fortifications have been built upon the upper works. The length is nearly 2i 
 m. ; the B. is 300 ft. wide at the bottom, and 31 at the top. The chief mass consists of 
 rubble or unshaped stones, thrown down from ships; but there is a larger ratio of 
 wrought and finished masonry than in the Plymouth B., consisting of granite blocks 
 imbedded in cement. The depth of water is' about 60 ft. at low-water spring-tides; 
 and the B. rises to 13 ft. above high-water level. The water-space included within and 
 protected by the B. , is about 3000 acres, but two thirds of this has scarcely depth enough 
 for the largest-sized ships. The relation which this B. bears to the vast military and 
 naval arrangements of the place will be noticed under Cherbourg. 
 
 Many substitutes have been proposed for solid breakwaters, such as floating break- 
 waters constructed of timber framework, open iron screens, etc., but none of them have 
 been shown to be suitable for actual practice. Close timber-work, filled in with stones, 
 is found to be quite efficacious ; but on most of our coasts the timber is liable to be eaten 
 by the marine worm, which is an almost insuperable objection to its being used under 
 water. 
 
 BREAKWATER {ante). In the United States the only important work of the kind 
 is at Lewes, Del., at the entrance of Delaware bay. A breakwater was resolved upon 
 in 1838, and the next year the site was fixed at cape Henlopen. In 1870, the engineer 
 reported the completion of the harbor “according to the original project devised more 
 than 40 years ago.” In the year after the completion, more than 30,000 vessels visited 
 the harbor, and since its first use in 1833, about 300,000 vessels of all sorts have sought 
 shelter or trade behind the Delaware breakwater. A recent report says : ‘ ‘ Let a threat- 
 ening sky foretell the approaching storm, and a few hours will suffice to fill a previously 
 vacant harbor. Let a north-easterly storm continue a day or two with severity, and 
 the harbor becomes crowded entirely beyond its capacity.” Its present capacity is deter- 
 mined by the space that is sheltered by the B. proper. This is a straight line nearly 
 half a mile long, and may be taken as the diameter of a half circle behind it, the area of 
 which will represent approximately the sheltered harbor. North-east of the B. is the ice- 
 breaker structure, a quarter of a mile in length, with an opening of about the same 
 extent, through which the sea rolls without hindrance. Within the past five or six years 
 this important work has been much extended and improved. It is altogether of stone, 
 in rubble- wall and more finished work. There are finished or in construction several B. ’s 
 in the northern lakes, for the most part made of timber cribs filled with stone. 
 
 BREAM, a name which is apt to occasion some confusion to beginners in ichthyology, 
 being applied equally to certain fresh- water fishes of the family (q.v.), and 
 
 to certain sea-fishes of the families sparidm (q. v.) and chcetodontidm (q.v.) or squamipennes, 
 among which the resemblance is a mere general one of outward form, the first of these 
 families belonging to the order of malacopterous, or soft-finned, the other two to that of 
 acanihopterous, or spiny-finned fishes. 
 
 The breams of the family cyprinidoe were included in the genus cyprinus (see Carp) 
 by the older naturalists, but are readily distinguished from that genus as now defined, 
 and from other allied genera, by their deep and compressed form, by the great convexity 
 of both the dorsal and the abdominal outline, by the want of spiny rays in the dorsal and 
 anal fins, by the great length of the base of the anal fin, and by the want of cirri or bar- 
 bules at the mouth. They form the genus Ahramis of Cuvier. — The Common B., or 
 Carp B. {A. brama), is an inhabitant of many rivers and lakes of Europe, even as far n. 
 as Norway and Sweden, and of some of those of Britain and Ireland. It thrives best in 
 still waters, and in some of the Irish lakes attains a large size; it has been known to 
 reach 13 or even 14 lbs. The tail is very broad and much forked, the head small and 
 acuminated, the eyes very large, the scales small, the general color yellowish-brown, 
 the cheeks and gill-covers silvery- white. — The White B., or Breamflat {A. blicca), 
 differs from the common B. in its silvery color, the smaller number of rays in the pecto- 
 ral and anal fins, and other particulars. It has never been taken of so large a size. It is 
 
19 
 
 Breakwater, 
 
 Breast-summer, 
 
 found in many parts of the continent of Europe, and in some of the British lakes and 
 xivers. — The Pomeranian B. {A. huggenhagii) differs much more widely from the com 
 mon B. ; the body is much thicker in proportion to its depth, the scales larger, the base 
 of the anal fin shorter, the tail less forked. This fish is known to occur in a few places 
 of England and Ireland, and is said to abound in Pomerania. 
 
 The acanthopterous breams, or Sea Breams, are mostly of the family sparidm, and 
 nearly allied to the gilthead (q.v.), in connection with which they may most properly be 
 noticed. The common sea B., indeed, often receives the name of gilthead. Only one 
 of the British sea fishes called B., the brama rail already noticed (see Brama), belongs to 
 the family chcetodontidcB. 
 
 Angling for Bream. — Of the two kinds of B. known to anglers, the carp B. is much 
 the best for sport. The flesh of the B. is not held in much estimation, though the carp 
 B. is infinitely to be preferred of the two. B. are found in both ponds and rivers. 
 They prefer deep, still holes, or quiet, well-sheltered eddies in the bends of rivers. 
 Here the angler will find them in large numbers. They are rather capricious in feeding; 
 at times they will not bite for weeks together. Being a sly, shy-biting fish, the tackle 
 required for them must be fine. They may be taken by means of the ledger (q.v.) in 
 rivers, where they should be fished for in the same way as directed for barbel, save that 
 it will be found advisable to use another hook, which should be fastened on to the line 
 about 8 in. or a foot above the ledger lead, as B. often take their bait some inches off 
 the bottom. The hooks should be No. 7. In float-fishing for B. in holes or eddies, a 
 stout swan-quill float and half a dozen No. 1 shot below it, will be found sufficient for 
 the purpose ; and, having ground-baited as directed for barbel, put on two small red 
 worms for the angling bait, or about an inch of the tail of a bright, well-scoured lob- 
 worm. The former is preferable. Two hooks, one to rest on the bottom, and one 6 or 
 8 in. off it, will be found useful, for sometimes one will be taken, and sometimes the 
 other. The fish being tender-mouthed, should be played gently. After the first rush, a 
 B. soon tires, for his form is not fitted or shaped for a prolonged resistance. The B. 
 has an unpleasant practice of bowing downwards and rubbing the line with his tail, and 
 the line often comes up covered with a thick slime from his body, for a foot or more 
 above the hook. It is needless to remark that this must be cleared off before the tackle 
 is again used. The rod should be a light cane-rod, moderately stiff, and some 12 or 13 
 ft. long for float-fishing for B. from a boat or punt. Of all baits, worm is decidedly the 
 best. Some recommend bullock’s blood and grains to ground bait with, but worms are 
 found to answer all purposes. B. spawn about the end of May, choosing the most 
 weedy spots for that purpose ; and after scouring and cleansing in some gentle gravelly 
 stream for a week or two, they return to the deep still holes again. A clay or sandy 
 bottom is preferred to any other. The presence of B. may always be detected by their 
 fondness for coming at times to the top of the water, or, as anglers term it, “ priming.” 
 Early in the morning, or late in the evening, the whereabouts of B. may always be 
 discovered by their rising then. In Lough Erne the shoals are prodigious, and cause a 
 ripple on the water like a stiff breeze of wind. 
 
 BKEAMING, in nautical affairs, is a cleansing process which a ship undergoes after a 
 voyage, or after lying for a long time in harbor. The ship’s bottom, under such circum- 
 stances, often becomes covered with grass, ooze, shells, or sea-weed ; and B. consists in 
 the removal of these impurities. The ship is laid aground after the tide has ebbed, or 
 is docked, or is careened (see Careening) ; furze and fagots are placed under it ; fire is 
 applied; the heat melts the pitch, etc., of the hull, and the pitch and filth can then be 
 scraped and brushed off. 
 
 BREAST, The Female, or mammary gland, consists of a series of tubes, radiating 
 from a common center, the nipple, which is situated in an areola or dark-colored patch. 
 On the surface of the latter are several (from 4 to 10) sebaceous glands, which secrete an 
 unctuous fluid to protect the skin of the nipple, which is very thin, from the saliva of 
 the sucking infant. The m\\)s.-tules (15 to 18 in number) enlarge into sinuses, and pass 
 each to a separate lobe or subdivision of the breast, where they divide into twigs and 
 branches (the lactiferous ducts), which end in minute vesicles. The lobes are held together 
 by fibrous tissue, and are well packed in fat, which increases sometimes to an enormous 
 extent the apparent size of the organ. It will be readily understood how over-distension 
 of these delicate tubes, from whatever cause, must be productive of great suffering. 
 When an abscess forms in the B. , it is very dangerous to allow the matter to remain ; 
 but when an opening is made into an abscess of the B., the cut must be made in some 
 line radiating from the nipple, so as to avoid division of the milk-tubes. 
 
 BREASTPLATE, in ancient armor, was a plate of iron, steel, or other metal, so 
 fastened as to protect the chest or front of the wearer. The back-plate, in like mannei, 
 Was worn to protect him from attack from behind. In modern European armies, 
 ^ilmost the only representative of the B. is the front half of the cuirass, worn by the 
 mirassiers in certain foreign states, and by the household cavalry (life-guards and horse- 
 guards) in England. 
 
 BREAST-SUMMER, Bressumer (Fr. sommier, a lintel), a beam supporting the whole 
 front of a building, in the same way in which a lintel supports the portion over an 
 
Breast. 
 
 Breda. 
 
 20 
 
 opening. They are seen in England and on the continent in old houses that are built 
 partly of wood and partly of stone, brick, or mud. 
 
 BREAST WHEEL. See Water Power, ante. 
 
 BKEASTWORK, in fortification, is a hastily constructed earthwork; not so high as 
 to need a banquette (q.v.) for the defenders to stand upon, but sufficient to afford shelter 
 when they are standing on the level of the ground, and firing over the crest. The dry 
 ditch or trench from which the earth has been taken to form the B., affords an addi- 
 tional defense. A B. is midway between a parapet and an epaulement, in size and 
 importance. 
 
 BREATH, Offensive, may depend upon some cause limited to the mouth or nose, 
 or it may arise from diseased conditions of the respiratory or digestive apparatus. If, 
 from want of proper attention, the teeth have collected a quantity of putrescent par- 
 ticles around them, they must be well scrubbed with a brush and tepid water, with 
 some powdered carbonate of magnesia mixed with it. A wash composed of a teaspoon- 
 ful of tincture of myrrh in a pint of water is also very useful. Occasionally the secre- 
 tion from the tonsils (q.v.) is very offensive; and then a solution of nitrate of silver, 4 
 grains to 1 ounce of water, should be applied to them every morning, with a camel- 
 hair brush, and small alterative doses of medicine administered. Solutions of soda in 
 water are also very useful. Should the fetid smell arise from a portion of dead bone, 
 the latter must be removed whenever it becomes loose. Inhalations of steam from hot 
 water into which some creasote has been dropped, is much recommended for cases in 
 which the cause resides in the nose and respiratory passages. When, however, it is 
 caused by digestive derangements, the treatment should consist in purging, to empty the 
 intestinal canal, followed by soda, to correct acidity, and tonics, of which the bitter 
 infusions and tinctures, and the dilute mineral acids, are among the best. 
 
 All medical treatment is unavailing to correct the foul odor which rises from the 
 stomach of the habitual drunkard, or from the victim of gangrene or abscess in the 
 lungs. 
 
 BREATH AND BREATHING. See Respiration. 
 
 BREATH FIGURES. See Cohesion Figures, ante. 
 
 BREATHITT, a co. in e. Kentucky; 600 sq.m.; pop. ’70, 5652 — 181 colored; in 
 ’80, 7742. The co. is hilly, with forests, and has iron and coal ; but the main produc- 
 tions are agricultural. Co. seat, Jackson. 
 
 BREBEUF, Jean de, b. France, 1593; killed in the Huron country in 1649; a Jesuit 
 missionary who came with Champlain in 1626. His labors were mainly among the Hurons, 
 with whose life and language he became very familiar. When the town of St. Louis 
 was taken by the Iroquois, B. and Lalemont, his associate, were made prisoners and tor- 
 tured to death. It is said that B.’s head is preserved in the pediment of a silver bust in 
 the convent of the hospital nuns in Quebec. Some of his writings on the Huron lan- 
 guage are preserved, and were translated by Albert Gallatin. 
 
 BRECCIA, a term adopted from the Italian to designate a mass composed of angular 
 fragments of rocks of the same or more different kinds, cemented together by an 
 enveloping paste, or by infiltrated iron or carbonate of lime. 
 
 BRECHE-DE-ROLAND, a defile of the Pyrenees, between France and Spain, about 11 
 m. s. of St. Jean de Luz, with an elevation of about 9500 ft. above the sea. It is a dif- 
 cult passage of from 200 to 300 ft. in width, between precipitous rocks rising to a 
 height of from 300 to 600 feet. 
 
 BRE'CHIN, a t. of Forfarshire, on the left bank of the South Esk, 8 m. w. of its 
 junction with the sea at Montrose. Pop. ’71, 7959. It unites with Montrose, Arbroath, 
 Forfar, and Bervie in returning one member to parliament. Spinning, bleaching, dis- 
 tilling, and brewing are carried on here, as also the manufacture of linens and sailcloth. 
 B. was once a walled town, and contained an abbey of Cuffiees, instituted, it would 
 seem, about the end of the 10th century. David I. founded a cathedral and bishopric 
 here in the 12th century. Part of the cathedral, built chiefly in the 13th, 14th, and 15th 
 centuries, is now the parish church. Close to the church is a round tower, similar to 
 the Irish ones and to the one at Abernethy, the only other example in Scotland. The 
 tower is 85 ft. high, 25 ft. in diameter at the base, and 12^ ft. at the top, and it is sur- 
 mounted by a 15th c. spire of 25 feet. B. castle, the ancient seat of the Maules (now of 
 their representative, the earl of Dalhousie), was taken by Edward I. in 1303, after a siege 
 of 20 days. B. was burned by Montrose in 1645 ; and near it, Huntly, on the part of 
 James II., defeated the Crawfords in 1452. Gillies, the historian of Greece ; Maitland, 
 the topographer ; and Dr. Guthrie, the famous Scotch preacher, were natives of Brechin. 
 
 BRECKENRIDGE, a co. in n.w. Kentucky, on the Ohio river, 450 sq.m.; pop. ’80, 
 17,486 — 2204 colored ; undulating surface, well watered and fertile. There are some 
 curious sink -holes and caves in the co. ; and there are various medicinal springs. Chief 
 productions, agricultural. Co. seat, Hardinsburg, 
 
 BRECKENRIDGE, a village in Wilkin co., Minn., on the Red River of the north ; 
 the terminus of the St. Paul and Pacific railroad. 217 m. w.n.w. of St. Paul. Steam- 
 ers pass down the river to Manitoba. 
 
21 
 
 Breast. 
 
 Breda. 
 
 BRECKENRIDGE, John, d.d., 1797-1841; b. Ky. ; a Presbyterian minister, 
 graduate of Princeton college. In 1822 he was licensed to preach, and soon afterwards 
 served as chaplain in congress. His first church was in Lexington, Ky., where he estab- 
 lished a newspaper. The Wefiiern Luminary. In 1831 he removed to Philadelphia and 
 was secretary and general agent of the Presbyterian board of education ; subsequently 
 professor in Princeton theological seminary; and in 1838 secretary and general agent of 
 the board of foreign missions. He resigned in 1840, and just before his death was 
 chosen president of Oglethorpe university, in Georgia. 
 
 BRECKENRIDGE, John Cabell, b. Ky., 1821; studied law in Transylvanian 
 university, and settled at Lexington. He was a member of congress from his state for 
 several terms; and in 1856 was elected vice-president. In 1860 he was nominated for 
 president by the extreme southern section of the Democratic national convention, but, 
 with Douglas and Bell, was defeated by Lincoln. He was immediately chosen U. S. 
 senator, but abandoned his seat and went with the secessionists, where he entered the 
 army and became a maj.gen. In 1865, just before the collapse of the rebellion, he was 
 appointed confederate secretary of war. At the close of the conflict he went to Europe, 
 where he remained several years. He died in 1875. 
 
 BRECKENRIDGE, Robert Jefferson, d.d., brother of Rev. John, 1800-71; b. 
 Ky. ; at first a lawyer and member of the legislature; but in 1829 he joined the Presby- 
 terian church, and in 1832 became pastor of the first Presbyterian church in Baltimore, 
 where he officiated for 13 years. In 1845, he became president of Jefferson college; 
 two years later removed to Kentucky and became state superintendent of public instruc- 
 tion. In 1853, he was professor of theology in Danville seminary. Dr. B. was a strong 
 old-school leader in the great division of the Presbyterian church. In the slavery dis- 
 cussions he was extreme on neither side, and when the civil war began he was for the 
 union, but he was much opposed to the emancipation proclamation. In 1864, he was 
 president of the convention that nominated Lincoln for a second term. Dr. B. is cred- 
 ited with being the principal author of the common school system of Kentucky. 
 Among his works are Internal Evidences of Christianity; Papism in the United States; and 
 some books of travel. 
 
 BBECK'NOCESHISE, or Bre'con, an inland co. of South Wales, to the s. of Radnor, 
 from which it is separated by the Wye. Length, about 35 m. ; average breadth, 20. 
 Area, 719 sq.m., of which two thirds are cultivated, B. is one of the most mountainous 
 counties in South Wales, and has deep, beautiful, and fertile valleys. Two principal 
 mountain-chains, the highest in South Wales, rising with Brecknock peaks to a height 
 of 2862 ft., intersect the county in the n. and s., and occupy, with their offshoots, a 
 great part of the surface. Old red sandstone occupies the s. and middle of the co., 
 and Silurian rocks the north. The chief rivers are the Wye, Usk, Yrfon, Elan, Claer- 
 wen,^ and Tawe. The climate is severe and rainy but healthy among the mountains, 
 and in the valleys comparatively mild. The agriculture, though still defective, especi- 
 ally in the higher districts, was greatly improved by the Brecknockshire agricultural 
 society, instituted in 1755. The chief crops are oats and barley, but much wheat is 
 also grown in Talgarth and Crickhowell, the most fertile districts of the county. In 
 the valleys in the e. some bops are raised, and some orchards are seen. The native 
 small black-cattle are reared in the hills, while in the lowlands the Hereford breed pre- 
 dominates. The mineral produce is small, consisting of iron, especially along the s. 
 border; coal and limestone are also found in the south and west. The Brecon canal 
 connects the co. with the Bristol channel, and many railways have been constructed 
 throughout the county. There are several small factories of woolens and worsted hosi- 
 ery ; also several important iron-works, but the ore is chiefly obtained from adjoining 
 counties. B. returns one member to parliament. Pop. in 1871, 59,901. The chief 
 towns are Brecon, the co. and only corporate one, Builth, Crickhowell, Hay, and 
 Llanelly, There are many remains of British and Roman camps, Roman roads, cairns, 
 cromlechs, mounds, and castles throughout the county. B. formed part of the territory 
 of the Silures, who bravely withstood the Romans, The Normans, under Barnard 
 Newmarch, wrested the co. from the Welsh princes in 1092. Llewelyn, the last British 
 prince of Wales, was killed in this co. in 1282, and by his fall the native mountain- 
 chiefs were entirely subdued. Half the people in B. still speak Welsh. 
 
 BRECON, Brecknock, or Aberhonddu, the capital of Brecknockshire, South 
 Wales, is situated in an open valley in the middle of the co., at the confluence of the 
 Usk, Honddu, and Tarell, 171 m. w.n. w of London. It lies in the midst of fine moun- 
 tain scenery, and has beautiful public walks. South of B. lie the three mountain- 
 peaks, the Brecon beacons. Pop. ’71, 5845. It returns one member to parliament. 
 Flannels, coarse woolens, and hats are manufactured. Barnard Newmarch, a relative 
 of William the conqueror, founded the town, and built a castle here in 1094. He also 
 founded two priories here in the reign of Henry I. Henry VIII. turned one of the pri- 
 ories into a college, still existing; the other is now the parish church. B. was formerly 
 surrounded by a wall, having ten towers and five gates. Hugh Price, founder of Jesus 
 college, Oxford, and Mrs. Siddons, the celebrated actress, were natives of Brecon. 
 
 BREDA', a t. of North Brabant, Holland, situated at the confluence of the navigable 
 rivers Merk and Aa, and containing (Dec. 31, 1874) 15,335 inhabitants. It formerly pos- 
 
Breda. 
 
 Breech-loading. 
 
 22 
 
 sessed the means of laying the surrounding country uuder water in the event of an 
 attack, but the importance of the town, as a military position, has passed away, and in 
 1876 the fortifications were removed. It has a Gothic cathedral, with a lofty tower and 
 several interesting monuments; also an old castle built in 1350, which was for some 
 time the residence of Charles II. of England, and is now a military academy. There 
 are manufactures of carpets, linen, hats, soap, leather, etc., and dye-works, breweries, 
 and rope-walks. It is celebrated as the place where, in 1566, the protest of the Dutch 
 nobles, known as the “compromise of Breda,” against the measures of Philip II. of 
 Spain in the Netherlands, was presented and rejected. During the subsequent cen- 
 turies, it was the scene of much conflict and diplomatizing until 1813, when the French 
 were finally driven out. B. is now a station of the railway net. 
 
 BREDA, .Ian Van, 1683-1750; a Dutch painter. He imitated Wouvermans and 
 Breughel so cleverly that connoisseurs are often unable to detect the copy. B. was a 
 long time employed in England. 
 
 BREDERO'DE, Hendrik Van, Count, 1531-68; one of the sovereign counts of 
 Holland, and a leader against Spanish domination in that country. He was for many 
 years turbulent, active, and a source of annoyance about as much to his own party as to 
 the other. After the complete success of the Spaniards he asked Egmont to intercede 
 for him with the regent; his followers were dispersed, some were put to death, and he 
 himself died in a few months from intemperance and anxiety. 
 
 BREDOW, Gabriel Gottfried, 1773-1814; a German historian and professor in 
 the university of Breslau. English readers know his Manual of Ancient History; 
 Besearches on History, Geography, and Ghronology, and Historical Fables. 
 
 BB.EE, Matthaus Ignazius van, an excellent Flemish painter, b. at Antwerp 22d 
 Feb., 1773, and educated partly there, and partly under Vincent in Paris. As early as 
 1798, he attracted attention by his “ Death of Cato,” and several other excellent pictures 
 soon followed. A peculiar talent for rapid and vivid sketching enabled B. to execute 
 for Napoleon, in a few hours, “ The Maneuvering of the Fleet before Antwerp on the 
 Scheldt,” and, with equal celerity, Napoleon’s “Entrance into Amsterdam, at the 
 Moment when the Magistrate presents him with the Keys of the City.” In 1816, he painted 
 the famous Leyden burgoipaster. Van der Werff, in the act of addressing the famished 
 and murmuring populace during the siege of 1576: “ Take my body, and share it among 
 you.” This great work — now in the town-house of Leyden — is marked by a felicitous 
 arrangement of the figures, and by a bold and lively coloring, after the style of Rubens. 
 Other celebrated pictures of B.’s are: “ Count Egmont receiving Spiritual Consolation 
 before his Execution,” “ Rubens dictating his Dying Testament,” “ The Tomb of Nero 
 at Rome, with a Group of Lazzaroni and Musicians.” B. died 15th Dec., 1839. In the 
 latter part of his life, he was director of the academy of fine arts at Antwerp. 
 
 BREE, Philipp Jacob van, brother of the preceding, b. 1786, also acquired some 
 reputation as a historical painter. 
 
 BREECH, of a gun, is the end farthest removed from the muzzle. It always con- 
 tains a great mass of metal, to enable it to withstand the shock occasioned by the explo- 
 sion of the gunpowder. For details, see Cannon, Howitzer, etc. 
 
 BREECHES BIBLE. See Bible. 
 
 BREECHING-, of a naval gun or carronade, is a strong rope by which the recoil of the 
 gun is checked at such a point that the muzzle is brought wholly within the port-hole, 
 where the seamen can sponge and reload it. 
 
 BREECH-LOADING, in artillery, relates to a mode of constructing large pieces of 
 ordnance, and small-arms or hand-firearms, the peculiar manner of charging which the 
 term describes. This subject is now occupying much attention, and the patented inven- 
 tions relating to it are very numerous. The Armstrong gun (see Armstrong), among 
 others, is a breech-loader; and so is the Whitworth gun. A considerable amount of 
 additional mechanism is necessary for this purpose ; seeing that the breech must be so 
 far opened as to admit of the introduction of a ball or shell, and a cartridge, and then 
 so firmly closed as to resist the immense pressure occasioned by the explosion. The 
 objects sought to be attained by this change from the old system are many — quickness 
 in loading, ease in cleaning after firing, accurate adjustment of the diameter of the ball 
 to the calibre of the gun, facility in making the ball accommodate itself to the spiral 
 rifle-grooves of the piece, etp. ; but it is still a contested question, especially between the 
 rival inventors of breech-loaders and muzzle-loaders, to what extent these objects are 
 attained. In relation to muskets and fowling-pieces, Mr. Greener, of Birmingham, who 
 has written much on the subject, disputes the usefulness of B. ; he denies that it is more 
 safe, more accurate, or more forcible than muzzle-loading; while certain advantges 
 which it may possess are, he thinks, counterbalanced by the greater cost of the weapon. 
 The relative merits of breech and muzzle loading fowling-pieces were tested in 1859-60 
 by various trials, under the management of the editor of The Field, and resulted in 
 favor of the breech-loaders. The demand for the latter has, in consequence, enor- 
 mously increased. — This subject receives further notice in various parts of the Encyclo- 
 peedia, in relation to certain kinds of ordnance and small-arms expressly constructed on 
 the B. principle. See Breech-Loading. 
 
23 
 
 Breda. 
 
 Breech-loading. 
 
 BBEECH-LOADING ARMS and NEEDLE-GTTNS. To be loaded at the breech, and to 
 be fired by the penetration of a needle into, or the impinging of a piston on, a detonat- 
 ing cap within the cartridge, are distinct attributes in a weapon; and although it is only 
 within the last forty years that the system has been carried out with success, breech- 
 loading arms have been tried, accepted, and abandoned without number during the last 
 :hree centuries. Indeed, a sort of instinct dictates that loading at the breech is the pref- 
 erable course; and all the earliest muskets were so made, the system being doubtless 
 abandoned from the diflSculty of accurately closing the breech, in those days of rough 
 workmanship. The extraordinary eflScacy of breecli-loading arms for military purposes 
 was brought prominently forward during the wars of the last few years, and notably in 
 the Prussian campaigns of 1864 against Denmark, and of 1866 against Austria. The 
 successes of the Prussian arms were attributed in no small degree to the rapidity with 
 which their troops could fire as compared with the enemy. They had, in greater or less 
 numbers, borne these same rifles since 1835, but these were the first opportunities of using 
 them in warfare. To all the other powers, whose men still carried muzzle-loading rifles, 
 and who had debated, without practical result, for years past the question of armament 
 with breech-loaders, soldiers thus armed appeared irresistible. From July, 1866, to the 
 present moment, the hammer and the anvil have been busy night and day throughout 
 the civilized world in making the weapons of death yet more deadly. Scarcely two 
 countries seem to have adopted the same plan : each nation has elaborated a system from 
 among its own inventors. Those possessing no great reserve of rifles have prepared new 
 arms; but the majority of governments have been content, in the first instance, to con- 
 vert their existing stock into breech-loaders of as good a construction as circumstances 
 would permit. Thus, Britain, after offering a handsome prize for the best design, 
 selected one said (subject to some controversy) to be the invention of the late Mr, Snider. 
 As this weapon has been produced already to the number of a million, and as it has con- 
 firmed the favorable auguries entertained of it by accuracy of fire, and by loading thrice 
 to the muzzle-loader’s once, much of the following article will be devoted to a considera- 
 tion of it. At the same time, it is to be borne in mind that the British government only 
 regarded the Snider arm as a makeshift for the conversion of the enormous stock of 
 Enfield rifles then in hand, reserving to itself the ultimate selection of a pattern on which 
 to manufacture new weapons. It is not to be understood from what is said above that 
 Britain adopted a breech-loading arm in a sort of panic after the battle of Sadowa. It 
 was after the Danish campaign, on the 11th July, 1864, that it was decided as an abstract 
 question to arm the British infantry with breech-loaders; a portion of the cavalry having 
 for a number of years previously been armed with Sharp and Westley Richards carbines, 
 loading at the breech. The selection of an arm took longer; but by the beginning of 
 1865 it had been decided to convert our great stock of rifles on the “ Snider” system. In 
 1869 it was determined that new arms should be on the Martini-Henry system — i.e., with 
 the Henry barrel, and the Martini-breech action. A description of this rifle will be given 
 farther on. 
 
 Breech-loading . — The advantage of breech-loading is obvious: to be able to insert the 
 charge at the breech end instead of the muzzle, is to save time, and to avoid exposure to 
 hostile Are during the operation of loading and ramming home, which involves consid- 
 erable outstretching of the limbs. The great condition of success is, that the bullet shall 
 be propelled with equal force and accuracy, and with equal safety to the rifleman, as from 
 the muzzle-loader. " 
 
 When a charge is ignited, the constituents of the gunpowder, assuming a gaseous con- 
 dition under the heat engendered, expand into a volume of light gas many times greater 
 in bulk than the powder before occupied. On the amount of this expansion, and its 
 sudden action on the projectile, the force of the shot depends. Any joint in the breech- 
 piece through which a portion of this gas can escape, without having imparted its thrust 
 to the ball, tends, therefore, to lessen the range and penetration; while the shock of the 
 explosion falling more severely on this than on any other part of the barrel, tends yet 
 more to dislocate the breech-piece, and diminish the closeness of the joint’s fit. In weap- 
 ons which do not call for a long range, as revolver pistols, a perceptible interval is left 
 between the chamber and barrel, through which much gas escapes; but in rifles, which 
 have range and penetration as principal objects, there is primd facie ground for preferring 
 a muzzle-loader. The gas, however, is far from pure as generated in the barrel, for 
 much water is produced and held in suspension, while there is also a solid residuum 
 consisting of unburned materials of the powder. In the muzzle-loader, these clog (or, 
 technically, foul) the barrel, filling the grooves, and rendering the ramming home of 
 succeeding charges more and more difficult. The effect is, that a solid mass of unburned 
 matter is gradually forced by ramming into the head of the barrel, destroying the accu- 
 racy and usefulness of the weapon. In the breech-loader, this solid deposit must be pro- 
 vided against both ways. The backward throw on firing (for, of course, the charge 
 explodes with equ^ power in every direction) tends to force it into the mechanism of 
 the joints, preventing their proper fit, and continually augmenting the escape of gas; and 
 Dn the other hand, the deposit in front is most detrimental to accuracy of fire. This 
 protection of the breech-apparatus, the prevention of fouling, and the retaining and if 
 possible improving the force and accuracy of fire, were the problems which inventors 
 have had to solve. 
 
Breech-loading. 
 
 24 
 
 A moderate escape of gas in front of the first position of the ball, is not found to he 
 any material disadvantage. If, then, the barrel could have an opening where the 
 cartridge could be inserted, and then pushed backwards, an escape of gas through 
 the joints by which the opening might be subsequently closed would be comparatively 
 immaterial ; but this formation would be impracticable, because the explosion of each 
 cartridge would drive the fouling more and more backwards, till ultimately the cham- 
 ber at the breech would be unable to contain the cartridge. It is clear, therefore, that 
 the charge must be inserted either at the barrel’s head, or, if the barrel be opened, in a 
 space close to the barrel’s head. In either of these cases, the breech must be solidly closed 
 to resist the explosion. A third case, as in the Snider, is where the cartridge is inserted 
 and then pushed forward, the aperture being closed by a solid breech-piece which com- 
 pletely fills that portion of the barrel, and forms, with the barrel’s head, a massive foot 
 to resist the backward pressure of the fired powder. No breech action can be made to 
 fit so accurately as to prevent a backward escape of gas unless a properly-constructed 
 cartridge-case is used A perpendicular moving joint is found, in practice, to be the 
 best adapted for preventing a serious escape of gas. In the Prussian needle-gun, the 
 end of the barrel is the frustum of a cone, which fits into a corresponding cavity in 
 the fore-end of the breech-piece, but in practice this joint is not sutficiently tight to pre- 
 vent an escape of gas from the self-consuming cartridge used with this gun, which 
 becomes inconveniently great after long use of the weapon, and it is only available when 
 the breech-piece is pushed up from the rear. In the Snider and several other breech- 
 loading weapons, the cartridge is made itself to close hermetically the aperture between 
 the barrel and the fore-end of the breech-piece. This is effected % the expansion of the 
 cartridge-case, which, being composed of metal, or a combination of metal and paper, is 
 driven out by the force of the explosion till it completely fills the chamber and prevents 
 any escape backwards between the sides of the case and the chamber. The cartridge 
 has a portion of its case at the base fiattened out into a rim which fits into a correspond- 
 ing recess in the end of the barrel ; and to prevent expansion backwards, which would 
 fracture the cartridge-case, and injure the breech or the firer. the breech-piece is made to 
 fit as closely as possible against this base. This rim is on the Snider cartridge. 
 
 The remainder of the article will be devoted to a description of the three most prom- 
 inent breech-loaders — (1) the Prussian Ziindnadelgewehr; (2) the British Snider; and (3) 
 the Martini-Henry. 
 
 The Prussian gun, although it may be said to be now obsolete (having been super- 
 seded by the Mauser, a bolt gun on much the same principle, but using a metallic 
 cartridge-case), was first in the field. As regards its breech-apparatus and needle-lock, 
 it consists of three concentric hollow cylinders, with a solid cylindrical bolt inside the 
 last. The rear-end of the barrel is firmly screwed into the head of the chamber, which 
 is fixed to the stock of the piece, and is open at the rear-end. The upper half of the 
 cylinder is cut away at the front-end for rather more than the length of the cartridge : 
 this constitutes the opening in which the musketeer inserts the cartridge. From the 
 rear of this opening to the back, a groove is cut, sufficiently wide to allow the square 
 pillar of the breech- handle to pass along it. In the middle of this groove is a right- 
 angled shunt, offering a stop to the breech-handle when drawn backwards, unless it be 
 likewise turned downwards, when it may be passed completely out at the rear-end. Next 
 within the chamber is the breech-piece, which, to admit the cartridge, is drawn back for 
 a sufficient distance by the breech-Jiandle along the groove. When the cartridge is 
 deposited in the recess in the chamber, this breech-piece is closed against the heel of the 
 barrel by moving up the handle to the front-end of the groove, and then turning it down 
 to prevent it from being driven back on the explosion of the charge; representing, 
 indeed, the resistance offered by the heel of an ordinary muzzle-loading barrel. Firmly 
 screwed within the breech-piece, at a short distance from its front, is a solid block of 
 metal, on which impinges the first force of the explosion. Projecting from this block 
 to the base of the cartridge is a strong tige, or pillar, around vffiich a space containing 
 air is left. Through this pillar is the channel for the needle to work. Fitting within 
 the rear-end of the breech-piece is a smaller cylinder, constituting the lock of the gun. 
 It slides within the breech-piece, and is retained from falling out backwards by the 
 spring, which catches in a notch. Along the bottom of this cylinder is a groove to 
 admit the passage of the trigger; and at the back is a short upright handle, by means of 
 which the weapon is cocked. Lastly, within the lock is a bolt, pressed forward by a 
 spiral spring, and having the needle rigidly fastened to its front end. Having now 
 described the several parts of the rifie, it is easy to follow it from the moment of a shot 
 being fired until the next is ready for discharge. The soldier first presses down the 
 spring with his finger, releasing the catch below it, and enabling him to draw back the 
 lock to the next catch on the spring. Having done so, he raises the breech-handle to 
 the perpendicular, and passes it along the groove to open the breech. This done, he 
 places the cartridge in the opening thus made in the chamber, and again moving up the 
 breech- piece to close the breech, the tige in it pushes the cartridge forward into 
 the barrel, and the rifie is at once at “half-cock;” for in drawing back the lock, the 
 front point of the spring forced the bolt (including the needle) with it, and the projec- 
 tion on it, having passed over the head of the trigger, is caught by the latter in a way 
 which can only be released by the falling of the trigger. It will be observed that at 
 
25 
 
 Breech-loading. 
 
 half-cock the needle is ready to penetrate the cartridge, but that the spiral spring is 
 loose and without power. The position is now obtained, in which the bolt projects at 
 the back, and the spiral spring is compressed into a state of passive strength. All that 
 is now needed to fire the gun is to press upon the trigger, when the bolt, being released 
 by the depression of the spiral spring, asserts its power, and drives the needle into the 
 heart of the cartridge, the parts all resuming their original positions. At first sight, one 
 cannot help exclaiming: “ What a complicated apparatus with the four cylinders and 
 the springs!” but, in reality, it is as simple as almost any other gun, for the whole 
 mechanism of the lock (q.v.) is dispensed with. If it be desired to take the needle-gun 
 to pieces, press the trigger till the point bears. If the breech-handle be then in the 
 hinder part of its groove, the breech-piece with its contents will slip out of the chamber. 
 Pressing down, next, the spring until the second catch is passed, there is nothing to 
 retain the lock in the breech-piece; and the lock being free, the needle, with its attached 
 bolt and spring, falls readily out of its fore-end. The gun is thus taken to pieces in a 
 few seconds, and as many suffice to put it again in fighting order. The most dehc ite 
 portions are the needle and the spiral spring; but in case of accident to these, there is a 
 spare one in a small cavity opening by a spring in the butt-end of the stock. The worst 
 feature about this celebrated gun is its weight, 12 lbs. , or 83 per cent heavier than the 
 Enfield or Snider rifle. 
 
 The converted Enfleld or “ Snider” rifle was selected in 1865-66 by the British goV' 
 ernment from the specimens submitted at an open competition of inventors. It is an 
 extremely simple weapon, and though by no means free from faults, has given very 
 satisfactory results up to this time. The ordinary Enfleld barrel is shortened by about 
 2^ in., and the heel of the remainder is screwed in to a strong shoe, with which is con- 
 nected by a powerful hinge, the solid breech-piece, which, when shut, completely closes 
 the breech. Through this passes the piston or striker; the normal position of the 
 piston is maintained by a spiral spring within the nipple. Given the breech open, 
 the cartridge is inserted and pushed forward into the barrel, where its metal rim Alls 
 the groove left around the barrel’s heel. The breech-piece is closed down, the ham- 
 mer drawn to full-cock, and the piece is ready for discharge. The breech-piece is 
 securely locked by the spring bolt, which enters a recess in the false breech, and can 
 only be withdrawn on the lever thumb-piece being pressed by the thumb in the act 
 of again lifting the breech-block. On the trigger being pulled, the hammer falls, drives 
 in the piston, and out against the detonating cap of the cartridge, with a sharp blow, 
 firing the charge. The hammer is drawn back to half-cock, the piston flies up to its 
 former position; the breech-piece is thrown back, and slid on its hinge along the pin 
 until occurs a process during which a small catch hooks back into the breech, by its 
 projecting rim, the empty cartridge-case. The canting of the rifle to one side now 
 throws this out, a spring within the hinge moves the breech-piece to its former place, 
 and the gun is ready for another charge. 
 
 The cost of altering an “Enfield” to a “ Snider” varies from 15s. to 20s. During the 
 transition period, upwards of a million were converted in this way, besides a large num- 
 ber of new arms made for our own government; but conversion and manufacture are 
 now suspended both in the government factories and by the large small-arms companies. 
 The government factories were capable of converting 1100 rifles daily. 
 
 At flrst, the flring of the Snider was inferior to the old Enfleld ; but, by alterations in 
 the bullet, effected by col. Boxer, in the direction of decreasing the speciflc gravity at 
 the apex by the insertion of a wooden plug (which is now, however, dispensed with, 
 and the point of the bullet spun over the mouth of the cavity), this condition has been 
 reversed, and the Snider now fires 30 per cent better than the old Enfield. Of course, 
 these changes add to the cost of the cartridge, which has, however, these great perfec- 
 tions — first, that it is absolutely impervious to wet ; and second, that fire can scarcely be 
 communicated to it otherwise than through the detonating cap. A single cartridge has 
 been fired within a barrel of loose cartridges without exploding any of the others. 
 
 Adverting to the Snider cartridge, the whole is inclosed in a roll of thin brass foil, 
 outside which is a covering of paper, and having for its base an iron disk, in front of 
 which is a double cup of thin brass, while a round of millboard or pulp encircles the 
 chamber containing the percussion-cap, which communicates with the powder. Between 
 the powder and the ball is a layer of wool. The ball has, as explained above, the point 
 spun over a cavity in its front, and a conical hollow is made at the base ; into the widei 
 part of this is dropped the wooden plug, while on the circumference of the bullet, and 
 outside this conical hole, are four small cannelures or cuts in the lead. When the 
 powder explodes, the wooden plug is driven forwards to the head of the hollow, driving 
 the base of the bullet outwards till the lead completely fills the grooves of the rifle — a 
 process aided by the comparatively less resistance at the cannelures. These cannelures 
 are also receptacles for a wax lubrication which prevents fouling, interposing always a 
 film of wax between the bullet and the barrel. The charge and bullet are held together by 
 the copper sheathing being pressed into the cannelures. Returning to the percussion- 
 cap, wes hould find, if it were enlarged, an apparatus where the cap is a thin copper 
 cylinder open at front and closed at the rear end, where there is contained a deposit of 
 detonating powder, of great sensitiveness. A brass bead, called the “anvil,” is con- 
 tained within the cap, the sharp point being next the detonating powder, and its broader 
 
Breech-loading. 
 
 Breed. 
 
 26 
 
 end resting at the bottom of the cap-chamber on each side of the hole. The cap itself 
 fits tightly into the chamber, leaving no opening for the escape of gas backwards from 
 the explosion, and is fired by the external blow of the piston or striker, which drives 
 the base of the cap down upon the point of the anvil, by which means the detonating 
 powder is exploded, and the flash, passing down the sides of the anvil, communicates 
 through the opening with the powder in the cartridge. The weight of the bullet is 480 
 grains; of the powder, 70 ^ains; the cost being about £3 per thousand. 
 
 From this description, it is evident that the Snider cartridge is a complicated arrange- 
 ment; but it is not much more so than that of the Ziindnadelgewehr, though vastly 
 more eflicient. 
 
 In comparing the Snider and the Prussian gun, the former has certainly the greater 
 simplicity; while its smaller weight (9 lbs. to lOf lbs.) is an immeasurable advantage. 
 Of the two it is probably the less likely to get out of order, but would perhaps be the 
 most difficult to restore if it did. There is this difference of a material character between 
 the two weapons, that in the Prussian arm, the needle, by its own mechanism, fires the 
 charge ; while in the Snider, it is a mere medium for conveying the blow of the hammer. 
 
 The principle of the action of the Martini-Henry rifle, which has been adopted by the 
 British army, consists in closing the breech by a falling block, working in a mortised 
 breech body, and hinged on a pin at the back end, and falling in front sufficiently when 
 open to clear the opening of the barrel ; the top of the breech-block forms an inclined 
 groove, along which the cartridge is slipped into the barrel. The ordinary gun lock is 
 replaced by a direct acting striker, impelled by a spiral spring, both being contained 
 within the breech-block. The act of opening the lever draws down the breech-block, 
 simultaneously drawing back the striker, and compressing the spiral spring; at the same 
 time the toe of the cranked extractor is struck by the breech-block, thus throwing its 
 upper claws, which encircle the base of the cartridge-case, backward, and jerking out 
 the used case. On a fresh cartridge being inserted, the lever is drawn back and fixed 
 to the stock by the spring. This closes the breech, but the spiral spring is kept com 
 pressed, and the striker at the full-cock position, by the tumbler, into the bent of which 
 the point of the trigger and the tumbler-rest entered when the breech was opened. 
 The trigger being pulled, the tumbler is let loose, and the spiral spring discharges the 
 pointed end of the striker on to the cap in the rear-end of the cartridge, which is thus fired. 
 
 The following table shows the breech-loading rifles in use in 1879 by the principal 
 powers: 
 
 Country. 
 
 Austria 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Denmark 
 
 England and Turkey, 
 
 France 
 
 Germany 
 
 Holland 
 
 Italy 
 
 Russia 
 
 Sweden 
 
 United States 
 
 System adopted. 
 
 Bore. 
 
 Weight 
 of rifie. 
 
 Weight 
 of bullet. 
 
 Weight 
 of powder. 
 
 
 Inch. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Grains. 
 
 Grains. 
 
 Werndl 
 
 .432 
 
 9.88 
 
 313 
 
 62 
 
 Albini-Braendlin 
 
 .433 
 
 10.14 
 
 386 
 
 77 
 
 Remington 
 
 .450 
 
 9.08 
 
 386 
 
 60 
 
 Snider 
 
 .577 
 
 9.05 
 
 480 
 
 70 
 
 Martini-Henry 
 
 .450 
 
 8.75 
 
 480 
 
 85 
 
 Converted Chassepot 
 
 .433 
 
 8.93 
 
 386 
 
 85 
 
 1 Mauser 
 
 .433 
 
 10.75 
 
 378 
 
 71 
 
 i Beaumont 
 
 .433 
 
 9.59 
 
 336 
 
 66 
 
 jVetterli 
 
 .412 
 
 6.61 
 
 316 
 
 64 
 
 Berdan 
 
 .420 
 
 8.48 
 
 370 
 
 78 
 
 Remington 
 
 .480 
 
 9.55 
 
 370 
 
 66 
 
 Springfield 
 
 .450 
 
 9.13 
 
 
 
 The breech-loaders with and without the needle arrangement are too numerous even 
 for mention. In addition to what are known as breech-loaders proper, there are repeat- 
 ing-arms, one of the most remarkable of which is the Spencer magazine rifle, having, in 
 a tube in the stock, a series of cartridges, which, by a simple action, pass into the barrel 
 for discharge. As the gun can ordinarily be loaded at the breech without drawing on 
 the magazine, it is doubtless that this reserve would be a powerful means of defense in 
 a moment of danger, as in resisting cavalry; but among its drawbacks are weakening 
 of the stock, serious increase of weight, and, worst of all, great complexity and delicacy 
 — fatal objections in the rough usage of active service. Nearly all sportsmen now use 
 breech-loading guns. 
 
 BREECH-LOADING GUNS {ante). The introduction of these arms in the United 
 States dates properly from 1865, from which date muzzle-loading arms were no longer 
 manufactured at the Springfield armory. A short time before the late rebellion, the 
 government tested a number of breech-loading guns, such as the Burnside, Cosmopoli- 
 tan, Gallagher, Joslyn, Merrill, Maynard, Smith, Lindner, and Sharp. None of these 
 are now used except the Sharp gun, which has been adapted to the metallic cartridge. 
 During the war the Spencer rifle was much used by the U. S. cavalry; it has a magazine 
 in the butt of the stock, holding 7 cartridges that are admitted one at a time by the 
 movement of the trigger-guard used as a lever. The shell of an exploded cartridge is 
 expelled by the same movement. It may be used also as a single breech-loader, but the 
 magazine must first be shut off. The Henry gun (not to be mistaken for the Martini- 
 Henry gun) has the magazine under the barrel. By movements of the lever. 17 metallic 
 
27 
 
 Breech-loading. 
 
 Breed. 
 
 cases or cartridges can be brought into the chamber in succession. This gun, like the 
 Spencer, can be used as a single breech-loader by shutting off the magazine. It has 
 been changed, however, by O. F. Winchester, and is now termed the Winchester gun. 
 Among other magazine guns may be mentioned the Ball, Fogarty, and Gardner guns. 
 The well-known Kemington gun is a single breech-loader, and has an iron receiver that 
 is screwed to the breech of the barrel, in which the breech-block and lock are to be 
 found. It uses metallic-cased cartridges, and has been adopted by the governments of 
 Egypt, Spain, and several other countries. The Remington gun is used in the U. S. 
 navy. 
 
 In 1866, the secretary of war called a board of oflScers, gen. Hancock acting as presi- 
 dent, to report the form and caliber which should be adopted for breech-loading mus- 
 kets and carbines, and the method of converting muskets from muzzle-loading to breech- 
 loading arms. After an examination of 22 different breech-loading muskets and 17 
 different breech-loading carbines, the board reported the best caliber for muskets to be 
 0.45 of an inch, the best charge of powder from 65 to 70 grains, and the best weight of 
 ball from 480 to 500 grains. In 1869. a board of ofiScers, presided over by gen. Schofield, 
 was called to meet at St. Louis to select the six best patterns of muskets for infantry 
 and carbines for cavalry. After examining a great number of different breech-loaders, 
 they reported that the only guns suitable for military service were those of the Reming- 
 ton, Springfield, and Sharp systems. These guns were tried accordingly until 1872, 
 when, in compliance with an act of congress, a board of officers, gen. A. H. Terry as 
 president, was appointed to meet in New York and Springfield, “ to recommend a breech- 
 loading system for muskets and carbines to be adopted for the military service, w^hich 
 system, when so adopted, shall be the only one to be used by the ordnance department 
 in the manufacture of muskets and carbines for the military service.” After testing 
 over 100 breech-loading guns, the board recommended (May, 1873) that the Springfield 
 breech-loading system be adopted for military service, and this report being approved, 
 that system is now used by the government for the 13. S. army and militia. This breech- 
 loader has a receiver screwed to the breech of the barrel. The shell of the exploded 
 cartridge is ejected by a combined cam and spring through a motion of the hinge in the 
 opening of the breech-block. The firing-pin goes through the breech-block in an inclined 
 direction from the nose of the hammer at the side to the center of the rear of the cham- 
 ber, where it strikes the head of the cartridge, exploding the fulminate when its rear 
 end is struck by the hammer. 
 
 BREED, in domestic animals, a variety or often merely a race distinguished by the 
 possession of particular qualities, but not differing from the ordinary type of the species se 
 as to constitute what naturalists usually designate a variety. The peculiarities of breeds 
 in animals find an exact counterpart in cultivated plants, the value of particular kinds 
 often depending, in a great measure, upon characters scarcely capable of being defined 
 in the language of scientific description, but to the production and perpetuation of which 
 the attention of the cultivator cannot be too earnestly directed. These, also, in plants, 
 as in animals, have of themselves little permanence, and the preservation or perpetuation 
 of them depends upon the same assiduous attention and high cultivation from which, 
 more frequently than from any mere accidental circumstances, they have originated. 
 Thus it happens that the most improved varieties of garden-plants usually degenerate 
 even under ordinary horticultural treatment) and the choice pansies of the florist lose 
 their characteristic excellences if a place is simply assigned to them in a common flower- 
 border. The improvements which cultivation has effected in the productions of the 
 fruit, flower, and kitchen garden do not, however, possess an economic importance to 
 be compared to that of the similar improvements in the cereals and other plants cultiv- 
 ated on the most extensive scale, or in the breeds of some of the most valuable domestic 
 animals. To the breeding of these, great attention has of late been paid — probably more 
 since the beginning of the 19th c. than in all the previous history of the world — and 
 with results the magnitude of which may in some measure be estimated from the state- 
 ment made on very competent authority, that within the last thirty years the weight of 
 mutton produced has been about doubled in proportion to the number of sheep kept 
 To the improvement of the B. of horses, attention has been paid for a much longer time 
 than to that of oxen and sheep; and to this must, in a great measure, be ascribed the 
 different excellences of some of the well-known breeds employed for very different pur- 
 poses. The use of the horse in war, and for purposes of pomp and luxury, appears to 
 have been the reason of the higher degree of attention thus paid to it, even from ancient 
 times. The Arabs have long been particularly careful of the B. of their horses, and 
 diligently preserve a record of their pedigree. What is called blood in horses, however, 
 only fits them in a higher degree for certain purposes; and with regard to this as to other 
 animals, the judgment of the breeder must be exercised, as the perpetuation, increase, 
 or combination of particular qualities may be the object which he has in view. Fleet- 
 ness and strength are important qualities in horses, the extremes of which never co-exist 
 in the same animal, but of which a certain combination is for some purposes very desir- 
 able ; and either of these may be displayed in a great degree without much bottom, or 
 power of enduring continued severe exertion — a quality of very high value. The prop- 
 erties most desired in sheep and oxen are very different from those most highly esteemed 
 
Breede. 
 
 Breisach. 
 
 28 
 
 in the horse — the fleece and the flesh being chiefly regarded in sheep, the flesh and the 
 milk in oxen. Sometimes a perpetuation of good qualities is the great object of the 
 breeder, and a combination of them in the highest possible degree is aimed at; some- 
 times, the production of the largest possible quantity of beef or mutton in the shortest 
 time being almost exclusively designed, the breeder neglects considerations which would 
 be of importance if his stock could not be improved by animals obtained from other 
 quarters. Extraordinary differences are certainly found to exist among animals of the 
 same species in the readiness with which they convert food into flesh and fat, and in the 
 age at which they are flt for the hands of the butcher. One effect of the attention 
 bestowed of late upon the breeding of stock, has been to supply the market, to a great 
 extent, with the flesh of younger animals than could previously be sent to it — a change 
 evidently tending not only to the beneflt of the farmer, but to the increase of the national 
 wealth; because that land, even without increased produce of grass, seuds a greater 
 amount of beef and mutton to market within the same term of years. Those sheep and 
 oxen which exhibit in the highest degree the qualities just referred to, are also charac- 
 terized by shortness of legs, smallness of bones, smallness of head, and flneness of skin ; 
 qualities the very opposite of those which would fit the animal for a wild state and an 
 independent existence. 
 
 Some of the most important breeds of domestic animals will be mentioned under 
 their proper heads. It remains for us only to allude here to the rules and physiological 
 principles of breeding ; but the latter, in so far as application of them has yet been found 
 practicable, are only the best known principles of physiology (q.v.). In a great measure, 
 however, the rules which guide the breeding of stock have been learned by experience, 
 and are rather to be regarded as contributions to science than as deductions from it. The 
 probable relative influence of the male and female parent upon their progeny, is a point 
 unquestionably of the greatest importance, but concerning which widely different opin- 
 ions have been maintained ; and another much controverted and important point is, the 
 propriety of breeding in and in. Practically, the rule is always observed, by those who 
 seek the improvement of a breed, of selecting the very finest animals possible, both male 
 and female; although a great improvement of the existing stock on a farm is often 
 effected in the most advantageous manner by the mere introduction of males of better 
 quality. The dangers of breeding in and in are very generally acknowledged, even 
 whilst it is contended that they may very much be obviated by careful rejection of eveiy 
 faulty animal, and that in this way the utmost advantage may be taken of the very 
 highest improvements ; but it is likewise very generally admitted that, if equally im- 
 proved individuals can be obtained not so nearly related, it is better to seek the perpetu- 
 ation of the B. by their means. It is a rule also of much practical importance, that an 
 improvement of B. is to be attained not by a cross between animals of very different 
 breeds, as between a dr^-horse and a race-horse, but only between those which are 
 comparatively similar. The result of the intermixture of very dissimilar breeds is never 
 in any respect satisfactory. 
 
 BBEED'E, a river in Cape Colony, flowing chiefly through the district of Zwellendam, 
 which contains cape Agulhas, the most southerly point of Africa. It rises in the Warm- 
 Bokkeveld, a mountain-basin about lat. 33° 10' s., and long. 19° 30' e., running first to 
 the w., and afterwards to the s.e. ; and it enters St. Sebastian’s bay or Port Beaufort, 
 from which, upwards, it is navigable to a distance of 40 miles. Its exports are wool, 
 aloes, skins, feathers, grain, butter, cattle, mules, etc. 
 
 BREEZE. See Wind. 
 
 BREESE, Samuel L., 1794H870; b. New York. He entered the TJ. S. navy, serv- 
 ing in the war with England and Mexico, but was retired before the war of the rebellion 
 broke out, his rank being rear-admiral. 
 
 BRE'GENZ, a frontier t. of Austria, capital of the district of Vorarlberg, is situated 
 at the mouth of the small river Bregenz, which here flows into the lake of Constance, 
 between the Swiss and Bavarian territories, about 80 m. w.n.w. of Innspriick. From 
 the ruins of the castle of Ilohenbregenz, on a hill near the town, a very beautiful pros- 
 pect is obtained of the lake and its surrounding vineyards, etc. B. is one of the oldest 
 towns, and was formerly one of the chief fortified places in the southern part of Ger- 
 many. The inhabitants (1869), 3686 in number, are engaged in agriculture, horticulture, 
 and cattle-keeping. Cotton-spinning and weaving are also carried on; and articles of 
 wood, gold, and iron are manufactured. Its position secures B. a large transit-trade in 
 the produce of the district. In the neighborhood lies the mountain-pass, the Bregemer- 
 Klause, formerly a strong military position between Swabia and the Tyrol. During the 
 thirty years’ war, the Swedes, in 1646, stormed and captured the fortress of B., and 
 destroyed the works in the pass. 
 
 BRE'HON LAWS (in Irish, dlighidh breitheamhuin — that is, “judges’ laws”), the 
 name usually given to the system of jurisprudence which prevailed among the native 
 Irish from an early period till towards the middle of the 17th century. The breitheam- 
 liuin (pronounced brei-hoo-in, or brehon), from whom the laws had their name, were 
 hereditary judges, who administered justice among the members of their tribe, seated 
 in the open air, upon a few sods, on a hill or rising ground. The poet Spenser, in his 
 
29 
 
 Breede. 
 
 Breisach. 
 
 View of the State of Ireland, written in 1596, describes the B. L. as “ a rule of right 
 unwritten, but delivered by tradition from one to another, in which oftentimes there 
 appeareth great share of equity, in determining the right between party and party, but 
 in many things repugning quite both to God’s law and man’s: as, for example, in the 
 case of murder, the brehon — that is, their judge — will compound between the murderer 
 and the friends of the party murdered, which prosecute the action, that the malefactor 
 shall give unto them, or to the child or wife of him that is slain, a recompense, which 
 they call an eric; by which vile law of theirs many murders amongst them are made up 
 and smothered : and this judge being, as he is called, the lord’s brehon, adjudgeth for 
 the most part a better share unto his lord, that is, the lord of the soil, or head of the 
 sept, and also, unto himself for his judgment, a greater portion than unto the plaintiffs 
 or parties grieved.” Spenser was ignorant that pecuniary compensation for man- 
 slaughter had obtained in the ancient laws, as well of England as of most European 
 nations. He was mistaken, too, in believing that the B. L. was an unwritten code. 
 Many manuscript collections of the B. L. still exist in public and private libraries in 
 Ireland, England, and Belgium. These manuscripts are regarded as varying in date 
 from the early part of the 14th to the close of the 16th century. For the laws them- 
 selves, a much higher antiquity is claimed. On this point, we must be content to quote 
 what has been said on the part of the very few persons who have had an opportunity of 
 making themselves acquainted with the existing collections of the brehon laws. ‘ ‘ So 
 far as we have external evidence to guide us,” say Dr. J. H. Todd and Dr. C. Graves, 
 two eminent Irish antiquaries, “ there is no reason to suspect that the brehon laws have 
 undergone any material change since the time of Cormac Mac Cuilleanain, king and 
 bishop of Cashel, who died 908 a.d. He was a man of great learning and energy, who 
 certainlj^ promoted the execution of considerable literary w^orks, and under whose influ- 
 ence it is not improbable that a systematic compilation of the law’^s may have been 
 effected. Of this, however, we have no distinct record. On the other hand, we find 
 scattered through all parts of the laws allusions to a general revision of them made in 
 the 5th c., at the instance of St. Patrick, who, in conjunction with certain kings and 
 learned men, is said to have expunged from them all those institutions Tvhich savored 
 of paganism, and_ to have framed the code called the Seanchus Mor. These same docu- 
 ments assert the existence of still more ancient written laws, the greater part of which 
 are ascribed to Cormac Mac Art, monarch of Ireland, in the middle of the 3d century. 
 However slow we may be to acquiesce in statements of this kind, which contradict what 
 we have learned concerning the progress of legislation in the remaining parts of western 
 Europe, we may readily admit that the subject matter of many of the laws demonstrates 
 their great antiquity, as it indicates the primitive nature of the society in which they 
 prevailed. In spite of the attempts to efface it, traces of heathenism are still discernible 
 in many parts of them. They enumerate various ordeals of a pagan character, which 
 are expressly termed magical, and specify the occasions on w’hich a resort to them was 
 prescribed. There are also provisions in the laws of marriage which prove that Chris- 
 tianity could have exercised but a feeble infiuenf.e at the time when they w^ere enacted. 
 The language in which the brehon laws are written is a convincing proof of their antiq- 
 uity. They are not composed in a peculiar dialect, as many writers have maintained; 
 but if their style differs from that of the vernacular Irish of the present day. as Anglo- 
 Saxon does from modern English, this dissimilarity is to be ascribed mainly to the effects 
 •of time, by which the orthography and grammatical forms of the language have been 
 modified, and legal terms and phrases of constant recurrence have become obsolete.” 
 The world of letters will be ab^e, in no long time, to judge for itself on the opinions 
 thus expressed. It is now upwards of twenty years since the publication of the B. L., 
 at the charge of the Irish government, was strongly urged by such men as Guizot, 
 Grimr^, and Rank abroad, and Hallam, Macaulay, and earl Stanhope at home. A 
 commission was accordingly appointed by the earl of Eglinton in 1852, “to direct, 
 superintend, and carry into effect the transcription and translation of the ancient laws 
 of Ireland, and the preparation of the same for publication.” The commissioners 
 intrusted the transcription and translation of the B. L. to the two most eminent of 
 Irish scholars — the late Dr. John O’Donovan, professor of Celtic in the queen’s college 
 at Belfast; and the late Eugene O’Curry, professor of Irish archaeology in the Roman 
 Catholic university of Ireland. These gentlemen having finished their task the editor- 
 ship of the work was intrusted to Mr. W. J. Hancock, late professor of political econ- 
 omy in Trinity college, Dublin, and the Rev. Thaddeus O’Mahony, professor of Irish in 
 the university of Dublin. The publication, it is reckoned, will extend to eight volumes, 
 of about 550 pages each. Three of these have already appeared — the last in 1873 — 
 under the title of Ancient Laws and Institutes <f Ireland. Along with the Irish text, an 
 English translation is given, accompanied with preliminary dissertations, glossaries, and 
 indexes, and they give a vivid and characteristic picture of the polity and social life of 
 a Celtic people. A fac-simile reprint of the B. L. has recently been published in 17 vol- 
 umes by the B. L. commission. 
 
 BEEISACH', Alt, a very old t. of the grand duchy of Baden, situated on an isolated 
 basalt hill on the right side of the Rhine, about 12 m. w. of Freiburg. As early as the 
 time of Julius Caesar, Mons Brisiacus was known as a strong military position, and was 
 
Breisaoh. 
 
 Brenner. 
 
 30 
 
 taken by Ariovistus when he invaded Gaul. Being regarded as the key to the w. of 
 Germany, it was a prominent scene of action during the thirty years’ war, at the conclusion 
 of which it was ceded to the French. During the next century, it frequently changed 
 masters, now belonging to France, and now to Austria. The French destroyed its for- 
 tifications in 1744, and during the war of the revolution in 1793, part of the town was 
 burned by them. In 1806, the French handed it over to the house of Baden. The min- 
 ster of St. Stephen is a venerable structure in good preservation, and contains several old 
 monuments. Pop. ’71, 3255. 
 
 BREISACH, Neu, a t. in Alsace, opposite to Old B. , 2 m. w. of the Rhine, on the 
 Rhine and Rhone canal; pop. ’66, 1981. It was fortified by Vauban by order of Louis 
 XIV. 
 
 BREISLAK, SciPiONE, 1748-1826; an Italian geologist. He was professor in a 
 Roman college, and devoted his leisure to geological researches in the papal states. The 
 king of Naples appointed him professor of mineralogy to the royal artillery, and under 
 his direction the sulphur refining works in the district of Solfatara were erected. In 
 1798, he published his Physical Topography of the Campagna, and followed with various 
 works on similar topics. 
 
 BREI'TENFELD, a village and manor of Saxony, about 5 m. n. of Leipsic. It is his- 
 torically remarkable for three battles, fought on a plain in its neighborhood. The first 
 of these, between the Swedes and the Imperialists, which was fought on the 7th Sept., 
 1631, was of the highest importance to Europe, as it secured the permanency of Protes- 
 tantism and the freedom of Germany. Tilly’s pride had reached its highest point after 
 the fall of Magdeburg, which took place on the 10th of May, 1631 ; and in the early part 
 of Sept, of the same year, he advanced against the Saxons, with an army of about 
 40,000 men, for the purpose of forcing the elector, John George 1. (who would not sub- 
 mit to the edict of restitution, and w'as treatirg with the Swedish king, Gustavus Adol- 
 phus), into an alliance with the emperor. No other way remained than for the elector 
 to join the Swedish king, who had just entered Pomerania. Gustavus Adolphus, joined 
 by the Saxons, advanced towards Leipsic, where Tilly lay, who advanced into the plain 
 of Breitenfeld. The imperial forces were completely defeated, and their three most dis- 
 tinguished generals, Tilly, Pappenheim, and Fiirstenberg, wounded. The second battle 
 which B. witnessed again resulted in the triumph of Swedish valor: it took place on the 
 23d of Oct., 1642, between the Swedes, headed by Torstenson, one of the pupils of Gus- 
 tavus, who had invested Leipsic, and the archduke Leopold, with gen. Piccolomini, who 
 were advancing from Dresden to its relief. The Swedes gained a complete victory over 
 the imperialists, who fled into Bohemia, leaving behind them 46 cannon, 121 flags, 69 
 standards, and the whole of their baggage. The third battle of which B. was the scene, 
 was fought on the 16th of Oct., 1813, and was part of the great contest known as the 
 battle of Leipsic. 
 
 BREITMANN, Hans. See Leland, Charles Godfrey. 
 
 BRE'MEN, one of the three free cities of Germany, is situated on the Weser, about 
 50 m. from its mouth. Pop. ’75, 102,177, nearly all Protestants. B. is divided into the 
 old and the new town— the former on the right, the latter on the left side of the river, 
 which is spanned by four bridges. The ramparts and bastions round the old town have 
 been leveled, and formed into public promenades, which are laid out with excellent 
 taste. Among the principal buildings, the cathedral (built about 1160), the Gothic 
 town-hall (begun about 1405), with its famous wine-cellar, said to contain hock of the 
 vintage of 1624, the exchange, the museum, the post-office, and the observatory of Dr. 
 Gibers, from which he discovered the planets Pallas and Vesta, are remarkable. The 
 position of B. makes it the emporium of Brunswick, Hesse, and other countries through 
 which the Weser flows. Besides its excellent water communication, it is connected by 
 railways with the whole of western and central Germany. B. is an exceedingly thriv- 
 ing place, its trade having more than doubled within the last ten years. Large vessels- 
 stop at Bremerhaven, where there is a spacious harbor constructed, about 38 m. below 
 B., with which it is connected by electric telegraph. Vessels not drawing more than 
 7 ft. of water can come up to the town itself. B. carries on an extensive commerce 
 with the United States of America, the West Indies, Africa, the East Indies, China, and 
 Australia. Its great foreign trade, however, is with the United States, from which 
 alone, in 1870, it imported produce of the estimated value of 30,000,000 dollars, export- 
 ing in return goods to the value of 17,500,000 dollars. With the exception of Hamburg, 
 no continental port ships so many emigrants to the United States as B., through its 
 main port at Bremerhaven. The total number of vessels arriving at B. in 1874 was 
 3407, and the number departing, 3243. The number of ships belonging to the port 
 in 1875 was 226, with an aggregate burden of 176,115 tons. In 1873, the value of the 
 imports amounted to £26,270,500, exports to £20,381,900, a very great increase as eom- 
 pared with the year 1858, when the imports were valued at £8,237,000, and the exports at 
 about £8,000,000. The chief imports are tobacco, coffee, sugar, cotton, rice, skins, dye- 
 woods, wines, timber, hemp, etc. The exports consists of woolen goods, linens, glass, 
 rags, wool, hemp, hides, oil-cake, wooden toys, etc. Large quantities of tobacco are 
 re-exported. B. has manufactures of woolens and cottons, cigars, paper, and starch. 
 
31 
 
 Breisaclu 
 
 Brenner. 
 
 and extensive ship-building yards, breweries, distilleries, and sugar-refineries. The 
 cigar and sugar manufactures have of late declined, the former on account of the 
 increase of duty. In 1872, it is said that 2500 hands were engaged in making cigars. 
 It has steam communication with New York, and Hull, Havana, the n. coast of South 
 America, etc. 
 
 B. first became of historical note in the 8th c., when it was erected into a bishopric 
 by Charlemagne. It soon attained considerable commercial importance, and became 
 one of the principal cities of the Hanseatic league (q.v.). Having frequently suffered at 
 the hands of the French, it was, in 1810, incorporated with that empire ; but it recovered 
 its independence in 1813, and by the congress of Vienna was admitted, in 1815, as one 
 of the Hanse towns, into the Germanic confederation. In 1867, it became a member of 
 the North German confederation, and now it forms part of the German empire. The 
 area of its territory is about 100 sq.m.; pop., including the town of B. (1875), 141,848. 
 The government is intrusted to a senate of 18 members, two of whom are chosen burgo- 
 masters, and to a municipal council of 150 burgesses. 
 
 Bremerhaven, a port on the Weser, near 10 m. from its mouth, was founded by 
 Bremen in 1827, on ground acquired from Hanover, and soon became a thriving place. 
 It has extensive docks and quays, and may be regarded as the seaport of Bremen. 
 Pop. in 1875, 12,501. 
 
 BREMER, a co. in n.e. Iowa, on Cedar river; 430 sq.m. ; pop. ’70, 12,528; ’80, 14,078; 
 good soil, well watered and timbered. Communication is had by the Cedar Falls and 
 Minnesota railroad. Agricultural productions. Co. seat, Waverly. 
 
 BREMER, Fredrika, the well-known Swedish novelist, was b. near Abo, in Fin- 
 land, 17th Aug., 1801; but when she was only three years old, her father removed to 
 Sweden. As a child of eight, she had already begun to write verses; and the works of 
 German poets, Schiller more especially, exercised a most powerful influence over her 
 youthful imagination. Her original novels flrst made their appearance under the gen- 
 eral title Tekningar ur Hmrdagslifvet, at Stockholm, in 1835. It was not, however, till 
 1842 that the English public hailed with delight the appearance, in an English dress, of 
 The Neighbors, perhaps the most universally popular of all Fredrika B. ’s charming pictures 
 of domestic life in Sweden. Encouraged by its enthusiastic reception, Mrs. Howitt 
 subsequently published translations ' of The Diary, The H. Family, The President’s 
 Daughters. Brothers and Sisters, Life in Delecarlia, and The Midnight Sun. In 1849, Miss 
 B. visited the United States, and there spent two years, passing some time in England 
 on her return. In her Homes of the New World, published simultaneously in England, 
 America, and Sweden, in 1853, she not only presents us with exquisite descriptions of 
 scenery, and vivid pictures of social life, but with sound and comprehensive views on 
 political and moral subjects. Returning to her home in Sweden, to find a beloved sister 
 dead. Miss B. devoted her talents and energies to the carrying out of certain philan- 
 thropic objects, in which she had throughout life felt deep interest, more especially the 
 education of the poorest classes. As a writer of fiction, she is distinguished for femi- 
 nine delicacy, shrewd sense, humor, deep knowledge of human nature, and a graphic 
 and forcible style. Her works have been translated into almost all the languages of 
 Europe. She died in 1865. Her life and unpublished writings were issued by her 
 sister in 1868. 
 
 BRENDAN, or Brandantjs, the legendary hero of great ocean voyages made under 
 the protection of angels; revered in Ireland as a saint, where, and in England, he is sup- 
 posed to have founded religious establishments. His death is set down in 578 a.d. 
 
 BRENHAM, the seat of justice of Washington co., Tex., on a branch of the Houston 
 and Texas Central railroad, 72 m. w.n.w. of Houston; pop. ’70, 2221; in ’80, 4101. It 
 is in a cotton-raising region. There are eight churches, the Live Oak female seminary, 
 an opera house, and a number of manufactories. 
 
 BRENNER PASS, a pass in the main chain of the Alps, on the road between Innsbruck 
 (q.v.) on the n. and Botzen (q.v.) on the s., connecting the s. of Germany with Venice 
 and the n.e. of Italy. The B. P. is the lowest which crosses the main chain of the Alps, 
 the summit being only 4775 feet above the level of the sea. Lofty mountains rise above 
 it to the further height of more than 7500 ft., yet the scenery of the pass is less sublime 
 and interesting than that of any other of the great passes of the Alps. It is open at all 
 seasons of the year. At the summit of the pass is the village of Brenner, a resting-place 
 for travelers, with a pop. of about 400. The climate here is so severe that corn seldom 
 ripens. Here the traveler finds in close contiguity the Eisach, a small stream, which, 
 after growing to be a considerable river, joins the Adige and the Sill, a tributary of the 
 Inn ; the one stream flowing to the gulf of Venice, and the other into the Black sea. On 
 18th Aug., 1867, a railway through the B. P. was opened, and thus a complete line of 
 railway communication was established between Germany and Italy; Botzen having 
 already been connected by a railway through the valley of the Adige with Verona, and so 
 with the whole of Italy — Innsbruck being likewise connected with the railway systeni 
 of Germany.^ This work was begun by the Austrian government when Venetia belonged 
 to the Austrian empire, and with the view not only of facilitating military operations, 
 but of restoring the commercial prosperity of Venice, by making it the port of southern 
 
Srennus. 
 
 Breslau. 
 
 32 
 
 Germany. The prosecution of the works, however, was not arrested by the great politi- 
 cal changes which took place. A liberal commercial treaty, recently made between Aus- 
 tria and Italy, binds the two countries together in community of interests, restoring, In 
 fact, the natural state of things with which political animosities had long interfered ; and 
 it has been made quite apparent, from the activity with which the roads have been 
 repaired on some of the Alpine passes, and particularly that of the Stelvio, that both 
 Germans and Italians appreciate the importance. of an intimate commercial intercourse. 
 The distance from Innsbruck to Botzen in a direct line is only 52 m. , but by the wind- 
 ings of the road or of the railway, it is much increased. 
 
 BRENNTJS, the name or rather the title of several Gallic princes, is probably a Latin- 
 ized form of the Kymric word brenhin, which signifies a king. The most famous B. was 
 that leader of the Gauls who, in 390 b.c., crossed the Apennines, and hurrying through 
 the country of the Sabines, at the head of 70,000 men, encountered and overthrew on the 
 banks of the Allia (q.v.) the Roman army. Had the barbarians immediately followed 
 up their advantage, Rome might have been obliterated from the earth ; but instead of 
 doing so they abandoned themselves to drunken delights on the battlefield, and gave the 
 Romans time to fortify the capitol, whither were removed all the treasures and holy 
 things of the city. When B. entered the gates he found that all the inhabitants of the 
 city had fled, with the exception of the women and children, and old men, the last of 
 whom, with pathetic heroism, had resolved not to survive the destruction of their homes, 
 and so the chief among them, clothed in their robes of sacerdotal or consular dignity, 
 an i sitting in the curule chairs, waited the approach of their enemies, and received their 
 death in majestic silence. B., having plundered the city, now besieged the capitol for 
 six months. During the beleaguerment occured the famous night-attack, which would 
 have been successful had not the cackling of the geese, kept in Juno’s temple, awakened 
 the garrison. At length, however, the Romans were compelled to enter into negotiations 
 with the besiegers. They offered 1000 lbs. of gold for their ransom, which was agreed 
 to. According to Polybius, B. and his Gauls returned home in safety with their booty ; 
 but the rather mythical Roman traditions affirm that, just as the Gauls were leaving the 
 city, Camillus, who had been recalled from banishment and appointed dictator, appeared 
 at the head of an army, attacked them, and, in two bloody battles, slew the whole of the 
 barbarians to a man. 
 
 Another B. , who occupies a conspicuous place in history, was that Gallic chief who 
 invaded Greece, 279 b.c., at the head of 150,000 foot and 61,000 horse. After desolating 
 Macedonia, B. forced his way through Thessaly to Thermopylae. The Grecian army 
 fled at his approach. B. now rushed on with a division of his great host to Delphi, 
 which he had resolved to plunder; but the Delphians having ta&n up a very advan 
 tageous position on some rocks, resisted his further progress. Assisted by the terrors of 
 an earthquake and a terrible storm, besides, according to reverential tradition, by the 
 supernatural help of Apollo, they utterly routed the Gauls, who fled in dismay. B. 
 was taken prisoner, and drank himself to death in despair. 
 
 BRENTA (Medoacus Major), a river of n. Italy, rises from two small lakes in the 
 Tyrol; flows first in a southern, then in an eastern course through the Venetian territory; 
 passes the towns Cismona and Bassano; receives an arm of the Bacchiglione below 
 Padua, where it becomes navigable; and falls into the gulf of Venice, at the haven of 
 Brondolo. The ancient bed of the B. was, some centuries ago, altered by the Venetians, 
 who feared that their lagoons might be choked with sand by its floods. Afterwards, the 
 old bed of the river was made use of as a canal, the Nariglio di Brenta Magra, which 
 forms the chief communication by water between Venice and Padua, while the B. is but 
 little used for navigation. 
 
 BRENTA'NO, Clemens, known as a novelist and dramatic poet, and as the brother of 
 Goethe’s “ Bettina,” was born at Frankfort-on -the-Maine, 1777. He studied at Jena, and 
 afterwards resided successively at Frankfort, Heidelberg, Vienna, and Berlin. In 1818. 
 through a morbid discontent with himself and his fellow-men, he retired to the cloister at 
 Diilmen, in Munster. Latterly he resided at Regensburg, Munich, and Frankfort-on-the 
 Maine, where he led the life of a recluse, and gained a considerable reputation on account 
 of his sarcastic wit. He died at Aschaffenburg, on the 28th of June, 1842. In his earliest 
 poems the peculiarities of the “ romantic school ” of his time are carried to excess. His 
 dramatic productions, such as The Merry Musicians, a Musical Drama (Frankfort, 
 1803), in which there are some gems of lyric poetry; Ponce de Leon (Gottingen, 1804), 
 etc., are characterized by great dramatic power, amusing though rather far-fetched wit, 
 and a wonderful flow of humor. Perhaps his most successful piece as a drama, is The 
 Founding of Prague (Pesth, 1816). B. was most successful in his smaller novels, par- 
 ticularly in the History of Caspar the Brave and the Fair Annerl (2d edit. Berlin, 1831), 
 which German critics call a chef d'aiuvre in miniature.” His last work, the legend of 
 Ookel, HinJcel, and Oakeleia (Frankfort, 1838), was intended as a satire upon the times in 
 which he lived. He has received the grateful acknowledgment of his countrymen for 
 his renovation of the good old history of George Wickram, of Kolmar, which he pub- 
 lished under the title of The Thread of Gold {Der Ooldfaden, Heidelb., 1809). 
 
 BRENT'FORD, the co. t. of Middlesex, on both sides of the Brent, at its confluence 
 with the Thames, 7 m. w.s.w. of London, and where the Thames is crossed by a bridge 
 
33 
 
 Brennug. 
 
 Breslau. 
 
 leading to Kew. It consists chiefly of one long irregular street. Pop. ’71, 11,091. It 
 lias large gin-distilleries, a soap-work, and the works of the West London water company. 
 "There are many market-gardens in the vicinity. Here Ironside defeated the Danes in 
 1016, after expelling them from London; in 1558, six martyrs were burned at the stake; 
 and in 1642, the royalists, under Rupert, defeated the parliamentarians under col. 
 Hollis. 
 
 BRENT GOOSE, or Brent Barnacle, This bird has been already noticed under 
 Barnacle (q.v.). We add here a few sentences from col. Hawker’s Instructions to 
 Young Sportsmen, which we borrow from Yarrell’s British Birds. They refer to wild- 
 fowl shooting on the coasts of Dorsetshire and Hampshire. “Towards Nov. or 
 Dec,, we have the Brent geese, which are always wild, unless in very hard weather. 
 In calm weather, these geese have the cunning, in general, to leave the mud as soon as 
 the tide flows high enough to bear an enemy; and then they go off to sea, and feed on 
 the drifting weeds. To kill Brent geese by day, get out of sight in a small punt, at low 
 water, and keep as near as possible to the edge of the sea. You will then hear them 
 coming like a pack of hounds in full cry, and they will repeatedly pass within fair shot, 
 provided you are well concealed, and the weather is windy to make them fly low. 
 Before you fire at them, spring suddenly up, and these awkward birds will be in such a 
 fright as to hover together and present a mark like a barn-door.” — The extensive muddy 
 and sandy flats between Holy island and the coast of Northumberland are a great winter 
 resort of this species. It is also particularly abundant on muddy and sandy flats in 
 Cromarty bay. The markets, both of London and Edinburgh, are well supplied with it 
 during winter. The B. G-. is known in some parts of England as the black goose ; it is 
 considered the most delicate for table of all its tribe, and is perhaps as much sought 
 after as any. The B. G. differs in its habits from the common gray lag and several other 
 species, inasmuch as it never feeds on fresh-water herbage, its tastes being exclusively 
 salinous. B. G. may be distinguished, when on the wing, by their black bodies and 
 white tails. Folkhard, in his excellent work. The Wild Fowler, gives much interesting 
 information regarding this bird. 
 
 BRENTON, Edward Pelham, 1774-1839; a capt. in the British navy. He wrote 
 ^ Naml History 'of Great Britain, from to 1822. He was the founder of the Chil- 
 
 dren’s Friend Society. 
 
 BRENTON, William, d. Newport, R. I., 1674; an emigrant from England, who 
 held important offices in the colonies of Massachusetts and Rhode Island, being governor 
 >of the latter, 1666-69. 
 
 BRENZ, Johann, 1499-1570; a German reformer under Luther; a writer of great 
 ^ability and popularity. One of his teachings was that the body of the Lord is every- 
 where present; hence his followers were called “ Ubiquitarians. ” 
 
 BRESCIA, or Bresciano, a province in Lombardy, Italy, separated from Verona by 
 Lago di Garda; 1784 sq.m.; pop. ’71, 456,023. The n. part is occupied by a chain of 
 the Rhsetian Alps ; the remainder, about two thirds of the province, is a part of the 
 -great and fertile plain of Lombardy. The rivers are the Oglio, the Mella, and the 
 Chiese, tributaries of the Po. Corn, flax, hemp, grapes, and olives are cultivated. The 
 mountains yield iron, copper, marble, alabaster, and granite. There are manufactures 
 of silk, wool, cotton, linen, iron, steel, copper, glass, and paper. The chief towns are 
 Rovato, Chiara, Orzinnovo, Monte-Chiaro, Salo, and Pontevico. 
 
 BRESCIA, a city of Italy, capital of the province of the same name, in Lombardy, 
 rabout 60 m. e.n.e. of Milan. It is romantically situated on the rivers Mella and Garza, 
 in a wide fertile plain, at the base of several hills. The railway from Milan to Venice 
 passes through Brescia. The city is for the most part regularly built, 'and, besides two 
 •cathedrals, the old and the new, it has numerous ancient churches, adorned with pictures 
 and frescos, including many by masters of the Venetian school. Several interesting 
 antiquities have been discovered. It has a valuable public library, the BiUioteca Qui- 
 riniana, founded and nobly endowed about 1750, by cardinal Quirini, a munificent 
 •encourager of literature. It contains upwards of 30,000 volumes, with many rare manu- 
 scripts. The pop. in 1872 was 38,906. B. has manufactures of woolen, silk, leather, 
 paper, etc., and its wine is of good quality. The old name of B. was Brixia, and its 
 inhabitants were allied with the Romans when Hannibal crossed the Alps. It was cap- 
 tured by the Huns during their migrations, and afterwards passed through the hands of 
 the Longobards, Charlemagne, the Franks, and the Germans. It was taken by the 
 French under Gaston de Foix, in 1512, when it is stated that more than 40,000 of the 
 inhabitants were massacred. The city never fully recovered from the effects of that 
 inhurnan sack and pillage. In Mar., 1849, B., as the only important town opposed to 
 Austrian rule in Lombardy, was besieged by Haynau, and forced to capitulate. 
 
 BRESLAU, the capital of the province of Silesia, Prussia, is situated at the confluence 
 of the Ohlau and Oder. Next to Berlin, it is the most populous city in Prussia; its pop. 
 was 207,997 in 1871; and in 1875, 239,050, more than the half of whom are Protestants. 
 The Oder divides it into two parts, which are connected by numerous handsome bridges. 
 The fortifications have been converted into beautiful promenades, and the ditch has 
 ■;been transformed into an ornamental sheet of water. The streets of the new portion of 
 U. K. III.— 3 
 
Bressani. 
 
 Breton. 
 
 34 
 
 B. are spacious and regular, and the houses stately and handsome, affording a pleasant- 
 contrast to the somber, massive structures of the old town. Educational institutions- 
 are numerous, including a university founded by the emperor Leopold I. in 1702, and 
 now accommodating from 900 to 1000 students. The library contains 300,000 volumes. 
 B. has many churches, the most remarkable being the Protestant church dedicated to 
 St. Elizabeth, with a steeple 364 ft. in height (the highest in Prussia), and a splendid 
 organ. The position of B. , in the center of the manufacturing districts of the province, 
 secures it a large trade, which its railway connection with all the important cities on 
 every side, in addition to the facilities of communication which the Oder affords, enables 
 it to turn to the best account. It has manufactures of linen, woolens, cotton, silks, lace, 
 jewelry, machines, earthenware, soap, alum, starch, etc., and upwards of 100 distilleries; 
 and a trade in corn, coal, metals, timber, hemp, and flax. B. is a city of Slavonic ori- 
 gin, and was for many centuries occupied alternately by the Poles and the Bohemians. It- 
 afterwards passed to Austria, from which it was taken by Frederick II. of Prussia, in 
 1741. Six years afterwards, it was captured by the Austrians, after a bloody battle, but 
 retaken by Frederick in about a month. From that time until 1814, when its fortifica- 
 tions were completely demolished, it was frequently besieged. 
 
 BRESSA'NI, Francesco Giuseppe, 1612-72; a Jesuit missionary among the Indians 
 of Canada. In 1644, he was sent to the Huron country, but was captured and tortured, 
 by the Iroquois. After great suffering he was sent to the Dutch settlements at Albany, 
 where he was ransomed for a large sum. He returned to France, but came back to 
 missionary work and labored many years among the Hurons. 
 
 BRESSAT, one of the Shetland isles, e. of the Mainland, and separated from Lerwick 
 by Bressay sound. It is 6 m. long and 2 broad, and is composed of Devonian rocks. 
 It supplied Lerwick with peat, until the proprietor, fearing that the peat might be 
 exhausted, stopped exportation; and it continues to supply the Shetland isles with slates. 
 Pop. ’71, 878, chiefly fishermen. Bressay sound is one of the finest natural harbors in 
 the world, and is a rendezvous for herring-boats, and for all whalers and other vessels: 
 proceeding north. East of B., and separated from it by a narrow and dangerous sound, 
 is a rocky isle, called Noss, 6 m. in circuit, girt on all sides by perpendicular cliffs, and 
 rising abruptly from the sea to the height of nearly 600 ft., with a flattish top. A 
 detached rock, or holm, on the s.e. side of the Noss, used to be communicated with by 
 means of a cradle or wooden chair run on strong ropes, stretched across a yawning gulf, 
 and admitting a man with a sheep to be drawn over at a time. 
 
 BREST, a strongly fortified city, in the department of Finist^re, France, and one of 
 the chief naval stations of the empire, is situated in lat. 48° 24' n., and long. 4° 29' w., 
 on the n. side of the bay or road of Brest, which forms one of the finest harbors in the 
 world. The only entrance to the bay is by a narrow channel called Le Goulet, which is 
 scarcely a mile wide, and is strongly defended by batteries; the difficulty and danger of 
 access to hostile ships being increased by certain rocks in the center of the channel. A 
 new floating dock, quays, and pier were completed in 1876, at a cost of 22,500,000*' 
 francs. The small river Penfel flows through the town, which is, on the whole, 
 irregularly built on an uneven site, and has steep, narrow, dark, and very dirty streets. 
 In some parts communication between the lower and upper parts of the town can be 
 effected only by stairs. The new quarter, the parade, and the quays, are more cleanly. 
 B. has extensive ship-building yards, rope-walks, store-houses, etc. ; its industry, indeed, 
 is confined entirely to the equipment of the navy in its various branches. It has tele- 
 graphic communication with America by a submarine cable. The Bagnes (q.v.) or 
 hulks no longer exists, the prisoners having been removed to the penal colony of 
 Cayenne. Pop. ’76, exclusive of garrison, 66,828. B. is a very ancient place, but it 
 was not of much importance until the 17th century. Its splendid position made it an 
 object of contention to French, English, and Spaniards. In 1631, Cardinal Richelieu 
 resolved to make it a naval station, and commenced the fortifications, which were 
 completed by Vauban, but have since been greatly extended. In 1694, the English 
 under lord Berkeley were repulsed here with great loss. In 1794, the French fleet, 
 under admiral Villaret-Joyeuse, was defeated off B. by the English fleet under admiral 
 Howe. 
 
 BREST-LITOVSK, a t. in the government of Grodno, Russia, 131 m. s. of Grodno, 
 in 52° 5' n. and 23° 27' e., at the junction of the Mukhovetz and the Bug. It is the seat 
 of an Armenian bishop, who has authority over the Armenians in all the country. It 
 has a varied and extensive trade, by means of the two rivers and the royal canal, in 
 grain, flax, hemp, birch-tar, leather, etc. Pop. ’67, 22,493. 
 
 BRETAGNE, or Brit'tany {Bntannia Minor), a peninsula in the n.w. of France, 
 formerly a province, and now divided into the departments of Finist^re, Cotes-du-Nord, 
 Morbihan, Loire-Inferieure, and Ille-et-Vilaine, is surrounded by the sea on the n.w. 
 and s.w. Though the height of the mountains is nowhere considerable, their structure 
 gives to the peninsula a wild and savage aspect. Clay-slate forms the center of the 
 country, and masses of granite rise in the n. and the south. The climate is often foggy, 
 and subject to violent storms of wind. Large tracts of land lie uncultivated; but in the 
 well- watered valleys, vegetation is luxuriant. In ancient times, B., under the name of 
 
35 
 
 Bressanl. 
 
 Breton. 
 
 Armorica, was the central seat of the confederated Armorican tribes, who were of Celtic 
 and Kymric origin. Traces of them still remain in the old Kymric dialect of the three 
 most westerly departments, and in the numerous so-called Druidical monuments. The 
 name Armorica was changed for that of B., in consequence of the numerous immigra- 
 tions from Great Britain in the 5th and 6th centuries. The peculiar, shut-in situation, 
 and the characteristics of soil and climate in B., seem to have had a powerful effect on 
 the character of its people. The Breton has generally a tinge of melancholy in his 
 disposition; but often conceals, under a dull and indifferent exterior, a lively imagin- 
 ation and strong feelings. “ The tenacity with which the Breton clings to the habits 
 and belief of his forefathers, is apparent by his retention of the Celtic language almost 
 universally in Basse B., and by his quaint costume, which in many districts is that of 
 the 16th century.” The greater number of the people are found to be ignorant and 
 coarse in their manners, and their agriculture is of a very rude character, by no 
 means calculated to develop the natural resources of the country. Until within 
 recent years, B. had escaped the observation of tourists; but it has now been found out, 
 and seems likely to be considerably run upon, as well as to have a pretty extensive 
 literature of its own. It will be some time yet before it is exhausted, and apart from 
 the beauty of its scenery, it possesses great interest, as the only place where men can be 
 seen living and acting much as our forefathers did three centuries ago. Under the 
 Romans, the country, after 58 b. c. , was made the Provinda Lugdunenm Tertia; but its 
 subjugation was hardly more than nominal, and it was entirely liberated in the 4lh c., 
 when it was . divided into several allied republican states, which, afterwards, w^ere 
 changed into petty monarchies. B. became subject to the Franks in the reign of 
 Charlemagne, and was handed over by Charles the simple to the Northmen in 912. 
 After some fierce struggles, the Bretons appear to have at length acknowledged the 
 suzerainty of the Norman dukes. Geoffroi, count of Rennes, was the first to assume 
 the title of duke of Bretagne in 992. The duchy of B. was incorporated with France in 
 1532, by Francis I., to whom it had come by marriage, and subsequently shared in the 
 general fortunes of the empire, but retained a local parliament until the outbreak of the 
 revolution. During the revolution, B., which was intensely loyal, was the arena of 
 sanguinary conflicts, and especially of the movements of the Chouans (q.v.), who reap- 
 peared as recently as 1832. Daru, Histoire de B. (Par. 1826); Roujoux, Histoire des Bois 
 des Dues de B. (Par. 1829); Courson, La B. du 5« au 12« Sihle (1863); Le Saint, La B. 
 Ancienne et Moderne (1873); De Kerorguen, Becherches sur les Etats de B. (1875). 
 
 BRETHREN, WHITE, a sect of the 15th c. that sprang up in the Italian Alps. 
 Their leader claimed to be Elias the prophet ; they were clad in white, and carried cruci- 
 fixes from which blood appeared to come. The leader, who appears to have left no 
 name, prophesied the destruction of the world, and for a time had great success; but 
 Boniface IX. seized the prophet and burnt him at the stake, and within a year the sect 
 passed out of existence. 
 
 BRETHREN AND CLERKS op the COMMON LIFE, or op the Common Lot. 
 See Brotherhoods, Religious, ante. 
 
 BRETHREN AND SISTERS op the FREE SPIRIT, or Spiritualists. See 
 Beguines, ante; and Brotherhoods, Religious, ante. 
 
 BRETHREN op the CHRISTIAN SCHOOLS, an order established at Rheims in 
 1679, and sanctioned by Benedict XHI. in 1725, having for its object furnisbing the poor 
 with instruction. In Paris, in 1792, they refused to take the oath of obedience to the 
 •civil constitution, and were driven from their houses and prohibited from teaching. In 
 1801, they returned and soon spread over France, Italy, and other countries. About 
 1830, they opened evening schools for adults. Their chief house is in Paris, and in 1868 
 they had more than 10,000 brethren, teaching 300,000 persons in France alone. There 
 are a number of them in the United States. 
 
 BRETHREN op the HOLY TRINITY, a society of the 12th c., in France, whose 
 members were pledged to give a third of their revenues towards the redemption of Chris- 
 tians who were in Mohammedan or infidel slavery. 
 
 BRETIGNY, a village of France, in the department of the Eure-et-Loir, about 6 m. 
 s.e. of Chartres, on the railway between Paris and Orleans. B. is celebrated as the place 
 where, in 1360, Edward III. concluded a peace with France, by which John II. of 
 France was released from his captivity in England, on agreeing to pay 3 million crowns 
 for his ransom, England renouncing her pretensions to Normandy, Anjou, Maine, and 
 Touraine, and being confirmed in her possession of Gascon}'-, Guienne, and several other 
 parts in France recently acquired by conquest. 
 
 BRETON, Jules Adolphe, a French painter of the present day, excelling in rural 
 life and scenes, for which he has received medals. Among his works are “The 
 Gleaners,” “Evening,” “Blessing the Grain,” “The Weeders,” etc. 
 
 BRETON DE LOS HERREROS, Don Manuel, the most popular of modern Spanish 
 poets, was b. 19th Dec., 1800, at Quel, in the province of Logrono; received his earliest 
 •education in Madrid; and served as a volunteer in the army from 1814 to 1822. Subse- 
 quently, he held several situations under government, but always lost them on account 
 •of his expression of liberal opinion. As early as his 17th year, he wrote a comedy, 
 
Bretsclineider. 
 
 Breve. 
 
 36 
 
 entitled A la Yejez Yiruelas, whicli, in 1824, was brought upon the stage with great, 
 success. Henceforward he furnished theatrical managers with more than 150 pieces, 
 partly original, partly adaptations from the older Spanish classics, and partly translai- 
 tions from the Italian and French, most of which have been highly popular. In addition 
 to these, Breton de los Herreros published Poesias Sueltas (Madrid, 1831, and Paris, 
 1840); several volumes of satirical verse ; a long humorous poem, called La Desmrguenza, 
 Poema Jocoserio (Madrid, 1858), etc. All Breton de los Herreros’s poems are remarkable- 
 for their singularly sweet, yet powerful diction, and for the harmony of tlie versifica- 
 tion. His peculiar sphere is the comic and the satirical, in which the Spanish or 
 national qualities of his genius find their freest expression, and in which also he displays, 
 most ease and self-reliance. Breton de los Herreros superintended the issue of a col- 
 lected edition of his poetical works in 1850-52 (5 vols., Madrid). He died at Madrid in. 
 Nov., 1873. 
 
 BRETSCHNEIDER, Heinrich Gottfried, a man remarkable for his unsettled life, 
 eccentric habits, and satirical writings, was b, at Gera, Mar. 6, 1739, He was first sent, 
 for education to the institute of Herrnhuters at Elbersdorf, and afterwards to the gym- 
 nasium at Gera, He became capt. of horse in a Prussian volunteer corps, in which, 
 service he was made prisoner, and retained in a French fortification till 1763, In 1775, 
 B. visited England, France, and Holland; and in 1778 was nominated librarian to the 
 university of Ofen, where he was persecuted by the Jesuits, whose hatred he had 
 excited. This circumstance brought him under the notice of Joseph II., who, in 1782, 
 appointed him one of the inspectors of studies. He died in Nov., 1810. B, was the 
 author of tales, poems, and satires. The latter are attacks upon every kind of injustice 
 and falsehood. In his “ Almanac of the Saints {Ahnanacli der Heiligen) for the year 
 1788, with copper-plates and music, printed at Rome, with the permission of the prin- 
 cipals,” the priesthood is severely attacked, and the legends of the monks ridiculed. 
 Like Nicolai, B. was very bitter against the “ Werther” mania which was so prevalent, 
 in his time. 
 
 BRETSCHNEIDER, Karl Gottlieb, a distinguished German theologian, b. lltli 
 Feb., 1776, at Gersdorf, in Saxony, studied theology at Leipsic, was appointed pastor 
 at Schneeberg in 1807, general superintendent at Gotha in 1816, and in 1840 obtained 
 the dignity of a councilor of the upper consistory. He died 22d Jan., 1848. B. has. 
 acquired a reputation for sober, reflective, rationalistic thought. The character of his. 
 intellect rendered him unable to enter into the profound speculations of men like Schlei- 
 ermacher and Schelling; but nevertheless, by his diligence, clear, incisive understanding, 
 and strength of character, he ’has secured a permanent place in the history of German 
 theology. His most important work in dogmatics is the Manual of the Evangelical Luth- 
 eran Church (2 vols., Leip. 1814-18). In 1824, B. published Lexicon Manuale Grceco- 
 Latinum in Libros Novi Testainenti (2 vols. , Leip. 1824). In 1832, appeared Per Simonis- 
 mus unddas Christenthum; in 1835, Die Iheologie und die Revolution. B. also published, 
 many sermons, which have been well received, and in other departments of theology 
 and literature he is considered to have done important service. 
 
 BRETT, Philip Milledoler, d.d., 1817-60; b. New York; a graduate of Rutgers, 
 college ; ordained in the Dutch Reformed church in 1838, and held pastorates in various- 
 places near New York. A volume of his sermons is in print. 
 
 BRET'TEN, a t. of Baden, about 13 m. e. of Carlsruhe, chiefly noteworthy as the 
 birthplace of Melanchthon. The house in which he was born is pointed out to trav- 
 elers. Pop. ’71, 3433. 
 
 BRETTS AND SCOTS, The Laws of the (Lat. Leges inter Brettos et Scotos, old Fr. 
 Lusage de Scotis et de Bretis), the name given, in the 13th c., to a code of laws in use- 
 among the Celtic tribes in Scotland. The “ Scots” were the Celtic people dwelling in 
 the western and more mountainous districts n. of the Forth and the Clyde, who, when 
 it became necessary to distinguish them from the Teutonic inhabitants of the low coun- 
 try, received the names of “the wild Scots,” “the Irishry of Scotland,” and, more 
 recently, “the Scotch highlanders.” The “ Bretts” were the remains of the British or 
 Welsh people, who were at one time the sole or chief inhabitants of the region now 
 divided into the shires of Dumbarton, Renfrew, Ayr, Lanark, Peebles, Selkirk, Rov- 
 burgh, Dumfries, and Cumberland, This province was for some centuries an inde- 
 pendent kingdom, known by the names of “Cambria,” “ Cumbria,” “ Strathclyde,” and 
 “Strathclyde and Reged.” It became, about the middle of the 10th c., a tributary 
 principality held of the king of the English, by the heir of the king of the Scots. It 
 so continued till after the beginning of the 12th c., -when Cumberland having been 
 incorporated with England, the gradual absorption of the rest of the territory into the 
 dominions of the king of the Scots seems to have been imperceptibly completed. The 
 last “ prince of Cumb^i'ia” named in record was the brother and heir of king Alexander 
 I. of Scotland, “the earl David,” as he was called, who, on his brother’s death in 1124, 
 himself became king of the Scots. No more is heard of Cumbria as a principality; but 
 “ the Welsh” continue to be named among its inhabitants, in the charters of king David ? 
 grandsons — king Malcolm the maiden (1153-65), and king William the lion (1165-1214'. 
 And they seem to have retained more or less of tlieir ancient Celtic laws until after th 
 
37 
 
 Bretschneider. 
 
 Breve. 
 
 beginning of the 14th century. It was not till the year 1305 that an ordinance of king 
 Edward I. of England, who appeared then to have reduced all Scotland to his subjec- 
 tion, decreed “that the usages of the Scots and the Bretts be abolished, and no more 
 used.” It is unknown how far this prohibition took effect. Of the code which it pro- 
 scribed, only a fragment has been preserved. It was first printed by sir John Skene, 
 in his Regiam Majestatem (Edin. 1609). But by far the best edition is that of Mr. Thomas 
 Thomson and Mr. Cosmo Innes, in the Acts of the Parliaments of Scotland, vol. i. pp. 
 299-301 (Edin. 1844), where the laws are given in three languages — Latin, French, and 
 English. The French version, which is the oldest, is printed from a manuscript of about 
 1270, formerly in the public library at Bern, in Switzerland, now in the register house 
 at Edinburgh. The fragment of the “ laws of the Bretts and the Scots” thus published, 
 is of much the same nature as the ancient laws of the Anglo-Saxons, the Welsh, the 
 Irish, and other nations of Western Europe. It fixes the cro, or price at which every 
 man was valued, according to his degree, from the king down to the churl, 'and which, 
 if he were slain^ was to be paid to his kindred by the homicide or his kindred. The cro 
 of the king was 1000 cows; of the king’s son, or of an earl, 150 cows; of an earl’s son 
 or of a thane, 100 cows; of a thane’s son, 66f cows; of the nephew of a thane, or of an 
 ogthiern, 44 cows and 21f pence; and of a villain or churl, 16 cows — all persons of 
 lower birth than a thane’s nephew, or an ogthiern, being accounted villains or churls. 
 The cro of the married woman was less by a third than the cro of her husband. The 
 cro of the unmarried woman was as much as the cro of her brother. Other chapters fix 
 every man’s helchyn or gelchach, gallnes, and enauch — Celtic terms not yet satisfactorily 
 interpreted, but apparently equivalent to the fyhtwite, mund, and manhot of the Anglo- 
 Saxon, as the cro of the Bretts and Scots appears to answer to the wergild of the English. 
 A chapter “of blood-drawing” — corresponding with the Uodwyte of the Anglo-Saxons — 
 fixes the fine to be paid for a blow to the effusion of blood, according to the degree of 
 the person wounded and the place of the wound. 
 
 BEETJGHEL, the name of a famous family of Dutch painters. — Peter B., the head 
 of the family, wash, in the village of B., near Breda, in 1510 (or, as others say, 1530\ 
 and d. at Brussels in 1570 or 1590. He was a scholar of Peter Koeck van Aelst, traveled 
 through Italy and France, and on his return, fixed his residence at Antwerp. He painted 
 chiefly the pleasures of rustic life, for which he himself had a great relish, and which he 
 transferred to his canvas with clear insight and vivid coloring, though unnecessarily 
 exceeding at times the coarseness of his subject. He also executed several historical 
 pieces, such as his “Building of the Tower of Babel,” now preserved in the gallery at 
 Vienna. — His son, Peter B., distinguished by the strange title “Hellish Breughel” — 
 because he loved to paint scenes in which the leading characters were devils, hags, rob- 
 bers, etc. — was b. about 1569, and d. 1625. His paintings of “Orpheus” and the 
 “Temptation of St. Antony” are the most remarkable of his pieces. — Jan B., 
 brother of the preceding, and on account of the splendid apparel which he wore when 
 he became rich, usually called Velvet B., was b. 1568 or 1575, and d. 1625 or 1640. He 
 was an industrious painter, distinguished for his landscapes and for his minute finish of 
 small figures. In concert with Rubens, who supplied the two chief figures, he painted 
 “Adam and Eve in Paradise,” and “ Vertumnus and Bellona.” These, with the “ Four 
 Elements,” are his chief works. — Other members of the same family were known as 
 painters: Ambrose B., director of the academy of painting, Antwerp, between the years 
 1635 and 1670; Abraham B., a painter of fruits, flowers, and birds, lived long in Rome 
 and Naples, where he d. in 1690; Jan Baptist B., b. in Rome, d. 1700; and Anally, 
 Caspar B. , both of whom were flower-painte^. 
 
 BREVARD, a large co. in s.e. Florida, on the Atlantic ocean; 5600 sq.m.; pop, ’80, 
 1478. It is low, flat, and full of lakes and marshes. Along the coast is Indian river, an 
 inlet of the ocean. There is little cultivation and there are no large villages. 
 
 BREVE. See Ant-catcher. 
 
 BREVE, a note in music, which, in the old notation of Guido d’ Arezzo, had the value 
 of two whole bars. It is written thus, |zz:| , or |s>| , or \\s\\. The note for a whole bar 
 in modern notation is called semibreve, and has the value of four crotchets. In triple 
 time, the B. contained three semibreves. The B. is now only used in a la capella move- 
 ments, psalm-tunes, and fugues, or at the close of a composition. 
 
 BREVE, or Brieve, in the practice of the Scotch law, is a writ issuing from chancery 
 in the name of the crown, to a judge, ordering him to try by jury the points or ques- 
 tions stated in the breve. In ancient times, these writs appear to have been the founda- 
 tion of almost all civil actions in Scotland; but they are now only used in the following 
 cases; 1. B. of inquest, now, however, superseded by a petition of service, according to 
 the 10 and 11 Viet. c. 47. The object of the proceeding is judicially to ascertain che heir 
 of a deceased person. 2. B. of tutory, the purpose of which is" the appointment, as 
 guardian to a pupil, of the nearest agnate or person most nearly related through the 
 father. 3. Breves of idiotry and furiosity, by which the mental condition of a party 
 ma}^ be determined for the appointment, in case of ascertained insanity, of a guardian 
 or curator. In the B. of idiotry, the direction is to inquire whether the person is of 
 unsound mind, furious, and naturally an idiot. In the breve of furiosity, it is whether 
 
firevet. 
 
 Brevipennes. 
 
 38 
 
 he be of unsound mind, prodigal, and furious. 4. B, of terce. The object of this writ 
 is to “cognosce the widow to her terce ” — that is, to enable her to recover her terce or 
 dower. It is issued to the sheriff of the county, and the jury under his presidency are 
 directed to inquire whether the claimant was the lawful wife of the deceased, and 
 whether the husband died infeft in the lands from which the terce is claimed. The 
 verdict of the jury gives the widow her terce, and the judge then “ kens ” her to it. See 
 Terce, and Kenning to the Terce. 5. B. of division amongst heir-portioners. By 
 means of this B., an heir-portioner — that is, one of two or more sisters succeeding iu 
 equal portions to a landed estate — may have her share of the lands separated or set apart 
 by a judge, who appoints an inquest, or jury of fifteen persons, to measure the land, and 
 make a division; the jury report to the judge; and lots being cast for the different 
 shares, the judge decides accordingly. The form is, however, now seldom used, an arbi- 
 tration being more generally resorted to. See Inheritance, Succession, Heirs-Por- 
 
 TIONERS. 
 
 BREVET' (Fr. a writ or warrant), in the British army, is a promotion*of officers, now 
 strictly limited in its application, but before 1854 a recognized though occasional mode 
 of conferring a large measure of general promotion throughout the army. It took place 
 under various circumstances. If no special cause interfered, a general promotion by B. 
 used in former times to be made once in about six years; but in more recent years 
 it was limited to very special occasions, as a coronation, the birth of an heir to 
 the throne, the termination of some great war, etc., and was limited to officers 
 who had some particular claim to promotion. The officers so promoted obtained an 
 increase of rank, and in some cases pay, even if they had never served in the field. 
 A B. was determined on by the cabinet, and carried out by the commander-in-chief. 
 The officers expected it, as one of the implied conditions on entering the service, and it 
 had formed part of the British military system ever since the time of James II. ; but it 
 was unsatisfactory, because the flow of promotion caused by it was arbitrary, uncertain, 
 and much liable to abuse. There were brevets, arising out of the various circumstances 
 above indicated, in 1837, 1838, 1841, 1846, 1851, and 1854. On these occasions, lieut.- 
 generals, maj. generals, colonels, lieut. colonels, majors, and captains received a promo- 
 tion of one grade in rank. On one of these occasions, 200 colonels were at once made 
 maj. generals. The higher the rank, the higher the pay, as a general rule; and therefore 
 the cost to the nation is always increased for a time after each brevet. Thus the B. of 
 1837 occasioned an annual increase of £11,000; that of 1838, £7000; of 1841, £15,000; 
 of 1846, £21,000, etc. ; but it must not be forgotten that death and sales had in the 
 intervals cleared off perhaps an equal number of officers at the higher rates of pay. In 
 1854, the new maj. generals alone involved an additional charge of £18,000 a year. 
 
 The above description applied before 1854. In that year, general brevets were abol- 
 ished — a fixed establishment of general officers being substituted. The only brevets now 
 are obtained by service of five years as lieut.col. (making the officer brevet col., with- 
 out increase of pay); by distinguished service in the field, applicable to lieut. colonels, 
 majors, and captains (carrying the substantive pay of the higher rank, except in the case 
 of the lieut.col.); and by succession, when a death occurs among the establishment of 
 general officers. In this last case there is no brevet promotion to the rank of col., but 
 tile senior maj. in the whole army and marines becomes a brevet lieut.col. without 
 increase of pay, and the senior capt. a brevet-maj. with 2s. a day extra. Officers become 
 maj. generals, in accordance with their seniority as brevet colonels, and it will be seen, 
 from the above description, that the brevet rank of col., which is the stepping-stone to 
 maj.gen., is obtainable ^ 
 
 Other matters having reference to this subject will be found treated under the article 
 Commissions, Army. 
 
 As brevet rank was neither purchasable nor salable, the abolition of the purchase-sys- 
 tem made no alteration. 
 
 There is no B. promotion in the navy. 
 
 BREVET (ante), in the U. S. arm)^ a commission giving an officer a nominal rank 
 higher than that for which he has a salary. A great number of these honorary titles 
 were bestowed during and after the civil war. 
 
 BREVIA'RIUM ALARICA'NUM, a collection of Roman laws compiled by order of 
 Alaric II., king of the Visigoths, in 506 a.d. The chief value of this compilation is that 
 it preserves the first five books of the Theodosian code and five books of the Senientim 
 Receptee of Julius Paulus, which are nowhere else found. 
 
 BREVIARY. B}'’ this title we are to understand an abbreviation, as well as an 
 amended arrangement of the more ancient offices used at the seven canonical hours, 
 which are matins, prime, tierce, sext, nones, vespers, and compline. See (Canonical 
 Hours. The books in which these offices were contained were formerly distinct — viz. : 
 1. The Psalter, which included the Psalms of David according to St. Jerome’s Galbian 
 version, the Te Deum, the Athanasian creed, etc. ; 2. The Bible; 3. The Antiphonarium, 
 containing the anthems and responsories ; 4. The Hymnarium; 5. The ColUctarium, or 
 the collects to be said at the end of the services; 6. The Homilarium, Pasdonarium, and 
 
39 
 
 Brevet. 
 
 Brevipennes. 
 
 Ma/rtyrologium, containing the comments of the fathers upon the gospel of the day, and 
 accounts of the martyrdoms of the saints for each distinct festival. Out of all these sep- 
 arate books, the B. was compiled, about the 11th c., by pope Gregory VII., as is sup- 
 posed; the lessons, anthems, hymns, and rcsponsories for the different days of the year 
 being all arranged, in their proper places, in the same volume with the psalter, 
 prayers, etc. In later times, the B. was divided into two parts, one for each half of tho 
 year, as was the case with those of Salisbury, York, and Hereford, used in England; and 
 afterwards into four parts, so as to be more portable, whence it was also called Porti- 
 forium. It may perhaps be necessary to inform our Protestant readers that the B. is an 
 entirely distinct book from the Missal (q.v.), the latter containing the proper ofiSces for 
 the service of the sacrifice of the mass. 
 
 The last settlement of the B. was under the pontificate of Pius V., and his bull of 
 1568 was that by which the present daily office of the Roman church is authorized. 
 This edition was compiled by the college of sacred rites at Rome, in conformity with the 
 decrees of the. council of Trent, because of the variety otuses, as they were called, which 
 at that time existed in different dioceses. The bull of Pius V. abolished the use of all 
 breviaries, except such as could prove a prescription of 200 years. This exception 
 would have extended to the breviaries of Salisbury and York, if the church of England 
 had not already thrown off Rome’s supremacy, and compiled a new book of common 
 prayer for herself. After this, in 1602, Clement VIII. had a standard edition printed at 
 the Vatican, to which all future editions were to conform; and again, in 1631, Urban 
 VIII. caused the meters of the hymns and the Latinity of the whole to be carefully revised. 
 It is perhaps hardly necessary to state that the B. is in Latin, portions of it being sometimes 
 translated for the use of the unlearned. Itis necessarily a very bulky volume, when com- 
 plete ; and although some of the legends of the saints and martyrs may be of doubtful 
 authenticity, yet it is a mine of interesting and devotional reading. Its general contents 
 may be judged of from what has been already stated as to the sources from which they 
 were drawn, every saint in the calendar having his proper services for the different 
 canonical hours. The festivals of the Roman church have their services, according to 
 their importance, duplex, semi-duplex, or simplex — i.e., double, semi-double, or simple; 
 these, again, are further distinguished, so that there are no less than 9 classes of services 
 — the Ferial or ordinary week-day, the simple, the day with an octave, the semi-double, 
 the dominical or Sunday, the double, greater double, double of the second class, double 
 of the first class. Indeed, so elaborate and perplexing are the rubrical directions, that it 
 is impossible to form any idea of them without consulting the B. itself, and there are 
 probably but few of the priests who are thoroughly conversant with their own ritual. 
 
 The B. contains, besides an office for the dead and other smaller offices, three kinds 
 of office in honor of the blessed Virgin Mary — viz. : 1. The full office, said on such festi- 
 vals as the Purification, Annunciation, Immaculate Conception, Assumption, etc. ; L. the 
 office of the Virgin Mary on Saturdays; 3. What is called the “little office,” or the hours 
 of the Virgin. This last was in use as early as the 7c., and was enjoined by the council 
 of Claremont, 1096, to be said by the clergy daily, and by the laity on Saturdays, but 
 the bull of Pius V. removed this obligation except as to clergy in choirs. The Roman 
 church enjoins, under pain of excommunication, all “ religioiis” persons — i.e., all per- 
 sons, male or female, who have taken vows in any religious order — to repeat, either in 
 public or private, the services of the canonical hours as contained in the breviary. For 
 the infiuence of the old breviaries on the English common prayer-book (q.v.), consult 
 Palmer’s Antiquities of the English Ritual, and Maskell’s Monumenta Ritualia. The matins 
 or morning-prayer of the English prayer-book is an abridgment, with many omissions 
 and additions, of the matins, lauds, and prime of the B., whilst the office of even-song, 
 or evening-prayer, is in like manner an abridgment of the ancient vespers and compline. 
 
 BREVIPEN'NES (Lat. short- winged), in ornithology, according to the system of Cuvier, 
 that tribe of the order grallatores (q.v.) in which the ostrich, cassowary, rhea or nandou, 
 emu, and apteryx are comprised, and also the extinct dodo. — See these articles. The B. 
 are characterized by a shortness of wing which incapacitates them for flight, but use 
 their wings to aid them in running, which they do with great rapidity. Their sternum 
 (breast-bone) has no ridge or keel. They constitute the family struthionidce of many 
 ornithologists, and by some are placed among gallinaceous (q.v.) birds, to which they 
 are allied by the form of their bill and their choice of food. They are, however, very 
 different from all other birds, and whether ranked among grallatores or gallinaceous 
 birds, do not seem to form a natural part of the order. The gigantic dinoris (q.v.) and 
 o'ther fossil birds of great interest exhibit the characters of the hreripennes. 
 
 Gigantic birds, of which the footsteps appear imprinted on sandstones in the valley 
 of the Connecticut and elsewhere, seem also to have belonged to this tribe. No remains 
 or traces of such birds are, however, found nearly so ancient as many remains of quad- 
 rupeds. But to whatever geological period the commencement of their existence is to be 
 referred, a peculiar interest is attached to them, because its close may be regarded as 
 probably near. There is no tribe of birds that more generally shuns man, or disappears 
 before the increase of population and the progress of colonization. The cassowary and 
 the emu are rapidly becoming rare. The ostrich, the rhea, the apteryx, the notornis, 
 etc., are only found in deserts or other deep solitudes. 
 
Brevlpennes. 
 
 Bribery. 
 
 40 
 
 BREVIPENNES, or Brevipennates, meaning “ short-winged,” a term for such 
 birds as the ostrich, cassowary, apteryx, and others having very short wings, not fitted 
 for flying. Such birds usually live in solitary places or deserts. 
 
 BREWER, at. in Penobscot co.. Me., on the Penobscot river, opposite the cit}’’ of 
 Bangor, on the Bucksport and Bangor railroad; pop. 3214. It has lumber and leather 
 manufactories. 
 
 BREWING. For the process of B. see Beer. The legal requirements for the B. of 
 beer for sale will be found in many acts of parliament, from the 12 Chas. II. c. 24, to 33 
 and 34 Viet. c. 32 s. 10,- changes being of late frequent. Instead of licenses to brew, as 
 formerly, duties are levied on the quantity of beer brewed, according to a scale which 
 ranges from a quantity not exceeding 20 barrels to one that shall exceed 40,000 barrels, 
 the duty itself beginning at 10s., and rising up to £75, according to the quantity. In 
 the case of that kind of beer called table beer, it is provided that the duty on such shall 
 in no case exceed £2, no matter how large the quantity brewed may be. Brewers are 
 not to retail or sell beer at any other place than their licensed B. premises, and if they 
 wish to sell beer at other places, they must get a license for these places also ; but it is 
 provided that the taking orders for the sale of beer in any quantity amounting to or 
 exceeding 4^ gallons, or two dozen reputed quart bottles at one time, sent to the purchaser 
 direct from the B. premises, shall not be deemed a selling of beer at any other place. 
 Several of the above acts (the 13 and 14 Viet.) contain provisions respecting the duties 
 to be levied on sugar used in B., providing that such duties shall be at the rate of Is. 4d. 
 for every cwt. of sugar; and brewers are to make true entry, in the book kept for that 
 purpose by the exeise, of the quantity of sugar, in pounds-weight avoirdupois, used in 
 B., under a penalty of £200, over and above any other penalties to which they may be 
 liable. The acts contain numerous other regulations, too minute for further detail here. 
 3ee Beer, Beer Acts, Licenses. 
 
 Anciently, in Scotland, the privilege of B. was given by a license from the superior 
 Dr lord, in whose deed of gift or charter to his vassals there was generally a clause cum 
 Wueriis. But these forms have long been dispensed with. It appears, however, that a 
 person with the right of barony may prevent a feuar, that is, a tenant of property within 
 the barony or a stranger, from importing and vending ale within the baronial limits 
 without his license. 
 
 BREWSTER, Sir David, an eminent natural philosopher and eloquent writer, was b. 
 at Jedburgh, Dec. 11, 1781. He was educated for the church of Scotland at the univer- 
 sity of Edinburgh, where he highly distinguished himself. In 1808, he undertook the editor 
 ship of the Edinburgh Encyclopaedia, to which he contributed many important scientific 
 articles. Previous to this, he had entered deeply on the study of optics, with which his 
 name is now enduringly associated. The beautiful philosophical toy, called the kaleid- 
 oscope, was invented by him in 1816. In 1819, in conjunction wdth prof. Jameson, 
 he established the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal; and in 1831 he was one of the chief 
 originators of the British association for the advancement of science. The honors con- 
 ferred on this distinguished man make up a long catalogue. In 1815, he obtained the 
 Copley medal of the royal society for one of his optical discoveries, and soon after was 
 elected a fellow; in 1816, he received half the physical prize bestowed by the French 
 institute for two of the most important scientific discoveries made in Europe during the 
 two preceding years; in 1819, the royal society awarded him the Rumfordgold and silver 
 medals, for his discovery on the polarization of light; in 1825, he became corresponding 
 member of the institute of France; in 1832, he was knighted, and had a pension con- 
 ferred upon him; in 1838, he was chosen principal of the united colleges of St. Leonard 
 and St. Salvador, St. Andrews; in 1849, on the death of Berzelius, in the preceding year, 
 he was elected one of the eight foreign associates of the French institute, the highest 
 scientific distinction in Europe. Sir David was also a member of the imperial and royal 
 academies of St. Petersburg, Berlin, Copenhagen, and Stockholm; presided over the 
 British association, and in 1851, over the peace congress held in London. In 1859, on 
 the death of Dr. John Lee, he was chosen principal of the Edinburgh university. His 
 principal work is his Life of Newton, first published in 1828, in the Family Library, and 
 issued in a totally new and greatly enlarged form in 1855. Among his other works are 
 his interesting Letters on Natural Magic, addressed to sir Walter Scott, also published in 
 the Family Library; More Worlds than One (1854); his treatises on the kaleidoscope and 
 on optics (Cabinet Oydopcedia)-, his Martyrs of Science; and his treatises in the Encyclope- 
 dia Briiannica on electricity, magnetism, optics, the stereoscope, etc. Among other 
 periodicals to which he contributed largely are the Edinburgh and North British 
 Reviews. He died Feb., 1868. See Home Life of B. by his daughter, Mrs. Gordon 
 (1869). 
 
 BREWSTER, William, 1560-1644; b. England; one of the pilgrims who landed at 
 Plymouth. He went with Bradford to Holland, where he taught school in English, 
 became an elder in the church, and held the same position in New England, though, as 
 he had never been ordained, he always refused to administer the sacraments. He is 
 more generally known in history as “Elder Brewster.” 
 
41 
 
 Brevipennes. 
 
 Bribery. 
 
 BREZO 'WA, a market t, of Hungary, in the co. of Neutra, on a river of the same 
 name, about 19 m. n.w. of Leopoldstadt. It has a Roman Catholic church and a Prot- 
 estant church, tanneries, and distilleries. Pop. ’69, 5886. 
 
 BRIALMONT, Henri Alexis, b. 1821 ; a Belgian engineer and military writer, and 
 member of various learned societies. He has published a number of works on the art 
 and methods of military fortifications, on which he is accepted as one of the best author- 
 ities. 
 
 BRIAN BOROIMHE (pron. boru'), a famous king of Ireland, ascended the throne of 
 both Munsters — answering to the present counties of Tipperary and Clare — in 978. 
 Some time afterwards, he deposed O’Maelachaghlin, and became supreme ruler of Ire' 
 Jand. The surname, Boroimhe, signifying tax, was given him in consequence of the 
 tribute in kind he levied from the various provinces. King Brian supported a rude but 
 princely state at his chief castle at Kiucora, a place in the neighborhood of the modern 
 town of Killaloe, and he had also seats at Tara and Cashel. The vigor of his reign 
 brought prosperity to his country. He defeated the Danes in upwards of 20 pitched, 
 battles, restricting their influence to the four cities of Dublin, Wexford, Waterford, and 
 Limerick alone. In the battle of Clontarf (1014), in which he was killed, he gained a 
 signal victory over a united army of revolted natives and Danes, the power of the latte] 
 receiving a shock from which it never recovered. 
 
 BRI ANCON (ancient Brigantium), a t. of the department of the Hautes-Alpes, France, 
 on the right bank of the Durance, about 35 m. n.e. of Gap. It is the highest town ir 
 the French empire, being situated at an elevation of nearly 4300 ft. above the sea-level. 
 As the principal arsenal and depot of the French Alps, B. is very strongly fortified, 
 while several forts guard the approaches, and every height in the vicinity is a point of 
 defense. It is considered impregnable. Troops can readily be marched from it on to 
 the passes of the Simplon, St. Bernard, Mont Cenis, and the Col de Tende. Mont 
 Gen^vre affords a practicable passage into Italy from the town itself. B. has some 
 manufactures of cotton-goods, hosiery, cutlery, crayons, etc. Pop. ’76, exclusive of 
 garrison, 2321. 
 
 BRIANSK'j'a t. of Russia, in the government of Orel, 70 m. w. of the city of that 
 name. It is situated on the right bank of the Desna, is surrounded with earthen ram- 
 parts, and has a considerable trade in grain, hemp, wax, linen, cables, cordage, iron, 
 etc., with Kherson, Odessa, and other ports on the Black sea. B. has a cannon-foundry 
 and 13 churches. Pop. ’67, 13,881. 
 
 BRIARE, a t. in the department of Loiret, France, situated on the right bank of the 
 Loire, at the point where the canal de Briare enters that river, about 43 m. s.e. of 
 Orleans. The canal, which unites the Loire and the Seine, is remarkable as the first 
 that was constructed in France, having been begun by Sully, and finished in 1642. B. 
 has a considerable trade in wine, wood, and charcoal. It is supposed to occupy the site 
 of the ancient Brivodurum. Pop. ’76, 3970. 
 
 BRIA'REUS, or JSoiEON, one of the three sons of Uranus and Gaia; the others were 
 Cottus and Gyges, and each of the three had a hundred arms. They assisted Zeus when 
 the Titans made war against Olympus. One account represents B. as assailing Olym 
 pus and being defeated and buried under Mt. Etna. As B. is sometimes called a marine 
 deity, it has been thought probable that the hundred arms symbolized the waves of the 
 sea. 
 
 BRIBERY. The corrupt practices known by the term B. might well form the theme 
 of an extended essay. Here we can point only to a few of the more conspicuous feat- 
 tures of this grave social disorder, and chiefly as concerns B. at elections. 
 
 Election B., a well-known form of corruption, may be called the canker and disgrace 
 pf constitutional government. Individuals, with little to recommend them but wealth, 
 and it may be some local distinction, wishing to be elected representatives in the legisla- 
 ture, do not scruple, through various devices, to buy the votes of the meaner order of 
 electors by bribes. B. at elections is perhaps more openly and audaciously practiced in 
 various parts of the United States than it is in England; nor are base influences of this 
 kind unknown in connection with the more meager constitutional forms of some conti- 
 nental states. But in the eye of the world, England had the unenviable notoriety of 
 being the country in which B. was reduced to a regular and continuous, though covert, 
 system. It had been demonstrated by parliamentary inquiry, that masses of the popula- 
 tion in certain towns — more particularly the class called freemen — look upon the fran- 
 chise as a privilege which, for personal benefit, entitles them to exact so much money 
 for their votes. Public considerations had no weight with them whatever. It seemed 
 to them to be alike their duty and their interest to sell their votes to the highest bidder, 
 The earl of Dundonald mentions in his Autobiography, that when, as lord Cochrane, he 
 offered himself as a candidate for Honiton, he was barefacedly told by one of the elec- 
 tors, “ that he always voted for Mister Most;” and not choosing to bribe, he lost his 
 election. The amount of bribe ordinarily paid at elections in this venal class of boroughs, 
 varied from £1 to £10, according to circumstances; as high a sum as £20, and even £50, 
 had been known to be given in the extremities of a contest. For these corrupting and 
 disgraceful practices, the law threatens certain penalties; but to avoid incurring these. 
 
Bribery. 
 
 Brick. 
 
 42 
 
 as well as for the sake of decency, the candidates employed a mean class of agents, or 
 were in some obscure way assisted by confederates, of whose proceedings it was difficult 
 to substantiate any guilty knowledge on their part. The agents more immediately con 
 cerned did the business of bribing in private, sometimes in darkened apartments, where 
 no one could be seen. Formerly, the treating of voters in taverns was added to other 
 varieties of corruption, and the demoralization that ensued on occasions of this kind 
 amounted almost to a universal saturnalia. The law having interposed to check this 
 gross form of B., the evil had latterly subsided into a common -place routine of secret 
 money-dealings. Of course, by this illegal expenditure, along with the necessary out- 
 lays which the law allows, the cost of an election was in many cases enormous. Few 
 seats of English borough members cost less than £1800; but double and triple this sum 
 was a common outlay. It is a well-known fact, that for certain boroughs any man — no 
 matter what be his political opinions or private character — might be returned by advanc- 
 ing £4000, and asking no questions as to what was done with it. As the B. was on both 
 sides, it may be safely averred that the money spent at some contested elections amounted 
 to £10,000. As regards elections for counties, the influences brought -to bear are ordi- 
 narily of a different kind; but though morally wrong, they do not come within the scope 
 of tlie present article. The Scotch have some reason to boast that their country is com- 
 paratively exempt from this social disorder — that their representatives are not so depraved 
 as to offer, nor the electors so weak and needy as to accept, money-bribes. Such may 
 be said as a general truth. Unfortunately, however, the national integrity is in this 
 respect not quite unblemished, for the member returned for the Falkirk burghs, in 1857, 
 was unseated for bribery. To avert every form of corrupt influence, the ballot (q. v.) was 
 long vehemently urged; and an act to secure the use of the ballot in parliamentary and 
 municipal elections throughout Great Britain and Ireland was finally passed in July, 
 1872. So far bribery seems to have been almost unaffected by the ballot act. The 
 improved mode of trying election petitions by judges has worked well. See Corrupt 
 Practices Act, and Parliament. 
 
 Bribery in Municipal Elections. By the corrupt practices (municipal elections) 
 act, 1872, the offense of B. is put on the same footing as in parliamentary elections. The 
 guilty person is forever disabled from voting at other municipal elections, and also from 
 holding any office or franchise in the borough. See Municipality, 
 
 Bribery op Custom-house and Excise Officers. By the customs consolidation 
 act, the 16 and 17 Viet. c. 107, s. 262, every person who shall give or offer any bribe, or 
 make any collusive arrangement with any officer of customs or excise, or other person 
 employed for the prevention of smuggling, in order to induce him to neglect his duty, 
 shall forfeit the sum of £200. A former act, passed in 1827, the 7 and 8 Geo. IV. c. 53, 
 s. 12, still in force, specially enacts in the case of the excise, that persons in such service 
 taking money or reward, or entering into any collusive agreement contrary to their duty, 
 shall for every such offense forfeit the sum of £500, and be incapable of serving the 
 crown in any office or employment; and any person giving or offering money or reward 
 to excise officers, in order to corrupt and prevail upon them, shall forfeit the like sum of 
 £500, but simply and without any further penalty of disqualification. 
 
 Bribery op Judges. This offense in the old Scotch law was called Barratry (q.v.) 
 
 BRIBERY {ante), in general the same here as in England, and always a crime diffi- 
 cult to prove and more difficult to punish. It is defined as the receiving or offering any 
 improper reward by or to any person, that may in any way relate to the administration 
 of justice, or influence behavior in a matter of official duty, or lead the person to act 
 contrary to the common rules of honesty and integrity. Nearly all the states have special 
 statutes and severe penalties for the offense. 
 
 BRICK. The earliest examples of this branen of the ceramic art were doubtless the 
 sun-dried bricks of Egypt, Assyria, and Babylonia. Remarkable to say, many of these, 
 which, in a northern climate, the frosts of a single winter would destroy, have been 
 preserved for some 3000 years by the dry, warm atmosphere of those countries. Sun- 
 baked bricks of ancient date are also found in the mud walls of old towns in India. 
 Kiln-baked bricks must have been the products of a later time; but they are found in 
 all the chief ruins of ancient Babylonia, where they were often used to face or bind 
 together walls of sun-dried bricks, and occasionally they were even ornamented with 
 enameled colors. Burnt bricks were employed in the foundations of the tower of Babel 
 (Gen. xi. 3). These ancient bricks, whether baked by the sun or by fire, were all made 
 of clay mixed with grass or straw. The ancient Greeks, probably owing to their pos- 
 sessing plenty of stone, cared little for building with burned clay; but most of the great 
 ruins in Rome are built of brick, and the Romans appear to have introduced the art into 
 England. Interesting historical information has been obtained from the impressions on 
 Roman and especially on Babylonian bricks. In many instances, the Roman bricks 
 found in England have been removed from their original position, and employed in the 
 construction of buildings of later date. The earliest instance in which bricks of the mod- 
 ern or Flemish make occur in England, is Little Wenham hall, in Suffolk, 1260. 
 
 Manufacture of Brickn . — Clay suitable for the manufacture of common bricks is an 
 abundant substance, but there is a great difference in the nature and quality of the clays 
 found in various localities. The b^is of clay consists of hydrated silicate of alumina, 
 
43 
 
 Bribery. 
 
 Brick. 
 
 with a varying proportion of other mineral matters, chiefly free silica (sand), iron, lime, 
 magnesia, and potash. Great advantage is derived from digging clay in autumn, and 
 exposing it all winter to the disintegratiug action of frost. This is not always attended 
 to, but when neglected, the bricks made from it are apt to be unsound, and faulty in 
 shape. The next process is that of tempering or mixing the clay into a homogeneous 
 paste, which is sometimes done by the spade, but more commonly in the pug-mill (see 
 article Pottery) or by crushing between a pair of rollers; often, indeed, both are em- 
 ployed. In making bricks by the old hand process, the shape is given by a mold 
 either entirely of wood, or of wood faced with metal, and without top or bottom. This 
 admits of the clay being pressed into it by a tool called a plane, which is also used to 
 produce an even surface on the upper and lower beds of the brick, by working off the 
 superfluous clay. Sand is used to part the wet clay from the mold and the table on 
 which it rests. 
 
 Although hand-made bricks are still very common, yet machinery is now always 
 employed when large quantities are required. Brick-making machines are of two lead- 
 ing kinds; one class of them being constructed to work the clay in a wet plastic state, 
 the other class requiring it to be in a semi-dry condition. Of the two sorts, the wet- 
 clay machines are the simpler, cheaper, and can be worked by less-skilled workmen. 
 On the other hand, the dry-clay machines, which make the bricks by forcing the clay 
 into molds by strong pressure, shorten the process, as no time is required for drying 
 them. The bricks so made, too, are not only of a more perfect shape, but they can be 
 molded into any form, and may even be made highly ornamental at a very slight addi- 
 tional cost. 
 
 As might be expected, both the dry and the wet-clay machines of different makers 
 vary considerably in tlieir details. The general plan on which most of the wet-clay 
 machines work is as follows: The machine is driven by steam, and the clay is fed by a 
 hopper into a pug-mill, on the central shaft of which strong pugging blades are placed 
 in a spiral manner. These prepare and force the clay out at the bottom, whence it 
 passes over the carrying rollers to the pressing rollers, which force it through a die in a 
 rectangular stream, so exactly shaped to the required size that nothing more is necessary 
 than to cut it. into single bricks by wires. These are set in a rocking frame, which can 
 be so adjusted as to cut the bricks on the square or at an angle ; the one plan being 
 adopted when the clay is at rest, the other while it is in motion. When double-ended, 
 the clay is forced out at opposite sides of the pugging cylinder, and there is then, of 
 course, a cutting-table at either side, instead of only one. Some of these machines are 
 provided with a pair of powerful crushing rollers, which reduce any hard lumps or 
 stones before the clay enters the pug-mill. One of the best known wet-clay machines is 
 that made by Clayton, Son & Co., London. When of a size which can be worked by 
 a steam-engine of 16-horse power, it produces from 20,000 to 30,000 bricks per day, and 
 its price in 1871 was £330. Drain tiles are made by the same kind of machinery, with 
 a peculiarly constructed die, so as to make clay into a hollow tube; so also are hollow 
 bricks, with again an alteration in the shape of the die. Hollow bricks, having less 
 body than those which are solid, are more easily and usually more thoroughly fired. 
 On account of this, as well as by reason of their admitting of a current of air through 
 them, they form, as a rule, dryer walls. 
 
 The green bricks, after being carefully dried, either in the sun or by artificial heat, 
 are usually baked in a kiln with a suitable arrangement of fires and flues. Kilns are of 
 many forms, and the time required for firing in them varies from 40 to 60 hours for 
 common red and white bricks, while for some fire-bricks 150 hours are necessary. 
 Where kilns are not used, bricks are burned in clamps, the clay requiring to be mixed 
 up, in the process of tempering, with a quantity of ground coal sufficient to burn them. 
 A good test of the character of a clay is obtained by the result of firing. The average 
 contraction in the kiln for prepared clays is 7i per cent. If a brick contracts much 
 more than this, the clay is too fusible; if less, then it is likely to be of an open porous 
 body, which retains its shape well during the firing process. 
 
 All brick clays contain iron, and the color of a burned brick almost entirely depends 
 on the amount of it which is present; thus clays containing less than 1 or 1-1 per cent of 
 iron, change in the kiln to various shades of cream color and buff, whilst those contain- 
 ing more than 2 per cent, range in color from yellowish-fawn to dark red. Blue bricks 
 are made from the same clay as the red, by controlling in a peculiar way the supply of 
 air in firing, and by carrying the heat slightly further. It is asserted by some that the 
 red is changed to the black oxide of iron in the process. 
 
 Fire-bricks are made from clay as free as possible from oxide of iron and alkaline 
 substances, so that there may be no tendenc}'- to fuse in the kiln, however high the heat. 
 Fire-clays are abundant in the coal-measures, some of fine quality being found about 
 Newcastle and Glasgow, but the most celebrated is that of Stourbridge, which is ex- 
 ported to all parts of the world. See Fire-Clay. 
 
 Much attention has been paid of late years to the manufacture of fine bricks and 
 terra cotta, which is only another name for ornamental bricks of various shapes, or 
 architectural enrichments of the same material. The effect of some of the public build- 
 ingsirecently erected in London and elsewhere, in which terra cotta has been used, is 
 really beautiful. Although it cannot be said to equal sandsone in appearance, it has 
 
'Brick. 
 
 Bride. 
 
 44 
 
 yet the advantage of giving a much greater variety of color, and is infinitely better and 
 more enduring than a facing of stucco or cement. 
 
 The duties formerly levied on bricks -were wholly repealed in 1850. 
 
 BRICK {ante), made in the United States in nearly the same manner as in England. 
 The size varies in various sections from 7f to 8^ in. long, 4 to 4^ wide, and 2 to 2^ thick, 
 and is therefore smaller than that of English B., which are usually 9 by 4^ and 24. 
 Philadelphia pressed bricks are in great demand for outer or front walls in consequence 
 of their perfection. Immense quantities of B. are made at Haverstraw and other places 
 on the Hudson river. Excellent fire-brick are made at South Amboy, N. J. ; at Athens, 
 on the Hudson; at Chicago, Peoria, and other places. Milwaukee bricks have a pleasing 
 ^^llowish cream color; and these, with others variously colored in the manufacture, find 
 much favor for outer walls. Bricks are found to stand fire better than stone. 
 
 BRICKLAYING— BRICKWORK. The material of which a town is built depends 
 
 mainly on the geology of the surrounding district. In a mountainous country like 
 Scotland, cities of stone, such as Edinburgh, Glasgow, and Aberdeen, naturally abound; 
 while London and most of the great towns of England, situated in alluvial valleys and 
 plains, are built of bricks derived from the alluvial clay beneath and around them. In 
 Holland, where the whole country is but the delta cf the Rhine, and no stone is to be 
 found, brick is universal, even to the paving of the streets. 
 
 The standard size of English bricks being 9 in. by 4|, the thickness of walls is regu- 
 lated thereby. They are either half-brick, 1 brick, li, 2, 3, or 4 bricks in thickness. In 
 moderate-sized modern English houses, the inside partition-walls are usually half-brick, 
 the outer walls, 1 or 1^. In larger houses of superior construction, a thickness of two 
 or three bricks is sometimes used. This latter thickness is seldom exceeded, except in 
 large public works. Modern brick-houses are, for the most part, far less substantial 
 than those erected by our forefathers. Building leases being usually granted for ninety- 
 nine years, at the expiration of which term, the whole property reverts to the 'free- 
 holder, the object of the builder is merely to make a house that shall stand for that 
 period, and not to expend any money for the sake of further stability. Garden-walls are 
 commonly built but half -brick in thickness ; these, however, are strengthened by 9-in. 
 piers at intervals of 10 or 12 feet. In laying the foundations of walls, the first courses 
 should be thicker than the intended superstructure, and the projections thus formed, 
 usually of quarter brick on each side, are called ‘ ‘ set-offs.” Before laying walls of houses, 
 trenches are dug, and the foundation tried with a crowbar or rammer. If it is found to 
 be loose, and the looseness due to superficial soil, this is removed, and its place supplied 
 with fragments of stone and old broken bricks, which are closely rammed together. 
 In some cases inverted arches of brick are built for foundation, or a stratum of concrete 
 laid down. See Concuetb. 
 
 Mortar composed of lime and sand is the common cement for brick'work. It should be 
 equally and carefully applied ; and the bricks wetted, in order that the mortar may adhere 
 more firmly, by being absorbed into their pores. The force with which good mortar 
 is capable of adhering to bricks is very remarkable. It is found to be the greatest in old 
 structures that have been exposed to the continuous action of water. Such B. is said 
 to be “ w'ater-bound ” by workmen, and can scarcely be separated without breaking 
 the bricks. 
 
 A fundamental principle to be rigidly observed in laying all kinds of brick is, that no 
 two contiguous perpendicular joints shall fall immediately below each other, or, to use the 
 bricklayer’s phrase, the work must “break bond.” The mode of arrangement of the 
 bricks to effect this is called the bond; a layer or stratum of bricks is called a course. 
 Bricks laid with their lengths in the direction of the course, and their sides to the wall- 
 face, are called stretchers; those laid across the line of the course, with their ends form- 
 ing the wall-face, headers; a layer of headers; a heading course, of stretchers, ?>, stretching 
 course. 
 
 The two kinds of bond almost exclusively used in England are the English and 
 Flemish bond. English bond consists of alternate stretching and heading courses; 
 Flemish bond, of a stretcher and header laid alternately in each course English 
 bond is the strongest; Flemish bond, the more ornamental; and they are used accord- 
 ingly. There are two other kinds of bond occasionally n&ed— herring bond, and 
 garden-wall bond. The former is applied to form the core of think walls, w'here Flemish 
 bond is used for the facing. A course of bricks is laid obliquely at an angle of 45° to 
 the face of the wall; then above it, another course at the same angle, but inclined in the 
 opposite direction, so that the joints may cross the first. This is considered to add to 
 the strength of Flemish bond, but is objectionable on account of the triangular inter 
 slices necessarily left between the oblique bricks and the bricks of the facing. Garden- 
 wall bond is only used for 9-inch walls, and formed by laying three stretchers and one 
 header, and so on in each course. In order to strengthen Flemish bond, bands of hoop- 
 iron are sometimes laid flatwise between the courses. Tliis^ “hoop-iron bond” has 
 superseded the old practice of using bond-timbers, which were inserted the whole length 
 of the wall. The hoop-iron should be slightly rusted, to secure the complete adhesion 
 of the mortar. 
 
 In constructing arches of brick-work, much care and skill are required. A wooden 
 
45 
 
 Brick. 
 
 Bride. 
 
 •centering is always used ; and when very rude work only is required, common bricks are 
 laid upon the centering, and the gaping interstices at the upper ends tilled with rough 
 •brick wedges. For better work, each brick has to be properly beveled, according to 
 the curve. When semicircular arches are made, all the bricks require an equal bevel, 
 and therefore bricks molded uniformly to the required angle may be used; but for 
 other curves and for flat arches, each brick has to be separately shaped by the brick- 
 layer. In order to do this, a drawing of the required arch is made of the full size on a 
 board; the bricks are laid upon this side by side, and shaped to the lines of the drawing; 
 they are then transferred to their corresponding place in the structure. The bricks are 
 first rudely shaped by the hrick-axe, then finished on the rubbing-stone, a piece of rough- 
 ‘grained stone about 20 in. in diameter. In all kinds of B., the walls should be built 
 up level throughout, in order that the settlement may be equal. An unequal settlement 
 may produce a rupture of the wall. 
 
 B. is measured by the rod or by thousand. A rod contains 272 sq.ft, of standard 
 thickness — that is, brick. This is equal to 306 cubic ft., and will, on an average, 
 require 4500 bricks, allowing for waste. The weight of a rod of B. containing 4500 
 bricks, 27 bushels of lime, and 3 single loads of sand^, is about 13 tons. The bricklayer 
 is always attended by a laborer or hodman, who carries his bricks and mortar in a 
 ^‘hod” — a triangular wooden box, open at the top and one end, and supported on a 
 round leg, by which the hodman holds it on his shoulder. A bricklayer’s wages are 
 considerable higher than those of the hodman. The laborers are generally Irishmen. 
 
 The surface of brick-work is sometimes ornamented by 'pointing. This is done by 
 raking out the mortar of the joints to a small depth, and filling up again with blue mor- 
 tar, and marking the courses with the edge of the trowel. This is called point- 
 
 ing. When the courses are marked by a neatly pared raised line of white plaster of 
 -about half an inch in thickness, laid upon the blue mortar, it is called tuck or tuck-joint 
 pointing. Colored bricks, as a means of external ornament, have been extensively and 
 most effectively used in n. Italy and Germany. The works of Mr. Buskin, Mr. Gaily 
 Knight, W ebb’s Continental Ecclesiology , Street’s Brick and Marble of the Middle Ages, and 
 Fergusson’s Hand-book of Architecture, may be consulted for illustrated examples of 
 these. 
 
 Chromatic -brick- work is now becoming very extensively used in England, especially 
 by architects who are endeavoring to revive the style of architecture called by theni- 
 selves English Gothic, and by some others Venetian Gothic, in which the pointed arch, 
 formed of colored bricks, forms one of the prominent features. These architects main- 
 tain that, as they are compelled to construct withB., it is more honest to use bricks 
 ornamentally, than by means of stucco to obtain an external imitation of stone; and as 
 B. admits of but little ornamentation in relief, they use variation of color, of which B. 
 is peculiarly susceptible, and thus produce a sort of architectural mosaic. The eloquent 
 and popular advocacy of these views by Mr. Buskin, and the skill and enthusiasm with 
 which many young and rising architects are carrying them out, seem likely to bring 
 about a great development, almost amounting tO a revolution in English domestic and 
 ecclesiastical architecture. 
 
 BEICOLLE. See Ballista. 
 
 BBIDAINE, Jacques, a French home-missionary preacher, 1701-67. Though a 
 strict Boman Catholic in principle, he frequently advocated the cause of the Protestants 
 with great boldness, and displayed personal kindness to many who were suffering per- 
 secution. He made more than 250 journeys in all parts of France, and became univer- 
 sally popular. His sermons and spiritual songs, or hymns, have been printed. 
 
 BRIDE — BRIDAL. The word bride (the radical signification of which is thought by 
 some to be “ appropriated,” “owned”) is common to all the Gothic languages, and also 
 to Welsh (Ger. braut, ~We\Ai. priod), and signifies betrothed or newly married. Alone, 
 the word denotes the newly married woman; with the addition of the syllable groom (a 
 corruption of guma = .Lat. homo, a man), it denotes the newly married man (Ang. Sax. 
 brydguma, Ger. brautigam). In Welsh, priod-fab (betrothed youth) is bridegroom, and 
 priod-ferch (betrothed maid) is bride. Bride is the root of a variety of terms connected 
 with marriage, as bride- favors, bride-cake, etc. Bridal is for bride-ale (Ang. Sax. bryd- 
 eale), the marriage-feast. Bridemaids, or attendants on brides, appear to have been in 
 use among the Anglo-Saxons, and are mentioned in early accounts of marriage cere- 
 monies. A part of their duty consisted in dressing and undressing the bride. Bride- 
 maids, as mere ceremonious attendants at marriages, are still in use in England. The 
 husband had an analogous body of attendants, called bridegroom-men; but they have 
 disappeared in modern usage, and their only representative is one confidential friend in 
 attendance. In Scotland, this personage is called the best man. One of his duties is 
 to pull off the bridegroom’s right-hand glove, while one of the bridemaids does the same 
 service for the bride, when the pair are requested to join hands. 
 
 Bride-favors are small knots of white ribbons, which are pinned to the breasts of 
 all who are in attendance at weddings, nor are even the postboys and their horses’ heads 
 reft undecorated with these gay trappings. The origin of the bride-favor is said to be 
 the true-lovers’-knot — something symbolical of the union of hearts and hands on the 
 
Bridewell. 
 
 Bridge. 
 
 46 
 
 occasion. In various old plays and poems there are allusions to bride-favors or ribbons^ 
 as that in Herrick’s Hespendes : 
 
 What posies for our wedding-rings. 
 
 What gloves we’ll give and ribbonings. 
 
 The Bride-cake is also symbolical in its origin. “The ceremony used at the 
 solemnization of marriage among the Romans was called confarreation, in token of a 
 most firm conjunction between the man and wife, v^ith a cake of wheat or barley. This, 
 Blount tells us, is still retained in part with us, lay that which is called the bride-cake 
 used at weddings.” — Brand’s Popular Antiquities. The old English and also Scottish 
 custom of breaking a cake over the head of the bride on entering her new dwelling, 
 perhaps points to a usage of the most remote antiquity — the sprinkling with wheat as a 
 token of plenty. In modern times, the bride-cake is a stately piece of confectionary, con- 
 sisting of a rich cake as a basis, on which is reared a castellated structure, with various 
 fanciful devices, the whole being covered with a preparation of white sugar. This, 
 fabric is cut up and given in pieces to the guests, as part of the wedding jovialty. 
 
 BRIDE'WELL, a well between Fleet street and the Thames, dedicated to St. Bride„ 
 which has given its name to a palace, parish, and house of correction. A palace, 
 described as “ a stately and beautiful house,” was built here, in 1522, by Henry VIII., 
 for the reception and accommodation of the emperor Charles V. and his retinue; and 
 king Henry himself also often lodged here, as, for instance, in 1525, when a parliament 
 was held in Blackfriars; and in 1529, the same regal personage and his queen, Catharine, 
 lived in the B. while the question of their marriage was argued. In 1558, Edward VI. 
 gave it over to the city of London, to be used as a workhouse for the poor, and a hous© 
 of correction “for the strumpet and idle person, for the rioter that consumeth all, and 
 for the vagabond that will abide in no place. ” Queen Mary having confirmed the gift, 
 it was formally taken possession of in 1555 by the lord mayor and corporation. The B. 
 was afterwards used for other persons than the class above named, and at last became 
 a place of punishment, as it now is. As a house of correction, it is not under the 
 sheriff’s charge, but is governed by a keeper wholly independent of that officer. 
 
 By the 15 and 16 Viet. c. 70 a new house of correction is established for the city of 
 London. See Correction, House op. 
 
 BRIDGE (Ang.-Sax. hrycg; Dutch, hrng; Ger. hrucke) is a structure for carrying a 
 road over a stream, river, ravine, low ground, or other impediment to its course. A 
 bridge for carrying a canal or other water-course, is called an aqueduct (q.v.); one for 
 carrying a railway is sometimes called by the recently coined, though not very correct, 
 word viaduct (q.v.). Bridges are formed of stone, brick, cast-iron, or timber arches;, 
 of timber beams or frame-work, supported on piles or on masonry; of iron rods or 
 chains, in which case they are called suspension-bridges; of lattice-work; or of cast or 
 wrought-iron girders. Sometimes a combination of beams and suspension-rods is used. 
 Of late years, the plan of tubular or hollow wrought-iron girders has been frequently 
 and successfully employed, the first great example being the Britannia bridge (q.v.). 
 
 Bridges are either fixed or movable. Of movable bridges there are various kinds. 
 Flying-bridges and floating-bridges are, in fact, mere ferry-boats (see Ferry) with gang- 
 ways attached, and other provisions for safe and ready transport, and which are drawn 
 across the stream by ropes. Draw-bridges and swing-bridges are constructed in two parts, 
 that turn on pivots — in the former, the parts are lifted vertically; in the other, they are 
 moved round horizontally. A sliding-bridge runs backward and forward on wheels or 
 rollers. Another kind is much in use in low districts like Norfolk, where the water 
 flaws lazily, and almost on the land-level. These are sometimes called pontoon-bridges, 
 from the movable roadway being balanced at a small height above the water-level on a 
 pivot working in a large pontoon or hollow cylinder sunk in the bed of the river — the 
 ends of the roadway of the B., when laid across the river, resting freely on piers on 
 either side. There are several such bridges in use over the Ouse. The pivot is set in 
 the center of the stream, and, when necessary, the B. is turned round on it by machinery, 
 till it lies parallel to the banks, and permits the passage of barges on either side. In 
 a flat district, these bridges are exceedingly appropriate. See also Bridge, Military. 
 
 Convenience must have led men in a very rude state of society to form bridges, in 
 order to the easier communication between districts separated by rivers. On most 
 streams there occur fords, but often these are not to be found where they would be 
 most desirable. The most rudimentary form of a B. may be assumed to be a series of 
 stepping-stones, such as are yet almost everywhere to be found on river-courses at some 
 point. Large stones deposited in the streams at the shallows or fords, would first give 
 a chance to a passenger of getting across dry shod; by and by, where one or two stones- 
 were wanting to complete the steps in the passage, they would be supplied. Next, it 
 would naturally occur to give greater security to the passage, by laying planks or trees 
 across the stepping-stones, so as to avoid the risks attending stepping or leaping from 
 the one to the other. In the arrangement of planks resting thus on stones, we have the 
 first advance in the art of bridge building, the suggestion at once both of piers and roiid- 
 ways; and beyond this stage, the art would appear not to have advanced for a very 
 long period. From the Greeks, we have accounts of bridges built by Semiramis, 
 
47 
 
 Bridewell. 
 
 Bridge. 
 
 i)arius, Xerxes, and Py^hus; and in Egypt, necessity early compelled the formation of 
 bridges in connection with the canals constructed for the purpose of irrigation. But 
 -all these would appear to have been rudimentary in form, and to have consisted simply 
 of piers, with the intervals between them spanned by beams of timber or large flat 
 stones. Sometimes boat:< moored in the stream served the purpose of piers, as was the 
 ■case with the famous B. of Xerxes across the Hellespont. Bridges of boats are in use 
 to this day. The principle of the arch was long known before it was applied to the art 
 of bridge-building. See Arch. That application we owe to the Romans, whose first 
 great work in which the arch was employed, the Cloaca Maxima (q.v.), is referable to 
 the time of the Tarquins. The Ponto de Rotto, or Senators’ B. (127 b.c.), erected by 
 Caius Flavius, appears to have been the first instance of its application to bridges. In 
 the course of the great engineering undertaking of the Roman empire under Augustus 
 Caesar for the formation of roads and supply of water to Rome, its application became 
 general ; and afterwards, the empire having extended its bounds, the necessity for ready 
 communication between its provinces, led to the erection of numerous splendid bridges 
 therein, many of which, indeed, surpassed in their greatness those of Rome itself. But 
 although the Romans have unquestionably the merit of having originated the art of 
 bridge-building proper in Europe, yet it seems doubtful whether the principle of the 
 arch was not applied by eastern nations to bridge-building long before the dawn of the 
 greatness of the Roman empire. The Chinese are said to have been before the west in 
 this as in other arts, though the antiquity of some of the bridges on which this assertion 
 is rested may well be doubted, considering the uncertainty which pervades the chro- 
 nology of that extraordinary people. 
 
 It is impossible here to trace in detail the progress of the art. For a long tiijie after 
 the decay of the Roman empire, it made no progress. It revived in the 11th c., but 
 again languished to the beginning of the 18th, when the formation of the corps of the 
 Fonts et Chaussees in France favored its further growth. Henceforth, many splendid 
 bridges were erected both in Britain and the continent. In 1775, Mr. Pritchard of 
 Shrewsbury, introducing the use of cast iron in the erection of bridges, originated a 
 valuable style of construction. The genius and works of Telford bring us to the present 
 time. Within half a century, the use of steam, the development of the canal system, 
 and the necessity especially for railway-bridges, with the immense amount of capital at 
 the disposal of engineers for purposes of bridge-building, have caused a rapid evolution of 
 all the principles and possible modes of the art. Among the new forms called forth 
 within the century by the increasing demand for facilities of communication, are the 
 suspension B., the wrought-iron girder and tubular bridges, and the lattice-bridges. Sev- 
 eral of the new bridges over the Thames are models of engineering skill and taste. The 
 Menai and Britannia bridges were regarded when erected as perfect marvels of the art, 
 and yet they have since been surpassed. In America, the B. of Trenton, over the Dela- 
 ware, the great Portage viaduct, and the Niagara suspension B., are equal to any similar 
 works in the world. The Tay B., opened in May, 1878, is the longest (2 m. in 
 length) and perhaps the greatest achievement of modern engineering skill. The variety 
 of complex structures of wood and of iron that now span streams and hollows is endless. 
 For some of the more important forms, see Frame, Lattice, Tubular, and Suspen- 
 sion Bridges. What follows here, relates chiefly to arched or masonic bridges, and is 
 confined to the more general and obvious conditions which such bridges must fulfill, 
 avoiding the mechanical theory of their stability as too abstruse for popular exposition. 
 
 An arched B. rests between masses of masonry on opposite sides of a river, called 
 its abutments (q.v.). The intermediate points of support of the arches are the piers 
 (q.v.), which are rarely built so strong as to be able of themselves to resist the lateral 
 thrust of the arches resting on them, if the thrust of one arch did not counteract that of 
 another. The arch itself is the curved construction between adjacent piers. The chief 
 terms used in speaking of the arch itself are explained under Arch. In addition, may 
 be noticed the spandril, the name given to the filling in above the extrados to the road- 
 way. The chord or span is the distance between the piers ; while the rise of the arch is 
 the perpendicular distance between the level of the springing and the horizontal through 
 the key. 
 
 When a B. has to be erected, the question of what form it should be, falls to be set- 
 tled by a variety of considerations. Regard to appearance affects the question, but the 
 material points are its sufficiency for the purposes for which it is intended, and its 
 security and durability The nature of the embankments and of the soil in the water-bed, 
 together with the nature of the water-shed, or country drained by the stream, may make 
 it necessary that the B. should not be an arched bridge at all, but a suspension or tubu- 
 lar bridge. But if it is to be an arched B., then the most important questions respect the 
 number of its piers and the form of its arches. If vessels must be free to pass under it, . 
 the arches must be lofty, and the abutments high; so also must they be if the river is 
 exposed to sudden elevations of its level by floods. Formerly, a prejudice existed against 
 laying a B. across a stream at any other angle than at right angles to its course. The 
 reason was, that, the theory of the skewed arch (q.v.) being unknown, the obliquity of 
 the B. to the water-course involved a corresponding obliquity of its piers to the water, 
 which greatly increased the risk of the B. suffering from floods. But the skewed arch 
 allows a B. to.be thrown at any angle across a river, with its piers all parallel to the 
 
Bridge. 
 
 Stream; and many an awkward turn in our public roads would have been spared us, had 
 the skewed arch only been earlier known. 
 
 After making allowance for the requirements of position and traffic, the form next, 
 must be considered, more particularly in relation to the stream. The stream prineipally 
 affects the form, through prescribing the number of piers. Each pier takes up so much 
 ®f the water-course, and thus narrows the effective passage of the water. The imme- 
 diate consequence of narrowing the channel is to increase the velocity of the stream. As 
 Uie velocity of the stream increases, it tends more and more to carry off the soil in the 
 neighborhood of the piers, and finally, by deepening its course, to undermine them. 
 From this consideration, the effect of too many piers will be obvious; but indeed this 
 is not matter of speculation, for many bridges— among others, a B. of Smeaton’s at Hex- 
 ham — have been destroyed from this cause, thus falling from the very overabundanee of 
 support! To know how many piers may with safety be used, the volume of water that- 
 flows through the channel, both ordinarily and in winter-floods, must be ascertained, 
 which can be done very nearly by calculating the mean of many soundings taken at dif- 
 ferent states of the river, and at a succession of points across its bed. There is another 
 way in which the stream affects the form. If it is liable to floods, care must be taken tO' 
 make the piers so high as to elevate the spring of the arches above the highest level 
 attainable by the water. In connection with this part of the subject, it must be remem- 
 bered, too, that floods are apt to carry down trees and other floating masses, which, if 
 the arches do not afford them passage, become powerful levers for the destruction of the 
 bridge. 
 
 The form of the B. being determined on, the remaining questions relate to its stabil- 
 ity. This depends on the strength of the abutments and piers, and the balanced equi- 
 librium of the arches. The importance of securing proper foundations for the abut- 
 ments and piers cannot be over-estimated, and very frequently their foundations, owing 
 to the nature of the soil, have to be artificially constructed. See Piles, Coffer-dam, 
 and Concrete. In considering the stability of the B., the first thing is to ascertain the^ 
 forces which wdllact to destroy it. This is ascertained by calculating the extreme pass- 
 ing load, and also the weight of the structure above the arches, and of the arches them- 
 selves. A scientific and skilled engineer is then able to judge what amount of strain or’ 
 destructive pressure wilf be exercised by these weights on the several parts of the struc- 
 ture, and thus to adapt the strength at every point to the strain. As to the passing load, 
 it is usual to calculate on 240 lbs. per foot, superficial, of the whole area in ordinary 
 bridges, and on 960 lbs. in railway bridges. The weight of the superstructure and 
 arches is a question for practical measurement. As to the remaining pressure — viz., 
 that of the stream — it must be ascertained for the highest floods. It is calculated from 
 knowing the mean velocity of the stream, and the amount of surface exposed to it. 
 The surface is readily observed oy means of floats; and when this is under 10 ft. per 
 second, the mean velocity is found to be about one fifth less. The stress of the stream 
 on the bridge is diminished by the expedient known as a cut-water, which is an angular 
 projection from the pier. The best form for a cut-water has practically been ascertained 
 to be an equilateral prism, presenting an angle of 60° to the water-course. In all bridges, 
 these are to be found on the sides of the piers presented to the stream ; and in tidal rivers, 
 they are built on the lower side as well. 
 
 After the conditions already mentioned are satisfied, taste has more to do with the- 
 form of the arches than anything else. The forms in use are the old semicircular, the 
 elliptical — usually got at by putting together several circular arches of different radii — 
 and the segmental arch. The semicircular arch was almost exclusively used in the more^ 
 ancient bridges. This arch is the most solid and most easily constructed, as all the 
 voussoirs may be worked from the same mold. It requires, however, high banking, as- 
 its height is equal half its breadth; and where the water-level greatly changes, it is par- 
 ticularly unsuitable, from the great height necessary to be given to the piers, to carry 
 the intrados out of water-reach. The elliptical arch and the segmental of 60° are, besides, 
 far more pleasing in appearance. 
 
 In possible extent of span, the masonic bridge is far exceeded by suspension and 
 girder bridges. At Chester there is a stone arch with a span of 200 ft. ; in the Britannia 
 tubular bridge the span is 460 ft, ; in the suspension bridge over the Menai strait, 600 ft. ; 
 and in the suspension bridge at Freiburg, Switzerland, 870 feet. The railway bridge 
 across the Tay, near Dundee, of iron girders is remarkable for its great length, 3450 yards. 
 See Tubular Bridge and Suspension Bridges, 
 
 The principal objection to the wooden B. is its liability to decay, besides which it is 
 liable to warping, through the swelling and contracting of its beams. The latter objec- 
 tion applies also to iron bridges, but in their case, the contractions and expansions may 
 be compensated for, as in the compensation balance of a watch, or the compensation 
 pendulum. 
 
 Public bridges are maintainable at the expense of the counties in which they are sit- 
 uated; but in many cities and boroughs, the inhabitants have acquired by prescription a. 
 liability for this expense, and by the 13 and 14 Viet. c. 64, the management and control of 
 such bridges is given to the council of the city or borough. If part of a public bridge 
 be within one county or other place on which the liabilty rests, and the other part of the 
 bridge be within another, each party or body shall repair that part of the bridge which. 
 
49 
 
 Bridge* 
 
 is 'within its own boundaries. Besides the bridge itself, the county liable is bound by the 
 22 Henry VIII. c. 5, to repair 300 ft. of the road eitlier way from the bridge. And such 
 is still the state of the law as to all bridges built prior to the passing of the highway act, 
 5 and 6 Will. IV. c. 50. But by that act it is provided that, in the case of all bridges 
 thereafter to be built, the repair of the road itself passing over or adjoining to a bridge, 
 shall be done by the parish, or other parties bound to the general repair of the highway 
 of which it forms a portion — the county being still subject, however, to its former obli- 
 gation as regards “the walls, banks, or fences of the raised causeways, and raised 
 approaches to any bridge, or the land arches thereof.” See Stephen’s Co7n., vol. iii. p. 
 234. The neglect to make such repairs is treated in law books as a kind of negative 
 offense; but tliere are positive offenses against bridges, Avhich in the statutes are called 
 nuisances, as to which, see the 43 Geo. III. c. 59. An act to amend the law in regard 
 to the maintenance and management of roads and bridges in Scotland was passed iu 
 1878, entitled “ Roads and Bridges act.” Private bridges are those erected and main- 
 tained under contracts authorized by private acts of parliament. See Road. 
 
 BRIDGE {ante). The most important American bridge now under construction is 
 that over the East river between the cities of New York and Brooklyn, commonly known 
 as the “Brooklyn bridge.” The land approaches are of stone and brick in arches and 
 piers, terminating at the river in the grand stone piers that rise 278 ft. above high water. 
 The following official account of dimensions and progress is down to the close of 1879: 
 construction commenced Jan. 2, 1870; size of New York caisson, 172x102 ft.; size of 
 Brooklyn caisson, 168x102 ft. ; timber and iron in caisson, 5253 cubic yards; concrete ip. 
 well-holes, chambers, etc., 5669 cubic ft.; weight of New York caisson, about 7000 tons; 
 weight of concrete filling, about 8000 tons; New York tower contains 46.945 cubic yards 
 of masonry ; Brooklyn tower contains 38, 214 cubic yards of masonry ; length of river span 
 1595 ft. 6 in. ; length of each land span, 930 ft. — 1860 ft. ; length of Brooklyn approach, 
 971 ft. ; length of New York approach, 1562 ft., 6 in. ; total length of bridge, 5989 ft., or 
 1.134 m.; width of bridge, 85 ft.; number of cables, 4; diameter of each cable, 15| in. ; 
 first wire was run out May 20, 1877; cable-making really commenced June 11, 1877; 
 length of each single wire in cables, 3578 ft. 6 in. ; ultimate strength of each cable, 12,200 
 tons; weight of wire, 12 ft. per lb.; each cable contains 5296 parallel (not twisted) 
 galvanized steel, oil-coated wires, closely wrapped to a solid cylinder 15f in. in diameter; 
 depth of Brooklyn tower foundation below high-water, 45 ft. ; depth of New York tower 
 foundation below high water, 78 ft. ; size of towers at high-water line, 140x59 ft. ; size 
 of towers at roof course, 136x53 ft.; total height of towers above high-water, 278 ft.; 
 clear height of bridge in center of river span above high-water, at 90° Fah., 135 ft.; 
 height of floor at towers above high water, 119 ft. 3 in. ; grade of roadway, 3^ ft. in 100 
 ft.; height of towers above roadway, 159 ft.; size of anchorages at base, 129X119 ft.; 
 size of anchorages at top, 117x104 ft. ; height of anchorages, 88 ft. front and 85 ft. rear; 
 weight of each anchor plate, 23 tons; total cost of bridge, exclusive of land, $9,000,000. 
 The bridge will probably be completed in 1882. Engineer, col. W. A. Roebling. The 
 towers were flnished long ago; so were the cables, and the construction of the floor, with 
 the many rods suspending it, will finish the bridge proper. 
 
 Some other American bridges may be briefly described. One of the earliest of note 
 is that over the Schuylkill at Philadelphia, which Fanny Kemble poeticall}^ described as 
 “a scarf rounded by the wind and thrown over the river.” It was accidentally burned 
 in 1838. The railroad bridge at Bellows Falls, built in 1850, has a span of 250 feet. The 
 Susquehanna bridge (of the Wilmington and Baltimore railroad) is 3500 ft. long, Avith 13 
 ^iers and 2 guard piers at the draw. The spans are 250 ft. long, and the draw-span 176 
 feet. The Niagara Suspension bridge has a span from center to center of towers of 821 
 ft., and is 245 ft. above the river. The bridge (suspension) over the Ohio between Cin- 
 cinnati and Covington has a span of 1067 ft. and is 91 ft. above low-water. The Clifton 
 bridge (over Niagara river just below the falls and above the suspension bridge) is 1190 
 ft. from bank to bank, and 1268 ft, between the points of suspension on the toAvers, and 
 is 193 ft. above the water. The Victoria tubular bridge over the St. Lawrence at Mon- 
 treal has a length of tube of 6600 ft., carried over 25 openings of 240 ft. each, and one 
 of 330 ft. ; with the approaches this bridge is 9084 ft. long. The Quincy bridge over 
 the Mississippi (draAv) has 17 spans, two of 250 ft., three of 200, 11 of 137, and a draw- 
 span of 360 feet. The bridge over the Missouri at Omaha is 2800 ft. long in 11 spans. 
 The bridge of the New York Central railroad over the Hudson at Albany is 1740 ft. 
 long, in 15 spans and a draw. But the most noteworthy of railroad bridges is that over 
 the Mississippi at St. Louis. It is in three immense spans, those at the end being 497 
 ft. each, and the middle one 515 feet. Over the railroad floor is a carriage and foot road- 
 way 34 ft. wide between the foot-walks which are each 8 ft. wide. 
 
 The terrible disaster of the fall of the Tay bridge in Scotland, the center portion of 
 which Avent down in a furious gale on the night of the 27th Dec., 1879, justifies a brief 
 description of tlia t structure. It was the largest iron bridge in the world, crossing the 
 liver, or arm of tlie sea, a mile and a quarter w. of Dundee, with a length from shore 
 to shore of 10,320 ft. (only 240 ft. less than two miles). Commencing at the s. or Fife 
 shore there were three spans of 60 ft., two of 80 ft., 22 of 120 ft., 14 of 200 ft., 16 of 120 
 ft., 25 of 66 ft., one of 160 ft., and six of 27 ft. in aU 89 spans, the rails being 88 ft. 
 U. K. III.-4 
 
l$ridge. 
 
 50 
 
 ^ibove the water. The portion which fell consisted of 12 spans somewhere near the 
 middle of the bridge. A train of six passenger cars and the brakemen’s van either went 
 down with the bridge or ran into the vacancy in the dark, and not one person survived. 
 There were over 90 lives lost. 
 
 The following statement comprises a list of the most important railway bridges and 
 viaducts constructed by European and American railway companies. There are stone, 
 wood, and iron structures, all of which appear under a separate head: 
 
 Stone Bridges and Viaducts. — Ballochmoyle viaduct, Glasgow, and S. W., width of 
 span, 181 ft.; viaduct at Nogent, S. M., near Paris, 164 ft.; Durham Junction viaduct, 
 160 ft.; bridge near Wolmsdorf, Silesia, 150 ft.; bridge near Maidenhead, built by 
 Brunei, 1835, 129 feet. There are three or four structures to be added to the foregoing, 
 whose w/idths of openings exceed 100 feet. This includes the bridge at the Point-du-Jour, 
 s.t Paris ; the viaduct near Loebau, in Saxony, and the bridge at Point-de-Pille, on the 
 line between Orleans and Bordeaux. The highest arches are principally found in Ger- 
 many, and in the second line in various parts of France. 
 
 Viaducts of Stone and Brick. — Height of arch; over the Goeltz valley, in Saxony, 
 256 ft. ; over the Elster valley, in Saxony, 223 ft. ; over the Riofredo, in Austria, 197 ft. ; 
 at Diedenmuhle, near Chemnitz, Saxony, 170 ft. ; at Chaumont, Paris to Mulhouse, 164 
 ft. ; at Kalte Rinne, Semmering, Austria, 151 ft. ; at Fure, near Grenoble, 135 ft. ; at 
 Comelle, near Creil, Paris, 131 ft.; at Wagnergraben, Semmering, Austria, 128ft.; at 
 Combe-Bouchard, Paris-Lyons railway, 128 feet. In addition to these there are several 
 other bridges and viaducts whose height varies from 100 to 125 feet. Among the prin- 
 cipal are: the viaduct over the Tranz valley, in Austria; bridge across the river Fulda, 
 near Kragenhof, Hanover; the Goel viaduct at Aix-la-Chapelle; viaduct at Mireville, on 
 the line between Havre and Rouen; four more are in Saxon Switzerland; the rest in 
 various parts of France. The longest viaducts and bridges are to be found in England; 
 notably the viaduct on the line from London to Greenwich ; the system of the South- 
 western, South-eastern, Chatham and Dover, Great Eastern, and of other lines serving 
 the metropolis. The next importance attaches to the bridge spanning the Lagoons and 
 running into Venice, the bridge and viaduct over the river Elbe, at Dresden, and a few 
 others. 
 
 Timher-huilt Bridges and Viaducts. — The most prominent structures are the following: 
 Over the river Mista, on the Moscow and St. Petersberg railway, nine openings, each 
 200 ft. wide ; over the river Elbe, at Wittenberg, with 14 openings, varying in width 
 from 140 to 100 ft. ; bridge near Woltenhofen, on the road from Lindau to Augsburg, 
 Bavaria, one opening, 170 ft. wide ; bridge near Kempten, on the same line as the fore- 
 going, with five openings, varying in width from 85 to 140 ft. each. There arQ two 
 wooden bridges on the North Shields, Newcastle line, one with seven, the other with 
 five openings, the widest of which spans about 135 feet. The United States possess 
 wooden bridges in very large numbers, and of much greater dimensions than are found 
 on European roads. Among those noteworthy is the bridge over the Delaware river, on 
 the Erie road, with two openings, each of a width of about 260 feet. The next structure 
 of importance is a bridge over the Susquehanna river, near Columbia, with 29 openings, 
 each about 200 ft. wide. There are two bridges crossing the Connecticut river, with 
 spans of 174 feet. These are the most prominent bridges; but there are numerous other 
 very remarkable structures, which, though of smaller dimensions, give evidence of great 
 engineering skill. 
 
 Iron Bridges and Viaducts. — The following list comprises structures of this class of 
 the greatest extent in length: 
 
 Feet. • 
 
 Parkersburg bridge. West Virginia, U. S 7,045 
 
 St. Charles bridge, Missouri, U. S 6,536 
 
 Over the river Ohio, near Louisville, Ky., U. S 5,310 
 
 Over the river Delaware, Pennsylvania, U. S 4,920 
 
 Over the East river. New York 5,000 
 
 Victoria bridge, St. Lawrence river, Canada 4,980 
 
 Over the river Rhine, at Mayence, Germany 3,380 
 
 Over the river Tongabudda, Bombay, Madras 3,730 
 
 Over the river Mississippi, near Quincy, U. S 3,200 
 
 Over the river Missouri, near Omaha, U. S 2,790 
 
 Over the river Vistula, near Dirschau, Germany 2,750 
 
 Over the river Danube, near Stadlau, Austria 2,520 
 
 Over the river Po, near Mezzano-Corti, Italy 2,485 
 
 Over the river Tamar, near Saltash 2,190 
 
 Over the river Lek, near Kuilenburg 2,185 
 
 Over the river Mississippi, near Dubuque, U. S 1,758 
 
 Over the river Sorai, in British India 1,745 
 
 The foregoing comprises a list of the longest bridges constructed of iron, but it docs 
 not include all the most important works from an engineering point of view. ^ The 
 bridges which have the widest or the most numerous openings are given in the subjoined 
 list, and comprise all the great marvels which engineering skill and ingenuity have pro- 
 duced : Britannia bridge, Menai straits : four openings, each 460 ft. , and two openings. 
 
51 
 
 Bridge. 
 
 each 230 feet; built by Robert Stephenson and Fairbank, 1846-50. Conway bridge, 
 Menai straits: one opening, 400 feet; built by Stephenson, 1847-48. Victoria bridge, 
 crossing the St. Lawrence river at Montreal: one opening 330 ft., and 24 openings, each 
 240 feet; built by Stephenson. Bridge over the Garonne, near Langon, on the Bor- 
 deaux-Cette line: one opening of 245 ft., and two each of 210 feet. Over the Aire, near 
 Brotherton: one opening of 225 feet. Over the Trent, near Gainsborough, on the Man- 
 chester, Sheffield and Lincoln line : two openings, each 150 ft. wide. Over the river 
 Lek, a branch of the Rhine, near Kuilenburg, Holland: one opening of 150 ft., one of 
 80 ft., and seven of 57 feet; built 1868-70. Over the river Ohio, near Louisville, U. S. ; 
 one opening of 400 ft. ; one of 370 ft. ; six, each of 236 ft. ; 14, varying in width 
 from 210 ft. to 140 ft. ; one of 100 ft., and two, each of 50 feet; built in 1868. Over 
 the Vistula, near Dirschau, Berlin-KOnigsberg line — built 1850-57, by Lentze; six open- 
 ings, 350 ft. each. Over the Waal, near Lommel, Belgium: three openings of 400 ft. 
 each, and eight of 190 ft. each. Over the Rhine, near Griethausen: one opening of 330 
 ft., and 20 of 60 ft. each; built in 1863-64, by Monie. Over the Rhine, near Hamm: 
 four openings, each of 330 feet; built in 1868-70, by Pichier. Over the Dieppe, near 
 Moerdyk, Holland: 14 openings, each of 330 ft., and two of 51 feet. This structure 
 resembles in a measure the unfortunate Tay bridge. It was completed in 1871. Over 
 the Rhine, near Cologne: four openings of 320 ft. each; built, 1856-60, by Lohse and 
 Wiedman. Over the Nogat, near Marienburg, Baltic: two openings of 312 ft. each. Overthe 
 Wye,nearChepstow: one opening of 300ft., and three, each of 100 feet; built by Brunei, 
 1850-52. Over the Rhine, near Mannheim: three openings of 295 feet. Overthe Boyne, 
 near Drogheda: one opening of 270 ft., and two each of 140 feet ; built by Barton, 1855. 
 Over the Danube canal, near Vienna: one opening 260 ft. wide; built in 1860 by Koestlin. 
 Over the Danube, near Stadlau, Austri a: five openings each of 250 ft., and 10 each of 
 110 feet ; built by Ruppert, 1868-70. Over the Trent, near Newark: one opening of 
 240 feet ; built by Fox and Henderson, 1851. Overthe Thames, Blackfriars: one open- 
 ing of 205 ft., two of 195 ft., and two of 170 feet ; built 1863-64. Over the Kinzig, near 
 Olfenburg, Germany; one opening of 190 feet. Over the Eipel, Hungary; one opening 
 of 185 ft., and three of 145 feet. Over the Rhine, near Strasburg; three openings of 185 
 feet. Over the Grau, in Hungary: one opening of 166 ft., and three of 144 ft. each, 
 built by Ruppert, 1858. Over the Saar, near Freibourg : five openings, each of 160 ft., and 
 two of 142 feet. Crumlin Viaduct, Newport- Abergavenny line: 10 openings each of 
 160 ft. width; built by Liddle and Gordon, 1853. Overthe Lahn, near Coblentz: one 
 opening, 150 ft. wide. Over the Thames, near Windsor: one opening of 200 feet ; built 
 by Brunei, 1849. Over the Weser, near Corvey, Germany: four openings, each of 185 
 feet; built by Schwedler, 1863-64. Overthe Orne, near Caen, France : one opening of 
 145 feet. Built by Maier, 1858. On the Blackwall line; one opening, 120 feet. Over 
 the Tamar, at Saltash: two openings of 450 ft., and 17 openings varying from 70 to 90 
 feet; built by Brunei. Over the Rhine, at Mayence; four openings, each of 335 ft., 
 six of 115 ft., and 22 openings varying in width from 50 to 80 feet. Over the Isar, near 
 Hesselohe, Germany: two openings, each of 170 ft., and two each of 85 feet. Over the 
 Elbe, at Hamburg; seven openings, each of 335 ft. , and three openings of 310 feet; built 
 by Lohse, 1870. Over the Yssel, near Zutphen, Holland: one opening of 320 ft., and 
 two of 55 feet. Over the Ohio, near Ben wood. United States: one opening of 320 feet. 
 Over the Mersey, near Runcorn, London and North-western railw^ay: three openings of 
 300 ft. each. Over the Missouri, near Omaha, United States: 11 openings, each of 270 
 feet; built by Dodge, 1860-61. Over the Danube, near Manthausen, Austria: five open- 
 ings of 260 ft., and two of 90 feet. Over the Danube, at Vienna, North-western line: four 
 openings of 260 ft., and 14 openings of 95 feet; built by Hell wag and Gerlish, 1870-72. 
 
 The railway suspension bridge over the Forth at Queensferry will be, when com- 
 pleted, the most remarkable application of the suspension principle in the world. The 
 breadth of the Forth at Queensferry is rather more than a mile ; but, as the viaduct 
 is to be continued overland on the n. shore for several hundred yards, the whole 
 length of the bridge will be about one mile and one third. This, however, gives 
 no fair idea of the breadth of span to which the physical conditions require 
 the suspension principle to be applied. In the midst of the firth, but rather nearer 
 to the northern than to the southern shore, rises the rocky islet of Inchgarvie. 
 On either side of this island the bed of the river sinks to a depth which is imprac- 
 ticable for engineering purposes. On the n. side the bed sinks to a depth of 210 ft., 
 on the s. side to 180 ft., below the water-mark; and it is there, for a breadth of 1600 
 ft. on either side, that no practicable bottom can be found for piers, and therefore that 
 the suspension principle has perforce to be resorted to. Between the deep furrow on 
 the s. side of Inchgarvie and the southern shore there is a reach of comparatively 
 shallow water, with a maximum depth of 30 ft., but within which foundations may be 
 found for some 12 or 15 piers. Viewed in profile from the bosom of the firth, the 
 bridge will thus present to view five distinct sections. First, there is a shallow- water 
 section on the s. side, covering some 2000 ft., and supported on 16 piers; then there is 
 the deep-water section, s. of Inchgarvie, traversed by a suspension bridge; next there 
 is the island of Inchgarvie itself, over which the viaduct will be carried on two or three 
 piers; then there is the deep-water section n. of Inchgarvie, spanned by a second sus- 
 pension bridge; and, lastly, there is the northern shoreward section, which carries the 
 
 u. OF ill; lib 
 
Bridge. 
 
 Bridgeport. 
 
 52 
 
 viaduct on 10 or 11 piers from the brink of the tide to the dead level of the Fife shore. 
 The great features of the architectural design, as seen from the firth, will be the four 
 pairs of lofty towers on which the massive steel chains which are to support the two 
 suspension bridges will be hung, and the two pairs of landward buttresses to which 
 the suspending chains will be anchored. Of the towers, two pairs will rise from the 
 island of Inchgarvie, and will reach the imposing height of 596 ft. Two pairs on the 
 shore of n. Queensferry, and other two on the brink of deep water on the southern chan- 
 nel, will attain to a height of 584 feet. The two pairs of buttresses on the n. and the s. 
 side respectively will be, of course, less lofty ; but they will be bold and striking masses 
 of masonry. Those parts of the bridge, n. and s., which rest on piers, with a solid 
 foundation, will consist of a single permanent way 25 ft. broad, and carrying a double 
 set of rails. But the intervening portions carried by the suspension bridges will con- 
 sist of two distinct and parallel branches, each 15 ft. broad, each carrying a single line 
 of rails, and 100 ft. apart. These branches will be tightly braced together; and this 
 arrangement has been adopted in order to give greater breadth, and therefore greater 
 stability, to the whole structure. Seen from above, the outline of the design has the 
 appearance of a shuttle with elongated points. The divergence of the branches begins 
 at the massive piers, two on each side, to which the suspension chains will be anchored, 
 and the maximum of divergence, 100 ft. , will be attained before the lofty towers are 
 reached. While the bridge throughout the greater part of its extent makes necessarily 
 a straight course, the shoreward part at either end forms a gentle curve. From each 
 shore to the beginning of the suspension bridge the line rises with a gradient of 1 in 
 100, In the shoreward sections, and in that over Inchgarvie, the permanent way rests 
 on the upper members of the lattice-girders; but in the two suspension sections it 
 rests on the lower members. By this contrivance here, as in the case of the Tay bridge, 
 the full height of 150 ft. above the high-water mark is confined to the central sections 
 only. It will be evident that each of the deep-water channels n. and s. of the island of 
 Inchgarvie will be spanned by a double suspension bridge. Each of these double 
 bridges will consist of four parallel and enormous lattice-girders — two for each branch. 
 These girders will be 1600 ft. long. Seen in profile, their upper members will form an 
 arched outline, with a maximum height of 50 ft. and a minimum of 19 ft. besides the 
 to vers On these towers, of course, their ends will rest; but they will derive their 
 main support from four immense steel chains, one for each girder, which will be slung 
 over the towers and fastened to the anchoring piers at either end. The girders will 
 be attached to the chains by stout wrought-iron rods at intervals of 50 feet. It is expected 
 that this wonderful bridge will be completed by Jan. 1, 1885. 
 
 BRIDGE, Military, is a temporary construction, to facilitate the passage of rivers 
 by troops, cannon, and military wagons. The most efficient are described under Poit- 
 TOON ; but there are many other kinds. A hridge of boats is formed by small-craft, espe- 
 cially cargo-boats, collected from various places up and down the river; trestles are 
 placed in them to bring their tops to one common level ; the boats are anchored across 
 the river, and baulks of timber, resting on the trestles, form a continuous road from 
 boat to boat across the whole breadth of the river; the boats ought to be of such size 
 that, when fully laden, the gunwales or upper edges shall not b^e less than one foot 
 above the water. Rope-bridges are sometimes but not frequently used by military engi- 
 neers. A boat-and-rope bridge consists of cables resting on boats, and supporting a plat- 
 form or road of stout timber. A cask-bridge consists of a series of timber-rafts resting 
 on casks; the casks are grouped together in quadrangular masses; at certain intervals, 
 timbers are laid upon them to form rafts, and several such rafts form a bridge ; it is an 
 inferior kind of pontoon-bridge. A trestle-bndge is sometimes made for crossing a small 
 stream in a hilly country; it consists of trestles hastily made up in any rough materials 
 that may be at hand, with planking or fascines to form a flooring, cables to keep the 
 trestles in a straight line, and heavy stones to prevent them from floating. Raft-bridges, 
 consisting of planks lashed together, are easily made of any rough materials that maybe 
 found on the spot; but they have little buoyancy, and are not very manageable. A 
 swing-flying bridge consists of a bridge of boats, of which one end is moored in the center 
 of the river, and the other end left loose ; this loose end is brought to the proper side of 
 the river, the boats are laden, and they make a semicircular sweep across the river by 
 means of rudders and oars, until the loose end of the bridge reaches the other bank. A 
 trail-flying bridge is a boat or raft, or a string of boats or rafts, which is drawn across a 
 river by ropes, in a line marked out and limited by other ropes. 
 
 BRIDGE, Natural. See Natural Bridge. 
 
 BRIDGE-BUILDING BROTHERHOODS (Fr. Freres pontifes; Lat. Fratres pontiflces) 
 were religious societies that originated in the s. of France in the latter half of the 12th 
 century. Their purpose was to establish hospices at the most frequented fords of large 
 rivers, to keep up ferries, and to build bridges. The church during the middle ages 
 regarded the making of streets and bridges as meritorious religious service. Whether 
 or not the herdsman Benezet, subsequently canonized, was the founder or only a mem- 
 ber of this fraternity, is as uncertain as the tradition which attributes to him the com- 
 pletion of the bridge over the Rhone at Avignon in 1180. The fraternity was sanctioned 
 by pope Clemens III. in 1189; its internal organization was similar to that of the knightly 
 
53 
 
 Bridge. 
 
 Bridgeport. 
 
 orders, and the members wore as their badge or insignia a pick-hammer on the breast. 
 In France, they labored very actively, but were gradually absorbed into the order of St, 
 John. Similar associations sprang up in other lands, but under different names. 
 
 BBIDGE-HEAD, or TIite-du-Pont, in military engineering, is a fortified post intended 
 to defend the passage of a river over a bridge. It is a field-work, open at the gorge or 
 in the rear, and having its two fianks on the banks of the river. The most favorable 
 position is at a re-entering sinuosity of the river, where the guns can work better with 
 the supporting batteries opposite. Bridge-heads are usually temporary works, hastily 
 constructed. Their most frequent use is to aid a retiring army to cross the river in good 
 order, and to check an enemy pressing upon it. Openings are left to allow the retiring 
 army, with guns and carriages, to file through without confusion ; and parapets are so 
 disposed as to fiank and defend these openings. 
 
 BBIDGEMAN, Laura. This famous blind mute was b. in Hanover, N. H., United 
 States, on the 21st Dec., 1829. She was a bright, intelligent child, but at two years of 
 age was seized with a violent fever, which utterly destroyed both sight and hearing. 
 For a time this so shattered her system, that there seemed no hope of recovery ; but she 
 rallied, and soon learned to find her way about the house and neighborhood, and even 
 learned to sew and to knit a little. A strong passion for imitation began to develop 
 itself, and by assiduously cultivating this power, she was at last enabled to emerge out 
 of her life of unbroken darkness and silence, and take her place among the educated 
 people of the day. In 1 839, Dr. Howe of Boston undertook her care and education at 
 the deaf and dumb school. The first attempt was to give her a knowledge of arbitrary 
 signs, by which she could interchange thoughts with others. Then she learned to read 
 embossed letters by the touch; next, embossed words were attached to different articles, 
 and she learned to associate each word with its corresponding object. A pat on the 
 head told her when she was right in her spelling-lesson. Thus far, however, the work 
 w'as only an exercise of imitation and memory, roused into exertion by the motive of 
 love of approbation, but seemingly without intellectual perception of the relation 
 between words and things. It was like teaching a clever dog a variety of tricks. But 
 at last the truth fiashed upon her, that by this means she could communicate to others 
 a sign of what was passing in her own mind. Her whole being seemed changed. The 
 next step was to procure a set of metal types, with the letters cast at the ends, and a 
 board with square holes for their insertion, so as to be read by the finger. In six 
 months, she could write down the name of most common objects, and in two years had 
 made great bodily and mental improvement. She grew happier, and enjoyed play like 
 other children, amusing herself with imaginary dialogues, spelling old and new words, 
 and with her left hand slapping the fingers of* her right, if they spelled a word wrong; 
 or giving herself a pat of approval, as the teacher did, when correct. Her touch grew 
 in accuracy as its power increased; she learned to know people almost instantly by the 
 touch alone. In a year or two more, she was able to receive lessons in geography, alge- 
 bra, and history. She received and answered letters from all parts of the world, and 
 was always employed, and therefore always happy. Her brain seems to have been 
 unduly excited for a blind person; she not only held imaginary dialogues with herself, 
 but dreamed incessantly by night; and during these dreams, while asleep, talked much 
 on her fingers. She learned to write a fair, legible, square hand, and to read with grea\ 
 dexterity, and at last, even to think deeply, and to reason with good sense and discrimi 
 nation. Keen, sensitive, and lively , in various occupation, her days now pass rapidly 
 and pleasantly, mainly owing to the unremitting skill and kindness of Dr. Howe. She 
 was saved by him from a life of hopeless, helpless darkness; educated and trained to 
 take her part in the world ; and now, as a teacher of the blind and deaf and dumb, is 
 inferring on them the blessings she has herself received. She is probably among the 
 ^llost skillful of blind teachers. 
 
 BBIDGENOETH, a t. of Salop or Shropshire, on both sides of the Severn, 20 m. s.e. of 
 Shrewsbury. It consists of an upper and lower town, connected by a bridge over the 
 Severn. The larger part of the town is on the right bank, and is built on a sandstone 
 rock rising 60 ft. above the river. Pop. ’71, 7317. It returns one member to parliament. 
 The navigation of the Severn formerly employed many of the inhabitants, but the traffic 
 has been greatly injured by the introduction of railways. The town, which was at one 
 time called Bruges or Brug, is said to be of Saxon origin. In the beginning of the 12th 
 c., the earl of Shrewsbury defended the town unsuccessfully against Henry I. It was 
 besieged in the same century by Henry II. ; and during the civil wars it resisted the 
 parliamentary forces for three weeks. A great portion of the town was on this occasion 
 destroyed by fire. It has carpet and worsted manufactories. Bishop Percy was born 
 here. 
 
 BRIDGE OF ALLAN. See Allan. 
 
 BRIDGE OF SIGHS, the covered passage which connects the doge’s palace in 
 Venice with the prison, over which prisoners of state were taken to confinement or to 
 execution. 
 
 BRIDGEPORT, a seaport of Connecticut, U. S., at the mouth of the Pequannock, 
 which empties itself into an inlet of Long Island sound. It is in lat. 41° 11' n., and 
 
Bridgeport, 
 b r 1 d{fe water. 
 
 54 
 
 long. 73° 12' w., being 178 m. to the s.w. of Boston, and 58 to’the n.e. of Kew York. 
 Pop. 70, 19,835, having gained 6536 in 10 years. B. is connected by railways both 
 with the interior and with the other places generally on the seaboard. Though the 
 harbor does not admit large ships, having only 13 ft. on the bar at high-water, yet B. has 
 a considerable coasting-trade, and a number of vessels engaged in the whale-fishery. Its 
 manufactures are extensive, particularly of carriages, harness, fire-arms, and sewing- 
 machines. 
 
 BRIDGEPORT (ante), a city in Fairfield co.. Conn., on Long Island sound, and on 
 the New York and New Haven railroad, at its junction with the Housatonic railroad, 56 
 m. n.e. of New York. The harbor at the entrance of Pequannock creek is large and safe, 
 and is the center of a considerable coastwise trade. The most elegant portion of the city 
 is Golden hill, an elevation of about 100 ft., commanding delightful views of sound and 
 shore, and covered with fine residences, many of which are owned and occupied by New 
 Yorkers. All of the city is modern and well built, the streets shaded by trees, and the 
 residences are well provided with water and gas. The earliest settlement, then called 
 Newfield, was in 1639; the city charter is dated 1836. In 1850, the population was 6080; 
 now it is about 23,000. There are many superior schools, and some fine churches. The 
 chief business, besides the water trade, is in manufacturing, and in this the making of 
 sewing-machines takes the lead, there being three large establishments. Here is also the 
 largest manufactory of metallic cartridges in the country; and there are carriage factories, 
 iron foundries, harness, and other business. Pop. ’80 — 29,148. 
 
 BRIDGER’S PASS, a defile in the Rocky mountains, in s. Wyoming, through which 
 the overland stages went before the opening of the Pacific railroad. It is several miles 
 long, and in most places has perpendicular side walls from 1000 to 2500 ft. high. 
 
 BRIDGET, Saint (or, more properly, or a famous Roman Catholic saint, 
 
 was b. in Sweden about the year 1302. Her father was a prince of the blood-royal of 
 Sweden. When only sixteen, she married Ulf Gudmarson, prince of Nericia, a stripling 
 of eighteen, by whom she had eight children, the youngest of M^hom, named Catherine, 
 born in 1336, died in 1381, became par excellence the ‘female saint of Sweden. Her hus- 
 band and she now solemnly vowed to spend the remainder of their lives in a state of 
 continence, and, to obtain strength to carry out their severe resolution, made a pilgrim- 
 age to the shrine of St. Jago de Compostella in Spain. On their return, Ulf died in 
 1344, and B. founded about the same time the monastery of Wadstena, in East Goth- 
 land. Sixty nuns and twenty-five monks were its first inmates. They received the rule 
 of St. Augustine, to which St. B. herself added a few particulars. They constituted a 
 new order, sometimes called the order of St. B. , sometimes the order of St. Salvator, or 
 the Holy Savior, which flourished in Sweden until the reformation, when it was sup- 
 pressed, but it still possesses some establishments in Italy, Portugal, and elsewhere. 
 Subsequently, St. B. went to Rome, where she founded a hospice for pilgrims and Swed- 
 ish students, which was reorganized by Leo X. After having made a pilgrimage to Pal- 
 estine, she died at Rome on her return, 23d July, 1373. Her bones were carried to- 
 Wadstena, and she herself was canonized in 1391 by pope Boniface IX. Her festival 
 is on the 8th of October. The Memlationes St. BrigitUx, written by her confessors, waa 
 keenly attacked by the celebrated Gerson, but obtained the approval of the council of 
 Basel, and has passed through many editions. Besides the Bevelaiiones, there have been 
 attributed to this saint a sermon on the Virgin, and five discourses on the passion of 
 Jesus Christ, preceded by an introduction which was condemned by the congregation 
 of tlie Index. 
 
 Not to be confounded with this Swedish saint is another St. Bridget, or St. Bride, 
 as she is more commonly called, a native of Ireland, who flourished in the end of 
 the 5th and beginning of the 6th c., and was renowned for her beauty. To escape 
 the temptations to which this dangerous gift exposed her, as well as the offers of 
 marriage with which she was annoyed, she prayed God to make her ugly. Her 
 prayer was granted; and she retired from the world, founded the monastery of Kil- 
 dare, and devoted herself to the education of young girls. Her d^ falls on the 1st 
 of February. She was regarded as one of the three great saints of Ireland, the others, 
 being St. Patrick and St. Columba. She was held in great reverence in Scotland, 
 and was regarded by the Douglases as their tutelary saint. 
 
 BRIDGETON, a port of entry in New Jersey, U. S., about 40 m. s. of Philadelphia. 
 It occupies both banks of the Cohansey creek, about 20 m, above its entrance intO' 
 Delaware bay, its two divisions being connected by a wooden draw-bridge. The town 
 contains a public library, two newspaper-offices, an iron foundry, a rolling-mill, a nail- 
 factory, a woolen-factory, and a glass-work. It likewise owns upwards of 15,CK)0 tons 
 of shipping. Pop. in 1870, 6820. 
 
 BRIDGETON {ante), the capital of Cumberland co., N. J., on the Cohansey river, 
 20 m. from Delaware bay, 36 m. s. of Philadelphia, at the terminus of the West Jersey 
 and the junction of the New Jersey Southern railroads; pop. ’80, 8729. It is a port of 
 entry, the second in importance in the state. Its chief manufactures are glass, water 
 and gas pipes, nails, castings, machinery, lumber, brick, ship-building, woolens, and 
 canned fruits, in which nearly 200 firms are engaged. Among its educational advan- 
 
55 
 
 Bridgeport. 
 
 Bridgewater. 
 
 tages are the South Jersey institute, the West Jersey academy, and several superior select 
 schools. There are a good public library, more than a dozen churches, and several benev- 
 olent societies, one of which is for the care of destitute children. There are water 
 and gas works, and three bridges over the river, the town being built on both banks. 
 The climate is excellent, and the surrounding region is exceedingly fertile and well 
 oultivated. 
 
 BEIDGETOWN, the capital of Barbadoes (q.v.), is situated on the w. coast of the 
 island along the n. side of Carlisle bay, which forms its roadstead, in lat. 13° 4' n., 
 and long. 59° 37' w. Pop. 21,384. It was founded about the middle of the 17th c., 
 taking the name Indian Bridge, and later its present appellation, from a rude aboriginal 
 structure which spanned a neighboring creek. The present city, however, is only 100 
 years old, the former having been almost destroyed by fire in May, 1766. In 1831, a part 
 of B. was destroyed by a hurricane, and in 1845 it again suffered severely from fire. It 
 is the residence of the bishop of Barbadoes and of the governor-general of the Windward 
 islands. Except Broad street, the thoroughfares are irregular, and the shops or general 
 stores, having no windows in front, look heavy and unattractive. There is a consider- 
 able trade. 
 
 BRIDGEWATER, a township in Plymouth co.. Mass., 27 m. n.e. of Boston, on the 
 Fall river and Bridgewater Branch railroads. It contains the state normal school, the 
 state almshouse, and various manufactories. Pop. ’80, 3, 620. 
 
 BRIDGEWATER, a t. and port of Somersetshire, on both sides of the Parret (which 
 is here spanned by an iron bridge), 6 m. in a direct line, and 12 by the river, from the 
 Bristol channel, and 30 m. s.w. of Bristol. It stands on the border of a marshy plain, 
 which lies between the Mendip and Quantock hills, but the country around is well 
 wooded. It is chiefly built of brick. St. Mary’s church has a remarkably slender and 
 lofty spire. The Parret admits vessels of 200 tons up to the town ; it rises 36 ft. at 
 spring-tides, and is subject to a bore or perpendicular advancing wave, 6 or 8 ft. high, 
 often causing much annoyance to shipping. Pop. in ’71, 12,101. B. formerly returned 
 two members to parliament, but was disfranchised in 1870. Bath or scouring bricks, 
 peculiar to B. are made here of a mixture of sand and clay found in the river. Admiral 
 Blake was a native of this town, which suffered severely in the civil wars, when it was 
 besieged by Fairfax, and ultimately forced to surrender, the castle being dismantled by 
 the conqueror. The unfortunate duke of Monmouth was proclaimed king by the cor- 
 poration of B., before the battle of Sedgemoor, which occurred in 1685, 5 m. s.e. of B., 
 and in which he was defeated by the royal army. In 1874, 154 vessels, of 10,140 tons, 
 belonged to the port ; and in the same year the number of vessels that cleared the port 
 was 4,686, with an aggregate burden of 240,437 tons. 
 
 BRIDGEWATER, Francis Ecerton, Duke of, styled the “Father of British Inland 
 [Navigation,” youngest son of Scroop, fourth earl and first duke of B. ; wash, in 1736, 
 and succeeded his elder brother, second duke, in 1748. In 1758-60, he obtained acts 
 of parliament for making a navigable canal from Worsley to Salford, Lancashire, and 
 carrying it over the Mersey and Irwell Navigation at Barton by an aqueduct 39 ft. above 
 the surface of the water, and 200 yds. long, thus forming a communication between his 
 coal mines at Worsley and Manchester, on one level. In this great undertaking he 
 was aided by the skill of James Brindley (q.v.), the celebrated engineer, and expended 
 large sums of money. He was also a liberal promoter of the Grand Trunk Navigation; 
 and the impulse he thus gave to the internal navigation of England, led to the extension 
 of the canal system throughout the kingdom. In politics, though he took no active 
 part, B. was a friend of the Pitt administration, and a contributor to the loyalty loan of 
 no less than £100,000. He died unmarried. Mar. 8, 1803, and with his death the duke- 
 dom became extinct. Before he began to realize profits from his great work, B. lived 
 in privacy, and restricted himself to the simplest fare; and after his death his great 
 wealth was distributed among collateral branches of his family. A monument was 
 erected to his memory in Manchester. 
 
 BRIDGEWATER, Francis Henry Egerton, Earl of, son of John Egerton, bishop 
 of Durham, grandnephew of the first ,duke of B., succeeded his brother as eighth earl, 
 Oct. 21, 1823. Educated for the church, he had previously been prebendary of Durham. 
 He died unmarried, in Feb., 1829, and the title became extinct. By his last will, dated 
 Feb. 25, 1825, he left £8,000, invested in the public funds, to be paid to the author of 
 the best treatise On the Power*, Wisdom, and Goodness of God, as manifested in the Crea- 
 tion, illustrating such work by such arguments as the variety and formation of God’s 
 creatures in the animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms, the effect of digestion, the 
 construction of the hand of man, and by discoveries, ancient and modern, in arts, 
 sciences, and the whole extent of literature. The then president of the royal society of 
 London, Davies Gilbert, to whom the selection of the author was left, with the advice 
 of the archbishop of Canterbury, the bishop of London, and a noble friend of the 
 deceased earl, judiciously resolved that, instead of being given to one man for one work, 
 the money should be allotted to eight different persons for eight separate treatises, 
 though all connected with the same primary theme (see next article). B. also left 
 upwards of £12,000 to the British Museum, the interest to be employed in the purchase 
 and care of MSS. for the public use. 
 
Bridgewater, 
 
 Brier. 
 
 56 
 
 BEIDGEWATER TREATISES, eight celebrated works “On the Power, Wisdom, and 
 Goodness of God,” by eight of the most eminent authors in their respective departments, 
 published under a bequest of the last earl of B. (q.v.), whereby each received £1,000, 
 with the copyright of his own treatise. They are: 1. The Adaptation of External 
 Nature to the Moral and Intellectual Constitution of Man, by Thomas Chalmers, d.d. 
 (Lond. 1833, 2 vols. 8vo). 2. Chemistry, Meteorology and the Eanction of Digestion, con- 
 
 sidered with Reference to Natural Theohgy, by William Prout, m.d. (Lond. 1834, 8vo). 
 3. On the History, Habits, and Instincts of Animals, by the rev. William Kirby (Lond. 
 1835, 2 vols. 8vo). 4. On Geology and Mineralogy, by the rev. Dr. Buckland (Lond. 
 
 1837, 2 vols. 8vo). 5. Vie Hand, its Mechanism and Vital Endowments, as Evincing- 
 Design, by sir Charles Bell (Lond. 1837, 8vo). 6. The Adaptation of External Nature to- 
 
 the Physical Condition of Man, by John Kidd, m.d. (Lond. 1837, 8vo). 7. Astronomy 
 
 and General Physics, considered with Reference to Natural Theology, by the rev. William. 
 Wliewell (Lond. 1839, 8vo). 8. Animal and Vegetable Physiology, considered with Refer- 
 
 ence to Natural Theology, by Peter Mark Rogert, m.d. (Lond. 1840, 2 vols. 8vo). All 
 these works have since been republished by Bohn. 
 
 BRIDLINGTON, or Burlington, a sea-coast t. in the East Riding of Yorkshire 
 (including Bridlington Quay, a port and bathing-place about 1 m. to t& s.e.), 6 m. w. 
 of Flamboroiigh head, and 40 m. e.n.e. of York. B. is situated on a gentle slope in a. 
 recess of a beautiful bay. The country is hilly to the n., but subsides to the s. into a. 
 flat alluvial and fertile tract called Holderness. It has the aspect of an old town 
 with narrow irregular streets. Pop. in ’71, 6203. It has a considerable trade in 
 corn, and also some soap-boiling and bone-grinding works. B. is supposed to have 
 been the site of a Roman station. The Danes had strongholds in this vicinity for 
 nearly 300 years, and many engagements between them and the Saxons and Normans, 
 occurred here. Great numbers of ancient tumuli or barrows still exist. An Augus- 
 tine priory of immense wealth, and which subsisted for 400 years, was founded here 
 by a grand-nephew of the conqueror, and obtained many privileges from Henry I., and 
 also from king John. Some parts of it yet remain. In 1643, Henrietta, queen of 
 Charles I., landed here with arms and ammunition from Holland bought with the 
 crown-jewels. Bridlington Quay has a chalybeate mineral spring, as well as an 
 intermitting one of pure water. B. is noted for its chalk-flint fossils. In the lacus- 
 trine deposits near B. were found, some years ago, the bones of a large extinct elk,, 
 with branching horns, measuring 11 ft. from tip to tip. 
 
 BRIDPORT, a t. in Dorsetshire, in a vale at the confluence of the Asker and the Birt, 
 or Brit, or Bride, 16 m. w.n.w. of Dorchester, and 2 m. from the English channel. It 
 stands on an eminence surrounded by hills, and consists chiefly of three spacious 
 and airy streets. Pop. ’71, 7670. The registered electors numbered (1875) 1071, includ- 
 ing 15 freemen. They return one member to parliament. The chief manufactures 
 are twine, shoe-thread, cordage, flshing-nets, and sail-cloth; and ship-building is carried 
 on to some extent. The vicinity is celebrated for its cheese and butter. B. was a con- 
 siderable town before the Norman conquest, and had a mint for coining silver. In 1871J 
 there entered into this port 69 vessels whose tonnage was reckoned 6386; and there 
 cleared it 36 vessels of collectively 3526 tons. On the coast near are sandy cliffs, 200 ft. 
 high, abounding in fossils 
 
 BRIE, an old district of France between the Seine and the Marne, Meaux being the 
 chief town. B. was and is celebrated for its cheese and grain. In old times a for- 
 est covered a great portion of the region. It was subdued by the Franks, and was a 
 part of the kingdom of Neustria. In the 9th c., it was ruled by its own counts, but in 
 1361 it passed to the crown. The district is now comprised in the departments of Aisne 
 and those adjoining. 
 
 BRIEF, in the practice of the English bar, is the name given to the written instnm- 
 tions on which barristers advocate causes in courts of justice. It is called a B. 
 because it is, or ought to be, an abbreviated statement of the pleadings, proofs, hnd am- 
 davits at law, or of the bill, answer, and other proceedings in equity, with a concise 
 narrative of the facts and merits of the plaintiff’s ‘case, or the defendant’s defense. But 
 it is also used in forensic business generally, being applied, not only in the courts of 
 law and equity, but also in all other tribunals, whether inferior or superior, original or 
 appellate. In Scotland, the corresponding term is memorial. The skill of the attorney 
 or solicitor is shown in the preparation of this important document, which should be 
 characterized by arrangement and compression, without any material omission. 
 
 BRIEF {ante), an abridged statement of a suitor’s case. It should contain the names,, 
 residences, and occupations of the parties; the character in which they sue or are sued, 
 and why they prosecute or defend; an abridgment of the pleadings; a regular chrono- 
 logical statement in plain language of the facts; a summaiw of the points at issue and of 
 the proof to be offered, with names of witnesses, or of documents in case of written 
 evidence, etc. The form and nature of the B. is necessarily varied according to the 
 purpose which it is to serve. 
 
 BRIEF, or Breve, PAPAL (Lat, brevis, short), a word which, in the corrupt Latinity 
 of the early ages, was made to signify a short letter written to one or more persons 
 
57 
 
 Bridgewater. 
 
 Brier. 
 
 <hence the German brief, a letter). It is now used to denote certain pontifical -writings, 
 which, however, do not receive their name from the brevity of the composition, but 
 from the smallness of the caligraphy. The papal B. differs from the papal bull (q.v.) in 
 several points. It gives decisions on matters of inferior importance, such as discipline, 
 ■dispensations, release from vows, indulgences, etc., which do not necessarily require the 
 deliberations of a conclave of cardinals. Still, it is not to be confounded with the motus 
 jn'oprii, or private epistle of the pope as an individual, as its contents are always of an offi- 
 cial character. His holiness speaks, as it were, with a kind of familiar parental of author- 
 ity, and the B. is consequently superscribed papa, while the person to whom it is addressed 
 is termed dileete fili (beloved son). It is signed not by the pope, but by the segretario de' 
 hreri, an officer of the papal chancery, with red wax, and only with the pope’s private 
 •seal, the fisherman’s ring; hence it concludes Datum Bomm sub annulo piscatoris (given 
 ;at Rome under the ring of the fisherman). Like the bull, it is written on parchment, 
 with this difference, that the bull is written on the rough side, and in ancient Gothic 
 ■characters, while the brief is written on the smooth side, and in modern Roman char- 
 acters. 
 
 BRIEG, a t. of Silesia, Prussia, about 27 m. s.e. of Breslau. It is situated on the left 
 bank of the Oder, and on the railway between Breslau and Vienna, and is surrounded 
 with walls, which have been partly converted into promenades. The streets are wide 
 n,nd regular, and commercially B. is a thriving town, its manufactures including linens, 
 woollens, cottons, hosiery, ribbons, lace, leather, and tobacco. The battle-field of 
 Mollwitz (q.v.) lies a little to the w. of Brieg. Pop. ’75, 16,348. 
 
 BRIEL, BRIEL'LE, or The BRILL, a fortified seaport t., on the n. side of the island 
 ■of Yoorne, s. Holland. It is situated near the mouth of the Maas, about 14 m. w. of 
 Rotterdam, in lat. 51° 54' n., and long. 4° 10' east. B. possesses a good harbor, and is 
 intersected by several canals. It has a pop. of (1876) 4205, the male portion of which are 
 chiefly engaged as pilots and fishermen. B. may be considered as the nucleus of the 
 Dutch republic, having been taken from the Spaniards b}^ William de la Marck, in 1572. 
 'This event was the first act of open hostility to Philip II., and paved the way to the 
 ■complete liberation of 'the country from a foreign yoke. In 1585, B. was one of the 
 towns made over to England as security for certain advances made to the states of Hol- 
 land; it was restored to the Dutch in 1616. B. was the first town of Holland, which, 
 without extraneous aid, expelled the French in 1813. The celebrated admirals De Witt 
 .and Van Tromp were natives of this place. 
 
 BRIENNE-LE-CHATEAU, or, as it is now called, Bkienne-Napoleon, a small t. in 
 in the dep. of Aube, France, on the right bank of the river Aube, and about 14 m. n.w. 
 cf Bar-sur-Aube. It is celebrated as the place where Napoleon I. received his earliest 
 military education, he having entered the school here in 1779, when he was 10 years old, 
 and remained until 1784. It is also remarkable on account of the battle fought here 
 between the .French and the allies in 1814. On the 29th of Jan., Bonaparte, who had 
 collected his forces in the vicinity of B., with a view to check the advance of the allies 
 •on Paris, attacked Blucher, who was stationed in the town, and drove him out with 
 considerable loss. In the struggle, the town, which was chiefly composed of wood, was 
 almost reduced to ashes. On the 30th, the contest was renewed, and Blucher was forced 
 to retreat to Trannes. On the following day, Napoleon deployed his forces in the plain 
 between La Rothi^re and Trannes, and on Feb. 1, the corps of the crown-prince of 
 Wtirter'berg and count Giulay, and the Russian reserves of grenadiers, having joined 
 Blucher, prince Schwarzenberg gave orders to renew the combat. After a sanguinary 
 •struggle, during which Napoleon, feeling the importance of the contest, exerted all his 
 influence over his troops, led several charges in person, and frequently exposed himself 
 to danger, victory at length declared decisively for the allies at every point. During 
 the night of Feb. 1, and the morning of the following daj^ the French troops retreated 
 from Brienne-le-Chateau. The loss on both sides was about equal, consisting of nearly 
 5000 killed and wounded. The allies took 9Q00 prisoners, and 70 pieces of artillery. 
 This victory at B. opened the way to Paris, and led to the fall of the empire. 
 
 BRIENZ, a t. of the canton of Bern, Switzerland, beautifully situated at the foot of 
 the Bernese Alps, on the n.e. shore of the lake of the same name, and about 30 m. e.s.e. 
 ■of Bern. Its cheese is held in high repute. Pop. ’70, 2605. — The lake of B., which 
 is about 8 m. long and 2 in breadth, is formed by the river Aar, at the foot of the Hasli 
 valley, and by the same river it discharges its surplus waters into lake 'Thun. The 
 lake is situated at an elevation of 1850 ft. above the sea; its average depth is about 500 
 ft., but in some places it is said to have a depth of more than 2000 feet. It is surrounded 
 by elevated mountains, the principal of which is the Ro thorn, from which splendid 
 views of the whole range of the Bernese Alps are obtained. A small steamer plies daily 
 on the lake between B. and Interlaken, touching at the celebrated Giessbach fall every 
 trip. 
 
 BRIER CREEK, a stream in Warren co., Ga., where, in the revolution, the Ameri- 
 cans under gen. Ashe were defeated Feb. 27, 1779, by the English under gen. Prevost; 
 American loss about 250; English loss, 16. 
 
Brierly. 
 
 Brightening^. 
 
 58 
 
 BBI'EELY HILL, an ecclesiastical district of Staffordshire, England, 2 m. n.n.e. front 
 Stourbridge, on the Oxford, Worcester, and Wolverhampton railway. It is a place of 
 much activity, the district abounding in coal, iron, and fire-clay ; and there are here numer 
 ous collieries, large iron-works, glass-works, brick-works, and potteries. The manufac' 
 ture of steam-boilers is extensively carried on. Pop. 71, 11,046. 
 
 BRIES, a t. in Hungary on the Gran; pop. 70, 11,776. The people are stock- breed' 
 ers and farmers. 
 
 BKIEUC, St., a seaport t., in the department of C6tes-du-Nord, France, situated on 
 the right bank of the Gouet, about 2 m. from its mouth in the bay of St. B., a part of 
 the English channel, in lat. 48° 31' n., and long. 2° 45' west. The town is said to owe 
 its origin to an Irishman, St. Brieuc, who built a monastery herein the 5th century. St. 
 B. has the rums of an old tower that formerly defended the entrance to the river, but 
 was partially blown up by order of Henri IV. in 1598, and a cathedral, part of which 
 dates from the 11th century. The ramparts were destroyed in 1788, and their site has 
 been converted into a pleasant promenade, terminating in a terrace that commands a 
 fine view of the channel. St. B. has manufactures of woolen stuffs, linen, cotton, leather, 
 paper, etc. ; it has also ship-building yards, and a trade in agricultural produce. Pop 
 76, 13,683. 
 
 BRIGADE', in the military service, is a group of regiments or battalions combined into 
 one body. When a British army takes the field, it is customary for three battalions to 
 form a hngade, and two brigades a division. Thps, at the battle of the Alma, each of 
 the five divisions of British infantry comprised two brigades; and of these ten brigades, 
 nine consisted of three battalions each, the tenth being somewhat stronger. It is noth- 
 ing more than a temporary grouping, which can be broken up whenever the command- 
 ing officer thinks fit. The household troops, comprising the horse guards, lifeguards, 
 and foot guards, are sometimes called the household brigade. 
 
 BRIGADE MAJOR is a military officer who exercises duties, in a brigade, analogous; 
 to those of the adjutant of a regiment. He attends to matters of discipline, and to the 
 personal movements of the men. When regiments or battalions are brigaded, a B. 
 M. is appointed, usually from among the captains. He conveys orders, keeps the 
 rollster or roster, inspects guards and pickets, and directs exercises and evolutions ; but 
 he nevertheless remains on the books of a particular regiment, and returns to his regi- 
 mental duties when the B. is broken up. 
 
 BRIGADIER, or Brigadier-General, is an officer of a regiment (usually a col. 
 or lieut.coL), who, for a limited time and for a special service, is placed upon brigade 
 duties. He is then a general or commander of a brigade, which usually contains his 
 own regiment as one of the number. When the brigade is broken up, he falls back to 
 his colonelcy, unless his services lead to his promotion to the rank of maj.gen. 
 
 BRIGANDINE, among the articles of armor worn during the middle ages, was an 
 assemblage of small plates of iron, sewed upon quilted linen or leather, and covered with 
 a similar substance to hide the glittering of the metal. It formed a sort of coat or 
 tunic. The B. was named from the hrigans, a kind of light-armed irregular corps, 
 employed something like the Cossacks and Baslii-bazouks of recent days, and, like them, 
 addicted to marauding and pilfering ; hence the word brigand. 
 
 BRIGAN'TES. See Britannia. 
 
 BRIG-BRIG' ANTINE. A brig is a square-rigged vessel with two masts. A brigan- 
 tine, or hermaphrodite brig, is a two-masted vessel, with the mainmast of a schooner and 
 tlie foremast of a brig. A brig’s mainsail is the lowest squaresail on the mainmast, 
 whereas the mainsail of a brigantine is a fore-and-aft sail like that of a schooner. 
 
 Briggs, Charles Frederick, 1810-77; b. Mass.; a journalist and author known 
 as “Harry Franco.” He started the Broadway Journal, in New York, of which Edgar A. 
 Poe became an associate editor the year following its establishment; and in 1853 he 
 became the first editor of Putnam's Magazine, which he conducted for several years. At 
 a later period he was connected with the New York Times. Some of his works are Tlte 
 Adventures of Harry i\anw, The Haunted Merchant-, ihe Trippings of Tom Pepper . 
 His latest editorial work w\as done upon the Brooklyn Union and The Independent, with 
 the latter of which he was connected at the time of his death. 
 
 BRIGGS, George Nixon, ll.d., 1796-1861; b. Mass.; a lawyer and judge, member 
 of congress, and for two terms governor of Massachusetts. He was for some time pres- 
 ident of the Baptist missionary union. 
 
 BRIGGS, Henry, a distinguished mathematician, was b. in 1556, at "Warleywood, 
 near Halifax, Yorkshire, and studied at St. John’s college, Cambridge. In 1596, he was 
 appointed first reader in geometry at Gresham house (afterwards college), London, and 
 in 1619 first Savilian professor of geometry in Oxford. This office he retained till the 
 time of his death, which took place at Oxford, Jan. 26, 1631. B. made an important 
 contribution to the theory of logarithms, of which he constructed invaluable tables. 
 Napier the inventor had, in 1614, published a table of the so-called natural logarithms, 
 when B. observed that anotlier system, in which tlie logarithm of 10 should be taken as 
 \inity, would afford great facilities of calculation. Napier admitted the improvement 
 
59 
 
 Brlerly. 
 
 Brightening. 
 
 on his own system, and intended to assist in carrying the plan into effect; but died in 
 1618, when the whole work was left to Briggs. In the same year he published his Cliiliai 
 Prima Logaritlimorum, containing the first thousand natural numbers calculated to eight 
 decimal places, and in 1624 published his Arithmetica Logarithmica, the fruit of many 
 years of unwearied application, and giving the logarithms of natural numbers from 1 to 
 ^0,000, and from 90,000 to 101,000, with 15 places. His system of logarithms is that 
 now commonly adopted. Leaving others to carry out his calculations, for which he had 
 provided every facility, he next employed himself on a table of logarithms of sines and 
 tangents, carried to the hundredth part of a degree, and to 15 places, which, with a table 
 of natural sines, tangents, and secants, was posthumously published at Gouda, in Hoi - 
 land, 1633, under the title of Trigonometria Britannica. 
 
 BRIGHAM, Amariah, 1798-1849; b. Mass.; a physician who devoted great atten- 
 tion to the cause and cure of insanity. He was superintendent of the retreat for 
 the insane in Hartford, Conn., and of the New York state asylum. While at the latter 
 institution he gave lectures and established the Journal of Insanity. Among his 
 works are Mental Gultivation and Excitement; The Influence of Religion upon the Health 
 ■and Physical Welfare of Mankind; and The Anatomy, Physiology, and Pathology of the 
 Brain. 
 
 BRIGHAMIA, plants of the lobelia family discovered in the Sandwich islands. The 
 B. indgnis bears sweet-scented, showy, and abundant flowers which last for several 
 months. It is a favorite in English conservatories. The juice is said to be a specific 
 for some cutaneous diseases. 
 
 BRIGHT, Jesse D., b. New York, 1812. Early in life he settled in Indiana as a 
 lawyer, and became state senator and lieutenant-governor. In 1845, he was elected to 
 the United States senate, where he served 18 years. In 1862, he was expelled from the 
 senate for having written to Jefferson Davis as “ President of the Confederate States,” 
 recommending to him a man who desired to furnish arms for the rebels. 
 
 BRIGHT, John, a popular politician, first brought into notice by the anti-corn-law 
 agitation, son of Jacob Bright, a Quaker cotton spinner and manufacturer at Rochdale, 
 Lancashire, was b. at Greenbank, near that town. Nov. 16, 1811. In 1835, he made a 
 foreign tour, which included a journey to Palestine, and, on his return, delivered before 
 a literary institution at Rochdale, of which he was one of the founders, lectures on the 
 subject of his travels, and on topics connected with commerce and political economy. 
 When the anti-corn-law league was formed in 1839, he was one of its leading members, 
 and, with Mr. Cobden, engaged in an extensive free-trade agitation throughout the 
 kingdom. In the spring of 1843, he offered himself as a condidate for the representa- 
 tion of Durham, and, though at first unsuccessful, he became, in July of the same year, 
 M.P. for that city. At all times an animated and effective speaker, B. was incessant, 
 both at public meetings and in parliament, in his opposition to the corn laws, until they 
 were finally repealed. In 1845, he obtained the appointment of a select committee of the 
 bouse of commons on the game laws, and also one on the subject of cotton cultivation 
 in India. An abridgment of the-evidence taken before the former, ’published in one 
 volume, contained from his pen an Address to the Tenant Farmers of Great Britain, 
 strongly condemning the existing game laws. At the general election of 1847, he was 
 elected one of the members for Mancnester. He co-operated with Mr. Cobden in the 
 movement in favor of financial reform. On the formation of the first Derby ministry, 
 Feb. 27, 1852, B. aided in the temporary reorganization of the corn-law league, in favor 
 of the principles of free trade; and at the general election which followed, was re-elected 
 for Manchester. A member of the peace society, and strenuously opposed to the war 
 with Russia in 1854, B. was one of the meeting of the society of Friends, by whom a 
 deputation was sent to the emperor Nicholas to urge upon him the maintenance of peace; 
 and in 1855 he energetically denounced the Crimean war. A severe illness compelled 
 him to withdraw for a time to the continent, and in his absence he was rejected by Man- 
 chester. Elected in 1857 for Birmingham, he seconded the motion against the second 
 reading of the conspiracy bill, w^hich led to the overthrow of lord Palmerston’s govern- 
 ment. His name then became chiefly associated with the movement for reforming the 
 electoral representation, which resulted in the act of 1867. In 1868, he accepted otfice as 
 president of the board of trade, but in 1870 was again obliged to retire, in consequence 
 of severe illness. His health having been partially restored, he held office in 1873-74 as 
 chancellor of the duchv of Lancaster. A collection of his Speeches was published in 
 1868. 
 
 BRIGHT, Richard, 1789-1858; an English physician educated at Edinburgh; prac- 
 ticed with great success in London, becoming physician to Guy’s hospital. His specialty 
 was morbid anatomy and the connection between morbid symptoms and alterations of 
 structure of the internal organs. He discovered that an albuminous condition of the 
 urine, accompanied with dropsical effusions, was dependent on a peculiar degeneration 
 of the kidneys, whence the disease in which these conditions occur was called Bright’s 
 disease. His publications on this topic were made in 1836-40. 
 
 BRIGHTENING, in calico-printing, is the operation of rendering the colors of printed 
 fabrics more bright or brilliant, by boiling them in solutions of sod^a and other materials. 
 
Brighton. 
 
 Brindisi. 
 
 60 
 
 BRIGHTON, a former t. in Middlesex co., Mass., 4 m. w. of Boston on the Albany 
 and Boston railroad; pop. ’70, 4957. It is famous as the great cattle-market of Boston 
 and the east. It has besides some manufacturing establishments. Since 1873 it has. 
 been a part of Boston. 
 
 BRIGHTON, originally Brighthelmstone, a t. and a celebrated watering-place on the 
 sea-coast of Sussex, 50i m. s. of London. It is built on a slope ascending eastward to a 
 range of high chalk-cliffs (backed by the South Downs), bounding the coast as far as 
 Beachy Head; to the west, these hills recede from the coast, and leave a long stretch of 
 sands. Anciently, Brighthelmstone was a mere fishing-village on a level und^erthe cliff; 
 and more than once it was burnt and plundered by French marauders. It was fortified 
 by Henry VIII., and more strongly by Elizabeth; but the sea proved more dangerous 
 than the French, and now washes over the site of the village of those days. The inroads, 
 of the sea in 1699, 1703, and 1705, undermined many cliffs and destroyed many houses. 
 Its further inroads are prevented by a sea-wall of great strength (60 ft. high, 23 ft. thick: 
 at the base, and 2 m. long), extending along the cliffs, and built at the cost of £100,000. 
 The writings of Dr. Russel, a celebrated physician of George II. ’s time, first drew pub- 
 lic attention to B. as an eligible watering-place, and the discovery of a chalybeate spring 
 in the vicinity increased its popularity. The visit of the prince of Wales in 1782, and 
 his subsequent yearly residence there, finally opened the eyes of the fashionable world 
 to its immense attractions, and B. thenceforth became the crowded resort of a health- 
 seeking population. Its progress has been very rapid, and the town is still steadily 
 increasing. B. is for the most part extremely well built, as becomes a favored retreat 
 of wealth and aristocracy. It mostly consists of new and elegant streets, squares, and 
 terraces. The hotels are magnificent. A range of splendid houses fronts the sea for 
 nearly 3 m., including the famous sea-wall, and the beach is easily accessible by gaps in 
 the chalk-cliffs. Formerly, trees were a great rarity in B. ; but within the last tldrty 
 years they have been planted both in and around the town, and are now to be seen of 
 considerable size in the North Steyne Inclosures, the Level, and the Queen’s park. 
 Pop. in 1801, 7339; in ’21, 24,429; in ’51, 65,569; in ’71, 90,011. B. returns two mem- 
 bers to parliament. The population is greatly increased during the fashionable season 
 by the influx of visitors. The town was incorporated in 1854. Living and house-rent are 
 about a third higher than in London. Near the center of the town is the pavilion or 
 marine palace, a fantastic oriental or Chinese structure, with domes, minarets, and pin- 
 nacles, and Moorish stables, begun for the prince of Wales in 1784, and finished in 1827. 
 It is now the property of the corporation of B., and with its fine pleasure-grounds of 
 above seven acres, it is devoted to the recreation of the inhabitants. It stands in th-^ 
 Steyne, an open space between the e. and w. parts of the town. The marine parade, a 
 fine terrace, extends about a m. along the margin of the cliff, between the Steyne and 
 Kemp town, a handsome district on the east. Westward, there is a similar parade or 
 promenade, extending a great length in front of the more modern part of the town, and 
 here there is daily a large and fashionable concourse. There are two piers — a chain pie * 
 on the e., opposite the marine parade, and a broad wooden pier on piles on the w. ; both 
 are used for promenading. A magnificent aquarium; 715 ft. in length, was opened in 
 1872. B. has no maritime trade. It is reputedly a town for recreation and sea-bathmg 
 Its only defect is a want of trees to shade the promenades; the sea-breeze being adverse 
 to the growth of trees. B. possesses several large public hotels, and is more particularly 
 noted for its excellent private hotels or boarding houses, locally known as “mansions.” 
 B. is connected with London, and also with the towns along the coast, by railways. 
 From its salubrity, the town abounds in boarding-schools. 
 
 BRIGHT’S DISEASE (of the kidneys), so called after the English physician, Dr. 
 Bright, who first investigated its character, consists of a degeneration of the tissues of 
 the kidney into fat, and will be better understood after the anatomy of the organ has. 
 been studied. Suffice it to say now, that this degenerated condition impairs the excret- 
 ing powers of the organ, so that the urea is not sufficiently separated from the blood. 
 The flow of the latter, when charged with this urea, is retarded through the minute ves - 
 sels, congestion ensues, and exudation of albumen and fibrin is the result. When we 
 apply heat to the urine from a kidney so affected, it becomes opaque, showing that it 
 contained albumen (q.v.); and on examining a drop of it under the microscope, we 
 observe the exuded lymph mixed with epithelium in the form of casts of the small ducts 
 of the diseased organ. The patient presents a flabby, bloodless look, is drowsy, and 
 easily fatigued. The disease may succeed any of the eruptive fevers, and is frequently 
 associated with enlargement of the heart. 
 
 The causes of this terrible malady are any which cause congestion of the kidneys- 
 indulgence in strong drinks, long- continued suppuration, exposure to wet and cold, the 
 exanthematous fevers, and pregnancy. The indications for treatment are, to remove any 
 of those causes wdiich may be present, rectify the other secretions, relieve any temporary 
 congestion of the kidneys, at the same time endeavoring to increase the number of red 
 blood globules by the administration of iron and vegetable bitters. And in the advanced 
 stages, when the blood is poisoning the nervous centers, attempts should be made to 
 restore the secretion of urine by administering diuretics (q.v.), by giving hydrochloric 
 
61 
 
 Srig^hton. 
 
 Brindisi. 
 
 ntid vegetable acids, sponging the patient with vinegar, and relieving the congestion of 
 ihe brain by purgatives and local bleeding. 
 
 BRIGITTINES, or Order of Our Saviour, founded in 1344, as a branch of the Augus^ 
 tinians, by St. Brigida or Brigitta, of Sweden, There were both monks and nuns who 
 inhabited contiguous buildings, but were said never to see each other. Temporal affairs, 
 were supervised by the nuns; spiritual by the monks. The northern kingdoms of 
 Europe had monasteries of this order, but the reformation swept them away. Henry V. 
 founded one house near London; Henry VIII. suppressed it; Mary re-established it; 
 and Elizabeth finally suppressed it. There are now no monks of the order. A few con- 
 vents existed in 1860 in Bavaria, Poland, and elsewhere. 
 
 BEIQNOLES, a t. in the department of Yar, France, beautifully situated in a fertile 
 valley, surrounded by forest-clad hills, and watered by a stream called the Calami, about 
 2'Z m. w.s.w. of Draguignan. B., which is a very salubrious place, has manufactures of 
 broadcloth, silk twist, soap, leather, pottery, etc. ; and a trade in wines, brandy, olives, 
 and prunes. » Pop. ’76, 5164. 
 
 BEIHTTE'GA, a t. of Kew Castile, Spain, 20 m. e.n.e. of Guadalajara, is situated on the 
 Tajuna, and was formerly surrounded by walls, of which traces still exist. The remains 
 of an old Moorish fortress now serve as a cemetary. B. has manufactures of woolens, 
 linen, glass, and leather. Pop. 4500. Here, in 1710, during the war of the succession, 
 the English general Stanhope, owing to the dilatoriness of his allies in affording him 
 support, was defeated by the Duke de Vendome, and compelled to surrender, wdth all 
 Ills force, amounting to about 5500 men. 
 
 BEIL, the name of two Dutch painters. — Matth.®us B., b. at Antwerp, 1550, went 
 during his youth to Italy, and, under the patronage of pope Gregory XIII., painted 
 several frescos in the Vatican. He was also distinguished as a historical and landscape 
 painter. He died in 1584. His more celebrated younger brother, Paul B., b. 1554 or 
 1556, received instruction under Matthaeus in Rome, and soon excelled his master. His 
 pieces were at first conceived in the fantastic style which then prevailed ; but gradually 
 his style increased in power and beauty, until it exerted a striking influence over land- 
 scape-painting. The 'works of his riper age exhibit high poetical qualities, and a fine 
 appreciation of the effects of light in the sky, which have been described as but little 
 inferior to those of his great successor, Claude Lorraine. They have a character of sol- 
 emn rest and calmness, and at times even an elegiac tone of melancholy, which well 
 accords with representations of the glories of fallen Rome. A collection of excellent 
 landscapes by B. is found in the palace Rospigliosi in Rome, and two beautiful land- 
 scapes enrich the gallery of the Pitti palace, Florence. Besides landscapes, B. painted 
 scenes from Biblical history; among themi the “ Tower of Babel,” now in the Berlin 
 museum. Other pictures by B. are found in the galleries of Munich, Vienna, and the 
 Louvre. He died at Rome in 1626. 
 
 BEILL, Rliomhus vulgaris, a fish of the same genus with the turbot (q.v.), found in 
 considerable abundance on some parts of the British coasts, and common in the markets, 
 of the larger towns. It resembles the turbot more than any other British species of this 
 genus, but is at once distinguished by its inferior breadth, which (excluding the fins) is 
 only equal to half its entire lengthy by the want of tubercles on the upper wsurface ; by a 
 few of the most anterior rays of the dorsal fin being elongated beyond the membrane; 
 and by the coloring, which is reddish sandy-brown on the upper side, varied with darker 
 brown and sprinkled with white pearly spots, the under side being (as in the turbot) 
 white. The B. is taken both in sandy bays and in deep water. Although considered 
 very inferior to the turbot, it is yet much esteemed for the table. It seldom or never 
 attains so great a size as the turbot, rarely exceeding 8 lbs. in weight. 
 
 BRILL AT-SAVARIX, Anthelme, 1755-1826; a French author, deputy in the 
 states-general in 1789; judge of the court of cassation in 1792; the next year mayor of 
 Bellay, but obliged to fly from the revolution. He came to New York, where he lived for 
 three years, teaching French and playing in the orchestra of a theater. He returned to 
 France in 1796, and under the consulate again became a judge. He wrote on political 
 economy, and on the archaeology of the department of Ain, but is best known by his 
 Physiology of Taste. 
 
 BEILLIANT is a popular name given to the diamond when cut in a particular way 
 See Diamond. 
 
 BEIMSTONE (Saxon hrenne-stone, a stone that burns) is the commercial name for 
 sulphur (q.v.), in sticks or rolls. 
 
 BEIN'DISI (the ancient Brundisiuni or Brundusium), a seaport t. of southern Italy, 
 in the province of Lecce, is situated on a small promontory in a bay of the Adriatic sea, 
 about 45 m. e.n.e. of Taranto. B. is a city of very great antiquity. It was taken from, 
 the Sallentines by the Romans 267 b.c., who some 20 years later established a colony 
 here. The town, partly owing to the fertility of the country, but chiefly on account of its 
 excellent port — consisting of an inner and outer harbor, the former perfectly landlocked, 
 and capable of containing the largest fleets and of easy defense on account of its narrow’’ 
 entrance, and the latter also very well sheltered — rapidly increased in w’ealth and 
 
Krindley. 
 
 Srisban*. 
 
 62 
 
 importance. It soon oecame the principal naval station of the Romans in the Adriatic. 
 In 230 B.C., B. was the starting-place of the Roman troops that took part in the first 
 Illyrian war ; and from this point the Romans nearly always directed subsequent wars 
 with Macedonia, Greece, and Asia. And when the Roman power had been firmly estab- 
 lished beyond the Adriatic, B. became a city second to none in south Italy in com- 
 mercial importance. Horace, who accompanied Antony in a hostile movement on 
 B. in 41 B.C., has made the journey the subject of one of his satires {Sat. i. 5). Virgil 
 died here in 19 b.c., on his return from Greece. The city appears to have retained its 
 importance until the fall of the empire, but it suffered greatly in the wars which fol- 
 lowed. When the Normans became possessed of it in the 11th c., the Crusaders made it 
 their chief port for embarkation to the Holy Land; but with the decline of the crusades, 
 B. sank into comparative insignificance as a naval station. The city subsequently 
 suffered greatly from wars and earthquakes. The principal buildings are the cathedral, 
 where the emperor Frederick II. was married to Yolanda in 1225; and the castle, com- 
 menced by Frederick II., and finished by Charles V. The district around B. is still 
 remarkable for its fertility, olive oil being produced in large quantities. Some years ago, 
 B. was constituted an entrepot for foreign goods. Since the establishment of the over- 
 land route to India, B. has greatly increased, being the most convenient point of 
 departure for the east from northern and central Europe. The extensive and well- 
 sheltered harbor has undergone great improvement, and a substantial bulwark has been 
 built across the n. arm to prevent it from being filled with sand. In 1874, 939 vessels, of 
 380,069 tons, cleared the port. Pop. 9105. 
 
 BRINDLEY, James, an eminent English mechanic and engineer, b. in Thornsett, near 
 Chapelen-le-Firth, Derbyshire, in 1716. Apprenticed at 17 to a millwright, he after- 
 wards became an engineer, and in 1752 showed great ingenuity in contriving a water- 
 -engine for draining a coal-mine. A silk-mill on a new plan, and several others of his 
 works, recommended him to the duke of Bridgewater (q.v.), who employed him to 
 execute the canal between Worsley and Manchester. Thenceforth he devoted his great 
 skill and genius to the construction of navigable canals; commenced the Grand Trunk, 
 and completed the Birmingham, Chesterfield, and others. Once, when under examina- 
 tion before a committee of the house of commons, being jocularly asked for w’hat pur- 
 ])ose he supposed rivers to have been created, he is said to have replied: “ Undoubtedly 
 to feed navigable canals.” He died in 1772. 
 
 BRINE is the term applied to water highly impregnated with common salt, and Brine 
 Springs are those natural waters containing much salt, which in many parts of the 
 world gush out from fissures in the ground. See Salt 
 
 BRINE-SHRIMP, Artemia salina, a small crustacean, of the order hmncMopoda (q.v.), 
 which, unlike the greater number of animals of that order, is an inhabitant not of fresh 
 but of salt water, and is indeed remarkable, because it is to be found in myriads swim- 
 ming about in the brine of salt-pans previous to boiling, when, having been concentrated 
 by exposure to sun and air for about a fortnight, it destroys the life of almost all other 
 marine animals. The full-grown B. is about half an inch lo^ng. The little animal is 
 almost transparent, and is extremely active and graceful in its movements. The work- 
 men at salt-pans so confidently ascribe to it the rapid clearing of the brine in which it 
 occurs, that when it does not appear in their salterns, they transport a f e w from other 
 salterns. They multiply with extraordinary rapidity. 
 
 BRINJAREE DOG, a rough-haired or long-haired variety of greyhound (q.v.), used in 
 the Deccan, and said to be the best of the hunting-dogs of India. It is said to be superior 
 in size and strength to the Persian greyhound, but not to be equal to the British grey- 
 hound in swiftness. It is generally of a yellowish or tan color. 
 
 BRINVILLIERS, Marie Marguerite, Marquise de, notorious as a poisoner in the 
 time of Louis XIV., was the daughter of Dreux d’Aubray, lieutenant of Paris, and re- 
 ceived a careful education. In 1651, she was married, while still young, to the marquis 
 de Brinvilliers. This nobleman seems to have been a gay and careless spendthrift, who 
 allowed his wife to do very much as she pleased. He even introduced to her a young 
 officer named Jean Baptiste de Gaudin, Seigneur de St. Croix, who was exceedingly 
 handsome, and who inspired her vith a violent passion. Her easy husband, however, 
 was wholly indifferent to his wife’s conduct ; but her father, who seems to have had a 
 stricter sense of duty, caused St. Croix to be arrested and imprisoned in the Bastile. It 
 was here the latter learned the art of preparing poisons, from an Italian, and on his 
 release he imparted his fatal knowledge to his mistress, who, during his incarceration, 
 had affected the greatest piety, spending most of her time in visiting the hospitals and 
 in attending the sick. The marchioness now resolved to destroy her father. _ St. Croix 
 eagerly abetted her, in the hope of obtaining a portion of the paternal inheritance; but 
 in order to test the efficacy of the poison, she tried its effects upon the invalids of the 
 hotel Dieu. Having satisfied herself, she commenced operations on her parent, kissing 
 and poisoning him continually for eight months, until her diabolical patience was 
 exhausted, and she was at last induced to administer a very violent dose. He died, and 
 no one suspected the marchioness. With St. Croix’s assistance, and that of a domestic 
 servant, Jean Amelin, alias Chaussee, she next poisoned, with the same fearful indiffer- 
 
68 
 
 Brindley* 
 
 Brisbane* 
 
 ence to crime, her two brothers and her sisters; her object being to find means of sup- 
 porting her extravagant style of living with her paramour. Several times she attempted 
 to poison the marquis, her husband ; but he escaped, and, as was said, by means of anti- 
 dotes given by St. Croix, who dreaded that he should be compelled to marry the widow. 
 St. Croix died suddenly in 1672 — his glass mask having fallen off while he was engaged 
 in preparing a poison — leaving documents inculpating the marchioness. She was also- 
 accused about the same time by her accomplice Chaussee, who being arrested, confessed 
 all, and was condemned to be broken alive. The marchioness escaped to England ; 
 afterwards she traveled into Germany, and next went to Liege, where she took refuge 
 in a convent. From this, however, she was craftily decoyed by an officer of justice dis- 
 guised as an abbe, and conveyed to Paris. Among her papers was found a general con- 
 fession of her crimes, including the above-mentioned murders, and many others. One 
 strange confession stated that, out of pity for a virtuous young lady who had been 
 imprisoned in a convent, the marchioness had poisoned a whole family ! It is a singular 
 fact, that this infamous woman was a bigot in her religious tenets, and was quite exem- 
 plary in her attendance at church. At her trial in Paris, she at first denied all chargea 
 brought against her, and pretended that the “ general confession” had been written dur- 
 ing the insanity caused by a fever; but after being put to the torture, she made a full 
 confession, and was beheaded, July 16, 1676. Her career had excited such terror in 
 France, that Louis XIV. instituted a distinct tribunal, the chambre ardente (q.v.), to 
 investigate cases of poisoning by the “ succession powder” used by the marchioness. 
 
 BRION, Gustave, b. 1824; a French painter. Among his chief works are “The 
 Potato Harvest during the Inundation,” “ A Funeral in the Vosges,” “ A Marriage in 
 Alsace,” and “ The Sixth Day of Creation.” The latter has been exhibited in New York. 
 
 BRION, Luis, 1782-1821 ; an admiral in the Colombian service, who served in the 
 army of Holland, studied navigation in the United States, and in 1811 was appointed 
 captain of a frigate in the service of Caraccas. Subsequently he fitted out a fleet by bis- 
 own exertions and drove the Spaniards from the island of Margarita. He was also dis- 
 tinguished in the conquest of Guiana, and at Cartagena and Santa Marta. 
 
 BRIOUDE, a t. of 'France, in the department of Haute-Loire, situated near the left 
 bank of the river Allier, about 29 m. n.w. of Le Puy. It occupies the site of Brivas, a, 
 town of the ancient Averni. Its principal buildings are the college and the church of 
 St. Julien, founded in the 9th c., on the site of a still more ancient edifice erected on the 
 spot where the saint was martyred. B. has manufactures of linen and woolen, and a 
 trade in the agricultural produce of the district. Lafayette was born here. Pop. ’76, 
 4643. 
 
 BRISBANE. 1. B., an inland co. of Queensland, about 120 m. n.n.w. of Sydney. — 
 2. B., a seaport, the capital of Queensland, about 640 m. n. of Sydney. It stands near 
 the mouth of a river of its own name, which falls into Moreton bay. Regular steam 
 communication is kept up with Sydney and other Australian ports. B. possesses some 
 fine buildings, among the chief of which are the houses of legislature, which cost 
 £100,000, the post-office, and the viceregal lodge. There are 81 churches. Pop. ’76, 
 26,911. — 3. B., the river just mentioned. It rises in the main ridge which divides the 
 rivers of the interior from those of the coast. — All the foregoing are named after the 
 subject of the succeeding article. 
 
 BRISBANE, General Sir Thomas Makdougal, a distinguished soldier and astronomer,, 
 was b. at Brisbane, the hereditary seat of his family, near Largs, Ayrshire, July 23, 1773. 
 At the early age of 16 he entered the army as an ensign, and in the following year, when 
 quartered in Ireland, he formed an intimate acquaintance with Arthur Wellesley, after- 
 wards duke of Wellington. With a company he had raised in Glasgow in 1793, B. took 
 part in all the engagements of the campaign in Flanders; and in the West Indies, to- 
 which he was sent in 1796, he greatly distinguished himself under sir Ralph Abercromby. 
 He afterwards served in the West Indies as col. of the 69th; and in 1812 obtained 
 command of a brigade under the duke of Wellington in Spain. For his conspicuous 
 bravery at the battle of the Nive he received the thanks of parliament. When Napoleon 
 abdicated, B. was sent in command of a brigade to North America, from whence he was 
 recalled in 1815, but too late to admit of his being present at Waterloo. In 1821, B. , on 
 the recommendation of his friend the duke, was appointed governor of New South 
 Wales, a position he held for four years, during which time he introduced many wise- 
 reforms, especially in penal treatment; secured at his own expense good breeds of horses 
 for the colony ; promoted the cultivation of the sugar-cane, vine, tobacco, and cotton ; 
 and left at the close of his administration — which was marked by perfect tolerance and 
 protection of all classes of Christians — 50,000 acres of cleared land where he had found only 
 25,000. ^ But high asB. ranks as a soldier and administrator, as a man of science he holds 
 a still higher place. While in Australia, he catalogued no less than 7385 stars, for which 
 great work — known as “ the Brisbane Catalogue of Stars” — he received the Copleys 
 medal from the royal society. On his return to Scotland, he had an astronomical 
 observatory established at his residence at Makerstoun, and devoted himself entirely to« 
 scientific pursuits. He entered warmly into the plans of the British association for ascer- 
 taining the laws of the earth’s magnetism, and in 1841 had a splendid magnetic observatory 
 
'Brissot. 
 
 Bristol. 
 
 64 
 
 erected at Makerstoun, the observations made there filling three large volumes, published 
 in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, of which he was president, having 
 been elected on the death of sir Walter Scott. He founded two gold medals for scientific 
 merit — one in the award of the royal society, the other in that of the society of arts. 
 He died Jan. 27, 1860. 
 
 BKISSOT, Jean Pierre, one of the first movers in the outbreak of the French revo- 
 lution, and afterwards numbered among its victims, was b. at Chartres in 1754, and 
 ■educated for the bar. After completing his studies at Paris, he went into the oflSce of a 
 procurator, but quickly abandoned the legal profession for the more congenial one of 
 authorship. From his earliest years he had devoted himself with passionate eagerness 
 to literary studies, especially history, economy, and politics, and, among the other lingual 
 accomplishments, acquired a thorough mastery of English. His first work, Theorie des 
 Lois Criminelles (1780), gained the approbation of Voltaire and D’Alembert, and was 
 followed by his Bibliotheque des Lois Criminelles, which established his reputation as a 
 jurist. Having removed to London, he there started a learned journal, under the title 
 Lyceum, for which, however, he found no adequate support. He therefore returned to 
 Paris, and soon afterwards was imprisoned in the Bastile, on a charge of havir^ written 
 ngainst the queen a brochure, which, in fact, was penned by the marquis de Pelleport, 
 After four months in the Bastile, he was liberated through the intervention of Madame 
 •de Genlis and the duke of Orleans. B. continued to write tracts on finance, etc., but his 
 love of freedom and vehement hatred of despotism again involved him in danger, and, 
 to escape from a lettr e-de-cachet, he was once more compelled to retire to England. He 
 afterwards visited North America, as representative of the Societe des Amis des JVoirs. 
 On his return to France, he zealously assisted in the outbreak of the revolution, and was 
 in consequence elected by the citizens of Paris their representative in the constituent 
 assembly, where he exercised a predominant influence over all the early movements of 
 the revolution. He also established a journal, called Xd Patriote Frangais, which became 
 the recognized organ of the earliest republicans ; and, through his superior knowledge of 
 politics and the usages of constitutional countries, he gathered round him all the young 
 men of talent and spirit who were opposed to the court-theory of absolute sovereignty. 
 It thus happened that, without his being formally considered the head of a party, all 
 the movements of the early revolutionists were profoundly influenced by him, and he 
 incurred the bitter hatred of the court reactionists, who affixed the nickname of Brissotins 
 to all the advocates of reform. Afterwards, the Brissotins formed the Girondist party. 
 In the convention, B. was representative of the department Eure-et-Loir. Here his 
 moderation made him suspected as a friend of royalty, as he opposed the “men of Sep- 
 tember” and the trial and condemnation of the king. When Louis XVI. heard his doom 
 iironounced, he exclaimed: “ I believed that Brissot would have saved me!” But B. 
 was weak enough to imagine that the best way to save the king would be to vote first 
 for his death, and tlien appeal to the nation. B. and his party, which was perhaps the 
 purest in principle and the weakest in action, ultimately fell before the fierce accusations 
 of the Mountain, or Jacobin party, which believed, or at least pretended to believe, that the 
 virtuous B. had received money from the court to employ against the revolution. With 
 20 other Girondists, B. suffered death under the guillotine, Oct. 30, 1793. 
 
 BRISTED, Charles Astor, son of the Rev. John Bristed, grandson of John Jacob 
 Astor, b. N. Y., 1820. He was educated at Yale and at Trinity college, Cambridge, 
 Eng., graduating in 1845. For several years he was a contributor to periodical litera- 
 ture over the signature of “ Carl Benson.” He was one of the first board of trustees of 
 the Astor library. Among his collected works are : The Upper Ten Thousand of New 
 York; Selections from Catullus; Fire Years in an English Unirersity; The Interference The- 
 ory of the Oorernment ; and Letter to Horace Mann, in which he replied to attacks upon 
 John Jacob Astor and Stephen Girard. 
 
 BRISTED, John, 1778-1855; b. England; clergyman and author, who practiced law 
 in New York, and married John Jacob Astor’s daughter. In 1829, he became rector of 
 an Episcopal church in Rhode Island. He published Edward and Anna, a novel ; The 
 Resources of the United States ; Thoughts on Anglican and American Churches, etc. 
 
 BRISTLES, the strong hairs growing on the back of the hog and wild-boar, and exten 
 lively used in the manufacture of brushes, and also by shoemakers and saddlers. They 
 form an important article of British import, between 2 and 3 million pounds being annu- 
 ally imported, chiefly from Russia and Germany ; but they are also obtained from France 
 and Belgium, and'small quantities of inferior quality have recently been received from 
 C'hina. From Russia, the average annual value of B. imported into Britain is £300,000, 
 Liberia alone supplying about £150,000. Russian B. vary in value from £6 to £60 per 
 cwt. From Germany, about £100,000 worth per annum is received, varying from £6 
 ^’^er cwt. to £35 per cwt. From France and Belgium, about £20,000, varying in value 
 ^rom 2s. to about 4s. M. per pound. The quality of B. depends on the length, stiffness, 
 color, and straightness — white being the most valuable. The best bristles are produced 
 by pigs that inhabit cold countries. The Russian hog is a long, spare animal, and the 
 \h inner the hog, the longer and stiff er the bristles. When the Russian hog is sent to the 
 iouth and fattened, the B. become soft, and of course depreciated in value. In the sum- 
 mer, the hogs are driven in herds through the forests, to feed on soft roots, etc., when 
 
65 
 
 Drissot. 
 
 Bristol* 
 
 they shed their B. by rubbing themselves against the trees. The B. are then collected, 
 sewed up in horse or ox hides, and sent to fairs, whence they find their way, through 
 agents, to all countries. 
 
 BRISTOL, a co. in s.e. Mass., bordering on Rhode Island and the ocean, 517 sq.m. ; 
 pop. ’75, 131,087; in ’80, 139,121. It is drained by Pawtucket and Taunton rivers, and 
 has nearly 20 m. of sea-coast. There is considerable agriculture, but the main business 
 is manufacturing of cotton, wool, etc. There are four railroads intersecting the various 
 parts of the county. Co. seat, Taunton. 
 
 BRISTOL, a co. in e. Rhode Island, bordering on Mass. ;25 sq. m.; pop. ’80, 11,394. 
 It has an uneven surface, with some fine scenery, and fertile soil. Two railroads traverse 
 its territory. Co. seat, Bristol. 
 
 BRISTOL, at. in Hartford co.. Conn., 18 m. w.s.w. of Hartford, on the Fishkill 
 railroad ; has great clock factories, foundries, machine-shops, etc. Pop. ’80, 5347. 
 
 BRISTOL, a t. in Bucks co., Penn., on the Delaware, about 20 m, above Philadelphia, 
 opposite Burlington, N. J. ; pop. ’70, 3269. It is at the terminus of the Delaware branch 
 of the Pennsylvania canal, and has railroad connection with New York and Phila- 
 delphia. 
 
 BRISTOL, a t. in Rhode Island, on the peninsula dividing Mt. Hope and Narra- 
 ganset bays, 16 m. s.e. from Providence; pop. ’70, 5302; in ’80, 6028. The town is 
 interesting as the site of the residence of king Philip, the great Narraganset chief, who 
 was slain here in 1676. B. is a port of entry, has a large manufacturing interest, and is 
 much frequented as a place of summer resort. In the revolutionary war it was bom- 
 barded by the English, and the greater part of the village was burned. 
 
 BEISTOL, an important maritime city in the w. of England, long. 2° 35' 28" w., lat. 
 51° 27' 6" n., upon the rivers Frome and Avon, and partly in the counties of Gloucester 
 and Somerset, joined with the former for ecclesiastical and military purposes, but other- 
 wise a city and co. in itself. The ratable value in 1872 was £851,048. The ancient 
 portion of B. consists almost entirely of shops, warehouses, oflSces, manufactories, and 
 other commercial buildings. The streets are, with few exceptions, narrow and irregu- 
 lar; but great improvements have been effected in them recently at a cost of half a 
 million sterling, and there are many handsome shops, and other buildings of a superior 
 character. Among the latter may be especially mentioned the banking-house of the 
 West of England company, the assize court and guild hall, bank of England, general 
 hospital, Colston hall, and Victoria rooms. A great central terminus has been erected 
 for the various railways. The most remarkable modern structure, however, is the sus- 
 pension bridge over the Avon, at Clifton, which is 702 ft. in span, and 245 ft. above high- 
 water. Among the ancient buildings are the church of St. Mary Redcliffe, the cathe- 
 dral, and Temple church, remarkable for its leaning tower. Some remains still exist of 
 the ancient castle and walls, traces of British encampments at Clifton and Leigh, and 
 considerable Druidic vestiges at Stanton Drew. The modern portions of B., including 
 Clifton, Cotham, Redland, etc., consist of handsome residences, in squares, terraces, 
 crescents, and detached villas, and some creditable specimens of architecture in churches, 
 chapels, assembly and club rooms. The population of B. proper was, in 1871, 62,662, 
 and of the suburban districts, 141,378 — total, 204,040, steadily increasing; total included 
 in the municipal boundary, 182,552. The floating harbor and quays extend for more 
 than a mile through the city, and are formed by embanking and locking the old courses 
 of the rivers, which now flow through a new channel cut at a cost of about £600,000. 
 There were entered inwards with cargoes during the year 1876, 9041 vessels, with a ton- 
 nage of 1,090,106, engaged in the foreign and coasting trade. The clearances outwards 
 show 4496 vessels and 628,170 tons. The customs duties on imports produced in the 
 same year £685,538, against £1,030,132 in 1872. The total value of the imports for 1876 
 was £7,279,147, against £7,057,036 in 1872. The chief trade is with Canada and the 
 United States, West Indies and South America, Portugal, the Mediterranean, Russia, 
 Mauritius, Turkey, France, and w. coast of Africa. The principal exports are iron, tin- 
 plate, copper and brass, coal, salt, and manufactured goods, to the annual value of about 
 £400,000. The manufactures are chiefly cotton goods, glass, refined sugar, earthenware, 
 lead, chemicals, leather, and floor-cloths. The ship-building yards have the reputation 
 of turning out excellent sea-going vessels. The Great Western, the pioneer of steam- 
 communication across the Atlantic, the Great Britain, and the ill-fated Bemerara, were 
 built here. The railways terminating in Bristol are — the Great Western from the e. ; 
 the Midland from the n., with a branch to Bath; the Bristol and Exeter from the w. ; 
 the North Somerset from the s. ; the Great Western line communicating with South 
 Wales, and short branches to Avonmouth and Portishead. B. returns two members to 
 the house of commons; the number of electors was, in 1875, 22,124. The municipal 
 government is vested in a mayor, 16 aldermen, and 48 town-councilors, a lord -lieutenant, 
 and lord high steward. The police arrangements are efficient, and the city has a large 
 jail which is about to be reconstructed on a new site. The benevolent institutions of B. 
 are numerous and well supported. The most important are the infirmary, the general 
 hospital, the blind asylum, orphan asylum, asylum for deaf mutes, alms-houses, reforma- 
 tories, etc., and the extraordinary Ashley Hill asylum, for 2050 orphans, built and main- 
 U. K. III.— 5 
 
I'ristol. 
 
 liritanuia. 
 
 66 
 
 tained without any provision for meeting expenses, except the unsolicited contributiong 
 that happen to be sent to it. Among charitable institutions must also be reckoned thw 
 well-endowed Colston, city, and Red Maids schools, and other free schools. For the 
 better classes, the educational establishments are Clifton college and the grammar school, 
 and many proprietary and private schools; there are also a medical school, fine arts 
 academy, and trade school. Of places of worship in B., 57 belong to the church of 
 England, 29 to Wesleyan communities, 24 to Independents, and about 36 to other sects. 
 The first records of the history of B. speak of it under the ancient British name of Caer- 
 oder; it then became a stronghold of the Romans; on their departure, was again occu- 
 pied by the Britons, until, in 584, the Saxons drove them out, and giving it the name of 
 Brightstowe or Bricstowe, made it a thriving place of trade — aboriginal slaves being a 
 principal item in the commerce. It was sacked by the Danes. Henry III. gave it the 
 rights of a corporate town; Edward III., those of a city and county in itself. In 1247, the 
 parishes of Redcliffe, Temple, and St. Thomas were added to Bristol. During the civil 
 wars, it was alternately taken by royalists and parliamentarians, and by the latter the 
 castle and fortifications were razed. It’ afterwards became the principal port for trade 
 with the West Indies, and carried on a flourishing business in negro slaves. In 1793, 
 the “bridge riots” occurred. In 1804 the docks were begun, and in 1809 they were 
 opened to shipping. In 1831, the “reform bill riots” resulted in the destruction of the 
 bishop’s palace, custom-house, excise-office, jail, toll-houses, a number of private resi- 
 dences, and several lives. The bill itself, by the addition of Clifton, etc., gave the city 
 its present municipal boundaries. Among the names of note identified with the history 
 of B. are those of the Fitzhardinge family; William of Worcester; Canynge, the great 
 merchant and restorer of Redcliffe church; Colston and Whitson, the merchants and 
 philanthropists; Sebastian Cabot, the navigator, said to have anticipated the discovery 
 of America by Columbus; the poets Southey and Chatterton; Lawrence and Baily, art- 
 ists; Sydney Smith, canon of Bristol cathedral; Robert Hall, Coleridge, and Hannah 
 More; the Misses Porter; Dr. Prichard, Dr. Carpenter, and Miss Mary Carpenter. 
 
 BRISTOL BAY, an arm of the Pacific ocean, in Russian America, lying immediately 
 to the n. of the peninsula of Alaska. B. B. receives the waters of two considerable lakes, 
 which, communicating with each other, offer an opening into the interior. 
 
 BRISTOL BRICK, or Bath Brick, formerly made only in Bristol, Eng., but now 
 made in New Hampshire and other parts of the United States. It is composed of fine- 
 grit sand, and used mainly for cleaning and polishing steel surfaces. 
 
 BRISTOL CHANNEL, an inlet of the Atlantic ocean, in the s.w. of England, between 
 South Wales on the n., and Devon and Somerset shires on the s.; or it may be 
 regarded as an extension of the estuary of the river Severn. It is about 80 m. long and 
 5 to 48 m. broad, the greatest breadth being between St. Gowan’s head and Hartland 
 point, its most western and external points, this line passing through Lundy isle. It is 
 the largest inlet or estuary in Britain, having a very irregular coast-line of 220 m., and 
 receiving a drainage of 11,000 sq. miles. The chief rivers which flow into it are the 
 Towy, Taff, Usk, Wye, Severn, Avon, Axe, Parrot, Taw, and Torridge. The tides 
 in it rise to an extraordinary height — at Bristol, 35 ft.; at King’s road, 40; and at 
 Chepstow, sometimes 70. The rapid flow of the tides meeting the currents of the rivers 
 produces, in the narrow parts of the channel, and in the mouths of one or two of the 
 livers which enter it, the phenomenon of the lore, the tide advancing like a wall of 
 water sometimes 6 to 9 ft. high. The chief bays and harbors are, on the n., Caermarthen 
 and Swansea bays, Cardiff roads, the mouths of the Usk and Wye, and the Severn 
 estuary; and on the s.. Bideford or Barnstaple, Morte, Ilfracombe, Combe Martin, Mine- 
 head, Pollock, and Bridgwater. 
 
 BRISTOW, Benjamin H., b. Ky., 1833; practiced law until the commencement of 
 the civil war, when he volunteered and served in the union army, rising to col. On the 
 organization of the department of justice by the federal government he was appointed 
 solicitor-general, in 1873 attorney-general, and 1874-6 secretary of treasury. 
 
 BRISTOW STATION, a village in Virginia, 4 m. s.w.s. of Manassas Junction, 
 where two engagements took place during the rebellion — one Aug. 27, 1862, closed by 
 darkness, and indecisive; and one Oct. 14, 1863, when the Confederates, who made the 
 attack, were repulsed. 
 
 BRIT, Glupea minima (Peck), a species of herring, very small, found in great 
 abundance at certain seasons off the New England coast, where it serves as food for 
 bluefish. It is seldom more than 3 in. long, and is of no importance for the table. 
 
 BRITAIN, Great. See Great Britain. 
 
 BRITAIN, New. See New Britain. 
 
 BRITANNIA (perhaps from Celtic hrith or hrit, painted, the ancient Britons being in 
 the habit of painting their bodies blue with woad), the ancient name of the island of 
 Great Britain (see Britannic^ Insulas). The Romans under Julius Caesar (who wished 
 to chastise the Britons for aiding the Veneti, a tribe in Gaul, against the Roman power) 
 invaded Britain in 55 and 54 b.c, but they did not, for a hundred years afterwards, pro- 
 ceed with vigor to subdue the country. After a desperate resistance by the native 
 
67 
 
 Bristol. 
 
 Britannia* 
 
 British princes, especially Caractacus and Boadicea, the s. half of Britain was conquered 
 by Vespasian, and made a Roman province in the reign of Claudius, about ^ a.d. 
 Agricola, sent by Nero in 79 a.d., consolidated these conquests, and extended the influ- 
 ence of Rome to the firths of Forth and Clyde, between which, in 84 a.d., he erected a 
 chain of forts to repel the inroads of the northern Caledonians, in the line of the stone 
 wall of Antoninus, afterwards erected, in 140 a.d., by Lollius Urbicus. Agricola was 
 the first Roman to sail round the island, and the first Roman general to come in contact 
 with the Caledonians, whom, under their leader Galgacus, he overthrew, in 84 a.d., at 
 a hill called the Mons Grampius, the situation of which has not been satisfactorily deter- 
 mined. The Romans made many ineffectual attempts to subdue the Caledonian bar- 
 barians, and penetrated, for this purpose, through the n.e. part of Scotland as far as the 
 Moray firth, as is attested by the remains of Roman camps and stations still existing 
 along their line of march, and the relics of Roman art found in connection with them. 
 Not only did the Caledonians on their own soil resist the Roman sway, but by constant 
 inroads into the Roman territory s. of the wall of Antoninus, they so harassed the 
 Romans themselves, that the latter were forced to abandon their conquests for 80 m. s. 
 of that wall, and to secure permanently their remaining conquests in South Britain by 
 a line of defensive works between the mouth of the Tyne and the Solway firth, called 
 the wall of Hadrian (q.v.), begun by Agricola, in 80 a.d., strengthened by Hadrian in 
 121, and rebuilt and completed by Severus in 210 a.d. After this last date the Romans 
 did not attempt to regain their lost provinces. Subject to these incursions of the Cale- 
 donians, the opposition of the native British princes, and the invasion of tribes from the 
 opposite shores of the continent, the Romans held sway in Britain down to about 420 
 A.D., soon after which time the Saxons invaded s. Britain, and ultimately subdued it. 
 Britain, s. of the Solway firth and the mouth of the Tyne, in the reign of Claudius, 
 formed one Roman province under a consular legatus and a procurator. Ptolemy men- 
 tions 17 native tribes as inhabiting this tract. Toward the close of the 4th c. a.d., 
 Roman Britain constituted a diocese in the prefecture of Gaul, and was divided into 
 five provinces, of which the boundaries, though uncertain, are supposed to have been as 
 follows: B. Prima, England s. of the Thames and the Bristol channel; B. Secunda, 
 Wales; Flavia Caesariensis, the country between the Thames, Severn, Mersey, and Hum- 
 ber; Maxima Caesariensis, the rest of England to the Scottish border; and Valentia — 
 soon abandoned by the Romans — or Scotland s. of the wall of Antoninus. At this time, 
 also, the inhabitants of Roman Britain included Phenician, Roman, and Germanic 
 elements, whicH had become incorporated with the native Britons, who were of Celtic 
 or Gaelic descent. The Romans governed Britain by a vicarius or vicegerent resident 
 at Eboracum (York), under whom were consulars, presidents, and other subordinate 
 officers. To insure the obedience of the natives, at least three Roman legions — chiefly 
 composed of Gauls, Germans, Iberians, and but few pure Romans — were stationed in 
 Britain; viz., at Eboracum, Deva (Chester), and Isca Damnoniorum (Exeter). Under 
 the Romans, many towns (colonise and municipia) — 56 are enumerated by Ptolemy — 
 arose in Britain, and diffused Roman law and civilization over the country. The towns 
 of Eboracum (York) and Verulamium (near St. Albans) had the privileges of Roman 
 citizenship. The Romans made many roads or streets {strata), of which there are still 
 numerous remains, across the country, all centering in London. They also developed it 
 into a corn-growing country. Druidism was the religion of the Britons at their conquest 
 by the Romans, but the latter introduced Christianity and Roman literature into the 
 country. There are many remains still extant of the presence of the Romans in Britain, 
 such as camps, roads, ruins of houses, baths, flues, altars, mosaic pavements, painted 
 walls, metallic implements and ornaments, weapons, tools, utensils, pottery, coins, 
 sculptures, bronzes, inscriptions, etc. These remains show that the Romans wished to 
 render their British conquests permanent, and that they had greatly improved the arts 
 of the ancient Britons, as is evident on comparing the remains with the far ruder native 
 antiquities of the British pre-Roman or prehistoric era, such as tumuli, barrows, earth- 
 works, so-called Druidical monoliths and circles, cromlechs, cairns, pottery, weapons, 
 tools, utensils, ornaments, etc. Many of the Roman remains in Britain also show 
 that the Romans had introduced into the country the refinements and luxuries of Rome 
 itself. 
 
 Under the term Britannia, Great Britain has been personified in the fine arts as 
 a female seated on a globe or on an insulated rock, and leaning with one arm on a 
 shield, the other hand grasping a spear or a trident The first example of this personifi- 
 cation is on a Roman coin of Antoninus Pius (died 161 a.d.). The figure reappears first 
 on the copper coinage of England in the reign of Charles II. (1665); the celebrated 
 beauty. Miss Stewart, afterwards duchess of Richmond, is said to have served as model 
 to the engraver, Philip Roetier. The Britannia that appears on the reverse of British 
 copper coins since 1825 was the design of Mr. W. Wyon. See Coinage. 
 
 BRITANNIA METAL, is an alloy very largely employed in the construction of the 
 cheaper kinds of tea and coffee pots, tea-spoons, etc. The proportions of the metals 
 used in its manufacture are various, but the average composition in 100 parts is: tin, 
 85|: antimony, 10^; zinc, 3; and copper, 1. B. M. is harder than pewter (q.v.), hence 
 vessels or spoons made of it are not so liable to lose their shape, or to be indented with 
 a slight blow. A variety of B. M., called queen's metal, is also extensively used for 
 
Britannia. 
 
 British. 
 
 68 
 
 similar purposes, and it ranks intermediate in hardness between pewter and ordi- 
 nary B. M. Queen’s metal is composed of — tin, 9; antimony, 1; bismuth, 1; and 
 lead, 1. 
 
 BBITANNIA METAL. The present composition of britannia metal at Birmingham 
 is usually 90 tin + 8 antimony -|- 2 copper, without any zinc or bismuth ; although 
 some manufacturers deviate a little from this formula, by adding one or both of the 
 metals last named. The manufacture was begun at Sheffield by Hancock and Jessop, 
 in 1770; it reached Birmingham towards the close of the century, and made gradual prog- 
 ress. At first, the articles were made by stamping with dies, and soldering up into 
 form; this being a slow operation, rendered the articles expensive. Afterwards, the 
 curious process of metal spinning was introduced; and this, with the subsidiary opera- 
 tion of swagging, rendered a great reduction in price possible. In the spinning proc- 
 ess, a thin sheet or piece of britannia metal is placed upon a wooden model shaped 
 like the article to be made ; the model is made to rotate in a lathe ; and burnishers and 
 other tools are employed to press the yielding metal into all the curvatures of the model. 
 Ductility is an essential quality to the attainment of this end with the metal; how 
 complete it is, may be seen in such articles as britannia metal teapots and dish-covers, 
 the principal forms of which are not given by hammering, stamping, or casting, but by 
 spinning, Besides spinning and swagging, the processes include stamping, soldering, 
 casting, and polishing. When electro-plating was introduced, an increased use of 
 britannia metal arose, as it forms a good ground or basis for the deposited silver. 
 Britannia metal spoons and ladles, made by casting, stamping, and burnishing, have 
 been nearly driven out of the market by German silver; but the former metal is more 
 largely used than ever for hot-water jugs, soup tureens, gravy-dishes, vegetable and side 
 dishes, dram bottles, drinking-cups, sandwich cases, wine-coolers, soap-boxes, liquor- 
 frames, cruets, waiters, trays, etc. ; and as a basis for electro-plate. Birmingham is the 
 chief seat of the manufacture. 
 
 BRITANNIA TUBULAR BRIDGE, a railway bridge over the Menai strait, remark- 
 able alike for its gigantic dimensions, and as being the first construction of the kind 
 ever undertaken. With a view to facilitate communication with Ireland ma Holyhead, 
 the directors of the Chester and Holyhead railway in 1845 sought the aid of Mr. Robert 
 Stephenson, the great engineer, to bridge the strait with such a structure as should 
 admit of the safe passage of heavily laden trains without in any way interfering with 
 the navigation of the channel. About a mile above the suspension-bridge, and nearer 
 Carnarvon, a rock in the middle of the strait rose 10 ft. above the water at low tide ; 
 and on this site, provided by nature, it was resolved to erect a bridge in the form of a 
 rectangular tube, composed of wrought-iron plates riveted together in a manner to com- 
 bine the greatest strength with the greatest lightness. See Steenth of Materials and 
 Tubular Bridges. In the spring of 1846, the undertaking was commenced ; by the 
 22d of June, 1849, the Britannia tower on the rock in the center of the strait was com- 
 pleted (height, 191 ft. 6 in. above high-water mark). Other two towers, some 18 ft. 
 lower, were erected on each side of the Britannia tower; thns dividing the space into 
 four spans, of which the two center ones are 460 ft. each, the other two being compara- 
 tively narrow. The short tubes between the abutments and the short towers were con- 
 structed, by means of strong scaffolding and stages, in the places they were to occupy 
 when finished ; the long central tubes were built at the water-edge, from whence they 
 were fioated off on pontoons to the base of the towers, which had grooves or recesses made 
 to receive them, and then elevated gradually (supports being built under their ends as 
 they ascended) by powerful hydraulic presses to the requisite height, 102 ft. above high- 
 water mark. On the 13th of Oct., 1849, the first long tube, 472 ft. in length (12 ft. 
 being allowed for the rest at both ends), and about 1800 tons in weight, was safely fixed 
 at its proper height above the sea. The other center tube was got up by Dec. ; and on the 
 5th of Mar., 1850, a train swept through, and the bridge was open for traffic. In 
 Aug. the parallel line of tubes was completed, and the up and down trains could now 
 pass over the Menai with as little delay and danger as over any other part of the line. 
 The total length of the bridge is 1841 ft., of the tubes, 1513 feet. The extreme height 
 ©f the tube at the Britannia tower is 30 ft., diminishing to 22 ft. 9 in. at the abutments, 
 “the difference being made to give a true parabolic curve to the top while the bottom 
 is straight.” Inside, the width is 13 ft. 8 in. throughout, and the height 26 ft. at the 
 middle, and 18 ft. 9 in. at the ends. To provide for the expansion and contraction of 
 the metal, the bed-plates in the shore towers and in the abutments, on which the tubes 
 rest, are made to move freely on cast-iron rollers and balls. ^ This precaution, for 
 securing free movement to the tubes, was not unnecessary, as it has been found that 
 between the expansion of summer and contraction of winter there is a diffepnce of fully 
 12 inches. The total weight of iron used was nearly 12,0(K) tons, of which the tubp 
 contain 9360 tons of malleable iron, 1015 tons of cast iron, and 175 of peimanent rail- 
 way. In their fabrication 186,000 different pieces of iron, fastened together by more 
 than 2,000,000 rivets, were used; and in the towers, abutments, etc., there is 1,492,151 
 cubic feet of masonry. The total cost \vas about £602,000. The whole structure was 
 completed in less than five years. See Tubular Bridge. 
 
69 
 
 Britannia* 
 
 British. 
 
 BRITANNICJE INSULJE, a term used by ancient classic writers previous to Caesar 
 for the British isles, including Albion (England and Scotland), and Hibernia or lerne 
 (Ireland), with the smaller isles around them. Aristotle, in the beginning of the 3d c. 
 B.C., knew only of Albion and lerne. Caesar, about 54b.c., was the first to apply the 
 name Britannia to Albion. Ptolemy, in the 2d c. a.d., is the first to apply Little 
 Britain to lerne or Ireland, and Great Britain to Albion or England and Scotland. 
 Herodotus, in the 5th c. b.c., is the first writer to mention Britain with any sort of 
 definiteness; previous Greek writers speak of Britain only in connection with the 
 Phenician tin trade carried on with the Cassiterides or Tin isles (the Scilly isles and 
 Cornwall), which they often confound with the Azores. The Phenician trade with 
 the British isles began about 1000 b.c., the Phenicians giving the native Britons salt, 
 skins, and bronze vessels in exchange for tin and lead. Ptolemy enumerates 52 different 
 Celtic or Gaelic tribes as inhabiting Britain in his time. See Celtic Nations. 
 
 BRITANNICUS, son of the emperor Claudius byMessalina, b. 42 a.d. He was the 
 natural successor to Claudius, but after his mother’s execution (when B. was eight years 
 old), Agrippina, the new wife, persuaded Claudius to pass by B. and adopt her son by 
 previous marriage with Lucinus Domitius. This son was the emperor Nero; and soon 
 after his accession, Pallas, one of Agrippina’s lovers, who had been banished, threatened 
 a revolt, and roused Nero’s fear that B. might displace him; so B. was poisoned and 
 died on his fourteenth birthday. 
 
 BRITISH AMERICA. See America, British, ante. 
 
 BRITISH ARMY. In Armies, Modern, a succinct account is given of the relative 
 strength and organization of the chief European armies, with the exception of that of the 
 British empire, reserved for consideration in the present article. 
 
 Like other modern armies, the British army originated in the feudal system (q.v.). 
 When regal power, tempered by a parliament, superseded that system, the people, 
 according to their rank in life, were expected to provide themselves with certain kinds 
 of weapons and defensive armor. The justices of the peace were empowered to see to 
 these military duties of the people. When the nation was either actually engaged in 
 war, or apprehensive of invasion, the sovereign issued commissions to experienced ofii- 
 •cers, authorizing them to draw out and array the fittest men for service in each county, 
 and to march them to the sea-coast, or to any part of the country known to be in most 
 danger. See Arrayer. It was in the time of Henry VIII. that lord-lieutenants and 
 deputy-lieutenants of counties were first appointed as standing-officers for assembling 
 and mustering the military force. During the earlier years of the Tudors, contracts 
 were made by the king with “captains,” who undertook to provide, clothe, and feed so 
 many fighting-men, for a given money-allowance ; but the power intrusted to the lord- 
 lieutenants gradually changed this system, in relation at least to home-defense. In the 
 reign of Charles I., the important question arose, whether the king of England did or 
 did not possess the right to maintain a military force without the express consent of 
 parliament? and this question was all the more bitterly discussed when the king billeted 
 his soldiers on the people. After the troubles of the civil wars and the commonwealth, 
 Charles II. found himself compelled to agree, on his restoration, to the abandonment of 
 all the army except a kind of body-guard or household brigade of 5000 men, sanctioned 
 by the parliament. In the 13th year of his reign, he succeeded in obtaining a statute, 
 declaratory that “the sole and supreme power, government, command, and disposition 
 of the militia, and of all forces by sea and land, and of all forts and places of strength, 
 is the undoubted right of his majesty; and both or either of the houses of parliament 
 cannot nor ought to pretend to the same.” Both Charles II. and James II. found, how- 
 ever, to their mortification, that this statute did not in effect give them so much real 
 military command as they had wished and intended — because the commons, by holding 
 the purse, virtually held the power. 
 
 It was in the time of William and Mary that the real basis for the modern B. A. 
 was laid. ^ The declaration of rights (q.v.) settled, in positive terms, “that the raising 
 and keeping of a standing army in time of peace, without consent of parliament, 
 is contrary to law.” The first mutiny act (q.v.) was passed in 1689, to last for six 
 months only; but it has been annually renewed ever since, except in three particular 
 years ; and it constitutes the warrant on which the whole military system of England is 
 exercised by the sovereign, with the consent of parliament. Since then, with only three 
 interruptions, the ministers of the crown have annually applied to parliament for per- 
 mission to raise a military force, and for money to defray the expenses. The sovereign 
 can make war, and can bestow military employments and honors; but the commons, as 
 the representatives of the tax-paying nation, provide a check on the grasping by cour- 
 tiers of military privileges. The law on army regulation has been revised, and the B. A, 
 made the subject of special legislation in the army discipline bill passed in 1879. 
 
 The ^eat distinction between the B. A. and that of almost every other state in 
 Europe, is that the service is voluntary. The subjects of the crown engage, by fre^ 
 choice, to serve in the army for a definite number of years. In the rare cases where 
 forced service by ballot is obtained, it is in the militia, not the regular army. See Mili- 
 tia. The British soldier has much hard colonial life to bear, and many long voyages 
 to make ; he is, moreover, almost entirely shut out from the chance of being a commis- 
 
British. 
 
 70 
 
 sioned officer. As a consequence, the ranks are mostly filled from the more necessitous 
 classes of the community — by those who from want of steady habits, or of education, 
 are the least fitted for industrious pursuits ; whereas in France and many other foreign 
 countries, the profession of arms is regarded as an honorable one, of which even the 
 private soldier feels proud. Mr. De Fonblanque, comparing the peace establishments of 
 the chief European armies in 1857, found that of England to be the smallest in ratio to 
 population, but the most costly in relation to its strength. The English ratio was 1 in 
 128; the French, 1 in 95; the Prussian, 1 in 80; the Russian, 1 in 72; the Austrian, 1 in 
 68. An English private soldier costs the country £52 per annum; French, £36; Prussian, 
 £31 ; Austrian, £18 10s. ; Russian, £13 5s. The English cost per man is still higher 
 now than it was in 1857, on account of increased attention being paid to the well-being 
 of the soldier. 
 
 The B. A., in all its completeness, is supposed to be commanded by the sovereign, 
 assisted by the secretary of state for war in some matters, and by the oflicer command- 
 ing in chief in others. The component elements are the household troops; the infantry 
 of the line; the cavalry of the line; the ordnance corps, comprising artillery and engi- 
 neers; other bodies of native troops, maintained out of the revenues of India; the 
 militia; the yeomanry cavalry; the reserve; the volunteer artillery and rifles; and some- 
 times during war, foreign legions. The “peace establishment” of the B. A. varies 
 according to the political aspect of affairs abroad, and to the strength of the economiz- 
 ing principle at home. In 1814, when England was engaged in tremendous contest? 
 abroad, the regular army reached 200,000 men, exclusive of fencibles, foreign legions, 
 and militia. In the first few years after the termination of the great war against Napo- 
 leon, the reductions in the B. A. involved the compulsory retirement of no less than 
 10,000 military officers, who thereupon went on half-pay; these, by filling vacancies, 
 transfers, and deaths, have nearly disappeared. The elasticity which permits the 
 enlargement or contraction of the army arises from varying, not so much the numbed 
 of regiments, as the number of battalions in a regiment, of companies in a battalion, or 
 of men in a company. If we compare the strength of the regular army at various 
 periods between 1820 and 1876, we shall find that the actual number of regiments ha? 
 varied but little, the difference of strength being made up in the three modes just men 
 tioned. 
 
 The strength of the B. A. declined from 1815 to 1835, since which last-mentioned 
 year it has increased. These augmentations have been occasioned partly by the con- 
 tests in China, India, Kaffraria, Persia, the Crimea, Afghanistan, and Zululand, and 
 partly by a sense of insecurity amid the vast armaments of the continent. In compar- 
 ing the strength of the forces at different periods, much confusion is apt to arise from 
 different modes of interpreting the words “British army.” This designation may 
 include the whole of the royal troops in India, whether supported out of imperial or of 
 Indian revenues; it may include the militia, the volunteers, the yeomanry cavalry, the 
 foreign legions — or it may exclude any one or more of these. The ‘ ‘ British army, ” 
 and the “ military force of the British empire,” are often treated as convertible terms: 
 to the production of much confusion where actual numbers are given. In the follow- 
 ing table, relating to the oflBcial year 1879-80, it is shown of what component elements 
 the B. A. now consists. The militia and the volunteer corps are not here included. 
 
 BRITISH ARMY VOTED FOR 1879-80. 
 
 Horse artillery 
 
 Cavalry, including household cavalry 
 
 Artillery 
 
 Engineers 
 
 Infantry, including foot guards 
 
 Service corps 
 
 Colonial corps 
 
 Army hospital corps 
 
 Additional force in consequence of reinforce- 
 ments to Natal 
 
 Home and 
 colonies. 
 3,131 
 12,907 
 19,225 
 5,198 
 76,366 
 2,990 
 2,485 
 1,745 
 
 3,900 
 
 India. 
 
 2,478 _ 
 4,312 = 
 9,667 = 
 428 = 
 45,768 = 
 
 Total Britisii 
 army. 
 5,609 
 17,219 
 28,892 
 5,626 
 122,134 
 2,990 
 2,485 
 1,745 
 
 8,900 
 
 127,947 62,653 190,600 
 
 Under the column “India,” are included only those troops of the royal army which are 
 lent to India, and paid for out of Indian revenues; the other military forces in that 
 region are enumerated under East India Army. Of the total 190,600 forming her 
 majesty’s forces, 7980 are officers; 16,550 non-commissioned officers, drummers, and 
 trumpeters; and 166,070 rank and file. There are voted for the use of this army, 11,325 
 horses. The total cost cannot well be estimated per head; because, besides pay and 
 •ustenance for the soldiers, there are stores and wages for fortifications and military 
 buildings, military weapons and combustibles, and the various kinds of half-pay and 
 pi^iisions. The total expenditure sanctioned by parliament may, however, conveniently 
 be thrown under four headings, and given in round numbers as follows: 
 
71 
 
 British. 
 
 Pay and allowance of combatants £4,944,200 
 
 Auxiliary and reserve forces 1,258,500 
 
 Stores and and works of every kind 6,817,200 
 
 Pensions, militia, volunteers, etc 2,625,800 
 
 £15,645,700 
 
 — being the charge for a peace establishment, in which to admit of expansion for actual 
 war, the upper ranks (which cannot be summarily created) are disproportionately large. 
 For the sum taken in aid of the army estimates to meet the expenses for raising and 
 training the recruits, and for the non-effective services of the European army serving 
 in India, a separate estimate was presented (1879-80), amounting to £1,100,000. 
 
 All the component elements of the army, in personnel and materiel, and the organi 
 zation and duties of the troops, will be found noticed under their proper headings. The 
 total military strength of the United Kingdom — including all the various kinds of force, 
 also India and the colonies — comprised the following in 1879: 
 
 Regulars (including India and the colonies) 190,600 
 
 Army reserve, 1st class 22,000 
 
 “ “ 2d “ 24,000 
 
 Militia (including permanent staff and militia reserve) 137,556 
 
 Yeomanry cavalry 14,614 
 
 Volunteers (including staff) 244,263 
 
 633,033 
 
 BRITISH ASSOCIATION, an association whose object is, by bringing together men 
 eminent in all the several departments of science, to assist the progress of discovery, 
 and to extend over the whole country the latest results of scientific research. A pre- 
 vailing impression that England had fallen behind other countries, both as to the gen- 
 eral estimation in which scientific men were held, and the prosecution of science itself, 
 led to its formation. It was thought that an imposing union of men of science with 
 the nobility, gentry, and clergy might tend to revive the philosophic spirit of the 
 eountry. Such meetings had already taken place in Germany, and probably suggested 
 the idea of this institution. Many leading men of the age took part in its formation, 
 but the honor of being its founder must be ascribed to sir David Brewster. By his 
 -exertions the first meeting of those who were favorable to the design was held at York 
 in the year 1831. The archbishop of York, the mayor and council of the city, entered 
 warmly into the project. At this meeting the constitution of the society was deter- 
 mined, the several sections had their provinces assigned to them, and subjects were 
 proposed on which reports were to be drawn up and read at the ensuing meeting. This 
 took place at Oxford in 1832. The university had cordially welcomed the new associa- 
 tion, the papers which were read gave it at once the high character it has since sus- 
 tained, and from this date it may be said to have been in complete and successful opera- 
 tion. An enumeration of the several sections of the society, each of which has its own 
 committee and president, will show the wide range of topics it embraces: Section A., 
 mathematical and physical science; B., chemistry; C., geology; D., zoology and bot- 
 any, including physiology; E., geography and ethnology; F., economic science and 
 statistics; G., mechanical science. 
 
 At the close of each meeting, it is determined at what town in the United Kingdom 
 the next shall be held, and a president of the whole association is appointed, who delivers 
 an inaugural address, in which he is expected to present a general survey of the latest 
 advances of science. The rules and by-laws of the society it is not necessary here to 
 particularize; but it should be mentioned that the subscriptions of a continually increas- 
 ing membership have placed at its disposal a large fund, which has been expended in the 
 prosecution of science. In many cases, as in long astronomical calculations, or exten- 
 sive meteorological observations, the labor of subordinates is required, and a certain 
 apparatus, and it is in defraying such expenses that the funds of the B. A, are very 
 wisely employed 
 
 Besides the immediate ends sought to be obtained by such an association, its utility 
 will be evident if we reflect on the intimate connection that exists between the several 
 branches of science, and the impossibility there is that any one mind can be thoroughly 
 conversant with them all. He who now hopes to make discoveries in science must limit 
 himself to a few chosen studies; and yet such is the interlacing of all the several branches 
 of inquiry, that he must often And it indispensable to know the last results of each. 
 The botanist or the physiologist must consult the accomplished chemist; the chemist 
 must call in the aid of those who have speciflcally studied the action of heat, light, and 
 electricity ; the geologist needs them all, and is in turn consulted by all. Thus, a certain 
 brotherhood of science is formed, in which each has his specialty, and yet each leans 
 upon his brother. 
 
 In ancient times it was otherwise. The facts on which a philosopher speculated 
 were those which lay open to the eyes of all. A Thales could see the rain fall and plants 
 'grow, and forthwith pronounced that the vital energy of all things was to be found in 
 
British. 
 
 72 
 
 water. He could exercise his imagination in perfect independence of the labor of all 
 other men. The philosopher of modern times cannot move a step without a careful 
 consideration of the theories of his predecessors and contemporaries; he has to take 
 notice of the innumerable facts brought to light by various observers, aided by those 
 artificial arrangements which convert observation into experiment. 
 
 Two classes of men, of the most opposite character, are greatly aided by an associa- 
 tion such as this. The humble and plodding workmen are taught where their patient 
 industry will most avail; they are cautioned against re-discoveries; they are told where 
 their love of collecting or experimentalizing may be best applied. And that other class 
 of men, who love to generalize, who ever seek to embrace all the multifarious facts of 
 science under a few great laws — these are provided with the very last intelligence from 
 every department of inquiry, and may forthwith proceed to weave it into their own 
 comprehensive scheme. Nor are we to overlook the benefit which the whole community 
 derives from the rapid dissemination of the latest results or speculations of philosophy. 
 Not only do our idle and fashionable, as well as our manufacturing towns and our 
 universities, welcome the meetings of the B. A. , but from this Parliament of Science the 
 utterance of scientific opinion goes forth over the whole kingdom through the agency 
 of the press. Within three days after one of its meetings, there is not a workshop or a 
 tea-table in the country that has not derived from it a new topic of conversation. This 
 kindling of an interest in science, through the whole population, we regard as amongst 
 the greatest advantages of the British association. 
 
 BRITISH BURMAH. See Burmah, British, ante. 
 
 BRITISH COLUMBIA. See Columbia, British, ante. 
 
 BRITISH EMPIRE. See Great Britain and Ireland. 
 
 BRITISH GUM, Dextrine, or Lei'ocome, is a substance extensively employed by 
 calico-printers and others for the thickening of colors, instead of the much more 
 expensive gum arable. It is prepared from potato-starch (q.v.) or sago-starch bypassing 
 the grains through iron cylinders at a temperature about 500° F. It differs from starch 
 in giving no blue color with tincture of iodine, and in being readily soluble in water, 
 and thus yielding a thick liquid resembling in consistence mucilage (strong solution of 
 ordinary gum). B. G. is the material which is produced by baking in the crusts of loaf- 
 bread (q.v.), and which communicates to them their very agreeable taste. 
 
 BRITISH MUSEUM. The British Museum, an important national institution in 
 London, originated in a bequest of sir Hans Sloane, who, during a long lifetime, 
 gathered an extensive and, at the time, unequaled collection of objects of natural 
 history and works of art, besides a considerable library of books and manuscripts. 
 These, in terms of his will, were offered, in 1753, to the government, on condition that 
 £20,000 should be paid to his family, the first cost of the whole having amounted to 
 more than £50,000. The offer was accepted; the necessary funds were raised by a 
 lottery! and the collection, along with the Harleian and Cottonian libraries, were 
 arranged in Montague house, which had been purchased for £10,250. The new institu- 
 tion, thenceforth called the British Museum, was opened in 1759. From time to time, 
 purchases and donations succeeded each other rapidly. Montague house sufficed for 
 the reception of all these acquisitions, till the Egyptian antiquities arrived in 1801. 
 The purchase of the Townley marbles, in 1805, necessitated the erection of a 
 gallery for their reception. This, however, did not meet the increasing demand 
 for space. The old house was condemned, and plans were prepared by sir R. 
 Smirke for new buildings; but none were undertaken till 1823, when the eastern 
 wing of the present building was erected for the reception of the library of George 
 III., which had been presented to the museum by George IV. The subsequent 
 progress of the works was very slow. The building was completed in 1847. 
 It is a hollow square, whose sides are opposite to the four points of the compass. 
 Throughout the exterior of the building, the Grecian Ionic is the order of architecture 
 adopted. The principal front is towards the s., facing Great Russel street, and presents 
 an imposing columnar fa9ade, 370 ft. in length. The great entrance-portico, in the cen- 
 ter, is composed of a double range of columns, 8 in each range. The columns are 5 ft. 
 in diameter at their base, and 45 ft. in height. The tympanum of the portico is orna- 
 mented with an allegorical sculpture by Westmacott, typical of the progress of civiliza- 
 tion. On either side of the museum, there is a semi-detached house, containing the 
 residences of the chief ofiBcers of the establishment. These give an additional length of 
 200 ft. , making the whole length of the structure 570 feet. The interior of the building 
 is admirably adapted to the purposes for wffiich it is devoted. Some of the galleries, 
 from their size and dimensions, have a very imposing appearance, as the king’s library, 
 the bird gallery, etc. The grand entrance-hall is a noble and lofty apartment, built in 
 the massive Doric style: it contains a statue of sir Joseph Banks by Chantrey, and an 
 ideal representation of Shakespeare by Roubilliac. 
 
 Scarcely had Smirke’s plans been carried out, when demands were made from sev- 
 eral of the departments for more accommodation. Additions have accordingly been 
 made, rooms having been provided for the print department, and several new galleries 
 for the recent acquisitions of antiquities ; but the most important addition is the mag- 
 
73 
 
 British. 
 
 niflcent reading-room which has been erected in the internal quadrangle. In no depart- 
 ment of the museum was additional accommodation more needed than in the library. 
 The number of readers had increased beyond the means of accommodation, and so short 
 of space were they for books, tliat the estimates for purchases were restricted to only 
 the half of the sum which the trustees considered desirable, for the sole reason that the 
 library would be inadequate for the reception of extensive additions. After consider- 
 able delay, and the consideration and rejection of several plans, nothing was done till 
 Mr. Panizzi, at that time keeper of the printed book department, suggested a plan 
 which promised to meet the important requirements of speedy erection and economy in 
 cost. The plan was at length adopted, and the result is a building than which none 
 are better, few perhaps so thoroughly adapted to the purposes for which it is intended. 
 Parliament voted the first grant for it in 1854. It was opened in 1857. The total cost 
 was about £150,000, which includes the fittings and furniture, and the necessary shelves 
 for immediate use. The building was erected in the interior quadrangle, which it com- 
 pletely occupies, with the exception of an interval of about 38 ft. all round, necessary 
 for lighting and ventilating the surrounding building. The reading-room is circular. 
 It is constructed principally of iron, with brick arches between the main ribs. The 
 dome is 106 ft. in height, and its diameter 140 ft. , being second only to the pantheon 
 of Rome, and that but by 2 feet. The use of iron has economized the space to an extra- 
 ordinary degree, for while the piers which support the pantheon fill 7477 ft., those on 
 whicl^ the reading-room rests occupy only 300 feet. Equally remarkable has been the 
 saving of space in the fitting up of the library. The shelves are formed of galvanized 
 iron plates, edged with wainscot, and covered with leather, and are supported on malle- 
 able iron standards. In all the cases except against the external walls, the bookcases 
 are double, a lattice of ironwork being fixed for the longitudinal separation of the 
 books. Thus, throughout the whole interior of the new building, walls are dispensed 
 with, the divisions being in all cases formed of the double ranges of books. The build- 
 ing contains 3 m. lineal of bookcases 8 ft. high. Assuming them all to be spaced for 
 the average octavo book size, the entire ranges form 25 m. of book-shelves, and would 
 accommodate 1,000,000 such volumes. In addition to this, the dome-room, which is the 
 reading-room, has accommodation for 60,000 volumes. This magnificent room contains 
 ample and comfortable accommodation for 300 readers. Each person has a space of 
 4 ft. 3 in. long. He is screened from the opposite occupant by a longitudinal division, 
 which is fitted with a hinged desk, graduated on sloping racks, and a folding-shelf for 
 spare books. In a recess between the two are placed an inkstand and penholders, thus 
 leaving the table unincumbered. By an ingenious contrivance, one part of the iron 
 framework is made to distribute fresh air in the summer and heated air in the winter. 
 The vitiated air is conveyed through apertures in the soffits of the window, into one of 
 two separate spherical and concentric chambers which extend over the whole surface 
 of the roof, and escapes through outlets around the lantern. The other chamber, 
 between the external covering of copper and the brick vaulting, has for its object the 
 equalization of temperature, during extremes of heat and cold out of doors. Every 
 modern improvement, in short, has been applied, when it could be serviceable, for the 
 comfort or convenience of the readers. Much praise is due to the architect and builder, 
 but a larger share is owing to the late sir A. Panizzi, who not only supplied the original 
 design, but daily, almost hourly, superintended the. progress of the work, continually 
 suggesting little improvements, and in the end producing a room which is admired by 
 all especially those who daily use it. 
 
 This building, while supplying amply the demands of the printed book department, 
 did nothing, to meet the requirements of the other departments. Various schemes 
 have been suggested; the best, and perhaps in the end the cheapest, of securing the 
 ground immediately around the museum, has been given up, and the trustees resolved 
 to erect a building to be devoted entirely to natural history — that is to say, to the 
 departments of botany, zoology, geology, and mineralogy — on the site occupied by the 
 International exhibition of 1862. Parliament voted in the j-^ear 1873, £80,000 for this 
 purpose, and a beginning was made by the contractor. The whole cost of the new 
 building very nearly reached the sum of £400,000. This elegant new terra-cotta build- 
 ing, situated in the Cromwell road, near South Kensington museum, was designed by 
 Mr. Alfred Waterhouse. 
 
 Contents . — At first, the contents of the mu ® um were arranged under three depart- 
 ments— printed books, manuscripts, and objects of natural history. Under the last head 
 were included the antiquities, works of art, etc., comprised in the Sloane collection, 
 their number being too scanty to entitle them to constitute a separate department. The 
 process of the museum has caused a more precise division of its contents. From time 
 to time, the number of the departments has been increased, so that, instead of three, 
 there are now^ twelve — viz. : printed books, maps, manuscripts, prints and drawings, 
 oriental antiquities, Greek and Roman antiquities, coins and medals, and British and 
 mediaeval antiquities and ethnography, zoology, botany, geology, and mineralogy. In 
 noticing the contents of the museum, we shall refer to them in this order. We can but 
 allude here to the most important portions of the collection, and must refer for more 
 particular information to works specially devoted to this subject; such as the various 
 handbooks and catalogues prepared by the officers of the museum. 
 
British. 
 
 74 
 
 Printed Books . — This is the largest department in the museum. It occupies the whole 
 of the ground floor on the n. and e. sides, the new building erected in the quadrangle, 
 and a considerable portion of the basement of the museum. The keeper of the depart- 
 ment has the help of 3 assistant -keepers and 43 assistants. There are in addition 54 
 attendants. 
 
 The original bequest of sir Hans Sloane consisted of 50,000 volumes. When these 
 were placed in Montague house, a small collection of 2000 volumes, bequeathed to the 
 nation by maj. Edwards in 1738, was added to them. In 1757, George II. presented 
 the library of printed books which had been collected by the kings of England since 
 Henry VII., and which included the libraries of Cranmer and Casaubon. He also 
 annexed the important privilege, which the royal library acquired in the reign of queen 
 Anne, of being supplied with a copy of every publication entered at Stationers’ hall. By 
 this means the library has been supplied with the current British literature without 
 expense or trouble, and the trustees have been able to devote the funds of the museum 
 to the purchase of the earlier literature of the country and foreign publications. Among 
 subsequent additions to the library may be mentioned the voluminous collection of pam- 
 phlets, etc., relating to the civil wars of England between 1640 and 1660, presented by 
 George III. ; the musical libraries of sir J. Hawkins and Dr. C. Burney; Garrick’s collec- 
 tion of old English plays; Dr. Bentley’s collection of the classics, annotated by his own 
 hand; the law library of F. Hargrave; sir J. Banks’s valuable and extensive collection on 
 natural history ; and a large mass of tracts and pamphlets relating to the French revolution, 
 purchased from J. Wilson Croker, and of very great value. The most important ad"&ition 
 was made in 1823, when George IV. presented the splendid library that had been col- 
 lected by his father during his long reign, at an expense of little less than £200,000. This 
 library, which, from the terms of the gift, cannot be mixed with the general collection, 
 occupies a large and handsome hall, extending along the whole of the ground floor of 
 the eastern side of the museum. It is undoubtedly the finest and most complete library 
 ever formed by a single individual. “ It contains,” says sir H. Ellis, “ selections of the 
 rarest kind, more especially works of the first ages of printing; it is rich in the early 
 editions of the classics; in books from the press of Caxton; in the history of the states 
 of Europe; in the languages of the respective countries; in the transactions of acade- 
 mies; and in a grand geographical collection.” The magnificent library of the right 
 hon. Thomas Grenville, in importance second only to the king’s library, was bequeathed 
 to the museum in 1846. It consists of 20,240 volumes, which cost upwards of £54,000. 
 In the same year was obtained also the extensive collection of Chinese works, amount- 
 ing to 11,509 volumes, which belonged to Robert Morrison. By purchases, bequests, 
 and donations, the library has become one of the first in the world, containing now over 
 1,300,000 printed volumes. See Librakies. But even this figure, large though it is, 
 does not represent the immense collection of separate and distinct articles in tracts, pam- 
 phlets, and manuscripts. The British museum library is (with the exception, perhaps, 
 of the national library of Paris) the largest collection of printed literature in the world. 
 Since the opening of the new reading-room, and the consequent acquisition of the book 
 accommodation, the want of which long hindered the proper increase of the library, the 
 rate of increase has been enormous. During the year 1872, there were added 29,853 
 volumes, including music and volumes of newspapers, of which 1354 were presented, 
 19,801 purchased, 8345 acquired by home copyright, and 353 by international copyright. 
 The number of parts of volumes was 30,554. In addition, the library had accumulated 
 numerous broadsides, and miscellaneous articles variously obtained. The numbers of 
 the pieces of music alone added were 4644 complete works, besides 1790 parts and num- 
 bers of works in progress. The total number of articles received during the year 
 amounted to 66,278. In 1874, 37,000 volumes were received. 
 
 A catalogue of the printed books, in 7 octavo volumes, was published in 1813-19. 
 So great have been the additions to the collection since the publication of that catalogue, 
 that the interleaved copy of it, in which the new entries were made, had expanded in 
 1846 into 82 folio volumes. This is now superseded by one general MS. catalogue, con- 
 tained in upwards of 1600 folio volumes. There are separate catalogues of the Gren- 
 ville library, in 6 volumes; of music, in 126 volumes; of newspapers, in 4 volumes; of 
 the pamphlets in the king’s library, in 9 volumes; and of the pamphlets published during 
 the civil war and commonwealth, called the “Thomason collection,” in 12 volumes, all 
 folio. These various catalogues are placed in the central circular stands in the reading- 
 room, for consultation by readers. Here also are copies of the catalogue of the books of 
 reference, arranged around the wall of the room, to which the readers have free access 
 without the intervention of an official. These books, forming a library of 20,000 vol- 
 umes, have been carefully selected to represent all the different branches of knowledge. 
 The facility of consultation has been increased by the employment of different colors in 
 the binding, corresponding to the colors of a hand catalogue scattered throughout the 
 room. Thus theological works are bound in blue, historical in red, philosophical in 
 green, and so on. 
 
 The right of access to the library is easily obtained. Any person desiring it, is “ to- 
 apply in writing, addressed ‘To the principal librarian of the British museum,’ and not 
 otherwise, specifying his description and place of abode, and accompanying his letter- 
 with a written recommendation, satisfactory to an officer of the museum.” Formerly, 
 
75 
 
 Brittek. 
 
 the right of admission was granted only for six months at a time, and had then to ba 
 renewed. Under the new regulations, the ticket, once granted, does not require renewal; 
 it can, of course, be withdrawn, and is not granted to persons under 21 years of age. 
 When the reader has become well known to the officials, he is not even asked to show 
 his ticket. 
 
 Maps. — The maps, charts, plans, and topographical drawings were separated from 
 the library, to form a distinct department, in 1867. There are over 50,000 published 
 and 20,000 manuscript maps in the museum. Many of the latter have thrown much 
 light on the history of early geographical discovery. 
 
 Manuscripts. — The manuscripts are contained in several rooms in the s.e. angle of 
 the building. The work of the department is carried on by a keeper, assistant-keeper, 
 a keeper of oriental manuscripts, and nine assistants. The manuscripts are for the most 
 part bound in volumes, and placed in cases around the rooms. The collection consists 
 of: 1. The Sloanean manuscripts, relating chiefly to medical and natural history sub- 
 lets. 2. The Cottonian manuscripts, rich in documents referring to the history of 
 Britain, including two of the originals of Magna GJiarta, in registers of English mon- 
 asteries, and in original letters of royal and illustrious personages. This collection 
 contains the Durham Book — a copy of the Latin Gospels, with an interlineary Saxon 
 gloss, finished in the year 720. 3. The Harleian manuscripts, a collection rich in illu- 
 
 minated manuscripts, in ancient, civil, and ecclesiastical records, in manuscripts of the 
 classics, among which is one of the earliest known copies of the Odyssey, and in early 
 English poetry. 4. The manuscripts of the ancient royal library. These were collected 
 by our kings, from Richard II. to George II. ; many of them were obtained from the 
 monasteries, on their destruction. Amongst the most valuable treasures here are the 
 Codex Alexandrinus, a manuscript of the Bible written in uncial Greek, before the close 
 of the 5th c.; and i\\Q Basilicon Doron of James I., in his own handwriting. 5. The 
 Lansdowne manuscripts. This collection comprises the Burghley and Caesar papers, 
 the manuscripts of bishop Kennett, and numerous valuable historical documents and 
 state papers. 6. The Hargrave manuscripts, almost exclusively connected with law. 
 7. The Burney manuscripts, containing a large collection of the Greek and Latin clas- 
 sics. Among them- is a copy of the Iliad, answering that of the Odyssey in the Harleian 
 collection, 8. The Howard-Arundel manuscripts, obtained from the royal society. 
 This collection is singularly rich in materials for the history of our own country and 
 language. 9. The Oriental manuscripts, a collection composed of several purchases 
 nnd bequests. It includes the manuscripts acquired by Mr. Rich while consul at Bag- 
 dad, and consists of numerous Syriac, Arabic, Ethiopic, and other oriental codices. A 
 large series of Ethiopic manuscripts was obtained at Magdala, on the occasion of the 
 Abyssinian war. 10. Additional manuscripts. This collection consists of innumerable 
 bequests, donations, and purchases, which from the establishment of the museum have 
 been and are still being acquired. Among recent additions may be specified a charter 
 ■of William the Conqueror; the original mortgage-deed of a house in Blackfriars, dated 
 11th Mar., 1612, and signed by William Shakespeare; the holograph manuscript of 
 Scott’s Kenilworth, and of many of Burns’s poems, including the Cotter’s Saturday Night, 
 and the songs published in Johnson’s Scots Musical Museum; an extensive series of papal 
 bulls ; several Books of Hours, including the famous Bedford Missal; and a large collec- 
 tion of original letters and papers relating to the affairs of Scotland during the 16th and 
 17th centuries. Catalogues of the complete collections have at different times been pub- 
 lished. The additions to the ever-increasing oriental and additional collections are at 
 intervals published in supplements to each of the original catalogues. Copies of all 
 these, with manuscript lists of the annual additions, are placed in the reading-room for 
 consultation. 
 
 Supplementary catalogues were printed up till 1853; since then the additions have 
 been kept up in manuscript catalogues. A general class catalogue, embracing all the 
 collections, has been commenced, and the printing of it has begun. The first part is a cata- 
 logue of ancient and illuminated manuscripts, illustrated with photographic 
 of which several volumes are published. 
 
 The right of using the reading-room includes the privilege of consulting the manu- 
 scripts. During 1872^, the number of deliveries of manuscripts to readers iu the read- 
 ing-room amounted to 21,709. To artists and others in the rooms of the department, 
 1751 deliveries were made. These numbers do not include the volumes exhibited to 
 visitors on private days. 
 
 Prints and Drawings. — The collections of this department, managed by a keeper and 
 two assistants, are kept in rooms in the n.w. angle of the building. They consist of 
 prints and drawings bequeathed to the museum, in 1799, by the Rev. C. M. Cracherode; 
 of those bequeathed in 1824 by Mr. Payne Knight; and of numerous smaller bequests 
 and donations. No purchases -were made for this department until about 1840, when a 
 sum was first included in the estimates for this purpose. Since that time, the prints and 
 drawings have been increasing at a rate equal to any of the other departments of the 
 museum. The collection is arranged in schools. 1. The Italian school, containing orig- 
 inal drawings by Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Correggio, Tintoretto, Paul Veronese, 
 Michael Angelo, Guido Reni, Salvator Rosa, and others. 2. The German school, con- 
 taining drawings by Albert Diirer, Hans Holbein, Dietrich, Hollar, and others; and 
 
British. 
 
 76 
 
 engravings by Lucas Cranach, Martin Schon, Gauer, and others. 3. The Dutch school, 
 containing several superb originals of Rubens, an extensive and nearly complete set of 
 the works of Rembrandt, with many drawings by A. Cuyp, Teniers, Van Dyck, etc.; 
 and engravings and etchings by Berghem, Lucas van Leyden, Rembrandt, Ostade, etc. 
 4. The French school, with drawings by Watteau, Claude Lorraine, etc., and etchings 
 and engravings by Bourdon, Boisseaux, Le Prince, etc. 5. The Spanish school, repre- 
 sented by some drawings of Murillo, and others of less note. And, 6. The English 
 school, containing drawings by R. Wilson, Wilkie, Stothard, Callcott, Gibson, etc. ; a 
 splendid collection of Hogarth’s prints, and specimens of the works of Barlow, Gay- 
 wood, Raimbach, Finden, Worlidge, Geikie, etc. 
 
 This department contains also_ an extensive and very valuable collection of works in 
 niello ; a beautiful silver cup, designed and carved by Benvenuto Cellini, and a wonder- 
 ful stone-carving in alto-relievo by Albert Diirer, representing the birth of St. John 
 
 Oriental Antiquities . — Within the last ten years the objects in the museum, included 
 under the name antiquities, have been divided into four departments. The first of them 
 includes the Egyptian and Assyrian antiquities. The Egyptian monuments date from 
 a period as remote as 2000 years before the Christian era, and come down to the Moham- 
 medan invasion of Egypt, 640 a. d. The collection has been obtained chiefly from these 
 sources : the antiquities which fell into the hands of the British army at the capitulation 
 of Alexandria, presented by George III. ; presents from gen. Vyse, the duke of North- 
 umberland, the marquis of Northampton, sir Gardner Wilkinson, and others; and 
 acquisitions from the earl of Belmore, Mr. Salt, and M. Anastastie. The sculptures are 
 formed of granite and basalt ; they represent human and allegorical figures, sometimea 
 of colossal size. There are several beautifully sculptured sarcophagi. Most of the 
 monuments are inscribed with hieroglyphics (q.v.). The key to this dead and forgotten 
 language was furnished by the celebrated Rosetta Stone (q.v.), which is placed in the 
 center of the gallery. The smaller Egyptian remains are exhibited in a gallery on the 
 upper floor; they consist of objects relating to religion, as representations of divinities 
 and sacred animals, in wood, metal, stone, and porcelain; of objects relating to civil and 
 domestic life, as dress, personal ornaments, household furniture, artistic and writing 
 implements, armor, and weapons of war, etc. ; and of objects relating to death and 
 burial, as mummies and coffins, with the scarabaei, amulets, and other ornaments found 
 with them. A collection of papyri is exhibited on the n.w. staircase, containing extracts 
 from the ritual of the dead. 
 
 The Assyrian antiquities are contained in a suite of rooms recently erected on the 
 outside of the Egyptian gallery, and in a spacious room on the basement. The collec- 
 tion consists of sculptures excavated at Nimrud, Khorsabad, and Koyunjik by Layard, 
 in 1847-50, and more recently by Rassam and Loftus, under the direction of sir H. C. 
 Rawlinson. The Nimrud sculptures are the oldest, belonging to a period ranging from 
 930 B.c. to 747 B.c. Those obtained from Khorsabad seem to have been executed under 
 a monarch who reigned about 747-721 b.c., while the collection from Koyunjik belong 
 to the time of Sardanapalus, apparently 721 b.c. and 625 b.c. The monuments consist 
 chiefly of slabs of gypsum, alabaster, and limestone sculptured in low relief, the sub- 
 jects being the exploits of the king whose palace walls they ornamented. Many of the 
 sculptures are covered with cuneiform (q.v.) writing, which, by the labors of Rawlin- 
 son, Hincks, and Smith, has been deciphered, giving us a history of this remarkable 
 people, and corroborating the narrative of the sacred Scriptures whenever they refer to 
 the same event. See Assyria. Besides the series of sculptures, the Assyrian collection 
 includes a variety of smaller but highly curious and instructive objects, discovered at 
 Nimrud and Koyunjik. 
 
 Oreek and Roman Antiquities . — This collection occupies four apartments, which run 
 parallel to the Egyptian gallery. The Lycian gallery contains a series of architectural 
 and sculptural remains from ancient cities in Lycia, obtained by sir C. Fellows in 1842-46. 
 In the next gallery are the remains of the famous mausoleum (q.v.) at Halicarnassus, 
 erected in honor of Mausolus by his widow Artemisia. These remains were discovered 
 by C. T. Newton, esq., in 1857-59. In the same room are some remains of the temple of 
 Athene Polias at Priene, including the stone on which its- dedication by Alexander the 
 great is inscribed. The Elgin gallery contains the sculptures from Athens and Attica, 
 the greater portion of which were obtained by the earl of Elgin, and purchased from 
 him by parliament in 1816 for £35,000. The most important series in the gallery is the 
 decorations of the parthenon (q.v.), which, notwithstanding their dilapidated condition, 
 form the most valuable monument of Greek art which has descended to modern times. 
 The gallery contains also sculptures and casts from the temple of Wingless Victory, the 
 temple of Theseus, and the erechtheum, at Athens. In an extension recently made to 
 this gallery, are a colossal lion from Cnidus, ana a drum of a sculptured column, and 
 other remains, from the temple of Diana at Ephesus. The Helenic gallery contains a 
 number of antiquities brought from Greece and its colonies at different times. The 
 most important are 23 slabs of a frieze sculptured in mezzo-rilievo, which, from the 
 locality where they were found, are called the “Phigalian marbles.” 
 
 The gallery on the s. side of the building is occupied with the Roman and Graeco- 
 Roman sculptures. The bulk of the collection was formed by Charles Townley, esq., 
 and purchased in 1805 for £20,000. Subsequent additions have been made by the bequest 
 
77 
 
 British. 
 
 of the collection of R P. Knight, esq., in 1824, and by various purchases and dona- 
 tions. The collection contains an interesting series of Roman portrait sculptures, and a 
 very extensive mythological series, amongst which are some of universal fame — the 
 Yenus, Clytie, the Discobolus, and many others. A room on the basement is appro- 
 priated to mosaics and miscellaneous monuments, such as representations of animals, 
 architectural and decorative fragments, and sacred and domestic implements. A fine 
 collection from southern Italy, exhibiting specimens of the arts of the Etruscans, Greeks, 
 and Romans, was bequeathed to the museum by sir William Temple in 1856. , 
 
 The collections of smaller remains are placed in a suite of rooms on the upper floor. 
 They consist of — 1. An extensive series of vases, commonly though not correctly known 
 as Etruscan, formed from the collections of sir W. Hamilton and Mr, Burgon, from 
 purchases at the sales of the prince of Canino, M. Durand, and others; and from exca- 
 vations in Sicily, Rhodes, and on the sites of Greek colonies in Gyrene and elsewhere. 
 2. A miscellaneous collection of terra-cottas, mural paintings, and other objects. 3. 
 Bronzes of Greek, Etruscan, and Roman workmanship, consisting of sculptures, and 
 various domestic and other articles, as candelabra, lamps, vases, horse-trappings, armor, 
 etc. 4. The collection of engraved gems and gold ornaments now, since the addition of 
 the Blacas and Castellani collections, perhaps the richest in the world. 
 
 Coins and Medals. — The very large collection of these objects is arranged in chrono- 
 logical order under five great divisions, viz., Greek, Roman, Mediaeval and Modern, 
 English, and Oriental. The department is under the care of a keeper, assistant-keeper, 
 and four assistants. 
 
 British and Medioeml Antiquities and Ethnography. — The British collection is arranged 
 in chronological order. The oldest series contains the antiquities of the stone and bronze 
 periods, consisting of celts, daggers, swords, shields, and early pottery. The British- 
 Roman antiquities comprise specimens of earthenware, lamps, and miscellaneous articles. 
 A small collection of sepulchral urns, weapons, and personal ornaments represents the 
 Anglo-Saxon period. The antiquities found in London, and belonging to the late C. R. 
 Smith, have been recently added to this collection. The ethnographical collection con- 
 tains antiquities, as well as objects of modern use, belonging to all nations not of Euro- 
 pean race. 
 
 In 1855, the extensive collections of antiquities and ethnography, belonging to Henry 
 Christy, became the property of the museum, having been bequeathed by their proprie- 
 tor. From the want of space, they are at present accommodated in a house rented for 
 the purpose in Victoria street, Westminster. Felix Slade bequeathed his valuable col- 
 lection of glass to the museum, and it is now arrayed so as to show the different phases 
 through which the art of glass-blowing has passed, as well as the history of glass in all 
 its branches. 
 
 Natural History. — In 1856 the trustees united the natural history departments under 
 urof. Owen, who was then appointed superintendent of natural history. The new build- 
 ing recently erected at Kensington is intended to accommodate this section of the pres- 
 *jjit museum. 
 
 Zoological Department. — To give an idea of the contents of this and the other natural 
 history departments, would be to write an epitome of the various sciences they illus- 
 trate. This department contains a collection of animals arranged in systematic order 
 in the galleries, comprising stuffed mammals, birds, reptiles, and fishes, and the hard 
 portions of radiate, molluscan, and articulate animals. A room is specially devoted to 
 the fauna of Britain. In rooms on the ground and basement floors are arranged the 
 collections of insects, of osteology, and of specimens preserved in spirits. An idea of 
 the extent of the collection may be formed from the fact that 142 separate publications, 
 illustrative of the contents of the department, in the shape of catalogues, lists, etc., have 
 been issued under the superintendence of the present indefatigable keeper. Dr. Gray. 
 During the year 1874, there were added to this collection, 7524 specimens of animals, of 
 which 2964 were vertebrata, 2886 mollusca and radiata, and 1674 annulosa. In 1873, the 
 unique and extensive collection of birds formed in the eastern archipelago by Wallace, 
 was acquired by purchase. 
 
 Botanical Department. — The herbarium of sir H. Sloane, the nucleus of this collection, 
 consisted of about 8000 species, bound in 262 volumes. In 1820, the magnificent herba- 
 rium of sir Joseph Banks was bequeathed to the museum, and under the superintendence 
 of the late Robert Brown, was transferred to two rooms prepared for it in the s.e. angle 
 of the building. The collection has since been rapidly increasing: during the year 1872, 
 12,030 species of plants were added; and in the year 1873, the late William Wilson’s 
 herbarium of British and foreign mosses was acquired by purchase. The collection con- 
 tains an extraordinary number of typical specimens — the identical plants from which the 
 original descriptions were taken by Linnaeus, Aublet, Jacquin, Brown, Bentham, Ben- 
 nett, and others. The exhibition rooms contain a series of specimens illustrating the 
 most striking characteristics of the great divisions of the vegetable kingdom, arranged 
 in order; and a series of fossil plants, the value of which is increased by the transparent 
 sections showing their structure, which are placed beside them. 
 
 Geological Department. — This collection occupies the wall-cases of the principal gal- 
 lery on the n. side of the museum. It contains an extensive series of the fossil remains 
 of plants and animals from the various fossilifcrous strata; it is especially rich in the 
 
British. 
 
 Brixen. 
 
 78 
 
 fossils of the secondary formations. Amongst its more valuable contents may be men- 
 tioned the collections of Dr. Mantell, the tertiary fossils collected by Dr. Falconer in 
 India, and the remarkable fossil birds from New Zealand. 
 
 Mineralogical Department. — The minerals are contained in the table-cases in the 
 geological gallery. They are arranged according to a chemical classification. Many 
 valuable and unique specimens exist in the collection, which is rapidly increasing. In 
 the year 1872, the number of specimens added was 1499. 
 
 The expenses of the museum are paid by grants of public money. According to the 
 estimates, £110,949 were required during 1879-80. 
 
 Admission to the museum was at first obtained by printed tickets, which were deliv- 
 ered by the porter to persons making a written application. There could be no more 
 than 45 visitors, at the utmost, per day, under the regulations then in force. Now, all 
 who present themselves are freely admitted; and every week-day the museum is visited 
 by large numbers: as many as 43,000 holiday-folk have passed through the building in 
 one day. 
 
 BRITISH NAVY. Under Navies, Modern, will be found a brief description of the 
 chief navies belonging to the continent of Europe, and to the United States of America. 
 The British navy is separately treated in this place. 
 
 While the Romans occupied Britain, they were obliged to maintain a fleet of war- ves- 
 sels on the coasts, to protect it from the ravages of the Saxons, who were the pirates and 
 buccaneers of those times. When the Romans had departed, and the Saxony became 
 dominant, the coasts wese infested by another naval power — the Scandinavian vikings. 
 It was Alfred the great who first established what may be called a navy in this island, 
 consisting of efficient vessels well manned, for protection, and not aggression. Ethelred 
 made the building of a ship a condition for holding a certain acreage of land. William 
 the conqueror strengthened the navy by the institution of the Cinque ports (q.v.). 
 During the first three centuries after the conquest, we read of British fleets of 240,400, 
 and even 730 sail — a proof that the vessels must have been very small even if there were 
 no exaggeration of numbers. Until 1485, the fleets were collected just as wanted; but 
 in this year, Henry VII. conceived the idea of a permanent navy, to be ready at all 
 times. He built the largest ship of the age, the Great Harry. Henry VIII. pursued the 
 course established by his father, and still further strengthened the navy by instituting the 
 admiralty, the navy-office, the Trinity house, and the dockyards at Wool wich, Portsmouth, 
 and Deptford. The Henri Grace de Dieu. the largest ship built by him, was of 1000 tons 
 burden; but most of the vessels were high, unwieldy, and narrow, with the guns nearly 
 down to the water’s edge. The ships of the navy presented an aggregate tonnage of 
 
 12.000 tons at the period of Henry’s death. Elizabeth made a large increase in the navy; 
 but they were not all royal ships which were sent to struggle against the Spanish Armada. 
 James I. made many improvements in ship-building, by encouraging a distinguished 
 naval architect, Phineas Pett. Charles I., who built the Sovereign of the Seas, of 100 
 guns, was the first to group the royal ships into rates and classes. Cromwell brought 
 up the navy to the strength of 154 sail, including a large number of two-deckers. Charles 
 II. allowed it to fall into decay for a time; but his brother, the duke of York, who after- 
 wards became James II., not only restored it, but brought it to a higher state of effi- 
 ciency and strength than ever. When William of Orange became king of England, he 
 found a navy carrying 7000 guns and 42,000 seamen; he built many additional ships, 
 some with as many as 80 guns, and established Plymouth dockyard. Queen Anne suc- 
 ceeded to the possession of a fine navy; which at her death had increased to 198 ships, 
 mounting 10,600 guns, with a tonnage of 157,000 tons. George I. attended to the navy 
 chiefly in repairing the ships after a period of war, and in supplying a new armament. 
 George II. greatly added to the number of ships, established a naval uniform, and 
 increased the renown of the British navy during the war against Spain. 
 
 The long and eventful reign of George III. was especial !v distinguished by the 
 achievements of the navy. When he came to the crown in 1760. he found himself in 
 ])ossession of 127 ships of above 50 guns, and 198 of 50 guns and under, manned by 
 
 70.000 seamen. These numbers, by building and by capture, were increased to 174 and 
 203 respectively, by the end of the American war. Throughout the European struggle, 
 from 1793 to 1815, the B. N. exhibited a spectacle for vastness and achievements which 
 had never before been equaled in any country. In the first nine years of this period, 
 between 1793 and 1802, England lost by war 5 ships of the line and 46 smaller vessels; 
 but she captured from the French, Dutch, Spaniards, and Danes, in various battles, 74 
 ships of the line and 519 smaller vessels; or rather, four fifths of tliis number were cap- 
 tured, and one fifth destroyed. Besides these, more than 800 privateers were taken and 
 destroyed by the English. Of the total number of captures, 144 ships of war were at 
 once converted into British ships, and added to our navy. When war recommenced in 
 1803, England had 189 ships of the line, and 781 smaller ships of war; during the next 
 seven years, the seamen varied from 100,000 to 120,000, and in 1810 the number was raised 
 to 140,000. At all times, many of the ships of the royal navy are unemployed or out of 
 commission ; but it frequently happened during that great war, that England had 450 
 liners, frigates, and sloops, besides smaller armed vessels, employed simultaneously. The 
 conquered vessels added to the nav}" between 1803 and 1815 were upwards of 100 in 
 number, 
 
79 
 
 British. 
 
 Brixen. 
 
 After the termination of the great European struggle, a large number of ships of war 
 were put “in ordinary,” or out of commission, and their officers placed on half-pay. In 
 1820, the vessels in commission, in ordinary, and building, comprised 127 ships of the 
 line, 311 frigates and sloops, and 27 smaller vessels; but in this total of 465, there were 
 only 113 in commission. In the 19 years that next followed, almost wholly years of 
 peace, the total number of ships of the line, frigates, and sloops, decreased ; the gun- 
 brigs, schooners, and cutters increased in number; while the first germs of a new ele- 
 ment, a steam navy, made their appearance. 
 
 The year 1839 must be viewed as a turning-point in the history of the British navy. 
 Twenty-four years of peace had thrown the memory of warlike achievements into the 
 background ; and the house of commons had insisted on the lessening of those estimates 
 which provide for armies and navies. It was now found, however, that both Russia 
 and France had accumulated formidable navies. From that year to the present, the 
 B. N., in common with the navies of other powers, has been undergoing a series of 
 “reconstructions.” First, ships of larger size, and carrying heavier guns, were built. 
 These ships were of immense power in the days of wooden broadsides, but are now use- 
 less for purposes of war. The next stage, from about 1853 to 1859, was the conversion 
 of our force from a sailing to a steam navy. This became the era of great steam 
 frigates of about 5000 tons, and of heavy armaments in a few great guns, of which the 
 Mersey, 36 guns, may be taken as a leading specimen. With the introduction of rified 
 guns, of force hitherto undreamt of, came the necessity for armor-plated sides. The 
 fighting part of the navy (i.e., the line of battle) changed once more after 1860 to low- 
 sided vessels, clad in thousands of tons of iron plates. The Warrior was the first ship 
 so built in England, and she was followed by a whole squadron similarly protected. 
 Guns, however, went on increasing in offensive power; and whereas 5-inch plates were 
 at first thought sufficient, now 10-in., 12-in., 14-in., and even 22-in. plates are necessaiy 
 to exclude shot. Such a vast w'eight of armor all over a ship would sink any vessel of 
 moderate dimensions. The principle of turret-ships is therefore becoming predominant, 
 in which the greater part of the vessel, clad in comparatively light armor, is under 
 water, or only just visible above the surface. The earliest formidable turret-ship was 
 the ill-fated Captain, which, in 1870, capsized in the bay of Biscay, and entombed 600 
 brave seamen, with the inventor, capt. Coles. Ships of analogous construction, with 
 lower freeboard, have been since built; and now the Inflexible, of 11,165 tons, carrying 
 4 guns of 81 tons, is probably the most powerful war-ship that ever floated. 
 
 The expenditure on the B. N. greatly increased between 1839 and 1875, on account 
 of the changes just adverted to. In 1839, the number of men and boys voted was little 
 over 25,000; in 1878, it was about 60,000. Even as late as 1852, the expenditure was only 
 £6,500,000, against £10,589,984 in 1879-80. 
 
 The B. N. is at present composed of 61 ironclads, about 300 steam- vessels, and 170 
 sailing-vessels. In the beginning of 1879, there were in commission 255 vessels. The 
 unarmored ships comprise cruisers, dispatch vessels, gun-boats, several large old-fash- 
 ioned two-deckers, troop-ships for India, tugs, old wooden vessels for harbor service. 
 
 All matters about ships, seamen, etc., will be found under their proper headings. 
 See Turret-ship; also Armor-plates and War-services. 
 
 BRITON. See Britannia, ante. 
 
 BRITTANY. See Bretagne. 
 
 BRITTON, the title of the earliest summary of the laws of England in the -French 
 language, purporting to have been written by the command of Edward I. The com- 
 piler is unknown. 
 
 BRITTON, John, an eminent English topographical and antiquarian writer, the son 
 of a small farmer and village shopkeeper, was b. July 7, 1771, at Kingston- St. -Michael, 
 near Chippenham, Wiltshire, and losing his parents young, received but a scanty edu- 
 cation. Some short notices which he had contributed to the Sporting Magazine 
 brought him into acquaintance with its publisher, Mr. Wheble, who employed him 
 to compile the Beauties of Wiltshire, which he did in conjunction with a young literary 
 friend named E W. Bray ley. They also prepared the Beauties of Bedfordshire in the 
 same manner. B. afterwards issued a more elaborate work, entitled the Architectural 
 Antiquities of England. One of the most important of his subsequent publications was 
 Ihe Cathedral Antiquities of England, 14 vols. fob and 4to, 1814-35, with upwards of 
 300 highly finished plates. Altogether, his illustrated works of architectural and topo- 
 gi-aphical description and antiquities number 87, besides others of a similar kind which 
 he edited. 
 
 BRIVE, a t. of France, in the department of Correze, pleasantly situated in the midst 
 of vineyards, and shut in by a fine circular avenue of elms, about 15 m. s.w. of Tulle. 
 It has manufactures of woolen, cotton-yarn, etc. Pop. ’72, 8016. 
 
 BRIXEN, a t. of Austrian Tyrol, at the confluence of the Eisack and the Rientz, 104 
 m. from Vienna by rail. It is a bishop’s see, and has a cathedral, several monasteries, 
 a theological seminary, and a gymnasium. There are iron and steel factories in the 
 neighborhood. Nine miles away is the great fort of Franzensfeste, built in 1838. B. is 
 mentioned in 901; it was walled in in 1038; was burnt in 1174, 1234, and 1445; in 1519, 
 
Brixham. 
 
 Broccoli. 
 
 it was stormed by the French, and in 1525 suffered from the rebellion of the peasants. 
 Pop. ’69, 4349. 
 
 BBIXHAH, a market-t. and seaport of Devonshire, England, beautifully situated on 
 the s. side of Torbay, 5 m. s. from Torquay, and 22 m. directly s. from Exeter, The 
 town occupies the sides of two hills, and is* divided into two parts, called upper and 
 lower B., the former consisting chiefly of a long straggling street. Some of the more 
 recently erected parts of the town are well built, and contain good houses, but the older 
 parts are mean. The prosperity of B. depends chiefly on its fisheries, it being the head- 
 quarters of the great Devonshire fishery of Torbay, in which many vessels are employed, 
 mostly trawlers, of which there are about 200. These are decked sloops of 40 to 50 
 tons burden, and generally managed by three men and a boy. Great quantities of fresh 
 fish are sent to London, Bath, and Bristol. Considerable quantities of iron ore are 
 raised in the neighborhood and shipped here. B. has also a number of vessels engaged 
 in the coasting and foreign trade, the foreign trade being chiefly with the Mediterranean. 
 The admiralty have an establishment here for watering the navy. Near B. is a station 
 of the South Devon branch of the Great Western railway. It was at B. that the prince 
 of Orange, afterwards William III., landed, Nov. 4, 1688. Pop. 71, 4941. 
 
 BKIZA. See Quaking Grass. 
 
 BEIZUBE, Brize or Brise, terms used in heraldry to indicate that a charge is bruised 
 or broken. See Rompu. 
 
 BBOACH, or Broche, an old English term for a spire springing directly from a 
 tower without any intermediate parapet. Such spires are common in England, and in 
 some places in Scotland, particularly in Fife. 
 
 BROACH, a t. in India. See Baroach, ante. 
 
 BBOAB ABBOW, a government mark, stamped, cut, or otherwise fixed on all solid 
 materials used in her majesty’s ships or dock-yards, and on government stores generally, 
 in order to prevent embezzlement. The origin of the mark is obscure. Previous to 
 the year 1698, the naval authorities prosecuted a dealer in marine-stores, for having in 
 his possession certain stores bearing the B. A. of his majesty. The defendant allowed 
 the evidence against him to go on, and when asked what he had to say, replied that 
 It was very curious that the king and he, as a dealer, should both have the same 
 private mark on their property! The receiver of stolen goods was acquitted, and this 
 led to the passing of the act 9 and 10 Will. III. c. 41 (1698), which enacts that per- 
 sons in possession of naval stores, or goods of any kind marked with the B. A., or 
 other marks therein mentioned, and usually employed in marking naval stores for the 
 navy, shall forfeit all such goods and $200, and also pay costs. The mark is for iron, 
 wood, etc., what the color-thread is for sailcloth and ropes, which enables the govern- 
 ment to identify the smallest piece of such articles. 
 
 BBOAD-BILL. See Shoveler. 
 
 BBOAD-BOTTOM ADMINISTBATION, a name derisively applied to the ministry' 
 formed by Henry Pelham in 1744, because it professed to include all parties of weight 
 and influence in the state in a grand coalition, and comprised no less than nine dukes — 
 viz., Dorset, Newcastle, Montagu, Bedford, Grafton, Richmond, Argyle, Devonshire, 
 and Bolton, the first seven of whom were of the cabinet. Besides the prime minister, 
 Pelham, the other principal members of the cabinet were earls Gower and Harrington, 
 the marquis of Tweeddale and lord Hardwicke. From this B. B. A. the particular 
 adherents of Pulteney (newly created earl of Bath) and lord Cateret were carefully 
 excluded. The ministry was dissolved in 1754, by the death of Pelham, though 
 several of its original members had seceded long before. 
 
 BROADCAST, a method of sowing grain, which distributes it with some degree of 
 uniformity over the surface. When the sowing is done by hand, the seed is carried in 
 a bag at the left side, and is scattered with the right hand while the sower walks on with 
 measured tread. The seed is afterwards covered with a harrow, or by dragging brush 
 over it. Machines have been devised for sowing grain in this manner. The method of 
 sowing by the drill is preferred by most intelligent farmers. 
 
 BROAD CHURCH, the name given to a portion of the church of England which 
 holds a position unidentified with either the High or the Low church party. The 
 High church branch holds rigidly to apostolic succession, maintains the divine right of 
 episcopacy, and in general the sacramental view of the church and the Christian life; of 
 this company are those known as “ Ritualists,” though not all who are High church 
 would accept the name of Ritualists, (See Ritualism.) From this section came those 
 known a few years since as “Puseyites.” The Low church section recognize non-pre- 
 latical bodies of Christian believers as in some sense churches; in doctrine they are 
 mainly Calvinists; they are often called Evangelicals. The Broad church section are 
 the latest of the three divisions, but embrace a large number of churchmen of high cul- 
 tivation and talent, such as dean Stanley, canon Kingsle}", ISIaurice, and others of note. 
 The tendency of the Broad church leaders is towards a liberal view both of Christian 
 doctrine and church organization. Yet the High on the one hand, the Low on the other, 
 and the Broad between the two subscribe to the same formularies, which they interpret 
 
81 
 
 Brixham. 
 
 BroccolL 
 
 in differing senses, and from which they deduce opposite results. It should be under- 
 stood that these names are used only colloquially for popular convenience, and are not 
 accepted in either England or America as legitimate designations. They show ten- 
 dencies. 
 
 BROADCLOTH. See Woolen and Worsted Manufactures, ante. 
 
 BROADDUS, Andrew, d.d., 1770-1848; a Virginian; a Baptist preacher, compiler of 
 the Dover Selection and Virginia Collection of hymns, and a popular pulpit orator. Some 
 of his sermons have been published. 
 
 BROAD MOUNT AIIST, in the coal region. Carbon and Schuylkill cos., Penn. It is 
 about 2000 ft. high and extends for 50 m. n.e. and s.w. 
 
 BROAD RIVER, a stream of North and South Carolina rising in the Blue Ridge, 
 and joining with the Saluda, forming the Congaree. The city of Columbia is at the 
 junction of the two rivers. The country around B. R. is exceedingly fertile and pro- 
 ductive. 
 
 BROADSIDE, in naval warfare, is the simultaneous discharge of all the guns on one 
 side of a ship of war. The fighting power of a ship is sometimes estimated by the 
 weight of her broadside, i.e., the weight of all the shot and shell that can be fired off at 
 once from one side or half of the ship. Thus, the broadside of the old-fashioned Duke 
 of Wellington, 131-gun war-steamer, amounted to 2400 lbs. One reason why a paddle- 
 steamer is not so good for war purposes as a screw-steamer, is because the paddle-boxes 
 and wheels interfere with the broadside. With the introduction of iron-clad turret-ships 
 the term is becoming less applicable. 
 
 BROADSTAIRS, a t. in England 1^ m. s. of North Foreland and 3 m. from Mar- 
 gate. It has a small pier built early in the 16th c., and an archway leading to the shore 
 built in 1540. Near the pier is a chapel to the Virgin, in honor of which ships were once 
 accustomed to furl their topsails as thev passed. B. is a place of summer resort. Pop. 
 ’71, 1926. 
 
 BROADSWORD is a sword with a broad blade, for cutting only, not for stabbing, and 
 therefore not sharp, at the point, like a saber. It is but little used in the British army. 
 
 BROAD TOP MOUNTAIN, in Bedford and Huntingdon cos., Penn., 2500 ft. above 
 the sea. It has large beds of bituminous coal. 
 
 BROADUS, John Albert, d.d., ll.d., b. Va., 1827; educated in the university of 
 Virginia; pastor of the Baptist church in Charlotteville, and in 1859 professor of New 
 Testament interpretation and homiletics in the Southern Baptist theological seminary in 
 Oreenville, S. C. Dr. B. is proficient as a Greek scholar. He has published, among 
 other papers. The Preparation and Delivery of Sermons and Pecollections of Travels. 
 
 BROCADE. This term is used to describe a silken fabric on which a figure of any 
 kind is formed by the threads of the warp or weft being raised by the heddlea, or, more 
 generally, by the Jacquard-loom, in such order as to produce the pattern required. The 
 word has much the same application to silk textures that damask has to linen textures 
 or to worsted textures for upholstery uses. See Weaving and Jacquard-loom. 
 
 BROCAGE. See Broker. 
 
 BROCAGE BONDS to procure MARRIAGE, or Marriage Brocage Bonds, as they 
 are otherwise called, are void by the law of England, being against the policy of the 
 law and the freedom of marriage. See Hurlstone’s Law of Bonds, 1835, p. 15, and 
 authorities there referred to. The Scotch law is the same. 
 
 BROCCOLI, a well-known and much esteemed garden vegetable, one of the many 
 varieties which cultivation has produced of the hrassica oleracea, the common kale or 
 cabbage. B. is said to have been originally brought to Italy and other parts of Europe 
 from the isle of Cyprus about the middle of the 16th century. Its name is probably of 
 Italian origin. It differs little from cauliflower (q.v.), of which it may be considered a 
 mere variety, having colored instead of white heads, and a deeper tinge of color in the 
 leaves, being also more hardy, the character from which its chief importance is derived, 
 as it can be readily obtained at seasons when there is no cauliflower in the open garden. 
 It is perhaps inferior to cauliflower, however, in delicacy of flavor. There are many 
 subvarieties, the number of which is, of course, continually increasing ; and some of these 
 are preferred for early spring sowing, with a view to an autumn crop; others for later 
 sowing, with a view to a crop in the following spring. The subvarieties differ in size, 
 in their more cut or entire leaves, in the greater or less degree of color — generally pur- 
 ple — with which the leaves are tinged, in the more or less compact form of the whole 
 plant, in the more or less green, yellow, or purple color of the head, etc. Some of the 
 kinds of B. preferred for late sowing and spring use are known by the general name of 
 cape B., the first of them being said — but on doubtful authority — to have been intro- 
 duced into Britain from the cape of Good Hope. The mode of cultivation of B. pretty 
 much resembles that of cauliflower, except as to the times of sowing and transplanting, 
 and that it is generally — even in Scotland — sown in the open ground, and not in a hot- 
 bed. A similar richness of soil is required. Various modes of protection in winter are 
 adopted. In mild winters, protection is scarcely or not at all needed, but precautions 
 U. K. III. -6 
 
Brocclii. 
 
 Broglie. 
 
 82 
 
 are generally employed against severe weather. It is found very advantageous to plant 
 in trenches of 6 in, deep, and to earth up the plants, as they are thus not only in some 
 measure preserved from frosts, but also from the winds of winter, which are apt ta 
 shake and loosen plants, so as to cause their destruction. It is a common practice ta 
 take up some of the most advanced plants in the beginning of winter, and to lay them 
 in a sloping position with their heads towards the north. The heads produced in this 
 way are not in general so large as they might be, but they are sometimes procured when 
 otherwise they probably would not. 
 
 BROCCHI, Giovanni Battista; an Italian geologist, 177S-1826. He studied at 
 Pisa, and was professor of botany in 1802 at Brescia, but devoted himself chiefly to 
 
 f eology. In 1808, he was made inspector of mines for Italy. In 1823, he went to 
 Igypt, and two years after Mehemet Ali made him one of a commission to organize for 
 the conquest of Sennaar. B. fell a victim to the climate at Khartoom. Among his 
 works are Treatise on the Iron Mines of Mella; Essay on the Physical Constitution of the 
 Metalliferous Mountains of the Valley of Trompia; Mineralogy of the Valley of Fassa and 
 the Tyrol; Fossil Geology of the Apennines, etc. 
 
 BEOCHUKE, a French word (from brocher, to stitch), equivalent to the English word 
 pamphlet (q.v.). 
 
 BROCK, Sir Isaac, an English gen. killed in the battle of Queenstown, Canada, Oct. 
 13, 1812. Not long before, he had captured gen. Hull (suspected of treason) and his 
 forces. There is a monument to his memory on the w. bank of the Niagara river. 
 
 BBOCEEN {Mons Bructerus, Melihocus of the ancient Romans), popularly known as the 
 Blocksberg, is the highest summit of the Harz mountains. It is situated in the province 
 of Saxony, Prussia, about 20 m. w.s.w. of Halberstadt, and has an elevation of 3740 ft. 
 above the sea. The mountain is very frequently veiled in mist and cloud-strata, and is 
 celebrated for the phenomenon known as the Brockengespenst (“specter of the Brocken”), 
 which is nothing more than the shadow of men, houses, or other objects thrown upon 
 the misty eastern horizon by the light of sunset. (See Gallery of Nature, published by 
 W. & R. Chambers.) In clear weather, a fine view is obtained from the summit of the 
 Brocken. 
 
 BROCKETT, Linus Pierpont, m.d., b. Conn., 1820; graduated from Yale medical 
 college in 1843. After a few years he left medical practice for literature, and has written 
 for the New American Cyclopedia, etc. Among his separate works are Our Great Cap- 
 tains; Woman's Work in the Civil War; Woman, her Bights, Wrongs, Privileges, and Be- 
 sponsibilities ; and Epidemic and Contagious Diseases, their History, ^mptoms, and Treat- 
 ment. 
 
 BBOCEHAUS, Friedrich Arnold, the founder of the well-known firm of B. in 
 Leipsic, and publisher of the Conversations-Lexicon, was b. at Dortmund, May 4, 1772. 
 In 1802, circumstances led him to Holland, where, however, his business schemes did 
 not prosper. He returned to Germany in 1810, and in the following year commenced 
 business in Altenburg. Before this, however (in 1808), B. had purchased the copyright 
 of the Conversations-Lexicon, which had been commenced in 1796, and he completed the 
 first edition, with the addition of two supplementary volumes, in 1809-10. In 1812, a 
 second improved edition of the work was commenced under the supervision of B. as 
 editor. The peace of 1815 enabled B. to pursue prosperously his peaceful and civilizing 
 career. In 1817, his business had so increased, that he found it necessary to leave Alten- 
 burg for Leipsic, where, in the following year, he commenced book-printing in addition 
 to book-publishing. In the course of a few years, the Lexicon passed through six 
 editions; it has now arrived at the eleventh edition. Through all the enterprises of B. 
 as a publisher, a zealous devotion to the cause of liberty and general enlightment may 
 be traced. He died Aug. 20, 1823. B. was not only an able and assiduous man of business, 
 but distinguished for his literary culture, his knowledge of the world, and his numer- 
 ous social accomplishments. He was also eminently patriotic, and furthered many 
 literary undertakings, simply through a pure love of “ fatherland.” 
 
 The business was afterwards carried on by Heinrich B., second son of the former 
 (b. 1804, d. 1874), and now by Heinrich’s sons, Rudolf and Edward. Among the numer- 
 ous publications issued by the house, may be mentioned the later editions of the Con-- 
 ver sations- Lexicon, Vi \th Atlas; the Universal Encyclopcedia, hyViVSch o.nd.(jtr\iheT\ and 
 
 the German Penny Magazine, founded in 1833. 
 
 Brockhaus, Hermann, third son of F. A. Brockhaus, was b. at Amsterdam, Jan. 
 28, 1806; studied at Leipsic, Gottingen, and Bonn, and lived successively in Copen- 
 hagen, Paris, London, and Oxford. From 1848 till his death in 1877, he held at 
 Leipsic the chair of ordinary professor of the Sanscrit language and literature. Among 
 his several works on oriental literature may be mentioned the First Five Books of the 
 Large Collection of Fables, Kathd Barit Sdgara, in Sanscrit and German (1839); an edition 
 of the drama Prabodha Candrodaya, by Krishna Misra, with Hindu scholia (1845); Nacli- 
 schebi’s Persian version of the Seven Wise Masters (1845); and (in 1854) the Persian text 
 ot the Songs of Hafiz. After 1856, he was editor of the Universal Encyclopaedia. B.’s 
 method of printing Sanscrit in Roman types is now generally adopted in Germany. 
 
83 
 
 Brocchi. 
 
 Broglie. 
 
 BROCKPOHT, a village in Monroe co., N. Y., on the Central railroad and Erie 
 canal, 18 m. w. of Rochester; noted for manufactures, especially of pumps and agricul- 
 tural machines. There is a state normal school here. 
 
 BROCKTON, a t. in Plymouth co., Mass., on the Old Colony railroad, 20 m. s. of 
 Boston; pop. ’80, 13,608. The manufacture of boots and shoes is the chief industry. 
 
 BROCKVILLE, a t. of Upper Canada, or Ontario, taking its name from gen. Brock, 
 who, during the last American war, died in the arms of victory on Queenston heights, 
 between the town and falls of Niagara. It stands on the left bank of the St. Lawrence 
 proper, about 40 m. below Kingston, and about 160 above Montreal. Originally, its 
 communications downward were interrupted by powerful and rugged rapids, which, 
 however, are now, one and all, either avoided by canals or overcome by steam. B. is a 
 thriving place, with (1871) 5102 inhabitants. 
 
 BRODERICK, David Colbreth, 1818-59; b. Washington; an energetic uneducated 
 man, who became a political leader in New York city, and was elected to congress. In 
 1849, he went to California, and in 1856 was chosen United States senator. In conse- 
 quence of some plain words, B. was challenged by David S. Terry, a judge of one of 
 the state courts, and fell in the duel which followed. 
 
 BRODERIP, William John, 1787-1859; an English writer on natural history. He 
 studied law, practiced, edited law reports, and was for 34 years a metropolitan police 
 magistrate; but his leisure was devoted to science, and he was a member of most of the 
 important societies, contributed to their Tmnsacti&nSy and promoted especially the study 
 of zoology, being many years vice-president of the zoological society. Much of his scien- 
 tific writings appearea in Eraser's Magazine. 
 
 BRODHEAD, John Rometn, ll.d., 1814-73; b. Philadelphia; a graduate of Rut- 
 gers college, and a student at law, but after brief practice he turned his whole attention 
 to American history, especially that concerning the early settlement of New York. In 
 pursuit of this object, while connected with the United States legation in Holland, he 
 thoroughly searched the archives at the Hague and elsewhere in that country, and in 
 England and France. His great labor was rewarded by the collection of more than 5000 
 documents, more or less important, of which many had until then been unknown to his- 
 torians. These papers were printed by the state of New York in several large folio 
 volumes. In 1846, B. was secretary of legation in London, where he wrote the greater 
 part of his History of the State of Nero York., the last volume of which was published in 
 1871. From 1853 to 1857 he was naval officer of the port of New York. He was a lead 
 ing member of the New York historical and other learned societies in this country and 
 abroad. 
 
 BRODIE, Sir Benjamin Collins, Bart. , a distinguished surgeon, third son of the 
 rev. Peter Bellinger Brodie, rector of Winterslow, Wiltshire, wash, there in 1783. He 
 studied under sir Everard Home at St. George’s hospital, to which he was, in 1808, 
 elected assistant-surgeon, and afterwards surgeon. He had previously lectured both on 
 anatomy and on surgery. In 1810, he was elected a fellow of the royal society, and 
 in 1811 received their Copley medal for his physiological papers contributed to the 
 Philosophical Transactions. In 1834, he was created a baronet, and he held the appoint- 
 ment of sergeant-surgeon to queen Victoria, as well as that of first surgeon in ordinary 
 to the prince consort. He was made d.c.l. of Oxford in 1850; was president of the royal 
 society; a corresponding member of the institute of France, and a foreign member of 
 other learned societies and academies in Europe and America. Author of Lectures on 
 Local Nervous Affections (1837, 8vo); Hunterian Oration, 1837; Lectures Illustrative of Sub- 
 jects in Pathology and Surgery (1840, 8vo); Introductory Hiscourse on the Duties and Conduct 
 of Medical Stu^nts 8vo); Psychological Lnquiries as to Mental Faculties ed.. 
 
 1856); an edition of his works with Autobiography appeared in 1865. He also con- 
 tributed papers to several scientific journals. He died in 1862, — B.’s son, sir B. C. 
 Brodie, p.r.s., was in 1855 elected Aldrichian prof, of chemistry at Oxford, a chair 
 suppressed in 1866. 
 
 BRO DY, a t. of Galicia, Austria, s situated on a swampy plain, surrounded by forests, 
 about 58 m. e.n.e. of Lemberg. B., which was made a free commercial town in 1779, has 
 a large trade in the agricultural produce of the country with Russia, Poland, and Tur- 
 key. Its chief manufactures are leather and linen; jewelry, manufactured goods, and 
 colonial produce are imported by way of Odessa, The trade is almost entirely in the 
 hands of the Jews, who form so large a proportion of the inhabitants, that B. has been 
 called “The German Jerusalem.” Pop. ’69, 18,890. 
 
 BROG, or Brogue, a rudely formed species of shoe, formerly in use by the aboriginal 
 Irish and the Scottish Highlanders, and of which there were different varieties. See 
 Shoes, Shoe-trade, The'name has been applied to a modern kind of shoes, with some 
 fanciful peculiarities. — The term brogue is also used to signify the peculiar pronun 
 ciation of English that distinguishes natives of Ireland. 
 
 BROGLIE, Achille Leonce Victor Charles, Due de, 1785-1870; a peer of 
 France. The family was Piedmontese, but won distinction in the armies of France. 
 The first marshal de B. served under Louis XIV. ; his son reached the highest grade of 
 
84 
 
 Broelie. 
 
 Broken. 
 
 tlie French peerage; the second marshal commanded in the seven years war, was made 
 a prince of the empire, and by Louis XVI. made commander-in-chief. He refused to 
 serve under Napoleon, and died in voluntary exile. His son followed Lafayette to 
 America, but soon returned, served on the staff in the republican army of the Rhine, 
 was denounced, arrested, and guillotined, June 27, 1794. His injunction to his son (the 
 subject of this sketch, then but 9 years old) was to remain faithful to liberty even though 
 she were ungrateful and unjust. ‘ ‘ His father murdered, his mother in prison, his property 
 confiscated and plundered, the young de Broglie first appears in life in wooden shoes^ 
 and a red cap of liberty, begging an assignat from the younger Robespierre.” Yet he 
 adhered to the cause for which his father died, and maintained through life the princi- 
 ples of 1789, seeming to have forgotten even his rank until reminded of it by a summons 
 to the chamber of peers. Early in life he was one of Napoleon’s council of state. With 
 high rank, independent fortune, unblemished integrity, unflinching patriotism, and a 
 sincere and consistent attachment to liberal opinions, B. entered the chamber in 1815, 
 just before he was 30 years old. His first opportunity was on the trial of marshal Ney, 
 and he alone had the courage to speak and vote for acquittal on the ground that the 
 marshal was not guilty of premeditated treason. During the restoration he was active 
 in the defense of liberal opinions and measures, opposing the reactionary policy of the 
 court, and acting with the doctrinaires, of whom Guizot was the ablest representative. 
 In 1816, he married Mme. de Stael’s daughter. About the same time he became an 
 ally of Clarkson and Wilberforce in the cause of the emancipation of negroes from 
 slavery. In Louis Philippe’s first cabinet he reluctantly took the bureau of public wor- 
 ship, and in 1832, upon strong urging, became Cassimir Perier’s successor as minister 
 of foreign affairs, in which office he strengthened the bonds between France and Eng- 
 land, negotiated the quadruple alliance, assisted in settling the Belgian and Greek ques- 
 tions, and labored with success to preserve the peace of Europe. In 1835, he was the 
 head of the cabinet, and, riding beside the king when Fieschi’s attempt at regicide was 
 made, B. received one of the bullets through his coat collar. He retired permanently 
 from public life in 1836. Though not in office, B. preserved through life close personal 
 and political friendship with Guizot. The overthrow of the constitutional monarchy 
 in 1848 was a severe blow to the duke; but he consented to sit in the republican assem- 
 blies, and labored to counteract some of what he deemed to be the evils of universal 
 suffrage and to avert the coup d'etat which he saw was impending. When it came he 
 was conspicuous as one of the bitterest enemies of the imperial regime, though he 
 admitted that an empire was “the government which the poorer classes of France 
 desired, and the rich deserved.” His last 20 years were devoted to philosophical and 
 literary pursuits. With regard to the future, he said: “ I shall die a penitent Christian 
 and an impenitent liberal.” He was a member of the academy and other societies, in 
 whose labor he took assiduous interest. He was succeeded by Albert de B., his eldest 
 son, also of literary distinction, who has had a prominent part since 1871 in the 
 national assembly, and was for some time the head of marshal MacMahon’s cabinet. 
 
 BROGLIE, Albert, Due de, son of Achille, b. 1821 ; statesman and author, elected 
 a member of the academy in 186k His main work. The Church and the Roman Empire 
 in the Fourth Century has passed through several editions. He has also published 
 Leibnitz’s System of '^ligion; Questions of Religion and History, etc. M. Thiers made 
 him minister of foreign affairs, and ambassador to Great Britain. 
 
 BROHAN, Josephine Felicite Augustine, b. 1824; a French actress, excelling 
 specially in the higher dramas, such as those of Moliere, Beaumarchais, and Victor Hugo. 
 She has also produced some pieces of her own. On the death of Rachel she took the 
 great tragedienne’s chair in the conservatory. Her two sisters are well known on the 
 stage ; Suzanne, and Emilie Madeleine. 
 
 BROILING is a convenient and expeditious mode of cooking small pieces of meat, 
 by laying them on a gridiron over a bright fire, or even on the coals themselves. 
 This is perhaps the most primitive mode of preparing meat for eating, as may be sup- 
 posed from the great ease and simplicity with which the operation is managed. B. is, 
 in fact, a quicker sort of roasting. The albumen of the outside being sealed up at once, 
 the meat is rendered extremely nutritious, and therefore this process is much to be rec- 
 ommended. But to broil meat so as to preserve its odor, juice, and fat, requires 
 care. The meat should be prepared for the gridiron by being beaten slightly with the 
 rolling-pin, trimmed of superfiuous fat and skin, and cut so as to look well on the dish. 
 The fire should be perfectly clear, and of a red-hot surface to answer to the size of the 
 gridiron, that all parts of the meat may be equally cooked. Just before setting the grid- 
 iron over, some salt should be sprinkled on the fire to prevent the flare. The gridiron 
 should be perfectly clean and smooth, being always rubbed when it is put away; and, 
 before using, it should be warmed, greased with suet, and rubbed again with paper. 
 When it is placed on the fire, the back should be higher than the front. The meat 
 should never be touched with a fork, but turned rapidly with the broiling tongs; and 
 when sufficiently done, should be served immediately on a very hot dish, being seasoned 
 according to taste, In large ranges there should be a broiling stove, and an apparatus 
 for B. suited to it ; by this the heat of the fire can be easily regulated. But for all ordi- 
 nary purposes, a fire of charcoal, or of common coal, and a grooved gridiron, to preserve 
 
 i 
 
85 
 
 Broglie. 
 
 Broken* 
 
 the gravy, is all that is necessary. Sometimes a gridiron is used to hang before the fire, 
 when a dinner is being dressed and the top of the fire occupied; this is convenient, but 
 it is an inferior way of cooking, the meat being roasted rather than broiled. There is a 
 gridiron sold in the streets which is very well adapted to small low fires, as it is easily 
 put in between the bars. 
 
 BROKE, Sir Philip Bowes Verb, 1776-1841; an English admiral of the war of 
 1812; he commanded the Shannon, and sent a challenge to fight to the American capt. 
 Lawrence, just promoted to the command of the Chesapeake. Before the latter arrived, 
 Lawrence, who thought the mere appearance of a British vessel to be a challenge, wenj 
 out to meet him. An action ensued, June 1, 1813, insight of the land off Boston. Law* 
 rence was almost immediately mortally wounded, and his badly supplied and badly 
 manned vessel was captured. The victory raised B. to knighthood. 
 
 BROKEN KNEES. The part commonly termed the knee of the horse is the carpus or 
 wrist of man, and from the peculiar conformation of a quadruped, is much expose^ and 
 liable to serious injury. By broken knee is meant the abrasion or more serious injury of 
 the joint by a fall; and even when the wounds are healed, the scar usually remains to 
 indicate that the horse has once fallen, and is “ broken-kneed. ” An animal is then 
 regarded as unsafe, and seriously deteriorated in value. 
 
 Causes. — The fall is necessarily the immediate cause of the broken-knee ; as to the • 
 cause of the fall, it is usually to be looked for elsewhere than in the horse himself. As 
 a rule, the safety of a horse’s action is very great, particularly about the age of from 
 four to seven or eight years. Rarely does a horse at any age fall on his knees, unless his 
 feet have suffered from improper shoeing; the animal then moves cautiously, and is 
 very apt to “ stumble.” Undoubtedly, some horses of defective conformation and slug- 
 gish disposition are more likely to stumble and fall than a well made, high-actioned 
 steed; nevertheless, the most perfect animal may gradually be rendered unsafe by 
 improper shoeing. See Shoeing of Horses. 
 
 Symptoms. — It is important, so soon as the injury is done, to determine the extent and 
 depth of the wound. If it be merely a superficial wound, the case is a simple one; and 
 unless the skin is rnuch bruised, the hair will grow, and the animal not be permanently 
 blemished. The sheath, however, through which the tendon over the joint passes, may be 
 opened, and the tendon itself injured. The wound is then gaping, heals rather slowly, 
 and sloughs have to be thrown off. Lastly, the joint itself may be opened, and this is 
 indicated by a free discharge of the joint-oil or synovia, and by the bones being seen or 
 felt on probing. The worst [form of accident is that when the bones of the joint are 
 fractured. The system suffers when the wounds are serious, and severe fever sets in. 
 
 Treatment. — Whatever may be the form of injury, the first injunction is to wash the 
 wound thoroughly with cold water applied constantly for hours. The joint will swell, 
 become hot and painful, and in some cases irritative 'fever occurs. Then the animal 
 should be kept on low diet, and be purged with four, five, or six drachms of aloes, 
 according to its size, etc. Should the wound be deep, much dirt remaining in the tis- 
 sues, a large linseed-meal poultice should be applied over the joint for a day or two, 
 until free suppuration sets in. If this is retarded, and in all cases when the poultice 
 does not appear necessary, cold fomentations may be continued, using either some infill 
 sion of chamomile, or one part of tincture of arnica to twelve of water, or one part of 
 Goulard’s extract to a similar quantity of water. The severe symptoms speedily sub- 
 side, unless the bones are fractured or the joint otherwise seriously injured. Usually, 
 the wound heals rapidly, the joint-oil ceases to fiow; and in order to insure a contrac- 
 tion of the wound, mild astringent or caustic applications should be used, such as tincture 
 of myrrh, sulphate of zinc lotion, or sulphate of copper in crystal rubbed over it. When 
 the wound is thoroughly healed, the hair may not grow rapidly, even in parts where it 
 should form; in this case its production may be accelerated by the use of a very mild 
 cantharidine ointment, which should act as a mild irritant, but not as a blister. In some 
 cases of severe broken knee, it is advisable to fix the limb so that the animal may not 
 move the joint much. In veterinary jurisprudence, a broken knee is regarded as a blem- 
 ish, not as an unsoundness. 
 
 BROKEN WIND, a disease or unsoundness of the respiratory organs of the horse, 
 which, from the French pousse, was termed, by some of the old English writers on far- 
 riery, pursiness. The Germans term it ddmpjigkeit, or asthma, though in many of their 
 works it receives also the name of herzschldgigkeit, from a belief that it consists in palpi- 
 tation of the heart. The nature of the malady is not well understood, though it appears 
 in the form of difficulty in the act of expiration, the horse making an extraordinary or 
 spasmodic effort to expel from the lungs the air which has readily entered them in 
 inspiration. 
 
 Symptoms. — A broken-winded horse is usually an animal that does not thrive, is lean, 
 and has a dependent belly, the muscles of which are unusally active as expiratory mus- 
 cles. The characteristic symptoms are best observed when the horse is exercised, the 
 breathing becoming very labored, the nostrils dilated, the eyes bloodshot, and even blue, 
 showing imperfect purification of blood in the lungs. On watching the chest and fiank, 
 the ribs are observed very actively moved, and after collapsing, when the air is expelled 
 from the lungs, are further depressed by a spasmodic jerk brought about by the 
 
Broker. 
 
 Bromeliaceae. 
 
 86 
 
 abdominal muscles. A broken-winded horse has a bad cough, of the kind referred to by 
 veterinarians as characteristic of unsoundness, and termed a fwllow cough. When the 
 animal is oppressed by fast work, or dragging a load up a hill, the pulse is excessively 
 rapid, and the heart beats energetically. From this circumstance, it is regarded by some 
 as a disease of the heart. Others have believed the diaphragm affected, but in reality it 
 is the lungs, or the apparatus for expelling the air from these organs, that is at fault. 
 The diaphragm being a muscle of inspiration, it is probably in no way implicated. No 
 doubt, when the heart is diseased, the function of breathing is sometimes much affected, 
 but these are not the symptoms of the true broken-wind, any more tjian when the lungs 
 are in part rendered impervious to air, and the act of inspiration is rendered short. This 
 condition constitutes thick wind, and is often one of the remote results of inflammatory 
 disease of the lungs. 
 
 Causes . — Low-bred horses are liable to B. W., especially if improperly fed on innu- 
 tritions and bulky food, and at the same time kept at hard and fast work. Whatever 
 maybe the way in which the condition of the alimentary canal operates in producing 
 B. W., of this we are certain, that the function of digestion is much impaired. Indeed, 
 the term B. W. is believed to have had reference originally to the constant escape of 
 flatus. B. W. is far more rare now-a-days than of old, and it is at present most com- 
 mon in those countries where horses are worst managed, and fed almost exclusively on 
 ■coarse, indigestible, or innutritions kinds of hay and beans. 
 
 Treatment . — The treatment of B. W. is very unsatisfactory; and we can only hope 
 for palliation of the symptoms by keeping the alimentary canal in proper order, adminis- 
 tering occasional purgatives, and feeding on a proper quantity of the best oats, which 
 should always be bruised; also allowing the horse the best hay in spare quantities — viz., 
 from 10 to 12 lbs. daily. Some veterinarians have vaunted their powers of curing this 
 disease, and recommended large doses of camphor, digitalis, and opium; but these 
 potent narcotics only operate for a very short time, and as their effects pass oft', the 
 symptoms return, and ohen with increased severity. We may say that B. W. is incura- 
 ble ; and horses very frequently drop down exhausted when at hard work, and die either 
 from congestion of the lungs, hemorrhage, or simple suffocation. 
 
 B. W. is so bad a form of unsoundness that horse-dealers sometimes attempt, and 
 even successfully, to hide the defect for the time they may be engaged in the sale of a 
 horse, and this they do by causing the animal to swallow shot or grease. A certain por- 
 tion of lead weighing in the stomach has a wonderful effect in diminishing the symp- 
 toms, which become again obvious enough for a few hours after the ruse has been 
 practiced on some unwary purchaser. 
 
 BBOKEB (so called, from a Teut. and Slav, root, hrak or wrak, signifying refuse, 
 blemish ; as if the function had originally been to select good articles of merchandise 
 and reject blemished ones: the German term is makler, from makel, blemish), an agent 
 •employed to make bargains and contracts between other persons, in matters of trade, 
 coramerce, and navigation, for a compensation commonly called brokerage. Where he 
 is employed to buy or sell goods, he is not intrusted with the custody or possession of 
 them, and is not authorized to buy or sell them in his own name. In this respect, he 
 differs from a factor, and he differs from an auctioneer in two particulars: a B. may 
 buy as well as sell, but an auctioneer can only sell; a B. cannot sell personally at pub- 
 lic auction, for that is the appropriate function of an auctioneer, but he may sell at pri- 
 vate sales, which an auctioneer (as such) does not. A B. is strictly a middleman, or 
 intermediate negotiator between the parties, and for some purposes, he is treated as the 
 agent of both parties, but primarily he is deemed merely the agent of the party by whom 
 he is originally employed. There are several sorts of brokers, such as stock-brokers, 
 share-brokers, ship-brokers (q.v. in Supp., Vol. X.), Insurance -brokers, and bill- 
 brokers (q.v.). Persons who appraise goods, sell or distrain furniture for rent, are 
 also called brokers, although differing entirely in their occupations from the preced- 
 ing commercial agents. The business of a pawnbroker (q.v.) is also of a different 
 nature. 
 
 Brokers, in London, must be admitted by the lord mayor and aldermen, paying £5 
 on admission, and a like sum annually, under a penalty of £100; but they are no other- 
 wise subject to the control of the court of aldermen. A list is kept by the city of bro- 
 kers admitted, and of those who have been convicted of fraud or disqualifled (33 and 34 
 Viet. c. 60). 
 
 By the larceny consolidation act, 24 and 25 Viet. c. 96, s. 76, it is enacted that any 
 person, who, being a banker, merchant, B., attorney, or agent, and being intrusted for 
 safe custody with the property of any other persons, shall in any manner convert 
 or appropriate it to his own use, shall be guilty of a misdemeanor, and be liable to be 
 kept in penal servitude from five to seven years, or to suffer some other punishment, by 
 imprisonment for not more than two years, with hard labor or confinement. See Factor. 
 
 BROKER {ante). In the United States, brokers are classed according to the nature 
 of their business. In general, the word means a dealer in money or stocks; but besides 
 the bill and note broker there are exchange, insurance, cotton (and other merchandise), 
 pawn, real estate, and ship brokers. The B. is paid by a commission on his sales, or by 
 a special agreement. Usually brokers do not disclose the names of their principals. 
 
87 
 
 Broker. 
 
 Bromeliacece. 
 
 There is an implied warranty in dealing with a broker that the thing he sells is all that 
 it pretends to be, and if a bill sold be found a forgery, he is held responsible. 
 
 BBOKEBAGE is the remuneration or compensation allowed to a broker (q.v.). 
 
 BBOMBEBG, a t. of Prussia, in the province of Posen, 69 m. n.e. from the city of 
 that name, is situated on the Brahe, about 6 m. from its junction with the Vistula. B. 
 has manufactures of woolens, linen, chicory, tobacco, and Prussian blue; a large sugar- 
 refinery, distilleries, breweries, potteries, and corn-mills. The Brorriberg canal, by unit- 
 ing the rivers Netz and Brahe, connects the Oder and Elbe with the Vistula. Pop. 75, 
 31,308. 
 
 BROME, a co. in the province of Quebec, Canada, on the Vermont border; 350 
 sq.m. ; pop. 71, 13,757. The Green mountains occupy a portion of the county. Capital, 
 Knowlton. 
 
 BBOME-GBASS, Bromus; Gr. bromos, a kind of oat; a genus of grasses, very nearly 
 allied to fescue (q.v.), with flowers in lax panicles, glumes many-flowered, the outer 
 palea bifid at the extremity, and awned beneath, and the very short stigma growing 
 from the face of the germen, beneath its apex. The species are numerous, and some of 
 them are very common British grasses — none more so than the Soft B. {B. mollis), an 
 annual or biennial, which has very soft downy leaves, grows well on poor soils, and is 
 readily eaten by cattle, but is not much esteemed by farmers, either for the quantity or 
 quality of fodder which it yields. Its seeds have also the reputation of possessing dele- 
 terious or poisonous properties : and those of two other species of this genus, B. purgans 
 and B. catharticus, the former a native of North America, and the latter of Chili, are said 
 to be emetic and purgative. The whole subject of the existence of poisonous proper- 
 ties in the seeds of any of these grasses, requires further investigation. Soft B. , although 
 now disliked by farmers, was formerly sown as a fodder-grass, and its large seeds were 
 even regarded as making hay more nutritious ; so that there are some who view its pres- 
 ent proscription as a thing which ought to be reconsidered, and who deem it not improba- 
 ble that its weighty produce, both in foliage and seeds, and its adaptation to poor soils, 
 may yet recommend it to the favor of agriculturists. Very similar to it are Smooth B. 
 {B. racemosus). Field B. or Meadow B. {B. commutatus or B. pratensis, and B. arven- 
 sis), all of which seem very much to resemble it in their properties. — The Tall B. {B, 
 giganteus, also known as festuca gigantea and bucetum giganteum), a native of Britain, 
 which reaches the height of 4 or even 5 ft., affords a great bulk of foliage, but is not 
 much relished by cattle. Naturally growing in shady places, it succeeds even in dense 
 woods, and is sometimes sown to form covert for game. — Rye B. {B. secalinus) is gener- 
 ally regarded as a troublesome weed, especially in fields of rye. It is very abundant in 
 some parts of Europe. In a young state it has a great resemblance to rye. It seeds, 
 which are large, retain their power of germination for years, and do not lose it by pass- 
 ing through the intestines of animal. Deleterious effects have been erroneously ascribed 
 to bread made from rye, along with which these seeds have been ground ; but poultry 
 are very fond of them, as of those of other species of this genus. 
 
 BBOMELIA'CE.®, a natural order of monocotyledonous plants, allied to amaryllideoe 
 and iridecB, stemless, or with short stems, and rigid, channeled, often spiny and scaly 
 leaves. The flowers are in racemes or panicles; the calyx 3-parted or tubular, persistent, 
 more or less cohering with the ovary; the petals three, withering or deciduous, equal or 
 unequal, imbricated in bud. The stamens are six, inserted into the tube of the calyx 
 and corolla, the anthers opening inwards. The ovary is 3-celled, the style single, the 
 fruit capsular or succulent, many-seeded ; the seeds with a minute embryo lying in the 
 base of mealy albumen. — The order contains about 170 known species, all natives of the 
 warmer parts of America, although some of them are now naturalized both in Asia and 
 Africa. The best known plant of the order, and the only one much valued for its fruit, is 
 the pineapple (q.v.). B., with their strong spiny leaves, cover the ground in many places, 
 so as to form impenetrable thickets. Many of them are epiphytic, or grow upon trees, 
 without being parasites, particularly the species of tillandsia, one of which is the New 
 Orleans moss, long beard, or old man’s beard of the West Indies and of the southern 
 parts of the United States, hanging from the trees like the lichens of colder climates. 
 The leaves of some are so formed and placed as to retain near their base a quantity of 
 water, often affording a delicious refreshment to the traveler in a hot climate. The 
 water is, perhaps, of use to the plant itself in droughts. Not a few of the B. are capable 
 of vegetating long without contact with earth, and of sustaining long drought without 
 inconvenience, for which reason, and because of their beautiful and fragrant flowers, 
 some of them are very frequently suspended from balconies in South America as air- 
 plants. But the plants of this order are more generally valuable for their fibers than 
 upon any other account. Tillandsia usneoides, the New Orleans moss already mentioned, 
 yields a fiber, easily obtained, and in great abundance, which is used instead of hair for 
 stufling mattresses. The fibers of the leaves of the pineapple, and of some other species 
 of this order, have been made into fabrics resembling the finest white muslin, whilst they 
 are found also to possess sufiicient strength for cordage. It is supposed that the produce 
 of different species of bromelia is often included along with that of the American aloe or 
 agave (q.v.), under the name of pita fiber or pita flax, the appearance and properties of 
 
firomic. 
 
 Bronchitis. 
 
 88 
 
 the fibers being very similar, as well as those also of the fibers of the species of yucca. 
 The fiber of the pineapple is, in some countries, very frequently twisted into fishing- 
 lines, and made into nets and into ropes intended for immersion in water, being very 
 little liable to injury from this cause. Abundant as the plant is in its native regions, 
 and now so perfectly naturalized as to form thickets in many parts of the old world, 
 there seems no limit to the quantity of this fiber which might be procured. — The pine- 
 apple cloth of the Philippines is called pina muslin and 'batiste d’ ananas. It is also some- 
 times erroneously called grass-cloth. “ With a magnifier, the fibers may be seen to be 
 very numerous and fine, but not twisted at all, as in grass-cloth or the finest muslins and 
 cambrics.” The Philippine pineapple fiber is obtained from a species called by the 
 Spaniards pigna or pina (a cone), and which has by botanists been named h'omelia pigna, 
 although some regard it as a mere variety of the pineapple, with small and rather dry 
 fruit. It grows in great abundance in the Philippine islands, and is cultivated by the 
 Chinese near Singapore, and the fiber exported to China. This fiber is prepared also in 
 Malacca, ‘Java, Celebes, etc. When bleached, the pineapple fiber can be spun like flax. 
 A patent for this has been taken out in Britain by Mr. Zincke. 
 
 The Wild Ananas {bromelia pinguin) of the West Indies, the bromelia karatas, com- 
 mon in South America, the B. sagenaria, common in some parts of Brazil, and the bill- 
 bergia variegata, which grows in wild luxuriance in Mexico, where it is called caroa, often 
 covering miles of country — all ;^ield fibers which are used for cloth, cordage, nets, etc. 
 The fiber of bromelia sagenaria is known as curratow fiber. Very strong ropes are made 
 of it. 
 
 The genus bromelia has a 3-parted calyx shorter than the corolla, and the fruit is succu- 
 lent. The species are pretty numerous, the leaves of all of them are more or less char- 
 acterized by spiny serratures. The fruit of B. pinguin, already mentioned, affords a 
 cooling juice, which is used in the West Indies mixed with water, to make a drink for 
 patients in fever and dysentery. It is said to be diuretic. A vinous liquor is sometimes 
 made from it. 
 
 BROMIC ACID is the only known compound of bromine and oxygen. It is prepared 
 by acting upon bromine (Br) by caustic potash (KO) , when much bromide of potassium 
 (KBr) is formed, accompanied by bromate of potash (KOBrOs), a compound of potash 
 and B. acid. It likewise combines with silver, lead, and mercury, yielding salts, all of 
 which are styled bromates. 
 
 BROMIDES, the salts of bromine combined with various radicals, such as potassium, 
 sodium, iron, mercury, and others. Alkaline B. crystallize in cubes or right 
 angled prisms, and are easily soluble in water. Bromide of potassium is a universal 
 somnific, and is taken in doses of 20 to 60 grs., or even more. B. are said to be useful 
 in epilepsy. 
 
 BROMINE (Greek, bromos, disagreeable smell: symb. Br; equiv. 80; spec. grav. 2.96), 
 one of the chemical elements, occurs in combination in sea-water to the extent of about 
 1 grain to the gallon. It is found more abundantly in certain saline springs, especially 
 those at Kreuznach and Kissengen in Germany. It is also present in water and land 
 plants and animals. In the extraction of B. from concentrated sea-water, from which 
 common salt has been separated in quantity, and which is then called bittern, or from 
 salt springs, the liquor — which contains the B., as bromide of magnesium (MgBr) — has a 
 stream of chlorine gas (Cl) passed through it, which forms chloride of magnesium 
 (MgCl), and liberates the bromine. The liquid thus becomes of a more or less yellow 
 tint, and if it be then agitated with ether, and allowed to settle, the latter floats up the 
 bromine. The ethereal solution is then treated with potash, which principally forms 
 bromide of potassium (KBr), and fixes the B., so that the ether may be distilled off. The 
 residue is then treated with oxide of manganese and sulphuric acid in a retort with heat, 
 which results in the liberation and distillation of pure bromine. It exists as a deep red 
 liquid of density 2.966 (nearly 3), which readily evolves red fumes of a very irritating 
 and suffocating nature. It is very poisonous, actually destroying the animal tissues. It 
 is sparingly soluble in water, more so in alcohol and ether, and its water solution pos- 
 sesses great bleaching properties. When raised to the temperature of 145.4° F., it boils, 
 and reduced to 95° F., it becomes a red crystalline solid. B. combines with great 
 rapidity with metals, occasionally with ignition, as with antimony, and forms a class of 
 salts. Treated with hydrosulphuric acid, B. yields hydrobromic acid (HBr). which is 
 the analogue of hydrochloric acid, as B. is of chlorine. 
 
 BROMLEY, a in England, 10 m. s.e. of London, on high ground n. of thcRavens- 
 bourne river. Besides modern institutions there is a college founded in 1666, by bishop 
 Warner, for the residence and support of widows of clergymen. There is also a 
 palace for the bishop of Rochester, to whom the manor has belonged since the time of 
 Ethelbert; and in the garden attached is St. Blaize’s well, which was of great fame 
 before the reformation. Pop. of parish in ’71, 10,674. 
 
 BROMOFORM, the ter-bromide of formyl, analogous to ido-formand chloroform; a 
 heavy, volatile liquid; syn. CHBra. 
 
89 
 
 Bromic. 
 
 Bronchitis. 
 
 BBOMSEBRO, a village of Sweden, in the lan, and 27 m. s. of the town, of Calmar. 
 It is celebrated as the place where treaties were entered into between Sweden and Den- 
 mark in 1541, 1641, and 1645. 
 
 BBOMSGBOVE, a market t. of Worcestershire, England, near the small river Salwarp, 
 12 m. s. s.w. from Birmingham, It is li m. e. from a station on the Birmingham and 
 Bristol railway. The Birmingham and Worcester canal also passes near it. It is sit 
 nated in a highly cultivated and richly wooded valley. The principal street is about a 
 mile in length. There is a very flourishing grammar-school, founded by Edward VI. in 
 1553. The linen manufacture was formerly carried on at B. ; button-making and nail- 
 making are at present the principal branches of industry. B. returned two members to 
 the house of commons in the reign of Edward I., but was afterwards disfranchised ou 
 petition of the inhabitants themselves, because the trade of the town had declined. 
 Pop. 71, 6967. 
 
 BRONCHI are the subdivisions of the trachea or windpipe. Opposite the third 
 dorsal vertebra, the latter divides into two branches or B., of similar structure to itself — 
 namely, round and cartilaginous in front ; and flat, with muscular and fibrous tissue, 
 behind, lined with mucous membrane. Of these B., one goes to each lung, the right 
 being little more than an inch; the left, about two inches in length. On entering the 
 substance of a lung, the B. divide into smaller branches, which again subdivide, until 
 they are no larger in diameter than one-flftieth to one- thirtieth of an inch, which give 
 origin to, or terminate in, small polyhedral cells, which seem to cluster round their 
 extremities, and open into them. These are the air-cells; they consist of elastic tissue, 
 with a lining of mucous membrane, and beneath the latter, a layer of minute blood- 
 vessels of the lung. See Respikation, Organs and Process op. 
 
 BRONCHI'TIS, or inflammation of the lining membrane of the bronchial tubes, is a 
 disease of very common occurrence in Great Britain, and one of the greatest importance, 
 for, if neglected, it not only destroys life, but if carelessly treated, may lead to prema- 
 ture and miserable old age. The first symptoms are generally those which distinguish a 
 common cold — viz., shivering, headache, and sense of weariness, with occasional 
 cough; but the cough continues, and recurs in paroxysms; there is a feeling of oppres- 
 sion on the chest, and the person wheezes when he breathes. He also breathes more rap- 
 idly, six or ten respirations in the minute more than he did when in health, and his pulse 
 is quicker; and the ear applied to his chest, after these symptoms have continued for 
 two or three days, will hear a rattling, as if air was bubbling through thickish fluid, 
 which is the case ; he is breathing through an extraordinar}^ amount of mucus secreted 
 by the inflamed lining membrane of the tube. During his paroxysms of cough, this 
 mucus is spit up. If the inflammation extend no further, it is termed tubular B., and is 
 seldom a fatal disease in the first attack; but, as may be expected, it will often extend, 
 or, in some cases, begin in the small tubes — resicular B. — when the symptoms just 
 described will be present, but in a greater degree, the breathing being so embarrassed 
 that the patient can no longer lie down, but requires to sit or stand up, and use all his 
 muscles of respiration. Though he coughs, he spits very little, till about the third day, 
 when he expectorates large quantities of yellow fluid. At last, prostration becomes so 
 complete that he ceases to spit, and dies suffocated by the accumulated mucus, from the 
 fifth to the seventh day. In less severe cases, or those which yield to treatment, the 
 delicate tubes may be permanently injured by the inflammation. They may be thick- 
 ened, which nan’ows their caliber; this will prevent the proper passage of the air, and 
 gives rise to wheezing on any exertion, and cough, especially in winter. Moreover, 
 after repeated attacks, one of the tubes may be blocked up entirely, so that the portion 
 of lung to which it ought to conduct air, is no longer filled, and consequently collapses 
 and wastes. This compels the adjacent tubes and air-cells to dilate to receive more air 
 at the expense of their elasticity (emphysema, q.v.); the air cells may even burst, and so 
 by degrees the apparatus for aerating the blood becomes less and less perfect. The 
 treatment of B. must vary with the patient’s constitution ; but in most cases, counter- 
 irritation, applied through the medium of mustard or hot turpentine fomentations, will 
 be found very useful. These remedies act more rapidly than a blister, and may be fre- 
 quently repeated. It should be remembered that patients suffering from B. are very 
 easily depressed. Such medicines as ammonia should be given, to promote expectora- 
 tion, combined with the liquor ammonise acetatis, to produce perspiration. In very 
 acute cases, after a brisk purge, salines, with ipecacuanha or squills, may be given, and 
 an emetic will remove accumulations of mucus. 
 
 In the B. of old persons, chloric ether will be found very useful, and may be combined 
 with sedatives, as henbane ; but opium must be given with great caution, or not at all, 
 as it tends to increase the congestion of the inflamed tubes. The paregoric elixir (com- 
 pound tincture of camphor) is an old and popular remedy in B., but enough has been 
 said to impress on the reader the danger of tampering with bronchitis. In every case 
 where it is possible, a skilled medical man should be employed, to determine, by the 
 stethoscope, not only the disease but its exact situation; and as it is but too likely to 
 recur at some future period, or symptoms caused by it to appear, a skilled opinion has 
 a permanent value to the patient. See Catarrh. 
 
Bromlsted. 
 
 Bronze. 
 
 90 
 
 BBONDSTED, Peter Oluf, a learned antiquary, born near Horsens in Jutland, Nov. 
 17, 1780. On completing his course of studies at the university of Copenhagen, he, in 
 1806, went to Paris, where he remained two years. He afterwards visited Italy and 
 Greece, where he made excavations which furnished valuable materials for the study of 
 classical antiquity. He died rector of the Copenhagen university in 1842. B.’s princi- 
 pal work is Travels and Researches in Greece (2 vols., Paris, 1826). In addition to several 
 smaller archaeological papers, amongst which was one in English, entitled An Account 
 if some Greek Vases found near Vulci (Lond. 1832), and another on the bronzes of Siris, 
 which appeared at Copenhagen, 1837, B. also wrote some valuable contributions to 
 Danish history from mediaeval Norman manuscripts (2 vols., Copenh. 1817-18), and 
 Memoirs of Greece during the Years 1827 and 1828 (Paris, 1835). 
 
 BRONDSTED, or Bronsted, Peter Oluf, 1781-1842; an archaeologist, b. in Jut- 
 land. He was educated in the university of Copenhagen, and with his friend Koes 
 joined baron Stackelberg’s expedition to Greece, where they made important antiquarian 
 researches, and B. as a reward for his share was made professor of Greek in the univer- 
 sity of Copenhagen. This professorship he exchanged for the office of Danish envoy at 
 Rome. In 1832, after visiting Prance, England, Sicily, and the Ionian islands, he 
 returned to Copenhagen and was made director of the royal museum of antiquities and 
 professor of archaeology and philology, and ten years later was appointed rector of the 
 university. His death was in consequence of falling from his horse. His principal 
 work was Travels and Archaeological Researches in Greece. 
 
 BBONGNIABT, Alexandre, an eminent French chemist and naturalist, born at Paris 
 in 1770, is said to have delivered a lecture on chemistry before he was 15. In 1790, he 
 visited England for a scientific examination of the Der%shire mines and pottery -works, 
 and, on his return to France, published a Memoire sur V Art de V Emailleur. Appointed 
 in 1800 director of the porcelain manufactory at Sevres, he held that office for the 
 remainder of his life, and revived the almost lost art of painting on glass. In his Essai 
 d'une Classification des Reptiles, 1805, he established the four divisions of reptiles, and 
 first gave them the names of saurians, hatrachians, chelonians, and ophidians. His 
 Traits Elementaire de Miner alogie, published in 1807, at the instance of the imperial 
 university, became a text-book for lecturers. In 1814, appeared his Memoire sur les Corps 
 Organises Fossiles nommes Trilobites, a name which, as well as a basis of classification for 
 those singular Crustacea, naturalists owe to Brongniart. In 1815, he was elected a member 
 of the academy of sciences of the French institute ; he was also a member of the royal 
 and geological societies of London, and of other learned bodies. In 1845, appeared his 
 Traits des Arts Ceramiques. He died 14th Oct., 1847. 
 
 BBONGNIABT, Adolphe Theodore, son of the preceding, author of several 
 botanical works held in high esteem, was born in 1801 ; in 1833 became professor of 
 botany at the Jardin des Plantes, Paris, and in 1834 member of the academy of 
 sciences. In 1852, he was elected a foreign member of the royal society of London. He 
 died in 1876. 
 
 BBO'NI, a t. of northern Italy, in the province of Pavia, about 11 m. s.e. of the 
 town of Pavia, in a beautiful situation at the foot of the Apennines. It has a singular 
 old church, some portions of which date from the 10th century. In its vicinity is the 
 castle of Broni, celebrated in history as the place where prince Eugene obtained a victory 
 over the French in 1703. Pop. about 7000. 
 
 BBONN, Heinrich Georg, a German naturalist, was born at Ziegelhausen, Mar. 3, 
 1800, and educated at Heidelberg university, where he devoted himself to the science of 
 forests and natural history. In 1828, he commenced at Heidelberg a course of lectures 
 on the physical and industrial sciences, and in 1833 was nominated ordinary professor 
 of the same. After Leuckhardt’s departure from Freiberg, B. was appointed to the 
 zoological lectureship. B. wrote several important scientific treatises. His first was 
 A System of Antediluvian Conchylia (Heidelberg, 1824), which was followed by A System 
 of Antediluvian Zoophytes. In 1824, he visited the southern countries of Europe; and in 
 1827, made a second journey to Italy. On his return, he published the results of his 
 journey (2 vols., Heidelberg, 1825-30). In 1834 appeared his most important geological 
 work — Lethoea Geognostica; in 1841-49, his History of Nature; and in 1850, his Universal 
 Zoology, which was the first attempt to develop zoology in its entirety with reference to 
 extinct organisms. B. died in 1862. 
 
 BRONNER, Johann Philipp, 1792-1865; a German authority on wines, their nature 
 and production, on which he published more than a dozen treatises. In 1831, he 
 established a school for teaching wine-culture ; and in later years, under a commission 
 from Baden, he traveled and investigated in all the grape-growing countries of the 
 continent. 
 
 BBONTE, a t. in the province of Catania, Italy, situated at the western base of Mt. 
 Etna, about 22 m. n.n.w. of the city of Catania. B. has manufactures of woolen and 
 paper, and the district produces oil, almonds, wine, etc. But the town is celebrated 
 •chiefly for its connection with admiral lord Nelson, who w^as created duke of Bronte by 
 the Neapolitan government in 1779, with an annual income of 6000 onde (about £3750), 
 Pop. ’72, 14,589. 
 
91 
 
 Brondsted^ 
 
 Bronze. 
 
 BBONTE, Charlotte, one of the most distinguished of modern novelists, was born 
 at Thornton, in the West Riding of Yorkshire, on the 21st of April, 1816. Her father, 
 a clergyman of Irish descent, removed, with six young children and an invalid wife, 
 from Thornton to Haworth, in the same county, in 1821. Soon after their arrival, Mrs. 
 Bronte died, so that Charlotte, trying hard in after-life, could but dimly recall the 
 remembrance of her mother. Her father, eccentric and solitary in his habits, and full 
 of extravagant theories for making his children hardy and stoical, was ill fitted to 
 replace a mother’s love. When Charlotte was eight years old, she v^as sent with three 
 of her sisters to Cowan’s Bridge school, which, whether deservedly or not, had an 
 unfortunate notoriety conferred upon it 25 years later in the pages of Jane Eyre. Her 
 two eldest sisters falling dangerously ill, and dying a few days after their removal 
 thence, and the low situation evidently disagreeing with Charlotte’s health, she was sent 
 home when little more than nine, and remained there, “ the motherly friend and guar- 
 dian of her younger sisters,” till, in 1831, she was sent to Miss Wooler’s school at Roe 
 Head, where her remarkable talents were duly appreciated by her kind instructress, and 
 friendships formed with some of her fellow-pupils that lasted throughout life. A few 
 years later, she returned to Miss Wooler’s school as teacher there, and also had some 
 sorrowful experiences as governess in one or two families. It was with a view of better 
 qualifying themselves for the task of teaching that Charlotte and her sister Emily went 
 to Brussels in 1842, and took up their abode in a pensionnat. When Charlotte returned 
 home in 1844, a new shadow darkened the gloomy Yorkshire parsonage. Her father’s 
 sight was declining fast, and her only brother was a source of continual anxiety. It now 
 seemed plain that school-keeping could never be a resource, and the sisters turned 
 their thoughts to literature. Their volume of poems was published in 1846 ; their names 
 being veiled under those of Currer, Ellis, and Acton Bell, but it met with little or no 
 attention. Charlotte’s next venture was a prose tale, The Professor, and while it was 
 passing slowly and heavily from publisher to publisher, Jane Eyre was making progress. 
 In the Aug. of 1847, it was submitted to Messrs. Smith & Elder, and published by 
 them two months later. It took the public by storm. It was felt that a fresh hand,, 
 making new harmonies, was thrown over the old instrument. Henceforward, Charlotte 
 B. had a “ twofold- life, as author and woman.” Over the latter the clouds closed 
 thicker and thicker. Mr. Bronte had indeed recovered his sight; but the sister 
 Charlotte so intensely loved, and whose genius she ever delighted to exalt above her 
 own, Emily — the Ellis Bell of Wuthering Heights — died in 1848. Her only brother also 
 died in the same year; and Anne, the youngest of the family, following in 1849, Char- 
 lotte was left alone with her aged father in that dreary deserted home among the graves. 
 Nevertheless, her energy never flagged. Shirley, begun soon after the appearance of 
 Jane Eyre, vf2iS published in the autumn of 1849; and Villette, written under the fre- 
 quent pressure of bad health and low spirits, came out in 1852. In the spring of 1854, 
 Charlotte B. was married to her father’s curate, the Rev. A. Nicholls, who had long 
 known and loved her. It is a relief to find that a little bright sunshine was permitted 
 to the close of a hitherto clouded life. It was, however, but brief; for serious ill- 
 ness set in, and on the 31st of Mar., 1855, she died. A fragment of an unfinished 
 novel appeared in the Cornhill Magazine for April, 1860. See Mrs. Gaskell’s Life of 
 G. B. (1857). 
 
 BBONZE is a reddish-yellow, fine-grained alloy of copper and tin, in variable propor- 
 tions. It was early known, and what is usually spoken of as brass in regard to the 
 ancient nations, was in reality bronze. The brass or B. referred to in the Bible wa& 
 probably composed of copper and tin, though some translators consider it likely to have 
 been copper alone. The examination of the most ancient coins and metallic ornaments 
 and implements leaves no doubt as to the acquaintance of the ancients with B. ; so much 
 so, that in the antiquarian history of European nations, there is a distinct period styled the 
 bronze period (see next art.). At the present time, B. is largely used for house and church 
 bells, Chinese gongs, ordnance or cannon metal, and speculum or telescope metal. In 
 the preparation of the various kinds of B. , great care must be taken to keep the tin from 
 being burned away or wasted. To obviate this, it is customary to use much old B., as- 
 worn-out cannon, etc., and when that is fused in the furnace, to add the new copper and 
 tin. The best Cornish and Banca tin are employed for the better kinds of castings, 
 especially where strength of alloy is required. For inferior work, old scrap tin, which 
 often contains lead, is used; and where strength of material is not an object, a little zinc 
 and lead are added. In either case, during the fusion of the mixed metals in the furnace, 
 at a high temperature, as little air as possible must be admitted to the furnace, other- 
 wise the metals are oxidized, and the alloy is deteriorated. B., when well made, is, 
 excepting gold, platinum, and some of the rare metals, the most durable metallic mate- 
 rial with which we are acquainted; and this, coupled with its extreme hardness, render- 
 ing it difiScult for time and ordinary wear and tear to efface inscriptions or medallions 
 stamped on it, has led the mint in France, some years ago, to issue a bronze coinage in 
 place of copper ; and for the last twelve or fifteen years bronze coinage has taken the 
 place of a copper coinage in Great Britain. 
 
 The principal varieties of B. have the following average composition : 
 
Bronze. 
 
 Bi'onzin^'. 
 
 92 
 
 Copper. Tin. j 
 
 Brass ordnance or bronze cannon 9 1 
 
 Bronze for toothed wheels 10 1 
 
 “ for mathematical instruments 12 1 
 
 “ for bearings of machinery 8 1 
 
 Chinese gongs and cymbals 5 l 
 
 Musical bells 6 1 
 
 House bells 4 i 
 
 Large bells 3 1 
 
 Telescope or speculum metal 2 1 
 
 . r Mirrors 2 1 
 
 Medium bronze 8 1 
 
 t Flexible bronze nails 20 1 
 
 Recently, B. has been deposited on small statues and other articles, in greater or less 
 thickness, by the electrotype process (see Galvanism), forming very pleasing ornaments 
 at a cheaper rate than ordinary B. ornaments can be purchased for. The same process 
 has been suggested for coating those parts of machinery which are liable to rust. 
 
 BBONZE, Age op (Dan. Broncealderen), a term used by many modern archaeologists 
 to distinguish the second of the three successive periods into which, as they hold, the 
 primitive or pre-historic antiquities of a country may be divided. They take for granted 
 that among a rude or savage people, stone, being more easily fashioned, would come into 
 use before any kind of metal ; and that of metals, copper, being oftener found ready for 
 the hammer, would come into use before iron, which has generally to be smelted before 
 it can be wrought. These assumptions — which, in so far, are only in accordance with 
 what has actually been observed among uncivilized races — have obtained from a very 
 early date. Lucretius, writing in the century before the Christian era, has recorded them 
 with his usual vigorous precision : 
 
 Anna antiqua, manus, ungues, dentesque fuerunt, 
 
 Et lapides, et item sylvarum fragmini rami: 
 
 Posterius ferri vis est serisque reperta; 
 
 Et prior aeris erat quam ferri cognitus usus. 
 
 De Rerum Natura, v. 1283. 
 
 Man’s earliest arms were fingers, teeth, and nails, 
 
 And stones, and fragments from the branching woods; 
 
 Then copper next ; and last, as later traced, 
 
 The tyrant iron,— ilfason Good's Translation. 
 
 More than one antiquary of the last century appears to have suggested the distribution 
 of archaeological objects into eras of stone, of copper or bronze, and of iron. But the 
 proposed classification received scarcely any attention until about forty years ago, when 
 it was adopted and developed by Mr. C. J. Thomsen, superintendent of the ethnograph- 
 ical and archaeological museum of Copenhagen, in his Ledetraad tit Nordisk Oldkyndighed 
 (Kjobenhavn, 1836), and by Mr. Nilsson, professor of zoology in the university of Lund, 
 in Sweden, in his Skandinaviska Nordens JJrinvonare (Lund, 1838-43). According to the 
 theory of these writers — which is held by almost all archaeologists in Denmark, Sweden, 
 and Norway, by many in northern Germany and in Switzerland, and by a few in other 
 parts of Europe — the first three stages in the progress of a nation from barbarism to civ- 
 , ilization are as clearly identified and defined by their relics of stone, of bronze, and of 
 iron, as the comparative antiquity of geological strata, or periods of the world’s creation, 
 is determined by the fossils which they are found to contain. 
 
 The name of the “age of stone” is given to the period when weapons and implements 
 were made of stone, amber, wood, bone, horn, or some such easily wrought material, and 
 during which very little or nothing was known of metals. During this era, the people, 
 few in number, and savage in their habits, clothed themselves chiefly with skins of 
 animals. They buried their dead in large sepulchral chambers, covered by what have 
 been called cromlechs, or girdled round by the unhewn stone pillars called “Druidical 
 circles.” The bodies have most frequently been found unburned, and often with rude 
 urns beside them. 
 
 During the “age of bronze,” weapons and implements were made of copper or of 
 bronze, and iron and silver were little or not at all known. The dead were burned, and 
 their ashes kept in urns, or deposited in stone-chests, which were covered by conical 
 mounds of earth or heaps of loose stones. In the urns, articles of gold and amber are 
 found, but never of silver. Most articles of metal appear to have been cast; where marks 
 of the hammer appear, it is contended that the forging or beating must have been done 
 by a stone hammer upon a stone anvil. 
 
 The “ age of iron” is the name applied to the third and last of the three supposed 
 periods. During this era, it is conceived that iron displaced bronze in the manufacture 
 of weapons and implements, and that silver and glass came into use. The dead were 
 still occasionally burned ; but they were frequently buried without burning, often seated 
 on chairs, and, at times, with a horse in full w'ar-harness laid beside the body of his 
 master. 
 
93 
 
 Bronze. 
 
 Bronzing. 
 
 The Scandinavian and German antiquaries admit that their three periods run, more 
 or less, one into another; that stone weapons continued to be used throughout the age of 
 B. ; that B. and gold were not unknown in the age of stone ; and that weapons of 
 atone and B. continued to be used in the age of iron. This admission obviously detracts 
 very much from the practical value of the classification for chronological or other scien- 
 tific purposes. But the late Mr. J. M. Kemble, and other British antiquaries, have 
 taken objections to the classification altogether, as irreconcilable with generally admitted 
 facts, when carried out to its strict and necessary consequences. They point to the 
 €very-day discovery of objects of stone, B., and iron, in the same ancient urns, graves, 
 and dwellings. They instance the case of the Huns, who had swords of iron, while 
 they pointed their arrows with bones; the case of the Anglo-Saxons, who fought with 
 atone mauls at Hastings ; and the case of the Germans, who used stone hammers in the 
 thirty years' war. They show stone weapons, in some of which the traces of metal are 
 still fresh, while others attest for themselves that they could not have been cut but by a 
 thin sharp metal point.* They prove from Greek and Roman writers that the nations 
 of the n. and w. of Europe used iron weapons during what must have been their B. age. 
 And they repudiate the proposed appropriation of different modes of burial to the different 
 ages — a point on which the supporters of the theory appear to be hopelessly divided among 
 themselves — on the ground that graves assigned to the B. period have been found to con- 
 tain more iron than B. , and that other supposed characteristics of sepulchers of the B. 
 age are quite as common in sepulchers of the iron age. But although the threefold 
 olassification of the Scandinavian and German archaeologists cannot be relied upon for 
 historical uses, it may be accepted as a very convenient mode of arranging archaeological 
 objects. It has been adopted, with some modifications, in the gallery of British antiqui- 
 ties in the British museum at London, in the national museum of the antiquaries of 
 Scotland at Edinburgh, in the museum of the royal Irish academy at Dublin, and in 
 other collections, where the articles are classed, for the most part, according to the 
 materials of which they are made. 
 
 BRONZE-WING, Bronze-winged Pigeon, and Bronze Pigeon, names given in the 
 Australian colonies to certain species of pigeon (see Pigeon and Columbid.e), chiefly 
 of the genus peristera of Swainson, on account of the lustrous bronze color with which 
 their wings are variously marked. They are otherwise also birds of beautiful plumage. — 
 The Common B. or bronze-winged ground dove {columba or peristera chalcoptera) is dis- 
 tributed over all the Australian colonies. It is often seen in flocks, feeds on the ground, 
 and builds its nest chiefly on low branches of trees growing on meadow-lands or near 
 water. It is a plump bird, often weighing fully a pound, and is acceptable at every 
 table. — The Brush B. or little bronze pigeon {G. or P. elegans) is not so plentiful nor 
 so widely distributed, chiefly inhabiting Tasmania and the southern parts of Australia. 
 It inhabits low swampy grounds, never perches on trees, resembles a partridge in its 
 habits, and makes a loud burring noise like a partridge when it takes wing on being 
 alarmed. — The Harlequin B. {C. or P. Mstrionica) is found in the n.w. parts of New 
 South Wales in great flocks, feeding on seeds. — Some of the species of geophaps, another 
 of the genera or sub-genera of the columbidce, are also sometimes called bronze-wing. 
 Their partridge-like appearance and habits have gained for them the name of partridge 
 pigeon (q.v). 
 
 BRONZING is the process of covering plaster or clay figures, and articles in ivory, 
 metal, and wood, so as to communicate to them the appearance of ordinary bronze. 
 Several of the materials employed are of little value, whilst others are expensive. 
 Thus, gold powder is used for the finer work, and is prepared by grinding gold-leaf 
 with honey on a stone slab till a very fine state of division is attained, then washing 
 -out the honey, and drying the gold powder. Inferior gold-leaf, or that which con- 
 tains much silver and copper, yields the German gold powder employed in bronzing. 
 Copper powder is prepared by introducing an iron bar or plate into a solution of copper, 
 when the latter metal is precipitated as a finely-divided red powder. Mosaic gold, or 
 musivum, is made by fusing 1 lb. of tin, introducing \ lb. mercury, allowing the alloy or 
 amalgam to cool, then pulverizing and grindingup with ^Ib. sal-ammoniac, and 7 ozs. sub- 
 limed sulphur. Ultimately, the whole is subjected to the process of sublimation, when 
 the tin, as a brilliant yellow powder, resembling gold, is left in the subliming vessel. 
 The color of mosaic gold may be deepened by the addition of red oxide of lead, and 
 it then assumes a copper tint. Gold size is prepared by heating 1 lb. of linseed oil, 
 and gradually adding 4 ozs. of gum animi in very fine powder. When boiled sufficiently, 
 it assumes the consistence of tar, and may then be strained through cloth. When 
 employed in bronzing, some vermilion is added, to make it opaque, and turpentine, 
 
 * M. Frederic Troyon, of Lausanne, one of the Swiss antiquaries who accept the three periods 
 of their Scandinavian brethren, instances certain stone axes (now in the collection of baron Ren- 
 berg, at Prague), which were found, along with their cores, at the site of a primitive manufac- 
 tory of these weapons in Bohemia. “These cores,” he says, “when replaced in the holes from 
 which they had been taken (easily verified by the corresponding veins of the stone), left so little 
 play-room, that it was evident they could only have been detached by a metal point, and not by 
 a hollow cylinder, which could not have given to the hole its conical form, now quite apparent. 
 Instead of the soft iron which is employed nowadays in such operations, the ancients used copper 
 or bronze; and, of course, water and silicious sand were likewise employed in the process.” 
 
Brooch. 
 
 Brooklime. 
 
 94 
 
 to make-it thin and limpid enough to be easily laid on the plaster cast or other 
 article with a brush, and the object may ultimately be rubbed over with soft chamois 
 leather, which is occasionally dipped into the gold size. The other B. powders are 
 best laid on with a solution of gum-arabic or isinglass, either of which acts as a 
 cement. 
 
 Oun-barrels are bronzed by acting upon them with the chloride or butter of antimony 
 (bronzing salt), or with hydrochloric or nitric aeids, when the surface of the iron gets 
 partially eaten into, and covered with a thin film of oxide; after which the gun- 
 barrel is thoroughly cleaned, oiled, and burnished. A brownish shade is thus commu- 
 nicated to the barrel, which protects it from rust, and at the same time renders it less 
 conspicuous to an enemy or to game. In the bronzing operation known as the Damas- 
 cus, the barrel is treated with dilute nitric acid and vinegar, to which sulphate of copper 
 has been added. The result is, that metallic copper is deposited irregularly over the 
 iron surface ; and when the latter is washed, oiled, and well rubbed with a hard brush, 
 a very pretty appearance is communicated to the barrel. Articles in wood that require 
 to be bronzed, are first coated with a mixture of size and lampblack, and dried, and 
 then a bronze powder, consisting of very finely-divided patent yellow, raw umber, pipe- 
 clay, lampblack, and Prussian blue, is put on with a brush. After being dried again,, 
 the article is burnished with cloth or leather, covered with a layer of Castile soap, and,, 
 lastly, cleaned up with a woolen cloth. Copper vessels, coins, etc., are bronzed by 
 heating them in a copper boiler containing vinegar, with 2 parts of verdigris, 1 of sal- 
 ammoniac dissolved in it, when, after sufficient boiling, a pleasant reddish-brown hue 
 is imparted. Bronze and copper articles may have an antique appearance commu- 
 nicated by applying a solution of sal-ammoniac 1 part, cream of tartar 3, common salt 6, 
 hot water 12, and more or less nitrate of copper, when an ancient greenish hue is 
 obtained. 
 
 BBOOCH (from a root signifying to pierce ; comp. Eng. to broach; Fr. brother, to spit, 
 or to stitch; Wei. broc, to stab), an ornamental pin or instrument for fastening the dress, 
 consisting for the most part either of a ring or disck or of a semicircle, there being a pin 
 in either case passing across it, fastened at one end with a joint, and at the other with a 
 hook. Brooches were much used in antiquity, and varied in form as much as in modern 
 times. They were worn both by men and women, and with a view both to ornament 
 and use, from the time of Homer to the fall of the western empire. Nay, in the early 
 portion of the middle ages, and even amongst semi-barbarous tribes, the art of making- 
 fibula, seems not only to have flourished, but to have attained marvellous perfection.. 
 Many of those found, both in Ireland and in Scotland, are wonderfully beautiful in work- 
 manship, and still more so in design; and it is doubtful whether antiquity has left us 
 anything in the way of personal ornament more perfect than the so-called Hunterston 
 B. It was found in 1830, on the estate of Hunterston, in the parish of w. Kilbride, 
 Ayrshire, near to the scene of a conflict which preceded the battle of Largs, in 1262. 
 
 It is of silver, richly wrought with gold filigree, and elaborately chased with lacertine 
 and ribbon patterns. It is set with ornaments of amber; diameter, 4^ inches. On the 
 reverse are runes, which have been variously read. Dr. Wilson says, “what is de- 
 cipherable reads in good Scottish Celtic into what he explains to mean — Malbritha, his^ 
 friend, in recompense to Maolfridi .” — Prehistonc Annals. One of the most famous, 
 articles of the kind existing in Scotland is the Brooch of Lorn, in the possession of 
 Macdougal of Dunolly, near Oban. It is believed to be identical with one torn from 
 the breast of Robert Bruce by Alexander of Lorn, the ancestor of Macdougal, in a 
 personal contest with the king. This interesting article is of silver, about 4 in. in 
 diameter, with a circle of jeweled obelisks. 
 
 BROOKE, a CO. in West Virginia, in the “Panhandle” — a narrow strip between Ohio 
 and Pennsylvania; 75 sq.m.; pop. ’80, 6013. Surface hilly, soil fertile; productions 
 agricultural. The Pittsburg, Cincinnati and St. Louis railroad passes through it. Co. 
 seat, Wellsbury. 
 
 BROOKE, Fraitcis J., 1763-1827; a Virginian, an officer in the revolutionary army, 
 speaker of the Virginia senate, and presiding judge of the court of appeals. 
 
 BROOKE, Henry, dramatist and novelist, was born in 1708, in the house of Rantavan, 
 CO. Cavan, Ireland. His father was a wealthy clergyman. Young B. was first sent to 
 school to one Felix Somerford, where he so distinguished himself that his tutor, in the 
 fullness of his heart, prophesied that he would play a great part in life. His talent for 
 rhyming first made itself evident here, and it received further development while he- 
 resided at Dr. Sheridan’s school in Dublin. In 1724, he went to study law in London,, 
 and became the chosen friend of Pope and Lyttleton. From the heart of this brilliant 
 literary society he was recalled to Ireland by a dying aunt, who left him guardian of 
 her child, a girl of twelve. B. put the child to a Dublin boarding-school, and married 
 her secretly two years thereafter. Four or five years subsequently, when his wife had 
 borne him three children, he removed to London, and once more became a bright par- 
 ticular star in the galaxy of metropolitan genius. In London, he published a poem,, 
 entitled TJnirersal Beauty, which Pope admired, and of which he perhaps turned a coup- 
 let here and there. Shortly after, B. returned to Ireland; but in 1736, he was again in i 
 
95 
 
 Broocb. 
 
 Brooklim«k 
 
 London, and was introuuced to the prince of Wales, who cultivated his friendship, and 
 made him presents of books and china. About this time, he published his play, entitled 
 Gustavus Vasa, full of the noblest sentiments, and the most inconceivable characters. 
 In 1740, B. was taken ill, and returned to his native country, where he published several 
 books, and a tragedy. The Earl of Westmoreland, which was performed in Dublin. In 
 his later years he removed to Dublin, and died there in 1783. The sonorous eloquenc® 
 of his plays has not saved them from obliviori|and his novel, entitled The Fool of Quality, 
 is the only work of his which is likely to meet the eyes of modern readers. It was 
 originally published in five volumes, and was greatly admired by John Wesley. A new 
 edition was published in 1859, with a preface by the Rev. C. Kingsley. 
 
 BROOKE, Sir James, rajah of Sarawak, and governor of Labuan — a man strongly 
 imbued with the spirit of the old adventurers of the Elizabethan time — was at Coombe 
 Grove, near Bath, 29th April, 1803. He early entered the East India army, was seri- 
 ously wounded in the Burmese war, and returning home on furlough, spent some time 
 in travel on the continent. Shipwrecked on the voyage out to join his regiment, he was 
 unable to reach India before his furlough had expired; his appointments consequently 
 lapsed, and he quitted the service. He now conceived the idea of putting down piracy 
 in the Eastern archipelago, and of carrying civilization to the savages inhabiting these 
 islands. He purchased a yacht, which he manned with about 20 sailors, and after a 
 three years’ cruise in the Mediterranean, to test the sea-worthiness of his vessel and the 
 seamanship of his crew, sailed from London for Sarawak, a province on the n.w. coast 
 of Borneo,* Oct. , 1838. When he arrived there, Muda Hassim, the uncle of the sultan 
 of Borneo, was engaged in a war with some rebel tribes. B. lent his assistance, and in 
 return had the title of rajah and governor of Sarawak conferred upon him, the native 
 governor being forced to resign. B. immediately set about reforming the government, 
 instituted free trade, and framed a new code of laws. The murderous custom of head- 
 hunting, prevalent among the Dyaks, he declared to be a crime punishable with death, 
 and vigorously set about the extirpation of piracy. This was done so draconically as to 
 occasion great dissatisfaction in this country; and the result was, that parliament abol- 
 ished the “ head-money” that had been previously paid for the slaughter of pirates. 
 Gertain charges, however, brought against B. in the house of commons, in connection 
 with this matter, were declared by a royal commission to be unsubstantiated. The 
 head-money was received, not by B. and his associates, but by the British ships-of-war 
 that had co-operated with him. On his return to England, B. received a warm welcome, 
 was created a knight commander of the Bath in the year following; and the island of 
 Labuan, near Sarawak, having been purchased by the British government, he was 
 appointed governor and commander-in-chief, with a salary of £2000 a year. In 1857, 
 B. , who had been superseded in the governorship of Labuan, but who still acted as 
 rajah of Sarawak for the sultan of Borneo, was attacked at night in his house by a large 
 body of Chinese, who were irritated at his efforts to prevent opium-smuggling, and only 
 escaped with his life by swimming across the creek. The Chinese committed great 
 havoc on his property, but their triumph was short-lived. B. collected some natives, 
 attacked the Chinese, defeated them in several successive fights, and ultimately forced 
 them into the jungle, where they must have perished of starvation. Upwards of 2000 
 Chinese were killed, and all their flourishing settlements destroyed. Returning to Eng- 
 land soon after this, B. lectured in several of the chief towns on the advantages likely 
 to result to this country from a possession of Sarawak, and urged the desirableness of the 
 British government taking it under its protection, as otherwise it was likely to fall into 
 the hands of the Dutch. To enforce this view, an influential deputation waited upon 
 the earl of Derby (then head of the government) in Nov., 1858, but he declined to enter- 
 tain it. He returned to Borneo in 1861, but visited England again twice before his 
 death, on the second occasion having the satisfaction of seeing the independence of 
 Sarawak recognized by the English government. The town prospered greatly under 
 his regime; he found it a place of some 1000 inhabitants, he left it a town of 25,000; and 
 the exports to Singapore, which, in 1840, amounted to £25,000, were in 1858, £300,000. 
 B. died in 1868; a biography appeared in 1877. 
 
 BROOKINGS, a co. in s.e. Dakota, on the border of Minnesota and Big Sioux river, 
 750 sq.m. : pop. ’80, 4965, of whom 145 were Indians, There are several large streams 
 and many lakes in the territory. 
 
 BROOKITE, a mineral of pure native titanic anhydride. It is found in Perthshire, 
 Scotland. A kind found in the Ozark mountains is known as arkansite. 
 
 BEOOKLIME, Veronica Beccabunga, a species of speedwell (q.v.) abundant in ditches, 
 water-courses, and wet places near springs in Britain, common also in most parts of the 
 continent of Europe. It is a perennial plant, with procumbent stems, rooting at the 
 base; leaves on short stalks, elliptical, obtuse, and slightly serrate, both stems and leaves 
 smooth and very succulent; the small blue flowers, in form resembling those of the other 
 Speedwells, in racemes, the stalks of which arise from the axils of the opposite leaves. 
 The leaves and young shoots have a bland or slightly bitter taste, and are a tolerable 
 ingredient in spring salads. They are sometimes sold along with water-cresses. See 
 Cress, Water. — In Scotland, the plant is called Water Purpie. 
 
Brooklime. 
 
 Brooklyn. 
 
 96 
 
 BROOKLIME, a European plant growing in wet places, used in salads in England 
 and sometimes sold with water-cresses. There is a similar plant in the United States 
 bearing the same name. 
 
 BROOKLINE, a village and township in Norfolk co.. Mass., on the Charles river, 
 s. w. of Boston, and on the Boston, Hartford and Erie, and the Boston and Albany rail- 
 roads. B. is a favorite place of residence ^r persons doing business in Boston, and a 
 part of the town was annexed to that city in 1870. There is a fine town-house, a good 
 public library, and some notably beautiful churches. Communication with Boston is 
 made also by horse railroads. Pop. ’80, 8053. 
 
 BROOKLYN, a city at the w. end of Long Island, in the United States, belonging to 
 New York state, inlat. 40° 42' n., 73° 59' west. It stands at the s.w. extremity of Long 
 Island sound, which is here appropriately known as East river, partly in allusion to 
 the narrowness of its channel and the rapidity of its tide, and partly in contradistinction 
 to North river as a second name of the Hudson. Between B. and New York there are 
 numerous ferries of about three-quarters of a m. in width, on which ply steam-boats 
 every few minutes by day, and every half-hour by night. B. is connected with New 
 York by a suspension bridge nearly half a m. long and 125 ft. above the water. In 
 1850, the pop. was 96,838; in 1870, 396,099; and in 1875, 482,687. B. was founded by 
 the Dutch in 1625, and in 1776 its neighborhood was one of the principal seats of the 
 revolutionary war. Occupying comparatively elevated ground, B. commands a complete 
 view of the adjacent waters and their shores, while, notwithstanding its inequalities of 
 surface, it consists chiefly of straight streets, crossing each other at right angles. It is 
 divided into wards, and governed by a mayor and a board of aldermen. B. has a very 
 large number of churches (whence it is often called the “city of churches”), several 
 flourishing banks, various literary institutions, and numerous seminaries of education — 
 an ample share, in short, of all that characterizes a wealthy, populous, and intelligent 
 community. It has an immense trade in grain, the warehouses being capable of holding 
 about 12,000,000 bushels. It possesses also a national navy-yard, which embraces 45 
 acres of land, and magnificent docks, including a wet-dock for the largest vessels, the 
 most extensive in the union. 
 
 BROOKLYN {ante), the capital of Kings co., N. Y., with 554,696 inhabitants; com- 
 prising, under the act of consolidation which went into effect Jan. 1, 1855, Brooklyn, 
 Williamsburg, Green Point, Wallabout, Bedford, New Brooklyn, Bushwick, Gowanus, 
 and South Brooklyn ; situated in the northern part of Long island, embracing an area 
 of 16,000 acres, or 25 sq. miles. The city is 8 m. long, with a breadth from 2 to 5 m., 
 averaging 3i m. ; it has a water-front on the East river and bay of New York, 8^ m. in 
 length; is bounded on the n. by Newtown creek; on the s. by the towns of New Lots, 
 Flatbush, and New Utrecht; on the e. by the Queens co. line; and on the w. by the East 
 river and bay of New York. The s. and e. borders are occupied by a broad range of 
 low hills extending into Queens county. Along the shore opposite the lower point of 
 New York, is an irregular bluff known as the “Brooklyn Heights,” on which are many 
 handsome residences; it has a very picturesque appearance, especially when viewed from 
 New York, while the rays of the setting sun fall upon the houses. A large portion of the 
 southern part of the city is low and level. Its water-front is entirely occupied by wharves 
 and warehouses. Williamsburg, now called Brooklyn, E. D. (eastern district), includes 
 the thickly-settled portions n. of the Wallabout bay, contains a large number of manu- 
 facturing establishments, and has its entire water-front devoted to commercial purposes. 
 Greenpoint lies between Bushwick and Newtown creeks, and occupies the extreme north- 
 western part of the city; it contains large ship-yards and manufactories. South B., 
 lying s. of Atlantic street, has an extensive water-front, and contains large wood, coal, 
 stone, and lumber-yards, numerous planing-mills, distilleries, breweries, plaster mills, 
 foundries, and machine-shops. B. is connected with New York by 13 steam ferries, 
 and the Annex boats leave the foot of Fulton street every 20 minutes for Jersey City 
 and Hoboken. With the remoter part of Long island it is connected by the Long Island 
 and the South Side railroads, and with Coney island, a popular seaside resort, at the s. w. 
 extremity, by a number of steam-car lines during the summer season, while some 26 
 lines of city railroads, using horse-power, radiate from the ferries to the bounds of the 
 city in every direction. An elevated railroad, on the plan of those erected recently in 
 New York, is now in course of construction, to extend from Fulton ferry to East New 
 York, a post village of New Lots township, on the Long Island railroad; a distance of 
 5i miles. The East river bridge, to connect B. with New York, is described under the 
 article Bridges. The estimated cost of the bridge is $13,708,026, and the expenditures 
 up to 31st Dec., 1879, were $11,216,431, of which amount the city of New York con- 
 tributed its quota of $3,800,000. B. is well supplied with pure, soft water, derived 
 from Hempstead hook. Valley, and Springfield creeks; is thoroughly lighted by gas 
 companies ; has a large and efficient fire department ; and its sanitary and police matters 
 are cared for by the metropolitan boards of health, of excise, and of police, respectively. 
 The total number of deaths registered by the board of health in the 11 months ending 
 Nov. 30, 1879, was 10,651, representing an annual death rate of 20.57 in a thousand. 
 During the same year there were registered 2898 marriages and 9013 births; there were 
 23,441 arrests; the number of buildings completed was 1128, and 399 were in course of 
 
97 
 
 Brooklime. 
 
 Brooklyn. 
 
 erection. The assessed valuation of taxable property for 1879 V aS $232,925,699, and 
 the annual tax levy, $5,929,629, making the average rate of taxation $2.55. The city 
 debt is $37,565,369.89. The city government consists of a mayor, controller, auditor, 
 treasurer, corporation counsel, tax collector, registrar of arrears, 3 commissioners of 
 city works, 3 commissioners of police and excise, 3 commissioners of fire and buildings, 
 and a board of health; and each of the 25 wards is represented in the board of aldermen. 
 The report of the board of education shows that during the school year ending Sept. 
 30, 1879, the number of licensed teachers employed in the public schools was 56 males 
 and 1346 females. The whole number of children of school age who attended the 60 
 public free schools of the city was 98,823. 
 
 B. has a number of parks: Washington park occupies the site of Fort Greene, of 
 revolutionary fame; Carroll park is very tastefully laid- out; but its chief pleasime- 
 ground, and one of the most superb in the country, is Prospect park, the construction 
 of which was begun in 1866; it now covers, with the adjoining parade-ground, 550 acres. 
 The site is one full of natural beauty; magniticent views, fine forest trees, a fertile soil, 
 and numerous lakes lend to the spot all the charms of rural scenery. Upon the plaza 
 at the main entrance is a magnificent fountain and a bronze statute of Abraham Lincoln. 
 Twenty-five acres have been set apart for zoological gardens, and there is a fine observa- 
 tory on Lookout hill. There are 11 m. of walks, and 10 m. of roads for driving and 
 riding purposes. The cemeteries of B. are widely known ; Greenwood, Cypress Hills, 
 and the Cemetery of the Evergreens, are the principal, while there are several of smaller 
 size and note. In Greenwood are interred about 175,000 bodies, and there are over 2000 
 monuments; the ground inclosed is 413 acres, situated on Gowanus heights, in the s. 
 part of the city. 
 
 The U. S. government bought the site now occupied by the navy-yard, for $40,000, 
 in 1801, but by subsequent purchases has become the owner of about 200 acres in the 
 neighborhood. The navy-yard occupies nearly 50 acres, inclosed by a high brick wall, 
 and is situated on the s. shore of Wallabout bay. The Directory credits B. with 274 
 churches, which would seem to justify the appellation of “the city of churches.” Of 
 this number there are: Baptist, 27; Congregationalist, 23; Presbyterian, 27; Protestant 
 Episcopal, 36; Keformed church, 15; Lutheran, 14; Methodist Episcopal, 39, besides 7 
 churches for colored members; Koman Catholic, 42, and the Jews have 6 synagogues. 
 We are limited to a simple reference to a few of the more prominent churches. “ St. 
 Ann’s on the Heights” is a fine Episcopal church ; the general style of its architecture is 
 the middle-pointed gothic. The church of the Holy Trinity is built of brown stone, in 
 the Gothic style, and has a spire 275 ft. high ; it is one of the handsomest churches in 
 the country. St. Paul’s is constructed of rough-hewn blue granite and sandstone, in 
 Gothic style; it has a front of 75 ft., a depth of 145 ft., and is 67 ft. high in the nave. 
 The church of the Pilgrims is built of gray stone, and inserted in the main tower is a 
 piece of the Plymouth rock; its pastor. Dr. R. S. Storrs, is a noted pulpit orator. 
 Plymouth church, a plain brick building on Orange street, has accommodations for seat- 
 ing 2800 persons, and contains what was until recently the largest church organ in 
 America; Henry Ward Beecher has been its pastor for the last 33 years, and the desire 
 to hear him preach is so great that many pew-holders generously give up their seats to 
 strangers for the evening service. The amount offered for pew-rents during the year 
 1880 was over $40,000. A Roman Catholic cathedral is in process of erection on Lafay- 
 ette avenue, between Carlton and Vanderbilt avenues; it will be a very large and impos- 
 ing structure. The “Tabernacle” is on Schermerhorn street; the exterior is of brick, 
 with stone trimmings, and the interior is well arranged for seating a large audience ; the 
 plan is a large semicircle, the organ in the center of the straight side, with the pulpit 
 immediately in front, giving the speaker command of the entire buiMing; a spacious 
 gallery runs around the entire auditorium. A door at the end of each aisle opens into 
 a wide hall, so that in case of fire the church can be emptied in a very short time; its 
 pastor is the well-known Rev. T. De WittTalmage. There are nearly 200 private schools 
 and educational institutions in B. Among these are several whose names have now a 
 national reputation. Such are the Packer collegiate institute, and the Brooklyn heights 
 seminary for young ladies; the Adelphi academy, the Collegiate and Polytechnic insti- 
 tute for boys, and the juvenile high-school. Among the principal buildings are the city 
 ball, the Kings co. court-house, costing, with the adjacent grounds, $1,200,000; the Kings 
 CO. savings-bank, the church charity foundation, the new B. orphan asylum, the 
 college of St. John the Baptist, the art building, the academy of design, and the Long 
 Island historical society, now being built of terra-cotta, at the corner of Clinton and 
 Pierpont streets. The academy of music, on Montague street, was built in 1860, cost- 
 ing $206,000; it contains seats for 2300 persons; is built of handsome brick with Dor- 
 chester stone trimmings; 232 ft. long, 92 ft. wide, and 56 ft. high. Opposite is the B. 
 library, a handsome model of what the home of a library ought to be. The building 
 was completed in 1867, at a cost of $227,000; the library now numbers 58,000 volumes, 
 and Mr. S. B. Noyes, the librarian of the institution, has the credit of orgahizinga cata- 
 logue system that has been highly praised for its thorough and convenient method of 
 reference. The Kings co. penitentiary is on Nostrand avenue ; its expenses for 1879 
 were $101,171.75; its earnings, $92,917.04; and it contained 2000 prisoners. The two 
 principal theaters are the Park theater, on Fulton street, opposite the city hall park, and 
 U. K. III.— 7 
 
Brooks. 
 
 Broom. 
 
 98 
 
 the Brooklyn theater, corner of Johnson and Washington streets, on the site of one which 
 was destroyed by fire Dec. 6, 1876, causing the death of over 300 persons; the new struc- 
 ture has proper means of exit, and is called Haverly’s Brooklyn theater. There are 21 
 hospitals, dispensaries, and infirmaries, besides numerous other benevolent institutions. 
 Among these are the Long Island college hospital, St. Mary’s and St. Peter’s hospital, 
 the female orphan asylum, the marine hospital, and the Graham institution for the relief 
 of aged women. 
 
 B. is the headquarters of the 2d division of the national guard of the state of New 
 York, consisting of the 5th and the 11th brigades; this force consists of the 13th, 14th, 
 23d, 32d, and 47th regiments of infantry, 3 troops of cavalry, and 3 batteries of 
 artillery. 
 
 The streets, with the exception of Fulton street, the principal thoroughfare, are gen- 
 erally straight, have a width of from 60 to 100 ft., and cross each other at right angles. 
 Myrtle and Atlantic avenues are, next to Fulton st., the most active business thorough- 
 fares, and contain many stores that carry on a large trade. The large number of persons 
 who reside in B. and do business in New York has caused the city to be termed face- 
 tiously a “ big bedroom;” in fact, although its own industrial and commercial activity is 
 very great, by far the larger part of the city is devoted to private dw^elling-houses. Clin- 
 ton avenue is beautifully laid out with handsome residences surrounded by ornamental 
 
 f rounds, and it would be difficult to find in any city a street more attractive of its kind. 
 
 'rom a point between the Catherine and Fulton ferry slips to the Gowanus district 
 extends along the entire river front an almost unbroken line of storehouses. The Atlantic 
 dock warehouses of South Brooklyn opposite Governor’s island cover a space of 20 
 acres, and inclose a basin 40 acres in area. Here most of the grain brought from the 
 west is handled, stored, and transhipped. The capacity of the grain warehouses is 
 estimated at 12,000,000 bushels; and about 25,000 vessels, exclusive of canal boats and 
 lighters, are said to be annually unloaded. The principal articles are molasses, sugar, 
 grain, coffee, oil, hides, and wool. The annual storage of merchandise in B. is valued 
 at $261,000,000. Among the numerous manufacturing establishments of B. are the 
 following: Prentice’s hat factories; the Brooklyn brass and copper company ; the New 
 York agricultural works; the American steel company’s works; the printing house and 
 book manufactory of D. Appleton & Co. ; the great sugar-refineries of the eastern district; 
 Peter Cooper’s glue factory ; Kalbfleisch’s chemical works, etc. 
 
 The first settlement of Brooklyn, formerly Breuckelen, dates from 1636, when a few 
 Walloon colonists took up their residence on the spot that still bears the name of Walla- 
 bout. English and Dutch settlers follow^ed; and in 1667, a patent or charter was granted 
 to the town by governor Richard Nicholls. The first church had been erected the 
 previous year. In 1698, the population amounted to only 509 persons, of whom 65 were 
 slaves. In 1776, the site of the present towm was the scene of the battle between the 
 Americans and the British, usually know'n as the battle of Long island. In 1816, Brook- 
 lyn was incorporated as a village, and in 1834 it became a chartered city. Williams- 
 burg attained the rank of a village in 1827, and was recognized as a city in 1851. The 
 population of B. was in 1800, 3298; in 1820, 7175; in 1830, 15,292; in 1840, 36,233; andin 
 1850, 96,850. In 1860, after its consolidation with Williamsburg, the population had 
 increased to 266,661; in 1870, to 396,099; in 1875, to 482,493; and according to the U. S. 
 census of 1880, B. has 566,689 inhabitants. 
 
 BROOKS, a CO. in s. Georgia bordering Florida; 550 sq.m. ;pop. ’80, 11,727 — 6057 
 colored. The Atlantic and Gulf railroad intersects. Productions, cotton, corn, etc. 
 Co.* seat, Quitman. 
 
 BEOOKS, Charles Shirley, novelist and journalist, -was the son of Mr. William 
 Brooks, an architect, and was b. at Brill, in Oxfordshire, about the year 1820. B was 
 educated chiefly by the late Rev. T. J. Bennett, canon of St. Paul’s; and upon leaving 
 school, was articled to an attorney. Upon serving out his time, he passed with dis- 
 tinction the examination in the law society's hall. Literature, however, had more 
 charms for him than the law, and he had not long been settled in London^ before he 
 tried the experiment of living by it as a profession. He wrote dramas — Our ]Sew Gorern 
 ess; Honors and Tricks; The Creole; The Daughter of the Stars; and he contributed at 
 the same time to some of the leading periodicals and journals. An introduction to the 
 editor of the Morning Chronicle procured him a steady engagement as writer of the parlia- 
 mentary summary for that journal. He was also sent by the proprietors of the Chron- 
 icle on a mission into Russia, Syria, and Egypt, to report on the condition of labor and 
 the poor in those countries; and the results of his observations appeared in a series of 
 letters in that journal. B. was also a contributor to Punch from the commencement of 
 that periodical. The “Essence of Parliament” in Punch is said to have been regularly 
 contributed by him. He alse wrote for it “ Miss Violet and her Offers;” “TheNeg- 
 gletons,” etc. B. also contributed political and other articles to the columns of the 
 illustrated London Keics. As a novelist, B. is a graceful and pleasing waiter, and there- 
 fore deservedly popular. He is author of Aspen Court; 2 he Gordian Knot; The Sdrer 
 (7c?*c? (originally published in Once a Week)-, and Sooner or Later. B. is likewise author of 
 The RussiuJis of the South. He acquired a reputation as a lecturer. On the death of 
 
99 
 
 Brooks. 
 
 Broom. 
 
 Mr. Mark Lemon, in 1870, B, became the editor of Punch. He died in 1874. A volume 
 of his Wit and Humor appeared in 1875. 
 
 BROOKS, Charles Timothy, b. Mass., 1813; graduated from Harvard, and in 1837 
 settled in Newport as a Unitarian minister. Most of liis time was devoted to literature, 
 especially to German translations. He published Schiller’s William Tell; Homage to the 
 Arts; German Lyrics; Songs of the Field and the Flood; a translation of Goethe’s Faust; 
 and many less important works; besides a volume of sermons, various poems, and 
 a prose romance. 
 
 BROOKS, Erastus, brother of James, b. Maine, 1815; graduated at Brown univer- 
 sity, and became teacher of a grammar school and editor of the Haverhill Gazette. In 
 1836, he was a Washington correspondent for several papers, and soon after became 
 associated with James in the New York Express, ^ where he remained as assistant and as 
 chief editor until about 1877. He was a leader in the American party, and their can- 
 didate for governor of New York (but not elected) in 1856. He was in the state senate 
 of 1856, where his advocacy of the bill to divest Roman Catholic bishops of their title 
 to church property involved him in a controversy with bishop Hughes, which at the 
 time attracted much attention. Mr. B. has been for several terms in the legislature. 
 
 BROOKS, James, 1810-73; b. Maine; a journalist and politician. He graduated at 
 Waterville college, and was principal of a Latin school in Portland; became a writer of 
 letters to various newspapers, and originated the idea of regular correspondence from 
 Washington. As a member of the Maine legislature in 1835, he proposed a survey for 
 a railroad from Portland to Quebec or Montreal. In that year he made a tour of Europe 
 on foot, sending his observations to the Portland Advertiser. In 1836, he established 
 the Neio York Impress, published both morning and evening, which still survives as a 
 prominent evening newspaper. In 1847, he was a member of the state legislature, and 
 in 1848 was elected to congress. During the native-American excitement, 1841-44, his 
 paper was strongly in favor of that party. In 1850, he favored the compromise meas- 
 ures of Henry Clay, and after the outbreak of the civil war he left the party with which 
 lie had been so long identified, and was immediately returned to congress by the demo- 
 crats. In 1871, after- a rapid trip abroad, he published A Months' Pun Up and 
 
 Down and Around the World. 
 
 BROOKS, John, m. d., 1752-1825; an American patriot who, on hearing of the affair 
 at Lexington, marched to the place from Reading with a company of minute-men just 
 in time to see the British in retreat. He served in the war, and was frequently pro- 
 moted. After the peace, he resumed the practice of medicine at Medford, and in 1816 
 was elected governor of Massachusetts, and re-elected annually until 1823, when he 
 refused to be longer a candidate. 
 
 BROOKS, Maria Gowen, 1795-1845; b. Mass.; an American poetess, by Robert 
 Southey called “Maria del Occidente.” She lost her father when young, and was pro- 
 tected and educated by her future husband, a Mr. Brooks, a merchant of Boston. After 
 his death, she went to Cuba, and in 1830 visited London and Paris. Some of her works 
 2 i.re Judith, Esther, and other Poems; Zophiel, or the Bride of ‘Seven; Idomen, or the Vale of 
 Yumuri; and Ode to the Departed. 
 
 BROOKS, Peter Chardon, 1767-1849; a successful business man of Massachu- 
 setts; in boyhood on a farm; engagedin marine insurance in Boston, where he made a 
 fortune; for several years president of the New England insurance company. After 
 retiring from business, he was active and liberal in benevolent enterprises. As a mem- 
 ber of the legislature he did what he could toward the suppression of lotteries. 
 
 BROOKS, Phillips, b. Mass., 1835; graduate of Harvard, and from 1859 to 1870 
 rector of Episcopal churches in Philadelphia; in the latter year becoming rector of 
 Trinity church, Boston. He is celebrated as a pulpit orator, and as a vigorous and inde- 
 pendent thinker. His freedom from the ordinary sectarian trammels, his liberal views 
 of doctrine, with his profound convictions as to vital Christian truths, and his deeply 
 spiritual }’^et intensely practical preaching, give him great popular power. 
 
 BROOKS, Preston S., 1819-57; graduate of South Carolina college; was in the 
 state legislature, and served in the war with Mexico. In 1853, he was a member of 
 congrps, and was re-chosen in 1854. May 22, 1856, he assaulted senator Sumner, strik- 
 ing him oyer the head with a cane while in his chair in the senate chamber, and severely 
 injuring him. The house of representatives did not expel him, though a committee 
 reported in favor of doing so; but he resigned, only to be immediately re-elected by his 
 constituents. He died suddenly of inflammation of the throat before the close of the 
 second month of his term. 
 
 BROOM, a name given to a number of species of shrubs of the closely allied genera 
 eytisus, genista, and spartium, of the natural order leguminosoe, sub-order papilionaceoe — 
 all of them having long slender branches, along which are produced axillary flowers. 
 The genera differ in the form of the standard (see Papilionace^), which is roundish 
 in spartium, broadly ovate in eytisus, and oblongo-ovate in genista, whilst spartium has 
 also an acuminate keel, and that of eytisus is very obtuse, that of genista being oblong 
 and not wholly including the stamens and pistil. The legume is many-seeded in all, the 
 
Broom-corn. 
 
 Brotherhoods. 
 
 IQO 
 
 calyx 2-lipped, and the filaments united in a tube. — Common B., cytisus scoparius, the 
 trivial name being from the Lat. scopoe, long twigs, or a besom — which has by different 
 botanists being ranked in each of the genera just named, although it possesses the char- 
 acters above assigned to cytisus, but has recently been made the type of a new genus, 
 under the name of saTotliamnus' scoparius or communis — is a well-known native of 
 Britain and of the continent of Europe, growing in dry soils, and ornamenting hedge- 
 banks, hills, and bushy places, in May and June, with its large yellow flowers, which 
 are on short stalks, drooping, solitary, but produced in considerable number along the 
 straight slender branchlets. The whole aspect of the plant is graceful. The lower 
 leaves have three oblong leaflets, the upper ones, or bracts, are simple; the branches are 
 angular and of a very dark green, very tough, and much in use for making besoms. 
 They have also been used for tanning and dyeing; and their fiber has been woven 
 into a coarse strong cloth, and even made into paper. The whole plant is very bitter, 
 with a peculiar nauseous taste and smell when bruised. The young tops and seeds are 
 used in medicine, being powerfully diuretic, and very beneficial in some kinds of dropsy. 
 They are also mildly laxative, and in large doses emetic. They are commonly admin- 
 istered in the form of a decoction. B. inhabits colder climates than furze, reaching to 
 a greater elevation on mountains, and being found beyond the northern limit of furze. 
 It varies in size from a very humble shrub to one of 20 or even 30 ft. in height, and when 
 it reaches this size, the wood is of great value for the finer purposes of cabinet-makers 
 and turners. — Irish B., cytisus or sarothamnus patens, not unfrequent as an ornamental 
 plant in British shrubberies, is not at all a native of Ireland, but of Spain and Portugal. 
 — Portugal B., or White B., cytisus albus, a native of the countries bordering on the 
 Mediterranean, is very often planted in Britain as an ornamental shrub, and is much 
 admired for the beauty of its fascicled white flowers, which are produced upon long 
 filiform branches. Its leaves have three leaflets. It sometimes attains a height of 15 or 
 20 feet. — Spanish B., spartium junceum, is a native of the s. of Europe, generally grow- 
 ing in dry soils and rocky situations, and attaining a height of 8 ft. or upwards. Its 
 branches are upright, round, and rush-like, a characteristic of this genus. They are 
 smooth, and bear only a few small simple leaves, which soon drop off. The fiber of the 
 branchlets is much used in some parts of Italy, France, and Spain, for making cloth, 
 ropes, etc. In the s. of France, the plant is cultivated on dry unproductive soils. The 
 branchlets are made into bundles, dried, beaten, steeped, and washed, in order to the 
 separation of the fiber. It possesses medical properties similar to those of the common 
 B. — A white-flowered species, S. monospermum, occasionally to be seen in British shrub- 
 beries, grows abundantly on the loose sands of the coasts of Spain, and produces a simi- 
 lar fiber. It is mentioned by Barth as growing in great abundance in Africa to the s. of 
 the great desert. Many species somewhat resembling these are occasionally to be seen 
 in Britain among ornamental plants, some of them often in greenhouses. The Canary 
 isles produce some remarkable for the fragrance of their flowers. The name B. is not 
 given to those species of cytisus (q.v.) and genista (q.v.) which do not display in a marked 
 degree the character of having long slender twigs. — Butcher’s B. (q.v.) is a plant of an 
 entirely different family. 
 
 BROOM-CORN, a grass cultivated in North America for the manufacture of brooms 
 and whisks, which are made of the tops of the culms and the branches of the panicle. 
 It is regarded as a mere variety of the same species {sorghum saccharatum), of which the 
 shaloo, or sugar-grass (see Sugar-cane and Durra), is another variety. It has been 
 much longer cultivated in North America, however, than the sugar-yielding variety. 
 Its introduction is ascribed to Dr. Franklin, who, seeing an imported whisk in the pos- 
 session of a lady of Philadelphia, found a single seed on it, and planted it. It is said to 
 have been brought from the East Indies. It is now extensively cultivated in all parts of 
 the United States, and especially by some branches of the religious society called Shakers. 
 The manufacture of brooms is annually becoming of greater importance, much capital 
 being invested in it. The crop of broom-corn has a beautiful appearance when near 
 maturity. It often attains a height of 12 to 15 feet. The stalks are long and hard, and 
 mostly used for manure, although cattle will feed on them before they are touched by 
 frost, and cattle are very fond of the leaves. The seed is used like Indian corn, for feed- 
 ing poultry, and sometimes for feeding cattle and horses. The usual practice in harvest- 
 ing broom-corn is to bend the stalks 2| to 3 ft. from the ground, and leave them a few 
 days to dry, then to cut them over 6 to 8 in. below the panicle, laying the tops in heaps, 
 to be conveyed to the scraper, which is often wrought by horse-power, and which 
 removes the seed from them. Improved machinery has recently begun to be employed 
 in the manufacture of brooms and whisks from broom-corn, and they are therefore pro- 
 duced with much greater rapidity than before. It is supposed that, in 1860, about 10,000 
 acres of broom-corn were cultivated in the state of New York, 9000 in Illinois, 6000 in 
 Ohio, and about an equal amount in all the other states of the Union, or 30,000 acres in 
 all; the value of the produce about $1,590,000. Great numbers of brooms and whisks 
 of this material are exported to Britain. 
 
 BROOME, a co. in s. New York, on the Pennsylvania border; 680 sq.m.; pop. ’75, 
 42,149; in ’80, 49,481. It is drained by the Susquehanna, Chenango, Otselic, and other 
 streams, and intersected by the New York and Erie, i^lbany and Susquehanna, S^'racuse 
 
101 
 
 Broom-corn. 
 
 Brotherhoods. 
 
 and Binghamton, and Delaware, Lackawanna and Western railroads, and the Chenango 
 canal. Productions agricultural, including an immense quantity of butter. Co. seat, 
 Binghamton. 
 
 BROOME, William, ll.d., 1689-1745; coadjutor of Pope in translating the 
 Odyssey. For writing all the notes and translating eight books of the Greek text, B. 
 received $2500; but Pope loved money, and when the small price became notorious it 
 annoyed the poet so that he abused B. in the Dunciad and in the Bathos. B. published 
 a Miscellany of Poems, and translated some of Anacreon’s odes. He was a rector in 
 Suffold. 
 
 BBOOMBAFE. See Orobanche^. 
 
 BROOMS. See Brushes and Brooms. 
 
 BBOBA BEDS are a series of strata occurring at Brora, a village in Sutherlandshire, 
 of the same age as the inferior oolite of Yorkshire. They are chiefly remarkable for the 
 occurrence in them of a seam of coal of good quality 3^ ft, thick, being the thickest 
 stratum of true coal hitherto discovered in any secondary strata in Britain. 
 
 BBOSSES, Charles de, a learned French historian, was b. at Dijon, Feb. 8th, 1709. 
 His first work was Lettres sur VEtat de la Ville d' Herculaneum, the result of a tour 
 through Italy in 1739. At the suggestion of his friend Buffon the naturalist, he wrote 
 the Histoire des Navigations aux Terres Australes (1756), in which he described the 
 supposed great southern continent under the several names of Magellania, Australia, 
 and Polynesia. The last two of these names, now commonly used, were first employed 
 by B. His next work was Du Quite des Dieux Fetiches, etc. (1760). It was followed by 
 a Traite de la Formation Mecanique des Langues (1765), which, in spite of many errors, 
 contains not a few novel and ingenious observations and conjectures. During the 
 greater part of his life, B. was occupied in endeavoring to supply the lacunes in the 
 works of Sallust; and having collected about 700 fragments by this historian, he pub- 
 lished, with such interpolations as he deemed necessary, the Histoire de la Itepublique 
 Bomaine dans le cours da Septieme Biecle, par Salluste (1777). B. died as president of 
 the parliament of Burgundy, May 7, 1777. His letters from Italy, under the title Italie 
 il y a cent Ans, wereudited and republished by his son Rene, count de Brosses, in 1834. 
 
 BBOTH is an infusion or decoction of vegetable and animal substances in water. It 
 is customary to use more or less meat, generally ox-flesh, with bone, and certain vege- 
 tables, as cabbage, greens, turnips, carrots, pease, beans, onions, etc. The whole are 
 mixed together in cold water, heat slowly applied, and the materials allowed to simmer 
 for some hours. The meat yields up certain ingredients, whilst others are retained in 
 the residual flesh. The following table will illustrate this. 
 
 Ox-flesh heated with water 
 
 Yields to the Water. 
 
 Albuminous matter. 
 
 Gelatine. 
 
 Kreatine. 
 
 Extractive matters or osmazome 
 
 Lactic acid. 
 
 Salts. 
 
 Fat. 
 
 Saccharine matter. 
 
 The vegetables yield albuminous constituents, coloring and mucilaginous matter, and 
 volatile oils and salts. 
 
 The real nutritive material present in B. is less than is generally thought, though it 
 aids in satisfying the cravings of the appetite. To invalids, however, the form of B. 
 known as beef-tea (q.v.) is of great importance, as it affords the weak and sickly stomach 
 a light palatable article of diet at a time when stronger food would do the weakened 
 system much harm. See Nutrition. 
 
 BBOTHEBHOODS, Religious. These were societies instituted for pious and benevo- 
 lent purposes, and were numerous in the middle ages. Their origin is probably to be 
 traced to the desire which then prevailed to imitate the spiritual orders. They were 
 usually founded at first without ecclesiastical authorization, on account of which, sev- 
 eral of the confraternities that either did not seek or did not obtain the recognition of 
 the church, assumed the character of sects, and were suspected of heresy. To this class, 
 among others, belonged the Beghards and Beguines (q.v.), the Brothers and Sisters of 
 the Free Spirit (see below), the Apostolic Brethren (q.v.), the Flagellants (q.v), who, 
 tolerated by the church for a while, at last incurred its displeasure, and were severely 
 persecuted. We may also reckon among religious B. the old building corporations, from 
 which sprang the order of Freemasons, the religious character of whose secret societies 
 indicated, in the opinion of the church, a peculiarly dangerous gnosis and symbolism. 
 Others coming into existence under ecclesiastical oversight, or at least being confirmed 
 by the church, had no arcana, but were si mply dedicated to the promotion of religion, 
 either by the imposition of new penances the acceptance of new and severer devotions, 
 -or the assisting of strangers, travelers the unprotected, the oppressed, the destitute, and 
 
 Leaves in the Boiled Meat. 
 Fibrin. 
 
 Coagulated albumen. 
 Gelatinous tissue. 
 
 Fat. 
 
 Nervous matter. 
 
Brother. 
 
 Broug^liam. 
 
 102 
 
 the sick. Nor can we refuse our admiration and approbation to such self-denying fra- 
 ternities, when we remember how defective were the early communities in charitable- 
 institutions. They were most numerous in Italy, Rome alone boasting more than a 
 hundred. 
 
 Brothers and Sisters op the Free Spirit, a sect which sprang up in the Rhine- 
 country during the 13th c., and afterwards spread into France and Italy. It grounded 
 its peculiarities on the biblical doctrine that the Holy Spirit is a spirit of “freedom.” 
 Misunderstanding the true nature of spiritual freedom, the members of this sect con- 
 ceived themselves released not only from the thraldom of the church, but also from the 
 obligations of morality. They set aside the marriage-tie, and indulged in licentious- 
 ness. A few even maintained that the deeds of the body could not possibl}’’ aifect the 
 soul. Intellectually, they are said to have been given to Pantheism. The synods of 
 Cologne in 1306, and of Treves in 1310, decreed their suppression, and in the persecutions 
 which ensued, they appear to have been completely dispersed. 
 
 The Brethren op Social Lipe, Brethren op the Common Lot, or Brethren 
 OP Good Will (also called Hieronymites and Gregoriaxs, from Hieronymus and 
 Gregory the great, whom they claimed as patrons), a fraternity founded about 1376 by 
 Geert Groote (b. at Deventer, 1340, d. 1384) and Florentius Radewin (b. 1350, at Leer- 
 dam, in s. Holland, d. 1400). This society — which professed to be a copy of the earliest 
 Christian communities, and was in several respects a forerunner of the subsequently 
 formed societies of United Brethren, now sometimes styled Moravians — was composed of 
 persons who sought after pious and spiritual exercises without any conventional distinc- 
 tions of order, etc. Community of goods, ascetic habits, industry, care of the educa- 
 tion of young persons, and the use of the vernacular language in divine service, were- 
 some of the chief points insisted on by the brethren, who were not fettered by monastic 
 or any other vows. Perfect community of goods was a rule of their societies. Despite- 
 t-he persecutions which they suffered from the mendicant friars, they were recognized 
 and sanctioned by several popes and by the council of Constance. They became most 
 numerous in the Netherlands and n. Germany, but also spread themselves in Italy, 
 Sicily, and Portugal, so that, in 1430, they reckoned more than 130 societies. The last 
 was founded at Cambray in 1505. Several brotherhoods of Gregorians assisted in the- 
 reformation. In other cases, their institutions fell into the hands of the Jesuits. Though 
 the original founders of these societies were opposed to all learning and science which 
 was not purely moral and practical, their followers rendered most important services tO' 
 popular education, having free schools in connection with many of their houses, sup- 
 porting students at other schools, and distributing useful books. Thej’’ have, indeed, 
 been not incorrectly described as pioneers of the reformation. After the revival of learn- 
 ing in Italy, the Brethren of Social Life entered into the spiritual activity of the time. 
 The most important and distinguished members of the society were Gerhard Zerbold of 
 Ziltpheh, Thomas-AKempis, and the learned cardinal Nicholas Cusa. — Female societies, 
 of a similar character, sprung up at the same time with those of the Brethren of Social 
 Life. At the head of each was a superior or directress, who was styled the Martha. 
 
 BROTHER JONATHAN, a synonym for the people of the United States, as “ John 
 Bull” is for the people of England. When Washington took command of the revolu- 
 tionary forces in New England, he found an immediate necessity for arms and other 
 war materials, Jonathan Trumbull was then governor of Connecticut, a man of excel- 
 lent judgment, and a highly esteemed friend of Washington. It happened that at 
 an important council of officers where the wants of the service were the topic under 
 consideration, Washington remarked, in reference to some knotty question: “We 
 must consult Brother Jonathan,” meaning governor Trumbull. The expression was 
 repeated on occasions of difficulty, and before the war closed it was established as a con- 
 venient name for the whole people. 
 
 BHOTHERS, a name given to a group of six or eight rocky islets immediately outside 
 the strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, varying in height from 250 to 350 feet. They lie off the 
 African coast about 9 m. s. of the island Perim, now occupied by England. Of the 
 loftiest point, the lat. and long, respectively are 12° 28' n., and 43° 22' e. — Brothers is 
 also the name given to three isolated mountains near the coast of New South Wales, 
 between Harrington inlet to the s., and Port Macquarie to the n., or between lat. 32° 
 and 31|° south. They are valuable as landmarks. 
 
 BROTHERS, Law of Descent among. In the law of England, this was immediate, 
 without reference to the parent as the commune uinculum; but by the 3 and 4 Will. IV. 
 c. 106, s. 5, it is enacted that no brother or sister shall be considered to inherit imme- 
 diately from his or her brother or sister, but every such descent shall be traced through 
 the parent. See Inheritance. 
 
 BROTHERS, Lay, an inferior class of monks, not in holy orders, but bound by 
 monastic rules, and employed as servants in monasteries (q.v.). 
 
 BROTHERS, Richard, a fanatic, whose prophecies and writings excited an unusual 
 sensation in his day, was at one time a lieut. in the British navy, which he quitted in 
 1789. Refusing, from conscientious scruples, to take the requisite oath to enable hina 
 to receive his half-pay, he was reduced to great distress, and ultimately placed, in the- 
 
loa 
 
 Brother. 
 
 Brougham. 
 
 workhouse. Dating his first call from 1790, he announced himself, in 1793, the apostle 
 of a new religion, “ the nephew of. the Almighty, and prince of the Hebrews, appointed 
 to lead them to the land of Canaan.” In 1794, he published a book, in two parts, enti- 
 tled A Revealed Knowledge of the Prophecies and Times, etc. ; and, in 1795, an Exposition 
 of the Trinity. He was the author of several other publications, marked by a strange 
 mixture of reason and insanity. In consequence of prophesying the death of the king, 
 and the destruction of the monarchy, he was committed to Newgate, but soon liberated. 
 Some of his political predictions, especially in reference to the state of the continent, 
 were either altogether or partially fulfilled; and many persons were induced to sell their 
 Ifoods, and prepare to accompany him to his New Jerusalem, which was to be built on 
 both sides of the river Jordan, where he was to arrive in the year 1795. His disciples 
 were not confined to the poor and ignorant, but even men of ability and education were 
 deluded into believing in him, two of the most eminent being Nathaniel Brassey Halhed, 
 esq., M.P., the orientalist, and Sharp, the celebrated engraver. As a dangerous lunatic, 
 he was at length, by order of government, committed to Bedlam, but released April 14, 
 1806, and died Jan. 25, 1824. 
 
 BBOTHEBS and SISTEBS op CHABITY. Under these names, there exist in the 
 Roman Catholic church two widely ramified beneficent societies, for the nursing of the 
 poor and sick in hospitals, without distinction of faith, rank, or nation. The order of 
 the brothers of charity, or Compassionate Brothers, was established in 1540, at Seville, 
 in Spain, by the Portuguese John di Dio (died 1550), who had served in Africa under 
 Charles V. The funds for the purpose were obtained by begging. The primitive 
 object of the society was the care'of the sick, and the reformation of women of immoral 
 character: it was composed of lay-members, under no rule. In the year 1572, the ordor 
 received the papal recognition, and was subjected to the rule of St. Augustine. All the 
 privileges of the mendicant orders were conceded to it in the year 1624, and it was then 
 divided into a Spanish congregation, with a maj.gen. in Granada, and an Italian or 
 extra-Spanish congregation, with a maj.gen. in Rome. To the latter belong also the 
 brothers of charity in Switzerland, Germany (where Austria is their chief seat), Poland, 
 the Netherlands, France, and other countries. The European members of the order 
 clothe themselves in black; the extra-European, who are under a separate gen. of their 
 order in America, wear brown. Their services to distressed humanity continue to be 
 held in high estimation*. The sisters of charity, formerly also, on account of their dress, 
 called gray sisters — independent associations of unmarried Christian females, for the 
 alleviation of human suffering, especially for the tending of the sick and the poor — 
 were first called into existence in France, in 1634, ’by Vincent de Paul (born 1576), 
 greatly assisted by the noble-hearted and self-devoted widow, Le Gras, % birth De 
 Marilac. The society was recognized in 1655 by Clement IX., and in 1685 already num- 
 bered 224 convents. The French revolution sorely interrupted the abundant and benev- 
 olent labors of the sisters of charity by the suppression and proscription of their con- 
 vents in France; but Napoleon restored the order in 1807 by the convocation of a general 
 chapter of the scattered sisters, under the presidency of the empress mother, and by the 
 grant of the necessary funds; and there exist at present more than 300 associations in 
 France, where, in the villages, elementary education is in great part conducted by 
 them. They attend the sick in all the great hospitals. There exists in Germany a 
 Roman Catholic association of unmarried females, not bound by conventual rules, and 
 possessing the right of withdrawing from the association at pleasure, but placed under ' 
 a strict supervision, and occupied in the same duties as the sisters of charity. The insti- 
 tute of deaconesses (q.v.) in the Protestant churches of the continent of Europe is of a 
 very similar character. 
 
 BBOTTGHAM, Henry, Lord Brougham and Vaux, was b. in Edinburgh, 19th Sept., 
 1778. His father, Mr. Henry Brougham, was the descendant of an ancient family in 
 Westmoreland, and his mother, Eleonora Syme, who was a woman of much talent, was 
 a niece of Robertson the historian. B. received his education at the high school, and 
 afterwards at the university, of Edinburgh. He gave early promise of future ability, 
 -some mathematical papers written by him at the age of eighteen having been considered 
 worthy of publication in the transactions of the royal society. He spent some time in 
 traveling on the continent, and in 1800 was admitted to the Scotch bar. In company 
 with Jeffrey, Horner, and Sydney Smith, B.’s first public efforts were given to the 
 service of the Edinburgh Review, and he contributed to it some of its most powerful 
 articles. His liberal political views excluded him from the hope of prornotion in Scot- 
 land, and a character which he had acquired for eccentricity and indiscretion, excluded 
 liim from all legal practice, except the unrenumerative practice of the criminal courts. 
 After seven years of vain attendance in the courts at Edinburgh, he betook himself to 
 a field more worthy of his ambition, and in 1808 passed at the English bar. 
 
 In London, B. first attracted public notice by the admirable appearance he made at 
 the bar of the house of commons, when he was employed on behalf of certain Liverpool 
 merchants to ask the repeal of the orders in council. Soon after this, in 1810, he entered 
 parliament, and within a few months of the time of taking his seat, brought in and car- 
 ried his first public measure — an act making participation in the slave-trade felony. He 
 was welcomed by the opposition leaders, to whose party he had attached himself, as a 
 
Krougliam. 
 
 liroussa. 
 
 104 
 
 most powerful assistant in their attacks upon the government. B. succeeded in carry- 
 ing the repeal of the obnoxious orders in council shortly before the general election of 
 1812, and then ventured to contest, along with another whig, the membership for Liver- 
 pool against Canning and another tory. He was defeated, and remained without a seat 
 in parliament till 1816, when he was returned for Winchelsea, and again became an 
 active member of the opposition. By this time he had also established some reputation 
 in the courts of law. He never, indeed, acquired a very large practice, but he repeatedly 
 distinguished himself by speeches of great vigor and ability in the defense of persons 
 prosecuted for libel by the crown. His most famous appearance as an advocate, how- 
 ever, was in defense of queen Caroline, when, along with Denman, he defended the 
 injured queen with uuequaled courage and disinterestedness, at the cost, as both well 
 knew, of exclusion, for years to come, from all professional advancement. But his 
 eloquence and boldness, though they forfeited for him the favor of the crown, gained 
 him that of the people, and for the ten years between 1820 and 1830, B. was the popular 
 idol. He made no bad use of his power. In 1822, he used it, though in vain, in sup- 
 port of a scheme of national education; and to his activity is owing, in great measure, 
 the establishment of the London university, of the first mechanics’ institute, and of the 
 society for the diffusion of useful knowledge. In 1830, B. delivered a most po'werful 
 speech against slavery, and in consequence of it — as he himself believed — was invited 
 to stand, and returned, as member for the great popular constituency of the co. of 
 York. The aristocratically disposed whigs would — ^liad they dared — have excluded B. 
 from the reform ministry; but, in addition to having enormous popularity, he was vir- 
 tually their leader in debate in the commons, and was thus, in spite of his unmanage- 
 ableness, indispensable. After various intrigues, B. was offered, and was persuaded,, 
 against both his interests and his inclinations, to accept a peerage and the chancellor- 
 ship He took his seat in the lords in Nov., 1830, and assisted very materially in carry- 
 ing through that house 'the great measures then proposed by the liberal ministers. He 
 shared in the general unpopularity which afterwards attached to them, and when they 
 were dismissed by William IV. in 1834, B. left office, never to return to it. After that 
 time, he held in the upper house a position as nearly analogous as may be to that for- 
 merly held by him in the commons, criticising freely the conduct of successive admin- 
 istrations, and steadily forwarding every measure for social progress. 
 
 It will be as a law-reformer that B. will be best remembered. He took up Romilly’s 
 uncompleted task of carrying into practice the ameliorations suggested by Bentham. 
 His efforts in this direction began as earl}^ as 1816, when he introduced into parliament 
 a bill to remove various defects' in the law of libel. In 1827, in a memorable speech 
 which occupied six hours in delivery, B. enumerated the defects in nearly every branch 
 of English law, and made proposals for dealing with law^-reform on a proper scale. 
 These, as might have been expected, met with little encouragement. It has been the 
 fortune of many of his measures to be carried afterwards, in a mutilated form, by 
 other hands. After he left office, B. also succeeded in carrying various reforms in the 
 law, among which may be noted some very extensive changes in the law of evidence. 
 Among the measures proposed by B., but left for future law-reformers to carry, were 
 bills for the codification of the criminal law, for the establishment in England of a sys- 
 tem of public prosecutors, and for the giving of compensation to parties acquitted. 
 Lord B.’s acts and bills, as well those regarding the slave-trade, education, and other 
 public questions, as those touching on law-reform, have been collected and published 
 by sir J. E. Eardly Wilmot (Lond., Longman, 1857). The large well-filled volume 
 which they Wm is the most fitting monument that could be preserved of the activity, 
 perseverance, and public spirit of the man. 
 
 As an orator, more especially as a debater in parliament, B. was, among the men of 
 his time, inferior only to Canning. He was wont, however, to indulge in his speeches 
 in too large an admixture of exciting elements: argument was mingled with fiery 
 declamation; ridicule, sarcasm, invective, were freely used; and these he dealt out 
 with a vehemence and energy that at times carried hirn far bej’ond bounds. The power 
 of ready, rapid, and forcible diction was eminently his. In many other fields besides 
 oratory, B. has won a high reputation. He cultivated maUiematical and physical science 
 with success, and ventured upon the domain of metaphysics, and even of theology. His 
 miscellaneous writings are of great extent, and upon an almost incredible variety of sub- 
 jects. They were, how'ever, intended more to serve purposes of the moment, than as 
 permanent additions to our literature; and though they display great pow’ers of rapid 
 comprehension and nervous clear exposition, it cannot be said that we are indebted to 
 their author for any new truths in politics or morals, or any original discoveries in 
 science. The honors due to men of letters B. did not fail to acquire,^ having successively 
 been made lord rector of Glasgow university, president, of university college, London, 
 member of the institute of France, chancellor of the university of Edinburgh, and lastly, 
 D.c.L. of Oxford. 
 
 Lord B. took a warm interest in legal and social reform. While not engaged in par- 
 liament, he resided chieflv at Cannes, in the s. of France, where he died ]May 7th, 1868. 
 His lordship married, in 1819, Mary Anne Eden, the granddaughter of a baronet in the 
 CO. of Durham. The issue of this marriage was two daughters, who both died before 
 reaching womanhood. The patent of the title to the peerage was extended to make it 
 
105 
 
 Brougham. 
 
 Broussa. 
 
 descend to the family of his brother. B, left a memoir of his life and times, which was 
 published in 3 vols. (1871). 
 
 BROUGHAM, John, b. Ireland, 1810, d, N. Y., 1880; studied surgery for a consid- 
 erable time, but was obliged to leave school on account of adversity, and went to Lon- 
 don, where he proposed to enter the East India service; but an old man gave him a 
 guinea, and urged him to seek some titter employment. Happening to meet an old 
 acquaintance, he got an engagement in the prince of Wales theater, and there in July, 
 1830, he acted six parts in the old play Tom and Jerry. In 1830, he was a member of 
 the company organized by Madame Vestris. About this time he wrote his first play, 
 a burlesque, prepared for William E. Burton, then acting in London. In 1840, he was 
 a member of the Lyceum, for which theater he wrote a number of plays. He came to 
 the United States in 1842, and appeared in the old Park theater in New York city. 
 Soon after he joined Burton’s company in Chambers street; and here also he wrote a num- 
 ber of plays, among which were Vanity Fair, All is Fair in Low, Domhey and Son, and 
 the Irish Emigrant. Afterwards he managed Niblo’s Garden, and in Dec., 1850, he 
 opened Brougham’s Lyceum on Broadway, where he produced David Copperjield, and a 
 new version of the Actress of Padua, the latter written for Charlotte Cushman. He then 
 connected himself with Wallack’s company, in which he remained until 1860; then 
 managed the Bowery theater, reviving King John with superb scenery. MeanwEile he 
 was writing plays, among which were the Game of Love, Bleak House, A Decided Case, 
 Game of Life, Playing with Fire, Pocahontas, Love and Murder, Romance and Reality, 
 •etc. After several seasons at Wallack’s, he rejoined Burton and produced his burlesque 
 of Columbus, and other plays. In 1860, he went to England, where he remained five 
 years, and there too he was writing and adapting plays, among them the Duke's Motto, 
 for Mr. Fechter, He reappeared in New York in Oct., 1865, and not long after again 
 joined Wallack’s company, with which he remained until the close of his life. Among 
 his later plays are John Garth, and The Lily of France. 
 
 BROUGHTON, John Cam Hobho USE, Lord, 1786-1869; an English statesman. At 
 his death the peerage became extinct, as he left no male issue. In his school days at Cam- 
 bridge he was the intimate friend of Byron, and the two made a tour of southern Europe at 
 a later period. He was a radical, and, in 1816, wrote a book to correct certain current 
 misrepresentations of the events of the Hundred Days in Paris. The work gave great 
 offense both in England and France. The translator and printer in Paris were sentenced 
 to fine and imprisonment for an “atrocious libel,” and in London he was confined in 
 Newgate nearly three months. As a martyr to toryism, he tried for parliament in 
 the borough of Westminster, but was defeated, though chosen by a large majority only 
 two years later. For 12 years he was an ardent and courageous advocate of liberal 
 measures, among them the repeal of the test and corporation acts, and Roman Catholic 
 emancipation. In 1831, he became a baron, and in the same year was secretary of war 
 in the Grey ministry. Subsequently he was chief commissioner of woods and forests, 
 and president of the board of control. In 1851, he became a peer, and ceased to partici- 
 pate in public life. Lord B. published Imitations and Translations from the Classics; 
 Journey through Albania with Lord Byron; and Historical Illustrations of the Fourth Canto 
 of Cliilde Harold. 
 
 BROTJGHTY-FERRY, a t. of Forfarshire, on the firth of Tay, 4 m. e. of Dundee. 
 Pop. ’71,5817. It is connected with Ferry-Port-on-Craig, in Fifeshire, by a railway- 
 ferry over the firth, here a mile broad, which, before the opening of the Tay bridge, 
 formed the chief connection between Edinburgh and Fife with Dundee. It has cod and 
 other white fisheries. Many Dundee merchants occupy fine villas at Broughty-Ferry. 
 On the shore stands an ancient castle, lately repaired as a defense for the Tay. 
 
 BROUS SA, or Bour'sa, the ancient Prusa, wEere the kings of Bithynia usually 
 resided, situated in lat. 27° n., long. 40° e., at the foot of Mt. Olympus, in Asia 
 Minor. Prusa is said to have been built by Prusias, king of Bithynia, who waged war 
 with Croesus or Cyrus. Seifeddulat, of the race of Hamadan, took it in 336 of the 
 Hegira, but it was retaken by the Greek emperor in 947 a.d. In 1356, Orcan, son of 
 Othman, the second emperor of Turkey, captured it, and made it the capital of his 
 empire, and it continued so until the taking of Constantinople by Mohammed II. 
 in 1453. 
 
 B. is most pleasantly situated, facing a beautiful and luxuriant plain, covered for 
 inany miles with plantations of mulberr}''-trees. The city and suburbs are about 6 m. in 
 circumference. The town is divided from the eastern suburb by a deep channel or vale, 
 over which there are several bridges, one of them— with shops on each side— being 90 
 paces long and 16 broad. The streets are remarkably clean, and the bazaars very good, 
 being supplied with European goods from Constantinople. The pop. of B. amounts 
 to 73,000 souls, of whom about 11,000 are Armenians. It contains a great number 
 of mosques, some of which are very fine buildings. The silks of B. are much, 
 ^teemed in the European markets, and great quantities are exported every year to 
 France, Constantinople, and Smyrna, The inhabitants manufacture a kind of silk, like 
 satin, mostly striped, which is used for the under-garment of the oriental dress; also a 
 material from silk and fiax used chiefly for shirts; and a sort of gauze, called “ brum 
 juke,” which is much worn by the Turkish ladies for under-garments. A great quam 
 
Brotissals. 
 
 Brown. 
 
 106 
 
 tity of British manufactured goods, such as Manchester “twists,” “gray calicoes,’' 
 “prints,” “ zebras,” etc,, are imported into B., the goods being landed at Constantinople, 
 and thence conveyed overland to Broussa. It is the official residence of a Turkish pasha, 
 and the seat of a Turkish tribunal. B. is subject to frequent earthquakes. In ancient 
 times, it was famous for its thermal baths, or “royal waters,” as they were called, 
 which still exist. 
 
 BROTJSSAIS, FRAN901S Joseph Victor, the founder of the school of medicine, wash, 
 at St. Malo, Dec. 17, 1772, and in early life,, after studying at Dinon, served for a time 
 first in the navy, and then in the army. In 1820, he was appointed first profe^or at 
 the military hospital of Val-de-Grace. In 1832, he became professor of general pathology 
 and therapeutics in the faculty of medicine in Paris, and afterwards was made a mem- 
 ber of the institute. He died at his country residence at Vitry, Nov. 17, 1838. In 1841, 
 a statue was erected to his memory in the court of Val-de-Grace. B. ’s peculiar views 
 are ably explained in his chief works — the Histoire des Phlegmasies ou Inflammations 
 Chroniques (1808), and Examen de la Doctrine MMicale generalement adoptee (1816), which 
 assert the following principles ; that life is sustained only by excitation ; that this exci- 
 tation may be either too strong {surexcitation) or too weak {adynamie), the latter case, 
 however, being far less frequent than the former. These abnormal conditions of surex- 
 citation and adynamie at first manifest themselves in a specific organ of the body; but 
 afterwards, by sympathy, are extended toother organs; that is, all diseases are originally 
 local, and become general only by sympathy of the several organs. The organs most 
 subject to disease are the stomach and bowels, and therefore gastro-enteritis (inflamma- 
 tion of the stomach and the intestines) is the basis of pathology; consequently, B. resorted 
 to local phlebotomy — especially the application of numerous leeches to the region of the 
 abdomen — as a remedy in fevers and various diseases. His theory and practice gained 
 many adherents in France, who took the name of the “ physiological school.” But a 
 more exact knowiedge of physiology has demonstrated that the views of B. were one- 
 sided and exaggerated. Yet they have not been without use in pathology, as they have 
 led to a more careful study of pathological anatomy and physiological sympathies, and 
 to a more exact observation of the so-called specific morbid processes of which the exis- 
 tence was denied by B. and his followers. Montegre, Notice Ilistorique sur la Vie, les 
 Travaux, etles Opinions de Broussais. — His son, Casimir B., born 1803, professor at Val- 
 de-Grace (1833), was a zealous adherent of the Broussais system, and is the writer of a 
 work, Hygiene-Morale, based on phrenology. 
 
 BROUSSON, Claude, 1647-98; a French Protestant, an advocate and legal defender 
 of the Huguenots. His house w'as the rendezvous of certain leaders of an outbreak, and 
 he was compelled to fly from the city (Toulouse), barely escaping into Switzerland. 
 He ventured into France twice afterwards, at great peril ; but in 1698 he was caught, 
 after many escapes, and sentenced to be broken on the wheel on the charge of treason- 
 able conspiracy with the duke of Schomberg to invade France. He was executed accord- 
 ingly, Nov. 4, 1698. He left a number of works on the subjects of the period. 
 
 BROUSSONET, Pierre Marie Auguste, 1761-1807; a French naturalist educated 
 in medicine, and a professor at the age of 18. *He labored zealously to establish the Lin- 
 naean system of botany in France, and visited England, where he was admitted to the 
 royal society, publishing in London Ichthyologice Decas L In Paris he was perpetual 
 secretary of the society of agriculture, and a member of the electoral college of the city. 
 Subsequently he visited Madrid and Lisbon, and went as physician to an embassy 
 which the United States sent to the emperor of Morocco. Still later he was French 
 consul at Teneriffe ; in 1797 a member of the institute, and in charge of the botanical 
 garden at Montpellier. He died of apoplexy soon after his election to the national leg- 
 islative body. France is indebted to him for the introduction of the Merino sheep and 
 the Angora goat. 
 
 BROTJSSONE'TIA. See Mulberry. 
 
 BROUWER, Adrian, 1608-40; a Dutch painter. He was apprenticed to Frank 
 Hals, who treated him with great severity, and drove him to dissipation and the low 
 life so well depicted in his works. The best collection of his pictures is in the Munich 
 gallery. 
 
 BROWN, a CO. in Illinois, on the Illinois river; 320 sq.m. ; pop. ’80, 13,044. In part 
 prairie and in part wooded, with fertile and well-cultivated soil. It is intersected by 
 the Toledo, Wabash, and Western railroad. Agriculture is the main business. Co. seat. 
 Mount Sterling. 
 
 BROWN, a CO. in s. Indiana; 320 sq.m.; pop. ’80, 10,264; w^ell wooded, and -with 
 tolerably productive soil. Agriculture is the chief occupation. Co. seat, Nashville. 
 
 BROWN, a CO. in n.e. Kansas on the Nebraska border; 576 sq.m.; pop. ’78, 10,446; 
 in ’80, 12,819. The co. is crossed by the St. Joseph and Denver City railroad. Produc- 
 tions, grain, hay, butter, and cattle. Co. seat, Hiawatha. 
 
 BROWN, a CO. in s. Minnesota, on the Big and Little Cottonwood; 450 sq.m.; pop. 
 ’80, 12,018. Chief business, agriculture. Co. seat. New Ulm. 
 
107 
 
 Broussais. 
 
 Brown. 
 
 BROWN, a CO. in s.w. Ohio, on the Ohio river; 502 sq.m.; pop. ’70, 30,802; in ’80, 
 82,726. Hilly near the river, but level inland; fertile and well cultivated. Produces 
 grain, butter, sorghum molasses, and some wine. Co seat, Georgetown. 
 
 BROWN, a CO. in w. Texas, on Colorado river; 1050 sq.m.; pop. ’80, 8415. Hilly 
 .and prairie surface, with rich soil. Chief business, stock raising. Co. seat, Brown- 
 wood. 
 
 BROWN, a CO. in e. Wisconsin at the head of Green bay; 525 sq.m.; pop. ’80, 
 84,090. Uneven surface; productions agricultural. The Wisconsin division of the 
 Chicago and Northwestern railroad passes through. Co. seat. Green Bay. 
 
 BROWN, Benjamin Gratz, b. Ky, 1826; graduate of Yale; made his home in 
 St. Louis, and in 1852 was a member of the legislature. In 1854, he started the 
 Missouri Democrat. In the civil war he fought for the union, commanding a brigade. 
 In 1863, he was a United States senator from Missouri, and in 1872 was the democratic 
 candidate for vice-president. 
 
 BROWN, Chad, d. 1665; he left Massachusetts in 1636 because of differences with 
 the leaders of the colony, and settled in Rhode Island, where he became an elder in 
 a Baptist church, and the progenitor of many prominent citizens. 
 
 BROWN, Charles Brockden, a celebrated American novelist, was b. at Philadel- 
 phia, Jan. 17, 1771. His early education was carried on under the care of Mr. Robert 
 Proud, author of the History of Pennsylvania. Afterwards he studied for the law, but 
 the license which he had already given to his imagination induced an unconquerable 
 aversion to legal pursuits, and he consequently betook himself to literature. The French 
 revolution exercised on him, as on many other ardent spirits, a considerable influence; 
 several of his writings at this period being penetrated with the new thoughts and senti- 
 ments which sprung out of that great convulsion. In 1798, he published Wieland, the 
 first of his remarkable Actions ; and in 1799, Ormond, or the Secret Witness. His next 
 production was Arthur Mervyn, or Memoirs of the Year 1793 — the fatal year of yellow- 
 fever in Philadelphia. In 1801, appeared Edgar Hiintly, or the Adventures of a Sleep- 
 Walker, ‘ ‘ a romance presenting a greater variety of wild and picturesque adventure, 
 with more copious delineations of natural scenery, than is to be found in his other 
 works.” — Prescott. This was followed in the same year by Clara Howard, and in 1804 
 by Jane Talbot, flrst printed in England. He died of consumption in 1810. 
 
 Besides the writings which have been enumerated, B. composed a number of political 
 pamphlets, contributed to various literary magazines, and founded three or four period- 
 icals himself. The author who exercised the greatest influence on the development of 
 his genius was Godwin, whom he occasionally imitated, while Godwin himself, on the 
 other hand, acknowledged his obligations to B., and warmly admired him. The most 
 striking quality of his mind is its ingenuity, both imaginative and psychological. He 
 invents incidents and analyzes feelings with remarkable subtlety, but his success is 
 somewhat marred by his extravagant departure from the realities of every-day life. 
 
 BROWN, Francis, d.d., 1784-1820; a native of New Hampshire, and graduate of 
 Dartmouth college, of which he became president in 1815. Some of his sermons and 
 pamphlets have b^een published. 
 
 BROWN, Sir George, a distinguished British gen., b. at Linkwood, near Elgin, Scot- 
 land, in Aug., 1790; entered the army in 1806, became lieut. in 1807, and was present 
 in the latter year at the capture of Copenhagen. He served in the peninsular war At 
 the battle of Talavera he was severely wounded, and at the storming of Badajoz was 
 one of the forlorn-hope. He was appointed maj., May 26, and lieut. col.. Sept. 29, 1814, 
 in which year he embarked in maj .gen. Ross’s expedition against the United States of 
 America, and was wounded at the battle of Bladensburg. From Feb. 6, 1824, to 1842, 
 he commanded a battalion of the rifle brigade. He was made adj.gen. of the forces, 
 April, 1850, and lieut. gen., 1851. In the Crimean war, 1854-55, B. commanded the light 
 •division. At the battle of Inkerman, Nov. 5, 1854, he was severely wounded, and 
 obliged to retire for a short time to Malta. In 1855. he was created a knight commander 
 of the bath. In the expedition to the sea of Azof, he commanded the British troops; 
 . and in the flrst unsuccessful attack on the Redan of Sebastopol, he had the chief com- 
 mand of the storming-party. He was gazetted, April 3, 1856, “ gen. in the army for 
 distinguished service in the field.” He was a knight of Hanover, received the Turkish 
 order of the Medjidie of first class in 1855; and the grand cross of the legion of honor, 
 1856. In 1860, he became commander-in-chief in Ireland, and in 1862 a privy-councilor. 
 He died in 1865. 
 
 BROWN, George L., b. 1814 in Boston; an American painter, of whose produc- 
 tions the more notable are “The Crown of New England” (the White mountains), and 
 “ The Harbor of New York.” 
 
 BROWN, Goold, 1791-1857; a grammarian; b. in Rhode Island; for 20 years a 
 teacher in New York, and author of several elementary and progressive works on 
 English grammar, the most iniportant of which is his Grammar of English Grammars. 
 
 BROWN, Henry Kirke, b. Mass., 1814; an American sculptor, well known for works 
 in bronze. He studied portrait-painting in Boston, and after spending some years in Italy, 
 
Brown. 
 
 108 
 
 settled in Brooklyn, N. Y. He made the first bronze cast achieved in the United States. 
 Some of his figures are “Hope,” “ The Pleiades,” “ The Four Seasons,” and statues of 
 De Witt Clinton, Washington, Nathanial Greene, Lincoln, and gen. Scott. 
 
 BROWN, Hugh Stowell, b. 1823 ; an English clergymen who left the established 
 church and joined the Baptists; he soon became a leader, and is still very popular with 
 the working classes. 
 
 BROWN, Jacob, 1775-1828; an American general commanding on the Canadian 
 frontier in the war of 1812; he showed skill and courage in the defense of Sackett’s 
 Harbor, and m the battles of Chippewa and Niagara Falls. In 1821, he was chief in 
 command of tne United States army. 
 
 BROWN, John, d.d., b. 1715-66; an English divine and author; educated at 
 Cambridge; served with distinction as a volunteer in 1745, and was about that time 
 appointed chaplain. He is best known by his writings, such as Honor, and Essay on 
 ^tire (poems); the tragedy of Barbarossa, produced by Garrick, followed by “AtTid- 
 stone, a satire on the manners and principles of the time ; a Dissertation on the Rise, 
 Union, and Power, etc. , of Poetry and Music. He was affected with deep melancholy 
 at times, and in the last of these afflictions committed suicide. 
 
 BROWN, John, of Haddington, once the most popular, and still among the most, 
 revered, theological writers in Scotland, was b. in 1722, at Carpow, near Abernethy, in 
 Perthshire. Deprived of both his parents when only 11 years of age, he became assist- 
 ant to a venerable and pious shepherd, named John Ogilvie, who tended his flock among: 
 the neighboring hills, and nursed the religious ardor of the boy’s heart. B., however, 
 aspired to be wise as well as good. His thirst for learning was insatiable, and the most 
 romantic yet well-accredited stories illustrative of this are related by his biographers. 
 While still a friendless “ herd laddie,” he had made great progress in a self-acquired 
 knowledge of Greek and Latin. The extent of his acquisitions, even at this early time, 
 may be estimated from the fact, that the country people round about believed he was in 
 league with the devil, and that he had pledged his soul for unhallowed lore. At a later 
 period of his life, “ he knew nine or ten languages, classical, oriental, and modern, and 
 had amassed vast stores of Puritan, Scottish, and Dutch divinity. ” After a brief career as. 
 a peddler — an employment which English readers will understand from Wordsworth’s 
 Excursion was neither mean nor degrading — B. became a volunteer in a regiment of 
 militia raised in Fifeshire during the rebellion of 1745, and in 1747, schoolmaster in the- 
 neighborhood of Kinross. During the vacations of his school, he studied philosophy and 
 divinity under the inspection of the Associate Synod, and the superintendence of the 
 rev. Ebenezer Erskine and James Fisher. In 1750, he was ordained pastor of the Seces- 
 sion church at Haddington. Perhaps a more faithful, industrious, and holy minister 
 never labored in Scotland. David Hume was once revailed upon to go and hear him, and 
 the criticism of the great skeptic was: “ That old man preaches as if Christ were at his 
 elbow.” Although self-educated, he had little of the narrowness which culture so* 
 obtained generally brings along with it; he corresponded on friendly terms with Episco- 
 palians, and often expressed a warm affection for all true Christians. Although himself 
 a sound Presbyterian, and a tolerably strict Calvinist, ‘ ‘ the love of the Lord ” was his. 
 real and ultimate test of a man’s orthodoxy. In 1758, B. first appeared as an author. His 
 work was entitled A Help for the Ignorant, etc. In 1765, he published his famous Chris- 
 tian Jouural, in which the common events of life are richly but quaintly, and perhaps 
 somewhat artificially, spiritualized. In 1768, he was appointed professor of divinity 
 under the Associate Synod, and in the same year issued his valuable Dictionary of the 
 Holy Bible. In 1771, appeared History of the Church from the Birth of the Saviour — a 
 work good enough for cottage-reading, but possessing no merit otherwise; and in 1778, 
 1 he Self-interpreting Bi ble. This last is B. ’s magnum opus, and has been amazingly popu- 
 lar in Scotland ; even high dignitaries of the English church have praised and recom- 
 mended it. Besides these works, B. published a great variety of sermons, tracts, etc., 
 which had an extensive popularity. He died on 19th June, ^87 
 
 BRtoWN, John, m.d., founder of the Brunonian system of medicine, the son of a 
 day-laborer, and himself first intended for a weaver, b. in 1735, in Bunkle parish, Ber- 
 wickshire, was educated at the grammar-school of Dunse, in which he was subsequently 
 an usher. After studying medicine at the Edinburgh university, he became tutor to the 
 children of the celebrated Dr. Cullen, and assistant in his university lectures. Con- 
 ceiving himself slighted by Cullen, he commenced giving lectures himself upon a new 
 system of medicine, according to which all diseases are divided into the sthenic, or those- 
 depending on an excess of excitement, and the asthenic, those resulting from a deficiency 
 of it; the former to be removed by debilitating fnedicines, as opium, and the latter by 
 stimulants, such as wine and brandy. His system gave rise to much opposition, but 
 his partisans were numerous ; for a time his opinions had some influence. In 1779, B. 
 took the degree of M.D. at the university of St. Andrews, and in 1780 published his 
 Elementa Medicinice. He was also author of Observations on the Old System of Physic. 
 In 1786, being overwhelmed with debt, he removed to London, where he died of 
 apoplexy in 1788/ His works, with a memoir by his son. Dr. William Cullen Brown,, 
 appeared in 1804 (3 vols. 8vo). 
 
109 
 
 Brown. 
 
 BROWN, John, 1736-1803; merchant of Providence, R. I.; the leader of the men 
 who destroyed the Oaspee, an English sloop-of-war, June 17, 1772. He was arrested and 
 put in irons, but escaped. He was a member of congress from Rhode Island, and a 
 patron of Brown university. 
 
 BROWN, John, 1744-80; graduate of Yale, and king’s attorney in New York. In 
 1775, he was an emissary in Canada to provoke the people against the English govern- 
 ment. He was with Allen at the capture of Ticonderoga, and at Quebec when Wolfe 
 was killed. *He was killed by Indians while on the way to help Schuyler in the Mohawk 
 valley campaign. 
 
 BROWN, John, 1757-1837; b. Va.; soldier in the revolutionary arm^^ He was a 
 student at Princeton and at William and Mary college; and after residing in Kentucky 
 for a few years, returned to Virginia, and represented that state in congress, 1787-93. 
 From 1793 to 1805, he was United States senator from Virginia. 
 
 BROWN, John, d.d., grandson of John Brown, of Haddington, was b. 12th July, 1784, 
 near Whitburn, Linlithgowshire. He studied at Edinburgh university, and afterwrds at 
 the theological hall of the secession church in Selkirk. In 1806, he was ordained to the 
 pastorate of a church in Biggar, a small town in Lanarkshire, where he labored for 15 
 years, employing his leisure hours in those studies which subsequently enabled him to 
 take a h^h rank as a biblical expositor. In 1822, he was transferred to Rose street 
 church, Edinburgh, and in 1829 to Broughton place church in the same city. In 1834, 
 he was appointed professor of pastoral and exegetical theology in connection with the 
 associate synod. He died 13th Oct., 1858. As a preacher. Dr. B. was among the first of 
 his time. For clearness of scriptural exposition, chaste and powerful language, and 
 majestic ardor and earnestness of manner, he had no equal in his denomination, and no 
 superior in Scotland. The attractiveness of his delivery was heightened by a counte- 
 nance singularly noble, tender, and sweet. Among his works are The Law of Christ 
 respecting Giml Obedience; The Resurrection of Life; and his important and scholarly 
 Expository Discourses on the Epistles of Peter, on the Epistle to the Galatians, and on the 
 Epistle to the Romans. See Dr. Cairns’s Memoir (1860). — John Brown, m.d., ll.d., son 
 of the above, b. 1810, has attained a distinguished place among the medical practitioners 
 of Edinburgh. He has also abundantly inherited the paternal genius, though in him it 
 has taken a literary rather than a theological direction. In 1858, he published Horce 
 Subsecivm, a volume of essays, most of which had previously appeared in periodicals. 
 One of these, Rab and his Friends, has been since published separately, and has obtained 
 a remarkable popularity. It excels in quaint fancy, rich delicate pathos, and abrupt but 
 felicitous diction. A civil list pension of £100 was allotted to Dr. B. in 1876. 
 
 BROWN, Captain John, the leader of the Harper’s Ferry (U. S.) insurrection (1859), 
 designed to incite the slaves of the southern states of America to rebellion, was descended 
 from a Puritan carpenter, one of the Mayflower emigrants, and was b. at Torrington, 
 Conn. , in the year 1800. He intended to enter the ministry, but had to abandon his studies 
 on account of weak sight, and subsequently became a wool-dealer. In 1854, having 
 imbibed an intense hatred of slavery, he went to Kansas, in order to vote, and, if need 
 were, fight, against the establishment of slavery in that territory. In many of the con- 
 flicts which ensued between the pro-slavery party from Missouri and the free settlers, B. 
 played a prominent part, and in one of these he had a son killed, a circumstance which 
 deepened his hostility against the southern party. After the agitation in Kansas was 
 settled by a general vote, B. traveled through the northern and eastern states, declaiming 
 against slavery, and endeavoring to organize an armed attack upon it. In Oct., 1859, at 
 the head of 17 white men and 5 blacks, he commenced active hostilities by a descent 
 upon Harper’s Ferry, a town of some 5000 inhabitants, at the confluence of the Potomac 
 and Shenandoah, and possessed of an arsenal containing from 100,000 to 200,000 stand 
 of arms._ The arsenal was easily captured, and 40 or 50 of the principal inhabitants were 
 made prisoners ; but instead of retreating at once to the mountains with arms and hostages, 
 as his original design had been — meaning to exchange the hostages for slaves — B. lingered 
 on in the town until the evening, by which time 1500 militiamen had arrived. Next day, 
 an attack was made on his position, which, after some loss of life, was carried. B. was 
 captured, and shortly after was tried for treason, and executed. He is described as a 
 singularly brave and honest man. 
 
 BROWN, John, b. Conn., May 9, 1800; d. Dec. 2, 1859; an American abolitionist, 
 celebrated as the originator of the insurrection at Harper’s ferry. He was intended for 
 the ministry, but was compelled to give up study on account of inflammation in his 
 eyes. With his family he removed to Ohio, where he worked as a tanner, and engaged 
 in the wool trade, in which he failed. He then went to Essex co., N. Y., and began as 
 a farmer, but in 1854 followed his four sons, who had settled in Kansas, and were sub- 
 jected to much persecution on account of their opposition to slavery. When the free- 
 state men organized to repel the Missourians who were besieging Lawrence, Brown and 
 his sons were among the foremost on the free-state side; and a little later they made a 
 remarkable defense against vastly superior numbers near Ossawattomie. After many 
 rough adventures in the Kansas troubles, B. formed the project of an insurrection in 
 the south among the slaves as the surest means of securing their liberation. He drilled 
 
Brown. 
 
 110 
 
 a small force in Iowa in the winter of 1857, and the next spring, in Canada, drew up a 
 new provisional constitution for the states, under which he was selected as commander- 
 in-chief, one of his sons, and Richard Realf and John Kagi, being civil officers. The 
 next important event was the rescue by B. of certain slaves in Missouri who had been 
 sold and were to be taken to Texas, one of the owners of the property being slain in the 
 conflict. Again he went to Canada, returning to the United States in the summer. 
 His attempt to capture the arsenal at Harper’s ferry was made on Sunday night, Oct. 
 16th, 1859. The arsenal was easily seized, several citizens were taken ipto custody, 
 conspicuous houses were searched for arms, and few of the citizens knew what was 
 going on unt|l mid-forenoon, when they began to rally; some scattered firing followed, 
 one colored man was killed (by Brown’s men), the mayor was slightly hurt, and so 
 was one of Brown’s sons. There was no sign of a rising of negroes, and before noon 
 Brown and his men were in the arsenal, virtually prisoners. A feeling of rage pre- 
 vailed so strongly, that a man who came from the arsenal with a flag of truce was 
 instantly killed, and one prisoner was put to death. At night Brown had three 
 unwounded whites and a few useless negroes for his army; one of his sons lay dead, and 
 another was badly wounded. In the morning a force of United States marines 
 arrived, and Brown, fighting desperately to the last, was taken prisoner, being 
 wounded once with a sword, and twice with the bayonet. All of the invaders were 
 indicted for conspiring to incite insurrection, and for murder and treason. After a trial 
 of three days, in which Brown was unable, on account of his wounds, to stand up; 
 he was found guilty, and sentenced to death on the scaffold within 48 hours. He died 
 calmly on the 2d of Dec., 1859. It may safely be assumed that his execution hastened 
 the downfall of slavery in the United States. B. was a man of stern and uncom- 
 promising moral principle; and though open to the charge of fanaticism, and regarded 
 as justly and necessarily condemned to death under the law, he seems to be increas- 
 ingly viewed as a martyr and a hero, offering himself in a blind and unconscious sacri- 
 fice as an obstacle in the path of a gigantic social and political wrong. 
 
 BROWN, John Newton, d.d., 1803-68; b. Conn.; a Baptist clergyman who pub- 
 lished an Ericyclopoedia of Beligio as Knowledge, 2(,nd. Memorials of Baptist Martyrs. 
 
 BROWN, Nicholas, 1769-1841 ; b. R. I. ; the chief patron of Browm university, 
 which in 1804 changed its name in his honor from Rhode Island college. In early 
 life he vv^as a member of the house of Brown & Ives, successful merchants. The 
 gifts of Brown to the university reached more than $100,000. He also gave $30,000 
 to establish an insane asylum in Providence, besides large sums to the athenaeum, 
 and to churches, etc. 
 
 BROWN, Robert, an English clergyman, founder of the sect of Brownists, b. in 
 1549, the son of Anthony Brown, esq., of Folthorp, Rutlandshire, was educated at 
 Cambridge, and was at first a preacher at Bennet church, then a schoolmaster in 
 Southwark, and a lecturer at Islington. In 1580, he began to attack the order and 
 discipline of the established church, and soon after formed a distinct church on 
 democratic principles at Norwich. Committed by Dr. Freake, bishop of that see, 
 to the custody of the sheriff, he was released from prison through the influence of the 
 lord-treasurer, Cecil, to whom he was nearly related. Having, in 1582, published a con- 
 troversial work, entitled The Life and Manners of True Christians, with, prefixed, A 
 Treatise of Reformation without Tanying for Any, he w^as again arrested, but, through 
 the lord-treasurer’s intercession, again liberated. He afterwards formed several con- 
 gregational churches; but, with many of his followers, was obliged to take refuge in 
 Holland. In 1589, he returned to England, reconciled himself to the established 
 church, and became rector of a church near Oundle, Northamptonshire. Of a very 
 violent temper, he was, when 80 years old, sent to Northampton jail, for an assault on a 
 constable, and died in prison in 1630. The Brownists continued, notwithstanding the 
 defection of their leader, to subsist as a separate sect for some time both in Hol- 
 land (among the English there) and in England. In the former country, they were 
 at last absorbed in, or reconciled to, the Presbyterian church in 1701, in the latter, 
 they may be said to have given birth to the Independents (q.v.), who rose into great 
 importance in the 17th century. ' 
 
 BROWN, Robert, an eminent botanist, the son of an Episcopal clergyman, was b. 
 at Montrose, Scotland, Dec. 21, 1773, and educated at Marischal college, Aberdeen. 
 Having studied medicine at the university of Edinburgh, he became, in 1795, ensign 
 and assistant-surgeon in a Scottish fencible regiment, with which he went to Ireland. 
 Devoting himself to the study of botany, he resigned his commissions in 1800, and the 
 following year was, on the recommendation of sir Joseph Banks, engaged as naturalist 
 in the expedition sent out under capt. Flinders for the survey of the Australian coasts. 
 On his return, in 1805, he brought home nearly 4000 species of Australian plants, a large 
 proportion of which were new to science. Soon after, he was appointed librarian to the 
 Linnaean society. To the Transactions of the Edinburgh Wernerian society and those 
 of the Linnaean society, he contributed memoirs on Asclepiadem and Proteacew, and pub- 
 lished Prodroinus Plorw Novae Hollandm et Insulae Van Diemen's, vol. i. 1810; a supple- 
 ment to tills work appeared in 1830, relating to the Proteacece only. He also wrote the 
 General Remarks, Geographical and Systematical, on the Botany of Terra Australis, 
 
Ill 
 
 Brown. 
 
 attached to the narrative of capt. Flinders’ expedition, 1814. His adoption of the 
 natural system of Jussieu, the French botanist, led to its general substitution in place of 
 the Linnsean method. B. ’s numerous memoirs in transactions of societies, and other 
 contributions to botanical science, secured for universal approval the title conferred on 
 him by Alexander von Humboldt of Bottanicorum facile Frinceps. In 1810, B. received 
 the charge of the library and splendid collections of sir Joseph Banks, which, in 1827, 
 were transferred to the British museum, when he was appointed keeper of the botanical 
 department in that establishment. In 1811, he was elected F.n.s. ; in 1832, d.c.l. of 
 Oxford; and in 1833 was elected one of the 18 foreign associates of the academy of 
 sciences of the institute of France. In 1839, the royal society awarded him their Copley 
 medal for his Discoveries during a Series of Years on the Subject of Vegetahle^mpregnation. 
 He was president of the Linnsean society from 1849 to 1853. He died in London, 
 June 10, 1858. A collected edition of B.’s works, in 5 vols. 8vo, has been published in 
 Germany. 
 
 BROWN, Samuel, m.d., son of Samuel Brown (the founder of itinerating libraries, 
 and grandson of the rev. John Brown of Haddington), was b. on the 23d Feb., 1817, 
 and entered the university of Edinburgh in 1832. He took his degree as m.d. in 
 1839, and immediately surrendered himself to the magical fascination of chemistry. 
 One idea possessed him to the close of his life — the possit‘41ity of reconstructing the 
 whole science of atomics. He never, in spite of crushing failures in experiment, 
 abandoned his early conviction that chemical elements, usually considered simple, might 
 be transmuted into each other. In 1843, he delivered in Edinburgh four critical lectures 
 on the atomic theory. During the same year, he became a candidate for the chair of 
 chemistry in the university of that city ; but having periled his claims on the experi- 
 mental success of his fatal theory, and being again doomed to disappointment, he with- 
 drew his application, and devoted himself with a kind of mournful austerity, and with 
 more than the earnestness of a mediaeval alchemist, to the solitary work of his laboratory. 
 In 1850 appeared his Tragedy of Galileo, a volume which indicates, but does not embody, 
 the finely imaginative and philosophical genius of its author. B. died of consumption 
 20th Sept., 1856. His fugitive essays were collected and published after his death; 
 and, though for the most part too comprehensive in their intent, they enable the public 
 to understand why he was held in admiration by men like Hamilton, Ferrier, De Quincey, 
 Wilson, Carlyle, Hare, Jeffrey, and Chalmers. 
 
 BROWN, Samuel Gilman, d.d., ll.d., b. Maine, 1813; graduated at Dartmouth 
 college and Andover theological seminary; traveled in Europe; was professor in Dart- 
 mouth of oratory and intellectual philosophy; elected president of Hamilton college in 
 1867, and resigned the position in 1880. He has published a Life of Bufus Choate; Biog- 
 raphy of Self-Taught Men; etc. 
 
 BROWN, Samuel R., d.d., 1810-80; b. Conn. His mother was the author of the 
 familiar hymn, I love to stead a while away. The family removed in early childhood to 
 Monson, Mass. Dr. B., as an American missionary, founded the first Protestant Chris- 
 tian school in China, at which Yung Wing, now a member of the embassy from China 
 to the United States, and chief of the educational commission which has 120 Chinese 
 youths in New England schools and colleges, was educated. Graduated from Yale in 
 1832, Dr. Brown sailed for China, 1838, and was manager of the Morrison Chinese 
 school for boys, at Canton, 1838-47. He was in the United States, 1847-59; and in 
 1859, was stationed at Yokohama, Japan, as one of the first missionaries. He is transla- 
 tor of the Bible into Japanese, and of several Japanese books; author of Colloquial Jap- 
 anese, a grammar; Prendergasfs Mastery System, adapted to the study of English or Jap- 
 anese; and of many articles on Chinese and Japanese subjects. He returned to this 
 country in feeble health, in 1879, and died in Monson, Mass. 
 
 BROWN, Thomas, 1663-1704; recognized by Addison as “of facetious memory.” 
 He was a farmer’s son, and entered at Oxford, but was obliged, for his wild conduct, to 
 leave college. In London, after trying teaching, he wrote poems, letters, etc. , for his 
 bread. His works are witty, but coarse, and often indelicate. He would lose his friend 
 sooner than his joke. 
 
 BROWN, Thomas, a Scottish metaphysician, son of the Rev. Samuel Brown, was 
 b. in 1778, at the manse of Kirkmabreck, Kirkcudbrightshire. After being some 
 time at school in England, he went to Edinburgh in 1792, and for several years attended 
 the lectures of Playfair, Black, Robison, and Dugald Stewart. He began the study of 
 law, but shortly abandoned it for medicine; and having taken his diploma of m.d., in 
 1803, he became (1806) the partner of Dr. Gregory in his large practice. But his strong 
 bent was for literature and philosophical speculation. At the age of 18. he had published' 
 a refutation of Darwin’s Zoonomia; was a member of an academy of physics, or society 
 for “the investigation of the laws of nature,” formed in 1797, and embracing the names 
 of Erskine, Brougham, Leyden, Jeffrey, Smith, and others; and contributed at the out- 
 set to the Edinburgh Review. In 1804, appeared his essay on Cause and Effect, in which 
 he holds that there is nothing in a cause but the fact of immediate and invariable ante- 
 cedence to the change called its effect. Dugald Stewart, professor of moral philosophy 
 in the university, being obliged, from bad health, to retire in 1810, got Dr. B. appointed 
 
Brown. 
 
 Brownell. 
 
 Il2 
 
 assistant and successor, which office he continued to discharge till his death, in 1820. 
 He was popular as a professor; and his Lectures, published after his death, have gone 
 through a great many editions, though of late they have somewhat fallen out of notice. 
 He also wrote a good deal of poetry, which is now forgotten. Dr. B. attempted to over- 
 turn the psycholo^cal system of his predecessors, Reid and Stewart, and to substitute 
 a new and simplified scheme of mental phenomena. The greater part of this new phi- 
 losophy was the production of his first session as professor, the writing of each lecture 
 being begun on the evening previous to its delivery. A philosophic system thus impro- 
 vised could not but be crude and inconsistent, however acute and imaginative its author 
 might be. B.’s chief contribution to psychology is the establishment of a sixth or mus- 
 eular sense. 
 
 BROWN, Ulysses Maximilian; 1705-57; after studying at Limerick, Rome, and 
 Prague, he entered the Austrian army, serving with distinction in Corsica and Italy, and 
 rising rapidly in rank. In 1739, he was field-marshal lieut., and one of the aulic 
 council. He was field-marshal in the seven years’ war, repulsed the Prussians at Lowo- 
 sitz, and was mortally wounded in the great battle of Prague. 
 
 BSOWN, William, founder of the free public library at Liverpool, b. at Ballymena, 
 Ireland, in 1784; was edi/^i^ted at Catterick, near Richmond, Yorkshire; and in his 16th 
 year accompanied his parents to the United States. Employed in the counting-house 
 of his father, who was engaged in the linen trade in Baltimore, in a few years he was 
 admitted a partner. Returning to England in 1809, he established a branch of the 
 business at Liverpool, and laid the foundation of one of the largest mercantile firms in 
 the world. Embarking in the American trade, he became an extensive importer of 
 cotton, and by his rare energy, quick business habits, and sterling integrity, soon became 
 distinguished for the magnitude of his dealings. A liberal reformer, he took a promi- 
 nent part in local and public affairs, and unceasingly promoted the education of the 
 people. In 1844, he contested s. Lancashire upon the anti-corn-law league interest with- 
 out success, but was returned to parliament for that division of the country in 1846, and 
 was subsequently three times re-elected. A series of letters in defense of free-trade, 
 which, in 1850, he contributed to the Pennsylvanian (Boston newspaper), attracted much 
 attention. He was also an able advocate for the adoption of a decimal coinage. In 
 1857, he munificently subscribed £30,000 for the establishment of a free public library 
 at Liverpool, and the noble building erected for the purpose owes its existence entirely 
 to his generosity. He died in 1864. 
 
 BROWN, William Lawrence, 1755-1830; minister of the English church at 
 Utrecht, and successor of his father and uncle. He was also professor of moral phi- 
 losophy and ecclesiastical history in the university, to which was added a professorship 
 of the law of nature. After the French revolution he escaped to England, and at a 
 later period became principal of Marischal college, Aberdeen. In 1800, he was chaplain 
 •to the king, and in 1804 dean of the chapel royal. His best known works are Essay on 
 the Natural Equality of Man; On the Existence of the Supreme Creator; and on the existing 
 religions with regard to their moral tendency. 
 
 BBOWN COAL, a mineral substance of vegetable origin, like common coal, but differ- 
 ing from it in its more distinctly fibrous or 'woody formation, which is sometimes so 
 perfect that the original structure of the wood can be discerned by the microscope, 
 whilst its external form is also not unfrequently preserved. In this state, it is often 
 called wood coal; and it sometimes occurs so little mineralized, that it may be used for 
 the purposes of wood, as at Vitry, on the banks of the Seine, where the wood-work of a 
 tiouse has been made of it. From this to the most perfectly mineralized state, it occurs 
 an all different stages. It is often brown or brownish- black, more rarely gray. It burns 
 without swelling or running, with a weaker flame than coal ; emits in burning a smell 
 like that of peat, and leaves an ash more resembling that of wood than of coal. Where- 
 cver it occurs in sufficient abundance, it is used for fuel, although very inferior to com- 
 mon coal. Bovey coal, so called from Bovey Tracey, in Devonshire, where extensive 
 beds of it occur, and where it has long been wrought, is B. C., and often exhibits the 
 •woody structure very beautifully. B. C. occurs in a number of other places in Britain, 
 and more abundantly near Paris, and in Liguria and Hanover, where it forms thick 
 beds in allu-vial deposits. — The smturhrand (q.v.) of Iceland is regarded as a variety of 
 it. Jet (q.v.) is also sometimes regarded as a variety of brown coal. Although bearing 
 the name coal, B. C. is rather a kind of lignite (q.v.) than of coal. 
 
 BBOWNB, Charles Farrar, an American humorist, better known as “ Artemts 
 Ward,” was b. in Waterford, Me., in 1836, and graduated from the free village school 
 into a printing-office — the American boy’s college. As a printer’s boy, he worked in all 
 the principal towns in New England, until settled at Boston, where he began to write 
 comic stories and essays. A roving disposition carried him to the west, and he was 
 engaged as local editor in Toledo, and later in Cleveland, Ohio, where his letters from 
 “ Aiiemus Ward, showman,” a pretended exhibitor of wax figures and wild beasts, first 
 attracted general attention. In 1860, he became a contributor to Vanity Fair, a New 
 York comic weekly paper; and being invited to lecture, soon became very popular and 
 attractive. As a lecturer, in 1863, he visited California, making the overland trip, visit- 
 
113 
 
 Brown. 
 
 Brownell. 
 
 ing Salt Lake City, the Mormon capital, and drawing crowds in every town he visited. 
 In 1864, he opened his illustrated lectures on California and Utah in New York, with 
 immense success; and in 1866, was induced to visit England, where he became a con- 
 tributor to Punch, and gave his lecture on the Mormons in the metropolis, at the Egyp- 
 tian hall, Piccadilly. But while convulsing crowded audiences with laughter, he was 
 wasting with pulmonary disease. Early in 1867, he went to Guernsey for a milder air, 
 but with no benefit; and was about to embark for America, when he died at South- 
 ampton, Mar. 6, 1867. He was tall, slender, with striking features, and*a most amiable 
 character, which attracted and attached to him many friends. By his will, after pro- 
 viding for his mother, leaving legacies to his friends, and his library to the best boy in 
 the school of his native village, he left the bulk of his property in trust to Horace 
 Greeley to provide an asylum for printers. His collected writings, which have had a 
 wide circulation in America and England, are Artemus Ward His Book; Artemus Ward 
 •OfTnong the Mormons; Artemus Ward among the Fenians; and a posthumous collection 
 iind biography entitled Artemus Ward in England. 
 
 BROWNE, Edward Harold, d.d., an English bishop, b. 1811; educated at Cam- 
 bridge, and holding various professorships until in 1864 he was consecrated bishop of 
 Ely. He has published An Exposition of the Thirty-nine Articles; Aids to Faith, etc. 
 
 BROWNE, Isaac Hawkins, an English poet, 1705-60; educated at Cambridge; then 
 engaging in the law. He was twice chosen to parliament; but his reputation rests exclu- 
 sively upon his poems, such as Design and Beauty, and The Pipe of Tobacco, in which he 
 imitates Cibber, Pope, Young, Swift, and others, all of whom were living when it was 
 published. Be Animce Immortalitate, a close imitation of Lucretius, was his most impor- 
 tant work. 
 
 BROWNE, John Ross, b. 1817; an emigrant from Ireland to the United States when 
 a child. He learned shorthand writing, and became a reporter in the United States sen- 
 ate. Having a desire to travel, he went first on a whale-ship, and on his return published 
 •a book of observations in Zanzibar. He next went on government business to California 
 in 1849. Two years later he went as correspondent of a new^spaper to Europe, traveling 
 through Italy, Sicily, and Palestine, and giving an account in Tusef After further 
 service in the north-western territories and on the Pacific coast, he went to Algeria, Ice- 
 land, Poland, and Russia, and published The Land of Thoi', and An American Family 
 in Germany. In 1869, he published an elaborate report on the Resources of the Pacific 
 Slope. He was minister to China for a short time, appointed in 1868, but recalled two 
 years later. He died in 1875. 
 
 BROWNE, Sir Thomas, antiquary and physician, was b. in London, 1605. His father, 
 a merchant, left him an ample fortune, and he was educated at Winchester and Oxford. 
 He began the study of medicine, then traveled over France and Italy, and after taking 
 the degree of m.d. at Leyden, returned and settled (1636) at Norwich, where he contin- 
 ued to practice as a physician. He was knighted in 1671 by Charles II., and died 1682. 
 His chief works are ; Beligio Medici (1642) ; Inquiries into Vulgar and Common Errors (1646) ; 
 and a Discourse on Sepulchral Urns (1648). He wrote also The Garden of Cyrus, or the 
 Quincunxial Lozenge; besides a variety of tracts, published after his death. His writings 
 are highly prized by many for their genial fancy, pleasing quaintness of style, and varied 
 erudition. 
 
 BROWNE, William, an English poet, b. 1590, of whose life little is known, save 
 that he was in Exeter college, Oxford, and was a tutor to an earl of Caernarvon. He 
 was of the school of Spenser, and author of Britannia's Pastorals, and The Shepherd's 
 Pipe. 
 
 BROWNE, William George, 1768-1813; an English traveler, educated at Oxford. He 
 wisited Egypt and Sinai in 1793, and tried to go through Abyssinia. In 1800, and later, he 
 traveled in Greece, Asia Minor, and Sicily. In 1812, he proposed to visit Samareand, 
 and survey unexplored Central Asia. After leaving Teheran in 1813 he was no more 
 heard from, save that the party were attacked by banditti and plundered and Browne 
 was murdered. Thevenot, the French traveler, found and buried what he supposed 
 were his bones. 
 
 BROWNELL, Henry Howard, 1820-72; b. Rhode Island; educated at Trinity 
 college, Hartford, and intended for the bar, but devoted himself to teaching and author- 
 ship. In 1847, he issued a volume of poems, after which came Ihe People's Handbook of 
 Ancient and Modern History; The Discoverers, Pioneers, and Settlers of North and South 
 America, etc. Near the close of the civil war he was acting ensign on admiral Farragut’s 
 staff, and after the war accompanied the admiral to Europe. In 1866 he issued in a 
 volume War Lyrics and other Poems. 
 
 BROWNELL. Thomas Church, d.d., ll.d., 1779-1865; b. Mass. ; graduated at Union 
 college in 1804, where he was tutor and professor of chemistry and mineralogy. In 1810, 
 he traveled in England and Ireland ; and in 1816 was ordained a minister of the Protestant 
 Episcopal church. In 1818 he w^as assistant minister of Trinity church in New York 
 city, and in 1819 made bishop of Connecticut. It was under his care that Washington 
 (now Trinity) college was founded, he being the first president. He was the author 
 of The Family Prayer Book, and author and compiler of Religion of the Heart and Life. 
 U. K. III.— 8 
 
Brownian. 
 
 Brownson. 
 
 114 
 
 BROWNIAN MOVEMENTS. The motion of non-living particles as seen through the 
 microscope, often mistaken for motions of living matter. The cause of the movements 
 has not been satisfactorily shown, but it has been surmised that heat is the motive 
 power. 
 
 BROW'NIE, a domestic spirit of the fairy order in the old popular superstitions of 
 Scotland. The common tradition respecting the B. is, that he was a good-humored 
 drudging goblin, who attached himself to farmhouses and other dwellings in the 
 country, and occupied himself during night, when the family were in bed, in performing 
 any humble kind of work that required to be attended to, such as churning, thrashing 
 corn, etc. — a spirit not seen or spoken to, and only known by the obliging performance 
 of his voluntarily undertaken labors — a most valuable adjunct to the domestic establish- 
 ment, and unfortunately no longer obtainable by good housewives. In Cornwall, a 
 goblin known as Broimy is evoked to assist at the swarming of bees (Borlace’s Antiquities 
 of GornwalJ). The resemblance of the Scotch B. to the Bohin Ooodfellow .) of the 
 English, and the Kobold of the Germans, is also so conspicuous that we must necessarily 
 refer the different fragmentary legends on the subject to one of the old superstitions 
 generally prevalent in Europe. 
 
 BROWNING, Elizabeth Barrett, England’s greatest poetess, was b. in London 
 about the year 1809. Her maiden name was Barrett. The culture which she received 
 in her youth was of a kind far transcending the ordinary education even of “ ladies 
 intellectual.” Classics, philosophy, and science were studied with enthusiasm and suc- 
 cess. At a comparatively early period, she became a contributor to periodicals, and a 
 series of articles on the Greek Christian poets indicated that she possessed both recondite 
 learning and keen poetic insight. Her first important essay in authorship was a trans- 
 lation of the Prometheus of Eschylus in 1833. In 1838, appeared the Seraphim, and 
 Other Poems, the external peculiarity of which was its endeavor to embody the ideas and 
 sentiments of a Cliristian mystery in the artistic form of a Greek tragedy. Delicate 
 health, arising from a rupture of a blood-vessel in the lungs, and the death % drowning 
 of a favorite brother in the following year, compelled her to live in seclusion for a long 
 time. At length her health was restored, and in 1846 she married Robert Browning 
 (q.v.), himself a great poet. After their marriage, they resided chiefly in Italy, in whose 
 welfare they were passionately interested. In 1850, Mrs. B. published her collected 
 works, together with several new poems, among which was Lady Geraldine’s Courtship. 
 In 1851, appeared the Casa Guidi Windows, a poem whose theme was the struggle made 
 by the Tuscans for freedom in 1849. Aurora Leigh, her longest production, was pub- 
 lished in 1856. Poems before Congress appeared in 1860. Her poetry is distinguished by 
 its depth of feeling, by its true pathos, by its noble and generous sentiments. Appar- 
 ently she poured forth her verse with dangerous facility; and there are few of her poems- 
 which would not be improved by the simple process of curtailment. But there is not a. 
 thought or a sentiment of the many she has so beautifully expressed which any one 
 would wish expunged. No writer ever exerted a better, gentler, happier influence. 
 She died in 1861. 
 
 BROWNING, Robert, a distinguished contemporary poet, b. in the neighborhood of 
 London in the year 1812, and educated at the London university. The drama of Para- 
 celsus, which first brought him into notice, was published in 1836. In the following year 
 appeared his tragedy of Strafford, which was brought out upon the stage, but proved 
 unsuccessful, though Macready himself personated the hero. Sordello and The Blot in 
 the Scutcheon also failed, through lack of vivid and impressive incident. Pippa Passes 
 secured a greater measure of popular approbation. In 1855, B. published Men and 
 Women, one of his greatest works, containing poems which for depth and subtlety of 
 conception, profound analysis of the human mind in its most delicate and impassioned 
 conditions, and abstract speculative insight, are unsurpassed in the English language. 
 If, as some think, in vigor and brilliancy of thought he is above Tennyson, he is as far 
 beneath him in melody of versification and artistic beauty of style. Often he shows a 
 morbid love of obscurity, but he frequently exhibits a Shakespearian clearness of idea 
 and emphasis of expression. Some of his Dramatic Lyrics are faultless. Among his 
 other poems are The Ring and the Book; Balaustion’s Ad'centurelfWlV}', Prince Hohemtiel- 
 Schwangau (1871); Red Cotton Night-cap Country (1873); Aristophanes’ Apology (1875); 
 The Inn Album (1875); Pacchiarotto, with other Poems (1876); La Saisiaz: The Tkeo Poets 
 of Croisic (1878). 
 
 BROWNISTS, a sect of English puritans of the 16th c., who took their doctrines and 
 name from Robert Brown. In 1592, sir Walter Raleigh estimated their numbers at 
 20,000. Harsh measures suppressed them in England, or drove them out; but the exiles 
 found refuge in Holland, where their church included a number of eminent men. Ere 
 long they divided into Brownists and Separatists, and soon the Brownists gave place to 
 the Independents, or Congregationalists. The Brownists objected not to the doctrine, 
 but to the form of government of the English church, and to that of the Presbyterians 
 as well. They would join no other reformed church on account of the toleration of 
 unregenerate persons as members, with whom they held it impiety to be in Christian 
 fellowship. They condemned the wedding service in church, holding marriage to be a 
 civil contract; refused the baptism of the children of those not church-membirs, or of 
 
115 
 
 Brownian- 
 
 Brownson. 
 
 those who did not take sufficient care of their children already baptized, and rejected all 
 forms of prayer, holding even that the Lord’s prayer was presented as a model for imi- 
 tation, not for repetition. Their form of church government was democratic, all power 
 residing in the brotherhood. The churches were severally independent; the minister of 
 one could not officiate in another. Lay brothers could prophesy or exhort, and it was 
 usual after a sermon to question and discuss the topics broached. Every Brownist 
 church was a perfect body corporate, possessing full power over its own members and 
 acts, and accountable to no otlier jurisdiction whatever. The principles of this sect 
 were those of a rude and extreme independency — the natural reaction from the ecclesi- 
 astical abuses of those times. Their leader, late in life, returned to the established 
 church, becoming again a clergyman in it. His followers divided among themselves on 
 some minor points of principle or of method, and the sect as a body came to nought. 
 Yet those who favor “voluntaryism” in the church as against national establisment, and 
 the sovereignty of the local congregation as against the consolidation of all the churches 
 •of some vast region, claim that the Brownist movement w’as the rough prophecy and 
 heralding of a cardinal principle of polity then about to be restored to the church after 
 ages of neglect. 
 
 BROWNLOW, William Gannaway, 1805-77; b. Ya. He was bred to the car- 
 penter’s trade, but in 1826 became a Methodist minister, and was for 10 years an itiner- 
 ant. He took part in politics, advocating the election of Adams in 1828. In 1837, he 
 was editor of the Knoxville Whig, and his bold and quaint utterances soon gave him a 
 wdde reputation. In 1856, he defended the Methodist church in a work called The Iron 
 Wheel Examined and its Spokes Extracted. Two years later, with Rev. A. Pryne of New 
 York, he discussed the question, “Ought American Slavery to be Perpetuated?” 
 Brownlow defended slavery. In the secession he clung to the union as the best means 
 of upholding the institutions of the south. For this he was arrested by the confederate 
 government and sent out of their lines. He returned to Tennessee in 1864, and the next 
 year was elected governor, and in 1869 was sent to the United States senate. He was 
 ardent, fearless, and resolute, caring little for refinement in speech or action. 
 
 BROWN PIGMENTS, a term in art applied to those substances in which the three pri- 
 mary colors unite in unequal proportions, red being in excess. B. P. are chiefly mineral, 
 and are used sometimes in a raw but usually in a burned state. The most important 
 are bister, asphaltum, umber, terra di sienna. Mars brown, Cassel earth, and brown 
 madder. 
 
 BROWNS on porcelain are generally imparted by a mixture containing more or less 
 sulphate of iron, and which, when heated, leaves the red oxide of iron (rust) on the 
 porcelain, forming a more or less deep-tinted ochre. See Pottery. 
 
 BROWNS on cloth are communicated by arnotto (q.v.) and copperas, assisted by 
 fustic, sumach, peachwood, logwood, and alum. See Dyeing. 
 
 BROWN-SEQUARD, Charles Edward. A French-ximerican physiologist b. in 
 Mauritius, 1818. His father, Edward Brown, was a native of Philadelphia; his mother 
 was French, of the name of Sequard. He took the degree of m.d. at Paris, 1840, and 
 afterwards spent much of his time in America, investigating and lecturing. His 
 researches have been extensive, furnishing many of the most important facts in physiol- 
 •ogy, particularly in regard to the nervous system. It was formerly supposed thafLonget 
 had shown that the posterior columns of the spinal cord conducted sensation to the brain, 
 while the anterior columns transmitted motor impulses to the muscles. Belingeri, how- 
 ever, in 1823, claimed to have demonstrated that sensation was conveyed to the brain by 
 the gray substance of the cord only. These observations have been confirmed by Brown- 
 Seqnard, who was also the first to demonstrate that the decussation of the sensory con- 
 ductors is in the cord itself ; and he lias the reputation of having created the physiology 
 of the sensory tract of the spinal cord. His experiments upon the transfusion of blood 
 are also of great interest. Detached muscular parts of animals, after losing their irrita- 
 bility, were revived for a considerable time by injecting fresh, oxygenated blood into 
 them. A remarkable experiment was the transfusion, into the carotid artery of a dog- 
 just dead from peritonitis, of blood from a living dog. The dead dog was sufficienlly 
 restored to be able to stand upon his feet and wag his tail, and make other motions. He 
 died a second time, twelve and a half hours after. Insufflation was also employed. In 
 1864 Dr. Brown-Sequard was appointed professor of physiology and pathology of the 
 nervous sj’-stem, in Harvard university. Returning to France in 1869, he was appointed 
 professor of experimental and comparative physiology at Paris. He was founder and 
 editor of the Journal de la Physiologie de V Homme et des Ammaux from 1858 to 1863. He 
 established Archives de la Physiologie Normale et Pathologique in 1869. In 1873 he 
 practiced medicine in New York, and with Dr. E. C. Seguin published the Archives of 
 Scientific and Practical Medicine. He also published Lectures on the Diagnosis and Treat- 
 ment of the Principal forrm of Paralysis of the Lower Extremities, 8vo, London, 1861. 
 
 BROWNSON, Orestes Augustus, ll.d., 1803-77; b. Vermont; a theologian and 
 author. He was at first a Presbyterian, but soon became a Universalist preacher, and 
 was an indefatigable writer in support of whatever he for the time adopted. In 1828, 
 he went into politics and tried to establish a workingmen’s party in New York, moved 
 thereto by the ideas of Robert Owen. In 1832, he was enthusiastic over Dr. Channing, 
 and became a Unitarian preacher; in 1836, he organized in Boston “The Society of 
 
Brown. 
 
 Bruce. 
 
 116 
 
 Christian Progress,” as a church of which he was pastor. About this time he pub- 
 lished New Views of Christianity, Society, and the Church, which was a moderate attack 
 on Protestantism. In 1838, he started the Boston Quarterly Review, which had existence 
 for about five years, and was then merged in the New York Democratic Review. In 
 1840, he published Charles Elwood, or the Infidel Converted, a treatise in the form of a. 
 story, in favor of the Roman Catholic church, towards which the author was drifting, 
 and which he joined in 1844. His literary labor was enormous, nearly all the original 
 matter in his various reviews and magazines being from his own pen. Though so 
 changeable in his early years, he seems to have found a final conviction in his late life ; 
 and he certainly gave to the Roman Catholic church a sincere and powerful advocacy. 
 
 BROWN SPAR, a name often given by mineralogists to certain varieties of dolomite 
 (q.v.), or magnesia limestone, of not unfrequent occurrence, distinguished by a brownish 
 or reddish color, and a pearly luster, upon account of which they are also sometimes 
 called pearl spar. 
 
 BROWNSVILLE, a t. in Fayette co., Penn., 30 m. s. of Pittsburgh; pop. ’70, 1749. 
 The village is on the Monongahela river, over which there is a large and expensive 
 bridge. The river is navigable to this point. 
 
 BROWNSVILLE, a village in Haywood co., Tenn., on the Louisville and Memphis^ 
 railroad, 57 m. n.e. of Memphis; pop. ’70, 2454—1016 colored. There is a college for 
 women under Baptist direction. The village is in a rich planting district, and has a 
 good trade. 
 
 BROWNSVILLE, a city in Cameron co., Texas, on the Rio Grande opposite Mata- 
 nxoras (Mexico), 35 m. from the gulf; pop. ’70, 4905. It is a port of entry, and has a- 
 considerable commerce. Fort Brown, near the city, is occupied by a United States 
 garrison. 
 
 BROWN UNIVERSITY, at Providence, R. I., was organized in 1764, at Warren, 
 in the same state, and removed in 1770 to its present location. It was known at first 
 as Rhode Island college, but in 1804 the name was changed in honor of Nicholas Brown, 
 one of its most munificent benefactors. It has been from the beginning under Bap- 
 tist direction and patronage, but it is not sectarian in its teaching. It has an endow- 
 ment of $775,000, and an annual income of $65,000. Its property is valued at over 
 $1,250,000. The college buildings, five in number, stand upon elevated ground, and 
 are inclosed in a campus of 16 acres, beautifully graded and adorned with trees, chiefly 
 elms. The library, a choice and admirable 'selection, contains 52,000 volumes and 
 16,000 pamphlets; and a permanent fund of $27,000 insure^ its constant increase. The 
 museum of natural history contains a valuable collection of specimens. There are 
 (1880) 14 professors, 3 other teachers, and 260 students. The alumni number 2845. 
 Mr. James Manning was the first president. Rev. Jonathan Maxcy the second, and Rev. 
 Asa Messer the third. The latter was succeeded in 1827 by Rev. Francis Wayland, 
 
 D. D., one of the most eminent of American divines and educators, under whose direc- 
 tion the institution greatly prospered. His successors have been Barnas Sears, d.d., 
 LL.D., 1855-67; Alexis Caswell, d.d., ll.d., 1867-72; and the present incumbent, 
 
 E. G. Robinson, d.d., ll.d., appointed in 1872. A fund of $50,000, created by the 
 state, sustains 30 scholarships. More than 50 other scholarships, each yielding about 
 $60 per annum, have been established ; and there is an arrangement whereby $25 is 
 annually deducted from the tuition of a number of indigent students, not exceeding 
 two fifths of the whole body. 
 
 BRSHESI'NY, an insignificant t. of Poland, in the government of Piotrkov, 62 m. 
 s.w. of Warsaw, near the railway that connects Warsaw with Vienna and other places. 
 Pop. ’67, 6040. 
 
 BRUCE, a CO. in n.w. Ontario, Canada, on lake Huron; 1600 sq.m.; pop. ’71, 
 68,815. There is a coast line of 130 m. in the n.w. part of the county, forming a long 
 peninsula between the lake and Georgian bay. Vast beds of salt underlie the coast 
 along the lake. In the s. part the soil is level and fertile. Capital, Walkerton, on Sau- 
 geen river. 
 
 BRUCE, the surname of a family illustrious in Scottish history, descended from Rob- 
 ert de Bruis, a Norman knight, who accompanied William the conqueror to England in 
 1066, and died soon after. His younger son, Adam, who acquired large possessions in 
 Yorkshire, left a son, Robert de Brus of Cleveland, a companion in arms of prince David 
 of Scotland, afterwards David I., from whom he received a grant of the lordship of 
 Annandale, held by the tenure of military service. At the commencement of the war iq 
 England between Stephen and Matilda, niece of the king of Scots, Robert de B. adhered 
 to the former, and renounced his allegiance to David, resigning his lands in Annandale 
 to his son Robert. In 1138, he was sent by the barons of the north of England to negO' 
 tiaie with David, who had advanced in support of his niece’s claims as far as Northaller. 
 ton, Yorkshire. In the battle of the Standard which followed, he took prisoner his soil 
 Robert, then 14 years of age, who, as lord of Annandale, fought on the Scottish side. 
 He died in 1141. His English estates were inherited by his eldest son, Adam, whose 
 male line terminated in Peter de B. of Skelton, constable of Scarborough castle in 1271. 
 Robert de B., 2d lord of Annandale, had two sons: Robert — who married a natural 
 
117 
 
 Brown.. 
 
 Bruce. 
 
 daughter of William the lion, and died, without issue, before 1191 — and William, 
 whose son, Robert, 4th lord of Annandale, married Isobel, 2d daughter of David, earl of 
 Huntingdon and Chester, brother of William the lion, and thus laid the foundation of 
 the royal house of Bruce. He died in 1245. 
 
 BRUCE, David, son of king Robert Bruce, succeeded his father, in 1329, as David II., 
 when only 5 years old. In terms of the treaty of Northampton, he had married, when 
 4 years old, Joanna, daughter of Edward II. of England, and on 14th Nov., 1331, he 
 w'as crowned with her at Scone. In 1333, the success of Edward Baliol and the English 
 party obliged David’s guardians to send him and his consort to France; but on the dis- 
 persion of Baliol’s adherents, David returned to Scotland in 1341. He made three unsuc- 
 cessful inroads into England, and on a fourth invasion, in 1346, was taken prisoner at 
 the battle of Neville’s Cross, near Durham, and conveyed to the tower of London. 
 Thence he was removed to Odiham, in Hampshire, and not released till 1357, when his 
 ransom was fixed at 100,000 marks. His queen dying in 1362, he married Margaret 
 Logie, a Scottish gentlewoman of singular beauty, whom he divorced in 1370. He had 
 no issue; and in his latter years, he was engaged in several intrigues with England, with 
 the view of excluding his nephew, Robert, the steward of Scotland, the next heir, from 
 the throne. He died at Edinburgh castle, Feb. 22, 1371. 
 
 BRUCE, Edward, king of Ireland, brother to the above, a chivalrous but rash and 
 impetuous prince, was actively engaged in the .struggle for Scotland’s independence ; and 
 in 1308, after defeating the English twice, made himself master of Galloway. In 1315,. 
 the chieftains of Ulster tendered to him the crown of Ireland, on condition of his assist- 
 ing them to expel the English from the island. With a small army of 6000 men, he 
 embarked at Ayr, and reached Carrickfergus, May 25th of that year, accompanied by 
 sir Thomas Randolph, earl of Moray, sir John of Soulis, sir John the Stewart, sir Fer- 
 gus of Ardrossan, and other Scottish knights of renown. His rapid victories soon made 
 him master of the province of Ulster, and he was crowned king of Ireland, May 2, 1316,. 
 but was slain at the battle of Dundalk, Oct. 5, 1317. 
 
 BRUCE, George, 1781-1866; b. Scotland, came to Philadelphia in 1795 as a printer, 
 ;ind in 1803 became publisher of the New York Advertiser. In 1812, he and his brother 
 introduced the art of stereotyping, and followed that and type-founding thereafter. One 
 of the nephews was the inventor of a machine for casting types. 
 
 BRUCE, James, a celebrated traveler, born at Kinnaird house, Stirlingshire, Dec. 14, 
 1730, was the eldest son of David Bruce, esq., of Kinnaird, and Marion Graham of Airth. 
 Educated at Harrow, he was sent, in the winter of 1747, to the university of Edinburgh, 
 with the intention of studying law ; but changing his views, he went to London, and 
 having, in Feb., 1754, married the daughter of a wine-merchant’s widow, became a part- 
 ner in the business. His wife dying within a year, he made a tour on the continent, and 
 on his father’s death in 1758, he succeeded to the estate of Kinnaird. In 1761, he retired 
 from the wine-trade, and in 1763 was appointed consul-general at Algiers. He remained 
 there about two years, studying the oriental languages, and acquiring the rudiments of 
 surgery. He then went to Aleppo, where he took further instructions in the medical art, 
 being resolved to travel in the character of a physician. In June, 1768, he proceeded to 
 Alexandria and from Cairo set out on his famous journey to Abyssinia, which forms an 
 epoch in the annals of discovery. Sailing up the Nile to Syene, he crossed the desert ta 
 Cosseir, and arrived at Jeddah in April. 1769. After various detentions he reached Gon- 
 dar, the capital of Abyssinia, in Feb., 1770; and on Nov. 14 of that year, succeeded in 
 reaching the sources of the Abawi, then considered the main stream of the Nile. This 
 accomplishment of the chief object of his journey filled him with the greatest exultation. 
 He remained about two years in Abyssinia, and returning by way of Sennaar and the 
 desert of Assouan, after great hardship reached Alexandria, whence he embarked. Mar., 
 1773, for Marseilles. In France he spent a considerable time, visiting the celebrated 
 count de Buffon, and other distinguished men, and in 1774, he returned to Scotland. 
 In 1776, he married Mary, daughter of Thomas Dundas, esq., of Fingask, by whom he 
 had two sons and one daughter. His long-expected Travels to Discover the Sources of the 
 Nile, in the Tears 1768-73, were published in 1790, in 5 large 4to vols. with plates and 
 charts. The work contained such curious accounts of the manners and habits of the 
 people of Abyssinia, that it startled the belief of many, and some of them were set down 
 as fabrications. Among other doubters were De Tott in France, and Dr. Johnson in 
 England. Modern travelers, including Salt, Pearce, Burckhardt, Belzoni, and others, 
 have, however, fully confirmed his statements. B. died April 27, 1794, at Kinnaird, of 
 a fall down stairs. 
 
 BRUCE, Michael, a minor Scottish poet, the son of a weaver, b. at Kinnesswood, 
 Kinross-shire, Scotland, Mar. 27, 1746, was, in his younger years, employed as a herd- 
 boy. In 1762, he was sent to Edinburgh University to study for the ministry, and when 
 not at college, was engaged as a village schoolmaster. He had all his life to struggle- 
 with poverty, and his frame being weak, melancholy took possession of his mind, and 
 his constitution began visibly to decline. He died of consumption, July 6, 1767, aged 
 21. His poems, few in number, and of a tender and pathetic description, were pub- 
 lished by the rev. John Logan, his fellow-student and associate at college, at Edinburgh 
 in 1770. His last composition was a touching elegy on his own approaching death. 
 
15ruce. 
 
 Brucker. 
 
 118 
 
 BRUCE, Robert, the most heroic of the Scottish kings, was b. Mar. 21, 1274. In 
 his youth he favored the English interests, in the expectation, doubtless, of his 
 father being preferred to the Scottish throne. In 1296, as earl of Garrick, he 
 swore fealty to Edward I. at Berwick, and the following year he renewed his 
 oath of homage at Carlisle. Shortly after, he abandoned the cause of Edward, and, 
 with his Garrick vassals, joined the Scottish leaders in arms for the independence of 
 their country. On the defeat of the Scots, a few months afterwards, at Irvine, B, made 
 his peace with the English monarch. After Wallace’s defeat at Falkirk, B. burned the 
 castle of Ayr to the ground, to prevent its falling into the hands of the English, and re- 
 tired into the recesses of Garrick. In 1299, the year after Wallace had resigned the 
 regency, B., then in his 25th year, was admitted one of the four regents, who ruled the 
 kingdom in the name of Baliol. In the three campaigns which subsequently took place, 
 previous to the final subjugation of Scotland, B. continued faithful to Edward, and in 
 1305 was consulted in the settlement of the government. With John Comyn, called the 
 Red Comyn, the nephew of Baliol, he appears to have entered into some agreement as 
 to their rival claims to the throne. In an interview between them, in the church of the 
 Minorite Friars, Dumfries, Feb. 4, 1305-06, a quarrel took place, and B., in a paroxysm 
 of passion, stabbed Comyn with his dagger. Rushing out to his attendants, he ex- 
 claimed: “I doubt I have slain the Red Comyn.” “ You doubt!” cried one of them; 
 “I mak sikker!” (i.e., sure), and, running into the church with some others, slew Comyn 
 and his brother, who attempted to defend him. B. hastened to Lochmaben castle, as- 
 sembled his vassals, and asserted his right to the throne. Two months after (Mar. 27), 
 he was crowned king at Scone. An English army, under the earl of Pembroke, nomi- 
 nated by Edward governor of Scotland, took possession of Perth, and on the night of 
 the 18th June, attacked B. in the wood of Methven, compelling him to retreat into the 
 wilds of Athole. At Dairy, near the head of Loch Tay, B. was attacked by Alexander, 
 lord of Lorn, chief of the Macdougals, husband of the aunt of the Red Comyn, and 
 compelled to retire. Sending his queen and her ladies to Kildrummie castle, Aberdeen- 
 shire, under the charge of Nigel Bruce and the earl of Athole, he, with 200 followers, 
 crossed Loch Lomond, and had recourse for subsistence to the chase. B. next took 
 refuge in the little island of Rathlin, on the n. coast of Ireland, where he remained all 
 winter, and was supposed to be dbad. In his absence, the English took the castle of 
 Kildrummie, hanged Nigel Bruce and other chiefs who had defended it, and tore the 
 queen and princess Marjory from the sanctuary of St. Duthac, Ross-shire. All B.’s estates 
 w'ere confiscated, and himself and adherents excommunicated by the pope’s legate at 
 Carlisle. In the spring of 1307, with about 300 men, B. landed in Garrick, and at mid- 
 night surprised the English garrison in his own castle of Turnberry; but before a supe- 
 rior force he retired into the mountainous districts of Ayrshire. At Loudon hill. May 
 10, 1307, he defeated the English under the earl of Pembroke, and, three days after, 
 overthrew another party under the earl of Gloucester. In less than two years he wrested 
 from the English nearly the whole of Scotland. His authority being now established, 
 in 1309 B. advanced to Durham, laying waste the country. The same year, Edward II. 
 of England invaded Scotland, but was compelled to retreat from Edinburgh to Ber- 
 wick-upon-Tweed. In the harvest of 1312, the Scots again invaded England, but un- 
 successfully. B. now reduced the Isle of Man also. On his return, in the autumn of 
 1313, he found his brother, Edward Bruce, engaged in the siege of Stirling castle, held 
 by sir Philip Mowbray for the English. A treaty was entered into, by which Mowbray 
 bound himself to surrender it, if not relieved before 24th June following. This led to 
 the memorable battle of Bannockburn, 24th June, 1314, at wdiich B. commanded in per- 
 son. The English, under Edward II., amounting, it is said, to about 100,000 men, w^ere 
 totally routed, leaving 30,000 dead upon the field; while the Scots, numbering only 30,- 
 000, and 15,000 camp-followers, lost about 5000. In 1317, B. passed over to Ireland, to 
 assist his brother, Edward, elected king of that country, and defeated the Anglo-Irish 
 under the baron of Clare; and in the spring of 1318 the Scots army invaded England by 
 Northumberland. Another invasion of Scotland by the English king, w^ho was com- 
 pelled to retreat, was followed by B. again marching into England. After besieging 
 Norham castle, he defeated Edward once more at Biland abbey, Yorkshire. A truce 
 was, in consequence, ratified between the two kingdoms at Berwick, June 7, 1323, to 
 last for 13 years. On the accession of Edward III., in 1327, hostilities recommenced; 
 and the Scots being again victorious, a final treaty was ratified in a parliament at North- 
 ampton, Mar. 4, 1328, recognizing the independence of Scotland, and B.’s right to the 
 throne. His warfare was now accomplished, and, suffering under the disease of leprosy, 
 he spent the last two years of his life at Cardross castle, on the northern shore of the 
 firth of Clyde. He died June 7, 1329, in his 55th year, and the 23d of his reign. His 
 heart, extracted and embalmed, was delivered to sir James Douglas, to be carried to 
 Palestine and buried in Jerusalem. Douglas was killed fighting against the Moors in 
 Spain, and the sacred relic of B., with the body of its devoted champion, was brought 
 to Scotland, and buried in the monastery of Melrose. B.’s body was interred in the 
 abbey church of Dunfermline; and, in clearing the foundations for a third church on 
 the same spot in 1818, his bones were discovered. He was twice married : (1) to Isabella, 
 daughter of Donald, tenth Earl of Mar — issue, a daughter, Marjory, wife of Walter the 
 high steward, whose son ascended the throne as Robert II. ; and (2) to Elizabeth, daugh- 
 
119 
 
 Bruce. 
 
 Brucker. 
 
 ter of Aymer de Burgh, earl of Ulster — issue, one son, who succeeded him as David II. , 
 and two daughters. 
 
 BRUCE, Robert de, fifth lord of Annandale, son of the fourth lord above men 
 tinned, and the competitor with John Baliol for the crown of Scotland, was b. in 1210. 
 On the death of his mother, the princess Isobel, in 1252, he did homage to Henry III. 
 for her lands in England, and in 1255 was made sheriff of Cumberland, and constable of 
 the castle of Carlisle. About the same time he was appointed one of the fifteen regents 
 of Scotland, in the minority of Alexander III. In 1264, he led, with Comyn and Baliol, 
 the Scottish auxiliaries to the assistance of the English monarch at the battle of Lewes, 
 where he was taken prisoner, but released after the battle of Evesham, the following 
 year. On the Scottish throne becoming vacant at the death' in 1290, of Margaret, the 
 “maiden of Norway,” granddaughter of Alexander III., Baliol and Bruce claimed the 
 succession, the former as great-grandson of David, earl of Huntingdon, by his eldest 
 daughter, Margaret; the latter as grandson, by his second daughter, Isobel. Edward I. 
 of England, to whom the dispute was referred, decided in favor of Baliol, 19th Nov., 
 1292. To avoid swearing fealty to his successful rival, B. resigned Annandale ^to his 
 eldest son, Robert de B., earl of Carrick. He died at his castle of Lochmabeo,* Dum- 
 friesshire, in 1295, leaving three sons and a daughter. 
 
 BRUCE, Robert de, earl of Carrick, eldest son of the preceding, accompanied king 
 Edward I. of England to Palestine, in 1269, and was ever after greatly esteemed by that 
 monarch. On his return to Scotland, he married in 1271, Martha Margaret, countess of 
 Carrick, and in her right became earl of Carrick. Following the example of his father, 
 to avoid doing homage to Baliol, he resigned the lordship of Annandale to his eldest 
 son, Robert, the future king of Scotland, then a minor. Retiring to England, he was, 
 on the death of his father, in 1295, appointed constable of the castle of Carlisle ; and in 
 the following year, when Baliol renounced the authority of Edward, and, assisted by the 
 Comyns, had recourse to arms, B. fought on the side of the English. After the battle 
 of Dunbar, in which the Scots were defeated and Baliol compelled to relinquish the 
 sovereignty, he made application to Edward for the vacant crown, but was refused it. 
 He died in 1304. 
 
 BRU'CEA, a genus of shrubs somewhat doubtfully referred to one or other of the 
 allied natural orders rutacm (q.v.), simaruhaeeceiq^.v.), ?mdiXantJioxylace(E{q.\.). — B. anti- 
 dysenterica, or ferruginea, is an Abyssinian species, the leaves of which are said to be 
 tonic, astringent, and useful in dysentery. Those of B. Sumatrana, a native of the 
 Indian archipelago, China, etc., possess the same medicinal properties. They are 
 intensely bitter. — The Abyssinian species acquired a factitious importance in the begin- 
 ning of the 19th c. , from a mistaken belief that it produced the dangerous false Angos- 
 tura bark (see Angostura Bark), and in this belief the name brucine (q.v.) was 
 given to an alkaloid really produced by the nux vomica (q.v.) and other species of 
 sti'ychnos (q.v.). 
 
 BRUGHSAL, a t. of the grand duchy of Baden, situated on the Salzbach, and on 
 the railway between Heidelberg and Carlsruhe, 12 m. n.e. of the latter place. B., which 
 1 a place of considerable antiquity, has three suburbs. The old castle of the prince - 
 bishops of Speier, who took up their residence here early in the 11th c., is still stand- 
 ing, and in the church of St. Peter are some ancient tombs. B. has two prisons 
 organized on a modified form of the Pennsylvanian system. Pop. 75, 10,810, who were 
 chiefiy engaged in the wine trade. 
 
 BRU'CINE is one of the alkaloids (q.v ) present in strycUnos nux vomica along with 
 strychnine, etc. It is not so abundant as the strychnine, nor is it so poisonous. It is 
 mainly characterized by giving a blood-red color with concentrated commercial nitric 
 acid, and, indeed, the red color always yielded by nux vomica, and occasionally by 
 strychnine when treated with nitric acid, is due to the presence of brucine. 
 
 BRUCITE, a native magnesic hydrate, found in serpentine in New Jersey, and in 
 the chrome mines in Texas. Syn. 'MgHsOa. 
 
 BRUCKENAU, a village of Bavaria, on the Sinn, 36 m. n.e. of Wurzburg. It is 
 famous in connection with the baths of B., which are picturesquely situated in a beauti- 
 ful part of the valley of the Sinn, about 2 m. w. from the village. The grounds arc 
 tastefully laid out in gardens, and charming walks traverse the surrounding woods. 
 The place is a favorite summer-resort of the Bavarian court. B. has paper-mills. Pop. 
 71, 1669. 
 
 BRUCKER, Johann Jakob, a German theologian and historian, 1696-1770. He 
 was educated at Jena, where he took the degree of a.m. in 1718, and the next year pub- 
 lished Tentamen Introductionis in Historiam de Ideis. In 1723 came De Vita et Scriptis 
 Cl. Etringeri, and in 1731 he was chosen a member of the Berlin academy of sciences. 
 Thence he went to Augsburg as pastor of the church of St. Ulric, where he published 
 dissertations on the history of philosophy, and still later a history of philosophy in dia- 
 logue form. In 1741 came the first volume of his great work on the critical history of 
 philosophy, completed in 1744, a work that had an immense success. He wrote many 
 other works on philosophical suWects, and superintended and corrected an edition of 
 Luther’s translation of the New Testament, but did not live to complete it. 
 
liruges. 
 
 iiruise. 
 
 120 
 
 BRUGES (Ger. Brugge), a city of Belgium, capital of the province of West Flanders, 
 is situated in a fertile plain about 8 m. from the sea, with which it is connected by the 
 three canals from Ghent, L’Ecluse, and Ostend, the latter admitting the largest sea-going 
 ships. Lat. 51° 12' n., long, 3° 14' e. B. derives its name from its many bridges, all 
 opening in the middle to admit of the passage of vessels. The ramparts surrounding 
 the city are an agreeable promenade. The streets have a venerable and picturesque 
 appearance, but they are greatly deserted, the population of the city being now scarcely 
 a quarter of what it was during the middle ages. Among the most interesting buildings 
 are the town-hall, with a lofty tower and a celebrated set of 48 bells; a Gothic senate- 
 house, built about the close of the 14th c. ; a court of justice, containing a famous carved 
 chimney-piece of the date 1559; the church of Notre Dame, with its spire 450 ft. high, 
 its many valuable paintings, and a statue of the Virgin (said to be by Michael Angelo), 
 for which Horace Walpole offered 30,000 florins, and its splendid monuments of Charles 
 the Bold and his daughter Mary, wife of the emperor Maximilian; the cathedral of St. 
 Sauveur, not remarkable for its exterior, but containing paintings by eminent masters; 
 St. John’s hospital, with celebrated pictures by Memling, etc. The academy of painting 
 contains several fine pictures by J. van Eyck. B. has manufactures of woolen, linen, 
 cotton, lace, leather, cordage, and tobacco; and distilleries, sugar and salt refineries, 
 and ship-building yards. Railways connect B, with Ostend, Ghent, and other cities of 
 Belgium and the continent. Pop. ’76, 45,097, of whom nearly a third are paupers. B. 
 is a very ancient city. Here, it is said, St. Chrysolus preached the gospel as early as 
 the 3d century. In the 7th c., B. was the capital of the surrounding district called 
 Flanders, and before the conquest of England by the Normans, its commercial impor- 
 tance was established. In the beginning of the 13th c., it was the central mart of the 
 Hanseatic league; and in the following century it maybe said to have become the 
 metropolis of the world’s commerce. Commercial agents from 17 different kingdoms 
 resided here, and no less than 20 ministers from foreign courts had mansions within its 
 walls. Its population at this time amounted to upwards of 200,000. In 1488, the citizens 
 rose in insurrection against the archduke Maximilian, and with the harsh measures of 
 repression which ensued, commenced the commercial decline of Bruges. Manj’’ of the 
 traders and manufacturers, driven forth from their own country, settled in England, 
 and from this time may be dated the beginning of English manufacturing superiority. 
 In the 16th c., however, the tapestry of B. was still celebrated throughout Europe, and 
 the famous Gobelin tapestry of Paris is said to owe its origin to a manufacturer of 
 Bruges. The city was taken by the French in 1794, and soon after incorporated with 
 the French empire; but in 1815 it became a part of the kingdom of the United Nether- 
 lands, and in 1830 of the Belgian monarchy. 
 
 BRUGG, or Bruck, a village of Switzerland, in the canton of Aargau, on the right 
 bank of the Aar, and near the mouth of the Reuss, about 9 m. n.e. of Aarau. It is inter- 
 esting as occupying a part of the site of the ancient Vindonissa, the strongest fortress, as 
 well as the most important settlement of the Romans in Helvetia ; and also as the cradle 
 of the house of Hapsburg, to whom, in early times, it belonged. The remains of the 
 castle of Hapsburg, founded by count Radbod of Altenburg in 1020, are still to be seen 
 on a wooded height, about 2 m. from the village. Nearer, is the abbey of Konigsfelden, 
 founded in 1310 by the wife and daughter of the emperor Albert, who, two years before, 
 was murdered on the spot by his nephew and others, for which a terrible revenge was 
 taken on the relatives of the murderers. In the vaults beneath the abbey are interred 
 many of the members of the Austrian royal family. High conical-roofed towers guard 
 the exit and entrance to B., which has a pop. of (1870) 1338. Zimmerman was a native 
 of this place, 
 
 BRUGMAN8, Sebaldus Justinus, 1763-1819; a Dutch naturalist and physician, 
 professor of philosophy and physical sciences at Franeker, Holland, where he founded 
 a museum of comparative anatomy. He organized and became chief director of the 
 sanitary institutions of Holland, He improved the condition of military hospitals, and 
 by his effort the 20,000 soldiers wounded at Waterloo were properly cared for. In 1815, 
 he was at the head of the sanitary service of the army and navy. Many of his papers 
 on medical science and natural history have been published. 
 
 BRUGSCH, Heinrich Karl, ph, d., b. 1827; a German Egyptologist, and director 
 of the Egyptian museum in Berlin, He made two visits to Egypt for archaeological 
 purposes, and was a member of the Prussian embassy to Persia" in 1860. In 1864, he 
 founded at Leipsic a periodical devoted to Egyptian archaeology. At Gottingen he was 
 professor in 1868-70, when he became director of an Egyptological school at Cairo. He 
 has published several important works on Egyptian subjects, one especially interesting, 
 on the Biblical story of the crossing of the Red sea, advancing a theory quite different 
 from that long accepted as to the place of that event. He assigns the crossing by the 
 Israelites and the ingulfing of the Egyptians to the vast morass near the shore of the 
 Mediterranean, and occasionally inundated b)’’ its waves driven by a strong wind. His 
 evidences of this show ingenuity and learning, but have not commanded the general 
 assent of scholars. 
 
 BRUHL, a t. of Rhenish Prussia, about 9 m, s.s.w. of Cologne, on the railway to 
 Bonn. It is surrounded by old walls, and has a splendid clutteau, erected in the early 
 
121 
 
 Bruges. 
 
 Bruise. 
 
 part of tlie 18tli c. by the elector Clement Augustus of Bavaria. There is also an an- 
 cient Franciscan convent, now converted into a seminary for Roman Catholic school- 
 masters. After his banishment from France in 1651, cardinal Mazarin took up his 
 residence in Briihl. Pop. ’75, 3499. 
 
 BRUHL, Heinrich, Count von Bruhl, prime-minister of Augustus III., king of 
 Poland, and elector of Saxony, deserves a place in history as a signal example of an 
 unworthy minister and venal statesman. He was born in 1700, at Weissenfels, and in 
 early life entered, as a page, into the service of the duchess of Sachsen- Weissenfels. 
 His winning address and tact gained for him rapid promotion through several offices of 
 state, until, in 1747, he became prime-minister to that idle and unpatriotic ruler, 
 Augustus III. Never was a ruler more slavishly obeyed by a statesman. B. would 
 follow the prince, as he strolled about smoking, without speaking a word for a whole 
 day; or, when his majesty lazily inquired: “Briihl, have you any money for me?” 
 
 “Yes, sire,” would be the constant reply; but in order to be able to give this answer a» 
 frequently as it was demanded, B. drained the coffers of the state, and burdened the 
 country with debt. He, however, contrived to enrich himself, and to accumulate 
 honors and titles. By Elizabeth of Russia, he was invested with the order of St. 
 Andrew, and by Charles VI. of Austria, he was made a count of the empire. He kept 
 200 servants, paid his bodj^-guard better than Augustus did his, furnished the costliest 
 table, possessed the finest wardrobe, and, in short, maintained the mos"". splendid estab- 
 lishment in the kingdom. “ Of all statesmen,” said Frederick II., “ Briihl has collected 
 the greatest quantity of fine clothes, watches, lace, boots, shoes, and slippers !” The 
 effect of B.’s reckless robbery of the national finances to gratify the dissolute Augustus- 
 and himself, made itself felt at the outbreak of the seven years’ war, when the country 
 could only furnish 17,000 men to oppose Frederick of Prussia, who surprised and cap- 
 tured the whole Saxon army in its camp at Pirna. Augustus and B. fled to Warsaw. 
 When peace was concluded, they returned to Dresden, where Augustus died on the 5th 
 Oct., 1763, and was followed by his worthless parasite, 28th October. B.’s palace is 
 still one of the principal buildings in Dresden, and his library of 62,000 vols. forms a 
 chief part of the royal library, Dresden. 
 
 BRUISE, or Contusion, signifies an injury inflicted by a blow or sudden pressure, 
 in which the skin is not wounded, and no bone is broken or dislocated. Both terms, 
 and especially the latter, are employed in surgery to include all such injuries in their 
 widest range, from a black eye to a thoroughly crushed mass of muscle. In the slighter 
 forms of this injury, as in ordinary simpde bruises, there is no tearing, but only a con- 
 cussion of the textures, the utmost damage done being the rupture of a few small blood- 
 vessels, which occasions the discoloration that is always observed in these cases. In 
 more severe contusions, the subjacent structures — muscles, connective tissue, vessels, 
 etc. — are more or less ruptured, and in extreme cases, are thoroughly crushed, and 
 usually become gangrenous. The quantity of blood that is extravasated mainly depends 
 upon the size and number of the ruptured blood-vessels, but partly also on the nature of 
 the textures of the injured part. Thus, a lax tissue, as that of the eyelids, favors the 
 escape of blood into the surrounding parts. Moreover, the constitution of the patient 
 has some influence, and many persons, especially (according to Mr. Paget, in his article 
 on ‘ ‘ Contusions ” in Holmes’s System of Surgery, vol. i.) pallid, fatty, soft-skinned 
 women, though suffering from no apparent disease, are subject to extravasations, and 
 consequently to discolorations, very disproportionate to the injuries that cause them. 
 
 The most characteristic signs of a recent contusion are more or less shock (q.v.), pain, 
 swelling, and discoloration of the surface from effused blood (commonly known as 
 ecchymosis, q.v.). There is nothing special in the character of the shock, but it is 
 worthy of notice that it is most severely felt in injuries of special parts — as the testes, 
 the breasts, and the larger joints, which are often followed by remarkable general 
 depression, faintness, loss of muscular power, and nausea. The immediate pain fol- 
 Vowing the blow is succeeded by a feeling of numbness, which, after a varying time, 
 unless the part is killed, gives place to a heavy, aching pain. Although some depression 
 may usually be observed immediate!}’’ after the infliction of the blow, swelling of the 
 parts rapidly follows, as may be well seen in the case of a child receiving a blow on the 
 head, or of the wale that rises after the lash of a whip. In lax parts, such as the eyelids, 
 the swelling is often considerable, and may remain for a week or more ; but in other 
 parts, it usually subsides in two or three days. The discoloration of the skin consequent 
 on blows is of a more or less purple tint, varying from black to crimson or pink. ‘ ‘ Black- 
 ness,” says Mr. Paget (6>j9. a7.), “ usually indicating intense injury, is probably due to 
 the extravasation of a large portion of entire blood ; crimson or pink tints, to the preva- 
 lence of a blood-stained fluid ; blue, to the degrees in which blackness is veiled by the 
 cuticle and skin, as the color of blood in veins is; and perhaps some of the shades of 
 pink to the partial aeration of the blood by the penetration of air through the epidermis. 
 After a variable time, proportionate to the severity of the injury, these colors fade out,, 
 passing most commonly through gradually lightening shades of brownish olive, green,, 
 and yellow.” The causes of these changes of color are not clearly known; as, however, 
 the changes are not observed in bruises of parts removed from air and light, they are- 
 probably due to oxidation and actinic agency. When a severe B. tends to a natural 
 
Brumaire. 
 
 Brunei. 
 
 122 
 
 •cure, and there is no inflammation or sloughing, the effused blood is generally absorbed, 
 the liquid portion rapidly disappearing, while the blood-cells are more slowly removed. 
 In some cases, it is probable that the effused blood becomes organized into vascular 
 connective tissue, which takes part in the repair of the injured tissue. We need not fol- 
 low the course of a B. in which active inflammation with suppuration ensues, or in which 
 sloughing takes place, as these complications must be treated according to the ordinary 
 rules of those affections. There are, however, one or two ill consequences following 
 partial recovery, which require notice. Thus, in some organs, as the breast, abscess 
 may ensue long after a blow ; or a sensitive indurated lump may remain ; or (more com- 
 monly) there may be long-continued pain, without change of texture; or, lastly, cancer 
 may ensue. Blows on superficial bones, as those of the skull, are not unfrequently fol- 
 lowed by very painful thickening of the periosteum; and a muscle violently struck may 
 be paralyzed, and rapidly waste away; and constitutional diseases, such as gout and 
 rheumatism, are w’dl known to localize themselves with special severity in parts that 
 Jhave once been seriously bruised. 
 
 With regard to treatment, simple and not very severe bruises require little treatment 
 but the rest necessary for the avoidance of pain; but the removal of the swelling and 
 discoloration may be hastened by the application of various local stimulants, which seem 
 to act by accelerating the circulation through the bruised part, and promoting the 
 •absorption of the effused fluid. Friar’s balsam, compound soap liniment, or poultices 
 made with the roots of black bryony beaten to a pulp, are popular remedies of this class. 
 Mr. Paget regards the tincture of arnica as the best application. Where the skin is thick, 
 it may be gently rubbed over the bruised part in an undiluted state ; where the skin is 
 thinner, it should be mixed with an equal bulk of water; or, which is probably better, 
 it may be constantly applied as a lotion if diluted with five or six parts of water. Pugil- 
 ists, who are probably better acquainted with ordinary bruises than any other class of 
 men, are in the habit of removing the swelling of the eyelids that often naturally occurs 
 during a prize-fight, to such an extent as to close the eyes, by at once puncturing the 
 •eyelids at several points with a lancet; and their favorite remedy for a black-eye or other 
 B. on the face is a fresh beef-steak applied locally, as a poultice. Bruises of a more 
 ■severe nature, as when there is much breaking or crushing of the tissues, must, of course, 
 at once be placed in the hands of a surgeon. — For further details on this subject, the 
 reader is referred to Mr. Paget’s excellent article, from which we have freely quoted. 
 
 BS.TJMAIEE (Lat. hruma, winter), a division of the year in the republican calendar ot 
 France. It includes the time from Oct. 22 to Nov. 20. The celebrated 18th B., which 
 witnessed the overthrow of the directory and the establishment of the sway of Napo- 
 leon, corresponds with Nov. 9, 1799, of the Gregorian calendar. 
 
 BRUMATH, or Brumpt, a t. of Lower Alsace, on the Zorn; pop. ’71, 5619. It haa 
 R castle and mineral wells, and is on the site of the ancient Brucomagus. 
 
 BRUMIDI, Constantine, 1805-80; a native of Rome, Italy, son of a Greek father 
 and an Italian mother, widely known as a fresco painter. He was educated in the col- 
 lege of fine arts at Rome, and came to the United States in 1852. His first work, “ The 
 Crucifixion,” was in St. Stephen’s church in New York. Thence he went to Philadel- 
 phia and to the city of Mexico, at both places employing himself in church decoration. 
 In 1854 he arrived in Washington, and was at once employed on the bare walls and 
 ‘Ceilings of the national capital, the rotunda of which contains many fine pieces from 
 his hand, combining mythology, allegory, and history. There are cartoons of his yet to 
 be put in place, but by other hands, including “ Oglethorpe and the Indians,” “The 
 Battle of Lexington,” “ Surrender of Cornwallis,” “ Decatur at Tripoli, ” “The Death 
 of Tecumseh,” “Entrance of General Scott into Mexico,” and “The Discovery of 
 Gold.” 
 
 BRUMMEL, George Bryan, 1778-1840 (better known as “Beau” Brummel); a 
 man of wealth and fashion, who became an intimate companion of the prince of Wales, 
 and was looked upon by the society of his day as the “glass of fashion and the mold 
 of form.” He was the arbiter in all matters of fashion, and considered the very top of 
 perfection in taste, especially in dress. As long as his fortune lasted or the prince of 
 Wales would contribute, he kept up an elegant bachelor establishment in London; but 
 finally he lost the favor of his royal friend, became poor, gambled recklessly, fled from 
 his creditors, and died in France in a hospital for mendicants. 
 
 BRUNCK, Ricuard Francois Philippe, one of the most ingenious critics and 
 philologists of modern times, was born at Strasburg, Dec. 30, 1729. He was educated 
 under the Jesuits in Paris; but abandoned his studies, and for some time was engaged 
 as a military commissary during the seven years’ war. A professor in Giessen, with 
 whom B. happened to lodge while the army was in winter quarters, revived in him the 
 love of classical studies. Returning to fetrasburg, he devoted all his spare time to 
 Gveek, and soon distinguished himself as an able but adventurous critic and emenda- 
 tor. His belief that all inaccuracies in ancient Greek writings were^ introduced by 
 •copyists, often led B. astray; but, since the revival of learning, few critics have done 
 more for the progress of Greek literature. His first work. Analecta, Veterum PoUarum 
 'Grmcorum (1772-76), was followed by several editions of Anacreon (1778-86), and 
 
123 
 
 Rrumaire. 
 
 Brunei. 
 
 editions of Apollonius Rliodius (1780) and Aristophanes (1781-83), Poetce Gnomici (1784), 
 Virgil (1785), and Sophocles (1786-89). The last of these established a new era in the 
 criticism of the tragic writers. The outbreak of the French revolution interrupted 
 B.’s studies. He ardently attached himself to the popular side. During the reign of 
 terror, he was imprisoned, but was liberated after the downfall of Robespierre. His 
 means, however, had been so much reduced that he was compelled to sell his valuable 
 library. From this time, 1801, he turned his attention from Greek to Latin literature, 
 and published, editions of Plautus and Terence. He died June 12, 1803. 
 
 BRUNDUSIUM. See Brindisi, ante. 
 
 BRUNE, Guillaume Marie Anne, a French marshal of the first empire, was b. 
 at Brives-la-Gaillarde, 13th Mar., 1763. His education brought him at an early period 
 into connection with the men of the revolution. Along wih Danton, he helped to estab- 
 lish the Cordeliers’ club. After the conquest of Belgium, he was sent as civil commis- 
 sary to that country, but his warlike aspirations soon induced him to enter the military 
 service. In 1797, he became brigadier under Napoleon in the army of Italy, and distin- 
 guished himself at Areola and Rivoli, where he was made gen. of division and leader of 
 the advance-guard. Sent by the directory to Switzerland in 1798, he executed his orders 
 with brilliant success. In 1799, he was appointed to the command of the army of Hol- 
 land, where he achieved the reputation of being one of the best generals of his age. He 
 vanquished the Anglo-Russians at Bergen on the 19th of Sept., 1799, and on the 19th of 
 Oct., forced the duke of York, commander-iu-chief of the combined armies, to capitu- 
 late at Alkmaar, under humiliating circumstances. In 1803, he was named ambassador 
 to the Ottoman porte, and was received by Selim III. with great distinction. In 1804, 
 he obtained the dignity of marshal, and in 1805 returned to France. Two years after- 
 wards, B. became governor-general of the Hanseatic towns, and was charged with the 
 conquest of Pomerania; but circumstances having occurred which unnecessarily excited 
 the distrust of Napoleon, he was recalled, and his future services dispensed with. After 
 the fall of the emperor, he declared for the Bourbons, but his offers were rejected, and 
 in consequence he joined Napoleon after his return from Elba. He was now made a 
 peer, but the battle of Waterloo completely destroyed his prospects. He again made 
 his submission, but was barbarously assassinated at Avignon, 2d Aug., 1815, by the 
 populace, who were infuriated against him on account of certain crimes laid to his- 
 charge, of which, however, he seems to have been entirely guiltless. 
 
 BRUNEHAUT, or Brunehilde, 534t- 613; daughter of Athanagild, king of the Vis- 
 igoths and wife of Sigebert, king of Austrasia. Her sister Galsunda, the wife of Chil- 
 peric, king of Neustria and the brother of Sigebert, had been abandoned and murdered 
 by Chilperic at the demand of his mistress, Fredegonda, who became queen. Brune- 
 haut induced her husband (Sigebert) to invade Neustria, where, while besieging Tour- 
 nay, he was slain by emissaries of Fredegonda, and Brunehaut was taken prisoner by 
 Chiiperic. At Rouen she persuaded one of Chilperic’s sons to marry her, and, with the 
 help of the bishop of the place, she escaped to Austrasia, which was then ruled by Chil- 
 debert; but she recovered her authority. After the death of Childebert she provoked 
 war between her grandsons, heirs to the throne, in which one was killed, and she was. 
 about to take the throne when a son of Fredegonda, Clothaire II., interposed and cap- 
 tured her easily, as her army refused to fight. She was for three days exposed to tor- 
 ture and insult, and then tied to the tail of a wild horse and dragged to death, after 
 which the body was burned and the ashes scattered to the air. 
 
 BRUNE ISLAND lies off the s. part of the e. coast of Tasmania, from which it is sep- 
 arated by D’Entrecasteaux bay. It has a length of 32 m., with a breadth varying from 
 1 to 6 m. ; and its e. or outside coast is indented by a bay, which takes its name from the 
 Adventure, one of Cook’s two vessels during his second voyage. 
 
 BRUNEL, IsAMBARD Kingdom, an eminent engineer, son of the following article, b. at 
 Portsmouth, England, in 1806, was educated at the college of Henri Quatre, Caen, in 
 France. He commenced practical engineering in 1826, under his father at the Thames 
 tunnel, and in the progress of that great work was often exposed to danger from tho 
 water breaking in and flooding the excavations, having more than once to save his life 
 by swimming. He assisted in his father’s experiments for making carbonic acid gas a 
 motive power, and was designer and civil engineer of the Great Western, the first steam- 
 ship built to cross the Atlantic ; and of the Great Britain, the first ocean screw-steamer. 
 The Great Eastern, the largest vessel ever built in the world, was erected under his sole 
 direction. In 1833, B. was appointed chief-engineer to the Great Western railway, and 
 designed and constructed the whole of the tunnels, bridges, viaducts, and arches on this 
 line, and extension branches. Among other docks at English seaports, in the improve- 
 ment and construction of which he was engaged, may be mentioned the Bute docks at 
 Cardiff, and the old North dock at Sunderland. In 1842, he w’as employed by govern- 
 ment to construct the Hungerford suspension-bridge across the Thames at Charing Cross, 
 London. In 1850-53, he constructed the works of the Tuscan portion of the Sardinian 
 railway. Made a fellow of the royal society in 1830, he was chosen on the council in 
 1844, He was also vice-president of the institution of civil engineers, and of the society 
 of arts; a fellow of the astronomical, geological, and geographical societies, and cheva- 
 lier of the legion of honor. He died suddenly, Sept., 1859, 
 
Brunei. 
 
 Bruno. 
 
 124 
 
 BEUNEL, Sir Mark Isambard, the celebrated engineer of the Thames tunnel, son of 
 ^in agriculturist, was born at Hacqueville, near Rouen, in France, April 25, 1769. He 
 early showed an inclination for mechanics, and at school preferred the study of the exact 
 sciences to the classics. In 1786, he became a sailor in the French navy. In the revolu- 
 tionary period of 1793, having compromised himself by his political opinions, he escaped 
 from Paris to the United States. His career as an engineer began in 1794, when he was 
 appointed to survey for the canal which now connects lake Champlain with the river 
 Hudson at Albany. He afterwards acted as an architect in New York. On his return 
 to Europe in 1799, he married the daughter of William Kingdom, esq., Plymouth, and 
 settled in England. A plan submitted by him to government for making block-pulleys 
 for ships by machinery was adopted, and he was for many years employed in carrying it 
 into execution in Portsmouth dockyard. He was also successful in the construction of 
 other public works — in Woolwich arsenal and Chatham dockyard, etc. His most remark- 
 able undertaking was the Thames tunnel, formed beneath the bed of the river, and which, 
 commenced in Mar., 1825, was opened to the public in Mar., 1843. Assisted by his son, 
 the subject of the previous article, he for ten years pursued a course of experiments for 
 •employing carbonic acid gas as a motive-power, but the cost of the machinery prevented 
 its introduction as a substitute for steam. Among the less important of B.’s inventions, 
 were machines for making wooden boxes; for ruling paper; for shuffling a pack of cards 
 without using the hands; for the manufacture of nails; and for making seamless shoes 
 for the army — the latter, tried for two years, was abandoned from economical motives. 
 Elected a fellow of the royal society in 1814, he was appointed vice-president in 1832. 
 He was knighted in 1841; and died, Dec., 1849, in his 81st year. 
 
 BEUNELLESCHI, Filippo, one of the greatest Italian architects, was b. at Florence, 
 in 1377. He first learned the art of a goldsmith; next, that of a sculptor; and finally, 
 devoted himself to architecture. He also studied zealously both mechanical and mathe- 
 matical science, and is reckoned the first who established, on a sound basis, the theory 
 of perspective. When still a young man, B. went to Rome, where he acquired a pro- 
 found knowledge of ancient architecture, the result of which was that two ideas com- 
 pletely possessed his mind : the one was to revive the ancient style of architecture ; the 
 other was, to make himself master of the mechanical knowledge of the ancient architects. 
 In 1407, he returned to Florence. In 1420, it was proposed to complete the structure of 
 the cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore, founded in 1296, and now only wanting a dome. 
 A great assembly of architects from all quarters was convened to determine how it 
 might be practicable to cover the vast octangular area. While the debate was going on, 
 B. was earnestly elaborating his own designs; but when he first came forward and pro- 
 posed his plan, it was so ill received, on account of its supposed absurdity, that B. was 
 “lifted off his legs, and carried out of the room.” He, however, obstinately persisted 
 in explaining his scheme, and at last succeeded in convincing every one of its feasibility. 
 The work was intrusted to him, and finished, with the exception of the lantern, with 
 which he intended to crown the whole, but was prevented by his death in 1444. B.’s 
 dome, measured diametrically, is the largest in the world, and served as a model to 
 Michael Angelo for that of St. Peter’s. Besides this chef-d'mmre, B. executed several 
 other great works, such as the churches of San Spirito and San Lorenzo, as well as the 
 designs for the Pitti palace, which originated the beautiful style of Tuscan palace-architec- 
 ture in the 15th century. 
 
 BEUNI, Leonardo, a native of Arezzo, and hence styled AretiTw, was b. in 1369. 
 He merits notice as one of the most learned men who flourished during the epoch of the 
 revival of Greek learning in Italy. He first studied law at Florence and Ravenna, but 
 afterwards turned his attention to classical literature. He then went to Rome, where 
 he filled several offlees at the papal court. In 1414, he attended John XXII. to the 
 council of Constance. On the deposition of that pope, he returned to Florence, where 
 he was of service to the republic in several important matters. His Historia Florentina 
 procured for him the rights of citizenship, and, at a later period, through the favor of 
 of the Medicean family, he was appointed state-secretary. He died 9th Mar., 1444. 
 Florence and Arezzo vied with each other in the splendor with which they celebrated 
 his obsequies. 
 
 B. aided in advancing the study of Greek literature mainly by his literal translations 
 into Latin of Aristotle, Demosthenes, Plutarch, and others. Of his original works, which 
 are very numerous, many have never been printed, and most are nearly forgotten. We 
 may mention Gommentarius Rerum suo Tempore Oestarum(y en. 1476); De Origine Urbis 
 Mantuce; De Romm OHgine; Epistolm Familiares; and Vite di Dante e del Petrarca. 
 
 BEUNN, a fortified city of the Austrian empire, capital of the government of Moravia, 
 is beautifully situated, partlj^ on the slope of a hill, and partly in a pleasant valley, at 
 the confluence of the Schwarzawa and the Zwittawa, in lat. 49° 12' n., and long. 16° 37' east. 
 Behind the city, on an eminence, is situated the castle of Spielberg, formerly the citadel, 
 but now used as a state-prison, and noteworthy as the place in which Silvio Pellico was 
 confined from 1822-30. Among the most interesting buildings of B. are the cathedral 
 of St. Peter; St. James’s church, a Gothic edifice, with a tower 276 ft. in height, and a 
 valuable collection of ancient printed books; the church of the Minorites; and the 
 Augustine convent. There are also several fine palatial residences belonging to the old 
 
125 
 
 Rininel. 
 
 Bruno. 
 
 nobility. B. is one of the most important manufacturing towns in the Austrian domin- 
 ions. Its woolens are specially celebrated, and it has also manufactures of cotton, silk, 
 ribbons, yarns, glass, leather, soap, tobacco, and dye-stuffs. Pop. Dec. 31, ’69, 73,771. 
 Napoleon made B. his headquarters before the battle of Austerlitz. 
 
 BRTJN'NEN, a village of Switzerland, in the canton of Schwyz, of which it forms the 
 port, near the mouth of the Muotta, in the lake of Lucerne. It is beautifully situated 
 at the south-eastern bend of the lake, and is celebrated in history as the place where, in 
 Dec., 1315, the deputies of the forest cantons, who, eight years before, had formed a 
 plan for the liberation of their country from the Austrian yoke, laid the basis of the 
 Helvetic republic. 
 
 BRUNNER, Sebastian, b. 1814; chaplain of the university of Vienna, where he 
 studied theology. In 1848, ho established the Vienna Church Gazette. Soon after he pub- 
 lished, under the name Nebeljungen-Lied, 2i?,'3i\.uQ upon Hegel’s doctrines. His entire 
 works have been collected in 20 vols. Among them is a sharp criticism of Renan’s Life 
 of Christ. In all his writings he is of the ultramontane Roman Catholic school. 
 
 BRUNNER, orBRUNN, Johann Conrad, 1653-1727; a German anatomist, professor 
 in the university of Heidelberg, and physician to the elector palatine. He made many 
 anatomical investigations, particularly in the pancreas, the small intestines, and the duo- 
 denum. His name lives in the Brunner's Glands. 
 
 BKUNNOW, Count, Ernest Phil. von, a Russian diplomatist, was b. at Dresden, 1797, 
 and studied at the university of Leipsic. At the time of the congress of Aix-la-Cha- 
 pelle, he entered the Russian service, and the ministers Nesselrode and Capo d’Istrias 
 recognized at once his fitness for a diplomatic career. Among other posts, he attended 
 the congresses of Troppau and Laybach, acted one year as secretary to the embassy in 
 London, went to the congress of Verona, and then occupied for a time a high office in 
 St. Petersburg. He was present, in a civil capacity, in the campaigns of 1828 and 1829 
 against the Turks. In the autumn of 1839, he was sent on a special mission to London 
 to take advantage of the unpleasant feeling between Great Britain and France for draw 
 ing the cabinets of St. Petersburg and London closer together, and in the following 
 spring was accredited as permanent ambassador. In this capacity he soon acquired dis- 
 tinction as a diplomatist. After retiring from London on the outbreak of the war in 
 1854, he represented Russia in Frankfort, and, along with count Orloff, was sent to the 
 •conference of Paris, Feb., 1856. Immediately after the treaty of peace had been con- 
 •cluded, he was sent on a special mission to London, to re-establish friendly relations 
 between the courts of St. Petersburg and St. James’s. He was afterwards appointed to 
 the court of Prussia; but in 1858 he returned to his old place in London, where he was 
 a great favorite. He represented Russia at the conferences in London in 1864 and 1871. 
 In recognition of his services, he was raised by the emperor of Russia to the rank of 
 count in April, 1871. In 1874, he retired to Darmstadt, where he died in the following 
 year, 
 
 BRTJNO, Saint, the founder of the Carthusian order of monks, was b, at Cologne 
 1051, and received his earliest education in the school attached to the collegiate church 
 of St. Cunibert. Subsequently, he studied at Rbeims, where he distinguished himself 
 so greatly, that bishop Gervasius appointed him director of all the schools in his diocese. 
 B,, however, soon began to be troubled by the wickedness of his time, and, anxious to 
 ■escape from what seemed to him the general pollution, he took refuge, along with six 
 pious friends, in a desert place near Chartreuse, in the diocese of Grenoble. Here, in 
 1086, he founded one of the most austere of all the monkish orders, which received its 
 name from the locality whence it had sprung. See Carthusians. B. and his compan- 
 ions had each a separate cell, in which they practiced the severities of the rule of St. 
 Benedict, keeping silence during six days of the week, and onl}- seeing one another on 
 Sundays. Pope Urban II., who was one of B.’s most eminent scholars, in 1089 sum- 
 moned the saint to Rome. B. obeyed the call reluctantly, and steadily refused all offers 
 •of preferment. In 1094, he established a second Carthusian monastery, called La Torre, 
 in a solitary district of Calabria, where he died in 1101. He was not canonized until 
 1628. B. left no written regulations for his followers. These first made their appear- 
 ance in a complete form in 1581, and were enjoined on all Carthusians by Innocent IX. 
 
 BRUNO, The Great, Archbishop of Cologne, and Duke of Lorraine, one of the most 
 eminent men of his time, was b. about 928 a.d. He was the third son of Henry the 
 fowler, and the brother of Otto I., emperor of Germany. Baldrich, bishop of Utrecht, 
 and afterwards Israel Scotigena, and others, were his tutors. His surprising knowledge, 
 sagacity, and eloquence secured for him an immense influence over the bishops and 
 clergy, while, on the other hand, his liberality, meekness, and great earnestness of heart 
 won the affections and reverence of the laity. Summoned by Otto to the imperial pal- 
 ace, he quickly assumed an influential position among the chroniclers, poets, and philos- 
 ophers of the court. At a later period he was appointed archbishop of Cologne, and 
 lord high chancellor of the empire. He accompanied Otto to Italy in 951, and honor- 
 ably distinguished himself by his fidelity to his brother, when Otto’s own son, Conrad, 
 and others of his kindred rebelled against him. As a reward, the emperor appointed 
 
Bruno. 
 
 Brunswick. 
 
 126 
 
 liim duke of Lorraine. B. died at Rheims, llth Oct., 965. He wrote a commentary on 
 the Pentateuch, and several lives of saints. 
 
 BRUNO, Giordano, the precursor of the school of modern pantheistic philosophers, 
 was born at Nola, in the kingdom of Naples, about the middle of the 16th century. He 
 entered, at an early age, the order of the Dominicans, but soon began to express his 
 doubts in regard to the doctrines of transubstantiation and of the immaculate concep- 
 tion, in consequence of which he was obliged to flee from his convent. Henceforth, 
 his life was unsettled. In 1580, he went to Geneva, where he spent two years, but hav- 
 ing excited the suspicion and dislike of the strict Calvinists of that city by his general 
 skepticism, he judged it prudent to betake himself to Paris, where he delivered prelec- 
 tions on the “great art” (logic) of Raymond Lully. His disputes with the bigoted Aris- 
 totelians of the university of Paris compelled him, however, to leave France. He 
 passed over into England, where he resided for two years in comparative quiet, enjoy- 
 ing the friendship of sir Philip Sidney and the protection of the French ambassador, 
 Michel de Chateauneuf de la MauvissiSre. Here he composed his most important works, 
 but at last, having incurred the* displeasure of the clergy by his vehement denunciation 
 of the Aristotelian philosophy, and other grave heresies, he returned to Paris in 1585. 
 In 1588, he proceeded to the university of Marburg, where he matriculated; and to 
 Wittenberg, where he became professor; but being asked to join the Lutheran commun- 
 ion, he refused. On his departure from the city, he pronounced an impassioned pane- 
 gyric on Luther. After spending some time in Prague, Brunswick, Helmstadt, and 
 Frankfort-on-the-Main, he resolved to go back to Italy. He fixed his residence at Padua; 
 but after a stay of two years, he went to Venice, where he was arrested by the officers 
 of the inquisition, and conveyed to Rome in 1598. He was now subjected for two years 
 to persecution, in the vain hope that he would recant; but when all the endeavors of his 
 enemies proved ineffectual, he was brought to the stake on the 17th Feb., 1600, and 
 burned as an obstinate heretic. 
 
 B. ’s writings, of which the most valuable are composed in Italian, display through- 
 out a strong, courageous, excitable soul, susceptible of deep enthusiasm, but vainly 
 laboring to attain perspicacity. The Gena delle Gene.ri, or evening conversations on Ash- 
 Wednesda}^ is an apology for the Copernican astronomy; the Spaccio della Bestia Triori- 
 fante, or expulsion of the triumphant beast (Par. 1584), is a satirical but somewhat 
 heavy allegory in the style of the times. His greatest works are metaphysical, such as 
 the Della Causa Principio ed Uno (On the One Sole Cause of Things) and the Del Injinita 
 Universo e Mondi (On the Infinity of the Universe and of Worlds). The doctrine enun- 
 ciated in these is pantheistic. B. held that the infinite soul of God did not merely inhabit 
 or pervade the universe, but that the universe was simply a manifestation of him, and 
 therefore itself divine. God was therefore, in the most literal and physical sense, all in- 
 all. B.’s philosophy, in later times, was quite unappreciated, and even neglected, until 
 Jacobi drew public attention to it in his Letters on the Doctrine of Spinoza. Both Spinoza 
 and Descartes were much indebted to Bruno. His influence is also discernible in the 
 pantheistic speculation of modern Germany. Original editions of B.’s works are very 
 rare. Those in Italian were published by Wagner in 1830: some Latin ones by Gfrdrer 
 in 1836. See Bartholom^’s Bruno (1846); Berti’s Vita di B. (1868). 
 
 BRUNSWICK, a co. in s.e. North Carolina, on the ocean and cape Fear and Wac- 
 camaw rivers; 1100 sq.m. ; pop. ’80, 9390 — 4052 colored. It is level and swampy, with 
 poor soil, but producing rice and cotton. Tar, rosin, and fine lumber are exported. 
 The railroads are the Washington, Columbia and Augusta, and the Wilmington and Wel- 
 don. Co. seat, Smithville. 
 
 BRUNSWICK, a co. in s.e. Virginia, on North Carolina, watered by the Roanoke 
 and Nottaway rivers; 600 sq.m.; pop. ’80, 16,707— 10, 636 colored. Productions, tobacco, 
 corn, wheat, etc. Co. seat, Lawrenceville. 
 
 BRUNSWICK, a t. in Glynn co., Ga. ; a port of entry on St. Simon’s sound, 8 m. 
 from the ocean, and 80 m. s.s.w. of Savannah, at the s.e. terminus of the Macon and 
 Brunswick and Albany railroads. There is a lighthouse at the entrance of the sound, 
 and the harbor is spacious and safe. Pine lumber is the chief article of export. Pop. 
 2348. 
 
 BRUNSWICK, a t. and village in Cumberland co.. Me., on the Androscoggin, 8 m. 
 w. of Bath. It is at the head of navigation and the foot of water-power on the river, 
 and has mills and other manufacturing establishments. Here are Bowdoin college and 
 the Maine medical school. The Maine Central and other railroads unite at B. Ship- 
 building and lumbering are leading industries. Pop. about 2500. 
 
 BRUNSWICK, Duchy op (Ger, Bra^inschwdg), a state of northern Germany, consist- 
 ing of three larger and five smaller distinct parts, and lying mostly within lat. 51° 38 'to 
 52° 28' n., and lon^, 9° 23' to 11° 30' east. Its entire area amounts to about 1425 sq. miles. 
 Pop. in 1875, 327,493. For administrative purposes, B. is divided into six circles — viz., 
 Brunswick, Wolfenbiittel, Helmstedt, Gandersheim, Holzminden, and Blankenburg. Of 
 the three larger parts, the principal one, forming the circle of Wolfenbiittel, and includ- 
 ing the capital, lies between Prussia and Hanover; the second, extending e. and w. from 
 Prussia to the Weser, divides Hanover into two parts; and the third, forming the circle 
 
127 
 
 Bruno. 
 
 Brunswick. 
 
 of Blankeriburg, lies to the s.e. between Hanover, Anhalt, and Prussia. The smaller 
 parts are the isolated bailiwicks of Calvbrde in the e., Thedinghaiisen in the w. (not far 
 from Bremen), and some very small demesnes in the Hanoverian boundaries. B. belongs 
 mostly to the basin of the W eser, which serves as a boundary on the west. The surface 
 is mostly mountainous, particularly in the southern portions of the country, but B. has 
 nevertheless level tracts of considerable extent. The rivers, with the exception of the 
 Weser, are comparatively unimportant, though advantage is taken of one or two for the 
 transport of timber. The climate in the low lands resembles the general climate of 
 northern Germany; but in the Harz district it is so much colder, that harvest is gener- 
 ally a month later than in the plains. 
 
 The mines and quarries of B. produce marble, alabaster, limestone, gypsum, alum, 
 iron, copper, lead, sulphur, and salt in large quantities, with some portions of gold and 
 silver. Agriculture, which is carried on with intelligence and energy, constitutes the 
 chief wealth of the duchy. The products include, beside the ordinary cereals, large 
 quanties of leguminous plants, potatoes, tobacco, and hops. The pasture-land is exten 
 sive, and great attention is paid to the rearing of cattle, and especially to the breeding of 
 sheep, wool being an important article of commerce. A large number of persons are 
 employed in the cutting and preparation of timber. The chief manufactures of B. are of 
 linen, stockings, woolen cloth, metals, porcelain, paper, sugar, glass, beer, etc. 
 
 The inhabitants are mostly Saxons, and, with the exceptions of about 3000 Reformed, 
 7000 Roman Catholics, and 1100 Jews, all adhere to the Lutheran church. The people 
 in the rural districts speak a very broad low-German dialect ; but good high-German is 
 spoken by the educated classes. Education is well looked after by the government, 
 which is a limited monarchy, the duke being head of the state, and his power restricted 
 by the legislature, which is partly hereditary and partly elective. As a state of the 
 German empire, B. has two votes in the Bundesrath (confederate council), and sends 
 three deputies to the Reichstag or parliament. 
 
 Taxes are voted triennially in Brunswick. The revenue for the three years ending 
 1878 was 7,700,133i marks (£385,006) a year. The public debt in 1876 amounted to 
 51,874,442 marks (£4,593,722), of which a large portion was borrowed for the construc- 
 tion of railways. The civil list of the duke is not comprised in the budget, being paid 
 out of a special fund consisting of the revenues of the state domains, which amount to 
 729,166 marks, and other receipts amounting to about 70,000 marks. 
 
 B. was included, as a part of Saxony, under the empire of Charlemagne. In 1235, 
 B., with Luueburg, was made a duchy under Otto, who died in 1252, and was succeeded, 
 in 1267, by his son Albrecht, founder of the older line of Wolfenbiittel. John, another 
 son of Otto, was the founder of the older Liineburg line, which became extinct with 
 William of Liineburg in 1369. In 1569, Henry, who styled himself duke of Brunswick- 
 Liineburg-Dannenberg, founded the new house of Brunswick-Wolfenbiittel ; and hig 
 brother William founded the new line of Brunswick-Lilneburg, which, in 1815, became 
 the kingdom of Hanover. See Hanover. 
 
 BRUNSWICK, the capital of the duchy of Brunswick, is situated on the Oker, in a 
 level and fertile district, in lat. 52° 46' n.. and long. 10° 4' east. B., which is a very old 
 place, is supposed to have been first walled about the 9th c., by Bruno, duke of Ostfalen. 
 But Henry the lion, in the 12th c., so greatly beautified and extended the city that he 
 may be almost said to be its founder. In the 13th c., B. became a member of the Hanse 
 league, and soon attained considerable commercial prosperity, but its importance declined 
 with the decay of the league. The town is most irregularly built, with narrow and 
 crooked streets, but possesses the advantages of good causeways and an abundant supply 
 of water. The cathedral — in which are preserved some interesting relics brought by 
 Henry the lion from the Holy Land — with the churches of St. Martin, St. Catharine, 
 and St. Andrew, with its steeple 816 ft. high, are among the principal buildings. In the 
 museum are some interesting antiquities and works of art by Jan Steens, Albert Diirer, 
 Holbein, Rembrandt, Raphael, Guido, Ruysdael, Michael Angelo, and Benvenuto Cellini. 
 The industry of B. consists chiefly in manufactures of woolen and linen, chicory, beet- 
 mgar, to\) 2 iCQ,o,papier-mdche, lackered wares, etc. Its great annual fair, founded in 1498, 
 is important. The old fortifications of B. have been demolished, and their site converted 
 into pleasant promenades. A fine avenue of linden-trees leads to the duke’s palace, an 
 imposing edifice, built in 1869. Pop. ’75, 65,938. 
 
 BRUNSWICK, House op. Henry the Lion, who held the united duchies of Bavaria 
 and Saxony in the 12th c., may properly be called the immediate ancestor of this house, 
 though they can trace their lineage back to Albert Azo I., margrave of Este in Italy, 
 who died in 964. The eldest son of Henry the Lion became count palatinate by mar- 
 riage; his second son, Otho, died in 1218 after having been crowned German emperor, 
 and it was therefore William, a younger son, who succeeded to the Brunswick inherit- 
 ance. Otho, a grandson of Henry the Lion, was invested in 1235 with these domains as 
 a fief of the empire and recognized as the first duke of Brunswick. Ernest the Pious, or 
 the Confessor, who died in 1546, inherited the principalities of Brunswick-Luneburg, and 
 was the founder of both branches of the existing dynasty; he took an active part in the 
 reformation and signed the confession of Augsburg. His descendant, Ernest Augustus, 
 duke of Brunswick-Luneburg, was raised to the dignity of ninth elector of the empire in 
 
ISrunswick. 
 
 Urussels. 
 
 128 
 
 1692, by his marriage with Sophia, a grand-daughter of James I. of England. His son 
 George Lewis succeeded to the crown of Great Britain in 1714. Ferdinand, a later duke 
 of this house, entered the Prussian service in 1740, distinguished himself in the seven 
 years’ war, decided the battle of Prague, and gained the victories of Corfeld and Mindon. 
 The ducal residence, which had been at Wolfenbuttel, was in 1754 removed to Brunswick 
 by duke Charles; he founded the famous Collegium Carolinum, and was a faithful ally 
 of England during the seven years’ war. He died 1780. His successor, Charles William 
 Ferdinand, was a nephew of Frederick the great, and married Augusta, daughter of 
 George HI. of England. He fought in the seven years’ war, and played an important 
 part at the battle of Krefeld in 1758. In 1792 he w*as commander-in-chief of the allied 
 armies of Austria and Prussia against France. He marched into Champagne, but was 
 compelled to conclude an armistice with Dumouriez after trying in vain to force the 
 position of Valmy. In 1806 he was called to lead the Prussian troops against 
 Napoleon, who defeated him at Jena and Auerstadt; he retired broken-hearted, and 
 died soon afterwards from the effects of his wounds. Napoleon incorporated his duchy 
 with the new kingdom of Westphalia, but after the battle of Leipsic it was restored 
 to his son Frederick William, who had distinguished himself in the campaigns of 1792, 
 1793, 1806, and who fell at the head of his troops at the battle of Quatre-Bras in 1815. 
 His son Charles Frederick was a minor, and up to 1823 George IV. of England acted as 
 prince-regent. The people of B. endured the misrule of Charles Frederick for seven 
 years; then they revolted and drove him out of his duchy in 1830. He died childless at 
 Geneva in 1873. By an act of the Germanic diet the duchy was transferred to his 
 brother William, prince of Oels (b. 1806), who assumed the government, April 25, 1831. 
 He is still unmarried, and, if he dies without issue, Brunswick will pass to the house of 
 Hanover. 
 
 BRUNSWICK BAY, on the n.w. coast of Australia, in long. 125° e., and about lat. 15® 
 south. It receives Prince Regent river. 
 
 BRUNSWICK BLACK is a varnish employed for coating over coarsely finished iron 
 grates, fenders, etc. It is mainly compounded of lamp-black and turpentine, and when 
 applied with a brush, quickly dries, and leaves a shining jet-black surface. 
 
 BRUNSWICK GREEN is a pigment used in the arts, and consisting of the hydrated 
 chloride and oxide of copper (CuCl,3CuO,4HO). It may be prepared (1) by acting upon 
 metallic copper with common salt and diluted sulphuric acid, (2) by acting upon metallic 
 copper with moistened sal-ammoniac, or (3) by mixing sulphate of copper and common 
 salt into a paste with water. It is found native at Atacama, in Peru, in the form of a 
 green sand, hence the name atacamite (q.v.). 
 
 BRUNSWICK, New. See New Brunswick. 
 
 BRUSA, or Bursa. See Broussa, ante. 
 
 BRUSASOR'CI, or Domenico Riccio, 1494-1567; an Italian painter noted for his 
 close imitation of Titian. He worked chiefly in fresco, and on mythological themes. 
 The “ Coronation of Charles V.,” the “Procession,” “ Phaethon,” and the “Martyrdom of 
 St. Barbara,” are among his more important achievements. 
 
 BRUSH, George Jarvis, b. New York, 1831 ; educated at Tale, and at Munich, and 
 the Freiberg mining academy; chief of the Sheffield scientific school (of Yale), and pro- 
 fessor ©f mineralogy and metallurgy in Yale college. He has written upon various 
 scientific subjects in the American Journal of Science, and assisted in editing Dana’s 
 Mineralogy. 
 
 BRUSHES AND BROOMS, implements of vegetable fiber or hair of very early use, 
 mentioned by Homer. Brushes are simple or coinpound. The simple kind consists of 
 but one tuft, and are such as hair pencils and painters’ brushes. The compound have 
 more than a single tuft. Where they are placed side by side on flat boards they are 
 called stock brushes. Those with single tufts, such as are used by artists, are made of the 
 hair of the camel, goat, badger, and of hog’s bristles. The hairs for pencils are arranged 
 so as to form a point in the center, and are fixed in a quill or other small tube. Com- 
 pound brushes are of set or pan work, and of drawm work. The ordinary house broom 
 is an example of pan work, into the stock of which holes are bored of the size desired. 
 The bristles, hairs, or fibers needed to fill each hole are collected, the thick ends dipped 
 into molten cement, usually pitch, bound with thread, dipped again, and with a quick 
 twist set into the hole. In drawn brushes, those intended for shoes, teeth, nails, etc., 
 and clothes, the holes are more carefully bored, and have smaller ones at the top com- 
 municating with the back of the brush, through wdiich a loop of wdre passes from the 
 back of the stock. Half the number of hairs or fibers needed to fill the holes are passea 
 around the wire, which is then smartly drawn up so as to double the hairs and force them 
 as far as possible into the hole. The outside ends are made even with trimming, and 
 the backs of the brushes are covered with veneer to conceal the wire-work. Bristles are 
 imported from Poland, Russia, and other countries. In 1808, the manufacture of brushes 
 from the fibers of whalebone, and in 1810, from twigs of broom, rushes, and other 
 plants, was patented. In 1842, split quills were added, and in 1872, horn and other sub- 
 stances, The great staple in the United States is broom-corn, a considerable amount 
 being raised in the state of New York, and manufactured by the Shakers. Revolving 
 
129 
 
 Brunswick* 
 
 Brussels. 
 
 brushes were patented in 1811; and in 1862, revolving hair brushes, for the use of bar- 
 bers, were introduced, but they have never become popular. As long ago as 1699, there 
 was invented “a new engine for sweeping the streets of London, or of any city or 
 town.” But nothing of the kind was put in use until 1825, when revolving brooms v/ere 
 used. A great many improvements followed, and at the present time street-sweeping by 
 such machines is common in large cities. The most important recent invention in brush- 
 making is of American origin, the Woodbury machine for bunching, wiring, and insert- 
 ing bristles in the stock. In this machine a metal comb of uniform thickness is filled 
 with bristles, holding them by the middle, so that one half of the bristles appear above 
 the surface of the comb, and the other half underneath. The comb thus charged moves 
 in guide-ways, and discharges bristles from each division successively into a channel in 
 which they are brought into a horizontal position and a proper quantity taken up to 
 form a tuft. This tuft is moved along an incline against the end of a cylinder, when a 
 plunger doubles the bristles into a loop, which is seized by wire, and in an instant 
 ■securely fastened. 
 
 BRUSH TURKEY, the native name of an Australian bird of the megapodiidae 
 family, of which a dozen species are known; called also the New Holland vulture, jun- 
 gle fowl, and native pheasant. It is the only wild fowl known that is gregarious in the 
 duty of hatching. Before the time for laying eggs, several pairs of these birds unite in 
 building an enormous pyramidal heap of vegetable matter in part decayed. In this 
 muck-heap of leaves, grass, and rotting wood the females deposit their eggs, which are 
 placed about a foot from each other and covered 2 ft. deep. The hatching is done by 
 the heat of the decaying matter, and the young appear full feathered and able to take 
 •care of themselves from the first. Nests have been found that contained a bushel of 
 eggs. Some species of the brush turkey place their eggs in sand, some construct huge 
 mounds of earth, and some make excavations on the sea-shore. In size and general 
 appearance it much resembles the common domestic turkey. 
 
 BRUSSELS (Fr. Bruxelles), the capital of Belgium, is situated on the small river 
 Senne, a tributary of the Dyle, in lat. 50° 51' n., and long. 4° 2T east. It communicates 
 with Antwerp and the Baltic sea, by means of the Scheldt canal, and railways connect it 
 with Germany, France, and Holland, as well as with all the principal towns of Belgium. 
 The city is built partly on the side of a hill, and partly on a fertile plain; and though 
 some of the streets are so steep that they can be ascended only by means of stairs, B., on 
 the whole, may be pronounced one of the finest cities in Europe. The upper town, 
 situated on the side of the hill, is the newest and most fashionable, and is the residence 
 -chiefly of the great and wealthy. The king’s palace, public offices, chief hotels, and 
 mansions of foreign ministers are here. It is also much more healthy than the lower 
 town, which, stretching along the canal and the Senne, is greatly subject to fogs. But 
 the latter, with its numerous handsome old buildings, formerly belonging to the Brabant 
 nobility, but now occupied by merchants and traders, has a fine picturesque appearance, 
 while some of its public edifices are unrivaled as specimens of Gothic architecture. 
 This part has also several noble churches, but it is now wholly given over to trade. 
 French is spoken in the upper part of B. ; but in the lower, Flemish is prevalent, and in 
 one quarter the Walloon dialect is spoken. The English language, owing to the large 
 number of English who reside in B. for economy, is also very common. The walls 
 which formerly surrounded B. have been removed, and their place is now occupied by 
 pleasant boulevards, shaded by alleys of trees, extending several miles. The Allee Verte 
 — a double avenue along the Scheldt canal — forms a splendid promenade, and leads 
 towards the palace of Laeken, the suburban residence of the royal family, 3 m. n. of 
 the city. Besides the fine park in the upper town, covering an area of some 17 acres, 
 ornamented with fountains and statues, and surrounded by the king’s palace, the 
 ^‘palace of the prince of Orange,” the chamber of representatives, and other buildings, 
 B. has several other squares or places, among which the most noteworthy are — the 
 Place Boyal, with its colossal monument of Godfrey of Bouillon; the Grand Place, in 
 which is situated the HOtel de Ville, a splendid Gothic structure, erected in the begin- 
 ning of the 15th c., with a pyramidal tower 364 ft. high, surmounted by a statue of St. 
 Michael, the patron saint of B., and where, in 1568, the patriot counts, Egmont and 
 Horn, were beheaded by order of the duke of Alba; and the Place des Martyrs, where a 
 memorial has been erected to those who fell here in the revolution of 1830. Among the 
 churches of B., the largest and finest is the cathedral of St. Gudule, which dates from 
 the 12th c., and is built in the pointed Gothic style, with two towers of more modern 
 date, rising on each side to a height of 264 ft., many richly painted windows, a pulpit, 
 considered the masterpiece of Verbruggen, and monuments of the dukes of Brabant and 
 other distinguished persons. In the Palais des Beaux Arts is the picture-gallery, con- 
 taining the finest specimens of the Flemish school of painting; the public library, with 
 its 234,000 volumes, and its 20,000 MSS., collected by the dukes of Burgundy — MSS. 
 interesting and valuable not only for their contents, but for the beautiful miniature 
 paintings with which the scholars of Van Eyck adorned them. The observatory is one 
 of the finest in Europe. The educational establishments of B. are numerous, the princi- 
 pal being the free university, founded in 1834, with four faculties — viz., law, medicine, 
 mathematical and physical sciences, and belles-lettres, and having a special school of 
 U. K. III.-9 
 
Brussels. 
 
 Bryant. 
 
 130 
 
 pharmacy attached. It has also numerous charitable and benevolent institutions; and is; 
 the seat of the provincial government of s. Brabant, as well as of the general govern- 
 ment of the kingdom. B. is one of the chief centers of the industry of the country. Its 
 lace is particularly famous. Of the esteemed carpets which pass under the name of B. 
 carpets, only a few are manufactured here, most of those of Belgic make being producei 
 at Tournai. It has also manufactures of damask, linen, ribbons, paper, jewelry, hats, 
 soap, porcelain, mathematical and musical instruments, etc. Carriage-building is also an 
 important branch of industry. Printing and lithographic establishments are numerous; 
 and about a dozen newspapers, of which the Independance Beige has a European reputa- 
 tion, are published daily. Pop. in 1876, 161,816; with suburbs, 348,180. 
 
 As early as the 8th c., we find B. (Bruchsella), then probably a villa of the Frank 
 kings, mentioned in old chronicles, and that a church existed here in 966 is proved by a. 
 deed of the emperor Otho I. Under Charles V., B. was made the court-residence in the 
 Netherlands, and became afterwards, under Philip II., the chief arena of the revolution, 
 and of the atrocities committed by the duke of Alba and the inquisition. B. suffered 
 greatly in the war of Spain against Louis XIV. — in whose reign it was bombarded by 
 marshal Villeroi, and upwards of 4000 buildings destroyed — and in that of Austria 
 against Louis XV. ; but still more from the continual prevalence of party animosities- 
 caused by the policy of Austria. Under the mild rule of Maria Theresa, B. fiourished 
 
 f reatly, and in this time, many of its best institutions and public buildings were founded, 
 n 1789 occurred the Brabant revolution under Joseph II., and scarcely had Austrian, 
 rule been re-established, after a brief time of independence, when B. fell into the hands 
 of the French, 1792. After other changes of fortune, B., with the other parts of Bel- 
 gium, was incorporated with the kingdom of the Netherlands in 1815, and so remained 
 until the revolution of 1830, by which it became the capital of the independent kingdom 
 of Belgium. 
 
 BRUSSELS CARPETS. See Cakpets. 
 
 BRUSSELS SPROUTS, one of the many cultivated varieties of hrassica oleracea (see 
 Brassica and Cabbage), distinguished by producing, in the axils of the leaves, little- 
 clusters of leaves which close together and form miniature cabbages. These are used, 
 like other greens of this species, for the table, and are very delicate. The plant is culti- 
 vated much in the same way as cabbage or kale, requiring, however, less space than 
 most of the varieties. It may be planted in shady situations, or between the rows of 
 crops, such as pease, beans, scarlet-runners, etc., which are to be removed from the- 
 ground in autumn. The sprouts are fit for use chiefly in winter and spring. The stem 
 sometimes attains a height of 4 ft. , and the head resembles a small, imperfectly boiled 
 savoy; but there is a sub^variety with shorter stems, preferable for many situations. In 
 some places, it is customary to remove the head early in winter, in order to promote the 
 development of the lateral shoots in spring; but if the head is allowed to remain, 
 the plant becomes taller, and new shoots are formed as the lower ones are removed.. 
 The seed is sown in Feb. or March. Seed is very generally imported from Belgium,, 
 as this vegetable is said to degenerate in Britain. Its use has of late rapidly extended, 
 and none of the many varieties of the species to which it belongs is better deserving of 
 cultivation. 
 
 BRUTTIUM, an ancient division of Italy, comprising the s. portion, now Calabria. 
 The people known as Bruttians became rulers in the peninsula about 356 b.c. Before- 
 that period the people seem to have been of some Pelasgian races, but at an early date 
 Greek adventurers started settlements on the coast, of which the more important were 
 Crotona, Rhegium, and Locri. The warlike Greeks subjected the natives and held 
 them in slavery until after the Peloponnesian war. At that period the Lucunians came 
 in from the n. and still further oppressed the natives. At last, about the middle of the 
 4th c. B.C., the people rising against oppression became their own masters; they gained, 
 power rapidly, captured some of the Greek cities, and, assisted by the Lucanians, held 
 their own against the Grecian arms. The B. were powerful until after their participa- 
 tion in the Samnite war against Rome, 282 b.c. Not long afterwards they were sub- 
 jected to Rome and gave up much of their territory. In the second Punic war they 
 revolted and assisted Hannibal, for which they were punished by Rome in the sacrifice 
 of what little they had left of independence. At that time the Brutti as a nation disap- 
 peared from history. 
 
 BRUTUS, Lucius Junius, figures in the legendary history of early Rome, as the hero 
 who overturned the monarchical, and established the republican form of government. 
 The legend runs that he was the son of a rich Roman. On his father’s death, Tarquin 
 the proud took possession of the property, and put an elder brother to death, and B. 
 •himself only escaped the same fate by feigning idiocy (hence the name Brutus, stupid). 
 The oracle of Delphi foretold that he should govern in Rome. Remembering his own 
 wrongs, and gifted with the strength and wisdom of one who was fulfilling the decrees 
 of fate, B., when the foul rape committed by one of the royal family upon Lucretia had 
 shocked the people, convoked them, placed himself at their head, and drove the kings 
 from Rome. He is said to have been then elected one of the two first consuls (509 b.c.). 
 That his character as a stern old Roman hero might be complete, the legend adds that 
 he sacrificed to the new republic his own sons, detected in a conspiracy to restore the^ 
 
131 
 
 Brussels. 
 
 Bryant. 
 
 'monarchy; and that at last he fell in mortal combat repelling an attack led on by one 
 • of the sons of Tarquin. Little more, however, can be said to be established upon suf- 
 ficient historical evidence with regard to B, , than that there existed a person of that 
 name who held high office in Rome at a very early period. 
 
 BRUTUS, Marcus Junius, b. 85 b.c., appears to have spent the early years of man- 
 hood in exclusive devotion to literary pursuits, and not to have taken part in the politi- 
 cal dissensions agitating Rome till he had attained a mature age. When the civil war 
 broke out between Pompey and Caesar, he sided with the former; but after the battle of 
 Pharsalia, made his submission to the latter, and, in the following year, was appointed 
 governor of Cisalpine Gaul. On returning to Rome, he divorced his wife, in order to 
 marry Portia, the daughter of Cato, of whose principles in politics he professed to be a 
 disciple. The influence of Cassius prevailed upon him to join the conspiracy which 
 ^cnded in the murder of Caesar. The efforts of B. to retain popular favor afterwards 
 being unavailing to counteract the effects of the eloquence of Antony, he was forced to 
 leave first Rome, and then Italy. The remainder of his life was spent partly in Athens, 
 partly in Asia Minor, and partly as the leader of a marauding force which maintained 
 itself by plundering the inhabitants of the eastern shores of the Adriatic. Defeated by 
 Antony and Octavianus (Augustus) at Philippi (42 b.c.), he terminated his life by falling 
 upon his sword. 
 
 BRUX, a t. of Bohemia, situated on the Bila, about 14 m. n. of Saatz. In its vicinity 
 ■ are extensive coal-mines, and the famous mineral springs of Pilllna and Seidlitz, from 
 which the inhabitants of B. prepare a considerable quantity of salts. Pop. Dec. 31, ’69, 
 6102. 
 
 BRUYAS, Jacques, 1637-1712; one of the Jesuit missionaries in Canada, employed 
 among the Iroquois. He mastered their speech, and wrote some pious works in it. In 
 1862, his Badical Words of the Mohawk Language yj 2 ^% first published. 
 
 BRUYERE, Jean la. See labruyeire. 
 
 BRUYS, or Bruis, Peter de, a priest of southern France supposed to have been 
 one of Abelard’s pupils, founder of a sect by the name of Petrobrussians. He 
 opposed the church as it was, seeking to restore the Christian religion to its original 
 ? simplicity and freedom from symbols, denied the authority of any established hierarchy 
 and the necessity of any priestly ministration, opposed infant baptism and the com- 
 munion, and held that, as prayer could be offered anywhere, churches were useless. His 
 followers destroyed images, burnt crosses, and maltreated priests. After many years of 
 non-molestation B. was burnt at the stake at St. Gilles. The sect existed for a long 
 time under the name of Henricians, from Henry of Lausanne, one of their leaders. 
 
 BRYAN, a co. of e. Georgia, on the sea-coast ; 472 sq.m. ; pop. ’80, 4929 — 2561 colored. 
 The soil is level and mostly of sand, and in a large degree covered with pine forests. 
 ‘The Atlantic and Gulf railroad passes through the county. Productions, rice, corn, 
 •cotton, etc. Co. seat, Eden. 
 
 BRYAN, Michael, 1757-1821; an English art critic and connoisseur, author of a 
 Dictionary of Painters and Engravers, a recognized standard work. In 1794, he was 
 •employed by several English noblemen to purchase the celebrated Orleans gallery of 
 paintings, an achievement which widely enhanced his reputation. 
 
 BRYANT, Jacob, an eminent English scholar, was b. at Plymouth in 1715. He was 
 •educated at Eton and King’s college, Cambridge, where he took his degree of m.a. 
 in 1744. In 1756 he became private secretary to the duke of Marlborough, and accom- 
 pained his grace to the continent. Substantial proofs of the duke’s esteem raised him 
 .above the region of pecuniary cares, and enabled him to devote his whole life to letters. 
 He d. 14th Nov., 1804. Among his numerous publications maybe mentioned: Ohser- 
 •rations and Inquiries relating to various Parts of Ancient History (Cambridge, 1767); A 
 Hew System or Analysis of Ancient Mythology (1774-76); Vindicice Flaviance { 2 . defense 
 ►of Josephus’ testimony in regard to Christ), (1780); Treatise on the Authenticity of the 
 Scriptures and the Truth of the Christian Beligion (1792); A Dissertation concerning the 
 War of Troy, etc. (1796); The Sentiments of Philo-Judmus concerning the Logos (1797); and 
 a variety of dissertations on the difficult passages of Scripture (1803). B. was a man 
 of great and varied learning, but his intellect, although acute, was neither philosophical 
 nor comprehensive enough to enable him to handle in a satisfactory manner the import- 
 ;ant questions on which he wrote. 
 
 BRYANT, William Cullen, a distinguished American poet and journalist, was b. 
 in Hampshire, Mass., Nov. 3, 1794. At the early age of 10, he published translation® 
 from some of the Latin poets; at 13, he wrote a terse and vigorous political poem, 
 •entitled The Embargo; and at 18, he composed his Thanatopsis, a poem full of beauty. * 
 In 1815 he was admitted to the bar, and for ten years practiced with diligence and sue 
 cess. In 1825 he removed to a more congenial sphere, and in association with a friend, 
 •established The New York Review, to which he contributed many of his best poems. In 
 1826 he became principal editor of The Evening Post, the leading democratic paper of 
 New York, which he conducted with a manliness and purity of tone that might be 
 -imitated by his professional brethren with great advantage to the character of the press. 
 
Bryaxis. 
 
 Buccaneers. 
 
 132 
 
 The first collected edition of his poems appeared in 1832. They were soon after repub- 
 lished in Britain, and were regarded as the highest efforts, up to that time, of the 
 American muse. In 1842, he published The Fountain and other Poems. B. visited Europe 
 in 1834, and several times afterwards, and records his observations in Letters of a 
 Traveler in Europe and America. In 1858, appeared a new edition of his poetical works, 
 and in 1869, a metrical translation of the Iliad, followed in 1871 by that of the Odyssey. 
 He afterwards engaged in writing a History of the United States. Although the pop- 
 ularity of B.’s wirtings has been eclipsed by those of Longfellow and Poe, they have 
 yet a large circle of readers and admirers. B. died 12th June, 1878. 
 
 BRYAXIS, a Greek sculptor, contemporary of Praxiteles and Scopas, with whom 
 he participated in the work on the mausoleum at Halicarnassus about 345 b.c. He also 
 created five colossal figures of the gods at Rhodes, of Bacchus at Cnidus, of ^sculapius 
 and Hygeia at Megara, Apollo in the grove of Daphne at Antioch, a statue of Pasiphse, 
 and a portrait of Seleucus. It is thought that B. was the first to produce statues of 
 -lEsculapius and Serapis. 
 
 BRYDGES, Sir Samuel Egertok, 1762-1837; an English author, bred to the law. 
 He was a prolific writer, and is said to have produced 2000 sonnets in a single year.. 
 His more important works are Censura Literaria in 10 vols. and his own Autobiography,, 
 Times, and Opinions. 
 
 BRY ONY, Bryonia, a genus of plants of the natural order cucurUtacece, distinguished, 
 by triadelphous stamens, with distinct anthers, a trifid style, and a^ few-seeded fruit des- 
 titute of hard rind. The stems climb by means of lateral tendrils, the leaves are angu- 
 lar or 3 to 5-lobed, and the flowers campanulate, 5-partite, unisexual, and generally yellow. 
 The Common Bryony {B. dioica), the only British species, is frequent in hedgerows im 
 England, but is not indigenous to Scotland. It has cordate palmate leaves, axillary 
 bunches of flowers, and red berries about the size of a pea. It abounds in a fetid and 
 acrid juice. The root is perennial, very-large, white and branched, has a repulsive smell, 
 and is acrid, purgative, and emetic. B. alba, common in the middle parts of Europe, 
 possesses similar properties. The root of both is applied topically to bruises, and wa» 
 formerly very much in use as a purgative. It is now again much employed in home- 
 opathic practice. A decoction made of 1 lb. of the fresh root is said by Withering to bo 
 “the best purge for hofned cattle.” It contains a bitter extractive, called hryonine, to 
 which it seems to owe its properties. The young shoots of both species are, however, 
 so free from acrid and dangerous qualities, that they may be used as pot-herbs. — The^ 
 roots of other species of the genus are also acrid and purgative; but it is said that the 
 root of B. Abyssinica, when cooked, is eaten without danger. — Black Bryony {tamus- 
 communis) is a plant of a different natural order {dioscoreaceoe, q.v.). The genus is dis- 
 tinguished bj^ an inferior ovary and succulent fruit. Black B. has long twining stems, 
 cordate undivided leaves, greenish flowers, and red berries. Its roots are very large and 
 fleshy, black externally. The berries are unwholesome, and the whole plant is acrid, the 
 roots so much so as to have been formerly employed for stimulating plasters. But the 
 young suckers, in which the acrid principle is not much developed, are eaten in Greece 
 as asparagus, after careful boiling with change of water, as are also those of T. cretica. 
 The plant is common in most parts of Europe, and is found in England, in hedges and 
 thickets 
 
 BRYOPHYL'LITM (Gr. hryon, moss, and phyllon, a leaf), a genus of plants of the nat- 
 ural order crassulaceos (q.v.). B. calycinum, a succulent shrubby plant, a native of the 
 Moluccas, with quinate or almost pinnate leaves, oblong deeply crenulated leaflets, and 
 panicles of large pendulous greenish-yellow flowers, is not unfrequent in British hot- 
 houses, being regarded as an object of interest, upon account of its producing buds on 
 the edges of the leaves more frequently than almost any other plant. These buds are 
 capable of forming independent plants. This curious mode of propagation is found 
 also in the bog orchis {malaxis paludosa), a plant of a very different natural order. See 
 Bud and Leaf. 
 
 BRYOZO A. See Zoophytes. 
 
 BRY'UM (Gr. hryon, moss), a genus of mosses (q.v.) distinguished by a terminal fruit- 
 stalk, a double peristome (see Mosses) — the outer one of 16 teeth, the inner a membrane 
 cut into 16 equal segments — and a dimidiate calyptra. The species are very numerous, 
 and many of them are natives of Britain. They are all small, their stems short, and 
 their leaves forming little rosettes, from the center of which the fruit-stalk springs. 
 They very generally grow in dense patches on wet rocks, wet earth, the bark of trees, 
 etc., beautifully clothing them with bright green. 
 
 BRZESC LITEWS'KI, a walled t. of Russia, in the government of Grodno, about 108 
 m. s. from the city of the same name. Being advantageously situated on the right bank 
 of the Bug, it has an extensive trade. It was the scene of a battle between the Russians, 
 and Poles in 1794. Pop. ’78, 22,132. 
 
 BRZE'ZAN, a t. of Galicia, situated on the Zlota-Lipa, about 54 m. s.e. of Lemberg. 
 It has an old castle and a gymnasium, and manufactures of linen, sail-cloth, and leather. 
 Pop. ’69, 9290. 
 
133 
 
 ^ryaxis. 
 Buccaneers. 
 
 BTJA'CHE, or Garden Iskand, an island of Western Australia, near the mouth of 
 Bwan river, in lat. 33° 10' s., and long. 115° 40' east. Though measuring only 6 m. by 
 1, it is yet important as sheltering from the open ocean the deep and spacious anchorage 
 of Cockburn sound, which flows between it and the mainland of the colony. 
 
 BUANSUAH, a wild dog of India, conjectured to be the progenitor of the domestic 
 animal. It is very shy, lives in thick woods, and, like the wolf, hunts in packs. In 
 companies of a dozen these animals do not fear to attack the tiger. If captured young 
 they are easily tamed. 
 
 BTJ'AZE, a s. African plant, of which the botanical characters and relations are not 
 yet known, but which is likely to prove of importance on account of its flber. Dr. Liv- 
 ingstone found it growing in large quantities in the Maravi country, n. of the Zambesi; 
 but he could not procure any specimen in flower or fruit, and Dr. Hooker did not recog- 
 nize the specimens of branches and leaves. It is not cultivated, and the only use to 
 which it is put by the natives is to afford threads for stringing beads on; but Dr. Living- 
 stone thinks its flber stronger and finer than flax, and says that a firm thread of it feels 
 like catgut in the hand, and would rather cut the fingers than break. 
 
 BU'BALUS, Bu'balis, or Bu'balb, Antilope hubalus, supposed to be the hubalus of the 
 ancients — although that name is now generally appropriated to the buffalo (q.v.) — a spe- 
 cies of antelope, of that section of the genus which is characterized as hovi-ioYm or ox- 
 like. The Arabic name is bekker-el-wasli, which signifies wild ox. It is an animal about 
 the size of a large stag, with very ox-like head and muzzle — the head, however, remarka- 
 bly long ; the horns about as long as the head, surrounded by a succession of thickened 
 rings, curved so as somewhat to resemble the sides of a lyre, the points directed back- 
 ward. The general color is yellowish-brown, but the tail is terminated by a black tuft. 
 The B. is an animal of rather coarse appearance, very destitute of the gracefulness of 
 the typical antelopes. It inhabits Barbary, and occasional wanderers make their way to 
 the banks of the Nile. It is figured on the monuments of ancient Egypt. It is grega- 
 rious in its habits. It is said to be easily domesticated. The most nearly related spe- 
 cies to this, of other antelopes known, is the kaama (q.v.) of s. Africa. 
 
 BUBAS'TIS, a goddess of the Egyptians, was, in their mythology, the child of Isis 
 and Osiris, and the sister of Horus. She was identified by the Greeks with Artemis 
 (Diana), though upon what grounds is unknown, as the best information with regard to 
 her is, that she was the goddess who presided over pregnancy and childbirth. The 
 chief temple erected to B. was at Bubastis (q.v.). B. is represented on monuments as 
 having the head of a cat, an animal which was sacred to her. 
 
 BUBAS'TIS (the Pi-heseth of Scripture, and modern Tel Basta), a ruined city of Egypt, 
 about 14 m. n. of Belbeys, in lat. 30° 30' n., and long. 31° 33' east. B. derived its name 
 from the Egyptian goddess Bubastis, in whose honor a temple was erected here, which, 
 if not so large and magnificent as some Egyptian temples, was, according to Herodotus, 
 one of the most beautiful, and vast numbers of persons were wont to make annual pil- 
 grimages to it. Nothing but some stones of the temple, which are of the finest red 
 granite, now remain. There are some other ruins, and mounds of great extent, con- 
 sisting chiefly of the remains of brick houses and heaps of broken pottery. 
 
 BUBBLE, as a term, is defined by Blackstone as an unwarrantable undertaking by 
 unlawful subscriptions, subjecting the parties who originate and put them in operation 
 to the penalties of praemunire (q.v.). The South-sea company (q.v.) was a terrible example 
 of such a bubble. — The Bubble Act is the name given to the 6 Geo. I. c. 18, “enacted,” 
 says Blackstone, “ in the year after the infamous South-sea project had beggared half 
 the nation,” and which public fraud the act was intended to punish. But it was repealed 
 by the 6 Geo. IV. c. 91, which at the same time left such companies to be dealt with by 
 the common law. 
 
 BUBBLE SHELL. See Bulla 
 
 BUBO, an inflammatory tumor, seated in the groin or the armpit. 
 
 BUBO. See Owl. 
 
 BUCCANEERS, a celebrated association of piratical adventurers, who, from the com- 
 mencement of the second quarter of the 16th c., to the end of the 17th, maintained them- 
 selves in the Caribbean seas, at first by systematic reprisals on the Spaniards, latterly, 
 by less justifiable and indiscriminate piracy. The name is derived from the Caribbee 
 houcan, a term for preserved meat, smoke-dried in a peculiar manner. From this the 
 French adventurers formed the verb houcaner and the noun houcanier, which was 
 adopted by the English ; while, singularly enough, the French used, in preference, the 
 vfordi flibustier (see Filibusters), a corruption of our “freebooter.” The B. were also 
 sometimes called “brethren of the coast.” The arrogant assumption by the Spaniards 
 of a divine right — sanctioned by the pope’s bull — to the whole new world, was not, of 
 course, to be tolerated by the enterprising mariners of England and France; and the 
 enormous cruelties practiced by them upon all foreign interlopers, of which the history 
 of that time is full, naturally led to an association for mutual defense among the adven- 
 turers of all other nations, but particularly among the English and French. The funda- 
 mental principles of their policy — for they, in course of time, formed distinct commu- 
 
Buccari. 
 
 Bucer. 
 
 134 
 
 nities — were close mutual alliance, and mortal war with all that was Spanish. Their 
 simple code of laws bound them to a common participation in the necessaries of life; 
 locks and bars were proscribed as an insult to the general honor; and ever}’- man had 
 his comrade, who stood by him when alive, and succeeded to his property after his death. 
 The principal center of their wild and predatory life was for some time the island of Tor- 
 tuga, near St. Domingo. When they were not hunting Spaniards, or being hunted 
 themselves, their chief occupation and means of subsistence was the chase. From the 
 flesh of wild cattle they made their ‘ ‘ boucan ;” their skins and tallow they sold or bar- 
 tered to Dutch and other traders. The history of these men embraces, as may be sup- 
 posed, narratives of cruelty and bloodshed unsurpassed in the annals of crime. It has, 
 however, not a few stories of high and romantic adventure, of chivalrous valor, and 
 brilliant generalship. Among the “great captains” whose names figure most promi- 
 nently in the records of buccaneering, were the Frenchman Montbars, surnamed by 
 the terrible title of “the exterminator;” his countrymen, Peter of Dieppe, surnamed 
 “the great” — as truly, perhaps, as others so distinguished — and L’Olonnas, Michael 
 de Busco, and Bartolomeo de Portuguez, Mansvelt, and Van Horn. Pre-eminent, 
 however, among them all was the Welshman, Henry Morgan, who organized fleets 
 and armies, took strong fortresses and rich cities, and displayed throughout the bold 
 genius of a born commander. He it was that led the way for the B. to the southern 
 ocean, by his daring march in 1670 across the isthmus of Panama to the city of that 
 name, which he took and plundered after a desperate battle. This brilliant but most 
 unscrupulous personage was knighted by Charles II., and became deputy -governor of 
 Jamaica. A higher subordination of the love of gold to the passion for dominion in him, 
 might probably have made him emperor of the West Indies, some dream of which seems 
 at one time to have occupied his mind. In 1680 and 1689, extensive buccaneering expedi- 
 tions were made to the Pacific, even as far as the coasts of China, of which the best 
 record is preserved in the lively pages of William Dampier, himself an important part- 
 ner in these bold adventures. The war between France and Britain, after the accession 
 of William III., dissolved the ancient alliance of the French and English buccaneers. 
 After the peace of Ryswick, and the accession of the Bourbon Philip V. to the Spanish 
 crown (1701), they finally disappeared, to make way for a race of mere cut-throats and 
 vulgar desperadoes, not yet utterly extinct. The last great event in their history was 
 the capture of Carthagena in 1697, where the booty was enormous. — See the Histm'ies of 
 Burney and Thornberry, Dampier’s Voyages^ and the Narmtiws of Wafer, Ringrove, 
 and Sharp. 
 
 BTJCCA'RI, or Baka.r, a free port of Austrian Croatia, on an inlet of the gulf of Quar- 
 nero, 5 m. e.s.e. from Fiume. It is beautifully situated on the slope of a hill, and has 
 a small but very good and safe harbor. The linen manufacture is carried on here, and 
 ship-building is actively prosecuted ; but the inhabitants are principally sailors and fish- 
 ermen. The tunny fishery is the chief fishery of this part of the Adriatic. The vine is 
 extensively cultivated in the neighborhood of B., and good wine is made. Pop. ’69, 
 2116. 
 
 BTJCCINA'TOR (from Lat. huccinare, to sound a trumpet), the name of a muscle, situ- 
 ated in the substance of the cheeks, it is so called because, when the cheeks are distended 
 with air, the contraction of the B muscles forces it out. 
 
 BUCCI'NO, a t. of s. Italy, in the province of Salerno, pleasantly situated on the 
 Botta, which at this point is crossed by an old Roman bridge, about 14 m. e. from 
 Campagna. In its vicinity are quarries yielding fine marble. Pop. ’72, 6049. 
 
 BUC'CINUM. See Whelk. 
 
 BUCCLETJCH'. The Scotts, dukes of B., are one of the oldest and most distinguished 
 families in Scotland. The family traces its descent from sir Richard le Scott, in the 
 reign of Alexander III. (1249-85) ; but the ancestor who first becomes historically con- 
 spicuous is sir Walter Scott of Branxholm and B., a brave and powerful chieftain on the 
 border. B., which from this early period was destined to be associated with the farnily 
 title, is a lonely estate in the vale of Rankleburn, at the head of Ettrick, Selkirkshire. 
 The sir Walter alluded to flourished in the reign of James V., and on some incidents in 
 his life, his great namesake founded the Lay of the Last Minstrel. Sir Walter fought 
 bravely at the battle of Pinkie, 1547, and was slain in an encounter with sir Walter KeiT 
 of Cessford in the streets of Edinburgh, 1552. He was succeeded, by his gi'andson, sir 
 Walter Scott of B., a knight “wise, true, and modest,” who was succeeded by his only 
 son, who bore the same name. This sir Walter is celebrated for his military exploits on 
 the border, not the least daring of his enterprises being the rescue of one of his attend- 
 ants, Kinmont Willie, from the castle of Carlisle. (See Minstrelsy^ of the Scottish Border.) 
 For his services to the state, in which is to be reckoned his carrying away of large num- 
 bers of the border marauders to foreign wars, he was raised to the peerage, 1606, as lord 
 Scott of Buccleuch. Dying in 1611, he was succeeded by his only son, Walter, who, in 
 1619, received an elevation in the peerage, as lord Whitchester and Eskdale, and earl of 
 Buccleuch. Through his son Francis, the second earl, the family, by a grant, acquired 
 the extensive domain of Liddesdale, formerly belonging to the house of Bothwell ; also, 
 by purchase, large territories in Eskdale; and in 1642, the barony of Dalkeith, from. the 
 
135 
 
 BuccarL 
 
 Bucer. 
 
 Morton family. Francis left only two daughters, the eldest of whom dying without 
 issue, the titles and estates went to her sister, Anne, who, in 1663, was married to James, 
 duke of Monmouth, an illegitimate son of Charles II. In 1673, this pair were created 
 duke and duchess of B., earl and countess of Dalkeith, etc. After a marriage of 
 twenty-two years, the unhappy duke, on a charge of rebellion, was tried and beheaded, 
 1685; the duchess, however, retaining her honors, title, and estates, as in her own right. 
 The duke left a family of four sons and two daughters. The duchess afterwards mar- 
 ried Lord Cornwallis, by whom she had a son and two daughters, and died in 1732, 
 at Dalkeith house, where she had occasionally resided in princely splendor. James, her 
 eldest surviving son, pre- deceased his mother, and his son, Francis, by the death of his 
 grandmother, succeeded to the title of duke of Buccleuch. Notwithstanding the con- 
 nection with the son of Charles II., the family still preserved the surname of Scott. 
 Duke Francis, in 1743, obtained a restoration of his grandfather Monmouth’s earldom 
 of Doncaster and barony of Tynedale, and was hence a British peer. In 1720, he mar- 
 ried a daughter of James, second duke of Queensberry, and by this fortunate connection, 
 a portion of the Queensberry estates, along with the dukedom, merged in the family of 
 B. in 1810. Henry, third duke of B., born in 1746, was the greatest and most estimable 
 of his family. He had for his tutor and friend Dr. Adam Smith, and his beneficent 
 talents were directed towards the improvement of his extensive estates in the south of 
 Scotland. The amelioration of the soil, the planting of trees, the making of roads, the 
 improving of the breed of sheep, and the social elevation of his numerous tenantry, 
 uniformly engaged his attention. He died in 1812, and was succeeded by his eldest son, 
 Charles, fourth duke, who, dying in 1814, was succeeded by his son, Walter Francis, born 
 1806, who bears the title of duke of B. and Queensberry, marquis of Dumfriesshire, 
 earl of Drumlanrig, B., Sanquhar, Dalkeith, etc., in the peerage of Scotland; and earl 
 of Doncaster, etc., in the peerage of England. His eldest son, William Henry, takes 
 the courtesy title of earl of Dalkeith. The duke, like his grandfather, is noted for the 
 improvement of his estates, which in Scotland are situated in Mid-Lothian, Dumfries- 
 shire, Roxburghshire, Selkirkshire, Peeblesshire, Lanarkshire, and stewartry of Kirk- 
 cudbright; his farms everywhere being noted for their good steadings and thriving ten- 
 antry. As an heritor, the number of churches and school-houses which the duke has 
 been concerned in building is very considerable. He has one small possession in Fife — 
 the island of Inchkeith (q.v). The greatest public improvement ever executed in Scot- 
 land by an individual at his own private cost, was carried out by the duke of B. at vast 
 expense. We allude to the creation of the deep-water harbor and port of Granton, on 
 the firth of Forth, 2 m. from Edinburgh. The duke of B. was one of the chief 
 patrons of church livings in Scotland, but waived all claim to compensation when pat- 
 ronage was abolished in 1874. The duke is lord-lieutenant of Mid-Lothian and Roxburgh- 
 shire, and captain of the Queen’s body-guard in Scotland. 
 
 BTJCEN'TAIIR, the name of a ship which acquired much celebrity in Venice at a time 
 when that state was a flourishing republic. A B. was known as early as the end of the 
 12th c. ; and a vwssel of the same name was burnt when the French took Venice more than 
 six centuries afterwards; but it is not certain whether this was the same vessel, main- 
 tained by being repeatedly patched up with new ribs and planking. The B. is described 
 as having been a galley, about 100 ft. long by 21 in extreme breadth; on a lower deck 
 were 32 banks or row5 of oars, manned by 168 rowers; and on an upper deck was accom- 
 modation for the illustrious visitors who occasionally came on board. The whole of the 
 fittings were of the most gorgeous character. Although propelled mainly by oars, there 
 were 40 mariners employed in other ways to manage the galley. The B. was employed only 
 once a year, when the doge “married the Adriatic.” A splendid water-procession was 
 formed, with the doge and the chief notables in the B. , and other distinguished persons 
 in gondolas and feluccas; and when the vessels arrived at the mouth of one of the chan- 
 nels opening into the Adriatic, the doge dropped a ring into the water, using the words: 
 “ We wed thee with this ring in token of our true and perpetual sovereignty. ” This 
 singular ceremony, which took place on Ascension day, arose out of an honor or privi- 
 lege conferred by the pope on the doge in 1177, consequent on a splendid victory gained 
 by the Venetians over the emperor Frederick Barbarossa. 
 
 BTJCEFH'ALTJS (Gr. meaning “ox-head”), the name of the favorite charger of 
 Alexander the great, was probably also the name of a peculiar breed of horses in Thes- 
 saly. According to tradition, Alexander in his boyhood was the first to break in the 
 steed B. , and thus fulfilled the condition stated by an oracle as necessary for gaining 
 the crown of Macedon. — The town Bucephalia, on the river Hydaspes, in India, was 
 founded near the grave of B. which died during Alexander’s Indian expedition. 
 
 BUCER, Maktin, one of the church reformers of the 16th c., was b. 1491, at Schlett- 
 stadt in Alsace. His real name was Kuhhorn (cow-horn), but in accordance with the 
 fashion of his time among scholars, he changed it into its Greek equivalent, Bucer being 
 derived from bous, an ox, and keras, a horn. At the age of 14 he entered the order of 
 Dominicans. At the suggestion of his superior, he went to Heidelberg to study theol- 
 ogy, devoting his attention, however, at the same time to the Greek and Hebrew lan- 
 guages. While young he was appointed chaplain to the elector of the palatinate. An 
 acquaintance with the works of Erasmus had already inclined B. toward Protestantism, 
 
Buceros. 
 
 Buchanan. 
 
 136 
 
 and his views were confirmed by the influence of Luther at the Heidelberg disputations 
 in 1518. Following the example given by Luther at the diet of Worms (1521), B. became 
 one of the boldest and most decided of the German reformers. In 1523, he went to 
 Strasburg, where he introduced the doctrines of the reformation. In the disputes 
 between Luther and Zwingli, he adopted a middle course, and endeavored to make 
 reconciliation between them; but his view of the sacraments, which approached that of 
 Zwingli, exposed him to Luther’s harsh reprobation. At the diet of Augsburg, where 
 he conducted himself with great circumspection and moderation, he generally accorded 
 with the Lutheran views; but, along with other Stasburg theologians, declined to sub- 
 scribe to the proposed confession of faith, and afterwards drew up the Confessio Tetra- 
 ‘politana. An agreement, however, was subsequently entered into between B. and the 
 Lutherans, and as a disciple of Luther, he appeared at the religious conference of the 
 reformers held at Leipsic. In consequence of his refusal to sign the Interim — a tempo- 
 rary creed drawn up by order of the emperor Charles V. — B. found his situation irk- 
 some in Germany, and therefore accepted the invitation of archbishop Cranmer (1549), 
 and came to England to teach theology at Cambridge, and assist Paul Fagius and others 
 in forwarding the reformation. His modesty, blameless life, and great learning gained 
 many friends in England; but his labors were soon interrupted by death, Feb. 27, 1551. 
 His remains were interred in a church at Cambridge with great solemnity; but during 
 the reign of Mary, his bones, with those of Fagius, were taken from their graves and 
 burned in the market-place. His constant attempts to express himself in language 
 agreeable both to Luther and Zwingli, induced in him at times an obscure, ambiguous, and 
 elusive kind of thought, to which, perhaps, Bossuet refers when he stigmatizes B. as 
 “the great architect of subtleties.” B. was, of course, exposed to many censures and 
 scandals by the assiduous malice of the Roman Catholic theologians, whose fertile imagina- 
 tions during the reformation period were exclusively devoted to the manufacture of inde- 
 cent calumnies; but by Protestant writers he has been highly commended, and by some 
 has been ranked above even Luther and Melanchthon. His best work is a translation and 
 exposition of the Psalms, which he published under the pseudonym Aretinus Felinus 
 (Strasburg, 1529). Hubert intended to edit the whole of B.’s writings in ten volumes, 
 but only one volume appeared (Basel, 1577). 
 
 BU'CEROS. See Hornbill. 
 
 BITCH, Leopold von, one of the most celebrated of German geologists, was b. at 
 Stolpe, in Prussia, in 1774 or 1777, and received instruction under Werner at the mining 
 academy, Freiburg. He afterwards traveled in pursuit of his favorite science, through 
 all the states of Germany, through Scandinavia, as far as the North cape, and through 
 several parts of Great Britain, France, and Italy, visiting the .Canary islands in 1815. His 
 chief writings are — Geological Observations during Travels in Germany and Italy (1802- 
 1809); a Physical Description of the Canary Islands (1825); Travels in Norway and Lapland 
 (1810); and essays On the Jura in Germany (1839); and On the Mountain Systems of 
 Bussia (1840), with several monographs on Ammonites (1832) and other fossils. He was 
 also the author of an excellent geological chart of Germany and its neighboring states, 
 published in 42 plates (2d ed., Berlin, 1832). He died in Berlin, Mar. 4, 1853. B. has 
 been described by an eminent scientific man as “ the only geologist who has attained an 
 equal fame in the physical, the descriptive, and the natural history departments of his 
 science. In all these he has been an originator and a discoverer.” 
 
 BUCK' AN, the n.e. district of Aberdeenshire, consisting of about a fourth of the 
 county, lying between the Ytham and tlie Doveran. Its surface is undulating, the 
 highest points being Mormond hill in the n., 742 ft., and Dudwick hill in the s., 562 
 feet. Portions of the coast are bold and precipitous, especially for a few m. e. of the 
 Doveran mouth, where Troup head is 600 ft. high, ands. of Peterhead, where the coasts 
 rise from 70 to 100 feet. Among the rocks five m. s. of this town are the famous Pul- 
 lers of B., a huge vertical well in the granite margin of the sea, 50 ft. diameter, and 100 ft. 
 deep, into the bottom of which the sea rushes by a natural archway, and, in storms, 
 dashes up the sides with great violence. The eastern parts of B. consist chiefly of 
 granite and gneiss, and the western of clay-slate and old red sandstone. The chief seats 
 of population are Peterhead, Fraserburg, Macduff, and Turriff. B. contains several 
 so-called Druid circles, as well as the remains of the abbey of Deer, and of several 
 castles belonging to the Comyns, who held the earldom of B. , but forfeited their title and 
 property in 1309. 
 
 BUCHAN, David, 1780-1837; an officer in the British navy who spent many years 
 in explorations in the north polar seas. In 1810, he commanded a schooner on the New- 
 foundland station, and made a trip up the river of Exploits, the largest stream in 
 Newfoundland. In 1818, he commanded an arctic expedition for the discovery of the 
 north pole. He reached 80° 34', but was caught in the ice and drifted about between 
 Greenland and Spitzbergen until his vessel was disabled, when he managed to return to 
 England. In 1823, he was commander on the Newfoundland station, and in 1825 high- 
 sheriff of the colony. A few years later he sailed again for the arctic seas, and was 
 never afterwards heard from. He made many important scientific observations concern- 
 ing the variaticn of the needle and ocean currents. 
 
137 
 
 Buceros. 
 
 Buchanan. 
 
 BUCHANAN, a co. in n.e. Iowa, watered by tributaries of the Red Cedar river; 
 576 sq.m. ; pop. ’70, 17,034; in ’80, 18,547. It is tolerably level and well timbered. The 
 Dubuque and Sioux City railroad traverses the co. near the central portion. Produc- 
 tions chiefly agricultural. Co. seat. Independence. 
 
 BUCHANAN, a co. in n.w. Missouri, on the Missouri river; 450 sq.m.; pop. ’80, 
 49,824 — 3731 colored. Five railroads, or their branches, traverse the county. The soil 
 is fertile; productions chiefly agricultural. Co. seat, St. Josephs. 
 
 BUCHANAN, a co. in s.w. Virginia, on the Kentucky border, bounded n.w. by the 
 Cumberland mountains; 500 sq.m.; pop. ’70, 3777; in ’80, 5694. The surface is rough 
 and much of it mountainous. Agriculture is the chief occupation. Co. seat, Buchanan. 
 
 BUCHANAN, Claudius, d.d., 1766-1815; an English missionary; in 1796, chaplain 
 to the East India company. He wrote Christian Researches in Asia, and other works 
 which had much influence in stimulating and supporting missions. 
 
 BUCHANAN, Franklin, b. Md., about 1800; a midshipman in 1815, and in 
 1845 the first superintendent of the U. S. naval academy. In 1855, he was made a capt., 
 and in 1861 had command of the Washington navy-yard. He resigned when the rebel- 
 lion broke out, but as his state did not leave the union, he asked to be restored. This 
 was refused, and he went over to the confederates, having command of the Merrimac in 
 the attack upon the union fleet in Hampton Roads, in which engagement he was 
 wounded. Two years later, as admiral he commanded the confederate fleet so thoroughly 
 defeated by Farragut in Mobile bay. On that occasion he was wounded and taken pris- 
 oner, but released when the war closed. 
 
 BUCHANAN, George, one of the most learned men of the 16th c., and a distinguished 
 poet and historian, was b. of poor parents in Killearn, in the co. of Stirling, -in Feb., 
 1506. He was sent to the university of Paris by his uncle, who died two years after- 
 wards, leaving B. without the means of prosecuting his studies. He returned home, 
 served in one campaign’against the English, and entered St. Andrews university in 1524, 
 where, in the following year, he took his degree of b.a. In 1526, he went to Paris, and 
 became a student in the Scots college there. He subsequently obtained a professorship 
 in the college of St. Barbe, but returned to Scotland about 1537. During his residence 
 on the continent, B. adopted the tenets of the reformed faith. A satire entitled Somnium, 
 exposing the Franciscans, brought down upon him the wrath of the priests; and he had 
 resolved upon seeking safety in his old college at Paris, when king James V. took him 
 under his protection, and intrusted him with the education of one of his illegitimate sons. 
 At the request of the king, B. wrote another and more pungent satire against the monks, 
 entitled Franciscanus, increasing their anger, and rousing especially the bitter hatred of 
 the powerful cardinal Beaton, who after a time procured B.’s arrest, and even went so 
 far as to offer the king money for his life. Though to James was entirely due the pub- 
 lication of the offensive satire, he did not interfere to protect the poet, who, however, 
 contrived to effect his escape to Paris. After spending some years at Bordeaux and 
 Paris in tuition, he accompanied the learned Portuguese, Govea, to the university of Coim- 
 bra, in Portugal, as one of his associates. After the death of Govea, B. was arrested as 
 a heretic, and was for some time detained in a monastery, where he began his splendid 
 Latin metrical version of the Psalms. In 1551, being restored to liberty, he went 
 to England; but soon afterwards went to Paris. About 1560, he returned to Scot- 
 land, where he made an open confession of Protestantism. His reputation as a scholar 
 gained for him a good reception at the court of the young queen, Mary, whose classical 
 tutor he became. But his religious and political principles attached him to the party 
 of the regent Moray, by whose influence he was appointed principal of St. Leonard’s 
 college, in St. Andrews university, in 1566. In the following year, he was chosen mod- 
 erator of the general assembly — a very high honor for a layman. The doings of Mary, 
 which scandalized the Scottish public, disgusted her tutor also, and he accompanied the 
 regent Moray to England, in order to give evidence against her before the commissioners 
 appointed by Elizabeth to inquire into her guilt. His Beiectio Maria Regina, laid before 
 these functionaries, was industriously circulated by the English court. In 1570, B. was 
 appointed tutor to the young king, James VI. (afterwards James I.), who owed to him 
 all the erudition of which in later life he was so vain. No considerations of the^ future 
 position of his pupil were allowed to interfere with B.’s treatment of him, which was 
 strict, if not even stern; and in dedicating his De Jure Regni apud Scotos to the young 
 monarch in 1579, he warned him against favorites with a freedom remarkable not only 
 in a subservient iDut in any age. In 1570, B. was appointed director of chancery, which 
 he soon resigned, and in the same year was made keeper of the privy seal, an office 
 which he retained until within a short time of his death. The latter years of his life 
 were devoted to the composition of his History of Scotland (published in 1582). He died 
 thirty days after its publication, on the 28th Sept., 1582, and was buried in Greyfriara 
 churchyard, Edinburgh. As a scholar, B. was unrivaled in his age ; and he wrote Latin 
 poetry “with the purity and elegance of an ancient Roman.” He was alike humorous, 
 sarcastic, and profound. His History, written in Latin, is remarkable for the richness, 
 force, and perspicuity of its style, though it has been found fault with for the partiality 
 of its narration of contemporary events; and two years after the author’s death, it, as 
 
Buchanan. 
 
 Buchanlteg. 
 
 138 
 
 well as De Jure Regni, etc., was condemned by the Scottish parliament, and every per- 
 son possessed of copies was ordered to surrender them within 40 days, in order that they 
 might be purged of “ the offensive and extraordinary matters” they contained. Two 
 collected editions of B.’s works have been published — one by Ruddiman in 1715, 2 vols. 
 folio ; and another by Burman, Leyden, in 2 vols. quarto, in 1725. The translations 
 that hav’e yet appeared are far from doing justice to the original. 
 
 BUCHANAN, James, a distinguished American statesman, was b. in Franklin co., 
 Penn., April 13, 1791. He was educated at Dickenson college, adopted the profession 
 of the law, and, in 1814, was elected a member of the Pennsylvanian house of represen- 
 tatives. In 1820, he was chosen a member of congress, and remained so till Mar. 4, 
 1831. In May of that year, he was nominated ambassador to Russia. He returned to 
 the United States in 1834, and soon after was elected a member of the senate; he was 
 re-elected in Dec., 1836, and 1843. Appointed by president Polk, in Mar., 1845, 
 secretary of state, he held that ofBce till the close of Polk’s presidency. Ambassador to 
 England in 1854, B. resigned that post the following year, and in 1856 was elected presi- 
 dent of the United States. His administration was, on the whole, popular. He was in 
 favor of the maintenance of slavery, but when the civil war broke out he warmly 
 embraced Lincoln’s policy. He died June 1, 1868. 
 
 BUCHANAN, James the 16th elected president of the United States, filling the 
 18th presidential term (1857-61); b, at Stony Batter, Franklin co., Penn., April 22, 1791; 
 d. Lancaster, Penn., June 1, 1868. He was the son of an Irish emigrant and an American 
 mother, educated at Dickinson college, bred to the law, and admitted to practice in 1812. 
 Though a professed federalist, he served as a private in the war with England. In 1814, 
 he was a member of the Pennsylvania legislature, and in 1820 was elected to congress, 
 where he served through five terms. In 1828, he favored Jackson for president, and in 
 the congress of 1829-31 was chairman of the committee on the judiciary. After leaving 
 congress, Jackson sent him as minister to Russia, where he concluded the first commer- 
 cial treaty between the two countries, securing valuable privileges in the Black and 
 Baltic seas. In 1833, he was chosen to the United States senate, where he supported 
 Jackson, especially in the claim that appointments might be made by the president alone 
 when the senate was not in session. When it was proposed to exclude from congress 
 petitions for the abolition of slavery, B. desired to prevent even the discussion of slavery by 
 congress, proposing to leave the matter solely to the slaveholding states, and holding that 
 congress had no power over it. He favored the recognition of Texan independence, and 
 the annexation of that republic to the United States. In the affair of the French 
 indemnity, he supported Jackson’s demand for payment or war. During Van Buren’s 
 administration Buchanan supported the independent treasury scheme ; favored the pre- 
 emption of public lands, and opposed the bill to prevent the interference of federal officers 
 in elections. He sustained the veto power under Tyler, and opposed the ratification of 
 the Ashburton treatyj which settled the dispute concerning the northern boundary. When 
 the question of the annexation of Texas came to the senate there were but 15 votes in its 
 favor, but the measure was carried in the form of joint resolutions only three days before 
 the close of the term of congress. B. was the only member of the senate committee of 
 foreign affairs to report in favor of annexation. Polk made him secretary of state. In this 
 position he had to deal with the north-western boundary question, whence arose the famous 
 partisan cry “ 54° 40' or fight.” Both England and the United States had formally claimed 
 the territory between the Pacific coast and the Rocky mountains up to the Russian boun- 
 dary, but after much negotiation the line of 49° n. lat. was agreed upon. During the war 
 with Mexico, B. was busy in avoiding or preventing the interference of other nations. He 
 was in private life during the discussion and adoption of the compromise measures of 1850, 
 but fully approved them. When Pierce came into office in 1853, he sent B. as minister 
 to Great Britain, where he was engaged in endeavors to settle a series of questions con- 
 cerning Central American affairs. In the course of these duties he was present at the 
 Ostend conference, the object of which was to bring about the sale of Cuba to the United 
 States; but nothing resulted beyond talk. In April, 1856, B. returned to the United 
 States, and in June was nominated for president by the democratic party. The electoral 
 vote was: for Buchanan, 174; for John C. Fremont (candidate of the newly organized 
 republican party), 114; for Millard Fillmore (native-American), 8. Thepopular vote was: 
 Buchanan, 1,838,169; Fremont, 1,341,264; Fillmore, 874,534; majority against Buchanan, 
 377,629; plurality for him, 496,905. He had the votes of every slaveholding state except 
 Maiyland, which went alone for Fillmore. The vote for Fillmore also gave Buchanan 
 California and New Jersey. In the executive chair his effort was to smother and put 
 out of sight the agitation concerning slavery not only in new states, but everywhere. 
 Among other acts of his administration was the temporary pacification of the Mormon 
 troubles, and the vetoing of the homestead bill. After Lincoln’s election, B. was more than 
 ever anxious to suppress the slavery discussion, and pointedly accused the north, in his 
 last message to congress, as to blame for the impending disorder, because of that discus- 
 sion, which had “ produced its malign influence on the slaves, and inspired them with a 
 vague idea of freedom.” While holding that the executive ought to take care that the 
 laws be faithfully executed, he shrank before the secession of South Carolina, declaring 
 that he could not employ force except upon the demand of the lawful authorities of the slate, 
 
139 
 
 Buchanan. 
 
 Buchaniteg. 
 
 and in South Carolina no such authority then existed. His argument was that, if a state 
 had withdrawn, or was even attempting to withdraw, from the union, there was no power 
 in the constitution to prevent the act. A few days later he was confronted by commis- 
 sioners from South Carolina (that state having passed an act of secession on the 20th 
 Dec., 1860), who came to demand the surrender by the president to the seceded state of 
 all public property, and to negotiate for the continuance of ‘ ‘ peace and amity between 
 that commonwealth and the government at Washington.” His reply was that he had 
 no power, and could only refer the matter to congress; he could only receive them as 
 '‘private gentlemen of the highest character,” and treat respectfully such propositions 
 as they might make. He did, however, decline to accede to their demand for the 
 removal of the troops from Charleston harbor. The cabinet immediately broke up. Gen. 
 Cass was secretary of state, but resigned when the president refused to order reinforce- 
 ments to the Charleston ports; the secretary of the treasury and the secretary of the 
 interior had already gone ; Floyd, secretary of war, resigned because the president refused 
 to withdraw the troops. The last official act of president Buchanan of any importance 
 was characteristic of his whole course where the south and its institutions were con- 
 cerned. It was embodied in a letter from the secretary of war (Holt) to the governor of 
 South Carolina ( J an, 15, 1861), which declared, ‘ ‘ by order of the president, ” that ‘ ‘ the forts 
 in that state, in common with the other forts, arsenals, and property of the United States, 
 are in charge of the president, and that if assailed, no matter from what quarter or 
 under what pretext, it is his duty to protect them by all the means which the law has 
 placed at his disposal ;” adding that it was not his present purpose to garrison the forts, 
 as he “ considered them entirely safe under the protection of the law-abiding sentiment 
 ^or which the people of South Carolina had ever been distinguished; but should they be 
 attacked or menaced with danger of being seized or taken from the possession oi the 
 United States, he could not escape from his constitutional obligations to defend and 
 preserve them.” After the installment of his successor, B. retired altogether from public 
 affairs, but a year or two after the rebellion had been put down, he published a defense 
 of his administration and the measures he adopted for the preservation of peace. He 
 was never married. 
 
 BUCHANAN, Robert, b. 1841; a poet of Scotland, educated at Glasgow university. 
 In 1860, he published Undertones, a volume of verses; in 1865, Idyls and London Poems, 
 In the same year he edited Wayside Posies, and translated ballads from the Danish. 
 Among later works are Na/poleon Fallen — a Lyrical Drama; The Land of Lorne, include 
 ing the Cruise of the Fern to the Outer Hebrides; The Drama of Kings; On the Fleshly 
 School of Poetry (a severe criticism of some living English poets); Master Spirits; A Mad 
 Prince (acted at the Haymarket); and his poems collected in 3 vols. in 1874. 
 
 BTTCH'ANITES, an extraordinary sect of fanatics, which sprang up in the w. of Scot- 
 land in 1783, but has now become extinct. The founder of the sect was Mrs. or Lucky 
 Buchan, b. in Banffshire in 1738, of humble parentage. Her maiden name was Elspeth 
 Simpson. She early fell into habits of vice, but with her licentiousness were combined 
 a sort of religious fervor and extreme antinomian opinions. In 1782, being resident in 
 Glasgow with her husband, a potter, who ultimately divorced her, she became 
 acquainted with the Rev. Hugh White, minister of the Relief congregation in Irvine, a 
 weak vain man and coarse declamatory preacher, who adopted her opinions, for which 
 he was deposed by his presbytery, and began along with her to found a new sect in 
 Irvine. Popular tumults arose, which led to her expulsion from the town in May, 
 1784. Mr. White and his wife, with other devoted adherents, male and female, accom- 
 panied her, regarding her as a divinely commissioned person, and expecting her to lead 
 them to the place where Christ was speedily to appear again on earth. She was 
 addressed as “friend mother in the Lord,” and among other more blasphemous preten- 
 sions, gave herself out to be the woman mentioned in Rev. xii.. White being repre- 
 sented as the “man-child” whom she had brought forth. She and her followers 
 traveled towards Nithsdale, and found a resting-place in a barn at New Cample, near 
 Thornhill, where they afterwards built for themselves a house of one apartment with a 
 loft, in which they all dwelt, supported chiefly by the money of the more wealthy of 
 their number. A few additional persons joined them. They lived in expectation of 
 being translated to heaven without death; and on one occasion, after a fast of extraor- 
 dinary duration, by which many of them were reduced to a very spectral condition, 
 were led out by their prophetess to a hill-top to be immediately taken up, but returned 
 disappointed. After this, dissensions began to arise among them; and some, recovering 
 from their infatuation, left the society. Their expected heaven was one of mere sensual 
 delights; and it is now sufficiently ascertained that they lived in unrestrained sexual 
 intercourse — for they condemned marriage as unworthy of Christians — and that they 
 systematically practiced infanticide. Yet they were protected from the outbreakings of 
 popular indignation, and no investigation was made by the authorities. On the failure 
 of their means of subsistence, they took a farm in a moorish part of the stewartry of 
 Kirkcudbright ; and those who remained of them accumulated by their industry the 
 means of purchasing a small property, on which was built the flrst house of the village 
 of Crocketford, where they Anally became extinct, the last of them surviving till 1846, 
 full even in his old age of the strange delusions of his youth, and preserving in his house 
 
Bnchan-ness. 
 
 Bucking^ham. 
 
 140 
 
 the bones of Lucky Buchan, which were buried with him in his grave. — See The Buch- 
 etniteafrom First to Last, by Joseph Train. (Edin. 1846.) 
 
 BUCHAN-NESS', the easternmost promontory of Scotland, in the n.e. of Aberdeen- 
 ghire, 3 m. s. of Peterhead, in lat. 57° 28' n., and long. 1° 46' west. A light-house, 130 
 ft. high, with a revolving light, has been erected here. It may be stated that the low 
 rocks at Peterhead stretch a little further e. than the Buchan-ness. In the sea off the B. 
 lie the Buchan Deeps, a great trough 50 to 90 fathoms deep, and 25 m. broad, and 
 stretching s. nearly as far as the Bell-rock. Outside lie the Long Forties, a bank at the 
 depth of 35 to 45 fathoms, and 10 to 20 m. broad. 
 
 BUCHAREST', Bukharest', or Bukhorest', the chief city of Wallachia, and capital 
 of Roumania, in a rich and extensive plain on the Dumbovitza, a tributary of the Argish, 
 in lat. 44° 26' n., and long. 26° 5' east. The town is for the most part meanly built, and 
 the streets are very irregular and generally unpaved. There are, however, some hand- 
 some hotels; and the churches are numerous and many-spired, giving to the place a 
 picturesque appearance. The prince’s palace, a large structure in the center of the 
 town, has no claim to architectural beauty. The number of cafes and gambling-tables 
 is excessive ; and altogether B. has the unenviable reputation of being the most disso- 
 lute capital in Europe. The corso, or public promenade, is a miniature Hyde Park. B. 
 is the entrepot for the trade between Turkey and Austria, the chief articles of commerce 
 being grain, wool, salt, honey, wax, building-timber, and cattle. It has some small 
 manufactures of woolen cloths and carpets. B. has at various times suffered consider- 
 ably at the hands of the Russians, and is remarkable as the place where in 1812 a treaty 
 was concluded between Turkey and Russia, by which the former ceded to the latter 
 the province of Bessarabia and a portion of Moldavia; Russia waiving her claim to all 
 other territories she had conquered. This treaty also defined the Pruth as the boundary- 
 line between the two empires. During the Crimean campaign, B. was successively 
 occupied by Russians, Turks, and Austrians. Pop. ’66, 141,754; ’75, estimated at 
 250,000. 
 
 BUCHEZ, Philippe Benjamin Joseph, a French physician, writer, and president 
 of the national assembly in 1848, was b. in 1796 at Matagne la Petite, in the department 
 of Ardennes, and studied medicine in Paris, 1815. He became involved in several 
 plots against the Bourbons, was active in the conspiracy of the French Carbonari (q.v.), 
 and supported the doctrines of St. Simon (q.v.); but, after editing for some time the 
 communist journal Le Producteur, he separated from liis colleagues. Curiously enough, 
 during all his active career of underhand politics, he was prosecuting his learned stud- 
 ies, and in 1825 published a Precis Elementaire d'Hyghne, besides editing the Journal des 
 Progres des Sciences et Institutions Medicates. After the revolution, 1880, B. established 
 and conducted the journal U Europeen, the organ of Neo- Catholicism ; and in concert 
 with M. Roux Lavergne, began a republican history of the French revolution. All his 
 writings are marked by original views and arguments in favor of the belief in human 
 progress. After the Feb. revolution, 1848, B. was made president of the national assem- 
 bly; but by his want of energy during the disturbance of May 15, he incurred the cen- 
 sure of all parties. On the inauguration of the empire, B. returned to his studies. He 
 died in 1866. 
 
 BUCHNER, Friedrich Karl Christian Ludwig, b. 1824; a German atheistic 
 philosopher. He was a practicing physician, in the school of Tubingen, whence he was 
 removed because of his publication of the doctrine that nothing beyond material force 
 is known to man (published in English as Force and Matter). The main ideas of his 
 doctrines are the eternity of matter, the indestructibility of force, the co-existence of 
 light and life, and the infinit}-^ of forms of being in time and space. His works have 
 been widely circulated in his own and other languages. 
 
 BUCHU. See Bucku, ante. 
 
 BUCK, a name sometimes distinctively appropriated to the male of the fallow deer 
 (q.v.), the female of which is a doe. But the term B. is often also applied to the male of 
 other species of deer, as of the roebuck (q.v.), although never to that of the red deer (see 
 Deer), which, when mature, is a Stag or a Hart. 
 
 BUCKAU, a t. in Saxony on the Elbe, adjoining Magdeburg; pop. ’71, 9696. It has 
 extensive machine works, and several important manufactories. 
 
 BUCKBEAN, or Marsh Tre'foil {Menyanthes trifoUata), a plant of the natural order 
 gentianece (q.v.), the only known species of its genus, widely distributed in all the colder 
 parts of the northern hemisphere, and common in Britain. It has been described as 
 “ perhaps the most beautiful ” of all British plants. It grows in rnarshy places, its creep- 
 ing root-stalks (or rhizomes) and densely matted roots often rendering boggy ground firm. 
 The leaves are ternate, like those of the trefoils or clovers, and are supported on pretty 
 long stalks. The flower-stalk bears a compound raceme of 10 to 20 white flowers, exter- 
 nally tipped with red. The calyx is 5-parted ; the corolla funnel-shaped, with a spread- 
 ing *5-lobed limb, shaggy on the inner surface, with thick fleshy hairs. The fruit is a 
 one-celled, two-valved capsule. The leaves are destitute of smell, but very bitter. 
 From them is prepared a valuable bitter extract, which has long been used in cases of 
 dyspepsia and disorders of the bowels, and which was also formerly employed in intermit- 
 
141 
 
 Buchan-ness. 
 
 Buckingham. 
 
 tent fevers. An infusion is also sometimes used, and sometimes the dried and powdered 
 leaves. The whole plant seems to possess the same bitter and tonic properties. It is 
 sometimes used in Germany as a substitute for hops. The root-stock, however, which 
 is black and jointed, contains a considerable quantity of a kind of starch, which is sep- 
 arated from the bitter substance, and used as food in some of the northern parts of 
 Europe. 
 
 BUCKEYE. See Horse Chestnut. 
 
 BUCK-HOUND, a hunting- dog once common in Britain, when buck-hunting was a 
 most fashionable amusement, but of which few packs now exist. The buck-hound 
 resembles a dwarf Stag-hound (q.v.), and possesses great strength and perseverance. 
 Bucks are, however, often hunted by other kinds of hounds. 
 
 BUCKINGHAM, a co. in central Virginia on the James and Appomattox rivers, tra- 
 versed by the James canal; pop. ’80, 15,540—8715 colored. The surface is hilly, but the 
 soil near the rivers is good. There is a gold mine near Willis mountain, and iron and 
 slate are found. Co. seat, Marysville. 
 
 BUCKINGHAM, the old co. t. of Buckinghamshire, in the n. part of the shire, is situ- 
 ated on the Ouse — which flows round the town, and has three bridges. B. is 61 m. n.w. 
 of London by rail. It returns one member to parliament. Pop. ’71, 7545. Bobbin 
 lace is the chief manufacture, but it is on the decline. B. is a place of considerable 
 antiquity. Edward the elder fortifled it in 978, and the Danes captured it in 1010. The 
 •earls of Buckingham built a castle here soon after the Norman conquest. Edward III. 
 made it a staple for wool. Here Catharine of Aragon received the news of the battle of 
 Flodden, and Charles I. had his head-quarters in B. for a few days in 1644. 
 
 BUCKINGHAM, Duke of, George Villiers, the favorite of James I. and Charles I. 
 •of England, third son of sir George Villiers, was b. at his father’s seat of Brookesley, 
 Leicestershire, Aug. 20, 1592. Knighted in April, 1616, and sworn a gentleman of the bed- 
 chamber on Jan. 1, 1617, he became master of the horse and a knight ^of the garter. 
 Created the same year baron of Whaddon and viscount Villiers, and in Jan. follow- 
 ing earl of B., and sworn of the privy-council, he was next made a marquis, and 
 appointed lord-admiral of England, chief -justice in Eyre of parks and forests s. of 
 the Trent, master of the king’s bench office, high steward of Westminster, and constable 
 of Windsor castle. In 1620, he married the daughter of the earl of Rutland, the richest 
 heiress in the kingdom. In 1623, while negotiations were in progress with the Spanish 
 court for a marriage between the infanta and the prince of Wales, afterwards Charles I., 
 B. persuaded the latter to go himself to Madrid and prosecute his suit in person. The 
 ultimate failure of the negotiations has been ascribed to B.’s arrogance. In his absence 
 he was created a duke, and on his return nominated lord-warden of the cinque ports, 
 and steward of the manor of Hampton court. By his advice, James declared war against 
 Spain. On the accession of Charles I., in 1625, B. maintained his ascendency at court, but 
 ^fter the ill-fated expedition against Cadiz, he became odious to the nation, and was 
 saved from impeachment only by the king’s dissolving parliament. The treaty for the 
 marriage of Charles with the princess Henrietta of France was concluded by him, but 
 he was not allowed to return to Paris, in consequence of his audacity in lifting his eyes 
 to the French queen. In 1627, with an armament of 100 sail and 7000 soldiers, he 
 appeared before Rochelle, then in possession of the Huguenots, who refused him admis- 
 sion within the harbor. His troops then made an ill-conducted descent on the neighbor- 
 ing isle of Rhe, and returned to England beaten and disgraced. He soon after under- 
 took a second expedition to Rochelle, and proceeded to Portsmouth for embarkation, 
 when he was assassinated by a discontented subaltern-officer, named Felton, Aug. 23, 
 1628, in his 36th year. 
 
 BUCKINGHAM, 2d Duke of (George Villiers), a brilliant but profligate nobleman, 
 son of the preceding, was b. at Wallingford house, Westminster, Jan. 30, 1627, and 
 studied at Cambridge. On the outbreak of the civil wars, he served in the royal army ; 
 his estates were confiscated by the parliament, and he took refuge on the continent. 
 He attended Charles II. into Scotland, and after the battle of Worcester, in 1651, went 
 s,gain into exile. Returning secretly into England, he married, in 1657, the daughter of 
 lord Fairfax, the parliamentary general, to whom his forfeited estates had been assigned. 
 Arrested by Cromwell, and committed to the Tower, he was afterwards removed to 
 Windsor castle, but released on the abdication of Richard Cromwell. At the restoration, 
 he reaovered his estates, and was made master of the horse, and sworn of the privy- 
 council. He was mainly instrumental in the fall of the chancellor. Clarendon, whom 
 he made an object of ridicule to the king, and was one of Charles’s confidential minis- 
 ters, who, from the initial letters of their titles, were called “the Cabal.” Engaging 
 in 1666 in some treasonable practices for effecting a change in the government, he was 
 deprived of all his offices at court, but, on his submission, soon recovered them. In 
 1670, he was sent ambassador to France, and was employed on some other embassies. 
 He was elected chancellor of the university of Cambridge in 1671. Supporting the non- 
 conformists in 1674, he opposed the test act, and was deeply engagedinthe popish plot. 
 After Charles’s death, in 1685, B. retired to his manor of Helmsley, in Yorkshire, and 
 amused himself with the chase. He died at Kirkby-Moorside, April 16, 1688, and was 
 
Buckingham. 
 
 Buckle. 
 
 142 
 
 interred in Westminster abbey. The manufacture of glass and crystal is said to have- 
 been introduced into England from Venice by him. B. was the author of several stage- 
 plays, of which the best is Tlie Rehearsal, a comedy; A Satire against Mankind j an(t 
 some poems. 
 
 BUCKINGHAM, James Silk, a modern traveler and popular lecturer, the son of a. 
 farmer, b. in 1786, at Flushing, near Falmouth, Cornwall; when a boy, went to sea, 
 and made several voyages to Lisbon. After years of unsettled and wandering life, he, 
 in 1816, established a journal at Calcutta, but the boldness of his censures on the Indiau 
 government led to his expulsion from the presidency of Bengal. His lectures, on his 
 return to England, against the East India company monopoly, and in support of open- 
 ing the trade to China, tended greatly to direct public attention to the subject. In 
 London, he established The Oriental Herald, and The Athenceum, now the leading 
 weekly literary journal. Subsequently, he traveled through the United States, and from 
 1832 to 1837 was M.P. for Sheffield. He was projector and secretary of the British and 
 foreign institute, literary club, 1843-1846; and president of the London temperance- 
 league, 1851. B. was the author of numerous works of travel on the continent, in the 
 east, and in America. He was engaged on his autobiography, two volumes of which 
 were published before his death, which took place June 30, 1855. 
 
 BUCKINGHAM, Joseph Tinker, 1779-1861; an American journalist, native of 
 Connecticut. He was bred a printer, and in 1800 went to Boston, where, six years- 
 later, he began The Polyanthus, a monthly magazine, which was soon suspended, but 
 resumed in 1812. In 1809, he published a weekly called The Ordeal; from 1817 to- 
 1828, The New England Galaxy and Masonic Magazine; and, in 1831, The New England^ 
 Magazine. In 1824, he started the Boston Courier, of which he was editor until 1848. 
 On the 24th of June, 1840, he presided over the celebration (in Boston) of the four 
 hundredth anniversary of the invention of printing. As an editor he was a vigorous- 
 writer, but rather bitter and personal. He was several times elected to the legislature. 
 Besides his ordinary work, he published Specimens of Newspaper Literature, with Per- 
 sonal Memoirs, Anecdotes, and Reminiscences, and Personal Memoirs and Recollections of 
 Editorial Life. 
 
 BUCKINGHAM, William Alfred, ll.d., 1804-75; the “ war governor” of Con- 
 necticut (1858-66), noted for his zeal and untiring energy in support of the union cause 
 during the rebellion. Before his election as governor he was a carpet manufacturer and 
 merchant. In 1869, he was elected U. S. senator. Among his benefactions was $25,000' 
 to the theological school of Yale college. 
 
 BUCKINGHAM, or BUCKINGHAMSHIRE, John Sheffield, Duke of; 1649-1721 ;; 
 son of the second earl of Mulgrave. In the war with Holland, he served in the navy and 
 commanded a ship ; and afterwards, in the land forces, he joined Turenne to study the 
 art of war. James II. made him lord chamberlain and one of the privy council. He 
 acquiesced in the revolution and was in the cabinet of William HI. ; and, on the acces- 
 sion of Anne, with whom he was a personal favorite, he received the privy seal and 
 became lord lieutenant of the North Riding of Yorkshire. He sided with the tories, 
 and held last the dignity of lord president. He wrote two tragedies, and an essay on 
 poetry, and one on satire. 
 
 BUCKINGHAMSHIRE, a south-midland county of England, its greatest length being^ 
 about 54 m., its average breadth 18, and total area 738 sq. miles. The plastic clay 
 tertiary strata occupy the southern parts of the county, which is finely diversified with 
 hill and dale, wood and water. To the n. is a broad chalk-band, including the Chiltern 
 range of chalk-hills, which enter from Oxfordshire, and stretch across the county in a 
 n.e. direction into Bedfordshire, partly covered with heath and wood, and near Ivinghoe 
 and Wendover, above 900 ft. high. Sloping n. from these hills, and crossed by narrower 
 bands of greensand and oolite, is the extensive and very fertile vale of Aylesbury, 
 watered by the Thame. The chief rivers are the Thames, bordering the county on the 
 S.W., the Ouse, Ousel, Colne, and Thame, the latter two falling into the Thames. The 
 Grand Junction canal, and the Great Western and North-western railways, intersect the 
 county on the e. and south. The climate of Bucks is mild and healthy; the soil is 
 mostly good, chalk and clay predominating. About half the county is under tillage, 
 the rest in meadows and pasture. The agriculture is not equal to the capabilities of the 
 land, which is often overcropped and exhausted. The farms are generally small, 
 averaging 200 acres. The cottages are generally good. Wheat and beans are the prin- 
 cipal crops. The chief dairy product is butter, of which four to five millions of pounds 
 are annually sold, chiefiy in London. In the vale of Aylesbury, fattening of cattle is 
 extensively carried on; the sheep are noted for their fine and heavy fieeces; and large 
 numbers of ducks are reared for metropolitan consumption. In 1875, the number of 
 cattle in the county was 68,831; sheep, 292,383; and pigs, 35,370. Beech and oak are 
 the chief timber-trees, but box and juniper are also grown. The chief manufactures are 
 paper, straw-plait, and thread-lace. B. returns 8 members to parliament — 3 for the 
 county and 5 for the boroughs. The chief towns are Aylesbury, Buckingham, Marlow, 
 and Wycombe. B. contains some Roman and British remains, as traces of Watling, 
 Ic^eld, and Akeman streets or ways. The chief ecclesiastical ruins are those of Miss- 
 
143 
 
 Buckingbtam. 
 
 Buckle. 
 
 enclen and Notley abbey, the latter of which has been converted into farm-buildings. 
 There are many examples of early English and decorated architecture. The church of 
 Chetwode, near Buckingham (13th c.), contains some very fine examples of ancient 
 ;glass-staining. Many events of historical interest occurred in this county. It was the 
 scene of contest in the' civil wars of Stephen and John. At Chalfont St. Giles, Milton 
 finished his Paradise Lost, and at Horton, he wrote L' Allegro. At Hampden lived the 
 great patriot of that name; Waller was proprietor of Beaconsfield manor; Atterbury 
 was born at Milton; Stoke Poges churchyard suggested Gray’s Elegy, and is the place 
 of his burial ; at Olney, Cowper lived ; at Gregcries, near Beaconsfield, Burke died and 
 was buried ; Scott, the Biblical commentator, was rector of Aston Sandford ; Herschel’s 
 great telescope still stands at Slough, where he made most of his important discoveries; 
 and at Stowe is a magnificent mansion — one of the finest in England, alike for extent, 
 architecture, and beauty of site — formerly belonging to the duke of Buckingham. Pop. 
 ’71, fi'5,879. 
 
 BUCKLAND, Cykus, b. Conn., 1799; a successful inventor, pattern-maker of the 
 XT. S. armory at Springfield, Mass., and designer of machinery for making arms. 
 He has produced many new machines and tools in the line of arms manufacturing. 
 
 BUCKLAND, Francis Trevelyan, a son of the rev. Dr. Buckland (q.v.), b.at Christ 
 Church college, Oxford, Dec. 17, 1826. He was educated at Winchester school, and at 
 Christ Church college, Oxford. He devoted himself to the study of medicine; and after 
 being house-surgeon of St. George’s hospital, London, was appointed assistant-surgeon 
 to the 2d life-guards in 1854, retiring in 1863. From his boyhood, he manifested an 
 enthusiastic delight in natural history, especially when it could be applied practically to 
 the cultivation of useful quadrupeds, birds, or fish, in which study he was encouraged 
 and guided by his father. He has contributed a vast number of brief papers on various 
 branches of his favorite science to the Times, Meld, Queen, Land and Water (of which he 
 is editor), etc. He is also the author of Curiosities of "Natural History (Lond. 1857 ; 
 second series, 1860; third series, 2 vols., 1866) ; of a work entitled Fish-hatching (Londi. 
 1863); diudi Logbook of a Fisherman and Zoologist and editor of a new edition of 
 
 his father’s Bridgewater treatise (Routledge, 1858); and of White's SeJborne (1876). He 
 was first secretary to the acclimatization society of Great Britain and Ireland. He is 
 an acute observer, and his writings on subjects of natural history in great part exhibit 
 the results of fresh and original observations, which his sprightly style exhibits in a 
 most interesting manner. He has long taken a great interest in fish-culture, and has 
 been actively concerned in the recent endeavors to promote it in England. He has, at 
 his own cost, established under the science and art department. South Kensington, a 
 ^ ‘ museum of economic fish-culture, ” illustrating the natural history of salmon and sea- 
 fish by means of plaster-casts, which he makes with his own hands, and by preparations 
 and dissections in spirits. In 1867, B. was appointed inspector of salmon fisheries for 
 England and Wales, and, in 1870, special commissioner on the salmon fisheries of Scot- 
 land, and in 1877 on the Scotch herring fisheries. 
 
 BUCKLAND, William, d.d., a distinguished geologist, whose labors tended greatly 
 to the advancement of science, was born at Axminster, Devonshire, England, in 1784. 
 Educated at Winchester and Oxford, he was appointed, in 1813, reader in mineralogy 
 in Oxford university. The same year, he was elected a fellow of the geological society, 
 and he was twice its president. In 1818, he became reader in geology at Oxford, and 
 was elected fellow of the royal society. In 1822, he received the Copley medal for 
 an account of an assemblage of fossil teeth and bones of 22 different animals, discovered 
 in a cave at Kirkdale, Yorkshire; and, in 1823, he published a treatise founded on it, 
 -entitled Beliquice Bilumaim, or Observations on Organic Bemains, attesting the Action of 
 u Universal Deluge, a theory which he afterwards saw cause to modify. In 1825, B. 
 was appointed a canon of Christ church, Oxford. In 1827, he was chosen a member of 
 the council of the royal society; in 1832, he was elected president of the British associa- 
 tion at Oxford, its second meeting; and, in 1836, he published his Bridgewater treatise. 
 Geology and Mineralogy Considered with Reference to Natural Theology (2 vols. 8vo). To 
 the transactions of the geological society he contributed many valuable papers ; and his 
 sketch of the structure of the Alps, in the Annals of Philosophy, is esteemed one of the 
 most interesting of his geological writings. In 1845, he was made dean of Westminster, 
 and, in 1847, a trustee of the British museum. Under his great and continuous labors 
 to benefit others, his mental faculties gave way some years before his death, which took 
 place Aug. 14, 1856. 
 
 BUCKLANDIA, a magnificent and beautiful evergreen tree of the natural order hama- 
 melidece (see Witch-Hazel), a native of the mountains. It grows unbranched to the 
 height of 40 ft. , the trunk sometimes 21 ft. in girth at 5 ft. from the ground. The 
 foliage is thick, bright, and glossy. The timber is not valuable. Dr. Hooker thinks 
 that this tree would probably succeed in the mild climate of the' w. of England. 
 
 BUCKLE, Henry Thomas, an author who attained a sudden notability in 1857 by 
 the publication of the first volume of a work entitled The History of Civilization in Eng- 
 land. He was born at Lee, in Kent, Nov. 24, 1823, and was for a very short time 
 at Dr. Holloway’s school in Kentish-town, near London. No other school and no 
 
Suckler. 
 
 }iuckthorn. 
 
 144 
 
 university claims credit for his education, which, nevertheless, was in the highest degree 
 liberal. An easy fortune and a large library enabled Mr. B. to gratify, without any sort- 
 of impediment or restraint, an all-absorbing love of letters. After bringing out a second 
 volume of his work in 1861, he undertook a journey to the east, in order to restore hi». 
 health and extend his knowledge. Having spent the winter in Egypt, he went over the 
 desert to Syria, caught typhus fever by the way, and died at Damascus, May, 1862. 
 
 B.’s plan involved, before tracing the particular history of English civilization, a gen- 
 eral consideration of the progress of those European countries, England, France, Ger- 
 many, Scotland, Spain, and America, in which the elements of mod^ern civilization are 
 originally found. The two volumes published are occupied with this preliminary ex- 
 amination, which they do not even complete. His objects, however, are clear. They 
 are (1) to discover what is the essential spirit of a nation’s history apart from particular 
 men and events, and (2) to trace out the causes of the progress which has been made in. 
 England and France. Under the first head B. endeavors to show that the spirit or char- 
 acter of a people is dependent on material circumstances, such as soil, climate, food, 
 aspect of nature, and the like, and to be sought for in these ; under the second head 
 occurs the theory, the vigorous application of which by B. has startled and offended 
 many readers — viz. , that the progress of society depends upon skepticism ; that the re- 
 tarding force is credulity ; and that the excessive “protection ” exercised by governments, 
 the nobility, the church, etc., over the “people,” has dwarfed and held back the spirit df 
 freedom and civilization. These and other positions are defended by B. with great in- 
 genuity and lucidity of argument and expression, and have been admitted, even by his 
 opponents, to contain much sound truth. He is accused — perhaps not unjustly — of being 
 often one-sided, and of drawing sweeping deductions from an imperfect survey of the 
 facts. He is said to have been one of the best chess-players in the world. See his Mis- 
 cellaneous and Posthumous Works, edited by Miss Helen Taylor; and Pilgrim Memories,. 
 by J. S. Stuart Glennie. 
 
 BUCKLER, in old armor, was a kind of shield worn on the left arm. The bucklers 
 worn by the hastati, or spearmen, among the ancient Romans, were about 4 ft. long, 
 by 2| in width, made of boards, covered on the inside with linen and sheepskin, and on 
 the outside with iron plate. In the middle ages the B. was round, oval, or square in 
 shape, and was frequently made of wicker-work or of hide, strengthened by metal- 
 plates. 
 
 BUCKLES, metal instruments, consisting of a rim and tongue, used for fastening 
 straps or bands in dress and harness. The use of B., instead of shoe-strings, was intro- 
 duced into England during the reign of Charles II. They soon became very fashion- 
 able, attained an enormous size (the largest being called Artois buckles, after the comte^ 
 d’ Artois, brother of the king of France), and were usually made of silver, set with dia- 
 monds and other precious stones. In the latter half of last century the manufacture of B. 
 was carried on most extensively in Birmingham, there being at one time not less than 4000' 
 people employed in that town and its vicinity, who turned out 2,500,000 pairs of B. 
 annually, at the average value of 2s. Qd. per pair. When the trade was at its height, how- 
 ever, fashion changed, and in 1791 we find buckle-makers petitioning the prince of 
 Wales for sympathy, on the ground that the introduction of shoe-strings had nearly 
 ruined their trade. The prince promised to assist them as far as he could, by wearing 
 B. himself, and enjoining his household to do the same; but fashion was too strong 
 even for him, and B. became almost extinct. The opportunity, however, as is remarked 
 by a writer in Notes and Queries for 1854, “ which buckles afford of ornament and ex- 
 pense has preserved them as a part of the court-dress; and of late years they ha v& 
 appeared a little in private society. They are generally, though not always, worn 
 when a prince of the royal famil}'’ is of the party; and at the king’s private parties, 
 although the rest of the dress be that usually worn, buckles are almost indispensable.’^ 
 Large shoe-buckles, of silver or other metal, are still worn by the clergy of several con- 
 tinental countries, as part of their ordinary costume. 
 
 BUCKMINSTER, Joseph, d.d., 1751-1812; an American Congregational clergyman, 
 b. Mass. He graduated at Yale, studied theology, and was for a time tutor in the col- 
 lege. .In 1779, he became pastor of the North church, Portsmouth, N. H., where he 
 remained for a third of a century, retiring only by reason of failing health. He died 
 soon afterwards, while on a visit to Vermont. Dr. B. took deep interest in the contro- 
 versy that in his later years divided the Congregationalists into liberals and conserva- 
 tives. He published many sermons, a memoir of Dr. Mackintosh, and was one of the 
 compilers of the Piscataqua River Prayer Book. His daughter published his memoirs 
 and those of his son. 
 
 BUCKMINSTER, Joseph Stevens, son of Rev. Joseph, 1784-1812. He was edu- 
 cated at Harvard, an4 was a teacher in Phillips Exeter academy, having Daniel Webster 
 for one of his pupils. In 1804, he was made pastor of Brattle street church, Boston, one 
 of the leading congregations in New England. In 1806-7, he traveled in Europe, taking 
 a deep interest in the purchase of books for the Boston Athenaeum. In 1808, he super- 
 vised the republication of Griesbach’s New Testament (in Greek), and was soon after- 
 wards appointed lecturer on biblical criticism at Cambridge. He was a member of 
 most of the important literary societies of the day. His works have been published in 
 
145 
 
 Buckler. 
 
 Buckthorn, 
 
 two volumes. While preparing for his biblical lectures in 1811, he had an attack of epi- 
 lepsy which broke his intellect, and from its effects he died in the following year. 
 
 BUCKNER, Simon Bolivar, b. Ky., 1823; a graduate of West Point who went 
 into the service of the confederacy, issuing an address to the people of Kentucky to take 
 arms against the usurper Abraham Lincoln. He surrendered Fort Donelson and 16,000 
 troops to gen. Grant ; was for a time a prisoner of war, and was finally in Kirby Smith’s 
 surrender to gen. Canby. 
 
 BUCKS, a CO. in e. Pennsylvania, on the New Jersey border, bounded by Delaware 
 river; 600 sq.m.; pop. ’70, 64,336; ’80, 68,654. It possesses mines and quarries of iron, 
 plumbago, zircon, limestone, and sandstone. Surface hilly but well cultivated. The 
 North Pennsylvania, Philadelphia and Trenton, and Doylestown railroads pass through. 
 Productions, corn, oats, hay, potatoes, butter, tobacco, etc. Co. seat, Doylestown. 
 
 BUCKS. See Buckinghamshire, ante. 
 
 BUCKSKIN is a fanciful name for a heavy-made, strong-twilled woolen fabric, for trou- 
 serings — highly milled to about the usual width for such goods — 27 in. ; and cropped and 
 finished, with the pile or nap so shorn as to show the texture through it. 
 
 BUCKSPORT, a t. in Hancock co.. Me., on the Penobscot, 16 m. s. of Bangor; pop. 
 ’70, 3433; ’80, 3056. It is a handsome town, regularly laid out on a gentle slope. At 
 the bend of the river there is a strong fort commanding the narrow's and the river both 
 up and down. As the river seldom freezes here, B. is a convenient winter port for ves- 
 sels bound to Bangor. There are several ship-yards and manufactories. In the last war 
 with England, B. was captured by the British. 
 
 BUCKSTONE, John Baldwin, a distinguished comedian and dramatic writer, was b. 
 in the suburbs of London, in 1802. Preferring the excitement of the stage to the 
 monotony of an attorney’s office, he sought and soon found an opportunity in a provincial 
 town for the display of his theatrical abilities. After a probation in the country, he 
 appeared at the Surrey theater in 1823, and his success was so unequivocal, that he was 
 soon engaged by the “management” of the Adelphi theater, where he continued for 
 many years as leading low comedian. He afterwards played at the Haymarket and 
 Drury Lane theaters, of the former of which he was lessee from 1853 to 1878. He died 
 31st Oct., 1879. B.’s acting was not more noted for its comicality and humor, which 
 never degenerates into vulgarity, than for its distinct appreciation of the peculiar traits 
 in each individual character he assumed. In all his delineations there w'as the same 
 broad general effect, but the details of each w^ere wrought out with great care and 
 minuteness. B. was also a prolific dramatic author, and of the 150 pieces he is said to 
 have written for the stage, several have been highly popular. Among the best known are 
 The Green Bushes; The Flowers of the Forest; Luke the Laborer; The Wreck Ashore; The 
 Bough Diamond; Good for Nothing; the Irish Lion; and Th^ Alarming Sacrifice. 
 
 BUCKTHOB.N, Bhamnus, a genus of shrubs or small trees of the natural order 
 rhamnaceoe (q.v.), distinguished by a bell shaped 4 to 5-cleft calyx, which divides around 
 the middle after flowering, the upper part falling away, and the base remaining and 
 adhering to the fruit; which is globose, and sometimes succuleut, sometimes rather dry 
 or spongy, with 2 to 4 stones. The petals are sometimes wanting. Some of the species 
 are dioecious, some hermaphrodite. They are numerous, and natives of most of the 
 tropical and temperate regions of the world. — The Common Buckthorn {B. catharticus) 
 is a deciduous shrub or low tree, frequent in England and in other parts of Europe and 
 the n. of Asia. The leaves are ovate, crenate, and bright green ; the branches spiny ; the 
 flowers small, yellowish-green, and densely clustered ; male and female flowers on sepa- 
 rate plants; the berries about the size of peas, globular, bluish-black, nauseous, and vio- 
 lently purgative. They were formerly much used in medicine, but now more rarely, 
 and only in the form of a syrup prepared from their juice. They supply the sap green 
 (q.v.) or bladder green of painters. The bark affords a beautiful yellow dye. The B. 
 is sometimes planted for hedges, but is of too straggling a habit. — The Alder Buck- 
 thorn, or Berry-bearing Alder {B. frangula), is also a native of Britain, and is fre- 
 quent in woods and thickets throughout Europe. It is a shrub, rarely a small tree, with 
 spineless branches, oval entire leaves, and small, whitish, axillarv flow'ers, which are in 
 general somewhat clustered. The bark of the twigs is gray, and has a very disgusting 
 smell and a nauseous bitter taste. It was formerly used in medicine, along with that of 
 the last species, and has recently been recommended in many quarters as a remedy for 
 intermittent fevers. It contains principally an acrid bitter extractive, a volatile oil con- 
 taining hydrocyanic acid, and a yellow' coloring matter called rhamnin. The berries ar(j 
 small and black, and violently purgative. It is objected to their use in medicine that 
 much sickness and thirst attend it. The charcoal of the wood is light, and is used foi 
 the preparation of gunpowder. The bark, leaves, and berries are used for dyeing; the 
 bark for dyeing yellow, and with preparations of iron, black; the unripe berries to dye 
 wool green and yellow; the ripe berries to dye it bluish-gray, blue, and green. The 
 flowers are peculiarly grateful to bees. — Dyer’s Buckthorn (B. infectorious), is a low 
 shrub, abundant in the s. of Europe, whose unripe fruit yields a brilliant yellow dye. 
 The berries and inner bark of B. tinctorius, a native of Hungary, are also used in dye- 
 ing; and the berries of B. saxatilis, a procumbent shrub, growing amongst rocks as far 
 
 u. K. m.— 10 
 
Bucku. 
 
 Butla. 
 
 146 
 
 n. as Switzerland. The French berries, Avignon berries, or yellow berries of dyers, are 
 the fruit of B. infectorius, B. saxatilis, B. amygdalina (or oleoides), and B. Glusii. — The 
 Sea Buckthokn is a shrub of a different genus and order. See Sallow-thorn. 
 
 BUCKU, a name common to several small shrubs of the genus barosma (formerly 
 included in diosma), natives of the cape of Good Hope, the leaves of which ure used in 
 medicine — sometimes in the form of a powder, more generally of an infusion or a tincture 
 — particularly on account of their powerful operation on the urinary organs, as in 
 chronic inflammation of the bladder, urinary calculus, etc. They are also used in dys- 
 pepsia, rheumatism, and dropsy ; and are stimulant and antispasmodic, diuretic, diapho- 
 retic, and tonic. They generally appear in commerce mixed with stalks and fruit. 
 They are smooth, leathery, and shining, more or less crenated, or serrated, and are much 
 covered with pellucid dots, which are glands filled with a strongly smelling yellowish 
 volatile oil. The strong odor of B. leaves is generally regarded as disagreeable, but the 
 Hottentots perfume themselves with them. They have a warm taste, resembling that 
 of mint. — The genus barosma belongs to the natural order rutacece, and is distinguished 
 by regular flowers with 5 petals, 5 fertile and 5 abortive scale-like stamens, anthers 
 bearing a minute terminal gland, and a 5-lobed ovary. The species principally yielding 
 the B. Jeaves of the shops are B. serratifolia, B. crenata, B. crenulata, and B. venusta. 
 
 BUCKWHEAT, a genus of plants of the natural ord^er polygoneoe {c^.y.), 
 or, according to many botanists, a subgenus of poljpgonum, distinguished by the central 
 embryo, and by racemes of flowers grouped in panicles. Common B. {fagopyrum esculen- 
 turn, ov polygonum fagopyrum) is a native of the basin of the Volga, the shores of the 
 Caspian sea, and many parts of central Asia, from which it is said to have been intro- 
 duced by the Moors into Spain, and thence to have extended over Europe, in many 
 parts of which, and in some places in Britain, it is now naturalized. Another account 
 represents it as having been brought to Europe by the crusaders. In France, it is called 
 Me Sarradn, or Saracen wheat. It is cultivated on account of the farinaceous albumen 
 of its seeds, which are used, as grain, for food of man and cattle. It is upright, branched, 
 1 to 3 ft. in height; the leaves are between heart-shaped and arrow-shaped, the flowers 
 pale red, the seed (nut) black and triangular, the angles even (not toothed). The resem- 
 blance of this seed in form to the beech-nut is supposed to be the reason of the German 
 name buchwezen (beech- wheat), from which the English name is derived. B. is a very 
 common crop in some parts of Europe, and of the United States of North America; but 
 is seldom sown in Britain, except as food for pheasants. It requires continued dry 
 weather in autumn for profitable harvesting, and this in the climate of Britain cannot 
 well be reckoned on. In Germany, B. is much valued as a crop, particularly for moor- 
 lands and other poor soils. In Bretagne, also, it is as extensively cultivated as wheat. It 
 yields very abundantly, and requires little attention and little manure. Forty bushels 
 or more per acre may be expected, weighing 46 or 48 lbs. per bushel ; and notwithstand- 
 ing the resemblance of the seed to grain in its qualities and uses, wheat, or any other 
 cereal crop, generally succeeds well after B. , if care has been taken to keep the land 
 clear by tilling. The seed is most frequently used in the shape of groats, or made into 
 pottage, and in the United States thin cakes are very often made of it. It is very nutri- 
 tious, containing about 10 per cent of gluten and 52 per cent of starch, besides about 6 per 
 cent of gum and sugar. It is said to be as good as barley for fattening cattle, and better 
 for horses than oats. But as the seed is covered with a very hard rind or thin shell, it 
 must always be shelled before being given to cattle. Poultry are very fond of it. Beer 
 IS sometimes brewed from it, and it yields a spirituous liquor of good quality ; indeed, it 
 is frequently used in gin-distilleries. As green fodder, the herbage of the plant is^ said 
 to be more nutritious than clover; but it acts as a narcotic on sheep. Bees delight in its 
 flowers, and in some parts of the United States it is sown on this account. In America 
 the seed is usually sown broadcast over the land which has been plowed in autumn or 
 early spring and well scarified or harrowed. About a bushel and a half of seed is 
 required when sown broadcast, but a bushel is sufiicient if drilled with a machine. In 
 the latter case it should not be sown in narrower drills than one foot apart, but 2 ft. 
 is recommended as being better for the succeeding crop, as the wider intervals can be 
 properly cultivated. It should not be sown in England before the middle of May, as 
 the least frost is injurious. When the lower seeds are ripe it should be mown, as they 
 are easily shed out if allowed to stand too long. When bread made from B. forms the 
 principal food of the people, it is thought to have an injurious action on the brain. As 
 1 supplementary article, however, it is a favorite among all classes where it is raised. — 
 Tartarian B. {F. or P. Tataricum) is distinguished by the toothed edges of the seeds 
 and its more vigorous growth. It is hardy, and adapted for cold situations. It is a 
 native of Siberia. It is very productive, but the seed falls out when ripe more readily 
 than that of the common species; and the flour is darker colored, and^ somewhat bitter. 
 — Notch-seeded B. {F. or P. emarginatiim) is said to be a native of China. Its seeds are 
 larger than those of common B., and their angles are winged. When grown in Britain, 
 many of its flowers are generally abortive. — Perennial B. {F. or P. cyrtwsum) is a native 
 of Nepaul, very vigorous in its growth, but producing, at least in Britain, comparatively 
 little seed. — The triangular black seed of climbing B. or blackbine (P. or P. convolvulus), 
 familiar to every one who has eaten oatmeal cakes or porridge, greatly resembles B., but 
 
147 
 
 Bncku. 
 
 Buda. 
 
 is smaller. The plant — a very common weed in gardens and cornfields in Britain — also 
 exhibits much similarity, notwithstanding its different habit and twining stem. — Dyer’s 
 B. is Polygonum tinctorium. See Polygone.iE. 
 
 BUCKWHEAT TREE, Cliftonia ligustrina, an evergreen shrub in the gulf states of 
 the order cyrillacese, bearing fragrant white blossoms. It grows around ponds and 
 streams, and gets its name from the shape of its pendulous fruit. Its local name is 
 “ titi.” 
 
 BUCOLIC, a term derived from the Greek, meaning “belonging to herdsmen,” and 
 equivalent to the Latin term pastoral. See Pastoral Poetry. 
 
 BUCYRUS, the co. seat of Crawford co., Ohio, on the Sandusky river, 63 m. n. of 
 Columbus; on the Pittsburgh, Fort Wayne, and Chicago railroad; pop. ’70, 3066; in 
 ’80, 3848. There are mineral springs and a spring of inflammable oil in the neighbor- 
 hood. It is in a thickly populated district, and is noted for manufactories and schools. 
 
 BUC'ZACZ, a t. of the Austrian empire, in Galicia, 30 m. e.n.e. of Stanislawow, on 
 the Stripa, a considerable affluent of the Dniester. A treaty of peace between the Poles 
 and the Turks was signed here in 1673. Pop. 8500. 
 
 BUD, Oemma, in botany, that part of a plant which contains the rudiments of leaves 
 or flowers prior to their development. Buds are distinguished into leaf-buds and flower- 
 buds, the former producing leaves, and having a power of extension into a branch ; the 
 latter producing flowers only, and ordinarily destitute of this power of extension. The 
 different parts of the flower being regarded, however, as leaf organs or altered leaves 
 (see Flower), the flower-bud may be regarded as merely a modifled leaf -bud; and it is 
 well known that, by treatment which checks the luxuriant growth of a plant, it may be 
 caused to produce flower- buds where only leaf -buds could otherv^ise have been expected 
 to appear — a physiological fact, of which advantage is taken in various ways by gar- 
 deners, as by removing portions of the bark and even of the woody part of the stem, 
 root-pruning, conflning the roots in a flower-pot, etc. Buds usually appear in the axils 
 of leaves, the terminal bud of a branch being no exception to this rule ; and there is no 
 leaf without one or more buds in its axil, although many never pass beyond the most 
 rudimentary state. See Branch. In cold and temperate climates, buds are formed 
 about midsummer, beginning to appear as soon as the young branch which bears them 
 has itself been properly developed, and are generally covered with scales and often alsa 
 coated with resinous matter, by which their tender contents are protected from the 
 severity of winter; but in the trees of warm climates, the protection of scales is generally 
 wanting. Within the leaf -bud, the future leaves may be discovered, often very curiously 
 folded or rolled up, and the different forms and positions which the leaves assume in 
 the bud, are very characteristic of different kinds of plants. This is called the rernation 
 (q.v.) of leaves, and is analogous to the cestwation (q.v.) of flowers. The buds of exoge- 
 nous plants originate in cellular prolongations of the medullary rays bursting through 
 the bark; those of endogenous plants are in communication with the cellular matter 
 which lies between the bundles of woody tissue in the stem; and buds elongate into 
 branches by the addition of new cellular matter to the extremity. Leaf-buds are 
 capable of subsisting when separated from the parent plant and placed in favorable situ- 
 ations, developing themselves into new plants with the most exact correspondence in 
 their characteristics to the parent plant; and of this gardeners avail themselves in the 
 process of budding (q.v.), and in various ways for the propagation of plants. Some 
 plants propagate themselves by a natural detachment of buds (bulbils or bulblets), modi- 
 fied into a character analogous to that of bulbs (q.v.); and bulbs themselves may indeed 
 be regarded as subterranean leaf -buds with thickened scales. The eyes of the potato 
 are also subterranean leaf -buds, the tuber being regarded as a thickened subterranean 
 stem; and all plants with subterranean stems produce subterranean leaf -buds, sending 
 above ground only herbaceous annual shoots, as asparagus, the banana, etc. Buds may 
 be produced in exogenous plants from the extremity of any medullary ray, and may be 
 niade to spring from a leafless part of the stem by an incision, the effect of which is to 
 direct a greater supply of sap to the part immediately beneath it. In a few plants, buds 
 are produced on the edges, or even on the surface of leaves. In consequenee of their 
 power of independent existence, buds have been looked upon by some physiologists as 
 distinct organized beings congregated in the tree or plant, a view which involves exag- 
 geration, and therefore error. — Flower-buds cannot be used for budding, or otherwise 
 for propagation of the plant, but when removed from their original stock, always die. 
 
 Some of the lowest animals propagate themselves by buds {gemmation), and many of 
 the zoophyte systems or polypidoms extend in this manner. See Gemmation, Repro- 
 duction, Polypi, and Zoophytes. 
 
 BU'DA (Slavonic, Bu'din; German, Ofen), a city of Hungary, forming with Pesth 
 (with which it is united by a magnificent suspension-bridge) the capital of the country, 
 is situated on the right bank of the Danube about 130 m. s.e. of Vienna, in lat. 47° 39' 
 n., and long. 19° 3' east. ^ B. has a highly picturesque appearance, being built round the 
 Schlossberg (Castle-hill) in the form of an amphitheater, in the midst of a district cov- 
 ered with vineyards. Crowning this center hill or rock, which has an elevation of 485 
 ft. above the sea, i.s the citadel ; the palace in which are preserved the royal insignia of 
 
BndaeYlg. 
 
 Suddhism. 
 
 148 
 
 Hungary; and an old Gothic church. Behind, and towering above the rock, rises the 
 Blocksberg, strongly fortified, with a precipitous face to the Danube, the slopes of the 
 other sides being occupied with houses. B. has many educational and charitable insti- 
 tutions; and a fine observatory crpwns the Blocksberg. It has some celebrated hot. 
 sulphur springs, with a temperature of 117° 5' F., from which it derives its German 
 name, Ofen (Oven). Three of the baths erected by the Turks are still in a perfect state 
 of preservation, and are much frequented by the common people. B. has some manu- 
 factures of silk, velvet, woolens, cotton, leather, and gunpowder, and cannon and type 
 foundries*; but its chief trade is in wine, of which it produces between four and five 
 millions of gallons annually. This is known as the “ Ofenerwein,” and is of excellent 
 quality. Pop. ’69, 53,998. B. is a place of great antiquity, but its importance dates 
 from 1240, when the fortress was erected on the Schlossberg. During the inroads of 
 the Turks, it was regarded as the key of Christendom. It was captured by Solyman 
 the magnificent in 1526, but retaken in the following year by Ferdinand I., king of 
 Bohemia. In 1541, it was again taken by Solyman, who introduced into it a garrison 
 cf 12,000 janizaries; and it remained in possession of the Turks until 1686, when it was 
 captured by the duke of Lorraine. B. and Pesth (q.v.) were in 1872 incorporated with 
 one another, the official name being the compound Budapest. 
 
 BUD.EirS (the Latinized form of Guillaume Bude), one of the greatest French scholars 
 of his age, was b. in Paris in 1467. He studied there and at Orleans. His works on 
 philology, philosophy, and jurisprudence display extensive learning, but the two best 
 known are the Be Asse et Partihus ejus (Paris, 1514), which contains a very thorough 
 investigation into ancient coins; and the Gommentarii Linguae Orcecce (Paris, 1519), 
 which greatly advanced the study of Greek literature in France, and is still held in high 
 estimation by classical scholars. B.’s knowledge of Greek was particularly good. His 
 style both in Latin and French is nervous, but harsh, and abounds in Greek construc- 
 tions. His abilities were manifested not only in literature, but in public business. 
 Louis XII. twice sent him to Rome as ambassador; and Francis I. also employed him 
 in several negotiations. At B. ’s suggestion, Francis founded the College de Prance, and 
 was also persuaded to refrain from prohibiting printing, which the bigoted Sorbonne 
 had advised in 1533. During his life, B. held several important offices. He was royal 
 librarian, maitre des requites, and provost of Paris. He died 23d Aug., 1540. A col- 
 lected edition of his works appeared at Basel in 1557. B. was suspected of a leaning 
 towards Calvinism. Certain circumstances render this highly probable. In his corres- 
 pondence with his friend Erasmus, he repeatedly expresses his contempt for monks and 
 ignorant ecclesiastics, and on one occasion terms the doctors of the Sorbonne ‘ ‘ prating 
 sophists.” Besides, what is perhaps even more conclusive, shortly after his death, his 
 widow and several members of his family went to Geneva, and openly abjured Cathol- 
 icism. 
 
 BTJDAON', Budaun, or Budayoon, a t. of India, 140 m. n.w. of Lucknow, givingits 
 name to a British district of the Rohilcund division of the lieutenant-governorship of 
 the n.w. provinces. It is situated in 28° 2' n. lat., and 79° 11' e. long. Its pop. was 
 officially ascertained in 1872 to amount to 33,322. It was occupied by the mutineers and 
 a body of liberated prisoners from Bareilly, June 1, 1857. The Europeans escaped hy 
 flight. It was captured by gen. Whitelock, April 19, 1858, and the rebels in this quar 
 ter were soon afterwards entirely subdued. — The district of Budaon contains an area of 
 2005 sq.m., and a pop. (1872) of 934,348. of which nearly six sevenths are Hindus, and the 
 remainder mostly Mussulmans. The district is a level, fertile tract on the Ganges and 
 tributaries of it, of which the chief is the Ramgunga, 
 
 BUDD^US, Johann Franz, 1667-1729; a learned Lutheran divine, b. in Pomera- 
 nia. At Wittenberg he won distinction in languages, theology, and history; was Greek 
 'and Latin professor at Coburg, professor of ethical sciences and politics in the university 
 of Halle, and in 1705 professor of divinity at Jena. He produced an historical German 
 dictionary, an ecclesiastical history of the Old Testament, a work on practical philoso- 
 phy, one on laws, and a universal theological history. 
 
 BUD'DHISM — BUD'DHA. The religion known as Buddhism ^rom the title of “The 
 Buddha,” meaning “ the wise,” “ the enlightened,” acquired by Js founder) has existed 
 now for 2460 years, and may be said to be the prevailing religion of the world. In 
 Hindustan, the land of its birth, it has now little hold, e. cept among the Nepaulese 
 and some other northern tribes; but it bears full sway in Ceylon, and over the whole 
 eastern peninsula; it divides the adherence of the Chinese with the systems of Confu- 
 cius and Lao-tse, claiming perhaps two thirds of the population; it prevails also in 
 Japan (although not the established religion); and, n. of the Himalayas, it is the religion 
 of Thibet (where it assumes the form of Lamaism), and of the Mongolian population of 
 central Asia, and extends to the very n. of Siberia, and even into Swedish Lapland. Its 
 adherents are estimated at 400 millions — more than a third of the human race. Yet, till 
 near the middle of this century, nothing was known in Europe respecting the nature and > 
 origin of this world-religion, beyond the vaguest notices and conjectures. About the 
 year 1828, Mr, B. H. Hodgson, British resident at the court of Nepaul, where Buddhism 
 prevails, discovered the existence of a large set of writings in the Sanscrit language, 
 forming the national canonical books. These books have since been found to be the 
 
149 
 
 ■ Budsens. 
 Buddhism. 
 
 texts from which the Buddhist Scriptures of Thibet, Mongolia, and China must have 
 been translated. The books of the Ceylon Buddhists are in the language called Pali; 
 and though not translations of the Nepaulese standards, they are found to agree with 
 them in substance, and to be only another and somewhat later version of the same tra- 
 ditions. Translations from the Ceylon standards are used by the Buddhists of Burmah 
 and Siam. Copies of the Sanscrit books of Nepaul, having been sent by Mr. Hodgson 
 to the Asiatic societies of London and Paris, engaged the attention of the eminent ori- 
 ental scholar, Eugene Burnouf, who published in 1844 his Introduction to the History of 
 Buddhism; and this book may be said to have been the beginning of anything like cor- 
 Tect information on the subject among the western nations. 
 
 The most diverse opinions had previously prevailed as to the time and place of the 
 origin of Buddhism. Some looked upon it as a relic of what had been the original 
 religion of Hindustan, before Brahmanism intruded and drove it out; a relic of a wide- 
 spread primeval worship, whose ramifications it was endeavored to trace by identifying 
 Buddha with the Woden of the Scandinavians, the Thoth or Hermes of the ancient 
 Egyptians, and other mythological personages. Others held that it could not be older 
 than Christianity, and must have originated in a blundering attempt to copy that 
 religion — so striking are the many points of resemblance that present themselves. 
 Although the means are still wanting of giving a circumstantial history of Buddhism, 
 the main outline is no longer doubtful. Oriental scholars now concur in fixing the date 
 of its origin about the beginning of the 6th c. b.c., and in making it spring up in the 
 n. of Hindustan. According to the Buddhist books, the founder of the religion was a 
 prince of the name of Siddhartha, son of Suddhodana, king of Kapilavastu, which is 
 placed somewhere on the confines of Oude and Nepaul. He is often called Sakya, 
 which was the name of the family, and also Gautama, the name of the great “ Solar” 
 race of which the family was a branch. The name Sakya often becomes Sakya-muni 
 {muni, in San., means “solitary,” and is allied to Gr. monos, the root of “monk”), in 
 allusion to the solitary habits assumed by the prince. To Gautama is frequently pre- 
 fixed Bramana, meaning ascetic. Of the names, or rather titles, given to Siddhartha in 
 his state of perfection, the most important is the Buddha,^ which is from the root budh, 
 to know, and, according to Wilson, means properly, “he to whom truth is known:” it 
 is indicative of the leading doctrine of his system. Others are “ The blessed ” (Bhaga- 
 vat); “ the venerable of the world;” “the Bodhisatva,” the import of which will be 
 afterwards explained. The history of this person is overlaid with a mass of extrava- 
 gant and incredible legend ; and at least one eminent orientalist, prof. H. H. Wilson, 
 thinks it still doubtful whether the Buddha was an actual historical personage, and not 
 rather an allegorical figment. Agreeing that the doctrine was introduced about the 
 time assigned, he thinks it more likely that it originated with a school formed of per- 
 sons of various castes, comprising even Brahmans. But by oriental authorities gener- 
 ally, the Buddha is received as the actual personal founder of the religion that goes by 
 his name. 
 
 Assuming that the Buddha was a real person, and that there is a basis of fact 
 under the mass of extravagant fable with which he is surrounded, the history of Buddh- 
 ism may be thus briefly outlined : The prince Siddhartha gives early indications of a 
 contemplative, ascetic disposition ; and his father, fearing lest he should desert his high 
 station as Kshatriya (see Hinduism and Caste) and ruler, and take to a religious life, 
 has him early married to a charming princess, and surrounded vdth all the splendor and 
 dissipation of a luxurious court. Twelve years spent in this environment only deepen 
 the conviction, that all that life can offer is vanity and vexation of spirit. He is con- 
 stantly brooding over the thought that old age, withered and joyless, is fast approaching; 
 that loathsome or racking sickness may at any moment seize him ; that death will at all 
 events soon cut off all present sources of enjoyment, and usher in a new cycle of 
 unknown trials and sufferings. These images hang like Damocles’ sword over ev^y 
 proposed feast of pleasure, and make enjoyment impossible. He therefore resolves to 
 try whether a life of austerity will not lead to peace; and, although his father seeks to 
 detain him by setting guards on every outlet of the palace, he escapes, and begins the 
 life of a religious mendicant, being now about 30 years old. To mark his breaking off 
 all secular ties, he cuts off the long locks that were a sign of his high caste; and as the 
 shortened hair turned upwards, he is always represented in figures with curly hair, 
 which induced early European writers to consider him as of Ethiopian origin. He 
 commences by studying all that the Brahmans can teach him, but finds their doctrine 
 unsatisfactory. Six years of rigorous asceticism are equally vain; and resolving to 
 return to a more genial life, he is deserted by his five disciples, and then undergoes a 
 fierce temptation from the demon of wickedness. But no discouragement or opposition 
 can divert Sakya-muni from the search after deliverance. He will conquer the secret by 
 sheer force of thinking. He sits for weeks plunged in abstraction, revolving the causes 
 
 * There is a confusing variety in the modes in which this name is spelled by European writers, 
 S. Hardy, in his Manual of Buddhism, gives more than fifty forms that have come under his notice. 
 Some of the more common are Bud, Bod, Buth, Budh, Boodh, Bhood, Budo, Buddow, Boutta, Poota, 
 Poth, Pot. The Chinese, owing to the meagerness of their articulations, seem to have been unable 
 come nearer to the real sound than Fo, Foe, or FoM; from the same cause, they convert Brahma inM«» 
 Fan. 
 
Buddiilsm. 
 
 150 
 
 of things. If we were not bom, he reflects, we should not be subject to old age, misery^ 
 and death ; therefore, the cause of these evils is birth. But whence comes birth or con- 
 tinued existence? Through a long concatenation of intermediate causes, he arrives at 
 the conclusion that ignorance is the ultimate cause of existence; and therefore, with the- 
 removal of ignorance, existence and all its anxieties and miseries would be cut off at 
 their source. Passing through successive stages of contemplation, he realizes this in his- 
 own person, and attains the perfect wisdom of the Buddha. The scene of this final 
 triumph received the name of Bodhimanda (the seat of intelligence), and the tree under 
 which he sat was called Bodhidruma (the tree of intelligence), whence bo-tree. The 
 Buddhists believe the spot to be the center of the earth. Twelve hundred years after 
 the Buddha’s death, Hiouen-Thsang, the Chinese pilgrim, found the Bodhidruma — or a. 
 tree that passed for it — still standing. Although the religion of Buddha is extinct in the 
 neighborhood, there are, about 5 m. from Gaya Proper, in Bahar, extensive ruins and 
 an old dagoba, or a temple, which are believed to mark the place. Near the temple 
 there flourished, in 1812, a peepul-tree, apparently 100 years old, which may have been 
 planted in the place of the original bo-tree. 
 
 Having arrived at the knowledge of the causes of misery, and of the means by which, 
 these causes are to be counteracted, the Buddha was now ready to lead others on the 
 road to salvation. It was at Benares that he first preached, or, in the consecrated 
 phrase, “turned the wheel of the law;”* but the most important of his early converts 
 was Bimbisara, the sovereign of Magadha (Bahar), whose dynasty continued for many 
 centuries to patronize the new faith. During the forty years that he continued to preach 
 his strange gospel, he appears to have traversed a great part of northern India, combating 
 the Brahmans, and everywhere making numerous converts. He died at Kusinagara (in 
 Oude), at the age of 80, in the year 543 b.c. ; and his body being burned, the relics were 
 distributed among a number of contending claimants, and monumental tumuli were 
 erected to preserve them. See Topes. 
 
 The most important point in the history of Buddhism, after the death of its founder, 
 is that of the three councils which fixed the canon of the sacred scriptures and the dis- 
 cipline of the church. The Buddha had written nothing himself; but his chief follow- 
 ers, assembled in council immediately after his death, proceeded to reduce his teaching 
 to writing. These canonical writings are divided into three classes, forming the tripitaka. 
 or “triple basket.” The first class consist of the soutras, or discourses of the Buddha; 
 the second contains the mnaya, or discipline ; and the third the abhidharma, or meta- 
 physic. The first is evidently the fundamental text out of which ail the subsequent 
 writings have been elaborated. The other two councils probably revised and expanded 
 the writings agreed upon at the first, adding voluminous commentaries; as to the dates 
 of the other two councils, there are irreconcilable discrepancies in the accounts; but at 
 all events the third was not later than 240 b.c., so that the Buddhist canonical scrip- 
 tures, as they now exist, were fixed two centuries and a half before the Christian era. 
 The Buddhist religion early manifested a zealous missionary spirit; and princes and even 
 princesses became devoted propagandists. A prince of the royal house of Magadha, 
 Mahindo, carried the faith to Ceylon, 307 b.c. The Chinese annals speak of a Buddhist 
 missionary as early as 217 b.c. ; and the doctrine made such progress, that in 65 a.d. 
 it was acknowledged by the Chinese emperor as a third state religion. The Chinese 
 Buddhists have always looked on India as their ‘ ‘ holy land ;” and, beginning with the 
 4th c. of our era, a stream of Buddhist pilgrims continued to flow from China to India, 
 during six centuries. Several of these pilgrims have left accounts of their travels, which, 
 throw a light on the course of Buddhism in India, and on the internal state of the coun- 
 try in general, that is looked for in vain in the literature of India itself. See Hiouen- 
 Thsang. As to the spread of Buddhism n. of the Himalayan mountains, we have the 
 historical fact, that a Chinese general, having about the year 120 b.c. defeated the bar- 
 barous tribes to the n. of the desert of Gobi, brought back as a trophy a golden statue of 
 the Buddha. 
 
 A prominent name in the history of Buddhism is that of Asoka, king of Magadha, in 
 the 3d c. of our era, whose sway seems to have extended over the whole peninsula of 
 Hindustan, and even over Ceylon. This prince was to Buddhism what Constantine was to 
 Christianity. He was at first a persecutor of the faith, but being converted — by a miracle, 
 according to the legend — he became its zealous propagator. Not, however, as princes 
 usually promote their creed ; for it is a distinguishing characteristic of Buddhism, that 
 it has never employed force, hardly even to resist aggression. Asoka showed his zeal 
 by building and endowing viharas or monasteries, and raising topes and other monuments 
 over the relics of Buddha and in spots remarkable as the scenes of his labors. Hiouen- 
 Thsang, in the 7th c. of our era, found topes attributed to Asoka from the foot of the 
 Hindu Kush to the extremity of the peninsula. There exist, also, in different parts 
 of India, edicts inscribed on rocks and pillars inculcating the doctrines of Buddha. The 
 edicts are in the name of king Piyadasi; but orientalists are almost unanimous in hold- 
 
 * From a too literal understanding of this phrase have arisen, probably, those praying-wheels, or 
 rather wheels for meditation, seen standing before Buddhist monasteries in Thibet and elsewhere. The 
 doctrines of Buddha are inscribed on the wheel, which is then set in motion by a windlass, or even by 
 horse-power. The individual monks have portable ones, with which they perform their devotions 
 wherever they may happen to be. 
 
151 
 
 Buddhism. 
 
 !ng Piyadasi and Asoka to be one and the same. Not a single building or sculptured 
 stone has been discovered in continental India of earlier date than the reign of this mon- 
 arch, whose death is assigned to 226 b.c. A remarkable spirit of charity and toleration runs 
 through these royal sermons. The “king beloved of the gods” desires to see the ascetics of 
 all creeds living in all places, for they all teach the essential rules of conduct. “A man 
 «ught to honor his own faith only; but he should never abuse the faith of others. . . . 
 There are even circumstances where the religion of others ought to be honored, and in 
 acting thus, a man fortifies his owm faith, and assists the faith of others.” 
 
 For the glimpses we get of the state of Buddhism in India, we are indebted chiefly to 
 the accounts of Chinese pilgrims. Fa-hian, at the end of the 4th c., found some appear- 
 ances of decline in the e. of Hindustan, its birthplace, but it was still strong in the 
 Punjab and the north. In Ceylon, it w^as flourishing in full vigor, the ascetics or monks 
 numbering from 50,000 to 60,000. In the 7th c. — that is, 1200 years after the death of 
 the Buddha — Hiouen-Thsang represents it as widely dominant and flourishing, and 
 patronized by powerful rajahs. Its history was doubtless more or less checkered. The 
 Brahmans, though little less tolerant than the followers of Buddha, seem to have been 
 in some cases roused into active opposition; and some princes employed persecution to 
 put down the new faith. 
 
 It was probably during the first four or five centuries of our era, and as a result of 
 persecution, that Buddhists, driven from the great cities, retired among the hills of the 
 west, and there constructed those cave-temples which, for their number, vastness, and 
 elaborate structure, continue to excite the wonder of all who see them. There are reck- 
 oned to be not fewer thon 900 Buddhist excavations still extant in India, nearly all 
 within the presidency of Bombay. How the destruction of the Buddhist faith in Hin- 
 dustan came about — whether from internal corruption, or the persecution of powerful 
 princes, adherents of the old faith — we are utterly in the dark. But it is certain that 
 from the time of Hiouen-Thsang’s visit, its decay must have been rapid beyond pre- 
 cedent; for about the 11th or 12th c., the last traces of it disappear from the Indian 
 peninsula. 
 
 What, then, is the nature of this faith, which has been for so long, and is still, the 
 sole light of so many millions of human beings? In answering this question, we must 
 confine ourselves here to a brief outline of the intellectual theory on which the system is 
 based, and of the general character of its morality and ritual observances, as they were 
 conceived by the founder and his more immediate followers ; referring for the various 
 forms which the external observances have assumed to the several countries where it is 
 believed and practiced. See Burmah, Ceylon, China, Japan, Lamaism. 
 
 Buddhism is based on the same views of human existence, and the same philosophy 
 of things in general, that prevailed among the Brahmans. It accepts without questioning, 
 and in its most exaggerated form, the doctrine of the transmigration of souls, which lies 
 at the root of so much that is strange in the eastern character. For a particular account 
 of this important doctrine or notion, which seems ingrained in the constitution of eastern 
 minds, and without a knowledge of which no phase of thought or feeling among them 
 can be understood, the reader is referred to Transmigration; while the peculiar cos- 
 mogony or system of the universe with which it is associated, and which is substantially 
 the same among Hindus and Buddhists, will be described under Hinduism. It is suffi- 
 cient here to say, that, according to Buddhist belief, when a man dies, he is immediately 
 born again, or appears in a new shape; and that shape may, according to his merit or 
 demerit, be any of the innumerable orders of being composing the Buddhist universe — 
 from a clod to a divinity. If his demerit would not be sufficiently punished by a 
 degraded earthly existence — in the form, for instance, of a woman or a slave, of a perse- 
 cuted or a disgusting animal, of a plant, or even of a piece of inorganic matter — he will 
 be born in some one of the 136 Buddhist hells, situated in the interior of the earth. 
 These places of punishment have a regular gradation in the intensity of the suffering 
 and in the length of time the sufferers live, the least term of life being 10 millions of 
 years, the longer terms being almost beyond the powers of even Indian notation to 
 express. A meritorious life, on the other hand, secures the next birth either in an exalted 
 and happy position on earth, or as a blessed spirit, or even divinity, in one of the many 
 heavens; in which the least duration of life is about 10 billions of years. But however 
 long the life, whether of misery or of bliss, it has an end, and at its close the individual 
 must be born again, and may again be either happy or miserable — either a god or, it may 
 be, the vilest inanimate object.* The Buddha himself, before his last birth as Sakyamuni, 
 had gone through every conceivable form of existence on the earth, in the air, and in 
 the water, in hell and in heaven, and had filled every condition in human life. When 
 he attained the perfect knowledge of the Buddha, he was able to recall all these exist- 
 ences; and a great part of the Buddhist legendary literature is taken up in narrating his 
 exploits when he lived as an elephant, as a bird, as a stag, and so forth. 
 
 The Buddhist conception of the way in which the quality of actions — which is 
 expressed in Pali by the word karma, including both merit and demerit — determines 
 
 * One legend makes Bhagavat, in order to impress upon the monks of a monastery the importance 
 of their duties, point to a besom, and, by his supernatural insight, reveal to them that it had once been 
 a novice, who had been negligent in sweeping he hall of assembly ; the walls and pillars, again, he 
 told them, had once existed as monks, who soiled the walls of the hall by spitting :pon them. 
 
Buddhism. 
 
 152 
 
 the future condition of all sentient beings, is peculiar. They do not conceive any god 
 or gods as being pleased or displeased by the actions, and as assigning the actors" their 
 future condition by way of punishment or of reward. The very idea of a god, as. 
 creating or in any way ruling the world, is utterly absent in the Buddhist system. God 
 is not so much as denied; he is simply not known. Contrary to the opii^ion once confi- 
 dently and generally held, that a nation of atheists never existed, it is no longer to be 
 disputed that the numerous Buddhist nations are essentially atheist; for they know nc 
 beings with greater supernatural power than any man is supposed capable of attaining 
 to by virtue, austerity, and science; and a remarkable indication of this startling fact ia 
 to be seen in the circumstance that some at least of the Buddhist nations — the Chinese, 
 Mongols, and Thibetans — have no word in their languages to express the notion of God. 
 The future condition of the Buddhist, then, is not assigned him by the Ruler of the- 
 universe; the “ karma” of his actions determines it by a sort of virtue inherent in the 
 nature of things — by the blind and unconscious concatenation of cause and effect. But 
 the laws by which consequences are regulated seem dark, and even capricious. A bad 
 action may lie dormant, as it were, for many existences; the taint, however, is there, 
 and will some time or other break out. A Buddhist is thus never at a loss to account 
 for any calamity that may befall himself or others. 
 
 Another basis of Buddhism is the assumption that human existence is on the whole- 
 miserable, and a curse rather than a blessing. This notion, or rather feeling, is, like 
 transmigration, common to Buddhism and Brahmanism, and is even more prominent in 
 Buddhism than in the old faith. It is difficult for a European to conceive this state of 
 mind, or to believe that it can be habitual in a whole people ; and many signal errors in 
 dealing with the Indian nations have arisen from overlooking the fact. The cause 
 would seem to lie chiefly in the comparatively feeble physical organization of easterns 
 in general. With a vigorous animal vitality, there is a massive enjoyment in mere 
 bodily existence sufficient to drown a large amount of irritation and suffering, leaving 
 life still sweet and desirable; while the spontaneous activity attending this vigor, 
 makes it a pleasure instead of a pain to contend with and conquer difficulties. The 
 Indian, on the contrary, even when he looks robust, has little intensity of animal vitality; 
 and therefore, bodily existence, in itself, has to him little relish. Tedium of life, it is 
 well known, arises more from negative than positive sources; and it requires but little 
 bitter added to make his cup disgusting. So far, again, from finding activity a source 
 of enjoyment, exertion is painful, and entire quiescence is, in his eyes, the highest state 
 of conceivable enjoyment. When to this we add that want of security and peace^ and 
 that habitual oppression of the many by the few, with all the attendant degradation and 
 positive suffering, which may be considered the normal state of things in the east, need 
 we wonder that to men so constituted and so circumstanced, life should seem a burden, 
 a thing rather to be feared than otherwise? The little value that Hindus set upon their 
 lives is manifested in many ways. The punishment of death, again, has little or na 
 terror for them, and is even sometimes coveted as an honor. For, in addition to the 
 little value of their present existence, they have the most undoubting assurance that 
 their soul, if dislodged from its present tenement, will forthwith find another, with a 
 chance, at least, of its being a better one 
 
 In the eyes, then, of Sakya-muni and his followers, sentient existence was hopelessly 
 miserable. Misery was not a mere taint in it, the removal of which would make it 
 happy; misery was its very essence. Death was no escape from this inevitable lot; for, 
 according to the doctrine of transmigration, death was only a passage into some other 
 form of existence equally doomed. Even the heaven and the state of godhead which 
 form part of the cycle of changes in this system, were not final; and this thought 
 poisoned what happiness they might be capable of yielding. Brahman philosophers had 
 sought escape from this endless cycle of unsatisfying changes, by making the individual 
 soul be absorbed in the universal spirit (Brahm); Gautama had the same object in view 
 — viz., exemption from being born again; but he had not the same means of reaching it. 
 His philosophy was utterly atheistic, like that of the original Sankhya school of phi- 
 losopy, whose views he chiefly borrowed, and ignored a supreme God or Creator; it did 
 not leave even an impersonal spirit of the universe into which the human soul could be 
 absorbed. Gautama sees no escape but in what he calls Nirvana, the exact nature of 
 which has been matter of dispute. According to its etymology, the word means 
 “extinction,” “ blowing out,” as of a candle; and most orientalists are agreed that in 
 the Buddhist scriptures generally it is equivalent to annihilation Even in those schools 
 which attempt to draw a distinction, the distinction is of the most evanescent kind. See 
 Nirvana, 
 
 The key of the whole scheme of Buddhist salvation lies in what Gautama called his 
 four sublime verities. The first asserts that pain exists; the second, that the cause of 
 pain is desire or attachment — the meaning of which will appear further on ; the third, 
 that pain can be ended by Nirvana; and the fourth shows the way that leads to Nirvana 
 This way to Nirvana consists in eight things: right faith, right judgment, right language 
 right purpose, right practice, right obedience, right memory, and right meditation. In 
 order to understand how this method is to lead to the proposed end, we must turn to the 
 metaphysical part of the system contained in the “concatenation of causes,” which may 
 be looked upon as a development of the second “verity” — namely, that the cause of 
 
153 
 
 Buddhism. 
 
 pain is desire — or rather, as the analysis upon which that verity is founded. The 
 immediate cause of pain is birth, for if we were not born, we should not be exposed to 
 death or any of the ills of life. Birth, again, is caused by previous existence ; it is only 
 a transition from one state of existence into another. All the actions and affections of 
 a being throughout his migrations leave their impressions, stains, attachments adhering 
 to him, and the accumulation of these determines at each stage the peculiar modification 
 of existence he must next assume. But for these adhesions, the soul would be free; not 
 being bound down to migrate into any determinate condition of life, it would follow 
 that it need not migrate at all. These adhesions or attachments, good and bad, depend 
 upon desire, or rather, upon affection of any kind in the soul towards the objects; as if 
 only what moved the soul to desire or avoidance could leave its impress upon it. We 
 thus arrive at desire — including both the desire to possess, and the desire to avoid — as 
 one link in the chain of causes of continued existence and pain. Beyond this the 
 ■dependence of the links is very difficult to trace; for desire is said to be caused by 
 perception, perception by contact, and so on, until we come to ideas. Ideas, however, 
 ■are mere illusions, the results of ignorance or error, attributing durability and reality to 
 that which is transitory and imaginary. Cut off this ignorance, bring the mind into a 
 state in which it can see and feel the illusory nature of things, and forthwith the whole 
 train vanishes; illusory ideas, distinction of forms, senses, contaet, perception, desire, 
 •attachment, existence, birth, misery, old age, death! 
 
 Morality and Religious Observances. — The eight parts or particulars constituting the 
 theoretical “ way” (to Nirvana), was developed by Gautama into a set of practical pre- 
 ■cepts enjoining the various duties of common life and of religion. They are all ostensi- 
 bly intended as means of counteracting or destroying the chain of causes that tie men 
 to existence and necessitate being born again, especially that most important link in the 
 chain constituted by the attachments or desires resulting from former actions; although 
 the special fitness of some of the precepts for that end is far from being apparent. It is 
 easy to understand how the austerities that are prescribed might subdue the passions 
 and affections, and lessen the attachment to existence; but how the exercise of benevo- 
 lence, of meekness, of regard to truth, of respect to parents, etc., on which Gautama 
 laid so much stress, should have this effect, it is diflBcult to conceive. Luckily for the 
 ’Buddhist world, Gautama’s moral nature was better than his logic, or rather than the 
 perverse assumptions from which his logic starts; and as he felt strongly — what all men 
 have felt more or less — that these things are essentially right and good, he takes it for 
 granted that they must contribute to what was in his eyes the chief good — escape from 
 existence, or Nirvana. In delivering his precepts, the Buddha considers men as divided 
 into two classes — those who have embraced the religious life {Sramanas), and those who 
 continue in the world, or are laymen. These last are considered as too much attached 
 to existence to feel any desire or have any hope of emancipation, at least at this stage. 
 But there are certain precepts which it is necessary for all to obey, that they may not 
 bring greater misery upon themselves in their next births, and rivet the bonds of exist- 
 ence more indissolubly. There are ten moral preeepts or “precepts of aversion.” Five 
 of these are of universal obligation — viz., not to kill; not to steal; not to commit adul- 
 tery; not to lie; not to be drunken. Other five are for those entering on the, direct 
 pursuit of Nirvana by embracing the religious life : to abstain from food out of season 
 — that is, after midday; to abstain from dances, theatrical representations, songs, and 
 music ; to abstain from personal ornaments and perfumes ; to abstain from a lofty and 
 luxurious couch; to abstain from taking gold and silver. For the regular ascetics or 
 monks, there are a number of special observances of a very severe kind. They are to 
 dress only in rags, sewed together with their own hands, and to have a yellow cloak 
 thrown over the rags. They are to eat only the simplest food, and to possess nothing 
 except what they get by eollecting alms from door to door in their wooden bowl. They 
 are allowed only one meal, and that must be eaten before midday. For a part of the 
 year, they are to live in forests, with no other shelter except the shadow of a tree, and 
 there they must sit on their carpet even during sleep, to lie down being forbidden. They 
 are allowed to enter the nearest village or town to beg food, but they must return to 
 their forests before night. 
 
 Besides the absolutely necessary ‘ ‘ aversions and observances” above mentioned, the 
 transgression of which must lead to misery in the next existence, there are certain vir- 
 tues or “ perfections” of a supererogatory or transcendent kind, that tend directly to 
 ‘ ‘ conduct to the other shore” (Nirvana). The most essential of these are almsgiving or 
 charity, purity, patience, courage, contemplation, and knowledge. Charity or benevo- 
 lence may be said to be the charateristic virtue of Buddhism — a charity boundless in its 
 self-abnegation, and extending to evei'y sentient being. The benevolent actions done by 
 the Buddha himself, in the course of his many millions of migrations, were favorite 
 themes of his followers. On one occasion, seeing a tigress starved and unable to feed 
 her cubs, he hesitated not to make his body an oblation to charity, and allowed them to 
 <levour him. Benevolence to animals, with that tendency to exaggerate a right principle 
 so characteristic of the east, is carried among the Buddhist monks to the length of 
 avoiding the destruction of fleas and the most noxious vermin, whieh they remove from 
 their persons with all tenderness. 
 
 There are other virtues of a secondary kind, though still highly commendable. Thus, 
 
Buddhism. 
 
 154 
 
 not content with forbidding lying, the Buddha strictly enjoins the avoidance of all 
 offensive and gross language, and of saying or repeating anything that can set others at 
 enmity among themselves; it is a duty, on the contrary, especially for a sramana, to act 
 on all occasions as a peacemaker. Patience under injury, and resignation in misfortune, 
 are strongly inculcated. Humility, again, holds a no less prominent place amongst 
 Buddhist graces than it does among the Christian. The Buddhist saints are to conceal 
 their good works, and display their faults. As the outward expression of tliis sentiment 
 of humility, Gautama instituted the practice of confession. Twice a month, at the new 
 and at the full moon, the monks confessed their faults aloud before the assembly. This 
 humiliation and repentance seems the only means of expiating sin that was known ta 
 Gautama. Confession was exacted of all believers, only not so frequently as of the 
 monks. The edicts of Piyadasi recommend a general and public confession at least 
 once in five years. The practice of public confession would seem to have died out by 
 the time of Hiouen-Thsang’s visit to India. 
 
 Such are the leading features of the moral code of the Buddha, of which it has been, 
 said, that “for pureness, excellence, and wisdom, it is only second to that of the Divine 
 Lawgiver himself.” But the original morality of Buddhism has, in the course of time, 
 been disfigured by many subtilties, puerilities, and extravagances, derived from the 
 casuistry of the various schools of later times; just as the casuistry of the Jesuits, for 
 instance, perverted many of the precepts of Christianity. The theory on which the 
 Buddha founds his whole system gives, it must be confessed, only too much scope to 
 such perversions; for, on that theory, truth is to be spoken, self to be sacrificed, benevo- 
 lence to be exercised, not for the sake of the good thus done to others, but solely for the 
 effect of this conduct on the soul of the actor, in preparing him for escape from exist- 
 ence. To teach men “the means of arriving at the other shore,” was another expression 
 for teaching virtue; and that other shore was annihilation. On this principle, the 
 Buddhist casuist can, like the Jewish, render of none effect the universal law of charity 
 and the duty of respecting and aiding parents, on which the Buddha laid such stress. 
 Thus, a Bikshu — that is, one who has engaged to lead a life of self-denial, celibacy, and. 
 mendicancy, and is thus on the high-road to Nirvana — is forbidden to look at or con- 
 verse with a female, lest any disturbing emotion should ruffle the serene indifference of 
 his soul; and so important is this, that “if his mother have fallen into a river, and be 
 drowning, he shall not give her his hand to help her out ; if there be a pole at hand, he 
 may reach that to her ; but if not, she must drown. ” — Wilson. 
 
 Contemplation and science or knowledge (i. e. , of the concatenation of causes and 
 effects) are ranked as virtues in Buddhism, and hold a prominent place among the 
 means of attaining Nirvana. It is reserved, in fact, for abstract contemplation to effect 
 the final steps of the deliverance. Thought is the highest faculty of man, and, in the mind 
 of an eastern philosopher, the mightiest of all forces. A king who had become a con- 
 vert to Buddhism is represented as seating himself with his legs crossed, and his mind 
 collected ; and ‘ ‘ cleaving, with the thunderbolt of science, the mountain of ignorance, ” 
 he saw before him the desired state. It is in this cross-legged, contemplative position 
 that the Buddha is almost always represented — that crowning intellectual act of his, 
 when, seated under the Bo-tree (q.v.), he attained the full knowledge of the Buddha, 
 saw the illusory nature of all things, broke the last bonds that tied him to existence, 
 and stood delivered for evermore from the necessity of being born again, being consid- 
 ered the culmination of his character, and the highest object of imitation to all his 
 followers. 
 
 “Complete” Nirvana or extinction cannot, of course, take place till death; but this 
 state of preparation for it, called simply Nirvana, seems attainable during life, and was, 
 in fact, attained by Gautama himself. The process by which the state is attained is 
 called Dhyana, and is neither more nor less than ecstacy or trance, which plays so 
 important a part among mystics of all religions. The individual is described as losing 
 one feeling after another, until perfect apathy is attained, and he reaches a region 
 “where there are neither ideas, nor the idea of the absence of ideas!” 
 
 The ritual or worship of Buddhism — if worship it can be called — is very simple in its 
 character. There are no priests, or clergy, properly so called. The Sramanas or Bik- 
 shus (mendicants) are simply a religious order — a kind of monks, who, in order to th.? 
 more speedy attainment of Nirvana, have entered on a course of greater sanctity and 
 austerity than ordinary men ; they have no sacraments to administer or rites to perform 
 for the people, for every Buddhist is his own priest. The only thin^ like a clerical 
 function they discharge, is to read the scriptures or discourses of the Buddha in stated 
 assemblies of the people held for that purpose. They have also everywhere, except in 
 China, a monopoly of education ; and thus in Buddhist countries education, whatever 
 may be its quality, is very generally diffused. In some countries, the monks are exceed- 
 ingly numerous, around Lhassa in Thibet, for instance, they are said to be one third of 
 the population. They live in mharas or monasteries, and subsist partly by endowments, 
 but mostly by charity. Except in Tibet, they are not allowed to engage in any secular 
 occupation. The vow is not irrevocable. This incubus of monachism constitutes the 
 great weakness of Buddhism in its social aspect. Further particulars regarding Bud- 
 dhist monks and monasteries, as -well as the forms of Buddhist worship generally, will 
 be given when speaking of the countries where the religion prevails. See Lamaism. 
 
155 
 
 BnddMsm« 
 
 The adoration of the statues of the Buddha and of his relics is the chief external 
 ceremony of the religion. This, with prayer and the repetition of sacred formulas, con- 
 stitutes the ritual. The centers of the worship are the temples containing statues, and 
 the topes or tumuli erected over the relics of the Buddha, or of his distinguished apos- 
 tles, or on spots consecrated as the scenes of the Buddha’s acts. The central object in 
 a Buddhist temple, corresponding to the altar in a Roman Catholic church, is an image 
 of the Buddha, or a dagoba or shrine containing his relics. Here flowers,* fruit, and 
 incense are daily offered, and processions are made with singing of hymns. Of the 
 relics of the Buddha, the most famous are the teeth that are preserved with intense ven- 
 eration in various places. Hiouen-Thsang saw more than a dozen of them in different 
 parts of India; and the great monarch Ciladitya was on the eve of making war on the 
 king of Cashmere for the possession of one, which, although by no means the largest, 
 was yet an inch and a half long. The tooth of the Buddha preserved in Ceylon, a piece 
 of ivory about the size of the little-finger, is exhibited very rarely, and then only with 
 permission of the English government — so great is the concourse and so intense the 
 excitement. See Ceylon. 
 
 There appears at first sight to be an inconsistency between this seeming worship of 
 the Buddha and the theory by which he is considered as no longer existing. Yet the 
 two things are really not irreconcilable; not more so, at least, than theory and practice 
 often are. With all their admiration of the Buddha, his followers have never made a 
 ^od of him. Gautama is only the last Buddha — the Buddha of the present cycle. He 
 had predecessors in the cycles that are past (24 Buddhas of the past are enumerated, 
 and Gautama could even tell their names) ; and when, at the end of the present cycle, 
 all things shall be reduced to their elements, and the knowledge of the way of sal- 
 vation shall perish with all things else, then, in the new world that shall spring up, 
 another Buddha will appear, again to reveal to the renascent beings the way to Nirvana. 
 Oautama foretold that Mitraya, one of his earliest adherents, should be the next 
 Buddha f (the Buddha of the future), and he gratified several of his followers with a like 
 prospect in after-cycles. The Buddha was thus no greater than any mortal may aspire 
 to become. The prodigious and supernatural powers which the legends represent him 
 as possessing, are quite in accordance with Indian ideas; for even the Brahmans believe 
 that by virtue, austerities, and science a man may acquire power to make the gods 
 tremble on their thrones. 
 
 The Buddha, then, is not a god; he is the ideal of what any man may become; and 
 the great object of Buddhist worship is to keep this ideal vividly in the minds of the 
 believers. In the presence of the statue, the tooth, or the footprint, the devout believer 
 vividly recalls the example of him who trod the path that leads to deliverance. This 
 veneration of the memory of Buddha is perhaps hardly distinguishable, among the 
 ignorant, from worship of him as a present god ; but in theory, the ritual is strictly com- 
 memorative, and does not necessarily involve idolatry, any more than the garlands laid 
 on the tomb of a parent by a pious child. See Tope. 
 
 The prayers addressed to the Buddha are more difficult to reconcile with the belief in 
 his having ceased to exist. It is improbable, indeed, that the original scheme of Buddh- 
 ism contemplated either the adoration of the statues of the Buddha, or the offering of 
 prayers to him after his death. These are an after-growth — accretions upon the simple 
 scheme of Gautama, and in a manner forced upon it during its struggle with other relig- 
 ions. For, a system of belief that seeks to supplant other systems, finds itself enticed 
 to present something to rival and outdo them, if possible, in every point. Even the 
 Christian church, in the middle ages, adopted with this view many of the rites and 
 legends of paganism that were quite inconsistent with its own character; merely casting 
 over them a slight disguise, and giving them Christian names. Prayer, too, is natural 
 ' to man — an irrepressiffie instinct, as it were, and had to be gratified. And then the 
 : inconsistency in uttering prayers when there is no one to hear or answer, glaring as it 
 appears to us, is by no means great to the eastern mind. Prayers, like other formulas, 
 are conceived less as influencing the will of any superior being to grant the request, than 
 as working in some magical way — producing their effects by a blind force inherent in 
 themselves. They are, in short, mere incantations or charms. Even the prayers of a 
 Brahman, who believes in the existence of gods, do not act so much by inclining the deity 
 |i addressed to favor the petitioner, as by compelling him through their mysterious potency 
 I — through the operation of a law above the will of the highest gods. The Buddhist, then, 
 may well believe that a formula of prayer in the name of “ the venerable of the world ” 
 will be potent for his good in this way, without troubling himself to think whether any 
 ' conscious being hears it or not. 
 
 The element in Buddhism which more than any other, perhaps, gave it an advantage 
 I over all surrounding religions, and led to its surprising extension, was the spirit of uni- 
 ! versal charity and sympathy that it breathed, as contrasted with the exclusiveness of 
 
 * The quantity of flowers used as offerings is prodigious. A royal devotee in Ceylon, in the 15th c., 
 offered on one occasion 6,480,320 flowers at the shrine of the tooth. At one temple it was provided 
 that there should be offered “ every day 100,000 flowers, and each day a different flower.” 
 
 t One who is on the way to become a supreme Buddha, and has arrived at that stage when he has 
 only one more birth to undergo, is styled a Bodhisatva (having the essence of knowledge; a mere can- 
 didate for Nirvana is an arhat (venerable). 
 
Budding. 
 
 Bnel. 
 
 156 
 
 caste. In this respect, it held much the same relation to Brahmanism that Christianity 
 did to Judaism. It was, in fact, a reaction against the exclusiveness and formalism o*f 
 Brahmanism — an attempt to render it more catholic, and to throw off its intolerable bur- 
 den of ceremonies. Buddhism did not expressly abolish caste, but only declared that 
 all followers of the Buddha who embraced the religious life were thereby released from 
 its restrictions ; in the bosom of a community who had all equally renounced the world, 
 high and low, the twice-born Brahman and the outcast were brethren. This was the 
 very way that Christianity dealt with the slavery of the ancient world. This opening 
 of its ranks to all classes and to both sexes — for women were admitted to equal hopes and 
 privileges with men, and one of Gautama’s early female disciples is to be the supreme 
 Buddha of a future cycle — no doubt gave Buddhism one great advantage over Brahman- 
 ism. The Buddha, says M. Muller, “addressed himself to castes and outcasts. He 
 promised salvation to all; and he commanded his disciples to preach his doctrine in all 
 places and to all men. A sense of duty, extending from the narrow limits of the house, 
 the village, and the country, to the widest circle of mankind, a feeling of sympathy and 
 brotherhood towards all men, the idea, in fact, of humanity, were first pronounced by 
 Buddha.” This led to that remarkable missionary movement, already adverted to, which, 
 beginning 300 b.c., sent forth a succession of devoted men, who spent their lives in 
 spreading the faith of Buddha over all parts of Asia. 
 
 In the characteristic above mentioned, and in many other respects, the reader can- 
 not fail to remark the striking resemblance that Buddhism presents to Christianity, and 
 this in spite of the perverse theory on which it is founded. So numerous and surpris- 
 ing are the analogies and coincidences, that Mrs. Speir, in her book on Life in Ancient 
 India, “ could -almost imagine that before God planted Christianity upon earth, he took 
 a branch from the luxuriant tree, and threw it down to India.” 
 
 It would be superfluous to attempt here any formal refutation of the religion of the 
 Buddha. To the readers of this work, the fundamental errors of the theory will be 
 apparent enough. By giving prominence to the extravagances and almost inconceivable 
 puerilities and absurdities with which the system has been overloaded, it would have 
 been easy to make it look suflficiently ridiculous. But this is not to depict, it is to cari- 
 cature. It is only too common for Christian writers to treat of heathen religions in 
 such fashion. The only fair — the only true account of any religion, is that which enables 
 the reader to conceive how human beings may have come to believe it and live by it. It 
 is this object that has been chiefly kept in view in the preceding meager sketch of a vast 
 subject. Those who wish to pursue it further are referred to Spence Hardy’s Manual 
 of Buddhism, and his Eastern Monachism, consisting chiefly of translations from the 
 sacred books used in Ceylon ; to J. Barthelemy Saint-Hilaire, Le Bouddha et sa Religion; 
 and especially to a complete and elaborate digest by C. F. Koeppen of Berlin, in two 
 vols. — Religion of the Buddha, and Lamaist Hierarchy of Thibet. 
 
 BUDDING, sometimes called Inoculation, is an operation analogous to Grafting 
 (q.v.), or indeed may be regarded as merely a particular mode of grafting, in which a 
 leaf -bud is used as a graft instead of a young shoot. It is generally preferred for trees- 
 which are apt to throw out much gum when wounded, as the plum, cherry, peach, 
 apricot, and stone-fruits in general, also for roses and many other flowering shrubs. 
 The time for it is when the bud is perfectly formed, about or a little after midsummer. 
 The bud to be employed is taken, by means of a sharp knife, from the branch on which 
 it has grown — generally a branch of the former year — a small portion of the bark and 
 young wood being taken with it, extending to about half an inch above and three quar- 
 ters of an inch below the bud. The woody part is then separated from the bark and 
 bud; but care is to be taken that the bud itself is not injured, which, however, is always 
 the case when the operation is attempted before the bud is sufficiently matured, and is 
 indicated by a hollow left at the bud when the wood has been removed. A longitudinal 
 and a transverse cut are made in the bark of the stock intended to receive the bud, in 
 the form of the letter T; the bark is raised on both sides, for which purpose the handle 
 of the budding-knife generally terminates in a thin ivory blade, and the bud is inserted, 
 the bark attached to the bud being cut across so as to join exactly to the transverse cut 
 in that of the stock, that the bud may be nourished by the descending sap. The leaf in 
 the axil of which the bud grew is cut off. The newly-inserted bud is for a time pre- 
 served in its place, and prevented from too much access of air by strands of bass-mat- 
 ting. The process just described is distinctively called shield-budding, and is the most 
 common method of budding. Other methods are occasionally employed, as rewrsed 
 shield-budding, in which the incisions are in the form of the letter T reversed, which is 
 sometimes practiced with trees of the orange family and others in which there is a very 
 great flow of descending sap ; and scallop-budding, in which a thin slip of bark is removed 
 from the stock, and a similar slip bearing the bud is placed upon it, the upper edge and 
 one of the lateral edges being made to fit exactly. Scallop-budding may be performed 
 in spring, and if it fails, the ordinary method may be resorted to in summer. B. is also 
 sometimes performed by taking a tube of bark with one or more buds from a small branch, 
 and placing it upon a branch of similar thickness in the stock, from which the bark has 
 been removed. 
 
 BUDDLE'A, a genus of shrubs of the natural order scrophularinece, of which many spe- 
 cies are known, all natives of the warmer parts of the world, and some of them much 
 
m JKuddine» 
 
 Buel. 
 
 admired for their beautiful flowers. B. Neemda has received the praise of being one of 
 the most beautiful plants of India. B. globosa, a native of Chili, with downy branches, 
 lanceolate leaves, and globose heads of orange-colored flowers, is hardy enough to endure 
 the climate of most parts of England, and has become a very common ornament of 
 gardens, but in Scotland it needs the protection of the greenhouse or frame. 
 
 BTTDE burner and Bude Light. The B. B., so called from the name of the resi- 
 dence of the inventor, Mr. Gurney, consists of two, three, or more concentric argand 
 burners, each inner one rising a little above the outer. On the same principle, a power- 
 ful light is produced by a number of flat flames disposed in concentric circles like the 
 petals of a rose. — The Bude light, also the invention of Mr. Gurney, depends upon 
 introducing oxygen into the center of the flame instead of air, as in the common argand. 
 A light of the most dazzling brilliancy is thus produced. The house of commons ia 
 lighted by this means, the brilliancy being softened by the intervention of a ceiling of 
 ground glass. 
 
 BUDGELL, Eustace, an English writer for the Tatler, Spectator, and Guardian. 
 He was under-secretary to Addison, and afterwards a member of the Irish parliaments 
 Still later he was comptroller-general of the revenue in Ireland, from which office he 
 was removed because of a lampoon written by him upon the lord lieutenant. In 1730, 
 he lost £20,000 in the South Sea scheme, and afterwards spent £5000 to get into parlia- 
 ment, but did not succeed. Then he started the Bee, a weekly journal of short but 
 stinging life. Lawsuits accumulated, and he ended his troubles by drowning, leaving^ 
 on his table a slip of paper on which was written “What Cato did, and Addison 
 approved, cannot be wrong. ” 
 
 BUDGET, from the same source as the French hougette, means a small bag, and has. 
 been used metaphorically to express a compact collection of things, as a budget of news, 
 a budget of inventions, and the like. Water-budgets or buckets were a very honorable 
 blazon on a coat-armorial, as being generally conferred in honor of some valiant feat for 
 supplying an army with water. Guillim, in his Display of Heraldry, thinks the three 
 mighty men in David’s army who broke into the host of the Philistines, and drew water 
 from the well of Bethlehem, ‘ ‘ deserved to have been remunerated with such armorial 
 marks on their coat-armors for their valor.” 
 
 The term, “The Budget,” is in Britain, from long usage, applied to that miscel- 
 laneous collection of matters which aggregate into the annual financial statement made 
 to parliament by the chancellor of the exchequer. It contains two leading elements — 
 a statement how the nation’s account of charge and discharge stands in relation to the 
 past, and an explanation of the probable expenditure of the ensuing year, with a scheme 
 of the method in which it is to be met, whether by the existing or new taxes, or by 
 loan. The statement of the budget is always an important, sometimes a very exciting 
 occasion; as for instance, sir Rob^ert Peel’s adoption of an income-tax in 1842, and his. 
 legislation for free-trade in 1846. Another instance is Mr. Gladstone’s reduction of the 
 wine-duties and treaty with Prance in 1860. 
 
 BUDHA'NUH, a t. of India, in the British district of Mozuffurnuggur, n.w. provinces, 
 on the route from Kurnoul to Meerut, 43 m. s. from Kurnoul. The surrounding; 
 country is wooded and well cultivated, and the bazaar of the town is well supplied. 
 Pop. ’72, 6162. 
 
 BUDINGTON, William Ives, d.d., b. Conn., 1815; graduate at Yale, and ia 
 theology at Andover. He was ordained in 1840, and took charge of the first Congrega- 
 tional church in Charlestown, Mass,, remaining there 14 years. He published a history 
 of that church in 1845. In 1855, he took charge of the Clinton avenue church, Brooklyn, 
 New York. Failing health compelled him to relinquish public duties early in 1879, 
 and he died in December. Dr. B. was one of the acknowledged leaders in his denom- 
 ination, 
 
 BUDOS HEGY, a mountain belonging to the Carpathians, on the eastern border of 
 Transylvania, in lat. 46° 12' n., and long. 25° 40' east. It is quite isolated, steep, and 
 of conical shape, densely wooded on the lower slopes, and has an elevation of 7340 feet, 
 it has numerous caverns, that emit sulphurous exhalations, and from its base issuo 
 strong sulphur springs. 
 
 BUDWEIS, a t. of Bohemia, situated on the Moldau, about 77 m. s. of Prague, B. is 
 well built, is partially fortified, and has an old cathedral, manufactures of woolens, stone- 
 ware, machines, lead -pencils, saltpeter, etc. It has also a brisk trade in grain, wood, 
 coals, and salt. There are numerous schools, both for education in the Bohemian and 
 in the German tongue. The Slavic name of B. Budejowice. Pop, ’69, 17,413. In the 
 neighborhood is an old feudal fortress, the Schloss Frauenberg, one of the seats of prince* 
 Schwarzenberg, and a fine new Gothic castle also belonging to the same nobleman. Here 
 he keeps herds of wild swine for the chase. 
 
 BUEL, Jesse, 1778-1839; a native of Connecticut, began life as a printer, and estab- 
 lished the Albany Argus in 1813, continuing as the publisher until 1831, when he retired 
 to a farm and became one of the most successful cultivators in the country. In 1834, he- 
 started the Albany Gultimtor, and subsequently published the Farmer's Instructor and. 
 the Farmer's Companion. 
 
Buell. 
 
 Buffalo. 
 
 158 
 
 BUELL, Don Carlos, b. Ohio, 1818; a graduate of West Point; serred in the 
 Florida and Mexican wars, from 1849 to 1861 assistant adjutant-general in various mili- 
 tary departments; in the latter year commanding the department of the Ohio, and in 
 1862 made maj.gen. of volunteers. He was mustered out in 1864, and resigned his 
 command. 
 
 BUENA VISTA, a co. in n.w. Iowa, traversed by the Dubuque and Sioux City rail- 
 road, and watered by Coon and other rivers; 576 sq.m.; pop. ’80, 7537. Agriculture is 
 the main business. Co. seat. Prairie ville. 
 
 BUENA VISTA, a small settlement in Coahuila, Mexico, on the San Juan, a tribu- 
 tary of the Rio Grande, 7 m. s. of Saltillo; the site of a battle between the United States 
 forces under gen. Taylor and the Mexicans under Santa Anna, Feb. 23, 1847, the former 
 with 5200 men and the latter with about 20,000. After two days of sharp fighting, Santa 
 Anna was defeated with a loss of nearly 2000 ; Taylor’s loss being 746. The result was 
 ■due in great part to the superior effectiveness of Taylor’s artillery. 
 
 BUEN AY'RE, in Spanish, or Bon Air in French, an island in that subdivision of the 
 West Indies which runs parallel with the coast of Venezuela. It is inlat. 12° 20' n., and 
 long. 68° 27' w., being 30 m. to the e. of Cura 9 ao, which, like itself, belongs to the 
 Dutch. B. A. produces cattle and salt. It measures 20 m. by 4, and contains about 
 4000 inhabitants. It has a tolerable harbor on its leeward or s.w. side. 
 
 BVE'NOS AY'EES, a province of the Argentine Confederation in South America, of 
 which the city B. A. is capital, extends itself along the Atlantic, from the mouth of 
 the Plata to that of the Rio Negro on the 41st parallel; on the n.e., it is washed by the 
 Plata and the Parana as far as the Arroyo del Medio; on the n. and the adjacent section 
 of the w., it touches the province of Santa Fe. Elsewhere, its borders cannot be 
 defined, constantly advancing, by slow and perilous steps, into the domain of the abo- 
 rigines, for here the contest is not with the wilderness itself, which is a boundless 
 prairie, but with its tenants, who, having an unlimited supply of horses for all pur- 
 poses, are secured, in their every foray, alike against famine and fatigue. Its area is 
 estimated at 63,000 sq.m., with a pop. of (1869) 495,107. Besides the existing province 
 of the name, it at one time comprised Uruguay or Banda Oriental, Paraguay, Bolivia, 
 and the Argentine Confederation, being originally an appendage of Peru, under the 
 immediate command of a capt.gen., and becoming, in 1775, a separate vice-royalty of 
 itself. Though the first three of these four divisions broke off chiefly in connection 
 with the revolutionary struggle, yet the fourth continued, down to 1853, to recognize 
 the city of B. A. as its head; and the inland states endeavored both by war and diplo- 
 macy to re-annex the maritime province to the republic, till, in June, 1860, their object 
 was obtained, and B. A. became once more a province of the Argentine Confederation. 
 
 The country approaches so nearly to a plain, that most of the rain which falls is 
 oither absorbed or evaporated, or lost in salt-lakes, comparatively little drainage enter- 
 ing the Parana or the Plata. The climate, though on the whole healthy and agreeable, is 
 yet by no means steady or uniform. Every wind, in general, has, to a remarkable degree. 
 Its own weather — sultriness coming from the n. , freshness from the s. , moisture from 
 the e. , and storm from the w. ; and besides the periodical heats of every summer, suc- 
 cessive years of more than ordinary drought occur. Apiculture, properly so called, is 
 followed chiefly in the more temperate and humid districts of the eastern coast; while 
 the interior presents almost uninterrupted pasturage to countless herds of horses and 
 cattle. Under these circumstances, the business of grazing and hunting combined occu- 
 pies or interests the great bulk of the population — a business that renders the province, 
 whether as to the disposal of its productions or as to the supply of its wants, peculiarly 
 dependent on that external commerce, which, throughout the whole of Spanish America, 
 has naturally been identified with political freedom. Let it be added that the Indians 
 are intractable, and that the Africans, few in number at best, are^ principally menials; 
 and it is seen at once why, in spite of national jealousies pd sectarian prejudices, immi- 
 
 f ration from Europe has been not only tolerated by public opinion, but also encouraged 
 y legislative enactments. Moreover, a comparatively congenial climate, as a recom- 
 mendation to foreigners, has powerfully seconded the efforts of liberality and patriotism. 
 It is perhaps mainly owing to this cause, which is common alike to Chili and to B. A., 
 that these two districts, notwithstanding their full share of wars and troubles, have so 
 decidedly outstripped the other fragments of the same colonial empire in all the elements 
 of liberty and civilization. Hence their higher importance in the eyes of Europeans in 
 general, and of Englishmen in particular. B. A. is the largest, most populous, and 
 most flourishing of the provinces which comprise the Argentine Confederation. Numer- 
 ous railways traverse it, emanating from the city of B. A., and extending to other parts 
 of the republic. The annual immigration into B. A. is from 15,000 to 20,000. 
 
 BUE'NOS AY'RES, a city of South America, on the right bank of the Plata, which 
 here, at a distance of 150 m. from the open sea, is 36 m. across. It stands in lat. 34° 36' 
 s., and long 58° west. Its disadvantages as a maritime town are great; the flood- 
 tides of the ocean, when backed by easterly winds, being apt to make the estuary over- 
 flow its banks; and again, when westerly winds prevail, the estuary loses both width and 
 depth. Monte Video, on the opposite shore, possesses a better harbor, and is nearer to 
 
159 
 
 Buell. 
 
 Buffalo.- 
 
 the Atlantic, nor can ii ue doubted that, but for the greater facilities of A. in carry- 
 ing on an inland trade, the former town would have proxed a dangerous rival. Steam 
 is rapidly placing both upon more equal terms. Of the trade, however, with Chili by 
 Mendoza and the Andes — a trade which must always be carried on by land— B. A. must 
 still command the monopoly. So familiar had B. A. become with land-carriage on au 
 extensive scale, that its merchants, when blockaded in front during a war with Brazil, 
 established, as it were, a new port of entry in the mouth of the Salado or Saladillo, at a 
 distance of at least 150 miles. As a city, B. A. labors under some peculiar disadvan- 
 tages. Its supplies of fresh water are received from the Plata in rudely constructed 
 carts, though a thorough scheme of water-supply and drainage is now being carried out. 
 Its immediate territory, purely alluvial, is almost as destitute of timber as of stones — 
 the latter being brought either as ballast from Europe, or as freight from Martin Garcia, 
 an island on the opposite side of the estuary; and the former from the province of 
 Entre Rios, and from the islets of the Uruguay and the Parana. Fuel is almost as scarce 
 as building material — peach-trees and the withered thistles of the prairies yielding the 
 only indigenous supplies. B. A., which appears to deserve its name of good airs, con- 
 tains (1869) 177,787 inhabitants — about a third of whom are of European birth or 
 descent. Among the Europeans the vast majority are Spanish, Italian, French, and 
 British. B. A. publishes newspapers in French, English, Italian, and German, as well 
 as in Spanish. The city is partitioned into blocks of about 150 yards square, by granite- 
 paved streets. New houses are everywhere springing up; tramways traverse it in every 
 direction; and the value of property has enormously increased. The principal build- 
 ings are the cathedral and its dependent churches. Episcopalian and Presbyteriau 
 chapels, a foundling hospital, an orphan asylum, the university, a military college, sev- 
 eral public schools, and the government offices; there are also printing establishments, 
 and manufactories of cigars, carpets, furniture, and boots and shoes. The exports con- 
 sist of precious metals, hides, beef, wool, skins, tallow, and horse-hair; and the imports^ 
 of cottons, linens, woolens, jewelry, perfumery, and deals. The custom-house dues, 
 which in 1860 were $3,000,000, in 1870 had increased to $13,000,000. The value of 
 imports in 1873 was £11,886,861, and of exports, £6,886,506. B. A. was founded iu 
 1535; but having subsequently been twice destroyed by the Indians, it ought, in reality, 
 to date only from 1580. In the beginning of the present century, it achieved, with very 
 little aid from home, two triumphs over England. In 1806, one British force, which had 
 just captured the city, was obliged to surrender; and in 1807, another which attempted, 
 ito recover the place, was repulsed with heavy loss; and these successes over so formi- 
 dable a foe emboldened the colonists, three years afterwards, to throw off the yoke of 
 Spain. 
 
 BUFFALO, Bos hubalus, an animal of the ox tribe, very important and useful to man. 
 It is a native of the East Indies, where it has been long domesticated, and from which it 
 was carried to Egypt and to the south of Europe. It was introduced into Italy about 
 the close of the 6th c. a.d., and is now very generally used as a beast of draught and of 
 burden in that country, as it is also in India. 
 
 The B. is larger than the ox, and its limbs are stouter. Its form is more angular and 
 clumsy; the head is larger in proportion to the size of the body; and the forehead is 
 rather convex, and higher than broad ; the dorsal line rises into a considerable elevation 
 above the shoulders ; the dewlap and the tail resemble those of the ox ; the horns are 
 large, slightly compressed, recline towards the neck, and have their points turned up. 
 It is characteristic of the B., when walking or running, to carry the head with the muz- 
 zle projecting straight forward, and the horns laid back on the shoulders. The hair is 
 irregular and bristly, often very thin, so that the smooth brown hide “shines with an 
 unpleasant polish in the sunlight.” In this as in other respects, the animal is adapted 
 for marshy situations, which it naturally affects; preferring for its food the rank coarse 
 herbage which they afford, delighting to immerse itself in water till only its head appears 
 above the surface, in which condition it will remain for hours, and often enveloping 
 itself in mud as a protection against insects. On account of these propensities, the buf- 
 faloes used as beasts of burden in India are seldom laden with any goods liable to be 
 spoiled by water, as the animal is always ready to take an opportunity of lying down 
 with his load in any river or pond which presents itself. In Italy, the B. seems nowhere 
 more at home than in the Pontine marshes and the pestilential Maremma. The very 
 regions where malaria is most prevalent seem to be those most adapted to its constitution. 
 
 The B. is a very powerful animal, much more powerful than the ox, and capable of 
 dragging or carrying a far heavier load. The female yields a much greater quantity of milk 
 than a cow, and of excellent quality. It is from B. milk that the gl\£e or semi-fluid butter 
 of India is made. The hide is greatly valued for its strength and durability, but the flesh 
 is very inferior to that of the ox. 
 
 The B. exhibits a considerable amount of intelligence. In a state of domestication, 
 it is capable of becoming very docile. In the s. of Europe, it is generally managed 
 by a ring passed through the cartilage of the nose, but in India by a mere rope. The 
 Indian driver rides upon a B. ; but these animals keep so closely together as they are 
 driven along, that, if necessary, he walks from the back of one to that of another per- 
 fectly at his ease. In a wild state, the B. is savage and dangerous, and even in domesti- 
 
Buffalo. 
 
 160 
 
 cation it is apt to resent injury. The native princes of India make buffaloes and tigers 
 fight in their public shows; and the B. is more than a match for the tiger, even in single 
 combat. The appearance of a tiger excites a herd of buffaloes, much as we see oxen 
 excited by the approach of a dog ; and if his safety is not secured by flight, they kill him, 
 tossing him from one to another with their horns, and trampling him with their feet. 
 
 The B. is used in some parts of the east in the shooting of waterfowl, being trained 
 to the sport, and sold at a considerable price. The sportsman conceals himself behind 
 the B., which, being a familiar sight, is not alarming to the birds. 
 
 The Cape B. , Bos Gaffer, is generally regarded as a distinct species. It seems never 
 to have been reduced to the service of man, although there is reason to believe it to be 
 very capable of domestication. The horns are very large ; they spread horizontally over 
 the top of the head, and are then bent down laterally, and turned upwards at the point. 
 The head is carried, as by the common B., with projecting muzzle and reclining horns, 
 but the bases of the horns nearly meet on the forehead, where they are from 8 to 10 in. 
 broad. The length of a full-grown Cape B. is about 8 ft. from the root of the horns to 
 the tail, and the height 5^ feet. This animal is regarded as more formidable than any 
 other in South Africa; and the hunter will more readily risk an encounter with a lion 
 than offer any provocation to a B. without great advantages for the combat, or great 
 facilities for escape. The B. is still found in large herds in the interior of South Africa, 
 but in Cape Colony, where it was once plentiful, it has now become comparatively rare. 
 The hide is so thick and tough that the Caffres make shields of it, impenetrable to mus- 
 ket-shot : and the balls used by the huntsmen in shooting the animal are mixed with tin, 
 and yet are often flattened by the resistance. The Cape B. grazes chiefly in the evening, 
 and lies in woods and thickets during the day. 
 
 An attempt has been made to establish a genus, huhalus, naving the common B. for 
 its type; but the characters lack precision, and the limits are uncertain. — The bufftalo of 
 the Anglo-Americans is the American bison. See Bison. 
 
 BUFFALO, a co. in central Dakota, on the Missouri river; 750 sq.m.; pop. ’70, 246. 
 Iron ore has been discovered. 
 
 BUFFALO, a co. in central Nebraska, on the Platte river; 850 sq.m. ; pop. ’80, 7531. 
 Soil fertile. The Union Pacific railroad passes through. Co. seat. Gibbon. 
 
 BUFFALO, a co. in w. Wisconsin, on the Mississippi and Chippewa rivers. Grain 
 and wool are the main products; 650 sq.m.; pop. ’75, 14,219; in ’80, 15,528. Co. seat, 
 Alma. 
 
 BUFFALO, a city of the state of New York, standing at the mouth of Buffalo river, 
 which enters lake Erie within 2 m. of its outlet, the Niagara river. In 1801, when B. 
 was founded, the basin of its fresh-water sea contained certainly fewer than 50,000 
 inhabitants, and seemed cut off from commercial communication by the Niagara falls on 
 the e. and the currents of the Detroit and St. Clair on the west. But these and other 
 natural disadvantages have been made to vanish. The construction of piers and break- 
 waters in the river and at its mouth have removed the bar, and given B. one of the best 
 harbors on the lakes. Steam has brought lakes Huron, Michigan, and Superior within 
 easy reach. Its commerce is large, the grain trade being the most important item in it. 
 The receipts of grain and flour during the decade ended in 1874 amounted to 522,874,- 
 944 bushels. There are more than 30 elevators in B., with storage capacity for upwards 
 of 7,000,000 bushels. Next to the traffic in grain is that in live-stock. In 1874, 504,594 
 oattle, 783,800 sheep, 1,431,800 hogs, and 21,937 horses, amounting in value to nearly 
 $60,000,000, passed through Buffalo. British improvements along the Niagara and the St. 
 Lawrence, available as they are for sea-going ships, have rendered B. a maritime empo- 
 rium. The Erie canal, 364 m. long, has connected B. as its terminus with the tide- 
 waters of the Hudson; while three other enterprises of the kind, commencing respect- 
 ively at Erie, Cleveland, and Toledo, have linked lake Erie at three or rather four points 
 with the Ohio, and through it with the Mississippi. Since about 1862, its lake commerce 
 has much decreased, owing to the increase of railway facilities, and manufacturing 
 industries have taken the lead. Among manufactures, that of iron is the chief. Ship- 
 building is also largely carried on, and there are extensive wool-factories and numerous 
 saw-mills. The rise of B. has been remarkably rapid; in 1810, there were 1508 inhabit- 
 ants; 1830, 8653; 1850, 42,261; 1870, 117,714; and in 1875, 134,573. The city debt in 
 1878 was $7,509,257; and the valuation, $99,975,575. In 1814, the British burned 
 Buffalo. In 1825, the Erie canal was opened. 
 
 B. is situated in lat. 42° 53' n., and long. 78° 55' west. It is regularly built. Its 
 streets are straight and broad — Main street, in particular, being 2 m. long and 120 feet 
 wide ; and its squares, which are 3 in number, are shaded by rows of trees. The most 
 prominent public buildings are the city and county hall, erected at a cost of $2,000,000, 
 custom-house, post-office, arsenal, penitentiary, and an asylum for the insane. There 
 are nearly 80 churches, a universit 3 ^ 8 daily newspapers, several libraries, etc. It is 
 divided into 5 wards, and is governed by a mayor and council annually elected. 
 
 BUFFALO {ante), city, a port of entry, and the seat of justice of Erie co., N. Y., in 
 42° 53' n., 78° 55' w., at the foot of lake Erie, at the mouth of the Buffalo river and at the 
 head of Niagara river, which is here crossed by an iron bridge. The city has a water 
 
161 
 
 Buffalo. 
 
 front of about 5 m., running 2i m. along the shore of the lake, and 2i m. along Niao-ara 
 river. It is c^nected with Goderich on lake Huron by the Buffalo and Lake HiJron 
 railroad; with Detroit by the Great Western railway; with Toronto and Montreal by the 
 Grand Trunk railway. The climate is pleasant and healthful ; the streets, broad and 
 generally lined with trees, are well paved, lighted, and supplied with sewers There 
 are many fine residences with attractive grounds, and numerous squares and public 
 places. A combination of parks and pleasure grounds has been laid out, extending to over 
 5UU acres. It comprises three sections, situated respectively in the northern western and 
 eastern parts of the city, which, with the connecting boulevards, afford a drive of nearly 
 population Buffalo is the third city in New York, and the thirteenth in the 
 United States It was founded in 1801, became a military post in 1813, and was burned 
 by the British on the last day of the same year. After the war the place was rebuilt 
 and in 1832 it attained the rank of a city. In 1820, it contained 2095 inhabitants! 
 After the opening of the Erie canal in 1825, its growth was rapid, the ponulation 
 in 1830; 18,213 in 1840; 42,261 in 1850; 81,129 in 1860; 117 714 in 1870- 
 134,238 in 1875, and 155,137 in 1880. A portion of the river front is a bold bluff 60 ft’ 
 above the lake and the Erie canal, which passes near it. There are 5 public squares 
 Niagara, Lafayette place, Washington, Franklin, and Delaware place. The principal 
 streets are Mam street, about 3 m. in length, Niagara street, 4 m., and Delaware street 
 3 miles. The most important public buildings are the city and county hall a granite 
 structure erected at a cost of oyer $2,000,000, in the form of a double Roman cross with 
 the United States custom-house and post-office; the state arsenal 
 the Erie co. penitentiary, which is one of the 6 penal establishments of New York- 
 and the state asylum for the insane, an edifice which cost about $3,000,000, and has a 
 front of 2700 ft. and a capacity for 600 patients. There are 76 churches, the most 
 imposing edifices being St. Joseph’s cathedral (Roman Catholic) and St. Paul’s (Episco- 
 churches are divided among the various denominations as follows: 18 Roman 
 Catholic, 11 German Lutheran and Evangelical, 10 Episcopal, 10 Methodist, 9 Presby- 
 terian, 8 Baptist, 4 Mission, 2 Jewish, 1 French Protestant, 1 Congregational 1 Uni- 
 tarian 1 Universalist, and 1 Friends\ The Forest Lawn cemetery in the suburbs cou- 
 sins 75 ac^s, tastefully laid out. There are 9 daily newspapers, 5 in English and 4 in 
 German, 10 weeklies, and 7 periodicals issued monthly. The educational institutions 
 a state normal school, 50 public schools with an average of 353 teachers and 
 21,808 pupils and a number of collegiate schools and academies. Among other educa- 
 tional institutions are Canisius college, founded by the Jesuit fathers; St Joseph’s col- 
 lege conducted by the Christian brothers; Martin Luther college (theological); St. Mary’s 
 academy and industrial school for girls; and the medical college of the university of 
 Buffalo. The charitabl^e institutions of the city are numerous. The Buffalo orphan 
 asylum founded in 1835, occupies a fine building in Virginia street. The St. Vincent’s 
 asylum for orphan girls is under the care of the sisters of charity. The St. Joseph’s 
 asylum for orphan boys, founded by the Roman Catholic church, has a reformatory insti- 
 w church charity foundation (Episcopal) supports a home 
 
 mr aged and destitute females opened in 1858, and an orphan ward organized in 1866 
 1 best. Johns orphan home is under the care of the Evangelical Lutheran church. 
 
 le Ingleside honae was organized in 1869 for the purpose of reclaiming erring women. 
 Ainong other chanties are the St. Maiy’s asylum for widows, foundlings, and infants; the 
 Bimalo general hospital in High street; the Buffalo association for the relief of the poor- 
 
 lias3 national banks, 6 state banks and 
 5 savings banks. The Young Men s association has a library of 30,000 volumes, and real 
 estate valued at about $250,000. This society owns St. James hall, which is greatly in 
 demand for concerts and lectures; and their large library building is occupied by the 
 Buffalo historical society with its large library and cabinet; by the society of natural 
 sciences, which has made an extensive collection of minerals and fossil casts; by the 
 academy of film arts; and by the mechanics’ institute. The Young Men’s Christian 
 union and the German Young Men’s association have good libraries. The Grosvenor 
 libra^ contains about 15,000 volumes of valuable reference works. 
 
 /9 city government is composed of a mayor, a common council of 26 members 
 1 trcm each of the 13 wards), a treasurer, controller, city attorney, superintendent of 
 education, city engineer, overseer of the poor, and 3 assessors. It is often claimed that 
 B. IS the healthiest city of the United States, having the best water and the most' 
 ®®"^®^age; its water-supply is procured from the Niagara, through a tunnel 
 extending almost to the middle of the river. The police department, with a force of 
 under the control of a board of three commissioners. The city has a paid 
 fire department, 3 volunteer hook-and-ladder companies, and a volunteer protection 
 and police alarm telegraph, with 70 m. of wire, 68 signal-stations, and 
 telephone has been introduced and extends to various parts of the 
 three private companies. There are several lines of 
 street railroads. The total debt of the city in 1879 was $7,514,264 72- the assessed val- 
 uation of property was $88,876,545; (real estate, $80,929,165; personal’property, $7,947,- 
 
 the great water and railway channels of communication between 
 me west and the east gives it a large commercial importance. Its harbor is capacious 
 U. K. III.— 11 
 
Buffalora. 
 
 Bug. 
 
 162 
 
 and is protected by extensive breakwaters. The city is the center of an important sys- 
 tem of railroads: it is the eastern terminus of the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern 
 railroad, of the Canada Southern, and a branch of the Grand Trunk railroad of Canada; 
 it is the western terminus of the Erie canal, the New York Central railroad, and a divis- 
 ion of the Erie railway; and other lines converge here. There is a board of trade, 
 organized in 1844 and incorporated in 1857. The immense quantities of grain moving 
 from western states to the sea-board constitute the most important feature of the com- 
 merce of the city. The facilities for handling and storing it are unexcelled by those of 
 any other city on this continent. The first grain elevator was built in 1843 by Joseph 
 Dart, and thirty years from that date, in 1873, there were 32 elevators, with a capacity 
 for handling 3,000,000 bushels a day. The record of receipts and exports is as follows: 
 receipts, 1836-45, 41,851,483 bushels; 1846-55, 174,717,437 bushels; 1856-65,432,390,318 
 bushels; 1866-75, 571,255,254 bushels. During the same length of time the exports kept 
 pace with the receipts. Many of these elevating warehouses are costly structures of 
 stone, or of iron and brick; several of them have grain “ driers ” attached. The live 
 stock trade of B. is second only to the grain trade, but will probably exceed it before 
 long. For the accommodation of this branch of business the New York Central railroad 
 ■company has built large yards in the eastern suburbs; these yards are well sheltered, 
 paved, watered, and taken care of with strict regard to cleanliness. In the amount of 
 this business this city has third rank among the cities of the United States. B. has a 
 large trade in anthracite and bituminous coal, received from Pennsylvania and distrib- 
 uted both e. and w. ; great improvements have been made lately for handling and ship- 
 ping this article. The rapid growth of the coal trade may be seen from the fact that the 
 lake shipments westward during the season of 1879 amounted to 612,976 tons against 
 325,676 tons in 1878. The lumber and timber trade is large, although want of harbor 
 and proper storage has driven a great part of it to Tonawanda on the Niagara river, 
 about ten miles below Buffalo. The receipts in 1879 amounted to 207,531,000 ft., exceed- 
 ing those of 1878 by 30,000,000 feet. 
 
 The manufacturing interests of B. are extensive, and have grown with marked 
 rapidity in recent years, especially the manufacture of iron, which is carried on in more 
 than 30 large establishments, employing 5000 men. The leading establishments are blast 
 furnaces, rolling-mills, foundries, breweries, tanneries, manufactories of agricultural 
 implements, and flour-mills. Of the last-named there are eleven, with a yearly capacity 
 of 839,000 barrels; the average annual production of flour being about 250,000 barrels. 
 Wooden ship building was formerly carried on here, but it has been superseded by iron 
 ship building. Two extensive establishments are devoted to this industry; these have 
 constructed the flnest lake steamers, besides supplying the government with a number 
 of iron revenue vessels. 
 
 BXJFFALO'BA, a small t. of Lombardy, about 25 m. n.n.w. of Pavia, on the Ticino, 
 here crossed by a bridge. The Austrians commenced the Italian campaign of 1859 by 
 entering Piedmont at this point. The bridge was partially blown up by Austrian engi- 
 neers. Pop. 1250. 
 
 BUFFET, an article of furniture formerly serving the same purpose as a sideboard, 
 which has now superseded it. B. is the name given in France to a refreshment bar. 
 
 BUFFIER, Claude, 1661-1737; a French psychologist and metaphysician, for the 
 most of his life a lecturer in the Jesuit college in Paris. His best known work is Traite 
 dss Verites Premieres, in which he intended to discover the ultimate principles upon 
 which all knowledge is based. He wrote also on the elements of metaphysics, and a 
 French grammar on a new plan. 
 
 BUFF LEATHER is usually made out of salted and dried South American light ox 
 and cow hides. After being limed in the usual way, they are unhaired and rounded, so 
 that only the best part of the hide is made into buff leather. The grain and flesh being 
 then scraped or cut off, the true cuticle, which is of a flexible fibrous nature, alone 
 remains. The hide is next sprinkled over with cod-oil, and placed in the stocks, where 
 it is worked for about 15 minutes. Having been taken out and partially dried, it is 
 again submitted to a similar process of oiling and stocking; and during the first day, 
 these operations may be repeated six times, decreasing daily for about a week, when one 
 oiling and stocking in a day is sutticient. The hides are then placed in a stove, and 
 subjected to a process called “ heating off,” after which they are scoured and rendered 
 free from oiliness by being soaked in a strong lye of carbonate of potash. They are 
 next worked well in the stocks, hot water being poured copiously upon them until the 
 water runs off pure. Having been dried, they are subjected to a process called ground- 
 ing — i.e., they are rubbed with a round knife, and also with pumice-stone and sand, 
 until a smooth surface is produced. The leather, which is very pliant, and not liable 
 to crack or rot, is now ready for the market, and is generally used for soldiers’ belts and 
 other army purposes. 
 
 During the early part of this century, the principal seat of the B. L. manufacture 
 was in the neighborhood of Edinburgh, one manufacturer turning out, previous to the 
 battle of Waterloo, about 1300 hides per week. In peaceable times, the demand for 
 B. L. is comparatively small, and the manufacture is now almost confined to London 
 and the neighborhood, where the raw material is most readily procured, and the demand 
 
163 
 
 BulTItlora* 
 
 Bug. 
 
 for the manufactured article is greatest. 'The natural color of the leather is light-yel- 
 low, but for some purposes it is bleached white. The precise chemical operation of the 
 oil in the process of the manufacture is rather obscure, but as no glue can be got from 
 hide that has been made into buff, the gelatine of the hide must have entered into 
 combination with some of the constituents of the oil, and had its nature completely 
 changed. 
 
 BUFFO (Ital. from corrupt Latin buffa, a slap on the cheek, as practiced by clowns 
 and mountebanks in farces), an Italian theatrical term applied to an actor or operatic 
 singer who takes the light or humorous part in an opera or play. A burlesque opera is 
 called opera buff a, and a burlesque play, commedia buff a. 
 
 BUFFON, George Louis Leclerc, Comte de, one of the most famous naturalists and 
 writers of the 18th c., was b. at Montbard, in Burgundy, Sept. 7, 1707. He studied law 
 at the college of Jesuits at Dijon, but showed so marked a predilection for astronomy 
 and mathematics, that his father allowed him to follow his own inclinations. At Dijon, 
 he became acquainted with lord Kingston, whose tutor, a man of learning and taste, 
 directed the mind of B. to the study of the sciences. With lord Kingston and his tutor, 
 B. traveled through France and Italy, and came to England, where, to improve his 
 knowledge of our language, he translated Newton’s Fluxions and Hales’ Vegetable 
 Statics. In 1733, he wrote several original essays, which gained notice in the academy, 
 of which he had been made a member. His general love of science received a definite 
 impulse toward zoology by his appointment, in 1739, as intendant of the royal garden 
 and museum. Hitherto zoology, consisting of a series of unconnected observations and 
 fruitless attempts at classification, had been commonly regarded by educated readers as 
 a dry study, and bysavans as play-work. B. first conceived the idea of making it 
 attractive to the first of these classes, and of securing for it, at the same time, the respect 
 of the second. His plan was assuredly comprehensive enough, since he aimed at noth- 
 ing less than a collection of all the separate known facts of physical investigation, and 
 a systematic arrangement of these, to assist the author in forming a theory of nature ; 
 but B. possessed neither the science nor the patience necessary for such a task. 
 Endowed, however, with a brilliantly rhetorical imagination, and always inclined to^ 
 deliver himself from doubts and ignorance by sparkling hypotheses, the elaboration of 
 which cost him little trouble, he contrived to produce a work which, if not severely 
 scientific in its method, at least shone with what many then conceived to be the brightest 
 literary luster. However, it is not to be denied that many of his views are very ingeni- 
 ous, although later researches have completely exploded them. The Natural Ilistoi'y of 
 B. made an epoch in the study of the natural sciences, though it has now little or no 
 scientific value. His attempted explanations of natural phenomena were opposed by 
 Condillac, who, with Helvetius, Diderot, D’Alembert, and others, also ridiculed, with *a 
 certain degree of justice, the excessive pomp of style used by Buffon. The most insig- 
 nificant part of B.’s treatise is the mineralogy, for which he was quite unqualified by 
 the deficiencies of his chemical, mathematical, and physical knowledge. The systern- 
 atic and anatomical arrangement of the mammalia was executed byDaubenton, the 
 colleague of Buffon. B. ’s works passed through numerous editions, and several were 
 translated into most of the languages of Europe. The best complete edition is the 
 Histoire Naturelle Oenerale et Particuliere, in 36 volumes (Par. 1749-88.) After receiv- 
 ing several high honors, being elevated to the rank of comte de B. by Louis XY . , and 
 treated with ^eat distinction by Louis XYI., B. died in Paris, April 16, 1788. In per- 
 son and carriage, B. was noble; as a Parisian academician, and a self-complacent,, 
 theoretical naturalist, dressed in courtly style, pursuing his pleasant studies in the allees 
 of the royal garden, and largely participating in the vices of his time, B. was quite a 
 model of a French philosopher of the 18th century. His son, Henri Leclerc, comte de 
 B., b. 1764, was attached, at the outbreak of the revolution, to the party of the duke 
 of Orleans, and fell under the guillotine. His last words were : Gitoyens, je me nomme 
 
 Buffon. 
 
 BUFFOON (Fr. bouffon), a low jester. The Italian buffo (from buff a, a farce) is the 
 name given to a comic singer in an opera. In the corrupt Latinity of the middle age, 
 buffa meant a slap on the cheek; and in the Italian, buffare signifies the puffing of wind 
 through the mouth. It is probably from the favorite trick played by clowns in farces — 
 one swelling out his cheeks with wind, the other slapping them, so as to make a ludic- 
 rous explosion — that the terms buffones in Latin, buffoni in Italian, bouffons in French, 
 and in English buffoon, were derived. In Italy, the buffo cantante is distinct from the 
 buffo comico; the former having greater musical talent, and sustaining a more important 
 part, the latter having greater license in jocoseness The voice of a buffo cantante is 
 generally a bass, but sometimes a tenor buffo is introduced. 
 
 BUFORD, John, 1826-63; b. Ky. ; graduate of West Point, was capt. of dragoons 
 in 1859. In the war of the rebellion he served on the union side, and was one of the 
 most conspicuous and useful of cavalry officers, participating in many engagements, 
 in one of which he was wounded. He rose to maj.gen. of volunteers. 
 
 BUG, a name applied to a large family of insects, cimicidce, of the order Tiemiptera 
 (q.v.), suborder heteroptera, and often still further extended in its signification so as to 
 
Bug. 
 
 13ulirstone. 
 
 164 
 
 include the whole of that suborder, the of the section geocorim being designated 
 
 land-bugs, and those of the section hy draco risce, water-bugs, the latter including water- 
 scorpions, boat-flies, etc. All these insects, and particularly the land-bugs, although 
 some of them are radiant in beautiful colors, have a strong resemblance in form and 
 structure to the annoying and disgusting house B. or bed B. {cimex lectulanus) The 
 statement that this insect was introduced into England with timber brought from 
 America to rebuild London after the great Are of 1666, must be rejected 'as erroneous; 
 for although it appears to have been comparatively rare in England, it was well known 
 in some parts of Europe long before that time, and is mentioned by Dioscorides. The 
 bed B. ,is destitute of wings — an anomalous peculiarity, as the insects of its order, and 
 even of^ the same family, are generally furnished with them. The body is very flat, of a 
 somewhat oval form ; the whole insect is of a dirty rust color, emits an offensive odor, 
 and is about three sixteenths of an inch in length; the legs are moderately long, and 
 capable of being employed for pretty rapid motion ; the antennae are thread-like and 
 very slender, about half the length of the body ; the mouth is formed for suction alone, 
 and is furnished with a sort of proboscis, which is three-jointed, forms a sheath for the 
 true sucker, and when not in use is recurved under the head and thorax. The B. lurks 
 during the day in crevices of walls, of bedsteads, and of other furniture, but is suf- 
 ficiently active during the night; and when it finds opportunity, sucks blood until it 
 distends itself. It seems, however, to be capable of subsisting long without food. 
 Young bugs resemble their parents in most things, except size and the want of elytra, 
 insects of this order not undergoing such marvelous transformations as those of some 
 other orders. The best preventive of bugs in a house is scrupulous attention to cleanli- 
 ness; but where the nuisance exists, it is not easily removed, and various means are 
 employed for this purpose, of which one of the best and safest is thorough washing 
 with spirit of turpentine, although recourse is even had to washing with a solution of 
 corrosive sublimate. — Other species of B. (cimex) suck the blood of some of the inferior 
 vertebrate animals, as pigeons, swallows, bats, etc. ; but the greater number of insects 
 of the B. family live by sucking the juices of vegetables. A small species (tingis pyri), 
 which sucks the leaves of the pear-tree, is very destructive in some parts of Europe, 
 where it is popularly called the tiger. Some of these winged wood-bugs or field-bugs 
 are capable of inflicting very painful wounds. Flying-bugs, “ enormous and fetid,” are 
 among the pests of India. Night is the time of their activity. Warm countries gener 
 ally have winged bugs of great size and beauty ; but if touched or irritated, they ‘ ‘ exhale 
 an odor that, once perceived, is never after forgotten.” A winged B., as large as a cock- 
 chafer,' lodges in the thatch and roofing of houses in Chili, and sallies forth at night, 
 like the bed B., to suck blood, of which it takes as much as a common leech. — It is 
 w^orthy of notice that a species of field B. (acanthosoma grisea), a native of Britain, is one 
 of the few insects that have yet been observed to show affection and attention to their 
 young. De Geer observed the female of this species, which inhabits the birch-tree, con- 
 ducting’ a family of thirty or forty young ones as a hen does her chickens, showing great 
 uneasiness when they seemed to be threatened with danger, and waiting by them instead 
 of trying to make her own escape. 
 
 BUG, or Bog. There are two rivers of this name in Russian Poland. The Western 
 B., the largest tributary of the Vistula, rises in Austrian Galicia, and after a course of 
 about 450 English miles, and receiving numerous tributaries, it joins the Vistula at the 
 fortress of Modlin, near Warsaw. It is navigable for a considerable distance. The 
 Eastern B. , the Hypanis of the ancients, rises in Podolia, and flows s. into the estuary 
 of the Dnieper. Its length is more than 400 miles. It is navigable for small-craft as 
 far as Wosnessensk. At the junction of the Ingul with the B., stands the city of Nico- 
 laiew (q.v.). 
 
 BUGEAUD, Marshal, was b. at Limoges, in France, Oct. 15th, 1784. In his 20th 
 year he entered the army as a private. His conspicuous bravery in the Prussian, Polish, 
 and Spanish campaigns gained him rapid promotion. Shortly before the fall of Napo- 
 leon, B. was made a col., and in 1815 commanded the advance-guard of the army 
 corps of the Alps. He afterwards retired to his estate, but was called into public life 
 by the July revolution of 1830. He was elected deputy for Perigueux, and gained the 
 esteem of Louis Philippe, who created him a marshal. In 1835, he voted against elec- 
 toral reforms and universal suffrage, denounced “the tyranny of the press,” and soon 
 contrived to make himself very unpopular. In Dec., 1840, he was appointed governor- 
 general of Algiers. He immediately set about organizing the celebrated irregular force 
 known as the zouaves, and in a few years the French arms were eveiywhere triumphant 
 over the Arab tribes. The crueltjr of some of B. ’s proceedings excited strong feelings 
 of reprobation at the time, as well in France as in Europe generally. In 1844, he gained 
 a victory over the emperor of Morocco’s forces at Isly, for which he was created due 
 d’Isly. In the revolution of Feb., 1848, marshal B. had the command of the army in 
 Paris, and would have dissuaded the king from signing the act of abdication; but panic 
 made such counsel useless. Among all the friends of Louis Philippe, marshal B. seerns 
 to have been the only man who preserved firmness and presence of mind. When Louis 
 Napoleon became president, he intrusted the chief command of the army of the Alps to 
 B., who died of cholera in Paris, June 9th, 1849. 
 
165 
 
 Bug. 
 
 Buhrstone. 
 
 BUGENHAGEN, Johann, surnamed Pomeranus, or Dr. Pommer, one of Luther’s 
 chief helpers in the reformation, was b. at Wollin, near Stettin, in Pomerania, 1485; 
 studied at Greifswald, and as early as 1503 became rector of the Treptow academy. 
 There he lived quietly, fulfilling the duties of his office until 1520, when his religious 
 views were changed % reading Luther’s little book, De Captivitate Babylonicd. B. was 
 now seized, as it were, by the zealous spirit of the reformation, and, to avoid the per- 
 secutions of the Catholic party, he betook himself to Wittenberg, where his talents pro- 
 cured for him in succession several high positions. B.’s remarkable philological and 
 exegetical powers were of great service to Luther in his translation of the Bible. In 
 1525, he opened the controversy between Luther and Zwingli by a treatise against the 
 latter, to which Zwingli ably replied. He possessed a superior talent for organization, 
 establishing churches in Brunswick, Hamburg, Lubeck, and Pomerania, In 1537, he 
 was called to Denmark by Christian III. to reform the ecclesiastical establishments of 
 that country. He accomplished this so admirably, that the Danes to this day con- 
 sider him their reformer. In 1542, he returned to Wittenberg, and continued his ener- 
 getic efforts to extend the new theology throughout his native land. He died 20th April, 
 1858. His best work is his Interpretatio in Librum Psalmorum (Nurnberg, 1523). 
 
 BUGHIS, or Bugis, a Malay people in the island of Celebes. The merchants of 
 these people do much of the trade of the island and the neighboring seas. Their govern- 
 ment is an elective monarchy, the chief ruler being chosen by the nobles and the higher 
 classes. He holds power only during good behavior, and may at any time be voted out 
 of oflSce. The people are represented as being orderly, peaceable, and well behaved; good 
 good workers in iron, copper, cotton, etc. ; constructing good houses and durable ships. 
 Their language has been reduced to writing, and they use the common divisions of the 
 year. They also use the magnetic compass and charts. Half a century ago they were 
 represented as cannibals, but they were conquered by the Macassars and compelled to 
 embrace Mohammedanism. In recent years they have settled colonies of their own 
 people in some of the adjacent countries. 
 
 BUGLE, Ajuga, a genus of plants of the natural order laUatce, having an irregular 
 corolla, with very short upper lip and trifid lower lip, the stamens protruding. The 
 species are mostly natives of the colder parts of the old world, and several are British. 
 The common B. {A reptam) is abundant in moist pastures and woods. Its flowers are 
 generally blue, but varieties occur with white and purplish flowers, which are often 
 introduced into flower-borders. The Alpine A {A. Alpina) is one of the beautiful 
 flowers of the Swiss Alps. 
 
 BU'GLOSS, a name popularly applied to many plants of the natural order horaginem 
 <q.v.), as to the species of anchusa or alkanet (q.v.), etc. In some botanical works it 
 is confined to the genus lycopm, a genus differing from anchusa in little but the 
 curiously curved tube of the corolla, and of which one species, L. a/rwnsis, is a common 
 weed in cornfields in Britain. The beautiful genus echium bears the English name of 
 Yiper’s Bugloss. 
 
 BUHLE, Johann Gottlieb, 1763-1821; a German scholar and historian of philoso- 
 phy ; a graduate of Gottingen ; at an early age occupied a professor’s chair at Bruns- 
 wick. Thence he went to Moscow as professor of ancient languages, and on his return 
 to Brunswick took the chair of natural law, which he held during his life. He edited 
 Aratus, and a part of Aristotle, and WTOte a hand-book of history and philosophy, and 
 R useful history of modern philosophy. 
 
 BUHL-WORK, or Bool- WORK, is the name applied to a sort of inlaying of brass scrolls 
 and other ornamental patterns in wood. The name is derived from its inventor, Boule, 
 an Italian cabinet-maker, who settled in France in the reign of Louis XIY. He employed 
 veneers of dark-colored tortoise-shell, inlaid with brass. Cabinets of his manufacture 
 are highly prized, as are also those of his contemporary Reisner, a German, who used 
 a ground of tulip-wood, inlaid with flowers, etc., in darker woods, and varied with 
 margins and bands of light wood, with the grain crossed for contrast. This modification 
 of buhl -work is correctly called Reisner work. For details of the methods of working, 
 see Inlaying and Mosaic. 
 
 BUHREACH', or Bharaich, a t. of Oude, India, the principal place of a district of 
 the same name. It is in n. lat. 27° 34', e. long. 81° 33'— 65 m. n.e. of Lucknow. It is 
 an old town, of considerable size, situated in a pleasant wooded plain, on the left 
 bank of the Sarju. The houses are mostly built of mud and covered with thatch ; but 
 the mausoleums, mosques, and residences of merchants are of brick and lime-mortar. 
 North-east of the town is the tomb of Selar, a reputed Mussulman saint, to which there 
 is a great concourse of pilgrims annually in the month of May. Pop. ’71, 18,889; of 
 district, 774,640. j > 
 
 BUHRSTONE, a variety of quartz (q.v.), containing many small empty cells, which 
 give it a peculiar roughness of surface, particularly adapting it for millstones. The 
 name is given without reference to geological relations, but it is vein quartz, rather than true 
 quartz^ rock, which ordinarily assumes the character of buhrstone. There are different 
 varieties of B., some of which are more compact, or have smaller cells than others; and 
 those if> which the cells are sfnall and very regularly distributed, about equal in diameter 
 
Bull. 
 
 Building:. 
 
 166 
 
 to the spaces between them, the stone being also as hard as rock-crystal, are most 
 esteemed. Good B. is found at Conway in Wales, and at several places in Scotland; 
 but the finest millstones are obtained from the quarries of La Ferte-sous-Jouarre, in tha 
 department of Seine-et-Marne, near Paris. A single millstone in one piece of 6 ft. 
 diameter, sells for about £50, and one formed of several pieces for about £33. It is not 
 unusual to form millstones of pieces of B. cut into parallelopipeds, like great wedges of 
 soap, and bound together by iron hoops. The stone is found in beds or in detached 
 masses, and the mode of quarrying is peculiar. When the mass is large, it is cut outf 
 into the form of a huge cylinder; around this, grooves are cut, at distances of about 18 
 in., the intended thickness of the millstones; into these grooves wooden wedges are 
 driven, and water is thrown upon the wedges, which, causing the wood to swell, splits 
 tlie cylinder into the slices required. — Millstones are not always made of B., but some- 
 times of silicious gritstones, of sandstone, and even of granite. B. millstones are 
 extremely durable. 
 
 BUIL, Bernardo, d. 1520; a Spanish Benedictine monk, in 1493 sent by the pope as 
 apostolic vicar to the new world, accompanying Columbus on his second voyage. In 
 1495, he returned to Spain, and was one of the foremost in pressing charges against the 
 unfortunate discoverer. 
 
 BUILDING-, the art of erecting or building houses and other edifices, in which several 
 distinct professions are usually and more immediately concerned. At the head of the 
 building-trade is the architect, who is employed to draw plans and make out specifica- 
 tions of the work to be performed. The builder acts ministerially; his duty consists in 
 carrying out the plans put into his hands, according to certain stipulated terms. The 
 profession of the architect demands not only much imaginative power, but great artistic 
 skill, along with a practical knowledge of details. Endeavoring to realize the wishes of 
 his employer, the architect devises what shall be the external effect and interior accom- 
 modation of a building, and portrays the whole on paper with rigorous accuracy. Besides 
 general designs to give an idea of the structure and its interior arrangements, he furnishes 
 the working-plans or drawings, which are to guide the different mechanics — masons, 
 joiners, etc. — in their several operations. These services of the architect, of course, 
 involve much thought and labor, and he is therefore under the necessity of employing a 
 staff of assistants, % whom the plans are executed under his orders. The making out 
 of the specifications is a matter of careful study. To perform this part of his duty 
 properly, the architect needs to be acquainted with the qualities of different kinds of 
 materials; such as stone, lime, sand, bricks, wood, iron, etc. A knowledge of the strength 
 of timber is particularly desirable. When the specifications are made out, they and the 
 contract are subscribed by the builder. To insure as far as possible a faithful adherence 
 to the specifications, the architect appoints a “ clerk of works” to keep watch over the 
 whole operations, and who is authorized to check any seeming fault. During the whole 
 proceedings, the architect is paramount. For the due execution of his plans, he feels 
 that his professional reputation is at stake ; and, accordingly, having involved his 
 responsibility, the employer cannot with propriety interfere to make alterations while 
 the work is in progress. Such is the etiquette of the profession. Should alterations be 
 desirable, they become matter for a fresh agreement among the parties. When the works 
 are finished, the builder hands his account to the architect to be examined and checked. 
 If satisfied of its correctness, he grants a certificate of the fact, and this is the warrant for 
 payment by the employer. The builder having been settled with, the employer now 
 pays the architect’s fee, which closes the transaction. This fee may be one, two, or more 
 per cent on the entire cost of the B., according to local usage or terms agreed on; what- 
 ever it is, it covers all charges for advice, plans, and other professional trouble. 
 
 Builders undertake work by “contract,” or by “ schedule of prices.” If by contract, 
 they engage to execute the whole works for a stipulated sum. If by schedule of prices, 
 they agree to abide by the measurements of valuators appointed by the architect. These 
 valuators go over the works when finished, and, taking an exact account of everything, 
 compare it with the account rendered by the builder; the architect being the ultimate 
 referee. It is exceedingly important, for the sake of an amicable adjustment of accounts, 
 that the builder should adhere scrupulously to the letter of the specifications — i.e., the 
 covenant under which he has become bound. He can justify no departure from the 
 specifications, on the plea that something as good has been given or done, or that he was 
 not checked at the time by the clerk of works. Being explicitly a person employed to 
 do a certain piece of work, in a certain way, he is in no respect entitled to substitute his 
 own notions for those of his employers. 
 
 It may happen that a proprietor acts as his own architect, and employs a builder to 
 execute his designs, on the understanding that he is to pay for everything according to a 
 schedule of prices. In many instances, the builder is proprietor as well as architect, and 
 merely carries out his own plans. Such is generally the case in the neighborhood of 
 London, where builders speculate in leasing land and erecting rows of dwellings for sale. 
 This plan is greatly facilitated by the opportunity of buying eveiy article required in 
 house-building ready for use, such as bricks, door-steps, hearthstones, joists, flooring, 
 doors, windows, marble mantel-pieces, slates, etc. In fact, house-building in the metro- 
 politan district is very much reduced to a system of purchasing and putting together 
 
167 
 
 Bull. 
 
 Building. 
 
 certain articles from manufactories and depots. For this kind of business, there may be 
 said to be establishments for the sale of doors and windows, as there are shops for the 
 sale of nails, locks, and hinges. 
 
 The application of a comprehensive manufacturing system in the preparation of var- 
 ious parts of a building is observable most particularly in certain establishments of 
 great magnitude. The test is this — whether the builder conducts so gigantic a trade as 
 to warrant him in setting up a steam-engine of great power, and in providing highly 
 wrought machines for cutting and otherwise treating wood, stone, etc. When once 
 this degree of magnitude is reached, the operations are conducted under very great 
 advantage. The Crystal palace in Hyde park could never have been built at the stipu- 
 lated cost, nor in the required space of time, but by the application of steam power to 
 work the machines which shaped and grooved the two hundred miles of sash bars ; by 
 the resources of the largest English establishment in the glass-trade, in making 1,000,000 
 sq. ft. of sheet-glass ; and by the skill and capital of our great iron manufacturers, in 
 rapidly producing 3000 iron columns, and more than that numbei of iron girders. 
 When the late Mr. Thomas Cubitt was engaged in the vast building operations at Bel- 
 gravia (a district in the w. of London owned by the marquis of Westminster), his 
 factory on the banks of the Thames was the most complete ever known in the trade. It 
 exemplified both the principles adverted to above — the manufacture of various articles 
 by steam-worked machinery; and the collecting of large stores of other articles made in 
 a similar way by other firms. There was a store of drawing-room and parlor doors, a 
 store of window-sashes, a store of street-doors, and stores of mantel-pieces, stone and 
 marble steps, balusters, slates, knockers, bells, and all the materials for house-building 
 from the coarsest to the finest. There was also observed that systematic gradation of 
 kinds and dimensions which is so much attended to in the higher kinds of machinery, 
 and which so much expedites all operations; seeing that one particular piece would not 
 only fit into or against another, but into or against any one of a whole class to which 
 that other belonged. A house built in this systematic way partakes a good deal in the 
 nature of a large machine, in which all the parts fit together with very great accuracy. 
 There can be little doubt that if skill and capital be judiciously applied in this way, a 
 house ought to be better built and to cost less than if built in the ordinary unsystem- 
 atic manner. It may also be mentioned here that Mr. Cubitt was the owner of a very 
 large brick-making establishment on the banks of the Medway, between Rochester and 
 Maidstone, where steam-power was employed in all the operations of making bricks. 
 Some of the great railway contractors, who have become millionaires, were originally 
 house-builders, alive to the grand results producible by the combination of steam-worked 
 machinery with the labor of well-organized bodies of men. 
 
 As an art, B. is of vast antiquity, and has assumed different forms, according to the 
 necessities of mankind and the materials readily at their disposal. In ancient Egypt, 
 Greece, and Italy, B. in stone rose to a high state of perfection, and till the present day 
 it may be said that the greatest progress in the art is made only where stone of a man- 
 ageable kind is conveniently at command. Rome, Paris, Lyons (with very many Italian 
 and French cities), Bordeaux, Brussels, Munich, Geneva, Vienna, Edinburgh, and 
 Glasgow are specimens of what maybe achieved in stone workable with the chisel; 
 Aberdeen is mainly built of granite. On the other hand, London, jthe greatest city 
 within the bounds of civilization, is built of brick; so likewise are Manchester and 
 Liverpool; also Amsterdam, Rotterdam, and other towns in Holland; and as a general 
 fact, it would appear that wherever brick has to be resorted to, there the allied arts of 
 architecture and building, as regards domestic accommodation and elegance of style, 
 are on a poor scale. B. with stone of a superior kind is now becoming common in 
 New York, Philadelphia, and some other American cities. It is not necessary to trace 
 in this article the various processes embraced in the comprehensive term Bullding; see- 
 ing that all the materials used, and all the operations conducted, are noticed under the 
 proper headings in the encyclopaedia. 
 
 BUILDING ACT for LONDON A 27 D its NEIGHBORHOOD. See Metropolis Local 
 Management Act. 
 
 BUILDING LEASES. In the law of England, a building lease is a demise of land for 
 R long term of years, the lessee covenanting to erect certain houses or edifices thereon, 
 According to specification. By the 19 and 20 Viet. c. 120, amended by the 21 and 22 
 Viet. c. 77, and which acts also apply to Ireland, the court of chancery is empowered to 
 authorize leases of settled estates and B. L., which shall take effect in possession within 
 one year next after the making of the same; the term for such building lease being 99 
 years; or where the court shall be satisfied that it is the usual custom of the district, 
 and beneficial to the inheritance to grant B. L., for longer terms, then for such term as 
 the court shall direct. By a subsequent enactment, it is declared that the term building 
 lease shall include a repairing lease, but such repairing lease to be for a term not exceed- 
 ing 60 years. 
 
 By the 5 and 6 Viet. c. 108 — passed to enable ecclesiastical persons to grant long 
 leases for building, repairs, or other improvements — it is enacted that any ecclesiastical 
 ■corporations, aggregate or sole, excepting as mentioned in the act, may, with con- 
 sent of the ecclesiastical commissioners for England (q.v.) — to which, where the lessor is 
 
Building. 
 
 Bulgaria. 
 
 168 
 
 incumbent of a benefice, the consent of the patron also must be added — demise hj deed 
 the corporate lands or houses for any term not exceeding 99 years, to take effect m pos- 
 session and not in reversion, to any person willing to improve or repair the same ; pro- 
 vided that on the grant of such leases, a small rent may be reserved during the six first 
 years, with an increased rent afterwards; but no such lease is to comprise the usual 
 house of residence, its out-buildings, or pleasure-grounds. The act contains other regu- 
 lations, and it declares generally that it is made without prejudice to any right that 
 ecclesiastical persons have under the former law to grant or lease, whether by renewal 
 or otherwise. 
 
 In the Scotch law, the term building lease is applied to the case of proprietors of 
 entailed estates, who, in order to encourage the building of villages and houses upon 
 property so settled, are to have it in their power to grant leases of land for the purpose 
 of building, for any number of years not exceeding 99 years. See this matter regulated 
 by the 10 Geo. III. c. 51. By the 3 and 4 Viet. c. 48, proprietors of entailed estates in 
 Scotland may feu or lease on long leases ground for the building of churches and 
 schools, and for the dwelling-houses and gardens for the ministers and masters of the 
 same, and also for burying-ground and play-ground attached to such churches and 
 schools. See Lease, Leasehold, and Ground-Rent. 
 
 BUILDING SOCIETIES. See Benefit Societies, ante; Co-operation. 
 
 BUILDING STONE. The chemical composition of B. S. varies. The majority of 
 kinds are more or less silicious, and are designated sandstones. These consist of particles 
 of sand, united together by the force of cohesion, and by a small proportion of a natural 
 cement; in some cases, ferruginous, consisting of a compound of iron; and in other 
 instances, calcareous, composed of carbonate of lime. Igneous rocks furnish very 
 durable B. S. , though in general the hardness of the materials renders them so difficult 
 to work, that they are seldom resorted to where softer stones can be procured. Thus, 
 granite is largely employed in the construction of the houses in Aberdeen, in the erec- 
 tion of bridges, in the paving of streets, and wherever great durability is required. 
 Greenstone and basalt are also occasionally used. The B. S. employed in the new houses 
 of parliament is a magnesian limestone, or a double carbonate of lime and magnesia, 
 which is very close and compact in texture, and is soft enough to be easily cut with the 
 chisel ; unhappily it has not proved firm enough to resist weathering, having already 
 shown signs of decay. The other forms of carbonate of lime exhibit considerable dura- 
 bility. Near Bath and in the isle of Portland, an oolitic limestone is quarried, which is 
 easily cut, and stands well. 
 
 A very convenient and accurate way of determining the durability of a B. S. — in 
 other words, its power of resisting the effects of frost and other atmospheric agencies — 
 is to place a small block in a cold saturated solution of sulphate of soda; raise to the 
 boiling-point, so as to expel air from cavities in the stone, which then become filled with 
 the solution ; then allow to cool, and suspend the block of B. S. in air. Every now and 
 then, it is dipped into the solution, and subsequently air-dried. The result is, that the 
 sulphate of soda crystallizes on the outside and partially in the interior of the block, 
 and in this respect acts as water does when it is frozen during winter; and if the B. S. 
 be porous, and liable to decay by natural agencies, it gradually breaks up, and particles 
 scale off. The amount of this corrosion can be determined by weighing the detached 
 portions. Some building stones contain iron pyrites in little nodules diffused here and 
 there throughout the mass, and such become discolored from the pyrites being decom- 
 posed by atmospheric influence, and the brownish-red oxide of iron (rust) is left as a 
 stain on the surface of the block. The liability to decay or to discoloration in a B. S. 
 may be arrested to a great extent by coating the outer surface with boiled linseed-oil. 
 which communicates a dark appearance to the stone, but prevents oxygen or moisture 
 from gaining access to the block. Ordinary oil-paint is employed for the same purpose. 
 For the preservation of B. S. from decay by means of various solutions, see Stone, 
 Preservation op. 
 
 BUITENZORG, a t. in Java, 66 m. s. of Batavia, with which it has railway com- 
 munication. It is in a fine situation, 800 ft. above the sea, and is a favorite residence 
 for Batavia’s rich men. The country palace of the governor-general is one of the chief 
 buildings, and there are a mansion for the regent, a garrison church, and mosques. The 
 botanical gardens, laid out in 1817, are among the best in the world. In the neighbor- 
 hood is a sacred forest held in great veneration by the natives. 
 
 BUJALANGE, a city of Andalusia, Spain, about 20 m. e. of Cordova. It is surrounded 
 by a moat and a wall flanked with old towers, has an old Arab castle, and manufactures 
 of woolens, glass, and pottery, exports of agricultural produce, and an important annual 
 cattle-fair. Pop. about 9000. 
 
 BUKKUM WOOD. See Brazil Wood and Sappan Wood. 
 
 BUK'KUR, a fortified island of the Indus, in Sinde, in lat. 27° 39' n., and long. 68° 56' e. 
 It is 400 yards from Roree, on the left bank, and 100 from Sukkur on the right. In 
 the ordinary state of low water, the western and eastern arms of the river are respect- 
 ively 15 ft. and 30 ft. deep. In particularly dry seasons, however, the former has been 
 known to disappear altogether, and even the latter is said to have occasionally beeu 
 
169 
 
 Building. 
 
 Bulgaria. 
 
 fordable. In 1839, a British force, on its march to Afghanistan, made a stepping-stone, 
 as it were, of B. in crossing the Indus, having joined it to either mainland by a bridge 
 of boats. B. is no longer of any military value against a civilized issailant, commanded, 
 as it is, on both sides by higher grounds. It is composed of limestone, being 800 yards 
 long, and 300 broad, and rising 30 ft. from the average level of the stream. 
 
 BTJK'KUB, a t. of Sinde, about 3 m. e. from the Indus, on a water-course derived 
 from the great river, and flowing parallel with it, 190 m. w. of Lahore. It is situated 
 in a fertile district, and carries on an active commerce. Pop. 8000. 
 
 BTJKOWI'NA, a duchy in the Cis-Leithan (non-Hungarian) section of the Austrian 
 empire, on the Russian frontier; area, 4000 sq.m.; pop. ’69, 513,404 (of whom 41 per 
 cent are Ruthenian Slavs and 38 are Moldavians). It is traversed by offsets of the 
 Carpathians, gives rises to many rivers, and abounds in wood, along with consider- 
 able mineral riches. Wood-cutting and mining afford occupation for a great number 
 of the inhabitants. Large numbers of cattle are reared, and also excellent horses. 
 B., till the end of the 15th c., belonged to Transylvania, when it came under the 
 dominion of the Turks, by whom it was ceded to Austria in 1777. Czernowitz is the 
 chief town. 
 
 BULACAN', a t. of Luzon, Philippines, at the head of the bay of Manila, about 20 
 m. n.w. of the city of that name. B. is chiefly composed of wooden houses, but has 
 spacious streets, manufactures of silken mats and other fabrics, and large sugar-boiling 
 establishments. Pop. between 9000 and 10,000. 
 
 BULAMA, the most easterly of the Bissagos islands off the w. coast of Africa; 11* 
 34' n., 15° 33' w. ; 18 by 9 m. ; fertile and heavy wooded, but insalubrious. There is a 
 good harbor. An English colony was sent here in 1792, but nearly all soon fell victims 
 to the climate. 
 
 BUL AU, or Tikus, Oymnura rafflesii, vig. , an animal in Sumatra, of the mole family 
 resembling the opossum. The body is 12 to 14 in. and the tail 9 or 10 in. long. It is 
 ^bout 5 in. high at the shoulder; color black and white, with a black stripe over each 
 eye; the fur mixed with long bristly hairs, and tail nearly naked. It feeds on insects, 
 and secretes a strong odor of musk. 
 
 BULB, in botany, a subterranean bud covered with imbricated scales, having at their 
 base a flattened disk, which represents the proper stem of the plant, and from which 
 the roots proceed downwards, whilst from the midst of the scales an annual herbaceous 
 stem and leaves are sent up. The scales are regarded as modifled leaves, and sometimes 
 are all fleshy, as in the lily; sometimes the outer ones are membranous, as in the onion, 
 in which case the B. is said to be tunicated. The B. is popularly but erroneously 
 regarded as the root or part of the root of the plant, and plants in which it is found are 
 very generally described as hulbous-rooted. New buds are formed in the axils of its 
 scales, which grow at the expense of the parent B., and gradually destroy it. In some 
 plants, as the tiger-lily and some species of allium, leaf-buds {bulbils or bulblets) are 
 developed on the stem above-ground, which spontaneously separate and serve for the 
 propagation of the plant, and which are entirely of the nature of bulbs, being formed of 
 thickened scales, sometimes so closely united as to form a solid mass. The Corm (q.v.) 
 was formerly regarded as a kind of B. , and described as a solid B. , but its structure is 
 •essentially different, although both it and the Tuber (q.v.) may be included in the 
 description which Linnaeus has given of the B. with reference to the purpose which it 
 serves as “the winter- quarters of the plant.” Many bulbs, if removed from the ground 
 during the period when the vegetation of the plant is most dormant, may be kept in a 
 dry place without injury for a considerable time, even for years. Bulbs serve also for 
 the preservation of plants in periods of drought, and are particularly frequent in those 
 which delight in sandy soils. The abundance of “bulbous-rooted” plants is a remark-^ 
 able characteristic of the flora of the cape of Good Hope. Bulbous-rooted” plants are ' 
 very often distinguished by the beauty of their flowers, and many of them are among 
 the most esteemed ornaments of gardens, greenhouses, and stoves. The bulbs of tulips, 
 hyacinths, and other favorite flowers are important articles of trade. Some bulbs, as 
 that of the onion, are valuable as articles of food ; others, as that of the squill, from their 
 medicinal properties. 
 
 BUL'BUL, an Armenian name for the nightingale, which has found its vray into Eng- 
 lish poetry chiefly through the patronage of lord Byron. But the same name is given in 
 India to a very different bird, pycnonotus TimmorrTious, belonging to the great tribe of 
 dentirostres, and formerly ranked among the thrushes, to which it is pretty nearly 
 allied. It is a little bird of brilliant plumage, and the male has a crest or tuft on its 
 head. It is remarkable for its pugnacity; the Singhalese consider it the most game of all 
 birds. 
 
 BULGA'BIA, an autonomous principality, tributary to Turkey, which till 1878 constb 
 tuted the Turkish vilayet of the Danube (Tuna). B. is bounded to the n. by the Danube 
 and the Dobrudscha, now Roumanian; on the e. it has the Black sea; on the s. the Bal- 
 kan range; and on the w., Servia andRoumelia. There are altogether between 2,000,000 
 and 3,000,000 of the Bulgarian race; of the 2,000,000 souls who form the population of 
 the new state of B., the great majority are Bulgarians. The area of B. is about 33,000 
 
Bulgarian. 
 
 Bull. 
 
 170 
 
 sq. miles. The country slopes terrace-like from s. to n., and from the w. to the e., acquir- 
 ing a plain-like character before reaching the Black sea. The rivers are rapid and tribu- 
 tary to the Danube. The soil in some parts is very fertile, producing great abundance 
 of corn ; in others, it does not yield sufficient for the consumption. There is excellent 
 pasture-land, and the lower terraces are richly wooded. The exports include horned 
 cattle, sheep, corn, wine, iron, wood, honey, wax; and otto of roses is an important 
 article. The inhabitants are hard-working, hospitable, and fairly intelligent, but suspi- 
 cious and greedy; their faith is that of the Greek church. The prince, freely elected by 
 the people, must be confirmed by the porte with the assent of the powers. The first 
 choice of the Bulgarians was the prince of Battenberg, a cousin of the grand-duke of 
 Hesse, who in 1879 became Alexander I. of Bulgaria. The government is Christian, 
 and there is a national militia. The Berlin congress decided that the military impor- 
 tance of B. should meanwhile be decreased by the demolition of all its fortresses. 
 
 The earliest known inhabitants of B. were the Mgesians, who contended long against 
 the Romans, and allied themselves with Gothic and Slavonic tribes against the Greek 
 empire. Anastasius, the Greek emperor, in 507, built an extensive wall to defend his 
 territories from Moesian invaders. In the 7th c., the Bulgarians, a people of Finnish 
 origin, whose original seat was the banks of the Volga, conquered the Mcesians, and 
 established the kingdom of Bulgaria; they soon lost their own language and customs, 
 and became assimilated to the other Slavonic inhabitants. After being tributary to the 
 Greek emperors, and contending for some time against Hungary, B. became subject to 
 the Porte in 1392; but the frightful oppression of despotic and sanguinary pashas has 
 not, even to the present day, robbed the inhabitants of a distinctively national life 
 and love of freedom. In April, 1876, an insurrection broke prematurely out in B., and 
 was quenched in blood, the bashi-bazouks or Turkish irregulars committing savage 
 excesses. The atrocities in B., taken in connection with the Servian war and the con- 
 dition of other Christian provinces of Turkey, led to diplomatic intervention ; and in 
 December a conference met at Constantinople, but without result. The war of 1877- 
 78, between Russia and Turkey, followed. The congress of Berlin, which revised the 
 treaty of San Stefano, declined to sanction the erection of a Bulgarian principality 
 extending from the Danube to the ^gean. But it constituted an autonomous, though 
 tributary, Bulgaria n. of the Balkans, and to the mainly Bulgarian province s. of 
 them, that of eastern Roumeiia (q.v.), it granted administrative autonomy. 
 
 The Bulgarian Language is divided into two dialects — Old Bulgarian and New 
 Bulgarian; the former, the richest of the Slavonic dialects; the latter remarkable for its 
 store of popular songs. 
 
 BULGARIAN LANGUAGE, the richest of the old Slavic tongues, used by the 
 Graeco-Slavic church, and the chief medium of religious writings in that region. After 
 the fall of the Bulgarian kingdom, about 1400 a.d., the language became mixed with 
 neighboring dialects and lost its purity. In the older literature are found translations 
 of the Bible made in the 10th century. The literature of the present time is of small 
 account, being only such as is found in elementary and doctrinal works. Grammars 
 and dictionaries have been published since 1835, and a New Testament was issued in 1840’ 
 for the British and foreign Bible society. The language lives in many native songs, but 
 IS not as yet printed anywhere in the country. 
 
 BTJLGAKIN, Thaddeus, a Russian author, was b. in Lithuania, 1789; fought in the 
 campaign against France, but afterwards served under Napoleon. On Napoleon’s fall, 
 he devoted himself to literature. He wrote both in Polish and Russian; and ultimately 
 settling in St. Petersburg, became a popular author. He composed several romances— 
 of which Demetrius and Mazejppa are the best — and published different periodicals. His 
 large work, Russia in its Historical, Statistical, Geographical, and Literary Aspect, was pub- 
 lished at Riga, 1839-41. He died in 1859. 
 
 BULGARUS, the most celebrated of the famous “four doctors” of the law school 
 of Bologna. He was a native of that city, and was regarded as the Chrysostom of the 
 gloss writers. He lived to a great age, becoming childish before his death in 1166. B. 
 was one of the most trusted advisers of the emperor Frederick I. The commentary De 
 Regulis Juris is his most celebrated work. 
 
 BULI'MUS, a genus of land snails most numerous in the moist parts of BraziL 
 Bulimus ovatus, sometimes 6 in. long, is sold in the Rio Janeiro markets. It has an 
 oblong turreted shell of unequal margin, and lays large eggs nearly an inch long, 
 resembli^ those of birds, but very brittle, which it protects by a covering of dried 
 leaves. Jiiere are many fossil species. The species of temperate regions are small. 
 
 BULKHEADS, in a ship, are the partitions between the several portions of the interior;, 
 whether to separate it into rooms, or as a safeguard in case of wreck. 
 
 Water-tight B. are among the improvements in modern ship-building; they are iron 
 walls running athwart the hold, as a means of dividing it into several portions; the inte- 
 rior is thus cut off into cells, each water-tight in reference to its neighbors. When such 
 a ship is leaking in any one of the compartments, there is thus a chance that the others 
 may be kept dry until the damage is repaired. In iron steamships the water-tight 
 B. are generally placed transversel}^ but there are frequently longitudinal water- 
 
171 
 
 Bulg^arlan. 
 
 Bull. 
 
 tight divisions also. The number and disposition of the compartments depends on the 
 ship-owner and the ship-builder; but it is now the common practice to place the engines 
 and boilers in water-tight sections, and experience has proved the special value of a 
 collision-bulkhead in the bow. In iron-clads of the navy, such as the Hercules and the 
 Bellerophon, which have an inner bottom, there are nine transverse water-tight bulkheads. 
 In the torpedo-ram Polyphemus, the principle of having numerous water-tight compart- 
 ments in the lower part of the vessel has been carried as far as possible. 
 
 BULKLEY, Peter, 1583-1659; b. England; the earliest minister in Concord, Mass. 
 He was his father’s successor at Woodhull, England, but was removed for non-conformity, 
 and in 1635, with a number of other emigrants, founded the Concord settlement. He 
 wrote several Latin poems, and a work called The Gospel Covenant Opened, published in 
 England. His son Edward succeeded him in the ministry. 
 
 BULL (Lat. bulla, primarily, anything round or swelling) was originally the name of 
 the capsule of the seal appended to letters from emperors or from the pope. Af tetwards, 
 the word was applied to the seal, and next to the document itself, as in the case of the cele- 
 brated golden bull of the emperor Charles IV. , which was so named from the golden cap- 
 sule appended to imperial letters and other important documents by the Byzantine and 
 Frank emperors as early as the 9th century. They are issued by the apostolic chancel- 
 lor, and are dated “from the day of incarnation,” whereas briefs are always dated 
 “from the day of the nativity.” The name is now applied exclusively to letters or docu- 
 ments issued in the name of the pope. In cases of granting favors, etc., the seal is 
 appended to the open letter b^ a yellow or red band of silk; but in the administration of 
 justice, a ^ray hempen band is used. All bulls, excepting those addressed to the united 
 Greek Christians, are written in Latin with Gothic letters, and on the rough side of the 
 parchment. See Brief. All bear the name and title of the pope — for example, Gregonus 
 Episeopus Servus Servorum Dei, etc., is prefixed; then follows a general introduction, of 
 which the initial words are used to give a distfnct name to the B., as in the examples: the 
 B. Exsurge Domine, issued by pope Leo X. against Luther in 1520; the B. In Gcena Domini, 
 the celebrated B. against heretics, often reissued since 1536; the famous Unigenitus, or 
 B. against Quesnel’s writings, 1713; the Dominus ac Eedemptor Noster, or B. for the 
 abolition of the order of Jesuits; the Ecclesia Ghristi, or the B. which completed the 
 concordat with Prance in 1801; the De Salute Animarum, or the B. for the regula- 
 tion of the Catholic church in Prussia. To every B., the leaden seal of the church 
 is appended, bearing on the obverse the arms of the pope, and on the reverse his 
 name. Bulls issued during the interim between the election and consecration of a 
 pope have no armorial bearings on the seal. A bullarium is a collection of papal 
 "bulls, as the Bullarium Magnum Romanum a Leone Magno ad Benedictum XIIL 
 (19 vols., Luxembourg, 1727-58), the B. Romanum (28 vols., Rome, 1737-44), 
 and the B. Benedicti XIV (Mechlin, 1826-27), and more recently, the continuation of 
 the Bullarium Romanum Magnum by Barberini (Vienna, 1835). — From the same 
 mediaeval Latin word bulla is derived the word bulletin (Ital. bulletino), commonly 
 applied to dispatches from generals, reports of the health of royal personages, and on 
 the continent, at least, to other brief authenticated documents, such as those of scientific 
 societies, the best known of which are the bulletins of the St. Petersburg and Belgic 
 academies. It is, moreover, used as a title for periodicals, and, in France, also desig. 
 nates the slips of paper on which electors write their votes. 
 
 BULL. See Ox, ante. 
 
 BITLL, George, d.d., a learned prelate and theological writer, b. at Wells, Glouces- 
 tershire, England, Mar. 25, 1634; studied at Oxford, whence he retired in 1649, having 
 refused to take the commonwealth oath imposed by the parliament. Receiving holy 
 ^orders, his first charge was the parish of St. George’s, Bristol. In 1658, he obtained 
 the rectory of Suddington St. Mary’s, near that city; and in 1662, was presented to the 
 vicarage of Suddington St. Peter’s. In 1669, he published his Harmonia Apostolica, the 
 object of which was to reconcile the apostles Paul and James on the subject of justifica- 
 tion. This work occasioned considerable controversy among divines, and in answer, B. 
 published his Examen Gensurm, and Apologia pro Harmonia. In 1678, he was presented 
 to a prebend in Gloucester cathedral, and made rector of Avening, Gloucestershire. In 
 1679, he was installed archdeacon of Llandaff, and received the degree of d.d. from 
 Oxford University. In 1685, he published his Defensio Fidei Nicence, against the Arians 
 and Socinians, Tritheists and Sabellians ; and in 1694, his Judicium Ecclesim Catholicce, 
 for which the thanks of the whole French clergy were sent to him through the celebrated 
 Bossuet. His last work was his Primitive ,and Apostolical Tradition, etc. He was con- 
 secrated bishop of St. Davids in 1705, and died Feb. 17, 1709. 
 
 BULL, John, 1563-1628; an English organist and composer. He was appointed 
 ■organist in the queen’s chapel in 1591, and next year made doctor of music in Gresham 
 college. Not understanding Latin, he was especially permitted to lecture *in English. 
 He visitpd the continent, and had many oflfers of honorable and lucrative positions, but 
 declined all, returning to England to be organist to James I. On another visit to the 
 continent he became organist to the cathedral in Antwerp, where he died. The claim 
 (that he composed the English national anthem has not been sustained. 
 
Bull. 
 
 Bull-dog. 
 
 172 
 
 BULL, John, a familiar synonym for the English people. Its origin is attributed to 
 dean Swift, but Arbuthnot first gave it literary currency in his Uintory of John Bull 
 (1712), a political allegory intended to satirize the duke of Marlborough, and to increase 
 feeling against the war with France. In art John Bull is well known as a burly country 
 squire, impetuous, honest, narrow-minded, dogmatic, and easily imposed upon. 
 
 BULL, Ole Bornemann, a famous violinist, was b. 5th Feb., 1810, at Bergen, in 
 Norway. His father, it is said, attempted to coerce him into the study of theology, and 
 would not permit a musical instrument about the house. This foolish treatment only 
 gave a more decisive character to the peculiar genius of the boy. At the age of 18 he 
 was placed at the university of Christiania, from which he is said to have been expelled 
 for taking temporary charge of the orchestra at one of the theaters. In 1829, he went to 
 Cassel, in Germany, to study under Spohr, but was so coldly received that he betook 
 himself to the study of law at Gottingen. He was subsequently at Minden, whence, in 
 consequence of a duel, he fled to Paris in 1831. An unsuccessful attempt to drown 
 himself in the Seinfe was the turning-point in his life. He thereafter acquired the pat- 
 ronage of a lady of rank, and rapidly rose to fame as a violinist. His style of playing 
 was like that of Paganini. B., however, wished to excel his model in originality, and in 
 triumphing over the most extraordinary difficulties; but it was impossible for him to 
 follow the flight of the great Italian, in whose brain some capricious musical demon 
 seemed to lurk. Nevertheless, he was received in Italy with prodigious enthusiasm — 
 Malibran herself embracing him on the stage at Naples. In 1836, he visited England, 
 Scotland, and Ireland, and subsequently traveled in a professional capacity through 
 Belgium, Holland, Russia, and Germany. After a long repose, he sailed for America, 
 whence he returned in 1850; but he again went out, and was so successful, that he 
 thought of retiring from public life. He purchased in Pennsylvania 125,000 acres of 
 excellent ground, and founded a colony of Scandinavians. This turned out a complete 
 failure, and B. was again compelled to resume his violin. He visited Europe, returning 
 with a fortune to the United States in I860; he revisited Europe in 1875 and 1879. 
 
 BULL, Ole Bornemann {ante), d. 1880; came to New York the first time in 1843. 
 He became attached to this country, taking a great interest’ in its republican form of 
 government. Returning to Norway, his American ideas offended the government, 
 resulting in many lawsuits and the dissipation of his wealth. His wife, a Parisian lady, 
 died ; and in 1852, after an absence of 7 years, he came again to this country. Here he 
 put into practice a scheme long contemplated, which, like most of his business specu-' 
 lations, resulted disastrously. He purchased 120,000 acres of land in Pennsylvania, and 
 attempted to found there a colony of his countrymen. He designed a castle for his 
 permanent home, and erected it on the summit of a mountain, from which there was a 
 commanding view. Before the castle was completed the colonists grew discontented, 
 and about the same time he learned that the title to the land which he had purchased 
 was worthless. Ole Bull relinquished everything, and again had recourse to his violin 
 to repair his bankrupt fortunes. All that remains as a reminder of his grand scheme 
 is the village of Oleana, named after him, which clusters around the base of the moun- 
 tain capped by the once lordly castle known to this day as “ Ole Bull’s Folly.” After a 
 profitable European tour, he returned to this country, and has made his home since 1869 
 in Cambridge, Mass. In 1870, he made a happy marriage with a young Wisconsin lady. 
 His form was tall and erect even to old age. He was gifted with a remarkable memory 
 and with social qualities by which he made and retained many friends. On his seven- 
 tieth birthday, which occurred in Feb., 1880, a surprise party was given in his honor at 
 his home in Cambridge, at which many literary celebrities of the vicinity were present. 
 He was then, to all appearances, strong and healthy. Early in the summer he sailed for 
 his summer residence in Norway, where he died. 
 
 BULLA, a genus of mollusca, which in the older systems, founded upon characters 
 t aken from the shell alone, contained a heterogeneous assemblage of species essentially very 
 different. Some of those having been removed to other orders, according to their organi- 
 zation, the genus bulla, and the family, bulUdm, of which it is the type, are placed in the 
 order tectibrancMata of Cuvier, an order of the class gasteropoda (q.v.), and of that 
 section of it called moneBcia, having the male and female organs of sex combined in the 
 same individual. The bullidoe have a convoluted and generally thin shell, which serves 
 as a covering and protection for the gills, and which in some of them is large enough tO' 
 form a retreat for the entire animal, in others is itself enveloped in the mantle. This 
 shell forms a sort of transition link between the flat calcareous plate inclosed in the 
 mantles of the aplysice or sea-hares — to which B. is nearly allied — and the spiral shell of 
 snails and other such conchiferous mollusks.. The mouth of the shell is large, extending 
 the whole length of the shell, widening towards one end, the lip acute. Tlie gizzard of 
 i\\c bullida \B, very muscular; and among its thick coats, in many species, are found 
 calcareous bony plates, which being moved against each other by its muscles, serve to' 
 grind down the food. All the species are marine, some are found on the British coast. 
 Some, from their form and fragility, are popularly called Bubble Shells, as the British 
 bulla hydatis. 
 
 BULLACE, Prunus insititia, a shrub or small tree, larger and much less spiny than 
 the sloe, but very closely allied to it, as it is also to the plum, so that many botanists 
 
173 
 
 Bull. 
 
 Bull-dog. 
 
 regard them all as one species, an opinion much confirmed by the circumstance that the 
 varieties pass into each other by imperceptible gradations. The B. may be regarded as 
 a form intermediate between the plum and the sloe. Its leaves, however, are generally 
 broader in proportion to their length than those of either of these, and its fruit-stalks 
 more frequently in pairs ; it differs also from both of them in its downy fruit-stalks, and 
 in having the under side of its leaves permanently downy. The flowers are rather 
 larger than even those of the plum; the fruit is larger than the sloe, generally globose, 
 and, although it partakes in some degree both of the acidity and the roughness of the 
 sloe, it is not unpleasant, especially after having been mellowed by frosts, and makes 
 excellent pies or tarts. “ A bullace-pie is a standing dish at the harvest-home supper in 
 the south of England, only it requires rather more sugar than the housewife is always 
 willing to allow. ” The B. is common in hedges, coppices, and banks in England, and 
 in many parts of Europe. It is rare in Scotland. 
 
 BTJLL^ are collections of serous fluids of considerable size, situated immediately 
 beneath the cuticle, and rising from the true skin. They differ from vesicles only in 
 size ; and no very deflnite line can be drawn between a large vesicle and a small bulla. 
 They usually vary in diameter from a quarter of an inch to two inches. They may be 
 followed by crusts or by ulcerations. They constitute a special order of skin-diseases, 
 which includes pemphigus and rupia (q.v.). 
 
 BTJLLAS, a t. of Spain, in the province of Murcia, and 26 m. w.n.w. of the town of 
 Murcia. It is situated on a hill, 1840 ft. above the sea. The streets are steep and 
 unpaved. B. has manufactures of linen and hempen fabrics, earthenware, and brandy, 
 and a considerable trade in manufactured goods and grain. Pop. 5145. 
 
 BTJLL-BAITING, a barbarous sport, once very popular in England, and in which all 
 classes of society equally delighted, but now, through the progress of civilization, almost 
 entirely confined to the lowest, and rare even among them, it consists in causing a bull 
 to be attacked by dogs; and, in order that the^bull might be made as furious as possible, 
 his nose was sometimes blown full of beaten pepper before he was turned loose. Another 
 form of this sport was to fasten the bull to a stake, by a rope of some yards long, and to 
 send bull-dogs against him, one at a time, which were trained to seize him by the nose, 
 and, when this was accomplished, it was called 'pinning the bull. But no small part of 
 the enjoyment of the spectators was derived from the success with which the attacks of 
 the dogs were met by the bull lowering his head to the ground, and receiving them on 
 his horns, often tossing them to a great distance. In some places, bull-baiting took place 
 regularly as a sort of annual festival, and funds were sometimes left to provide for it. 
 King James I. of England greatly delighted in this sport. When the late emperor Nich- 
 olas of Russia visited England, before his accession to the empire, he was present at a 
 boxing-match and a bull-baiting, which were got up to show him English tastes. 
 
 An equally barbarous sport, termed hull-running, was formerly practiced at Stam- 
 ford and Tutbury, where men and women took the place of dogs, maddened the bull 
 with hideous noise, and then pursued it with “bull-clubs,” till th^e unfortunate animal 
 expired beneath the blows of its brutal assailants. 
 
 BULL-DOG, a kind of dog which is regarded as peculiarly English, but concerning 
 which it is doubted whether it has existed as a distinct race, at least from the Roman 
 era, or has more recently sprung up, as a variety of the mastiff, or a cross between the 
 mastiff and some other breed. Buffon, indeed, represents the bull-dog as the parent 
 race, and the mastiff as derived from it, but this opinion is generally rejected as errone- 
 ous. The bull-dog has been regarded as a distinct species by some naturalists, and 
 named canis Anglicus, C. laniarius, etc. It is much smaller than the mastiff, but is very 
 strong and muscular. The breadth of muzzle is greater than in the mastiff, and the 
 head is very large, almost appearing as of disproportionate size to the body. “The 
 forehead sinks between the eyes, and the line of the nose rises again at a considerable 
 angle; the lower jaw projects beyond the upper, often showing the teeth, which alto- 
 gether, with the frequent redness about the eyelids, produces a most forbidding aspect ; 
 the ears are partially drooping, unless the terrier blood is crossed in the animal, and the 
 tail is carried high.” The hair is short, and the tail taper, and not bushy. The color 
 may be ochry or reddish buff, brindled, fawn, or white, the last being preferred, and 
 should be whole or unmixed, though dogs of two colors are exceedingly common. The 
 bull-dog used seldom to be seen except in the company of persons who delight in dog- 
 fighting and other barbarous sports, but now has sometimes more reputable patrons. It 
 was formerly much employed in bull-baiting, from which it derives its name. It is 
 chiefly remarkable for its savage ferocity, and the pertinacity with which it retains its 
 hold, as if its jaws were locked, and it could not let go. It will hang to the jaw or nose 
 of a bull, although lifted from the ground. Col. Hamilton Smith says he has seen one 
 “pinning an American bison, and holding his nose down, till the animal gradually 
 brought forward its hind feet, and, crushing the dog to death, tore his muzzle out of the 
 fangs, most dreadfully mangled.” The bull-dog is also bold enough to attack any ani- 
 mal, however superior in size and strength. 
 
 The Bull-Terriek is a cross between the bull-dog and the terrier. It is smaller 
 than the bull-dog, more lively and docile, and equally courageous. The ears are always 
 
Bailer. 
 
 Bull-linch. 
 
 174 
 
 pointed ; the best color is white, with some black about the head. It is unrivaled in 
 rat-catching. It is a great favorite as the companion of young men. 
 
 BULLER, Charles, b, in Calcutta in 1806, was a gentleman whose name falls to be 
 recorded more on account of the hopes which his death in 1848 disappointed, than for 
 the performances of his life. He was educated at Harrow and Cambridge, at both of 
 which he distinguished himself, and for a time studied in Edinburgh, where he had Mr. 
 Thomas Carlyle for one of his tutors. He was called to the English bar in 1830, and 
 entering parliament before the reform bill, continued a member of the lower house till 
 his death. He was still but a rising man when he died. In politics, a philosophical 
 radical, he occupied successively the posts of judge-advocate-general and president of 
 the poor-law commission under whig governments. The interest taken in his career, 
 and his popularity, were, it would seem, largely owing to his amiability and accom- 
 plishments for society. 
 
 BULLET is the leaden projectile discharged from a musket, fowling-piece, pistol, or 
 similar weapon. When the smooth-bore muskets alone were used by British infantry, 
 the bullets were made by casting. Molten lead was poured into molds; and the molds 
 were dipped in cold water, to hasten the solidification of the lead. The molds were 
 cooled after every few times of using ; and the lead was heated only just to the degree 
 for maintaining fluidity. Bullets are now, however, made more expeditiously, and 
 more truly spherical in form, by compressing machines, one form of which has been 
 invented by Mr. George Napier. The lead is first fashioned into a rod about a yard 
 long, by five or six eighths of an inch thick; this rod is passed between rollers to con- 
 dense it; then between other rollers to press it into a row of nearly globular pieces; then 
 a spherical die gives the proper form to each of these pieces; and, lastly, a treadle- 
 worked punch separates them into bullets. With one of these machines and two dies, 
 nine boys can make 40,000 bullets in a day. 
 
 Spherical bullets for the old muskets,^ carbines, and pistols varied from 14 to 20 to 
 the pound, and from 0.60 to 0.68 of an inch in diameter. There is a particular ratio, 
 depending on the specific gravity of lead, by which the number to the pound will give 
 the diameter, or vice versa. 
 
 Such bullets are, however, becoming every year less and less used in the army, being 
 superseded by other forms better suited for rifles. These forms are singularly numer- 
 ous. Robins’ B. was egg-shaped, with the center of gravity at the larger end ; Beau- 
 foy’s was ovoid, with a hemispherical cavity at one end ; Manton’s was a spherical ball 
 put into a wooden cup, with projections on the exterior; Greener’s was oval, with a 
 plug of mixed metal driven into a hole barely large enough for it; Norton’s, Delvigne’s 
 Minie’s and others, are, or were, of various elongated shapes, mostly with some kind of 
 plug, which, driven into the lead by the force of the explosion, causes it to fill up the 
 grooves in the rifling of the barrel. This expanding or dilating action has been claimed by 
 many inventors; but the government, in 1857, awarded Mr. Greener £1000, as the person 
 who had practically solved the difficulty as far back as 1836. The bullets for the Enfield 
 rifles are now made with extraordinary speed, by machinery of beautiful construction. 
 The machine draws in a coil of leaden rod, unwinds it, cuts it to the required length, 
 stamps out the bullets with steel dies, drops them into boxes, and conveys them away. 
 Each machine, with its four dies, makes 7000 bullets per hour; and four such machines, 
 in an easy day’s work, turn out 300,000 bullets. So nearly are the machines automatic, 
 that one man can attend them all. Other machines, attended by children, produce an 
 equal number of little boxwood plugs for filling the cavity at the hinder end of the bul- 
 let. The differences between various bullets of modern invention are further noticed 
 under Cartridge and Breech-loading Arms and Needle-Guns. 
 
 BULLET-TREE, or Bully-tree, a tree found in Guiana, and valued for its wood, 
 which is solid, heavy, close-grained, and durable, and also for its fruit, which is a 
 drupe about the size of a cherry, and very delicious. It is supposed to belong to the 
 genus mimusops (natural order sapotacem, q.v.). 
 
 BULLETIN. See Bull. 
 
 BULL-FIGHT. Combats of men with bulls, for the entertainment of the public, 
 were common in Greece, particularly in Thessaly, and in Rome under the emperors, 
 though in later times they were forbidden both by emperors and popes. They are still 
 a favorite pastime in Spain and Mexico. In Spain, they were abolished by Charles IV. : 
 but Joseph, Napoleon’s brother, re-established them, out of policy, the mass of the 
 Spanish population being passionately fond of the sport. The most magnificent bull- 
 fights were at one time instituted by the monarchs themselves; at present, both in the 
 capital and in the larger towns of Spain, they are held either as private speculations, 
 or for the benefit of public institutions. In Madrid, the bull-fighting season com- 
 mences in April, and lasts until November. During that time, there is at least one 
 afternoon in every week devoted to the sport. The proceeds go to the funds of the 
 general hospital. The fights take place in a kind of circus, called the Plaza de Toros. 
 round which the seats rise one above another, like the steps of a stair, with a tier of 
 boxes over them. The Plaza is capable of containing from 10.000 to 12,000 people, who 
 pay a high price of admission, considering the rate of wages in Spain; and all go attired 
 
175 
 
 Buller. 
 
 JBull-finch. 
 
 in their best to the spectacle. The best Andalusian bulls are bred at Utrera, the best 
 Castilian ones on the Jarama, near Aranjuez. The latter are the breed usually chosen 
 for fight in Madrid. They are fiercer and more active, but inferior in strength to 
 British animals. The horses engaged in the conflicts are worthless brutes, fit only for 
 the knacker. The men employed in the fight are generally those who have been bred 
 to it as a profession, but occasionally amateurs may take part in it. The bull-fight has 
 been described as a tragedy in three acts. The principal performers in the first are the 
 picadores; in the second, the chulos are the only actors ; the third and last act devolves 
 solely on the matador. The picadores are all mounted, dressed like Spanish knights of 
 the olden time, and armed with a lance ; they take up their position in the middle of 
 the circus, opposite the bull-stalls. The chulos, who are on foot, are gay with ribbons, 
 and wear very bright-colored cloaks; they distribute themselves in the space between 
 the barriers. The matador, or chief combatant, is also on foot. He is handsomely 
 dressed, and holds in the right hand a naked sword, in the left the muleta, a small stick, 
 with a piece of scarlet-colored silk attached. On a sign given by the chief magistrate, 
 ahull is let out from the stalls; the picadores stand ready in the arena waiting his 
 charge. With a brave bull, they find all their skill requisite in acting on the defensive; 
 with a cowardly one, they act on the offensive ; and should their stabs be ineffectual in 
 rousing the animal to the requisite fury, the poor beast is hooted by the crowd, and 
 ultimately stabbed ingloriously in the spine. Whenever a horse is wounded, the rider 
 betakes himself to flight; and when either the above casualty happens, or di, picador is, 
 thrown, the chulos rush in, and attract the bull by their cloaks, saving themselves, if 
 need be, by leaping over the palisade which incloses the circus. At the same time, 
 another picador calls off the bull’s attention to himself by shouting. When the bull 
 begins to flag, the picadores are succeeded by the chulos, who bring with them the ban- 
 derillas — i.e., barbed darts about two feet long, ornamented with colored paper flags, 
 which they stick into the neck of the animal. Sometimes these darts have crackers 
 attached to them, the explosion of which makes the bull furious. The matador now 
 enters alone to complete the tragic business. As soon as the bull’s eye catches the 
 muleta, he generally rushes blindly at it; and then the matador, if he is well skilled, 
 dexterously plunges the sword “between the left shoulder and the blade,” and the 
 animal drops dead at his feet. The victorious matador is greeted with acclamations, 
 and not less so the bull, should he wound or even kill the matador, in which case, 
 another matador steps forth into the arena; but human life is rarely sacrificed. Eight 
 or ten bulls are often dispatched in a single day ; twenty minutes being about the time 
 usually taken to slay one. 
 
 In Madrid, in June, 1833, 99 bulls were killed in the course of a single week. Bull- 
 fighters are regarded as the lowest class in Spain. They are very ignorant and super- 
 stitious ; and those who are killed on the spot and die without confession, are denied 
 burial rites. 
 
 BTJLL-FINCH, Pyrrhula mlgaris, a bird of the great family of fringillidoe (q.v.), a 
 little larger than the common linnet, and of a genus closely allied to the grossbeaks and 
 crossbills. The genus is particularly characterized by the short, thick, rounded bill, of 
 which the sides are inflated and bulging, and the tip of the upper mandible overhangs 
 that of the lower one. The bull-finch is a bird of very soft and dense plumage, of a delicate 
 bluish-gray color above, the under parts of a bright tile-red, the crown of the head and 
 the beak jet black, which color also appears in the greater wing and tail coverts, in the 
 quills, and in the tail-feathers; the wings are crossed by a conspicuous white bar. The 
 colors of the female are less bright than those of the male. The tail of the bull-finch is 
 almost even This bird is not unfrequent in England, Ireland, and the s. of Scot- 
 land; and is found in most parts of Europe, from the s. of Norway to the Mediter- 
 ranean, extending eastward throughout Asia, even to Japan. It frequents woods and 
 gardens, builds its nest in trees or bushes a few feet from the ground, feeds chiefly on 
 seeds and berries in winter, and in spring is excessively destructive to the buds of fruit- 
 trees in those localities in which it is abundant, selecting the flower-buds, and appar- 
 ently finding them the most palatable of all food. Selby says: “ I have known a pair of 
 these birds to strip a considerable sized plum-tree of every bud in the space of two 
 days. ” On this account, gardeners are sometimes compelled to wage war against the 
 bull-finch. 
 
 The song of this bird, in a wild state, is very simple, and has no particular quality to 
 recommend it; but it is remarkably susceptible of improvement by education; and 
 trained bull-finches of superior acquirements are sold at a very considerable price. 
 Some of these birds learn to whistle an air very accurately, and with a power and variety 
 of intonation far exceeding their natural song. The ability to whistle several airs well, 
 is rare. ^ The training of these birds is a work both of time and trouble : it is chiefly car- 
 ried on in Germany. Not less than nine months of training are requisite: it begins 
 when the bird is a mere nestling, and must be carefully continued till after the first 
 moulting; for it is a curious circumstance, that all which W been previously acquired is 
 very apt to be lost at that time, or is afterwards so imperfectly remembered that the bird 
 is of little value. The bull-finch is capable of very strong attachment to those who feed 
 and caress it, and often becomes so thoroughly domesticated as to exhibit no desire for 
 
Bull-frog. 
 Bull Buu. 
 
 176 
 
 liberty. — Curious variations of plumage are sometimes observed in it. — Other species 
 of the genus pyrrhula are known, natives of different parts of the world ; and in this 
 genus some ornithologists include corythus of Cuvier, of which one species, the pine- 
 finch (q.v.), or pine grosbeak, is a native of Britain. 
 
 BULL-FROG, Rana pipiens, a species of frog (q.v.) found in most parts of the 
 United States and Canada, but chiefly abundant in the southern states. It is of a large 
 size, 8 to 12 in. long, of an olive-green color, clouded with black. It receives its name 
 from the remarkable loudness of its voice, which has been compared to the bellow- 
 ing of a distant bull, and comes in as a hollow bass in the frog concerts which take 
 place in the evening and all night long in marshy places in America. Its voice can be 
 distinctly heard at a distance of 40 or 50 yards. It sits for hours during the day, 
 basking in the sun, near the margin of a stream, into which it plunges with a great leap 
 on the least appearance of danger. It does not confine itself to insect and molluscous 
 food, like smaller frogs, but is said to be partial to young ducks, and to swallow then* 
 entire. Audubon says “its flesh is tender, white, and affords excellent eating,” the 
 hind legs, however, being the only part used for food. He adds that these parts make 
 excellent bait for the larger cat-fish, and that he has generally used the gun for procuring 
 them, loading with very small shot. 
 
 BULL, Golden, applied to the decree of Charles IV. of Germany, published in 1356, 
 to fix the laws for the election of emperors and regulate the number of electors. A 
 similar edict by Andrew II. of Hungary (1222), for similar purposes bears the name. 
 
 BULLHEAD, River Bullhead, or Miller’s Thumb, Gottns gohio, a small fish, 
 abundant in clear rivers and streams, in some parts of the British islands, throughout 
 the greater part of Europe, and in the n. of Asia. It seldom exceeds 4 or 5 in. in 
 length; is of a dark brown color on the upper parts, and white beneath; has rather 
 large fins, with rays slightly produced into spines and prettily spotted ; and in general 
 appearance is not unlike the gurnards (q.v.). It is, however, generally regarded as a 
 disagreeable object to the sight, on account of the great size and depressed form of its 
 head, from which it derives its English names; the name, miller’s thumb, alluding to 
 the broad rounded form which the last joint of the thumb of a miller used to acquire 
 in times when machinery was ruder than now, by its continual employment in testing 
 the quality of the flour produced, and in turning it over on the fingers for inspection, 
 that it might be known if the mill was doing its work well. The appearance of the B. 
 is rendered still more unattractive by the entire absence of scales, a characteristic of the 
 genus to which it belongs, the whole body and head being covered with a soft skin. 
 Yet it is said to be of a very delicate flavor, and in some countries is much sought after 
 as an article of food. Its flesh, when boiled, is reddish, like that of the salmon. Izaak 
 Walton speaks' of angling for the B., and in his pleasant quaint style describes the habits 
 of the fish: “He does usually dwell and hide himself in holes, or amongst stones in 
 clear water, and in very hot days will lie a long time very still, and sun himself, and 
 will be easy to be seen upon any flat stone, or any gravel, at which time he will suffer 
 an angler to put a hook baited with a small worm very near into his mouth, and he never 
 refuses to bite, nor indeed to be caught, with the worst of anglers.” — The other British 
 species of the genus coitus (q.v.) are marine. The name B. is not usually given to any 
 of them. A sea-flsh of a nearly allied genus {aspidopTiorus) is sometimes called the 
 Armed Bullhead; it is also known as the Pogge (q.v.). — The river B. differs from the 
 marine species of the same genus, in having only one short spine on each side of the 
 head, on the preoperculum. 
 
 BULLHEAD {ante), a popular name applied to several species of fresh and salt 
 water fish found in the eastern parts of America, and belonging to the genera cottus and 
 acanthocottus. The common B., often called the “sculpin,”is well known to anglers 
 for its scarecrow form and colors. They are voracious, devouring small fish, crabs, 
 decayed flesh, etc., and frightening away such fish as they cannot eat. They vary 
 greatly in size, but are usually small, and seldom used for food. 
 
 BULLINGER, Henry, the friend of Zwingli, and one of the chief reformers in Swit- 
 zerland, was born at Bremgarten, in the canton of Aargau, July 18, 1504. He studied 
 at Cologne, where he became acquainted with the writings of Luther; and during the 
 year 1527, he attended the theological expositions of Zwingli, and went along with the 
 latter to the religious conference held at Bern in 1528, the result of which vras the ref- 
 ormation of the canton. In 1529, he married Anna Adlischwyler, formerly a nun, 
 who bore him eleven children. By a powerful sermon which he preached at Bremgar- 
 ten, on Whitsunday, 1529, B. induced his whole congregation to make a profession of 
 Protestantism. In 1531, he was compelled by the Catholic party to flee from the can- 
 ton, and went to Zurich, where, in the following year, he was appointed pastor of the 
 principal church. In the controversy on the eucharist and the affairs of the Anabap- 
 tists, B, distinguished himself by his integrity and moderation; and in his house at 
 Zurich several Gernr'u theologians, compelled to leave their country, were hospitably 
 sheltered. He took part in drawing up the first Helvetic confession at Basel, in 1536, 
 and in establishing a close relation between the Swiss and Anglican churches. He died 
 Sept. 17, 1575. His writings are numerous. The most important is a History of the 
 
177 
 
 Bull-frog. 
 Bull Bun. 
 
 Reformation, which was first published at Zurich, 1838. His sermons have been trans- 
 lated into English. See the Lives of B. by Hess (1828) and Christoffel (1875). 
 
 BULLION usually means uncoined gold and silver, in bars or other masses ; but in 
 discussions on the currency, the term is frequently employed to signify the precious 
 metals coined and uncoined. The origin of the word B. in its present sense, as well as 
 that of the French Ulhn (q. v.), and the corresponding Spanish rellon, seems to be as 
 follows : B. originally meant the mint, where the alloy for the coinage was prepared, 
 and the coin stamped (either from the Lat. hulla, a round boss or stud, or stamp; or 
 from the verb bullare, to boil or bubble); and hence it came in England to signify the 
 standard metal of which the coins are made. In France, where the kings debased the 
 currency much more than ever took place in England, billon, the mint, came to signify 
 the base mixture issued therefrom. 
 
 It is a question not yet satisfactorily settled, how far any great increase in the sup- 
 ply of B. has that effect in lessening the value of money, and consequently raising 
 prices, which has always been very naturally attributed to it. It may indeed be main- 
 tained with some plausibility, that if B. were capable of being produced to such an 
 extent beyond the actual demand for it as to glut the market, it would cease to be that 
 general standard of money value which it has become, just because it is of all others the 
 article which is steadiest in requiring a certain outlay of labor to produce it. Rises in 
 prices have accompanied large supplies of gold, but they have also accompanied large 
 supplies of other commodities indicative of a great increase in riches. It is certain that 
 great increases in the supply of B. do not, as in the case of other goods, glut the mar- 
 ket. For some years past, the supply of gold, owing to the new fields opened in 
 America and Australia, has been quadrupled, with certainly no more influence on prices 
 than what a general increase in prosperity might cause. There is, it will be observed, 
 this great difference between gold and other commodities, that besides what may be 
 within the crust of the earth, there is a great mass which has been accumulating for 
 thousands of years in the possession of mankind, which comes forth as it is wanted. 
 A few millions of tons of iron, or bales of cotton, beyond the usual annual average, 
 would perhaps add a hundred per cent to the available quantity for consumption ; but a 
 few millions of pounds’ worth of g'old, having to be counted with all the gold in existence 
 in the world, makes a scarcely perceptible addition to the stock. 
 
 The term B. is in this country associated with the memorable Bullion Report of 
 1810. In the year 1797, by what was called the restriction act (see Bank), the bank of 
 England was restrained from paying its notes in gold. There thus came to be two sep- 
 arate and independent currencies in the country — one of B., the other of paper. They 
 came to differ in value from each other so much that in the year 1813, gold, of which 
 the mint price was £3 17s. \0d. per ounce, was actually worth, in bank paper, £5 10s., 
 or, in other words, the one-pound bank-note was worth 14s. 2d. There were various 
 opinions on the cause of this difference. Some people simply said that gold was dear, 
 taking paper as the standard of value; others said it was owing to our exports not bal- 
 ancing our imports; others, to too great facilities in discounting, by which money was 
 advanced on bad security; and in general, it was held that there could be no overissue 
 of paper-money, if it was backed by good security, and employed only for genuine 
 transactions, and not in fictitious credits. In the meantime, the select committee on 
 the high price of gold B., had been wishing to get, not through theories or speculations, 
 but through actual facts, at the truth. The work of the committee was chiefly con- 
 ducted by Mr. Horner, aided by sir Robert Peel, then a young man ; and both of them 
 entered on the task without any prepossession, and the desire to And the truth. They 
 established the conclusion, among other important truths, that paper-money is always 
 liable to be overissued, and consequently depreciated, unless it be at all times imme- 
 diately convertible into gold, and the monetary policy of the empire was subsequently 
 established on this principle. A full analysis of the B. report will be found inMacleod’s 
 Dictionary of Political Economy. 
 
 BULLITT, a co. in n. Kentucky, on Salt river and Rolling fork, intersected by the 
 Louisville and Nashville, the Bardstown, and the Lebanon branch railroads; 250 sq.m.; 
 pop. ’80, 8521 — 1305 colored. Productions chiefly agricultural. Co. seat. Shepherds- 
 ville. 
 
 BULLOCK, a co. in s.e. Alabama, on the Conecuh river, the Mobile and Girard, and 
 the Montgomery and Eufaula railroads; 750 sq.m.; pop. ‘80,29,079 — 22,143 colored. 
 Productions, corn, cotton, etc. Co. seat. Union Springs. 
 
 BULLOCK, a CO. in s.e. Georgia, between the Ogeechee and Cannouchee rivers ; 900 
 sq.m. ; pop. ’80, 8053 — 2258 colored. It is level, with poor soil, in large part covered 
 with pine forests, and abounding in game. Corn, cotton, and sweet potatoes are raised. 
 Co. seat, Statesborough. 
 
 BULL RUN, a small stream in n.e. Virginia, falling into the Occoquan about 25 m. 
 s.w. of Washington, the site of two important battles early in the war of the rebellion. 
 The first battle took place July 21, 1861, the national forces commanded by gen. McDowell 
 and the confederates by geps. Johnson and Beauregard. The forces were about 28,000 
 for McDowell and very nearly the same number on the other side, though not more than 
 U. K. III.— 12 
 
Bulls. 
 
 Bulwer. 
 
 178 
 
 18,000 union men were actually in the conflict. Until about 4 p.m. the advantage was 
 evidently with the union side; but at that time an impetuous charge from Beauregard’s 
 whole line turned the tide, and the union army was completely routed and fled as best 
 they could across the stream to Centreville, where a council of war was held and a retreat 
 to Washington determined upon. The union loss was: killed, 481; wounded, 1011; 
 missing, 1460. The confederate loss was: killed, 378; wounded, 1489; missing, 30. 
 
 On the 29th and 30th of Aug., 1862, the second battle was fought, gens. McDowell 
 and Pope commanding the union forces, with gens. Lee, Jackson, and Longstreet on 
 the other side. On the last day the unionists were defeated and fell back to Chancellors- 
 ville, where they suffered another repulse, and then retired to Washington. The forces 
 engaged were about 35,000 union, and 46,000 confederate. No complete report of 
 the union losses was given, but the figures for killed, wounded, captured, and missing 
 are put at 11,000; Lee reported the confederate loss to be 1090 killed, and 6514 wounded, 
 but the report was incomplete, others making the total loss 8400. The confederates call 
 these engagements the “first and second battles of Manassas.” 
 
 BULLS AND BEARS, a common designation in the stock market for two classes of 
 operators; the “bulls” being those who seek to advance prices, and the “bears” those 
 who endeavor to bring them down. A fanciful derivation of the term is that a bull 
 tosses up with his horns, while a bear tears down with his claws. 
 
 BULL’S EYE, among the rigging of a ship, is a sort of small pulley in the form of a 
 ring, with a rope spliced round the outer edge, and another sliding through a hole in 
 the center. — B. E., in rifle practice, is the small black center within the circle of tho 
 target. 
 
 BULL-TERRIER, a cross-breed of the regular bull-dog and various kinds of terriers,, 
 having more docility than the bull-dog and all the sagacity of the terrier. The bull- 
 terrier is a favorite house-dog, noted for watchfulness and its intense enmity to rats. 
 
 BULL TROUT, Salmo eriox or 8. griseus, a fish nearly allied to the salmon, and like it, 
 migratory in its habits, ascending rivers, in which it deposits its spawn, but living 
 chiefly in the sea. It occurs in many of the rivers pf Britain, and is not unfrequently 
 taken in the Tweed and its tributaries. It is frequently called the Gray Trout, sometimes 
 simply the Gray, and is the Sewen of the Welsh rivers. It sometimes attains the weight 
 of 20 lbs., although it is more commonly under 15 lbs. weight. It is less elegant in 
 form than the salmon; the head and nape of the neck are thicker in proportion; and 
 the tail, beyond the adipose fin, is more bulky and muscular; the tail fin is square at 
 the end in young fish (in some places called whitlings), and in older ones, becomes con- 
 vex by the elongation of the central rays, whence the name roundtail sometimes given 
 this species. The scales are rather smaller than those of a salmon of equal size, and 
 the color is less bright; the males in the spawning season being recjdish brown, the 
 females blackish gray ; at other times the general color is like that of the salmon trout. 
 The B. T. agrees with the salmon in having only a few teeth on the most anterior part 
 of the vomer (the bone which runs down the center of the palate) ; while the salmon 
 trout, the common trout, and the great lake-trout, have a long line of teeth there: the 
 teeth are larger and stronger than those of the salmon ; there are differences also in the 
 form of the gill-covers. To anglers the B. T. is next to the salmon as a prize, and by many 
 is mistaken for it. The flesh is paler in color, coarser, with much less flavor, and is 
 much less esteemed. — The name B. T. has been also given to the Hucho {salmo huchd), 
 or salmon of the Danube, which sometimes attains the size of 30, or it is said, even of 
 60 lbs. 
 
 BULOW, Fried. Wilh. von, a famous Prussian gen. in the war of liberation, was 
 b. in 1755, entered the army young, and soon distinguished himself. When Prussia 
 declared war with France in 1813, it was B. that commanded in the first successful 
 encounter with the French at Mbckern, April 5, and revived the self-confidence of the 
 army after the adverse battle of Llitzen. His victories over Gudinot and Ney at Gross- 
 beeren and Dennewitz, saved Berlin, and inflicted severe loss on the enemy. He acted 
 a conspicuous part in the battle of Leipsic, and by taking possession of Montmartre, 
 finished the campaign of 1814. The king acknowledged his services by an estate worth 
 £30,000, and the title of count Dennewitz. In the campaign of 1815, he joined Bliicher 
 by forced marches, and headed the column that first came to the aid of Wellington at 
 Waterloo. He died at Konigsberg, 11th Jan., 1818. 
 
 BULOW, Hans Guido von, a celebrated pianist and composer, was b. at Dresden, 
 Germany, Jan. 8, 1830. His father, a well-known author, who intended that he should 
 study law, and was very much opposed to his adopting music as a profession, refused to 
 support him after he had given up his law studies at Berlin. He was assisted by Liszt, 
 who recognized his talent, and Richard Wagner secured him a position as leader of 
 orchestra at a theater in Zurich in 1850. During the year 1851-52 he devoted himself to 
 the study of the piano at Weimar, under the tuition of Liszt. In 1852, he made his first 
 appearance in public as a pianist; edited the Neue ZeitscTiHft fur Musik, and composed his 
 famous overture to Julius Ccesar, which was performed with great success. In 1855. he 
 became leading professor in the conservatory of music at Berlin, and in 1857, married 
 Cosima, daughter of Liszt, from whom he was divorced in 1869. In 1875, he came to 
 
179 
 
 Bulls. 
 
 Bulwer. 
 
 this country and made a very successful concert tour. He never plays his own pieces 
 at public performances, although his compositions are very numerous and often chosen 
 by other artists. His larger works number over 30, and he has composed many songs 
 and choruses. He is considered one of the leading pianists of modern times. 
 
 BULBAMFUR', a t. of Oude, India, near the frontier of Nepaul, in n. lat. 27° 24', 
 e. long. 82° 15', on the Kaptee, in a plain, 90 m. n.e. from Lucknow. It is a town of con- 
 siderable size, but mostly of mud houses, covered with thatch. From B. there is a 
 magnificent view of Dhawalagiri. The town is on one of the most frequented routes 
 between Lucknow and Nepaul, so that during spring and summer it is much thronged 
 by traders, exchanging the products of Hindustan and Thibet. Pop. 71, 14,026. 
 
 BULRUSH, an English popular name for large rush-like or reed-like plants growing 
 in marshes, not very strictly limited to any particular kind. Some authors employ it in 
 a restricted sense as the designation of plants of the genus typha, also known (as cat’s- 
 tail or reed-mace. See Typha. It is perhaps more commonly restricted to large species 
 of the genus scirpus (q.v.), also called club-rush, and particularly to 8. lacustris, a com- 
 mon British plant, found also in all the northern parts of the world, growing about the 
 muddy margins of lakes and ponds, with a creeping root and round stems varying from 
 2 to 8 ft. in height, which are almost leafless, and bear their flowers in compound umbels 
 of small brown spikelets on their side. The root is astringent and diuretic, and was 
 formerly employed in medicine ; but the stems are the most useful part of the plant, 
 being much employed for making chair-bottoms, mats, etc. ; also by coopers for filling 
 up spaces between the seams of casks, to which purpose their spongy nature particularly 
 adapts them, and not unfrequently for thatching cottages. 
 
 BUL'SAR, a seaport of India, in the British district of Surat, presidency of Bombay, 
 on the estuary of a small river of the same name, which falls into the gulf of Cambay. 
 It is 44 m. s. of Surat. It is a thriving place, with manufactures of ginghams, and a 
 considerable trade in grain, salt, and sugar. Pop. 71, 11,313, chiefly weavers and sailors, 
 but partly also employed in agriculture. 
 
 BULTI, or Little Thibet', a territory lying on the upper Indus beyond the Himalaya, 
 and forming a sort of debatable land between India and Tartary. It is immediately to 
 the n. of the valley of Cashmere, with which it is politically connected by conquest. It 
 occupies about 8000 sq.m., extending in n. lat. between 34° 30' and 36°, and in e. long, 
 between 75° and 77°. With an average elevation of about 7000 ft. above the sea, B. is 
 surrounded by mountains of nearly the same height above its owm level. Hence the 
 temperature is such that only snow falls in what ought to be the rainy season, though in 
 summer the thermometer ranges at noon from 70° to 90° F. European fruits are said to 
 be plentiful. The inhabitants are of the Mongolian race, and chiefly Mohammedans. 
 Among the animals are the sha, the large- horned goat, the sheep, the musk-deer, and the 
 ibis. The only town of consequence is the capital, Iskardoh, which, in fact, sometimes 
 gives its name to the whole province. 
 
 BULUBGrURH', or Ballamgakh, a t. of India, the principal place of a jaghire of the 
 same name, called also Furreedabad. The town is situated on the route from Delhi to 
 Muttra, 29 m. s. of Delhi, in a pleasant well-cultivated country. The town is not large, 
 and is very crowded, surrounded by a high brick wall, with mud bastions and a deep 
 ditch. The jaghire has an area of 190 sq.m., and its pop. is supposed to be about 
 57,000. The British have never interfered with the civil or criminal affairs of the jag- 
 hire, except when their interference was requested, during the minority of the present 
 I’ajah; but the rajah of B. derives his rights from the British government. The revenue 
 of the state is estimated at 160,000 rupees. The rajah maintains a small force of 100 
 cavalry and 350 infantry. 
 
 BULWARK, in military matters, was the old name for a rampart or bastion. In a 
 ship, the bulwarks are the boarding above the level of the upper deck, nailed to the 
 outside of the timber-heads and stanchions. In ordinary vessels they form a parapet, 
 protecting the seamen from the waves, and prevent loose articles from being swept off 
 the deck ; in men-of-war they, in addition, serve to protect the men from an enemy’s 
 shot. In an inquiry made a few years ago concerning the availability of merchant 
 steamers as ships of war, it was found that the bulwarks would not afford sufficient pro 
 tection to the men from musket-shot; but that if hammock-stanchions were fixed all 
 round the bulwarks, and the men’s hammocks placed in a netting upheld thereby, a very 
 good protection might be obtained. 
 
 BULWER, Sir Henry Lytton, G.C.B., the right hon., diplomatist and author, an 
 elder brother of the late lord Lytton, was born in 1804, entered the diplomatic service 
 in 1827, and was attached successively to the British embassy at Berlin, Brussels, and 
 the Hague. In 1830, he entered parliament, and during the following seven years he 
 represented, in order, the constituencies of Wilton, Coventry, and Marylebone, In 1837, 
 he became secretary of embassy at Constantinople, where he negotiated and concluded 
 a treaty which is the foundation of our present commercial system in the east. In 1843, 
 he was made minister plenipotentiary to the court of Madrid, and concluded the peace 
 between Spain and Morocco in the following year. Whilst in Spain, his firmness and 
 candor proved a source of great inconvenience to Narvaez, the Spanish soldier-diplo- 
 
Bulwer. 
 
 Bungay. 
 
 180 
 
 matist of that day, and who, pretending to have discovered the complicity of the Brit- 
 ish plenipotentiary in certain plots against the Spanish government, ordered him to leavo 
 Madrid. Both parties in the house of commons approved of the whole course of B.’s 
 conduct while at the court of Madrid, and her majesty awarded to him the highest 
 decorations of the order of the Bath. He afterwards proceeded to Washington, where 
 he evinced equal art in conciliating the temper of the people, and maintaining the inter- 
 ests of his own country. In 1852, he was sent to Tuscany as envoy extraordinary ; and 
 in 1856 was nominated by lord Palmerston commissioner at Bucharest for investigating 
 the state of the Danubian principalities. As British commissioner, he called forth from 
 every minister and from every government concerned the warmest expressions of 
 approval, and all concurred in recommending him for the post of ambassador to the 
 Ottoman porte, on the return of lord Stratford de Redcliffe, in the spring of 1858. Sir 
 Henry Lytton became a peer in 1871, with the title of lord Dalling and Bulwer. He died 
 in 1872. His works include a Life of Palmerston; Historical Characters; An Autumn in 
 Greece; France, Social, Literary, and Political; and a Life of Byron. 
 
 BULWER-LYTTON, Edward Robert, Earl, only son of the English novelist, b. 
 1831; educated by private tutors; went into diplomatic service in 1849 under his uncle, 
 sir Henry, who was then British envoy to the United States; afterwards served diplo- 
 matically at Florence, Paris, the Hague, Vienna, Copenhagen, Athens, Lisbon, Madrid, 
 and again at Vienna and Paris. He succeeded to his title on the death of his father in 
 1873. In 1874, he was sent again to Lisbon as ambassador, and in 1876 was viceroy of 
 India, where, Jan. 1, 1877, he presided at the ceremonial proclamation of Victoria as 
 empress of India. In literature he is widely known, first as “Owen Meredith,” the author 
 of many poems, the chief of which is Lucile. Other works are Tannhauser, or the 
 Battle of the Bards; Nerille Temple; Julian Fane; songs of Servia; The King of Amasis; 
 Chronicles and Characters; Orval, or the Fool of Time; imitations in verse from various 
 languages ; Fables in Song, etc. 
 
 BULWER LYTTON, Sir Edward. See Lytton. 
 
 BUMBOAT, a boat employed to carry provisions and other articles from harbors and 
 ports to vessels lying at some distance from the shore. Boats of this kind belong to a 
 class of petty traders, who in England are, for the most part, women. The provisions 
 commonly offered for sale are soft bread, butter, fruit, vegetables, fish, and fresh meat 
 — the fish fried, and the meat roasted, if wanted. Among the other articles are included 
 shirts, drawers, stockings, gloves, pipes, needles, thread, and a variety of odds and ends. 
 The less respectable of the B. traders try to smuggle spirits on board ; but if this is dis- 
 covered, it leads to instant punishment. In fitting out and also in paying off ships in 
 H. M. navy, the B. people are allowed on board for a certain length of time daily; but 
 when a ship is in active commission, they come alongside only at meal-hours. Among 
 the class of B. people generally, there is no little acuteness and enterprise. They learn 
 all particulars about ships going and coming, and will even write to far-distant ports to 
 secure a vessel’s patronage. In their dealings, they of course prefer ready money, but 
 in certain cases they give credit, and it is understood lose little by their liberality ; for 
 any attempt at evasion of payment by any of the crew, meets the displeasure of com- 
 manding officers. From Hong-Kong up to the Bogue forts, and in other Chinese waters, 
 bumboats frequently accompany vessels, and are apt to become troublesome. From. 
 Malta and some other places in the Mediterranean, the bumboats also haunt vessels on 
 short cruises, in the hope of doing a little trade. 
 
 BUMKIN, or Boomkin (diminutive of boom), on shipboard, is a short boom which pro- 
 jects over each bow of the ship, to aid in extending the lower edge or clue of the fore- 
 sail to windward — in nautical phrase, “to board the fore tack to.” In a boat, the B. is- 
 a small outrigger over the stern, used for extending the mizzen. 
 
 BUMMALOTI, Saurus ophiodon, a fish of the family scopelidoe or sauridm, often 
 regarded as a subdivision of the great family salmonidm. It is a marine fish, a native of 
 the coasts of India, particularly of the Bombay and Malabar coasts, from which it is 
 exported in large quantities, salted and dried, to other parts of India, being highly 
 esteemed for its rich fiavor, and often used as a relish. In commerce, it is known not 
 only by the name B., but by the singular appellation of Bombay duck It is a fish of 
 elongated form, with large fins and a very large mouth, the gape of which extends far 
 behind the eyes, and which is furnished with a great number of long, slender teeth, 
 barbed at the points. It is extremely voracious. 
 
 BUNCOMBE, a co. in s.w. North Carolina, n.e. of the Blue Ridge, on French Broad 
 river and the Western North Carolina railroad; 450 sq.m.; pop. ’70, 15,412 — 2303 col- 
 ored; in ’80, 21,910. The surface is rough, but the soil is fertile and good for cattle- 
 raising. There are warm springs in the n.w. part. Corn, wool, and tobacco are the 
 chief productions. Co. seat, Ashville. 
 
 BUNDELCUND', a territory of Hindustan, between Gwalior on the w. and the t/umna, 
 which separates it from the Doab, on the n.e. The area formerly known as B. included 
 four districts belonging to the British north-western provinces, (Banda, Jalun, Jhansi, 
 and llamirpur). Now B. is officially used only for the “ Bandalkhand agency,” a sub- 
 division of the Central India agency and in this sense is applied to a group of nine nativo- 
 
181 
 
 Bulwer. 
 
 Bungay. 
 
 states, and twenty-five petty jaghires under native princes. The area of the agency is 
 10,600 sq.m., and the pop. estimated (1872) at 1.278,000. Studded, as B. is, with isolated 
 rocks, rising precipitous!}' from its surface — each of them a nucleus, as it were, of inde- 
 pendence — it has generally been very much subdivided. Notwithstanding that it is well 
 watered, the climate renders irrigation indispensable; and it is accordingly interspersed, 
 at the cost of great labor and ingenuity, with artificial dams. B., though not destitute 
 of woodlands, presents rather jungle and copse than heavy timber. It is said to possess 
 inexhaustible deposits of iron-ore and some coal. The principal towns of B. are Calpee, 
 Jhansi, Callinger, Banda, Jalun, and Chaturpur. The first three are noticed in their 
 places, Callinger being famous for its cave-temples, and Jhansi and Calpee having, 
 acquired cele&ity in the mutiny of 1857-58. 
 
 BUN'DI, or Boondee, a t. of India, in n. lat. 25° 26', e. long. 75° 43', 190 m. s.w. 
 from Agra, the capital of a small state of the same name. It is situated in a valley 
 nearly surrounded by rocky hills. The palace of the rajah is on the slope of the hill 
 above the town, and is of great magnificence and beauty, consisting of a number of parts 
 built at different dates, but harmonizing extremely^ well together. The town contains 
 few notable edifices. It has two good bazaars, it is a place of little commerce. It is 
 celebrated for its iron manufactures. — The raj or state of Bundi has an area of 2291 sq. 
 miles. A range of mountains running n.e. and s.w., divides two nearly equal level tracts 
 — that on the s.e. extending to the river Chnmbul, and that on the n.w. to the base of 
 the mountains towards Ajmere. The climate is said to be unhealthy. Although the 
 rajah and dominant portion of the inhabitants are Rajpoots, the greater part of the' 
 population, particularly in the mountains, are Meenas, supposed to be an aboriginal race, 
 who are indefatigable freebooters. The military force of the state, including the troops^ 
 of the feudal chiefs and the police force, is 6170 men. The revenue is about £50,000. 
 Pop. of B. 224,000. 
 
 BUNGALOW, a species of rural villa or house, so called in India. Bungalows which 
 form the residence of Europeans are of all sizes and styles, according to the taste and 
 Wealth of the owner. Some are of two stories, but more usually they consist of only a 
 ground floor, and are invariably surrounded with a veranda, the roof of which affords 
 a shelter from the sun. In the chief cities of Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay some of 
 the bungalows are really palatial residences, while in the mofussil they are of more mod- 
 erate pretensions. In general, they are provided with exterior offices, to accommodate 
 the large retinue of domestics common in Indian life. Besides these private bungalows,, 
 there are military bungalows on a large scale for accommodating soldiers in canton- 
 ments; likewise public bungalows, maintained by government for the accommodation of 
 travelers, and in which seem to be blended the characters of an English road-side inn. 
 and an eastern caravanserai. These bungalows, though they vary greatly in actual 
 comfort, are all on the same plan. They are quadrangular in shape, one story high, 
 with high-peaked roofs, thatched or tiled, projecting so as to form porticoes and veran- 
 das. The B. is divided into “suits” of two, three, or four rooms, provided with bed- 
 steads, tables, and chairs; windows of glass, and framed glass doors. Off each room is 
 a bath-room, and earthen jars of cool water. Travelers are expected to carry their ser- 
 vants, cooking-apparatus, wine, beer, bedding, etc., with them; but the khitmutgar of 
 the better class of bungalows supplies table-ware, condiments, and even sometimes food, 
 and liqnors, and he is usually skilled in cooking. Government charges one rupee, or 
 two shillings a day, to each traveler for the use of the bungalow. A book is kept, in' 
 which travelers enter their names, the time of their arrival and departure, with the 
 amount paid, and any remarks regarding the state of the B. and its attendance he may 
 think proper. Natives seldom stop in these public bungalows, for though legally open 
 to all, they are almost exclusively resorted to by Europeans ; and natives even of good 
 condition are fain to seek “ the squalid desolation of a tottering caravanserai,” or village 
 “ dhurrumsala. ” At every travelers’ B. is stationed a government peon, who acts as 
 watchman, and is bound to assist travelers’ servants in procuring supplies of fuel and 
 food in the nearest village. The distance between each B. on a trunk-road is generally 
 about 12 or 15 m. — an Indian day’s journey. The introduction of railways will very 
 soon put an end to the present system of traveling in India— a fact greatly to be desired, 
 as the annoyance experienced moving slowly on with baggage and servants at the rate of 
 a stage a day is almost inconceivable. 
 
 BUNGAY, a market-t. of the co. of Suffolk, England, 30 m. n.n.e. from Ipswich. 
 It occupies the sides and summit of a gently rising hill, on the right bank of the Wave- 
 ney, and is a well-built town, with wide streets, the principal ones diverging from the 
 market-place. The town grew around Bungay castle, which is supposed to have been 
 erected by the Bigods, earls of Norfolk, and of the walls of which some ruins still 
 remain. The ruins of a Benedictine nunnery are also to be seen in the town. The 
 church of the Holy Trinity is an edifice with a round tower, supposed to be of the time* 
 of Edward the confessor. There are numerous places of worship, belonging to different 
 denominations, and schools, charitable institutions, assembly-rooms, etc. What wa.s 
 formerly the theater is now used as a corn-hall. B. carries on a considerable trade by' 
 the river Waveney in corn, malt, flour, coals, and lime. Pop. ’61, 3805; ’71, 3503. 
 
Buxiias. 
 
 liunsen. 
 
 182 
 
 BUNIAS, a genus of plants of the natural order crucifercB, distinguished by incumbent 
 linear spirally twisted cotyledons (q.v.), and a nut-like silicule (or round pod) with 2 to 
 4 cells. Only a few species are known, natives of the Levant. One of these, B. orien- 
 talis, is cultivated in some countries — particularly in France — as a field-crop, for the 
 sake of its leaves, which are used for feeding cattle. It was introduced into Britain 
 more than 100 years since, but its cultivation has never become general, the amount of 
 herbage which it yields being comparatively small. It is sometimes called Hill Mus- 
 tard. 
 
 BUNION is a painful condition met with in the joints of the feet, most commonly at 
 the junction of the great toe with its metatarsal bone. It is caused by a gradual dis- 
 placement of the bones, the toe itself turning outwards, and leaving the head or further 
 extremity of the metatarsal bone projecting inwards. Over the latter, the skin is gener- 
 ally thin, and occasionally a bursa (sac) is present between the skin and bone. The 
 pressure of a boot causes this bursa to inflame, and this may go on to suppuration or 
 painful ulceration. Rest, poulticing, and such remedies are generally sufficient to sub- 
 due any inflammatory attack, and wearing a shoe so constructed as to save the B. from 
 pressure, will probably prevent a recurrence of painful symptoms; but amputation and 
 excision of the ends of the bones have been resorted to for the cure of the troublesome 
 distortion. 
 
 BUNION is a term applied in surgery to enlarged bursae, or synovial sacs, situated in 
 the anterior part of the foot, and especially over the metatarsal joint of the first or the 
 fifth toe (see Foot), and accompanied by more or less distortion of the joint. In the 
 great majority of cases, bunions are directly produced by the pressure of badly -fitting 
 boots; and if the boots are constructed of patent leather, or any material which stops 
 the excreting action of the skin, this, too, may be regarded as an indirect cause of their 
 formation. A bunion begins as a painful and tender spot over one of the metatarso- 
 phalangeal joints; the part gradually enlarges, and there are indications of an effusion 
 into a natural bursa or a newly-formed sac. The progress of the affection may stop 
 here, the bursa remaining, and serving to protect the subjacent parts from pressure ; but 
 far more frequently it undergoes repeated attacks of inflammation, causing its enlarge- 
 ment; or becomes the seat of corns; or suppuration of the contents of the cyst ensues 
 The last accident may be followed either by obliteration of the cyst, and cure, or by a 
 troublesome form of ulcer, especially in persons of languid circulation. 
 
 It is only in its early stage that there is any hope of removing the disease ; subse- 
 quently, the treatment must be only palliative. The tender spot that precedes the 
 enlargement should be covered by night with wet lint and oiled silk, while by day a 
 boot or shoe exerting no pressure on the part should be worn. If the part is very ten- 
 der, it may be covered during the day with soap-plaster spread on wash-leather. As 
 soon as a cyst can be detected, the part should be occasionally treated with strong 
 tincture of iodine, with a view of promoting absorption. The writer of the article on 
 this subject in Holmes’s System of Surgei^, recommends an ointment of biniodide of 
 mercury (ten grains to an ounce of lard) for the cure of bunions when uninflamed, and 
 for such as have much fluid within them. It should not be applied so constantly as to 
 blister the skin. When, from any cause, inflammation takes place in the sac, water- 
 dressing, or a poultice, should be applied ; and as soon as there are definite signs of sup- 
 puration, a free incision should be made, which at once relieves the pain, and is often 
 followed by a complete cure. 
 
 The ulcers resulting from the bursting of a bunion are very difficult to heal, espe- 
 cially in old persons whose circulation is languid. Stimulating local applications, such 
 jis ointment of resin, should be applied, while opium and stimulants should be prescribed 
 for internal use, together with nourishing diet. Such ulcers, under the best treatment, 
 not very unfrequently form the starting-point for senile gangrene. 
 
 BUNKER'S HILL. See Charlestown. 
 
 BUNKUM, a phrase used in the United States to signify an oratorical display in favor 
 of a sham proposal, in order to catch popular applause. A member of the legislature, for 
 example, desirous of standing well with his constituents, makes a flaming speech in 
 favor of a measure in which they are interested; but with the knowledge that the meas- 
 ure is impracticable, and will not be carried. In fact, the speaker does not want to 
 cany it ; his sole object is to impose on his supporters, and acquire the character of a 
 meritorious public leader. Such is speaking for bunkum. In some instances, the state 
 legislatures enact laws brought forward on these dishonest grounds — the whole mem' 
 bers, or at least a large majority of them, having no other object than bunkum. The 
 consequence is, that many laws, agitated for by popular factions, remain a dead-letter, 
 unless they happen to be enforced by clubs organized for the purpose. The word B. is 
 said to be a corruption of Buncombe, the name of a county in North Carolina, the rep- 
 resentative of which informed congress on one occasion that he was merely speaking “for 
 Buncombe.” 
 
 BUNO'DES GEMMA'CEA, a species of the order actinoida. See Anemone, Sea, 
 ■ante. 
 
183 
 
 Duntas. 
 
 Bunsen* 
 
 BUNSEN, Christian Karl Josias, Baron, one of the most distinguished statesmen 
 and scholars of Germany, was b., 25th Aug., 1791, at Korbach, in the principality of 
 Waldeck, and studied philology at Gottingen (1809-13) under Heyne. He had been 
 appointed teacher in the gymnasium of Gottingen in 1811, but quitted the position in 
 1813; and in pursuance of a course of study of old and middle high German, begun in 
 company with Lachmann, and to extend his knowledge of the Germanic tongues, went 
 to Holland, and afterwards to Copenhagen, where he learned Icelandic from Finn Mag- 
 nussen. The historical works of Niebuhr and his character as a politician had filled B. 
 with enthusiasm, and he spent some months of 1815 in Berlin, in order to become per- 
 sonally acquainted with the historian. In 1816, he went to Paris, and studied Persian 
 and Arabic under Sylvestre de Sacy, and in the same year to Rome, where he married. 
 Niebuhr, then Prussian ambassador, took the greatest interest in the scientific pursuits 
 of B., and procured (1818) his appointment as secretary to the embassy. The residence 
 of the king of Prussia, Friedrich Wilhelm HI., in Rome in 1822, had a decided influence 
 on his subsequent career. In the course of a conversation in which B. had disagreed 
 with the king, the latter asked his views on the Prussian ritual {Agende) and hymn-book 
 question, then much agitated. Though these views were very different from what the 
 king had been accustomed to hear, he took them in good part, and with expression of 
 his personal regard, requested B. to continue in the state service. On Niebuhr’s depart- 
 ure from Rome (1824), B. conducted the embassy provisionally for a time, and was then 
 appointed resident minister (1827). Living in intimate intercourse with Niebuhr, B. had 
 employed the time in deepening his investigation into the philosophy of language and 
 religion ; and had made, on the one hand, the philosophy of Plato and the constitutions 
 of antiquity; on the other, biblical inquiries, church history, and liturgies — objects of 
 special attention. Though not within the scope of the great plan of his life, he con- 
 tributed largely to the Beschreibung der Stadt Bom (Description of Rome), 3 vols. (Stutt. 
 1836-43) ; the greater part of the topographical communications on ancient Rome, and 
 all the investigations into the early history of Christian Rome, are by him. — The first 
 visit of Champollion to Rome formed an epoch in B. ’s antiquarian studies. He was a 
 zealous hearer of Champollion himself, and also encouraged Lepsius (q.v.) to the study 
 of hieroglyphics. The archaeological institute, established in 1829, found in B. its most 
 active supporter. When he founded the Protestant hospital on the Tarpeian rock (1835), 
 he also built, adjoining his own house, a place of meeting for the institute; and labored 
 earnestly for the cause of Protestantism. The king of Prussia had often asked his advice 
 in the matter of the ritual, but had not adopted it. B. then, along with the chaplain, 
 introduced (1825) into the chapel of the embassy at Rome a liturgy modeled after his own 
 views, and sent a report (1828) to the king of the result. The king had this liturgy 
 printed, and wrote the preface with his own hand. This work never came into the hands 
 of the trade ; but the most part of it was embodied in the Allegemeine evang. Gesang- und 
 Oebetbuch, printed (1846) without the author’s name, in the Rauhe Haus, Hamburg, 
 which may be considered as the second edition of the Versuch eines allgemeinen evang. 
 Gesang- und GebetbucJis (Attempt at a General Evangelical Hymn and Prayer Book), 
 Hamb. 1833. 
 
 In 1841, he was sent on a special mission to London, to negotiate the erection of an 
 Anglo- Prussian bishopric in Jerusalem, and was shortly afterwards appointed ambassa- 
 dor at the English court. It is understood that, on occasion of a visit to Berlin in 1844. 
 he was asked to write down his views on the question of granting a constitution to 
 Prussia; and that in consequence he presented a series of memorials representing the 
 urgency for a deliberative assembly, and also made a complete plan of a constitution 
 closely resembling the English. In the Schleswig-Holstein question, B. strongly advo- 
 cated the German view, in opposition to Denmark, and protested against the London 
 protocol of 1850. But in the midst of all his political duties, B. continued unabated his 
 literary and philosophical pursuits, the results of which have from time to time appeared. 
 His views regarding the part that Prussia should act in the eastern question not being, 
 it is understood, in accordance with those of his court, he ceased, in 1854, to represent 
 Prussia at the court of England, and retired to Heidelberg. In the estimation of Eng- 
 lishmen, B. must ever hold a high place. No foreigner has ever shown a deeper apprecia- 
 tion of their national characteristics, or a heartier love of their social and political lib- 
 erty. It must also be acknowledged that he has done service to the cause of enlightened 
 Christianity, for while in England, he was regarded by those who knew him both as 
 the most philosophical and most reverent of lay theologians. His chief works are ; De 
 Jure Atheniensium Hoereditario {(jfOii. \ Die KircTie der Zukunft Church of the 
 Future-— translated into English, and published by Longman), Hamb. 1845; Ignatius von 
 Antiocjiien und Seine (Ignatius of Antioch and his Time), Hamb. 1847; Die dreiecliten 
 
 und die vier unechten Brief e des Ignatius von Antiochien (The Three Genuine and the Four 
 Spurious Epistles of Ignatius of Antioch), Hamb. 1847; AEgyptens Sielle in der Welt- 
 geschichte (Egypt’s Place in the World’s History — translated into English by Cottrell), 
 Hamb. 1845-57; Die Basiliken des Christlichen Roms Basilicas of Christian Rome), 
 1843; Hippolytus und seine Zeit his Time), 1851; Christianity and Man- 
 
 kind, 1854; Goit in der Geschichte {Godi in History), 1857; and the Bibelwerk, which B. hoped 
 to make his chief work, of which only a part appeared before his death, which took 
 place in 1860. See Memoir by his widow (1868). 
 
Bunsen. 
 
 Bunzlau. 
 
 184 
 
 BUNSEN, Robert Wilhelm, a distinguished German chemist, b. at GSttingen, where 
 his father was a professor, on March 31, 1811. He entered the university of his native 
 town in 1828, where he devoted himself to the study of the natural sciences, especially 
 to zoology and chemistry. He afterwards prosecuted his favorite studies at Paris, Ber- 
 lin, and Vienna. After having held the post of professor at Cassel, Marburg, and Bres- 
 lau, successively, B. was, in 1852, appointed to the chair of chemistry at Heidelberg, 
 where he has since remained. He has published numerous papers on physics and geol- 
 ogy, as well as on chemistry. The charcoal pile and the burner which bear his name are 
 in extensive use. That the hydrate of oxide of iron is an antidote to arsenic, is an impor- 
 tant fact which was made known by him, along with his friend Berthold, in 1837. B. 
 was the first to produce magnesium in large quantities; and, in 1860, he invented the 
 magnesium light, which has proved so important to photography. But the greatest dis- 
 covery with which his name is associated, is that of the spectrum analysis — made in con- 
 junction with iiis friend Kirchoff — which has been the means of working so many won- 
 ders in chemistry, and revealing so much to astronomers. Its first result was the discov- 
 ery of two new metals. B. is not only a prolific discoverer in chemistry, but he has 
 proved himself also one of its most successful teachers. His manner of demonstration 
 is very happy. We have from his pen: Descrijptio Hygrometrorum (Gottingen, 1830); 
 Eisemxydhydrat {2di ed., 1837); GasometnscJw Methoden •, English by Roscoe); and 
 other papers. The government of Baden made him a privy-councilor in 1863. 
 
 BUNT, a disease of wheat and other grains, or the parasitic fungus which causes that 
 disease. The name B. is supposed to be a corruption of burnt, or at least derived from 
 the same root, a derivation perhaps suggested by the analogy of brand (q.v.), B. is also 
 called pepper brand, and sometimes smut ball. It is one of the most common and 
 injurious diseases of wheat, often affecting great part of a crop, although its prevalence 
 has been greatly diminished by care on the part of farmers, and particularly by the selec- 
 tion of clean seed, and the dressing of the seed, before sowing, with some substance, 
 which, without injuring its vitality, destroys that of the spores or ^anules of the fun- 
 gus. Even washing with water has a good effeet, but greater ben^t is derived from 
 dressing with salt, quicklime, chloride of lime, Glauber’s salt (sulphate of soda), and 
 quicklime, or blue vitriol (sulphate of copper). Even arsenic and corrosive sublimate 
 are used for this purpose. B. is now believed to be propagated by any contact of sound 
 with unsound grain; by thrashing, which causes the B. dust to fly about; or by manure, 
 in which the straw of infected grain has been mixed. Upon this knowledge, the means 
 now adopted for its prevention are founded. A considerable mixture of B. is not sup- 
 posed to render flour absolutely unwholesome, at least when made into fermented bread, 
 but the bread is of a peculiar flavor, and a very dark color. It is said that such flour is 
 used to no small extent in the manufacture of gingerbread, the treacle disguising both 
 the color and the flavor. 
 
 BUNTER SANDSTEIN, or “ variegated sandstone,” is the lowest member of the tri- 
 assic period. As the triass is more perfectly developed in Germany than in Britain, the 
 German beds are considered the typical group of this period. The B. S. consists of vari- 
 ous colored sandstones, interstratitied with red marls and thin beds of limestone, which 
 occasionally, as in the Harz, are oolitic, but in other places dolomitic. They attain a 
 maximum thickness of 1500 feet. The English representatives of the B. S. are chiefly 
 developed in Lancashire and Cheshire, and consist of red and mottled sandstones with 
 beds of marl, and thick rather irregular bands of partially consolidated conglomerate 
 called “pebble beds.” Thirty species of fossil plants have been found in the B. S. near 
 Strasburg, consisting chiefly of ferns, cycads, and conifers. But the most remarkable 
 fossils in this formation are the remains of huge batrachians. Originally, the footprints 
 which had been left by the animals on the moist sand were alone observed. From their 
 resemblance to the impressions made by a human hand, the animal producing them was 
 provisionally named cheirotheHum (q.v.). The subsequent discovery and examination 
 of the remains of teeth and bones in the same beds, have afforded sutficient materials to 
 enable Owen to reconstruct an animal named by him (q.v.), which undoubt- 
 
 edly produced the footprints. These remains have been detected in Lancashire and 
 Cheshire, as well as in Germany. 
 
 BUNTINE, or Bunting, is a thin woolen material, of which the flags and signals of 
 ships are usually made. 
 
 BUNTING, Emberiza, a genus of birds closely allied to finches and sparrows, and 
 included with them by some ornithologists in the great idiXmlj fririgillideB (q.v.), but by 
 others made the type of a distinct family, emberizidoe, of which the most marked char- 
 acteristics are a short, straight, conical bill, a curved form of the gape, produced by a 
 narrowing of the sides of the upper mandible, and a corresponding enlargement of the 
 under one, and a hard rounded knob on the palate or inner surface of the upper man- 
 dible. This knob probably aids in crushing the seeds, which are a principal part of the 
 food of these birds. The species of the B. family are numerous, and are arranged^ in 
 several genera. The true buntings (forming the restricted genus emberiza) have the hind 
 claw moderately short, curved, and strong, and the palatal knob large and bony. The 
 Com.mon B. or Corn B. {E. miliaria) — a bird considerably larger than a house-sparrow, 
 brown, with darker streaks on the upper parts, whitish brown, with spots and lines of 
 
185 
 
 Bunsen. 
 
 Bunzlau. 
 
 dark brown on the under parts, and with a slightly forked tail — is frequent, particularly 
 in low cultivated grounds in Britain, and in most parts of Europe, extending also into 
 Asia, living in pairs during spring and summer, but in flocks in winter, and often visit- 
 ing barn-yards at that season, along with chaffinches and sparrows. It is the largest of 
 the British buntings. It is supposed that the winter flocks in Britain are much increased 
 by migration from more northerly regions. This B. often passes the night on the ground 
 in stubble-fields, and is taken in the nets employed for catching larks, and brought with 
 them to market. It usually builds its nest on or very near the ground. Its notes are 
 harsh and unmusical. — The Reed B., or Black-headed B. {E. fshoeniclus), is a species 
 common in marshy situations, both in Britain and on the continent of Europe; a very 
 pretty little bird, with black head and throat, strikingly contrasted with the white nape 
 and sides of the neck. — The Cirl B. {E. cirlus), of which the head is olive-green, with 
 black streaks, and with patches of bright lemon-yellow on the cheeks and over the eyes, 
 is a rare British bird, and belongs chiefly to the s. of Europe and the n. of Africa. To 
 this genus belong also the Ortolan (q.v.) and the Yellow-hammer (q.v.). — The Snow 
 B. (q.v.), or Snowflake {E. nivalis of many authors), has been placed in the new genus 
 pleclrophanes. The name B. has been often very vaguely used, and many species have 
 been almost indiscriminately called buntings or finches. The palatal knob affords the 
 best distinctive character. North America has a number of species of bunting. — The 
 Black-throated B. {E. Americana) is extremely plentiful on the prairies of Texas and 
 other south-western parts of the United States; extending, however, as far as tc Ohio, 
 and even to Massachusetts. In the middle and northern states, it occurs only as a sum- 
 mer bird of passage. In its habits, it closely resembles the common B. of Europe ; but 
 the palatal knob is less hard. 
 
 BUNTING, Jabez, an eminent Wesleyan minister, was b. at Manchester in 1779. At 
 the age of 20, he devoted himself to ministerial work, in which he was very successful. 
 He was elected president of the annual conference in 1820, and again in 1828, 1836, 
 1844. In 1834, he was chosen president of the theological institution belonging to the 
 Wesleyan Methodist body, and he acted as one of the secretaries to the missionary 
 society in connection with his denomination, for a period of more than twenty years. 
 He was the chief authority in all matters relating to the government and polity of Wes- 
 leyan Methodism. On his retirement from official life in 1857, his friends presented him 
 with an annuity of £200, in consideration of the great services he had rendered to Meth- 
 odism. He did not live, however, to profit by their kindness and forethought, having 
 died in June, 1858. 
 
 BUNYAN, John, one of the most popular religious writers of any age, was b. at 
 Elstow, near Bedford, in 1628. He was brought up to his father’s trade of tinker, and 
 spent his youth in the practice of that humble craft, of which his name alone now serves 
 to lessen somewhat the disrepute. It has generally been taken for granted that his early 
 life was very loose and profligate, on the sole ground of his terrible self -accusations in 
 after- years, when, from the height of religious fervor and Puritan strictness, he looked 
 back on dancing and bell-iinging as deadly sins. This point is satisfactorily disposed of 
 by Macaulay {Encycl. Britann., art. “Bunyan”). In his 16th or 17th year, he enlisted 
 in the parliamentary army, and in 1645, was present at the siege of Leicester, where he 
 escaped death by the substitution of a comrade in his place as sentry. Nothing further 
 is known of his military career. After leaving the army, he married, and soon after 
 began to be visited by those terrible compunctions of conscience, and fits of doubt, 
 sometimes passing into despair, which, with some quieter intervals, made his life, for 
 several years, a journey through that valley of humiliation of which he afterwards gave 
 so vivid a picture. Hope and peace came at last, and in 1655, B. became a member of 
 the Baptist congregation at Bedford. Soon after, he was chosen its pastor, and for five 
 years ministered with extraordinary diligence and success, his preaching generally 
 attracting great crowds. The act against conventicles, passed on the restoration, put a 
 stop to his labors ; he was convicted, and sentenced to perpetual banishment. In the 
 mean time, he was committed to Bedford jail, where he spent the next 12 years of his 
 life, supporting the wants of his wife and children by making tagged laces, and minis- 
 tering to all posterity by writing the Pilgrim’s Progress. His library consisted of a Bible 
 and Fox’s Martyrs. The kindly interposition of a high-church bishop. Dr. Barlow of 
 Lincoln, at length released him, and he at once resumed his work as a preacher, itiner- 
 ating throughout the country. After the issuing of James II. ’s declaration for liberty 
 of conscience, he again settled at Bedford, and ministered to the Baptist congregation in 
 Mill lane till his death, at London, of fever, in 1688. B.’s whole works were published 
 in 1736, in 2 vols. folio. The most popular of them, after the Pilgrim’s Progress, are the 
 Holy War — another allegory, much less successful — and Grace Abounding to the Chief oj 
 Sinners, an autobiographical narrative. It is supposed that no other book, except the 
 Bible, has gone through so many editions, and attained to so wide a popularity, in all 
 languages, as the Pilgrim’s Progress. A fac-simile reprint of the original edition of the 
 Pilgrim’s Progress was published in 1875. A statue of B. was unveiled at Bedford in 
 1874. 
 
 BUNZLAU, a t. of Prussia, in the province of Silesia, is situated on the Bober, about 
 35 m. w.n.w. of Liegnitz. B. has manufactures of woolens, linens, hosiery, tobacco. 
 
Bnnzlau. 
 
 Burckhardt. 
 
 186 
 
 and earthenware, and a trade in grain. An obelisk to the Russian gen., Kutusow, who 
 died here in 1813, adorns the market-place. Pop. ’75, 9959. 
 
 BUNZLAU, Jung, a t. of Bohemia, on the left bank of the Iser, about 32 m. n.e. of 
 Prague. B. is well built, has an old castle, and manufactures of cotton, Woolen, 
 soap, leather, etc. It is said to owe its origin to king Boleslaf, who founded it in the 
 10th century. Pop. ’69, 8695. 
 
 BTJNZLAIT, Jung or Neue {New Bunzlau), a t. of Bohemia, on the left bank of the 
 Iser, a tributary of the Elbe, 31 m. n.e. from Prague. It is well built of stone, has sev- 
 eral churches, a Jewish synagogue, barracks, a hospital, a Piarist gymnasium, etc. It 
 has manufactures of cotton and woolen fabrics, soap, and leather. It is said to have 
 been founded by king Boleslaf in 973, and the fort built by him still exists. Its Bohe- 
 mian name is Mlada Boleslaw. Pop. 5000. 
 
 BUOL-SCHATJENSTEIN, Karl Ferd., Count, Austrian statesman, was b. 1/thMay, 
 1797. After filling subordinate diplomatic posts, he became ambassador at Carlsruhe in 
 1828, afterwards at Stuttgart (1838) and at Turin (1844). Leaving Turin on the out- 
 break of the war in 1848, he went as ambassador to St. Petersburg, and it fell to him to 
 uphold the interest and dignity of his country, on occasion of the aid given by Russia 
 in the Hungarian war. A not less difficult task was assigned him when, in 1851, 
 he was sent to represent Austria in London; his address and conciliatory bearing con- 
 tributed not a little to bring about a more friendly feeling between the two governments. 
 On Schwarzenberg’s death, B. was recalled to Vienna, and became foreign minister. In 
 this position, he carried out the new politics of Austria no less firmly and successfully, 
 though more moderately and quietly, than his predecessor. In the negotiations during 
 and after the termination of the Crimean war, B, showed himself a skillful and able 
 statesman. After defending with zeal and ingenuity, in diplomatic notes and circulars, 
 the position which Austria had taken up with reference to Sardinia, B. suddenly, on the 
 actual commencement of the Italian campaign of 1859, resigned his place, which was 
 immediately filled by count Rechberg. Failing health was the cause officially assigned 
 for the step, but the general belief was, that it indicated a triumph of the war-party in 
 the council of Francis Joseph. He died Oct. 28, 1865. 
 
 BUONAFE'DE, Appiano, 1716-93; an Italian philosopher and general of the Celes- 
 tines; author of several works on philosophical themes. 
 
 BUONAROT'TI, Michael Angelo. See Michael Angelo, ante. 
 
 BUOY is a floating body, intended as a mark for the guidance of mariners. It is made 
 cither of wood or metal, and is mostly hollow, to make it float better. Buoys are gen- 
 erally moored by chains to the bed of the river or channel. They are of various shapes 
 and sizes, and are painted of various colors, partly to render them conspicuous, and 
 partly to distinguish them one from another. Sometimes floating buoys mark out the 
 best channel for entering a dock; sometimes they warn the mariner away from sands, 
 spits, and shoals; sometimes they mark out a continuous double line, as at Spithead, 
 between which ships can alone with safety enter a harbor. The Trinity house has 
 adopted a form of B., invented by Mr. Herbert, in which, by due attention the center of 
 flotation, and to the point where the mooring-chain is fixed, the tendency to pitch and 
 roll is much lessened, and the B. kept nearly upright in all weathers. Messrs. Brown 
 and Lenox’s bell-buoy is an ingenious contrivance for rendering a B. audible, whether 
 it is visible or not ; so long as any stream of water, whether caused by a tide or a current, 
 passes through the lower part of the B., it moves an undershot water-wheel, which rings 
 :a bell. 
 
 The lighting of coast-buoys by means of compressed gas has been of late successfully 
 attempted. Experiment proved that buoys 5 ft. by 3 ft. could contain enough of gas 
 (made from shale-oil refuse or the like) to keep up a brilliant light for a month or more 
 at a time. 
 
 BUOYANCY, of ships, is the amount of weight which can be buoyed up by the hull. 
 The B. of a vessel is proportionate to the weight of water displayed by its presence (see 
 Hydrostatics), and is found in this way : The cubic feet of the part of a vessel to be 
 immersed being known, multiply it by the weight of a cubic foot of water (62.5 lbs.), 
 and the product will be the weight of water displaced. From this subtract the weight 
 of the vessel, and the result will be the B. or the weight a vessel will carry without sink- 
 ing lower than the given line. It is admitted, however, by naval architects, that all the 
 old rules concerning B., displacement, and flotation, must undergo modification by the 
 introduction of iron ships, paddle and screw propulsion, and the increased weight of 
 broadside. 
 
 BUOY-DUES. Buoys are under very stringent regulations, on account of their impor- 
 tance to the safety of ships. The public buoys, for guiding into channels, and warning 
 from shoals and rocks, are usually marked on the best charts relating to that particular 
 water-way. The corporation of the Trinity house has a peculiar jurisdiction over the 
 buoys and beacons in the Thames, and along the Essex and Suffolk coasts; as well as on 
 other coasts in England and Wales. All ships which enter the ports within this juris- 
 diction pay a small sum as buoy-dues. The payment is sometimes a tonnage rate, vary- 
 ing from O^d. to 2d. per ton; sometimes a rate per vessel, varying from 4d. to 3«. ; some- 
 
187 
 
 Bunzlaa. 
 
 Burckhardt» 
 
 times a payment on entering only, at others on departure as well as on entering; while 
 some kinds of coasting vessels pay 5s. per annum, whatever may be the number of 
 voyages. From the Thames buoys alone, the Trinity house receives £14,000 per annum 
 as dues. 
 
 BUPALUS AND ATHENIS, Greek sculptors, 540 b.c., in the isle of Chios. They 
 were brothers, and sons of Anthermus, also a sculptor. As they produced only drgped 
 figures, it is inferred that the art had not advanced so far as to attempt nude subjects. 
 It is said that B. made a caricature of the poet Hipponax, who was naturally intensely 
 ugly, and that the poet retorted by verses that drove the sculptor to suicide. 
 
 BU'Ph'agA. See Beefeater. 
 
 BUPHONIA, or Diipolia, a religious festival held in Athens on the 14th July, when 
 the very old ceremony of sacrificing an ox to Zeus was observed. 
 
 BUPEES'TIS, a Linnsean genus of coleopterous (q.v.) insects, now divided into a num- 
 ber of genera, and forming a tribe or family, huprestidce, of which some hundreds of 
 species are known, most of them belonging to tropical countries, and remarkable for the 
 splendor of their colors. The colors are generally metallic in their luster, have frequently 
 a burnished appearance, and are often beautifully iridescent. One of the largest species, 
 B. gigas, is a native of Cayenne : it is about 2 in. long. The English and other European 
 species are all comparatively small. Most of the species spend the night on trees, shrubs, 
 and other plants, flying about during the hottest part of the day. Some of them are 
 popularly known as Golden Beetles. Plants are sometimes seen studded with them 
 in the morning, as with gorgeous flowers. The golden elytj'a (wing-cases, see Elytra) 
 of some species are used to enrich the embroidery of the Indian zenana; and the lustrous 
 joints of the legs are strung on silken threads, and form necklaces and bracelets of sin- 
 gular brilliancy. The species of huprestidos found in England are few; none have yet 
 been found in Scotland. The larvae seem sometimes to be transported from one country 
 to another in timber. 
 
 BUR, in an engraving, is a slight ridge of metal raised on the edges of a line by the 
 graver or the dry point. As the B. produces an effect like a smear, it is usually regarded 
 as a defect, and scraped off. Some etchers, however, take advantage of it to deepen 
 their shadows, and Rembrandt made use of it in this way with telling effect. 
 
 BURANHEM, or Burunhem. See Monesia Bark. 
 
 BURA'NO, an island and t. of northern Italy, in the Adriatic, about 5 m. n.e. of 
 Venice. The island supplies a large proportion of the vegetables consumed in Venice. 
 B. has some lace-manufactures, boat-building, and an extensive ropework, but the 
 inhabitants are chiefly employed in fishing. Population of town, 5000 ; of commune, 
 7000. 
 
 BURBAGE, or BURBADGE, Richard, d. 1619; an English actor, son of James, also 
 an actor. Richard was the first person to receive license as a player (1574), and was for 
 many years a business and professional associate of Shakespeare, acting “Richard III.,’' 
 “Proteus,” and other leading characters. 
 
 BUR'BOT, Lota vulgaris, a fish of the same genus with the ling (q.v.), and of the 
 same family with the cod, haddock, etc., being the only British fresh- water species of 
 that family, gadidoe. It is found in the Cam, the Trent, and other rivers of the eastern 
 and midland counties of England, but is one of the most local of British fresh- vrater 
 fishes. It is found also in various parts of the n. of Europe, and at least as far s. as 
 Switzerland ; in Siberia and other parts of Asia, even, it is said, in India. In English rivers, 
 it often reaches 2 or 3 lbs. in weight, but has been taken of 8 lbs. weight; and in some parts 
 of Europe, it is said to reach 10 or 12 lbs. weight. In appearance, the B. very much resem- 
 bles the ling, but is rather thicker at the neck, and tapers rather more rapidly, although 
 still of a somewhat elongated form. It has two dorsal fins, the first short, the second 
 very long, and a very long anal fin. It differs from the ling in the form of the tail-fin, 
 which is oval and slightly pointed ; but agrees with it in having a single barbule on the 
 lower jaw. It is of a yellowish-brown color, clouded and spotted with darker brown 
 on the upper parts, the under parts lighter ; the scales are small ; and the whole body is 
 covered with a mucous secretion. The flesh is white, firm, and of good flavor; “and 
 as the B. is in its nature extremely hardy, few diflBculties present themselves in the way 
 of their increase in quantity, while the value of the fish would amply repay the trouble 
 or the cost of the experiment.” — Yarrell. The B. is capable of living for a long time 
 out of water. It is commonly taken by trimmers and night-lines, as it feeds principally 
 during the night. Its food consists of small fishes, worms, mollusca, etc. Its liver 
 yields an oil similar to cod-liver oil. 
 
 BURBRIDGE, Stephen Gang, b. Ky., 1831 ; bred to the law, but engaged in mer- 
 cantile business and farming. When the war of the secession began, he entered the 
 union service, and was distinguished for bravery in many engagements. He resigned 
 after the close of the war, with the rank of brevet brig.gen. 
 
 BURCKHARDT, John Lewis, an enterprising African traveler, was b. at Lausanne, 
 in Switzerland, Nov. 24, 1784. In 1806, he came to London, and was introduced by 
 6ir Joseph Banks to the African association, which accepted his services to explore th® 
 
Burdekin. 
 
 Burdett-Coutts. 
 
 188 
 
 route of Hornemann into the interior of Africa, and he embarked for Malta, Feb. 14, 
 1809. He had previously qualified himself for the undertaking by a study of Arabic, 
 and also by inuring himself to hunger, thirst, and exposure. From Malta he proceeded, 
 under the disguise of an oriental dress and name, to Aleppo, where he studied about two 
 years, at the end of which time he had become so proficient in the vulgar Arabic, that 
 he could safely travel in the disguise of an oriental merchant. He visited Palmyra, 
 Damascus, Lebanon, and other remarkable places, and then went to Cairo, his object 
 being to proceed from thence to Fezzan, and then across the Sahara to Sudan. No 
 opportunity offering itself at the time for that journey, he went into Nubia. No Euro- 
 pean traveler had before passed the Derr. In 1814, he traveled through the Nubian 
 desert to the shore of the Red sea and to Jeddah, whence he proceeded to Mecca, to 
 study Islamism at its source. After staying four months in Mecca, he departed on a 
 pilgrimage to Mt. Arafat. So completely had he acquired the language and ideas of 
 his fellow-pilgrims, that, when some doubt arose respecting his Mohammedan ortho- 
 doxy, he was thoroughly examined in the Koran, and was not only accepted as a true 
 believer, but also highly commended as a great Moslem scholar. In 1815, he returned 
 to Cairo, and in the following year ascended Mt. Sinai. The Fezzan caravan, for which 
 he had waited so long, was at last about to depart, and B. had made all his preparations 
 for accompanying it, when he was seized with dysentery at Cairo, which terminated his 
 life in a few days, Oct. 15, 1817, at the early age of 33. As a holy sheik, he was 
 interred with all funeral honors by the Turks in the Moslem burial-ground. His 
 collection of oriental MSS., in 350 volumes, was left to the university of Cambridge. 
 His journals of travel, remarkable alike for their interest and evident truthfulness, 
 were published by the African association. B. was a man born to be a traveler and dis- 
 coverer; his inherent love of adventure was accompanied by an observant power of 
 the highest order. His personal character recommended him to all with whom he 
 came in contact, and his loss was greatly deplored, not only in England, but m 
 Europe. His works are — Travels in Nubia, 1819; Travels in By'f'ia and the Holy Land, 
 1822; Travels in Arabia, 1829; Notes on the Bedouins and Wahabis, 1830; and Manners 
 and Customs of the Modern Egyptians, 1830. 
 
 BURDEKIN, ariverinn.e. Australia, in the colony of Queensland, about 350 m. 
 long, falling into Upstart bay. 
 
 BUE'DEN, a term of law in Scotland, used to signify any restriction, limitation, or 
 incumbrance affecting either person or property. Burdens are said to be either per- 
 sonal or real. Where a party is taken bound by acceptance of a right to pay a certain 
 sum to another, but where there is no clause charging the subject conveyed with the 
 sum, the burden is said to he, personal; that is, it will be binding upon the receiver and 
 his representatives, but will constitute no real incumbrance on the lands, or other sub- 
 ject conveyed, nor amount, indeed, to anything more than a mere personal obligation 
 on the granter. But where the right is expressly granted under the burden of a specific 
 sum, which is declared a burden or charge on the lands themselves, or where the right 
 is declared null if the sum be not paid, the burden is said to be real. 
 
 By the 10 and 11 Viet. c. 48, real burdens need not be inserted in full in conveyances, 
 if they have already been set forth in an instrument of title, in which case they may be 
 referred to in the terms, or as nearly as may be in the terms, set forth in schedule C 
 annexed to the act. A similar provision is made in regard to lands held in burgage ten- 
 ure, by the 10 and 11 Viet. c. 49. 
 
 BUE'DEN, or Bur'then, of a ship. See Tonnage. 
 
 BURDEN, Henry, 1791-1871; b. Scotland; son of a farmer; came to the United 
 States in 1819, and the next year made the first cultivator used in agriculture in this 
 country. His inventions include improvements in plows, a machine for making iron 
 spikes, and one for fashioning horseshoes which produced 60 shoes per minute from 
 the bar. He was agent and afterwards proprietor of the Troy iron and nail works, one 
 of the largest manufactories in the world. .He devoted much attention to steam naviga- 
 tion, and built, in 1833, a steamboat which from its shape was called the “ cigar boat,” but 
 it was lost before its speed had been fairly tried. 
 
 BUEDEN OF PEOOF, in legal procedure, signifies the obligation to establish by evi- 
 dence certain disputed facts; and, as a general rule, this burden lies on the party assert- 
 ing the affirmative of the issue to be tried or question in dispute, according to the maxim 
 ei incumbit probatio qui dicit non qui negat — that is, proof is incumbent on him who 
 asserts, not on him who denies. The principle of the law is, that the B. of P . is on the 
 party who would fail if no evidence were adduced on either side. Accordingly, it almost 
 always rests on the plaintiff in an action, or on the party asserting the facts on which tlk 
 result of the litigation must depend. In one case tried before the late baron Alderson, that 
 learned judge laid down that the proper test was, which party would be successful, if no 
 evidence at all were given? the B. of P., of course, falling on the party not in that position. 
 This test has since been generally adopted and applied; but Mr. Best, in his learned work 
 on the Principles of Evidence, improves on it by the suggestion, that in strict accuracy the 
 test ought to be, “ which party would be successful, if no evidence at all, or no more evi- 
 dence, as the case maj" be, were given?” a consideration on which the discretion and judg* 
 
189 
 
 Burdekin. 
 
 Burdett-Coatts. 
 
 ment of counsel frequently depend. But although such, in general, is the position of 
 the plaintiff, it sometimes happens that the B. of P. is imposed on the defendant, and in 
 consequence of his having the affirmative of the material issue to be tried. 
 
 It is this rule as to the B. of P. that demonstrates the real nature of the plea of not 
 guilty in a criminal prosecution, and which divests that plea of the objections to it which 
 are frequently heard expressed by overscrupulous sentimentalists; for the meaning of 
 that plea is not necessarily an assertion by the prisoner that he is absolutely guiltless or 
 innocent, but that he wishes to be tried, and that as the B. of P. is on the prosecutor, 
 while he has meanwhile the presumption of innocence in his favor. — Besides the work 
 referred to, see on the subject of this article Starkie on the Law of IMdence in England, 
 and Dickson on the same subject in Scotland. 
 
 BURDENS, Public. See Public Burdens. 
 
 BURDEB, Hev. George, an active and influential minister of the Congregational 
 body, was b. in London, June, 1752. After studying some time as an artist, he devoted 
 himself to the ministry, and in 1778 was appointed pastor of an independent church at 
 Lancaster. He afterwards removed to Coventry, and in 1803 to London. Here he 
 became secretary to the London missionary society, and editor 'of the Evangelical Maga- 
 zine, the duties of which oflSces he discharged with great zeal, until failing health com- 
 pelled him to resign. B. took a prominent part in all the religious movements of his 
 time. He died May, 1832. His Village Sermons have been translated into several 
 European languages ; and he was the author of other series of sermons and publications 
 which have had an immense circulation. 
 
 BURDETT, Sir Francis, Bart., the most popular English politician of his time, b. 
 Jan. 25, 1770. Educated at Westminster school and Oxford university, he spent some 
 years on the continent, and was a witness to the progress of the first French revolution. 
 In 1793, he married Sophia, youngest daughter of Thomas Coutts, esq., the wealthy 
 London banker, and in 1796 was elected M. P. for Boroughbridge, Yorkshire. In 1797, 
 on the death of his grandfather, he succeeded to the baronetcy. In the house of 
 •commons, he made himself conspicuous by his opposition to government and the war, 
 and his advocacy of parliamentary reform. Catholic emancipation, and other liberal 
 measures, most of which were afterwards carried. One of the most effective political 
 speakers of that excited period, he for many years prominently occupied public atten- 
 tion, and was the idol of the London populace. Having succeeded in obtaining a par- 
 liamentary inquiry into the abuses of the metropolitan prisons, he became, in 1802, a 
 ■candidate for Middlesex. He was first returned, then unseated, and after a second 
 oontest, defeated. At the general election of 1806, B. again became a candidate for 
 Middlesex, but was defeated. In May, 1807, he fought a duel with Mr. James Pauli, one 
 of the candidates for Westminster the previous year. Soon after, he was returned, 
 with lord Cochrane, for Westminster, which he represented for nearly 30 years. B. hav- 
 ing in 1810 published, in Cobbett’s Political Begister, a letter to his constituents, declar- 
 ing the conduct of the house of commons illegal in imprisoning John Gale Jones, the 
 speaker’s warrant was issued for his apprehension, as being guilty of a breach of priv- 
 ilege. Refusing to surrender, he for two days barricaded his house; the populace 
 supported him in his resistance, and in a street contest between them and the mili- 
 tary some lives were lost; but on April 9, the sergeant-at-arms, aided by the police and 
 military, obtained an entrance, and conveyed him to the Tower. The prorogation of 
 parliament restored him to liberty. Prosecuted in 1819 for a libel contained in a letter 
 to his constituents, strongly animadverting on the proceedings of the magistrates and 
 yeomanry at the memorable Manchester meeting, he was sentenced to three months’ 
 imprisonment in the king’s bench, and to pay a fine of £1000. In 1835, he deserted the 
 liberal party, and joined the conservatives. In 1837, he was returned for Wiltshire. He 
 died in 1844. 
 
 BURDETT-COUTTS, The Right Hon. Angela Georgina, Baroness, daughter of sir 
 Francis Burdett, was b. in 1814. In 1837, -she inherited much of the property of her 
 grandfather, Thomas Coutts, the banker, on the death of his widow, who died duchess 
 of St. Albans. The liberal and public-spirited use she has made of this wealth, in her 
 efforts to mitigate the sufferings of her fellow-creatures and the lower animals, has ren- 
 dered her name well known and deservedly popular. Besides spending large sums of 
 money in building and endowing several churches and schools, she endowed the three 
 colonial bishoprics of Cape Town, Adelaide, and British Columbia, at an outlay of about 
 £50,000, and founded an establishment in South Australia for the improvement of the 
 aborigines. In her zeal for the good of her own sex, she effected important reforms in 
 the teaching of girls at the national schools, and established a shelter and reformatory 
 for fallen women. To the city of London she has presented, besides several handsome 
 fountains, the Columbia market, Bethnal green, for the supply of good and wholesome 
 food in a poor district. She also built Columbia square, consisting of model dwellings 
 at low rents, for about 300 families; and, taking great interest in emigration, has 
 assisted many poor families in their passage and outfit. Her private charities have 
 been on a corresponding scale; and she is also a liberal patroness of art. In 1871, she 
 accepted a peerage from government, with the above title. In 1872, the freedom of 
 
Burdock. 
 
 Burjfer. 
 
 190 
 
 the city of London was conferred upon her (the first woman who ever received it) ; and 
 in 1874 she received the same honor from Edinburgh. 
 
 BUB'DOCK, Arctium, a genus of plants of the great natural order (q.v.), 
 
 ivihQ cyrim'ocepTialcB. The heads of flowers are globose, or nearly so; and each of the 
 scales of the involucre runs out into a long rigid prickle, which is hooked at the point. 
 By means of these hooks, the flower-head, popularly called a burr, readily lays hold of 
 the clothes of a passer-by, the wool of a sheep, or the like, and thus the seeds are trans- 
 ported from one place to another, the short hairy pappus being insuflicient to waft 
 them far on the wind. The common B. (A. lappa), of which varieties very slightly dis- 
 tinguished have sometimes been described as species {A. bardana^ etc.), is abundant in 
 waste and bushy places, by waysides, etc., in Britain and throughout Europe, scarcely, 
 however, growing except in rich land. Its root is biennial, large, and fleshy, somewhat 
 carrot-shaped ; the root-leaves large, stalked, heart-shaped ; the stem stiff, upright, some- 
 what branched and leafy, 3 ft. or more high. The whole aspect of the plant is coarse, 
 and it is somewhat clammy to the touch. The root is sometimes used in medicine, being 
 diaphoretic and diuretic, and acting upon the cutaneous system and the kidneys. It is 
 capable of being made a -substitute for sarsaparilla. When fresh, it has a disagreeable 
 smell, but when dry it is inodorous; it has a sweetish mucilaginous taste, becoming 
 afterwards bitterish and rather acrid, and contains chiefly inulin, bitter extractive, 
 mucilage sugar, and a little tannin. In many countries, the roots, young shoots, and 
 young leaves of B. are used in soups; and the plant is cultivated for this use in Japan. 
 The roots are said to resemble artichokes in taste. The leaves and their expressed 
 juice are sometimes applied to burns and suppurations. 
 
 BTJRDWAN', a city in the district and province of the same name, in the govern- 
 ment of Bengal, on the Grand Trunk road from the Hoogly to the n.w. provinces, in 
 lat. 23° 12' n., and long. 87° 56' e., 74 m. from Calcutta, with which it is connected by 
 railway. In point of architecture, it is a miserable place — an aggregate, as it were, of 
 second-rate suburbs. Pop. ’71, 32,321. 
 
 BTJRDWAN', the district of the last-mentioned city, lying between Beerbhoom on 
 the n., and Hoogly on the south. It stretches in n. lat. from 22° 52' to 23° 40', and in e. 
 long, from 87° 21' to 88° 23'. It has an area of 3523 sq.m., with (1871) 2,034,745 inhab- 
 itants, or 577 to the sq.m. — a proportion which certainly seems to justify a name that 
 signifies productive. The district is largely engaged in the refining of sugar. It exports 
 also iron and coal ; chiefly, however, brought from the mines of Bancoorah, the district 
 on the west. Next to the capital, Cutwa and Culna are the chief towns. — The division 
 of B. has an area of 12,719 sq.m., and a pop. (1871) of 7,286,957. 
 
 BURE, or Bur, a mythical being who stands in Norse mythology as the grandfather 
 of Odin, the supreme deity in that religion. The larger portion of Snorro Sturleson’s 
 work known as the Younger or Prose Edda (in distinction from the poetical or Elder 
 Edda) is devoted to the Fooling of Gylfi, and these two older and younger Eddas corre- 
 spond in that old heathen religion very nearly to the old and new testaments in Chris- 
 tianity. It is not in place here to tell all the strange adventures of Gylfi in his search 
 for the origin of things, but only so far as concerns Bure. Gylfi (who was a king of 
 Svithiod, or Sweden) journeyed to Asgard (the home of the gods) in search of knowl- 
 edge, and the gods, knowing of his coming and his purpose, were ready to answer him. 
 After he had been satisfied about the gods, their number and attributes, Gylfi asked 
 about their origin. He was told that, many ages before the earth was made, Niflheim 
 (the nebulous or shadowy region) was formed; that in the middle of Niflheim was a spring 
 called Hvergelnur (the roaring cauldron), from which twelve rivers flowed. When the 
 rivers had flowed far from their sources the venom which they rolled along hardened, 
 as does the dross that runs from a furnace, and became ice. The ice stood still, and 
 the vapor that gathered over it froze into rime, or f rosty-snow, and in this manner were 
 formed in Ginnunga-Gap (the yawning abyss, or all space) many layers of congealed 
 vapor, piled one upon another. But the southern part of Ginnunga-Gap was filled with 
 sparks and flashes of fire that flew into it from Mushellheim (the home of elemental fire). 
 In the conflict of elements the rime was melted and the melted drops took a human 
 semblance, and the being thus formed was named Ymir (the primordial giant). Another 
 creature formed from this conflict of heat and cold was a cow named Audhumla (dark- 
 ness), and from her teats ran four streams of milk, on which Ymir was fed. “But,” 
 asked Gylfi, “on what did the cow feed?” The answer was that she supported herself 
 by licking the surrounding stones, which were covered with hoar-frost and salt. The 
 first day she licked there appeared the hair of a man ; the second day the head came to 
 view; and the third day the whole man appeared. This man was called Bur or Bure 
 (“born,” whence old German “barn,” and Scottish “bairn,” a child). This first crea- 
 ture in the form of a man was the father of Bbr (also meaning born), who took for his 
 wife Besla, the daughter of the giant Bolthorn (calamity or evil), and this pair were the 
 parents of Odin, the Norse allfather, and his brothers Veli and Ve. No wife is named. 
 for Bure, nor is anything further related of him, 
 
 BUREAU, a French word signifying a writing table or desk; also, an office for trans- 
 acting business, a department of government or the ofiicials that carry it on. Bureau- 
 
191 
 
 Burdock. 
 
 Burger. 
 
 ‘CRACT is popularly applied to signify the kind of government, exemplified in many con- 
 tinental states, where a host of government officials, regularly organized and subordi- 
 nated, and responsible only to their chiefs, interfere with and control every detail of 
 public and private life — the evil which the Germans call “much-government” {vld- 
 regieren). 
 
 BUREAU, a CO, in n.w. Illinois on the Illinois river; 800 sq.m.; pop. ’80, 33,189; 
 .evel and fertile, with little timber ; the chief business is agriculture. It is intersected by 
 the Chicago and Rock Island and other railroads. Co. seat, Princeton. 
 
 BUEEN, Martin Van, a president of the United States of America (1837-41), was b. 
 at Kinderhook, in Columbia, N. Y., Dec. 5, 1782. Educated for the bar, he was elected, 
 in 1812, senator in the legislative assembly of New York, and in 1821 took his seat in 
 congress, where he supported democratic measures. In 1829 he was made secretary of 
 state, and in 1837 he succeeded gen. Jackson in the presidency, being elected by a 
 majority of 24 votes over his rivals. Clay, Webster, and Harrison. On beginning 
 the duties of his office, he found himself involved in such financial perplexities, that he 
 immediately summoned congress to an extraordinary session, and proposed an entire 
 separation of state-finance from the banks of the union, a proposition which was decis- 
 ively rejected, and B.’s popularity was greatly damaged. In 1840, he had to yield his 
 place to gen. Harrison, the Whig candidate; and in 1844, when he again stood for the 
 presidency, he was defeated by Polk. The result of this vote divided the democrats into 
 two parties, one of which, at a convention at Utica, unanimously declared for Van B. as 
 president for 1848; but his election was prevented by the military renown of gen. Taylor, 
 who left both Van B. and Cass with minorities. In 1856, he was again named for the 
 presidency; but the majority of the democratic party preferred Mr. Buchanan. He died 
 July, 1862. 
 
 BUEG, a t. of Prussia, in the province of Saxony, situated on the Ihle, about 13 m. 
 n.e. of Madgeburg. It is walled, and has long been famous for its extensive woolen 
 manufactures. It has also manufactures of linen, yarn, steel, pottery, and leather; dye- 
 works, distilleries, foundries, etc., and a large trade in agricultural produce. Pop. ’75, 
 15,262. 
 
 BUEGAGE TEXUEE is a species of holding in the law of real property which pre- 
 vailed both in England and Scotland, although somewhat differently regarded in these 
 two countries. In England, it is a species of free socage (q.v.) holding, and it prevails 
 where the king or other person is lord of an ancient borough in which the tenements are 
 held by a certain and determinate rent, and subject to a variety of customs, the principal 
 and most remarkable of which is that called Borough English (q.v.). Among the other 
 customs was a law that the wife shall be endowed with all her husband’s tenements, and 
 not with the third part only, as at common law. 
 
 In Scotland, by this tenure is meant a peculiar sort of military holding affecting 
 property in royal burghs, the sovereign being superior or over-lord, and each individual 
 proprietor or burgess holding direct of the crown, for the reddendo or service of watching 
 -and warding This service is otherwise termed “service of burgh used and wont,” 
 and is now merely nominal. Although the burgesses nold immediately of the crown, 
 they do not receive their formal entry directly from the sovereign, but from the magis- 
 trates of the burgh, as the crown’s commissioners. If the burgh, as such, ceases to 
 exist, the crown does not thereby lose its rights over the proprietors, for they continue 
 as crown vassals (q.v.). The statutes 31 and 32 Viet. c. 101, and 32 and 33 Viet. c. 
 116, abolished many useless forms in this tenure. See Tenure op Land. 
 
 BUEGAS, or Burghaz, a t. of Turkey, in the province of Eastern Roumelia, on a 
 promontory in the Black sea, about 76 m. n.e. of Adrianople. B., which is well built 
 and clean, has manufactures of pottery of %, superior kind, and a good trade in agricul- 
 tural produce. Pop. about 6000. The gulf of Burgas, at the head of which the town 
 is situated, is about 14 m. in length, and has a depth varying from 5 to 12 fathoms. 
 
 BURGDORF (Fr. Berthoud), a t. in Switzerland, on the Emme, 14 m. from Bern. 
 It is over 1800 ft. above sea level, and consists of a lower and an upper part, which are 
 connected by spiral streets. There are an ancient castle, a town-house, hospital, library, 
 etc. ; also ribbon, tobacco, and chocolate manufactories, and a large trade in dairy prod- 
 ucts. In 1384 the town and countship were purchased by Berne for 37,000 florins, and the 
 Bernese magistrates held rule until 1798. Pestalozzi had his school in the castle for a 
 number pf years. Pop. ’70, 5078. 
 
 BUE'GEO ISLANDS, belonging to England, and lying between Newfoundland and cape 
 Breton, in lat. 47° 33' n. , and long. 57° 44' west. Besides being valuable as a fishing-station, 
 they occupy a commanding position with respect to British North America in general, 
 and the gulf of St. Lawrence in particular. The group has 700 inhabitants. 
 
 BUEGEE, Gottfried August, one of the most popular German poets, was b. Jan. 
 1, 1748, at Molmerswende, near Halberstadt, in Prussian Saxony. In his boyhood, he 
 displayed no capacity for hard study, and was particularly averse to Latin ; but he at the 
 same time showed a relish for verse, though destitute of any other model than the Psalm- 
 book. In 1764, he went to Halle, and applied himself to theology. In 1768, he aban- 
 doned this science for jurisprudence, which he studied at Gottingen. Here his conduct 
 
Burgermeister. 
 
 Burgh. 
 
 192 
 
 was careless and immoral, and he would probably have sunk into obscurity, if the inti- 
 macy which he happily formed with Voss, the two Stolbergs, and other young poets, had 
 not stirred up his better nature, and inspired him with an earnest ambition to excel. He 
 labored hard at the classics of ancient and modern times, but the study of Shakespeare 
 and Percy’s Reliques had the greatest influence in deciding the style of poetry which he 
 was to adopt. With regard to the intrinsic merits of his poems, which consist chiefly of 
 ballads and songs, even German critics — such as Schiller, Gervinus, and Vilmar — differ 
 widely in their opinions; but all agree in praising the popular style and fluent, spirited 
 versiflcation of his ballads, Leonm'a, Lenardo and Blandine, the Pai'son’s Daughter of 
 laubenhayn, the Wild Huntsman, etc. B.’s life was spent in great poverty and misery, 
 partly the result of misfortune, and partly induced by his own errors. He married 
 thrice, in two instances very unhappily; lost his property by an unfortunate speculation; 
 and, though the favorite poet of the German people, was left to earn his bread by trans- 
 lations and similar literary labors. He died June 8, 1794. Though a popular writer, B. 
 Avas very careful as to style, and was one of the first who wrote good hexameter verse in 
 German. Since 1798, there have been numerous complete and partial editions of his 
 works. See B.’s life by Doring (1826), and by Prohle (1856). 
 
 BUR'GERMEISTEE, the German title of the chief magistrate of a city or town, analo- 
 gous to the French maire, the English mayor, and the Scotch prorost. 
 
 BURGEBSDYK, or BURGERSDICIUS, Francis; a Dutch logician, 1590-1629. He 
 was professor of logic and moral philosophy, and afterwards of natural philosophy, at 
 Leyden. His Logic was a valuable work; Idea Philosophm Moralis was a posthumous 
 publication. 
 
 BURGES, Tristam, ll.d., 1770-1853; b. Mass.; a lawyer, and head of the Rhode 
 Island bar; in 1815, chief justice of the state. In 1816, he was professor of oratory in. 
 Brown university ; in 1825, elected to congress, where he served ten years. He was a 
 ready, witty, and sarcastic speaker, and had many sharp discussions with the equally 
 ready and sarcastic John Randolph. In 1839, he published The Battle of Lake Erie, with 
 Notices of Commodore Elliott’s Conduct. 
 
 BUR'GESS, or Burgh'er, from the same origin as borough, means, when taken in a 
 general sense, much the same thing as the word citizen, but has a variety of special 
 meanings, according to local institutions. In French literature, the word bourgeois is 
 generally used to personify the excess of plebeian vulgarity; while, on the other hand, 
 in England, the aristocratic member of parliament for a city is technically called a bur- 
 gess. In almost all parts of Europe, when used in a technical sense, the word means 
 a person who holds some peculiar privilege in a town or municipal corporation. The 
 burgesses of the European towns, indeed, were, and still nominally are, an interesting 
 relic of ancient Roman institutions, existing in contest and rivalry with the institutions 
 of feudality. The B., with a different name, is virtually the civis or citizen of the 
 Roman municipality. It was a rank always of some moment, but especially valuable 
 when the citizenship was of Rome, the metropolis. St. Paul, when he was to be scourged, 
 raised the alarm of the chief captain by stating that he was a Roman. Sueh an event 
 might often have happened in the middle ages, when a B., brought before the court 
 of a feudal lord claimed the privilege of pleading in his own burgal court, or the 
 king’s tribunal. The European monarchs found it their interest to support the bur- 
 gesses, as a check on the influence of the feudal aristocracy ; and thus was nourished the 
 great system of city communities, which have exercised so important an influence on 
 the fate of the world. See Municipality. 
 
 In the law of England, a B. is a member of the corporation of a corporate town, or 
 he may be described as a freeman duly admitted as a member of the corporate body. 
 This privilege was, and, to some extent, still is, acquired by birth or servitude — that is, 
 by being born of a freeman, or by apprenticeship for seven years within the borough to 
 a freeman. It might also be obtained by gift or purchase ; and the municipal corpora- 
 tion act, the 5 and 6 Will. IV. c. 76 — with the exception of abolishing the last-mentioned 
 mode of admission by gift or purchase — expressly reserves the rights of such freemen 
 and their families; and it also provides for the making up and preservation of a list of 
 burgesses so admitted, to be called the freeman’s roll (q.v.). In that act, a burgess is 
 defined to be a male person, who, on the last day of Aug. in any year, shall have occu- 
 pied any house, warehouse, counting-house, or shop within the borough, during that 
 year and the whole of the two preceding years ; and during such occupation shall also 
 have been an inhabitant householder within the borough, or within seven miles thereof. 
 As the law now stands, every person of full age (and this includes females) who on the 
 last day of July shall have occupied any house, warehouse, counting-house, shop, or 
 other building within the borough during the whole of the preceding twelve months, 
 and also shall have resided within seven miles of the borough, shall, if duly enrolled, be 
 a burgess and member of the body corporate of the mayor, aldermen, and burgesses of 
 such borough, provided he shall have paid his borough rates up to the preceding Jan., 
 and shall not have been in receipt of parochial relief. The premises occupied need not 
 be the same throughout the year if they are within the borough, 35 and 36 Viet. c. 55. 
 See Town Council. The vote is by ballot. 
 
 In the Scotch laAV, the old definition of B. is still maintained. This is very similar 
 
193 
 
 Bnrgermeister* 
 
 Burg^h. 
 
 to the old English one above mentioned, with the addition of admission to the privilege 
 !by election of the magistrates of the borough— X\iQ burgesses taking, on the occasion of their 
 Admission, a quaint form of oath, in which they confess the religion of the country, 
 loyalty to the queen, to the provost and bailies of the burgh and their officers, and declar- 
 ing inter alia, that they will “make concord where discord is, to the utmost of their 
 power.” By the Scotch municipal reform act, 3 and 4 Will. IV. c. 76, s. 14, it was 
 enacted that councilors must be entered burgesses of the burgh before their induction, 
 but now, any councilor is at once made a B. by minute of council. One of the pecu- 
 liar privileges of a B. in Scotland, that of his heir having a right to heirship movables, 
 was abolished by the statute 31 and 32 Viet. c. 101, s. 160, titles to land (Scotland) act. 
 An act assimilating the law of Scotland to that of England respecting the creation of 
 Burgesses was passed in 1876. 
 
 BURGESS, Daniel, d.d., 1645-1712; an English dissenting divine, who openly 
 avowed Presbyterian principles, and, in Ireland, frequently preached in defiance of the 
 severe laws against non-conformity. He was imprisoned, and upon release went to Lon- 
 don, where he soon gathered a large congregation by ardent zeal and the witty and 
 ludicrous illustrations he used in his sermons. He was tutor of Henry St. John, after- 
 wards lord Bolingbroke. 
 
 BURGESS, George, D.D., 1809-66; b. R. I.; graduate of Brown university and 
 tutor therein, afterwards studying in Germany. In 1834, he was rector of an Episcopal 
 church in Hartford, Conn., and in 1847 became bishop of Maine, officiating also as 
 rector of a church in Gardiner. He published The Last Enemy Conquering and Con- 
 quered; Sermons on the Christian Life; and a metrical version of a portion of the Psalms. 
 
 BURGESS LIST and BURGESS ROLL are lists made under the provisions of the muni- 
 cipal corporation act, 5 and 6 Will. IV. c. 76, amended by 20 and 21 Viet. c. 50, and 32 
 and 33 Viet. c. 55. The overseers of the poor of every parish wholly or in part within 
 any borough, are directed to make out an alphabetical list, called the burgess list, of all 
 persons who may be entitled or qualified to be enrolled on the burgess roll of that year, 
 such list to be open for perusal by any person, without the payment of any fee, at all 
 reasonable hours, between the 1st (when the list must be signed and delivered) and 15th 
 days of Sept, in every year. This list is afterwards revised by the revising barrister, 
 and the names of those persons allowed, on revision, to remain, are then transferred to 
 the burgess roll, which is copied into a general alphabetical list in a book provided for 
 that purpose by the town-clerk or clerk of the peace, and which book must be completed 
 •on or before the 22d of Oct. in every year ; every such book being the burgess roll of 
 the burgesses entitled to vote for councilors, assessors, and auditors of the borough. 
 Copies of such burgess roll, so completed, shall be made in writing, or printed, for 
 delivery and sale to all persons applying for the same, on payment of a reasonable price 
 for each copy. There are other regulations respecting these lists, and with respect to 
 neglect and informality in making up the burgess roll. Every person of full age, who 
 occupies a house, warehouse, counting-house, shop, or other building within the bor- 
 ough for twelve months, and resident in or within seven miles, shall, if duly enrolled, 
 be a burgess, 32 and 33 Viet. c. 55. 
 
 In regard to Scotland, it has been already explained (see Burgess), that persons 
 entitled to the privileges of burgesses must be admitted according to the old form, and 
 councilors, before induction, may, by a minute of council, be made burgesses, 23 and 
 24 Viet. c. 47. But the list, which corresponds to the English burgess roll, is the 
 list of municipal electors qualified according to the provisions of the 3 and 4 Will. IV. 
 -cc. 76, 77; 31 and 32 Viet. c. 108; and 33 and 34 Viet. c. 92, relating to royal burghs in 
 Scotland. 
 
 BURGH is a descriptive name of towns and cities in Scotland, corresponding to the 
 English word borough (q. v.). There were burghs of barony, free burghs, burghs of regality, 
 and royal burghs. Since 1832, there have been what are called parliamentary burghs — 
 that is, towns or burghs not being royal burghs, but sending or contributing to send 
 representatives to parliament, under the act 2 and 3 Will. IV. c. 65. By the general 
 police act for Scotland, the word B. was declared to mean also any populous place, the 
 boudaries of which are fixed by the act. Among parliamentary burghs are Paisley, 
 Greenock, Leith, Kilmarnock, Falkirk, Hamilton, Peterhead, etc. ; and by the 3 and 4 
 Will. IV. c. 77, 15 and 16 Viet. c. 32, 16 and 17 Viet. c. 26, 31 and 32 Viet. c. 108, 33 and 
 34 Viet. c. 92, 35 and 36 Viet. c. 33, a code is given for the election of their magistrates 
 and councilors, and for the appointment of other officers; the election being with the 
 persons qualified to vote for a member of parliament — to be concluded in Paisley, Green- 
 ock, Leith, and Kilmarnock, by open poll in one day, the polling-books to be summed 
 up, and the result declared by the provost: in Falkirk, Hamilton, Musselburgh, Airdrie, 
 Port-Glasgow, Peterhead, Portobello, Cromarty, and Oban, to be by signed lists: a 
 third of the council to go out, and others to be elected every year; and the provost and 
 mamstrates to be chosen by the council from their own number. 
 
 The police of burghs, and everything regarding their draining, cleaning, lighting, 
 ^etc., are regulated by the police (Scotland) act, 20 and 21 Viet. c. 72, and the public 
 liealth (Scotland) act, 30 and 31 Viet. c. 101. 
 
 U. K. TlL-13 
 
Burgh. 
 
 Burglary. 
 
 194 
 
 Burghs of Barony are corporations consisting of the inhabitants of determinate 
 tracts of ground witliin the barony (q.v.), and municipally governed by magistrates, 
 whose election is either dependent on the baron or lord of the district, or vested in the 
 inhabitants themselves. Sometimes their charter of incorporation gave them power to 
 create subordinate corporations and crafts, as in royal burghs; but all exclusive privi- 
 leges of trading in burghs are abolished by the 9 and 10 Viet. c. 17. In other respects, 
 the general corporate law of the country applies to burghs of barony. They have 
 power to administer their common good, to elect their burgh otlicers, to make by-laws, 
 and their burgesses are entitled to challenge the sale or other disposition of the burgh’a 
 property. 
 
 Burghs, Free, were burghs of barony enfranchised by crown charter with rights of 
 trade both home and foreign, but subjected, at the same time, to the same class of pub- 
 lic burdens and taxation which royal burghs had to bear as the price of their peculiar 
 privileges. Since the gradual decay and ultimate suppression of commercial monopoly, 
 this class of burghs has become extinct, or rather all burghs may now be said to \>e,fre6. 
 
 Burghs op Regality were burghs of baronies, spiritual or temporal, enfranchised 
 by crown charter, with regal or exclusive criminal jurisdiction within their own terri- 
 tories, and thence called regalities (q.v.). Some of these burghs of regality, especially 
 those which were dependent on the greater bishops and abbots, were of high antiquity, 
 and possessed jurisdiction and privilege of trade only distinguishable from those of 
 royal burghs, by being more circumscribed in their limits. Since the abolition of hered- 
 itary jurisdictions by the act 20 Geo. II. c. 43, the distinction between burghs of regality 
 and burghs of barony have ceased to be of any practical importance. 
 
 Burghs, Royal. A royal burgh is a corporate body deriving its existence, consti- 
 tution, and rights, from a royal charter — such charter being either actual and express, 
 or presumed to have existed, and by the accident of war and time, to have perished. 
 By a Scotch act passed in 1469, a constitution was given to royal burghs, by which the 
 right of appointing their successors belonged to the old councils, the act also containing 
 the singular provision, that when the new council was chosen, the members of it, along 
 with those of the old council, should choose all the office-bearers of the burgh, each craft or 
 trade corporation being represented at the election by one of themselves. But this simple 
 plan was not universally adopted, and the election gradually lost its former free and popu- 
 lar form — a close and exclusive proceeding being ultimately established in its place. This 
 “ close system,” as it has been called, notwithstanding its repugnancy to the spirit of the 
 times, and modern ideas of public administration, continued in force until the year 1833,. 
 when an act of parliament was passed, the 3 and 4 Will. IV. c. 76, amended by the 4 and 
 5 Will. IV. c. 87, and the 16 Viet. c. 26, by which it was abolished, and an entirely new 
 constitution given to royal burghs, with the exception of nine of them, which, on account 
 of the smallness of their population, were left unchanged till the passing of the munici- 
 pal elections amendment act (Scotland) in 1868. These nine burghs were: Dornoch,. 
 New Galloway, Culross, Lochmaben, Bervie, Wester Anstruther, Kilrenny, Kinghoi'n, 
 and Kintore. Of the other royal burghs, being those to which the reforming acts apply,, 
 the principal are — Edinburgh, Glasgow, Aberdeen, Dundee, Perth, Dunfermline, Dum- 
 fries, 2 iYidi Inverness. The leading provisions of these acts are as follows: All persons 
 within the burgh qualified under the parliamentary reform act, 2 and 3 Will. IV. c. 65, in 
 respect of property or occupancy of premises, and who have resided for six months next 
 previous to the last day of June, within the royalty, or within 7 m. of it, are entitled 
 to vote in the election of councilors. In such burghs as do not now send members to 
 darliament, property of the same value is required for the qualification, and claims for 
 this privilege must be lodged with the town-clerk on or before the 21st of July, in a 
 particular form. The councilors are chosen from among the electors residing, or per- 
 sonally carrying on business, within the royalty; and where there is a body of burgessea 
 in the burgh, each councilor, before his induction, must be entered a burgess — a requi- 
 site clearly unnecessary for the purposes of the municipal administration contemplated 
 by the act, and which, it is expected, will be done away. The number of councilors in 
 each burgh is such as, by the sett or constitution existing at the passing of the act, formed 
 the common council, or, where this was variable, the smallest number making a full 
 council. The electors of Edinburgh, Glasgow, Aberdeen, Dundee, Perth, Dunfermline, 
 Dumfries, and Inverness, are divided into wards or districts. At the election imme- 
 diately succeeding the passing of the act, each ward elected six councilors; but as every 
 )’^ear the third part of the council goes out of office, in the order prescribed by the act, 
 two councilors are now annually chosen by each ward, there being no bar, however, ta 
 the re-election of an outgoing councilor. The electors in other burghs choose the whole 
 council exactly as these wards do their proportion of it, and consequently elect each year a 
 third part in place of that which has retired. Upon the third lawful day after the election 
 succeeding the passing of the act, the councilors meet and choose, by a plurality of 
 voices, a provost, bailies, treasurer, and other oflSce-bearers, as existing in the council 
 by the sett or usage of the burgh; and vacancies occurring among such office bearers, in 
 consequence of the annual retirement of the third part of the council, are directed to be 
 supplied from the councilors in like manner, as soon as the election of the new' third 
 has taken place, the first attending magistrate having a casting vote in cases of equality. 
 Vacancies taking place during the year by death or resignation are supplied, ad interim,. 
 
195 
 
 Bnrgh. 
 
 Burglary. 
 
 by the remaining members of the council, and the persons so elected by the councilors 
 retire at the succeeding election. The rights of the guildry, trades, etc., to elect their 
 own dean or guild, etc., are still preserved; but they are now no longer recognized as 
 official or constituent members of the council, their functions being performed by a mem- 
 ber of the council, elected by a majority of the councilors. In Aberdeen, Dundee, and 
 Perth, however, the dean of guild, and in Edinburgh and Glasgow, the ccmvener of 
 trades and the dean of guild, are, ex officio, members of council; and the electors in all 
 the above-named burghs choose such a number of councilors as, together with these 
 officers, makes up the proper number. No magistrate or councilor can be town-clerk. 
 The magistrates and council possess the same powers of administration and jurisdiction 
 as were enjoyed by the magistrates and town-council before the passing of the act; and 
 none of them is responsible for the debts of the burgh, or the acts of his predecessors, 
 otherwise than as a citizen or burgess. The existing council in_ all burghs royal must 
 every year make up, on or before the 15th of Oct., a state of their affairs, to be kept in 
 the town-clerk’s or treasurer’s office. 
 
 The police of burghs and other populous places, and the paving, draining, cleansing, 
 lighting, and improving the same, are regulated by the 25 and 26 Viet. c. 101, which 
 repeals several previous acts. In this act “burgh” is defined to mean all burghs and 
 populous places whose boundaries have been fixed ; and it is provided that the sheriff 
 may fix the boundaries and so constitute a burgh in this sense, for purposes of improve- 
 ment and police, at the instance of seven or more householders. 
 
 BUEGH ACRES are acres or small patches of land lying in the neighborhood of 
 royal hurghs (q.v.), usually feued or leased out to burgesses or persons resident within 
 the burgh. A Scotch act of parliament, passed in 1695, relating to the division or par- 
 tition of lands lying runrig, excepts burgh acres, or, as the act calls them, “ burrow and 
 incorporat acres,” from its provisions; but this is to be understood only of royal burghs, 
 and not of burghs of barony or others. 
 
 BURGHERS, a name popularly given to a religious denomination in Scotland. See 
 United Presbyterian Church. 
 
 BURGHS, Convention of. See Convention of Koyal Burghs. 
 
 BURGKMAIR, Hans, a noted old German painter and wood-engraver, was b. at Augs- 
 burg, 1473. He was the father-in-law of the elder Holbein, and the friend of Albert 
 Diirer, whose influence is manifest in B. ’s works. Several excellent paintings by B. 
 are preserved in the galleries of Munich, Berlin, Augsburg, and Vienna. But he is best 
 known as a wood-engraver; his cuts amounting in all to nearly 700. Among the most 
 celebrated of these is his “Triumph of the Emperor Maximilian,” in 135 cuts, with a 
 description by the emperor himself. Another fine series of 237 cuts, called “ The Wise 
 King,” represents the deeds of. Maximilian. B. is supposed to have died about the 
 year 1559. 
 
 BURGLARY (through the old Fr. from Lat. burgi latro, a robber of a burg of 
 inclosure), in the criminal law of England, is defined to be a breaking and entering the 
 mansion-house of another im the night, with intent to commit some felony within the 
 same, whether such intent be executed or not. It is peculiar to this crime, that it can 
 only be committed in the night-time, which, by the 24 and 25 Viet. c. 96, s. 51, is consid- 
 ered as commencing at nine in the evening, and concluding at six in the morning of the 
 next day. The next requisite of the crime, according to the definition we have given, 
 relates to the place of its commission. It must be in a mansion-honsQ, for such is the 
 technical expression ; but this is construed to mean any private dwelling, or any build- 
 ing temporarily or permanently used for that purpose. It cannot be committed in a 
 distant barn, warehouse, or the like, unless there be a communication with the dwelling- 
 house, nor in a house where no one resides. But it is B. to break into a house which is 
 used as an occasional residence, and which the owner is in the habit of leaving for a 
 short period, with the intention of returning, even although no one be in the house at 
 the time of the offense. A chamber in a college, or an inn of court, is also within the 
 meaning of a mansion-house ; so likewise is a room or lodging in any private house, if 
 the owner and the lodger enter by different outer doors; but if they both enter by one 
 outer door, then the house is described as that of the owner. For the same reason, a 
 building belonging to a corporation, and separately inhabited by the officers of the body 
 corporate, is the mansion-house of the corporation, and not of the officers. Again, a 
 shop which is part of another man’s house, and hired merely for the purpose of work or 
 trade, is not a dwelling-house, but B. may also by express enactment be committed in 
 it,^though the punishment is not quite so severe. This offense cannot be committed in 
 a tent or booth erected in a market or fair, though the owner may lodge therein, for his 
 doing so makes it no more B. to break open such an erection, than it would be to uncover 
 a tilted wagon under the same circumstances. But it may be committed Iw breaking 
 open a church, which, according to sir Edward Coke, is domus mansionalis Dei, that is, 
 the mansion-house of God, and is now expressly protected. 
 
 As to the manner of committing B., it is laid down by Blackstone that there must be 
 both a breaking and an entry to complete it. There must, in general, be an actual 
 breaking, a substantial and forcible irruption — as, at least, by breaking, or taking out 
 
Barg:len. 
 
 Burgundy. 
 
 196 
 
 the glass of, or otherwise opening a window; picking a lock, or opening it with a keyr 
 nay, by lifting up the latch of a door, or unloosening any other fastening. But if a 
 person leaves his doors or windows open, it is his own folly and negligence, and if a man 
 enters therein, it is no B. ; yet if he afterwards unlocks an inner or chamber door, it is 
 so. To come down a chimney is held a burglarious entry, for that is as much closed aa 
 the nature of things will admit; so also to knock at a door, and upon its being opened,, 
 to rush in with a felonious intent; or, under pretense of taking lodgings, to fall upon 
 the landlord, and rob him. If the servant conspires with a robber, and lets him into 
 the house by night, this is B. in both. 
 
 The intent must also appear, otherwise the offense will amount only to a trespass; 
 and it must be an intent to commit felony, which may be inferred from the conduct of 
 the offender while in the house. 
 
 The punishment for this crime is now regulated by the act 24 and 25 Viet. c. 96,, 
 called the larceny consolidation act. The provisions are to the effect, that any one con- 
 victed of B. shall be liable to penal servitude for life, or any term not less than five 
 years, or to be imprisoned for any term not more than two years; and in the case of 
 imprisonment, hard labor and solitary confinement may be superadded. It is further 
 enacted, that whosoever shall burglariously break and enter into any dwelling-house, 
 and shall assault with intent to murder any person being therein ; or shall stab, cut, 
 wound, beat, or strike any such person, shall be guilty of felony, and suffer penal ser- 
 vitude for five to seven years, or two years’ imprisonment and hard labor. And by the 
 same statute, section 58, it is enacted that any person found hy night, armed with any 
 dangerous or offensive weapon or instrument, or with housebreaking implements, or 
 with face blackened or disguised, with intent to enter any buildings' and to commit 
 felony therein; or if he be found by night in any building with intent to commit a 
 felony therein — is liable to penal servitude for five years, or imprisonment not exceed- 
 ing two years ; and in case of a second conviction, is liable either to such imprisonment 
 or to penal servitude for a period not less than five years, and not exceeding ten years. 
 
 Blackstone observes, that this offense was anciently called hamesecken, as, he adds, 
 it is in Scotland to this day. But the Scotch law on this subject has some points of 
 difference — hamesecken, or hamesucken, as it is spelled in the Scotch books, not being 
 quite identical with B. : thus, the former is an offense exclusively against the person, 
 and it may be committed in the daytime as well as at night; and there are other points 
 of dissimilarity. The Scotch law relating to housebreaking and stouthrief affords analo- 
 gies. See Haimsucken, Housebreaking, Stouthrief, Larceny, Robbery, Assault. 
 
 BUR'GLEN, a village of Switzerland, in the canton of Uri, about 2 m. from Altorf. 
 It is celebrated as the birthplace of William Tell. The supposed site of the patriot’s 
 house is now occupied by a chapel, upon the walls of which are represented certain 
 well-known scenes from his history. Pop. ’71, 1391. 
 
 BURGOMASTER. See Gull. 
 
 BUR'GOS, a city of Spain, capital of the new province of the same name, and of the 
 former kingdom of Old Castile, is situated in a fertile valley at the foot of the Sierra 
 d’Oea, and on the right bank of the river Arlanzon, in lat. 42° 20' n., and long. 3° 45' w. 
 Pop. 25,700. B. is a very ancient place, having been founded in 844. Many of the 
 gloomy old houses of its early history still remain. In the castle of B., Edward I. of 
 England was married to Eleanor of Castile. The cathedral of B., founded in 1221, is 
 one of the noblest specimens of Gothic architecture in Spain. Its various chapels are 
 rich in fine sculpture and tombs. It was the birthplace of the Cid (q.v.). B. has man- 
 ufactures of woolens, linens, and hats, but it depends chiefly on the traffic which its 
 position on the great road from France and the northern Spanish provinces to Madrid 
 secures it. B. has several charitable and educational institutions. It formerly had a 
 much larger population — as many as 50,000 — but on the removal of the court to Madrid 
 in the 16th c., B. began to decline in population and importance. It was further greatly 
 injured in Nov., 1808, by the French, who sacked it. In 1812, the castle was four times 
 unsuccessfully besieged by Wellington, who, however, took it in the following year, 
 when the French blew it up, as well as the fortifications. — The province of B. has an 
 area of 5650 sq.m., and a pop., in 1870, of 353,560. The surface is elevated, the soil fer- 
 tile, yielding grain and fruits. The hills afford rich pasturage; and the minerals gold, 
 silver, iron, lead, and copper are found. 
 
 BURGOYNE, John, a British general and dramatist, natural son of lord Bingley, early 
 entered the army, and in Aug., 1'759, was appointed lieut.col. commandant of the 16th 
 light dragoons. In 1761, he served at Belle isle, and in 1762 commanded a force sept 
 into Portugal for the defense of that kingdom against the Spaniards, when he surprised 
 and captured Alcantara. In 1776, he served in North America, and in the summer of 
 1777 he was appointed to the command of a large force ordered to penetrate from Can- 
 ada into the rebellious districts. The early part of the expedition was marked by his 
 capture of Ticonderoga; but neglecting to preserve his communications with Canada, he 
 encountered the greatest difficulties, and was at last obliged to surrender with his^ army 
 to gen. Gates, at Saratoga. Soon after his return to England, having been denied an. 
 audience of the king, and refused a court-martial, he went over to the opposition party, 
 and voluntarily resigned all his appointments. On a change of ministry, at the close of 
 
197 
 
 Burglen. 
 
 Burgundj. 
 
 the American war, he was appointed commander-in-chief in Ireland. This office he 
 resigned two years after, and subsequently seems to have devoted his time to light litera- 
 ture. He was the author of some pamphlets in defense of his conduct, and of The Maid 
 of the Oaks The Heiress (1786); and other stock dramatic pieces. B. was one of 
 
 the managers for conducting the impeachment of Warren Hastings. He died in 1792. 
 See Episodes from the Life and Letters of B., by Barrington and Fonblanque (1876). 
 
 BURGOYNE, Sir John Fox, Bart., an eminent engineer-officer, b. in 1782, entered 
 the royal engineers in 1798. From 1800 to 1807, he served in the Mediterranean; was 
 with Moore at Carunna in 1809; and served under sir Arthur Wellesley in the peninsula 
 till the conclusion of the war in 1814, being present at all its sieges. In 1814, he was 
 commanding engineer of the expedition to New Orleans, and in 1826 of that sent to 
 Portugal. In 1851, he obtained the rank of .lieut.gen., and in 1854 was made d.c.l. of 
 Oxford university. In the Crimean war, he was chief of the engineering department of 
 the British army till recalled in 1855. For his services at Sebastopol, he received from 
 the sultan the order of the Medjidie, and from the French emperor that of grand officer 
 of the legion of honor. He was made gen. in 1855, and created a baronet in 1856, He 
 died 7th Oct., 1871, 
 
 BURGUNDY, the name of a once independent kingdom of wide extent, but most fre- 
 quently used of an old French province (Fr. Bourgogne) now divided between the depart- 
 ments of Cote-d’Or, Saone-et-Loire, and Yonne. The ancient Burgundians {Burgundi or 
 Burgundiones), originally a German tribe, were at first settled on the banks of the Oder 
 and the Vistula, and afterwards extended themselves to the Rhine and the Neckar, and, 
 in 407, penetrated into Roman Gaul. Their conversion to Christianity took place in the 
 course of eight days! They adopted a brief Arian confession of faith, and were bap- 
 tized. From 407 to 534, the kingdom of B. was several times divided; and in 451, 
 Gundicar, king of B., with 10,000 men, confronted Attila, but was defeated and slain. 
 
 In 534, B. passed under the rule of the Franks; but the weak government of the later 
 Carlovingian kings allowed a part of it once more to assert a separate existence as a 
 dependency of the empire under Boso of Vienne in 832. Boso’s realm, known as Cis- 
 juran B., or the kingdom of Arelate (Arles), lay mainly in the basin of the Rhone. A 
 second Burgundian state arose about the same time in the country between the Saone 
 and the Reuss, and was known as Transjuran or Upper Burgundy. These states, united 
 in 930, were for a time powerful and famous; but in 1038, on the extinction of the royal 
 dynasty, B. became part of the German empire. It was afterwards broken into several 
 fragments, which were gradually absorbed by France. 
 
 A similar fate befell the third Burgundian state, the dukedom of B. or Lower B., 
 which was formed by a brother of Boso. Yet the dukes of B. played a large part in 
 the history of mediaeval Europe, and were long the dangerous rivals of the French kings. 
 The nucleus of the dukedom was in Lower B., the region which afterwards became the 
 French province of B., to the n. and w. of the other Burgundian realms; but the second 
 line of dukes, beginning in 1363 with Philip the hardy, son of the French king John, 
 held under their sway not only Franche Comte and adjoining portions of France proper, 
 but great part of the Low Countries. Charles the bold (q.v.) was one of the most power- 
 ful sovereigns of Europe. Louis XI. of France succeeded in incorporating the duchy 
 with the kingdom of France. 
 
 BURGUNDY, Louis, Duke of, the grandson of Louis XIV. of France, and dauphin 
 of France after the death of his father, was b. at Versailles in 1682. Even in childhood 
 he was ungovernable, and became excessively violent and haughty, and abandoned to 
 all gross and sensual passions. Although educated under the care of the abbe Fenelon, 
 he used, when 30 years of age, to divert himself with drowning flies in oil, and blowing 
 up living frogs with gunpowder. He had the misfortune to be deformed; his deport- 
 ment and manners were undignified, and his mind was imbued with bigotry. When 
 only about 15 years of age, he was married to the princess Adelaide of Savoy, and spent 
 his time wholly in amusements in the company of his spouse, and of the ladies of the 
 court. Nevertheless, in 1701, he was nominally appointed generalissimo of the army, 
 really under the command of the duke de Vendome, and is said to have shown some 
 spirit in a cavalry-fight at Nimeguen; but he quarreled with Vendome, chiefly because 
 he had once been compelled to establish his head-quarters in a nunnery. He lost the 
 respect of the army, and was exposed to many humiliations, partly proceeding from 
 intrigues set on foot against him out of envy by his father. He returned to the court 
 more eccentric, gloomy, and unsociable than before. But when he became, on his 
 father’s death, the second person in the kingdom, all his defects vanished from the 
 sight of the courtiers, and flattery bestowed on him the title of the great dauphin. He 
 died suddenly in the year 1712. A few days previously, his wife and her son, the duke 
 of Bretagne, had died, and the same hearse carried father, mother, and child to St. 
 Denis. The duke of Orleans, subsequently regent, and his daughter, the duchess of 
 Berri, were accused, but without reason, of having caused them to be poisoned. 
 
 BURGUNDY PITCH, a resinous substance prepared from common frankincense (q.y.), 
 the spontaneous exudation of the Norway spruce-fir {abies excelsa; see Fir) by melting 
 it in hot water, by which means it is freed from a considerable part of the volatile ou 
 which it contains. By straining it through a coarse cloth, impurities are also removed. 
 
198 
 
 B. P. is of a yellowish-white color, hard and brittle when cold, but softening by the 
 heat of the hand, and readily adhering to the skin. It has a not unpleasant resinous 
 odor, and a slightly bitter taste. It is used in medicine as an external application only, 
 and generally acts as a mild irritant. A very common application of it is as a plaster 
 in complaints of the chest, and in rheumatic complaints. It enters also as an ingredient 
 with resin, oils, etc., into a compound plaster of similar use. The B. P. of commerce 
 is now principally brought from Hamburg; but the greater part of what is sold under 
 that name is really manufactured of common resin and palm-oil, or from American 
 turpentine. It has a fuller yellow color than the genuine B. P., and a less agreeable 
 odor. 
 
 BURGUNDY WINES are chiefly the produce of vineyards cultivated on the hilly 
 lands forming the Cote d’Or, between Dijon and Chalons. These hills average about 
 from 800 to 1000 ft. in height; the vineyards* ascend up the slopes in terraces, and spread 
 along the table-land on the summit. “ In richness of flavor and in perfume, and all the 
 more delicate qualities of the juice of the grape, the wines grown here unquestionably 
 rank as the finest in the world.” The most celebrated of the red wines of Burgundy are 
 the Closvougeot (near Beaune), Nuits, Chambertin (the favorite wine of Louis XIV. as 
 well as of Napoleon), the Romane-Conti, Richebourg, Volnay, and Pomard. Of other 
 red wines of Burgundy not grown on the Cote d’Or, those of Pitoy, Perriere, Preaux, and 
 Auxerre are held in most repute. The white wines of Burgundy are also the finest in 
 France, but being produced in less quantity, they have less celebrity. The quantity of 
 wine annually produced in Burgundy averages 3,500,000 hectoliters (77,000,000 gallons), 
 of which only about a fifth is consumed in the district. 
 
 BURHXNPUR, a t. in British India, 280 m. n.e. of Bombay, 21° 31' n., and 76° 20' 
 e. ; 2 m. from the railway station of Lalbagh. It was founded in 1400, and was the 
 chief seat of the government of the Deccan provinces of the Mogul empire until 1635. 
 In 1861, it was ceded to the British government. Pop. ’72, 29,303. B. is celebrated for 
 its muslins, flowered silks, and brocades. 
 
 BURHAUNPUR', a large t. of India, in the territory of Gwalior, or possessions of 
 Scindia’s family, on the right bank of the Tapti, in n. lat. 21° 18', e. long. 76° 20', 280 
 m. n.e. from Bombay. The banks of the Tapti are here bold, rising 60 or 70 ft. above 
 the stream. The town is surrounded by a rampart of brickwork, and contains a palace 
 built by Akbar. A few of the wealthier merchants have good houses, built of teak, 
 and profusely decorated with carvings. The most wealthy and influential are the 
 Borahs, a Mohammedan tribe, who inhabit a distinct ward, which they shut up at 
 night, excluding all other persons. There are manufactures of muslins, flowered silks, 
 and brocades, for which the place was formerly famous, so that, in the 17th c., they 
 were exported in great quantities to Persia, Egypt, Russia, and Poland. 
 
 BURIAL, a word of Teut. origin (Ang.-Sax. Urgan, to conceal), is applied to the prev- 
 alent method among civilized nations of disposing of the dead, by hiding them in the 
 earth. As there is almost nothing else so deeply interesting to the living as the disposal 
 of those whom they have loved and lost, so there is perhaps nothing else so distinctive 
 of the condition and character of a people as the method in which they treat their dead. 
 Hence, funeral customs associate themselves with a wide variety of sentiments, from 
 gentle and rational sorrow, up to deification of the departed, accompanied sometimes 
 with cruelty and ferocity towards the living. People of a low and barbarous type care- 
 lessly permit the remains of the dead to lie in the way of the living, and there are a few 
 instances in which the object of artificial arrangements has been to preserve a decorated 
 portion of the body — as, for instance, a gilded skull — among survivors. The general 
 tendency of mankind, however, has always been to bury the dead out of sight of the 
 living; and various as the methods of accomplishing this end have been, they have 
 resolved themselves into three great classifications: 1. The simple closing up of the 
 body in earth or stone; 2. The burning of the body, and the entombing of the cinders; 
 and, 3. The embalming of the body. The first of these seems to be the earliest form of 
 which we have any record, and it is the form most amply sanctioned by the existing 
 practice of the civilized world. It is the method referred to in the earliest scriptures; 
 and all are familiar with the touching scene in which Abraham buries Sarah in the cave 
 in the land of Canaan which belonged to Ephron, but was, after a solemn and courteous 
 negotiation, secured to Abraham for a possession to bury his dead in (Gen. c. 23). The 
 horrible fate of being left unburied, either from scorn or neglect, is powerfully told in 
 the prophecy of Jeremiah against Jehoiakim: “ He shall be buried with the burial of an 
 ass, drawn and cast forth beyond the gates of Jerusalem.” There is frequent allusion 
 in the later scriptures, and especially in the New Testament, to the embalming of the 
 body in antiseptics and fragrant substances; and the burning of the bodies of Saul and 
 his sons is accounted for by commentators on the supposition that they were too far 
 decayed to be embalmed. The Israelites may have learned the practice of embalming 
 from the Egyptians, among whom it was an art so greatly cultivated and extensively 
 practiced, that Egyptian corpses, as inoffensive as any article of wood or stone, are 
 scattered over Europe in museums, and are even to be found as curiosities in private 
 houses. The soil and climate of upper Egypt seem to have afforded facilities for 
 
199 
 
 BurgnndT, 
 
 Burial. 
 
 embalming unmatched in any other part of the world; and in other places the vestiges 
 of the practice are comparatively rare, though it is usual even yet to embalm royal 
 corpses, and in some places to preserve a series of mummies, as in the vault of the mon- 
 astery of Kreuzberg, at Bonn, where the monks have been successively preserved in 
 their costume for centuries. The practice of incremation, or of the burning of the body, 
 and the entombing of the ashes, deserves more inquiry than it has yet obtained. In 
 Greece, in Etruria — both before and after it came under the Romans — and in the n. of 
 Europe, the simple burial of the body, and its prior reduction to ashes, were both prac- 
 ticed, and sometimes contemporaneously. The tombs of Etruria are rich in art, much 
 of it going to the adornment of the urns of baked clay in which the ashes of the dead 
 are kept. Vessel of terra-cotta, or cooked earth, containing human remains, have been 
 found, often so large that they appear to have served as coffins for containing the whole 
 body. Vessels of this kind were found in the valley of the Scamander by some British 
 officers while spending their leisure time after the siege of Sebastopol, upon the ground 
 supposed to have been occupied by the besiegers of Troy. Smaller cinerary urns have 
 been found over so extensive a portion of the world, that it is difficult to define the 
 limits to which they belong. The Danish antiquaries say, that in their stone period, 
 when the use of metals was unknown, the dead were all buried unburned in stone 
 chambers, and that the burning of the bodies and the preservation of the ashes in urns 
 came in with the age of bronze. These antiquaries associate with the older system 
 those amorphous mounds of earth or stone called barrows or tumuli, which are to be 
 found all over the n. of Europe. Mr. Bremner, in traveling among the steppes of the 
 Ukraine, saw multitudes of these small mounds, which reminded him at once of what 
 he had seen on the plain of Troy, at Upsala in Sweden, in Scotland, and in Ireland. 
 The Irish tumulus of New Grange is perhaps the most remarkable of all, forming a 
 connecting link between the simple barrow on the moor and the pyramids of Egypt, 
 which are the perfection of the same kind of structure applied to the same purpose— 
 the burial of the distinguished dead. These structures open up a large field of curious 
 inquiry. The simple theory, that they were raised over the dead, has lately been dis- 
 turbed by the discovery that many of them are not artificial, but relics of sheets of 
 alluvial matter, the mass of which has been carried away; and even in these, human 
 remains have been found, the natural mounds having been used as monuments. 
 Even when human remains are connected with barrows, cromlechs, or the large shape- 
 less pillars commonly called Druidical, it is often questionable whether the monu- 
 ment was made to receive such remains. It is certainly ascertained to have been a 
 practice in ancient times to bury bodies in tombs which were themselves ancient 
 when they received their inmates. 
 
 Some of the grandest buildings in the world have been tombs; such are the pyramids, 
 the castle of St. Angelo, the* tomb of Caecilia Metella, and many temples scattered over 
 Hindustan and other eastern countries. Thus, the respect paid % the living to the dead 
 has preserved for the world many magnificent fruits of architectural genius and labor. 
 A notion that the dead may require the things they have been fond of in life, has also 
 preserved to the existing world many relics of the customs of past ages. The tombs of 
 Egypt have supplied an immense quantity of them, which have taught the present age 
 more of the manners of ancient nations than all the learned books that have been written. 
 It is an awful remembrance, at the same time, that inanimate things were not all that 
 the dead were expected to take with them. Herodotus tells us of favorite horses and 
 slaves sacrificed at the holocaust of the dead chief. The same thing has been done in 
 our own day in Ashantee. In many countries, the wives had the doom, or privilege, as 
 it was thought, of departing with their husbands; and down to the present generation 
 the practice has lived in full vigor in the Hindu sutti. Among the Jews, the Greeks, 
 the Romans, and many ancient nations, the dead were buried beyond the towns. The 
 “ stop, traveler!” was a usual memorandum on Roman tombs. In Christian countries, 
 if the remains of the saint to whom a church was dedicated could be obtained — or any 
 thing passing for the remains — they were buried near the altar in the choir. It became 
 a prevalent desire to be buried near these saints, and the bodies of men eminent for their 
 piety, or high in rank, came thus to be buried in churches. The extension of the 
 practice was the origin of churchyards. These, in crowded towns, became offensive 
 and unhealthy. It can scarcely be said that this practice, so detrimental to the public 
 health, as the B. within churches, was checked in this country until the whole system 
 of intramural interment, as it was called, was attacked, about the year 1844, by Mr. 
 Chadwick and other sanitary reformers. Measures were afterwards carried for shutting 
 graveyards in crowded cities, and placing interments in open cemeteries under sanitary 
 control. The first great measure was passed in 1850, when the board of health was made 
 a B. board for the metropolis, and power was given to the privy council to close the 
 city graveyards. The act was modified two years afterwards, by transferring the duties 
 of managing cemeteries to local boards appointed by the vestries. It was in London 
 that the danger was most urgent and the remedy immediate. It was extended to the 
 English provinces in 1853, and to Scotland in 1855. 
 
 In England, B. in some part of the parish churchyard is a common law right, 
 which may be enforced by mandamus — that is, every person may be buried in the 
 parish where he dies. But the body of a parishioner cannot be interred in an iron coflln 
 
Burial. 
 
 JBurke. 
 
 200 
 
 or vault, or even in any particular part of a churchyard, as, for instance, the family 
 vault, without an additional fee. 
 
 The fact that the only religious service which can at present be conducted at the 
 grave is that of the church of England, has led of late years to the repeated proposal in 
 parliament of measures to permit dissenters to have their own services performed in the 
 churchyard — as yet without results. 
 
 By the canons of the church of England, clergymen cannot refuse or delay to bury 
 any corpse that is brought to the church or churchyard; on the other hand, a conspiracy 
 to prevent a B. is an indictable offense, and so is the willfully obstructing a clergyman 
 in reading the B. service in a parish church. It is a popular error, that a creditor can 
 arrest or detain the body of a deceased debtor; and the doing such an act is indictable as 
 a misdemeanor. It is also an error, that permitting a funeral procession to pass over 
 private grounds creates a public right of way. By the 3 Geo. IV. c. 126, s. 32, the 
 inhabitants of any parish, township, or place, when going to or returning from attending 
 funerals of persons in England who have died and are to be buried there, are exempted 
 from any toll within these limits. And by the 4 Geo. IV. c. 49, s. 36, the same regulation 
 is extended to Scotland; the only difference being, that in the latter case the limitation of 
 the district is described by the word parish alone. The 6 and 7 Will. IV. c. 86 regulates 
 the registry of deaths. The 4 Geo. IV. c. 52 abolished the barbarous mode of burying 
 persons found felo de se, and directs that their B. shall take place, without any marks 
 of ignominy, privately in the parish churchyard, between the hours of nine and twelve 
 at night, under the direction of the coroner. The B. of dead bodies cast on shore is 
 enforced by 48 Geo. III. c. 75. See Wharton’s Law Lexicon. 
 
 In Scotland, the right of B. in a churchyard is an incident of property in the parish; 
 but it is a mere right of B., and there is not necessarily any corresponding ownership in 
 the solum or ground of the churchyard. In Edinburgh, however, the right to special 
 B. places in churchyards is recognized. — For B. in cemeteries in England and Scotland, 
 see Cemetery. 
 
 BTJEIAL ACTS. These are the 15 and 16 Viet. c. 85, for London; the 16 and 17 Viet, 
 c. 134, the 17 and 18 Viet. c. 87, and the 18 and 19 Viet. cc. 79 and 128, for places in 
 England beyond the limits of the metropolis — all as amended by the 20 and 21 Viet. c. 
 81, and the 22 Viet. c. 1, 23 and 24 Viet. c. 64, 25 and 26 Viet, c, 100, 34 and 35 Viet. c. 
 33. These acts were rendered necessary when it was resolved on sanitary grounds to 
 put a stop to burials in populous places, which could only be effectually done by giving 
 power to parishes to acquire other burial-grounds in rural places. These statutes have 
 long been proverbial for their confusion (e.g., 20 and 21 Viet., which proposes in the 
 preamble to amend 18 and 19 Viet. c. 78, really amends c. 79), and relate to the appoint- 
 ment of burial-boards for parishes — the authorizing new burial-places, proper sanitary 
 regulations, the control by the government and % order 4n council, and many other 
 details too numerous to specify here. Our readers must be content with our referring 
 them to the acts themselves, or to their lawyers. 
 
 The corresponding acts for Scotland are the 18 and 19 Viet. c. 68, amended by the 
 20 and 21 Viet. c. 42, and 29 and 30 Viet. c. 50. 
 
 BURIAL SOCIETIES are friendly societies constituted in the usual manner, and with 
 the express object of supplying a fund for paying the funeral expenses of the members 
 o-n their death. See Friendly Societies. It became customary to enter the names 
 not only of adults, but of children, in such societies. The proceedings of the criminal 
 courts have shown that, in some instances, children on whose lives such an insurance 
 was effected have been killed or allowed to die of neglect, and the alarm created by such 
 instances was enhanced by the discovery that children were frequently insured in more 
 than one society. To obviate this calamitous use of a beneficial arrangement, it was 
 provided that no insurance of a child under six years of age in a burial society should 
 be legal. It was attested to the select committee of the commons on friendly societies 
 in 1849, that the practice of such insurances continued in uncertified societies; and at 
 the same time it was stated on behalf of the friendly societies: “In our long experience 
 with these societies in Liverpool, in which are nearly 100,000 members, approximating 
 to nearly one third of the population of this great town, we have not had one instance 
 of death by violence for the sake of the burial money.” In the friendly societies act of 
 1850, and in subsequent enactments, stringent arrangements for certifying the cause of 
 death have been adopted as a sutficient protection from this crime. 
 
 BURIATS, a Mongolian people in the vicinity of lake Baikal. They are scattered 
 in various tribes that take the names of their special localities; and the tribes are sub- 
 divided according to kinship. In 1857, the B. numbered about 190,000. They have 
 high cheek-bones, flat noses, and sparse beard on the chin ; thejr shave the head, leaving 
 a cue at tlie top, like the Chinese. In summer they dress in wool and cotton; in 
 winter in sheep-skins and furs. Rearing cattle is their chief occupation, and some of 
 them possess large herds. A few tribes engage in agriculture, and in 1889 the B. had 
 about 240,000 acres under cultivation. The soil is fertile, and they have an elaborate 
 system of irrigation. Some activity is shown in trapping and fishing. In religion they 
 are mainly Buddhists; their chief lama living at Goose lake. Some are Shamanists, and 
 their sacrod spot is the Shamanist stone at the mouth of Angar river. About 10,000 are 
 
201 
 
 I!uria]» 
 
 Burke* 
 
 Christians. Reading and writing are general among the B., and they have books of 
 their own, translated from the Thibetan. Their language is Mongolian, and in three 
 distinct dialects. The Russians first explored the region in 1631, and after several 
 unimportant contests permanently subdued the B. before the end of the 17th century. 
 
 BUBIDAN, Jean, a scholastic metaphysician of the nominalist party, was b. at 
 Bethune, in Artois, in the 14th c., and studied at Paris under Occam, where he also 
 became a teacher of philosophy. The events of his life, as well as the manner of his 
 death, are very obscure. One account states that he was thrown into the Seine by 
 command of Marguerite de Bourgogne, daughter-in-law of Philippe le Bel, whose 
 infidelities he had rebuked. Another, later, but less mythical-looking account, states 
 that B. was driven from France as a disciple of Occam, and fled to Austria, where he 
 founded a school. His elucidations of Aristotle are among his most useful writings. 
 In his Logic, his great endeavor was to facilitate the discovery of middle terms for all 
 kinds of syllogisms. The celebrated sophism known to the schoolmen under the name 
 of Buridan’s Ass, has been discussed at superfluous length, and with needless ingenuity, 
 by Bayle. It is not at all likely that it was ever adduced by B., but more probably by 
 his adversaries, who wished to ridicule his metaphysical doctrine of Determinism — viz., 
 that in every mental and bodily action the will must be determined by something out 
 of itself. The sophism referred to is that if a hungry ass be placed exactly between 
 two bundles of hay of equal size and attractiveness, it must starve, as there is nothing 
 to determine the will of the animal towards either bundle. His chief works are 
 Summula Dialectica 1487); Compendium (Venice, 1489; Oxford, 1637); In 
 
 Aristotelis Metaphysica (Paris, 1518). 
 
 BU'RIN, or Graver, the principal instrument used in copper-engraving, is made of 
 tempered steel, and is of prismatic form, the graving end being ground off obliquely to 
 a sharp point. The style of a master is frequently described by the expressions soft B., 
 graphic B., brilliant B., or whatever other character may belong to it. 
 
 Mauritia rinifera; seeMAURiTiA; a beautiful palm which grows in 
 great abundance in the swamps of some parts of the n. of Brazil. It is one of the loftiest 
 of palms. Its leaves are fan-shaped, and form a large globular head at the top of the 
 stem. It produces a great number of nuts about the size of a small hen’s egg, covered 
 with rhomboidal scales arranged in a spiral manner. Between these scales and the albu- 
 minous substance of the nut, there is an oily reddish pulp, which is boiled with sugar, 
 and made into a sweetmeat. An emulsion is also prepared from it, which, when sweet- . 
 ened with sugar, is a very palatable beverage, but if much used, is feaid to tinge the skin 
 of a yellow color. The juice of the stem also makes a very agreeable drink; but to 
 obtain it, the tree must be cut down, when several holes about 6 in. square, 3 in. deep, 
 and 6 ft. apart, are cut in the trunk with a small axe ; and these in a short time are filled 
 with a reddish-colored liquid, having much the flavor of sweet wine. 
 
 BURKE, a co. in e. Georgia, on the Savannah river and the Central Georgia railroad ; 
 1040 sq.m.; pop. ’70, 17,639 — 13,436 colored; in ’80, 27,130. Surface hilly, with fertile 
 soil, producing corn, sweet potatoes, and cotton. Co. seat, Waynesborough. 
 
 BURKE, a co. in w. North Carolina, on the Catawba river and the Wilmington and 
 North Carolina railroads; 450 sq.m. ; pop. ’80, 12,811 — 2,721 colored. Surface mountain- 
 ous, with fine scenery; productions agricultural. Co. seat, Morgantown. 
 
 BURKE,' Edmund, a philosopher and politician, distinguished over all the men of his 
 times for eloquence and political foresight, was born in 1730, in Dublin, where his father 
 had an extensive practice as an attorney. As a schoolboy, he displayed those traits of 
 character and the germs of those powers which ultimately gave him greatness. In 1744, 
 B. entered the university of Dublin, of which he became a scholar. His undergraduate 
 course was not unmarked by the ordinary distinctions of successful application ; but it 
 would appear that he mainly devoted himself to his favorite studies of poetry, oratory, 
 history, and metaphysics. In Feb., 1748, he graduated b.a., and in 1751 took his degree 
 as master of arts. In the interval (1750), being destined for the English bar, he pro- 
 ceeded to London, to keep his terms at the Middle Temple. To legal studies, however, 
 he never took kindly, and ultimately he abandoned the idea of becoming a barrister. 
 During the years 1750-56, he would appear to have occupied himself in traveling through 
 England, enjoying the society of literary men, in study, and finally in writing for various 
 periodicals. 
 
 B, , when yet at the university, had achieved a local reputation for literary talent and 
 eloquence. Among the compositions of his undergraduate life the most noticeable per- 
 haps is his translation of the conclusion of the second Georgic of Virgil, which shows 
 poetic talent of no mean order. His first important publication, however, was the cele- 
 brated of Natural Society, written in imitation and ridicule of the style and 
 
 reasoning of lord Bolingbroke, in which, with well-concealed irony, he confutes his 
 lordship’s views of society by a reductio ad absurdum. This work, published anony- 
 mously in 1756, at the age of 26, attracted considerable attention. Soon after, in the 
 same year, appeared his well-known essay, A Philosophical Inquiry into the Origin of our 
 Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful — a work containing a comprehensive induction of the 
 various sources of the ideas referred to, but which must be pronounced a failure, so far 
 
Burlingame. 
 
 83 it pretends to analyze into their primary elements the emotions of the sublime and 
 beautiful. 
 
 The essay on the Sublime and Beautiful attained a rapid popularity, and its author 
 soon found himself courted by all the eminent men of his time. Garrick was already 
 one of his friends; among them he soon could count Reynolds, Soame Jenyns, lord Lyt- 
 telton, Warburton, llume, and Dr. Johnson. Notwithstanding this popularity, how- 
 ever, his progress continued slow; for three years yet, he had to occupy himself with 
 periodical writing, devoting his leisure principally to political subjects. What is con- 
 sidered a joint work of B. and his cousin, William Bourke, appeared in 1757 — viz., An 
 Account of the European Settlements in America — and shows how carefully at this date he 
 had studied the condition of the colonies. In 1761, Mr.W. G. Hamilton (“ Single-speech 
 Hamilton”), then secretary for Ireland, having appointed him his private secretary, he 
 returned to Dublin, where, during two years’ service, he demonstrated his aptitude for 
 political business, receiving in 1763, in reward of his services, a pension on the Irish 
 establishment of £300, which, however, he did not long enjoy. 
 
 Returning to London, B., in 1764, along with Reynolds, founded the literary club, 
 the history of which is associated with almost every considerable name in the literature 
 of the period. But literary society did not call off his attention from the chances of a 
 political career. He became private secretary to the marquis of Rockingham, on his 
 becoming premier, and at the same time entered parliament as member for Wendover. 
 Here his eloquence at once made him the reputation of being “the first man in the 
 commons.” The Rockingham administration, how’ever, lived only a few months, and 
 with it terminated this his second political employment. To trace his subsequent career 
 in parliament is more than the limits of this article will allow; it must suffice to state 
 briefly that his parliamentary life extended from 1766 to 1794 without intermission; 
 that he was successively member for Wendover, Bristol, and Malton; twice held the 
 post of paymaster of the forces, once under Rockingham, and again under lord North, 
 with the standing of a privy councilor; that after a career in parliament remarkable 
 for the laboriousness, earnestness, and brilliancy with which every duty was discharged, 
 and extending over nearly 30 years, he retired at last, receiving the thanks of the com- 
 mons for his numerous public services, and rewarded by government, on the express 
 request of his sovereign, with pensions amounting in all to £3700. It would be wrong, 
 however, to omit that, as paymaster of the forces, he, with a scrupulous regard to 
 public economy, sacrificed all the perquisites of his office, exhibiting a severe integrity 
 unexampled among public men; and that in his relation with the constituency of Bris- 
 tol, which was alienated from him by his advocacy of the claims of the Roman Cath- 
 olics and of the opening up of the trade of Ireland, he was the first to maintain the 
 doctrine of the independence of parliamentary representatives — that they are not 
 machines to vote for measures approved by their constituencies simply for that reason, 
 but men and thinkers chosen by them to calmly consider and legislate for the good of 
 the commonwealth. It must also be mentioned, that during his career he rendered 
 more important service to the cause of humanity than any man of his time : he prepared 
 the way for the abolition of the slave-trade, a measure which was destined to ripen to 
 success in the hands of Wilberforce; he advocated the cause of humanity in India 
 Against the voracious greed of stockholders, who regarded its millions simply as mate- 
 rials for plunder, and largely contributed to improve the government of that country. 
 Towards America he advocated a policy of justice and conciliation, which, had it been 
 adopted, would have averted the horrors of the war of independence, and retained the 
 colonies in amity with the mother-country. And to the advocacy of every cause which 
 he espoused, he brought a capacity for patient research that was unlimited, and an elo- 
 quence that has never been transcended. 
 
 Before proceeding to remark on the character and powers of B., a very brief notice 
 must be taken of his leading literary efforts connected with his political labors. Little 
 more than a catalogue can here be given of them. Omitting a variety of valuable letters 
 — several on the condition of Ireland — notice must be taken of his Observations on a 
 Pamphlet on the Present State of the Nation, being his first political pamphlet, published 
 in 1769, in answer to one variously ascribed to Fox or Grenville. In 1770, he published 
 a pamphlet, On the Cause of the Present Discontents. On the 13th Feb., 1788, he com- 
 menced his celebrated speech opening the trial of Warren Hastings (q.v.), the most 
 remarkable trial, perhaps, in the history of the world. This speech lasted^ over four 
 days, and has been characterized as “a tempest of invective and eloquence.” No idea 
 can be conveyed of the effect which it produced. The trial lasted seven years, and 
 closed with another great and splendid oration from B., lasting over nine days. Has- 
 tings, it is well known, was acquitted. While this trial was advancing, B. found time 
 to take part in all the current business. In 1790, appeared his Reflections on the Revolu- 
 tion of France, which sold in tens of thousands, and is said to have produced an effect 
 never produced before nor since by any political essay. Hereafter, the world showered 
 honors on B., of which space forbids even the enumeration. Having, in 1791, with- 
 drawn from the whigs on the French question, he offered for the consideration of gov- 
 ernment, 'ihoughts on French Affairs, which, however, was not published till after his 
 death. Heads for Consideration on the Present State of Affairs and Reply to a NobU 
 Lord next followed, the latter being relative to himself personally. His last work, 
 
203 
 
 Burke. 
 
 Burlingame 
 
 Ihoughts on a Regicide. Peace, showed that he retained to the end of his life his whole 
 powers unimpaired. 
 
 Few men have been the subjects of higher panegyric than B. , and, on the whole, 
 few have better deserved praise. He was noble-minded, pure in his life, and a purist 
 in politics. Intellectually, he was most richly endowed; with much imagination, rare 
 powers of observation, and indefatigable industry, there was no subject which he could 
 not master, and none which, having mastered, he could not expound with unparalleled 
 richness of language. But with these virtues and powers were conjoined defects, which, 
 without bating their greatness, largely neutralized their influence. He was, it may be 
 said, too literary to be a philosopher, and too philosophic to be a politician. His career 
 would seem to illustrate this position. His oratory astounded by its brilliancy rather 
 than persuaded by its tone and argument; and in the long-run, the eloquence which 
 failed to command the reason, ceased to captivate the ear. The man who at first evoked 
 the enthusiasm of the house by the brilliancy and power of his eloquence, did actually 
 at last empty it by persistence in the monotonous splendors of his speeches. Passionate, 
 and in a great degree untractable, he was unsuited for party politics, and drifted from 
 all his connections, breaking up slowly all party ties, and even the ties of friendship, till 
 he reached at last a state of almost political isolation. At the same time, it must not be 
 forgotten how great an influence he, half philosopher, half politician, exercised on the 
 counsels of the state; many of his views on politics and public economy were anticipa- 
 tions of science, as many of his previsions of the course of events were prophecies. 
 
 B. died on the 7th July, 1797, in his 68th ^ear. A collected edition of his works in quarto 
 was published in 1827. The latest edition is that of the Clarendon press, begun in 1866. 
 The best biography of B. is Mr. J. Macknight’s. See also Morley’s Edmu^ Burke, a 
 Historical Study (1869). 
 
 BURKE, Sir John Bernard, b. 1815; son of John, who started the genealogical 
 books known as Burke's Peerage, etc., and continuing the work after the father’s death. 
 He was called to the English bar in 1839, and was knighted in 1854. He has published, 
 besides the Peerage and Baronetage, History of Dormant, Abeyant, Forfeited, and Extinct 
 Peerages; History of the Landed Gentry; Vicissitudes of Families, and other works. 
 
 BURKING. See Anatomy (in law). 
 
 BURLAMAQUI', Jean Jacques, a writer on natural law. He was professor and 
 lecturer in Geneva, and was elected to the council of the state. His works are upon the 
 principles of natural and political rights, and have passed through many editions. 
 
 BURLEIGH, William Cecil, Lord. See Cecil. 
 
 BURLEIGH, William Henry, 1812-71; b. Conn.; printer and editor of several 
 literary and religious journals, among which were the Christian Witness, Pittsburg, 
 Penn. ; the Charter Oak, Hartford, Conn. ; and the Washington Banner, He published 
 a volume of miscellaneous poems. 
 
 BURLESON, a co. in central Texas, on Brazos riyer; 976 sq.m. ; pop. '80, 9242—3888 
 colored. It has an uneven but productive soil, about two thirds covered with oak for- 
 ests. Productions, corn, cotton, and wool. Co. seat, Caldwell. 
 
 BURLESQUE (from Ital. lurla, jest, mockery), denoting a style of speaking, acting, 
 writing, drawing, is a low and rude grade of the comic. The legitimate comic brings 
 together contrasts with a final view to harmonizing and reconciling them ; the B. dis- 
 torts and caricatures, and brings the incongruities into stronger relief. The farce is the 
 B. of comedy. Deformities and monstrosities that excite disgust do not belong to the 
 burlesque. The lofty and the abject, the great and the little are conjoined, with the 
 sole view of exciting a laugh. Nor does the true B. turn real greatness and nobility into 
 laughter, but only sham greatness — false pathos, and all hollow pretension and affecta- 
 tion. The B. style appears to have been unknown to the ancients; it originated among 
 the Italians, more particularly with the poet Berni (q.v.). The genuinely national huf- 
 fone of the Italians personates the burlesque. Carlo Gozzi, in his tragi-comedies, is 
 perhaps the greatest in the B. vein. Scarron among the French, and Hudibras in Eng- 
 lish, are examples. Parody or travesty (q.v.) is a species of burlesque. 
 
 BURLETTA, a comic operetta or musical farce. 
 
 BURLINGAME, Anson, ll.d., 1820-70; b. N. Y.; educated in Michigan and Har- 
 vard universities, and practiced law in Boston. He was chosen to the state legislature 
 and the constitutional convention. He was an early worker in the free-soil party when 
 Van Buren was the presidential candidate; and was also a leader in the American party 
 in 1854, and by them sent to congress. His denunciation of Brooks’s assault upon sena- 
 tor Sumner provoked a challenge from the South Carolinian, which the Massachusetts 
 member at once accepted, naming rifles as the weapons. Brooks did not fight. Bur- 
 lingame was a congressman until 1861, and in that year was sent as minister to Austria, 
 where the feeling against him because he had favored Hungarian independence led to a 
 positive refusal to receive him as a diplomatic representative. He was then sent to 
 China, where he was successful in negotiating certain treaties favorable to both coun- 
 tries, and for the first time securing China’s recognition of international rights of prop- 
 erty, trade, and worship. In 1869, having gained the full confidence of the Chinese 
 
Barllngrton. 
 
 Burmah. 
 
 204 
 
 government, lie was sent as minister of the Chinese empire to Russia, and other European 
 countries, but died soon after entering upon his duties. 
 
 BURLINGTON, a co. in central New Jersey, between the ocean and the Delaware 
 river; 600 sq.m. ; pop. ’80, 55,403. It is level and in some parts fertile, but much of it is 
 sandy and covered with pine forests. Iron ore, marl, and petrified animal remains are 
 found. Chief productions, cereals, potatoes, hay, butter, and wool. The railways are 
 the Camden and Amboy, Camden and Burlington County, Pemberton and Hightstown, 
 and branches of the New Jersey Southern. Co. seat. Mount Holly. 
 
 BUBLINGTON, the name of three cities of some note in the United States. — 1. A port 
 of entry in New Jersey, on the Delaware, about 20 m. above Philadelphia, with wdiich, 
 as well as with New York, it is connected by the Camden and Amboy railway. It pos- 
 sesses an Episcopalian college, founded in 1846. Pop. ’70, 5817, with about 13,000 tons 
 of shipping. — 2. The most populous city in Vermont. It is beautifully situated on the 
 e. shore of lake Champlain. It communicates with the St. Lawrence by means of the 
 Richelieu river and the Chambly canal ; while through the Champlain canal it has access 
 to the Hudson. It has railway communication with all parts of the United States and 
 Canada. The Vermont university crowns the slope on which the city stands. Pop. ’70, 
 14,387. — 3. A city of Iowa, on the right bank of the Mississippi, 207 *m. by rail w.s.w. of 
 Chicago. It occupies a natural amphitheater formed by the limestone bluffs which slope 
 backward from the river. It carries on a large commerce, and there are numerous 
 foundries, breweries, soap-works, pork-packing establishments, flour-mills, and saw- 
 mills. The city is the center of considerable railway communications, and possesses 
 among its educational institutions, business college and Baptist university. Pop. ’70, 
 14,933. 
 
 BURLINGTON a city in Des Moines co., Iowa, on the Mississippi; 207 m. 
 
 w.s.w. of Chicago; pop. ’80, 19,450. It is at the junction of several railroads, and is an 
 important business point, having also many manufactories. The business portion is of 
 the river shore, while private residences are on the high bluffs in the rear. It is the seat 
 of Burlington university, and has other excellent schools. There are extensive coal and 
 limestone deposits near by. From 1837 to 1840 it was the state capital. 
 
 BURLINGTON {ante), a city in Burlington co., N. J., on the Delaware 18 m. above 
 Philadelphia, founded by Quakers in 1677. It is on the Camden and Amboy rail- 
 road, and is connected by steamboats with Philadelphia. Among its educational insti- 
 tutions are a college and St. Mary’s hall for young women (both Episcopal). There is 
 considerable manufacturing business, and trade by the river and railroads. B. was for 
 a long period the seat of government of the colony of West Jersey, and the last official 
 residence of Win. Franklin, the governor, at which period and afterwards it had a 
 lucrative West India trade. Pop. ’80,7237. 
 
 BURLINGTON {ante), the chief city of Vermont, a port of entry, and the co. seat 
 of Chittenden co., on lake Champlain, 38 m. by rail n.w. of Montpelier; pop. ’80, 
 11,364. The harbor is commodious and safe,* protected by a breakwater 900 ft. long; 
 and the location of the city is remarkably fine, both for commerce and charming scenery. 
 Besides the lake navigation, the Central Vermont, Vermont and Canada, Burlington and 
 Lamoille, and Rutland and Burlington railroads give ample means of communication. 
 There is a steam ferry to Plattsburg, N. Y. The lumber trade is the largest single 
 business, but there are marble works, manufactories, and*a large local trade. B. is con- 
 nected with Winooski, a manufacturing suburb, by a bridge over the Winooski river. 
 The university of Vermont, founded in 1791, is on the highest ground in the city; 
 departments of the university are the agricultural college and a medical school. Another 
 educational feature is the Vermont Episcopal institute, organized in 1858. The city is 
 supplied with gas and water; its notable public buildings and institutes are: a U. S. 
 custom house, a city hall, and a court house; 2 Congregational churches; 2 Roman 
 Catholic; Unitarian, Baptist, Episcopal, and Methodist churches; the Fletcher free 
 library; the Mary Fletcher hospital; Lake View cemetery, near lake Champlain, and 
 Green Mount cemetery, overlooking the Winooski valley, the latter containing a credit' 
 able monument over the grave of Ethan Allen. 
 
 ^ BURLINGTON. See Bridlington. 
 
 BURLINGTON LIMESTONE, a valuable material for building found in abundance 
 near Burlington, Iowa, and elsewhere along the Mississippi, usually in double beds, the 
 upper one nearly all carbonate of lime, and the lower one containing magnesia. This 
 stone is peculiar for the vast abundance of fossils found in it, especially of crinoidea and 
 corals. 
 
 BURMAH, Empire op, called also the Empire op Ava, an important kingdom of the 
 Indo-Cliinese peninsula, formerly of great extent; but by two contests with the British 
 power in India, it lost several provinces, and is now, in its widest sense and including 
 tributary states, comprehended between 19° 29' and 28° n. lat., and 93° and 100° e. long., 
 having an area of about 188,000 sq.m., and a scanty population estimated at from 
 8,000,000 to 4,000,000. It is bounded on the n. by mountains, separating it from Assam 
 and Thibet; on the e., by China; on the s., by the British province of Pegu; and on the 
 w., by Munnipore and mountain-ranges dividing it from Tipperah, Qhittagong, and 
 
205 
 
 Surlington. 
 
 Hurmalu 
 
 Aracan. The Burman empire, as it now exists, has three well-marked divisions: 1 . 
 
 l^orthern B., inhabited chiefly by Singphos, Shans, and other tribes; 2. B. proper; 8. 
 The Eastern Shan tributary states. The area of B. proper, from lat. 24° n. to the fron- 
 tier <ff Pegu, is 44,450 sq.m., with a population of about 1,200,000. 
 
 Physical features. — From the eastern extremity of the great transverse mountain barrier 
 of Northern India, longitudinal ranges strike away southwards, and between two of 
 these the Burman territories are situated. The country slopes from the highland regions 
 of the n. towards the coast, and has been fitly described as “a varied surface of rolling 
 upland, interspersed with alluvial basins and sudden ridges of hill.” 
 
 The principal river, the Irrawaddy (q.v.), having its source amid the snowy moun- 
 tains from which descends the Brahmaputra, is the great commercial highway of the 
 country, through the heart of which it takes its course. Passing Amarapura, Ava, and 
 other towns, it enters Pegu, and 90 miles below Prome, divides into an eastern and 
 western branch, the former flowing past Rangoon, the latter forming the Bassein river. 
 The Kyen-dwen is its principal tributary. To the e. of the Irrawaddy, the Salween, 
 after an almost parallel course, enters the British territories in nearly the same latitude. 
 
 Climate. — On the coast, only two seasons are known — the dry and the rainy, which 
 are regulated by the n.e. and the s.w. monsoons; but in B. proper, less rain falls, and 
 there are three seasons — the cold, the hot, and the rainy. Some showers fall in May 
 or June, but the great rains last from the middle of Aug. to the end of Oct. The 
 cool season is from the middle of Oct. till the beginning of April, and from this 
 month till the great rains is the hot part of the year, the thermometer ranging from 85° 
 to 100°. The climate is, on the whole, healthy, but the jungles are very pestiferous. 
 
 Minerals. — B. has vast fields of mineral wealth, but little enterprise and capital are 
 brought to bear upon them. There are gold mines at Bamo, near the Chinese frontier. 
 Auriferous sand is found in many of the streams. Silver is obtained at Bau-dwen, like- 
 wise on the confines of China, and also in the Shan country, from whence comes the 
 chief supply of lead. Iron is quarried at Poukpa, a lofty mountain a few miles e. of 
 Pagan. The celebrated ruby mines of B. are situated 60 or 70 m. n.e. from the capi- 
 tal and are jealously guarded. Sapphires of great size are found in the same stratum, 
 but are more rare. The annual value of the gems is estimated at from £12,000 to £15,000 
 sterling, and they are the property of the king. Wells of the mineral oil, petroleum, 
 are worked at Ye-nan-gyoung, on the Irrawaddy, above Prome. Marble, noble serpen- 
 tine, and amber are likewise found in large quantities. 
 
 Vegetable productions . — A few only of the most striking of these can be noticed. Of 
 the graceful palm-tribe {palmacece), the cocoa-nut, the betel, the palmyra, and the nipa, 
 or water-palm, are the most prized. The useful bamboo is widely diffused. The teak, 
 of which B. possesses inexhaustible forests, and the hopaea, are amongst the most valu- 
 able of the timber-trees. Forests of pine grow to the eastward of Amarapura. The 
 wood-oil tree is found on the higher Salween, one trunk of which will produce from 30 
 to 40 gallons of oil every season. The staple fruit of the country is the plaintain or 
 banana. The jack is prized by the natives. The mango reaches the height of 100 ft., 
 and produces a delicious fruit. Rice, wheat, tobacco, indigo, and cotton are cultivated. 
 
 Animals. — The felidm, or cat family, abound, tigers, leopards, and tiger-cats being 
 met with in every part of the country. Of the pachydermata, the elephant and 
 rhinoceros are the most noteworthy. The elephant, buffalo, and Indian ox have been 
 domesticated. 
 
 Ethnology. — The Burmams belong to that branch of the Mongolidae characterized by 
 a monosyllabic language ; they are short-headed, broad-skulled, and flat-faced. The hair 
 is black, and the skin of a deep brown color. Their dress is simple, but peculiar. The 
 in-gie, a white linen jacket, is common to both sexes. Wrapped around the lower part 
 of the body, the men wear the put-so, which is several yards in length; the women, the 
 te-mine, a scant gpment of cotton or silk. Silks, muslins, and valuable gold ornaments 
 are worn on special occnsions. Betel-nut chewing and cigar-smoking are greatly prac- 
 tized by both men and women. The Burmans are, generally speaking, fine, well-made 
 men, and excel in wrestling, boxing, rowing, foot-ball, and other athletic exercises ; they 
 are clever as carpenters and smiths. Burman houses are made of a framework of bam- 
 boo, thatched with the leaf of the water-palm, and are invariably raised on posts several 
 feet from the ground. The women are more industrious than the men ; they buy, sell, 
 weave, and attend to the domestic concerns. Both sexes delight in merry-making, feast- 
 ing, buffoonery, and sight-seeing. Kpooay, or theatrical representation, is a very favor- 
 ite amusement, and a buffalo-fight attracts crowds of spectators. The Burman has little 
 patriotism, but is attached to his home. Without individual cruelty, he is indifferent 
 to the shedding of blood by his rulers. Though temperate and hardy, he dislikes disci- 
 pline and continued employment; and when in power, is too of ten arrogant, arbitrary, 
 and corrupt. 
 
 Besides the true Burman, a great variety of races inhabit the Burman territories. 
 The Telaings, or Moans, descendants of the ancient Peguans, are pretty well amalga- 
 mated with the Burmans. The Shans, or Tai, perhaps the most numerous and widely 
 diffused of the Indo-Chinese peoples, are scattered over the peninsula, from Munnipore 
 to Bangkok. Of the eastern Shan states, some are tributary to B. , others to Siam, while 
 those w. of the Irrawaddy are wholly under Burman rule. The Singphos cluster round 
 
Burmah. 
 
 206 
 
 the mountains of the n., and along the western mountain-houndary of B., wild Kyhens, 
 and many tribes under diiferent names, live in varying degrees of civilization. The 
 Karens are met with chiefly in southern Burmah. 
 
 Religion . — Buddhism (q.v.) is the prevailing religion of B., where it has been pre- 
 served in great purity. Its monuments — temples, shrines, and monasteries — are innum- 
 erable; its festivals are carefully observed, and its monastic system is fully established 
 in every part of the kingdom. While directing the reader to the special article on 
 Buddhism for an account of its doctrines, history, etc., we may here glance at its devoK 
 opment, institutions, and edifices among the Burmans. 
 
 The members of the monastic fraternity are known in B. as pon-gyees, meaning 
 “ great glory;” but the Pali word is rahan, or holy man. Thepon-gyees are not priests, 
 in the usual acceptation of the term, but rather monks. Their religious ministrations 
 are confined to sermons, and they do not interfere with the worship of the people. 
 They are a very numerous class, living in monasteries, or kyoungs, and may ^t once be 
 known by their yellow robes (the color of mourning), shaven heads, and bare feet. 
 They subsist wholly by the charity of the people, which, however, they well repay by 
 instructing the boys of the countr^r. The kyoungs are thus converted into national 
 schools. The vows of a pon-gyee include celibacy, poverty, and the renunciation of 
 the world; but from these he may at any time be released, and return to a secular life. 
 Hence, nearly every youth assumes the yellow robe for a time, as a meritorious act, or 
 for the purpose of study, and the ceremony of making a pon-gyee is one of great impor- 
 tance. The ostensible object of the brotherhood is the more perfect observance of the 
 laws of Buddha. The order is composed of five classes — viz., young men who wear the 
 yellow robe and live in the kyoungs, but are not professed members; those on whom 
 the title and character of pon-gyees have been solemnly conferred with the usual cere- 
 monies; the heads or governors of the several communities; provincials, whose juris- 
 diction extends over their respective provinces; and, lastly, a superior general, or great 
 master, who directs the affairs of the order throughout the empire. 
 
 No provision is made for religion by the government, but it meets with liberal sup- 
 port from the people. A pon-gyee is held in profound veneration ; his person is sacred, 
 and he is addressed by the lordly title of 'p'a or phra; nor does this reverence terminate 
 with his death. On the decease of a distinguished member, his body is embalmed, 
 while the limbs are swathed in linen, varnished, and even gilded. The mummy is then 
 placed on a highly decorated cenotaph, and preserved, sometimes for months, until the 
 grand day of funeral. The Burman rites of cremation are very remarkable, but we 
 cannot here enlarge upon them. On the whole, a favorable opinion may be passed on 
 the monastic fraternity of B. ; although abuses have crept in, discipline is more lax thaa 
 formedy, and many doubtless assume the yellow robe from unworthy motives. 
 
 In B., the last Buddha is worshiped under the name of Gautama. His images 
 crowd the temples, and many are of a gigantic size. The days of worship are at the 
 new and full moon, and seven days after each ; but the whole time, from the full moon 
 of July, to the full moon of Oct., is devoted by the Burmans to a stricter observance of 
 the ceremonies of their religion. During the latter month, several religious festivals 
 take place, which are so many social gatherings and occasions for grand displays of 
 dress, dancing, music, and feasting. At such times, barges full of gayly-dressed people, 
 the women dancing to the monotonous dissonance of a Burman band, may be seen glid- 
 ing along the rivers to some shrine of peculiar sanctity. The worship on these occa- 
 sions has been described by an eye-witness, in 1857, as follows: “Arrived at the shrines- 
 and temples, the people suddenly turn from pleasure to devotion. Men bearing orna- 
 mental paper-umbrellas, fruits, flowers, and other offerings, crowd the image-houses, 
 present their gifts to the favorite idol, make their shek-ho, and say their prayers with all 
 dispatch. Others are gluing more gold-leaf on the face of the image, or saluting him 
 with crackers, the explosion of which in nowise interferes with the serenity of the wor- 
 shipers. The women for the most part remain outside, kneeling on the sward, just at 
 the entrance of the temple, where a view can be obtained of the image within.” On 
 another occasion, we read: “The principal temple being under repair, was much 
 crowded by bamboo scaffolding, and new pillars were being put up, each bearing an 
 
 inscription with the name of the donor The umbrellas brought as offerings were 
 
 so numerous, that one could with difficulty thread a passage through them. Soine were 
 pure white, others white and gold, while many boasted all the colors of the rainbow. 
 They were made of paper, beautifully cut into various patterns. There were numerous 
 altars and images, and numberless little Gautamas; but a deep niche or cave, at the far 
 end of which was a fat idol, with a yellow cloth wrapped round him, seemed a place of 
 peculiar sanctity. This recess would have been quite dark, had it not been for the 
 numberless tapers of yellow wax that were burning before the image. The closeness of 
 the place, the smoke from the candles, and the fumes from the quantity of crackers 
 constantly being let off, rendered respiration almost impossible. An old pon-gyee, how- 
 ever, the only one I ever saw in a temple, seemed quite in his element; his shaven 
 bristly head and coarse features looking ugly enough to serve for some favorite idol, 
 and he seemed a fitting embodiment of so senseless and degrading a worship. Offer- 
 ings of flowers, paper-ornaments, flags, and candles were scattered about in profusion. 
 The beating a bell with a deer’s horn, the explosion of crackers, and the rapid mutter- 
 
i Barmalu 
 
 ing of prayers, made up a din of sounds, the suitable accompaniment of so misdireeted 
 -a devotion.” 
 
 The rosary is in general use, and the Pali words aneitya ! doka ! anatta ! expressing 
 the transitory nature of all sublunary things, are very often repeated. The Burman is 
 singularly free from fanaticism in the exercise of his religion, and his most sacred 
 temples maybe freely entered by the stranger without otfense; indeed, the impartial 
 observer will hardly fail to admit that Buddhism, in the absence of a purer creed, pos- 
 sesses considerable influence for good in the country under consideration. “It teaches 
 man to combat, control, and master the passions of his heart, to make reason predomi- 
 nate over sense, mind over matter, and to practice the virtues required for the attainment 
 of these objects.” 
 
 The sacred edifices are of three kinds: 1. The tope, dagoba, or s/mne (satfee or ^sa- 
 dee), a monument erected to the last Buddha, is a solid, bell-shaped mass of plastered 
 brickwork, tapering to the summit, which is crowned by the tee, or umbrella, of open 
 ironwork. 2. The temple, in which are many images of Gautama. The most remark- 
 able specimen of Burman temple-architecture is the ananda of Pagan. The ground- 
 plan takes the form of a perfect Greek cross; and a tapering spire, with a gilded tee at 
 the height of 168 ft. from the foundation, crowns the whole. 3. The kyoung or monas- 
 tery {vihara) is generally constructed with a roof of several diminishing stages, and is 
 often elaborately adorned. Burman architecture “ differs essentially from that of India 
 in the frequent use of the pointed arch, not only for doors and windows, but also in the 
 vaulted coverings of passages.” 
 
 Cities. — Mandalay, the present capital of B., and seat of royalty, is situated 3 m. from 
 the Irrawaddy, a little to the n. of Amarapura and Ava. It is laid out in three parallel- 
 ograms, one within another, of which the inner two are walled; the palace occupies the 
 center. Ava and Amarapura, each at one time the capital of the empire, are now almost 
 entirely deserted. Pagan represents the past of B. , and is remarkable for its magnifi- 
 cent ruins of temple-architecture, extending over 8 sq.m. ; the prevailing type is the 
 cruciform vaulted temple. 
 
 Government. — The government of B. is a pure despotism, life and property being at 
 the mercy of the reigning sovereign. Many instances of the cruel abuse of arbitrary 
 power, by even recent kings, might be given. The present monarch is, however, mild, 
 approachable, and apparently desires the welfare and happiness of his subjects. The 
 lot-dau, or high court of council, is composed of the four woon-gyees, or principal minis- 
 ters of state. The atwen-woons, or household ministers, are likewise four in number. They 
 receive the royal commands, and are in close attendance upon the king. The woon- 
 douks are a third order of ministers, and act as assistants to the woon-gyees. The decis- 
 ions of the lot-dau, when sanctioned by the king, become law. The Dam-a-thai, a 
 Burman translation of the Institutes of Menu, is also in force. White umbrellas and 
 white elephants are regarded as insignia of royalty. The “ lord white elephant,” indeed, 
 is looked on as an estate of the realm, a mark of universal sovereignty, and a sacred 
 being. It has a palace, a minister, and numerous attendants. — The military power of the 
 country is not great, and of musketeers it is probable that the king could not command 
 more than 18,000. 
 
 The civilization of B. , if not retrograde — which the ruins of Pagan would almost seem 
 to indicate — is stationary and stereotyped, like that of China. All the wealth of the 
 country is lavished on the sacred edifices, £10,000 sterling being sometimes expended on 
 the gilding and beautifying of a single shrine or temple, whilst roads, bridges, and works 
 of public utility are neglected. 
 
 The vernacular tongue of B. belongs to the monosyllabic class of languages, and is 
 without inflection; the character is formed of circles and segments of circles. It is 
 engraved on prepared strips of palm-leaf, and a number of these form a book. Printing 
 is unknown, except where introduced by the missionaries. Pali is the language of the 
 religious literature. 
 
 Commerce. — Since B. was deprived of its harbors and maritime districts, its foreign 
 commerce has been very limited. The principal exports (from B. proper) consist of 
 Sesamum oil, teak-timber, petroleum, sweet-oil, tobacco, lackered boxes, gold leaf, 
 silver, lead, copper, stick-lac, indigo, cocoa-nuts, ponies, wheat, pulse, and cotton. 
 The imports (into the Burman empire) are ngapee (a paste of rank pickled fish, which is 
 eaten with rice, the staple food of the Burman), paddy, rice, dried fish, salt — all these 
 being imported by thousands of tons annually — cotton piece-goods, silk do., and wool- 
 ens. B. carries on an overland traffic with China, exporting cotton and importing silk. 
 A commercial treaty with Britain was concluded in 1867, "but has remained almost a 
 dead letter. 
 
 The standard currency of B., called yowet-ni (red-leaf), is silver, but there is no coin- 
 age. This metal is used, however, of varying degrees of purity, which complicates 
 mercantile transactions, and assayers are employed to find the value of the metal. 
 
 History . — Of the early and mythical history of B., nothing need here be said. The 
 kingdoms of Ava and Pegu long contended for mastery. The latter was in its zenith in. 
 about 1580 a.d. Passing on to 1752, it appears that the Peguans, after a period of sub- 
 jection, obtained the advantage. At this time, however, Alompra, or Aloung Pra, the 
 most celebrated warrior-king in Burman history, rose to power, founded the present 
 
Bnrmah. 
 
 Burnet. 
 
 208 
 
 dynasty, subdued the Peguans, and incorporated their country, as well as many neigh- 
 boring states, with his own. The Burman empire attained its greatest expansion in 
 1822. The wars of 1822-24 and 1852, with the British, reduced B. to its present 
 limits. The savage excesses of the king of B. led in 1879 to the withdrawal of ther 
 British ambassador and his staff. See Yule’s Narrative of the Misdon in 1855; Fytche’s 
 Burma Past and Present (1878); Winter’s Six Months in B. (1858); Capt. Bower’s Bhamo 
 Expedition Vincenti’s Land of the White Elephant {1^1^ sBurmah and it* 
 
 Inhabitants AjadiQv&on'B Mandalay to (1876); M ‘Mahon’s The Karens and 
 
 the Golden Chersonese (1876). 
 
 BTJBMAH, British, includes the three maritime provinces of India beyond the 
 Ganges, which were united under one local administration in 1862. It extends along the 
 eastern side of the bay of Bengal, from 20° 50' to 10° 50' n. lat. It has a coast-line of 
 fully 900 English m., and a total area of 88,556 sq.m., distributed as follows: Aracan„ 
 14,526, Pegu, 27,300; Tenasserim, 46,730. 
 
 The whole of this territory was taken from the king of Burmah in the two wars pro- 
 voked by him. 
 
 Akyab, Kangoon, and Maulmain are the principal seaports of Aracan, Pegu, and 
 Tenasserim respectively. Pegu is the most prosperous of these three divisions, and has- 
 made the most progress within recent times. Pop. of B. ’72, 2,747,148. The Burmans- 
 (including Aracanese and Talcins, or Peguens) number about two millions. Of the other 
 races — Karens, Shans, Chinese, and Hindus — the Karens are the most numerous and 
 interesting. — Report by lieut.col. sir A. P. Phayre, etc. 
 
 BTTKMANN, Peter, the most important member of a Dutch family celebrated for 
 learning, was b. at Utrecht 1668, studied law at the university of that city and of Ley- 
 den, and, after taking his degree in 1688, traveled through Germany and Switzerland. 
 After practicing as an advocate for some years, he was appointed professor of history 
 and rhetoric in the university of Utrecht; which office he subsequently exchanged for 
 the professorship of Greek. In 1715, after the death of Perizonius, he removed to the 
 university of Leyden, where he died 31 Mar., 1741. 
 
 His literary career was very active, and his hot temper and intolerant spirit involved 
 him in many controversies. Among his most distinguished adversaries were Le Clerc 
 and Bentley. His chief works are editions of the Latin classics — Petronious, Velleius 
 Paterculus, Quintilian, Valerius Flaccus, Phsedrus, Ovid, the Portae Minores, Suetonius, 
 Lucan. The first of these appeared in 1709, and the last in 1740. They are character- 
 ized less by taste and critical acumen than by learning, fullness of matter, and beauty 
 of type. 
 
 BURMEISTER, Hermann, b. 1807; a German naturalist; studied medicine and 
 natural history, and in 1842 was appointed professor of zoology in the university of 
 Halle. In 1848, he was a deputy to the Frankfort assembly, and afterwards a represent- 
 ative in the first Prussian chamber. In 1850, he made a survey in Brazil in the interest 
 of science, and visited other parts of South America a few years later. He has published 
 many elaborate works on natural history, travels, etc. 
 
 BURMESE WARE, small cups, etc., made of strips of bamboo woven like fine 
 basket work, the interstices being filled with paste made of wood-oil and fine powders, 
 and when sufficiently hardened the surface smoothed with pumice-stone and water. 
 Sometimes they are ornamented with pictures worked in with the varnish 
 
 BUEN, Richard, was b. in 1720 at the village of Winton, in Westmoreland. After 
 being educated at Queen’s college, Oxford, he received the living of Orton, in his native 
 county, which he continued to hold until his death in 1785. He is widely known as the 
 compiler of two very useful law-books, the Justice of the Peace and Ecclesiastical Law, 
 which have each passed through many editions. He also published a History of the Poor 
 Laws, an edition of Blackstone’s Commentaries, and several sermons and works of a 
 religious nature. 
 
 BURNAP, George Washington, d.d., 1802-1859; a graduate of Harvard and 
 pastor of the First Independent church of Baltimore from 1828 until his death. He was 
 the author of many volumes on religious themes, lectures, a life of Calvert, governor of 
 Maryland, etc. 
 
 BTJENES, Sir Alexander, a distinguished traveler in Central Asia, was b. at Mont- 
 rose, in Scotland, 1805, where his father, who was a cousin of Robert Burns the poet, 
 was an active magistrate. He early entered the Indian army, and his knowledge of 
 oriental languages gained him rapid promotion. After performing some important 
 missions for the Indian government, he was, at his own suggestion, sent on an expeditiou 
 into Central Asia. Starting from Lahore on the 11th Feb., 1832, B., having adopted 
 the dress and usage of the Afghans for greater safety, passed through Peshawur and 
 Cabul, and, crossing the Indian Caucasus, reached Balkh on the 9th June. Thence he 
 
 g assed on to Bokhara, Astrabad, and Teheran, and journeying through Ispahan and 
 hiraz, reached Bushire on the Persian gulf, from whence he embarked for India. He 
 received the special thanks of the governor-general for his travels ; and on his return to 
 England in 1833, he received a warm welcome from the India house and board of con- 
 trol, and was highly honored by the royal geographical and other societies. In Sept., 
 
209 
 
 Burmah* 
 
 Burnet. 
 
 1839. having previously, for his important services, been knighted and promoted to the 
 rank of lieut.col., he was appointed political resident at Cabul, where he was murdered 
 on the breaking out of the insurrection in that city in Nov., 1841 — a tragedy re-enacted 
 in 1879, when sir Louis Cavagnari, newly appointed resident in Cabul, was massacred, 
 with his staff and guards. B. was author of Travels into Bokhara and a work on 
 Cabul. 
 
 SUBNET, the English name of two genera of plants, sanguisorha and poterium, belong- 
 ing to the natural order sanguisorhece — very generally regarded as a suborder of 
 
 rosaceoe — which have much. resemblance to one another, and receive a common name 
 also in other languages. Sanguisorha has hermaphrodite flowers with four stamens; in 
 poterium, the flowers are polygamous, and the stamens indefinite in number. In both, 
 the calyx is 4-fid, and the corolla wanting. Great B. {sanguisorha officinalis) is common 
 in meadows in all parts of Europe, and not unfrequent in some parts of England, par- 
 ticularly where the soil is calcareous. It has a stem 1 to 2 ft. high, pinnate leaves, with 
 about four pair of ovate serrated leaflets and an odd one ; the flowers are crowded in dark 
 red spikes. It is cultivated in Germany for feeding cattle, and is much esteemed for 
 this use, as it grows well even on very poor soils, and the produce is abundant. Cattle 
 are very fond of it. The root is astringent, and was formerly used in medicine. Com- 
 mon B. {poterium sanguisorha) grows in sunny places on hills in the middle and south of 
 Europe, and is common in England, especially in the chalk districts. In habit and 
 foliage, it much resembles the Great B., but the leaflets are smaller and the flowers are 
 in heads of a dull purplish color. It has been much cultivated in some parts of Eng- 
 land as a substitute for clover on chalky soils, and is relished by cattle. It forms great 
 part of the natural pasture of the South Downs, and of the excellent sheep-walks of 
 Salisbury plain. It is regarded as a plant particularly suitable for poor arid soils. It 
 is sometimes cultivated in gardens, and its leaves, which are slightly astringent, are used 
 in salads or soups. They are said to form one of the ingredients of the famous cool 
 tankard, and the name poterium is from Greek word signifying a drinking vessel. — 
 Both this and the preceding are perennial plants. — There are several other species both 
 of sanguisorha and poterium, some of the latter shrubby, natives chiefly of the warmer 
 temperate parts of the world. 
 
 BURNET, a co. in central Texas, on the Colorado river; 995 sq.m. ; pop. ’70, 3688 — 
 358 colored ; in ’80, 6855. The surface is hilly and rocky, with fertile soil. Marble of 
 various colors, limestone, coal, iron, and petroleum are found. Agriculture is the main 
 business. Co. seat, Burnet. 
 
 SUBNET, Gilbert, bishop of Salisbury, was b. at Edinburgh, on the 18th Sept., 
 1643. He was educated at home, and afterwards at Marischal college, Aberdeen, where 
 he pursued his studies so diligently, that he took his degree of m.a. liefore he was 14. 
 In the course of a 5"ear he made up his mind to enter the church, and read so hard at 
 theology, that in less than three years he had mastered the chief systems of divinity, 
 besides having gone over the Old and New Testaments in the original, with all the com- 
 mentaries of note in his time. In 1663, he visited Cambridge, Oxford, and London, 
 where he met with many of the leading divines of England. Next year, he passed over 
 into Holland and perfected his knowledge of Hebrew under a learned rabbin of Amster- 
 dam. In 1665, he was presented to the parish of Saltoun, where he remained five years. 
 In 1669, he was appointed professor of divinity in the university of Glasgow, but having 
 mixed himself up in the politico -ecclesiastical affairs of the time, he brought upon him- 
 self the enmity of Lauderdale, and found it prudent to resign his chair in 1674. He now 
 removed to London, and was made preacher at the Rolls’ chapel by sir Harbottle 
 Grimston, and afterwards lecturer at St. Clement’s. In 1676, he published his Memoirs 
 of the Dukes of Hamilton, and in 1679, the first volume of his History of the Reformation, 
 which procured him a vote of thanks from both houses of parliament. Next year 
 appeared Some Passages in the Life and Death of the Earl of Rochester, in which B. 
 records the religious interviews which he had with that profligate nobleman during his 
 last illness, and which led to the latter’s conviction of the truth of Christianity. In 1681, 
 he published the second volume of his History of the Reformation, and in 1682 his Life 
 of Sir Matthew Hale. The efforts which had previously been made, were now repeated, 
 to induce him to break with the liberal and moderate party, and to attach himself to the 
 king. He was offered the bishopric of Chichester, but refused it. In 1683 he narrowly 
 escaped being brought into trouble in regard to the Ryehouse plot. He conducted 
 the defense, attended the execution, and vindicated the memory of his friend lord 
 William Russell. The king exhibited his unkingly spite by depriving B. of his St. 
 Clement’s lectureship. On the accession of James II., he went to the continent, and 
 traveled through France, Italy, Switzerland, and Germany. In 1684, he was introduced 
 to the prince of Orange, with whom he became a great favorite, and by whom he was 
 frequently consulted in reference to the great scheme for the deliverance of England. 
 When William came over, B. accompanied him in the capacity of royal chaplain, and 
 shortly after, was appointed bishop of Salisbury. He entered on the duties of his diocese 
 with great ardor; but his first pastoral letter, in which he founded the right of William 
 to the throne on conquest, gave so much offense to both houses of parliament, that they 
 ordered it to be burned by the hands of the common hangman. William, however, who 
 
 . V, K. m.-14 
 
Burnet. 
 
 Burnoof. 
 
 210 
 
 knew the excellent qualities of the bishop, was not greatly impressed by this solemn 
 performance, and continued to trust B. to the end of his life. In 1698, B, was appointed 
 preceptor to the duke of Gloucester; in 1699, he published his celebrated exposition of the 
 39 articles, which was condemned as heterodox by that not very competent assembly, 
 the house of lords. In 1714, appeared the third volume of his History of the Reformation. 
 In the spring of 1715, he was attacked by a pleuritic fever, and carried off on the 17th 
 of Mar., in the 72d year of his age. B. was thrice married: his first wife was remarka- 
 ble for her beauty ; the second, for her fortune ; and the third, for her piety. 
 
 Soon after B.’s death, appeared Bishop B.'s History of his Own Time, from the 
 Restoration of King Charles II. to the Conclusion of the Treaty of Peace at Utrecht, in the 
 Reign of Queen Anne. It was sarcastically but foolishly abused by the tory writers of 
 the day — Swift, Pope, Arbuthnot, and others. B. was a man of strict, almost of puritanic 
 virtue; yet his charity, geniality, and moderation of sentiment might be imitated with 
 advantage even in our own day. His style is neither elegant nor correct, and his judg- 
 ment is not always reliable, yet the honesty, earnestness, simplicity, and vigor of his 
 writings, as well as their fullness of details, make his works very valuable to the student 
 of history. 
 
 BURNET, Jacob, ll.d., 1770-1853; a graduate of Princeton, and one of the early 
 settlers of Cincinnati; judge of the Ohio supreme court in 1821, and U. S. senator in 1828. 
 He published Notes on the Early Settlement of the North-west Territory. 
 
 BTTENET, John, a painter, engraver, and author, wash. atFisherrow, near Edinburgh, 
 Mar. , 1784. He was first brought under the notice of the public through his engravings 
 of Wilkie’s works, which he executed in a most admirable manner. Of his own paintings, 
 the best known engraving is that of “ Greenwich Pensioners receiving News of the Battle 
 of Trafalgar.” He has written several works on art, illustrated by drawings and engrav- 
 ings of his own, the most important of which is a Practical Treatise on Painting. He is 
 also the author of Rembrandt and his Works, 4to, 1849; and in conjunction with Mr. 
 Peter Cunningham, of Life and Works of J. M. W. Turner, 1852. He died in 1868. 
 
 BUKNET, Thomas, best known from his Theory of the Earth, was b. in Yorkshire, 
 1635, and studied at Cambridge. After acting as traveling tutor to several noblemen, he 
 was elected master of the charter-house (1685), and later, succeeded archbishop Tillotson 
 as clerk of tlie closet to William HI. But having (1692) published a work, Archceologice 
 Philosophicce, sire Doctrina Antigua de Rerum Originibus (also in English), displaying 
 great learning, but treating the Mosaic account of the fall as an allegory, he was obliged 
 to retire from the clerkship, and lived in the charter-house till his death, in 1715. His 
 Telluris Theoria Sacra (first part, 1680; second, 1689) was written in Latin, but translated, 
 or rather recomposed in English, by the author. It is an ingenious speculation, written in 
 ignorance of the facts of the earth’s structure, and is therefore a mere system of cosmogony, 
 and not geology. But it abounds in sublime and poetical conceptions and descriptions, 
 conveyed in language of extraordinary eloquence, and called forth the highest applause 
 at the time. 
 
 BURNETT, a co. in n.w. Wisconsin, on the St. Croix river, 1100 sq.m.; pop. ’80, 
 3140. Co. seat, Gordon. 
 
 BURNETT, Waldo Irving, 1828-54; a naturalist and microscopist; b. Mass. He 
 did a great amount of microscopical work within the five years preceding his death. 
 His chief publication was a prize essay on The Cell, its Physiology, Pathology, and Philosophy, 
 deduced from Original Obserrations; to which is added its History and Criticism. 
 
 BURNETT PRIZES, The, are two theological premiums, founded by Mr. Burnett of 
 Dens, Aberdeenshire. This gentleman (b. 1729 — d. 1784) was a general merchant in 
 Aberdeen, and for many years during his lifetime spent £300 annually on the poor. On 
 his death, he bequeathed the fortune he had made to found the above prizes, as well as for 
 the establishmeut of funds to relieve poor persons and pauper lunatics, and to support a 
 jail chaplain, in Aberdeen. He directed the prize fund to be accumulated for 40 years 
 at a time, and the prizes (not less than £1200 and £400) to be awarded to the authors of 
 the two best treatises on “ The evidence that there is a Being all-powerful, wise, and 
 good, by whom everything exists; and particularly to obviate difficulties regarding the 
 wisdom and goodness of the Deity; and this independent of written revelation, and of 
 the revelation of the Lord Jesus; and from the whole to point out the inferences most 
 necessary and useful to mankind.” The competition is open to the whole world, and the 
 prizes are adjudicated by three persons appointed by the trustees of the testator, together 
 with the ministers of the established church of Aberdeen, and the principals and professors 
 of King’s and Marischal colleges, Aberdeen. On the first competition in 1815, 50 essays 
 were given in; and the judges awarded the first prize, £1200, to Dr. William Lawrence 
 Brown, principal of Marischal college and university of Aberdeen, for an essay entitled 
 The Existence of a Supreme Creator; and the second prize, £400, to the Rev. John Bird 
 Sumner, afterwards archbishop of Canterbury, for an essay entitled Records of Creation. 
 On the second competition, in 1855, 208 essays were given in; and the judges. Rev. Baden 
 Powell, Mr. Henry Rogers, and Mr. Isaac Taylor, awarded the first prize, £1800, to the Rev. 
 R. A. Thompson, Lincolnshire, for an essay entitled Christian Theism; and the second prize, 
 £600, to the Rev. Dr. John Tulloch, principal of St. Mary’s college, St. Andrews, for an 
 
211 
 
 Burnet. 
 
 Burnouf. 
 
 essay on Theism. The above four essays have been published in accordance with Mr. 
 Burnett’s deed. It is expected that £10,000 will be available in 1895. 
 
 BUENETT’S DISINFECTING LIQUID and ANTISEPTIC FLUID is a liquid intro- 
 duced by sir W. Burnett for the purpose of deodorizing the bilge-water of ships, sew- 
 erage-water, etc. It is a strong solution (sp.gr. 2 ) of chloride of zinc, accompanied by 
 a small amount of chloride of iron ; and when intended to be used, it is mixed with water 
 in the proportion of one pint to five gallons of water. The liquid acts only as a deodo- 
 rizer and antiseptic (see Antiseptics), and does not yield any vapor which can exhibit 
 the properties of a disinfectant (q.v.). It is of service in preserving dead animal tis- 
 sues, as in the dissecting-room, and in jars containing anatomical specimens. It has 
 little action on knives or steel instruments. When added to bilge or sewerage water, 
 the chloride of zinc (ZnCl) mainly acts by decomposing the offensive sulphide of ammo- 
 nium (NH 4 S), which it does by forming the sulphide of zinc (ZnS) and chloride of 
 ammonium (NH 4 CI), both of which are odorless. The strong solution of chloride of 
 zinc has also been applied to the preservation of timber, and the process of so treating 
 wood is called, after its inventor, Burnettizing. Crewe's disinfectant liquid is chemically 
 the same as the above. 
 
 BUENEY, Dr. Charles, a musical composer, celebrated as the author of the General 
 History of Music, was b. at Shrewsbury, 1726. Having studied music in his native city, in 
 Chester, and under Dr. Arne in London, he commenced giving lessons in music himself. 
 After composing three pieces — Robin Hood, Alfi'ed, and Queen Mah — for Drury Lane, B. 
 London, and settled at Lynn, in Norfolk, where he designed his work on the Histoi'y of 
 Music. In 1770-72, he traveled in France, Italy, the Netherlands, and Germany, col- 
 lecting materials for his proposed work, and published an essay on the Present State of 
 Mumc in France and Italy, etc. (2 vols., Lond. 1772). This was followed by his Gen- 
 eral History of Music from the Earliest Ages to the Present Period (4 vols., Lond. 1776-89.) 
 Besides other minor works, B. wrote a Life of Handel, and nearly all the musical 
 articles in Rees’s Cyclopaedia. He was appointed organist to the hospital at Chelsea in 
 1789. He died in 1815. He was intimately acquainted with many of the most eminent 
 men of the day, including Edmund Burke and Dr. Johnston. — His second daughter, 
 Francisca B. (afterwards Madame D’Arblay), became distinguished as authoress of 
 Emelina, Cecilia, Georgina, and Camilla — novels formerly very popular, and still retaining 
 some interest. 
 
 BURNEY, Frances (Madame D’Arblay). See Burney, Dr. Charles, ante. 
 
 BUENING GLASSES and MIEEOES. See Heat, Lens, and Mirror. 
 
 BUENLEY, a thriving t. and parliamentary borough in Lancashire, situated in a nar- 
 row vale on the banks oif the Brun, a mile and a half above its junction with the North 
 Calder, and 24 m. n. of Manchester. Pop. ’71, of p. b., 44,320. It has manufactures 
 of cottons and woolens, calico-printing works, iron and brass foundries, machine- 
 making works, breweries, tanneries, and rope-works. There are collieries in the vicin- 
 ity, and traffic is faciliated by railways and canals, which unite it with the principal 
 centers of trade in Lancashire and Yorkshire. B. returns one member to parliament. 
 
 A Roman vicinal way passed through the town, part of which is still known and 
 used as the “Long Causeway.” Roman coins, pottery, urns, etc., have been found 
 near the town, and an extensive series of beacons, encampments, dikes, etc., occupy 
 the slopes of the hills in the neighborhood for a linear distance of more than 10 miles. 
 From the name of the river, Brun, and other circumstances, these slopes are supposed 
 to furnish a very probable site for the battle of Brunnanburh, so celebrated in Saxon 
 history. 
 
 BUENOUF, Eugene, one of the most distinguished orientalists of modern times, was 
 b. at Paris, April 1, 1801, and after entering on the study of law, betook himself to the 
 oriental languages, especially those of India and Persia. In conjunction with prof. 
 Lassen of Bonn, he published, in 1826, Essai sur le Pali, which was followed, in 1827, 
 by Observations Gh'ammaticales sur quelques Passages de V Essai sur le Pali. His great 
 aim, however, at this time, was to obtain a complete knowledge of the remains of the 
 religious literature in the Zend, or old Persic language, which had been neglected since 
 the time of Anquetil du Perron, or, at least, not philologically and critically 
 examined. B. undertook to decipher those curious MSS. which Anquetil du Perron 
 had brought home with him, and wffiich lay unregarded in the Bibliotheque Imperiale. 
 He commenced by causing the chef-d'oeuvre of old Persic literature, the Vendidad-Sade 
 (one of the books of Zoroaster), to be lithographed with great care, and published 
 from time to time in the Journal Asiatique the brilliant results of his laborious 
 studies, which drew upon him the regard of the learned world. In 1834, he pub- 
 lished the first volume of his Commentaires sur le Tagna I'un des Livres Liturgiques des 
 Parses, a work which, for the first time, rendered possible a knowledge not only of the 
 dogmas, but also of the language of Zoroaster. It is a masterpiece of conscientious 
 industry, united with copious lingual and antiquarian lore. His studies in the Zend 
 language induced him to make an attempt to decipher the cuneiform inscriptions of 
 Persepolis, in his Memoire sur deux Inscriptions Cuneiformes (Par. 1836). In 1840, he 
 published the text along with a translation of the Bhdgavat Purdna, a system of Indian 
 
Burns. 
 
 Burnt. 
 
 212 
 
 mythology and tradition. As the fruit of his study of the Sanscrit books of the Bud- 
 dhists, appeared in 1845 the Introduction d VHistoire du Boudhisme. See Buddhism. 
 This great work absorbed for six years the whole energies of B., who was now the 
 recognized successor of Silvestre de Sacy. It is to be regretted that death did not per- 
 mit him to continue his labors further. He died May 28, 1852. 
 
 BURNS, Francis, d.d., 1809-63; b. in New York; a colored preacher who became 
 a bishop of the Methodist Episcopal church. In 1834, he was a missionary in Liberia, 
 where, in 1851, he founded the Monrovia academy. 
 
 BTJKNS, Rev. Jabez, d.d., a Baptist minister, and one of the most prolific religious 
 writers of the 19th c., was b, at Oldham, near Manchester, in 1805, and was educated at 
 Chester, and afterwards at Oldham grammar-school. After helping his father as a 
 medical practitioner, and acting as assistant in a drapery establishment, he joined the 
 Methodist New Connection, and removed at the age of 21 to London, In 1828 and 1829, 
 he published his first two works. The GhHstian Bketch-hook and The Spiritual Cabinet, 
 which gained him much popularity among the religious public. After having exercised 
 the functions of the ministry at Perth, in Scotland, for a few years, he returned to 
 London in 1835, to become minister of the General Baptist congregation assembling in 
 New Church street chapel, Marylebone. Here his fame increased so much, that it was 
 found necessary twice to enlarge his chapel during the first 25 years of his ministry, in 
 order to afford room for the large numbers who flocked to hear him. He was elected 
 by the body to which he belonged to fill various posts of honor, and lectured in all parts 
 of the United Kingdom on temperance, peace, abolition of capital punishment, etc. In 
 1839, Dr. B. became editor of the Temperance Journal. About 1846, he received the 
 degree of d.d. from the Wesleyan university of Middleton, Conn. Meantime his 
 pen had not been idle, the number of his separate works being upwards of 30, some of 
 them consisting of a number of volumes, and one of them. Sketches and Skeletons of Ser- 
 mons, of 15 yo\s. , having reached the 14th edition. The following are the names of a 
 few: Christian Exercises for every Loris Day (1858); Christian Philosophy (1849); Death- 
 bed Triumphs of Eminent Christians; Light for the House of Mourning (1850); Pulpit 
 Cyclopaedia, 4 vols. (1846-60); Marriage Gift-book and Bridal Token (1862); etc,, which 
 are all highly popular among a large section of the English and American evangelical 
 religious world. Dr. B. died in 1876. 
 
 BURNS, Robert, the great lyric poet of Scotland, was b. 25th Jan., 1759, in a small 
 -cottage near Ayr. His father, then a nursery-gardener, and afterwards the occupant of 
 a small farm, had to struggle all his life with poverty and misfortune, but made every 
 •exertion to give his children a good education ; and the young poet enjoyed an amount 
 of instruction and miscellaneous reading which, to those unacquainted with the habits of 
 the Scottish peasantry, would seem incompatible with the straitened circumstances and 
 ■early toil which were his lot. About his 16th year, he began composing verses in the 
 Scottish dialect, which attracted notice in the vicinity, and extended the circle of his 
 acquaintance; and thus he became exposed to temptations which, acting on an extremely 
 sociable and passionate disposition, broke in upon the previous sobriety and correctness 
 of his life. A small farm, on which he had entered with his brother in 1781, proved 
 far from a prosperous undertaking; and being harassed and imbittered by other misfor- 
 tunes — the results of imprudence — he resolved to leave his native land, and go to 
 Jamaica. Partly to procure the means of paying his passage, he published a collection 
 of his poems at Kilmarnock in 1786. The reception these met with was highly favor- 
 able, and his genius was recognized in quarters where he had not looked for notice. 
 While preparing to embark, he received a letter encouraging him to go to Edinburgh, 
 and issue a new edition. This was the turning-point of his life. During his stay in the 
 Scottish metropolis, he associated with all that was eminent in letters, rank, and fashion, 
 and his conversational powers excited little less admiration than his poetry. The profits 
 of the publication were considerable, and enabled him to take the farm of Ellisland, 
 near Dumfries, where he settled in 1788, having publicly ratified his marriage with 
 Jean Armour. With his farm he conjoined the office of an exciseman ; but after 3 or 4 
 years, he was obliged to give up farming, and from that time lived in Dumfries, depen- 
 dent on his salary from the excise, which, at first, only £50, never rose above £70. The 
 striking contrasts in the lot of the rich and the poor with which his residence in Edin- 
 burgh had impressed him, made him hail the French revolution with enthusiasm ; and 
 some imprudent expressions of his having been reported to the authorities, destroyed 
 his prospects of promotion in the service, and only the interference of an influential 
 friend prevented him from losing his office. Such was then the terror of innovation, 
 and the hatred of everything like liberal opinions, that many of the better classes, who 
 had fSted the poet, now shunned the “ Jacobin,” as they stigmatized him. Imbittered 
 by what he felt to be injustice, he recklessly allowed those habits of dissipation to 
 grow upon him which made the more respectable of all classes look coldly on him; 
 and the remorse thus occasioned in his calmer moments aggravated that tendency to 
 melancholy which the gloom and toil of his early years had probably implanted in his 
 constitution. Broken in health, he died 21st July, 1796, 
 
 The poetry of B. is purely the outpouring of the moment — the response of the feel- 
 ings to the immediate circumstances of life. Its charm and power lie in the justness 
 
213 
 
 Bumji* 
 
 Burnt* 
 
 of the feelings expressed, and in the truthfulness and freshness which it derives direct 
 from life. Seldom have such manliness, tenderness, and passion been united as in the 
 songs of Burns. They formed the first awakening of the spirit of true poetry in Britain 
 after a long slumber. The popularity that B. instantly acquired has continued unabated, 
 not only in his native Scotland, but wherever English is spoken; his poems have also 
 been translated into almost every European tongue. Dr. Currie, of Liverpool, pub- 
 lished the first collected edition of his poems and letters, with a life (4 vols., Lond., 
 1800). Several more complete collections have appeared since, such as that by Allan 
 Cunningham (8 vols., Lond. 1834), and that by Mr. Scott Douglas, of which the first 
 volumes appeared in 1877. A life of B., by Lockhart, appeared, Edin. 1828. In The 
 Life and Works of Burns (Edin. 1851-62), by R. Chambers, the poems are incorporated 
 in the narrative in chronological order. 
 
 In 1859, the centenary of B.’s birth was celebrated with unparalleled enthusiasm, 
 not only in every city and almost in every village of Scotland, but in the chief cities 
 of England, and throughout America, the British colonies,* and India. 
 
 BURNSIDE, Ambkosb Eyerett, b. Ind., 1824; a graduate of West Point, 
 serving in the army until 1853, when he resigned and established in Rhode Island a 
 factory for making a breech- loading rifle of his own invention. In the civil war he 
 served as colonel, and brig, and maj.gen. of volunteers, and was in many important 
 engagements. He resigned at the close of the war, and in 1866 was chosen governor of 
 Rhode Island; was re-elected twice afterwards; in 1875 became U. S. senator. 
 
 BURNS and SCALDS are injuries to the surface of the living body arising from exces- 
 sive heat — a scald implying that the heat proceeded from a fluid medium, as boiling 
 water; a burn, from a solid. The injury is much the same in both cases; therefore the 
 directions for the treatment of burns will be applicable also to scalds. These injuries 
 may be divided into three classes: 1. Burns resulting in simple redness of the skin; 2. 
 Burns resulting in vesication or blistering; 3. Burns resulting in sloughing, or death of 
 the part. The first object, after the accident has occurred, is to relieve the suffering; 
 and cold applied either in the form of ice or water seems in most cases to have almost a 
 specific power in allaying pain and checking the advance of inflammation. In other 
 cases, moderate warmth is found more efficacious, and we must be guided mainly by the 
 sensations of the sufferer as to which of these remedies we make use of. In very severe 
 cases, opium or chloroform may be employed. But if the injury the body has received 
 be very serious, the patient complains less of, pain than of cold; he shivers, is much 
 depressed, and must be well supplied with stimulants, to prevent his dying from the 
 shock. 
 
 The best local application is the Carron-oil, which derives its name from the famous 
 ironworks, where it has been used for many years. It consists of equal parts of olive- 
 oil and lime-water, and should be applied on linen rags or cotton-wool. Blisters may be 
 pricked, and the contained serum allowed to trickle away, but on no account is the 
 raised skin to be removed. The dressings should not be changed oftener than cleanli- 
 ness requires; and as each portion of the old dressing is removed, it must at once be re- 
 placed with fresh, so that as little exposure as possible of the burnt surface may take 
 place. The main principle of treatment is exclusion of the air from the injured part ; 
 and so long as this is effected, it matters but little what remedial agent is employed. 
 •Great care must be taken in the treatment of a sore resulting from a burn, that the con- 
 traction of the scar does not cause distortion of the neighboring parts. 
 
 When the clothes catch fire, the person should lie down on the floor, and roll herself, 
 or be rolled, in the rug, table-cover, or anything sufficiently voluminous to stifle the 
 flames; and afterwards the clothes, especially stockings, should be removed with great 
 care, lest the cuticle should separate with them, which would materially increase the 
 sufferings of the patient. 
 
 Extensive scalds or burns are very fatal to young children ; and it must be remem- 
 bered that their skin is more susceptible to external impressions, and will suffer from a 
 degree of heat innocuous to an adult. Infants have frequently been scalded to death in 
 too hot baths, or by too hot fomentations. The principles of treatment for burns pro- 
 duced by the contact of chemical agents to the skin, are the same as those for burns by 
 fire. 
 
 BURNTIS'LAND, a seaport t. of Fifeshire, on the n. shore of the firth of Forth, about 
 8 m. n.n.w. of Edinburgh. It consists of one long street, clean and well kept, with a 
 back street running parallel, and some diverging lanes. B. is an important station of 
 the North British railway, having a steamboat ferry connecting it with Granton, the 
 station on the opposite side of the Forth. It has a commodious harbor, which was greatly 
 improved in 1876, and dock. Its trade consists principally of distilling, and the ship- 
 ping of coal and iron; and in summer it is considerably resorted to as a convenient 
 watering-place. It unites with Kinghorn, Dysart, and Kirkcaldy to send one member 
 to parliament. Pop. ’71, 3422. 
 
 BURNT OFFERING. See Sacrifice. 
 
 ^ BURNT SIENNA, a fine orange-red pigment, transparent and permanent, used both 
 Jn oil and water-color painting. It is obtained by simply burning the ferruginous 
 
Burnt. 
 
 Bursary. 
 
 214 
 
 ochreous earth known as Terra, di Sienna, Excellent greens are produced by mixing it 
 with Prussian blue. It mixes well with other pigments generally, and dries quickly. 
 
 BUENT STONES, antique carnelians found in ruins, and seeming to have been acted 
 upon by tire, having a dull appearance externally, but exhibiting a beautiful red color 
 when held up to the light. They are sold at a very high price, particularly if to the 
 natural beauty of the stone is added the merit of tine workmanship. They were once, 
 however, more esteemed than now, and an imitation of them, by burning the upper sur- 
 face of carnelians with a hot iron, was very fashionable. 
 
 BUENT UMBEE, a pigment of a russet-brown color, is semi-transparent, mixes well 
 with other pigments, and dries quickly. It is obtained by burning umber, an ochreous 
 earth containing manganese, and deriving its name from the place where it was first 
 discovered — Umbria, in Italy. 
 
 BUENUG'GUE, a t. of India, in Guzerat, the territory of the Guicowar, 52 m. n. from 
 Ahmedabad, in n. lat. 23° 48', e. long. 72° 38'. It is a place of considerable trade, which 
 is mostly in the hands of wealthy Brahmans. Pop. 12,000. 
 
 BUR OAK, Quercus macrocarpa (Michx.), a valuable tree for timber, found in the 
 Atlantic and western states ; sometimes called the mossy-cup oak. 
 
 BURR, Aaron, 1716-57; a Connecticut teacher and clergyman; in 1738, pastor of 
 the Presbyterian church in Newark, N. J., and in 1748 second president of the college 
 of New Jersey. He published a Latin grammar, several sermons, and The Supreme 
 Deity of Our Lord Jesus Christ Maintained. His wife was a daughter of Jonathan 
 Edwards. 
 
 BURR, Aaron, son of the clergyman Aaron Burr; b. N. J., Feb. 6, 1756; d. 
 N. Y., Sept. 14, 1836. He was left an orphan before the age of three; graduated at 
 Princeton in 1772; in 1775, went into the army as a private; at Arnold’s attack on 
 Quebec, acted as aid to gen. Montgomery, and endeavored to bring off the body of that 
 officer, who fell at his side. He acted as brigade-major to Arnold, and in May, 1776, he 
 became a member of Washington’s military family, which he left after a few weeks 
 to become aid to gen. Putnam. In 1777, he was made lieut.col., and won distinction 
 at Monmouth in command of a brigade. In 1778-79, he was stationed near New York, 
 and was for a short time in command of West Point. He was always opposed to Wash- 
 ington, whose military talents he esteemed very lightly. B. resigned in consequence 
 of ill health in the spring of 1779, and three years later married Mrs. Prevost, the widow 
 of a British officer, was admitted to the bar, and began the practice of law at Albany, 
 N. Y. In 1784, and again in 1798-99, he was elected to the state assembly. In 1789, 
 he was appointed attorney-general of the state, and in 1791 was chosen U. S. 
 senator. He was an early, zealous, and unscrupulous partisan leader among the 
 ‘•'republicans” (afterwards “democrats”), and the especial rival of Alexander Hamilton, 
 the prominent leader of the federalists. In the presidential struggle of 1800, John 
 Adams (then president), Thomas Jefferson, Charles C. Pinckney, and B. were the 
 candidates, and the votes for Jefferson and B. were equal — 73 for each. As the con- 
 stitution then provided, the person having the greatest number of electoral votes was to 
 be president, and the next highest was to be vice-president. This equal division 
 devolved upon the house of representatives the settlement of the matter, and there 
 each state had one vote only, a majority of all the states being necessary to elect. 
 After a week of balloting, Jefferson was selected the president, B. being vice-presi- 
 dent. He had been favored by Jefferson for that place from the first, but his ambition 
 was higher, and he did his utmost to defeat Jefferson, who was the regular candidate of 
 the party. This course politically ruined B. ; he was thereafter trusted by no party, 
 though in 1804 the federalists nominated him for governor of New York, the result 
 being his defeat by Morgan Lewis. These disappointments and defeats, added to the 
 intensely bitter character of the partisan warfare of the time, led to the duel (July 11, 
 1804) in which Hamilton was killed by Burr. For this act, which was then deemed 
 little less than murder, B. was legally disfranchised in New York, and covered with 
 the heavier curse of popular indignation. In the spring of 1805, he started for the 
 western part of the country, bent, as was generally believed, upon establishing a govern- 
 ment in the Mexican territories, and possibly comprising a portion of the Louisiana pur- 
 chase. He bought a large tract of land on Red river, and intimated that the conquest of 
 Mexican states was a part of the plan. It was in the course of these operations that he 
 plundered the famous Blennerhassett (q.v.). President Jefferson caused him to be 
 arrested (Feb. 19. 1807, in Alabama) on a charge of treason, for which he was tried the 
 next month at Richmond, Va. The jury gave a verdict of acquittal, and the next year 
 he visited Europe to raise the means for an attempt upon Mexico. Four years of effort 
 amounted to nothing, and in 1812 he returned in extreme poverty, and began to practice 
 law in New York; but his course had alienated the people, and he could never regain 
 his position in the courts. At the age of 78 he married Madame Jumel, a widow, who 
 had a large estate in the upper part of the city of New York; but they were soon after- 
 ward divorced, and B. died in 1836 on Staten island in poverty and utter abandon- 
 ment, not onW because of his political course, but more in consequence of his social 
 character, tfe had but one legitimate child, a daughter named Theodosia, who became 
 
215 
 
 Burnt. 
 
 Bursary. 
 
 tne wife of Josepli Allston, governor of South Carolina. This daughter was probably 
 the only human being except himself whom B. ever really loved; and she sailed from 
 Charleston in the spring of 1812 on a visit to her father (who had just arrived from 
 Europe), but the schooner on which she was a passenger was never afterwards heard of. 
 There have been many stories told of its fate, and three or more dying prisoners have 
 given relations of their part in the robbery and destruction of the vessel, but none have 
 proved trustworthy. The most probable theory is that the schooner foundered off cape 
 Hatteras in a furious storm that came soon after she sailed. 
 
 BURRANPOOTER. See Brahmaputra, ante. 
 
 BURRHUS, or BURRUS, Afranius, d. 62 a.d. ; a Roman praetor who promoted 
 Hero’s advancement to the throne. With Seneca’s assistance, B. successfully resisted 
 many of Nero’s tyrannous acts; he opposed the murders planned by Agrippina, but 
 would not become Nero’s accomplice in her assassination or in that of Octavia. This is 
 one story; but another is that he congratulated the royal monster upon the murder of 
 his mother, and had his share of the spoils of Britannicus. 
 
 BURRIA'NA, a t. of Spain, in the province of Castellon-de-la-Plana, about 8 m. s. 
 from the town of that name, is situated on the left bank of the Rio Seco, about 1 m. 
 from its mouth in the Mediterranean. It has a pop. of 6200, who are chiefly engaged 
 in agriculture and Ashing; and exports wine, oil, and fruit. 
 
 BURRILL, James, ll.d., 1772-1820; b. R. I.; graduated at Brown university, and 
 in 1791 began practicing law. From 1797 to 1813, he was attorney-general of Rhode 
 Island; in 1816, chief-justice; and in 1817, senator in congress, where he was an able 
 opponent of the Missouri compromise. 
 
 EURRITT, Elihu, a distinguished advocate of the doctrines of the peace society, and 
 widely known as “the learned blacksmith,” was born at New Britain in Conn., United 
 States, in 1811. He was brought up to the trade of a blacksmith, but devoted all his 
 leisure to study, especially to mathematics and languages. In the latter field of study, 
 his range has been very wide, embracing more or less Latin, Greek, Hebrew, Arabic, and 
 other oriental tongues, and almost all modern European and Slavonic languages. He 
 is, however, much better known to the world as an earnest apostle of peace than as a 
 scholar. To preach the doctrine of “universal brotherhood,” he has travekd through 
 Europe and the United States. His chief works are Sparks from the Anvil, Olive Leaves, 
 Peace Papers, and Lectures and Speeches. He has taken a prominent part in the peace 
 oongresses of Brussels, Paris, Frankfort, London, and Edinburgh; and in advocating an 
 ocean penny-postage. For many years he resided in England, part of the time as U. S. 
 uonsui at Birmingham. He d. 7th Mar., 1879. 
 
 BURROUGHS, George, a graduate of Harvard, and preacher in Falmouth, Mass., 
 in 1676, and in Salem in 1680. He was accused of witchcraft in having “tortured, 
 afflicted, pined, consumed, wasted, and tormented” one Mary Wolcott. Though a 
 man of the most unblemished character, he was condemned and hung at Salem, Aug. 
 19, 1692. 
 
 BURROUGHS, Stephen, 1765-1860; a native of New Hampshire, who ran away 
 from home when but 14 years of age and joined the army; deserted; became a student 
 at Dartmouth college, where he committed various offenses and escaped; served for a 
 time on a privateer ; practiced medicine; taught school; officiated as pastor of a Con- 
 gregational church until he was convicted of passing counterfeit money and imprisoned 
 at Northampton. He set fire to the jail in hope of escaping, but did not succeed, and 
 was sent to Castle island in Boston harbor, to a prison from which he escaped, with seven 
 others, only to be recaptured. When finally released, he went to Canada, and was for 
 years the chief of a band of counterfeiters, Late in life he was converted and became 
 a member of the Roman Catholic church and a private, teacher for the sons of wealthy 
 citizens; and, it is said, “ was esteemed and respected by all.” His Memoirs of My Own 
 Life was once as popular as the life of Jack Sheppard. 
 
 BURROWING OWL, or Coqutmbo Owl, Athene cunicularia, a species of owl that 
 lives in the burrows of the prairie dog, or digs a home for itself; and seeks its prey 
 (chiefly small insects) in daylight rather than like other owls in the night. 
 
 BURROWS, William, 1785-1813; entered the U. S. navy in 1779, and served on the 
 Barbary station. In the war with England he commanded the Enterprise in the engage- 
 ment with XhQ Boxer off Portland, Me., Sept. 5, 1813. The Boxer w^as taken; but B. 
 was mortally wounded, living only long enough to receive the surrender. The 
 English commander was also killed, and both offleers were buried near each other at 
 Portland. 
 
 BURRSTONE. See Buhrstone, ante. 
 
 BURSARY (Fr. bourse, Lat. bursa, a purse), the annual proceed of a sum permanently 
 invested for the maintenance of a student at a university. A number of small bur- 
 saries were till lately the only equivalents at the Scotch universities for the scholarships 
 of the English. Their large number and the small amount of each was, in course of 
 time, found to have a prejudicial effect, more particularly at Aberdeen, which possessed 
 the largest number, and where a practice had obtained of multiplying bursars on the 
 
Burscbenschaft. 
 
 Burton. 
 
 216 
 
 foundation, at the discretion of the senatus or patrons. Both the university commission- 
 ers of 1831 and those of 1863 expressed their opinion that it was less provision for 
 encouraging learning in its earlier stages than adequate inducements to persons who- 
 have passed the preliminary class to make learning the business of their lives, that was- 
 wanted in Scotland. The general effect of the ordinances issued by the commissioners of 
 1863, in carrying out the directions of act 21 and 22 Viet. c. 83, was to consolidate somo 
 of the smallest bursaries into others of greater value, and in some instances to remove 
 restrictions that had proved injurious, while a large number was thrown open to com- 
 petition. There are, however, still a large proportion of purely presentation bursaries, 
 and in some there is a preference given to a particular -name, or to natives of a par- 
 ticular district. At Aberdeen, the commissioners founded eight scholarships of £65' 
 annual value; at St. Andrews they so modified the Ramsay foundation as to found two 
 scholarships of £60; and in Edinburgh they acquired funds sufficient to establish the 
 Pitt and Mackenzie scholarships of £60 and £120 annual value. Since 1863, a large num- 
 ber of scholarships, tenable by graduates, and fellowships, have been founded by private 
 individuals on a more liberal scale than the old bursaries, particularly in Edinburgh, 
 and Glasgow. At Edinburgh there are at present about 200 bursaries, of which above 
 100 are in arts, and 30 in theology; they vary in amount from £2 15s. 6d. to £100. 
 Among the most considerable of them are two of £90, founded in 1809 by Dr. Donald 
 Grant, for students of his own surname; one founded by sir John Maepherson in 1821, 
 worth £88, for Highland students; the Jardine competition bursary of £40, four Lennie 
 bursaries of £48, four Bruce bursaries of £30, and three of £40; two competition bur- 
 saries of £100 and £50 respectively, founded in 1860 by Mr. Patrick of Roughwood, for 
 young men educated in Ayrshire; two bursaries founded in 1865 by Miss Scott of Horse- 
 liehill, and one by Miss Harrison in 1867, for £40 each; and two founded by the Rev. 
 John Spence in 1867, for £50. The scholarships for graduates are about 30, varying in 
 amount from £60 to £120; and there are about eight fellowships varying from £100 ta 
 £160. Of 190 bursaries at Glasgow, many of them small, the most considerable are six 
 founded by lord Dundonald in 1672, four in philosophy and two in divinity, of £40; 
 two by Mr. Patrick, of £100 and £50 respectively; and the Brisbane medical bursary of 
 £50, founded in 1877. Glasgow has also 14 exhibitions to Balliol college, Oxford, on 
 the Snell f^jundation (q.v.), and about 30 scholarships of from £50 to £200, the highest, 
 being the four founded by George A. Clark, in 1872. At St. Andrews there are 81 bur- 
 saries belonging to the United college, varying in amount from £5 to £50; 20 belonging 
 to St. Mary’s, varying from £6 to £50; and 20 of the same value transferable from the 
 United college, when the bursars proceed to the study of divinity; two Ramsay scholar- 
 ships of £50; one Guthrie scholarship worth £100 the first year, and afterwards £50; 
 one Patrick Kidd scholarship, worth about £40; and two scholarships of £50, founded 
 by Mrs Tyndal Bruce. At Aberdeen there are about 250 bursaries, varying from £5 to 
 £50; and 11 scholarships of £65 to £70, tenable for 4 years, also some valuable exhi- 
 bitions to Cambridge. 
 
 BURSCHENSCHAFT, an association organized by German students for the pur- 
 pose, originally, of reforming the excesses and outrages customary at the universities of 
 Germany, and to arouse a spirit of nationality by uniting the students of different uni- 
 versities. The first organization of the B. took place at Jena in 1815, and most of 
 the students who became members had fought in the German war of independence; 
 during 1815-17 it spread to Tubingen, Heidelberg, Halle, and Giessen. As it wa» 
 evident that the students were to be disappointed in the hope that the war would be fol- 
 lowed by political reforms, the B. of Jena decided to have a general gathering of tho 
 associations, which took place at the Wartburg, Oct., 1817. At this festival all the 
 universities were represented, and in Oct. of the following year, delegates from 14 
 universities adopted a constitution, which was agreed to by all except the universities 
 of Austria, Gottingen, and Landshut; they adopted the colors of the German empire, 
 black, red, and gold, and resolved to hold annual conventions. In 1819, Kotzebue, the 
 German dramatist, who had been declared by the B. a traitor to his country, was 
 assassinated by Sand. After a conference at Carlsbad, the German government took 
 steps to suppress the B., but without avail; it resulted only in their holding secret 
 instead of public meetings. The original plan of a national B. was revived in 1827; 
 the chief obstacle was the difference of view held by the Germanen, who desired to 
 bring about the unity of Germany by practical and political means, and the Arminen, 
 who laid more stress on the ideal unity of their country and the cultivation of indi- 
 vidual powers. The views of these two parties were discussed at the convention of 
 Bamberg in 1827, and in Frankfort in 1831 ; and, although the Arminen had the larger 
 number of followers, they were obliged to give way to the more energetic Germanen. 
 On the 25th of Dec. , 1832, the B. resolved to attain the freedom and unity of Ger- 
 many by a revolution; all the students were called upon to support the B., whose head- 
 quarters were at Frankfort-on-the-Main. The attempt was made at Frankfort in June, 
 1833, in which nearly 2000 students were implicated. It resulted in the arrest and pros- 
 ecution of students at all the German universities, and many of them were impris- 
 oned and disfranchised. The students of Vienna, who nad never before been connected 
 with the B. , took a prominent part in the revolution of 1848. 
 
217 
 
 Burschenschaft. 
 
 Burton. 
 
 BXJESLEM, a t. of Staffordshire, on the Trent and Mersey cana., in the pottery dis- 
 trict, is a station on a branch of the North Staffordshire railway. It forms part of the 
 parliamentary borough of Stoke-upon-Trent. Pop. 71, 25,562. The abundance of coal 
 iind the variety of clays have made B., since the I7th c., one of the chief seats of the 
 fictile manufacture. Porcelain and pottery of all kinds — Parian, iron and stone ware, 
 ■etc. — are produced on a large scale, as well as encaustic tiles. There is also a glass 
 manufactory here. The affairs of the town are managed by a “ local board of health.” 
 At Birche’s Head, a mile and a half from B., stands a large service reservoir of the Staf- 
 fordshire waterworks company, from which the town and neighborhood are supplied 
 with excellent water. A fine new town-hall was erected in 1865, which, besides the 
 usual municipal offices, contains lecture rooms and news rooms. B. was the native 
 place of Josiah Wedgwood, who in the middle of the 18th c. greatly improved the 
 manufacture of pottery. A Wedgwood memorial institute has recently been erected, to 
 serve as a school of art, a free library, and a museum. An appropriate character is given 
 to it by introducing into the ornamentation of the fa9ade terra cotta moldings, Wedg- 
 wood’s jasper ware, etc. 
 
 BURT, a CO. in e. Nebraska, on the Missouri river; 500 sq.m. ; pop. ’76, 4354; in ’80, 
 '6937. The Omaha and Northwestern railroad passes through it. Agriculture is the 
 ■chief business. Co. seat, Tekama, 
 
 BURTON, Asa, d.d., 1752-1836; a graduate of Yale in 1777; in 1779 settled as pastor 
 of a Congregational church in Thetford, Vt., where he remained all his life. He pub- 
 lished many sermons, and Essays on Some of the First Princiyles of Metaphysics, Ethics, 
 and Theology. 
 
 BUKTON, John Hill, advocate (member of the Scottish bar), has achieved for him- 
 self a place in the world of letters by a variety of works, all remarkable for ability, and 
 several for original thought. B. was born at Aberdeen on the 22d of Aug., 1809; his 
 father was an oflacer in the army, and his mother the daughter of an Aberdeenshire 
 laird. Having graduated at Marischal college, Aberdeen, he became an apprentice to 
 the profession of law in his native city; which, however, he afterwards abandoned 
 for the higher sphere of the Edinburgh bar. Here, wdth time on his hands, he devoted 
 himself to study and letters. For a long series of years, from 1833 downwards, he was 
 a contributor to the Westminster Beriew of articles on law, history, and political economy; 
 and for several years he contributed to Blackwood’s Magazine literary sketches. Among 
 his original works may be mentioned. The Life and Correspondence of David Hume, 2 
 vols. (1846); Lives of Simon Lord Lovat and Duncan Forbes of Culloden (1847), both excel- 
 lent biographies; Political and Social Economy (1849), which is a valuable, condensed, 
 and lucid contribution to the literature of social science ; Narratives from Criminal Trials 
 in Scotland; A Manual oj Scottish Law; A Treatise on the Law (Scottish) of Bankruptcy; 
 The History of Scotland from the Revolution to the Extinction of the Last Jacobite Insur- 
 rection, 2 vols. (1853); The History of Scotland from Agricolds Invasion to the Revolution 
 ofim, 7 vols. (1867-70); The Book-Hu7iter Ihe Scot Abroad, 2 vols. (1864); The 
 
 Cairngorum Mountains (1864). A new edition of the History of Scotland, enlarged and 
 partly rewritten, appeared in 8 vols., 1873. He has edited vols. i. and ii. of the Register 
 of Privy Council (Scotland) for 1545-78; and is about to bring out a history of the reign 
 of queen Anne. The high merits of B. ’s historical works have been universally admitted. 
 He has further edited the works of Jeremy Bentham (nominally in conjunction with the 
 late sir John Bowring), with an able introduction ; and has published a volume of Ben- 
 thamiana. B. was, in 1854, appointed secretary to the prison board of Scotland; and 
 on the abolition of that board in 1860, he remained as stipendiary manager and secretary 
 in connection with the Home office. On the passing of the prisons (Scotland) act, 1877, 
 B. was appoined one of the prison commissioners for Scotland. He holds the old 
 office of historiographer royal for Scotland, is ll.d. of Edinburgh university, and d.c.l. 
 of Oxford. 
 
 BURTON, Richard Francis, one of the most daring and successful of modem 
 travelers, was b. in 1821 in Norfolk. He is the son of col. J. N. Burton, and was 
 educated in France and England. In 1842, he entered the Indian army, and served 
 many years in Sindh. While in this employment, he exhibited a remarkable facility in 
 acquiring the eastern languages, and a still more remarkable dexterity in imatating the 
 appearance and habits of the natives of India. In 1851, he published his first important 
 work — Sindh, and the Races that inhabit the Yalley of ihe Indus — full of graphic descrip- 
 tion, and interesting to all readers. B. had acquired a very familiar acquaintance 
 with Hindustani, Persian, and Moultani. He had devoted special attention to Arabic, 
 and had made such progress as to be able to speak it like a native. Possessed of these 
 qualifications, he resolved to explore Arabia in the disguise of an Afghan pilgrim; and 
 after a visit to England, he set out on his journey. Political commotions prevented 
 him from traversing the whole country, as he intended; but his Personal Narrative of a 
 Pilgrimage to El Medinah and Meccah (1855) records one of the most daring feats on 
 record. A perpetual strain on the ingenuity was necessary to keep up his assumed 
 character, most difiBcult in moments of fatigue, and in the midst of shrewd and observant 
 fellow-travelers. The next journey undertaken by B. was into the country of the 
 Somaulis, in eastern Africa. It proved less successful than was anticipated. B.’s comv 
 
IJurton. 
 
 Bury. 
 
 218 
 
 panion, lieut. Stroyan, was killed, and B. himself was wounded. He succeeded, how- 
 ever, in reaching Harar (q.v.), a most important town in eastern Africa, not before 
 visited by any European, and in penetrating a vast and populous region scarcely 
 known to geographers. The journey led to a still more important series of expeditions — 
 those to the country of the upper Nile. Towards the end of 1856, B. set out in com- 
 pany with lieut. Speke, also of the Indian army, to ascertain the truth of the reports 
 collected by the missionaries, that a vast sea existed in the heart of the continent. 
 The journey is one of the most memorable of our time. It led to the discovery and 
 exploration of the great lake of Tanganyika, and the opening up of the eastern part of 
 the continent. B. was rewarded with the medal of the geographical society. His health 
 had been affected by his African journeys, and he sought to recover it by a journey in 
 North America, from which he brought the first reliable account of the Mormons. In 
 1861, B. was appointed consul at Fernando Po, on the w. coast of Africa, and while 
 holding this appointment, he visited the Cameroon mountains, and went on a mission 
 to the king of Dahomey, the incidents of both journeys being recorded in two of his 
 most interesting works. B. has subsequently been consul at Santos in Brazil, and at 
 Damascus; and on the death of Mr. Charles Lever in 1872, B. succeeded him in the post 
 of British consul at Trieste. 
 
 The following is a list of the principal works of capt. B. not mentioned above: 
 Sindh, or the Unhappy Valley (1851) ; Ooa and the Bue Mountains, or Six Months of Sick Learn 
 (1851); Falconry in the Valley of the Indus (1852); First Footsteps in East Africa, or an 
 Exploration of Harar (1856); The Lake Regions of Central Af rica, or a Picture of Explor- 
 ation (1860); The City of the Saints, and Across the Rocky Mountains to California (1861); 
 Abeokuta, or the Cameroon Mountains (1863); The Nile Basin; A Mission to Gelele, King 
 of Dahomey, with Notices of the so-called Amazons, etc. ; Explorations in the Highlands of 
 Brazil; Vikram and the Vampire; Zanzibar; Two Trips to Gorilla Land; Ultima Thule, 
 or a Summer in Iceland; Etruscan Bologna (1876); Sindh Revisited (1877); The Gold Mines 
 of Midian and the Ruined Midianite Cities (1878), giving an account of B.’s investigations 
 in that region during journeys in 1876 and 1877. 
 
 BURTON, Robert, author of the Anatomy of Melancholy, was b. at Bindley, iu 
 Leicestershire, in 1576, and studied at Brasenose and Christ church, Oxford. In 1616, 
 he was appointed to the vicarage of St. Thomas, and in 1628, to the rectory of Segrave 
 in his native county. He appears, however, to have continued all his life at Chirst 
 church, where he died in 1640, leaving legacies of £100 each to the Bodleian and Christ 
 church libraries, and as many of his books as they did not already possess. A monu- 
 ment was erected to his memory in Christ church cathedral. B. is described by Anthony 
 Wood as a good mathematician, a dabbler in nativities, a well-read scholar, and a 
 thorough-paced philologist. “As he was by many accounted a severe student, and a 
 melancholy and humorous person, so by others who knew him well, a person of great 
 honesty, plain-dealing, and charity. I have heard some of the ancients of Christ church 
 often say that his company was very merry, facete, and juvenile.” His Anatomy of 
 Melancholy, in which he appears under the title of Democritus Junior, is one of the most 
 curious melanges of heterogeneous elements ever put together. It consists mainly of an 
 extraordinary mass of quotations from old and obscure writers, stung on. a thread 
 of rambling reflection; often tiresomely pedantic, but relieved by quaint touches of 
 humor and feeling. In his own life-time, it was highly popular, and went through five 
 editions; after that, it fell into comparative oblivion, but is now again popular among 
 lovers of quaint literature. Dr. Johnson said it was the only book that ever took him 
 out of bed two hours before his usual cime. 
 
 BURTON, William Evans, 1804-60; b. London; son of William George B., author 
 of Biblical Researches. He was intended for the church, and received a classical educa- 
 tion; at 18 took charge of his father’s printing establishment and edited a magazine. 
 From amateur acting he drifted towards the regular stage, and made a successful debut 
 at the Haymarket, in 1832. He began also to write dramas, one of which was played 
 simultaneously at five London theaters. In 1834, he came to the United States, where 
 he was always prominent as actor or manager, chiefly in Baltimore, Philadelphia, and 
 New York. In Philadelphia.he established the Gentleman's Magazine, a literary monthly. 
 His greatest success was in the management of the Chambers street theater. New York, 
 where, with Brougham and others, he produced dramas from several of Dickens’s novels. 
 His own forte was low comedy, and some of his characters were so established in public 
 favor that no actor has satisfied an audience in them since his death. Such were “Captain 
 Cuttle,” “Toodles,” “Micawber,” “ Aminadab Sleek,” “Paul Pry, ” and others. He was 
 a fine scholar, and had a superior library, particularly of Shakespearian literature. He 
 was for several years the editor of the Literary Souvenir, and published in two vols. a 
 Cyclopaedia of Wit and Humor. 
 
 BURTON-ON-TRENT, a market t. in Staffordshire, on the river Trent and the Mid- 
 land railway. The Grand Trunk canal also passes the town, and enters the Trent 
 below. Abridge of 34 arches, built before the Norman conquest, here crossed the river, 
 but was replaced in 1864 by a new one of 29 arches. The population of B. has been 
 nearly trebled within the last 20 years, being, in 1871, 20,378. This is owing to the 
 wpid extension of the brewing of ale, which is the staple product of the place. There 
 
219 
 
 Bnrtoiu 
 
 Burj. 
 
 are upwards of 30 breweries in B., some of them on a scale of unparalleled magnitude. 
 The two establishments of Bass and Allsopp cover together more than 250 acres of 
 ground, and can produce yearly about two million barrels of ale. There are, of course, 
 extensive cooperages, and also iron-foundries. The public edifices are not particularly 
 noticeable. 
 
 BURTSCHEID, or Boecette, a t. of Rhenish Prussia, about half a mile distant from 
 Aix-la-Chapelle, with which it is connected by an avenue of trees. It has manufactures 
 of woolen cloths and cassimeres, and celebrated sulphur springs and baths, with a tem- 
 perature of 106“ to 155“ F. Pop. ’75, 10,220. 
 
 BUR'WHA, or, as Dr. Barth spells it, Bakuwa, a t. of Bornu, central Africa, situated 
 on the w. bank of lake Tchad, about 80 m. n.n.w. of Kuka. The town, which consists 
 of closely pack^ huts, is surrounded by high clay walls, which, however, “owing to 
 the high mounds of rubbish imbedding them on all sides,” afford no protection whatever 
 from the attacks of the Tawarek, to whom the inhabitants have to pay tribute. Fish in 
 great quantities are caught in the adjoining lake, and form the chief food of the inhabit- 
 ants, as well as their only article of commerce. Pop. about 6000. 
 
 BURY, a flourishing manufacturing t. in the s.e. of Lancashire, on a rising ground 
 backed by hills on the n. and e., between the Irwell and the Roche, 9 m. n.w. of Man- 
 chester. It was early a seat of the woolen manufactures, carried on by Flemings, but 
 these, though still considerable, now yield in importance to those of cotton. Besides 
 spinning and weaving factories, there are important print, bleach, paper, and dye works, 
 and some large foundries and engine manufactories. In the vicinity are excellent free- 
 stone quarries, and abundant coal-mines. The town has recently been much improved 
 in drainage, and an ample supply of water has been secured from hills at a distance. 
 Pop. ’71, 41,344. B. returns one member to parliament. Some improvements in the 
 cotton manufacture arose here — notably, the invention by John Kay of the fly-shuttle. 
 The late sir Robert Peel was born in B., where his father established his great print- 
 works. A bronze statue of sir Robert has been erected in the old market-place. 
 
 BURYING BEETLE, Necropho7'us, a genus of coleopterous (q.v.) insects, of the tribe 
 or family silphales, with short cub-shaped antennae, remarkable for their habit of bury- 
 ing the bodies of mice, moles, and other small animals, in order to deposit their eggs in 
 them, and to provide a supply of food for their larvae. Some of the species are natives 
 of Britain, among which is N. vespillo, the species of which the habits were first observed, 
 which is, however, more common in some parts of continental Europe. It is a black 
 beetle, about an inch long, with two bright orange bands across its back, and having an 
 excessively fetid smell, which long adheres to whatever it touches. Its sense of smell 
 would seem to be extremely acute, and a dead animal soon attracts it, a pair generally 
 arriving together, male and female, to feed upon the body, and the male to proceed to 
 its interment, if sufficiently small, previous to which, however, they have sometimes to 
 drag it to some distance to a ptace suitable for their purpose. The head of the insect is 
 the only tool employed in the operation, and is held sloping outwards, and employed in 
 a manner which exhibits great muscular power. A furrow is first made around the 
 body, then another within the first, and so on till the earth is so excavated from beneath, 
 that the body begins to sink, when the insects, by great efforts, drag it down into the 
 hole, and when it is fairly in, the excavated earth is thrown back over it. The female 
 then lays her eggs in it; and when this is accomplished, and the cravings of appetite are 
 satisfied, it is left for the larvae, which are of a lengthened form, with six feet, whitish, 
 and a brown head. — The known species of B. B. are mostly native of Europe and of 
 North America. 
 
 BURY ST. EDMUNDS, or St. Edmundsbuky, an ancient borough in Suffolkshire, on 
 the Upper Larke, 26 m. n.w. of Ipswich. It is -well built, and delightfully situated. 
 Pop. ’71, 14,928. It returns two members to parliament. It has a trade in wool, but- 
 ter, corn, and cheese, but no manufactures. A very complete system of drainage has 
 been carried out, the sewage being conveyed to a distance, and, by means of pumps, 
 applied to irrigation. A new corn exchange was erected in 1862; in 1864, the Suffolk 
 general hospital was rebuilt. B. received its name from Edmund, the Saxon king and 
 martyr, who was crowned here on Christmas day, 856; taken prisoner, and put to death 
 by the Danes. On the site of his tomb, six priests founded a monastery: and here 
 Canute raised a Benedictine abbey, which in time became the richest and most important 
 in England, save that of Glastonbury. From 1020 to its dissolution by Henry VIII., it 
 was ruled over by a line of 33 abbots. The abbot was a spiritual baron of parliament, 
 had judicial authority in all causes within the liberty of B., had the power of inflicting 
 capital punishment, and the privilege of coining. At the dissolution, the annual income 
 was equivalent to £50,000 of our money. Of this magnificent establishment, little now 
 remains but the western gate, erected in 1327, a noble relic of the decorated Gothic 
 style; and the “church-gate,” a quadrangular tower of massive simplicity, 86 ft. high. 
 The churchyard, to which this tower formed the portal, includes, besides the abbey 
 ruins and some other buildings, the fine old churches of St. Mary and St. James. The 
 celebrated grammar-school of B. was founded by king Edward VI. in 1550, and is 
 free to sons of the inhabitants of the town. It has 2 scholarships at Cambridge, and 6 
 
Busaebino. 
 
 Bushmen. 
 
 220 
 
 exhibitions to each university, and has produced many eminent scholars. Among th« 
 many religious and charitable institutions connected with the abbey, of which portions 
 still exist, is St. Saviour’s hospital, founded by that notable abbot, Samson, whose life 
 and actions, as recorded by Jocelyn of Brakelond, Mr, Carlyle has so vividly recalled in 
 \\\s Past and Present. The poet Lydgate was a monk in this abbey; and sir Nicholas 
 Bacon was born here. At B., king John first met his indomitable barons before he 
 signed Magna Charta. Parliaments were held here in 1272, 1296, and 1446, the last of 
 which ordered the arrest of Humphrey, the good duke of Gloucester, who was found 
 dead in his bed the morning after his arrest; and sovereigns, as late as Elizabeth’s time, 
 were often nobly entertained at St. Edmund’s town. Three m. s.w. of B., the Mar- 
 quis of Bristol has a splendid seat, Ickworth park, a circular pile 90 ft. in diameter, and 
 140 ft. high. 
 
 BUSACHI'NO, or Bisaqui'no, a t. of Sicily, in the province of Palermo, about 29 m. 
 s.s.w. of the city of that name. It has manufactures of linen, and a population of 
 9100. 
 
 BUSA'CO, a ridge or serra on the n. side of the river Mondego, in the province of 
 Beira, Portugal, about 20 m. n.n.e. of Coimbra. Here Wellington, with about 40,000 
 British and Portuguese troops, repulsed the attack of Massena with 65,000 French, 26th 
 Sept., 1810. Unable to force the position, Massena turned it by a pass over an adjoin- 
 ing ridge, and Wellington retired behind the lines of Torres Vedras, which indeed it 
 was his intention to do, even if there had been no battle. 
 
 BUSBECQ, Augier Ghislen de, a Flemish diplomat, 1532-92. He was engaged in 
 many important negotiations, and twice sent by the emperor Ferdinand I. to the court 
 of Constantinople. In 1562, he was made tutor to Maximilian II. in Vienna. He 
 wrote Discourse of the State of the Ottoman Empire, and a Relation of My Two Journeys to 
 Turkey. 
 
 BUSBY, Richard, the most famous of English schoolmasters, was b. at Button, 
 Northamptonshire, Sept. 22, 1606. Educated at Westminster school, and Oxford, he 
 was, in 1640, appointed headmaster of Westminster school, the duties of which ofiicehe 
 continued to discharge until his death in 1695. He is the type of pedagogues alike for 
 learning, assiduity, and the application of the birch. He was a most successful teacher, 
 and at one time could point to no less than sixteen occupants of the bench of bishops- 
 who had been educated in his school ; and altogether, he has the reputation of having 
 “ bred up the greatest number of learned scholars that ever adorne’d any age or nation.” 
 He published several works, but they were chiefly for school use. 
 
 BUS'CA, a t. of Piedmont, situated on the left bank of the river Maira, an atfluent of 
 the Po, about 9 m. n.w. of Coni. Excellent wine is produced in the vicinity. Pop. 
 9375. 
 
 BUSCH, Johann Georg, 1728-1800; a German philanthropist and statistician, pro- 
 fessor of mathematics in the Hamburg gymnasium. He established an association 
 for the promotion of art and industry, and a school of trade, the latter becoming especi- 
 ally famous. He wrote largely upon the history and theory of trade and commerce, and 
 on questions of political economy. 
 
 BUSCHING, Ant. Friedr , a celebrated geographer, was b. 27th Sept., 1724, at Stadtha- 
 gen, in the principality of Schaumburg-Lippe, Germany. He studied theology at Halle, 
 where he enjoyed the friendship of Baumgarten. In 1754, he was appointed extraordinary 
 professor of philosophy in Gottingen, but soon incurred the displeasure of the Hanoverian 
 government by his religious heterodoxy. Gottingen thus becoming an unpleasant resi- 
 dence to him, he accepted an invitation, in 1761, to St. Petersburg as preacher to a Prot- 
 estant congregation there. In 1765 he returned to Germany, and in 1766 was called to 
 Berlin as upper consistorial councilor and director of a gymnasium in Berlin, where he 
 died, 28th May, 1793. Until the appearance of B.’s Erdheschreibung, the first volume of 
 which was published at Hamburg in 1754, neither Germany nor any other natiqji pos- 
 sessed a geographical work which made any pretension to scientific treatment or com- 
 pleteness of execution. The changes in the political arrangements of the world have, 
 however, deprived the work of its original value, but it has been corrected and edited 
 by subsequent writers. Of his other numerous publications, the most important is the 
 Magazinfur Historie und Oeographie (25 vols. Hamburg, 1767-93). 
 
 BUSEMBAUM, Hermann, a theologian of the order of Jesuits, was b. in 1600 at Nottelen 
 In Westphalia. About 1640, he taught ethical philosophy at Cologne, and later was- 
 appointed rector of the college of Jesuits at Mfinster. He died 31st Jan., 1668. His 
 work entitled Medulla Theologies Moralis (1645), was celebrated as a standard authority in 
 the seminaries of the Jesuits, though several of its propositions were condemned by the 
 pope. It has gone through more than fifty editions. It was enlarged by the Jesuit 
 Lacroix (1707), and re-edited, with improvements and additions, by the Jesuit Mon- 
 tausan in 1729, and again by Alfonso de Ligorio in 1757. As it was found that the 
 work contained doctrine in favor of regicide, it was burned, by order of the parliament 
 of Toulouse, on the occasion of an attempt made on the life of Louis XV. by 
 Damiens in 1757. Subsequently, the Jesuits Zachariah and Franzoja of Padua wrote in 
 defense of B. ’s work. 
 
221 
 
 Bushachino. 
 
 Bushmen. 
 
 BUSENTO, a river of Salerno, Italy, emptying into the bay of Busento. This, 
 is the stream that was turned from its channel by the followers of Ahiric, wha 
 buried that great leader in the original bed of the stream and then restored the 
 water to its natural course so that no enemy could find the grave. 
 
 BUSH, George, d.d., 1796-1859; b. Vt. ; a graduate of Dartmouth college and 
 Princeton seminary; ordained in the Presbyterian church, and four years a missionary 
 in Indiana. In 1831, he was appointed professor of Hebrew and oriental literature in 
 New York university. In 1832, he published a Life of Mohammed, and the next year 
 a work on the millennium, in which he held that the beginning of the millennial age was 
 marked by the triumph of Christianity over Roman paganism. He also wrote a Hebrew 
 grammar, and seven volumes of commentary on the Old Testament. In 1844, he con- 
 ducted The Hierophant, devoted to the explanation of prophetic symbols, and published 
 a work in which he opposed the idea of a physical resurrection of the body. In 1845, 
 he united with the New Jerusalem church, and began to translate Swedenborg’s works. 
 In support of these doctrines, he edited the New Church Repository. His latest work 
 was Priesthood and Clergy unknown to Christianity. 
 
 BUSH ANTELOPE, Bush Buck, and Bush Goat, names common to a number of 
 species of antelope (q.v.), natives chiefly of the southern and western parts of Africa, 
 forming a section of the genus antilope, which some naturalists have attempted to erect 
 into a distinct genus {'uhilatomha or cephalopus). They are animals of more compact 
 form, shorter limbs, and greater strength, but much less agility, than the true or typical 
 antelopes. They are remarkable for the arched form of the back. They have short, 
 straight, or slightly curved horns, situated far back, and generally peculiar to the male' 
 sex, with usually a long tuft of hair between them. They have no tear-pits, but instead 
 of them, a naked glandular line, formed of two series of pores, on each cheek. They 
 frequent jungles, thick forests, and beds of reeds, and when pursued, seek to escape 
 by diving into a thicket. The common or white-backed B. A. of Sierra Leone {anti- 
 l^e sylricultrix) is about 3 ft. high at the shoulder; it is a dull, heavy, awkward-looking 
 animal ; keeps concealed in the thickets during the day, living singly or in pairs, and 
 feeds in the open spaces in the early mornings only. To shoot it, sportsmen place them- 
 selves on the margin of the woods, and -watch their opportunity as it comes out to graze. 
 Its flesh is more esteemed than that of the more agile antelopes. Nearly 20 other species- 
 are usually ranked in this section of antelopes, among which is the kleene boc {antilope 
 pygrram) of s. Africa, a species abundant in many parts of Cape Colony, of very small 
 size, not more than one foot in height at the shoulder, and with horns only about in. 
 in length. It is a timid, gentle animal, easily domesticated. It differs from the typical 
 bush antelopes in the great activity which it displays. 
 
 BUSHEAB', a lo\\% flat island in the Persian gulf, about 11 m. from the Persian coast, 
 in lat. 26° 50' n., long. 53° 12' east. It is about 18 m. long, narrow, and well-peopled^ 
 with a town and harbor at its western extremity. Its proper name is Khoshamh, signify- 
 ing “good water.” 
 
 BUSHEL [Fr. hoisseau, allied to boi(s)te, box, butt; Lat. butta, a measure in general],, 
 a dry measure used in Britain for grain, fruit, etc. The quarter contains 8 bushs., and 
 the bushel 8 gals., the gallon measuring 277.274 cub. in., and holding 10 lbs. avoirdupois- 
 of distilled water. Hence the imperial bushel contains 80 lbs. of water, and measures- 
 2218.2 cub. inches. The old Winchester bushel measured 2150 cub. in. ; hence 33 Win- 
 chester bushs. = 32 imperial bushs. nearly. 
 
 BUSHIBE. See Abushehr. 
 
 BUSHMAN'S RIVER, or Bos'jesman’s River, in the e. part of the Cape Colony,, 
 s. Africa, is about 200 m. long, and forms on its lower course the w. boundary of Albany, 
 whose capital is Graham’s Town. Its general direction is from n. to s., its mouth being 
 about 33|° s., and about long. 26-^^° east. 
 
 BUSHMEN, or Bosjesmans; so named by the Dutch colonists, but calling themselves- 
 Saab, or Saan; an aboriginal race of s. Africa, somewhat like, and yet differing from, 
 the Hottentot, but like them having nothing in common with the Kaffer or negro. 
 They rank with the savage of Australia among the lowest existing types of mankind, 
 and are in a most degrad^ed and destitute condition. They are of small stature, of 
 dirty yellow color, and very repulsive features. The cheek-bones are large and promi- 
 nent, the eyes deep set and crafty in expression, nose small and depressed, and the hair 
 in small woolly tufts with bald spaces between. Of 150 measured by a traveler, the- 
 tallest man was 4 ft. 9 in., and woman 4 ft. 4 in. Some are well proportioned, active, 
 and capable of enduring great privations and fatigue. Those furthest n., near lake 
 Ngami. are considerably larger in body. They clothe in skins and are fond of orna- 
 ments, decorating their arms and legs with beads and rings, and the women sometimes 
 paint their faces red. They dwell in huts of reed or in holes in the ground; in the 
 mountain districts they live among the rocks with mats for shelter. They have no- 
 cattle, nor any animals except a few half-wild dogs, nor have they the least signs of 
 agriculture; but as they live by hunting they are well acquainted with the habits of ani- 
 mals, and follow the herds of antelope in their migrations. Their weapons are bows- 
 and arrows, the latter tipped with bone or iron, and poisoned with vegetable matter 
 
Snshnell. 
 
 ]Bust. 
 
 222 
 
 mixed with the venom of snakes or spiders, or the entrails of an extremely poisonous 
 caterpillar are used alone. On account of the use of these fatal poisons the B. are 
 held in dread by neighboring tribes. The discovery of their rude tools for digging 
 tubers, scattered over wide regions not now occupied by them, indicates the existence 
 of greater numbers of B. in earlier times. They have no approach to tribal organiza- 
 tion, nor any chiefs; bodily strength forming the only distinction of superiority. Their 
 various dialects are not understood by the Hottentots, the tongue of the latter being 
 more agglutinative, that of the B. more monosyllabic; the Hottentots use gender in 
 names, while the B. do not. The Hottentots can count 20; the B. only 2 — calling all 
 above that “many.” The B. possess a pictorial faculty not known in any other south 
 African tribe, and the rocks of the Cape Colony and Drakenberg mountains show many 
 examples of Bushman drawings of men, women, children, and animals. Rings, crosses, 
 and other signs, drawn in blue on rocks and stones, and believed to be centuries old, have 
 given rise to the suggestion that these may be the remains of hieroglyphic writing; 
 and the discovery of drawings of men and women with antelope heads, also very 
 ancient, recalls the mythological figures of Egypt. The B. have a kind of intelligence, 
 and are valued as servants by the Boers, being much more energetic than the Hotten- 
 tots. A wholesale destruction of B. on the borders of the colony in earlier years, 
 reduced their numbers greatly; and though this hunting of them has ceased, their 
 children are still captured by the Boers for servants. The B. retaliate by ravaging the 
 farms on the border and driving off cattle. As they once occupied a much larger area, it 
 seems probable that the B. are the remains of the earliest aborigines of s. Africa, and 
 that they existed there before the Kaffers, and perhaps before the Hottentots. A 
 former and more general distribution of the race is indicated by the discovery in late 
 years of undersized people near the upper Nile basin and on the western equatorial 
 coast land by Dr. Schweinfurth and Du Chaillu. 
 
 BUSHNELL, Horace, d.d., 1802-76; b. Conn., graduated at Yale in 1827, where 
 he studied law and theology; in 1833, became pastor of the North Congregational 
 church in Hartford. He was a voluminous writer on theological subjects; some of his 
 works being Principles of National Greatness; Christian Nurture; God in Christ; Chris- 
 tian Theology; Sermons for the Neic Life; Nature and the Supernatural; Work and Play; 
 Christ and His Salvation; Woman's Suffrage, the Reform Against Nature; '1 he Yica'rious 
 Sacrifice. He was also a writer for various periodicals and newspapers. He was a bold 
 and original thinker, with peculiar eloquence of style. Though strongly evangelical in 
 belief, h^e denied the Calvinistic theory of the atonement (known as the “satisfaction 
 theory”), and gave less than the ordinary emphasis to the distinction between the per- 
 sons in the Trinity. These, with other divergences, led to his being accused of heresy; 
 but ultimately the fellowship of the Congregational churches was found broad enough 
 to include him, and he kept his standing therein with growing influence until his death. 
 During his later years his health compelled his relinquishment of the active pastorate, 
 but his labors in authorship were unintermitted. While his theory of the atonement 
 has not commended itself in its exact form to the majority of evangelical Christians, and 
 is adhered to by no organized sect or party, it cannot be denied that his moral earnest- 
 ness, his spiritual power, his wondrous suggestiveness, his brilliancy of thought and 
 style, and his broad mental scope, have profoundly modified the thinking of the present 
 age through almost the whole circle of Protestant denominations. Indeed, with his 
 detestation of all provincialism and sectarianism, he would have chosen any other form 
 of influence rather than that which is exercised by the leader of a party in the church. 
 
 BUSHWHACKERS, a term much in use in the war of the rebellion (though well 
 known before) to indicate men who pretended peace or neutrality, but who were ready 
 to make secret attacks whenever opportunity offered. They were numerous in some 
 western states, where many of them were summarily shot as outlaws. 
 
 BUSI'RIS, an Egyptian t., capital of the B. nomos, in the hieroglyphic language, 
 the “ Place of Osiris,” believed to correspond to the modern Abusir, and situated about 
 the middle of the delta. It was supposed to be near the entrance of the gates of Elysium. 
 Close to B. was the pyramid of king Sahura, of the 4th dynasty, known as the Sa-ba, or 
 “ pyramid of the rising soul.” The shrine of the goddess Isis was in B. and a great 
 annual festival and lamentation for Osiris was held there. The place was destroyed by 
 Diocletian, but the Copts and Arabs have preserved the name in Bousiri and Abusir. 
 
 BUSI'RIS, a mythical king of Egypt mentioned by the later Greek writers. After 
 Egypt had been afflicted for nine years with famine, Phrasius, a seer from Cyprus, 
 announced that the famine would not cease until a foreigner was annually sacrificed to 
 Zeus. B. began by sacrificing Phrasius, and continued the custom yearly; but when he 
 undertook to make a victim of Hercules the latter burst his bonds and with his club 
 slew B. and his son Amphidamas. Attempts to find the place of B. as an actual king 
 have not succeeded. There is no good reason to believe that human sacrifices were ever 
 offered in Egypt. 
 
 BUSKIN’, a kind of half-boot, lacing tight to the leg. The ancient tragedians wore 
 buskins {cothurni), often with thick soles, to add to their stature. Hence the B. is often 
 put for tragedy, as the sock {soccus, a flat soled shoe) for comedy. In ancient sculpture. 
 
223 
 
 SushnelL. 
 
 Dust. 
 
 Diana, and hunters in general, as well as men of rank and authority, are represented in 
 buskins often highly ornamented. 
 
 BUSS is the name of a small vessel, usually from 50 to 60 tons’ burden, much used in 
 the herring-fishery, especially by the Dutch. The B. has two small sheds or cabins — 
 one at the prow, to serve as a kitchen, and the other at the stern. The remaining space 
 is a receptacle for fish. 
 
 BUSSAHIR', a hill-state of Northern India, on the border of Chinese Tartary, in n. 
 lat. 30° 56' to 32° 8', and e. long. 77° 34' to 78° 52'. It is one of the most elevated and 
 mountainous countries in the world, the lowest part being more than 3000 ft. above the 
 sea, and much of it from 7000 to 12,000 feet. The Sutlej flows through the country 
 from e. to west. The district on the n. of the Sutlej is called Kunawur, that on the s. 
 is B. proper. The climate in the lower parts on the southern frontier is almost tropical, 
 and there are many genial and fertile districts of mild temperate climate; other districts 
 are near, and within the limits of perpetual snow. _ The vine succeeds admirably in 
 many places, and it is supposed that some parts of this state are extremely suitable for 
 the culture of tea, which, indeed, is cultivated to some extent. Very rich deposits of cop- 
 per ore have been discovered in Kunawur, and copper-mining is prosecuted near the s.w. 
 frontier. The inhabitants are little advanced in civilization; many of those in the 
 more northern parts have strongly marked Mongolian features. Polyandry prevails 
 among them, and the females left unmarried take refuge in Lamaic convents. The 
 rajah and upper classes in the southern parts are Rajpoots, and the people generally are 
 of Hindu race. Their observance of Hinduism, however, is very partial. The rajah 
 of B. holds his dignity by a grant from the East India company, made on the expulsion 
 of the Ghoorkas in 1815. The tribute paid is £340. The pop. is estimated at 90,000. 
 Principal productions are opium, grain, and woolen manufactures. 
 
 BUSSEY, Benjamin, 1757-1842; served as a private soldier in the revolutionary 
 army; after the war, began business in Boston and accumulated a fortune, most of which, 
 after the death of certain relatives, went to the support of the law and divinity schools 
 in Harvard college, and the founding of a school of agriculture, for which special object 
 he gave a large farm near Boston. 
 
 BUSSORA. See Bassora, ante. 
 
 BUSSU PALM, Manicaria saccifera, a South American palm, growing in the tidal 
 swamps of the Amazon, the only known species of its genus. The stem is only 10 to 15 
 ft. high, curved or crooked, and deeply ringed. The leaves are simple or undivided, 
 and are the largest of the kind produced by any known palm, being often 30 ft. long, 
 and 4 or 5 ft. wide. They are simply branched, drooping, and the fruit is of an olive 
 color, large, hard, and three-seeded. The leaves make excellent and durable thatch, 
 being split down the midrib, and laid obliquely on the rafters, so that the furrows 
 formed by the veins lie in a nearly vertical direction, and serve as so many little gutters 
 to carry off the water. The spathe, taken off entire, is used by the Indians as a bag, or 
 the larger ones are stretched out to make caps. 
 
 BUST (Ital. husto; Fr. huste), in plastic art, the name given to a sculptural representa- 
 tion of the head and upper part of the human body. The earliest busts formed by 
 the ancients were probably those heads of Mercury which, when elevated on tall square 
 blocks of stone, received the name of hermaB (q.v.). These hermae were afterwards fre- 
 quently surmounted by representations of other divinities, such as Minerva; and as they 
 gradually assumed more and more of the human form, they passed into busts, which 
 were made of marble, bronze, etc. But it was not till very late in the history of art 
 that busts, in the sense of portraits of individuals, came to be used, either in Greece or 
 Rome; and it is remarkable that neither Greeks nor Romans designated them by any 
 special name, for the Latin word hustum had a quite different meaning. It was not till 
 Alexander’s time that busts were used for purposes of portraiture in Greece; and most 
 of the Roman busts which we possess belong to the period of the emperors. During the 
 learned period of Greece, which commenced with Aristotle, portraits of men of letters 
 formed an important department of art; and it became an object with the founders of 
 museums and libraries to procure complete sets of them. The artists of this period exhib- 
 ited remarkable ability in expressing the characters of the individuals whom they repre- 
 sented. In this way we have well-authenticated busts of Socrates, Plato, Zeno the Stoic, 
 and other philosophers; of poets and orators, such as Isocrates and Demosthenes; of 
 Athenian statesmen and distinguished women. In Rome, representations of the kings, 
 and persons of distinction belonging to the earlier period, were probably made from the 
 imagines majorum which every patrician preserved in his atrium, and which were com- 
 monly made of wax. These, no doubt, were often merely fanciful representations,, 
 partly taken, it may be, from the more prominent features which belonged to the existing 
 members of the family. The earliest well -authenticated Roman B. which we possess, is 
 probably that of Scipio Africanus the elder. During the empire, busts for the most 
 part were accurate portraits, and still furnish us with the means of becoming acquainted 
 with the features, not only of the emperors themselves, but of most other persons of dis- 
 tinction. Busts of poets and men of letters are far less frequently met with amongst 
 the Romans than amongst the Greeks. The chief marks of the authenticity in these busts 
 
Bustament*. 
 
 Butera. 
 
 224 
 
 are the names which very frequently are inscribed on them, and, where these are not 
 found, the comparison which we are enabled to make between them and coins. Private 
 <;ollectors of busts were not unknown in antiquity, as, for example, M. Terentius Varro 
 and Pomponius Atticus. In our own time, king Louis I. of Bavaria made, in his cele- 
 brated Valhalla, the most remarkable collection of busts which perhaps anywhere exists. 
 The first complete collection of engravings from antique busts was made by Fulvius 
 Ursinius in his lllustrium^ Imagines (Rome, 1569, and Antwerp, 1606). Recently, we 
 have been indebted to Visconti’s Iconogra'pMe Orecque (Paris, 1811) and Iconographie 
 Bomaine (Paris, 1817) for a similar collection. 
 
 BUSTAMEN'TE, Anastasio, 1782-1851; a physician of San Luis Potosi, Mexico. 
 He was among the earliest supporters of Iturbide when the revolt against Spain began 
 in 1821. In 1830, he became vice-president of the republic, exercising the full power of 
 president. He resigned when Santa Anna’s revolution of 1832 became successful, and 
 the next year was exiled, living in Europe until 1836, but recalled aRer the downfall of 
 Banta Anna, and in 1837 elected president. In 1846, he was president of the Mexican 
 •congress. 
 
 BUSTAKD, Otis, a genus of birds, sometimes made the type of a family, otidm, usually 
 ranked in the order grallm (q.v.). The general structure seems to agree best with that 
 of the grallm; but there are points of strong resemblance to gallinaceous birds, both in 
 the appearance and habits of the bustards; while their power of running, and the use 
 which they make of their wings to aid in running, are indicative of a relation to the 
 ■struthionidm, or ostrich tribe. They differ, however, from these birds in possessing 
 wings quite capable of flight, although even when pressed by danger they often seek to 
 •escape by running, and the great B. of Europe has been pursued and taken by grey- 
 hounds. — Bustards are birds of bulky form, with long neck and long naked legs; the 
 toes, three in number, all directed forward, short, united at the base, and edged with 
 membrane; the wings rather rounded; the bill of moderate length, straight, or nearly so. 
 They are mostly inhabitants of open plains, to which all their habits are adapted. — The 
 -Great B. {otis tarda) was at one time plentiful in some parts of England, and was also 
 an inhabitant of the s.e. of Scotland; but extending cultivation, and the persecution to 
 which it has been subjected, have now rendered it a very rare British bird. It is com- 
 mon in the s. and e. of Europe, and abounds in the wide steppes of Tartary. It is the 
 largest of European birds, the male sometimes weighing nearly 30 pounds. The female 
 is much smaller than the male. The plumage is of a pale chestnut color on the upper 
 parts, beautifully varied with black — much white and black on the wings, the tail tipped 
 with white. The tail is short, spreading, and rounded. A tuft or plume about 7 in. 
 long, springing from the chin, passes backwards and downwards on each side, in the 
 summer dress of the male, partly concealing a long stripe of bare skin on each side 
 of the neck. The anatomy of the male exhibits a remarkable peculiarity in a large bag 
 or pouch, capable of holding several pints, the entrance to which is between the under- 
 side of the tongue and the lower mandible. The use of this bag is unknown; but it has 
 been conjectured to be for conveying water to the females and young, in wide, arid 
 plains. The great B. feeds indiscriminately on animal and vegetable food, swallows 
 frogs, mice, worms, etc., and is very fond of turnip-tops. Its flesh is highly esteemed 
 for its flavor. It is polygamous. No difficulty is found in taming it, but all attempts 
 to reduce it to a state of true domestication have hitherto failed, from its not breeding 
 in the poultry-yard. — The Little B. (0. tetrax), frequently in the s. of Europe and n. 
 ■of Africa, is only an accidental visitant in Britain. It is not half the size of the great 
 B. — The Black-headed B. (0. nigriceps) is found in large flocks in the open plains of 
 the Mahratta country. Its flesh is esteemed one of the greatest delicacies which India 
 produces. — The Kori B. (0. kori) of s. Africa, a magnificent bird, standing upwards 
 of five ft. in height, has a similar reputation as one of the best kinds of game. — Australia 
 possesses a B. {0. Australasianus) somewhat exceeding the great B. of Europe in stature. 
 It is called wild turkey by the colonists of New South Wales. Its plumage is finely 
 freckled or spotted ; the prevailing color is brown. It has become comparatively rare in 
 the more settled districts, its flesh being particularly delicate and well flavored, but may 
 be seen stalking majestically in the grassy plains, wherever human footsteps are still 
 rare. 
 
 BTJSTO-ARSI'ZIO, a t. of northern Italy, in the province of Milan, and 20 m. n.w. 
 from Milan. It stands in a fertile plain, which produces much wine. In one of the 
 churches are numerous statues and fine paintings by Daniel Crespi, a native of the town. 
 Remains of ancient buildings show that Busto-Arsizio was in ancient times of consider- 
 able importance. It is a place of active trade, and has a cotton-thread factory. Pop. 
 of town and suburbs, 12,909. 
 
 BUTADES (wrongly called Dibutades), a Greek modeler in clay, described as the 
 first who copied the human face in that material. Seeing on a wall a drawing in outline 
 -of his daughter’s lover, B. molded the face of it in clay, and baked it with the tiles 
 which it w^s his business to make. The incident led B. to ornament the ends of roof- 
 liles with faces, a practice largely imitated in after years. He lived about 600 B.C. 
 
 BUTCHEE-BIBI). See Shrike. 
 
225 
 
 Bustamente* 
 
 Butera« 
 
 BUTCHER’S-BEOOM, Buscus, a genus of plants of the natural order liliacem^ with male 
 and female flowers on separate plants, a perianth of six leaves, fllaments united, one 
 style, and the fruit a berry. The common butcher’s-broom (i?, aculeatus) is a shrubby 
 or almost shrubby evergreen plant, with a biennial stem, 1 to 3 ft. high, sending out many 
 short branches and ovate alternate sliarp-pointed false leaves of the same substance as 
 the branches, the flowers minute and arising from the disk of the false leaves, solitary; 
 the berries red, almost as large as wild-cherries, and of a sweetish taste. It is common 
 in many parts of the s. of Europe, and in the s. of England in woods and hedges. 
 The English name is derived from the use made of the plant by butchers, to sweep their 
 blocks. It grows well under trees or shrubs, and can often be advantageously introduced 
 for ornamental purposes. The root was formerly much used in medicine. It is aperient 
 and diuretic. — E. hypophyllum, a native of Italy, had once a considerable reputation as 
 a stimulant of the uterus. 
 
 BUTE, an island in the flrth of Clyde, Scotland, separated from the coast of Argyle 
 by a narrow winding strait, called the kyles of Bute, mostly under a mile wide, about 
 6 m. distant from the w. coast of Ayrshire, and 8 m. n. of Arran. It is about 16 m. 
 long, of irregular breadth, and with an area of 60 sq. miles. The surface to the n. is 
 high, rugged, and barren; in the center and s. , it is low and undulating, and compara- 
 tively fertile. The highest point rises 875 feet. The coast is rocky and has some bays. 
 The island has several small lakes. The climate is milder than in any other part of 
 Scotland, and, though moist, less so than on the w. coast generally; hence, it is much 
 resorted to by invalids. In the s. the soil is sandy ; towards the n. clay predominates. 
 Most of the arable land is under tillage, and agriculture is in a good state. The chief 
 'Crops are oats, turnips, and potatoes. Pop. ’71, 10,064. The principal town is 
 Rothesay. Most of the island belongs to the marquis of Bute, whose beautiful seat. 
 Mount Stuart, is about 4 m. s. from Rothesay. Among the antiquities of B. 
 Rothesay castle, Karnes castle, Kilmorie castle, St. Blaine’s chapel, Dungyle, a remark- 
 able vitrified fort on a high crag on the s.w. coast, and the Devil’s caldron, a circular 
 erection, the original purpose of which is not well known. B. and the neighboring isles 
 were for many centuries subject to the Norwegians. 
 
 Buteshire, a county in the s.w. of Scotland, comprising the isles of Bute (q. v.)and 
 Arran (q. v.), and the Cumbraes, Holy isle, Pladda, Inchmarnoch, and other smaller 
 islands. The area of the whole, according to the ordnance survey, is 225 sq.m,, or 
 143,977 statute acres. The pop. in 1871 was 16,977. B. returns one member to parlia- 
 ment. The county town is Rothesay, in the island of Bute. 
 
 BUTE, John Patrick Crichton Stuart, third marquis, and reputed hero of Dis- 
 raeli’s Lothair. He joined the Roman Catholic church in 1868, and took great interest 
 in furthering religious education, in pursuance of which he, among other enterprises, 
 purchased land, and established near Jerusalem an asylum for pilgrims. 
 
 BUTE, John Stuart, third earl of, was b. in 1713, and d. in 1792. About 1737, 
 he attracted the favorable notice of Frederick, prince of Wales, who made him one of 
 his lords of the bedchamber. After the death of the prince, he became groom of the 
 stole to his son, afterwards George III., over whose mind he obtained a strong influence. 
 In Mar. , 1761, he was appointed one of the principal secretaries of state ; and from the 29th 
 May, 1762, to the 8th April, 1763, he was prime minister. His government is memora- 
 ble only as one of the most unpopular that ever held office in Britain, its fundamental 
 principle being the supremacy of the royal prerogative, of which the executive govern- 
 ment were merely the humble servants. Lord Bute was given to scientific pursuits, 
 especially botany, and showed himself a liberal patron of literature and art. He mar- 
 ried the only daughter of lady Mary W ortley Montagu, 
 
 BU'TEA, a genus of plants of the natural order leguminosm, suborder papilion^ 
 ace(e, remarkable for the great length of the standard of the flower, and having 
 compressed, one-seeded pod, membranaceous at the apex. The best known spe- 
 cies Bxe' B. frondosa and B. superha, natives of India; and the former very widely 
 diffused throughout that country, generally appearing as a sort of shrub in the 
 neighborhood of villages, but in the jungles growing into a small tree. These trees 
 present a gorgeous sight when covered with racemes of large deep scarlet flowers. 
 They have trifoliate leaves, with roundish leaflets, velvety beneath. They yield a 
 resinous exudation, which occurs in the form of lurid red tears, often covering - 
 the twigs, and is one of the kinds of lac (q. v.) brought to the market in India. 
 The juice of the tree is not red, and the lac is supposed to be elaborated by insects, but v 
 of what species is unknown. B. frondosa is called the dhak tree in India. The bark 
 and roots are very fibrous, and the fiber is used for calking boats. The flowers, called 
 teesoo or keesoo, yield a beautiful yellow or orange dye. 
 
 BUTERA, a t. of Sicily, in the province of Caltanisetta, and 8 m. n.n.w. from 
 Terranova. It stands on a height on the left bank of the Manfria. Ruins of great 
 antiquity exist in the neighborhood, but the ancient name is unknown. In 853, B. was 
 besieged for five months by the Saracens, who raised the siege on the surrender of 6000 
 persons as slaves. B. was almost the last town in Sicily taken by the Normans, having 
 U. K. III.~15 
 
Butler. 
 
 226 
 
 held out against count Roger till 1089. The present castle is of Norman erection, and 
 contains a number of medieval antiquities. Pop, 5150, 
 
 BUTLER, a co, in s. Alabama; 875 sq.m, ; pop, ’80, 19,685 — 8983 colored; hilly, and 
 mostly covered with pine woods; produces corn, cotton, etc. The Mobile and Mont- 
 gomery railroad passes through. Co. seat, Greenville. 
 
 BUTLER, a co. in n.e. Iowa, on Cedar river and the Dubuque and Sioux City rail- 
 road; 576 sq.m.; pop. ’80, 14,293; an agricultural region, mostly prairie. Co. seat, 
 Butler Centre. 
 
 BUTLER, a co. in s, Kansas, on the White and Walnut rivers; 1519 sq.m.; pop. 
 ’80, 18,587. Agriculture is the chief business. Co. seat, El Dorado. 
 
 BUTLER, a co. in s.w. Kentucky, on Green river; 500 sq.m. ; pop. ’80, 12,181 — 820 
 colored. Surface uneven, with moderately fertile soil; agriculture the main business. 
 Co. seat, Morgantown. 
 
 BUTLER, a co. in s.e. Missouri, on the Arkansas border, w. of St. Francis river; 
 560 sq.m.; pop. ’80, 6011 — 140 colored. It has a level surface and fruitful soil, pro- 
 ducing corn, tobacco, etc. Co. seat. Poplar Bluff. 
 
 BUTLER, a co. in e. Nebraska, s. of Platte river; 576 sq.m.; pop. ’76, 4730; in ’80, 
 9194; productions agricultural. Co. seat, David city. 
 
 BUTLER, a co. in s.w. Ohio, on the Indiana border, intersected by Miami river, 
 the Miami canal, and three railroads; 455 sq.m.; pop. ’80, 42,580. Productions agricul- 
 tural. Co. seat, Hamilton. There are in the co. many interesting monuments of 
 aboriginal inhabitants. 
 
 BUTLER, a co. in w. Pennsylvania, near the Alleghany river, drained by the waters 
 of the Beaver; 800 sq.m.; pop. ’80, 52,536. The surface is diversified, and the soil 
 sandy but tolerably good, producing the usual crops. Coal, iron, and limestone are 
 plentiful. Co. seat, Butler. 
 
 BUTLER, Alban; an English hagiologist, 1710-73. He was educated attheDouay 
 Roman Catholic college, where he was professor of philosophy, and afterwards of divin- 
 ity. He traveled on the continent, was chaplain to the duke of Norfolk, and president 
 of the English college at St. Onier’s, where he died. The Lives of the Saints was his 
 great v/ork. It has passed through many editions. 
 
 BUTLER, Andrew Pickens, 1796-1857; a graduate of South Carolina college, and 
 lawyer of South Carolina. He was in the legislature in 1824, and in 1833 was appointed 
 judge of sessions and afterwards of the supreme court. In 1846, he was chosen U. S. 
 senator. It was Mr. Sumner’s reply to B. ’s last speech in the senate that led to the 
 assault upon the Massachusetts senator by Preston S. Brooks. 
 
 BUTLER, Benjamin Franklin, 1795-1858; a native of New York, and law part- 
 ner of Martin Van Buren. He served in the legislature, and was a member of the com- 
 mission to revise the statutes. In Jackson’s cabinet he was attorney-general, 1831-34, 
 and acting secretary of war, 1836-37. He was afterwards professor of law in the 
 university of New York. He was a leading member of the Democratic party up to the 
 time of the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska bill, after which he acted with the other 
 party. 
 
 BUTLEE, Benjamin Franklin, general of volunteers, U. S. army, was b. at Deer- 
 field, N. H., Nov. 5, 1818. He graduated at Waterville college, Maine, in 1838, studied 
 law at Lowell, Mass., where he was admitted to the bar in 1841, and became distin- 
 guished as a criminal lawyer and Democratic politician. He was a member of the 
 state legislature in 1853, of the state senate in 1859-60, and a delegate to the Demo- 
 cratic national conventions at Charleston and Baltimore in 1860, where he supported 
 the nomination of Jefferson Davis and John C. Breckenridge, and was nominated as 
 the Democratic candidate for governor of Massachusetts. B. had risen to the rank of 
 brig. gen. of militia; and at the outbreak of the war of secession, April 17, 1861, he 
 marched with the 8th Massachusetts brigade, and after a check at Great Bethel, was 
 appointed to the command of Baltimore, and subsequently of eastern Virginia, with 
 his head-quarters at fortress Monroe. In Feb., 1862, he commanded the military forces 
 sent from Boston to Ship island, near the mouth of the Mississippi; and after New 
 Orleans had surrendered to the naval forces under commander Farragut, he held mili- 
 tary possession of the city, and by his severity, and especially by an, at least apparently, 
 atrocious order respecting the treatment of women, brought upon himself the intense 
 detestation of the southern people, and a very general feeling of reprobation. Relieved 
 of his command, he returned to fortress Monroe, acted under gen. Grant in his opera- 
 tions against Petersburg and Richmond, and, June 13, 1865, by his refusal to co-oper- 
 ate with the naval forces, caused the failure of the first attempt to take fort Fisher, the 
 chief defense of Wilmington. Returning to Massachusetts at the end of the war, he 
 took an active part in politics as an extreme radical, advocated the impeachment of 
 president Johnson; in 1866, he was elected member of the house of representatives, and 
 has been repeatedly elected until 1878. 
 
227 
 
 Butler. 
 
 BUTLER, Benjamin Franklin (<x7ifo), b. N. II., 1819,- « graduate of Waterville 
 (Me.) college; admitted to the bar in Massachusetts, and acquired a large practice 
 in Lowell and other cities. He was early in politics as a member of the Demo- 
 cratic party, and by them was chosen to the legislature in 1853. In the same year he 
 was a member of the constitutional convention, and in 1859 was elected to the state 
 senate. On the first call for troops in the secession confiict (April 15, 1861), B., who 
 was a brig. gen. of militia, called out his brigade. On the next day, the 6th regiment 
 left Boston; and on the I8th, B. at the head of the 8th regiment started for Washington 
 by way of Baltimore. Two regiments of his brigade had in the mean time sailed for 
 fortress Monroe, of which they took possession. The burning of railroad bridges pre- 
 vented B. from reaching Washington directly, and he took possession of Annapolis and 
 repaired the railroad from that city to Washington so speedily, that the 7th New York 
 and the 8th Massachusetts regiments reached the capital in season to prevent any 
 attempt at seizure. In May, he took possession of Baltimore without opposition, and 
 the same month was appointed maj.gen. and given command of fortress Monroe. Here 
 he made the declaration, when requested to return runaway negroes, that the slaves were 
 “ contraband of war” — a doctrine that greatly discouraged the secessionists and corre- 
 spondingly elated the union side, for up to that period there had been no hesitation on 
 the part of the civil or military authorities in doing their utmost to arrest and return 
 fugitive slaves. In the spring of 1862, he commanded the land force of 18,000 men 
 designed to co-operate with Farragut in command of the fleet to operate in the lower 
 Mississippi, and on the 1st of May he took possession of New Orleans, where he 
 remained until relieved by gen. Banks in December. His administration in New 
 Orleans was violently denounced: but he kept order; forced the people to keep reason- 
 ably clean streets and so avoided the yellow-fever for one season ; compelled the rich 
 secessionists to contribute to the support of those whom their rebellion had reduced to 
 want; and enforced due respect for the flag of the nation. Near the close of 1863, he was 
 put in command of the department of Virginia and North Carolina, and in May, 1864, 
 occupied City Point and Bermuda Hundred in support of Grant’s movement upon 
 Petersburg. In October he was sent to New York to assure peace during the election, 
 there being danger of serious trouble. In 1864, he was sent against fort Fisher, but the 
 enterprise failed^, in consequence of a storm, and he returned, contrary to orders, for 
 which he was relieved from command. In 1866, he was chosen member of congress 
 from the Boston district, and in 1868, was one of the managers in the impeachment of 
 president Johnson, From the breaking out of the rebellion until 1876-77, Butler acted 
 with the Republican party; but when the greenback and labor movement began to take 
 shape he favored it, and in 1878 was the candidate of those parties, and of a large por- 
 tion of the Democratic party, for governor of Massachusetts, receiving 109,435 votes to 
 134,725 for the successful Republican candidate. He was again a candidate of “green- 
 backers,” labor men, and Democrats, in 1879, but was again unsuccessful. 
 
 BUTLER, Charles, 1750-1832; a prolific English writer, nephew of Alban. He 
 was educated at Douay, and entered at Lincoln inn in 1775, coming to the bar in 1791. 
 His literary activity was enormous. Among his works were Reminiscences; Horoe Bihlicm; 
 Hoi'ob JuridiccB Subsecwce; Book of the Roman Catholic Uiurch; and lives of Erasmus, Gro- 
 tius, and others. He also edited his uncle’s Lims of the Saints, and completed an edition 
 of Coke upon Littleton. 
 
 BUTLER Clement M., d.d., b. N. Y., 1810; a Protestant Episcopal minister 
 in Georgetown, D. C., Boston, and Washington; rector of Grace church, Rome, Italy, 
 1862-64; professor of ecclesiastical history in the divinity school of the Protestant Epis- 
 copal church in West Philadelphia. He has published The Book of Common Prayer 
 Interpi'eted hy its History; Old Truths and New Errors; St. Paul in Rome; Inner Rome; 
 Manual of Ecclesiastical History from the Is^ to the l^th Century; Sermons, etc. 
 
 BUTLER, John, a native of Conn.; d. Canada, 1794; a tory leader in the revolu- 
 tion, commanding a regiment of militia. In 1776, he organized a band of guerillas dis- 
 guised as Indians, who committed many outrages. He also commanded the men who 
 destroyed Wyoming, Penn., in 1778. After peace he settled in Canada, where he was 
 agent for Indian affairs. 
 
 BUTLER, Joseph, one of the most eminent of English divines, was b. in 1692 at 
 Wantage, in Berkshire, where his father kept a shop. With a view to the ministry of the 
 Presbyterian church, he attended a dissenting academy at Tewkesbury, in Gloucester- 
 shire. " At the age of 22, he gave proof of high metaphysical ability in a letter to Dr. " 
 Samuel Clarke, usually appended to that celebrated writer’s a-priori demonstration, to 
 which it offers some objections. About this time, he made up his mind to join the '' 
 church of England, and in Mar., 1714, entered Oriel college, Oxford. Soon after, he 
 took orders. In 1718, he was appointed preacher at the Rolls chapel, where he preached 
 those remarkable sermons which he published in 1726. The first three, O 71 Human 
 Nature, constitute one of the most important contributions ever made to moral science. 
 The scope of the reasoning is briefl}'-, that virtue is consonant with, and vice a violation 
 of, man’s nature. In 1725, B. was presented to the rich benefice of Stanhope, in the 
 CO. of Durham, to which he removed in the following year. Here he resided in 
 great retirement till 1733. His friend Seeker, the archbishop, desired to see him pro- 
 
Kntler. 
 
 Butter. 
 
 228 
 
 moted to some more important position, and mentioned his name once to queen Caro- 
 line. The queen thought he had been dead, and asked archbishop Blackburne if it were 
 not so. “ No, madam,” said the archbishop; ‘‘ but he is buried.” In 1733, B. became 
 chaplain to his friend lord chancellor Talbot, and at the same time a prebendary of 
 Rochester. In 1736, he published the great work of which the germs were contained 
 in his three sermons, and which has entitled him, in the eyes of his eloquent disciple 
 Chalmers, to be called “the Bacon of theology.” The leading^im of the Analogy is to 
 show, that all the objections to revealed religion are equally applicable to the whole con- 
 stitution of nature, and that the general analogy between the principles of divine gov- 
 ernment, as revealed in the Scriptures, and those manifested in the course of nature, 
 warrants the conclusion that they have one Author. Soon after the publication of this 
 work, B. was appointed clerk of the closet to the queen, who greatly prized his conver- 
 sation. In 1738, he was made bishop of Bristol; in 1740, dean of St. Paul’s; and in 
 1750, he was translated to the see of Durham. He lived only to make one visitation of 
 his diocese. His “ charge” on the occasion, in which he pointed out, with character- 
 istic depth of insight, the importance of a due maintenance of the externals of religion, 
 as a means of keeping alive the thought of it in the minds of the people, subjected him 
 to much censure as betraying a tendency to Roman Catholicism — a charge unworthy 
 BOW of serious notice. B.’s private character was such as became a Christian prelate: 
 grave and judicious, he was at the same time meek and generous. His intercourse with 
 his clergy and people was frank and humane; his episcopal treasures were wisely and 
 munificently distributed, as not his own; and no anxious legatee looked with hope to 
 his death. That event took place at Bath, June 16, 1752, and the good bishop’s remains 
 were buried in Bristol cathedral. His works, notwithstanding a dry and uninteresting 
 style, have gone through numerous editions. The best is that edited, with a life, etc., 
 by Fitzgerald. 
 
 BUTLER, Samuel, poet, was b. at Strensham, Worcestershire, in 1612. His father 
 was a farmer in that place, and said to be a person of some education. Young B., 
 after acquiring the rudiments of his education at home, was placed at the college school 
 at Worcester. His progress there was rapid, and on leaving it he proceeded to one of 
 the universities. After finishing his education, he was appointed clerk to T. Jeffreys, 
 esq., justice of the peace, and in his leisure hours devoted himself to the study of music 
 and poetry. He aherwards entered the household of the countess of Kent, which he 
 left, and went to live with sir Samuel Luke, who resided in the same county. After 
 the king’s restoration, he was made secretary to the earl of Carberry, which office he 
 held till 1661. About this time, B. married a Mrs. Herbert, a lady of good family and 
 some property, which, however, was afterwards lost by being invested in bad securities. 
 He published the first part of Hadibras in 1663, and its reception at court was immedi- 
 ate and triumphant. It received all the favor Charles could spare from his spaniels and 
 his mistresses, and he deigned even to garnish his royal conversation with its wit. The 
 courtiers took up the fashion, the coffee-houses and taverns followed suit, and finally 
 the mob went into raptures, in imitation of its betters. Hadihras was pirated within 
 four weeks of its publication. The king had wit enough to see the merit of the work, 
 but he lacked generosity to relieve the necessities of the writer. There seems to be no 
 good reason to believe that B.’s palm ever tingled to the touch of royal pension or gra- 
 tuity. Poverty is almost the only thing in B.’s life that one is certain of. In 1664, he 
 published the second part of his book, and a third part appeared in 1678. He died in 
 Rose street, Co vent garden, in 1680; and while some say that he starved from pride, 
 all agree that at his death he was very poor. 
 
 Hudihras is a kind of metrical Don Quixote; and if the work of Cervantes stands at 
 the head of its class in the literature of Spain, Hudihras occupies the same place in 
 the literature of England. The Puritans are the subjects of B.’s derision, and king 
 Charles must have felt that the poet avenged for him the battle of Worcester. The 
 weight, compression, and plenteousness of the wit is wonderful. Hudihras is like a 
 mass of crystals, every point flashes. It is, beyond any other book, of wit “all com- 
 pact.” B. thinks in witty couplets, he argues in them, he spears his foes with a jest, 
 he routs and chases them into oblivion with unextinguishable laughter. His best 
 things have become proverbs. His mass of wit has been grated down into common 
 speech, and particles of it may be found any day glittering in the talk of English 
 plowmen and artisans. 
 
 BUTLER, William Allen, ll.d.; b. N. Y., 1825; a graduate of the university of 
 New York, studied law with his father (Benjamin F. of New York), and traveled exten- 
 sively abroad before commencing practice. He is the author of several popular satirical 
 poems, among which are Nothing to Wear; Barnum's Parnassus; and Two Millions. He 
 has also published Lawyer and Client, and a biographical sketch of Martin Van Buren. 
 
 BUTLER, William Archer, a religious and philosophical writer of singularly high 
 promise, was born in 1814, at Annerville, near Clonmel, Ireland. He was originally a 
 Roman Catholic, but subsequently became a Protestant, and studied at Trinity college, 
 Dublin, where he was appointed professor of moral philosophy in 1837. He died in 
 1848. The principal work on which his reputation is based, is the Lectures on the HisPn'y 
 of Ancient Philosophy, edited with notes by W. Hepworth Thomson (Cambridge, 1856, 2 
 
229 
 
 Butler. 
 
 Butter. 
 
 'fols,'). These lectures are remarkable for their great learniog, eloquence, and depth of 
 ^dgment. Besides his lectures, there have appeared, Sermons, with a memoir by the 
 Kev. Thomas Woodward (Dublin, 1849); Letters on the Demlopment of Christian Doctrine 
 (Dublin, 1850); Letters on Romanism (Lond. 1854). 
 
 BUTLER, William Orlando, 1793-1880; b. Ky. ; served in the Indian battles of 
 1812, and under Jackson at New Orleans, and after the war practiced law in Kentucky. 
 He was a member of congress, 1839-43, and next year democratic candidate for governor; 
 in 1848 the democratic E|pninee for vice-president, but not successful. He served as maj. 
 gen. of volunteers in the war with Mexico, and was wounded at Monterey. He was a 
 member of the peace congress of 1861. 
 
 BUTLEEAGE of wine, as described by Blackstone and Stephen, is a very ancient 
 hereditary duty belonging to t'he crown, and is otherwise called the jn'isage of wines. 
 This duty is taken notice of in the great roll of the exchequer, 8 Richard I., still extant. 
 Under the right to levy it, the crown could take two tuns of wine from every ship 
 (English or foreign) importing into England 20 tuns or more, one before and one behind 
 the mast; which, by charter of Edward I., was exchanged into a duty of two shillings 
 for every tun imported by merchant strangers, and called butlerage, because paid to the 
 king’s butler. 
 
 BUTO, an Egyptian goddess, deity of the town Buto in northern Egypt. She per- 
 sonified lower Egypt; and, it was believed, presided over fire, and resided in the sun. B. 
 was considered to represent the Greek Latona, and to be the regent of certain districts 
 and cities in Egypt and Arabia. 
 
 BU'TOMUS, a genus of aquatic plants, of which one species, B. umbellatus, is frequent 
 in ditches and ponds in England, Ireland, and many parts of Europe, but is very rare 
 in Scotland. It is popularly called flowering rush, and is one of the plants to which the 
 praise has been assigned of being the most beautiful in the British flora. The leaves are 
 all radical, 2 to 3 ft. long, linear, triangular, their sharp edges sometimes cutting the 
 mouths of cattle, whence the generic name (Gr. ox-cutting). The scape, or flowering stem, 
 is longer than the leaves, terminating in a large umbel of rose-colored flowers, readily 
 distinguished from those of all other British plants by having nine stamens, six in an 
 outer, and three in an inner row. 
 
 BUTT, Isaac, b. 1813 ; graduate of Trinity college, Dublin, and a member of the 
 Irish bar. He was one of the counsel for Smith O’Brien and others tried in 1848 for 
 treason, and also for the Fenians tried in 1865. In 1852, he was chosen to parliament 
 from Younghallas a liberal conservative; and in 1871 he was returned from Limerick 
 as a “ home ruler,” and has been to the present time the chief leader and support of the 
 idea which that name involves. He was one of the projectors, and for a time the editor, 
 of the Dublin University Magazine. He has also published Literature of Political 
 Economy; History of the Kingdom of Italy, and works on the relations of landlord and 
 tenant. He died in 1880. 
 
 BUTTE, a small hill or knoll, or rising ground ; in some places applied to mountains, 
 as the Downieville Buttes in California, which are nearly 9000 ft. high. 
 
 BUTTE, a co. in. n. California, on the Sacramento and Feather rivers; 1458 sq.m.; 
 pop. ’80, 18,721. The surface is rough and well wooded, and the soil fertile. The co. 
 is rich in gold, silver, platinum, cinnabar, lead, and iron. The Marysville branch of 
 the Pacific railroad crosses the w. portion. Wheat, barley, wine, and wool are the chief 
 agricultural productions. Co. seat, Oroville. 
 
 BUTTEK (Ger. butter; Fr. heurre; Lat. butyrum) is the fatty substance present in the 
 milk of the mammalia, and capable of being extracted from it. In ancient times 
 the Hebrews seem to have made copious use of butter as food; but the Greeks and the 
 Romans used it only as an ointment in their baths, and it is probable that the Greeks 
 obtained their knowledge of the substance from the Scythians, Thracians, and Phrygians, 
 whilst the Romans obtained it from Germany. In southern Europe, at the present time, 
 B. is very sparingly used; and in Italy, Spain, Portugal, and southern France, it is sold 
 by apothecaries as a medicinal agent for external application. The amount of B. in 
 cows’ milk (q.y.) is about 4 per cent, though the kind of pasture, quantity of milk, and 
 general condition, influence the relative quantity of the several ingredients of milk. In 
 the extraction of B., the milk is allowed to cool, and the cream which rises to the sur- 
 face is skimmed ofE, and put into a large, deep, earthenware vessel, where it lies for 
 several days till enough has been collected for a churning. Any difference in the exact 
 mode of treatment of the milk yields a B. with some peculiarity or other. Thus, the B. 
 and cream of Devonshire, which are famed for their superior richness, owe this in 
 greater part to the mode of manipulating the milk, and not to the special character of 
 that fluid, or to the richness of the pastures in those districts. The milk in Devonshire 
 is not allowed to cool slowly, as elsewhere, but is at once placed in large deep pans, and 
 ^carefully heated. A scum quickly rises, which is pushed to the side; and whenever the 
 bubbles of steam appear, the milk is removed, and allowed to cool in the ordinary way, 
 when a good deal of the milk thickens to the consistence of B., and is skimmed off as 
 'the celebrated Devonshire clouted cream. In England, the B. of Epping and Cambridge 
 ds highly esteemed, and in every part of Great Britain, the Dutch B., in a salted form. 
 
Butter. 
 
 Butterfly. 
 
 230 
 
 is very largely consumed; indeed, three fourths of all the foreign B. consumed in Great 
 Britain is imported from Holland. 
 
 In order to separate B. from milk, recourse is always had to the process of agitation 
 in churns (q.v.). The principle involved in each and all forms of this apparatus is the 
 thorough agitation of the contents, so as to cause the rupture of the minute fat globules 
 present in the milk, and the incorporation of these ruptured fat globules into larger or 
 smaller masses of butter. The cream is strained through cloth into the churn, to remove 
 any foreign matter; and the agitators being set in motion, the friction of the movement, 
 combined with the admission of air, and the chemical changes it induces, raises the tem- 
 perature of the whole contents. At one time, it was thought that one great object of 
 the agitation was the admission of the oxygen of the air, which becoming thoroughly 
 incorporated with constituents of the milk, combined therewith, and, as a consequence, 
 led to the separation of the butter. It is found, however, that B. can be obtained from 
 milk by mere agitation, without the admission of the oxygen of the air. At the same 
 time, in the ordinary wa}" of churning, oxygen does play a subordinate part by combin- 
 ing with the sugar of the milk, and forming lactic acid, which in its turn sours the milk, 
 and separates therefrom the caseine (q.v.) — cheese-matter — in minute clots or flakes, 
 yielding what is commonly called sour or butter milk. The process of churning must be 
 conducted at a medium rate. If too quickly performed the B. is soft and frothy, and i& 
 said to burst; whilst when too slowly made, it is highly tenacious, strong tasted, and 
 badly flavored. When all the B. has come, which is known by the particles agglutinat- 
 ing into irregular masses, the B. is made by taking the lumps, and well washing and 
 kneading them on a wooden board in a tub of pure spring-water till all the butter-milk 
 has been expressed; it is then divided into the requisite size of lumps, fashioned inta 
 rolls, or molded into forms, and usually stamped with some device. In the making up 
 of the B. the hands of the operator must be scrupulously clean, and be free from the 
 slightest taint of soap. Persons who are subject to moist hands should never knead B., 
 as it is very liable to be contaminated by the slightest foreign matter, especially animal 
 secretions; and it is better always for the operator to wash the hands with water contain- 
 ing some oatmeal before commencing. So important is this source of contamination 
 regarded in America, that every endeavor is made to get quit of manual labor in 'work- 
 ing the B., and a wooden butter-worker has been invented, and is largely used there. 
 When newly prepared, the B. is called or sweet B., and is of a yellow color, which 
 is well known to be deeper as the pasture on which the cows have been fed is richer, and 
 hence the poorer kinds of B. are often artificially colored with arnotto (q.v.). 
 
 A large quantity of the B. sent into market has more or less common salt added, for 
 the purpose of preserving it. For use within a week or two, the proportion of common 
 salt employed is about i an oz to 2 lbs. of B., though, where it has to be kept for some 
 time, as much as 1 oz. of salt to 1 lb. of butter is used. The incorporation requires to 
 be carefully and dexterously done, so that the resulting material may be uniform; and 
 the better plan is to add only a portion of the salt at a time, and to knead and re-knead 
 the B. till the whole is thoroughly mixed. When the less amount of salt has been 
 employed, the result is powdered B.. and the larger quantity yields salt butter. Much of 
 the latter is closely packed in small wooden firkins or kits, and occasionally in stone- 
 ware, and sent into market. Great care must be taken to have these kits, and indeed to 
 have every vessel used in the preparation, as clean or sweet as possible. Constant rins- 
 ings with cold water, and scaldings with boiling water, are resorted to Attention must 
 likewise be paid to the air of the apartments in which the operations are carried on, as 
 a tainted air is very injurious. 
 
 The adulterations liable to be present in B. are an undue proportion of salt and water, 
 and these run up occasionally to upwards of 33 per cent, or one third of the total weight. 
 Another adulteration is the presence of lactate of zinc, derived from the milk being 
 placed in zinc pails and basins, from the impression that by some imaginary electrical 
 influence an increase in the amount of cream will be the result; but though this is not 
 attained, yet the milk tending to form lactic acid, the latter attacks the zinc vessel, and 
 forms lactate of zinc, which dissolves in the milk, and thereby contaminates it, imparting 
 an unpleasant taste, and, when present in larger quantity, leading to violent spasmodic 
 vomiting. When B. is allowed to get old, it becomes rancid and tastes and smells disa- 
 greeably. To some extent an acid is formed, called butyric acid (q.v.). For the use of 
 B. in diet, see Food and Nutrition. 
 
 Butter, in chemistry, is often applied generically to any substance of the same con- 
 sistence of B., and is therefore used to d^esignate palm, cocoa-nut, shea, and nutmeg 
 oils. It is also applied to certain metallic substances which have an oily aspect and con- 
 sistence resembling melted B. ; thus we have B. of antimony, bismuth, zinc, and tin. — 
 Butter of antimony is a thick, dense, oily compound, produced by acting upon the 
 native sulphuret of antimony (SbSa) by concentrated hydrochloric acid (HCl) and heat, 
 when the oily chloride of antimony (SbCh) is formed. See Antimony. 
 
 Butterine, a substitute for B., was first manufactured in France, but is now 
 iXtensively produced in this country. It is composed of animal fat, amalgamated with 
 milk, to which is sometimes added a small proportion of real butter. 
 
 BUTTER, Rock, a mineral which may be regarded as a variety of alum (q.v.) — an iron 
 alum, appearing as a pasty exudation from rocks that contain alum or its constituents. 
 
231 
 
 utter. 
 
 Butterflj. 
 
 particularly alum-slate and other schistose rocks. It occurs at Hurlet alum-work, near 
 Paisley, Scotland, and in a number of places on the continent of Europe. It is not unlike 
 JB. in color, varying from yellowish white to sulphur yellow. It is rather greasy to the 
 touch, and is easily broken in pieces. 
 
 BUTTEECUP. See Ranunculus. 
 
 BUTTERFIELD, John, 1783-1869; one of the founders of the express business 
 in the United States. Before the time of railroads he was proprietor of many impor- 
 tant lines of stage coaches, especially in New York state. 
 
 BUTTERFIELD, William, b. 1814; an English architect noted as a leader of the 
 "‘Gothic revival” in England. His work has been chiefly in church and collegiate 
 architecture. 
 
 BUTTEEFISH. See Gunnel. 
 
 BUTTERFLY, the common English name of all the diurnal lepidopterous (q.v.) 
 insects, corresponding with the genus papilio, as originally defined by Linnaeus, but 
 forming many genera in the most recent entomological systems. Butterflies exhibit a 
 great similarity in almost all respects to other lepidopterous insects, the common charac- 
 ters of which will be found in the article on that order; but are distinguished even 
 more than the rest of them generally, by brilliancy of coloring, which in butterflies also 
 belongs to the under as well as the upper side of the wings, whilst the beauty of moths 
 and hawk-moths appears chiefly on the upper side. Accordant with this circumstance, 
 is the further peculiarity, that almost all butterflies, when at rest, usually hold their 
 wings erect, the under side being thus chiefly exhibited; whilst the other lepidopterous 
 insects, when at rest, hold their wings in a horizontal or somewhat inclined position, 
 and some have them wrapped round the body. Butterflies are also the only lepidopter- 
 ous insects which have no spines, bristles, or hooks on the margins of their wings, by 
 which the second wing on each side can be attached to the first, but both when %ing 
 and at rest, have all their wings quite separate. The manner in which the scales of the 
 wings are imbricated, gives those of butterflies a smoother appearance than those of 
 moths and hawk-moths. The antennae of butterflies are generally simple, slender, and 
 elongated, and terminated by a little club. Their caterpillars have always sixteen feet 
 <see Caterpillar). The pupa or chrysalis is angular; is seldom enveloped in a 
 cocoon; is generally suspended by the tail, by means of a silky substance, often 
 to a leaf or twig, but is sometimes supported by bands around the middle; and generally 
 jexhibits more or less of that golden coloring from which both the names aurelia (Lat. 
 -auruni) and chrysalis (Gr. chrysos) are derived. 
 
 Butterflies are found in all parts of the world; they are to be seen during the sun- 
 shine of the brief summer extracting nectar from the flowers even of Greenland and 
 Spitzbergen, but they are most numerous in the warmest regions; where, however, 
 many of them live chiefly in the shade of moist foliage, in woods and jungles. Dr. 
 Hooker, describing the scenery on the banks of the Great Runjeet in the Sikkin Hima- 
 laya, says that “by far the most striking feature consisted in the amazing quantity of 
 superb butterflies, large tropical swallow-tails, black, with scarlet or yellow eyes on 
 their wings. They were seen everywhere, sailing majestically through the still hot air, 
 or fluttering from one scorching rock to another, and especially loving to settle on the 
 damp sand of the river edge, where they sat by thousands, with erect wings, balancing 
 themselves with a rocking motion, as their heavy sails inclined them to one side or the 
 other, resembling a crowded fleet of yachts on a calm day.” 
 
 Butterflies possess no small power of v/ing; some of them, indeed, of which the 
 wings are comparatively thin and delicate, are inferior in this respect, and have a sort 
 of zigzag flight ; but others soar in the air with a steady and continuous motion. Short- 
 lived as they are all generally believed to be, some of the tropical species perform 
 wonderful migrations; concerning which, however, nothing but the fact is yet well 
 known. “ Frequently,” says sir James Emerson Tennent in his work on Ceylon, “ the 
 extraordinary sight presents itself of flights of these delicate creatures, generally of a 
 white or pale yellow hue, apparently miles in breadth, and of such prodigious extension 
 as to occupy hours and even days uninterruptedly in their passage, whence coming no 
 one knows, whither going no one can tell.” 
 
 The number of species of B. is very great, and the arrangement of them has been 
 found difficult, chiefly upon account of the great similarity in all important respects 
 i which prevails among them all. They are divided, however, into two well-marked 
 sections, of which the first is characterized by having only a single pair of spurs or 
 spines on the tihim (or fourth joints of the legs), placed at their lower extremity; whilst 
 in the other section, the tibiae of the hinder legs have two pair of spurs, one pair at each 
 extremity. This distinction, seemingly unimportant in itself, is accompanied by other 
 differences. The second section of butterflies maybe regarded as forming a sort of con- 
 necting link between butterflies and hawk-moths. A few British species belong to it, 
 but the species are generally tropical, and some of them, found in tropical America, are 
 remarkable for their rapidity and power of flight, and for the migrations which they 
 perform, besides being amongst “the most splendid insects in creation,” a resplendent 
 green, inimitable by art, relieving the velvet black of their wings, and varying with 
 
Butterfly. 
 
 Button. 
 
 232 
 
 every change of light. The beautiful iridescence of the wings of these and many other 
 butterflies is owing to the peculiar position of the scales. 
 
 Some groups of butterflies are remarkable for the imperfect development of the first 
 pair of legs, so that they are generally described as having four legs instead of six. 
 
 The eggs of butterflies are d^eposited on the plants, the leaves of which are to supply the 
 food of the caterpillars. In cold and temperate climates, the eggs deposited in autumn 
 arenot hatched till the following spring; but it is believed that many species produce 
 several broods in a year, as the eggs in summer may be hatched in a few days. The 
 caterpillars of each species are generally confined to some particular kind of plant, the 
 leaves of which they devour; their ravages are well known, but the excessive increase 
 of their numbers is in part restrained by many enemies, and by none more than by the 
 ichneumons (q.v.) and other insects, which deposit their eggs in them, and the larvae of 
 which feed on them. An account of B. transformations will be given under Insect 
 Transformations. 
 
 Butterflies vary in size from less than an inch to almost a foot across the expanded 
 wings. The largest species are tropical. Some of the species are very widely distrib- 
 uted: Cynthia cardni, of which the caterpillar feeds on the leaves of thistles, is found 
 not only throughout Europe, but in Egypt, Barbary, Senegal, Cape Colony, Madagas- 
 car, China, Java, Australia, Brazil, and North America, being, in fact, one "of the most 
 widely distributed of all insects. The geographical limits of other species appear to be' 
 very restricted. The diversity of coloring is almost endless, but a prevalence of cer- 
 tain hues, or of certain modes of the disposal of them, is observable throughout large' 
 groups. The caterpillars of many species are variously furnished with spines, those of" 
 others — none of them British — have long fleshy prominences, horny at the tip, probably 
 intended as means of defense. The hinder wings of many butterflies are curiously 
 prolonged into tail-like appendages, one or more on each wing, which vary in form,, 
 being sometimes long andiinear, sometimes broad, and widening towards the extremity.. 
 These are, however, little seen in British species. 
 
 Butterflies are chiefly known to us as objects of admiration and of pleasing contem- 
 plation, enhancing the charms of the most delightful weather, and always associated 
 with the most lovely scenes, or — it must be added — as a cause of annoyance and vexa- 
 tion by the ravages of their caterpillar young in our fields and gardens. There is, how- 
 ever, one small species {euplcea humata) which affords a supply of food to some of the- 
 wretched aborigines of Australia. Butterflies pf this species congregate in such vast, 
 numbers on the masses of granite in the mountains, that they are collected bjr 
 simply making smothered fires under the rocks, in the smoke of which they are suffo- 
 cated. Bushels of them are thus procured, and they are baked by placing them on the- 
 heated ground, the down and wings removed, and the bodies made into cakes which, 
 resemble lumps of fat. The months of Nov., Dec., and Jan. are quite a season of fes- 
 tivity from the abundance of this food. 
 
 Brief notices of a few of the principal kinds of B. will be found in other parts oT 
 this work. See Cabbage Butterfly, Camberwell Beauty, Purple Emperor, etc. 
 
 BUTTERFLY FISH. See Blenny. 
 
 BUTTERFLY WEED, or Pleurisy Root, Asclepias tuberosa, see Asclepias; a plant 
 found in all parts of the United States, and which has obtained a considerable reputa- 
 tion for the medicinal virtues of its root. The root is large, formed of irregular tubera 
 or spindle-shaped branches, externally yellowish brown, internally white, with a some- 
 what acrid nauseous taste when recent, merely bitter when dried. It yields its proper- 
 ties to boiling water, and is usually administered in the form of a decoction, sometimes 
 in that of a powder. It is diaphoretic and expectorant, and has been found useful in 
 the commencement of pulmonary affections, in rheumatism, and in dysentery. — The- 
 stem of the plant is erect and hairy, with spreading branches; the leaves oblongo-lanceo- 
 late, alternate, hairy, and somewhat crowded; the flowers orange-yellow, forming numer- 
 ous umbels. 
 
 BUT'TERMILK is the form of milk from which the butter or oily matter has beem 
 abstracted. See Butter. B. contains the caseine, sugar, and salts of ordinary milk, 
 and is only deficient in oily matters. It is therefore nutritious, and is largely used in 
 Ireland and Scotland as an article of food, being very generally partaken of wdth por- 
 ridge and with potatoes. It may be drunk ad libitum, is a very agreeable, cooling bev- 
 erage, and is therefore useful in certain febrile and inflammatory conditions. 
 
 BUTTERMILK FALLS, in Le Roy, Genesee co., N. Y., on Oatka creek, which 
 falls over a limestone ledge 90 ft. high. The same name is given to a cascade in Bog; 
 Meadow creek, near West Point, N. Y. 
 
 BUTTERNUT, or White Walnut, Juglans cinerea, a large, wide-spreading Ameri- 
 can tree, with nearly smooth bark, and large leaves. The nuts are well-known, and 
 form agreeable food when dried; when taken green and pickled they are prized for the- 
 table. Sugar can be made from the sap, but it is much inferior to that made from, 
 maple. The timber is useful for coach and cabinet work, posts, rails, and wooden bowls.. 
 
 BUTTER TREE, a name given to several tropical trees, of different natural orders 
 the fruits of which yield concrete fixed oils, having the appearance and used for the pur- 
 
233 
 
 Butterfly. 
 
 Button. 
 
 :poBes of butter. The B. trees of India and Africa belong to the genus hasda (q.v.), of 
 the natural order sapotacece; the B. trees of Guiana and Brazil to the genus caryocar 
 (q.v,), of the natural order rhizoholacecB. The oil-palms (q.v.), and the cocos butyracea 
 <see Cocoa Nut), may also be regarded as B. trees, although not generally receiving 
 that name. 
 
 BUTTERWORT, Pinguicula, a genus of plants of the natural order leniibulariaceos 
 ■(q.v.), distinguished by a two-lipped calyx, the upper lip trifid, the lower bifid, a spurred 
 corolla, two-lipped and gaping, the upper lip arched ; and a globose germen. The spe- 
 cies are small plants with only radical leaves, found in the bogs and marshes of different 
 quarters of the world. Some of them possess much beauty when in flower, particularly 
 P. grandijlora, a rare native of the s. of Fi-ance and of Ireland. The common B. (P. 
 'Gulgaris) is abundant in the northern parts of Britain and of Europe. It has the power 
 of coagulating milk. The Laplanders pour reindeer milk, warm from the animal, upon 
 the leaves of this plant, instantly strain it, and set it aside for two or three days, till it 
 acquires the consistence of cream, and some degree of acidity, when it is with them a 
 favorite article of food. A little of it in this state will produce the same effect on warm 
 reindeer milk which was at first produced by the leaves of the plant. The origin of the 
 English name B. is sometimes referred to the power of coagulating milk, sometimes to 
 the peculiar sliminess of the leaves. 
 
 BUTTISHOLZ, a village of Switzerland, in the canton of Lucerne, and 11 m. n.w. from 
 the city of that name. Near to B. is a large mound called the English Barrow, because 
 here are buried 3000 Englishmen, followers of De Coucy, son-in-law of Edward III. of 
 England, who, while devastating the cantons, were defeated and killed by Swiss peasants 
 in 1376. 
 
 BUTTMANN, Philipp Karl, one of the most distinguished philologists of modern 
 times, was b. at Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1764, and studied at Gottingen under Heyne. 
 He became, in 1789, assistant in the royal library in Berlin, and rose successively to be 
 secretary and librarian (1811). He held at the same time (1800-8) a professorship in the 
 Joachimsthal gymnasium in Berlin, which he afterwards exchanged for a professorship 
 in the newly founded university of that city. He died 21st June, 1829. B. is best known 
 by his Greek grammars, the Griech. Qrammatik (Berl. 1792; 21st ed. by his son, Alexander 
 Buttmann, 1863), and an abridgment of it, Griech. Schulgram. (14th ed. 1862); both have 
 been translated into English. His Lexilogus (translated by Fishlake) and Ausfuhrliche 
 Gi'iech. Sprachlehre, or larger Greek grammar, which have gone through several editions, 
 are designed for scholars. In his Mythologus, he has collected his essays on the myths of 
 the ancients. 
 
 BUTTON. The term B. is applied to the well-known appendages to dress used for 
 fastening or for ornament; and to a sort of oblong latch moving upon a pivot in the mid- 
 dle, used by joiners and cabinet-makers for fastening the lids of boxes, doors of presses, 
 €tc. The mass of fused metal found at the bottom of a crucible or cupel, after fusing or 
 assaying, is also technichally called a button. 
 
 The history of button-making is in many ways a curious one. Dating no further 
 back as a trade of any importance than the reign of Elizabeth, it has undergone several 
 extraordinary changes, produced chiefly by the ever-varying fashions in dress, but also 
 by some simple, though ingenious inventions, as well as by foreign competition. In 
 Great Britain, Birmingham has ahvays been the principal seat of the button manufacture. 
 What has been called the “Augustan age” of button-making in that city included the 
 latter portion of last and the early part of the present century, when even tradesmen 
 wore coats “loaded with innumerable gilt buttons,” and when employers on a moderate 
 scale in this manufacture were making incomes of from £2000 to £3000 a year, and their 
 workmen from £2 to £4 per week. Early in the present century, Mr. B. Sanders intro- 
 duced the cloth-covered button, which initiated the change from those made of metal, 
 and by which he rapidly made a fortune. His son, in 1825, effected the apparently trivial 
 but really ingenious improvement of making it with a canvas tuft instead of a metal 
 shank, by which both the button-holes and the garment itself were less subject to injury. 
 This kind of button had an enormous sale, and is still much used. A further alteration 
 was made on it by Mr. W. Elliott, who patented, in 1837, a mode of covering the button 
 with silk, having a pattern in the center, the demand for which was at one time so great, 
 that sixty looms were employed in London in making the special material required for 
 them. In 1841, the old Dorsetshire wire and thread button was replaced by the “three- 
 fold linen button,” still considered by housewives indispensable for under-clothing, since 
 neither washing nor mangling destroys it. It is said to be the invention of Mr. H. Jef- 
 fries, of Birmingham, but was patented by Mr. J. Aston, and continues to be made in 
 vast numbers. A single English firm recently consumed in one year for this kind of 
 button, 63,000 yards of cloth and 34 tons of metal, upon which 250 hands were employed. 
 
 Turning now to other materials which have had a great “success” in their day, we 
 find that buttons made of hoof, under the name of “horn buttons,” as introduced nearly 
 40 years ago by Mons. E. Bassot of Paris, were for a good many years most extensively 
 manufactured at Birmingham, and sent to all parts of the world. In hoof buttons the 
 trade is now comparatively insignificant, and the French makers possess the market for 
 what of it remains. Tweed clothing and fabrics in imitation of it have, through the 
 
Button. 
 
 Butyric. 
 
 234 
 
 necessity of matching (heir various colors, led to the buttons for them being made of a. 
 rather uncommon material, namely, vegetable ivory (q.v.). This substance, which is 
 the fruit of a palm, somewhat resembles true ivory, but is rather softer. It can be read- 
 ily turned in the lathe, and dyed of various colors. More than twenty tons of it, valued 
 at from £25 to £30 per ton, are weekly consumed in Birmingham in making buttons, and 
 it is also largely used for the same purpose in France and Germany. 
 
 What we have hitherto said refers principally to what manufacturers call the revolu- 
 tions 6f the trade; but there are other important branches which have been less subject 
 to change, chief among these being the so-called “pearl buttons” — that is, buttons made 
 of mother-of-pearl shells. This has long been a leading branch, and employs a greater 
 number hands than any other. Metal buttons, too, although not relatively so important 
 as formerly, have never ceased to form a prominent section of the trade. They are a 
 numerous class, and Include all sorts for uniforms, trouser buttons, fancy buttons which 
 are gilt, stamped, chased, or enameled, and many cheap varieties in iron and other metals 
 for export. Numerous kinds of composite buttons are also partly composed of metal. 
 Glass buttons form another interesting branch, carried on to a considerable extent in 
 Birmingham, but more largely in Bohemia and Paris; so also do porcelain buttons, 
 which, although an English invention, are now almost exclusively made in France. 
 Vulcanite (q.v.) buttons have. been extensively made in the United States. As to other 
 materials, a Birmingham manufacturer says it were easy to write out a long list from 
 which buttons have been made, but very difficult to name one from which they have not 
 been made. 
 
 We shall now describe briefly some of the processes in button-making, beginning with 
 metal buttons. Circular disks, called “ blanks,” are first cut out of sheet brass or other 
 metal by means of fly-presses, usually worked by girls. The fly-press consists of a ver- 
 tical iron screw with a triple thread, to which screw is attached a horizontal arm, bend- 
 ing downwards at the end to form a handle. A punch attached to the press rises and 
 falls with the motion of this handle, and rapidly cuts out the blanks. When large 
 quantities of one pattern are required, a self-feeding, self-acting machine is used, which 
 cuts out the blanks in rows at one blow, turning them out at the rate of 2000 gross per 
 day. After being annealed, the blanks are next made convex by a blow from a stamp. 
 The shanks are formed of wire by a separate machine, which cuts off pieces, and bends- 
 them into loops of the required form. When these are soldered on, the buttons are 
 dressed on a lathe. They are then gilded and burnished; some, however, are only 
 lackered; and some, though gilt, are finished in a dead or frosted style. — “ Shell” but- 
 tons are those with a convex face, a flat or convex back, and hollow. These are made 
 of two blanks, that forming the face being larger than the back to which the shank is- 
 attached. These blanks are pressed into the required shape by dies worked in the fly- 
 press, and then, by another die, the edge of the larger blank is lapped over the smaller, 
 and thus attached without soldering. Livery and other buttons having a device in 
 strong relief are stamped by a die placed in a stamping-press. See Stamping op' 
 Metals. 
 
 In making covered buttons, a metal blank is punched, and its edge is turned up by 
 a die in a fly-press; then a smaller metal blank is punched with a hole in the middle, 
 and of such size, that, when flat, it shall fit into the upturned edge of the first; this per- 
 forated blank, or collet, is next pressed into a concave or dished shape. Two cloth 
 blanks — the face one of silk, and the other for the tuft of thin canvas — are now punched, 
 one considerably larger than the front metal blank, the other somewhat smaller; the- 
 larger cloth blank is laid upon the flat face of the metal blank, which is filled with a 
 disk of mill-board or paper, and its edges turned over; these edges are covered by the 
 smaller cloth, and then the collet laid upon them with its concavity towards the cloth. 
 They are now all pressed together in a sort of die or mold, by which means the collet 
 is flattened and spread out, while the upturned edge of the metal blank is turned forci- 
 bly over it, thus securing the collet, and with it the cloth which is strained tightly on 
 the face, and its edges bound between the blank and the collet, so that the whole is 
 firmly held together. The linen-covered button for underclothing, above referred to, is 
 formed of a single brass ring with a groove or canal on one face. Into this the edges of 
 the two round linen blanks are placed, so that when the edges of the groove are pressed 
 firmly down, the button is entirely covered wuth linen. 
 
 Buttons with holes, technically called “four-holes,” “three-holes,” and “two-holes,” 
 when of pearl-shell, wood, bone, or ivory, are cut with a tubular saw, turned separately 
 in a lathe, and drilled. When of metal, the blanks are punched, then stamped in dies 
 to the required form; the holes are punched, and “rymered,” to round the sharp edges 
 that would otherwise cut the thread. — Glass buttons are most largel}’’ made by taking a 
 rod of glass of any color, softening the end by heat, and pressing it into a mold, each 
 half of which is fixed to one limb of a pair of pincers. The shank is placed into a hole- 
 in the mold before the melted glass is inserted. 
 
 According to an estimate published a few years ago by Mr. J. P. Turner of Birming- 
 ham, to whose paper we have been much indebted, the number of artisans employed in 
 the button manufactures of that city was then as follows : 
 
235 
 
 Button. 
 
 Butyric. 
 
 Making metal buttons of all kinds 1200 
 
 “ covered buttons, including linen 1500 
 
 “ pearl buttons 2000 
 
 “ vegetable ivory buttons 700 
 
 “ other kinds, as glass, horn, bone, wood, etc 600 
 
 Total 6000 
 
 Probably about 1000 more are employed in London and elsewhere in Great Britain, and 
 a, large proportion of the whole are females. At that time, which was before the war 
 with Germany, about 20,000 persons were employed in France, showing how much more 
 largely the button industry has been developed in that country. Germany is a still 
 
 f reater producer, the cheaper kinds of fancy buttons made in the Rhenish provinces of 
 *russia, the glass buttons of Bohemia, and the pearl buttons of Vienna being more 
 extensively exported than those of any other country. Buttons of various kinds are 
 made on a large scale in the United States, but that country still imports them largely 
 from Europe. 
 
 BUTTON, Sir Thomas, the successor of sir Henry Hudson in the exploration of the 
 n.e. coast of America. In 1612-13, he was frozen in and wintered on the w. coast of 
 Hudson’s bay. The next summer he explored all the coasts of the bay, returning to 
 England in the autumn. 
 
 BUTTONWOOD. See Plane. 
 
 BUTTRESS (old Eng. hotress; Fr. luttee), a projection for the purpose of giving addi- 
 tional support or strength to a wall. In the classical style, there were no buttresses, 
 their place being, to a certain extent, supplied by pilasters, antae, etc. The different 
 stages of Gothic architecture are marked hy the form of buttresses employed, almost as 
 distinctly as by the form of the arch. The Norman B. was broad, often semicircular, 
 sometimes dying into the wall at the top, and never projecting from it to any great 
 extent. Early English buttresses project much more boldly, and are considerably nar- 
 rower, than the Norman. They are frequently broken into stages, which diminish in 
 size as they ascend. In the decorated style, this division into stages is almost invaria- 
 ble, the B. being often supplied with niches terminating in pinnacles, and very highly 
 ornamented with carving, statues, etc. In the perpendicular style, they retain the forms 
 which had been introduced during the decorated period, the ornamentation, of course, 
 being varied to suit the character of the style. Flying buttresses — i.e., buttresses in the 
 form of a sloping arch, connecting the upper and central portions of an arched structure 
 with the vertical buttresses of the outer walls — were introduced into England at the 
 period of the early English, though they existed on the continent previously, where 
 they continued to be used to a greater extent. They were also very common in Scot- 
 land. In England, they are generally called arch -buttresses. 
 
 BUTTS, a CO. in central Georgia, on the Ockmulgee; 240 sq.m.; pop. ’80, 8311 — 4034 
 colored. The surface is uneven, and soil fertile. Productions, corn, cotton, and sweet 
 potatoes. Co. seat, Jackson. 
 
 BUTUA ROOT. See Cissampelos. 
 
 BUTY'RIC ACID may be best obtained by saponifying butter with potash, then adding 
 dilute sulphuric acid till an acid reaction is attained, and distilling about one half of the 
 mixture, adding a little water, and continuing the distillation till the residue is not acid. 
 B. A. may also be obtained by allowing a small quantity of milk-curd to act upon a solu- 
 tion of sugar at a temperature of 77° to 86°, which excites a peculiar process of fermen- 
 tation resulting in the formation of butyric acid. Some chalk is added to take up the 
 B. A. whenever produced, and the better proportions to employ are 100 sugar, 8 to 10 
 fresh curd, and 50 chalk, with sufficient water to make a thin liquid. The butyrate of 
 lirne is left in the vessel, and on acting upon that by dilute hydrochloric or sulphuric 
 acid, and redistilling, the free B. A, passes over in vapor, and is condensed. B. A. is a 
 transparent, thin, oily liquid, with a most persistent rancid odor. It is mixable in all 
 proportions in water, alcohol, ether, and oil of vitriol ; has the specific gravity 973 (water 
 being 1000), boils at 314°; though it volatilizes at ordinary temperatures, as appears from 
 the rancid odor of its vapor. Its chemical symbol is H 0 ,C 8 H 703 , and it combines with 
 bases, such as lime, soda, etc., to form salts. 
 
 BUTYRIC ETHER, or PmE-APPLE Oil, is an exceedingly fragrant oil obtained by 
 distilling butyric acid (or the butyrate of lime), alcohol, and sulphuric acid. The mate- 
 rial which passes over is the B. E,, and it is generally mixed with alcohol, and sold in 
 commerce as artificial pine-apple oil. It possesses the same very pleasant flavor which 
 belongs to pine-apples, and there is little doubt that pine-apples owe their flavor to the 
 presence of natural butyric ether. The artifleial variety is now extensively used for 
 flavoring confections, as pine-apple drops, for sophisticating bad rum, and for flavoring 
 custards, ices, and creams, as also an acidulated drink or lemonade named pine-apple 
 ale. B. E. alone cannot be used in perfumery for handkerchief use, as, when inhaled in 
 even small quantity, it tends to cause irritation of the air-tubes of the lungs and intense 
 beadache, but it is employed as one material in the manufacture of compound perfumes. 
 
Baxar. 
 
 Buzzard. 
 
 236 
 
 It is composed of ordinary ether (C4H5O) and butyric acid (CbHtOs-I-HO), and its strict 
 chemical name and symbol is the butyrate of the oxide of ethyl (C4H60,C8H703). It is 
 remarkable that a substance possessing such a disagreeable odor as butyric acid (that of 
 rancid butter) should be capable of forming, in part at least, a substance with such a 
 pleasant flavor as artiflcial pine-apple oil. 
 
 BUXAR',, a t. of Shahabad, in Bahar, presidency of Bengal, situated on the right 
 bank of the Ganges. It is chiefly remarkable as the scene of a victory gained in 1764 
 by sir Hector Munro. At the head of 7072 men, of whom only 857 were Europeans, 
 he defeated a native army of 40,000, and captured 133 guns. B. is 62 m. n.e. of Bena- 
 res, and 398 n.w. of Calcutta. Pop. ’71, 13,446. 
 
 BUXBAU'MIA, a genus of mosses, of which only one species is known, B. aphylla,. 
 a very rare British plant, remarkable for its apparent want of leaves; the whole plant 
 above ground seeming to consist of a little conical bulb, with minute scales, which 
 are, however, really its leaves. 
 
 BUX'TON, a t. in Derbyshire, 33 m. n.w. of Derby. It lies 900 ft. above the sea, in^ 
 a deep valley, surrounded by hills and moors, which have been tastefully planted ; the 
 only approach being by a narrow ravine, by which the Wye flows into the Derwent. 
 The new part of the town is much under the level of the old. Five m. to the e. of 
 B. is Chee Tor, a perpendicular limestone rock, rising to a height of between 300' 
 and 400 ft. from the Wye. B. has, for 300 years, been famous for its calcareous 
 springs, tepid (82° F.), and cold (discharging 120 gallons of water per minute), audits 
 chalybeate springs. It is visited annually, from June to October, by 12,000 to 14,000 
 persons, the waters being taken for indigestion, gout, rheumatism, and nervous and 
 cutaneous diseases. Nearly 5000 strangers can be accommodated at one time. There is 
 an institution, called the Devonshire hospital, containing 100 beds, supported by sub- 
 scription, where nearly 1000 patients are annually boarded and lodged free of charge. 
 The baths and public w^alks are numerous. Much of the splendor of B. is due to the- 
 dukes of Devonshire, one of whom, in the last century, at the cost of £120,000, 
 erected an immense three-storied pile of buildings of gritstone, called the Crescent, a 
 curve of 200 ft., with wings of 58 feet. It includes several hotels, a library, assem- 
 bly rooms, etc. Near B. is the Diamond hill, famous for its crystals; and Poole’s, 
 hole, a stalactitic cavern 560 yards long. The Romans had baths here. Mary Queen 
 of Scots resided for some time at B., when in the custody of the earl of Shrewsbury. 
 B. is approached by railway both from n. and s. ; and the baths, which were- 
 rebuilt some years ago, are considered among the finest in Europe. The town, which, 
 in 1871 had a population of 3717, is rapidly increasing. Four newspapers are pub- 
 lished. 
 
 BUXTON, Jedidiah, an English prodigy of skill in numbers, b. 1704, and lived 
 about 70 years. Though the son of a schoolmaster and grandson of a vicar, B.’s educa- 
 tion was so neglected that he could not write, nor was he at an early period remarkable 
 for knowledge of numbers. He never could tell how his singular power came, or how 
 he used it; but it was observed that when “figuring” his attention was withdrawn from 
 all external objects. He worked out every question by his own methods, without external 
 aid, and without understanding the common rules of arithmetic. He would stride over 
 a piece of land and tell the contents to almost exact measure. In this manner he measured 
 the whole estate of Clinton, some thousands of acres, giving not only the acres but even 
 the square inches. Then for his own amusement, he reduced the whole to square hair- 
 breadths, on the base of 48 hairs to a lineal inch. His memory was such that he could 
 stop in the midst of an abstruse calculation, and a week or even a month later resume it 
 where he had left off. This mania for figures shut him out from all other knowledge, and 
 on returning from church it did not appear that he had brought away a sentence that had 
 been given out. His faculty was tested before the royal society, where he was presented 
 with a gratuity. While in London he was taken to see Richard HI., but his only enjoy- 
 ment was in counting the number of words spoken by Garrick. He would easily count 
 the steps of a company of dancers, but admitted that the sounds given out by a number 
 of musical instruments perplexed him beyond measure. 
 
 BUXTON, Sir Thomas Fowell, a man of singular earnestness and force of character,, 
 belonging to the class termed “ philanthropists,” was b. in 1786 at Earl’s Colne, Essex. 
 The eldest son of a wealthy family, and early deprived of paternal guidance, his youth 
 was distinguished chiefly by a strong development of animal energy, natural enough to 
 a young Englishman whose full stature exceeded 6 ft. 4 inches. At the university of 
 Dublin, his mind at length asserted its claims, and the new consciousness of needing to 
 raise the family fortunes animated him to extraordinary efforts. His preparatory educa- 
 tion had been almost thrown away, but at 21 he left the university its most distinguished 
 graduate. In that year he married a sister of the celebrated Mrs. Fry, and entered 
 business as a brewer, with an energy which in due time was crowned with splendid 
 prosperity. His warm religious and moral impulses soon brought him prominently for- 
 ward as an advocate of philanthropic interests. Prison discipline formed one of the 
 earliest subjects of his efforts. In 1818, he entered parliament as member for Wey- 
 mouth, which he continued to represent for about 20 years, taking a prominent part in 
 
237 
 
 Bazar. 
 
 Buzzard. 
 
 cyery debate on such questions as the amelioration of criminal law and of prison disci- 
 pline, widow-burning and slave emancipation . The latter, in particular, engrossed a large 
 share of his activity for many years, and no man on that side displayed more indomitable 
 zeal and firmness in its advocacy. In 1837, he was rejected by his constituency, and 
 refused ever after to stand for a borough. His philanthropic labors, however, terminated 
 only with his life. In 1840, he received the well-merited distinction of a baronetcy. He 
 died on 19th Feb., 1845. Memoirs of Sir T. Fowell B. 
 
 BUXTORF, Johann, a celebrated orientalist, was b. 25th Dec., 1564, at Kamen, in 
 Westphalia; studied at Marburg, Herborn, Basel, and Geneva. After traveling through 
 Germany and Switzerland, he settled at Basel, where he became professor of Hebrew in 
 1591. He died of the plague, 13th Sept., 1629. In a knowledge of rabbinical literature, 
 he surpassed all his contemporaries. The two works which prove his extensive acquaint- 
 ance with this recondite branch of theological study, are his Biblia Hebraica llahbinica 
 (Basel, 1618-19), and his Tiberias seu Gommentarius Masorethicus (Basel, 1620). The most 
 useful of his grammatical works is the Lexicon Hebraicum et Chaldaicum (Basel, 1607). 
 
 BUXTORF, Johann, the son of the former, was b. at Basel, 13th Aug., 1599, and 
 displayed at an early period a decided predilection for the same studies with his father. 
 At five years of age— according to his rather credulous biographers— he could read Ger- 
 man, Latin, and Hebrew. To perfect his knowledge of these tongues, he visited Holland, 
 France, and Germany; and in 1630 was appointed to succeed his father in the chair of 
 Hebrew at Basel, where he died 16th Aug., 1664. Besides his Lexicon Chaldaicum et 
 Synacum (Basel, 1622), and a work of Maimonides, entitled More Nevochim (Basel, 1629), 
 which is an exposition of obscure passages of the Old Testament, he published from the 
 MSS. of his father a Lexicon Chaldaicum, Talmudicum, et Babbinicum (Basel, 1639), and 
 Goncordantm Bibliorum Hebraicorum (Basel, 1632). 
 
 BUX'US. See Box. 
 
 BUYING OF FLEAS by lawyers is prohibited by an old Scotch act passed in 1594. It 
 is explained under the English term champarty, to which it is analogous. 
 
 BUYUKDEREH, a beautiful suburb of Constantinople, from which it is a few miles 
 distant, situated on the Bosporus, in the midst of the most charming scenery. It forrns 
 the summer residence of many of the Christian ambassadors, some of whom have splendid 
 mansions here. 
 
 BUZZARD, Buteo, a genus of accipitres (q.v.), or birds of prey, of the iiMmXj falcon- 
 idoe, having a rather small and weak bill, which bends from the base, and is not notched, 
 as in falcons. The legs are short and strong, the tarsi covered with scales or with 
 feathers, the toes short, and the claws strong. Buzzards may be regarded as an inferior 
 kind of eagles; they do not possess courage equal to that of eagles and falcons, nor 
 equal strength of bill or claws. They are large birds ; the common B. (B. rulgaris) 
 measuring almost 4 ft. from tip to tip of its outstretched wings. It is a bird still pretty 
 common in Britain, although much less so than it formerly was. It is subject to varia- 
 tions of plumage; the prevailing color is brown, with a considerable mixture of black 
 on the upper parts, and of white or grayish- white on the under. It is sluggish and 
 inactive, in comparison with many other birds of the same family; is usually slow in 
 its flight, and often sits long on a tree, watching for prey, which, when it perceives, it 
 glides silently into the air, and sweeping rapidly down, seizes it in its claws. This B. 
 is plentiful in all the wooded parts of Europe; it is found also in the n. of Africa, and 
 is known to exist in the western parts of Asia; but it is doubtful how far it extends over 
 that continent, a distinct although very similar species occurring in the Himalaya moun- 
 tains. The common B. is, however, a North American bird. Tame female buzzards 
 have been known in several instances to exhibit so strong a propensity for incubation, 
 and the rearing of young, at the proper season, that they have hatched hens’ eggs and 
 brought up the chickens, although if chickens not of their own hatching were brought 
 within their reach, they devoured them. Meat given to the B. nurse was carefully 
 divided among her nurslings, but they found out by their own instincts the use of grain 
 and other vegetable food. — The rough-legged B. {B. lagopus) is very similar to the com- 
 mon B., but is at once distinguished by having the tarsi feathered to the toes, whilst in 
 the common B. they are covered with scales. It is a rarer British bird, yet not of unfre- 
 quent occurrence ; it is very widely diffused, being found in the old world from Lapland 
 to the cape of Good Hope, and equally common in North America. It is most fre- 
 quently to be seen in marshy districts, and often skimming over marshes, where it 
 makes prey of frogs. — The red-tailed hawk of North America is a species of B. (buteo 
 borealis). It is in very bad repute among American farmers and housewives for its fre- 
 quent invasion of poultry -yards, from which it has acquired the name of hen-hawk . — 
 Several other species of B. appear to be limited to particular parts of the world, asJwfeo 
 jackal — so called from the resemblance of its voice to that of the jackal — to s. Africa, 
 and B. melanosternon to Australia. The Australian species has the head, chest, and 
 center of the belly deep black. The honey-buzzards (q.v.) belong to a different genus, 
 although nearly allied to the true buzzards, as are also the harriers (q.v.), of which the 
 most common British species, the marsh harrier, is sometimes called the moor buzzard.— 
 Bald B. is the name of the oscrey (q.v.). 
 
Buzzards. 
 
 Byron. 
 
 238 
 
 BUZZARD’S on the s. coast of Massachusetts, about 30 m. long by 7 wide; 
 
 sheltered from the ocean by the Elizabeth islands and Vineyard sound. In the bay are 
 the harbors of New Bedford, Wareham, Sippican, Fairhaven, and Mattapoiset. 
 
 BY-BIDDING, at auctions where the bidder may be employed by the owner, and 
 really bidding to enhance the price, not meaning to purchase. This form is unlawful; 
 but bidding merely to prevent the sale of property below its actual value is not so con- 
 sidered, 
 
 BYBLOS, an ancient city of Phenicia, now called Jubei’l, situated at the base of the 
 lower range of the Libanus, about halfjway between Tripoli and Beyrout. B. was 
 famous as the birthplace of Adonis, or Thammuz, in whose honor a splendid temple was 
 erected, which attracted many worshipers. The name given to the town by the Jew^s 
 was Giblah, and its inhabitants the Giblites are noticed in the Scriptures as stone- 
 squarers and caulkers of ships. A wall belonging, apparently, to the era of the cru- 
 sades, surrounds the town, and the remains of a Roman theater are still visible. — B. 
 was also the name of a town in the Egyptian delta, celebrated for its manufacture of 
 papyrus from the byblus or papyrus plant. 
 
 BY-LAWS are the private regulations which are usually made by corporate bodies 
 for the control and government of the corporation. They are binding, unless contrary 
 to the laws of the land, or to the charter, or act of incorporation, or, as it has been 
 decided in England, unless they are manifestly unreasonable. Blackstone tells us that 
 the right of making by-laws was allo^ved by the law of the twelve tables at Rome ; and Mr. 
 Stephen, in his Commentaries, states that in the law of England such a right is so much 
 of course, as regards every corporation, that if the charter by which certain persons are 
 incorporated give to a select body, out of their whole number, a power to make by-laws 
 as to certain specified matters, the body at large is nevertheless at liberty to make them 
 with regard to all matters not specified. Every corporation, too, can of course alter or 
 repeal the by-laws which itself has made. By the municipal corporation act, 5 and 6 Will. 
 IV. c, 76, s. 90, borough councils have power to make by-laws for the government of the 
 borough, and for the prevention and suppression of nuisances; such by-laws, however, 
 not to be of force till the expiration of forty days after the same, or a copy shall have 
 been sent to one of the secretaries of state, during which period her majesty, with the 
 advice of her privy council, may either disallow the by -law’s, or a part, or enlarge the time 
 within which they shall not come into force. Railway companies are required to lay 
 before the board of trade, for the approbation of that authority, certified copies of the 
 by-laws and regulations by which the raibway is governed, which .by-laws may be disal- 
 low^ed by the board at its pleasure. See Canal, Carrier, Railway, 
 
 BA"LES, Mather, d.d. ; 1706-88; graduated at Harvard, and ordained minister of 
 the Hollis street church, Boston, in 17S3. In 1765, he was given the degree of doctor 
 of divinity by the university of Aberdeen. He was a correspondent of Swdft and Pope, 
 and published a volume of his own poems. During the revolution he adhered to the 
 English side, and for that reason his connection with his parish w^as dissolved. In 1777, 
 he was denounced as an enemy to the country, imprisoned for a time, and condemned 
 to exile, but the latter sentence was commuted to confinement in his owm house, before 
 which sentinels were placed. His reputation for quick and caustic wit has kept his 
 memory alive. 
 
 BYNG, George, Viscount Torrington, a British admiral, b. Jan. 27, 1663, eldest 
 son of John Byng, esq., of Wrotham, Kent, entered the navy as a volunteer at the age 
 of 15, and rapidly rose to the rank of lieut. In 1688, he recommended himself to the 
 prince of Orange by his activity and zeal in attaching the officers of the fleet to the 
 cause of the revolution, and was advanced to the rank of capt. In 1702, he took 
 part in the capturing and burning of the Spanish fleet at Vigo, and in the following year 
 was made rear-admiral of the red. The attack on Gibraltar was solely confided to his 
 command, and for his gallant conduct at the battle of Malaga he w-as knighted b}’’ queen 
 Anne, In 1708, he became admiral of the blue, and commanded a squadron fitted out 
 to oppose an intended invasion of Scotland from France, on the part of the pretender. 
 He pursued the French fleet to the firth of Forth, took one ship, and forced the fleet 
 back to Dunkirk, on which occasion he was presented with the freedom of the city of 
 Edinburgh. On the breaking out of the rebellion of 1715, he was appointed to the com- 
 mand of a squadron in the Downs, and for important services against the French, was 
 created a baronet. In 1718, he commanded the English fleet sent to Sicily for the pro- 
 tection of the neutrality of Italy, and gained a victory over the Spanish fleet off Messina. 
 Soon after, he w>^as appointed treasurer of the navy, and rear-admiral of Great Britain. 
 In Jan., 1721, he was sworn one of the privy council, and in Sept, following, created 
 baron Southhill and viscount Torrington. On the revival of the order of the bath, in 
 1725, he was installed one of the knights; and, on the accession of George II., was 
 nominated first lord of the admiralty. He represented Plymouth in parliament from 
 1706 until 1721. Died Jan. 17, 1733. 
 
 BYNG, John, a brave but ill-fated British admiral, fourth son of the preceding, b. 
 in 1704, entered the navy early, served under his father, and, in 1727, became capt. In 
 1748, he had attained the rank of admiral of the red. In 1756, he wuis appointed to com- 
 
239 
 
 liuzzardSw 
 
 Byron. 
 
 mand a squadron of ten ships of the line in the Mediterranean, destined for the relief of 
 Minorca, at that time blockaced by a French fleet under La Galissoniere. On the 20th 
 May, B. made the signal to engage, which was obeyed by rear-admiral West with such 
 impetuosity that several of the enemy’s ships were driven out of the line; but B. not 
 advancing to his support, the French were allowed to escape, and Minorca was lost 
 The dissatisfaction in England, on the news arriving, was taken advanta^ of by the 
 ministry to avert the public odium from their own inefficient measures. B. was tried 
 by a court-martial, and condemned to death, for a breach of the 12th article of war, but 
 recommended to mercy. Sacriflced to the general indignation, he was shot on board 
 the Monarch, at Portsmouth, Mar. 14, 1757, meeting his fate with firmness and resigna- 
 tion. In the fleet, he was not popular, being a strict disciplinarian. 
 
 BYNKERSHOEK, Cornelius van, a Dutch jurisconsult, was b. at Middelburg, in 
 Zealand, 29th May, 1673. He studied at the .university of Franeker, took the degree of 
 doctor in 1694, and immediately after commenced to practice as an advocate of the 
 Hague. In 1703, he was elected by the states- general a member of the supreme court, 
 and, in the exercise of his functions, soon had occasion to observe how defective and 
 vague was the common law of the country. In 1710, with a view to remedy this, he 
 published the first part of his Ohservationes Juris Bomani; in 1719, his Opuscula Varii 
 Argumenti; and in 1724, he was elevated to the dignity of president of the supreme 
 court. In 1733, appeared the rest of his Ohserrationes Juris Romani. B. now began to 
 devote himself earnestly to the study of Dutch and international law, acquiring, of the 
 former in particular, a most extensive and solid knowledge. His great work on this 
 subject is his Quastiones Juris Primti, which he did not live to finish, and on the other, 
 his Questiones Juris Puhlici. In addition to these, B. collected (from his notes) the 
 decisions and proceedings of the supreme court in his time, under the title Ohserrationes 
 Tumultuarice, and besides (what is perhaps his most valuable work) made a digest under 
 the title of Corpus Juris Hollandid et Zelandici, of all the laws of his own country, 
 whether statutory, or existing in the decisions of courts, or in the practice of the bar, or 
 in the customs of particular places. He died 16th April, 1743. A complete edition of his 
 works was published by prof. Vicat, of Geneva, in 1761. 
 
 BYRAM RIVER, a small stream, scarcely more than a brook, which is often men- 
 tioned as the farthest western boundary of New England, separating the towns of 
 Greenwich, Conn., and Rye, N. Y. Recent surveys have straightened the boundary 
 line, which, however, still begins at the mouth of the river and follows it a short distance. 
 One mile aliove its entrance into Long Island sound, the stream widens, receives the 
 tide, and is navigable for the smaller class of vessels to the village of Port Chester. 
 
 BYRD, William, 1674-1744; b. Va., and educated in England, where he became 
 a fellow of the royal society. Returning to America, he was receiver-general of revenue 
 in Virginia, colonial agent, member of the council, and one of the commissioners to fix 
 the North Carolina boundary. He laid out the cities of Richmond and Petersburg in 
 1733 on his own land. 
 
 BYRGIITS, Justus, or, more properly, Jobst Burgi, the inventor of various astro- 
 nomical instruments, was b. 28th Feb., 1552, at Lichtensteig, in the canton of St. Gall, 
 Switzerland. In 1759, he went into the service of the learned landgraf of Hesse, 
 Wilhelm IV. His first work was a celestial globe, ths surface of which was plated with 
 silver, and in which the stars were placed according to his own observations. The 
 landgraf sent it to the emperor Rudolf II., who thought it sc beautiful that, in 1604, 
 he appointed B. his own mechanician. B. subsequently went to Austria, but returned 
 to Cassel in 1622, where he died in 1633. Many of his reputed discoveries and inventions 
 are questioned, such as those of logarithms and the proportional compasses; but he 
 seems to have hit upon something like both, while it is certain that he was the inventor 
 of a method of resolving spherical triangles. 
 
 BYELAW, Birlaw, or Burlaw, the name given to a sort of popular jurisprudence 
 formerly in use in Scotland, in villages and among husbandmen. Sir John Skene, 
 writing in 1597, when the system was in full force, defines B. as '‘leges rusticorum, de re 
 rustica latce — laws made by husbandmen, concerning neighborhood to be kept among 
 themselves.” — Reg. Majest. lib. iv. c. 39; Be Verb. Signif. voce Byrlaw. As the B. was 
 enacted by the common consent of the villagers or neighbors, so it was administered by 
 judges chosen by them from their own ranks. These judges were commonly called 
 “byrlaw men,” a name which is still applied in some parts of Scotland to an arbiter, 
 oddsman, or umpire. The courts which they held were called “byrlaw courts,” and 
 took cognizance of disputes between neighbor and neighbor. B. is supposed to be 
 derived from boor, or haur, a countryman. 
 
 BYROM, John, 1691-1763; an English poet and miscellaneous writer. Colin and 
 Phoebe, his first poetical essay, appeared in the Spectator. He was made a member of 
 the ro}^al society; inveij^ted and taught a system of short-hand writing; was a person of 
 lively wit, and had a taste for the mystical theology of Bbhme. 
 
 BYRON, Anne Isabella Milbanke, 1792-1860; only child of sir Ralph Milbanke, 
 and wife of lord Byron. She married lord Byron Jan. 2, 1815, and separated from him 
 in Feb. of the next year. On the death of lord (properly baron) Scarsdale, she became 
 
Byron. 
 
 Byssus. 
 
 240 
 
 baroness of Wentworth, and for several years before her death employed her large 
 income in works of charity. One child was borne by her to Byron, “ Ada, sole daughter 
 orf my house and heart,” who married William, lord King, afterwards earl of Lovelace. 
 
 BTRON, Gp:oiige Gordon, Lord, a great English poet, was b. in Holies street, Lon- 
 don, on the 22d of Jan., 1788. He was the only son of capt. John Byron, of the guards, 
 and Catherine Gordon of Gight, an heiress in Aberdeenshire. Capt. Byron and his 
 wife did not live happily. Domestic peace perished in the conflict of their ungoverna- 
 ble tem^xws. The husband’s habits were profligate in the highest degree, and the wife’s 
 .fortune was soon squandered in the debauch and at the gambling-table. Separated from 
 Ler husband, the lady retired to the city of Aberdeen with her little lame boy, whom 
 she passionately loved, her sole income at this time being about £130 per annum. In 
 his 11th year, B. succeeded his grand-uncle, William lord Byron; and mother and son 
 immediately left the north for Newstead abbey, the ancient seat of the family, situated 
 a few miles distant from Nottingham, in the romantic district which Sherwood forest 
 shadowed, and which was once familiar with the bugle of Robin Hood. On succeeding 
 to the title, B. was placed in a private school at Dulwich, and thereafter sent to Har- 
 row, The most remarkable thing about B.’s early years was his extraordinary attach- 
 ments. Like almost every member of the poetic tribe, he “ had a passion for the name 
 of Mary,” In his 8th year, in Aberdeenshire, he fell in love with Mary Duff. Margaret 
 Parker, a cousin of his own, and who died early, was his next idol. His strongest pas- 
 sion was, however, for Mary Chaworth. This lady he flrst met when on a visit to New- 
 stead in 1803, at which date he was in his 15th year. Miss Chaworth’s father had been 
 killed in a duel by lord Byron, the grand-uncle of the poet, and marriage would have 
 healed the family feud, and would have joined rich estates. But it was not to be. Miss 
 Chaworth was B.’s senior by two years, and evidently felt little flattered by the worship 
 of the lame Harrow boy. Next year came the parting interview described in The 
 Dream, with which every Englishman is familiar now as with a personal experience, 
 tn 1805, B. removed to Trinity college, Cambridge; and two years thereafter, his first 
 voluinn of verse, entitled Hours of Idleness, was printed at Newark, The poems therein 
 contained were not absolutely without merit, but they might have been written by any 
 well-educated lad who, in addition to ordinary ability, possessed the slightest touch of 
 poetic sensibility. The volume was fiercely assailed by lord (then Mr.) Brougham in 
 the EdinhurghJ^vieio, and his sarcasms stung B. into a poet. The satire, English Bards 
 and Scotch Remewevs^ was written in reply to the article in the Edinburgh, and the town 
 Tras taken by a play of wit and a mastery of versification unequaled since the da}"s of 
 Pope. Tn the babble of praise that immediately arose, B. withdrew from England, 
 ■visited the shores of the Mediterranean, and sojourned in Turkey and Greece. On his 
 return in 1812, he published the first two cantos of Ghilde Harold, ■until immense success, 
 and was at once enrolled among the great poets of his country. During the next two 
 years, he produced The Qiaour; The Bride of Abydos; The Corsair; and Za?*a. While 
 these brilliant pieces were flowing from his pen, he ■vras indulginginalltherevelriesand 
 excesses of the metropolis. What was noblest in the man revolted at this mode of life, 
 and, in an effort to escape from it, he married Miss Milbanke, daughter of sir Ralph Mil- 
 banke, a baronet in the co, of Durham. This union proved singularly infelicitous. It lasted 
 only a year, and during that brief period, money embarrassments, recriminations, and 
 all the miseries incident to an ill-assorted marriage, were of frequent occurrence. After 
 the birth of her child Ada, lady Byron retired to her father's house, and refused to 
 return. This event, from the celebrity of one of the parties, caused considerable 
 •xcitement in the fashionable world, B. became the subject of all uncharitable 
 tongues. The most popular poet, he was for a space the most unpopular individual in 
 the country. Tn one of his letters, written from Italy some years later, referring to the 
 slanders current at the time, he thus expresses himself: “I was accused of every mon- 
 strous vice by public rumor and private rancor. My name, which had been a knightly 
 or a noble one since my fathers helped to conquer the kingdom for William the Nor- 
 man, was tainted. I felt that if what was whispered, and muttered, and murmured 
 was true, I was unfit for England; if false, England was unfit for me. I withdrew.” 
 The separation from his wife, and the departure from England, mark a stage in B.’s 
 genius. A new element of power had entered into his verse; the reader feels it 
 quite distinctly in the magnificent burst of exultation that opens the third canto of 
 the Childe — 
 
 Once more upon the waters, yet once more ! 
 
 Misery and indignation stimulated him to remarkable activity. Six months’ stay at 
 Geneva produced the third canto of Ghilde Harold and The Prisoner of Chillon. Manfred 
 and The Lament of Tasso were written in 1817. The next year, he was at Venice, and 
 finished Childe Harold there; and, in the gay and witty Beppo, made an experiment in 
 the new field which he was afterwards to work so successfully. During the next three 
 years, he produced the first five cantos of Don Juan, and a number of dramas of various 
 merit. Cam and Werner being opposite poles. In 1822, he removed to Pisa, and worked 
 there at Don Juan, which poem, with the exception of The Vision of Judgment, occupied 
 his pen almost up to the close of his life. Morally, his Italian life was unsatisfactory, 
 and his genius was tainted by his indulgences. At the close of his career, he was visited 
 
241 
 
 Byron. 
 
 Byssus. 
 
 by a new inspiration; the sun, so long obscured, shone out gloriously at its setting. In 
 the summer of 1823, he sailed for Greece, to aid the struggle for independence with his 
 influence and money. He arrived at Missolonghi on the 4th of Jan., 1824. There he 
 found nothing but confusion and contending chiefs; but in three months, lie succeeded 
 in evoking some kind of order from the turbulent patriotic chaos. His health, however, 
 began to fail. On the 9th of April, he was overtaken by a shower while on horseback, 
 and fever and rheumatism followed. Medical aid was procured, and copious bleeding 
 recommended; but this, B., with characteristic willfulness, opposed. Before death, he 
 sank into a state of lethargy, and those who were near heard him murmuring about his 
 wife, his sister, and his child. After twenty- four hours’ insensibility, he expired on the 
 evening of the 19th April, 1824. His body ’was conveyed to England; and, denied a 
 resting-place in Westminster abbey, it rests in the family vault in the village church of 
 Hucknall, near Newstead. 
 
 l,ord B. is a remarkable instance ©f the fluctuations of literary fashion. Elevated to 
 the highest pinnacle of fame in the heyday of his early popularity, he was unduly 
 deptt'ssed after his death, when the false romance which he threw around himself and 
 his writings began to wear away; and it is only during the last twenty or thirty years 
 that the proper place has been found for him in the public estimation. He is high, but 
 not thrj highest. The resources of his intellect were amazing. He gained his first repu- 
 tation as a depicter of the gloomy and stormful passions. After he wrote Beppo, he 
 was si rprised to And that he was a humorist ; when he reached Greece, he discovered an 
 ability for military organization. When all the school-girls of England fancied their 
 hands(jme idol with a scowling brow and a curled lip, he was laughing in Italy, and 
 declaring himself to be the most unromantic being in the world. And he was right. 
 Take away all his oriental wrappings, and you discover an honest Englishman, who, 
 above all things, hates cant and humbug. In Don Juan and his Letters there is a won- 
 derful fund of wit, sarcasm, humor, and knowledge of man. Few men had a clearer 
 eye for fact and reality. His eloquence, pathos, and despair; his Manfreds and Ghilde 
 Harolds, were only phases of his mind. Toward the close of his life, he was working 
 toward his real strength, and that lay in wit and the direct representation of human life. 
 If his years had been extended, he would in all likelihood have deserted poetry for prose, 
 gaudy colored fiction for sober fact; and the assertion maybe hazarded, that the English 
 novel would have boasted of another and a greater Fielding. 
 
 BYRON, Henry James, b. Manchester, Eng. ; a playwright, author of many dra- 
 matic works, chiefly in burlesque, that have won popular favor. Among them are 
 Fra Diarolo; Maid and Magpie; Babes in the Wood; and travesties of many of the more 
 popular operas. Of comedies he has written War to the Knife; A Hundred Ihousand 
 Bounds; Hot Such a Fool as he Looks (in which he played the hero); An American Lady; 
 Old Sailors; and Our Boys, the last comedy achieving an almost unexampled success. 
 
 BYRON, Hon. John, 1723-86; an English admiral and circumnavigator. He was 
 the grandfather of Byron the poet. While young, he accompanied Anson around the 
 world, and in later years experienced so much hard service that he was nicknamed by 
 sailors “ Foul-weather Jack.” In 1769, he was a governor of Newfoundland, and in 
 1776 became vice-admiral. In 1778, he was sent with a fleet to watch the movements of 
 count d’Estaing, who had gone to the assistance of the American colonies then in revo- 
 lution; and in July of the next year, fought the count off Grenada, but the action was 
 of little importance. 
 
 BYEON BAY lies on the n.e. coast of Labrador in North America, its lat. and long, 
 being respectively 54° 40' n., and 57° 30' w. 
 
 BYEON ISLAND is situated in the Mulgrave archipelago of the Pacific ocean, its lat. 
 and long, being respectively 1° 18' s., and 177* 20' east. 
 
 BYS'SUS, a name given from ancient Greek and Roman times to the bundle of silky 
 filaments by which many lamellibranchiate mollusks — bivalve shells — attach themselves 
 to rocks or other fixed substances. The B. springs from a'cavity at the base of the soli- 
 tary foot of the mollusk, and its filaments, which are capable of being rexjroduced if 
 destroyed, are secreted by a glandular tissue which occupies a furrow running nearly to 
 the extremity of the foot. They are united together at the base in a common mass, and 
 are often considerably divergent. They are guided to their place by the foot, and expand 
 into a sort of disk at the point of attachment, so as to have a firm hold. A few common 
 mussels in an aquarium readily afford an opportunity of observing the B., particularly 
 when the filaments are attached to the glass sides of the vessel. In the pinna (q.v.) of 
 the Mediterranean, the B. is remarkably long and delicate, has a beautiful silky lustre, 
 is very strong, and is capable of being woven into cloth, upon which a very high value 
 is set; but the animal which produces it is now so rare, that it is almost exclusively an 
 article of curiosity. This manufacture was known to the ancients. 
 
 BYS'SUS (Gr., a fine flaxen or silky substance), a genus established by Linnaeus to 
 include some of the lowest and most obscure forms of vegetation, and defined as having 
 a substance like fine down or velvet, simple or feathered. Botanists sometimes ranked 
 it among algm, sometimes among fungi; it has been made the type of a group byssacece, 
 and placed among lichens. Some have regarded this group as entitled to the rank of 
 U. K. III.— 16 
 
Bystrom. 
 
 Byzantine. 
 
 242 
 
 a distinct order, “comprehending the filamentous fungi found in cellars, and similar 
 plants;” but others reject the genus as altogether spurious. Some of the species onco 
 included in it have now been satisfactorily shown to be lichens, others to be confermcecp., 
 whilst many appear to be really not distinct vegetable forms, but cryptogamic plants 
 prevented by unfavorable circumstances from proper development. The green incrus- 
 tations formerly regarded as species of B., have been found to be the primary germina- 
 tion of mosses, often species of polytriclium and tortula. It cannot be said, however, 
 that the nature of all the vegetable forms which have been referred to the genus 
 B., has yet been satisfactorily ascertained. Some of them are very phosphorescent, and 
 are generally found where some higher form, of vegetation is undergoing decay. 
 
 BYSTEOM, JoH. Nikolaus, a celebrated sculptor, was b. 18th Dec., 1783, at Philipp- 
 stadt, in the province of Wermeland, Sweden, and educated under Sergell of Stockholm^ 
 In 1809, he obtained the highest prize in the Swedish academy of arts, and in the fol- 
 lowing year went to Rome, where he executed his* first independent work, a “Drunkem 
 Bacchante,” and sent it home. It v^as received with great approbation, and B. had to* 
 repeat it thrice. In 1815, he returned to Stockholm, and surprised the newly elected 
 crown-prince by exhibiting a colossal statue of himself, which he had finished all but 
 the head in Rome, and had found means to complete quietly in Stockholm. The crown- 
 prince was highly gratified, and commissioned B. to execute colossal statues of Charles 
 X., XI., and XII. After 1838, he resided in Stockholm; but returned to Rome in 1844, 
 and died there Mar. 13, 1848. His chief works are; “A Nymph going into the Bath,”' 
 “A reclining Juno suckling the Young Hercules,” “Hygieia,” “A Pandora combing 
 her Hair,” “A Dancing-girl,” a statue of Linnaeus, and colossal statues of Charles XHI. 
 Gustavus Adolphus, and Charles XIV. B. excels in the delineation of females and 
 children, but his male figures want strength of character; his conceptions are always 
 true to nature, his grouping skillful and pleasant, and his execution is clear and distinct. 
 
 BYTTNERIACE.E, a natural order of exogenous plants, sometimes united -with the- 
 order sterculiacem (q.v.), and also closely allied to malmcece (q.v.), from -which it differs,, 
 especially in the stamens not being columnar — although more or less united, generally 
 into a cup or tube — also in the anthers being turned inwards, and 2-celled. The species, 
 of this order are trees, shrubs, or half -shrubby plants, abounding chiefly in tropical cli- 
 mates, although some are natives of the temperate zones. About 400 have been 
 described. The flowers of many are beautiful. The most important product of the 
 order is Cocoa (q.v.). The fruit of guazuma ulmifolia, a native of Brazil, is eaten, being 
 filled with a sweet and pleasant mucilage. The young bark of this tree yields, when 
 macerated, a copious mucilage, and is therefore used in Martinique for clarifying sugar, 
 as is that of kydia calycina in the northern provinces of India. Guazuma idmifolia was- 
 introduced into India, and at one time largely cultivated in the Madras presidency, 
 under the name of bastard cedar, that its foliage and young shoots might be employed 
 as fodder for cattle. Its straight, luxuriant young branches yield a strong fiber. The 
 bark of other species of this order also affords a tough fiber, which is employed for 
 making cordage, particularly that of 7nicrolcena (or schillera) spectaUUs in the regions on 
 the southern base of the Himala 3 ^a, abroma augustum in various parts of India, dombeya 
 spectabilis in Madagascar, and D. umbellata in the isle of Bourbon. Abroma augustum 
 has been especially recommended to attention and cultivation on account of its fiber, 
 which is beautiful, white, fine, and strong, and is produced in great abundance. The 
 plant grows to be a handsome small tree, having hairy lobed leaves and beautiful droop- 
 ing purple flowers; but may be treated much as willows grown for basket-making, and 
 in this way yields two, three, or even four crops of cuttings annually, which are peeled 
 and the bark macerated in order to the separation of the fiber. 
 
 BY-TOWN, a t. of Upper Canada, on the Ottawa, which took its name from col. By 
 of the roj-al engineers. It is now Ottawa (q.v.), the capital of the dominion of Canada. 
 
 BYZAN'TINE ART. From the time of Constantine the great, the emperors of the 
 east arrogated to their imperial city the pre-eminence which, for so long a period, 
 ancient Rome had actually possessed; and, as a necessary consequence of this assump- 
 tion, Constantinople, or Byzantium, as it still continued sometimes to be called, became 
 the rival of the mother-city in the richness and variet}’’ of its artistic monuments. In 
 Rome, and, indeed, in the whole of western Europe, the first effect produced by Bio 
 influx of the mighty stream of barbarian life, and the consequent dissolution of existing 
 society, was the almost total suppression of artistic effort. It was then that the artists 
 of the west, willing and eager to avail themselves of the invitation held out to them, 
 poured into Constantinople, carrying with them what yet remained of the artistic life of 
 the ancient world. B 3 ’-zantium was the hearth on which, during the dark period of the 
 middle ages, those feeble sparks of ancient art were kept alive, which served to kindle 
 the new and independent artistic life of the modera world. Not only were the painters 
 and sculptors of Italy indebted to the art of Byzantium for the tradition of that ideal 
 mode of conception to which the term classical is peculiarly applied, but artists in every 
 department derived thence the elements of that technical knowledge without which the 
 embodiment of such conceptions is impossible. This practical acquaintance with the 
 technical rudiments of their respective arts, which could scarcely have been derived 
 from a mere examination of ancient works, was communicated to the fathers of Italian 
 
M3 
 
 Bystrom. 
 
 Byzantiucv; 
 
 •art by living Byzantines, some of them probably the descendants of those whom barba- 
 rian conquests had driven into the east, and whom the conquests of a still more barba- 
 rous race now restored to western Europe. It is impossible to doubt that modern art 
 was largely indebted to this circumstance for the marvelous stride which it took imme- 
 diately after the taking of Constantinople by the Turks. But though its chief value may 
 ^consist in its having thus transmitted to us the succession of antiquity, B. A. was by no 
 means devoid of original and individual character ; and it is only in so far as it possesses 
 this, and not when regarded as a mere conservation of antique types and processes, that 
 •it takes rank as a school of art. The characteristic element in B. A. may be described 
 as the earliest artistic recognition and representation to the senses of what was new and 
 peculiar in Christian as opposed to heathen life. To the fullest extent to wiiich it could 
 claim a separate and individual existence, B. A. was Christian art; and consequently in 
 Germany, where the subject has received more attention than in this country, the two 
 terms are frequently used as synonymous. The appearance of B. A. , in this its only 
 peculiar sense, dates from the age of Justinian, i.e., from the earlier half of the 6th c., 
 and its productive period may be said to terminate with the conquest -of the eastern 
 •empire by the crusaders in 1204. But though its declension dates from this event, B. A. 
 continued to exist in considerable vigor down to the final destruction of the empire of 
 the east, in 1453; and even now may be seen as the inseparable handmaid of the Greek 
 •church, both in Europe and in Asia. It is in this point of view, and more particularly 
 as forming the basis of artistic life in Rus^a, that B. A. possesses its chief living interest 
 in our day. What Rome was to the western, Byzantium was to the eastern European; 
 ■and the relation of the latter to his mother- city, if it commenced at a somewhat later 
 date, continued during the whole period of the middle ages. 
 
 Though the inhabitants of eastern Europe thus derived their traditions of antiquity 
 from a meaner source than the Romanic nations, they received them more unbroken; 
 and, from first to last, were subjected to their influences during a much longer period. 
 To them the living voice and hand continued to communicate what for nearly a thou- 
 sand years Italians, Spaniards, and Franks had had to seek in the dead image and letter 
 alone ; and if anything still remains unrecorded of ancient thought, it doubtless dwells 
 on Greek, and not on Roman or German tongues. Indolent, luxurious, and dissolute 
 as their ancestors had been in classical times, tlie citizens of Constantinople were dis- 
 tinguished by an intellectual character, which, unfruitful and enfeebled though it was, 
 was systematic, subtle, mystical, and pedantic. They were eminently an instructed 
 people; but, like individuals whose glory is in the past, they were more conservative 
 than original; and, however justly we may despise the chaff which they engendered, it 
 is impossible to overestimate the value of the corns of gold which clung to their memo- 
 ries. 
 
 BvzANTmE Architecture. The typical form of B. A., at least as applied to ecclesi- 
 astical purposes, was flxed by the church of St. Sophia, which still exists as the great 
 mosque of Constantinople. It was built, or rather rebuilt, by the orders of Justinian, 
 the architects being Anthemius of Tralles, and Isodorus, the elder, of Miletus, and com- 
 pleted 537 A.D. Though the largest and most magnificent, the church of St. Sophia was 
 but one of 25 churches which were erected in the capital, and of a vastly greater num- 
 ber of ecclesiastical structures with which the provinces were adorned by the pious 
 emperor. The style thus introduced largely influenced the architecture even of western 
 Europe; and in St. Mark’s at Venice, the churches at Ravenna and elsewhere on the 
 Adriatic, and even in the cathedral of Aix-la-Chapelle, we have examples of churches 
 -almost purely Byzantine. The fundamental principle in the construction of Byzantine 
 churches was an endlessly varied application of the Roman arch, whilst its exhibition in 
 the form of the cupola was their most characteristic feature. In the St. Sophia, as was 
 generally the case, the cupola covered the principal central portion of the church, and 
 was supported by strong and lofty pillars, bound together by bold arches. To this cen- 
 tral space were usually joined others of smaller size, which were covered by half-cupo- 
 las or arches of more ordinary construction. Though frequently in the form of a Greek 
 cross, with the great cupola rising in the center, and smaller or semi-cupolas surmount- 
 ing the four arms, neither this nor any other plan was consistently adhered to in Byzan- 
 tine churches. The windows were always semicircular, similar to those in the Romanic 
 churches of Germany, and in our own Saxon or early Norman churches; but the doors 
 were frequently square-headed, after the classical model. Many of the details, such as 
 the square capitals tapering downwards, and the bold projecting moldings ornamented 
 with foliage, seem to have owed their origin entirely to the ingenuity of Byzantine archi- 
 tects. The earlier Byzantine churches were profusely ornamented with mosaics, which, 
 after the admixture of the Gothic element, and the adoption of the pointed arch, gave 
 place to fresco-paintings. The constant use of the apse (q.v.) is. after the cupola, per- 
 haps their most marked feature. The following division into periods, though, like most 
 divisions of the kind, somewhat arbitrary, has the authority of M. Couchaud, an emi- 
 nent French architect, in its favor, and is, apparently, adopted by Parker; 1. From the 
 time of Constantine to the middle of the 6th c. ; 2. From the beginning of Justinian’s 
 reign down to the 11th c. , which comprises the greater part of the existing buildings ol 
 the pure Byzantine type; 3. From the 11th c. to the conquest of Greece by the Turks, 
 
Byzantine. 
 
 244 ’ 
 
 when the influence of the Venetian conquests is apparent in the intermixture of Italian 
 and Gothic details and characteristics. 
 
 Byzantine Sculpture. When contrasted with the ignoble, tasteless, and meaning- 
 less productions of the later plastic art of Rome, that of Constantinople claims both, 
 admiration and respect. The figures are not deficient in dignity either in form or in 
 attitude, and a deeply Christian spirit is traceable both in their general conception, and 
 in their rich and significant symbolical accompaniments. In sculpture, as in architec- 
 ture, the peculiar Byzantine type first exhibits itself towards the beginning of the fitli 
 century. Alongside of unmistakable reminiscences of the antique, it exhibits charac- 
 teristics which are as unquestionably oriental. The figures are positively laden, not with 
 drapery alone, but with costume, which obscures the nobler and freer lines in which 
 the ancients delighted. The execution is careful, even painful. All this becomes more' 
 and more the case as we advance in the order of time, the earliest Christian works, and 
 those immediately suggested by the antique, exhibiting such faults only to a limited 
 extent. Down to the 12th c. , the defects which we have described were the worst which 
 could be laid to the charge of B. sculpture, and it is scarcely earlier than the 13th c. that 
 it assumes that mummy-like aspect by which it is too generally known. The art of 
 carving in ivory was practiced with great success at Constantinople, and in the exam- 
 ples of it which remain, the gradual decline — the benumbing process, as it has been aptly 
 called — may be traced with great distinctness. Of this species of work, in its earlier and 
 better time, a fine specimen in alto-rilievo of the “forty saints” may be seen in the 
 museum at Berlin. The decorations of the churches, and of the sacred vessels used in 
 the service of the altar, formed no insignificant objects of art in the better Byzantine, 
 period. Cups, plates, lamps, candlesticks, crosses, and the like, were either of gold or 
 silver, and frequently adorned with jewels; whilst the altar itself, the chancel, and 
 sometimes the whole interior of the church, were covered with precious metals, the^ 
 panels being adorned with mosaics or frescos. 
 
 Byzantine Painting. The same characteristics which we have ascribed to thG 
 sculpture belonged to the pictoriale Iforts of the artists of Byzantium, and of the neighbor- 
 ing countries who were mostly their imitators. The execution was careful and 
 anxious rather than skillful, and such skill as still remained was exhibited in 
 the mechanical perfection with which the gilding of the backgrounds and other details 
 were managed. Of B. pictures, the best existing specimens are to be found in Italy, 
 and belong especially to the school of Sienna. The picture of the Virgin in the church 
 of St. Domenico at Sienna by Guido, bearing date 1221, deserves special mention. 
 Much labor was expended on the illumination of MSS. of the Scriptures, and of these 
 many beautiful examples, as fresh as when they were painted, may be seen in most of 
 the larger public libraries of Europe. The chief interest attaching to B painting con- 
 sists in the parental relation in which it stood to the art of Italy. Cimabue may be 
 regarded as its immediate heir; and in the works of Giotto, Leonardo da Vinci, Pietro 
 Perugino, and even of Raphael in his earlier time, the traces of the inheritance are 
 quite unmistakable. See Painting. 
 
 BYZAN TINE EMPIRE, also styled the East Roman, Eastern, or Greek Empire, 
 was founded in 395 a. d., when Theodosius the great, at his death, divided the Roman 
 empire between his two sons, Arcadius and Honorius. The former, a weak and luxu- 
 rious character, was made emperor of the eastern division, formerly included under the 
 prefectures of the east and of Illyricum — namely, Syria, Asia Minor, and Pontus, 
 stretching along the shores of the Black sea in Asia; Egypt in Africa; and Thrace, 
 McEsia (now Bulgaria), Macedonia, Greece, and Crete in Europe. Arcadius left the 
 government of the empire in the hands of his minister, Rufinus, from whom it passed to 
 the eunuch Eutropius, and afterwards to Gainas, the murderer of Rufinus. Gainas fell by 
 his ambition in 401, and the shameless and avaricious empress Eudoxia ruled until the 
 time of her death, 404. See Arcadius. After Theodosius II., a minor, under the 
 guidance of the prefect Prastorio Anthemius, had held the reins during six years, he 
 resigned the government in favor of his sister Pulcheria (Augusta), who ruled power- 
 fully while her brother was kept apart from all state atfairs. Western Illyria (compre- 
 hending Pannonia. Dalmatia, and Noricum) was ceded to the Eastern empire by the 
 Roman emperor, Valentinian III. ; and after several victories achieved by the Byzantine 
 general, Ardaburius, over the Persians, a part -of Armenia was also annexed. But. 
 nevertheless, Thrace and Macedonia could only be secured from the destmctive con- 
 quests of Attila by the payment of tribute. After the death of Theodosius II., Pulcheria 
 married the senator Marcianus (450-57), whose firmness repelled the invasions of Attila. 
 Marcianus was followed by Leo I., surnamed Macella (the butcher), a Thracian of low 
 birth, but elevated to the throne by the commander-in-chief, Aspar, who, being himself 
 an Arian, would not venture to encounter the perils that sovereignty might have entailed 
 on one of his religious views. Leo II., grandson of the former, succeeded, but died 
 after a few months, in consequence of which the crown came into the possession of his 
 father, Zeno (474-91), who was banished by Basiliscus (475), but who re-ascended the 
 throne in 477. Though a weak and unpopular ruler, he contrived to retain his power in 
 spite of several serious revolts. The internal distraction of the empire, to which, as at other 
 times, religious strifes added considerably, increased greatly during the reign of Zeno, 
 
245 
 
 Byzantine. 
 
 and the invasions of the Goths were prevented only by gifts and stratagems. Ariadne, 
 widow, of Zeno by her second marriage raised the courtier Silentiariiis to the throne 
 under the title Anastasius I. (491-518). By the help of the Goths, this monarch over- 
 threw, after a six years’ contest, the robber tribes at Mt. Taurus. A new enemy, how- 
 ever, now appeared on the Danube in the Bulgarians, against whose desolating raids 
 Anastasius built the long wall, to protect the peninsula on which Constantinople lies. 
 The war with the Persians also broke out anew during his reign ; and religious tumults 
 aften purpled the streets of Constantinople itself. After his death, the army raised 
 Justinus I. to the throne. He maintained his position mainly through the favor of the 
 clergy, whom he had conciliated by his severe persecution of heretics. 
 
 His nephew, Justinian (q.v,), succeeded ( 527-65), and became celebrated by his code 
 of laws, and by the victories of his great generals, Belisarius (q.v.) and Narses (q.v.). 
 But the rapid decline of the empire after his death showed that he had not been able to 
 give it any internal consolidation or vitality. It was during the reign of Justinian that 
 those pestilent contests of the blues and whites against the greens and reds (political 
 factions so named from the colors respectively worn) first attained any consequence 
 and though the first disturbance was terribly chastised by Belisarius in 532, they con- 
 tinued to distract the capital periodically down to the 7th century. Justin II. (565-78), 
 a weak man, governed by his wife, Sophia, yielded a part of Italy to the Longobards, 
 was unsuccessful against the Persians, allowed the Avari to plunder the Danubian 
 provinces, and ultimately became insane through vexation and anxiety. Tiberius, the 
 capt. of the guard, was then made regent, and after the death of Justin II., received the 
 imperial dignity. He ruled with mildness and prudence (578-82), purchased a peace 
 with the Avari, concluded the war with Persia, and left as his successor the commander- 
 in-chief, Mauricius, who reigned from 582 to 602. Having replaced on the throne the 
 Persian king, Kosroes II., who had been banished by his subjects, he thus secured the 
 peace of his eastern frontiers; but, on the other hand, the war against the Avari did not 
 prosper. His niggardly treatment of the army caused a military insurrection, in which hc‘ 
 was slain along with his son; and Phocas, one of his generals, was elevated to the throne. 
 Phocas proved a bad ruler. Through his monstrous vices, tyranny, and incapacity 
 for government, the empire lapsed into still deeper anarchy. Suddenly, ho'wever, a 
 deliverer appeared in the person of Heraclius (q.v.), son of the exarch or governor- 
 general of Africa, who headed a conspiracy, marched to Constantinople, overthrew the 
 tyrant, and ascended the throne, 610. But great as was the genius of Heraclius, he had 
 to submit to twelve years of defeat before he could organize and discipline a victorious 
 army. In 622, he opened those magnificent campaigns in which the power of Persia 
 was crushed, and which, in the opinion of Gibbon, were equal to those of Scipio or 
 Hannibal. He lived, however, to see more formidable foes in the Arabs, who, inspired 
 by fanatic zeal, and led by the caliph Omar, captured, during 635-41, the countries 
 on the Euphrates, with Syria, Judea, and Egypt. The power of the Greeks, which 
 was demanded to resist the Arabian invasions, was miserably divided and weakened by 
 their unending religious quarrels, especially the controversy of the Orthodox against the- 
 Monothelites (q.v.). The empire was breaking asunder, and Heraclius, now worn out 
 with the fatigues of war, had abandoned his enfeebled senses to pleasure, and his- 
 enfeebled intellect to theological discussions. He died in 614. Constantine III., who 
 succeeded his father, Heraclius, also died soon after, and was followed by Heracleonas, 
 who lost the crown, and was mutilated in an insurrection. The next ruler was Constans, the 
 son of Constantine III., who ruled from 642 to 668, made himself odious by cruelty, and 
 perished in an insurrection. His son, Constantine IV., Pogonatus (668-85), enforced a 
 treaty of peace on the invading Arabs (675) by his successful use of the Greek fire, in warfare. 
 On the other side, he was compelled to pay tribute in 680 to the Bulgarians, who had 
 established themselves in ancient Mcesia. Justinian II. (685-711), son and successor of 
 Pogonatus, was victorious in war against the Monothelite Maronites; but was defeated 
 by the Bulgarians (688), and by the Arabs (692). His cruelty caused an insurrection, at 
 the head of which was Leontius, who, in 695, deposed him, cut off his nose (hence his 
 surname Rhinotmetus), and banished him to the Taurio Chersonese; in 705, he was 
 restored to the throne, but adversity had taught him no wisdom. A part of his subjects 
 revolted, and the king, abandoned by his army and by the Buglarians, was assassinated 
 in 711. With him the dynasty of Heraclius expired. 
 
 Philippicus Bardanes (the leader of the last insurrection against Justinian II.) was 
 next raised to the throne (711); but having made himself odious by favoring the meta- 
 physical tenets of the Monothelites, he was deposed, and brutally deprived of eye-sight 
 (713). His successor, Anastasius II., prudently screened himself from a mutinous army 
 by retiring into a monastery (716), and left the crown to Theodosius III., who abdicated 
 in 717 when^fjeo, the Isaurian, and gen. of the army of the east, did not recognize him, 
 and marched with hostile intent to Constantinople. Leo (q.v.) himself ascended the 
 throne in 717, and drove back the Arabs from Constantinople, but unhappily gave occa- 
 sion, in 726, for that contest concerning the worship of images, which rent the empire 
 for more than a century. In 728, the exarchate of Kavenna was lost, and the eastern 
 provinces became the prey of the Arabs, over whom, however, he won a great victory 
 in Phrygia. He died in 741, Constantine V. (741-775), son of Leo III., on account of 
 his zeal as an iconoclast, was hated by the monks, who gave him the surname “ Cop- 
 
JSyzantine. 
 
 246 
 
 ronymos, ” because (according to their malicious and uncleanly statement) he had polluted 
 the font at his baptism. He was a brave ruler, recovered from the Arabs parts of Syria 
 and Armenia, and ultimately defeated the Bulgarians, against whom he had long been 
 unsuccessful. His son, Leo IV. (775-780), was a mild ruler; but by the ability of hU 
 generals, he made the boundaries of the empire secure against the Arabs. After him, 
 Constantine VI. ascended the throne under the guardianship of his ambitious mother, 
 Irene (q.v.), who raised a powerful party in favor of image- worship. Constantine having 
 made an attempt to liberate himself from the influence of his mother and her paramour, 
 Btauratius, Irene barbarously caused her own son to be blinded (797). He died soon 
 after this atrocity; and Irene, who had boldly conceived the design of marrying the 
 •emperor Charlemagne, and thus uniting the e. and w. of Europe in one vast realm, 
 excited the opposition which, in 802, placed her treasurer, Nicephorus, on the throne. 
 Irene was banished to Lesbos, where she died in 803. Nicephorus, who fell in battle 
 against the Bulgarians (811), was succeeded by his son, Stauratius, who soon yielded 
 the throne to his brother-in-law, Michael I., from whom it was taken by the Armenian 
 gen., Leo V., a powerful ruler, who conquered the Bulgarians, but fell (820) in a con- 
 spiracy excited by his zeal against image- worship. Michael II. , the stammerer, was 
 raised from a dungeon to the throne, and ruled until 829. In his reign, Crete and Sicily 
 passed into the hands of the Arabs. Under the rule of his son, Theophilus, who is 
 praised by the Byzantine historians for his love of justice (829-842), the gen., Manuel, 
 gained some indecisive victories over the Arabs. Theodora, widow of Theophilus, and 
 guardian of Michael III. (842-867), brought the controversy about images to a close at 
 the council of Nicaea (842), when the worship of these was fully sanctioned and re-intro- 
 duced. During this reign the government busied itself in the persecution of the Pauli- 
 cians (q.v.), while the Arabs devastated the Asiatic provinces. Theodora, having been 
 banished to a convent by her son, the government was for some time held by Bardas, 
 uncle of Michael III., and after his assassination, by Basilius I., the Macedonian, who 
 caused Michael to be put to death, and afterwards ruled ably from 867 to 886. But 
 though on the whole successful against the Arabs, the latter contrived to make them- 
 selves masters of Syracuse. His dynasty (the Macedonian) maintained itself on the 
 Byzantine throne, with some few interruptions, until 1056. The reign of his son, Leo 
 VI., the philosopher, (886-912), was not prosperous. The inroads of the Bulgarians and 
 of the Arabs, who, in 904, plundered Thessalonica, continued to increase during the 
 government of his son, Constantine VII. , Porphyrogenitus, who ruled mildly but feebly 
 <912-959). Under his son, the dissolute Romanus II. (959-963), Crete was retaken from 
 the Arabs by the vigor of his gen., Nicephorus Phocas, who, on the death of the empe- 
 ror, married his widow, Tlieophania. She, however, caused him to be murdered in 
 969, as she wished to marry John Tzimiskes, who ruled till 976, and, like his predecessor, 
 was victorious against the Arabs and Bulgarians, as also the Russians, who about this 
 time began to emerge from obscurity as an enemy of the Byzantine power. His succes- 
 sor, Basilius II. (976-1025), the son of Romanus, conquered the Bulgarian kingdom, and 
 attached it as a province to the empire, which it remained till 1186, when it again became 
 independent. His brother, Constantine VIII. (1025-28), did not resemble him. Romanus 
 III. next ascended the throne, but was assassinated by his wife, Zoe, a profligate but 
 crafty princess, who raised successively to the imperial dignity Michael IV. (1034), Michael 
 V. (1041), and Constantine IX. (1042). Meanwhile, Russians and Arabs devastated the 
 realm. In Asia, the Seljuk Turks proved dangerous enemies; while in lower Italy, the 
 Normans narrowed the Byzantine power to the possession of Otranto. After Constan- 
 tine’s death in 1054, Theodora, sister of Zoe, was elected empress; and on .her death in 
 1056, Michael VI., who was deposed by Isaac I., Comnenus. 
 
 With Isaac I., Comnenus, who came to the throne in 1057, the dynasty of the Com- 
 nenian emperors began. He retired to a monastery (1059), and was succeeded by Con- 
 stantine X., whose widow, Eudocia, married Romanus IV., and raised him to the 
 throne. Romanus was deposed in 1071 by Michael VII. (son of Constantine X.), who, 
 in his turn, was dethroned by Nicephorus HI. (1078), who reigned until 1081, when he 
 was deposed by Alexius I., Comnenus (q.v.), (1081-1118). This last reign was marked 
 by the commencement of the crusades. The successors of Alexius — his son, Kalo- Joan- 
 nes (1118^43), and Manuel I. (1143-80) — were able rulers, and victorious in their engage- 
 ments with the Turks. Manuel’s son, Alexius II., was murdered by his guardian, 
 Andronicus (grandson of Alexius I.), who raised himself to the throne. He was the last 
 prince of the Comnenian dynasty, and fell in an insurrection excited by his own cruelty, 
 1185. 
 
 After the first turbulent reign of Isaac II., who was blinded and deposed by his 
 brother, Alexius III., who took the surname of Comnenus in 1195, the crusaders 
 restored Isaac to the throne (1203), and also crowned his son Alexius IV. ; but the rest- 
 less citizens of Constantircple elected Nicolas Kanabus, who took the title of Alexius 
 V., and pursuing the usual bloody course, put his predecessor to death. 
 
 In 1204, the French and the Venetians (collectively named Latins) advanced on Con- 
 stantinople, and captured the city, April 12, having made themselves masters^ of the 
 European provinces. The whole was divided into four parts, of which the first, includ- 
 ing the metropolis, fell to the lot of Baldwin, count of Flanders, who was made emperor, 
 and to whom the other participants in the expedition did fealty for their respective 
 shares. The Venetians obtained the coasts of the Adriatic and iEgean seas, a part of 
 
247 
 
 Byzantinev 
 
 the Morea, and several islands; Bonifacius, count of Montferrat, Macedonia, and part 
 of Greece; several dukedoms, countships, etc,, were also established at Athens, Philip- 
 popolis, and other places for French knights; while a number of Greek princes, both on 
 the mainland and in the islands, maintained their independence. In the w. of Asia 
 Minor, Theodorus Lascaris, who had been elected emperor at Constantinople, formally 
 transferred the seat of government to Nicaea; and finally, in the n.e. of Asia Minor, the 
 governor of the province of Colchis, Alexius Comnenus, ruled at Trebizond with abso- 
 lute authority; while one of his successors, John Comnenus, even assumed the title of 
 emperor. At Constantinople, neither Baldwin nor his successors could strengthen the 
 sinking empire, Baldwin himself died (1206) a prisoner in the hands of the Bulgarians. 
 After him came his brother Henry, who ruled bravely and wisely till 1216. For the 
 next four years, the empire was actually without a ruler, and a prey to utter anarchy. 
 In 1221, Robert, son of Peter, count of Auxerre and Courtenay, came to the throne; 
 and was succeeded by John of Brienne, titular king of Jerusalem (1228-37); and the 
 latter by Baldwin II. (1237-61). During these reigns, a great part of the empire was 
 seized by John Vatazes, successor of Theodorus Lascaris of Nicaea (1222-55). This ruler 
 was followed in Nicaea by Theodorus II. (1255-59), whose son, Johannes, during his 
 minority, was superseded by Michael YIII., Palaeologus, who, by the help of the 
 Genoese, captured Constantinople (July 25, 1261), and thus put an end to the Latin 
 dynasty; though some few Latin principalities maintained themselves till the fall of the 
 Byzantine empire. 
 
 Michael, the first of the Palaeologi, a powerful prince, really endeavored to strengthen 
 the realm ; but, by his unhappy attempt to unite the Greek church with the Latin, from 
 which it had decisively separated (1054), he gave great offense to the clergy and the 
 people. His son, Andronicus II., who came to the throne, 1282, re-established the 
 Greek ritual. After the death of his son and co-regent, Michael IX. (1320), Andronicus 
 II. was compelled to divide the throne with his grandson, Andronicus HI., who became 
 sole emperor, 1328. This monarch unsuccessfully opposed the Turks, who took Nicaea 
 and Nicomedia in 1339, and wasted the European coasts. He died in 1341. Under his 
 son, Johannes V., the Turks first gained a firm footing in the European provinces, and 
 spread themselves from Gallipoli (which they captured in 1357) over other districts. 
 Sultan Murad took Adrianople, 1361, and made it the seat of government. He and his 
 follower, Bajazet, conquered all the Byzantine territories as far as Constantinople. 
 Manuel II., son and successor of Johannes, was besieged in Constantinople by Bajazet, 
 who defeated an army under Sigismund of Hungary, at Nicopolis, in 1396, and com- 
 pelled the Byzantine monarch to cede to the Turks one of the main streets of the city, 
 which was saved from capture only by Timur’s incursions into the Turkish territories, 
 1402. By this diversion Manuel recovered some portion of the Byzantine provinces; 
 but made so little use of the occasion, that, in 1422, the metropolis was again besieged 
 by Murad II., who, after he had overthrown the force sent to aid the emperor by 
 Ladislaus, king of Hungary, at the battle of Varna, made Constantinople, in 1444, the 
 limit of the domains of Johannes VI., son of Manuel, and compelled him to pay tribute. 
 Constantine XI., brother of Johannes, bravely but fruitlessly contended against the 
 overwhelming Turkish forces, and fell heroically in the defense of Constantinople, 
 which was captured by Mohammed II., May 29, 1453, when the B. E. was brought to 
 a close. The petty Latin princes who existed here and there in Greece, and the despots, 
 Demetrius and Tlaomas, who ruled in the Morea, were subdued by Mohammed in 1460 ; 
 while David, a member of the Comnenian dynasty, the last emperor of Trebizond, sub- 
 mitted in 1461. 
 
 It is almost superfluous, after this painful and bloody record of dynastic crimes and 
 tumults, continuing century after century for upwards of a thousand years, to affirm 
 that the history of the world never witnessed so miserable and degraded a caricature of 
 imperial government as the B. E. affords, or to express the conviction that nature was 
 sternly satisfied to behold it finally swept from the face of the earth, even by the hands 
 of barbarous Turks. 
 
 The constitution of the B. E. was founded on the institutions of Diocletian and 
 Constantine the great, and was purely despotic. The emperors, who were consecrated 
 by the patriarchs of Constantinople, claimed, as the true descendants of the Caesars, a 
 sovereignty over the west as well as the east, and styled themselves “rulers of the Ro- 
 mans, ” even after Charlemagne had founded a new dynasty. Though great influence was 
 at various times exercised by the clergy as well as by women, courtiers, and ministers, the 
 emperors were pure autocrats, having supreme power in all departments of government, 
 and being themselves superior to all laws. By pompous titles, by great splendor of cos- 
 tume. and by a strict observance of an elaborately minute court ceremonial, as well as by 
 the cruel penalties inflicted for any insult offered to the imperial dignity, or to the dignity 
 of the emperor’s relatives, they kept themselves sacredly apart from the people. Gradually, 
 everything disappeared that might have been a check upon the utter despotism of the 
 supreme power. As early as the 6th c., the consulate was absorbed into the mass of 
 imperial honors, while the traces of the senate which Constantine had established at 
 Byzantium, and which was composed of those on whom the emperor had bestowed the- 
 dignity of patriciate, as well as the chartered privileges of the towns, had entirely van- 
 ished in the 10th century. The privy council, to whom the conduct of the state was 
 intrusted, was arbitrarily chosen by the emperor. The state officials were very numer- 
 
l>yzantlne. 
 
 248 
 
 ous, and their respective ranks carefully distinguished. They were raised far above the 
 populace by titles and privileges, but were utterly dependent on the throne. Among 
 these, the domestici (including many eunuchs), claimed the highest rank as immediate 
 attendants on the emperor. The rank of the curopalates, who had charge of the four 
 chief imperial palaces, became, in course, of time, subordinate to that of the protovesti- 
 arius, who was invested with the highest dignity of all. The domestici were made com- 
 manders-in-chief of the army. Among them, the domesticus of the east (styled, par excel- 
 lence, megadomesticus) held the highest rank, and finally, under the Palaeologi, was con- 
 sidered the first civil and military officer of the realm. The provinces were ruled by 
 governors bound to contribute certain sums to the royal revenue, which gave rise to 
 oppressive exactions. No distinction was made between the state-revenue and the privy- 
 purse. For military service, the land was divided into districts {themata)-, and the 
 army, down to the later times, consisted almost entirely of foreign mercenary troops, 
 the imperial body-guard, or spatharii, who were mainly Germans, holding the highest 
 rank. The admiral of the fieet was styled megas dux. In the midst of constant internal 
 and external disturbances, the administration of justice was grossly neglected and abused, 
 though Justinian and other emperors earnestly endeavored to establish just laws. 
 
 BYZAN'TINE HISTOEIANS are those Greek writers who have handled the history of 
 the Byzantine empire. They are divided into three classes — 1. Those whose works 
 refer exclusively to Byzantine history ; 2. Those who professedly occupy themselves 
 with universal history, but at the same time treat Byzantine history at disproportionate 
 length; 3. Those who write on Byzantine customs, antiquities, architecture, etc. The 
 B. H. are far from faultless, yet, as they are the only sources of information regarding 
 the vast empire of the east, they are invaluable to us. The most interesting and instruc- 
 tive among them, however, are those who confine their attention to a limited number of 
 years, and to the events which transpired under their own observation, or in which they 
 took part. The principal B. H. were collected and published at Paris in 36 vols., wdth 
 Latin translations under the editorship of P. Philippe Labbe, a Jesuit, and his success- 
 ors (1648-1711). This magnificent collection was reprinted, with additions, at Venice, 
 1727-33. In 1828, Niebuhr, assisted by Bekker, the Dindorfs, and others, began a 
 Corpus Scriptorum Historice Byzantirm, carried on till 1855, and continued in 1872 by the 
 Bibliotheca Orceca Medii JEvi. 
 
 BYZANTINE RECENSION, the Greek New Testament used in Constantinople 
 after that city became a see in the eastern church: also used as the basis of the old 
 Slavonic version. It differs very little from the received text. 
 
 BYZAN'TINES, in numismatics, is the term applied to coins of the Byzantine empire. 
 Byzantine coins are of gold, silver, and bronze ; bear impressions distinct from those of 
 the earlier Roman coins; and were copied in several countries where the Byzantine 
 standard was adopted. The commercial relations of the eastern empire served to dis- 
 tribute its coinage over almost all the then known world. It was current in India, as 
 well as in the n. of Europe. Recently, an increased attention has been paid to the study 
 of I^'zantine coins as aids to history. — Saulcy, Essaide Classification de Suites Monetaires 
 Byz^tines (Metz, 1836). 
 
 BYZAN TIUM, a city which stood on the Thracian Bosporus, was first founded by 
 emigrants from Megara in 667 b.c., and rapidly rose to importance as a seat of com- 
 merce. Its position was at once secure and enchanting; it commanded the shores of 
 Europe and Asia, had magnificent facilities for trade, and was also encircled with rich, 
 picturesque, and varied scenery. After a time of subjugation under Darius Hystaspes, 
 B. was liberated from the Persian yoke by Pausanias. Along with other Grecian sea- 
 ports, B. revolted from Athens in 440 b.c., but was captured by Alcibiades (408). Lpan- 
 der recovered it for the Lacedemonians in 405. Shortly afterwards, it renewed its alliance 
 with Athens, and in 390, Thrasybulus altered its form of government from an oligarchy 
 into a democracy. When Athens again acquired a dangerous importance as a naym 
 power, B., in 356, leagued itself with Chios, Rhodes, and king Mausolus II., of Caria, 
 and crippled the trade of the former city; with which, however, it again formed an 
 aMiance, through the influence of Demosthenes, in opposition to Philip of Macedon, 
 who, in 341-340 b.c., vainly besieged Byzantium. Under Alexander the great, B. 
 retained a certain degree of independence. For some time, B. was tributary to the 
 Gauls, who settled in Thrace, after the death of Brennus (280 b.c.). After the second 
 Punic w^ar, wdien the Romans began to interfere in the affairs of Grecian and Asiatic 
 cities, B. attached itself to Rome, and, retaining almost entire its former liberties, main- 
 tained also its commercial importance. In the civil war between Septimius Severus 
 and Pescennius Niger, B. sided with the latter. It was therefore besieged by Severus, 
 and, after a brave defense of 3 years’ duration, was captured in 196 a.d., and reduced to 
 ruin. Severus, repenting of the desolation wdiich he had made, rebuilt a part of the 
 city under the name of Augusta Antonina, and ornamented it with baths, porticos, etc. 
 Caracalla restored to the inhabitants their ancient privileges; and in 330 a.d., under the 
 name of New Rome or Constantinople, it w'asmade the metropolis of the Roman empire. 
 See Constantinople. 
 
 BZOVIUS, or Bzowsivi, Abrabam, 1567-1637; a Polish Dominican, one of the most 
 voluminous writers of his time. He was professor of philosophy and theology at Milan 
 and Bologna. He continued the ecclesiastical annals of Baronius from 1198 to 1532. 
 
249 
 
 Byzantine. 
 
 C. 
 
 C 
 
 C THE third letter in all the alphabets derived from the Roman. It corresponds 
 in place to the Greek gamma (F), and had originally the same sound — viz., that of 
 g in gun; as is expressly recorded, and as is proved by very old inscriptions, on 
 'which 'we read leciones, lece, for "what 'were after'wards 'written legiones, lege. This medial 
 or flat guttural sound of c was at an early period of Roman history lost in the sharp 
 guttural or A;-sound (see Alphabet), and this continued to be the pronunciation of the 
 letter c in Latin down at least to the 8th c. of the Christian era, not only in such words 
 as comes, clamo, but also before the vowels e and i. Such Latin words as Cicero, fecit, 
 are uniformly represented in Greek by Kikero, phekit; and in the times of the empire, 
 the Germans borrowed Kaiser, keller, from Goesar, cellarium. 
 
 K seems difficult, at first sight, to account for the same letter having sounds so dif- 
 ferent as those heard in call and in civil. The beginning of the transition is to be found 
 in the effect produced upon certain consonants by their standing before i followed by a 
 vowel. Thus, in nation, ti has the effect of sh-, and out of diurnal has sprung journal. 
 In such combinations, i is originally a semi-vowel having the force of y, and it is easy 
 to see that tyon, dyur, pronounced in one syllable, cannot but slide into the sibilant or 
 hissing sounds of shon,jur. A precisely similar effect is produced on the A:-sound before 
 ia, iu, io; in Lucius, Porcia, or rather Lukyus, Porkya, ky tends to slide into a hissing; 
 sound similar to that of ty and dy. This tendency showed itself early in the Latin 
 tongue; and in the vulgar Latin of later ages, and in the Romanic tongues that sprang 
 out of it, it fully developed itself, so that the Italian came to pronounce Lueia as if 
 written Lutshia. Combinations like ceo, cea, are little different from do and cia, and 
 would naturally follow the same course; and the s-sound being once associated with the 
 letter c in these positions was gradually extended to it in cases where the e or i was not 
 followed by a vowel. 
 
 The Anglo-Saxon alphabet resembled the Roman, from which it sprang, in having 
 no k, and in always using c with the sound of k; king and keen were spelled cyning and 
 cene. It was also without q, for which cw was used — quick being spelled cwic. By a 
 process analogous to that described above, such Anglo-Saxon words as ceorl, ceosan (pro. 
 kyorl, kyosan), became transformed into the English churl, choose. And this suggests a 
 natural explanation of the multitude of cases where the c of the Latin has been trans- 
 formed into c/i in French, and has passed in this form into English — e.g., 'LdX. caput, 
 Fr. chef, Eng. chief; Lat. caminus, Eng. chimney; Lat. carmen, Eng. charm. For as 
 the Anglo-Saxons turned the karl or korl of the other Gothic nations into kyorl, so doubt- 
 less the Romanized Gauls corrupted the pronunciation of the Latin camera, for exam- 
 ple, into kyamera (compare Eng. cart, pro. by some kyart), which would then readily 
 slide into chambre. 
 
 In the other Germanic alphabets, which were derived partly from the Roman and 
 partly from the Greek, the Greek kappa or k is used almost to the exclusion of c, which, 
 in German, Swedish, etc., appears only in words borrowed from the Romanic languages. 
 See letter K. 
 
 In modern English, c is pronounced like k before the vowels a, o, u, and like s before 
 e, i, and y; and where the sharp guttural sound has to be represented before e, i, and y, 
 the Germanic k has superseded the Anglo-Saxon c, as in king, keen. In so far as mere 
 sound is concerned, c is a superfluous letter in English ; in every case its power could be 
 represented either by k or by s. In the corresponding words of the several Aryan languages, 
 we find various substitutions for c, thus: Lat. calamus, Eng. halm (stalk), Rus. soloma; 
 Lat. cord-, Eng. heart, Rus. serdtse; Lat. collum, Ger. ^a^s(neck); Lat. (sharp) ; Fr. 
 aigre, Eng. eager; Lat. due- (lead or draw), Ger. zog, Eng. tug; Gr. pepo, Lat. coquo, Eng. 
 cook; Lat. dictus, Ital. ditto. C sometimes disappears before I and r; thus ; Gr. kleo (to- 
 ^und one’s fame, allied to kaleo, to call or shout), Lat. laudo, to praise, Ger. laut, voice, 
 Eng. loud, old Ger. hlud, fame (hence Hludwig or Clodowig, Clovis, Louis). 
 
 C, in music, is the name of one of the notes of the gamut. The scale of C major has 
 neither flats nor sharps, and therefore is called the natural scale. The different octaves 
 of the gamut, beginning with C, are called by the Germans the great, small, one-stroked, 
 two-stroked, etc., beginning with 
 
 ; thus, c C, c, c, c, c. 
 
 C is also the sound on -which the system of music is founded, and from which the mathe- 
 matical proportions of intervals are taken; that is, a string of a given length sounding C, 
 when divided into certain proportions, is made to produce harmonically the intervals of 
 the different fundamental chords. 
 
 
Caaba. 
 
 Cabbage. 
 
 250 
 
 C Major, the first of the twelve major keys in modern music ; being the natural scale, 
 it has no signature. 
 
 C Minor, the tonic minor of C major, has three flats for its signature — viz,, B flat, E 
 flat, and A flat. 
 
 CAABA. See Kaaba. 
 
 CAA'ING WHALE, Globicephalus deductor, an interesting cetaceous animal, which has 
 been very generally included by naturalists in the genus delphinus with dolphins (q.v.) 
 and porpoises (q.v.), being named by some delphinus melas (Gr. black), by others B. 
 globiceps, from the round form of its head, but which has recently been separated from 
 the true dolphins, either as a species of porpoise {phoccena), or as the type of a distinct 
 genus, globicephalus, principally characterized by the rounded muzzle, and the convex 
 and rounded top of the head. The general form of the animal is not unlike that of tho 
 common porpoise, but it is much larger, being from 16 to 24 ft. in length. The body is 
 thick, its circumference at the origin of the dorsal fin, where it is greatest, being rather 
 more than 10 ft., tapering towards the tail, which is deeply forked. The pectoral fins 
 are remarkably long and narrow, fully 5 ft. in length, differing very much in this respect 
 from those of every other known cetaceous animal. The whole number of vertebrae 
 is 55. The color is black, with a white streak from the throat to the vent; and the skin 
 is beautifully smooth, shining like oiled silk. 
 
 The C. W. feeds on cod, ling, and other large fishes, but also to a great extent on 
 cephalopodous mollusca, the cuttle-fish, indeed, seeming to be its principal food. It is 
 the most gregarious of all the cetacea, great shoals or herds being usually seen together 
 in the northern seas which it inhabits. These herds exhibit the same propensity with 
 flocks of sheep, when pressed by any danger, to follow their leaders, so that when they 
 are hemmed in by boats, if one break through to the open sea, all escape ; but if one is 
 driven ashore, the rest rush forward with such blind impetuosity as to strand themselves 
 upon the beach, where they become an easy prey and rich prize to their pursuers. The 
 appearance of a herd of caaing whales in a northern bay produces a scene of great excite- 
 ment, and every boat is in requisition. From 50 to 100 whales are often captured, and 
 it is recorded that 1110 were killed, in the winter of 1809-10, at Hvalfiord, in Iceland. 
 The word caaing is not the Scottish form of calling, as has been supposed, but is a totally 
 different Scotch word, which signifies driving. C. W. appears to be originally an Ork- 
 ney or Zetland name. The same animal is known to sailors as the black whale, the 
 howling whale, the social whale, and the pilot-fish. — Another species of the same genus, 
 G. rissoanus, 9 or 10 ft. long, the male of a bluish-white color, the female brown, both 
 sexes marked with irregular white lines and brown spots, is found in the Mediterranean. 
 
 CABAGAN', a thriving t., situated at the northern extremity of the island of Luzon, 
 one of the Philippines. Pop. upwards of 11,000. 
 
 CABAL', a term employed to denote a small, intriguing, factious party in the state, 
 and also a union of several such, which, for political or personal ends, agree to modify 
 or sacrifice their principles. The word was used to describe an English ministry in the 
 reign of Charles II., the initials of whose names composed Cabal — viz., Clifford, Ash- 
 ley, Buckingham, Arlington, and Lauderdale. This was not the origin of the word, 
 Iiowever, as some have supposed; but merely the ingenious application of a word pre- 
 viously in use, and which appears to have been derived from the French caibale, possess- 
 ing a similar signification. 
 
 CABALA. See Cabbala, ante. 
 
 CABANEL, Alexandre, b. 1823; a French painter of mythological and religious 
 subjects, among which are “The Birth of Venus” (of which he made two copies for 
 American patrons), and “Nymph carried off by a Faun.” He is a member of the 
 French academy, and a professor in the school of fine arts. 
 
 CABANIS, Pierre .Tean Georges, a French physician, philosophical writer, and 
 partisan of Mirabeau in the revolution, was b. at Cosnac, in the department of the 
 CJharente-Inferieure, 1757. When he had completed his studies in Paris (1773), he went 
 to Warsaw, in the capacity of secretary to a Polish magnate. On his return to Paris, 
 he was for some time engaged in literary pursuits, from which he turned his attention 
 to an earnest study of medicine. At the outbreak of the revolution, he attached himself 
 to the liberal side, but detested the cruelties which followed. For Mirabeau, whose 
 opinions he received, he wrote a work on national education, which was published after 
 the death of that great orator (1791). C. was one of the council of five hundred, after- 
 wards member of the senate, and administrator of the hospitals of Paris. He died May 
 5, 1808. _ His chief work, Rapports da Physique et du Moral de V Homme, completed in 
 1802, gained its author a considerable reputation as a writer and philosopher. The work 
 displays no mean power of observation and analysis, but is characterized by a sensation- 
 alism so absolute, that it seems at first siglit as if the author were burlesquing with grave 
 irony the doctrines of his brother-materialists. He denies that the soul is an entity; it 
 is only a faculty; and declares the brain to be merely a particular organ specially fitted 
 to produce thought, as the stomach and the intestines perform the function of digestion. 
 C. traces this grotesque analogy through all its niceties, and at last triumphantly con- 
 cludes, “that the brain digests impressions and organically secretes thought !” 
 
251 
 
 Caaba. 
 
 Cabbage,^ 
 
 CABARRUS, a co. in s.w. North Carolina, on the N. C. railroad, watered by Rocky 
 river; 350 sq.m.; pop. ’80, 14,964 — 5120 colored. Soil moderately fertile, producing^ 
 corn, wheat, cotton, etc. Co. seat. Concord. 
 
 CABARRUS, Francisco de, 1752-1810; a Spanish financier, originator of a bank 
 and company for trade with the Philippine islands. He was one of the council of 
 finance under Charles III., and proposed many reforms. Under Charles IV. he was- 
 accused of embezzlement and imprisoned, but soon after was released and made a 
 count. Bonaparte made him a minister of finance, in which otfice he died. His 
 daughter Theresc, under the name of Mme. Tallien, afterwards princess of Chimay, 
 was conspicuous in the closing days of the French revolution of 1789. 
 
 CABATUAN, a city of the province of Iloilo, on the island of Panay, one of the 
 Philippines. It is situated on the banks of the river Tiguin, which so abounds with 
 crocodiles that fishing is unsafe. Navigation is very uncertain, the river being some- 
 times nearly dry, while at others it overflows its banks, and deluges the surrounding 
 country. The city was founded in 1732, and possesses a population of 23,000, who are 
 chiefly engaged in the production of rice, and of cocoa-nut oil. 
 
 CABAZERA, capital of the province of Cagayan, island of Luzon, Philippines. Pop. 
 15,000. Tobacco is grown very extensively in the province, and its manufacture affords- 
 employment to large numbers of people. 
 
 CABBAGE, Brassica oleracea (see Brassica), a plant in most general cultivation for 
 culinary purposes in Europe and other countries, cultivated also to a considerable extent 
 for feeding cattle. It is a native of the rocky shores of Britain and other parts of 
 Europe, more plentiful on the shores of the Mediterranean than in more northern lati- 
 tudes, and in its wild state is generally from a foot to two feet high. This plant has 
 been cultivated in Europe from time immemorial; it has likewise been cultivated from 
 an early period in gardens and about villages in India. Few plants show so great a ten- 
 dency to vary in their form through cultivation; and among the varieties of this one 
 species are reckoned several of our most esteemed culinary vegetables, such as kale 
 (q.v.) or greens, borecole, colewort (q.v.), savoy (q.v.), kohl rabi (q. v.), cauliflower (q.v.), 
 and broccoli (q.v.) — plants which differ much in their appearance and in the particular 
 qualities for which tney are valuable, both from each other and from the original wild 
 plant. 
 
 The wild C. has smooth sea-green leaves, waved and variously indented; the boiling 
 of the leaves, or their forming close heads at a certain stage of tile growth of the plant, 
 so that the inner leaves are blanched, is peculiar to those cultivated varieties which com- 
 monly receive the name of cabbage. 
 
 The ordinary varieties of C. are often called by the general name of white G. , to dis- 
 tinguish them from the red C., which is of a deep brownish-red or purplish color, and is 
 chiefly used for pickling, for which purpose it is much esteemed. The t7'et C., or com 
 G., is a variety cultivated for cattle, especially in the Channel islands and the n. of 
 France, of which the leaves do not close together into compact heads, but which is 
 remarkable for its great height — reaching, when it is in flower, 10 ft. on rich soils — and 
 for its branching stem. The stems of this kind are sometimes used as stakes for pease, 
 and even as cross-spars for thatched roofs. The Portugal or tranxuda G., also known as 
 couve tronchuda, is a variety remarkable for its delicacy, and for the large midribs of its 
 leaves, which are often used like sea-kale. It is an article of luxury like cauliflower, 
 and requires a somewhat similar cultivation. — Cabbage-seed is sown either in spring or 
 autumn, and the seedlings transplanted in rows at distances of two feet or upwards, 
 according to the size of the variety. They are often planted closer, and the alternate 
 plants cut young for open greens, for which the sprouts that arise from the stem of some 
 varieties after the head has been cut off are also used. Cabbages require a rich, well - 
 manured soil, and the earth about the roots ought to be often stirred. By sowing and 
 planting at different dates and of different varieties, a succession is secured in the gar- 
 den; and when winter approaches, part of the principal crop may be taken up and laid 
 in a sloping position, so that only the heads are above the earth, in which way they are 
 generally preservedwithout injury. In some places, cabbages are completely buried in 
 the earth, the plants not being allowed to touch each other; and this method succeeds 
 well in peaty or sandy soils. 
 
 The C. , considered as food, contains more than 90 per cent of water, and therefor® 
 cannot be very nutritious: 100 parts of the ordinary C. consist of 
 
 Extractive 
 
 Gummy matters. . . 
 
 Resin 
 
 Vegetable albumen 
 
 Green fecula 
 
 Water and salts. . . 
 
 2.34 
 
 2.89 
 
 0.05 
 
 0.29 
 
 0.63 
 
 93.80 
 
 The digestibility of C. varies according as it is partaken of raw or boiled ; thus, raw C. 
 alone is digested in 2^ hours; raw C., with vinegar, in 2 hours; and boiled C. takes 4^ 
 hours. Immense quantities of cabbages are used in Germany as sauer kraut (q.v.). 
 CABBAGE BARK. See Andira. 
 
Cabbage. 
 
 •Cabin. 
 
 252 
 
 CABBAGE BUTTERFLY, a name common to several species of butterfly, the larvse 
 of which devour the leaves of cruciferous plants, especially of the cabbage tribe, and are 
 popularly known as cabbage-worms or kale- worms. The large C. B,, or large white 
 garden butterfly {pontia brassiccB, or pieris brassicm), is one of the most common of Brit- 
 ish butterflies. It is white; the win^s tipped and spotted with black. The wings, 
 when expanded, measure from to 3 in. across. The antennae terminate in an ovoid 
 •club. The female lays her eggs, which are conical and bright yellow, in clusters of 20 
 •or 30, on the leaves of the plants which are the destined food of the caterpillars. 
 The caterpillars, when fully grown, are about 1 in. or 1^ in. long, and are excess- 
 ively voracious, eating twice their own weight of cabbage-leaf in 24 hours. When 
 full grown, they suspend themselves by their tails, often under ledges of garden- 
 walls, or similar projections, and are metamorphosed into shining pale-green chrysa- 
 lids, spotted with black, from which the perfect insect emerges, either in the same 
 season or after the lapse of a winter — no longer to devour cabbage leaves, but to 
 subsist delicately upon honey, which it sucks from flowers. — See Insects. — The 
 small C. B., or small garden wliite butterfly, sometimes called the turnip butterfly 
 {pontia OY pieris rapcB), very much resembles the large C. B., but the expanse of the 
 wings is only about 2 inches. The eggs are laid singly on the under side of the 
 leaves of cabbages, turnips, etc. , and the caterpillars, which are of a velvety appear- 
 ance, pale green, with a yellow line along the back, and a yellow dotted line on 
 •each side, sometimes appear in great numbers, and prove very destructive. They 
 bore into the hearts of cabbages, instead of merely stripping the leaves, like those 
 of the last species, and thus are a greater pest, even when comparatively few. The 
 •chrysalis is of a pale reddish-brown color, h’eckled with black. — A third species, 
 .also common in Britain, the green-veined white butterfly {pontiaorpieris napi), very 
 nearly resembles the small cabbage butterfly. — The excessive multiplication of these 
 insects is generally prevented by small birds, which devour them and their caterpil- 
 lars, and by insects of the ichneumon (q.v.) tribe, which lay their eggs in the caterpillars, 
 that their own larvse may feed on them. 
 
 CABBAGE FLY, Anthomyia brassicce, a fly of the same family with the house-fly, 
 hesh-fly, etc., and of which the larvse or maggots often do great injury to the roots of 
 •cabbages, and sometimes to those of turnips. It is of the same genus with the fly gen- 
 erally known as the turnip fly (q.v.), and also with the potato fly (q.v.), beet fly (q.v.), 
 etc. It is about one fourth of an inch in length, and half an inch in expanse of wings; 
 of an ash-gray color; the male having a silvery gray face, and a long black streak on 
 the forehead; the female, a silvery- white face, without any black streak; the abdomen 
 of the male is linear, that of the female terminates conically; the eyes of the male 
 nearly meet on the crown, those of the female are distant, with a broad black stripe 
 between them. The larva is very similar to that of the flesh-fly — yellowish white, taper- 
 ing to the head, which has two black hooks. The pupa is rust-colored and horny. 
 
 CAdBAGE MOTH, Mamestra or Moctua brassiem, a species of moth, the caterpillar of 
 which feeds on cabbage and turnip leaves, and is sometimes very destructive. The 
 caterpillar is greenish-black, and changes to a brown pupa in autumn. The perfect 
 insect is of a rich mottled-brown color, the upper wings clouded and waved with darker 
 brown, and having pale and white spots, a yellowish line near the fringe, the fringe 
 •dotted with black and ocher, the under- wings brownish and white. 
 
 CABBAGE PALM, or Cabbage Tree, a name given in different countries to dif- 
 ferent species of palm, the great terminal bud of which — the palm cabbage — is eaten 
 like cabbage. The C. P. of the West Indies is areca oleracea. The southern states of 
 America have also their C. P. or cabbage tree, otherwise called the palmetto {chamcBrops 
 palTuetto). See Areca, Euterpe, Palm, and Palmetto. 
 
 CABBALA (from Heb. kibbel, to receive), the received doctrine, by which is not to be 
 understood the popularly accepted doctrine, but that inner or mystical interpretation of 
 the law which the Cabbalists allege that Moses received from God in the mount, and sub- 
 sequently taught to Joshua, who in his turn communicated it to the 70 elders, and 
 which has ever since been the treasure of the select Jews. Since the 12th c., the study 
 of this secret lore has gradually resulted in a distinct school and literature, the elements 
 of which, however, are already visible in the Macedonian epoch, and the real or histor- 
 ical source of which is to be found in the eastern doctrine of emanation. In Philo, in 
 the Talmud, etc., we certainly find theologico-philosophical conceptions, which were at 
 a later period taken up and modified; but the first book on cosmogony is Jezirah, a pro- 
 duction of the 7th c., attributed to Akiba. After the second half of the 12th c., the 
 Cabbalistic doctrines, which had at first been confined to such high themes as God and 
 creation, began to include exegesis, ethics, and philosophy, and so became a kind of 
 mystical religious philosophy. The numerous Cabbalistic writings composed during the 
 three subsequent centuries, professed to teach the secret or mystical sense of Holy Writ, 
 and the principles on which it is grounded, the higher meaning of the law, as well as 
 the method of performing miracles, by the use of divine names and sacred incantations. 
 The Cabbalists, moreover, prepared books, which they attributed to the oldest authori- 
 ties — for instance, Soha/r, a work written in Aramaic, during the 13th c., and fathered 
 upon Simeon-ben-Joachai, a scholar of Akiba. This became the Bible of the Cabbalistic 
 
253 
 
 Cabbage. 
 
 Cabin. 
 
 neophytes. The chief opponents of the Cabbalists were the philosophers, and in part 
 the Talmudists. Towards the close of the 16th c., the Cabbalistic wisdom, which by 
 that time had degenerated into magic and word- juggling, received a new impulse from 
 its teachers in Palestine and Italy. Since the time of Reuchlin, many Christian schol- 
 ars have investigated the subject. 
 
 CABE^A. DE VAC A. See Nuf^EZ Alvar, 
 
 CABELL, a co. in s.w. West Virginia, on the Ohio river at the Chesapeake and 
 Ohio railroad, watered by Guyandotte river. It is hilly but fertile, producing corn, 
 tobacco, etc. Co. seat, Barboursville. Pop. ’80, 13,746 — 905 colored. 
 
 CABEIRI, divinities anciently worshiped in Egypt, Phoenicia, Asia Minor, and 
 Greece. The ancients have left us very obscure notices of the C., and learned men have 
 been unable to reach any satisfactory conclusions with regard to them and their wor- 
 ship. It is certain that the worship had both its mysteries and its orgies, and it appears 
 «,lso that the C. were amongst the inferior divinities, and regarded as dwelling upon the 
 •earth, like the Curetes, Corybantes, and Dactyles, and were probably representatives of 
 Ihe powers of nature. 
 
 CABEN'DA, or Kabenda, a seaport in Loango, lower Guinea, on the Atlantic, at 
 the mouth of the Livingstone, 5° 30' south. It is one of the few salubrious places on 
 the coast. Pop. 16,000. 
 
 CA'BES, or KHABS, Gulf of (ancient Syrtis Minor), an inlet of the Mediterranean 
 sea, lying between the islands of Kerkenna and Jerba, on the n.e. coast of Africa, in 
 iat. about 34° n., and long, from 10° to 11° east. The town of Cabes (ancient I'acape) 
 stands at the head of the gulf. 
 
 CABET, ^lTIENNE, a notable French communist, w^as b. at Dijon, Jan. 2, 1788, and 
 •educated for the bar, but turned his attention to literature and politics. Under the res- 
 toration, he was one of the leaders of the Carbonari (q.v.), and in 1831 was elected 
 deputy for the department of Cote d’Or. Soon afterwards, he published a History of 
 the July Resolution (1832), started a radical Sunday paper, Le Populaire (1833), and, on 
 account of an article in this paper, was sentenced to two years’ imprisonment, but 
 escaped to London. Here he wrote brochures against the July government, and began 
 his communistic studies. After the amnesty, 1839, he returned to Paris, and published 
 a History of the French Revolution (4 vols., 1840), bestowing great praise on the old Jaco- 
 bins. He attracted far more notice by his Voyage en Icarie (1840), a “ philosophical and 
 social romance,” describing a communistic Utopia. The work obtained great popularity 
 among the working-classes of Paris. C. next proceeded to turn “ his philosophical 
 romance” into a reality, and published (1847) in his journal, Le Populaire, the statutes 
 for the formation of an “ Icarian colony” on the Red river in Texas; inviting his fol- 
 lowers to emigrate. The first division sailed on the 2d Feb., 1848, but a short experi- 
 ence convinced them that Texas was anything but a Utopia. Their complaints reached 
 Europe, but did not deter C. from embarking at the head of a second band of colonists. 
 On his arrival, he learned that the Mormons had just been expelled from Nauvoo, in 
 Illinois, and that their city was left deserted. The Icarians established themselves there 
 in May, 1850. C. now returned 'o France, to repel the accusations against his probity 
 which had been circulated during his absence, and to obtain a reversal of the judgment 
 which had been formally pronounced against him, 30th Sept., 1849. Having succeeded 
 in this, he went back to Nauvoo, where he governed, as a sort of dictator, his petty 
 •colony, until 1856, when he was deprived of his office, and obliged to flee to St. Louis, 
 where he died 9th Dec. of the same year. C. was a shallow thinker, a weak ruler, and 
 a poor writer; but his success, such as it was, is a proof of what can be accomplished 
 by what has been termed, with more vigor than elegance, “pig-headed perseverance.” 
 
 CABE'ZA DEL BUEY, a t. of the new province of Badajoz, Spain, about 86 m. e.s.e. 
 •of the city of Badajoz. It is situated on the northern slope of the Sierra Pedregoso, has 
 manufactures of woolens and linens, and a trade in cattle and agricultural produce. 
 Pop. 6500. 
 
 CABE'ZA DEL BUEY, a small t. of Spain, in the province of Badajos, 86 m. e.s.e. of 
 the town of Badajos, on the n. slope of the Sierra el Pedrose. The town is tolerably 
 well built, and has a number of churches and other public buildings. Pop. 5395, engaged 
 chiefly in the manufacture of w'oolen and linen cloths. [From Chambers’s Supplement.'\ 
 
 CABEZON DE LA SAL, a t. of Spain, in the province of Valladolid, about 7 m. n.n.e. 
 of the city of that name. It is situated on the Pisuerga, and is celebrated as the scene of 
 one of the first battles of the peninsular campaign, in which the Spaniards were signally 
 defeated by the French. Pop. 2000. 
 
 CABIN is the general name for a room or apartment on shipboard. In ships of war, 
 the living-rooms of the admirals and captains are called “state” cabins, and are fitted 
 up with much elegance, with a gallery or balcony projecting at the stern. The chief 
 officers below the captain have their cabins on either side of the main-deck; while those 
 of the subordinate commissioned officers are, in lar^e ships, on either side of the lower 
 or orlop deck. All the cabins of a ship of war are inclosed by light paneling, which is 
 quickly removable when preparing for action. 
 
Cabinet. 
 
 Cabral. 
 
 254 
 
 CABINET (Ital. gahinetto), a small chamber set apart for some special purpose, such 
 as the conservation of works of art, antiquities, specimens of natural objects, models, 
 and the like. From signifying the chamber in which such collections are contained, the 
 term C. has recently come to be employed by us, in imitation of the French, to signify 
 the collections themselves, and this even when they till many rooms or galleries. It 
 often means simply a small room appended to a larger one, when it is also called an ante- 
 room, a retiring-room, and the like. See Closet. — Cabinet Picture, a picture suited 
 for a cabinet or small room. C. pictures are generally small in size, highly finished, 
 and thus suited for close inspection. 
 
 CABINET (see Ministry, ante), in political affairs, the heads of departments who 
 are the immediate advisers or counselors of the chief executive. In the United States 
 government the cabinet consists of the secretaries of state, treasury, war, navy, and 
 interior, the attorney-general and the postmaster-general. They meet whenever desired 
 by the president, but not publicly. No minutes are kept of their doings, nor are the 
 names of those present recorded. The president presides; and he may at any time 
 require in writing the opinion of any of the members upon matters concerning his depart- 
 ment. But the cabinet has no responsibility, as that rests with the president alone. 
 
 CABIRI, or Cabeiri, divinities worshiped in Egypt, Phenicia, and other countries, 
 but of which worship or its purpose little is known. The worship was observed yearly 
 and the ceremonies lasted nine days, always in secret, though women and children were 
 admitted. In Lemnos all the fires were extinguished, sacrifice for the dead was offered, 
 and a sacred vessel was sent to Delos to procure new fire, which was distributed among 
 the people, and with its kindling they began a new or regenerated life, free from sin. 
 
 CABLE is either a large rope, or a chain of iron links, chiefly employed on shipboard 
 to suspend and retain the anchors. Rope cables are made of the best hemp, twisted 
 into a mass of great compactness and strength. The circumference varies from about 
 3 in. to 26. A certain number of yarns are twisted to form a lismm; three lissums are 
 twisted in an opposite direction to form a strand; and three strands are twisted (in the 
 same direction as the yarns in a lissum) to form a cable. The number of yarns in a C. 
 of given size is not always alike, because the yarns slightly vary in thickness; but the 
 following is one among many tables which have been prepared relating to cables of 120 
 fathoms, and of the usual degrees of thickness: 
 
 Inches 
 
 Circumference. 
 
 6 , 
 
 9 
 
 12 , 
 
 15, 
 
 18 
 
 20 
 
 Yams. 
 = 48.. 
 
 = 174.. 
 = 393.. 
 = 699.. 
 = 1093. . 
 = 1574. . 
 = 1943. . 
 
 Lbs, 
 
 192 
 
 696 
 
 1572 
 
 2796 
 
 4372 
 
 6296 
 
 7772 
 
 Some cables are made with four strands, but three is the common number. If a C. be 
 twisted too much, it is stiff; if too little, it is weak. The strength of a C. of 18 in. 
 circumference is found to be about 60 tons; and for other dimensions, the strength varies 
 according to the cube of the diameter. On shipboard, cables receive the names of chief 
 cables, bower cables, etc., according to the anchor to which they are attached. During 
 the great war ending in 1815, the largest ships in the British navy carried ten cables, 
 most of which were about 2 ft. or a little more in circumference. Although ships sel- 
 dom anchor at a greater depth than 40 fathoms, it is not deemed safe to trust the anchor 
 to one C. of the usual length; two are spliced together at the ends. The hemjien cables 
 now made are generally 101 fathoms; but 100 fathoms in practical seamanship denotes 
 “ a cable’s length,” and is really the length of a chain cable. 
 
 Chain Cables are made of links, the length of each of which is generally about six 
 diameters of the iron of which it is made, and the breadth about three and a half diame- 
 ters. In government contracts, chain cables are required to be made in 12^ fathoms 
 lengths, with one swivel in the middle of every alternate length, and one joining-shackle 
 in each length. The stay-pins, to strengthen the links,^ are of cast iron. The bar or rod 
 from which each link is made, has the two ends cut diagonally ; it is bent into the form 
 of a nearly complete oval ring; and then the two ends are joined and welded, the stay- 
 pin being at the same time introduced at the proper place. Besides the ordinary links, 
 there are end-links, joining-shackles, splicing-tails, mooring-swivels, and bending- 
 swivels. The sizes of chain cables are denoted by the thickness of the rod-iron selected 
 for the links. The following table gives certain ascertained quantities concerning the 
 cables in ordinary use . 
 
 Thickness of Iron. Weight of Stay-pin. 
 ^ inch. i oz. 
 
 1 “ “ 
 
 “ 12 “ 
 
 2 “ 28 “ 
 
 2ir “ 40 “ 
 
 Weight per Fathom. 
 
 Breaking Strain, 
 
 13i lbs. 
 
 6 tons. 
 
 54 “ 
 
 24 “ 
 
 121 “ 
 
 60 “ 
 
 215 “ 
 
 99 “ 
 
 272 “ 
 
 126 “ 
 
255 
 
 Cabinet. 
 
 Cabral. 
 
 By the chain cables act of 1871, certain bodies are licensed to erect machines for 
 testing all chain cables and anchors; and it is forbidden to sell or purchase, under a 
 penalty of £50, any chain cable or any anchor weighing more than 168 lbs., which has 
 not been duly tested. Minor alterations were introduced by a later act (1874), leaving 
 the main rules intact, 
 
 CABLE-MOLBING-, in architecture, is a molding cut in the form of a rope, the 
 twisting being prominently shown. It was much used in the later Norman style. 
 
 CABLING, the molding by which the hollow parts in the flutes of columns and 
 pilasters in classical architecture are often partially filled. The C. seldom extends 
 beyond the third part of the shaft from the ground. 
 
 CABOCHED, or Cabossed, an heraldic term, from the old French word cahoche, the 
 liead. When the head of an animal is borne, without any part of the neck, and exhib* 
 ited full in face, it is said to be caboched. 
 
 CABOCHIENS, certain butchers of Paris, named from their chief Jean Caboche, 
 who were partisans of John of Burgundy against the Armagnacs. In 1418, their out 
 rages provoked the people of Paris to rise against them. 
 
 CABOOSE, or Camboose (Danish, kabyse, a cook’s room in a ship; Ger. kabuse, a little 
 room), is the name of the kitchen or cook-room in a merchant-ship. In coasting-vessels, 
 the term is applied to a portable cast-iron stove on the deck, where food is cooked. 
 
 CABOT, the name of two Venetians, father and son, both celebrated as navigators and 
 discoverers. — Giovanni Cabot, or Cabotto, the father, whose business compelled him 
 to reside much in Bristol, was appointed by Henry VII., Mar. 5, 1496, to the command 
 of a squadron of five vessels on a voyage of discovery in the Atlantic ocean. In this 
 expedition he was accompanied by his sons Ludovico, Sebastiano (born at Bristol, 1477), 
 and Sanzio. On the 24th of June, 1497, the coast of Labrador, North America, was 
 sighted. The merit of this discovery has been generally ascribed to the navigator’s 
 second son, Sebastian C., the most scientific of the family; but an extract from a chart 
 preserved by Hakluyt mentions the father before the sou. The expedition returned in 
 Aug., 1497. In 1498, a second was made, with what results we do not know; and in 
 1499,' a third to the gulf of Mexico. About this time, Giovanni, the father, appears to 
 have died, and we hear no more of Sebastian till 1512, when he entered the service of 
 Ferdinand, king of Spain. During the year 1515, he was engaged in revising maps and 
 charts in connection with his profession, and in planning an exploration of the n.w. 
 passage to Asia, which, however, was laid aside on account of the death of Ferdinand 
 in 1516. C., who seems to have been no favorite with the Spanish courtiers, was now 
 
 subjected to a series of contemptible insults. This usage induced him to return to Eng- 
 land and in 1517, he was appointed by Henry VIII. to the command of an expedition 
 to Labrador. He reached lat. 67^° n., and entered Hudson’s bay, where he gave names to 
 several places; but the expedition proved on the whole a failure, on account of the 
 cowardice or malice of his vice-commandant, sir Thomas Perte. C. now entered again 
 Into the Spanish service, was made pilot-major of the kingdom by Charles V., and com- 
 manded an expedition which examined the coast of Brazil and La Plata, which he 
 attempted to colonize. In 1531, he returned to Spain, and resumed his old situation; 
 but in 1548, he once more betook himself to England, where he was well received by 
 king Edward VI., who made him inspector of the navy, and gave him a pension. To 
 this monarch he seems to have explained the variation of the magnetic needle in several 
 places, which he was among the first, if not the .very first, to notice particularly. In 
 1553, C. was the prime mover and director of the expedition of merchant adventurers 
 which opened to England an important commerce with Russia. It is not known exactly 
 when C. died . — Memoir of Sebastian Cabot (Lond. 1831). 
 
 CABOT, George, 1751-1823; b. Mass.; in early life a ship captain, but in 1776 
 chosen to the Massachusetts provincial congress. He was also in the state constitutional 
 convention, and in 1789 was chosen U. S. senator. He was offered but declined the 
 position of secretary of the navy. His last political act was to preside over the Hartford 
 convention. 
 
 CABOTVILLE. See Chicopee, ante, 
 
 CABOTZ, See Cusso. 
 
 CABBA (ancient ^gabrum), a t. of Spain, in the province of Cordova, 30 m. s.e. of 
 the city of that name. C. is irregularly built between two hills, and surrounded with 
 gardens; vineyards in the neighb^orhood produce excellent wine. It is chiefly agricul- 
 tufal; but it has manufactures of woolen, linen, hats, soap, earthenware, etc. Pop. 
 12 , 000 . 
 
 CABRAL, Francisco, 1528-1609; a Portuguese Jesuit missionary at Goa, and super- 
 intendent of the mission schools in India. He also labored in Japan with success, and 
 had the supervision of missions in China. He was for nearly 40 years at the head of 
 the Roman Catholic school in Goa. 
 
 CABBAL, or CABBEBA, Pedro Alvarez, the discover of Brazil, was descended from 
 an old and patrician Portuguese family. Nothing is known of his early life, save the 
 fact, that he must have recommended himself by talent and enterprise to king Emanuel 
 
Cabrera. 
 
 Cache. 
 
 25G 
 
 of Portugal, who, after the first voyage of Vasco de Gama, appointed C. to the com- 
 mand of a fleet of 13 vessels, carrying 1200 men, and bound for the East Indies. On the 
 9th Mar., 1500, he sailed from Lisbon. To avoid the inconvenience of being becalmed 
 on the coast of Africa, he took a course too far westerly, fell into the South Ameri- 
 can current of the Atlantic, and was carried to tlie unknown coast of Brazil, of 
 which he claimed possession for the king of Portugal, April 24, 1500, naming the new 
 country “ Terra da Santa Cruz.” After sending home one vessel to bear news of this 
 great accidental discovery, C. sailed for India; but on the 29th of May, four of his vessels 
 foundered;^ and all on board perished, including Diaz, the great navigator; and soon, 
 afterwards three more vessels were lost. C. therefore landed at Mozambique, on the e. 
 coast of Africa, of which he first gave clear information, and also discovered (Aug. 23) 
 the Antschedives islands, of which he described correctly the position. Hence he sailed 
 to Calicut, where, having made the terror of his arms felt, he was permitted to found a 
 factory; entered into successful negotiations with native rulers, and thus established the 
 first commercial treaty between Portugal and India. He returned from India, bringing 
 with him a considerable booty, and arrived in the port of Lisbon, July 31, 1501. It 
 appears probable that the king was dissatisfied with the results of the expedition 
 (although it had annexed Brazil to the crown of Portugal), for subsequently w^e find no 
 mention made of C. among other discoverers. At the request of C., Sancho de Toar 
 wrote a description of the coast of Sofola. C.’s voyages are described in Ramusio’s 
 Navigatione e Viaggi, 3vols. (Venice, 1563; newed., Venice, 1835). 
 
 CABRE'RA, a small island in the Mediterranean, lying off the southern point of 
 Majorca. It is about 3 m. in length and breadth, with an irregular coast, and is little else 
 than a barren calcareous rock. The only interest attached to C. is, that during the war 
 in the Peninsula it formed a Spanish depot for French prisoners, who were crowded in 
 thousands into the desolate spot, and treated with great barbarity ; of which an account 
 is given in a popular work, entitled the Adventures of a French Sergeant. 
 
 CABRE'RA, Don Ramon, the boldest leader of the Carlist party in Spain, w*as b. at 
 Tortosa, in Catalonia, 31st Aug., 1810. The death of Ferdinand, in 1833, gave the sig- 
 nal for a civil war, and first brought C. into notice. Placing himself at the head of 
 some guerilla troops, he joined the absolutists, or partisans of Don Carlos, and by his 
 vigilance, energy, and daring soon rose to be second in command in the Maestrazgo dis- 
 trict. Throughout Aragon and Valencia his name became a by -word for cruelty. After 
 penetrating as far s. as Andalusia, his forces were completely routed by the royal troops, 
 on the borders of Aragon, and he himself, severely wounded, escaped with difficulty 
 into the woods. It was now rumored that C. was dead, when all at once he reappeared 
 at the head of 10,000 foot and 1600 horse. Invading the province of Valencia, he over- 
 threw the royal army at Buhol, 18th Feb., 1837, and again on the 19th Mar. at Burjasot; 
 but was in his turn vanquished at Torre Blanca, and once more compelled to seek a 
 hiding-place. Shortly after, he reopened the war with fiery energy. Madrid itself was 
 threatened by C. , who, about this time, received the title of count of Morelia for his 
 vigorous defense of the fortress of that name, and was also appointed governor-general 
 of Aragon, Valencia, and Murcia. The Carlists now believed that the triumph of abso- 
 lutism was approaching, when the treachery of the Carlist gen., Marotto, changed the 
 whole aspect of affairs, and Don Carlos fled from Spain. C. held out until Espartero 
 forced him to quit the country in the summer of 1840. He then entered France, where 
 he was taken prisoner, and confined for a short time in the fortress of Ham. In 1845, 
 he strongly opposed Don Carlos’s abdication of his rights. On the outbreak of the 
 French revolution in 1848, he renewed the struggle on behalf of absolutism in Spain; 
 but the adventure proved a miserable failure, and on the 17th Jan., 1849, he recrossed 
 the Pyrenees, to live in retirement. He afterwards married a wealthy English lady. 
 Miss Marianne Catherine Richards. When Alphonso was proclaimed king of Spain in 
 1875, C. advised the Carlists to submit to him, chiefly because he was “a good son of 
 the church.” He died 24th May, 1877. 
 
 CABITL', a river in Afghanistan, rises in lat. 34° 21' n., and long. 68° 20' e., on ths 
 southern declivities of the Hindu Kush or Indian Caucasus. • Its source is 8400 ft. above 
 the level of the sea; and an eastward run of 320 m., with a fall of about 7500 ft., along 
 n. Afghanistan, through the Khyber mountains, and across Peshawur, carries it into 
 the Indus, opposite to Attock, in the Punjab. The point of confluence marks the head 
 of navigation on the main stream, while the tributary itself is practicable about 50 m. 
 upwards for craft of 40 or 50 tons. By means, therefore, of the two taken as one line, 
 there exists an available communication of about 1000 m. between the Khyber moun- 
 tains and the Indian ocean. The C. washes the cities of Cabul, Jelalabad, and 
 Dobundee. 
 
 CABUL' is the name given to that part of Afghanistan (q. v.) which lies s. of the Hindu 
 Kush, and is drained by the Cabul river. It extends from the s. of Ghiznee to the 
 Hindu Kush, and from Bamian (q.v.) to the Khyber pass. This region has long occu- 
 pied a prominent position in the world. Through it, as the passage from Persia to 
 India, Alexander the great m^-ched to complete his eastern conquests; from it issued 
 Mahmoud of Ghiznee, the first Mohammedan invader of Hindustan. 
 
 The city of Cabul, from which the surrounding territory takes its name, has 60, (XK) 
 
257 
 
 Cabrera. 
 
 Cache. 
 
 Tnll3,blt8/Ilt'S, 8/Hd stands in Ijlt. 34** 30^ n Jinfl Tr\n<r o • i 1 
 
 river here crossed by three bridges, ceases to be foldable. Elevated about and 
 
 the Hrndu Kush 
 
 fiom 75^0 V ^ ^ V winter, and a temperate summer, ranging 
 
 s ~T<i^ £•„•; £s"s;? ” ?.?= s„ia 
 
 i, i,5ii.di trrf !rw:;"s?j r.ii'*si “5 
 
 ously beea\TnedTo’’Hfe'^^^^^^^^ P“““ having previ- 
 
 he hIXtoeli as 'his ?eiy 1 ^"’ C The“po"fs“o?’ u’ T?h 
 
 elder hrother and the son of the latter, AbduteCrX M 
 
 enteSlt'r'*'^ Bokhara. Shere Ali was at first unsuccessful. On May 21 1866 Uzful 
 
 S=S^“— 
 
 reridlt 2 Cabuh ’ ‘hat there should be an Engl4 
 
 CACA'O. See Cocoa. 
 
 a po^omod. “ *■ “ *’* « “• of Termini, with 
 
 SVH— 
 
 the Ma*n^*2\^zn2"'’T? Philippines, in the province of South Camarines on 
 
 Migti^rdVeUTiityn 
 
 long cioV ‘^irpffis%“pe2KS 
 
 mounppa"nyul22&“ *=ltSpil r!v2t Is^r^B^ittS-afJ^r'l Sl 
 
 350 m., enters the Brahmaputra aifouTdO T above mcta S 
 
 nd Zorr,airtlo?hs’ hamboo, iron ore, Tax and ivj,^ 
 
 ana impoits salt, cloths, tobacco, and ghee or half liquid butter. 
 
 3rn wahL^of th^Un'iffd''st'?t’ “j*’ “t"*® travelers in the great west- 
 
 ^ United States to places for concealing provisions and other articles 
 
 *em®elvfs o/what artinr*^ “Por orossing the Eocky mountains, they disburden 
 
 itra“rn[aee2of TTJI h?, jPared, and, to conceal .them from the Indians, con- 
 
 atefandTirenidl? A u ‘he. wdderness. The making of a C. is a matter of much 
 MoS Md th®en J ^ "fopth °f perhaps 6 or 8 ft. and several feet 
 
 .ible care^ S excTatere»rtU^ interred, the surface is replaced with the utmost pos- 
 .X7PW excavated earth is also carefully removed, so as to leave no trace what 
 
 ZZf C.. however, irknowrto ?he m^^^^ 
 
 >0^6 kndmark, and returning months afterwards, they probably find its contend und^s^ 
 
 mSit^Ss'^wW ^ natural or artificial, in the ground or 
 
 Ksllves explorers stow provisions or records, to be found by 
 
 “lerredltio:sof'inTmr‘“® *'« ^ 
 
 u. K. III.— 17 
 
Cache. 
 
 Cacteaa. 
 
 • • 258 
 
 CACHE, a CO. in n.e. Utah, on the Idaho frontier, watered by Bear river; 700 sq.m.v 
 pop. ’70, 8229; in ’80, 12,561. Productions agricultural. Co. seat, Logan. 
 
 CACHE'O, or Cacheu, a t. in Senegambia, w. Africa, in the land of the Papels, a 
 few miles from the mouth of San Domingo or Cachoa river; pop. 15,000. It is a Por- 
 tuguese fortified post, and has trade, in ivory and gold dust. 
 
 CACHET, Lettres de. See Lettres de Cachet. 
 
 CACHE'XIA, a name applied by physicians sometimes to a group of diseases, and 
 sometimes to the constitutional state accompanying a particular disease — e.g., can- 
 cerous C., gouty C., mercurial cachexia. The word is derived from the Greek kakos^ 
 bad, and fiexis, a habit, and signifies simply a had habit of body, without reference to 
 the cause of illness. From Cullen’s having in modern times given extensive circula- 
 tion to the word, as indicating a large group of chronic diseases, in most of which there 
 are complicated changes in the blood and in the solid textures, C. has come to be chiefiy 
 employed with reference to diseases in which the general nutrition of the body is at 
 fault, and in which the local disorders are supposed to be the result of a constitutional 
 cause. Thus, cancerous C. indicates the peculiar impoverished state of the blood and 
 general debility which are associated with the deposits of cancer in various parts of the 
 body; gouty C., the state of the general system in gout, as opposed to the mere local 
 attack of gout in the foot, etc. The cachexiae differ from the fevers in being much 
 slower in development, and, for the most part, in having no natural termination at a 
 fixed period. See Crisis. 
 
 CACHICAMA, or Tatou-peba, Dasypus novem-dnctus, an armadillo in tropical 
 America, covered with horny plates. It is about \\ ft. long, harmless, and easily tamed. 
 Its food is ants and other insects. 
 
 CACHOE'IRA, or Caxoeira, a t. in Brazil, in the province of Bahia, and 62 m. 
 n.w. of the city of Bahia; pop. 15,000. It has a town-house, a prison, a Carmelite 
 convent, and several churches. Its trade is in tobacco, coffee, and sugar. 
 
 CA'CHOLONd, a beautiful mineral, regarded as a variety of opal (q.v.). It is some- 
 times called pearl opal, or mother-of-pearl opal. It is generally of a milk-white color, 
 rarely with a yellowish or reddish tinge, opaque and dull or pearly and shining, and has 
 a flat conchoidal fracture. Among the localities in which C. is found are the Giants’ 
 Causeway and the Faroe islands. 
 
 CACHOLOT, CACHALOT, SPERMACETI WHALE, or Sperm Whale, Physeter macro- 
 cephalus or catodon macrocephalus, one of the largest of the cetacea (q.v.), very peculiar in 
 form and appearance, much sought after not only on account of the oil, but still more 
 on account of the spermaceti (q.v.) which it yields. Ambergris (q.v.) is also obtained 
 from it. The C. belongs to the family of cetacea called physeteridm, or catodontidce, of 
 which some naturalists still think that there is only one well-ascertained species. There 
 appears, however, to be pretty good reason for thinking that at least two species exist, 
 both of which are occasional visitants of the British shores — the common C. , having no 
 dorsal fin, and the high-finned C. {physeter tursio) having a very high dorsal fin. The 
 common C. has a very wide geographical range. It may almost be said to inhabit all 
 seas, although'it is most abundant in those of the southern hemisphere. It is not of 
 frequent occurrence on the European shores, although it sometimes enters the Mediter- 
 ranean, and is occasionally stranded on the coasts of Britain. An individual, 54 ft. 
 long and 30 in circumference, ran ashore on Cramond island, in the firth of Forth, in 
 1769, and was very particularly described in the Philosophical Transactions by Mr. 
 Robertson of Edinburgh. Twelve were caught at Walderwich, on the Suffolk coast, in 
 1788. The C. sometimes reaches the length of 70 or 8t) feet. The head is enormously 
 large, forming about one half of the entire bulk of the animal, and occupying more 
 than one third of the entire length. From the head, the body tapers to the tail, and at 
 last rather rapidly. The general color is very dark gray, nearly black on the upper 
 parts, lighter beneath. Old males, or, in the language of the South Sea whalers, old 
 bull- whales, usually have a large gray spot on the front of the head. The muzzle is very 
 obtuse, almost as if suddenly cut off in front, the breadth of it almost equaling the 
 thickness of the body. In a protuberance on the upper part of it, is the blow-hole, 
 which is single, situated a little on the left side, and in form not unlike the letter S elon- 
 gated. The mouth is very large and wude; and the throat, unlike that of the Green- 
 land whale, is very wide, suABciently so to admit the body of a man. The upper jaw 
 projects some feet beyond the lower, and is destitute both of teeth and whalebone ; the 
 lower javv has from 20 to 25 teeth on each side, according to the age of the animal. 
 The teeth are conical and slightly recurved, projecting about 2 in. from the gum. The 
 lower jaw is extremely narrow, the two branches being in contact throughout the greater 
 part of its length: it fits into a groove in the upper, in which are cavities for the teeth. 
 The eyes are small, and placed far back in the head, above the angles of the mouth; 
 the left eye is said to be smaller than the right. Just above the eyes, the dorsal line 
 rises considerably; the dorsal fin is also represented by a protuberance about half-way 
 between the neck and the* tail ; and these parts are seen above water in the ordinaiy 
 swimming of the animal, which is at the rate of from 3 to 7 m. an hour, and just under 
 the surface of the water, although when alarmed it swims with greater velocity, strik- 
 
259 
 
 Cache. 
 
 Cacteao. 
 
 iDg the water upward and downward with its tail with great force. The pectoral fins 
 I are small, and seem scarcely if at all to aid in progression, which is accomplished bv 
 ! the large and powerful tail-fin. The tail-fin is very broad, and is divided into two 
 Jobes, called by South Sea whalers the flukes. 
 
 The enormous head of the C. is in great part occupied by a cavity in front of and 
 j above the skull, called by whalers the case, which is a receptacle for spermaceti (q v ) 
 
 I lliis substance being light, it is not wonderful that the animal in swimming raises its 
 head above the surface of the water, which it also often does even when at rest “ like a 
 black rock in the ocean.” The case frequently holds as much as ten large barrels of 
 i ^P^r^^ceti. It is not formed of bone, but of a strong tendinous integument, and is 
 •divided into compartments communicating with each other. The substance which it 
 contains is in a semi-fiuid state, but hardens on cooling: it consists of spermaceti and 
 oil; tlie oil IS separated by draining and squeezing, and the spermaceti further purified 
 till, instead of being a yellow unctuous mass, in which state it is brought home by the 
 whalers, it assumes a beautiful pearly white, fiaky, almost crystalline appearance When 
 the spermaceti whale is killed, and towed alongside the whaling-ship, the case is emptied 
 ot Its valuable contents through a hole made in front of the muzzle, and by means of a 
 bucket attached to a pole.^ The spermaceti was at one time imagined to be the brain of 
 the whale; what purpose it serves in the animal economy, is not well known except 
 thatalready alludedtoof giving buoyancy to the forepart of the huge body and per- 
 haps this IS its chief use, respiration even more than progression depending on it • but 
 It IS distinct enough from the brain, which is comparatively very small, and is indeed 
 as well as the skull which contains it, small in proportion to the whole bulk of the 
 creature. Cavities filled with spermaceti are distributed over the body, and even 
 1 T external fat or blubber, although the principal mass is in the head 
 
 Ihe blubber of the C. is npt nearly equal in thickness to that of the Greenland whale 
 , being only about 14 in. thick on the breast of a large whale, and from 8 to 11 in on 
 /Other parts of the body. It is called by whalers the blanket, is removed from the body 
 of the captured whale in great strips, and is heated in large pots, the skin of the whale 
 I seeing for fuel, when the oil known as sperm oil (q.v.) fl^ows from it. The junk a 
 thick elastic mass, which occupies the forepart of the head, immediately under the erne 
 |yieids also a considerable quantity of sperm oil. 
 
 The C. feeds upon fishes and cephalopodous mollusks. Squids and cuttle-fishes 
 appear to be its chief food. It is gregarious in its habits, and the herds are called 
 ^hools by w^halers. Five hundred or more have been seen in a single herd Lare:e 
 herds generally consist of females, with only a few males; herds of young males also 
 occur; when solitary individuals are met with, they are almost always old males. Ter- 
 rible conflicts often take place among the males, and it is not unusual to find the lower 
 gw deformed in consequence of having been dislocated or broken in them See 
 W HALE-FISHERY. 
 
 CACIQUE', or Cazique', the designation given to the chiefs of Indian tribes in works 
 relating to the central and southern parts of America. The word was derived by the 
 Spaniards from the language of the former inhabitants of St. Domingo. 
 
 CACOD.S)'MON. See Demon. 
 
 CA CODYLE, or Ka'kodyle, is an organic substance containing carbon, hydrogen 
 and arsenic (C4H6AS). It has been proposed to employ the oxide of C. (C4H6AsO) as a 
 leadly agent in war. This compound, otherwise known as Cadet's fuminq liquor or 
 ilkar^ne, has the remarkable property of taking fire spontaneously when exposed to the 
 iir, and evolving abundant fumes of arsenic. Thus, a shell filled with it would on 
 lurstmg saturate a space of ground, or the rigging or deck of a man-of-war, with a 
 iquid which would quickly take fire of its own accord, and besides causing destruction 
 )y burning, would likewise spread death by its fumes. 
 
 CACON'GO, or Mallem'ba, an independent state of s. Guinea, Africa, extending 
 .long the s. Atlantic ocean, in lat. 5° s., and stretching s.e. as far as the river Bell. Its 
 imits interiorly are not well defined. The country is generally flat, and the soil fertile, 
 he principal towns are Kmguele, and Cacongo and Mallemba on the coast, the last 
 nee a great mart for slaves. 
 
 Cacta'ce^, a natural order of exogenous plants, consisting of succu- 
 ^nt shrubs of very pngular appearance. Linnaeus included all the C. in the single 
 enus cactus, which is now divided into a number of genera; the name cactus, however 
 till continuing in popular use, common to the whole order. Nearly 500 species are 
 number is probably much greater. The C. are, without exception, 
 atives of America, and their extraordinary forms constitute a remarkable feature in the 
 ® warmer regions. All of them have fleshy stems, either simple or 
 
 ^®ast when old, having an easily 
 f annual rings, and covered with a layer of inner 
 
 I part may be regarded only as a layer of bark. Most of 
 
 V alone have true leaves, which are fleshy; and the opunticB 
 
 which soon fall off; but, instead of leaves, most of the order 
 ave clusters of hairs or prickles, where buds are formed in their stems, and these are 
 
Cactus. 
 
 Cadre. 
 
 260 
 
 very numerous, even in the species which in ordinary circumstances most rarely develop- 
 branches. The multiplicity of curious forms exceeds imagination; in many species 
 (melocactidoB,or melon thistles), the stem swells out into a globe; in others {torch thistles), 
 rises up as a column with many angles; in others {opuntioe, Indian figs, or prickly pears), 
 it divides in leaf-like articulations; in some {pereskice) it assumes a tree-like form, in. 
 which the thick stem bears a head of branches, and reaches a considerable height, some- 
 times even 30 or 40 feet. Those which have angular, ribbed, and channeled, or flat and 
 two-edged stems, show a tendency to the cylindrical form as the stem advances in age. 
 Some species have long creeping or trailing stems. The whole organization of the C. 
 adapts them for the endurance of long droughts ; they vegetate vigorously during a part 
 of the year, and then rest; the very absence of leaves concurring with the absence of 
 pores ov.stomata in their tough skin to enable them to resist the action of a dry atmos- 
 phere and powerful sunshine, and to occupy arid soils and bare rocks, on which they 
 are very generally found, often covering large tracts. Some of them grow rapidly on 
 old lavas, and disintegrate them by their penetrating roots, thus preparing a soil for 
 other plants; and the prickly pear is often planted in Sicily by the mere insertion of a 
 branch or joint of it in a fissure of lava. Many species occur as epiphytes (q.v.) on the 
 trees of American forests. Some also grow on high mountains, a few even reaching 
 almost to the border of the snow. Th^e plants of this order are a great boon to the 
 regions in which they chiefly abound, which are, at least during great part of the year, 
 very destitute of water; their stems containing a store of insipid and wholesome juice, 
 of which both men and cattle avail themselves. — Some species, as the prickly pear 
 (q.v.), produce a pleasant fruit. — The fruit of opuntia tuna affords a valuable pigment 
 of the richest carmine color. 
 
 The flowers of the C. are in general very short-lived; those of some night-flowering^ 
 species, as of cereus grandijiorus, well known in our hothouses, endure only for part of 
 a single night. In the greater number, they are large and splendidly colored, in some 
 they are very fragrant. The order is regarded as botanically allied to mesemhryaceoB- 
 (q.v.) and to grossulariaceoe (q.v., gooseberry, currant, etc.). 
 
 The cultivation of the C. in green houses and hothouses has been much in fashion 
 for more than 30 years. The gardener must imitate the natural conditions of their 
 growth, by giving water freely during a few months, and withholding it almost entirely 
 during the rest of the year. Most of them are easily propagated by branches, taken off, 
 and allowed to dry a fittle before being planted. The melocactidoe, which do not readily 
 produce branches, are made to do so by cutting off or burning out the central bud, that 
 the means of propagating them may be obtained. 
 
 CACTUS. See Cacte^, ante. 
 
 CACUS, in legend, a gigantic son of Vulcan, who dwelt in a cave on mount 
 Aventine and continually vomited fire and smoke. He stole cattle from the people and 
 drew them backward into his cave, so that their tracks would not point to his abode 
 He was slain by Hercules for stealing the cattle of Geryon. 
 
 CADAM'BA, or Kudumba, the wood of several species of nauclea, a genus of trees 
 of the natural order cinchonaceae, natives of the East Indies, having flowers with a fun- 
 nel-shaped corolla. N. cadamha is a noble tree, with orange-colored fragrant flowers, 
 collected in heads about the size of a small apple. The leaves are from 6 to 10 in, 
 long. The wood is yellow, soft, and fine-grained. The tree is highly prized for the 
 shade which it affords; the wood is used for various purposes. N. cordifoUa is a large- 
 tree, plentiful in mountainous districts of Hindustan ; the wood yellow, close-grained, 
 and used for flooring-planks, packing-boxes, and many other purposes, as is also that of 
 N. parvijlora. All kinds of C. wood are, however, liable to be injured by moisture, and 
 can only be used where they are to be kept dry. 
 
 CAD A MOSTO, Luigi da, a Venetian navigator of the 15th c., who, with others, irt 
 1455, explored the w. coast of Africa as far south as the river Gambia. He wrote an ac- 
 count of his voyages in the Book of the First Voyage over the Ocean to the Land of Negroes^ 
 in Lower Ethiopia. 
 
 CADASTRAL SURVEY is one which represents objects in their true relative posi- 
 tions and dimensions, as they exist on the face of the country, differing thus from a 
 topographical survey, which, for distinctness, enlarges certain objects, as the dimensions 
 of houses, width of roads, streams, etc. The usual scale of a map of C. S. is about 2 ft. 
 to a mile. 
 
 CAD'DICE, or Cad'dice-Fly {phryganen), a Linnsen genus of insects of the order neu~ 
 roptera, a family in subsequent entomological systems, and constituted by Mr. Kirby 
 into a distinct order, trichoptera (Gr. hairy-winged). The caddice-flies certainly differ in 
 important particulars from the other neuropterous insects, and exhibit points of resem- 
 blance to .the lepidoptera. They have no mandibles, and the maxillae and lower lip ar& 
 membranous and united ; the head is small, with prominent eyes, and two additional 
 email simple eyes situated on the forehead; the antennae are long and bristle-like, com- 
 posed of very numerous indistinct joints. Both wings and body are generally very 
 hairy, and the wings, when at rest, are raised, and meet above the back like those of 
 butterflies, from which, however, they differ very much in form, being much more 
 
261 
 
 Cactus. 
 
 Cadelle. 
 
 elongate: the legs are long. Caddice-flies are extremely active, particularly in the even- 
 ing and at night, when the smaller species often fly in great numbers above streams and 
 ponds. These insects are most interesting, however, on account of their larvse, of which 
 the larger kinds are the well-kno^yn caddice- worms, or cad-hait of anglers. They are of 
 a long, almost cylindrical form, the head and first three segments hard, the remainder 
 —the abdoniinal segments— soft. To the thoracic segments are attached the feet, six in 
 number, as in the perfect insect. The larva lives alwaj'S in water, feeding on aquatic 
 vegetables. It spins by its mouth silken threads, by means of which, together with a 
 viscid substance, it attaches together — and often in a very symmetrical manner and 
 with interesting peculiarities which differ in the different species— small hard substances, 
 such as small stones, bits of stick, or small shells, even although they happen to contain 
 living inmates, and thus constructs a case for itself, in which its soft body is protected, 
 and from which only the head and hard thoracic segments are voluntarily protruded’ 
 When it changes into the pupa state, in which it differs little from the perfect insect’ 
 except in the imperfectly developed wings, it fixes its case to some solid substance 
 beneath the water, and closes the two extremities with a kind of grating, which admits 
 the free passage of water, necessary for respiration. Before assuming the perfect form 
 the pupa of the larger species breaks out of its case by means of a pair of hooks on the 
 forepart of the head, and swims actively by means of the hind legs, or crawls by the 
 other two pair. Many of the smaller species bring their pupa case to ’the surface of the 
 water, and there take wing from it as from a boat. The species of caddice -fly are very 
 numerous, and they are said to be more so in the n. than in the s. of Europe About 
 200 British species have been described.— The angler looks for cad-bait about the edo-es 
 of streams and under stones, or on the stalks of water-cresses, and other aquatic plants. 
 As a bait for angling, the caddice is almost as deadly as the May-fly, and more so, in 
 clear running streams, than the ordinary worm; the usual-sized bait-hook is used, upon 
 ^sl baits are fixed, the angler proceeding exactly as in ordinary worm- 
 
 ^o^isiana, bordering on Arkansas and Texas; 1200 sq.m.; 
 pop. ^b,d05— 19,d83 colored. Productions, corn, cotton, sweet potatoes, etc. The 
 
 lexas Pacific railroad passes through the parish. Principal town, Shreveport. 
 
 1 1 Cadodaquios, Indians in or near Texas on the upper Red river and 
 
 Jake Caddo. There are but a few hundreds left of a once large tribe. 
 
 CADE, Jack a historical character, leader of an insurrection which broke out in 
 Kent, June, 14o0. Little is known of his personal history, further than that he was an 
 Rishman, and an ille^timate relation of the duke of York, and hence called himself 
 Mortimer. With 15,000 or 20,000 armed men of Kent, C. marched on London, and 
 encamped at Blackheath, whence he kept up a correspondence with the citizens, many 
 of whom were favorable to his enterprise. The court sent to inquire why the good men 
 f left their homes; C., in a paper entitled “ The Complaint of the Commons 
 
 ot Kent, replied that the people were robbed of their goods for the king’s use; that 
 mean and corrupt persons, who plundered and oppressed the commons, filled the hidi 
 offices at court; that it was “noised that the king’s lands in France had been aliened;” 
 that mis^overnment had banished justice and prosperity from the land; and that the 
 especially ill-treated and overtaxed, and that the free election of 
 shire had been hindered. In another paper, called “The Requests by 
 the Captain of the Great Assembly in Kent,” C. demanded that the king should resume 
 the grants of the crown, which he complained the creatures about the royal person fat- 
 V' compelled to live on taxation; that the false progeny of 
 
 the duke of Suffolk should be dismissed; and that the duke of York and others should 
 be restored to favor, and a number of persons punished. The court sent its answer in 
 the torin of an army, before which C. retreated to Sevenoaks, where he awaited the 
 attack of a detachment, which he defeated. The royal army now objected to fight 
 
 court made some concessions, and C. entered London on 
 me dd July, tor two days, he maintained the strictest order; but he forced the mayor 
 judgment upon lord Say, one of the king’s hated favorites, whose 
 
 houses Were 
 
 h!« leader himself, it is said, setting the example. C., who at night lodged 
 
 flip borough, got news that the citizens intended to prevent his entrance into 
 
 dffeS A attack on the bridge, but was 
 
 A pardon now sowed dissension among his followers, who dis- 
 
 bnfwl’/f upon C.’s head. He attempted to reach the Sussex coast, 
 
 Tnfv Ti esquire, named Alexander Iden, who fought and killed him, 
 
 July 11. His head was stuck upon London bridge, as a terror to traitors. 
 
 'mauritanica or carahoides, an insect sometimes found in grana- 
 F?Lpp f but seemingly imported from more southerly countries, where, as in 
 brpad nimp ^ commit great ravages among stored corn. They also live on 
 
 ton^ flnl^^np^ rc«cn wood. When full grown, they are about f of an in. 
 
 rough with scattered hairs, whitish, tapering towards the head; 
 horny, and furnished with two curved jaws. The perfect insect is a 
 
 n-jpQQv Kppfip VY 11,11 twu ^.Uiveu jaws, ine periect insect is a 
 
 glossy beetle of a deep chestnut color, marked with dotted lines. It belongs to the 
 
Cadence. 
 
 Cadets. 
 
 262 
 
 family of xylophagi, of the order of coleoptera (q.v.), section tetramera. The name C. is 
 French. 
 
 CA'DENCE, in music, is the finish of a phrase (in German, schluszfaU), of which there 
 are three principal species — viz. , the whole, the half, and the interrupted cadence. The 
 whole C., which finishes on the harmony of the tonic, is also called the perfect C., and 
 is always used at the end of a composition, and frequently called the final cadence. In 
 its most perfect use, it consists of three chords — the one before the final being always 
 the dominant, as for, example: 
 
 The half C., also called the imperfect C., is used to mark the termination of an idea 
 or phrase, like the colon and semicolon; showing a considerable division, but at the 
 same time that a continuation is necessary. The harmony of the half C. is the reverse 
 of the whole C., as it falls from the tonic to the dominant, and sometimes to the sub- 
 dominant as follows: 
 
 
 In the interrupted C. (Ger. trugsclilusz; Ital. cadenza dHnganno), the preparation for the 
 ordinary perfect C. is made; but instead of the harmony of the tonic following the 
 dominant, another harmony quite strange is introduced, so that the ear is deceived. 
 The more particular the preparation for the usual C. is made, the more strange and 
 unexpected is the interruption, which can be made in so many ways that Reicha, in 
 his Traite de Haute Composition Musicale, gives 129 interrupted cadences. The following 
 are those generally in use : 
 
 CADENCY (from Lat. cado, to fall or decline). The marks by which the shields of 
 the younger members of families are distinguished from those of the elder, and from 
 each other, is an extensive, and, in so far as that term can be applied to heraldry at 
 all, an important branch of the science. No distinction is usually made by writers on 
 heraldry, and probably the practice of heralds in general scarcely admits of any being 
 made, between marks of G . , differences, distinctions, or even brisures, though the last term 
 is pretty constantly and quite appropriately used to include not only differences in 
 general, but also abatements (q.v.) or bearings by which the arms of the family are 
 broken or diminished. See Bastard Bar. But there is a manifest convenience in the 
 practice which is usually followed in Scotland, of appropriating the label, the crescent, 
 the mullet, and the rest of the series of marks, commonly known as marks of C., to 
 the purpose of distinguishing the sons from the father, and from each other, during 
 the father’s life-time ; and of adopting other distinctions — such as the bordeur of various 
 kinds, the chief engrailed, embattled, and the like, as differences between the coats of 
 brothers, after the death of their father, and of the houses descended from them. 
 Another very common mode of differencing the shields of brothers in early times, was 
 by changing the tinctures; but this is now regarded as too extensive a change for 
 such a purpose. 
 
 The differences at present used by the royal family will be found in most of the 
 peerages. The rule with regard to them seems to be that, unlike subjects, they all 
 bear the label of three points argent; but the label of the prince of Wales is plain, 
 whilst those of the other princes and princesses are charged with crosses, fleurs-de-lis, 
 hearts, or other figures, for the sake of distinction. One of the most frequent reasons 
 for matriculating the arms of the younger branches of families of distinction in the 
 lord Lyon’s register, is that they may be properly distinguished from those borne by the 
 head of the house. 
 
263 
 
 Cadence* 
 
 Cadets. 
 
 per wf a?the\“nSg“of" a ^ «*« 
 
 Cthfw^ Wris a reputed giant), a picturesque mountain in Merion- 
 
 in 1 ’ ^ ■ i -i^' I^olgelly. It consists of an immense ridge of broken nrec 
 
 feef 'lUs"J;omno^^^^ the highest peak reaching a/elevation of 2914 
 
 mimiVp I Porpliyiy, and other trap rocks, with beds of slag and 
 
 summit, which is very extensive, includes the Wrekin in 
 Shropshire, and St. George’s channel almost to the Irish coast. vvreKin in 
 
 CADET {ante). All students at the United States military academy and navol nrnd 
 emy have this title; and there are also medical cadets recogniLd as a d‘istinct rani 
 
 CADET, Military (Fr. cadet, younger, junior in service— allied in derivation and 
 meaning to cadency (q.v.) in heraldry), is a term applied in a general sense to a iuninr 
 hln^rTn^^ a noble family as distinguished from the eldest; and in France any officer 
 
 authority in India, there were about 5000 English offi^rs in their 
 pay. Those who commanded the company’s own regiments had been nmfooo* n 
 educated by the company. A youth, nominated by Jh! Xfctors ^ 
 
 Ind^’lS English education, and admitted between The ages of 14 
 
 and 18 to Addiscombe school or college, near Croydon If a orobatinn nf 4 i 
 
 replted satisfactorily, he entered upon a two years’ course of studv^ If Hp rtao u 
 
 "a" ’I”" «■' •( ofci I si 
 
 The second aspect of military cadetship in England adverted to abnvp ti,of 
 
 sSiSSslISiBaa 
 
 
 remodebna of^the^n^inA designation was established in 1858 by a 
 
 ^ department of the royal military college at Sandhnrsit ‘ Ttc 
 
 r»;5£ ,i;r" 
 
 Edging varie^d from £100^n payment for education, board, and 
 
 St^’Tolfs If officers “ w“S f ”f V' 'tiryoufts we^" qSeS 
 
 service, and had lefXirT^^ilt^r^^^^^^^^^^ 
 
Cadets. 
 
 Ceecilius. 
 
 264 
 
 admitted and educated gratuitously. This system was abolished in 1870. Sub-lieu- 
 tenants of cavalry and infantry, styled “student officers,” who have done duty with a 
 regiment for about 12 months, are now required to attend the college at Sandhurst, and 
 go through a course of study for a year. At the end of it, on passing a satisfactory 
 examination, they are promoted to the rank of lieutenant, and rejoin their regiments. 
 See also Military Academy, Royal. 
 
 CADET’S FUMING LIQUOE. See Cacodyle. 
 
 CA'DI, an Arabic word signifying a judge or person learned in the law, the title of 
 an inferior judge amongst the Mohammedan nations, who, like the Mollah (q.v.), or 
 superior judge, must be chosen from the higher ranks of the priesthood, as all law is 
 founded upon the Koran. 
 
 CADILLAC, Antoine de la Mothe, d. 1719; a French pioneer and officer in 
 America, who came to Nova Scotia in 1691 ; commanded at Michilimackinac, 1691-97, 
 and in 1701 founded Detroit. He was governor of Louisiana, 1712-17, where he had 
 much trouble with the Indians. 
 
 CADIZ, a province in s. Spain, in the ancient division of Andalusia; bounded n. 
 by Seville, e. by the Mediterranean, s. by the straits of Gibraltar, and w. by the Guadal- 
 quivir; 2806 sq.m.; pop. ’70, 426,499. It is a mountainous region, traversed by the 
 Sierra Nevada, and but partially cultivated. The wines of the province are especially 
 fine. The western part is traversed by the Seville and Cadiz railroad. 
 
 CADIZ (ancient Oades), an important commercial city of Spain, capital of the modem 
 province of the same name, which forms a part of the great division of Andalusia; is 
 situated at the extremity of the long narrow isthmus of the isle of Leon, in lat. 36° 32' 
 n., and long. 6° 17' west. The Atlantic ocean washes its western and part of its south- 
 ern side, and on the n. and n.e. it is inclosed by the bay of Cadiz, a deep inlet of the 
 Atlantic, forming an outer and an inner bay. Connected by only a narrow strip of 
 ground (in some places not above 200 yds. across) with the mainland, C. is admirably 
 situated for defense; but though it has several sea and land fortifications, these are by 
 no means considered impregnable. The town, which is surrounded by walls, forms 
 nearly a square, each side being about a mile and a half in length. The houses being 
 built of white stone, the city presents a remarkably bright and clean appearance from 
 the sea. The streets are well paved and lighted, regular, but narrow, and there are 
 some pleasant public walks, the most frequented of which is the Alameda. It has few 
 public buildings of note ; its two cathedrals are, on the whole, but poor specimens of 
 ecclesiastical architecture, and its pictures, with the exception of one or two excellent 
 pieces by Murillo, are of little value. C. declined greatly as a commercial city after the 
 emancipation of the Spanish colonies in South America; but owing partly to the recent 
 extension of the railway system in Spain, and partly to the establishment of some new 
 lines of steamers, the trade has, within the last thirty years, revived considerably. Quite 
 lately again there has been serious depression. In 1873, the total imports of C. were 
 valued at £2,100,729; in 1876, at £1,908,166; in 1873, the exports were worth £3,941,095; 
 and in 1876, only £1,908,166. The number of Spanish ships which entered C. in 1874 
 was 2677, with a tonnage of 315,333; of foreign ships, 962 — tonnage, 300,730. The 
 exports consist of wine, olive-oil, fruits, salt, and metals. The manufactures are glass, 
 woolen cloth, soap, hats, leather, etc. Pop. ’79, 68,000. 
 
 C. is one of the most ancient towns in Europe, having been built by the Phenicians, 
 under the name of Gaddir, 347 years before the foundation of Rome, or about 1100 b.c. 
 It afterwards passed into the hands of the Carthaginians, from whom it was captured 
 by the Romans, who named it Gades, and under them it soon became a city of vast 
 wealth and importance. Occupied aRerwards by the Goths and Moors, it was taken by 
 the Spaniards in 1262. In 1587, Drake destroyed the Spanish fleet in the bay; nine 
 years later, it was pillaged and burned by lord Essex; and in 1625 and 1702, it was unsuc- 
 cessfully attacked by other English forces. After the revolution of 1808, C. became the 
 headquarters of the insurrectionary junta, by whose orders it was separated from the 
 mainland. The French, in Feb. . 1810, commenced a blockade, which they vigorously per- 
 severed in, capturing several of the forts, until Aug. 25, 1812, when the victories of the 
 duke of Wellington forced them to abandon it. The city was besieged and taken by 
 the French in 1823, and held by them until 1828. In the Spanish revolution of 1868, C. 
 played a distinguished part. 
 
 CADMIA is the term applied to the crust formed in zinc furnaces, and which contains 
 from 10 to 20 per cent of cadmium. 
 
 CADMIUM is a metal which occurs in zinc ores, and, being more volatile than zinc, 
 rises in vapor, and distils over with the first portions of the metal. See Zinc. C. is 
 represented by the symbol Cd, has the atomic weight 56 — new system, 112 — and the 
 specific gravity 8.6. It is a white metal, somewhat resembling tin; is malleable and 
 ductile; fuses at 442° F., and rises in vapor a little above 600°. It is rarely prepared 
 pure, and is not employed in the arts as a metal, though one or more of its salts have 
 been serviceable in medicine. The sulphide of C., CdS, occurs naturally as the mineral 
 greerijockite, and when prepared artificially, is of a bright yellow color. It is known as 
 cadmium yellow, and is of great value to the artist. A great variety of tints are pro- 
 
265 
 
 Cadets. 
 
 Caeciliug. 
 
 ^ced by mixing it with white-lead. Much of what is sold as Nanles vellow ^ ia 
 able qualities, which are causing it rapidly to supersede Naples yellow’ ^ ^ 
 
 Phenicia, and the discovery of brass, or introduction of its use WPt or 
 
 ove^^th^peTsVn^t^ CaptS 1^1791^116 was"" sent Ts"^a" fro""* 
 
 Pichegru for the overthrow of the first consul WiTh this desilT he^ wPn?“t^^P 
 was arrested, condemned and executed Time irim ^ ^ 
 
 ^nd indomitable resolution ‘‘ PPs iSnd was cast i^the trnf ^ 
 would have done great things.” was N^poS’s estimate of hto 
 
 whiTwafsfp’pt^d"" god^pSo flf^Tre C t Te^ "“I'l 
 
 Sf 
 
 sj'.yr.'ac:''*'*- “ “■• 
 
 ;SFSSKS^tlP S“S“c 
 
 .nSnfoPttir?o?m'iu ?'“«='! ^e''Pents, 
 
 ibserved allying them to batrachials with whilh structure peculiarities were 
 
 act having been ascertained of their breath in o- hv o-iiir ranked the important 
 
 aetamorpLsis The bodfis almlll "^tSad t"alf Z " 
 
 Mmsmmmmi 
 
Oeecum. 
 
 Oaermarthenshlre* 
 
 266 
 
 C^'CUM (Lat. mens, blind), a blind sac; that is, a sac or bag having only one open- 
 ing, connected with the intestine of an animal. In man there is only one C., very small, 
 and apparently not performing any important function, situated at the extremity of the 
 small intestine, where it terminates in the large intestine or colon. In many of the 
 mammalia, however, and particularly in most of those which are herbivorous, it is com- 
 paratively large, and is found to secrete an acid fluid resembling the gastric juice. It 
 therefore appears that, where the nature of the assimilatory process is such as to require 
 the detention of the food for a considerable time, this provision is made for it, in order 
 that digestion may be more completely accomplished. The C. is entirely wanting in 
 some quadrupeds, as in bats, and the bear and weasel families. Birds have two caeca, 
 which are generally long and capacious in those that are omnivorous or granivorous, 
 and the position of which is the only circumstance that marks the division of the intes- 
 tine into two parts, the small and the large intestine, or the ileum and the colon. In 
 reptiles, a C. is of very rare occurrence. Fishes have none in the position occupied by 
 those of quadrupeds and birds, but many of them have caeca attached to the intestine at 
 its uppermost part, and very generally regarded as appendages of the stomach. The 
 number of these caeca is, however, extremely various; sometimes there are only 2, and 
 sometimes more than 100. The number is different even in very nearly allied species 
 of the same family; thus, there are only 6 in the smelt, but 70 in the salmon; 24 in the 
 herring, and 80 in the shad. In some Ashes, as the cod, the caeca consists of large trunks 
 ramifled into smaller ones. — The intestinal canal of some of the infusoi'ia is furnished 
 throughout its whole length with numerous caeca, no other organ corresponding to a 
 stomach appearing to exist. 
 
 C.S:DM0N, the flrst Anglo-Saxon writer of note who composed in his own language, 
 and of whom there are any remains. The date of his birth is unknown, but his death 
 occurred about 680 a.d. He was originally a cowherd attached to the monastery of 
 Whitby, and, according to Bede, “even more ignorant than the majority of his fellows, 
 so that in the evenings, when the domestics assembled in the hall to recreate themselves 
 with music after the labors of the day, C. was frequently obliged to retire in order to 
 hide his shame when the harp was moved towards him.” One night, however, as he 
 was sleeping in the stable loft, a stranger appeared to him, and commanded him to sing. 
 C. declared his ignorance, but the stranger would take no refusal, and imposed on the 
 poor cowherd the sublime task of hymning the glories of creation. Suddenly a poetic 
 inspiration seized him, and he began to pour forth verses. When he awoke from his 
 dream the words, remained fast-rooted in his memory, and were recited by him to others 
 with new confldence. The abbess Hilda, and the learned men who were with her in 
 the monastery, immediately declared that he had received the gift of song from heaven. 
 He was now educated, became a monk, and spent the rest of his life in composing poems 
 on the Bible histories and on miscellaneous religious subjects, many of which nave been 
 preserved, and are altogether in bulk nearly equal to the half of Paradise Lost. 
 to parts of which some of them bear a striking resemblance. Satan’s speech in hell is 
 characterized by a simple yet solemn greatness of imagination, which may possibly have 
 influenced at some period of his life the more magnifleent genius of Milton. 
 
 C.ffiLATTT'KA. See Chasing. 
 
 C-^'LIUS AURELIA'NUS, a physician of Numidia in the latter days of the Roman 
 empire, and author of a valuable medical work. He divided disease into two great 
 classes, acute and chronic, devoting his work of ten books to their elucidation. 
 
 C^LIUS MONS, one of the seven hills of Rome. See Rome, ante, 
 
 CAEN, the chief t. in the department of Calvados, France— formerly the capital of 
 lower Normandy — is situated on the left bank of the Orne, about 9 m. from its mouth, 
 122 m. w.n.w. of Paris. C. is built in the middle of a fertile plain ; its streets are wide 
 and clean, it has several flne squares, and many noble specimens of ancient Norman 
 architecture. Among the best examples are the churches of St. Etienne, founded by 
 William the conqueror, and which contained his monument, erected by William Rufus, 
 and destroyed by the Huguenots in 1562; La Trinite, called dXso Ahhaye aux Dames, 
 founded by Matilda, wife of the conqueror; St. Nicholas, nowr a cavalry fodder-store; 
 St. Pierre and St. Jean. The castle, founded by the conqueror, and "finished by Henry 
 I. of England, was partially destroyed in 1793. There are several beautiful promenades 
 in the city, which has manufactures of lace, blonde, crape, cutlery, cotton-yarn; brew- 
 eries, dye-works, wax -bleaching, and ship-building yards. Its Angora gloyes,^ made 
 from the unwashed, undyed fur of Angora rabbits, which are reared in the district, are 
 celebrated. Quarries in the neighborhood produce an excellent stone, called Caen stone 
 (q.v.). Trade is facilitated by a maritime canal connecting the port wuth the sea, and 
 also by the raihvay connecting it with the Paris and Rouen line; those to Cherbourg, 
 Tours, and Honfleur, and that to Flers, opened in 1867, wdiich affords C. communication 
 with Granville. Nothing is known of C. before the 9th century. It was a place of impor- 
 tance in 912, when it came into the possession of the Normans, under whom it increased 
 rapidly. William the conqueror and his queen made it their residence, and greatly 
 improved it. In 1346, it was taken and pillaged by the English, who again captured it 
 in 1417. It was held by them until 1450, when the French compelled them to surrender. 
 
267 
 
 Caecum. 
 
 Caermarthenshlre* 
 
 During the revolution of 1793, several of the Girondist chiefs, proscribed by the Jaco- 
 bins went to C., and organized a revolt against the Mountain, which proved unsuccess- 
 ful. ’ Pop. ’76, 33,072. 
 
 CAEN STONE. The neighborhood of the t. of Caen, in Normandy, has been cele- 
 brated for its stone quarries from a very early period. The excellence of the stone, and 
 the facility of transport by sea, led to C. S. being very extensively used in England 
 in the 15th and 16th centuries. In 1460, the abbot of Westminster obtained a 
 license to import C. S. for the repairs of the monastery. Later, it became a regular 
 article of importation, and in 1582 it is rated at the custom-house at 6s. 8d the ton. 
 Winchester and Canterbury cathedrals, Henry VII. ’s chapel at Westminster, and many 
 country churches, are built of C. S.,which is still frequently used in England. The 
 stone is an oolite, resembling Stonesfield slate, but without its slaty structure. The 
 quarries are subterraneous, and the stone is brought up through vertical shafts in blocks 
 8 or 9 ft. long, and about 2 thick. 
 
 C^RE. See Cervetere, ante. 
 
 CAERLE'ON (Castle of the Legion), a small but ancient t. in Monmouthshire, on the 
 right bank of the Usk, 2 m. n.e. of Newport. It is the Isca Silurum of the Romans, 
 and is supposed to have been the capital of the Roman province Britannia Secunda, now 
 Wales, and the residence of the famous king Arthur. It was the seat of an ancient 
 archbishopric, which was reraoved to St. Davids about 519 a.d. An abbey of Cistercian 
 monks existed here before the reformation. C. was an important place in the 12th c., 
 but it was afterwards ruined by the frequent wars between the Welsh and Anglo- 
 Saxons. Many Roman relics have been found here, as aqueducts, baths, pavements, altars, 
 tiles, coins, inscriptions, and statues; many of the smaller antiquities are deposited in 
 a museum in the town ; besides half-melted ore and cinders, and the remains of a fortress, 
 with walls 12 ft. thick and 1800 yards long, and of an amphitheater, called king Arthur’s 
 round table, 222 by 192 ft. in size. Pop. ’71, 1306. The chief occupation is the manu- 
 facture of tin-plates. 
 
 CAERMAR'THEN (Welsh, Caer Fyrddyn, the Maridunum of Ptolemy), a seaport t., 
 capital of Caermarthenshlre, South Wales, on the right bank of the Towy, 9 m. from 
 Caermarthen bay. It lies in a picturesque situation, but the streets are irregular, steep, 
 and often narrow. The Towy is navigable for vessels of 200 tons up to the town, and 
 salmon and sewin are caught in the river. There are tin and iron works near the town. 
 C. exports tin-plates, cast iron, timber, marble, bark, slates, lead ore, bricks, grain, 
 butter, and eggs. The Welsh language is used in most of the churches. C. is a co. 
 borough, having a separate jurisdiction from the shire. It unites with Llanelly in 
 returning one member to parliament. Pop. ’71, 10,488. There is a college for Welsh 
 teachers. Near C. are the remains of two Roman camps. In the 5th c.. Merlin, the 
 Welsh prophet, is said to have been born here. It was long the residence of the native 
 princes of South Wales. Caermarthen castle often changed hands in the contests of the 
 Welsh chiefs with each other, and in the subsequent wars with the Saxons and Nor- 
 mans. 
 
 CAEBMAR'THENSHIRE, a maritime co. in South Wales, on the Bristol channel; 
 bounded n. by Cardigan, from which it is separated by the Teify; e. by Brecknock; s. 
 by Glamorgan and Caermarthen bay; and w. by Pembroke. It is the largest of the 
 Welsh counties; length, 53 m.; greatest breadth, 33 m. ; area, 974 sq.m., nearly a third 
 of which is waste. The county is mountainous in the n. and e., and is characterized by 
 productive though narrow valleys and deep, wooded glens. Caermarthen Van or Beacon 
 rises to the height of 2596 ft., being the greatest elevation in the county. The coast of 
 C. is marshy, and is all situated on Caermarthen bay, which washes also small portions 
 of the coasts of Glamorgan and Pembroke, is 17 m. across, 10 m. deep, 35 in circuit, and 
 receives the rivers Taff or Tave, Towy, and Lhoughor. The chief rivers of C. are the 
 Towy, Cothy, Taff, and Teify. The Towy has a course of 60 m., of which 50 are in 
 Caermarthenshire. It yields plenty of salmon, sewin, trout, eels, and lamprey, and is 
 navigable for the last 9 m. of its course. On this river is the celebrated vale of the Towy, 
 80 m. long, with an average breadth of 2 miles. C., n. and w. of the Towy, comprising 
 three fourths of the county, consists of lower Silurian clay-slate and grauwacke. In the 
 s.e. corner of the county is a band of carboniferous limestone and grit, to which suc- 
 ceeds a small part of the South Welsh coal-field of Glamorgan and Monmouth, chiefly 
 composed of stone-coal and culm. The mineral productions of the county are iron, coal, 
 copper, lead, slates, lime, dark-blue marble. These, with tinned iron, grain, cattle, 
 horses, sheep, and butter, are exported. The climate of C. is mild, but moist; the soil 
 is stiff and poor in the uplands, affording pasturage for small cattle; but the rest of 
 the county is well wooded, and in the s. part along the rivers very fertile. Oats and 
 barley are the chief crops. The chief towns are Caermarthen (the county town), 
 Llanelly, Llandeilo-vawr, Llandovery, Newcastle-in-Emlyn, and Kidwelly. The chief 
 manufactures are woolens and hides. Pop. ’71, 115,710. C. sends two members to 
 parliament. The county contains so-called Druidical remains and Roman roads, 
 besides many baronial and ecclesiastical ruins. In this county originated the 
 “Rebecca” riots, which in South Wales, in 1843-44, were directed against the turn- 
 pike-gates. 
 
Caernarvon* 
 
 Caesar. 
 
 268 
 
 C^RNAR'VON {Caer-yn-ar-Fon, Fort opposite Mon or Anglesea), a parliamentary and 
 municipal borough and seaport in North Wales, the capital of Caernarvonsliire, situ^ 
 ated near the s. end of the Menai strait, on the right bank of the Seiont, 245 m. n.w. 
 of London. C. has a castle situated at the w. end of the town, the building of which 
 was commenced by Edward I. in 1284. It is one of the noblest ruins in the king- 
 dom, the walls being still entire, and inclosing an oblong of three acres. The walls 
 are 7 to 9 ft. thick, and are pierced by a covered gallery, with loop-holes to discharge 
 arrows. There are thirteen embattled towers, with five, six, or eight sides, and sur- 
 mounted by turrets. The gateway under the great square tower has four portcullises. 
 The town itself was once surrounded by walls and round towers. These walls, with 
 several of the gates, still exist, but are now within the town. The streets are narrow, but 
 regular, and at right angles to each other. In the churches and chapels, the services 
 are in Welsh and English. C. unites with Pwllheli, Nevin, Criccieth, Conway, and 
 Bangor in returning one member to parliament. In 1876, 939 vessels, with a burden of 
 73,275 tons, entered, and 1900 vessels, with a burden of 144,584 tons, cleared the port, 
 chiefly small-craft and steamers to and from Liverpool. The harbor admits of ships of 
 400 tons. The chief exports are copper ore, coal, and slates. There is also a great 
 iron and brass foundry. C. is a bathing place, and is much frequented by tourists, 
 on account of its vicinity to the grandest scenery in North Wales. Many families of the 
 upper ranks reside in and around the town. Pop. ’71, 9449. Half a mile from C. are 
 the remains, covering seven acres, of Segontium, or Caer Seiont, a Roman station or 
 city. Gold, silver, and copper coins and ornaments, and other Roman relics, have been 
 found here. There is a Roman fort on the left bank of the Seiont, still almost com- 
 plete, with walls 11 ft. high, and 6 ft. thick, and with parallel rows of holes 3 in. in 
 diameter. C. was the seat of the native princes of North Wales down to 873. In 1284 
 was born here the first Anglo-Norman prince of Wales, afterwards the unhappy Edward 
 II. In 1294, the town and castle were burned, and the English inhabitants massacred 
 by the Welsh under Madoc, the illegitimate son of Llewelyn, a native prince of Wales. 
 From a rocky height near Uxbridge hotel, there is a fine view of Snowdon and the 
 island of Anglesea. 
 
 CAERNAR VONSHIRE, a rraritimeco. in North Wales, bounded n. by the Irish sea; 
 e. by Denbigh, with the Conway between; s. by Merioneth and Cardigan bay; and w. 
 by Caernarvon bay and the Menai strait, the latter separating it from Anglesea. It is 51 
 m. long; greatest breadth, 22 m. ; average, 9; area, 544 sq.m., of which i is in pasture, 
 and only Ajtli in tillage. The surface is mountainous, and is traversed by the grandest 
 and highest ranges in South Britain, and it is the highest and most mountainous county 
 in North Wales. The Snowdonian or chief range runs through the middle of the great- 
 est length of the county, from s.w. to n.e., and is very bold and rocky. It attains the 
 greatest elevation in Snowdon (q.v.), 3571 ft., in the center of the county, and the high- 
 est mountain in South Britain. Caernarvon bay is 30 m. across, 15 long, with 2 to 30 
 fathoms water, and communicates with the Irish sea through the Menai strait, which is 
 17 m. long, and ^ to 4 m. broad. The rivers of C. are numerous, but small, from the 
 nearness of all parts of the county to the sea. The Conway, navigable for 10 m., which 
 runs along the e. border, is the chief. Almost all the streams flow through small lakes 
 or tarns — of which there are 50 or 60 in the county — around the central or Snowdonian 
 group of mountains. There are many flue cataracts on these streams. The mineral 
 products of C. are copper, lead, zinc, coal, roofing and writing slates, slabs, chimney- 
 piers, honestone. The slate quarries employ many thousands of workmen. The climate 
 is mild in the peninsular part of C., but "severe among the hills. The chief branch of 
 rural industry in C. is the rearing of black cattle for the dairy, and of small sheep. 
 Wheat, oats, barley, and potatoes are raised in the valleys. Pop. ’71, 106,121. The 
 chief towns are Caernarvon (the county town), Bangor, Pwllheli, Conway, Nevin, and 
 Criccieth. In addition to the above boroughs, several flourishing towns have recently 
 sprung into existence in the county — Llandudno, Tremadoc, and Bethesda being the 
 principal. It returns two members to parliament — one for the county, and one for the 
 six chief towns. Connected with C. is the Chester and Holyhead railway, on the great 
 route from London to Dublin, which crosses into Anglesea by the Britannia tubular 
 bridge over the Menai strait. C. contains the remains of British or Celtic camps and 
 hill-forts, especially around Snowdon, several dolmens and stone circles, and some 
 ancient castles. The Snowdonian mountains were long the stronghold of the Welsh 
 against the Romans. Saxons, and Normans in their efforts to subjugate Wales, and here 
 the Welsh were at last defeated in 1283 by Edward I. 
 
 CJESALPI'NIA, a genus of trees of the natural order leguminosm the type of 
 
 the sub-order cmalpiniecB. This sub-order is characterized by irregular flowers, which 
 are not papilionaceous (q.v.), and contains upwards of 700 known species, among which 
 many are notable for their purgative properties, as senna (q.v.); some produce eatable 
 fruits, as the tamarind (q.v.), the carob (q.v.), and the West Indian locust tree (q.v.); 
 some yield resinous and balsamic products, as copaiva (q.v.), aloes-wood (q.v.), etc.; 
 some produce important dye-woods, as logwood (q.v.), Brazil wood (q.v.), camwood 
 (q.v.), etc.; and some are trees of great size, and very valuable for their timber, as the 
 purple-heart (q.v.) and the wallaba (q.v.), trees of Guiana. No species of the sub-order 
 
269 
 
 Caernarvon. 
 
 Ceesar. 
 
 is British, and it generally belongs to warm climates. — The genus C. contains a number 
 of species, trees with pinnate or bipinnate leaves, natives of the warm parts of Asia 
 -and America, which yield the Brazil wood, Pernambuco wood (see Brazil W ood), and 
 sappan wood (q.v.) of commerce, also the astringent pods called dividivi (q.v.), used in 
 tanning. 
 
 C^SALPI'NUS, or CESALPINO, Andreas, 1519-1603; an Italian philosopher of 
 whose family or descendants nothing is known. He first appears as professor of botany 
 in the university of Pisa, where he seems to have studied, and perhaps taught, anatomy 
 and medicine. In his first work. Speculum Artis Mediccs Hippocraticum, he left proof, in 
 a passage often quoted, that he had a clear idea of the circulation of the blood, at least 
 through the lungs. In botany he was more original, and his works are highly philosoph- 
 ical and valuable, being a rich mine from which Linnaeus, Morrison, and others took 
 their ideas of botanical arrangement. He died in Rome in attendance upon pope 
 Clement VIII. 
 
 C.ESAR, the name of a patrician family of the Julia Gens, one of the oldest in the 
 Roman state, claiming to be descended from lulus, the son of uEneas. When or from 
 what cause the surname of C. was first acquired, is in the highest degree uncertain. 
 Spartianus, in his Life of ^lius Verus, mentions four different opinions respecting its 
 origin: 1. That the word signified an elephant in the language of the Moors, and was 
 ^iven as a surname to one of the Julii because he had killed an elephant; 2. That it was 
 given to him because had been cut {ccesus) out of his mother’s womb after her death; 
 3. Because he had been born with a great quantity of hair {ccesaries) ; or, 4. Because he 
 had azure-colored eyes (ccesH). The opinion to which we most incline is the third of 
 these, but who was the original “shock-head” of the gens we cannot say; the first, how- 
 ever, mentioned in history is Sex. Julius Caesar, praetor in 208 b.c. The greatest indi- 
 vidual of the family, and one of the greatest men the world has ever seen, was 
 
 C.ESAR, Caius (or rather Gaius) Julius, son of a Roman praetor of the same name, 
 was b. 12th July, 100 b.c. Two circumstances conspired to determine his sympathies 
 in favor of democracy, and against a republican oligarchy: the first was the marriage of 
 his aunt Julia with Caius Marius; the second, the marriage of C. himself, in 83 b.c., 
 with Cornelia, daughter of L. Cinna, one of the principal enemies of Sulla. The anger 
 of the dictator at this cost C. his rank, property, and almost his life itself. Feeling that 
 he would be safer abroad for a time, he went to Asia, 81 b.c. ; but on learning of the 
 death of Sulla (78 b.c.), he hurried back to Rome, where he found the popular party in 
 a state of great ferment, and anxious to regain what it had lost under the vigorous des- 
 potism of the aristocractic dictator. C., however, took no part in the attempts of Lepi- 
 dus to overthrow the oligarchy, but he showed his political leanings by prosecuting (77 
 B.c.) Cn. Dolabella — a great partisan of Sulla — for extortion in his province of Macedo- 
 nia. To improve his eloquence, he went to Rhodes to study under the rhetor Apollonius 
 Molo. In 74 B.C., he returned to Rome, where he had been elected pontifex, and now 
 for the first time threw himself earnestly into public life. In the year 70 b.c., he attached 
 himself to Pompey, whose political actions at this time were of a decidedly democratic 
 character. In 68 b.c., C. obtained a questorship in Spain. On his return to Rome (67 
 
 B. C.), he married Pompeia, a relative of Pompey, with whom he was daily becoming 
 more intimate. In 66 b.c., he was elected to the curule sedileship, and lavished vast sums 
 of money on games and public buildings, by vdiich he increased his already great pop- 
 ularity. For the next few years, C. is founa steadily skirmishing on the popular side. 
 In 63 B.C., he was elected pontifex maximus, and shortly after, pretor. During the same 
 year occurred the famous debate on the Catiline conspiracy, in which the aristocratic 
 party vainly endeavored to persuade the consul, Cicero, to include C. in the list of con- 
 spirators. In 62 B. c., Pompey returned from the east, and disbanded his army. Next 
 year, C. obtained the province of Hispania Ulterior.. His career in Spain was brilliant 
 and decisive. On his return, he was elected consul, along with M. Calpurnius Bibulus. 
 Shortly before the passing of the agrarian law (59 b.c.), C., with rare tact and sagacity, 
 had reconciled the two most powerful men in Rome, who were then at variance, Pom- 
 pey and Crassus, and had formed an alliance with them, known in history as the 
 First Triumrirate. Both of these distinguished men aided C. in carrying his agrarian 
 law; and to strengthen still further the union which had been formed, C. gave Pompey 
 his daughter, Julia, in marriage, though she had been promised to M. Brutus; while he 
 himself also married Calpurnia, daughter of L. Piso, his successor in the consulship. 
 On the expiry of his term of office, he obtained for himself, by the popular vote, the 
 province of Gallia Gisalpina and lllyricum for five years, to which the senate added — 
 to prevent the popular assembly from doing so — the province of Gallia Transalpina. 
 Nothing could have been more favorable for C.’s aims. He had now an opportunity of 
 developing his extraordinary military genius, and of gathering round him an army of 
 veterans, whom perpetual victory should inspire with thorough soldierly fidelity and 
 devotion to his person. This was the very thing he wanted to give him a reputation 
 equal to that of his coadjutors, Pompey and Crassus, whom, in genius, he far surpassed. 
 Leaving, therefore, the political factions at Rome to exhaust themselves in petty strifes, 
 
 C. , in 58 B.C., after the banishment of Cicero, repaired to his provinces, and during the 
 next nine years conducted those splendid campaigns in Gaul, by which, had he done 
 
Caesar. 
 
 270 
 
 nothing else, he would have “built himself an everlasting name.” C.’s first campaign 
 was against the Helvetii, whom he totally defeated near Bibracte (Autun). Out of 
 368,000 only 110,000 remained. These were commanded by C. to return home and cul- 
 tivate their lands. The eyes of the Gauls were now turned upon the new conqueror. 
 His help was solicited, among others, by Divitiacus, an ,^duan chief. This involved 
 C. in a second war with a German prince, named Ariovistus, who was utterly over- 
 thrown; and now C., having in the course of one campaign successfully concluded two 
 important wars, led his troops into winter quarters. 
 
 Next year (57 b.c.) occurred the Belgic war, in which C. successively routed the 
 Suessionee, Bellovaci, Ambiani, and Nervii, who, alarmed at the progress of the Roman 
 arms, had entered into an alliance with each other against the invaders. When the 
 senate received C.’s official dispatches, it decreed a thanksgiving of 15 days — an honor 
 never previously granted to any other general. During the winter and the spring 
 following, C. stayed at Lucca ; and, after spending large sums of money in hospitality, 
 and in other less praiseworthy purposes, he departed for Gaul, where the flames of war 
 had burst out in the north-west. The Veneti, a maritime people of Brittany, were the 
 chief instigators of the insurrection. C. ’s plans were laid with consummate skill, and 
 were crowned with the most splendid success. The Veneti were totally defeated, and 
 most of the other Gallic tribes were either checked or subdued. C. wintered in the 
 country of the Aulerci and Lexovii (Normandy), having, in the course of three cam- 
 paigns, conquered Gaul. Next year (55 b.c.), Crassus went to Syria, and Pompey te 
 Spain, while C.’s provincial government was prolonged for five years. He now under- 
 took a fourth campaign against two German tribes who were about to enter Gaul. He 
 was again successful ; and pursuing the fleeing enemy across the Rhine, spent 18 days 
 in plundering the district inhabited by the Sigambri. He next invaded Britain, about 
 the autumn ; but after a brief stay in the island, returned to Gaul. The Roman senate, 
 astonished at his hardihood and his successes in regions where no Roman army had ever 
 been before, accorded him a public thanksgiving of 20 days. In 54 b.c., C. opened his 
 fifth campaign by a second invasion of Britain. On his return to Gaul, C. was compelled 
 — on account of the scarcity of corn, arising from drought — to winter his army 
 divisions. This naturally aroused the hopes of the Gauls, who thought the time had 
 come for recovering their independence. An insurrection broke out in the n.e. of Gaul, 
 which was at first partially successful, but was ultimately crushed. C. resolved ta 
 winter at Samarobriva (Amiens), in the vicinity of the malcontents. In 53 b.c., C. com- 
 menced his sixth campaign. It was chiefly occupied in crushing a second insurrection 
 of the Gauls. C. now returned to northern Italy, that he might be able to communicate 
 more easily and securely with his friends at Rome. That cit}-^ was gradually becoming^ 
 more anarchic, the evils of weak government more apparent; the hour for decisive 
 action seemed to be approaching, and doubtless C.’s heart beat with expectation of the 
 mighty future, when all at once the plot that fate was weaving in his favor appeared to 
 be completely marred by a tremendous rebellion over the whole of Gaul, headed by a. 
 young warrior named Vercingetorix. It was in the dead of winter when the news came 
 to C., who instantly saw that, at all hazards, he must preserve his fame and his army. 
 Leaving, therefore, Pompey to succeed at Rome, he hurried to meet the insurgent 
 hordes. His great difficulty was to collect his scattered legions. First crossing, with 
 some cisalpine and provincial troops, the mountains of Auvergne, though they lay 6 ft. 
 deep in snow, he suddenly appeared among the Arverni, who, terrified at his unexpected 
 approach, sent for their chief, Vercingetorix, to come to their assistance. This was 
 what C. wished. After some wonderful exhibitions of military skill and numerous 
 successes, Vercingetorix was shut up in Alesia (Alise in Burgundy) with all his infantry. 
 C. besieged him, and though harassed by nearly 300,000 Gauls without, who attempted, 
 but in vain, to break through the well-defended Roman lines, forced Vercingetorix to 
 capitulate. Many of the tribes now hastened to submit to C., who prudently deter- 
 mined to winter among the vanquished. The senate, of course, voted him another 
 public thanksgiving. Next year (51 b.c.), C. proceeded to quell the tribes who still held 
 out. This he successfully accomplished, and having in addition reduced the whole of 
 Aquitania, passed the winter of his eighth campaign at Nemetocenna, in Belgium, 
 where he spent the time both in a magnanimous and politic manner. The Gallic princes 
 were courteously and generously treated; the common people were spared the impo- 
 sition of further taxes, and everything was done to render it possible for him to visit 
 Italy with safety in the spring. TMs he did, and took up his residence at Ravenna, 
 where he was informed of everything that was going on by the tribune C. Curio. 
 There can be no doubt that at this moment he was the most popular man in the state, 
 while his soldiery were devoted to him with a loyalty as enthusiastic as that which 
 Bonaparte inspired when fresh from his Italian victories. 
 
 Meanwhile, Pompey, whose vanity could not endure the greatness of C., had been 
 gradually veering round again to the aristocracy, whose dread of the new conqueror was 
 hourly increasing. After much futile diplomatic finessing on all sides, the senate 
 carried a motion “that C. should disband his army by a certain day; and that, if he did 
 not do so, he should be regarded as an enemy of the state.” The tribunes, Mark 
 Antony and Q. Cassius, put their veto on this motion ; but they were violently driven 
 out of the senate-chamber, and, fearing for their lives, they fled to C.’s camp. The 
 
271 
 
 Caesar. 
 
 senate, in the madness of their terror, now declared war, and intrusted the conduct of 
 dt to Pompey, whose pride in the invincibility of his military prowess hindered him from 
 taking the necessary measures for the defense of the state. He fancied, that his name 
 w^uld bring thousands to his standard, and he was even led to believe that C. ’s troops 
 were willing to desert their general : the result of which delusion was, that when hostili- 
 ties formally commenced, he had hardly any soldiers except two legions which had 
 recently been in the service of his rival. C., on the other hand, perceiving that the time 
 for decisive action had at length come, harangued his victorious troops, who were willing 
 to follow him anywhere; crossed the Rubicon (a small stream which separated his 
 province from Italy proper), and moved swiftly, amid the acclamations of the people, 
 towards Rome. Pompey tied to Brundusium, pursued by C., but contrived to reach 
 Greece in safety, 17th March, 49 b.c. The Italian cities had everywhere gladly opened 
 their gates to the conqueror as a deliverer. In three months, C. was master of all Italy. 
 
 C. next subdued Pompey’s legates in Spain, who were at the head of considerable 
 forces. On his return, he took Massilia, where he learned that he had been appointed 
 -dictator of the republic — a function which at this time he retained only for 11 days, but 
 these were honorably distinguished by the passing of several humane enactments. 
 Pompey, now thoroughly alive to the magnitude of his danger, had gathered, in Egypt, 
 Greece, and the east, a powerful army, while his fleet swept the sea. C. , however, 
 crossing the Adriatic at an unexpected season, made a rush for Dyrrhachium, where 
 Pompey’s stores were; but was nevertheless outstripped by his opponent. Pompey 
 intrenched his army on some high ground near the city, where he was besieged by 
 Gsesar. The first encounter was favorable to Pompey, who drove back C.’s legions 
 with much loss. The latter now retreated to Thessaly, followed by his exulting 
 enemies. A second battle ensued on the plains of PharSalia, 9th Aug., 48 b.c. 
 Pompey’s army was utterly routed; Pompey himself fled to Egypt, where he was 
 murdered. See Pompey. 
 
 No sooner had the news reached Rome, than C. was again appointed dictator for a 
 year, and consul for five years. He was invested with tribunicial power for life, and 
 with the right of holding all the magistricial comitia except those for the election of the 
 plebeian tribunes. He did not, however, return to Rome after the battle of Pharsalia, 
 hut went to Egypt, then in a distracted condition on account of the disputes regarding 
 the succession. Out of love for Cleopatra (who subsequently bore him a son), he 
 entered upon the “Alexandrine war,” in which he was successful, and v/liich he 
 brought to a close in Mar., 47 b.c. He next overthrew a son of Mithridates, near Cela, in 
 Pontus, Aug. 2 of the same year, and arrived in Rome in September. He was once more 
 appointed dictator, and the property of Pompey was confiscated and sold. Before the 
 nlose of the year, he had set out for Africa, where his campaign against the Pompeian 
 generals, Scipio and Cato, was crowned with victory at the battle of Thapsus, 6th 
 April, 46 B. c. Cato committed suicide at Utica, and with such irresistible celerity was the 
 work of subjugation carried on, that by the end of the summer C. was again in Rome. 
 Now occurred that display of noble and wise generosity which proves C. to have been 
 possessed of a great magnanimous nature. He was not a man that could stoop to the 
 vulgar atrocities of Marius or Sulla, and so he majestically declared that henceforth he 
 had no enemies, and that he would make no difference between Pompeians and Caesa- 
 rians. His victories in Gaul, Egypt, Pontus, and Africa were celebrated by four great 
 triumphs, during which the whole Roman populace was feasted and f^ted by the mag- 
 nificent liberality of the dictator. 
 
 He now proceeded to check, by wholesale enactments, as far as in him lay, the social 
 evils which had long flourished in the city. During the year 46 b.c., also, he conferred 
 a benefit on Rome and on the world by the reformation of the calendar, which had 
 been greatly abused by the pontifical college for political purposes. After quelling an 
 insurrection which now broke out in Spain, where Pompey’s sons, Cneius and Sextus, 
 had collected an army, he received the title of “Father of his Country,” and also of 
 imperator, was made dictator and prcBfectus morum for life, consul for 10 years; his 
 person was declared sacred, and even divine; he obtained a body-guard of knights and 
 senators; his statue was placed in the temples; his portrait was struck on coins ; the 
 month Quintilis was called Julius in his honor; and on all public occasions he was per- 
 mitted to wear the triumphal robe. He now proposed to make a digest of the whole 
 Roman law for public use, to found libraries for the same purpose, to drain the Pon- 
 tine^ marshes, to enlarge the harbor of Ostia, to dig a canal through the isthmus of 
 Corinth, and to quell the inroads of the barbarians on the eastern frontiers ; but in the 
 midst of these vast designs he was cut off by assassination on the ides (15th) of Mar., 
 44 B.c. The details of this crime — the greatest disaster that could have befallen the 
 Roman world, as subsequent events showed — are too familiar to require narration. It 
 is sufficient to say that, of the sixty aristocrats who were in the conspiracy, many had 
 partaken of C.’s generosity, and all of his clemency. A few, like Brutus, out of a 
 weak and formal conscientiousness, based on theory rather than insight, were probably 
 offended by C.’s desire to change the form of government into a hereditary monarchy; 
 but the most, like Cassius, were inspired bj'^ a spleenful hatred of the dictator, and the 
 base ambition of regaining power at all hazards. 
 
 C. , who was 56 years of age when he was murdered, was of a noble and kingly pres- 
 
Caesar. 
 
 Cag^liari. 
 
 272 
 
 ence, tall of stature, and possessing a countenance which, though pale and thin with' 
 thought, was always animated by the light of his black eyes. He was baldheaded (at 
 least in the latter part of his life), wore no beard, and though of a rather delicate con- 
 stitution naturally, he ultimately attained to the most vigorous health. His besetting 
 sin was sensuality; but without meaning to detract from the criminality of his con- 
 duct in this respect, it may be said that it was as much the sin of the times in which 
 he lived as his own, and that the superlative grandeur of his position gave a prominence 
 to his licentiousness which a more humble lot would have escaped. His intellect was 
 marvelously versatile. In everything he excelled. He was not only the first general 
 and statesman of his age, but he was — excepting Cicero — its greatest orator. As a his- 
 torian, he has never been surpassed and rarely equaled in simplicity and vigor of style, 
 and in the truthfulness with which he narrates events of which he was an eye-witness. 
 He was, in addition, a mathematician, philologist, jurist, and architect, and always took 
 great pleasure in literary society. Most of his writings have been lost, though their titles 
 are preserved ; but we still possess his invaluable Commentarii (generally known as 
 “ CtEsar’s Commentaries on the Gallic and Civil Wars ”). The editio 'pi'inceps was printed 
 at Rome 1449. C.’s life was formally written in ancient times by Suetonius and Plu- 
 tarch. There are modern lives by Delorme, Napoleon HI. (1865), and J. A. Froude (1879). 
 
 C^SAR, Sir Julius, 1557-1636; an English statesman, educated at Oxford and 
 the university of Paris ; doctor of civil and canon law. He was master of the rolls, 
 and held other high otfices under Elizabeth and James I. He was noted for a gracious 
 dignity of character, and for wide beneficence to the poor. 
 
 C.ESARE'A (Turris Str atoms), called by the natives “Kaisari'yeh.” This once proud 
 and splendid seaport, perhaps one of Herod’s most magnificent works — a Grecian town 
 with its temples, amphitheater, baths, etc., imported into Syria — was situated on the 
 coast of Syria, 95 m. s. of Beyrout, and 37 m. n. of Jaffa. 
 
 In 65 A.D., Gessius Florus, the worst of all petty tyrants that had afflicted Judea, 
 was appointed governor of Caesarea. About that time, a terrible revolution, which 
 commenced at C., broke out all over Judea. It arose from a dispute between the Syrian 
 and Jewish citizens of C. as to which of them the city really belonged to; and some idea’' 
 may be formed of the extent of the insurrection from the fact that above 20,000 Jewa 
 were massacred in C. in the space of one hour; 13,000 in one night at Scythopolis; 
 50,000 at Alexandria; 8000 at Joppa; and 10,000 at Damascus. 
 
 C. w^as occupied by the crusaders; after them, it seems to have gradually decayed 
 into nothingness. It is now a heap of half-buried rums, with a few miserable stone 
 houses inhabited by fishermen. 
 
 CJESARE'A PHILIP'PI {Panium). This town, mentioned in Matt. xvi. 13, was 
 situated about 20 m. n. of the sea of Galilee. It was distinguished from the Caesarea on 
 the coast of Syria by the appendage of “ Philippi,” given to it in honor of Philip the 
 tetrarch, who repaired the city. It is now a heap of ruins, overgrown with bushes and 
 grass. 
 
 C.S:SABEAN OPERATION (ccedo — ccbsus) has, from very ancient times, been the popu- 
 lar name for hysterotomy {hystera, uterus; tome, section). Pliny distinctly alludes to it 
 in his Natural History (iih. vii. cap. ix.), saying that Caesar was so called from being 
 taken by excision out of the womb of his mother, and that such persons were called 
 Cmones (Caesar a caeso matris utero dictus; quS de causa Ccesones appellati). In his case, 
 the mother must have survived the operation, as Aurelia was alive when her son invaded 
 Britain. 
 
 The pages of a popular work s carcely allow of the details of such a proceeding, but 
 we may state that the first incision is made exactly in the middle line of the body, to the 
 length of 6 or 7 inches. When the uterus is exposed, it must be carefully opened, 
 the child lifted out, and then the after birth. The uterus now contracts, and sinks down 
 into the pelvis, the wound is closed, and opium is given to the patient to allay pain and 
 nervous irritability. 
 
 In Great Britain, the C. O. has been rarely performed, most likely from the skill of 
 the accoucheurs rendering such a proceeding unnecessary ; but still several cases are on 
 record w’here not only the child, but the mother, was saved. Some women, indeed, 
 seem to have accepted it as their usual method of delivery, having several children, each 
 requiring to be removed through an abdominal incision ; one woman submitted to it 
 seven times. It has also been successfully performed in most unfavorable circumstances. 
 In the year 1500, a sow-gelder operated successfully on his own wife; an illiterate Irish 
 midwife, Mary Donally, operated with a razor on a poor farmer’s wife in Jan., 1738, 
 and removed a dead child; her patient completely recovered, so as to be able to walk a 
 mile on foot on the 27th day after the operation. Nay, a negro w^oman in Jamaica cut 
 herself open with a butcher’s knife, removed her infant, and recovered. Practitioners 
 are not quite decided as to the circumstances w^hich justify the performance of this 
 severe operation on the living female, but all agree on the propriety of at once removing 
 by it the child of a recently dead woman. Numa Pompilius decreed that every preg- 
 nant woman who died should be opened; and the senate of Venice, in 1608, decreed 
 that practitioners should perforin, under heavy penalties, the C. O. on pregnant women 
 supposed to be dead. In 1749, the king of Sicily decreed the punishment of death to 
 
273 
 
 Caesau 
 
 Cagliari. 
 
 medical men who omitted to perform it on women dying when advanced in pregnancy. 
 Of course, to be of any use, it must be performed immediately. 
 
 C.ESIUM. See Rubidium. 
 
 C^SU'RA, a pause or division in averse; a separation by the ending of a word, or 
 by a pause in reading, of syllables rythmically connected, as In this line: “ These part- 
 ing num-bers, ca-denced by my grief. ” 
 
 CAF, or Kaf, the mountain, or range of mountains, that in Arabic and Persian fic- 
 tion surrounds the earth. The pivot on wliich the mountain rests is a great emerald 
 from which the sky receives its colors, and the mountain is the dwelling-place of giants 
 and genii. “ From Kaf to Kaf ” signifies from one to the other end of the world. 
 
 CAFFA. See Kaffa. 
 
 CAFFAREL'LI, or GAFFARELLI, Gaetano Majorano, 1703-83; an Italian 
 vocalist who, when a boy, was properly qualified for singing feminine parts, and was 
 deemed the first soprano of the age. He was highly successful for many years, having 
 no rival excepting possibly Farinelli ; and he had success as a composer also. On return- 
 ing to private life he built a palace, over the entrance of which he inscribed: “ Amphion 
 built Thebes; I this house,” alluding to the story that the walls of Thebes rose without 
 hands to the music of Amphion’s lyre. 
 
 CAFFEINE, or TheIne (Ci6Hio04N4,2HO), is the alkaloid or active principle of 
 coffee (q.v.) and tea (q.v.). When isolated, it forms beautiful white crystals, with a 
 silky luster, which are soluble in water, alcohol, and ether. It is present in coffee to 
 the extent of about 1 per cent, and in ordinary or Chinese tea, from to 6 per cent; 
 and is also found in Paraguay and Guiana teas. It may be extracted from coffee or 
 tea by making a decoction in hot water, and adding acetate of lead, which causes a pre- 
 cipitate of caffeotannate of lead. When the latter is acted on by sulphuretted hydrogen, 
 the lead is separated, and the C. left in solution. On evaporation of the liquid, and 
 recrystallization from alcohol, the C. separates in crystals. 
 
 CAF'FER BREAD, a name given to several species of encephala/rtos, trees of the natu- 
 ral order cycadacem (q.v.), which, like many others of that order, have much starch in 
 their stems, and afford food to the natives of South Africa. They are also called bread- 
 *trees. 
 
 CAFFERS. See Kafirs. 
 
 CAFFRA'RIA. See Kaffraria. 
 
 CAFFRISTAN'. See Kafiristan. 
 
 CAGAYAN* SOOLOO', an island of the Asiatic archipelago, in lat. 6® 58' n., and long. 
 118° 28' ease. It is about 20 m. in circumference, well wooded and elevated. — Cagayan 
 is also the name of a province, river, and lake on the island of Luzon, one of the Philip- 
 pines. 
 
 CAGLI, a walled t. in the province of Urbino, Italy, at the confluence of the Can- 
 tiano and Busso, where there is an old Roman bridge over the former river. It is a 
 bishop’s seat, and has several monasteries, in one of which is a famous fresco by Gio- 
 vanni Sanzio, the father of Raphael. Leather manufacturing is the chief business. Pop. 
 10,213. 
 
 CAGL'IARI, a province of Sardinia, occupying the s. part of that island ; 5224 sq.m. ; 
 pop. ’72, 393,208. The district is rough and mountainous, but the cultivation of grain 
 and cattle-breeding are successfully prosecuted. There are mines of silver, lead, and 
 iron. 
 
 CAGL'IARI, the capital of the island of Sardinia, situated on the side of a hill, on the 
 n.e. shore of a spacious bay, and on the s. coast of the island, in lat. 39° 13' n., long. 9° 
 8' east. It has a spacious and safe harbor, defended by several forts, and is the empo- 
 rium of all the trade of the island. The town contains many public buildings and 
 churches, and has a university with 100 students ; but its streets, for the most part, are 
 very narrow, steep, and dirty. C. has a pop. of (1872) 32,834. It has also a dockyard, 
 and a good road was some years ago constructed from C. to Sassari, the second city in 
 the island, and to some of the more considerable places. Steamers ply very frequently 
 between C. and Genoa; and it is now united to the continent of Europe by a line of 
 electric telegraph. 
 
 CAGL'IARI, Paolo, best known as Paolo Veronese, an Italian painter of great emi- 
 nence, was b. at Verona in 1532. He first studied under his uncle, Antonio Badile, a 
 respectable artist, and afterwards settled in Venice, where he rapidly acquired both 
 wealth and reputation. He had for contemporaries both Titian and Tintoretto, and was 
 held in equal admiration with these famous painters. The church of San Sebastiano, in 
 Venice, contains many of his productions, which are reckoned the most important of his 
 earlier period — i.e., the period before he visited Rome, when he first became acquainted 
 with the masterpieces of Raphael and Michael Angelo. The infiuence of the Roman 
 school on his style was so happy, that, on his return, he received the honor of knight- 
 hood from the doge. He died 19th April, 1588. C. is remarkable for the fertility of his 
 U. K. 111.-18 
 
Cagliostro. 
 
 Caiaphas. 
 
 274 
 
 imagination. His design is generally noble, his composition rich, and his execution 
 truthful. In the invention of details, especially, he is inexhaustible, and often overloads 
 his pictures with ornament. One peculiarity of his works is the frequent introduction 
 of splendid architectural backgrounds, which, however, were generally painted by his 
 brother Benedetto. The most celebrated of his productions is the “Marriage Feast at 
 Cana of Galilee,” now in the Louvre at Paris. It is 20 ft. high, and 30 in length, and 
 contains 130 figures. Besides these may be mentioned “ The Calling of St. Andrew to 
 the Apostleship,” “The Feast of Simon,” and the “ Presentation of the Family of Darius 
 to Alexander.” 
 
 CAGLIOSTRO, Count Alessandro di, a notorious impostor, who, in the latter part oi 
 the 18th c., traveled through Europe, and whose £ Iventures afford considerable insight 
 into the social characteristics of his times. He was born at Palermo, of poor parentage, 
 June 2, 1743, and his true name was Giuseppe Balsamo. Carlyle’s picture of him 
 when a boy — “ brass-faced, vociferous, voracious” — is probably accurate, and already 
 prophesies the bold and boisterous quack. When 13 ^ '^rs old, he ran away from the 
 seminary of St. Roch, and was afterwards sent to a moiic ’tery at Cartagiore. Here he 
 became assistant to the apothecary of the monastery, and picked up that scanty knowl- 
 edge of chemistry and medicine, which was afterwards found quite sufficient to impose 
 upon so many respectable individuals. His conduct in the monastery was in keeping 
 with his character, but finding it too contracted a sphere for the development of his 
 ambitious genius, he left it, or was ejected, and for a time led “ the loosest life” in 
 Palermo. When 26 years old, he found it highly advisable to leave his native place. In 
 company with a certain sage named Althotas, C. is vaguely represented as traveling 
 first in some parts of Greece, Egypt, and Asia. At Rome, “his swart, squat figure first 
 becomes authentically visible in the Corso and Campo Vaccino. He lodges at the sign 
 of the Sun in the rotunda, and sells etchings there,” very hard up at this time. In 
 Venice, “the bull-necked forger” contrived to marry a very pretty woman named Lorenza 
 Feliciana, who became a skillful accomplice in his schemes, and captivated many 
 admirers, while C. picked their pockets. C. now made the tour of Italy with great suc- 
 cess as a physician, philosopher, alchemist, freemason, and necromancer! Next, he 
 extended his victorious career through some parts of Germany, and especially carried 
 on a lively business in his “elixir of immortal youth,” which became very popular 
 among the ladies. By virtue of this fine medicine, the count assured his patients that 
 he had already attained his 150th year, while his young and charming wife often talked 
 affectionately of her son as “ a commander in the Dutch navy.” Through Courland, 
 the count and his accomplice advanced triumphantly to the court of St. Petersburg, 
 where he seems to have first made a failure ; for the empress Catharine, aided by her 
 Scotch physician, Rogerson, a keen-witted native of Annandale, who skeptically exam- 
 ined his famous “Spagiric food,” and pronounced it “unfit for a dog,” penetrated his 
 real character, and made him the subject of a comedy. C. soon found it convenient to 
 vanish. We next find him at Warsaw, discoursing on his pet Egyptian masonry, medi- 
 cal philosophy, and the ignorance of doctors, but he has the misfortune to be unmasked 
 by a certain count M. This, however, had little effect on the stupid credulity of C.’s 
 dupes — belonging, it must be remembered, to the upper classes, who in that age, accord- 
 ing to Carlyle, were at once sensual, infidel, and superstitious — so that they persisted 
 for a time in “ distending his pockets with ducats and diamonds,” which, however, his 
 lavish dissipation soon scattered to the winds — for this prophet of a new physical and 
 moral regeneration, and inventor of an “ invaluable pentagon for abolishing original 
 sin,” was a desperate gambler. In 1780, he went to Strasburg; and soon afterwards we 
 find him in Paris, still founding lodges of “Egyptian freemasons,” holding nocturnal 
 meetings for calling “spirits from the vasty deep,” etc., and scandalously simulating the 
 character and deeds of a philanthropist. From Paris he came over to England, where 
 he was cordially received by the followers of Swedenborg. On his return to Paris 
 (1785), he became distinguished at court, was intimate with the weak and credulous 
 cardinal Rohan, and played a prominent part in the affair of the diamond necklace (q. v.). 
 This lodged him in the Bastille ; but he cleared himself by a statement which gained 
 credit, and, after being liberated, carried on his adventures once more in England, but 
 feebly, the sunshine of success now obviously growing dim; in short, the count, in gloom 
 and foreboding, disappeared from the island. But the market in Germany, too, was 
 closed, a general distrust having been excited by the revelations of one of the count’s 
 dupes. Elsewhere, also, these began to fail him. “At Aix, in Savoy, there are baths, but 
 no gudgeons in them at Turin, he is ordered off by the king ; a similar fate befalls him at 
 Roveredo; at Trent, we catch a glimpse of him, “ painting a new hieroglyphic screen,” 
 which, however, attracts no more the gaping crowd; lower still, “ he pawns diamond 
 buckles;” finally, his wayworn wife — in whom, perhaps, because of her womanhood, 
 the enormous lie and quackery first breaks up — “ longs to be in Rome by her mother’s 
 hearth, by her mother’s grave, where so much as the shadow of refuge awaits her. ” In 
 May, 1789, he entered the city; on the 29th December, the holy inquisition detected him 
 founding “some feeble ghost of an Egyptian lodge.” He was imprisoned, and con- 
 demned to death for freemasonry. His sentence was commuted to imprisonment for 
 life in the fortress San Leon, where, in spite of his “elixir of immortal youth,” he 
 
Cagliostro. 
 
 ^ Caiaphas. 
 
 « 
 
 died, 1795, aged 52 years. His wife ended her days in a convent. His Memoires Authen- 
 tiques, posthumously circulated in Paris, were not authentic. — See Carlyle’s Miscellaneous 
 Essays, art. Count Cagliostro. 
 
 CAGNOLA, Luigi Marchese, a distinguished Italian architect, was b. at Milan in 
 1759 — d. 1833. Belonging to an ancient and wealthy family, he could afford to follow 
 the bent of his own inclination, and devoted himself earnestly to the study of architec- 
 ture. His master-works are two triumphal arches. The first is the famous Arco della 
 Pace, in Milan, commenced in 1807, but not finished until 1838. It is constructed of 
 white marble, and, with the exception of the Arc de VEtoile, in Paris, is both the largest 
 and noblest structure of the kind in Europe, reaching a height of 78 feet. On the top 
 of the arch is a bronze figure of Peace, in a car drawn by six horses, while the sides are 
 richly adorned with innumerable bas-reliefs. The second forming the Porta di Marenga, 
 or Porta Ticinense, is also a work of great beauty, and is much admired. Besides 
 these may be mentioned the campanile (bell-tower) at Urgnano, in the Bergamese. 
 
 CAGOTS is the name given to a tribe of men, of manners and customs akin to those 
 of the gypsies, who are found scattered through various parts of Bearn and Gascony, in 
 France. They are usually thought to be the descendants of the Visigoths, who remained 
 in France after their defeat by Clovis, in the 5th century. Until t& French revolution 
 of 1790, they received even worse treatment than that which generally falls to the lot of 
 remnants of conquered races. They were forced to wear a peculiar dress, were forbid- 
 den to practice all but the most menial trades, and were obliged to live isolated, either in 
 separate villages or in separate quarters of the towns. So complete was their estrange- 
 ment from the other inhabitants, that they were forced to enter the churches by doors 
 specially set apart for them. Since that revolution, they have been placed, as regards 
 the law, on an equal footing with other citizens, but socially they are still regarded 
 as a degraded race. Their language has been, so far back as is known, a corrupt dia- 
 lect of that spoken in the surrounding country ; but their blue eyes, fair hair, and fair 
 complexion, mark them out as ethnologically distinct, and speak to a Teutonic origin. 
 From a great liability to the diseases afflicting cretins, probably caused by their exposed 
 manner of life and insufflcient nourishment, they were at one time erroneously thought 
 to belong to that unfortunate class. Tribes, whose history and present condition greatly 
 resemble those of the C. , are to be found in Brittany, where they receive the name of 
 “ Caqueux;” and in Poitou, Maine, and Anjou, where they receive the name of “ Colli- 
 berts.” See Michel’s Histoire des Races Maudites de la France et de VEspagne (History of 
 Outcast Races in France and Spain), Par. 1847. 
 
 CAGSA'NA, a t. near the southern extremity of the island of Luzon, Philippines, with 
 » population of about 13,000. 
 
 CAHAW'BA, a river rising in Jefferson co., Ala., flowing s.w. through a region 
 rich in coal, and joining the Alabama 8 m. w. of Selma. The C. is navigable by small 
 craft for about 100 miles. 
 
 CAHEN, Samuel, 1796-1862; a French Jew noted as a Hebrew scholar. He trans- 
 lated the Old Testament into French with Hebrew on opposite pages, and with notes 
 and comments. He also founded the Archives Israelites, a monthly publication devoted 
 to Jewish questions and interests. 
 
 CAHE'TE, or Caete, a small t. of Brazil, in the province of Minas Geraes, about 250 
 m. n. of Rio de Janeiro. The town is tolerably built, has some churches, a hospital, 
 primary school, electoral college. Agriculture and mining are carried on. Pop. about 
 6000. 
 
 CAHINCA, the Indian name of the plant known in Brazil as the raizpetra, used by 
 the natives as a purgative, emetic, or diuretic medicine. 
 
 CA'HIR, a t. in the co. of Tipperary, Ireland, on the Suir, beautifully situated at the 
 e. end of a valley between the Galtees and Knockmeledown mountains, 8 m. n.w. of 
 Clonmel. In the town is the seat of the earl of Glengall, with a park which extends 
 along the river for 2 m. below the town. Cahir castle, an ancient irregular Norman 
 structure of considerable extent, is situated on a rock on the left bank of the Suir. 
 It was taken by the earl of Essex in 1599, and by Cromwell in 1650; it has been lately 
 restored. C. has extensive flour-mills, and a pop. of (1871) 2694. There are large bar- 
 racks near Cahir. 
 
 CAHORS (anciently, Divona), a t. in the department of Lot, France, is situated on a 
 small rocky peninsula, formed by a bend of the river Lot — here crossed by three bridges 
 —about 60 m. n. of Toulouse. The streets of C. are steep and narrow, and present 
 many specimens of antique architecture. It has a fine cathedral, and several Roman 
 remains, including those of a magnificent aqueduct. There is an obelisk to Fenelon, 
 who was a student at the university here. The town was taken and pillaged by Henri 
 of Navarre in 1580, It has manufactures of cotton-yarn, woolens, leather, paper, glass, 
 etc. ; the district produces wine in considerable quantities. The pop. in 1872 was 11,416: 
 and in ’76, 12,190. 
 
 CAI'APHAS, high-priest of the Jews in the reign of Tiberius Caesar, at the beginning 
 of Qirisrs ministry, and also at the time of his trial and crucifixion. His wife was the 
 
Caicos. 
 
 Cairu. 
 
 276 
 
 daughter of Annas, a former high-priest, who still had great influence in sacerdotal 
 matters. In the council summoned by the chief-priests and Pharisees to take action 
 upon the remarkable spread of the doctrines of Jesus, Caiaphas, was decidedly in favor 
 of putting him to death, using the prophetic language: “Ye know nothing at all; nor 
 consider that it is expedient for us that one man should die for the people, and that the 
 whole nation perish not.” Christ was arraigned before Caiaphas, when the effort to 
 convict him on false testimony failed ; and then the prisoner was called as a witness and 
 asked if he was indeed the Christ, the son of God, The answer being in the affirmative, 
 the high-priest pretended to be sorely grieved at what he considered blasphemy, and 
 appealed to Christ’s enemies to say if that was not enough. The answer was that Chris 
 deserved death, and without remonstrance from the high-priest, they at qnce fell upon 
 the prisoner with insult and injury. But the high-priest had not the power of final con- 
 demnation, that being in the hands of the Roman governor only. 
 
 CAI COS, or Cay'os, or Keys, a term applied to numberless rocky islets of the West 
 Indies, and that generally with a reference to some more considerable island in the 
 neighborhood. Thus, to take the Bahamas as an instance, there are the Keys of Provi- 
 dence, of Eleuthera, of Abaco, etc. But more specifically the name is often appropriated 
 to the more southerly members of the group just mentioned — North, West, East, Grand, 
 and other keys together covering about 450 sq.m., and containing about 5000 inhabitants. 
 They lie between 21° and 22° n lat., having been transferred, with a local president, 
 from the government of Bahama to that of Jamaica. The revenue is about £8000. The 
 imports are valued at nearly £30,000; and the exports (consisting chiefly of salt) at 
 £25,000. 
 
 CAI'FA, or Hai'fa, a seaport on the coast of Syria, situated exactly opposite Acre, 
 upon a spur of Mt. Carmel, and on the s. side of a wide semicircular bay, 4 m. across 
 It is the ancient Hefa, or Sycaminopolis. It covers but a small space of ground, and 
 contains no edifice of any note except a few minarets. The houses are built of rough 
 unhewn sandstone, plastered over with lime — the roofs flat. Pop. about 2000 — Mos- 
 lems, Christians, and Jews. C., having a better anchorage than Acre, is fast eclipsing 
 that city as a port, and in recent years almost all the trade of Acre has been transferred 
 to it. Consular agents from England, France, etc., have, within twenty years, been estab- 
 lished at C. ; and among other improvements are a coffee-house and billiard-room, things 
 rare in Syria. Several cargoes of barley, wheat, and sesame seed are yearly shipped 
 at C., and exported to Great Britain and France. C. is surrounded by beautiful gardens 
 of palm, olive, orange, citron, fig, mulberry, and pomegranate trees. 
 
 CAILLIAUD, Frederic, 1787-1869; a French goldsmith who traveled in various 
 parts of Europe, Egypt, and Asia Minor. He was engaged by Mehemet Ali to explore 
 the deserts along the Nile and near the Red Sea, and in the work discovered the emerald 
 mines of Mt. Zabarah. He returned to France with a valuable collection of antiquities, 
 plants, and minerals, and published Voyage a V Oasis de Thebes, etc. He went again to 
 Egypt and made explorations in the eastern deserts, making an expedition to upper 
 Nubia with Ismael Bey. In 1819-22, he published Voyage a Meroe. Among the relics 
 of antiquity brought by him to France and purchased by the government, was a mummy, 
 inscribed with hieroglyphical characters accompanied with a Greek translation, which 
 proved of great help to Champollion in the study of the ancient language. 
 
 CAILLIE, Rene or Auguste, a French traveler, noted for his journey to Timbuctoo, 
 was born 19th Sept., 1799, at Mauze, in the department of Deux- Sevres. Having gone 
 to Senegal, and engaged in trading with the natives, he learned, about 1826, that the 
 geographical society of Paris had offered a premium of 10,000 francs to the first traveler 
 who should reach Timbuctoo. Provided with a stock of goods for barter, C. started from 
 Sierra Leone, Mar. 22, 1827, and after some delay caused by illness, he reached the mys- 
 terious city in April, 1828, where he remained 14 days. On leaving Timbuctoo, he 
 accompanied a caravan across the Sahara desert, reaching the coast at Tangier. After 
 hearing and examining his statements, the society awarded him the offered prize, with 
 a pension of 1000 francs, and the order of the legion of honor. His notes of travel, 
 arranged by M. Jomard, were published under the title Journal d'un Voyage d lem- 
 bouktou et d Jenne dans VAfriqrie Gentrale, etc. (3 vols.. Par. 1830). In England, doubts 
 were raised as to the veracity of C., but without just grounds. C. died at his estate, in 
 the neighborhood of Paris, May 25, 1838. 
 
 C AIM AC AN', or Kaimakam, a Turkish officer corresponding with lieutenant or lieu- 
 tenant-governor. The caimacan of Constantinople is the lieutenant of the grand vizier, 
 whom he represents in processions. Such officers also act as governors In the prin- 
 cipal towns. 
 
 CAIN, the first-born of Adam and Eve. His history, as recorded in the book of 
 Genesis, is mysterious and inexplicable, and the traditions which a later superstition has 
 gathered round it, have thrown no light whatever on its dark perplexity. As the first 
 murderer, his memory has always been profoundly execrated by the Christian church; 
 yet such is the perversit}-- of human nature, that one sect — if not more — of the pseudo* 
 Gnostics found his actions and character so much to their liking, that they called thent- 
 selves Cainites (130 a.d.), and invented an explanation of his alleged crime, which, liko 
 
277 
 
 Caicos* 
 
 Cairn. 
 
 f <t 
 
 most of the Gnostic heresies in the early church, sprang out of the deep-rooted funda- 
 mental error of the “ two principles.” The Cainites believed that C. was the oilspring of the 
 intercourse of a superior power with Eve, and Abel of an inferior power; that their 
 characters corresponded to their paternal parentage, and that the slaying of Abel only 
 symbolized the victory of the superior over the inferior power. The subsequent pun- 
 ishments of C. were regarded as the persecutions of Abel’s father — i.e., the Jewish God. 
 For the same reason, they highly honored all the reprobates of the Old Testament — such 
 as the people of Sodom, Esau, Korah, Dathan, and Abiram — whom they looked upon 
 as the victims of the hatred of Jehovah. It is unfortunate that we possess only distorted 
 and fragmentary accounts of this, as of all the other heretical sects. The Cainites are also 
 said to have denied the dogma of the resurrection of the body, to have rejected the New 
 Testament, and accepted a gospel of Judas, the betrayer, whom they also reverenced for 
 the singular reason that his crime, by procuring the death of Christ, secured the salva- 
 tion of men. 
 
 CAINOZO'IC (Gr. recent life”), a geological term, synonymous with tertiary, intro- 
 duced with other words by Mr. Phillips, to avoid the confusion wdiich attended the . 
 use of the terms primary, secondary, and tertiary, owing to the various meanings attached ’ 
 to them by geologists. 
 
 pA lEA (French for “It will go on I”), the well-known refrain of the song beginning 
 with — 
 
 “Ah, 9a ira, 9a ira, 9a iral 
 
 Les aristocrates a la lantemel” 
 
 which must always be remembered as associated with the most terrible scenes of the 
 French revolution. Like the Marseillaise, the Garmagnole,^ and the Ghant du Depart, it 
 became a French national song, and was styled the Garillon National. The melody, 
 taken from another song, is said to have been a favorite air with the unhappy Marie 
 Antoinette. 
 
 CAIRD, James, b. 1816; an agriculturist of Scotland, author of High Farming as the 
 Best Substitute for Protection. In 1850-51, he visited all parts of England as agricultural 
 writer for the London Times, his letters being afterwards published in a volume. In 
 1858, he visited the United States and wrote an account of the western territories. While 
 in parliament he was the originator of agricultural statistics, now annually published by 
 the British government. Since then he has been a magistrate in the co. of Wigton. 
 
 GATED, Rev. John, d.d., a minister of the established church of Scotland, and one 
 of the most eloquent living preachers in Great Britain, was b. at Greenock in 1820. He 
 studied at the university of Glasgow, and in 1845 was ordained to the pastorate of the 
 church of Newton-upon-Ayr, whence in 1847 he was translated to Lady Tester’s, Edin- 
 burgh. Here his popularity was extraordinary, but the demands made on his physical 
 energies were so great, that he found it necessary to retire to the country, and accepted, 
 in 1849, the country charge of Errol, in Perthshire. A sermon which he preached 
 before the queen in 1855, in the church of Crathie, and which was published, by royal 
 command, under the title of The Religion of Gommon Life, was universally admired 
 throughout Great Britain; translated on the continent under the auspices of chevalier 
 Bunsen, who wrote a preface to it, and suddenly carried the fame of the author into all 
 parts of the Protestant world. In 1857, Dr. C. accepted a call to Glasgow. In 1858, he 
 published a volume of sermons, marked by beauty of language, strength of thought, and 
 earnest sympathy with mankind. He received the degree of d.d. in 1860. In 1862, he 
 was appointed professor of divinity, and in 1873, principal of Glasgow university. In 
 1874, he published The Vnirersal Religion, a lecture delivered in Westminster abbey. 
 
 CAIEN, or Carn, a Celtic word, signifying a protuberance, a heap, a pile. In that 
 sense, it appears in the names of hills and other natural objects in Scotland, Ireland, 
 Wales, Cornwall, and Brittany. It is also applied to artificial heaps of unhewn stones, 
 which, among archaeologists, have come to be generally known as “cairns.” 
 
 There are several kinds of cairns. The simplest and most common form seems to be 
 a conical pile of stones of no great size. Next is what maybe called the fence or ringed 
 C. — a heap of stones girdled round by large unhewn stones set upright in the ground. 
 Some cairns have two, and a very few have three such concentric girdles; in some 
 instances, there are concentric rows of upright stones within the cairn. Many cairns 
 are found in the neighborhood of the circles of unhewn stone pillars which antiquaries 
 used to style “Druidical.” In a few instances, cairns are found at the end of an avenue 
 of standing stones. Some cairns are fenced round by a narrow ditch and a small earthen 
 rampart. A very few cairns have unhewn flat stones on their tops; a still smaller num- 
 ber are surmounted by an unhewn stone pillar. A few are oblong in shape. 
 
 Cairns were erected, doubtless, for several purposes. It appears from record that they 
 were often raised to distinguish the marches or boundaries of lands. One C. , near Balmoral, 
 on the Highland Dee, is said to have been erected as a mustering-place for the men of 
 Strathdee, who took its name, Gairn-na-cuimhne, or “C. of remembrance,” for their 
 slogan or war-cry. In later times, places where great crimes had been committed were 
 Marked by cairns; thus, “Mushet’s C.,” in the Queen’s park at Edinburgh, shows the 
 spot where a wife was murdered by her husband, under circumstances of peculiar atroc- 
 
Cairnes. 
 
 Cairo. 
 
 278 
 
 ity, in 1720. But that the great purpose of the C. was sepulchral, is shown by the 
 human remains found in so many of them. Disjectis et erutis, ossa inveniuntur, et qui- 
 hiisdam honor nominis adhuc manet," says Robert Gordon of Straloch, writing of Scotch 
 cairns in 1654. “For the cairns or heaps of stones in several parts of Ireland,” wrote 
 Thady O’Roddy in 1617, “some of them were heaped as monuments of battles, some 
 made in memory of some eminent persons buried in such a place.” A Highland suppliant 
 would have said to his benefactor: Curri mi clock er do charne, “I will add a stone to 
 your cairu.” The bones found in cairns are generally calcined or half-burned, and 
 inclosed either in what are called cists — small rude coffins of unhewn stones — or in urns 
 of earthenware, which, again, are in many cases protected by stone cists. Along with 
 the bones are often found flint arrow-heads, flint axe-heads, stone hammers, stone lings, 
 glass beads, implements of bone, bones of horses and oxen, spear-heads, and other weap- 
 ons of bronze. In some instances, human bones are found unburned, inclosed in stone 
 cists about 3 ft. long, or, more rarely, of the full size of a man. In one case, as many as 
 seventeen stone cists were found in one cairn. 
 
 Many cairns are of considerable size. Each of three cairns at Memsie, near Fraser- 
 . burgh, in Aberdeenshire, was about 300 ft. in circumference, and about 40 ft. high. A 
 C, in the parish of Minnigaff, in Galloway, was 891 ft. in circumference. Several of the 
 larger cairns are what is called “chambered” — that is, have internal galleries or cells. 
 Of three large ringed cairns at Clava, on the banks of the Nairn river, near the battle- 
 field of Culloden, one was found to contain a gallery, about 2 ft. wide, leading from the 
 s. side of the C. to a circular chamber in the center, about 15 ft. in diameter, built of 
 unhewn and uncemented stones, each course overlapping the other so as to meet at the 
 top in that sort of rude dome which has received the name of the “beehive house” (q.v.). 
 The Boss C., on the moor of Dranandow, in the parish of Minnigaff, had two galleries 
 crossing each other — each 80 ft. long, 4 ft. wide, and 3 ft. high. 
 
 But of all the “chambered ” cairns, the most remarkable is that at New Grange, on 
 the banks of the Boyne, near Drogheda, in Ireland. It is 400 paces in circumference, 
 and about 80 ft. high, and is supposed to contain 180,000 tons of stones. In 1699, it 
 was described by Edward Llhwyd, the Welsh antiquary, as “a mount or barrow, of 
 very considerable height, encompassed with vast stones, pitched on end, round the bot- 
 tom of it, and having another, lesser, standing on the top.” This last pillar has disap- 
 peared ; of the outer ring of pillars, ten still remain, placed at about ten yards one from 
 another. “The cairn,” says Mr. Wakeman in his Archmlogia Hibernica (Dublin, 1848), 
 
 ‘ ‘ in its present ruinous condition, presents the appearance of a grassy hill partially 
 wooded; but, upon examination, the coating of earth is found to be altogether super- 
 ficial, and in several places the stones, of which the hill is entirely composed, are laid 
 bare. The opening [which is nearly square, and lined by large flags] was accidentally 
 discovered about the year 1699. The gallery, of which it is the external entrance, com- 
 municates with a [dome-roofed] chamber or cave nearly in the center of the mound. 
 This gallery, which measures in length about 50 ft., is, at its entrance, 4 ft. high; in 
 breadth about 3 feet. Towards the interior, its size gradually increases; and its height, 
 where it forms the chamber, is 18 feet. The chamber is cruciform, the head and aims 
 of the cross being formed by three recesses — each containing a basin of granite. The 
 sides of these recesses are composed of immense blocks of stone, several of which bear a 
 great variety of carving, supposed by some to be symbolical. The majority of these 
 carvings must have been executed before the stones had been placed in their present 
 positions. The 'length of the passage and chamber from n. to s. is 75 ft., and the 
 
 breadth of the chamber from e. to w. 20 feet. Of the urns or basins in the recesses, 
 that to the e. is the most remarkable. It is formed of a block of granite, and appears 
 to have been set upon, or rather within, another of somewhat larger dimensions.” The 
 Irish antiquaries believe that the chambered C. of New Grange — “the cave of Achadh 
 Aldai,” as it was called, from Aldai, the ancestor of the Tuatha De Danaan kings — was 
 opened and rifled by the Norsemen in 862. About a mile from it, on either side, are 
 other two cairns of nearly equal size, named Knowth and Dowth. The latter was 
 opened in 1847, and found to contain a gallery, a cruciform chamber, a basin or sarcoph- 
 agus, and carved stones, all of the same type as those of New Grange. Engravings 
 of the sculptures, in both cairns, are given in Mr. W. R. Wilde’s Boyne and Blackwater, 
 pp. 192-207 (Dublin, 1850), and some of them are obviously of the same character with 
 sculptures found in Scandinavia; at Locmariaker, and at Gavr Innis, in the Morbflian, 
 in Brittany; in one of the cells of a tumulus opened in 1853 at Pickaquoy, near Kirk- 
 wall, in Orkney; among the ruins of an ancient fort at the Laws, near Dundee; at the 
 ancient forts at Rowtin Lynn, and Old Bewick, in Northumberland; and on one of the 
 standing stones near Penrith in Cumberland, called “Long Meg and her DaugMers.” 
 
 Cairns are most frequent in stony countries. Where, as in many parts of England, 
 stones are scarce, the barrow or earthen mound came in place of the C., from which it 
 differs only in the materials of which it is made. So also in Scandinavia. Cairns, or 
 dysser, as they are there called, are rare in Denmark, but of more common occurrence 
 in Sweden and Norway. 
 
 CAIRNES, John Elliott, 1824-75; b. Ireland; educated at Trinity college, studied 
 law, and was admitted to the Irish bar, but passed most of his time in writing for the 
 
279 
 
 Calrnes. 
 
 Cairo. 
 
 press, chiefly upon economical questions affecting Ireland. In 1856, he was appointed 
 professor of political economy in Dublin, and the next year his professional lectures 
 were published under the title Character and Logical Method of Political Economy. He 
 next wrote for Fraser's Magazine a series of essays on the gold question, induced by the 
 sudden increase of supply from California and Australia, In 1861, he was appointed 
 professor of political economy and jurisprudence in Queen’s college, and in the next 
 year published his work on The Slave Power. His conclusions were to a large extent veri- 
 fied by the results of the war in the United States then just commenced. In 1866, he 
 was appointed professor of political economy in University college, London. His later 
 years were spent in collecting and publishing his numerous papers, and in writing his 
 chief work. Some Leading Principles in Political Economy, newly Expounded. He is 
 regarded as high authority on subjects connected with political economy. 
 
 CAIRNGORM' STONE, or simply Cairngorm, a name often given by jewelers, and 
 particularly in Scotland, to brown or yellow quartz or rock-crystal, because found at 
 Cairngorm, in Aberdeenshire. The same mineral is found in many other localities, as 
 at Olivet near Orleans, in Brazil, and in Siberia. In Cairngorm and the neighboring 
 district of Mar, it occurs both in the granite rock and in the alluvial soil. It differs from 
 common colorless quartz or rock-crystal only in the presence of a very little oxide of 
 iron or manganese, to which it owes its color. It is much used as an ornamental stone. 
 The yellow variety is not unfrequently called topaz, although quite different from the 
 true topaz, which it resembles chiefly in color, having neither its hardness nor its bril- 
 liancy. The topaz is, however, sometimes found along with it in the granite and 
 gneiss districts of Mar and Cairngorm. The brow-n variety is sometimes called Smoky 
 Quartz, and when of a good and uniform color is by some preferred to the yellow. 
 
 CAIRO, a city in Alexandria co.. 111., on the extreme southern point of the state, at 
 the junction of the Mississippi and Ohio rivers, 147 m. by rail s.e. of St. Louis; pop. ’70, 
 6267 ; in ’80, 9026. The Illinois Central railroad ends here, and connects by ferry with 
 the Mobile and Ohio railroad at Columbus, in Kentucky. All the steamers of the 
 Ohio and Mississippi make C. a stopping- place. It is a port of entry, and has a fine 
 custom-house, and some other handsome buildings. The founders of C. anticipated its 
 becoming the largest and most important city in the Mississippi valley, but the loca- 
 tion was unhealthy, and the land so low that costly dikes were necessary to protect 
 it from inundation; and even these did not suffice, for in 1858 the city was nearly 
 destroyed by a ffood. Since then, however, ample protection has been provided. 
 
 GAI'RO (Arabic, Musr el Kahirah, “the victorious capital”), the capital of modern 
 Egypt, is situated in lat. 30° 2' n. , and long. 31 ° 16' e. , in a sandy plain betwixt the right bank 
 of the Nile and the ridge of Mokattam, and near the point of the delta of the Nile. From 
 the foundation of the city in 969, the Fatimite caliphs of Africa, who brought the bones 
 of their ancestors with them from Kairon, reigned for ten generations over the land 
 of Egypt. The caliph Hakem, who built a mosque near Bab^-el-Nassr, and who is the 
 supposed founder of the Druse religion, was the third in the succession. In the 
 year 1171, Saladin usurped the throne from the last of the Fatimites. His descend- 
 ant, Moosa-el-Ashref, was deposed in his turn in 1250; from that time till the year 1517, 
 when the city was stormed and taken by sultan Selim, 0. was governed by a succes- 
 sion of Mameluke kings. 
 
 The city of C. occupies about 3 sq.m., and is surrounded by a low wall. Of late years 
 \t has been greatly improved. It is lighted with gas, and many fine broad streets have 
 been opened through the crowded districts. The bazaars are well and richly supplied. 
 The houses, which are generally two or three stories high, are all built of variegated 
 brick, with interlinings of wood, and have fiat roofs. The city is divided into different 
 quarters, one quarter being appropriated to the Turks, one to the Christians, one to the 
 Jews, etc. ; so that every religious sect has its own quarter, which is separated from the 
 adjoining one by strong gates at the end of the streets; these are closed at night, and 
 guarded by a porter, who opens the gate when any one wants to pass. 
 
 _ The most remarkable buildings in the city of C. are its minarets and mosques. The 
 minarets are the most beautiful of any in the Levant, of a prodigious height, and built 
 of alternate layers of red and white stone. The most ancient of all the minarets is that 
 attached to the great mosque of sultan Tayloon. This mosque was built in the year of 
 the Hegira 265 (879 a.d.), before the foundation of the city, and consists of an immense 
 cloister or arcade built on pointed arches, being the earliest extant in that form. 
 Another magnificent mosque is that of the sultan Hassan, situated in the place of the 
 Roumayli, near the citadel, and which was finished about the year 1362 a.d. It has two 
 very elegant^ and high minarets, and the mosque, in consequence of its size, and the 
 thickness of its walls, was frequently seized and made use of as a fortress by the insur 
 gents in the numerous rebellions and insurrections which were always taking place at 
 C. under the rule of the Mameluke kings. Stains of blood are still to be traced on the 
 marble walls of the courtyard. 
 
 The population of C. consists of the ruling class, who are all Turks; Arabs, the 
 former conquerors of the land, who form the bulk of the population, all the petty trades- 
 men and cultivators of the soil being of Arab origin ; Copts, who are descended from 
 the original lords of the land, the ancient Egyptians; Jews, Armenians, Syrians, Afri- 
 
Caisse. 
 
 Cajetan. 
 
 280 
 
 cans, and Europeans. Pop. ’72, 350,000. The Copts, a mere fraction of the popula- 
 tion, completed, in 1867, a tine, lofty, spacious church. Since 1863, the part of C. occu- 
 pied by Europeans has been handsomely rebuilt. In 1876, C. was connected by rail 
 with Ileluan, one of the numerous bathing-places lying to the south. 
 
 Of objects worthy of note in the environs of C., there may be mentioned the tomba 
 of the caliphs, situated about a mile beyond the walls, which are magnificent and impos- 
 ing buildings, forming beautiful specimens of Arabian architecture. The mausoleum 
 of sultan Bergook is a triumph of Saracenic architecture. The public gardens, which 
 consist of groves of orange, citron, palms, and vines, arc very beautiful. The trade of 
 0. is rapidly increasing. The exports consist mainly of native products, such as ivory, 
 gum, wood, hides, ostrich feathers, cotton, and sugar; while the imports are cotton and 
 woolen goods, prints, hardware, cloth, furniture, shawls, indigo, sheep, tobacco, etc. 
 The manufactures of C. embrace silk and cotton fabrics, gunpowder, glass lamps, sugar, 
 sal ammoniac, weapons, and iron ware. C. is a great seat of learning, and popular edu- 
 cation has recently advanced. The government college and the national schools are 
 largely attended, while several thousand pupils attend the theological university attached 
 to the mosque of Ezher. The schools comprise a commercial and juridical school at 
 the Darb AlgamSmiz, a school of arts and industry at Boolak(q.v.), and military schools 
 at the Abbasseeyah. The language spoken at C. is Arabic, which, though not the pur- 
 est, is superior in pronunciation to that spoken in Syria. C. is the official residence of 
 the khedive of Egypt, and the residence of a consul-general from Great Britain, France, 
 etc. C. has railway connection with Alexandria and Suez, and there is also a line to 
 upper Egypt. 
 
 CAISSE, a coffer, box, case, or chest; in finance, a cash-box, or pay-ofl5ce, or fund for 
 payments. In anatomy, the drum of the ear. The French call a savings bank, “caisse 
 d’epargne.” 
 
 CAIS'SON, in military matters, is a name sometimes given to a tumbril or ammuni- 
 tion wagon. It is more frequently applied, however, to a large wooden chest or frame, 
 loaded with powder, shells, or both, and buried several feet deep in the ground under 
 some fortification ; this destructive combination is to be blown up if there be danger of 
 the enemy approaching and taking possession of that particular part of the defense- 
 work. The French give the name of caisson pour les vivres to a large chest, carried with 
 the army, and capable of containing 800 rations. 
 
 CAIS'SON, in relation to shipping, is an apparatus for lifting a vessel out of the water 
 for repairs or inspection. It is usually a hollow structure, sunk by letting water into it. 
 There is an air-chamber inside, which allows it to sink only to a certain depth. In that 
 state it is hauled under the ship’s bottom, the traps or openings are closed, the water ia 
 pumped out, and the caisson rises with the ship upon it. 
 
 In another arrangement, a platform is sunk to a certain depth in the water, and is 
 suspended by iron screws from a strong wooden frame-work ; the ship is fioated upon 
 the platform, steadied by shores, and lifted high and dry by means of levers, wheels, 
 pinions, and screws. 
 
 CAISSON (ante), in engineering, a hollow box of iron or wood, open at the bottom, 
 sunk where piers are to be placed. The largest caisson yet sunk was for the tower of 
 the Brooklyn bridge on the New York side. At the bottom it was 172 ft. long and 103 
 ft. wide, with an air-chamber 9^ ft. high, the roof 22 ft. thick, and the sides carried up 
 82 ft. from the lower edge. It had a coffer-dam in the upper part ; was built of timber 
 lined with boiler-iron, and bolted together. In its construction there were used of lum- 
 ber, board measure, 4,200,000 ft., and of iron, including bolts, 620 tons. When com- 
 pleted, it weighed 13,271 tons, and there were 30,000 tons of masonry laid within it. 
 There were two double air-locks extending into the air-chamber, in which were steam- 
 pipes to keep an even temperature. Two shafts passed up through well-holes in the 
 masonry, with an elevator in one, and two spiral stairways in the other. Below the 
 lowest edge of the caisson extended two water-shafts, each 7f ft. in diameter, in which 
 dredges and scoops grappled the stones and soil, raising their loads to cars above, which 
 conveyed the refuse away. At the same time sand and fine dirt were blown out by air- 
 pressure through 40 or more pipes in various parts of the structure. The interior was 
 illuminated by gas, and constant communication by telegraph was kept up with the 
 workmen inside. There were four shafts, each 2 ft. in diameter, for the introduction 
 of material for the concrete with which the whole interior was finally filled. The cais- 
 son was sunk 78 ft. below mean tide, a work that required a pressure of 34 lbs. per sq. 
 inch, in addition to the normal pressure of air; and to supply this addition, 13 large 
 compressors were used. The earliest caissons for such purposes were used in England 
 in 1738-40 in laying the foundations of the Westminster bridge over the Thames. 
 
 CAITH'NESS, a maritime co., the most northerly on the mainland of Scotland. It is 
 triangular in shape; length, from n. to s., 40 m. ; greatest breadth, 30 m. ; area, 712 sq. 
 miles. Except in the w. and s., where the mountain-range (composed of granite and 
 gneiss) dividing C. from Sutherland attains, in its highest point, a height of more than 
 2300 ft., the general aspect of C. is level and bare, bein^ in great part moorland and 
 destitute of trees, while the sea-coast is bold and rocky, with many bays, inlets, promon- 
 
281 
 
 Calsse. 
 
 Cajetan. 
 
 torics, and caves. On the n. coast are Dunnet head and Duncansby head; and on the 
 Av. side of the last-named head is a spot of green turf, called John o’ Groat’s house, 
 Avhere John de Groot or Groat of Warse settled with his brothers in James IV. ’s time, 
 and built a house. There are no navigable rivers in C., and no lakes of importance. 
 The climate is damp and chilly, but snow rarely lies on the plains above a day or two 
 at a time. Thunder is rare, but auror® are seen almost nightly. There are no manu- 
 factures, properly so called, although weaving is carried on to some extent. Coal has 
 not been found in C. ; the common fuel is peat. The chief crops are oats, bear, turnips, 
 and potatoes. The parts of the surface under tillage are generally a deep fertile loam 
 on a strong till clay. In the n.e., the soil is sandy. The crops are 20days later in ripen- 
 ing than in the Lothians. The occupants of many of the small farms divide their time 
 between farming and fishing. There are herring, ling, cod, salmon, and lobster fish- 
 eries. The herring-fishery in July and August employs about 1500 boats, a part of which 
 come from other parts of the Scotch coasts. Wick is the chief seat of the British her- 
 ring-fishery. The average number of barrels cured annually in the ports of C, may be 
 stated at 200,000. The other exports are cattle, oats, wool, and flag-stones, of which, as 
 well as of freestone and slate, C. contains quarries. Wick is the only parliamentary 
 borough in C. ; another town is Thurso, an old burgh of barony. There were, when the 
 census was taken in 1871, 7185 children in C., and of these, 6608 were receiving educa- 
 tion. Pop. 89,992. The county returns one member to parliament, and Wick unites 
 with Kirkwall, Dornock, Dingwall, Tain, and Cromarty, in returning another. A rail- 
 way, completed in 1874, and extending to Wick and Thurso, connects C. with the south. 
 In early times, C. is supposed to have been inhabited by Celts; these afterwards mixed 
 with Danes and Norwegians. C., in the middle ages, was subject to the kings of Nor- 
 way. David II. adopted the ’weights and measures of C. for all Scotland. The Scandi- 
 navian origin or mixture of the people of C. is shown by their tall forms and soft fair 
 features, and their speaking English instead of Gaelic. C. has remains of Piets’ houses, 
 round towers, etc. 
 
 CAITH'NESS FLAGSTONES are dark-colored bituminous schists, slightly micaceous 
 and calcareous, valuable on account of their great toughness and durability for pave- 
 ments, cisterns, and various other purposes, and accordingly are largely exported. 
 They belong to the old red sandstone, and contain abundant remains of fossil fishes. 
 
 CAIXJS, Dr. John, the person from whom Caius college, Cambridge, takes it name, 
 was b. at Norwich in 1510. His real name was Kaye or Key, which he Latinized into 
 Caius. He was educated at Gonville hall, university of Cambridge; and at the age of 
 20, turned into English Chrysostom’s Method of Praying to Ood, which was followed by 
 a translation of Erasmus On True Theology. He next went abroad, and resided in Italy 
 for several years, studying medicine. On his return to England, he practiced with 
 success at Cambridge, Shrewsbury, and Norwich. Henry VIII. appointed him ana- 
 tomical lecturer to the company of surgeons in London. In 1547, he was elected a fellow 
 of the college of physicians, of Avhich he was subsequently made president. He also 
 became physician to Edward VI., queen Mary, and queen Elizabeth. In 1557, he 
 obtained permission to elevate Gonville hall into a college, which took the name of 
 Caius college, and of which he became master. This office he held till his death, in 
 July, 1573. His principal work is A Poke or Counseill against the Disease commonly 
 called the Sweateor Sweatyng Sicknesse, Anno Do. 1552. C., however, wrote a great num- 
 
 ber of works on a variety of subjects, critical, antiquarian, and scientific. 
 
 CAIUS COLLEGE. See Gonville and Caius College. 
 
 CAIVA'NO, a t. of southern Italy, in the province of Naples, and 8 m. n. of the city 
 of that name. It was a place of considerable strength in the middle ages, and still 
 retains many remains of its walls and towers, though they have suffered severely in the 
 various revolutions of Naples. Pop. 10,000. 
 
 CAJAMAR'CA. See Caxamarca, ante. 
 
 CAJATAM'BO, a province in the department of Junin, Peru; 1500 sq.m.; pop. 
 24,750. The region is mountainous and comparatively barren, with a severe climate. 
 There are many remains of ancient towns, aqueducts, etc. The chief town, of the same 
 name, has a pop. of about 3200, and is in a fertile plain at the foot of the Andes, 140 
 m. n.n.e. of Lima. The people are employed in spinning wool for sale at Lima. 
 
 CA'JEPUT, Melaleuca cajeputi or M. minor, a tree of the natural order myrtacece, 
 sub-order leptospermea, from the leaves of which the pungent, aromatic, volatile oil, 
 called oil of cajeput, is obtained by distillation. The C. tree is common on the moun- 
 tains of the Moluccas. It is rather a small tree, with a crooked trunk, thick spongy 
 bark, white wood (whence the name C., properly kayuputi, signifying white w'ood), 
 elliptical-lanceolate alternate leaves, and terminal spikes of white flowers. The greater 
 number of the species are natives of Australia, some of them very beautiful shrubs and 
 frequent ornaments of British hot-houses. Much of the oil of C. of commerce is pre- 
 pared in the island of Banda. It is said that two sackfuls of leaves yield scarcely three 
 drams of the oil, which is green, transparent, limpid, with a strong penetrating odor, 
 and agreeable only when much diffused. 
 
 CAJ'ETAN, or GAETANI, Benedetto. See Boniface VIII., ante. 
 
CKfetan. 
 
 Calais. 
 
 282 
 
 CAJ'ETATT, Tommabo de Vio, 1469-1534; an Italian priest of the Dominican order, 
 and the general of that order. In 1517, Leo X. sent him as legate to induce Maximilian 
 of Germany to join in the league against the Turks, and especially to bring the 
 Lutherans back to allegiance to the church; but C.’s arrogant manner defeated the pur- 
 pose for which he was sent. When Rome was taken by the imperialists in 1527, he 
 was made a prisoner, but he bought his freedom for 5000 crowns. He made a trans- 
 lation of the Old Testament with commentary, and wrote a treatise on the authority of 
 the pope which was answered by the faculty of the university of Paris. 
 
 CALABAR', the name of a coast district of upper Guinea, Africa, the limits of which 
 are not clearly defined ; but it is usually understood to extend between the river Benin 
 and IS^ew Calabar, called by the Portuguese Rio del Rey, and as far n. as the Kong 
 mountains. The surface is low and fiat, and the climate unhealthy. Yams, which are 
 the principal food of the inhabitants, are raised in plenty, and also the sugar-cane, and 
 palms, from which palm-oil is obtained in large quantities. The inhabitants are polyg- 
 amists, and make human sacrifices to good and evil spirits. The United Presbyterians 
 have had a mission here since 1846, which is beginning to produce beneficial changes. 
 
 CALABAR (Old), a river of this district, enters the bight of Biafra, about 52 m. 
 w.n. w. of Fernando Po, by an estuary about 9 m. in breadth. It is navigable by steamers 
 for about 200 m. above its mouth, and abounds in crocodiles. The chief towns on its 
 banks are — Duke Town, situated on its estuary; Creek Town, further up, both seats of 
 British missions; Acoono Coono, and Omun. — Calabak (New), a branch of the Niger, 
 falling into the Bight of biafra, in lat. 4° 30' n., and long. 7° 7' e. It has a bar across 
 its mouth, which prevents the entrance of vessels drawing more than 12 ft. ; but some 
 miles up it has an average depth of 30 feet. 
 
 CALABAR BEAN, a very remarkable medicinal agent, which has been introduced inta 
 the new edition of the British Pharmacopoeia (1867). It is the seed of physostigmor 
 'ceneriosum, a twining, half-shrubby plant, a native of western Africa, of the natural 
 order legumiiioscB, sub-order papilionacem, nearly allied to the kidney bean, but of a 
 genus distinguished by the hood-shaped stigma, and the deeply-furrowed liilum of the 
 seed. The following are the leading characters of the bean itself: “About the size of 
 a very large horse-bean, with a very firm, hard, brittle, shining integument, of a brown- 
 ish-red, pale chocolate, or ash-gray color. Irregularly kidney-shaped, with two' fiat 
 sides, and a furrow running longitudinally along its convex margin, ending in an aper- 
 ture near one end of the seed. Within the shell is a kernel, consisting of two cotyledons, 
 weighing on an average about 46 grains, hard, white, and pulverizable, of a taste like 
 that of the ordinary edible leguminous seeds, without bitterness, acrimony, or aromatic 
 flavor. It yields its virtues to alcohol, and imperfectly to water.” It is used in the 
 form of an emulsion by the natives of Africa, as an ordeal when persons are suspected 
 of witchcraft. About twenty years ago. Dr. Christison very nearly fell a victim to his 
 zeal for science in experimenting on some specimens of this bean which had been sent 
 to Edinburgh by some African missionaries, dangerous symptoms having been produced 
 by 12 grains of the kernel which he swallowed. In 1861, Dr. Thomas R. Fraser tried 
 the effects upon himself of doses of 6, 8, and 10 grains. The general symptoms were 
 epigastric uneasiness, great feebleness, dimness of vision, salivation, giddiness, and irre- 
 gular, feeble, and slow heart’s action. About the same time, he made the interesting 
 discovery, that when placed on the eyeball this substance contracts the pupil, and pro- 
 duces near-sightedness; and it is now frequently employed for these purposes by ophthal- 
 mic surgeons. In 1864, 50 children w ere poisoned by eating these beans, which were 
 swept out of a ship at Liverpool. A boy aged six years, who ate six beans, died very 
 rapidly. The chief symptoms in these cases were griping, vomiting, and contracted 
 pupils; the face was pale, the eyes bright and protruding, and in trying to walk, the 
 children staggered as if they were drunk. Dr. Fraser, in a paper which he communi- 
 cated to the royal society of Edinburgh in 1866, maintains that, in mammals, death is 
 generally produced by a combination of syncope (faintness) with asphyxia (suffocation); 
 the symptoms of the one or the other depending on the dose, which, when large, at once 
 destroys the heart’s action. It has been used medicinally in small doses (one to ten 
 grains of the powder, or to ^ of a grain of the extract) in chorea, tetanus, general 
 paral 3 ’"sis of the insane, and other diseases of the nervous system. Being now a recog- 
 nized medicinal agent, it is satisfactory to know that the dangerous and even fatal 
 effects of excessive doses may be prevented by administering belladonna, (night-shade), 
 or its active principle, atropia, as a oounter-poison. This fact has been established by 
 Dr. Fraser in a communication to the royal society of Edinburgh, embracing the 
 results of 500 experiments on dogs and rabbits. So unmistakable is the power of 
 the antidote, that it can prevent even three times a fatal dose of the kernel from caus- 
 ing death in those animals. Belladonna has also an opposite action on the eje to that 
 of this substance, as it dilates the pupils and produces long-sightedness. When the 
 pupil IS contracted by Calabar bean, it may be dilated to its normal, or to a greater, size 
 by belladonna ; and when it is dilated by belladonna, it may be reduced to its normal, 
 or to a less, size by Calabar bean. 
 
 CALABASH TREE, Grescentia cujete, a tree found in the West Indies and in the 
 
283 
 
 CaJetaiA. 
 
 Calais. 
 
 tropical parts of America, of the natural order suborder crescentiacecB. 
 
 In height and size it resembles an apple-tree, and has wedge-shaped leaves, large whitish 
 fleshy flowers scattered over the trunk and older branches, and a gourd-like fruit, 
 sometimes a foot in diameter. The wood of the tree is tough and flexible, and is well 
 adapted for coach-making. But the most useful part is the hard shell of the fruit, 
 which, under the name of calabash, is much used in place of bottles for holding 
 liquids, and for goblets, cups, water-cans, etc. These shells may even be used as kettles 
 for boiling liquids, and they will bear this several times without being destroyed. 
 They are sometimes highly polished, carved with figures, tinged with various colors, 
 and converted into ornamental vessels. The rinds of gourds are sometimes similarly 
 vi^ied, and called calabashes. 
 
 CA'LABA TKEE. See Calophyllum. 
 
 CALABO'ZO, a t. in Venezuela, 120 m. s.s.w. of Caracas, in the plain w. of the river 
 Guarico; pop, 6000. It is an important point for commerce, but is subject to inunda 
 tions and 'extiemes of heat. The town has a college and a number of schools. 
 
 CALA'BRIA^ the s.w. peninsula of the kingdom of Italy, bounded n, by the provinct 
 of Basilicata. Its greatest length, from the southern border of Basilicata to cape Sparti- 
 vento, is about 160 miles. In its northern part it has a breadth in some places of more 
 than 60 m. , which suddenly contracts, between the gulfs of Sant’ Euf emia and Squillace, 
 to not more than 16. Its entire area is nearly 7000 sq.m., and its pop., in 1871, amounted 
 to 1,206,302. It is traversed throughout its entire length by the Apennine mountains 
 <q.v.), whose summits in the region in the n. of C., known as La Sila, and the Aspro- 
 monte, in the s., are crowned with pines, while forests of oak and beech cover their sides. 
 The valleys between the various hills afford rich pasture, especially in the n., to which, 
 in spring-time, whole colonie«3 migrate with their flocks and herds. There is no river of 
 any importance in C. ; but the valleys and plains, watered by such streams as there are, 
 are very fertile, yielding wheat, rice, cotton, licorice, saffron, the sugar-cane, etc., and 
 also the vine, orange, lemon, olive, fig, and mulberry, in luxuriance. Iron, alabaster, 
 marble, gypsum, and antimony are among its minerals. The fisheries of its coasts, par- 
 ticularly the tunny and anchovy fisheries, are important, and afford employment to a large 
 number of the population. Manufactures are in a backward state. Silk is the staple 
 article. The district is very subject to earthquakes. For purposes of administration, C 
 is divided into the provinces of Cosenza, which has a population of 440,468— capital, 
 Cosenza; Catanzaro, with a population of 412,226 —capital, Catanzaro; and Keggio, with 
 a population of 353,608 — capital, Reggio. 
 
 In ancient times, the name C. was given to the s.e. peninsula, nearly corresponding 
 to the modern province of Lecce, no portion of which is included in modern C., which 
 answers to the ancient Bruttium. The name C., as applied to the district now known 
 by that name, appears to have originated with the Byzantines some time prior to the con- 
 quest of the country by the Normans. A colony of the Vaudois or Waldenses of 
 Piedmont was founded in C. in 1340, and for some time enjoyed great prosperity, but 
 was extirpated in 1560-61. The destruction of this colony is one of the blackest 
 passages of the history of religion in Italy. 
 
 The Calabrians are a proud, fiery, and revengeful race. They were long celebrated 
 as among the fiercest of banditti; but the crimes which in former times made them 
 infamous are no longer frequent. They strenuously resisted the power of Frazsce during 
 the Napoleonic campaigns, and were not finally subdued until 1810. 
 
 CALA DITIM:. See Cocco. 
 
 CALAHOE'ItA, a t. in Spain in the province of Logrono, 24 m. s.e. of the chy of that 
 name, is situated on the small river Cidacos, about 2 m. from its confluence with the 
 Ebro. C, occupies the site of the ancient Galagurris, celebrated in classic history for the 
 obstinate bat unsuccessful resistance it offered (78 b.c.) to Afranius, Pompey’s legate, 
 when the citizens slaughtered their wives and children for food rather than surrender. 
 C. was the birthplace of Quintilian the rhetorician. It has an old cathedral, and atradej 
 in the agricultural produce of the rich district in which it is, situated. Pop. about 7000, 
 
 CALAIS, a city and port of entry in Washington co., Me., on St, Croix river at the 
 head of tide water, and opposite to St. Stephen in New Brunswick; the most north, 
 easterly seaport in the United States; 75 m. n.n.e. of Bangor; pop. ’70, 5944. The river 
 is crossed by several bridges, and the New Brunswick and Canada railroad touches a^ 
 St. Stephen. The St. Croix and Penobscot railroad from C, to Bangor is partially built. 
 There is a tide at C. varying from 20 to 30 ft. and steamers of the largest size come and 
 go freely. The St. Croix also furnishes abundant water-power, to which is due the great- 
 lumber trade of the city. Nearly 100 mills are engaged in making boards, laths, 
 shingles, etc. Ship-building is also an extensive business, and there are founderies, 
 machine shops, and dry dock, flour mills, and many other branches of mechanical 
 industry. Among the chief buildings are a city hall, an opera house, and a dozcR 
 churches. The city was nearly destroyed by fire in Aug., 1870, since which time it ha?i 
 been rebuilt in a more substantial manner. 
 
 CALAIS, a seaport t. of France, in the department of the Pas-de-Calais, on the strait 
 of Dover, near its narrowest part, the distance from the town of Dover not being more 
 
ralamander. 
 
 Calamy. 
 
 284 
 
 than 26 miles. There is here a lighthouse 190 ft. high. In 1879, it was determined to 
 encircle C. with vast new fortifications, and make it once more a fortress of the first 
 class. On the s. and e., low marshy grounds, which those in the city have the means of 
 submerging, stretch up almost to the walls. The town, adjacent country, and port are 
 commanded by the citadel, which is situated at the w. end of the town, while numerous 
 forts, by their cross-fire, defend the weakest points. The harbor, which is nearly dry at 
 low tide, and which has rarely more than from 15 ft. to 18 ft. of water in it. is formed 
 by two moles, which project about three quarters of a mile into the sea. Being one of the 
 chief ports of debarkation for travelers from England to France, it has daily steam 
 communication with Dover — with which it is also connected by submarine telegraph — and 
 with London and Ramsgate several times a week. The city, which is entered from the 
 sea by a drawbridge and gate, erected in 1685 by cardinal Richelieu, is square in form ; 
 its streets are, for the most part, broad and well paved; and its ramparts form pleasant 
 promenades. But it is on the whole a dull place. It has few objects of interest, the 
 most noticeable being the cathedral, wdth a fine picture of the “ Assumption” by Yandyck. 
 It has become a manufacturing town of some importance. The chief manufactures are 
 bobbin-net (tulle) and hosiery. Numerous mills have been built; steam-engines are 
 multiplying; and the inner ramparts have been removed to make room for factories. 
 Hats and gloves are extensively made. It has also distilleries, salt refineries, and ship- 
 building. C. sends many boats to fish for herring and cod on the coasts of Scotland and 
 Iceland. Water, which used to be scarce, is now brought in abundance from the neigh- 
 borhood of Guines. Its exports consist of eggs, corn, wine, brandy, etc. In 1873, a 
 school of artillery was established in C. Pop. ’76, 12,573. 
 
 In the 9th c., C. was but a small fishing- village. In the following c., it was much 
 improved by Baldwin lY., count of Flanders, and enlarged and strengthened by Philippe 
 of France, count of Bologne. After a long siege, it was captured by Edward Tll. of 
 England, whose hard terms, and the self-devotion shown by six of the citizens, who were 
 saved by queen Philippa, form one of the most interesting passages of history. The 
 English retained it until 1558, when it was captured by the duke of Guise, since which 
 time (with the exception of two years, 1596-98, when it was in the possession of the 
 Spaniards) it has remained in their hands. In 1659, Charles II. of England resided some 
 time here; and about a quarter of a century later, James II. arrived here with French 
 troops for the invasion of England, which the destruction of the French fieet prevented 
 him from accomplishing. Louis XYIII. landed here in 1814, after his exile. 
 
 CALAMANDEE WOOD, a cabinet- wood of the greatest value, resembling rose-wood, 
 but much surpassing it in beauty and durability. The tree which produces it is diospyros 
 Mrsuta (see Diospyros), a species of the same genus which produces ebony; it has oblong 
 obtuse leaves, which are downy beneath, and flowers without stalks and crowded; and 
 is a native of the s.e. of India, and of Ceylon, particularly of the forests at the base of 
 Adam’s Peak. But this tree “has been so prodigally felled, first by the Dutch and 
 afterwards by the English, without any precaution for planting or production, that it 
 has at last become exceedingly rare,” so that wood of considerable size is scarcely to be 
 procured at any price. It yields veneers of unusual beauty, ‘ ‘ dark wavings and blotches, 
 almost black, being gracefully disposed over a delicate fawn-colored ground.” Its 
 density is very great, a cubic foot weighing nearly 60 lbs., and it takes an exquisite polish. 
 The name C. W. is supposed to be a corruption of coromandel wood. 
 
 CAL'AMARY, Squid, or Sleeve-fish, LoUgo, a genus of cephalopodous mollusks of 
 the order dibrancMata, and family teuthidce. The body is of an elongated form, firm, 
 fleshy, tapering, and flanked towards its posterior extremity by two triangular fins. The 
 body contains a gladius, or internal shell, which is horny and flexible, narrow, and pen- 
 shaped, with the shaft produced in front. The mouth is furnished with eight arms. 
 Calamaries have the power of diffusing a dark-colored fluid around them in the water 
 like the cuttle-fish. The different species are distributed over all parts of the world. 
 Several are found in the British seas. In some seas, however, they abound much more, 
 and form a principal part of the food of some of the larger fishes and of whales. The 
 common C. or squid {L. mlgaris) is of a bluish color, speckled with purple. It grows to 
 nearly a foot and a half in length, without reckoning the head and arms, ■which add to 
 the length about half a foot more. See Cephalopoda. 
 
 CALAMAT'TA, Luigi, 1802-69; b. in Milan; an engraver who became famous by 
 an engraving of the head of Napoleon taken after his death at St. Helena: and also for 
 an engraving of Ary Scheffer’s “Francesca da Rimini.” His widow, Josephine, is a 
 painter of religious subjects. 
 
 CALAM'BUCO, a tree found only in the n. part of the island of Luzon, considered 
 superior to teak or live oak for shipbuilding. It is dark and hard, like teak, and is proof 
 against the destructive white ant of the Malay region. Warlike, mechanical, and agri- 
 cultural tools and implements are made from it. The same name applies to the tree that 
 furnishes the eagle-wood and aloes-wood of commerce, found in Siam and Sumatra. 
 The resin which it yields, is supposed to be produced by some disease in the tree, and is 
 used in eastern countries for incense. 
 
 CALAMIA'NES, a group of islands in the Eastern archipelago, in lat. about 11“ 25' to 
 12* 20' n., and long. 120° east. Calamianes, the name of the largest of the group, is 
 
285 
 
 Calainander. 
 
 Calamy. 
 
 about 85 m. long, and 15 m. broad, elevated and fertile, with abundance of animals, 
 such as deer and hogs. The group, with the northern part of Palawan, forms the Span- 
 ish province of C., the poorest in the Philippines. 
 
 CALAMICH'THYS, a cylindrical and extremely slender ganoid fish in the waters of 
 w. Africa, allied to the polypterus of the Nile. 
 
 CAL'AMINE, an ore consisting essentially of carbonate of zinc. The name is said to 
 be derived from the Greek and Latin calamus, a reed, because when fused it adheres to 
 the base of the furnace in a reed-like form. Its primary form is a rhomboid, and it 
 occurs in small obtuse-edged crystals, also compact and massive. It is white, yellowish- 
 white, brown, green, or gray; is sometimes opaque, sometimes translucent; is brittle, 
 and has an uneven conchoidal fracture. It occurs in beds and veins in rocks of various 
 kinds, but most commonl}’- in limestone. Mendip, Matlock, Alston Moor, Leadhills, and 
 Wanlockhead are British localities. C. is an important ore of zinc. In the duchy of 
 Limburg, in the Netherlands, about 1,500,000 lbs. of it are annually extracted from the 
 mines. 
 
 CAL'AMINT, Calamintha, a genus of plants of the natural order labiates, nearly 
 allied to balm (q.v.) (melissa). The Common C. {C. officinalis, formerly mdissa cala- 
 mintha) is not unfrequent in England. It has whorls of flowers [vcrticillasters), on forked 
 many-flowered stalks, and serrated leaves, with an agreeable aromatic odor, not unlike 
 that of some kinds of mint. It is used by the country people to make herb-tea, and as 
 a pectoral medicine. — The Lesser C. {C. n&peta), also an English species, is used in the 
 same way. 
 
 CAL'AMIS; 467-429 b.c. ; a sculptor of Greece, who made statues in bronze, ivory, 
 gold, and marble ; also famous for his representations of horses. 
 
 CAL'AMITE, a genus of fossil plants whose true position has not been satisfactorily 
 ascertained. They appear first in the Devonian rocks, and rise through the interme- 
 diate formations to the oolitic series, where they are represented by a single species. 
 They reach their culminating point in the coal-measures, where 39 species have been 
 determined. The tall straight stems rose from a swampy clay soil in profusion in the 
 forests of sigillaria, and formed a striking and characteristic feature in the coal flora, 
 though they supplied little material for the structure of coal. They are hollow-jointed 
 cylinders, with longitudinal furrows, giving the fossil the appearance of equiseta; from 
 this resemblance, botanists have generally considered them as huge “horsetails. 
 Hooker has been unable to detect any traces of structure, in carefully prepared speci- 
 mens, or the presence of those siliceous stomata which characterize equiseta, and which 
 would have been preserved in the fossil state, and Fleming has shown that the furrows, 
 are markings on the interior cavity. While, therefore, it is certain that they are not 
 “ horsetails,” the absence of fructification makes every attempt to give them their posi- 
 tion but guess-work. Hooker supposes them nearly allied to ferns, or club-mosses; 
 Brongniart ranks them among gymnospermous dicotjdedons. The upper part of the 
 stem, and the foliage, if any, have not been noticed. The root termination was conical, 
 the joints decreasing downwards in size and length. From the scars on the upper portion 
 of each joint, there proceeded filaments, which were supposed to be leaves, but are 
 really roots. These are shown in the species figured — a species common in the English 
 coal-field. 
 
 CAL'AMTJS, the reed pen which the ancients used in writing, was made of the stem 
 of a reed growing in marshy places, probably avundo donax (see Reed), of which the 
 best were obtained from Egypt. The stem was first softened, then dried, and cut and 
 split with a knife {scalprum librarium), as quill pens are made. To this day, the orien- 
 tals generally write with a reed, which the Arabs also call kaldm. 
 
 CALAMUS, a genus of palms. See Rattan and Dragon’s Blood. 
 
 CALAMUS, a name sometimes given to the sweet flag {acorus calamus). See Acorus. 
 See also next article. 
 
 CAL'AMUS AROMAT'ICUS, the name given by the ancients to a plant to which they 
 ascribed important medicinal virtues. It is by no means ascertained what the plant 
 is; the most probable opinion appears to be that of Dr. Royle, who supposes it to be 
 one of the sweet-scented grasses which yield the grass-oil (q.v.) of India, to which he 
 has given the name of andropogon calamus o,romaticus. See Lemon-grass. The C. A. 
 of the Greeks and Romans came from the east. The sweet calamus and sweet cane men- 
 tioned in Scripture (Exod. xxx. 23, and Jer. vi. 20) are probably the same with the cala- 
 mus aromaticus. 
 
 CALAMY, Edmund, an eminent English divine, was b. in London, 1600; studied at 
 Pembroke hall, Cambridge, where he attached himself to the Calvinistic party; and 
 afterwards became domestic chaplain to the bishop of Ely. In 1626, he was appointed 
 lecturer at Bury St. Edmunds, but resigned his office when the order to read the Book 
 of Sports began to be enforced. In 1639, he was chosen minister of St. Mary’s, Alder- 
 manbury, London. He now entered warmly into the controversies of the time, and 
 became noted as a leading man on the side of the Presbyterians. He had a principal 
 share in the composition of Smectymnus, a work intended as a reply to bishop Hall’s 
 
Calamy. 
 
 Calatrava* 
 
 286 
 
 Dinm Hiqht of Episcopacy, and one of the most able and popular polemics of the 
 day. Like the mass of the Presbyterian clergy, he was monarchical and not repub- 
 lican in his political opinions. He disapproved, therefore, of the execution of Charles, 
 and the protectorate of Cromwell, and did not hesitate to avow his attachment to the 
 royal cause. He was one of the deputies appointed to meet Charles II. in Holland, 
 and congratulate him on his restoration. His services were recognized by the offer of 
 a bishopric, which he refused from conscientious scruples. The increasing tyranny 
 and intolerance of the high church party compelled him give up even his royal 
 chaplaincy. He died Oct. 29, 1666. — Two of his sons were educated for a religious pro- 
 fession: the one, Dr. Benjamin C., became a high churchman, and wrote A Discourse 
 against a Scrupulous Conscience; the other, Edmund C., was ejected for non-conformity, 
 and had a son, also named Edmund, who acquired some reputation as the biographer of 
 the ejected clergy. 
 
 CAL' AMY, Edmund, d.d., 1600-1666; an English non-conformist clergyman, who 
 arranged for the press Baxter's Life and Times, and wrote Defense of Modern Non-con- 
 formity; The Non-conformists' Memorial; and published many sermons. 
 
 CALAND, or Kaland, a brotherhood of Roman Catholics devoted to charitable and 
 devotional works, dating from the 13th c., and of considerable extent in Germany, 
 Switzerland, and France. It degenerated so far that it was suppressed before the 
 reformation, its property being confiscated for public purposes. 
 
 CALAND, Pieter, b. Holland, 1826; an engineer, and son of an engineer; author 
 of works on encroachments of the sea, and the effect of the sea on rivers; but better 
 known for his improvements in the communication of Rotterdam with the ocean, 
 whereby he replaced a tortuous and difficult route by one easy and direct. 
 
 CALAN'DO, in music, an Italian expression, meaning diminishing by degrees from 
 forte to piano; it differs from the decrescendo or diminuendo, as the tempo, at the 
 same time, is slightly retarded, but not so much as in ritardando. The proper per- 
 formance of the C. is purely a matter of good taste and feeling, depending on the per- 
 former. 
 
 CALAN'DRA. See Corn Weevil. 
 
 CALANDRONE', a wind-instrument used by the Italian peasants, on which they play 
 simple melodies, and also sometimes accompany their national songs. It has the holes 
 of the common flute, but the intonation is produced as in the common pipe. 
 
 CALA'NUS, a Hindu philosopher, whose real name, according to Plutarch, was 
 Sphines. He was for some time in the camp of Alexander the great, but having 
 become seriously ill, he was burned alive at his own request. 
 
 GALAS, Jean, a Frenchman, remembered as the unhappy victim of fanaticism and 
 the shocking maladministration of justice, was b. at Lacapar^de, in Languedoc, Mar. 
 19, 1698. He lived as a tradesman in Toulouse, where he had a very good reputa- 
 tion. One evening after supper (Oct. 13, 1761), the eldest son of the 6. family, Marc 
 Antoine, a youth addicted to gambling, and subject to fits of deep melancholy, was 
 found hanged in the warehouse. There was not a shadow of a reason for doubting 
 that the unhappy young man had committed suicide; but popular rumor accused the 
 father, or other members of the C. family, of murdering the eldest son, “ because he 
 had contemplated conversion to Catholicism.” It was also asserted that a young man 
 named Lavaysse, who was in the house on the fatal evening, had been dispatched “by 
 the Protestants of Guyenne to perpetrate the murder. ” The clergy exerted all their 
 influence to confirm the populace in their delusion. At Toulouse, the White Peni- 
 tents celebrated with great solemnity the funeral of the young man, and the Dominican 
 monks erected a scaffold and placed upon it a skeleton, holding in one hand a wreath 
 of palms, and in the other an abjuration of Protestantism. The family of C. was, in 
 consequence of the popular excitement, brought to trial for the murder, and several 
 deluded and (most probably) some bribed witnesses appeared against them. A Catholic 
 servant-maid, and the young man Lavaysse, were also implicated in the accusation. C., 
 in his defense, insisted on his uniform kindness to all his children; reminded the court 
 that he had not only allowed another of his sons to become a Catholic, but had also paid 
 an annual sum for his maintenance since his conversion. He also argued from his own 
 infirmity that he could not have prevailed over a strong young man, and referred to the 
 well-known melancholy moods of the deceased as likely to lead to suicide; and, lastly, 
 he pointed out the improbability that the Catholic servant-maid would assist in such a 
 murder. But all his arguments proved unavailing, and the parliament of Toulouse 
 sentenced the wretched man — by a majority of 8 votes against 5 — to torture and death 
 on the wheel! With great firmness and protestations of his innocence to the last, the 
 old man died on the wheel. Mar. 9, 1762. His property was confiscated. His youngest 
 son was banished for life from France, but was captured by the monks, and compelled 
 to abjure Protestantism. The daughters were sent to a convent. The young man 
 Lavaysse was acquitted, and the widow of C. escaped into Switzerland, where she was so 
 fortunate as to excite the benevolent interest of Voltaire, wdio brought the whole affair 
 before the public, and, in his book Sur la Tolerance, proved that C. had fallen a victim 
 to religious hatred and popular fanaticism. A revision of the trial followed, and, after 
 
287 
 
 Calamy. 
 
 Calatrava. 
 
 full investigation, the parliament at Paris declared (Mar. 9, 1765) C. and all his family- 
 innocent. Louis XV. gave to the bereaved family the sum of 30,000 livres; but, strange 
 to say, neither the parliament of Toulouse nor the fanatical monks were ever brought 
 to account for this horrible judicial murder! 
 
 CALASA'YA BARK. See Cinchona. 
 
 CALASCIBET'TA, or Calatas-Cibetta (Saracenic = Castle of Xibeth, or Scibet), a 
 t. of Sicily, near its center, 54 m. s.e. of Palermo, in the province of Caltanisetta. The 
 town is mean and dismal looking, and is built on a steep and isolated height, the sum- 
 mit of which is 2570 ft. above the sea, and commands a magnificent view. It was 
 founded in 1080. The only object worthy of notice is the tower of the principal church, 
 which is of early architecture. Pop. 5600. 
 
 CALASIA'O, a t. on the island of Luzon (Philippines), with a population of 18,000» 
 who are engaged in the manufacture of straw hats, cigar cases, etc. 
 
 CALA'SIO, Mario de, 1550-1620; an Italian scholar, doctor of theology and profes- 
 sor of Hebrew in Rome, who made a Hebrew dictionary and grammar. He devoted 40 
 years of his life to a great work called Concordantm Sacrorum Bibliorum HebraiccB, which 
 was published after his death. 
 
 CALASPAR'RA, a t. of Spain, in the province of Murcia, 40 m. n.w. of the- city of 
 that name. The inhabitants, numbering 5275, are chiefiy engaged in agricultural pur- 
 suits. 
 
 CALATABELLO'TA, a t. of Sicily, in the province of Girgenti, and 27 m. n.w. of the 
 city of that name. In the immediate vicinity is the site of the ancient Triocala, the 
 chief fortress of the insurgents in the second Servile war, 103 to 100 b.c. Pop. about 
 6000. 
 
 CALATAFI'MI, a t. of Sicily, in the province of Trapani, situated 8 m. s.w. of 
 Alcamo, in a very fertile district. It is ill-built, and has a ruinous old Saracenic castle, 
 Kalat-al-Fimi, from which it derives its name. There is a remarkable Mosaic altar in the 
 church of Santa Croce. Here, in 1860, Garibaldi's troops defeated the Neapolitan sol- 
 diers. Pop. 9500. 
 
 CALATAGIRONE', or Caltagirone', a city of Sicily, in the province, and 34 m. s.w. 
 of the city, of Catania. It is well built, with wide streets, and has the fame of great 
 wealth. It has manufactures of cotton fabrics and pottery. Pop. ’72, 25,978. 
 
 CALATANAZOR', a t. of Aragon, Spain, about 10 m. s.w. of Soria. It is celebrated for 
 a great victory over the Christians obtained by Al-Mansur in 1001. Pop. 1500. 
 
 CALATAYUD', a city of Aragon, Spain, situated on the Jalon, near its junction with 
 the Jiloca, about 48 m. s.w. of Saragossa. It is built at the base of two rocky ridges, and 
 out of the ruins of ancient BilUlis, which lay about 2 m. to the east. The city is divided 
 into anew and old portion, the former of which is composed of mean old buildings. The 
 latter has some good streets and handsome squares. C. has a noble old castle, and 
 among its other most noteworthy public edifices are the two collegiate churches and the 
 Dominican convent. In the neighborhood are some curious stalactitical caves. It has. 
 manufactures of linen and hempen fabrics, woolens, paper, leather, etc., and a trade in 
 agricultural produce. Pop. 11,037. 
 
 CALATRA'VA, an order of knighthood in Spain, instituted at Calatrava (q.v.). The 
 statutes of the order, framed by the chapter-general of the Cistercian monks, were 
 sanctioned by the bishop of Toledo in 1164, and afterwards by the pope. At subsequent 
 periods, many privileges were added. After the death of the king, their patron, some 
 of the knights were no longer willing to obey the abbot, and they consequently sepa- 
 rated themselves from the monks, and elected a grand-master, Don Garcias de Redon. 
 At a later period, they again united themselves to the Cistercians, after they had gained 
 rich possessions from the Moors both in Spain and Portugal. When Castile had fallen 
 into anarchy, and the other kingdoms were exhausting themselves by internal feuds, the- 
 war against the unbelievers was almost entirely carried on by the knights of Calatrava. 
 Their almost uniform success, however, gave rise to rashness; the knights were defeated 
 by emir Jacob ben Yusetl, nearly all of them perished, and Calatrava was occupied by 
 the Moors. After this disaster, the knights transferred their seat to the castle of Salva- 
 tierra, by the name of which they passed for a long time afterwards. A truce of 12 
 years having been concluded, during which the order revived, the knights were able, _at 
 the battle of Las Navas de Tolosa, in 1212, again to turn the tide in favor of the ChriS' 
 tians. They then returned to Calatrava. Notwithstanding their splendid achievements^ 
 the knights of C. never possessed the vast wealth of their brethren of St. James of Com- 
 postella (q.v.), a fact which is probably to be accounted for by their having ceded a part 
 of their conquests to the orders of Alcantara and Aviz. But their grand-masters, who 
 were chosen from the highest families in Spain, were very powerful, and exercised a 
 vast influence on public affairs. They did not, however, escape the jealousy of the crown. 
 Two of them were accused of treason, and died on the scaffold; and on the death of the 
 13th grand-master, in 1489, the administration of the order was transferred to the king 
 by a bull of pope Innocent YIII. By way of compensation for the loss of their inde- 
 pendence, the knights were permitted to marry once, though they were still bound to 
 
Calatrava. 
 
 Calcination. 
 
 288 
 
 make vows of poverty, obedience, and conjugal chastity; and latterly to pnofess belief 
 in the immaculate conception. Their original costume consisted of a coat of white mail, 
 with a white scapulary, a black cap, and a pilgrim’s hood; but this dress the anti-pope 
 Benedict XIII., in 1397, granted them permission to exchange for a civil apparel. Their 
 present costume is a white mantle, with a red cross cut out in the form of lilies upon the 
 left breast; while the cross of the order has the same symbol on a silver ground. Two 
 convents for nuns were attached to the order, and were at one time richly endowed. 
 The nuns, attached to the order of C. in 1519, wore the dress of Cistercian nuns, with 
 the cross of the order on the left side of the capocli, fastened to the scapulary. 
 
 ^ALATEAVA LA VIEGA, a ruined city of Spain, situated on the Guadiana, about 13 
 m n.e. of Ciudad Real. In the middle ages it was a strongly fortified place, but nothing 
 no V remains but a single tower. Its defense against the Moors, undertaken by Ray- 
 mond, abbot of Fitero, and Diego Velasquez in 1158, after it had been abandoned by the 
 Templars, is famous on account of its having originated the order of the knights of 
 Calatrava, long one of the most honorable in Spain. The town was called C. la Viega, 
 or Old Calatrava, in order to distinguish it from the convent of the knights of the order 
 of Calatrava, erected in the neighborhood in 1314, and which was called Calatrava la 
 Nueva. 
 
 CALAVE'RAS, a co. in n. California, on the Calaveras, Stanislaus, andMokelumne 
 rivers, and the Stockton and Copperopolis railroad; 936 sq.m.; pop. ’80, 9094 — 1037 
 Chinese. Gold and copper mining are the leading occupations, with agriculture. The 
 grove of big trees is in this county. Co. seat, San Andreas. 
 
 CALAVE'RAS, a river in n. California, running from the Sierra Nevada w. to the 
 San Joaquin, on the border of Sacramento county. 
 
 CALBUR'GA, a t. of the Nizam’s dominions in Hindustan, about 110 m. to the w. of 
 Hyderabad. It stands on a tributary of the Beemah, which is itself a tributary of the 
 Kistna or Krishna. It has been successively the capital of Hindu and Mohammedan 
 sovereignties. 
 
 CA.LCAIEE GEOSSIEE (Fr. “coarse limestone”), the French representative of the 
 Bracklesham eocene beds. It consists of compact limestones, with seams of chert, and 
 intercalated marls and freestones. The fossils are fresh water and marine mullusca; so 
 abundant are they that in one spot near Grignon no less than 400 distinct species have 
 been procured. Associated with the fresh-water remains are the bones of reptiles and 
 mammalia. 
 
 CALC AIRE SILICETJX (Fr. ‘ ‘ siliceous limestone”) is the French representative of the 
 Bembridge eocsne strata. These compact siliceous limestones extend over a wide area 
 in the Paris basin. The few fossils they contain are fresh water and land shells. 
 
 CALCAREOUS, in chemistry, is a term applied to substances containing much lime 
 (Lat. calx). Thus, G. waters are those which hold in solution much carbonate and 
 sulphate of lime, and which are generally known as hard waters, and form a deposit in 
 kettles and other vessels when heated therein. C. rocks are those in which lime forms 
 the prevailing element. They may be chemically formed as in the case of tufas, 
 where a saturated solution of carbonate of lime in water is deposited from evapora- 
 tion or other causes; but they are generally aqueous rocks, the materials of which are 
 supplied by animal remains. Thus, many rocks, like the mountain-limestone, are 
 composed of shells, corals, and encrinites; while others, like chalk, consist of foramin- 
 ifera and fragments of other minute testacea. A crystalline structure, varying in 
 degree from the partially crystallized carboniferous limestones to the saccharine statuary 
 marble, is produced in calcareous rocks by metamorphic action. Oolite is a variety 
 of limestone composed of small egg-like grains resembling the roe of fish. The existence 
 of lime in rocks can always be detected by the application of dilute nitric or muriatic 
 acid, when it effervesces from the liberation of the carbonic acid. Pure lime is 
 obtained from calcareous rocks by calcining them — i.e., by driving off the carbonic acid 
 and other volatile matter by heat. — C. soils are produced from the disintegration of 
 calcareous rocks. When the rocks are perfectly pure, they generally yield barren soils, 
 as in many chalk and limestone districts of Britain; but when the lime is mixed with 
 clay, so as to form marl, and has a little vegetable matter added, it forms an excellent 
 though rather light soil. Calcareous soils are difficult of drainage, owing to the prop- 
 erty that soft lime has of retaining water, although it easily yields it up by evaporation. 
 Such soils are consequently soon dry at the surface after rain, but yet rarely suffer 
 severely from drought. 
 
 CALCAREOUS SPAR, or Calc-spar, the name usually given by mineralogists to car- 
 bonate of lime, rhombohedral in its crystallization. It differs from arragonite only in 
 crystallization. See Arragonite. C. S. occurs in all geological formations, and is one 
 of the most abundant of all minerals. It often completely fills cavities in rocks; and 
 although i t has been prevented by want of space from assuming a crystalline form is 
 readily divided by the knife and hammer into rhomboids, the primary form of its 
 crystals being a rhomboid, of which the greatest angles are 105° 5'. Its secondary forms 
 are more numerous than those of any other mineral. More than 700 have been observed. 
 One of the most common, a rather elongated pyramid^ is sometimes called dog-tooth spar. 
 
289 
 
 Calatrava. 
 
 Calcination^ 
 
 C. S. is colorless and transparent, except in consequence of impurities which may be 
 present in it; and when perfectly transparent, it exhibits in a high degree the property of 
 double refraction of light, which was first discovered in it by Bartholinus. The presence 
 of foreign substances frequently renders C. S. gray, blue, green, yellow, red, brown, or 
 even black. 
 
 The name Iceland spar has often been given to C. S., at least to the finest colorless 
 and transparent variety, because it is found in Iceland, massive in trap-rock. Slate spar 
 is a lamellar variety, often with a shining, pearly luster, and a greasy feel, of which 
 Wicklow in Ireland, and Glen Tilt in Scotland are localities. 
 
 CALCA'REOUS SPRINGS, springs charged with calcareous matter which is depos- 
 ited in the form of incrustations. Such deposit is called calcareous tufa, and takes the 
 form of other substances inclosed, such as leaves, twigs, and branches of trees. When 
 freshly quarried it is easily shaped, and is therefore convenient for building. The tem- 
 ples of Paestum are of this material, and the stone has acquired great solidity and 
 strength. In central New York such deposits are common, forming the marl below 
 swamps and in the bottoms of ponds. One of these springs at Clermont, France, has 
 formed a deposit of white concretionary limestone 240 ft. long, 16 high, and 12 wide. 
 
 CALCAEEOUS TUFA, Calc-tuff, or Tufaceous Limestone, a mineral which in its 
 chemical composition is nearly identical with limestone and marble; but is distinguished 
 by its spongy and cellular structure. It is generally rather soft, brittle, and friable, but 
 sometimes it is sufficiently hard to be used as a building-stone. The trarertino, used for 
 building at Rome, is a hard calcareous tufa. The color of C. T. is generally yellowish- 
 gray, sometimes yellow or yellowish-brown. It occurs massive, or assumes many 
 uncrystalline forms, as tubular, botryoidal (like clusters of grapes), cellular, etc. Some- 
 times it incrusts animal and vegetable remains. It is frequent in the neighborhood of 
 calcareous springs. It is sometimes used as a filtering-stone. 
 
 CALCAR, or KALCKER, John de, 1499-1546; a painter, disciple of Titian at 
 Venice, and perfected by studying Raphael; so good an imitator of Titian that his works 
 can scarcely be distinguished from those of that master. One of his pieces is a 
 “ Nativity” representing angels around the infant Savior, so arranged that the light by 
 which they are seen comes wholly from the child. 
 
 CALCASIEU, a parish in s.w. Louisiana, on the gulf of Mexico and Texan border; 
 5000 sq.m.; pop. ’70, 6733 — 1457 colored; in ’80, 12,488. The surface is level in broad 
 savannahs, and the soil very productive in corn, sugar, molasses, and cotton. Chief 
 town. Lake Charles Court-house. 
 
 CALCASIEU, a river in Louisiana, about 200 m. long, running into the gulf of 
 Mexico. Near its mouth is a broad expansion called C. lake. The river is not navi- 
 gable. 
 
 CALCED'ONY. See Chalcedony. 
 
 CALCEOLA'EIA (Lat. calceolus, a little shoe), a genus of plants of the natural order 
 scrophulariacece (q.v.), of which there are numerous species, natives of South America, 
 chiefly of that part of the Andes which is more than 9600 ft. above the sea, a few of 
 them reaching almost to the utmost limits of vegetation; although some are found in 
 lower and warmer situations, and some in the southern extremity of the American con- 
 tinent. They abound so much in some parts of Chili and Peru, as to give a peculiar 
 aspect to the landscape. The calyx in this genus is 4-partite ; the corolla, 2-lipped ; the 
 lower lip remarkably inflated, so as to form a bag; and the shape of the whole in some 
 species considerably resembling that of a slipper. There are only two fertile stamens, 
 and the capsule is semi-bivalvular with bifid valves. Some of the species are shrubby, 
 some herbaceous, almost all the herbaceous species being perennial. Many of them 
 have corymbs of numerous showy flowers. Yellow is the color which chiefly prevails 
 in the flowers of the original species, and next to it purple; but the art of the gardener 
 has succeeded in producing varieties and hybrids which exhibit many other rich and 
 delicate tints. Calceolarias have been florists’ flowers since about 1830, the curious 
 appearance of the flowers combining with their beauty to render them attractive, and in 
 no genus is the production of hybrids more easily or frequently effected. They are easily 
 propagated by cuttings. Few plants require more liberal supplies of water. They are 
 generally treated in Britain as half-hardy or as greenhouse plants. — Some of the species 
 are used in South America for dyeing. The roots of G. araehnoidea, a parent of many 
 of the hybrids in our gardens, are largely employed in Chili, under the name of relbum^ 
 for dyeing woolen cloths crimson. 
 
 CALCHAS, a Greek soothsayer in the time of the Trojan war who foretold the 
 length of the siege, and when the fleet was detained at Aulis by adverse winds, demanded 
 the sacrifice of Iphigenia. He is said to have died from vexation on being surpassed in 
 prophecy by another soothsayer called Mopsus. 
 
 CALCINA'TION, or Calcining (see Calx), is the process of heating or roasting in 
 furnaces or in heaps the various metallic ores. It is resorted to as the first stage in the 
 extraction of the majority of the common metals from their ores, and is essentially a 
 process of oxidation. 
 
 U. K. III.— 19 
 
f!!alcium. 
 
 Calculus. 
 
 290 
 
 CALCIUM is the metal present in chalk, stucco, and other compounds of lime. It 
 may be obtained by passing a powerful current of voltaic electricity through fused chlo- 
 ride of C, (CaCl), when the metal separates in minute globules. It is a yellowish-white 
 metal, can be rolled into sheets, and hammered into leaves, and is intermediate between 
 lead and gold in hardness. It is represented by the symbol Ca, has the atomic weight 
 or equivalent 30 (new system, 40), and has the density 1.578, or nearly half as heavy 
 again as water. At ordinary temperatures, it slowly tarnishes by oxidation; and when 
 placed in contact with water, it rapidly decomposes the water (HO), forming lime (CaO), 
 whilst hydrogen escapes. To be retained bright, C. must be kept under the surface of 
 naphtha. At a red heat, it melts and burns with a dazzling white light, accompanied bv 
 scintillations. See Lime. 
 
 CALCOTT, Sir Augustus Wall, r.a., a distinguished English landscape painter, 
 was b. at Kensington, London, in 1779. In 1803, he devoted himself to landscape paint- 
 ing; in 1810, he was made a member of the royal academy; was knighted in 1837; and 
 in 1844, made conservator of royal pictures. His landscapes are remarkable for their 
 beauty, clear definition of objects, good drawing, and truthful natural coloring. He has 
 been called the English Claude, a designation to which he is not altogether unentitled. 
 He died Nov., 1844. 
 
 CALCOTT, John Wall, a distinguished musical composer, elder brother of the 
 above, was b. at Kensington, 1766. Too nervous to be a surgeon, for which he was 
 intended, he devoted his attention to music, and in 1785 won three of the four gold 
 medals annually given by the Catch club, the admired 0 Sovereign of the Willing Soul 
 being one of the successful pieces. During the next ten years, he obtained twenty of 
 the medals given by the same society. In 1785, he was made bachelor, and five years 
 afterwards, doctor of music at Oxford. In 1805, he published his Musical Orammar; in 
 the following year his mind gave way under the continuous strain to which it had been 
 subject. He recovered again, but only for three years, when he relapsed, and continued 
 insane until his death in May, 1821. He was one of the most eminent composers belong- 
 ing to the British school of music, and especially celebrated for his glee compositions. 
 His choicest productions were published in two volumes by his son-in-law, Mr. Horsley, 
 in 1824. 
 
 CALCRAFT, William, d. 1879; the oflacial executioner or hangman of London , a 
 person of quiet and even gentle manners, who was looked upon by the ignorant as some 
 fearful being quite out of the natural order of humanity. As public executions were 
 stopped in 1860 his fame declined, and little was heard of him except through the exag- 
 gerated reports of the ignorant. The price for hanging is fixed in Britain at 14s. M., of 
 which 7s. M. is the fee, 4s. 6c?. for stripping the body, and 2s. 6c?. for the use of the 
 shell (coffin). C. received that price regularly; he made much more by traveling 
 expenses, perquisites, etc. He died in financially comfortable circumstances. Bull, 
 (prenomen unknown), the first English hangman whose name survives, lived in the 16th 
 century. The first person hanged in England was Maurice, a nobleman’s son. He was 
 executed in 1241, for piracy. Before C., Jack Ketch was the most famous of execution- 
 ers. He executed, among others, lord William Russell and the duke of Monmouth. 
 C. had retired from office some years before his death on account of advancing age. 
 
 CALC'-SINTER, a mineral, chemically identical with the purest marble and calcareous 
 spar, but peculiarly characterized by its fibrous structure. ^ It is formed from water 
 holding carbonate of lime in solution, and occurs generally incrusting the roofs, w'alls, 
 and floors of caves, particularly those in limestone rocks; often assuming curious and 
 even fantastic forms. Macalisters cave, in the isle of Skye, and the limestone caves of 
 Derbyshire, are the most celebrated British localities. But the stalactitic cave of Anti- 
 paros, in the Grecian archipelago, is a far more famous locality for this mineral, which 
 Is often called calcareous alabaster, and used for the same purposes with the true alabas- 
 ter (q.v.), to which it is in some respects preferable, particularly, as not being liable to 
 injury from exposure to the air. Volterra, in Tuscany, is another very famous locality 
 for calc-sinter. 
 
 CALCULATING MACHINE. The most remarkable application hitherto made of 
 machinery, is perhaps that through which it has been used to relieve the scientific 
 inquirer to a very great extent of the fatigue of manipulating figures, which consumes 
 so much of his time and energies. Various machines have been constructed for this 
 purpose, differing in the extent of their faculties — to use words more suitable to thi^- 
 ing beings than to engines — and somewhat in the principles of their construction. By 
 the arithmometer, for instance, a machine invented by M. Thomas of Colmar, all ordi- 
 nary arithmetical operations are executed without fatigue to the operator; and by a 
 machine contrived by M. M. Scheutz, which rests on the principle of differences (q-j h 
 on the turning of a wheel, the successive terms of any series whose law may be confided 
 to it, are produced — the machine at the same time pHnting a large proportion of its 
 results, and thus providing for the accuracy of its tables. It is a fact of which the 
 nation should be proud, that our countryman, Mr. Babbage, is universally acknowledged 
 as the instigating and guiding genius in the progress of these remarkable invention^ 
 Among his inventions was a diff'erence engine, of very comprelnfnsive powers, indeed 
 
291 
 
 Calcium. 
 
 Calculus. 
 
 capable of managing series so complex that the differences of its terms do not reach 
 zero until we ascend to the seventh order {vide art. Differences, Calculus of). An 
 immense range of nautical and astronomical tables lie within the limits just defined; 
 and the machine further tabulates approximately any series whatever that can be treated 
 by the method of differences. While engaged in constructing the difference machine, Mr. 
 Babbage, probably through his increased experience of the capabilities of machinery^ 
 was led to form a new conception — that, namely, of the analyticak machine. He actually 
 succeeded so far as to devise the means of making his machine perform all the elementary 
 operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division; and it is clear that all 
 changes that can be produced on quantity are merely combinations of these. If, then, 
 he could but have made his machine perform these operations at command, and accord- 
 ing to any special order, it could have clearly developed any function whatever whose 
 law is ascertained and fixed. A solution of this difficulty was suggested by the Jac- 
 quard loom (q.v.), in which the cards oblige a machine capable of working any pattern 
 to work out one particular pattern; and Mr. Babbage having succeeded so far as to 
 form a machine capable of executing any development, expected, by means of cards of 
 operations, to compel his C. M. to work according to one fixed law, and no other. Gov- 
 ernment, however, did not see its way to make the further grants required for this 
 machine, and at Mr. Babbage’s death in 1871, nothing further had been done towards 
 its completion. The difference machine is now lying, an unfinished curiosity, in the 
 museum of King’s college, London. Both machines will be found described in the 
 third volume of Taylor’s Scientijic Memoirs. The difference engine, constructed by Grant 
 for the university of Pennsylvania, is said to be less expensive than Babbage’s, and less 
 complicated than Scheutz’s, though provided like it with an apparatus for printing the 
 results. 
 
 CALCULUS, or Stone (in medicine), a hard concretion formed within the animal 
 body, in consequence of the deposition in the solid form of matters which usually 
 remain in solution. See Concretion. The concretions most commonly termed calculi 
 are those formed in the kidneys or bladder {urinary G.)\ and those formed in the gall- 
 bladder or biliary ducts {biliary C.). Both of these give rise to very painful symptoms, 
 and may even threaten life. 
 
 Biliary G., or gall-stone, may generally be presumed to exist when excessively severe 
 pain suddenly arises in the right side beneath the border of the ribs, and when in a few 
 hours jaundice comes on, showing that some obstruction has existed to the outward 
 flow of the bile. But the absolute proof that these symptoms depend on 0. is often 
 wanting. The pain is fortunately transitory, but is more severe while it lasts than 
 almost any other known form of suffering, unless it be that of a C. in the kidney and 
 ureter. It may be relieved by large doses of opium, but the remedy requires to be cau- 
 tiously^ given, as even in medical hands fatal accidents have occurred. Gall-stones, 
 when impacted in the ducts, sometimes have proved fatal; but much more frequently 
 they find their way, sooner or later, into the intestines. They are almost invariably 
 composed of cholesterine (q.v.), with coloring matter and mucus, arranged in layers in 
 a semi-crystalline disposition. 
 
 Urinary G. is a disease of all age^, I)ut most common in advanced life and in the 
 male sex. It is also very frequent in gouty persons, or among those who pursue seden- 
 tary occupations and live freely. It is rare among those who live much in the open air, 
 or who take much violent exercise, and use little animal food and wine. Among sail- 
 ors, it is peculiarly rare. In certain parts of the country, the disease is said to be fre- 
 quent, as in Norfolk, and perhaps along the e. coast of Scotland. In India, too, where 
 some of the predisposing circumstances mentioned above can hardly be said to prevail, 
 stone is by no means uncommon. It would appear, therefore, that the predisposing 
 causes of C. are still very imperfectly understood. In its early stages, the disease usu 
 ally presents itself in the form of grarel, shown by the passage of numerous very small 
 portions of gritty concretions, which may be observed in the urine as a deposit like 
 sand, or like small grains of Cayenne pepper. When such deposits occur frequently, 
 especially if they are present at the time of passing the urine, and not merely after it 
 has cooled, there is reason to apprehend the formation of calculus. If, in these circum- 
 stances, there are pains of a dull character in the loins, with occasional twinges of 
 sharper suffering, no time should be lost in seeking medical advice. If a fit of very 
 severe pain should occur in a person for some time affected with gravel, if the urine be 
 bloody, if agonizing tvringes, commencing in the loins, sting downwards into the thigh 
 or the groin, it is probable that a stone has already formed in the kidney, and is being 
 displaced towards the bladder. C. in the bladder is at first attended with little suffer- 
 ing, as compared with that caused by the stone in its passage downwards from the 
 kidney; but unless removed or evacuated, the C. is sure to enlarge, and it then becomes 
 the cause of one of the most painful diseases that afflict humanity. The existence of a 
 stone in the bladder, however, should never be taken for granted without a surgical 
 examination, as all the symptoms are deceptive in certain cases. The most striking, 
 and perhaps the most trustworthy evidence of stone in the bladder, apart from the use 
 of the sound (see Lithotomy), is smarting and burning pain experienced after the blad* 
 der has been emptied, together with occasional temporary stoppage in the flow of urine. 
 
Calculus. 
 
 292 
 
 The correct appreciation of all the symptoms, however, demands considerable famil- 
 iarity with such cases. 
 
 The discovery of the tendency to urinary C. at an early period of its growth, has 
 been greatly aided by the use of the microseope and of chemical tests. Generally speak- 
 ing, it may be said that whenever the urine, after standing for a few hours, can be 
 observed to contain more sediment than a very slight cloudiness towards the bottom of 
 Uie vessel, there is room for careful inquiry into the existence of some derangement of 
 Uie health. But all sediments are not equally apt to determine C., nor is the treatment 
 ©f the different kinds of sediment at all similar; care should therefore be taken to deter- 
 mine, from time to time, whether the character of the sediment may have undergone a 
 <phange, so that the treatment may be adapted accordingly. 
 
 The chief varieties of urinary C. are — 1. Uric acid (red sand); 2. Urates of ammonia, 
 eoda, lime, etc. (brick-dust sediment); 3. Phosphates of ammonia and magnesia lime, 
 etc.; 4. Oxalate of lime; 5. Carbonate of lime (chiefly in domestic animals); 6. Cystine; 
 7. Xanthic oxide (a very rare form, discovered by Dr. Marcet). Calculi are frequently 
 found to be composed of numerous successive layers, having a perfectly distinct chemical 
 composition. Urates and phosphates in particular frequently succeed each other, and 
 form what is called an alternating caleulus. 
 
 When C. has once fairly formed in the urinary passages, it seems probable that no 
 absolute cure exists except the removal of it, if possible, from the body (see Lithotomy 
 and Lithotrity) ; but in the stage of gravel, and still more in the earlier stages detected 
 by careful examination of the urine, much may be done to check the tendency to this 
 distressing and dangerous malady. The chief remedies consist in careful regulation of 
 the diet and mode of living, together with the use of solvents adapted to the particular 
 form of deposit found to be habitually present. See Urine. 
 
 CALCULUS, The Infinitesimal, otherwise sometimes called the transcendental 
 analysis, is a branch of mathematical science which commands, by one general method, 
 ihe most difficult problems in geometry and physics. The merit of the invention of this 
 powerful mathematical instrument has been claimed for Leibnitz, but is undoubtedly 
 due with equal justice to Newton, who laid the foundations for it in that celebrated 
 section of his Principia, in which he demonstrates the chief theorems regarding the ulti- 
 mate values or limits of the ratios of variable quantities. The view of one class of 
 writers is, that these distinguished men invented the C. simultaneously and independ- 
 ently; and it is the fact that Leibnitz’s system is unfolded from premises differing some- 
 what from those of Newton. See Fluxions. Another class of writers hold that New- 
 mn is the real inventor, and that to Leibnitz no more can be conceded than that he was 
 /he first who, using the suggestions of Newton’s genius, gave a systematic statement to 
 ihe principle of the transcendental analysis, and invented its appropriate symbolic lan- 
 guage. He had the doetrine of limits before him when he wrote, and did little more 
 than unfold more fully the logic of the processes therein suggested, and exhibit them in 
 algebraical forms. 
 
 The infinitesimal G. , both in its pure and applied forms, whether of geometry or 
 mechanics, is a branch of the science of number; its symbols are of the same kind, are 
 operated on according to the same laws, and lead to analogous results. It differs from 
 the other branehes of the science of number, such as arithmetic and algebra, in regard- 
 ing number as continuous — i.e., as being capable of gradual growth and of infinitesimal 
 increase, whereas they deal with finite' and discontinuous numbers. It differs from 
 ordinary algebra in another respect. In the latter, the values of unknown quantities, 
 and their relations with eaeh other, are deteeted by aid of equations established between 
 these quantities directly; in the C., on the other hand, the equations between the quanti- 
 ties are not directly established, but are obtained by means of other equations primarily 
 established, not between them, but certain derivatives from them, or elements of them. 
 This artifice is most fertile, for it can be shown that in the great majority of cases the 
 relations of quantities coneerned in any problem may more easily be inferred from 
 equations between these their derivatives or elements than between themselves. 
 
 It will be seen that the C. created a new notion of number — as continuous or 
 Rowing. It is now necessary, in order to a proper conception of it, that a precise 
 idea should be formed of a differential. The simplest idea of a differential is 
 unquestionably that got by considering number as made up of infinitesimal elements, 
 and a differential or “ infinitesimal” as being the value of the difference between a num- 
 ber at one stage of its growth and as another vei'y near it. Every finite number 
 being — in the view of the C. as first conceived by Leibnitz — composed of an infinite 
 number of these infinitesimal elements, certain axioms at once present themselves 
 regarding infinitesimals; as, for instance, “ that a finite number of them has no value at 
 all when added to a finite quantity.” Many other sueh axioms readily follow, from 
 which, on this view, the whole theory of the infinitesimal C. may be constructed. But 
 there are logical objections to this mode of forming the theory of the transcendental 
 analysis, and of three views that have been propounded, that now universally aceepted 
 as the most logical, and as being capable of the easiest application, is that founded on 
 the method of limits, already referred to as the invention of Newton. The meaning 
 gf a differential on this view will now be explained. 
 
293 
 
 Calculus* 
 
 It is clear that the C. can be applied only where numbers may have the continuous 
 character — i.e., where they are or may be conceived as being variable. If two unknown 
 quantities are connected by a single equation only, we clearly have the condition satis- 
 fied, as where y and x are connected by the equation 
 
 ( 1 ) y = m, 
 
 where is a sign denoting some function of x, as tan. x, cos. x, x^, etc. This equality 
 may be satisfied by innumerable values of y and x. One question which the C. solves 
 is, how does y vary* when x varies? To solve it, and, at the same time, show how the 
 doctrine of limits affects the definition of a differential, suppose x, y, and x-\-Dx, y-f- 
 Dy, to be two pairs of values of the variables which satisfy the above equation ; then 
 
 (2) y = F{x), and (3) y-{- Dy =F{x-{-I>x). 
 From (2) and (3) we have, by subtraction, 
 
 (4) Dy = F(x-]-Dx)-F(x); 
 
 "Whence we have the ratio 
 
 Dy __ JF\x-\-Dx)—Fx) 
 Dx~ Dx 
 
 This ratio will generally change in value as Dx and Dy diminish, till, as they both 
 
 vanish, which they must do simultaneously, it assumes the form Taking this form, 
 
 it ceases to have a determinate actual value, and it is necessary to resort to the method 
 of limits, to ascertain the value to which it was approaching, as Dx and Dy approached 
 zero. Let, then, dx and dy be any quantities whose ratio is equal to the limiting ratio 
 of the increments Dx, Dy, so that 
 
 dy 
 
 dx 
 
 limit 
 
 Dx 
 
 Dy 
 
 as Dx and Dy approach zero. Then dx and dy are the differentials of x and y. It may 
 be observed that where x and y are connected as above, they cannot vary independently 
 of one another. In the case assumed, x has been taken as what is called the independent 
 variable, the question being, how does y vary when x varies. If y were made the inde- 
 pendent variable, it would be necessary to solve the equation y = F{x), if possible, so as 
 to express x in terms of y. The result would be an equation x = q){y). This being 
 dx Dx 
 
 obtained, we should find -j— = limit as before. It will be seen that on this view 
 dy Dy 
 
 differentials are defined merely by their ratio to one another. Their actual magnitude 
 is perfectly arbitrary. This, however, does not render an equation involving differen- 
 tials indeterminate, since their relative magnitude is definite, and since, from the nature 
 of the definition, a differential cannot appear on one side of an equation without another 
 connected with it appearing on the other. 
 
 The idea of a differential being once comprehended, the reader will be able to under- 
 stand, in a general way, the main divisions of the C., which we shall now briefiy delin- 
 eate. So much is clear from what has been stated, that there must be two main divisions 
 — one by which, the primary quantities being known, we may determine their differen- 
 tials; and another by which, knowing the differentials, we may detect the primary 
 quantities. These divisions constitute the differential C. and integral C. respectively. 
 
 1. The Differential Calculus. — Recurring to the formula already given we know 
 
 = limit ^ = limit 
 dx Dx 
 
 F\x -i- Dx) - F\x) 
 Dx 
 
 It is clear that, in the general case. 
 
 F{x 4“ Dx) — F{x) 
 Dx 
 
 at the limit will still be some 
 
 dv 
 
 function of x. Calling it F\x), we have generally = F'(p^), F'(x) is called the first 
 
 ctx 
 
 differential coefficient of y or F(x). Being a function of x, it may be again differenti- 
 ated. The result is written 
 
 being the second differential coefficient of y or F{x); and again maybe a 
 function of x, and so capable of differentiation. Now it is the object of the differential 
 C. to show how to obtain the various differentials of those few simple functions of 
 quantity which are recognized in analysis, whether they are presented singly or in any 
 form of combination. Such functions are the sum, difference, product, and quotient of 
 variables, and their powers and roots; exponentials, logarithms; and direct and inverse 
 circular functions. The C. so far is complete as we can differentiate any of those func- 
 'tions or any combination of them — whether the functions be explicit or implicit; and 
 with equal ease we may differentiate them a second or any number of times. This C. 
 
Calcutta. 
 
 294 
 
 IS capable of many interesting applications as to problems of maxima and minima, the 
 tracing of curves, etc., which cannot here be particularly noticed. 
 
 2. The Integral Calculus deals with the inverse of the former problem. The 
 former was^ Given F{x), to find F'{x), F"{x\ and so on. The present is in the simplest 
 
 case — viz., that of an explicit function- Given = F\x), to find F{x). The methods 
 
 of the integral C., instead of being general, are little better than artifices suited to 
 particular cases; no popular view can be given of these. In many^cases, integration is 
 quite impossible. The explanation of integration by parts, by a^pproximation, definite 
 integrals, and singular solutions, is far beyond the scope of the present work. The reader 
 is referred to any of the numerous text-books on the subject. The integral C. has appli 
 cations in almost every branch of mathematical and physical science. It is specially of 
 use in determining the lengths of curved lines, the areas of curved surfaces, and the 
 solid contents of regular solids of whatever form. The whole of the lunar and planetary 
 theories may be described as an application of the integral C., especially of that branch 
 of it which deals with the integration of differential equations It is applied, too, in 
 hydrostatics and hydrodynamics, and in the sciences of light, sound, and heat. In 
 short, it is an instrument without which most of the leading triumphs in physical science 
 could never have been achieved. 
 
 Calculus op Variations. — The foundation of this C. is a method of differentiation, 
 but of quite a peculiar kind. As above explained, the object of the differential C. is to 
 determine the form which a function, such as F\x), will assume if x receive an indefi- 
 nitely small increment, such as Dx. In the C. of variations, the object is to ascertain 
 and lay down the laws of the changes supervening on a slight alteration of the form of 
 the function, or should F{x) become F'^x. This C. commands with ease a class of proth 
 lems called problems of isoperimeters, which were formerly insoluble. It has also 
 power over mechanical problems, and many departments of high physics cannot be 
 touched without its aid Mr. Airy and prof. Jellet have both written works on the sub- 
 ject, which may be consulted. 
 
 Calculus op Finite Dipperences, Calculus op Functions. — For brief notices 
 of these growths from the original transcendental analysis, see the articles under the 
 headings Dipperence and Functions. 
 
 CALCUTTA {Kali Ghatta, the ghaut or landing-place of the goddess Kali), the capital 
 of the province of Bengal, and metropolis of British India, is situated on the left bank 
 of the river Hoogly, an arm of the Ganges, in 22° 35' n. lat., and 88° 27' e. long., about 
 100 m. from the sea by the river. C. was founded by governor Charnock in the year 
 1686, by the removal hither of the factories of the East India company. In 1700, three 
 villages surrounding the factories having been conferred upon the company by the 
 emperor of Delhi, in recognition of a present made to Azim, a son of Aurungzebe, they 
 were forthwith fortified, and received the name of fort William, in honor of the reigning 
 king; but the place was subsequently termed Calcutta, the name of one of -the villages. 
 In 1707, C. had acquired some importance as a town, and was made the seat of a presi- 
 dency. In 1756, however, a great misfortune befell the rising town; it was unexpectedly 
 attacked by Surajah Dowlah, the nawaub of Bengal, and being abandoned by a number 
 of those whose duty it was to defend the place, it was compelled to yield after under- 
 going a two days’ siege. Only 146 men, however, fell into the enemy’s hands; but these 
 were treated with heartless cruelty. Cast at night into a confined cell, about 20 ft. square — 
 the notorious “ Black Hole” (q.v.)— they endured the most unheard-of sufferings, and in 
 the morning it was found that only 23 out of 146 had survived the horrors of that night. 
 The city remained in the hands of the enemy until eight months afterwards, when Clive 
 arrived in the country from England. In conjunction with admiral Watson, Clive suc- 
 ceeded in recapturing the town, and afterwards concluded a peace with the nawaub. 
 Soon after this, and subsequent to the important victory of Plassey, the possessions of 
 the East India company were greatly extended by means of grants made by the emperor 
 of Delhi, and C. once more resumed its career of progress, and advanced rapidly in 
 prosperity. In 1852, C. was erected into a municipality, the proprietors paying assess- 
 ments, and erecting commissioners to apply the proceeds of these assessments in cleans- 
 ing, improving, and embellishing the town. In 1837, the population of the town propei 
 amounted to 229,700; in 1872, it had increased to 447,601, or with Howrah and suburbs, 
 892,429 (1876, without Howrah, 776,579). Besides these, thousands of the three and a 
 half millions who sleep at night in the surrounding districts of Hoogly and the 24 per- 
 gunnahs, flock during the day to C., on foot, by boat, or by railway, to their daily toil. 
 'The inhabitants are mostly Hindus; but there is also a good proportion of Mohamme- 
 dans. About 20,000 are Europeans; 20,000 Eurasians, or the progeny of white fathers 
 with native mothers; and there is a considerable number of Armenians, Greeks, Jews, 
 Parsees, and negroes. The city extends for about 5 m. along the river, and is somewhat 
 less than 2 m. in breadth at its broadest part, the area being about 8 sq.m., and comprised 
 for the most part between the river and the circular road, a spacious roadway which 
 marks the landward boundary of the city proper. Beymnd this road there lie extensive^ 
 suburbs, the chief of which are Chitpore on the n. , Nunden Baugh, Bahar-Simleah, Seal-’' 
 dah, Entally, and Ballygunge on tbe c., and Bhowaneepore, Allipore, and Kidderpoi^ 
 
295 
 
 Calcutta. 
 
 "on the south. The villages of Sulkeah, Howra, and Seehpoor are situated on the opposite 
 side of the river, and contain the salt-golahs or warehouses of the government, extensive 
 manufactories, dock}^ards, and ship-building establishments. The appearance of the 
 city as it is approached by the river is very striking; on the left are the botanical gardens, 
 destroyed by the cyclones of 1867 and 1870, but since replanted, and the bishop’s college, 
 a handsome Gothic edifice, erected by the society for the propagation of the gospel in 
 foreign parts; on the right is the suburb of Garden Reach, with its handsome country- 
 seats and beautiful gardens ; further on are the government dockyards and the arsenal ; 
 beyond these is the Maidan esplanade, which has been termed the Hyde park of India, 
 being the favorite place of resort of the elite of C. for their evening drive. Here, near the 
 river, lies fort William, the largest fortress in India, having been constructed at a cost of 
 £2,000,000, and occupying, with the outworks, an area of about half a mile in diameter. 
 It is garrisoned by European and native soldiers, mounts 619 guns, and its armory con- 
 tains 80,000 stands of small-arms. Facing the esplanade, among other fine buildings, is 
 the government house, a magnificent palace erected by the marquis of Wellesley. Beyond 
 this, extending northwards along the river bank, is the Strand, 2 m. in length, and 40 ft. 
 above low water, with various ghauts or landing-places. It is adorned by many fine 
 buildings, including the custom-house, the new mint, and other government ofiices, and 
 the appearance given by these and other edifices has gained for C. the appellation of 
 “city of palaces.” Among its other places of interest, mention maybe made of the 
 Sudder Dewanee Adawlut, the principal court of justice; the town-hall, a fine building; 
 the Bengal club, writers’ buildings, bank of Bengal, Jesuits’ college, medical college, 
 university, theater, besides various churches, mosques, Hindu temples, and pagodas and 
 numerous bazaars. There are a number of monuments throughout the city, the most 
 noticeable being those erected to the marquis of Wellesley and sir David Ochterlony. 
 Although the European quarter of the town is distinguished for its fine public buildings 
 and commodious dwelling-houses, the quarters occupied by the natives present a very 
 different appearance, their houses being in most instances built of mud or bamboo and 
 mats, and the streets narrow and unpaved. Considerable improvements have, however, 
 been effected of late ; new and wider streets have been opened through crowded quarters ; 
 brick houses are fast replacing the huts, and an extensive system of drainage has been 
 carried out, to the no small advantage of the inhabitants. The cyclone of Nov., 1867, 
 •destroyed 30,000 native houses, and that of June, 1870, was likewise very destructive. 
 
 The water supply of C. has recently been very much improved. Formerly, the water 
 was kept in large tanks, interspersed throughout the city, whence it was borne by water- 
 carriers or bahisties in large leather bags. But within the past five years, a supply of 
 excellent water has been obtained from the Hoogly, about 15 m. above C., where it is 
 filtered and sent down by pipes in the usual way. The result of this has been a marked 
 improvement in the health of the city. Gas has now taken the place of the oil-lamps which 
 were formerly in general use for lighting the streets at night. Tramways have been 
 recently tried in some of the principal streets, but as yet with little success, A canal 
 ^irds a part of the city beyond the circular road 
 
 The communications of C. afford great facilities for its extensive commerce. There 
 are several lines of railway to various parts of India; the East Indian to Benares, Delhi, 
 and Multan, its present terminus, whence it is to be continued to Kurrachee ; the Eastern 
 Bengal, the extension of which to Gulundu was opened in 1871; and the Calcutta 
 and South-eastern to the mouth of the Ganges. The great Indian Peninsula 
 railway branches off from the East Indian, and connects C. with Bombay and 
 Madras. C. is also connected by electric telegraph with the principal towns of India, 
 and can communicate with England by three different lines. Uninterrupted communi- 
 cation is kept up with Great Britain by numerous and well-appointed steamers and sail- 
 ing-vessels. This intercourse has been greatly facilitated by the opening of the Suez 
 canal. Navigation on the Hooghly is dangerous, owing to the shifting sands; and 
 though much has been attempted, little has been effected in the way of remedying the 
 •evil. The river, adjacent to the city, varies in breadth from a quarter of a mile to 
 nearly a mile. Ships of 2000 tons can ascend to Calcutta. 
 
 The growth of scientific and literary societies, here and elsewhere in India among 
 the native communities, indicates a degree of progress and intellectual activity very 
 hopeful for the future of India. The principal of these in C. are the Bengal Asiatic 
 society, founded in 1784 by sir W. Jones, possessing a fine library, and a valuable and 
 extensive museum ; the Bethune society, for the promotion of intercourse between Euro- 
 pean and native gentlemen ; the Dalhousie institute, for the literary and social improve- 
 ment of all classes of the community; the Bengal social science association, and others. 
 The university of C. was founded in 1857, on the same basis as the London university, 
 tmd exercises functions over Bengal, the North-west Provinces, Oude, and the Central 
 Provinces. Colleges have been instituted to prepare intending students. In 1877, of 
 ^425 candidates for admission to the university of C., 1355 passed the required exam- 
 inations. Other educational institutions are numerous in Calcutta. The principal places 
 for religious instruction are Bishop’s college, intended chiefly for the education of mission- 
 aries and teachers, and the institutions of the established and free churches of Scotland 
 for the same purpose, all which are ably conducted. 
 
 C. may be regarded as the great commercial center of Asia. One third of the whole 
 
Cftldani. 
 
 Caldwell. 
 
 296 
 
 trade of India is done here. In 1877, the exports amounted to £26,596,018, exclusive 
 of treasure, and the imports to £16,693,813. The chief exports are jute, cotton, rice, 
 sugar, indigo, coffee, tea, saltpeter, linseed, shellac, buffalo horns, hides, castor-oil, 
 cutch, gunny bags, etc. The jute exported in 1872 was valued at £4,000,000, the indigo 
 at £2,500,000, and the tea at £1,400,000. In the same year 658 sailing-vessels and 301 
 steamers, with a total tonnage of 999,614, arrived in the Hooghly; and 637 sailing-ves- 
 sels and 301 steamers, with a total tonnage of 957,523, sailed. The principal industries 
 are sugar refining, cotton manufacturing, flour, saw, and oil mills, and ship-building 
 docks. Several newspapers are published. There are a few banks and numerous 
 insurance and other companies, with a chamber of commerce. Living is comparatively 
 cheap, and most of the luxuries of life, as well as its necessaries, are to be had in the 
 unpretentious shops of C. as readily as in most European towns. The annual fall of 
 rain averages 64 in. ; the temperature in the shade ranges in July from 78° to 87°, and 
 in Dec. from 60° to 79°. 
 
 C. is the headquarters of the governor-general of India, and the seat of the gov- 
 ernment, the supreme courts of justice, and of the court of appeal for the province of 
 Bengal. 
 
 CALDA'NI, Leopoldo Marco Antonio, 1725-1813; an anatomist and physician, b. 
 at Bologna, assistant to Morgagni, the celebrated anatomist of Padua, after whose death 
 C. was chosen his successor in the professorship. At the age of 76 he published a val- 
 uable series of anatomical plates. He had long before published Elements of Pathology 
 and Physiology. 
 
 CALDAS, or Caldetas (Lat. callidus, hot), the Spanish for warm springs {aquas, 
 waters, being understood), which are very abundant in the Peninsula, where a great 
 number of places have received their names from the presence of these mineral waters; 
 such as C. de Malavella, C. de Estrac, and C. de Mombuy, in Catalonia; C. de Reyes, 
 C. de Cuntis, and C. de Tuy, in Galicia; C. de Tai'pas, C. de Faveios, C. de Rainhas, 
 and C. de Renduse, in Portugal. The name has also passed into the topography of 
 the new world. There is a C. in Brazil, which is noted for its hot sulphur springs. 
 
 C AIDER, a river in the West Riding of Yorkshire. It rises in a marsh on the bor- 
 ders of Lancashire, near Burnley, runs tortuously e. in the deep valley of Todmorden, 
 past Halifax, Dewsbury, and Wakefield. It then runs n.e., and after a total course of 
 40 m., it joins the Aire near Pontefract, that river falling into the Ouse. The C. is 
 important as forming a considerable portion of the canal route through Yorkshire and 
 Lancashire, between the e. and w. coasts of England. 
 
 CALDER, Sir Robert, 1745-1815; a Scotch baron of an ancient family, second son 
 of sir Thomas Calder of Muirton. He served long and honorably in the British navy, 
 and as captain of the fleet took part in the battle off cape St. Vincent in 1797, for which 
 lie received a baronetcy and the thanks of parliament. He was a rear-admiral in active 
 service during the expected invasion of England by Napoleon, received both praise and 
 blame, and was tried by court-martial. He was acquitted of disaffection and coward- 
 ice, but reprimanded for not having done more to renew an indecisive engagement. 
 Three years before he died he was restored to command. 
 
 CALDERON (Don Pedro) De la Barca Henao y Riano, was b. in Madrid, in the 
 year 1601, and received his early education in the Jesuits’ college at Madrid. After- 
 wards, at Salamanca, he studied chiefly history, philosophy, and law. His poetical 
 genius was precocious. Before he was 14 years old, he had written a drama, El Carro 
 del Cielo (The Celestial Chariot). In early life he gained, by his poetry, and also by his 
 fertile invention of decorations, etc., for festive occasions, the patronage of several dis- 
 tinguished persons, and, on leaving Salamanca, 1619, was well received by the courtiers 
 at Madrid. Love of military adventure induced him to enter the army, 1625; and, after 
 serving with distinction in Milan and the Netherlands, he was recalled to the court of 
 Philip IV., a prince fond of theatrical amusements, by whom he was employed to super- 
 intend various court amusements, and especially to invent dramas for the royal theater. 
 In the following year C. was made knight of the order of San Jago, and took part in 
 the campaign in Catalonia. Peace brought him back to poetry. The king gave him a 
 pension, contrived to let him cultivate uninterruptedly his fertile dramatic genius, and 
 spared no cost in securing for his plays a splendid initiation on the stage. In 1651, C. 
 received from the head of the order of San Jago permission to enter the church, and, in 
 1653, was appointed to the chaplaincy of the archepiscopal church of Toledo; but, as 
 this post removed him too far from the court, he was appointed chaplain in the royal 
 chapel at Madrid, 1663, and received, with other favors, a pension charged on the reve- 
 nue of Sicily. In the same year he was appointed a priest in the brotherhood of San 
 Pedro, and shortly before his death, was elected by his brethren as their caplan mayor . 
 He died May 25, 1681, leaving his considerable property to the fraternity of San Pedro, 
 by whom a splendid monument to his memory was raised in the church of San Salvador 
 at Madrid. Fame and pecuniar}^ prosperity had accompanied his career. The chief 
 cities of Spain — such as Toledo, Seville, and Granada — had paid him, from tirne to time, 
 large sums of money for writing their Autos Sacrament ales, or Corpus Uiristi pieces. 
 In these compositions, C. excelled all his predecessors, and esteemed them more highly 
 
297 
 
 CaldanL 
 
 Caldwell* 
 
 than all his other works, though in many respects the latter display the author’s genius 
 quite as remarkably. 
 
 Spain numbers C. among its greatest poets, and criticism must allow that many of 
 the defects in his works are to be ascribed to circumstances, and the times in which he 
 lived, rather than to the native tendencies of his genius. He is characterized by bril- 
 liancy of fancy, elegance of versification, and a richness of detail, which from its very 
 abundance often becomes tedious. His collected dramatic works — including many pieces 
 of intrigue, heroic comedies, and historical plays, of which some deserve the title of 
 tragedy — amount, to 128. Among his romantic tragedies, the Constant Prince {El Prin- 
 cipe Constante) holds the first rank. Besides these, he wrote 95 Autos Sacramentales; 200 
 Loas (preludes); and 100 Saynetes (divertissements). His last play, Hado y Divisa, was 
 written in his 80th year. His shorter, poems have perished ; but his dramas have held 
 their place on the stage better than those of Lope de Vega himself. The most complete 
 edition of his dramas appeared at Madrid (9 vols., 1683-89); another was published by 
 Apuntes (10 vols., Madrid, 1760-63). Goethe and Sclilegel have made him popular in 
 Germany, but in Britain he is not well known, and in France not cared for. 
 
 GALDEEON, Don Serafin Estebanez, a Spanish poet, was b. at Malaga about the 
 commencement of the century, studied law at the university of Granada, and in 1822 
 became professor of poetry and rhetoric there. A volume of poems which he published 
 shortly after procured for him some distinction. Subsequently, he became an advocate 
 in his native city, but still continued faithful to the muses. In 1830, he went to Madrid, 
 where he published anonymously his Poesias del Solitario (1833). He also wrote several 
 articles on Andalusian manners for the Cartas Espaflolas, the only literary journal at 
 that period in Spain. In 1836, he was appointed civil governor of Logrono, but an acci- 
 dent obliged him to return to Madrid, where he devoted himself to collecting MSS. of 
 the old national literature, to be the basis of a great critical edition of the Candoneros 
 and Bomanceros. C. wrote likewise a fine novel, Cristianos y Moriscos. To the litera- 
 ture of the Spanish Moors he paid great attention. His Escenas Andaluces (1847) are a 
 series of lively sketches of Andalusian life. At his death in Feb., 1867, he left behind 
 him a work on the Expediciones y Aventuras de los Espafioles en Africa. The Spanish 
 government purchased his very valuable library. 
 
 CALDERWOOD, David, an eminent Scottish divine and ecclesiastical historian, 
 descended of a good family, was b. in 1575, and about 1604 was settled as Presbyterian 
 minister of Crailing, Roxburghshire. Opposed to the designs of James VI. for the estab- 
 lishment of Episcopacy in Scotland, on that monarch’s visit to his native country in 
 1617, he and other ministers signed a protest against a bill, then before the Scots parlia- 
 ment, for granting the power of framing new laws for the church to an ecclesiastical 
 council appointed by the king, and in consequence he was summoned before the high 
 commission of St. Andrews. Refusing to submit, he was committed to prison for con- 
 tumacy, and then banished the kingdom. He retired to Holland, and in 1623 published 
 there his celebrated controversial work, entitled Damascenum, etc., in which he 
 
 rigorously examined the origin and authority of Episcopacy. In 1622, a pretended 
 recantation of his protest was published at London by a venal writer, Patrick Scott. 
 While on the continent, 0. was known by the quaint appellation of Edwardus Dido- 
 clavius, being an anagram on his name Latinized. After king James’s death in 1625, he 
 returned to Scotland, and for some years was engaged collecting all the memorials relat- 
 ing to the ecclesiastical affairs of Scotland, from the beginning of the reformation there 
 to the death of James VI. In 1638, he became minister of Pencaitland, near Edinburgh ; 
 and in 1643 was appointed one of the committee for drawing up the Directory for Public 
 Worship in Scotland. He died at Jedburgh in 1651. From the original MS. of his His- 
 tory of the Kirk of Scotland, preserved in the British museum, an edition was printed 
 for the Wodrow society, in 8 vols., 8vo (Edin. 1842-45), edited by the Rev. Thomas 
 Thomson. 
 
 CALDIE'RO (ancient Caldarium), a decayed town of n. Italy, about nine m. e. of 
 Verona. Its thermal springs were in repute as early as the 1st c. of the Christian era, 
 and continued to enjoy popularity until the commencement of the 16th c., after which 
 they gradually became neglected, and are now little visited. The Austrians repulsed the 
 French here in 1796. 
 
 CALDWELL, a co. in w. Kentucky; 250 sq.m.; pop. 80, 11,280 — 2186 colored; gen- 
 erally level, and good pasture land. Iron and coal are found. Chief productions, corn, 
 tobacco, wool, etc. The Elizabethtown and Paducah railroad is projected through this 
 county. Co. seat, Princeton. 
 
 CALDWELL, a parish in Louisiana, on the Washita river; 528 sq.m.; pop. ’80, 
 5770 — 2897 colored. Surface hilly, producing corn, cotton, etc. Chief town,’ 
 
 Columbia. 
 
 CALDWELL, a co. in n.w. Missouri, on the Hannibal and St. Joseph railroad ; 435 
 sq.m.; pop. ’70, 11,390 — 284 colored; in ’80, 13,654. Products, corn, wheat, oats, but- 
 ter, wool, etc. Surface level, and soil rich. Co. seat, Kingston. 
 
 CALDWELL, a co. in n.w. North Carolina, on Catawba river and the Western 
 rsorth Carolina railroad; 450 sq.m.; pop. ’80, 10,288 — 1600 colored. Surface rough and 
 
Caldwell. 
 
 Calendar. 
 
 298 
 
 'partly mountainous, including a portion of the Blue Ridge. Productions, corn, wheat,, 
 oats, and tobacco. Co. seat, Lenoir. 
 
 CALDWELL, a co. in s.e. Texas, e. of the San Marcos river; 535 sq.m.; pop, ’70, 
 6572 — 2531 colored; in ’80, 11,757. Main business agriculture and stock-raising; an 
 undulating surface, well wooded and fertile. Co, seat Lockhart, near which are about 
 20 springs of some celebrity. 
 
 CALDWELL, a village and seat of justice of Warren co., N. Y., in a delightful 
 situation at the s. end of lake George — a place much frequented by t«urists. Near by 
 are the ruins of fort St. George of the French and Indian and revolutionary wars, 
 and on the site of fort William Henry is an immense hotel. Pop. of township, '80, 1223. 
 
 CALDWELL, Charles, 1772-1853; a native of N. C., celebrated as a physician,, 
 and writer on medical subjects. He published Blumenbach’s Elements of Physiology 
 translated from the Latin, edited the Port Folio, edited Cullen’s Pi'actiee of Physic, pub- 
 lished the Life and Campaigns of General Oreene; was professor of medicine in Transyl- 
 vania university; made a tour in Europe; established medical institutions in Louis- 
 ville ; wrote Memoirs of the Bev. Dr. Horace Holley, and left his own memoirs ready for 
 publication after his death. 
 
 CALDWELL, James, 1734-81; a native of Va. ; graduated at the college of New 
 Jersey; became pastor of the Presbyterian church in Elizabethtown. He was a zeal- 
 ous patriot during the revolution, and became obnoxious to the tories of the region, 
 who, in 1780, burned his house and church. Soon afterwards a British force from 
 Staten Island fell upon the village of Connecticut Farms, where C.’s wife and children 
 were temporarily resident, and the wife was killed by a shot while praying with her 
 children. It is of C. that the story is told of his distributing hymn books to the soldiers 
 short of wadding, with the exhortation “Now, boys, put Watts into them.” C. was 
 shot and killed by a patriot sentinel at Elizabethtown Point during a dispute about a 
 package that the soldier declared it his duty to examine. The soldier was tried by the 
 civil authorities for murder, convicted, and executed. A fine monument to “The 
 Soldier Parson ” was dedicated at Elizabethtown on the 64th anniversary of his death, 
 
 CALDWELL, Joseph, d.d., 1773-1835; a native of N. C.; graduated at the college 
 of New Jersey, and a tutor there from 1791-96; then chosen professor of mathematics 
 in the North Carolina university, and in 1804 was made president and professor of moral 
 philosophy. He wrote a Treatise on Geometry and letters on internal improvements. 
 
 CALEDO'NIA, a kind of poetical name applied to Scotland, being a resumption of 
 that given by the Romans to the country n. of the wall of Antoninus, which ran between 
 the firths of Forth and Clyde. Among the chief tribes of this region were the 
 Caledonii, whence the whole country has been called Caledonia. Tacitus speaks of the 
 Caledonians as having red hair, large limbs; being naked and barefooted; living in tents, 
 without cities; supporting themselves by pasturing cattle, by the chase, and by certain 
 ferries; addicted to predatory warfare; and fighting in chariots with shields, short 
 spears, and daggers. They are supposed to have been of Gaelic or Celtic origin, and to 
 have painted their bodies, whence the name Picti or Piets, by which, according to 
 many writers, they were afterwards known. Agricola was the first Roman gen. to 
 come in contact with the Caledonians. In 84 a.d. he defeated them, now united to 
 repel a common enemy, under their chief Galgacus, at the Mons Grampius (or Graupius), 
 the site of which has not been determined. The Romans overran the n.e. of Scotland as 
 far as the Moray firth, and formed maiw encampments (of which remains still exist), 
 but they never reduced the country to a Roman province. Roman coins and military 
 relics Jiave been found in connection with these camps. The name of Caledonii disap- 
 pears about the beginning of the 4th c., when the inhabitants of Scotland begin to be 
 spoken of as Scots (q. v.) and Piets (q.v.). 
 
 CALEDONIA, a co. in n.e. Vermont, on the New Hampshire border, intersected by 
 the Connecticut and Passumpsic River railroad; 650 sq.m. ; pop. ’80, 23,607. It is an 
 agricultural region, with streams that furnish abundant water-power, and has quarries 
 of granite and limestone, and sulphur springs. Co. seat, St. Johnsbury. 
 
 CALEDONIAN CANAL, a chain of natural lakes united by artificial canals, running 
 across the n. of Scotland in a straight line from n.e. to s.w., from the North sea 
 to the Atlantic, through Glenmore, or the Great Glen of Albin, in Inverness-shire, and 
 touching Argyleshire at the s. end. The sea and fresh water lochs in this line are 
 Beauly, Ness, Oich, Lochy, Eil, and Linnhe. The canal was formed to avoid the dan- 
 gerous and tedious navigation of ships, especially coasting vessels, round by the Pent- 
 land firth, cape Wrath, and the Hebrides; the distance between Kinnaird’s head and the 
 sound of Mull by this route being 500 m. , but by the canal only 250, with an average 
 saving of 9^ days for sailing vessels. The C. C. begins in the Beauly firth, near Inver- 
 ness, whence a cut of 7 m. joins loch Ness, which is 24 by mile. A cut of 6 m. 
 joins loch Ness and loch Oich, which is 34 by 4 mile. Another cut of 2 m. joins loch 
 Oich and loch Lochy, which is 10 by 1 m. ; and a fourth cut of 8 m. joins loch Eil at the 
 village of Corpach, 2 m. n. of fort William. This ship communication is 604 ni. long, 
 
299 
 
 Caldwell, 
 
 Calendar. 
 
 m. being through natural lochs or lakes, and 23 m. by artificial cuts. Each cut ia 
 120 ft. broad at surface, and 50 at bottom, and 17 deep. The highest part is loch Oich, 
 which is 94 ft. above the sea. There are in all 28 lochs, each 170 to 180 ft. long, and ‘40 
 wide, with a rise or lift of water of 8 feet. Eight of the locks, called Neptune’s stair- 
 case, occur in succession near the w. end of the canal. Some large mountain streams 
 between lochs Eil and Lochy are conducted in huge culverts under the canal ; and by a 
 new cut, the Lochy water is turned into the Spean. The practicability of this great work 
 was first shown by a survey under government in 1773 by the celebrated James Watt; 
 but it was not till 1803 that it was begun under Mr. Telford. The whole line was 
 opened for ships in 1823. After three years of repair, it w’as reopened in 1847. Ships 
 of 500 to 600 tons, fully laden, can pass through the canal. The canal and tonnage 
 rates for sailing vessels are each a farthing per mile per ton, and a half of this for vessels 
 under 125 tons. Steamers pay 2s. a ton. Of £1,368,203 expended on this canal, from 
 1803 to 1856, £1,242,387 were voted by parliament, and £90,748 were from canal dues. 
 Heavy gales and rains in Dec., 1848, and Jan., 1849, did much damage to the canal, 
 which was repaired by a government grant of £10,000. For the year ending April, 
 1876, the total income of the canal was £6741, whereas the expenditure amounted to 
 £9307 — a state of accounts by no means exceptional. There is regular steam commu- 
 nication by the canal between Glasgow and Inverness. The scenery is wild and roman- 
 tic on both sides of the canal, and has many other objects of interest to the tourist, such 
 as fort William, Ben Nevis, Inverlochy castle. Tor castle, the ancient seat of Cameron 
 of Locheil, Glen Spean, Glen Roy, with its parallel roads, fort Augustus, the fall of 
 Foyers, and Inverness. 
 
 CALEDONIA (NEW). See New Caledonia. 
 
 CALEDONIA SPRINGS, in Prescott co., province of Ontario, 40 m. from Montreal. 
 They are strongly alkaline, with additions of bromine and iodine, and are much fre- 
 quented by persons afflicted with scrofulous, cutaneous, and rheumatic disease. 
 
 CALEF, Robert, d. April 13, 1719; a merchant of Boston, who wrote More Wonders 
 of the Invisible Woiid, in answer to Cotton Mather’s book of similar title. C.’s book was 
 so obnoxious to the witch-persecutors of the time, that it was publicly burned at Harvard, 
 by order of Increase Mather, the president of the college, but it was of much value in 
 •ending the witchcraft delusion. 
 
 CAL'EMBOUBG, or Cal'embour, the French name for a pun (q.v.). 
 
 CALENDAR (from Cleands, q.v.), the mode of adjusting the months and other 
 divisions of the civil year to the natural or solar year. The necessity of some division 
 and measurement of time must have been early felt. The phases or changes of the 
 moon supplied a natural and very obvious mode of dividing and reckoning time, and 
 hence the division into months (q.v. — see also Week) of 29 or 30 days was, perhaps, the 
 earliest and most universal. But it would soon be observed that, for many purposes, 
 the changes of the seasons were more serviceable as marks of division ; and thus arose 
 the division into years (q.v.), determined by the motions of the sun. It was soon, 
 however, discovered that the year, or larger division, did not contain an exact number 
 of the smaller divisions or months, and that an accommodation was necessary; and 
 various not very dissimilar expedients were employed for correcting the error, that 
 arose. The ancient Egyptians had a year determined by the changes of the seasons, 
 without reference to the changes of the moon, and containing 365 days, divided into 
 twelve months of 30 days each, with five supplementary days at the end of the year. 
 The Jewish year consisted, in the earliest periods, as it still does, of twelve lunar 
 months, a thirteenth being from time to time introduced, to accommodate it to the sun 
 and seasons; this was also the case with the ancient Syrians, Macedonians, etc. The 
 Jewish montlis have alternately 29 and 30 days; and in a cycle of 19 years there are 
 seven years having the intercalary month, some of these years having^ also one, and 
 some two days more than others have, so that the length of the year varies from 353 to 
 385 days. — The Greeks, in the most ancient periods, reckoned according to real lunar 
 months, twelve making a year ; and about 594 b.c., Solon introduced in Athens the 
 mode of reckoning alternately 30 and 29 days to the month, accommodating this civil 
 year of 354 days to the solar year, by occasiona introduction of an intercalary month. 
 A change was afterwards made, by which three times in eight years a month of 30 
 days was intercalated, making the average length of the year 365^ days. See Metonic 
 Cycle. 
 
 The Romans are said to have had originally a year of 10 months; but in the times 
 of their kings, they adopted a lunar year of 355 days, divided into 12 months, with an 
 occasional intercalary month. Through the ignorance of the priests, who had the charge 
 of this matter, the utmost confusion gradually arose, which Julius Caesar remedied, 46 
 B.C., by the introduction of the Julian Calendar, according to which the year has 
 ordinarily 365 days, and every fourth year is a leap-year of 366 days — the length of the 
 year being thus assumed as 365:1- days, while it is in reality 365 days, 5 Hours, 48 min- 
 utes, and 50 seconds; or 11 minutes, 10 seconds less. Caesar gave to the months the 
 number of days which they still have. 
 
Calendar. 
 
 Calends. 
 
 300 
 
 So comparatively perfect was the Julian style of reckoning time, that it ixrevailed; 
 generally among Christian nations, and remained undisturbed till the renewed, 
 accumulation of the remaining error of eleven minutes or so had amounted, in 
 1582 years after the birth of Christ, to ten complete days; the vernal equinox falling on 
 the 11th instead of the 21st of Mar., as it did at the time of the council of Nice, 325 
 years after the birth of Christ. This shifting of days had caused great disturbances, 
 by unfixing the times of the celebration of Easter, and hence of all the other movable 
 feasts. And accordingly, pope Gregory XIII., after deep study and calculation, 
 ordained that ten days should be deducted from the year 1582, by calling what, 
 according to the old calendar, would have been reckoned the 5th of Oct., the 15th of 
 Oct., 1582; and, in order that the displacement might not recur, it was further ordained 
 that every hundredth year (1800, 1900, 2100, etc.) should not be counted a leap-year, 
 excepting every fourth hundredth, beginning with 2000. In this way the difference 
 between the civil and natural year will not amount to a day in 5000 years. In Spain, 
 Portugal, and part of Italy, the pope was exactly obeyed. In France, the change took 
 place in the same year, by calling the 10th the 20th of Dec. In the Low Countries, the 
 change was from the 15th Dec. to the 25th ; but it was resisted by the Protestant part 
 of the community till the year 1700. The Catholic nations, in general, adopted the 
 style ordained by their sovereign pontiff; but the Protestants were then too much 
 inflamed against Catholicism in all its relations, to receive even a purely scientific 
 improvement from such hands. The Lutherans of Germany, Switzerland, and, as 
 already mentioned, of the Low Countries, at length gave way in 1700, when it had 
 become necessary to omit eleven instead of ten days. A bill to this effect had been 
 brought before the parliament of England in 1585, but does not appear to have gone 
 beyond a second reading in the house of lords. It was not till 1751, and after great 
 inconvenience had been experienced for nearly two centuries, from the difference of the 
 reckoning, that an act was passed (24 Geo. II., 1751) for equalizing the style in Great 
 Britain and Ireland with that used in other countries of Europe. It was then enacted, 
 that eleven days should be omitted after the 2d of Sept., 1752, so that the ensuing day 
 should be the 14th. A similar change was about the same time made in Sweden and 
 Tuscany; and Russia is now the only country which adheres to the old style; an adher- 
 ence which renders it necessary, when a letter is thence addressed to a person in another 
 country, that the date should be given thus: — April or ; for it will be observed,, 
 
 the year 1800, not being considered by us as a leap year, has interjected another (or 
 twelfth) day between old and new style. 
 
 The C. of the French republic remains to be noticed, which was adopted in conse- 
 quence of a decree of the national convention in 1793. The midnight preceding the 
 autumnal equinox of 1792 was fixed upon as the new epoch, from which the years were 
 to be reckoned as the year 1, the year 2, etc. The year was divided into 12 
 months, each of 30 days, to which new names were given, as Venderrdaire (vintage 
 month), Brumaire (foggy month), etc. ; and instead of weeks, each month was divided 
 into periods of 10 days, called Primidi, Duodi, Tridi, etc. Five complementary days 
 were added at the end of each year, which were the Mte du Oenie, Fete du Travail, 
 etc. By Napoleon’s command, this new system was abolished, and the use of the 
 Gregorian C. resumed on Jan. 1, 1806. 
 
 CALENDAR, French Revolutionary. The French nation, in 1792, while reform- 
 ing so many other of the world’s customs, undertook the task of making a new calen- 
 dar, professedly upon philosophical principles. The new era began with the republic at 
 midnight of Sept. 21, 1792, and the months, seasons, and festivals were arranged as 
 follows: 
 
 AUTUMN. 
 
 Vendemiaire 
 
 Brumaire 
 
 Frimaire 
 
 
 
 
 WINTER. 
 
 
 Nivose 
 
 Pluviose 
 
 Ventose 
 
 
 
 
 SPRING. 
 
 
 Germinal 
 
 Floreal 
 
 Prairial 
 
 
 20 May to 18 June. 
 
 
 SUMMER. 
 
 
 Messidor 
 
 Fervidor, or Thermidor. . . 
 Fructidor 
 
 
 
301 
 
 Calendar* 
 
 Calends. 
 
 SAITSCTJLOTIDES, OR FEASTS DEDICATED TO. 
 
 Les Vertus The Virtues- 17 Sept. 
 
 Le Genie Genius 18 Sept. 
 
 Le Travail Labor 19 Sept. 
 
 L’Opinion Opinion 20 Sept. 
 
 Les Recompenses Rewards 21 Sept. 
 
 This calendar existed until the 10th Nivose, year of the republic XIV. (Dec. 31, 1805), 
 when the old system was restored by Napoleon. 
 
 CALENDAR of PRISONERS, in the practice of the criminal law in England, is the 
 technical name given to the list of all prisoners’ names in the custody of the sheriff 
 of each county, "prepared for the assizes. When the business is over, and the trials 
 concluded, the clerk of assize makes out in writing four lists of all the prisoners, with 
 separate columns, containing their crimes, verdicts, and sentences, leaving a blank col- 
 umn, in wdiich, if the judge has reason to vary the course of the law, he writes opposite 
 the names of the capital convicts — to he reprieved, respited, transported, etc. These four 
 calendars, being first carefully compared together by the judge and the clerk of assize, 
 are signed by them, and one is given to the sheriff, one to the jailer, and the judge 
 and the clerk of assize respectively keep another. If the sheriff receives afterwards 
 no special order from the judge, he executes the judgment of the law in the usual 
 manner, agreeably to the directions of his calendar. In every county this important 
 subject is settled with great deliberation by the judge and the clerk of assize, before 
 the judge leaves the assize-town ; but probably in different counties, with some slight 
 variation, as in Lancashire, no calendar is left with the jailer, but one is sent to the 
 home secretary. 
 
 CALENDERING is the term applied to the process of finishing by pressure the sur- 
 face of linen, cotton, and other textile fabrics, It is usually done by passing the fabric 
 between cylinders pressed together with great force; hence the origin of the term, which 
 is a corruption of cylindering. 
 
 The familiar domestic processes of starching and ironing afford the simplest illus- 
 trations of the object and result of calendering. The domestic mangle effects the 
 same object as the flat iron, and is a near approach in construction to the C. engines of 
 the manufacturer, no traversing- box of stones being used in the new patent mangles. 
 
 The cylindrical C. machine is said to have been introduced into this country by the 
 Huguenots, driven here by persecution. The cylinders were originally of wood, but the 
 liability to warping is a strong objection to them. 
 
 The modern calender usually consists of 4, 5, or 6 cylinders or “bowls,” set verti- 
 cally in a strong iron frame, with suitable driving gear, and furnished with weights sus- 
 pended over a pulley to produce the required pressure. This sometimes amounts to, or 
 even exceeds, 20 tons, including the weight of the rollers. In a 5-roller machine, the 
 arrangement is this : The center roller is of iron or copper; made hollow for the admis- 
 sion of steam or a red-hot heater, the one immediately above and that directly below 
 it are of paper; and the remaining two, one at the top and the other at the bottom, are 
 of cast-iron. At least one of the rollers is always of paper, as it has more elasticity than 
 metal, and is not liable to warp, like wood. It consists of sheets of brown paper or 
 pasteboard, densely packed and compressed on an iron axis. The edges of these form 
 the surface of the roller, which is turned and polished, an operation of some difficulty. 
 
 Before the final rolling in the C. machine, the fabric is first lightly smoothed by 
 passing over warm cylinders. Cotton goods are starched with a starch prepared from 
 flour, and the starch is sometimes thickened with plaster of Paris, porcelain clay, or a 
 mixture of these, to give a fictitious appearance of stoutness, which of course vanishes 
 when the article is washed. For ordinary C. the fabric is then simply passed between 
 plain cylinders, which produces the desired effect by flattening the otherwise round 
 threads. When, by means of a hot cylinder, with a pattern raised upon it, the amount 
 of this flattening is unequal on different parts of the cloth, the beautiful effect known 
 as “ watering” is the result. Glazing is produced by combined rubbing and pressure; 
 the rollers, one of which is heated, being made to move with different velocities, so that 
 one side of the fabric is rubbed as well as pressed by the roller whose surface moves 
 with the greater rapidity. Before the invention of these rubbing cylinders, glazing was 
 effected by rubbing the surface of the fabric with a polished flint. Calendering is done 
 on a very large scale in some manufacturing towns, such as Manchester and Glasgow. 
 In Dundee, where half a century ago it was not the custom to calender the linen at all, 
 there are now more than 1000 hands employed in this branch of industry. Machines 
 similar to the one above described, but with all the rollers of iron, and also called cal- 
 enders, are used for rolling india-rubber into sheets for coats, shoes, etc. 
 
 CAL'ENDS. The Romans made a threefold division of the month into calends, 
 nones, and ides. The C. always fell upon the 1st of the month; the nones in Mar., 
 May, July, and Oct., on the 7th; and the ides on the 15th; and in the remaining months, 
 the nones on the 5th, and the ides on the 13th. The C. were so named because it was 
 an old custom of the college of priests on the first of the month to call (or assemble) the 
 
Ualenture. 
 
 Calico-printing^. 
 
 302 
 
 people together to inform them of the festivals and sacred days to be observed during 
 the month; the nones received their name from being the ninth day before the ides, 
 reckoned inclusively; and the ides from an obsolete verb, signifying to divide, because 
 they nearly halved the month. This threefold division also determined the reckoning 
 of the days, which were not distinguished by the ordinal numbers first, second, third, 
 etc., but as follow's • Those between the C. and the nones were termed the days before 
 the nones; those between the nones and the ides, the days before the ides; and the remain- 
 der, the days before the G. of the next month. Thus, the ides of Jan. happening on the 
 13tli of that month, the next day would not be termed by a Latin writer the 14th, but 
 the IWi before the C. of Feb., reckoning inclusively, i.e., reckoning both the 14th of Jan 
 and the 1st of Feb., and so on to the last, which was termed jn'idie calendas. 
 
 Ad calendas Oroecas, a Roman proverbial saying, practically equivalent to "never.” 
 The Roman C. were often appointed as days for payment of rent, interest, etc. ; but 
 as the Greeks had no C., a postponement of payment ad calendas Grcecas, simply meant 
 a refusal to pay altogether. It is said that the emperor Augustus frequently used the 
 phrase, which afterwards became a proverb. 
 
 CAL ENTURE, a Spanish term {calentura) applied to a species of temporary delirium 
 or fever occurring on board ship in hot climates, and probably due to the effect of 
 exposure to the direct rays of the sun. The descriptions of the disease seem rather fan- 
 ciful and contradictory, and the term is nearly obsolete, Dictionnairedes Sciences 
 MMicales. 
 
 CALEPI'NO, Ambrogio, 1435-1511, an Augustine monk who devoted his life to 
 making a polyglot dictionary. The latest edition comprises 11 languages, some of them 
 added by Passerat and others. 
 
 CALHOUN, a co. in n.e. Alabama, on Coosa river, and Selma, Rome and Dalton 
 railroad; 1170 sq.m. ; pop. ’80, 19,591 — 5440 colored. Surface uneven and in some parts 
 mountainous. Productions agricultural. Marble, limestone, lead, and iron abound, and 
 some gold has been discovered. Co. seat, Jacksonville. 
 
 CALHOUN, a co. in s. Arkansas, on the Washita and Moreau rivers; 600 sq.m.; 
 pop. ’80, 5671—2088 colored. Surface rolling or level, and soil good; productions agri- 
 cultural. Co. seat, Hampton. 
 
 CALHOUN, a co. in w. Florida, on the gulf of Mexico, w. of Appalachicola river; 
 464 sq.m. ; pop. ’80, 1579— 396 colored. Surface level and fertile, producing corn, tobacco, 
 etc. Co. seat, Abe’s Spring. 
 
 CALHOUN, a co. in s.w. Georgia; 300 sq.m.; pop ’80, 7024 — 4670 colored. It is 
 level, with fertile soil, but little cultivated. Co. seat, Morgan. 
 
 CALHOUN, a co. in s.w. Illinois, between the Illinois and Mississippi rivers; 260 
 sq.m.; pop. ’80, 7471. Near the rivers the land is low and subject to inundation; in 
 other parts marked by high bluffs and table-lands. Productions agricultural. There 
 are coal-fields in the w. section. Co. seat, Hardin. 
 
 CALHOUN, a co. in w. Iowa, on Coon river and the Dubuque and Sioux City rail- 
 road; 600 sq.m.; pop. ’70, 1602; in ’80, 5595. Productions agricultural. Co. seat. Lake 
 City. 
 
 CALHOUN, a co. in s.w. Michigan, on St. Joseph river and the Peninsular and 
 Michigan Central railroads; 720 sq.m.; pop. ’80, 38,452. Soil rich; surface generally 
 level; productions agricultural. Co. seat, Marshall. 
 
 CALHOUN, a co. in n. Mississippi, on the Yallabusha river; 800 sq.m.; pop. ’80, 
 13,492—3301 colored. Productions, corn, cotton, butter, etc. Co. seat, Pittsboro. 
 
 CALHOUN, a co. in s.e. Texas, on the gulf of Mexico and including Matagorda 
 island; 684 sq.m. ; pop. ’80, 1739—548 colored. Surface level, and soil poor with little 
 timber. The San Antonio and Gulf and the Indianola railroads traverse the county. 
 Co. seat, Indianola. 
 
 CALHOUN, a co. in w. West Virginia, on the Little Kanawha river; 300 sq.m.; 
 pop. ’70, 2939 ; in ’80, 6074. An agricultural region. Co. seat, Grantsville. 
 
 CALHOUN, John Caldwell, an eminent American statesman, descended from an 
 Irish family who founded the Calhouns’ settlement in South Carolina, was b. at Abbe- 
 ville, S. C., Mar. 18, 1782. Having gained distinction at the bar, he sent to con- 
 gress in 1811, where he soon made himself the leader of the war-party against England. 
 Author of the tariff of 1816, so favorable to his native state, he in 1817 was named min- 
 ister of war by president Monroe, and reduced the confused state of affairs m his 
 department to order, and made a great reduction in the expenditure of the army without 
 sacrificing its efficiency. ^ ^ ^ i • u i • 
 
 The early part of C.’s career was marked by broad and patriotic views, to which h^ 
 subsequent preference of southern interests presented an unfavorable contrast. The tariff 
 of 1828 not being very favorable to the southern states, C. still adhered to the govern 
 ment, hoping that the president, Jackson, would veto the measure; but as this hope was 
 disappointed, C. went to South Carolina, and there (1829) carried in the legislature tlie 
 notorious resolution, ^‘that any state in the union might annul an act of the Federal 
 
303 
 
 Calenture. 
 
 Calico-printing, 
 
 government.” To this decision, Virginia, Georgia, and Alabama gave in their adhe- 
 sion, and threatened the dissolution of the union. President Jackson promptly used 
 energetic measures to make this resolution of no effect. C. lost popularity, and 
 despairing of reaching the presidency, resigned his vice-presidency; but soon afterwards 
 was elected to the senate. In 1838, he delivered his famous speech on slavery, and con- 
 tinued to agitate on behalf of the slave-holding interest and for a dissolurion of the 
 union, both with voice and pen, until his death, which took place at Washington, Mar. 
 31, 1850. In his private character, C. was blameless; but in his career as a statesman he 
 is understood to have implanted in the minds of his partisans those principles which 
 culminated in the late war for the dissolution of the union. During many years, he 
 had been employed in writing his work on The Philosophy of Government, in which he 
 vindicates the doctrine of state sovereignty, and which, along with other works, was 
 posthumously published. 
 
 CALIA'NO, a small t. of the Austrian Tyrol, situated on the left bank of the Adige, 
 about 9 m. s. of Trent. It figures in history as the place where the Austrian archduke, 
 Sigismund, won a signal victory over the Venetians in 1487. Being a plaoe of consid- 
 erable military importance, it was also contested in the campaigns of 1797 and 1809. 
 
 CALIBEE, or Caliber, is a technical name for the diameter of the bore of a fire-arm, 
 whether a piece of ordnance or a small-arm. The ordnance from which solid shot are 
 projected are usually denoted by the weight of each shot, as 24-pounder, 68-pounder, 
 etc.; but mortars, and such guns as project shell or hollow shot, are more usually 
 denoted by the C., such as 13-inch mortar, 10-inch shell-gun, etc. The C. of the chief 
 kinds of fire-arm will be noticed under the proper headings; but it may here be observed, 
 generally, that the C. of English ordnance has been greatly increased within the last 
 fifty years, partly by boring up old guns, and partly by casting new. 
 
 CALICO-PRINTING is that department of the art of dyeing which takes cognizpce of 
 the production of a colored pattern on cloth. It appears to have been first practiced at 
 Calicut in India — hence the term calico; and the pallampoors, or large cotton chintz 
 counterpanes, which have been manufactured in the East Indies for centuries, are evi- 
 dence of the successful practice of the art in that country. From the East Indies, the 
 art spread to Asia Minor and the Levant, thence to Augsburg in Bavaria ; from whence, 
 at the beginning of the 18th c., it spread to Alsace in France, to Switzerland, and ulti- 
 mately to England and Scotland. The term is strictly applicable to the production of 
 colored patterns on cotton cloth or calico ; but as now employed, it includes all the pro- 
 cesses followed in the formation of a colored pattern on cotton, linen, worsted, and silk 
 goods, as also mixtures of two or more of these, such as the fabric called de laine, which 
 is composed of cotton and worsted. 
 
 The first operation connected with the printing of cloth is the removal of the surface 
 hairs or minute threads which communicate a fibrous down or nap to the surface of the 
 cloth, and if allowed to remain, would interfere with the uniform application of the 
 colors. The surface down is got rid of by the process of singeing, during which the 
 cloth is drawn over a red-hot iron or copper bar or plate, or through a series of gas jets. 
 The apparatus generally used for hot-plate singeing consists of a furnace surmounted by 
 a rnetal plate, which is sometimes ridged on the surface. The cloth having previous!}'- 
 been joined at the ends, to make a long length, and been placed on a winch-roller, is first 
 brought in contact with roller brushes, which raise the nap on the cloth, then passes over 
 the white-hot metal cylindrical bar, and is wound on to a second winch-roller. The pro- 
 cess is repeated twice on the face of the cloth, being the surface to be printed on, and once 
 on the back. Gas-singeing is accomplished by drawing the cloth through brushes, and 
 then over a horizontal pipe, perforated with rows of small holes, or slit from end to end, 
 so that the gas issuing therefrom burns as a narrow sheet of fiame. The cloth is not 
 only allowed to come in contact with the burning gas, but the flame is transmitted 
 through the cloth, and a suction-apparatus is often placed immediately above, so as to 
 draw the flame through more effectually. When well singed, the cloth undergoes the 
 process of bleaching (q.v.), and is thereafter calendered. See Calendering. 
 
 There are several modes of applying the colors to cloth, and these are respectively 
 named— 1. The madder style; 2. The padding style; 3. Topical style; 4. Resist or reserve 
 style; 5. Discharge style; and 6. China blue or pottery style. These various processes 
 are at one in being intended to fix upon the cloth the different colors; but they differ 
 from each other more or less in the several steps through which the cloth is passed, 
 though occasionally there is little or no line of separation ; and at times the cloth is 
 treated by one method, and subsequently by another style. 
 
 The madder style is that in which a certain fixing agent or mordant is printed on the 
 cloth, which is then introduced into the coloring matter in a dye-vat, when the mordant, 
 having an attraction alike for the fiber of the cloth and for the coloring matter, acts the 
 part of glue or paste, and cements the color to the cloth. Originally, madder was the 
 only coloring substance employed in this style ; but nowadays, by far the greater num- 
 ber of dyestuffs, vegetable and animal, including cochineal, logwood, etc., are attached 
 to cloth in this manner. The fixing agents or mordants generally employed are different 
 strengths of red liquor (acetate of alumina), iron liquor (acetate of iron), and mixtures of 
 these. These are thickened with wheat-starch, potato-flour, roasted starch or dextrine. 
 
Calicut. 
 
 304 
 
 and gum-arabic, so that the mordant may not run when it is placed on the cloth by the 
 pattern-block or by the printing-machine. After the mordant has been imprinted on 
 the cloth, the latter is hung in a warm airy room, where it can easily dry, but where it 
 is at the same time surrounded by a moist atmosphere. The result is, that the mordant 
 IS decomposed, the acetic acid is evolved, and the alumina or iron is left attached to the 
 fiber of the cloth in the state of an insoluble sub-salt, which cannot be dissolved by 
 water. As some of the mordant is still left in its original soluble condition, it is neces- 
 sary to wash the cloth free from this, else, during the dyeing operation, the soluble part 
 of the mordant would run on to those parts of the cloth not intended to be colored, and 
 thus produce a blotted appearance. To obviate this, the cloth, having undergone the 
 process of drying and aging, is then introduced into a vat containing water, through 
 which is diffused some cow-dimgj dung substitute — a preparation of bone ash, sulphuric 
 4icid, carbonate of soda, and glue — or bran. The result of this process of dunging is the 
 removal of the soluble part of the mordant, as also the starch or thickening agent, leav- 
 ing the decomposed or insoluble mordant adhering to the fiber. The terms dang-^xmg, 
 ^abstitute-fixmg, and bran-fLxmg, have reference to the employment of one or other of 
 these agents at this stage of the operation. When the cloth has been well washed from 
 the dunging, it is introduced into the vat or dye beck containing the coloring matter. 
 The whole is heated by steam-pipes, and the cloth being placed on a sparred reel kept in 
 motion, is repeatedly wound out of the vat, and returned thereto. The result is, that 
 wherever the mordant adhered to the cloth, the coloring matter is attached thereto, and 
 little or no trace of color adheres to the unmordanted parts. The last operation is the 
 clearing or brightening, during which the colored cloth is introduced into warm baths of 
 w'ater containing soda, soap, or, for the more delicate tints, bran, and is thereafter acted on 
 by weak acid solutions. The object is to clear the colors, and at the same time to confer 
 upon them the property of resisting the fading action of the air and sun for a much 
 longer time. The different shades of color which can be obtained from the same mad- 
 der beck or vat, with different mordants, are very numerous, and include reds, lilacs, 
 purples, chocolates, and blacks. Thus, when a weak solution of red liquor (acetate of 
 alumina) is employed as the mordant, a light red tint is procured ; wdth a stronger alumin- 
 ous mordant, a deep red is formed on the cloth ; with a more or less dilute solution of 
 iron liquor (acetate of iron), the cloth is colored lilac, violet, or purple; with a strong 
 solution of iron liquor, black is obtained. Indeed, the same piece of cloth stamped in 
 different places with the various strengths of aluminous and iron mordants, and mix- 
 tures of these, and immersed in the madder-bath, will be obtained dyed with all the 
 shades mentioned ; and in this manner many of the beautiful variegated colored dresses 
 and handkerchiefs are prepared for market. 
 
 The padding style in calico-printing is intended mainly for the impregnation of cloth, in 
 whole or in part, with mineral coloring substances. When the cloth is to be entirely colored, 
 it is immersed wholly in a vat containing the mordant. When the color is to appear as a 
 pattern on the fabric, the mordant is applied by a pattern block, or by the printing- 
 machine. In either case, the cloth is thereafter thoroughly dried, and washed in vari- 
 ous solutions, and then introduced into a vat containing the substance to form the color. 
 Thus, if a piece of cloth is to be entirely impregnated w4th chrome yellow, it is first 
 treated or padded in a solution of 8 parts of bichromate of potash (KO,2Cr03)to a gallon 
 of water, dried, and then placed in a vat containing a solution of 6 or 8 ozs. of acetate 
 or nitrate of lead (PbOA, or PbONOs) to the gallon of water. The result is that the 
 chromate of lead (PbOCrOs) is formed in the tissue of the cloth; and when the latter is 
 washed and dried, the yellow color still adheres to the cloth firm and fast. To print a 
 yellow pattern on cloth, 7 to 9 ozs. of acetate of lead, and the same quantity of nitrate 
 of lead, are dissolved in a gallon of water, thickened with starch, and placed upon the 
 cloth according to pattern. After drying, the cloth is first immersed in w^ater contain- 
 ing a little carbonate of soda, and ultimately in a solution of bichromate of potash, when 
 the pattern becomes fixed in bright yellow, insoluble in water. To produce Prussiun 
 blue on cloth, it is treated with acetate and sulphate of iron, dried, washed with w'arm 
 chalk-water, and immersed in a very weak solution of yellow prussiate of potash. A 
 pattern in Prussian blue is produced by printing a pattern in the cloth with the iron 
 solutions thickened with gum, and thereafter proceeding as above. Chrome green is 
 produced in a similar way, by using sulphate and acetate of copper, thickened with 
 glue, and thereafter arsenious acid with potash; and so also other colors, such as iron 
 buff or chamois, manganese bronze, etc. 
 
 The topical style in calico-printing is the process whereby certain coloring matters which 
 are insoluble in water, and cannot therefore be applied to cloth by the modes suggested 
 under the madder and padding stjies, are treated at once with the mordant, and the 
 mixture by one operation transferred by block, or otherwise, directly on the surface or 
 top of the cloth, and hence the term topical. Indigo, safflower, and arnotto are instances 
 of such insoluble coloring substances; and when these and other dye-stuffs, such as log- 
 w’ood and Brazil w*ood, are treated with w^ater, thickened with starch and nitro-muriate 
 of tin (knowm as spirits) added, with occasionally a little of other salts, such as nitrate 
 of copper, the result is the formation of spirit-colors, wiiich can be printed on the sur- 
 face of cloth, and possess a certain degree of fixity. The permanency of these spirit- 
 colors, however, is very much increased, and the general appearance improved, by after- 
 
805 
 
 Calicut. 
 
 "wards subjecting the goods to the action of steam in a wooden chest or box, when tlie 
 term steam-colors is applied. 
 
 The resist style in calico-printing is that in which certain materials are placed on the sur- 
 face of cloth, to protect it from the adherence of the mordants, and, consequently, to keep 
 that part of the cloth from being attacked by the coloring matter. These materials are 
 termed resists, reserves, or resist- pasters, and they are divisible into mechanical and 
 ohcmical. The mechanical resists are such substances as fats, resins, oils, wax, and 
 pipe- clay, A common resist for silk and woolen goods is a mixture of 2^ of resin and 1 
 of suet; and it is principally in the color-printing of silk and woolen dresses and hand- 
 kerchiefs that mechanical resists are employed, though they are occasionally used for 
 the printing of cottons. The chemical resists may act on the mordant or on the color. 
 Thus, if it be desirable to remove the mordant, and thus leave certain parts of the cloth 
 unable to attach color, the printing of a pattern with some acid substance on the cloth 
 will form with the mordant a soluble salt, which can be readily removed by washing, 
 whilst the parts which have not been so acted on by acid are not dissolved away by the 
 washing, and still retain the full power in the color-vats to cause the adhesion of the 
 color. For this purpose, where an iron or aluminous mordant has been employed, it is 
 customary to print thereon in the requisite pattern, lemon-juice or lime-juice (containing 
 citric acid), tartaric or oxalic acid, and bisulphate of potassa, or a mixture of two or 
 more of these, thickened with pipe-clay. China-clay, gum-arabic, dextrine (British gum), 
 4 ;um-senegal, or a mixture of these; occasionally, chloride of tin is employed. Sulphate 
 of zinc, sulphate and acetate of copper, and the chloride of mercury, are used to resist 
 the adherence of indigo blue. 
 
 The discharge style in calico-printing comprehends the employment of similar materials 
 to those used in the resist style, but after the cloth has been colored or dyed, and for the 
 purpose of discharging the color, or bleaching the cloth at certain parts, according to pat- 
 tern. The dischargers for organic coloring matters are chlorine and chromic acid. The 
 chlorine is employed in the form of bleaching-powder (q.v.), and the cloth already dyed 
 is printed with a solution of tartaric acid (or other acid), thickened with pipe-clay and 
 gum, then dried, and passed through a solution of bleaching-powder, when the decolor- 
 ation occurs, as already explained under Bleaching. The chlorine is also applied by 
 placing a number of folds of colored cloth between perforated pattern-plates, and sub- 
 jecting the whole to great pressure; a solution of chlorine (obtained by adding an acid 
 to a weak solution of bleaching-powder) is allowed to percolate down through the per 
 forations of the plates, and the cloth immediately underneath, so that only those spots 
 are bleached, while the rest of the cloth is so highly compressed as to keep the liquid 
 from coming in contact therewith. The well-known Turkey-red handkerchiefs are 
 patterned in this way. The chromic acid is generally employed in discharging indigo 
 color. The cloth, already entirely blue, is soaked or padded in bichromate of potash, 
 and then an acid discharger printed thereon; and wherever the acid discharger (tartaric, 
 oxalic, citric, or hydrochloric acid) comes in contact with the blue cloth containing the 
 bichromate of potash, chromic acid is liberated, and destroys the color. ‘Instead of 
 acting upon the colored cloth, the discharger may be employed to carry off the mordant. 
 Thus, cloth treated wholly with a mordant, and thereafter printed with a pattern in 
 acid, has the mordant removed at those parts where the pattern block has placed the 
 acid. Mineral colors can also be discharged in a similar way. 
 
 The China blue or pottery stylem calico-printing is a modification of the topical style, 
 where indigo is deposited on cloth in the insoluble state, and is thereafter manipulated 
 with, so as to impregnate the cloth with the indigo more or less strongly, and thus pro- 
 duce different shades of blue. 
 
 The above descriptions of the various operations in calico-printing have special refer- 
 ence to cotton cloth; and though many steps of the manipulative processes apply equally 
 well to linen, silk, worsted, and de laines (worsted and cotton), yet considerable modifi 
 cations in mode of treatment and material employed are required in the successful 
 color-printing of all texture containing animal fiber, such as silk and wool. Where 
 the printing of such fabrics differs essentially from the processes already indicated, 
 special reference will be made under Silk and Wool. The different coloring mat- 
 ters employed in calico-printing being identical with those used in dyeing, will be 
 considered under the general popular title Dye-stuffs; and the mode of compounding 
 these into the various colors and shades, will be more appropriately introduced under 
 Dyeing. 
 
 CALICUT, a seaport of the district of Malabar, which, though on the w. side of the 
 peninsula of Hindustan, yet forms part of the presidency of Madras. In lat. 11° 15' n., 
 and long. 75° 50' e., it is distant from Goa and Bombay respectively 300 and 566 miles. 
 It was the first spot in India visited by Vasco da Gama, being then the chief emporium 
 on the coast, with stately dwellings and magnificent pagodas. So populous and power- 
 ful was it, that it twice repulsed the Portuguese, slaying their commander in 1509, and 
 expelling Albuquerque himself, g,fter a momentary success on his part, in 1510. It 
 stands near the mouth of a small river of the same name, appearing to have possessed 
 at one time a tolerably good haven. Gradually, however, this harbor has been filled up 
 with sand ; and now its anchorage is merely an open roadstead, at a distance, at least 
 U. K. HI.— 20 
 
California. 
 
 306 
 
 for large vessels, of 2 or 3 m. from land. Independently of this physical disadvantage, 
 the ravages of war and the competition of superior localities contributed to the decay of 
 Calicut. Accordingly, in 1792, when it fell into the hands of the English, the city was 
 little better than a ruin. Since then, it has made considerable progress, and in 1871 was 
 found to have 47,962 inhabitants. From C. calico is understood to have derived its 
 name, just as cambric from Cambrai, in the n.e. of France. 
 
 CALIFORNIA. This name was at first applied to a peninsula on the w. side of Mexico, 
 but was gradually extended to an indefinite portion of the adjoining continent, as far n. 
 as the parallel of 42°. The original C., however, and its augmentation were distin- 
 guished from each other as old and new, lower and upper. In 1848, partly by conquest 
 and partly by purchase, continental C., down to the parallel of 32° 28', was ceded to the 
 United States. After existing as a territory for two years, it was, in 1850, constituted 
 one of the United States, bounded n. by Oregon, e. by Nevada and Arizona, s. by Lower 
 C., and w. by the Pacific. Between the two Californias of the present day, the Ameri- 
 can one and the Mexican one, there is nothing in common but the name. — 1. Mexican G. 
 is the peninsula above mentioned, which, though considerably longer than Great Britain, 
 is yet so narrow as to be very little larger than Scotland. From end to end, it is one 
 ridge of mountains, which here and there rise to about 5000 ft. above the sea. A few 
 favored spots yield fruits and grains in abundance; but, generally speaking, the produc- 
 tions are unimportant, for even trees, and those of no great size, are found only towards 
 the southern extremity of the country. The population does not exceed 25,000 — the 
 oldest and most considerable town, Loretto, on the e. side, containing barely 1000 inhab- 
 itants. On the w. side is the magnificent harbor, peculiarly valuable on a coast so desti- 
 tute of shelter, formed by the bay of Magdalena and the island of Santa Margarita. — 2. 
 American G., vaguely claimed, under the name of New Albion, by Drake for England 
 in 1579, lay unoccupied till 1767, when it was invaded by Franciscan friars, the succes- 
 sors in Mexico of the newly expelled Jesuits. These zealous apostles, backed, when 
 necessary, by armed coadjutors, planted various missions, bringing under their infiu- 
 ence, such as it was, the great mass of the aborigines. Under such circumstances, the 
 new province became pre-eminent, even in Spanish America, for everything that could 
 paralyze the progress of a community. Anglo-Saxon speculators engrossed most of the 
 trade; American trappers walked through the land as if it had been their own; the 
 Muscovites established, in the n., a town under the ominous title of Hoss or Russia; and 
 a Swiss adventurer of the name of Sutter, who had carved out for himself a New Helve- 
 tia, virtually set the government at defiance. But the discovery of gold in Sutter’s 
 mill-race during 1847, and the political transfer of 1848, taken together, changed, as if 
 by a miracle, the aspect of affairs. The matchless harbor of San Francisco became the 
 grand mart on the Pacific, presenting a center of attraction to the restless and energetic 
 of every race and every clime. Between 1850 and 1855, the population increased from 
 92,597 to 327,000; in 1870, it was 560,247; and in 1875, it was above 800,000, of whom 
 75,000 werg Chinese. The total yield of gold in this state up to 1875 was about 
 $1,000,000,000. In 1874, the value of the gold and silver produced was $20,300,531, 
 and in 1875, $17,753,151. C. possesses the richest quicksilver mine in the world — that 
 of New Almaden — which at one time produced from 2,500,000 lbs. to 3,500,000 lbs. 
 per annum. It now yields about 1,000,000 lbs. In 1864, 15,000 tons of copper were 
 exported, to be smelted at Swansea and Boston, but not nearly so much is now pro- 
 duced. Platinum has been found in many of the placers. There is coal in nearly all 
 the coast counties; and asphaltum is produced by many springs along the southern 
 coast. Other mineral products are iron, tin, and borax. The yield of wheat in 1870 
 was 16,676,702 bushels; of barley, 8,783,490. In the year 1875, 3,000,000 gallons of 
 wine were made, the product of 30,000,000 vines. Silk culture is making rapid prog- 
 ress; and the woolen factories of C. consume nearly 6,000,000 lbs. of wool annually, 
 while about 30,000,000 lbs. are exported. Manufacturing industr}^ has lately greatly 
 increased, the chief manufactures being woolen goods, flour, iron, glass, wine, sugar, 
 and silk. The amount of taxable property, real and personal, as assessed in 1878, was- 
 $584,583,651. The state debt amounted in the same year to $3,403,000. 
 
 The country is mountainous, and is cut into coast and interior by a subordinate range 
 from Oregon. The interior is subdivided into the valleys of the Sacramento and the 
 San Joachim — two rivers from the n.e. and the s.e., which enter the noble haven of San 
 Francisco. The former is the chief seat of the “diggings.” Since the completion of 
 the Pacific railway, terminating in San Francisco, C. has been visited by many pleasure- 
 seekers, attracted by its magnificent scenery. The most celebrated district is the 
 Yosemite valley (q.v.). C., with a lovely and salubrious climate, produces fruits and 
 
 grains freely, under advantageous circumstances of soil and situation. In the growth 
 of timber, however, it appears to be almost unrivaled. Fremont measured one tree 
 tliat was 21 ft. in diameter, or 66 in circumference; and another has been seen, which, 
 with a length of 150 yards, is nearly 120 ft. in girth. A sequoia gigantea in IMariposa 
 county is 274 ft. in height. Besides San Francisco, the state contains the cities of 
 Sacramento (the capital), Oakland, Stockton, San Jose, Los Angelos, Marysville, and 
 San Diego, with the second best port in the state. There are several Protestant and 
 Catholic colleges in C. , and education is progressing. 
 
307 
 
 California. * 
 
 CALIFORNIA {ante). This name, originally given to a portion of western North 
 America, was apparently taken from a Spanish romance published in 1510, in which the 
 author speaks of “ the great island of C., where a great abundance of gold and precious 
 stones is found,” The coast of the present C. was explored by Cabrillo, in 1542, as far 
 up as cape Mendocino, in 42° north. In 1578, sir Francis Drake, who was plunder- 
 ing Spanish commerce, coasted along as far as 48° n., and landed to refit his ships 
 .either in sir Francis Drake’s bay or the bay of San Francisco — probably in the for- 
 mer. In 1602, the bays of San Diego and Monterey were discovered by Viscaino, and 
 then came an interval of a century and a half before settlements began to be made. The 
 Jesuits, who had missions in lower. C., made some settlements in the present C. about 
 1760; but in 1767 they were expelled from the country by the order of the king of Spain, 
 and their property was turned over to the Franciscans, who established a number of 
 missions, and prospered well until Mexico became independent (1822); thenceforward 
 they rapidly declined, and in 1840 were broken up altogether. The treatment of the 
 natives by these missions was such as to promote their worldly welfare, but was not 
 .especially notable for intellectual improvement; indeed, it is charged that the Indians 
 were little better than slaves under this rule. There were in all 21 missions, the first 
 founded in 1769, the last in 1820. They were all on or near the coast or bay of San 
 Francisco, and the priests displayed excellent judgment in selecting for their settlements 
 the best garden spots in the country. The Indian population was large until about the 
 time of the cession to the United States. In 1734, the Indians drove out the Jesuit mis- 
 sionaries, but they raturued very soon and succeeded in collecting and to some extent 
 civilizing many of the natives, so that 40 years ago the “ mission” Indians numbered 
 about 30,000. The aborigines in northern C. were much superior to those in the south. 
 Under Mexican rule the Indians were recognized as owners of their lands, but the 
 United States never acknowledged the right, and now the aborigines are homeless. In 
 1870, there were 29,000 Indians in all the states. The principal tribes were the Klamaths, 
 the Hoopas, the Ukies, the Redwoods, the Tules, the Tejons, the Siahs, the Wylackies, 
 the Concows, the Wichmunies, the Coweas, and the Yokas. 
 
 California was very little known on this side of the continent until within the past 
 35 years. Half a century ago, about all the trade with C. was from Boston, whose mer- 
 chants sent out groceries and cotton goods in exchange for furs, the voyage around cape 
 Horn lasting two years or more. Now and then a wandering American or Englishman 
 w^ould settle in C., and a few daring adventurers found their way across the continent, 
 so that by 1830 it was thought there were as many as 500 foreigners w. of the Sierra 
 Nevada. 
 
 The territory was once seized by the United States, but was relinquished the next 
 day. This was in 1842, when commodore Jones of the American navy captured the 
 fort at Monterey, and hoisted the stars and stripes; but the next morning he hauled 
 down his flag, and apologized for the mistake. It was about this time that three nations, 
 the United States, France, and England, were looking with peculiar interest at the Cali- 
 fornias, upper as well as lower. Both the European powers were suspected of coveting 
 possession, a thing the United States could not tolerate. The result was that about the 
 time war was declared against Mexico, col. Fremont, who was conducting a scientific 
 expedition on the Pacific coast, received — in May, 1846 — certain instructions by an 
 officer who had landed from a national ship at Vera Cruz, and crossed the land to 
 Mazatlan; whereupon Fremont abandoned his investigations and made his way to 
 Sonoma, where he organized a battalion of mounted riflemen, and on the 5th of July 
 recommended a declaration of independence. On the 2d of that month commodore 
 Sloat in a United States frigate put in at Monterey, and on the 7th hoisted the stars 
 and stripes with no intention of imitating his predecessor’s example by pulling them 
 down. He issued a proclamation declaring C. to be from that time forward a part of 
 the United States, Some little fighting was had with the Californians, and there arose 
 a bitter discussion among army and navy officers concerning their part in the conquest 
 of the country, Fremont brought trouble on himself by obeying the orders of commo- 
 dore Stockton (who had superseded Sloat) instead of those of gen. Kearney, who ranked 
 him and assumed command. Kearney preferred charges, and Fremont was tried by 
 court-martial, which found him guilty of “mutiny and disobedience of the lawful com- 
 mand of a superior officer.” The president rejected the finding as to the mutiny, and 
 remitted the penalty on the other count, but Fremont refused the clemency and resigned. 
 He afterwards conducted several famous overland expeditions, which met great suffer- 
 ings, and was so much connected with Californian affairs that the people almost every- 
 where considered him the real conqueror of the territory. 
 
 At the end of the war the annexation of C. to the United States came with the treaty 
 of peace, ratified May 19, 1848, and then the question became pressing whether it should 
 be a free or a slave state — a question hotly discussed long before. Up to the adjourn- 
 ment of congress, on the 4th of Mar., 1849, nothing had been done towards organizing 
 either state or territorial government except making San Francisco a port of entry, and 
 extending the customs and revenue laws over the country. The people of C. then took 
 affairs into their own hands, and in Sept, of that year held a convention, which 
 framed a state constitution in which slavery was expressly forbidden. On the 7th of 
 Sept., 1850, a bill was passed by congress admitting C. as a state without slavery, but 
 
California. 
 
 308 
 
 leaving New Mexico and Utah (organized into territories on the same day) open to its 
 introduction. This legislation was the “ omnibus bill ” and a part of the famous com- 
 promise measures through which it was hoped that the question of slavery would be 
 permanently settled, or at least removed from discussion in congress. 
 
 The discovery of gold at capt. Sutter’s mill, in Feb., 1848, attracted towards C. a tide 
 of emigration unparalleled in modern times. From 40,u00 a year or two before the war, 
 the white population rose to 323,000 in 1860, and 500,000 in 1870. The gold fever was 
 the phenomenon of the age. The emigrants were nearly all young or middle-aged men, 
 scarcely a hundred women going out for the first year or two. Nine tenths of the adven- 
 turers rushed at once to the mines, or prospected for new ones. The organization of so- 
 ciety was neglected, and in many places the only law was the momentary decision of the 
 people themselves. Fortunes were made in a day, and the golden stream flowed east- 
 ward with steady and rapid increase, so that the gold production of the United States 
 for the 17 years from 1849 to 1875 averaged $15,600,000 per year. In 1853, the product 
 of the C. mines was $65,000,000. All property was affected by the fever; lots in San 
 Francisco were worth gold coin enough to carpet them ; speculation ran wild ; all forms 
 of gambling were recognized as legitimate business; adventurers and criminals flocked 
 in, and society became chaotic. Self-preservation soon demanded order, and the cele- 
 brated vigilance committee enforced it. The latest of those committees assumed the 
 proportions of a regular government, and resisted the efforts of the state power to 
 disband it; but formally resigned near the close of 1856, after hanging four culprits, 
 and driving hundreds of the worst from the state. ' • 
 
 C., popularly called the “golden state,” is bounded on the n. by Oregon, the line 
 running e. on the 42d degree to the 120th parallel, thence s. to the 3^h degree, thence 
 s.e. to the intersection of the 35th degree on the Colorado river, thence along that river 
 to the Mexican or lower California boundary about 33° n,, and thence direct nearly w. 
 to the Pacific. The extreme length from s.e. to n.w. is about 750 m., and the breadth 
 an average of about 240 m. The area given in the census of 1870 is 188,981 sq.m., but 
 that amount is probably too large by 25,000 sq.m. Near the coast below 34° are the 
 islands of San Miguel, Santa Rosa, Santa Cruz, Santa Barbara, Santa Catalina, San 
 Nicolas, and San Clementes, but none of them are important, and but one or two are 
 under cultivation. 
 
 The principal harbors on the Pacific are San Francisco, San Diego, Humboldt, Santa 
 Barbara, Monterey, Bodega, San Luis Obisbo, and Tomales. The bay of San Francisco 
 is the finest harbor on the Pacific coast. Entering by the “ Golden Gate,” a strait only 
 a m. wide and 5 m. long, vessels are in a land-locked bay about 9 m. wide by 50 in 
 length, sheltered from the ocean by land from 6 to 15 m. wide. The bay of San Pablo 
 is a portion of that of San Francisco. San Diego, in the s., is also an important harbor. 
 The surface of C. is generally rough. There are two mountain chains running through; 
 the Coast range, and the Sierra Nevada, or snowy mountains, the latter forming in some 
 parts the eastern boundary of the state. Both ranges arc united at the n. and s. end. 
 The Coast mountains are comparatively low, seldom showing peaks as high as 5000 feet. 
 The range is near the ocean, and there are but few available harbors along the 700 m. of 
 coast. The bay of San Francisco pierces this range, which is further divided by valleys 
 such as the Napa, Sonoma, Los Angeles, and Salinas. In breath the Coast range is 
 from 20 to 40 miles. The plains and valleys are fertile, and generally have a delightful 
 climate. A lesser chain, the Mount Diablo range, is about 150 m. in length by about 25 
 wide. One of the prominent natural features near San Francisco is the Contra Costa 
 range of hills, running from Carquines bay about 50 m. in a s.e. direction. Some of the 
 higher of the Coast mountains are : Mts. Diablo, 3881 ft. ; Ripley, 7500 ft. ; Downie, 
 5675 ft. ; and San Carlos, 4977 ft. All these mountains are heavily clothed in verdure, 
 and nearly all contain minerals of value. In the n. part of the state numerous branches 
 of the Coast range and the Sierras intermingle, rendering that portion extremely rugged. 
 The Sierra Nevada range, starting from Mt. San Bernardino, about 34° n., runs n.w. 
 and n., and reaches the Coast range again at 41° 15' by a western spur. The summits of 
 the Sierra mountains are in many instances above the snow line, and there are but few 
 available passes. The range is about 450 m. long, and from 50 to 80 m. wide. The 
 mountains are thickly wooded as far as trees will grow, and above the green pines shoot 
 up bare and snow-covered granite peaks. Some of the altitudes are; Shasta, 14,442 ft. ; 
 Tyndall, 14,386 ft.; Brewer, 13,886 ft.; Dana, 13,277 ft.; Castle, 13,000ft.; Lassen, 
 10,577ft. The Johnson “pass” over this range is 6752 ft., and that of the Central 
 Pacific is 7042 ft. above tide. Mt. Diablo, about 28 m. n.e. from San Francisco, is a 
 lone and very conspicuous peak, affording from its summit a comprehensive and pictur- 
 esque view; and the same is true of Mt. Helena, at the head of Napa valley, 60 m. n. 
 from San Francisco. 
 
 The region between these great mountain ranges seems to have been once the bottom 
 of a lake. It is now called the Sacramento and the San Joaquin valleys, and includes 
 about 25,000 sq.m., reaching 400 m. n. and s., and having a width of more than 50 miles. 
 The Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers drain this valley — the former the northern and 
 the latter the southern portion. Near the central part of the region these rivers unite, 
 and find an outlet through the coast mountains to the ocean. In the extreme s. small 
 lakes and marshes cover a considerable extent. The land in this vast central basin is 
 
309 
 
 California. 
 
 remarkably fertile, and level near the large streams, but rolling and hilly towards the 
 mountains. There is a plateau or table-land in the n. at about 41°, which is more than 
 100 m. long and about 5000 ft. above tide. This high plain forms a basin by itself, 
 having no outlet for water. In the s. part of C. is another basin known as the Colo- 
 rado desert. It is about 150 by 70 m., and is mostly a barren waste of sand. 
 
 The largest river is the Colorado, which forms the boundary along Arizona, and is 
 navigable beyond the C. line. The Sacramento is navigable as far as the city of Sacra- 
 mento, and the San Joaquin is available for light-draft boats nearly to the sierras. 
 Mountain lakes are a feature of California. Lake Tahoe, on the summit of the sierras, 
 6200 ft. above tide, is about 20 m. long and 1500 ft. deep, and its water is exceedingly 
 pure. The overflow passes into Truckee river, and disappears by evaporation. Other 
 lakes are Clear, Owen’s, and Mono, the latter 14 by 9 m., and 7000 ft. above the sea. In 
 Lassen and Modoc cos. are several large alkaline lakes. 
 
 The wonderful scenery of the Yosemite valley is known the world over. This val- 
 ley is in the sierras, about 150 m. a little e. of s. from San Francisco. The valley is 
 nearly 4000 ft. above tide, and is hemmed in by almost perpendicular cliffs from 2000 to 
 more than 3000 ft. high. The cascades in and around the valley are of great beauty and 
 variety. Yosemite creek falls 2600 ft. in three leaps, the highest being 1500 feet. The 
 Merced and Nevada falls combine nearly as great heights with larger bodies of water, 
 and are surprisingly grand. A commanding object in the valley is the Half Dome, a 
 rocky mass rising about 4750 ft. above the level, and presenting a vertical face of 1500 
 feet. Parallel with the Merced river, which flows directly through the valley, and a 
 little farther n., is the Tuolumne, noted for the number and beauty of its cascades, and 
 the picturesque scenery along its course. This river falls 4650 ft. in the course of 22 
 miles. Mt. Dana, over 13,000 ft. high, dominates the region above the Yosemite, and 
 from its easily accessible summit opens a magnificent panorama of the Sierra Nevada. 
 Mono lake is 7000 ft. below; beyond are the lofty and in some instances snow-clad peaks 
 of the great basin, while volcanic cones are visible to the s. of the lake. 
 
 “ The big trees” are another peculiar and remarkable feature of California. There 
 are several groups or patches of these forest giants, the most important being about 3^ 
 m. n.n.e. of Visalia. They are called sequoia gigantea, or giant red-wood, and vary 
 from the height of a large pine to nearly 400 ft., with circumferences at a man’s height 
 from the ground varying from 25 to more than 100 feet. One is still standing that is 
 reported to be 376 ft. high and 104 ft. around; and remains of fallen trees show that 
 there have been specimens considerably larger. One was cut down which was more 
 than 24 ft. in diameter without, and about 27 ft. with, the bark, or a circumference of 
 nearly 85 ft. ; its age was nearly 1300 years. Other C. timbers are pines in large variety, 
 black oak, ash, hickory, elm, beech, white cedar, spruce, fir, laurel, tamarack, cypress, 
 yew, juniper, chestnut, acacia, poplar, cottonwood, walnut, maple, buckeye, etc. Of 
 shrubs the more remarkable are the thorny manzanita and the chamiso, which form the 
 impenetrable undergrowth known as “ chaparral.” 
 
 The fauna of C. is varied and extensive, and may be headed by the grizzly bear 
 (now almost extinct). There are black, brown, and cinnamon bears; sea-lions, 
 whose noises and gambols around Seal Rock in San Francisco bay attract thousands of 
 sight-seers; beaver (rapidly disappearing) ; ground squirrels (great plagues to farmers for 
 their burrows in the soil) ; gophers (a similar nuisance) ; mountain squirrels ; elk (once 
 abundant but nearly extinct); deer; antelope (rapidly thinning out); mountain sheep 
 (also nearly gone); raccoons, skunks, badgers, martens, minks, weasels, wolves, musk- 
 rats, porcupines, otters, wild cats, coyotes, foxes, rabbits, etc. Birds are abundant; 
 those peculiar to the region are the road-runner, nearly allied to the cuckoo, but 
 like a pheasant inhabit of running and inaptitude to fly; the C. woodpecker, which 
 bores holes in the bark of trees and fills the cavities with acorns, the object apparently 
 being to collect food in which grubs will fatten and in due time gratify the palate of the 
 bird. The C. vulture is the largest flying bird in North America; the sage hen is a 
 valuable bird, and plentiful; there are two species of quail, besides eagles, hawks, owls, 
 buzzards, crows, magpies, ravens, jays, swallows, humming-birds, robins, larks, orioles, 
 pigeons, doves, cranes, bitterns, herons, coots, snipe, rails, sandpipers, curlews, ducks, 
 teal, geese, the pelican, albatross, cormorant, loon, gull, petrel, etc. The rattlesnake is 
 the only dangerous reptile, but there are many other serpents, with tortoises, frogs, toads, 
 lizards, and salamanders. Fish are abundant, and include salmon, eels, mackerel, 
 blackfish, perch, redfish, flounders, herring, shad, sturgeon, sharks, and sunfish. Oysters, 
 clams, scallops, etc., with lobsters, crabs, and shrimps, are abundant. 
 
 Nearly all the gold mines are on the western slope of the Sierra Nevadas, in a belt of 
 country about 220 by 40 m. , or nearly 9000 sq.m. , extending n. to Oregon. The richest 
 section is in the middle of this auriferous belt. The gold is in a metallic condition, and 
 mixed with silver and other metals. In the stream and alluvial deposits the metal is in 
 fine scales, with occasional lumps; in rock it is in veins or quartz lodes. The gold in 
 the soil is gotten out by washing, and the process is called “placer mining,” from 
 “placer,” i.e., “ place of deposit.” Rock mining is more expensive, and requires heavy 
 and costly machinery for crushing or grinding the quartz, from which the metal is 
 extracted by amalgamation with quicksilver. From a single quartz mill in 1851, the 
 number rose to 421 in 1870. Mercury is found in C. in the form of sulphuret, or cinnabar. 
 
California. 
 
 310 
 
 which is plentiful in the coast range in the s. part of the state, particularly at New Alma- 
 den. In separating gold by amalgamation, the crushed ore is put with the mercury into 
 a revolving drum, and whirled around for a time. When the drum is opened there is 
 found a fluid mass, which is the mercury, appearing lialf congealed, and containing all 
 the gold. The mixture is poured into a retort and heat is applied, when the mercury 
 distills over, leaving the gold in the retort. The mercury is then ready for future use. 
 Silver has been found in many places in C., but not much attention has been given to 
 it. There are silver and copper ores in combination in the s.e. part of the state, and 
 very superior magnetic iron ores in the coast range and other parts. Copper and man- 
 ganese have also been found, and the valuable platinum is plentiful in the valley of the 
 Klamath. Tin, lead, zinc, plumbago, and antimony are found, and there are asphaltum 
 and petroleum in some places. There are hot springs impregnated with alum; and buhr- 
 stone, alabaster, granite, and marble, some of the latter flnely variegated. Gypsum, 
 bismuth, brick and porcelain clay, and hydraulic limestone are found. There is bitumi- 
 nous coal in Mt. Diablo and the neighboring hills, and salt in several places. Very rich 
 deposits of sulphur have been worked in one locality. One of C.’s mineral novelties is 
 biborate of soda, or borax, found in Clear lake, the water of which is impregnated with 
 the mineral, the borax being crystallized in the mud that forms the bottom of the lake; 
 and near another borax lake there are a number of boiling springs, the water of which is 
 impregnated with soda, chlorine, and boracic acid. 
 
 The state possesses some valuable advantages of climate, the leading feature being 
 the remarkable uniformity of temperature. Comparing San Francisco with Washington, 
 we find the mean of the year to be about the same; but the summer mean is 60° in San 
 Francisco and 76.3° in Washington, while the winter mean is 51° in San Francisco and 
 36.05° in Washington. On the Pacific coast the isothermal lines run much farther n. than 
 on the Atlantic.- The line that passes through New York touches the Pacific near Van- 
 couver island; that of Halifax, N. S., reaches n. of Sitka, in Alaska; and if we go 
 s. down the sea-coast we find San Diego 6 or 7 degrees cooler than Charleston and Vicks- 
 burg, which are in nearly the same latitude. There are but two seasons in C., the dry, 
 and the rainy; the winds are remarkably uniform, and in the hot months there is invari- 
 ably a strong cool breeze from the ocean. Some of the valleys shut from the wind 
 endure very high temperature, often as much as 120° in the shade ; but even there at 
 night the radiation is so intense that bed-blankets are needed. In the s.e., C. is intoler- 
 ably hot; at fort Yuma the range is often above 90° day and night for weeks together; 
 but this is an exceptional place. ' 
 
 The volcanic character of C. is manifested by the mountain formations, and, as in all 
 such regions, there are occasional earthquakes. There was one in Mar. , 1872, of great 
 violence, giving one tremendous and many lesser shocks, upheaving and cracking the 
 ground, and causing the destruction of 30 lives and a vast amount of property. In 1861, 
 there were heavy floods in the same parts of the state, whereby property to the value of 
 millions of dollars was destroyed. To these calamities fire added enormously, especially 
 in San Francisco. 
 
 Agriculture in C. is dependent upon the amount of rain. If there is plenty, excel- 
 lent crops are the result; if rain fails, the crops are inferior or worthless. Only a small 
 portion of C.’s 120,000,000 acres are available for farming, and the census of 1870 
 returned only 6,200,000 so used. Sowing is done in Nov., and June and Julj^ are 
 harvest months. Machinery is largely employed in agriculture. Fruits are important 
 and abundant. Grapes and wines from C. are always in the eastern markets. As early 
 as 1861, a million gallons of wine were made in C. (see American Wines). Apples, 
 pears, plums, apricots, oranges, lemons, figs, pomegranates, olives, and almonds are 
 raised. Cotton and the sugar-beet grow well. Wool-growing is a large industry, the 
 hilly parts of the state being well adapted to the raising of sheep, which need neither 
 fodder nor shelter, even in winter. 
 
 C. is not remarkable for manufacturing industries, though they are increasing. 
 Flour and grist mills and lumber-mills are in great number. Boots and shoes, cigars, 
 wagons, woolen goods, gunpowder, tanneries, chemicals, and iron may be mentioned. 
 The branch mint in San Francisco turns out a large coinage. 
 
 The heterogeneousness of the population of C. is noticeable. The gold excitement 
 brought people from the ends of the earth, and every slumbering clime awoke and sent 
 onward her legions. Of 560,247 inhabitants in 1870, 209,848 were born in the following 
 countries: Africa, 48; Asia (not including China and Japan), 56; Atlantic islands, 943; 
 Australia, 1593; Austria, 1078; Belgium, 291; Bohemia, 90; British America, 10,670; 
 Central America, 126; China, 48,826; Cuba, 45; Denmark, 1837; France, 8068; Ger- 
 many, 29,701; England, 17,699; Ireland, 54,421; Scotland, 4949; Wales, 1517 (total of 
 British subjects, 90,926); Greece, 97; Greenland, 1; Holland, 472; Italy, 4660; Japan, 
 33; Luxembourg, 11; Mexico (the native Californians were naturalized by the treaty), 
 0339; Norway, 1000; Pacific islands, 93; Poland, 804; Portugal, 2508; Russia, 540; 
 Sandwich islands, 278; South America, 1956; Spain, 405; Sweden, 1944; Switzerland, 
 2927; Turkey, 17; West Indies (except Cuba), 350; at sea, 142. Everyone of the 
 United States and territories was represented. The largest numbers were from New 
 York, 33,766; Illinois, 10,695; Maine, 11,261; ^Massachusetts, 15,334; Missouri, 16,050; 
 Pennsylvania, 11,201; others ranging from 10,000 down to 7 for Dakota, Avkile 23 came 
 
311 
 
 California. 
 
 from Alaska. The natives of C. were 163,653, not quite 30 per cent of all natives. Of 
 the entire population only 26,909 were natives of the United States born of native 
 parents, or less than 5 per cent. Males largely exceeded females, being 349,479 to 
 210,768. The Chinese are the cause of much annoyance to many of the people, who 
 urge against them that they unduly cheapen labor, and that they bring demoralization; 
 and strong efforts have been made, both by legislation and by popular violence or 
 threat, to keep them out, but hitherto without effect. The problem is complex and dif- 
 licult; and its solution cannot be said to have been yet reached. In 1870, there were 
 11,703 Chinese in San Francisco, about 8 per cent of the total population. 
 
 The chief cities and towns in the order of population, in 1870, are San Francisco, 
 Sacramento (the state capital), Oakland (across the bay from San Francisco), Stockton, 
 San Jose, Los Angeles, Maryville, Santa Cruz, San Diego. 
 
 C. is well supplied with serial literature. At the beginning of 1879 there were 41 
 daily newspapers, 1 tri-weekly, 9 semi-weekly, 209 weekly, 1 semi-monthly, 19 monthly, 
 1 bi-monthly, and 2 quarterly publications. The state has made ample provision for 
 education. School age is from 5 to 21; persons within the age, 205,475; enrolled, 
 154.079; average attendance, 94,696; school-days in the year, 144; teachers of common 
 schools, 3293; school fund, $2,011,800; income, $3,820,661; expenses, $3,155,815; value 
 of school property, $6,343,369. There is a state normal school at San Jose, having, at 
 last report, 90 students. In 1879, there were 13 colleges, viz. : Sacred Heart, St. Igna- 
 tius, and St. Mary’s, all in San Francisco, and Our Lady of Guadalupe, at Santa Inez 
 (all Roman Catholic); 0 . college, at Vacaville (Baptist); Hesperian, at Woodlawn, and 
 Pierce Christian, at (College City (both “Christian”); Pacific Methodist, at Santa Rosa 
 (Methodist Episcopal, South); university of the Pacific, at Santa Clara (Methodist); St. 
 Augustine, at Benicia (Protestant Episcopal); the university of C., at Berkeley, and the 
 university, at Washington (both non-sectarian). The Pacific theological seminary (Con- 
 gregational) and the San Francisco theological seminary (Presbyterian) are at Oakland. 
 Medical education is provided for by the C. college of pharmacy, a medical department 
 of the university of C. , and the medical college of the Pacific, all in San Francisco. 
 The university has also a law department. In the 13 colleges there were 199 instructors 
 and 3187 students; in the theological seminaries, 7 instructors and 15 students of col- 
 legiate grade; in medicine, 26 instructors and 90 students; and in law, 3 instructors and 
 103 students. A special course of three years is provided for young women by the 
 Pacific (Methodist) college, and women are admitted to all, except the Roman Catholic 
 colleges. 
 
 The railroads in California at the beginning of 1879, and the number of miles within 
 the state, were: Southern Pacific, from San Francisco to Colorado river (to unite with 
 the projected Texas Pacific from the Mississippi river), 712 m. ; Central Pacific, from 
 San Francisco to Ogden, Utah, 615 m. ; Northern, from Oakland to Suisun, 113^ 
 m. ; California Pacific, from San Vallejo to Sacramento, 113 m, ; San Francisco and N. 
 Pacific, from San Rafael to Cloverdale, 94 m. ; N. Pacific Coast, from Sancelito to Mos- 
 cow mills, 79f m. ; Sacramento and Placerville, from Sacramento to Shingle springs, 
 49| m. ; San Pablo and Tulare, from Tracy to Martinez, 47 m. ; Stockton and Copper- 
 opolis, from Stockton to Oakdale, 44j- m. ; Vaca Valley and Clear Lake, from Elmira to 
 Madison, 30 m. ; S. Pacific Coast, from Dumbarton to Los Galos, 29f m. ; Los Angeles 
 and San Diego, from Florence to San Diego, 27 m. ; Amador Branch, from Galt to lone, 
 27 m. ; Calfornia Northern, from Marysville to Oroville, 26^ m. ; Nevada County, from 
 Nevada City to Colfax, 22i m. ; Santa Cruz, from Santa Cruz to Vajaro depot, 21^ m., 
 and nine other roads, from 17 to 3^ m. in length; there being 2046 m. of railroad in the 
 state. 
 
 The organic law of C. is very similar to that of New York and other old states. The 
 constitution, which was adopted Nov. 13, 1849, put the then residents on the same stand- 
 ing as native-born citizens with regard to property. Public debts exceeding $300,000 at 
 one time cannot be incurred unless approved by popular vote. Voters are white male 
 citizens, 21 years old, resident six months in the state, and 30 days in the voting dis- 
 trict. (The 15th amendment to the federal constitution makes colored citizens also 
 voters, but the Chinese are not permitted to vote.) Elections are biennial, on the first 
 Tuesday in September; but judges and the superintendent of public instruction are voted 
 for at special elections in October. A plurality is sufficient to elect. The assembly has 
 80, and the senate 40 members, who are paid $10 per day for sessions limited to 120 
 days, and $3 for every 20 m. of travel. The legislature meets biennially at Sacramento. 
 The chief executive officers and annual salaries are : Governor, $7000 ; lieutenant-gov- 
 ernor, $12 per day during the session of the legislature, and $10 per day as warden of 
 the state prison; secretary of state, $4000; treasurer, $4000; controller, $4000; super- 
 intendent of public instruction, $3000; adjutant-general, $4000; and surveyor-general, 
 $3000. A chief justice and four associate justices of the supreme court are chosen for 
 terms of ten years, having salaries of $6000. The governor’s veto may be overcome by 
 a two-thirds vote in the legislature. There are county courts, each with a single judge, 
 who also acts as surrogate, except in San Francisco. The wife is secured in both real and 
 personal property had before or acquired after marriage. The earnings of both wife and 
 husband are common property, but the wife’s earnings are not liable for the husband’s 
 debts. If a wife be separated from her husband, her earnings and those of her miner 
 
California. 
 
 Caligula. 
 
 312 
 
 children are her own ; she may sue and be sued alone, and, by leave of a court, convey 
 alone ; and a married woman can dispose of her separate estate by will. Homesteads to 
 the value of $5000 for the head of a family, and $1000 for a single person, are exempt 
 from levy. Insolvent debtors, resident and non-resident, can be discharged from debts 
 upon making assignment of all their property, and publishing notice thereof. The 
 more important penalties are: For treason, and murder in the first degree, death; mur- 
 der in the second degree, and robbery from the person, 10 years to life imprisonment; 
 manslaughter, 10 years or less; killing in a duel, 7 years or less; mayhem, 14 years 
 Ox less; rape, from 5 years to life; forgery and perjury, 14 years or less. Chinese 
 and Indians cannot testify in court against white persons, and special taxes are imposed 
 to restrict immigration from China (but this is believed to be illegal under our treaties 
 with China). Any rate of interest agreed upon is lawful. Open accounts are outlawed 
 in two years; notes in four, and judgments in five, years. 
 
 • This constitution was in force until 1879. In that year (Mar. 3) a state convention, 
 which had been in session 157 days, reported a new constitution, in which there were 
 many novel propositions and radical changes from the old organic law. The new con- 
 stitution was vigorously opposed, but in the vote taken May 7 there were 77,959 in 
 favor and 67,134 opposed, showing an affirmative majority of 10,825. The main pro- 
 visions of the new constitution are the following; Trial by jury may be waived, by con- 
 sent of parties, in criminal cases not amounting to felony; and in civil cases as may be 
 prescribed by law. In civil actions and misdemeanors juries may consist of 12, or less, as 
 parties may agree; and three fourths of a jury may decide a verdict in civil actions. No 
 native of China, no idiot, insane person, or person convicted of infamous crime, and no per- 
 son hereafter convicted of embezzlement or misappropriation of public money, may 
 vote. After 1880, legislative sessions begin on the first Monday after Jan. 1, and are bien- 
 nial. Senators (40) hold 4 years, assemblymen (80) 2 years; legislative elections are held 
 on the Tuesday following the first Monday in Nov. Pay of members continues only 60 
 days; no bill can be presented after 50 days of the session have gone by except on con 
 sent of two thirds. In appropriation bills the governor may veto or approve special 
 items. Persons holding United States offices, except post-masters who have les.s 
 than $500 salary, cannot hold offices of honor or profit in the state. No one con- 
 victed of embezzlement or defalcation of public money of the union or of any state, 
 county, or town, is eligible for office in California. No money shall ever be taken from 
 the state treasury for the benefit of any institution not under the state’s entire control ; 
 but the legislature may grant aid to orphans, abandoned children, and aged poor. Laws 
 shall be passed to prohibit lotteries, gift enterprises, and anything in the nature of a 
 lottery; also, to regulate or prohibit speculative sales of stock; and all contracts for 
 future delivery of stock are void. In elections by the legislature the members shall vote 
 Dh'oa mce. Every description of direct or indirect appropriation or gift of property for 
 the benefit of any sect is forbidden, not only to the legislature, but to the counties, cities, 
 towns, school districts, and corporations. The public credit shall not be given or loaned 
 in aid of any person, association, or corporation ; nor shall the state or any political 
 division thereof subscribe for stock or become an owner in any corporation. Extra 
 compensation to public officers, agents, contractors, etc. , is positively forbidden. Laws 
 shall be enacted regulating charges for gas, telegraphing, and storage and wharfage. 
 Bribery of a member of the legislature and lobbying with that purpose are declared 
 felony; members proved guilty of receiving bribes are disfranchised and can never hold 
 offices of honor or trust. Witnesses in examinations for bribery shall be compelled to 
 testify. ^ The governor’s term is four years, salary $6000; other state officers $3000. 
 The legislature may reduce but cannot increase these sums. Fees are abolished so fai 
 as these officers are concerned. A governor is ineligible for U. S. senator during hi? 
 term of office. Among the judiciary provisions it is provided that after July 1, 1880, 
 no judge of superior or supreme court shall receive salary unless he swear that no 
 cause in his court submitted ninety days previous remains undecided. Appropria- 
 tions to sectarian schools are prohibited. Counties, towns, and cities can incur 
 debt only by the consent of two thirds of the voters at special elections. Cities and 
 towns have power to regulate the price of water and artificial light. A stockholder 
 ill a corporation is liable to the amount of his shares for debts incurred while he 
 is an owner. Directors and trustees are liable to stockholders and creditors for money 
 embezzled or misappropriated. The acceptance of passes from railroads or other 
 transportation companies by members of the legislature, or by public officers except 
 railroad commissioners, works a forfeiture of office. Lands and improvements thereon 
 shall be separately assessed. Cultivated and uncultivated lands of the same kind and 
 situation shall be assessed at equal values. Tax-payers shall make return under oath of 
 their real and personal property, and provision may be made for payment of real estate 
 taxes by installments. Income taxes maybe assessed and collected. -There is a poll tax 
 of $2 on each male inhabitant over 21 and under 60 for the benefit of the school fund. 
 Except in case of war, invasion, or insurrection, the legislature shall not create a debt of 
 over $300,000 unless for some specific object, and then provision for payment within 
 20 years shall be made; and such special debts -shall be voted upon by the people. 
 
 The famous Chinese provisions areas follows: Sec. 1. The legislature shall prescribe 
 all necessary regulations for the protection of the siate, and the counties, cities, and 
 
313 
 
 California > 
 Caligula. 
 
 towns thereof, from the burdens and evils arising from the presence of aliens who are or 
 may become vagrants, paupers, mendicants, criminals, or invalids afflicted with con- 
 tagious or infectious diseases, and from aliens otherwise dangerous or detrimental to the 
 well being or peace of the state; and shall impose conditions upon which such persons 
 may reside in the state, and provide the means and mode of their removal from the state 
 upon failure or refusal to comply with such conditions; provided, that nothing contained 
 in this section shall be construed to impair or limit tlie power of the legislature to pass 
 such police laws or other regulations as it may deem necessary. 
 
 Sec. 2. No corporation now existing or hereafter formed under the laws of this state 
 shall, after the adoption of this constitution, employ, directly or indirectly, in any 
 capacity, any Chinese or Mongolian. The legislature shall pass such laws as may be 
 necessary to enforce this regulation. 
 
 Sec. 8. No Chinese shall be employed on any state, county, municipal, or other 
 public work, except in punishment for crime. 
 
 Sec. 4. The presence of foreigners ineligible to become citizens of the United States 
 is declared to be dangerous to the well being of the state, and the legislature stiali dis- 
 courage their immigration by all the means within its power. Asiatic coolyism is a 
 form of human slavery, and is forever prohibited in this state, and all contracts for 
 cooly labor shall be void. All companies or corporations, whether formed in this 
 country or any foreign country, for the importation of such labor, shall be subject to 
 such penalties as the legislature may prescribe. The legislature shall delegate all' neces- 
 sary power to the incorporated cities and towns of this state, for the removal of Chinese 
 without the limits of such cities and towns, or for their location within prescribed 
 portions of those limits; also, it shall provide necessary legislation to prohibit the intro- 
 duction into this state of Chinese after the adoption of this constitution. 
 
 Principals and seconds in duelling or challenging to a duel are disfranchised, and 
 cannot again hold office. The property of husband and wife shall belong separately to 
 each. The suffrage shall be protected by adequate laws. Mechanics and laborers have 
 property liens for the value of labor and material furnished. Eight hours is a day’s 
 work. No person shall, on account of sex, be disqualified from entering upon or pur- 
 suing any lawful business, vocation, or profession. There are no more judicial districts; 
 every county elects a superior judge (San Francisco elects 12, six others elect two 
 each). Three railroad districts were created, and the congressional districts were newly 
 arranged. 
 
 At the time the vote was taken on this constitution, for and against which 145,212 
 votes w^ere cast, there were 154,638 votes against Chinese immigration. But all the 
 enactments on that subject fall to the ground, since they are in conflict with the treaty 
 with China, and the federal constitution provides that treaties shall be the supreme law 
 of the land. 
 
 The first votes of California (4) for president were cast in 1852 for Pierce and King; in 
 1856, for Buchanan and Breckinridge ; in 1860, for Lincoln and Hamlin ; in 1864 (5 votes), 
 Lincoln and Johnson; in 1868, Grant and Colfax; in 1872 (6 votes). Grant and Wilson; 
 in 1876, Hayes and Wheeler. Of high federal officers, the state has furnished one 
 supreme court justice. (For latest statistics, see Appendix.) 
 
 CALIFOBNIA, Gulf of, an arm of the Pacific ocean, which divides the peninsula 
 above described from the rest of Mexico. It was originally known as the sea of Cortez, 
 having been discovered under his auspices, and explored by himself ; and it has, from 
 its shape, been occasionally designated the Adriatic of the new world. It is 700 m. in 
 length, and varies in width from 40 to 100 miles. At its northern extremity, it almost 
 touches the territory of the United States, receiving therefrom the united streams of the 
 Gila and the Colorado. The gulf contains many islands, particularly towards its head, 
 and has long had a pearl-fishery. At the e. side of its entrance stands Mazatlan, on a 
 river of the same name, now the most frequented port of the neighboring regions. 
 
 CALIFORNIA, University of, established in 1868 as a non-sectarian institution, 
 an outgrowth of the college of California. The university is at Berkeley, 4 m. n. of 
 Oakland, and occupies two buildings. In 1879, it had 38 professors and instructors, and 
 332 students of college grade, under the presidency of John Le Conte. The students are 
 enrolled in separate colleges, in each of which they may pursue a regular or a special 
 course. The college of letters maintains two courses; the regular classical, which leads 
 to the degree of bachelor of arts, and the literary course, which leads to the degree of 
 bachelor of philosophy. In both courses a liberal amount of time is bestowed upon the 
 principles of modern science. All the colleges are in successful operation, including 
 the college of letters, five colleges of science, and three professional colleges of law, 
 medicine, and pharmacy, under regular faculties. Students of both sexes are admitted 
 on equal terms. The university is entitled to the avails of the public lands given to the 
 state for an agricultural college by the act of congress of 1862. Tuition is free in the 
 university proper, but not in the preparatory department. 
 
 CALIG'TJLA, Caius C^sar Augustus Germanicus, Roman emperor (37-41 a.d.), the 
 youngest son of Germanicus (nephew of Tiberius) by Agrippina, was b. 31st Aug., 12 
 A.D., at Antium, and was educated in the camp, where the soldiers gave him the 
 by-name C., from the half -boots {caligce) which he wore. On the death of his brother 
 
Caliph. 
 
 Calixtus. 
 
 314 
 
 Drusus, he was made au^ur in his stead; and on the death of Tiberius (37 a.d.), who, it 
 was suspected, had received foul-play at his hands, it was found that he had been 
 appointed co-heir along with the grandson of Tiberius, but the senate and the people 
 allowed C. supreme and sole authority. In the beginning of his reign, he appeared 
 hardly likely to fulfill the threat of Tiberius, who had talked of educating C. “ for the 
 destruction of the Roman people.” He was, to appearance, lavishly generous and 
 merciful, pardoning even those who had been the instruments of cruelty against his 
 own family. But this ostentatious magnanimity was itself a disease, an unwholesome 
 affectation, founded on no principle, or even humanity of heart, and co-existed with the 
 most savage voluptuousness and lust. Consequently, when illness, the result of his 
 vicious life, had weakened his faculties, the lower qualities of his nature obtained 
 the complete mastery. In addition to the senseless prodigality with which he com- 
 menced his career — expending in one year the enormous w/ealth left by Tiberius (720 
 millions of sesterces) — he began to manifest the most barbarous propensities. He ban- 
 ished or murdered his relatives, excepting his uncle Claudius and sister Drusilla (with 
 whom he carried on incestuous intercourse); filled Rome with executions, confiscating 
 the estates of his victims; amused himself, while dining, by having victims tortured and 
 slain in his presence; and uttered the wish “that all the Roman people had but one 
 neck, so that he might decapitate Rome at a blow!” To vie with Xerxes, he made a 
 bridge of ships over the bay between Baia3 and Puteoli (a distance of three Roman miles 
 and 600 paces), and celebrated the exploit by a costly banquet on the middle of the 
 bridge, and by collecting on it great numbers of people, and causing them to be 
 drowned. His favorite horse was stabled in a palace, fed at a marble manger with gilded 
 oats, was made a member of the college of priests, and afterwards raised to the consul- 
 ship. As a climax to all his absurdities, he declared himself a god, and had temples 
 erected, and sacrifices offered to himself. To gratify his monstrous desires, he shrunk 
 from no infamy; he robbed, plundered, and taxed his subjects to a degree which seems 
 almost incredible, and when even these means proved insufficient, he established a 
 brothel in his own palace, and sent out his slaves to solicit the public patronage for it. 
 At length a conspiracy was formed against him, and he was assassinated 41 a.d. 
 
 CA'LIFH (Turk., a successor), the title of Mohammed’s successors in temporal and 
 spiritual power, from which the historians of the middle ages designated the Arab 
 empire founded by these princes the Caliphate. This empire, for two or three centu- 
 ries, exceeded even the Roman empire in extent. As Mohammed died without leaving 
 any sons, a contest arose concerning the inheritance of his power, which terminated 
 (632 A.D.) in the triumph of Abubekr (q.v.), one of his fathers-in-law, over Ali, his 
 nephew and son-in-law. Abubekr now assumed the title of Caliphet-Resul- Allah — i.e., 
 representative or deputy of the prophet of God. He sent forth his armies for the exten- 
 sion of Mohammedanism, and after several victories over the forces of the Byzantine 
 empire, conquered Syria. He was succeeded in 634 by Omar, another father-in-law of 
 Mohammed, by whom Egypt and Jerusalem were annexed to the caliphate. He assumed 
 the title of jEmir-al-Mumenin — i.e., prince of the faithful — a title which all subsequent 
 caliphs retained. Othman, a son-in-law of the prophet, was the third C., and was elected 
 by six persons appointed by Omar before his death. During his reign (644^56 a.d.), 
 the Arabian empire grew with extraordinary rapidity, being extended into Persia, and 
 westM^ard along the n. coast of Africa as far as Ceuta. The Byzantine emperors recov- 
 ered Egypt; but it was wrested from them again at a prodigious expense of blood. 
 The people of Medina elected Ali-ben-Abi-Taleb as C. upon the death of Othman. The 
 Shiites regard him as the first true imam or high-priest, and honor him and his son 
 Hassan almost equally with Mohammed himself. Contests against rivals prevented 
 him from doing much for the extension of the caliphate. Moawijah, the governor of 
 Damascus, having made himself really independent during Ali’s life, and having 
 extended his power over Syria, Egypt, and part of Arabia, became C. in 661, and 
 founded the dynasty of the Ommiades, making the caliphate hereditary. He removed 
 the seat of the caliphate to Damascus. His armies ravaged Asia Minor, and laid siege to 
 Constantinople, but could not take it. He made important conquests, however, in 
 Central Asia. The caliphate did not remain long in the family of Moawfijah, and it fre- 
 quently happened that in one or other of the subject countries a governor raised himself 
 to a temporary independence; and rival caliphs frequently contended for power. Abdal- 
 melek (685-705 a.d.) united all the Moslems under his dominion. Under his son, Walid 
 I., the caliphate reached its zenith of prosperity, the Arabs conquering Turkestan in 707, 
 Galatia in 710, and Spain in 711. Under Hesham, the progress of the Arabs in the 
 west was arrested by Charles Martel at Tours (732 a.d.), and at Xarbonne (736 a.d.). 
 The dynasty of the Ommiades in Asia terminated with Merwan II. in 752, giving place • 
 to that of the Abbasides. But a branch of the Ommiades founded an independent cal- 
 iphate at Cordova, and another founded one in Arabia, which subsisted till the 16th cen- 
 tury. Abul-Abbas (750-54 a.d.), the first Abbaside C., signalized himself by his cruelty 
 and the torrents of human blood which he shed. His successor, Abu-Jafar, called Al- 
 Mansur, a patron of the arts, but a persecutor of Christians, founded Bagdad (q.v.), and 
 removed the seat of the caliphate thither. From the beginning of the 9th c., the Arab 
 empire, which had suffered much from corruption and internal disorganization 
 
315 
 
 Caliph. 
 
 Calixtus. 
 
 under the last caliphs of the Ommiade dynasty, and had never completely recovered, 
 showed increased signs of decay. Even under the C. Harun-al-Raschid, whose praises 
 the eastern poets were accustomed so much to celebrate, independent kingdoms were 
 established (800 a.d.) by the Aghlabides in Tunis, and the Edrisides in Fez. In 821, 
 Taher, the governor of Khorassan, made himself independent, and established a dynasty 
 there, and other governors of provinces followed his example. But under the C. Al- 
 Mamun, the Arabians conquered Sicily and Sardinia, the former of which they held till 
 it was taken from them in 1035 by the Normans; and the latter, till it was conquered 
 by the Pisans in 1051. The C. Motassem (833-42 a.d.) was the first to employ Turkish 
 soldiers; but the practice was followed by his successors; and the Turkish body-guard 
 soon became a formidable power in the caliphate, and about the middle of the 9th c. 
 assumed the right of deciding the succession to the throne. Many of the caliphs, mean- 
 while, were base voluptuaries, and of the others, some were of little capacity, and their 
 power rapidly declined. Ere the middle of the 10th c., the caliphs themselves exercised 
 a mere nominal sovereignty, whilst the emirs, like the mayors of the palaee towards the 
 close of the Merovingian dynasty among the Franks, possessed all real power. The 
 princes of the Fatimide dynasty, which succeeded that of the Aghlabides in Tunis, 
 having made themselves masters of Egypt in 970, assumed the title of C., so that there 
 were now three caliphates— at Bagdad, at Cairo, and at Cordova. In the 11th c.,the caliphs 
 of Bagdad were still, acknowledged as the spiritual chiefs of all tli(' Moslems; but their 
 temporal power scarcely extended beyond the walls of Bagdad. Bagdad itself became 
 the prey of a Mongol horde in 1258, and the representative of the caliphs fled to Egypt, 
 where, under the protection of the Mamelukes, who had made themselves masters of that 
 country in 1250, he retained his title and spiritual power, which he transmitted to his 
 successors, who continued to reside there till the Turks conquered Egypt in 1517, when 
 the last of them was carried to Constantinople; and since that time the Turkish sultans 
 have assumed the title of C., and claimed to be regarded as the spiritual chiefs of all the 
 Moslems, a claim to which little respect has ever been paid except within the limits of 
 their own empire. 
 
 CALIPPIC CYCLE. See Pekiod. 
 
 CALIPPUS, or Callippus, an astronomer of Greece, in the 4th c., b.c. He corrected 
 earlier measurements of time by Meton’s cycle of 19 years, which he found to be six hours 
 too long. He made the year 365|^ days. 
 
 CALISTHENICS, physical exercise designed to promote strength and proper bodily 
 development. The usual apparatus includes a pair of light dumb-bells, Indian clubs, 
 stout wooden rings, a wooden staff about 4 ft. long, horizontal bars, bags of beans for 
 throwing and catching, and two weights running upon vertical cords. The practice of 
 calisthenics is growing among schools for girls. 
 
 CALI'TEI, a t. of Italy, in the province of Avellino, near the Ofanto, and about 7 m. 
 e.n.e. of Conza. It has a pop. of 6200, who are chiefly engaged in agricultural pursuits. 
 Sheep are reared to a considerable extent in the vicinity. 
 
 CAL'IVER was a matchlock or fire-arm about midway in size and character between 
 an arquebuse and a musket ; it was small enough to be fired without a rest or support. 
 
 CALIX'TINES, a Bohemian religious sect, so named from the Latin calix, a cup, 
 because they contended for giving the cup, as well as the consecrated wafer, to the laity. 
 Their confession of faith (1421) contained the following articles: 1. That the word of 
 God ought to be freely and regularly preached by the priests of the Lord throughout 
 Bohemia; 2. That the eucharist in both kinds ought to be administered to all burdened 
 with “no mortal sins,” according to the language and command of the Saviour; 3. That 
 the clergy should separate themselves from secular affairs ; 4. That all ‘ ‘ mortal sins, ” and 
 especially public ones; such as debauchery and simony, and any other disorders contrary 
 to the law of God, should be prevented or punished by those who were the lawful 
 authorities in such matters. In other main points they were moderate followers of John 
 Huss, and were opposed to the more extreme sect of Taborites (q.v.). Their peculiar 
 articles of faith were conceded by order of the council at Basel (1433) ; and having pre- 
 vailed over the Taborites in the conflict which took place at Boehmischbrod, 30th May, 
 1434, they became the dominant party in Bohemia, and exercised considerable influence 
 over political affairs. Gradually, however, the C. lapsed from the severity of their four 
 articles, while the schism of the energetic Taborites, and later of the Bohemian brethren 
 (q.v.), rendered them completely powerless. At the beginning of the 16th c., they had 
 ceased to possess any importance, and only served to prepare the way for Protestantism, 
 
 CALIX'TUS, a name borne by three popes. The first was born a slave, and is said to 
 have suffered martyrdom, 223 a.d. The second (d. 1124) was a son of the count of Bur- 
 gundy, and a ruler of firmness. He expelled the anti-pope Gregory from Rome in 1120, 
 stormed the castle in which he took refuge, and made him a prisoner. He also concluded 
 the concordat with Henry V., of Germany, at Worms; broke the power of the Cenci 
 family, and demolished their castles. The third was of the Spanish Borgia family, and 
 his leading idea was to institute a great crusade against the Turks, in which he failed. 
 He died in 1458, and was succeeded by Alexander VI., one of the most notorious of the 
 Borgia family. 
 
Calixtus. 
 
 CaU. 
 
 816 
 
 CALIXTUS, Geokg (properly, Callisen\ an eminent theologian of the Lutheran church, 
 was born 14th Dec., 1586, at Medelbye in Schleswig; studied at Flensborg and Helm- 
 stedt; and, in 1605, became professor of philosophy in the latter of these cities. Two 
 years after, he betook himself to theology, and attracted great attention by the breadth 
 and originality of his views. After traveling for some time in Germany, Holland, Eng- 
 land, and France, where he made the acquaintance of the most learned men of his time, 
 he returned to Helmstedt in 1613, and was appointed professor of theology. His 
 genius, the depth of his knowledge, and his large experience of the world and of men, 
 which he had acquired in his travels, developed in him a spirit of great tolerance towards 
 all who held their religious opinions honestly, whatever these might be. Although his 
 dissertations on the Holy Scripture, transubstantiation, communion in one kind, etc,, 
 are acknowledged by learned Catholics to be about the most solid and admirable which 
 have been composed by Protestants against the distinctive doctrines of Catholicism, he 
 was, on account of some statements in his work, entitled Be Fmcipuis Beligionis Chris- 
 tiance Gapitihus (Helmstedt, 1613), which seemed favorable to Catholic dogmas, and of 
 others in his Epitome Theologice Moralis (Helmstedt, 1634), Be Tolerantia lleformatorum, 
 etc. (Helmstedt, 1658), which approached too near to the Reformed or Calvinistic stand- 
 point, declared guilty of abominable heresy by the adherents of the letter of the Concor- 
 dienformel — i.e., the orthodox and dogmatically rigid Lutherans. C. felt keenly that the 
 polemical harshness of Lutheranism was a serious obstacle in the way of a great 
 Catholic Christianity, and that Protestantism must assume another form before it could 
 hope to become the religion of Europe. Under this conviction, B. endeavored to show 
 that the oldest and most fundamental articles of the Christian faith — viz., the facts 
 embodied in the “Apostles’ Creed ” — were common to all Christian sects. In subsequent 
 dissertations, having stated that the doctrine of the Trinity was less distinctly taught in 
 the Old than in the New Testament, and that good works were necessary to salvation; 
 and finally, at the religious conference of Thorn, in 1649, whither he was sent as a 
 mediator by the elector of Brandenburg, having been on more intimate terms with the 
 Calvinistic than the Lutheran theologians, C. was accused of apostasy. Fortunately, 
 however, he had powerful friends, wdio stood firmly by him, and through their help he 
 was enabled to retain his professorial chair till his death, on 19th Mar., 1656. 
 
 CALL, a term often used in reference to various theological and ecclesiastical subjects. 
 — 1. The command or invitation to believe in Jesus Christ, is designated the cotXl of God, 
 or the gospel call. Calvinistic theologians make a distinction between a general call and 
 a special or effectual call. The former is. addressed, they say, to all to whom the word of 
 God comes; but it is insufficient of itself to induce any man to the act of faith, and 
 requires, in order to its efficacy, that it be accompanied by the special and in’esistible 
 grace of the Holy Spirit. They are careful, however, to state that the general or out- 
 ward calling by the word always precedes and accompanies the special and effectual 
 calling by the Spirit. The notion of an inward call by the Spirit of God in the soul, 
 unconnected with outward calling by the word, belongs not to Calvinistic, but to mys- 
 tic theology. — 2. A call to office in the church, and particularly to the ministry of the 
 gospel, is regarded by Christians generally as proceeding from God; and the church of 
 England requires of candidates for ordination an express profession that they trust they 
 are so moved of the Holy Ghost. — 3. A call by the people who are to be under the pas- 
 toral care of a minister has been generally regarded in the Christian church as necessary 
 to the establishment of the pastoral relation. But there have been great differences of 
 opinion as to what constitutes a sufficient call, and great differences of practice with 
 regard to it. Some of the principal ecclesiastical dissensions in Scotland have had their 
 origin in this question. The election of a pastor by the Christian people of his parish or 
 congregation, has been contended for by many as the true call, or the best kind of it; 
 others, approving of patronage with certain limitations, contended no less earnestly for 
 the right of the people to be consulted, so that without their concurring by a call, the 
 patron’s presentee should not be held entitled to be inducted into the pastoral office ; and 
 according to the practice of the church of Scotland, this concurrence was always at 
 least formally sought. Questions concerning the call and its proper value, supposed to 
 have been determined by the earl of Aberdeen’s act, passed when the disruption of the 
 church of Scotland took place in 1843, were not finally settled until the passing of the 
 act for the abolition of patronage (1874), which gives the right of calling to the congre- 
 gation. See Scotland, Church of; Free Church op Scotland; and Patronage. 
 
 CALL, a stipulated sum to be paid towards a share in a joint-stock undertaking. For 
 example, in a £10 share, there are usually at least four calls of £2 10s. each, the calls 
 being made at intervals of not less than three months. 
 
 CALL, a military musical term meaning a signal on the trumpet. 
 
 CALL is a metal whistle used by the boatswain and his mate on shipboard. Various 
 strains or kinds of sound produced denote signals or orders for hoisting, heaving, low- 
 ering, veering, belaying, letting-go, etc. These sounds are as much attended to by sea- 
 men, as those of the drum, bugle, and trumpet are by soldiers. At one time, a gold call, 
 with a chain, used to be the badge of an admiral. 
 
 CALL A, a genus of plants of the natural order aracece, or, according to some bota- 
 nists, of the natural order orontiacem, wdiich is distinguished from aracece only by having 
 
317 
 
 Calixtus. 
 
 Call. 
 
 iiermaphrodite flowers. The genus calla is characterized by a flat spatlie (q.v.), within 
 which is a cylindrical spadix (see Spathe) covered with naked flowers, appearing as a 
 mere mixture of stamens and pistils, and a one-celled ovary with 6 to 8 erect ovules. The 
 known species are few, and natives of very different climates. C. palustris is found in 
 swamps in Europe, Siberia, and North America, but not in Britain. It has a creeping 
 root-stock, and heart-shaped, stalked leaves, the midrib of which is prolonged beyond 
 the blade into a point; the spathe is white, and the spadix yellow. The root-stock is 
 extremely acrid and caustic; but being deprived of its acridity by grinding, boiling, and 
 macerating, is made by the Laplanders into a kind of bread called missebroed, which they 
 hold in high estimation. — The well-known and beautiful Bichardia Ethiopica for- 
 merly included in this genus, and is often still called calla. 
 
 CALLAHAN, a co. in n.w. Texas, not settled; 900 sq. miles. It has a rocky and 
 broken surface, with little timber, but good for grazing. Pop. ’80, 3453—34 colored. 
 
 CAL'LANDER, a village in Perthshire, on the left bank of the Teith, 16 m. n.w. of 
 Stirling. It lies in a beautiful and romantic situation, surrounded by high mountains 
 and Highland lakes. Hence it is much frequented by tourists, who make this place a 
 center to visit Benledi, the Trosachs, the Bracklin falls, and Lochs Lubnaig, Vennachar, 
 Achray, and Katrine. Pop. ’71, 1870. 
 
 CALLAO, the port of Lima, the capital of Peru, connected with that city by a railway 
 of 6 m. in length. It stands in lat. 12° s., and long. 77° 13' w. Fine harbor- works, with 
 extensive pier and dock accommodation, were completed in 1875. The roadstead is 
 large, free from rocks, and safe, being sheltered by the island of San Lorenzo. The 
 exports are guano, specie, copper, cotton, bark, and hides The value of exports and 
 imports is about £6,000,000 annually. C. contains about 20,000 inhabitants. The pres- 
 ent C. dates only from 1746, when the original city was submerged and destroyed by an 
 earthquake. 
 
 CALLAWAY, a co. in s.w. Kentucky, on Tennessee river; 450 sq.m.; pop. ’70, 
 9410 — 812 colored; in ’80, 13,333. The surface is varied, and soil fertile, producing 
 corn, tobacco, etc. Co seat, Murray. 
 
 CALLAWAY, a co. in e. Missouri, on the Missouri river; 743 sq.m.; pop. ’80, 
 23,670 — 4402 colored. The soil is mainly prairie, and fertile, producing corn, tobacco, 
 potatoes, butter, wool, etc. Co. seat, Fulton. 
 
 CALL TO THE BAR is the formal expression by which the admission of law-students 
 to the rights and privileges of the degree of barristeV in England and Ireland is publicly 
 announced. In Scotland the corresponding expression is Passing Admcate. See Bar- 
 RiSTER ; Inns op Court ; and Advocates, Faculty of. 
 
 CALLCOTT, Sir Augustus. This name has been erroneously spelled Calcott (q.v.). 
 
 CALLCOTT, John Wall. See Calcott. 
 
 CALLE'JA, Don Felix DEL Rey, 1750-1820; count of Calderon, commanding the 
 Spanish forces in Mexico during the Hidalgo insurrection. In Jan., 1812, he captured 
 the fortress of Zitacuaro and murdered all the inhabitants; and in the same year he cap- 
 tured Hidalgo’s successor, the priest Morelos, who was at once shot. For these acts he 
 was made viceroy and ennobled. 
 
 CALLERNISH, a district on the w. coast of the island of Lewis, about 16 m. from 
 Stornoway, remarkable for its circles of standing stones (q.v.). There are four circles, 
 at no great distance from one another, but without any visible relation. The principal 
 one, is of a more than usually elaborate design. “A double line of upright stones 
 run parallel to each other in a northerly direction, while a single line of similar 
 stones is projected from the s., e., and w. points, thus giving a cruciform figure to the 
 structure. A stone of larger dimensions than any of the others occupies the center of 
 
 the circle, and completes the whole That the position was chosen and laid down 
 
 from astronomical observation, can easily be demonstrated by visiting the spot on a 
 clear night, when it will be found that by bringing the upper part of the single line 
 of stones extending to the south to bear upon the top of the large stone in the center 
 
 of the circle, the apex of that stone coincides exactly with the pole-star The 
 
 stones themselves are not columnar, or shaped into any form ; they are simply broad, 
 flat blocks of gneiss — the all-prevailing rock from the Butt of the Lewis to Barra 
 Head. The following are their dimensions: diameter of circle, about 40 ft.; length 
 of west line, 43 ft. ; length of east line, 38 ft. ; length of south line, 69 ft. ; length of 
 avenue, 270 ft.; breadth of avenue, 27 ft.; average height of stones, 6 to 8 ft.; height 
 of center stone, 12 feet. There are 13 stones in the circle, including the center one, 19 
 in the avenue, 5 in each of the east and west, and 6 in the south arm. The measure- 
 ments of height are taken from the present level; but it must be borne in mind that there 
 is a bed of peat-moss, 4 or 5 ft. thick, through which the stones rise from the clay 
 beneath; this gives a height of 16 to 17 ft. to the center stone, and from 10 to 13 ft. to the 
 •others, exclusive of the foundation.” — Notice of the Stone Circle at Callernish, communi- 
 cated to the society of antiquaries of Scotland, by Mr. Henry Callender, Mar., 1857. 
 
 CALL OF THE HOUSE is an imperative summons to every member of parliament of 
 either house on some particular occasion, when the sense of the whole house is deemed 
 
Calliclithys. 
 
 Callot. 
 
 318 
 
 necessary. In the house of lords, when any urgent business is deemed to require the 
 attendance of the lords, it has been usual to order the house to be called over; and this- 
 order has sometimes been enforced by fines and imprisonment upon absent lords. On 
 some occasions, the lord chancellor has addressed letters to all the peers, desiring their 
 attendance, as on the illness of George III., 1st Nov,, 1810. The most important occa- 
 sion on which the house was called over, in modern times, was in 1820, for the trial of 
 queen Caroline. 
 
 ' When the house of cmumons is ordered to be called over, it is usual to name a day 
 which will enable the members to attend from all parts of the country. The interval 
 between the order and the call has varied from one day to six weeks. If it be really 
 intended to enforce the call, not less than a week or ten days should intervene between 
 the order and the day named for the call. The order for the house to be called over is 
 always accompanied by a resolution “that such members as shall not then attend, be 
 sent for, in custody of the sergeant-at-arms.” And it was formerly the custom to desire 
 the speaker to write to all the sheriffs to summon the members to attend. On the day 
 appointed for the call, the order of the day is read and proceeded with, postponed, or dis- 
 charged, at the pleasure of the house. If proceeded with, the names are called over, 
 according to the counties, which are arranged alphabetically. The members of a county 
 are called first, and then the members for every city or borough within that county. The 
 counties in England and Wales are called first, and those of Scotland and Ireland in 
 their order. This point is mentioned, because it makes a material difference in the time 
 at which a member is required to be in his place. — See May’s in Pari., on Attend- 
 
 ance of Members. 
 
 CALLICHTHYS (Gr. halos, beautiful, ichthys, a fish), a genus of fishes of the family 
 siluridcB (q.v.), having the body almost entirely covered by four rows of large, hard, 
 narrow, scaly plates, two rows on each side. The head is also protected by a sort of 
 helmet. The mouth is small, the teeth very small; two long barbules hang from each 
 angle of the mouth. The species of this genus are natives of warm climates, particu- 
 larly of South America. They are interesting because, when the streams or pools which 
 they inhabit dry up, they make their T^ay across the land to some other piece of water, 
 even although at a considerable distance. They also sometimes bury themselves in the 
 mud of wet meadows, out of which they are digged. They have no special organs for 
 carrying a supply of water with them, like the climbing perch, but are supposed to 
 retain a little between the plates of their body. A still more interesting part of the nat- 
 ural history of these fishes is their making regular nests, generally of leaves, in which 
 they deposit their eggs, near the margin of the water, at the beginning of the rainy sea- 
 son, the male and female uniting in watching them until they are hatched. These habits 
 are shared by the species of the allied genus doras, in which the lateral plates are broader, 
 keeled, and each ending in a spine. 
 
 CALLIC'RATES, a Greek architect in the 5th c. b.c., who, assisted by Ictinus, was 
 the builder of the Parthenon. 
 
 CALLICRATTDAS, the successor of Lysander in command of the Lacedemonian 
 fleet against the Athenians, 406 b.c. After two successful battles he was defeated in a 
 third, thrown overboard, and drowned. 
 
 CALLIERES BONNEVUE, Louis Hector, Chevalier de, 1639-1703; a French 
 army officer, governor of Montreal in 1684, and in 1687 leader of the advance of the 
 forces invading the lands of the six nations in New York, He visited France to urge 
 the seizure of the city of New York as a security for French supremacy in Canada. In 
 1699, he was made governor-general of Canada. 
 
 CALLIG'ONUM, a genus of plants of the natural order polygoneoe (q.v.), having a 
 quadrangular fruit {achenium, q.v.), winged at the angles. The best known species is G. 
 pallasia, a succulent shrub found on the sandy steppes near the Caspian sea, and in the 
 lower part of the basin of the Volga, where its acid fruit and its also acid shoots often 
 serve to allay the thirst of the Kalmucks and of weary travelers. Its root strikes deep 
 into the sand, is swollen at its upper part, and when cut there, gives out a nutritious 
 gum resembling tragacanth (q.v.), which is also obtained by pounding and boiling it, 
 and on which the Kalmucks feed in times of scarcity. 
 
 CALLIM ACHUS, an eminent poet, grammarian, and critic of the Alexandrian period, 
 flourished about the middle of the 3d c. b.c. He was of a distinguished family at 
 Gyrene, in Libya; taught grammar and belles-lettres in Alexandria; was a favorite of 
 Ptolemy Philadelphus, and his successor Ptolemy Euergetes ; and was made principal 
 librarian of the Alexandrian library. He wrote many works on the most various sub- 
 jects (Suidas mentions 800), but only fragments are extant; nor have we many of his 
 poems ; but the poems which we have, bear the marks of an age when the artificial had 
 obtained a preference over the natural. • 
 
 CALLIM'ACHUS, an architect and artist of Greece, who lived about 400 b.c., and 
 is said to have been the originator of the Corinthian column. 
 
 CALLING THE DIET is the Scotch term for arraignment (q.v.), although the forms are 
 different. In Scotland, excepting in cases of high treason, there is no ^rand jury, but 
 the procedure is briefly as follows; Before a prisoner can be tried, a written or printed 
 
319 
 
 Callichthys. 
 
 Callot. 
 
 «opy of the indictment preferred against him must have been served 15 days before the 
 trial, with a copy of the list of witnesses to be examined against him, and also of the 
 * panel. When, therefore, he is placed at the bar of the court, and called on to 
 plead, he is presumed to know the nature of the charge made against him. But if it be 
 desired by him, or by his counsel, the clerk in the first instance reads the indictment 
 ^loLid in open court — the same being a well-prepared syllogistic statement of the facts, 
 which the prosecutor is prepared to prove. He is then called upon to state his objec- 
 tions to the relevancy, and to have such relevancy disposed of by the court, before 
 being called on to plead to the fact. If the judgment of the court is in favor of the 
 objection, the prosecution for the time fails, and the prisoner is sent back to jail, to 
 abide another indictment, unless the prosecutor chooses to abandon the case against him 
 altogether. See Indictment, Verdict, Defense. 
 
 CALLINGER, one of the hill-forts of Bundelcund (q.v.), elevated about 700 ft. above 
 the adjacent plain, and separated from a neighboring range of mountains by a ravine of 
 1200 yards in width. It is in lat. 25° n., and long. 80° 32' e., being 112 m. to the s. w. of 
 Allahabad. From its position and size, C. must at one time have been a place of great 
 strength. It was stormed by the British in 1812. At the s.e. base of the rock stands a 
 town of the same name, which, though it is now much decayed, yet bears testimony to 
 its ancient extent and grandeur. The locality is famous for its excavated temples of 
 Siva. 
 
 CALLI'NUS OP Ephesus, reputed to have been the earliest of the Greek poets, lived 
 about 700 B.c. One of his elegies has been preserved to the present time. 
 
 CALLIO'NYMUS. See Dragonet. 
 
 CALLI'OPE (i.e., the sweet-voiced), was, according to the ancients, the first of the 
 Muses (q.v.), and presided over epic poetry, or over poetry in general. She was said to 
 be the mother of Orpheus, of the Sirens, etc. She was usually represented with a style 
 and wax tablets. 
 
 CALLIPERS, a kind of compasses with curved legs, used by turners and other work- 
 men for measuring the diameters of cylindrical, spherical, and other curved work. The 
 C. are laid over the work, and opened or closed until both points just touch the periph- 
 -ery; then the C. are laid upon a rule, and the extent of their opening measured, or 
 the size is compared with a pattern. 
 
 CALLIR'HOE, a fountain near Athens, called the fountain of nine springs, because 
 its waters were distributed in that number of channels. 
 
 CALLISTE'IA, a Grecian festival at which a prize was awarded to the most beauti- 
 ful woman. But among the Elians men were the competitors, and the victor received 
 a suit of armor which he dedicated to Minerva. 
 
 CALLIS'THENES, of Olynthus, was the son of Hero, a cousin of Aristotle. C. was 
 b. about 360 b. c. ; he was educated by Aristotle along with Alexander the great. He 
 devoted himself to the study of natural and political history, and accompanied Alex- 
 ander the great in his expedition to India. He incurred the displeasure of the courtiers 
 and royal favorites, and of Alexander himself, who was displeased by his remonstrating 
 against his intended assumption of divine honors, and in general by his bold, indiscreet, 
 •outspeaking ways; and he was put to death on a pretended charge of treason, 328 b.c. 
 Only a few fragments of his historic works remain, and these are not valuable. The 
 History of Alexander ascribed to him, of which there are several MSS. in the Paris 
 library, is evidently a production of the 7th c. , and rather a romance than a history. 
 
 CALLIS'TRATUS, an orator of Athens whose eloquence led Demosthenes to devote 
 himself to public speaking. For surrendering Oropus (after a heroic defense) to the The- 
 bans, he was condemned to death, 361 b.c., b^ut he fled to Macedonia, where he founded 
 the city of Datum, afterwards called Philippi. At a later period he returned to Athens 
 and was put to death. 
 
 CAL'LITHRIX. See Sagouin. 
 
 CAL'LITRIS. See Sandarach. 
 
 CALLOSITIES. See Corns. 
 
 CALLOT, Jacques, one of the most eminent artists of his time, was b. at Nancy, 
 1592. Proceeding to Rome, he commenced drawing and engraving under Thomassin in 
 his eighteenth year. He next went to Florence, where, by numerous spirited etchings, 
 he gained great fame, and engraved for Cosmo II., grand duke of Tuscany, a series of 
 plates of court-festivals, etc. When his patron died (1621), C. returned to his native 
 place, and increased his reputation by a copious series of etchings, including six plates 
 of the siege of Breda. By order of Louis XIII., who invited C. to Paris, etchings of 
 the sieges of Rochelle and the He Rhe were executed; but C. refused to commemorate 
 by art the capture of his native town, and, declining the pension offered by the king, 
 returned to Nancy, where he died, 1635. His activity as an artist was marvelous. Of 
 his engravings, 1800 are still preserved at Dresden. As helps to a vivid conception of 
 ■the manners, conditions of life, events, etc,, in the 17th c., they are invaluable. C.’s 
 “ Mis^res de la Guerre,” a series of 18 plates, are especially celebrated. 
 
Calluna. 
 
 Caloric. 
 
 320 
 
 CALLTJ'NA. See Heath. 
 
 CALLUS. This term was employed in old surgical works, and is still used popularly, 
 to indicate the exuded material by which fractures of bones are consolidated together. • 
 If the broken ends are accurately adjusted to each other, there is no projection of C., 
 but merely a slight deposition of it between the two surfaces; if, however, the adjust- 
 ment is not accurate, the C. is effused in such quantity as to fill up any interspaces that 
 may exist, and as often to form a considerable hard swelling round the seat of the frac- 
 ture ; any excess is, however, usually absorbed during the last stage of the repair of a 
 fracture. When the broken ends are allowed to move upon each other — which, of 
 course, should be always prevented, if possible — a ferule of new bone, encircling both 
 fragments for some little distance, so as to splice them together, till they are united by 
 a permanent C. , is formed ; this is termed a pi'ovisional callus. 
 
 CALMAR. See Kalmar, ante. 
 
 CALMET, Augustine, an exegetical and historical writer, and learned Benedictine, 
 was b. at Mesnil-la-Horgue, near Commercy, Feb. 26, 1672, and, in 1689, entered the 
 order of Benedictines. In 1698, he was appointed teacher of philosophy and theology 
 in the abbey Moyen-Moutier; in 1704, sub-prior of a convent of learned monks at Mun- 
 ster, in Alsace ; and in 1706, he went to Paris, to superintend the publication of his 
 Commentary on the Bible. He was afterwards appointed prior at Lay (1715), abbot of 
 St. Leopold (1718), abbot of Senones in Lorraine 1728), and died at Paris, Oct. 25, 1757. 
 His exegetical writings have been commended and studied with advantage by both 
 Roman Catholics and Protestants. The Commentary on the Bible (23 vols., Paris, 1707-16), 
 though marked by the author’s deficient knowledge of the oriental languages, contains 
 valuable researches in biblical antiquities. C.’s Historical and Critical Dictionary of th& 
 Bible (4 vols., Paris, 1722-28) was translated into English, German, and other languages, 
 and has passed through many editions. His other works — a History of the Bible, and of 
 the Jews (1718), and a Universal History (1735-71) — are mere compilations; but his His^ 
 tory of Lorraine is founded on original researches. Solid criticism and vigorous intel- 
 lect are wanting in all his works. ^ 
 
 CALMS, or Calm Latitudes, are those parts of the ocean, near the equator, which 
 are subject to total absence of wind for long periods together. The part of the ocean 
 where C. are most looked for, is between the region of the trade-winds and that of the 
 variable winds. See Winds. It is almost as much dreaded by seamen as a region of 
 storms, for the ship is unnavigable; and during a calm of many weeks, food and water 
 may be nearly exhausted, at a point too far from land for boats to reach it. Where a 
 calm occurs unexpectedly, it is likely to be followed by violent storms. 
 
 CALMUCKS. See Kalmucks. 
 
 CALNE, a parliamentary borough and ancient t. of Wiltshire, on the river Harden,. 
 31 m. n.n.w. of Salisbury. It lies in one of the many valleys of the chalk escarpment 
 3 f this part of England, with the plateau of the Marlborough downs and Salisbury 
 plain on the e. and south. In 1863, a branch line was opened to C., 6 m. from the 
 Chippenham station of the Great Western railway. The principal industry is the cur- 
 ing of bacon ; and there are also flax, paper, and flour mills. The manufacture of wool- 
 ens, formerly of importance, is now almost extinct. There is also a weekly corn-mar- 
 ket. Pop. of the town in 1871, 5315. The parliamentary borough, formerly returning^ 
 two members to parliament, but now only one, includes part of Blackland and Cal- 
 stone. Many Roman remains have been found here. The West-Saxon kings had a 
 palace at Caine, but no traces of it now remain. At a synod held here by St. Dunstan 
 in 977, relative to the celibacy of the clergy, the floor of the room in which the synod 
 sat gave way, precipitating all to the ground but St. Dunstan, who presided. On an 
 almost perpendicular declivity 3 m. e. of C. is the figure of a horse, 157 ft. long, in a 
 spirited attitude. It was cut out in white chalky ground in 1780 by Dr. Allsopp, and is 
 visible 50 m. off. Dr. Priestley resided at C. 1770-80. 
 
 CALO'EE. See Boehmeria. 
 
 CALOMARDE, Don Francisco Tadeo, Count, a Spanish statesman, was b. in 1775 at 
 Villel, in Aragon. He studied at Saragossa, where he passed as an advocate. After 
 the expulsion of the French, and the return of Ferdinand VII. in 1814, C. was among 
 the first to hurry to Aragon, and do homage to him as an absolute monarch. As a 
 reward of his obsequious celerity, he obtained the highest oflSce in the secretaria general 
 de Indias, but lost it on account of accepting a bribe. On the restoration of the con- 
 stitution in 1820, he unsuccessfully courted the favor of the liberals; but when the 
 French army in 1823 enabled the king once more to rule despotically, C. was appointed 
 secretary of the cdmara del real pair onato, one of the most influential offices in the king- 
 dom. Not long after, the king made him minister of justice. While he held this func- 
 tion, he persecuted the liberals with cold-blooded savageness, recalled the Jesuits, 
 re-opened the monasteries, and closed the universities. He also secretly favored the 
 party of Don Carlos; but, on the other hand, by treating any unseasonable outbreak 
 with a strictness bordering on cruelty, he preserved himself from the suspicion of being 
 implicated in their schemes. In 1833, when Ferdinand w^as supposed to be on his 
 death-bed, he was prevailed on by C. to re-introduce the Salic law, by wiiich Christina 
 
321 
 
 Calluiia. 
 
 Caloric. 
 
 was excluded from the throne, and Don Carlos, the favorite of the absolutists, appointed 
 his successor. This excited the hatred of the nation; and Ferdinand recovering, 
 abolished the law. To avoid imprisonment, C. tied to France. He died at Toulouse 
 in 1842. 
 
 CALOMEL is the popular name given to one of the compounds of mercury (Hg) and 
 chlorine (Cl), and known to scientific chemists as the subchloride of mercury (llgCl). 
 It is prepared by taking two equal portions of mercury, dissolving one portion in hot 
 concentrated sulphuric acid (SO3), which forms sulphate of mercury (HgOSOs), there- 
 after adding the second part of the metal, and triturating the whole in a mortar till the 
 metal becomes incorporated with the sulphate of mercury. This mixture is then added 
 to one half its weight of common salt (NaCl), and heated in a retort, when C._ sublimes, 
 and condenses in the cool part of the receiver, as a fine white powder. A minute por- 
 tion of corrosive sublimate which accompanies it, is removed by washing with water. C. 
 is very dense. It is not soluble in water, and sparingly so in acids. It turns black on 
 the addition of lime-water, potash, soda, or ammonia; and when heated in an iron 
 spoon, or on a knife, it does not char, but rises in vapor, sublimes unaltered, and readily 
 condenses again on any cool surface held near it. Although C. has been more used in 
 British practice than any other preparation of mercury, it is not known to have been 
 employed before the 17th century. Its medicinal virtues will be treated of with the other 
 mercurials. See Mercury. 
 
 GALONNE, Charles Alexandre de, controller general o^ finance in France under 
 Louis XVI., was b. Jan. 20, 1734, at Douay. Possessing superior abilities, he studied 
 law, and having filled successively various offices, was made, in 1783, controller general 
 of the treasury. In this capacity he soon gained favor among the courtiers, who had 
 complained of the parsimony of Turgot and Necker. C., though he found French, 
 finance in a deplorable state, was determined not to seem poor, gave brilliant entertain- 
 ments, paid off the debts of his patron the count of Artois, supplied the queen with 
 sufficient pocket-money, granted pensions and gratuities to his supporters and favorites, 
 paid off arrears, and purchased the residences of St. Cloud and Rambouillet ! His 
 means of raising money were perfectly simple — he borrowed, anticipated, issued chan- 
 cery-edicts, and prolonged and augmented extradVdinary taxations in a style never 
 known before. The parliament resisted these measures, but C., backed by royal author- 
 ity, carried them into execution. The crisis necessarily arrived; and in 1786, when the 
 people could bear the extraordinary taxation no longer, C, advised the king to convoke 
 the assembly of the notables, and proposed to abolish the‘ privileges (exemption from 
 taxes) of the noble and wealthy, to take the duty off salt, to~abolish socage (feudal or 
 compulsory service to the lord of the manor), and to distribute the burden of taxation 
 more equally. The people and the aristocracy demanded a convocation of the states- 
 general, instead of the assembly of the notables; but C. boldly proceeded with his plan, 
 opened the assembly of the notables, Feb. 2, 1787, and in a pleasant and florid oration, 
 described the general prosperity of French industry and commerce and brought his 
 speech to a climax by confessing that the annual defi cit of the treasury had risen to 115 
 millions of francs, and that during the time from 1776 to 1786, the government had bor- 
 rowed no less a sum than about 1250 millions ! The notables, instead of proceeding 
 with C.’s plan of reorganization, demanded from him a statement of acounts. Not 
 being able to give this satisfactorily, he was stripped of his dignities, and banished to 
 Lorraine. After this, C. resided chiefly in England, until in 1802 he obtained from 
 Bonaparte permission to return to France, where he died, in very embarrassed circum- 
 stances, Oct. 30, 1802. 
 
 CALOPHYL'LTTM (Or. beautiful leaf), a genus of trees of the natural order guttiferm 
 (q.v.), natives of warm climates. Some of the species yield valuable timber, as C. 
 angustifoUum, the Piney Tree, which grows at Penang, and in the islands to the east- 
 ward of the bay of Bengal, and furnishes the beautiful straight spars called peon. The 
 resinous products of some species are valuable, and among them are some of the sub- 
 stances known by the name of tacamahaca (q.v.). G. inophyllum, which yields true East 
 Indian tacamahaca, is a very large and beautiful umbrageous tree, often planted for its 
 shade and the fragrance of its flowers, which are white and in loose axillary racemes. It 
 is one of the rnost valuable timber-trees of the South Sea islands. The timber resembles 
 mahogany, being of equally close texture, although of lighter color, and very durable 
 The leaves are oblong and obtuse; the fruit — which in all this genus is a globose drupe 
 or stone fruit — is about the size of a walnut; and a fixed oil is expressed from its kernel, 
 which is used for lamps, etc, A similar oil is expressed from the seed of C. calaha, the 
 CalabaTree of the West Indies, which also has white sweet-scented flowers, and of 
 which the timber is used for Various purposes, particularly for staves and cask-heading, 
 
 CALOBIC, a term for heat (q.v.). 
 
 CALOBIG ENGINE. This was the name given by capt. Ericsson to his latest air- 
 engine.^ There seems no reason for the change of name, unless it were meant to distin- 
 guish itfrqni the previously well-known, though hitherto unsuccessful air-enginesof the- 
 Messrs. Stirling. We shall in this article treat air and caloric engine as synonymous 
 terms. 
 
 well-known law, applicable to all thermo-dynamic engines, that (presupposing 
 
Calori meter. 
 Calotype. 
 
 322 
 
 tlie merely meclianical part of the machine to be perfect) the heat converted into 
 work bears the same proportion to the total heat given to the fluid that the range of tem- 
 perature bears to the highest absolute temperature of the fluid. Thus supposing an engine 
 to receive steam* at the temperature of 275° F., and discharge it at that of 120° F., the 
 
 fraction of heat which it can convert into work will be 
 
 275-120 
 
 275-f461 
 
 or aoout 21 per cent 
 
 of the total heat of the fluid. This proportion would be, of course, greatly reduced 
 ill practice, owing to imperfections in the machinery, but these being equally likely to 
 occur in all prime movers, we need not consider them here. The lowest limit of tem- 
 perature available being practically constant, fixed either by the temperature of the 
 atmosphere, or that obtainable in a condenser, it follows that greater economy can only 
 be looked for in the direction of increase of initial temperature. In ordinary steam- 
 engines, in which the pressure and temperature increase simultaneously, the latter is 
 limited by the former, which in its turn is kept, by considerations of safety, compara- 
 tively. low. When, however, superheated steam (steam to which additional heat has been 
 imparted without the corresponding addition of pressure) or heated air is used, the tem- 
 perature is limited only by the power of the metals composing the machine to resist the 
 destructive action of heat, or the chemical action of the fluid at that temperature. 
 Heated air possesses the advantage over superheated steam as a motive power, that with 
 it an explosion, in the usual sense of the word, is rendered almost impossible, and that, 
 if one were to occur, it would be comparatively harmless. It also, of course, enables the 
 boiler to be dispensed with. 
 
 Air-engines, in their principal working parts, are very similar to ordinary steam- 
 engines. The heated air is introduced into a cylinder, in which works a tightly-fitting 
 piston, which is thus compelled to move up and down, and transfers its motion to a 
 revolving shaft by means of a piston and connecting rod in the usual manner. The 
 motion of the piston results in all cases from the expansion of the heated air; the 
 air is heated by means of a furnace, is introduced below the piston, raises it, and 
 then is allowed to escape into the atmosphere. Air-engines are almost invariably single- 
 acting; they are sometimes worked . simply by heated air, and sometimes with the air 
 which, having passed through the furnace, is mixed with all the gaseous products of 
 combustion. The latter, method has the immense advantage that it utilizes the heat 
 which would otherwise be rejected into the chimney The total efficiency of the 
 machine is thus increased, although the efficiency of the engine proper, between the given 
 pair of temperatures, remains the same. 
 
 The more heat carried away by the discharged air — the higher its temperature, in 
 other words — the smaller evidently is, cmteris paribus, the range of temperature of the 
 machine, and the less, therefore (as already explained), will be its efficiency. The dis- 
 tinctive principle of the Messrs. Stirling’s air engine, as of the later C. E., consists in 
 utilizing a great part of this wasted heat, and thus economizing fuel. This is effected 
 by means of a “regenerator,” or, more properly, “economizer,” consisting of a chamber 
 filled with metallic sieves of wire-gauze, through which the hot air is made to pass out- 
 wards from the cylinder, after having performed its work on the working piston of the 
 engine. As much of the heat of the escaping air is taken up by the regenerator, and 
 its temperature thus reduced, the range of temperature of the machine is correspond- 
 ingly increased. The fresh air entering the cylinder for the next stroke was compelled 
 to pass inwards through the regenerator, and abstracted from it the heat left in it. In 
 this way it did not require to receive so much heat in the furnace as would otherwise 
 have been the case, and thus economized fuel. 
 
 This method of preventing waste of heat was first discovered by the Kev. Dr. Stir- 
 ling, who obtained a patent for it in 1816. In working with air at the ordinarv pressure 
 of the atmosphere, however, the engine was found to require to be of large dimensions 
 as compared to a steam-engine of the same power; and in order to obviate this objec- 
 tion, compressed air was used, the idea originating with Mr. James Stirling, c.e. Sev- 
 eral other difficulties were successfully surmounted by the Messrs. Stirling, and event- 
 ually two improved engines were constructed, one of which was tested to fully 40 horse- 
 power. This latter engine did all the work of the Dundee foundry company regularly 
 for upwards of 3 years, during which period they employed no other motor. At the 
 end of this period it was laid aside, principally owing to the repeated failure of one of 
 the heating vessels. 
 
 Capt. Ericsson, in his attempt to introduce his C. E. in the ship which bore his 
 name, experienced precisely the same difficulties and disappointments, and tried nearly 
 the same remedies as the Messrs. Stirling. There seems li.ttle doubt, however, that he 
 actually believed his “ regenerator” was to make the same heat do work over and over 
 again — to be a kind of perpetual motion — and under these circumstances it is not to be 
 wondered at that his machines (notwithstanding some not very creditable maneuvering 
 on the part of their upholders) entirely failed, and that in 2 years (1855) they were 
 replaced by steam-engines. 
 
 Air engines have recently been constructed, in which the solar rays, concentrated by 
 
 * The law is the same for steam, air, or any other fluid whatever. 
 
323 
 
 Calorimeter. 
 
 Calotype. 
 
 means of an arrangement of mirrors, are utilized as the source [of heat These have 
 been called solar engines. 
 
 CALORIM'ETER, a measurer of the degree of heat (q.v.), 
 
 CALOKIMO'TOll, a powerful galvanic battery devised by Dr. Hare. He placed a 
 sheet of non-conducting substance, as paste-board, between a sheet ol copper an^ 
 another of zinc, rolled the whole together, and plunged the bundle into a barrel of 
 acidulated water. As there was but one pair of plates, the intensity of the electricHy 
 produced was feeble, but because of the great surface, the quantity was large; effects 
 which depend upon quantity, as heat, were produced in an intense degree. The same 
 result is now attained by coupling the elements of many small cells in such a way that 
 all the positive plates shall be united in one, and the negative plates in another. 
 
 CALO'TROPIS. See Mudar. 
 
 CALOTTISTES {Le Regiment de la Calotte), a society of witty and satirical men, in the 
 time of Louis XIV., who were headed by two officers in the king’s body-guard, named 
 Torsac and Aimon. Their name was taken from the word calotte (a “small cap,” worn 
 by monks over the tonsure), and their amusement consisted* in sending to any public 
 character who had exposed himself to ridicule, a “patent,” authorizing him to wear the 
 calotte as a covering for the weak part of his head. The armorial bearings of the Regi- 
 ment de la Calotte consisted of various symbols of folly, with the motto, “ C'est regner qua 
 de saxoir rire” When Torsac, its first “generalissimo,” died, the society, which occu- 
 pied a position of satirical hostility to the French academy, drew up a burlesque 
 funeral oration, manufactured out of the pompously eulogistic phrases that the acade- 
 micians were in the habit of using. As the society became audacious, and did not spare 
 even royalty itself, it was dissolved by the minister Fleury. The Memoires pour servir d, 
 VHistoire de la Calotte (Basel, 1725) is an amusing little book. During the restoration, 
 the title Regime de la Calotte was applied to the priestly administration of affairs. 
 
 CAL'OTYPE PROC'E^ (Gr. halos, beautiful, typos, impression), a title comprehending 
 a variety of methods for the production of negative photographs on paper; and so 
 named by the inventor, the late Dr. H. Fox Talbot, who exhibited the result of his 
 experiments in the year 1840. The principle involved in the C. P. depends on the sus- 
 ceptibility to the action of daylight of a surface chemically prepared, and the practice 
 consists in the preparation, and exposure in the camera, of a sheet of paper, having on 
 one surface an even and finely divided layer of iodide of silver, nitrate of silver, and an 
 organic acid; the image obtained on this surface being subsequently developed with 
 gallo-uitrate of silver. It will be unnecessary here to describe the various modifications 
 which have been introduced with the object of imparting a high degree of sensibility to 
 the paper; one process — the best — will suffice to describe the manipulation. 
 
 Good English paper, sized with gelatine, should be chosen, the foreign starch-sized 
 papers being unsuitable, on account of the solutions sinking in too deeply, and thus 
 impairing that sharpness of outline which should be possessed by a good negative. The 
 paper is then floated on one side, and for a moment only, on a solution of iodide of 
 silver in iodide of potassium ; prepared by adding freshly precipitated iodide of silver 
 to a strong solution of iodide of potassium. It is then dried, and plunged into a dish 
 containing distilled water, which, by removing the soluble iodide of potassium, precipi- 
 tates the iodide of silver in an even and finely divided condition over the whole surface 
 of the paper, which in this state will keep good for twelve months. It is now ready to 
 receive the sensitive coating; this operation, which is called exciting the paper, is per- 
 formed in the following manner : Two solutions are prepared — one, a saturated solution 
 of gallic acid in cold distilled water, called solution A ; the other, a solution of 50 grains of 
 nitrate of silver in 1 oz. of distilled water, to wffiich 1 dram of glacial acetic acid has 
 been added; this is called solution B. The iodized paper obtained as above is now laid 
 on a board having a piece of clean blotting-paper on it a little larger than the paper to 
 be excited, and the following solution brushed over it with a clean Buckle’s brush: 
 distilled water, 1 oz. ; solution A, 15 drops; solution B, 15 drops. This mixture, pre- 
 pared in a chemically clean glass vessel, should be freely applied, and the excess 
 absorbed by clean blotting-paper. The paper is now ready for exposure in the camera, 
 and may be at once placed in the dark slide ; or a stock may be thus sensitized and 
 preserved between folds of blotting-paper until required for use. The time of exposure 
 — varying from three minutes to a quarter of an hour — is determined by the diameter 
 and focal length of the lens employed, the aperture of the diaphragm or stop, and the ^ 
 amount of light prevailing at the time. The development of the latent image, an operation 
 which, like the preceding, is, of course, conducted in a room illuminated only by yellow ^ 
 light, is accomplished by applying freely and uniformly over the whole surface solution 
 A; and when the image begins to appear, applying a second quantity, to which a few 
 drops of solution B have been previously added, to increase the intensity. The whole 
 operation of development occupies about a quarter of an hour; and when the details 
 are fully out, the picture should be washed with water, and fixed, by immersion in a 
 solution of 1 part of hyposulphite of soda to 4 parts of water; it is then again freely 
 washed in frequent changes of water during several hours; it is lastly dried and waxed; 
 when it may be regarded as a finished negative, from which positive prints may be 
 obtained, having the lights and shadows as in nature. See Positive Printing. 
 
Calovius. 
 
 Calvados. 
 
 324 
 
 CALO'VIUS, Abkaham, 1612-86; a Lutheran minister, rector at Dantzic, and pro- 
 fessor at Konigsberg and Wittenberg. He was a strong controvertist, and a vigorous 
 supporter of his sect. 
 
 CALOY'ERS, a general name for the monks of the Greek church. The name is a cor- 
 ruption of two Greek words, kalos and geron, and signifies “ good old men.” The C. follow 
 the order of St. Basil, and are divided into three ranks: the novices, called archari, 
 the ordinary professed, called microchemi; and the more perfect, called megalochemi 
 It is always from among them that bishops and patriarchs are chosen, because they ar* 
 generally members of the m^st distinguished families of the upper and middle classes. 
 The C. also furnish the only learned theologians in Greece at the present day. Theii 
 monasteries are very numerous. The most celebrated in Asia is that of Mt. Sinai, 
 founded by the emperor Justinian, and endowed with a revenue of 60,000 crowns. In 
 Europe, Mt. Athos alone has twenty, the inmates of which have so great a reputation 
 for sanctity, that even the Turks seek an interest in their prayers. The C. are obliged 
 to labor for the benefit of their monastery as long as they continue in it. Their religious 
 services occupy an unnaturally large portion of their time, beginning at midnight and 
 continuing at intervals until sunset. They observe four Lents: the first, of eight weeks, 
 in commemoration of the resurrection of our Lord; the second, of three weeks, in 
 honor of the holy apostles; the third, of fourteen days, in commemoration of the 
 assumption of the Virgin; and the fourth, in commemoration of the advent, — There are 
 also female C., or Greek nuns, who likewise follow the rule of St. Basil. 
 
 CALTE. See Hercules, Pillars of, ante. 
 
 CALPEE, a city of Jhansi, one of the n.w. provinces of India, on the right bank of 
 the Jumna, in lat. 26° T n., and long. 79° 48' east. Pop. ’72, 15,570. It is an entrepot 
 for the cotton of the neighboring district. It has manufactures of cotton and paper, 
 and is celebrated for the beauty of its refined sugar. It became British by capture and 
 cession, respectively, in 1803 and 1806. It is 51 m. s.w. of Cawnpore, and is closely 
 linked with it in the history of the insurrection of 1857-58, as the head-quarters of the 
 Gwalior contingent. 
 
 CALPENTYN', a long and narrow peninsula on the w. side of Ceylon, in lat. 8° 14' n., 
 and long. 79° 53' east. The neck is so low as to be overflowed during the n.e. monsoon,- 
 so that it is transformed into an island. 
 
 CALPURNIUS. The Calpurnia gens was, by its own account, one of the oldest 
 plebeian clans in Rome ; but it does not figure in history till the time of the first Punic 
 war. The family names, in the time of the republic, were Bestia, Bibulus, Plamma, 
 and Piso. — Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus is known as the hostile but incapable col- 
 league of Caesar (q.v.) in the consulate. He was put up by the aristocratic party, who 
 spent vast sums to carry the election. He finally joined the Pompeian party, had com- 
 mand of the fleet intended to prevent Caesar’s passage to Greece, and died 48 b.c., before 
 the battle of Dyrrhachium. Among the Roman women of this family, two are cele- 
 brated — Calpurnia, the daughter of Calpurnius Piso (consul 58 b.c.), and the last wife 
 of Caesar, who seems, from the scanty notices of her we possess, to have been a quiet 
 domestic woman, full of love and solicitude for her great husband; and Calpurnia, 
 the daughter of L. Calpurnius Bestia, wife of P. Antistius, who killed herself when her 
 husband was murdered by order of the younger Marius, 82 b.c. 
 
 CALPUR'NIUS, Titus Julius, surnamed Siculus, a pastoral poet who lived in 
 Sicily about the end of the 3d century. He seems to have been an imitator of Virgil, 
 but beyond his complaining of poverty nothing is known of his personal history. 
 
 CALTABELLO'TA (a Saracenic name = “the castle of the cork-trees”), a t. of Sicily, 
 Girgenti, 7 m. n.e. of Sciacca, most picturesquely situated around an ancient castle, 
 which crowns a steep rock overhanging a stream (anc. GHmisus), of the same name as 
 the town. Of its churches the Ghiesa Matrice is a beautiful relic of the middle ages, 
 resembling a mosque, with a single row of columns down the middle. C. was cap- 
 tured by the Saracens in 840 a.d. Pop. 6200. 
 
 CALTANISET'TA, a province in Sicily s. of Palermo; 1455 sq.m. ; pop. ’71, 230,066. 
 The soil is fertile, producing grapes, olives, almonds, hemp, cotton, etc. Marble, agate, 
 alabaster, sulphur, and iron ore are found. Agriculture is the chief industry, but there 
 are foundries and manufactories of chemicals. 
 
 CALTANISET'TA, a fortified t. of Sicily, situated on a fertile plain near the Salso, 
 about 28 m. n.e. of Girgenti. It has mineral springs and extensive sulphur-works. 
 Pop. ’72. 26,156. 
 
 CALTAVUTU'RO, a t. of Sicily, province of Palermo, and 37 m. s.e. of the city of 
 that name, on a small river, the Grande. The town is of Saracenic origin. Jasper is 
 found near C. Pop. 5000. 
 
 CAL'THA. See Marsh Marigold. 
 
 CALTO'NICA, a t. of Sicily, about 15 m. n.w. of Girgenti. It has pretty extensive 
 sulphur-works and salt-works. Pop. 7000. 
 
 CALTROP, Calthrop, or Calthorp, in military warfare, is a four-pronged piece of 
 iron, each prong about four in. in length. When it is wished to check the approach of 
 
325 
 
 Calovius. 
 
 Calvados* 
 
 the enemy’s cavalry over a plain, or of his besiegers in the ditch of a fortification, cal- 
 trops are sometimes thrown down ; from their shape, one prong is sure to stand upright, 
 ;and may work terrible mischief to the enemy’s horses or men. 
 
 CALUIBE, a t. of France, in the department of the Rhone, situated on the left bank 
 -of the Saone, about 3 m. n.n.e, of Lyon. It has three annual fairs. Pop. ’76, 7207. 
 
 CALUMBA, or Colombo, very extensively used in medicine, is the root of cocculus 
 palmatus, a herbaceous plant of the natural order menispermacem (q.v.). It is said to 
 derive its name from Colombo in Ceylon, although the C. no’m chiefly in use is the pro- 
 duce of Mozambique. The flowers in this genus have 12 sepais and petals in all, similar 
 in appearance, and disposed in four rows. The male and female flowers are on sepa- 
 rate plants. C. palmatus has nearly circular leaves with 5 to 7 lobes, on long hairy 
 Toot-stalks, and solitary axillary racemes of small green flowers, the racemes of the male 
 plants branching. The fruit is a drupe, or 1-seeded berry-like fruit, about the size of a 
 Jiazel-nut, densely clothed with long hairs. The stem is annual and twining; the root 
 perennial, consisting of clustered spindle-shaped fleshy tubers, with a brown warty epi- 
 dermis, and internally deep yellow. The plant is not cultivated : the root is collected 
 where it grows wild in dense forests. It is dug up in Mar., cut into slices or short cylin- 
 drical pieces, and dried in the shade. In this state it appears in commerce, having a 
 greenish-yellow tint, a very bitter taste, and a faint aromatic odor. Its bitterness is 
 ascribed to a somewhat narcotic principle called calumbine, and to herherine, an alkaloid 
 originally discovered in the barberry (q.v.), which is also present in it. C. is regarded 
 as one of the most useful stomachics and tonics. It is demulcent, not at all stimulant, 
 and capable of being employed in cases in which almost every other tonic would be 
 rejected by the stomach. It is sometimes given to allay vomiting. It has been found 
 very useful in diarrhea and dysentery. It is administered in the form of powder, infu- 
 sion, or tincture. Similar properties seem to reside in the roots of the species of cocculus 
 generally. — The very poisonous seed known by the name of cocculus Indicus (q.v.), 
 belongs to a plant of a different but allied genus. — The root of frasera walteri is some- 
 times fraudulently substituted for C., and has been called American calumba root. It 
 does not agree with C. in its properties, but, besides its very different appearance, it 
 may be distinguished by its undergoing no such change of color when touched with 
 tincture of iodine, as in true C. root is produced by the presence of starch. See 
 Frasera. 
 
 CALUMET, the “peace-pipe” of the North American Indians, is a tobacco-pipe hav- 
 ing a stem of reed about two feet and a half long, decorated with locks of women’s hair 
 and feathers, and a large bowl of polished marble. It plays an important part in the 
 conclusion of treaties, of which, indeed, it may be described as the ratifler. After a 
 treaty has been signed, the Indians fill the C. with the best tobacco, and present it to the 
 representatives of the party with whom they have been entering into alliance, themselves 
 smoking out of it afterwards. The presentation of it to stangersis a mark of hospitality, 
 and to refuse it would be considered an act of hostility. 
 
 CALUMET, a co. in e. Wisconsin, on Winnebago lake; 360 sq.m.; pop. ’80, 16,631. 
 It is a hilly region, but with abundance of timber and good pasturage, and produces 
 grain, hay, hops, wool, etc. Co. seat, Chilton. 
 
 CALUMET, a t. and village in Houghton co., Mich., on the Mineral Range railroad; 
 pop. of township ’80, 8291. In the town is a copper-mine supposed to be the richest in 
 the world; employing from 1800 to 2000 men and yielding annually 12,000 to 15,000 tons 
 of pure copper. There are some manufactures in the village. 
 
 CALUMNY. An ancient regulation of the Scotch law obliged litigants to give their 
 oath of C. — that is, they swore, either by themselves or by their counsel, that the facts 
 alleged by them were true, although in practice this oath was not usually put unless 
 one of the parties required it of his adversary. In the modern practice, however, of the 
 <iourt of session, this oath is confined to actions for divorce, and other consistorial cases 
 — the object being to guard against collusion between the husband and wife. Se« 
 Divorce. 
 
 CALUMNY, Law as to. See Libel. 
 
 CALU'SO, a t. of n. Italy, in Piedmont, province of Turin, about 11 m. s. of Ivrea, 
 and connected with Turin by railway. Pop. 3500. 
 
 CALVADOS, a maritime department in the n. w. of France, bounded n. by the English 
 channel, and e., w., and s. by the departments of Eure, Manche, and Orne. It is formed 
 out of a part of the old province of Normandy. The principal rivers are the Touques, 
 ‘Orne, Dives, Seulle, Dromrae, and Vire. The coast, which has few bays or inlets, is 
 partly formed by bold ridges, and partly by sand-downs, cliffs, and reefs. The reef 
 extending between the mouths of the Orne and the Vire, called Calvados, after one of 
 the vessels in the Spanish armada shipwrecked here, and from which the department 
 takes its name, is very dangerous to navigation. The soil of the department is generally 
 fertile, especially in the valleys, supplying rich pasturage for horned cattle, sheep, 
 horses, and swine, which constitute the principal wealth of Calvados, The climate is 
 healthy, though changeable. Iron, marble, slate, and coal are found. There are various 
 manufactures, and the coast-fisheries are of some importance. C. has an area of 2130 
 
Calvaert. 
 
 Calvin. 
 
 326 
 
 sq.m., with a pop. in 1876 of 450,220, and is divided into six arrondissements. Caen 
 is the capital. 
 
 CALVAERT. Dionys, called also Dionisio Flammingo, a distinguished painter, 
 especially in landscape, was b. at Antwerp in 1555. He settled early at Bologna, where 
 re-opened a school, and had among his students the celebrated Domemchmo, 
 and^Albani, who were, afterwards, however, pupils of the Caracci. Many excelle t 
 pictures by him are still preserved at Bologna. He died in 1619. ^ 
 
 CALVARY, Mount, the scene of our Savior’s crucifixion, is an eminence which lay 
 at the n.w„ and just on the outside, of the ancient city of Jerusalem. Calvary or Cal- 
 varia is a translation into Latin of the Hebrew word Golgotha, signifying a sku” 
 either because the mount was a place of, public execution, or because it was shaped like 
 a human skull. 
 
 uman skuii. . - . 4 ? 
 
 CALVARY, in Roman Catholic countries, is a representation of the various scenes of 
 the passion and crucifixion of our Lord, either in a cliapel. or external to church a| 
 at St Tacoues at Antwerp. Is consists of three crosses with the figuies 01 Christ ana 
 the^ideves, usually as large as life, surrounded by a number ’ 
 
 various personages who took part m the crucifixion. At Aix-la-Chapelle, the C, is ^ 
 church on the top of a hill, surrounded by twelve sculptured stunes, each marking an 
 event which took place on the journey of the Savior to Mount Calvary. The approach 
 to the C. is called the Viob Dolorosa, each of the stones marking what is called a station, 
 at whicli the pious say a prayer in passing. ^ 
 
 CALVEL'LO, a t. in the province of Basilicata, Ital 3 ^ pleasantly situated on a lull-slope 
 about 13 m. s. of Potenza. It has two convents. Pop. 5650. 
 
 CALVENTU'RA ISLANDS, ofl; the coast of Arracan, in the bay of Bengal, their center 
 being in iat, 16° 53' n„ and long. 94° 20' east. The group consists of two divisions-oM 
 to the s.e., which is composed of two lofty and well-wooded islets; and another to the 
 
 n.w., which presents seven bare rocks, chiefly of fantastic shapes. ,oa -«a koq rcqc 
 
 CALVERT, a co. in Maryland, on Chesapeake bay; 250 sq.m. ; pop. 80, 
 colored. Its surface is rolling, with good soil, having marl in abundance. The chief 
 productions are tobacco, corn, and oats. Co. seat. Prince Frederick. 
 
 CALVERT, George and Cecil. See Baltimore, Lord. 
 
 V J-iXt A y VJTaLvXvU JCj <XJJ.VA. vy • ^ 
 
 CALVERT George Henry, b. Baltimore, 1803; a graduate of Harvard, and or a 
 long time editor of the Baltimore American. In 1832, he published Illustrations of Ph^e-. 
 nol%v the first treatise on the subject issued in this country. Among his works are a 
 Metrical Version of SchilleVs Don Carlos; Scenes and Thoughts in Europe; Cahiro a Don 
 ^anTc poem the Social Scien^s; The 
 
 Poems; First Tear in Europe; Ellen, a Poem.; and Goethe, las Life and Woi ks. In 1843, 
 removed to Newport, R. I., of which city he was chosen mayor in 1853. 
 
 CALVERT, Leonard, 1582-1647; brother of the second lord Baltimore and first 
 e-overnoi of Maryland. In 1633, he led the first expedition to Maryl^d in two small 
 fessels and on the 25th of Mar., 1634, at St. Clement’s island on the 
 
 lar mass was celebrated. Immediately afterwards they settled on the right bank of a 
 river called by them St. George, and founded the prospective city of St. Mary, no signs 
 S which now remain. Aftef much dilRculty with the people of Virginia the coloni^sts 
 undlr Calvert were fully established, and in 1647 his name as governor of the piovmce 
 
 was recognized. , 4 : 
 
 CAL'VI a seauort on the island of Corsica, situated on a peninsula in the gulf of Calvi, 
 .nfu w s w of Bastia lat 42° 85' n.’ long. 8° 48' east. It is strongly fortified, 
 
 and has a good port, with a hi’gh light at its entance, and ^ 1^^969 
 
 C. was captured by the English in 1794, after a siege of 51 days. Jop. 196^ 
 
 vill^mSun McknLsTr'om M 
 
 u'nTtu‘'ous^o'fhe7ou^^^^^ “They aTne?er%.ltogetp™te^^^^^ ol^traTberfy" The S 
 ;i?te?c".T^h5-pu\eX^^^^^^^^ rdSseTlp'le; it is vely extensively 
 
 cultivated on the continent of Europe. 
 
 CALVIN, John, one of the most eminent of the reformers of t^e 16th^^^ 
 
 Noyon, in Picardy, on the 10th of July, 1509 His father was oie ^ 
 
 procureur.fiscal of the district of Noyon, and secretary of 
 
 six children— four sons and two daughters. All the three so . was aiiuointed to 
 
 ecclesiastics ; and the reformer himself, while still only 12 j ears of ag ■ ‘ g^pport 
 
 WgreVTusmictTou which was there attainable. He was entered as a pupil in the college 
 
327 
 
 Calvaert. 
 
 Calvin. 
 
 de la Marche, under the regen^ of Mathurin Cordier, better remembered, perhaps, by 
 his Latin name of Corderiiis. It was under this distinguished master that C. laid the 
 foundation of his own wonderful mastery of the Latin language. During this early 
 period, he was distinguished by the great activity of his mental powers, and the grave 
 severity of his manners. His companions, it is said, surnamed him the “ Accusative.” 
 
 For awhile, his attention was directed to the study of law. His remarkable talents 
 seemed to promise great success in this branch of study, and his father sent him, with 
 the view of prosecuting it, to the university of Orleans, then adorned by Pierre de 
 I’Etoile, one of the most famous jurists of his day, and afterwards president of the 
 parliament of Paris. At Orleans, he continued the same life of rigorous temperance 
 and earnest studiousness for which he was already noted. Beza says that, after sup- 
 ping moderately, he would spend half the night in study, and devote the morning to 
 meditation on what he had acquired. His undue habits of study seem to have laid 
 thus early the foundation of the ill-health which marked his later years. It was while 
 a law-student in Orleans that he became acquainted with the Scriptures, and received his 
 first impulse to the theological studies which have made his name so distinguished. A 
 relative of his own, Pierre Robert Olivetan, was there engaged in a translation of the 
 Scriptures; and this had the effect of drawing C.’s attention, and awakening within him 
 the religious instinct which was soon to prove the master-principle of his life. We can- 
 not say as yet that his traditionary opinions were unfixed, or that he had embraced with 
 any decision the Protestant opinions that were spreading everywhere; but the seeds of 
 the new faith were now beyond doubt sown in his heart, and from this time, although 
 he still continued for awhile longer to pursue his legal studies, his main interests appear 
 to have been religious and theological. From Orleans he went to Bourges, where he 
 acquired the knowledge of Greek, under the tuition of a learned German, Melchior 
 Wolmar, to the influence of whose spiritual instructions he was also greatly indebted. 
 He began here to preach the reformed doctrines, and passed over into the ranks of 
 Protestantism, under the slow but sure growth of his new convictions, rather than 
 under the agitation of any violent feeling. Here, as everywhere, his life presents a 
 marked contrast to that of Luther, 
 
 He proceeded to Paris in 1533, which at this date had become a center of the “ new 
 learning,” under the teaching of Lefevre and Farel, and the influence of the queen of 
 Navarre, sister of Francis I. The Sorbonne itself had not escaped the infection. There 
 was a growing religious excitement in the university, in the court, and even among the 
 bishops. This, however, was not to last. The king was soon stirred up to take active 
 measures to quell this risipg spirit ; and the result was that C. and others were obliged 
 to flee for their lives. The story is that C. narrowly escaped, having descended from 
 his window by means of his sheets, and fled, under the guise of a vine-dresser, a friend 
 of his, in whose clothes he concealed himself. After this he repaired for a short time 
 to his native place, resigned the preferment he held in the Roman Catholic church, and 
 for a year or two led a wandering life, sheltered in various places. We find him at 
 fiaintonge; at Nerac, the residence of the queen of Navarre; at Angoul^me, with his 
 friend Louis Tillet; then for a brief while at Paris again, strangely enough expecting a 
 meeting with Servetus, who had expressed a desire to see and confer with him. Perse- 
 cution against the Protestants at this time raged so hotly, that C. was no longer safe in 
 France; and he betook himself to Basel, where he is supposed to have prepared the first 
 edition of the Institutes of the Christian Religion, and whence he certainly issued, in the 
 year 1535, the famous preface addressed to Francis I. The concentrated vigor of this 
 address, its intensity of feeling, rising into indignant remonstrance, and at times a 
 pathetic and powerful eloquence, make it one of the most memorable documents in con- 
 nection with the reformation. It is throughout a noble defense of the righteous charac- 
 ter of the reformed doctrines, and their support alike in Scripture and in history. The 
 energetic decisiveness and moral zeal of the future teacher and legislator of Geneva, 
 speak in every page of it. After completing this great service to the cause of Protest- 
 antism, he made a short visit to Italy, to Renee, the duchess of Ferrara. Finally, he 
 revisited his native town ; sold the paternal estate, which had devolved to him on the 
 death of his eldest brother; and bidding it adieu, set out in company with his younger 
 brother and sister on his way to Strasburg. The direct road being rendered dangerous 
 by the armies of Charles V., which had penetrated into France, he sought a circuitous 
 route through Savoy and Geneva. 
 
 The result of this journey was memorable for the cause of the reformation. Arrived 
 in Geneva, he met there his friend, Louis Tillet, who communicated the fact of his 
 arrival to Farel, then in the very midst of his struggle to promote the reformation in the 
 city and neighborhood. Farel hastened to see him, and urge upon him the duty of re- 
 maining where he was, and undertaking his share of the work of God, under the burden 
 of which he was like to fail. C. did not at first respond to the call. He was given, he 
 himself says, to his “own intense thoughts and private studies.” He wished to devote 
 himself to the service of the reformed churches generally, rather than to the care of any 
 particular church. A life of intellectual and theological labor was that which at that 
 time was most congenial to him. By some strange insight, however, Farel penetrated 
 ■to the higher fitness of the young stranger who stood before him, and he ventured, in 
 the spirit of that daring enthusiasm which characterized him, to lay the curse of God 
 
Calvin. 
 
 328 
 
 upon him and his studies if he refused his aid to the church of Geneva in her time of 
 need. This seemed to C. a divine menace. “It was,” he said, “as if God had seized 
 me by his awful hand from heaven.” He abandoned his intention of pursuing his 
 journey, and joined eagerly with Farel in the work of reformation. 
 
 Such was the beginning of C.’s great career in Geneva. Having entered upon his 
 task, he soon infused an energy into it which crowned the struggling efforts of Farel 
 with success. The hierarchical authority was already overturned before his arrival; the 
 citizens had asserted their independence against the duke of Savoy, whose alliance with 
 the corrupt episcopate, which was the direct governing influence in the place had called 
 forth the patriotic as well as the religious feelings of the people. The magistrates and 
 people eagerly joined with the reformers in the first heat of their freedom and zeal. A 
 Protestant confession of faith was drawn out, approved of by the council of two hun- 
 dred, the largest governing board of the city, and then proclaimed in the cathedral 
 church of St. Peter’s as binding upon the whole body of the citizens. Great and mar- 
 velous changes were wrought in a short time upon the manners of the people; where 
 license and frivolity had reigned, a strict moral severity began to characterize the whole 
 aspect of society. The strain, however, was too sudden and too extreme. A spirit of 
 rebellion to the rule of C. and Farel broke forth; they refused to yield to the wishes of a 
 party animated by a more easy and liberal spirit than themselves, and known in the 
 history of Geneva under the nickname of Libertines; and the consequence was, that 
 they were both expelled from the city after less than two years’ residence. 
 
 C. retreated to Strasburg, where he had meant to go when arrested in his course at 
 Geneva. Here he settled, and devoted himself to theological study, and especially to 
 his critical labors on the New Testament. Here, also, in Oct., 1539, he married the 
 widow of a converted Anabaptist. The marriage appears to have proved a happy one, 
 although not of long duration. 
 
 The Genevans found, after a short time, that they could not well get on without 
 Calvin. His rule might be rigid ; but an authority, even such as his, which might gall 
 from its severity, was better than no settled authority at all; and the libertine party 
 seem to have been unable to construct any efficient and beneficent form of government. 
 Accordingly, they invited C. to return; and after some delay on his part, in order to 
 test the spirit in which they were acting, he acceded to their invitation, and in the 
 autumn of 1541, after three years’ absence, once more made his entry into Geneva. 
 
 Now, at length, he succeeded in establishing his plan of church-government, in all its 
 forms and details. By his college of pastors and doctors, and his consistorial court of dis- 
 cipline, he founded a theocracy, with himself at the head of it, which aimed virtually to 
 direct all the affairs of the city, and to control and modify both the social and individual 
 life of the citizens. Not without a struggle, it may be supposed, did he succeed in his 
 great autocratic scheme. The libertines, although dishonored by their ineffectual 
 attempts to maintain order in the city, and uphold its rights and dignity, still remained 
 a strong party, which was even augmented, after C.’s return, by men such as Amy Perrin, 
 who had strongly concurred in the invitation to C., but who were afterwards alienated 
 from him by the high and arbitrary hand with which he pursued his designs, as well 
 as by their own schemes of ambition. The struggle with this party lasted with various 
 fortune for no less a period than 15 years, and was only terminated in 1555, after a some- 
 what ridiculous emeute in the streets. Amy Perrin and others, driven from the city, 
 were executed in effigy; and the reformer’s authority from this date confirmed into an 
 absolute supremacy. 
 
 During the perjod of this long struggle with the libertines, C. had many other dis- 
 putes, in which he conducted himself with no less heartiness and zeal. The most remark- 
 able of these were his controversies with Sebastian Castellio, Jerome Bolsec, and above- 
 all, Michael Servetus. 
 
 C. had become acquainted with Castellio at Strasburg. They entertained at first a 
 warm friendship for each other, and C. showed great zeal in assisting Castellio, whose 
 poverty and learning had attracted his sympathy. When he returned to Geneva, he 
 invited Castellio to join him there, and procured for him the title of regent or tutor in the 
 gymnasium of the city. There was little similarity, however, in the characters of the 
 two men, and the diversity of their tastes and views soon became apparent. The learning 
 of Castellio was intensely humanitic; a classical spirit and a somewhat arbitrary opinion- 
 ativeness molded all his studies; and as soon as he began to apply himself to theology, 
 he came into conflict with Calvin. In a letter to Farel in 1542, we find C. speaking of 
 the freaks of “our friend Sebastian, which may both raise your bile and your laughter 
 at the same time.” These freaks relate to Castellio’s notions of scriptural translation, 
 and his refusal of C.’s offer to revise the version which he had made of certain parts of 
 Scripture. Then, two years later, when Castellio desired to enter into the ministry, C. 
 dissuaded the council from accepting him, on account of some peculiar opinions which 
 he held. These were certain rationalistic views as to the authenticity and character of 
 the Song of Solomon, the descent of Christ into hell, and also about election. After this, 
 Castellio left Geneva for awhile, but soon returning, he attacked the views of C. openly. 
 After a violent scene in church, which is painted in C.’s letters very strongly, he was- 
 forced to leave the city. The two old friends, now declared enemies, did not spare each 
 other henceforth. The fate of Servetus drew forth an anonymous publication, attacking 
 
329 
 
 Calvin. 
 
 with keen logic and covert and ingenious sarcasm the Genevan doctrines. This puhli- 
 "Cation was attributed by both 0. and Beza to Castellio, and they replied to him in no 
 measured terms, stigmatizing him as a “ deceiver and vessel of Satan.” One fact really 
 <3isgracef ul to C. in tlie controversy deserves not to be passed over. Sunk in great poverty, 
 Castellio was obliged, in his old age, to gather sticks on the banks of the Rhine at Basel, 
 as a means of support. 0. did not hesitate to accuse him of stealing the sticks. Such 
 polemical truculence may well make us turn away in disgust and indignation. 
 
 The controversy with Bolsec belongs to a later period. Jerome Bolsec was originally 
 a Carmelite monk, but he had thrown aside the habit, and betaken himself to the prac- 
 tice of medicine in Geneva. He was led to attack C.’s doctrine of predestination. As 
 soon as C. heard of this, he led him to understand that he was not at liberty to question 
 the Genevan docrine. He and the other clergy dealt with him; but after repeated dispu- 
 tations Bolsec was found incorrigible, and was sentenced to banishment from the city. 
 Cast out of the theocratic community, he ultimatety re-joined the Roman Catholic 
 ■church, and revenged himself in a somewhat mean way against C. by writing his life in 
 a spirit of detraction and slander. 
 
 Of all these contests, however, the most memorable is that with Servetus. A melan- 
 choly interest encircles the name of this great heretic, which the criminal tragedy of his 
 death keeps always fresh and vivid in the minds of all who hate intolerance, and who 
 love truth rather than dogmatism. The character of Servetus himself has little to do 
 with this interest. He seems to have been more of a vain, restless, and enthusiastic 
 dreamer, than of a calm and patient inquirer. In his very dreams, however, and the 
 vague audacities of his speculation, there is a kind of simplicity and unconscious ear- 
 nestness that wins sympathy. He had entered into various connections with C., even 
 from the time of his early residence in Paris; particularly, he had sent him various docu- 
 ments containing the views, fully developed in his work subsequently published under 
 the title of Restitutio Ghristianismi. C. never concealed his abhorrence of these views; 
 .and in a letter to Farel as early as 1546, he threatens that if Servetus should come to 
 Geneva, he would do what he could to bring him to condign punishment : Nam si vene- 
 rit, modo valeat mea authoritas, mvum exire nunquam patiar. The history of his seizure 
 and condemnation at Vienne by the Catholic authorities, and especially of C.’s share in 
 the correspondence which led to his seizure, is very complicated and obscure. It has 
 been maintained that C. was the instigator, through a creature of his own of the 
 name of Trie, of the whole transaction; it is certain that he forwarded to the 
 ^authorities, through Trie, private documents which Servetus had intrusted to him, 
 with a view to the heretic’s identification, and as materials for his condemnation. 
 Servetus was sentenced to be burned, but effected his escape, and, after several 
 months’ wandering, he was found at Geneva. It was his intention to proceed to 
 Italy, where he hoped his opinions might meet with some degree of toleration, and he 
 .arrived at Geneva on his way. This is the explanation of an event otherwise unaccount- 
 able. Having ventured to church, according to the common account, he was recog 
 nized, apprehended, and conveyed to prison by C.’s order, just as he was about to leave 
 the cifry. The particulars of his trial are full of interest, but too lengthened to be 
 detailed here. It lasted, with various interruptions, for two months. He attacked C. 
 with the most foul epithets, and C. retorted with a virulence and foulness quite equal to 
 his own. At length, on the 26th of Oct., 1553, sentence was passed upon Servetus, con- 
 demning him to death by fire. C. used his influence to have the mode of death allevi- 
 a,ted, but without success. On the very next morning, the sentence was put into execu- 
 tion’. On an extended eminence at some distance from the city, Servetus was fastened 
 to a stake surrounded by heaps of oak-wood and leaves, with his condemned book and 
 the MS. he had sent to C. attached to his girdle; and, amid his agonizing cries, the fire 
 was kindled, and the wretched man expiated his heresy amidst the flames. Whatever 
 apologies may be urged for this memorable crime, it must remain a moarnful and scan- 
 dalous blot on the history of the reformation. The disgrace of lias particularly 
 attached to C., and with some justice, from the special and unhappy relation wfliich he 
 bore to the whole transaction; but most of the reformers are no less implicated in it. 
 The wise Biillinger defended it, and even the gentle Melanchthon could only see cause for 
 gratitude in the hideous tragedy. 
 
 After the execution of Servetus, and the expulsion of the Libertines, two years later, 
 C.’s power in Geneva was firmly established, and he used it vigorously and beneficently 
 for the defense of Protestantism throughout Europe. By the mediation of Beza, he made 
 his influence felt in France in the great struggle that was there going on between the 
 hierarchical party, with the Guises at its head, and the Protestants, led by Conde and 
 Coligny. In 1561, his energies began to fail. He had been long suffering from bad 
 health, but his strength of will and buoyancy of intellect sustained him amid all his 
 bodily weakness. In the year now mentioned, his bad health greatly increased, and 
 although he survived for more than two years, he never regained any vigor. He died 
 on the 27th of May, 1564. 
 
 Very different estimates, it may be imagined, have been formed of C.’s character, 
 according to the point of view from which it is contemplated. None, however, can dis- 
 pute his intellectual greatness, or the powerful services which he rendered to the 
 cause of Protestantism. Stern in spirit, and unyielding in will, he is never selfish or 
 
Calvinism. 
 
 Calyx. 
 
 330 
 
 petty in his motives. Nowhere amiable, he is everywhere strong. Arbitrary and cruel 
 when it suits him, he is yet heroic in his aims, and beneficent in the scope of his ambi- 
 tion. Earnest from the first, looking upon life as a serious reality, his moral purpose is 
 always clear and definite — to live a life of duty, to shape circumstances to such divine 
 ends as he apprehended, and, in whatever sphere he might be placed, to work out the 
 glory of God. 
 
 He rendered a double service to Protestantism, which, apart from anything else,, 
 would have made his name illustrious : he systematized its doctrine, and he organized its 
 ecclesiastical discipline. He was at once the great theologian of the reformation, and the 
 founder of a new church polity, which did more than all other influences together to- 
 consolidate the scattered forces of the reformation, and give them an enduring strength. 
 As a religious teacher, as a social legislator, and as a writer, especially of the French 
 language, then in process of formation, his fame is second to none in his age, and must 
 always conspicuously adorn the history of civilization. Among C.’s most important 
 works are: Ghristianoe Religionis Institutio (Basel, 1536); De Necessitate Refoi'inandos 
 Ecclesim (1544); Commentaires sur la Concordance ou Harmonie des Evangelistes (Gen. 
 1561); In Novum Testamentum Gommentarii; In Libres Psalmorum Commentarii; In 
 Librum Geneseos Gommentarii. The first edition of C.’s whole works is that of Amster- 
 dam, 1671, in 9 vols. fol. A complete critical edition by Baum, Cunitz, and Reuss 
 began to appear at Brunswick in 1869. By the “Calvin translation society,” in Edin- 
 burgh, his works have been collected, translated into English, and issued in 51 vols. 8vo, 
 1843-55 Besides the original Vita by Beza, there are lives of C. by Bolsec (from the 
 Catholic standpoint, 1577; new ed. 1875), Audin(1840), Bungener, Viguet and Tissot (1864) ; 
 and in Germany, by Henry (1844), Stahelin (1863), and Kamoschulte (vol. i. 1869). 
 
 CALVINISM is the system of religious doctrine associated with the name of Calvin,, 
 and supposed to distinguish the churches more particularly called the reformed, in con- 
 tradistinction to the Lutheran and Anglican churches. 'Calvin’s doctrinal views are 
 laid down at length in his InstiluUo Christianoe Religionis, first published in 1536. It 
 was not till many years later howerer, that the name of C. came to be attached to a cer- 
 tain set of doctrinal opinions, and not till the rise of Arminius (q.v.) and the synod of 
 Dort (q.v.) in 1618, that these opinions may be said to have been polemically marked off 
 from others with which they are generally contrasted, and to wdiich they are recognized 
 as standing in opposition. 
 
 The difference of thought expressed in the Arminian and Calvinistic systems is as old 
 as the history of Christian doctrine. In almost every point, Augustine may be said to 
 have anticipated Calvin ; while Pelagius and the eastern divines, such as Chrysostom, 
 represented a type of opinion upon the whole consonant to that which in more modern 
 times has been opposed to Calvinism. In the Roman Catholic church, since the reforma- 
 tion, the same opposition of thought has presented itself in the famous contest of 
 Jansenism and Jesuitism. 
 
 The main point of distinction in the two systems or modes of Christian opinion, is as 
 to the operation of divine grace in the salvation of sinners. In the one system, this 
 operation is considered as predetermined and absolute ; in the other, as merely prescient, 
 and in some sense conditioned. Predestination and irresistible grace are the great key- 
 notes of C. — its two main points. Others were added in opposition to Arminianism — 
 viz., original Sin, particular redemption, and the perseverance of the saints; but the first 
 of these is not peculiarly Calvinistic, and the last two are merely corollaries from tho 
 doctrines of predestination and grace. Predestination is, in fact, the one distinguishing 
 doctrine of the system, as it was of Augustinianism, of which C. was merely the revival. 
 The divine will, apprehended as decretive and predestinating, is necessarily irresistible in 
 its efficacy, select in its objects, and persevering in its results. The characteristic of C., 
 therefore, is that it is a speculative Christian system, springing from a single great prin- 
 ciple, carried out rigorously into albits logical consequences. 
 
 The church of EnglaiicC in its earlier history, was Calvinistic in its creed, although 
 mediaeval and Catholic in its -ritual. Puritanism was nothing else than a movement to- 
 reduce it altogether to a Calvinistic model. In the reaction which followed this move- 
 ment, the church of England, while retaining its original articles, nearly parted with its 
 Calvinistic faith; and throughout the 18th c., its chief divines are conspicuously Armin- 
 ian or latitudinarian. But with the revival of the evangelical party in the end of the 
 century, C. revived; and it still maintains, if not an absolute sway, yet a powerful 
 influence over many minds in the Anglican establishment, while it is the professed creed 
 of a great proportion of the dissenters. 
 
 The church of Scotland, along with the other Presbyterian churches in this country, 
 and the large and numerously increasing bodies of Presbyterians in America, all hold to 
 the Westminster confession of faith, the most elaborate and formal expression of Calvin- 
 istic doctrine that exists. But while holding to the same Calvinistic standard, these 
 churches show many varieties of actual opinion ; and in the history of Presbyterianism, 
 C. has shown a tendency in its logical development to pass into rationalism or Unitarian- 
 ism. This is conspicuously the case in the church of Geneva itself, and some of the old 
 Puritan churches of America. It still remains, however, as opposed to Arminian, 
 Socinian, or any cognate forms of the same type of doctrine, the most living and power- 
 ful among the creeds of the reformation. 
 
331 
 
 Calvinism. 
 
 Calyx. 
 
 CALVINISTIC METHODISTS, in Great Britain, are in three divisions: the Whit- 
 field Connection, 1741; Lady Huntingdon Connection, 1748; and Welsh Methodists, 1750. 
 
 CALVrSIUS, Sethus, 1556-1617; an astronomer and chronologist of Germany, who 
 organized a system of chronology embodying the history of the world. The work was 
 commended by Scaliger and Casaubon, but was condemned in the Index Expurgatorius. 
 In 1612, he published a work on the Gregorian calender, undertaking to show the inade- 
 quacy of that system and to supplant it with one founded upon astronomical principles. 
 
 CALW, or Kalw, an important manufacturing t. in Wiirtemberg, chief seat of the 
 Wiirtemberg timber-trade with Holland, and capital of a bailiwick of the same name, in 
 the circle of the Black forest, lies in the valley of the Nagold, on both sides of the stream, 
 over which are two stone bridges. Cotton and woolen spinning, dyeing turkey-red, 
 manufacturing woolen and cotton fabrics, making leather, stout shoes, cigars, etc., are 
 the principal industries. Though the streets in the old town are irregularly built, there 
 are many large and beautiful houses. Pop. ’71, 5582; ’75, 4642; nearly all Protestants. 
 
 CALX is the Latin term for quicklime. As quicklime is produced by burning lime- 
 stone, the alchemists applied the term C. to the product obtained by burning any ore or 
 other mineral substance; and calcination (q.v.) to the process. 
 
 CALYCAN'THUS (Gr. calyx-flower), a genus of plants of the natural order calycan- 
 thacece, an order allied to rosacece, and of which only a few species are known, natives of 
 North America and Japan — shrubs, with square stems, which are of remarkable struc- 
 ture, having around the central woody axis four smaller imperfect ones. An aromatic 
 fragrance characterizes this order. In the genus C., the bark and leaves possess it as 
 well as the flowers. The bark of C. floridus, a native of Carolina, has been used as a 
 spice and carminative, and has acquired the name of Carolina allspice, or American 
 allspice. The fl Dwers are of a chocolate color. 
 
 CAL'YDON, an ancient city of ^tolia, 7i m. from the sea on the river Evenns, said 
 to have been founded by Calydon, son of jEtolus, to have been the scene of the 
 hunting of the Calydonian boar by Meleager and other heroes, and to have sent 
 soldiers to the Trojan war. In 391 b.c., it was in possession of the Achaeans, and so 
 late as the time of Pompey, it was a place of importance. In 31 b.c., Augustus removed 
 the inhabitants to Mcopolis, a city then founded to commemorate the victory of Actium. 
 
 CALYDO NIAN BOAE. Once upon a time, according to a Greek myth, a certain 
 <Eneus, king of Calydon, the ancient capital of ./Etolia, omitted a sacrifice to Diana, 
 whereupon the goddess, in her rage, sent into his fields a frightful boar, which com- 
 mitted great devastation. No one had the courage to hunt it except Meleager, the son 
 of CEneus, who, calling to his help the bravest heroes of Greece— Theseus, Jason, 
 Nestor, and others — pursued and slew the monster. Later writers, however, affirm that 
 lie found it impossible to destroy the animal, until Atalanta, his mistress, aided him by 
 piercing it with an arrow. 
 
 CALYM'ENE, a genus of the fossil order trilobites (q.v.). It differed from the other 
 genera of the order in the individualshaving the power of rolling: themselves into a ball, 
 so that they are often found coiled up like an oniscus, i.e., hog-louse — vulgo, a slater. 
 The genus is characteristic of the Silurian formation. The species we figure has been 
 long known as the “ Dudley locust.” It is remaniable as a very long-subsisting spe- 
 cies, passing from the Caradoc beds to the Ludlow rocks. Twenty species have been 
 described. 
 
 CALYP'SO, in Grecian legend, was, according to Homer, the daughter of Atlas, and 
 inhabited the solitary wooded isle of Ogygia, far apart from all gods and men. Ulysses 
 being thrown upon her island by shipwreck, she treated him kindly, and promised him 
 immortality if he would marry her. He was fascinated by her charms, but unwilling 
 to desert his wife and his native land ; she detained him, however, seven years, and bore 
 him two sons. On his departure, she died of grief. 
 
 CALYP'SO BOREALIS, an orchid with heart-shaped leaf, and beautiful yellow, 
 pink, and purple flowers; growing in the bogs and moist woodlands of the United States 
 and Canada. 
 
 CALYPTR.ffi'A (Gr. kalyptra, a head-dress;, a genus of gasteropodous mollusks, of the 
 order pectinibranchiata, the type of a family, calyptrcddce, formerly included in the 
 genus patella, or limpet, when the mere form of the shell was more regarded in classi- 
 fication than the structure of the animal, and still known as chambered limpets, cup- 
 and-saucer limpets, bonnet limpets, and slipper limpets. The shell is limpet-shaped, 
 but the apex is more or less spiral, and has a calcareous process from its inner surface 
 for the attachment of a principal muscle. The calyptrceidcB differ much in shape, some 
 being very flat, and others very conical; some elongated and slipper-like. The species 
 are generally natives of the shores of warm climates. Only two are British. — Calyp- 
 tmidce are common in the older fossiliferous rocks, 
 
 CA'LYX (a term originally Greek), in botany, the outermost of the circles of modi- 
 fied leaves which surround the parts of fructification, and along with them constitute 
 the flower. Within the C. there is generally at least a second circle of leaves, called 
 the corolla (see Cobolla and Flower); but this is sometimes wanting, and the C. is 
 
Cam. 
 
 Cambaluc. 
 
 332 
 
 the only envelope of the parts of fructification. The leaves of which the C. is com- 
 posed are called sepals, when quite separate from each other; but they often grow 
 together into a tube at the base, and the C. is then said to be monosepalous or gamosepalous 
 {monos, one; gamos, union). The sepals are generally simple and without stalks; they 
 are generally green, and differ much less widely from ordinary leaves than the petals or 
 leaves of the corolla; sometimes, however, they are petaloid, and brightly colored, as in 
 fuchsia. The C. and corolla of many endogenous plants resemble one another almost 
 completely, and the common texm. perianth (q.v.) is then very generally employed. In 
 some plants, the C. passes insensibly into the corolla, and it is not easy to distinguish- 
 the innermost sepals from the outermost petals. The C. is in such cases often com- 
 posed of more circles of leaves than one. The C. occasionally falls off when flowering 
 is over {deciduus), as in ranunculus; sometimes even when it commences {caducous), as 
 in the poppy; generally it remains till the fruit ij ripe {perdstent), and is then much 
 enlarged and more brightly colored, as in physalis. It often becomes fleshy, and forms 
 the seeming fruit, as in the rose. — The glumes (q.v.) of grasses, etc., used to be regarded, 
 as a C., to which, however, they have no proper analogy. 
 
 CAM, or Granta, a river of England, which, rising in Essex, flows n.e. through 
 Cambridgeshire, and after a course of about 40 m., joins the Ouse 3| m. above Ely. It 
 gives its name to the town of Cambridge, which stands upon it, and below which it is- 
 navigable, and is classic on account of the boat-races on it by Cambridge students. 
 
 CAM, in machinery, a curved plate or groove, by which motion is communicated 
 and controlled. The moving plate or groove is a driver; the rod, bar, or other thing 
 moved, is called the follower. The follower is held against the driver by its w^eight or 
 by a spring, or other device. The radii of the driver determine by their length the- 
 motion of the follower, and the angles which they make with some one, chosen as a 
 base of calculation, fix the time at which change of motion occurs. For example, it 
 may be desired that the follow^er shall move upward, and then downward, with a uni- 
 form velocity. From the center of the driver any convenient number of radii may be 
 drawn, dividing equally the 360° of angular space.* On one of these radii we mark the. 
 distance from the center of the driver at which the point of the follower will stand when 
 in its position nearest to that center. Upon the opposite radius, distant 180° from the 
 first, the point is marked which gives the farthest position of the follower; the differ- 
 ence betw'een these radii being divided into as many equal parts as we have made angu- 
 lar spaces in the 180°, we increase the length of each radius in succession, beginning 
 with the shortest, by one of those parts, and w^e draw a curve connecting the ends of the- 
 radii so terminated. Of course the greater the number of parts chosen for the division 
 of the angular space and of the di&rence of the first and last radii, the more accu- 
 rately will the curve be drawn. The edge of the driving-plate being cut to this curve, 
 the follower being made to press constantly against it, and the driver being turned with 
 a uniform rotation, the follower wdll move through its limited space with an equable- 
 motion, because the radii of the driver increase by constant amounts, at constant inter- 
 vals of time. If the curve is reversed, the second part being the symmetrical oppo- 
 site of the first part, the follower will descend as uniformly as it rose. The cam thu» 
 drawn is one of frequent use, and is called the heart-shaped cam. To avoid friction 
 the end of the follower often carries a roller which works against the surface of the 
 cam; in this case the cam-surface is found by drawing a line parallel to that above 
 described, at a constant distance equal to the radius of the roller. If we wish the fol- 
 lower to rest at any part of a cycle of motion, the radii for that time will be made equal, 
 and the corresponding cam-surface will be a circular arc ; the time will be such a part 
 of that of a complete cycle, as the angle between the radii of the ends of this arc, is of 
 360°. The cam-plate has sometimes a groove cut upon its flat side, and the end of 
 the follower runs in the groove. A spiral groove may be cut into the surface of a cylin- 
 der as in a screw ; if a follower be inserted in this groove it will be driven forward as 
 the cylinder turns; when the groove reaches the end of the cylinder, it may turn back, 
 and cause the follower to return with the same motion, or if the pitch of the groove be 
 made shorter or longer, the return of the follower will be changed accordingly. By a 
 judicious construction and arrangement of cams, almost every variety of motion may 
 be produced with the greatest precision as to time and amount. A cam-form w^hicb 
 does not make a complete revolution, but after movisg a short distance in one direction 
 oscillates in the opposite direction, is called a wiper. A familiar example may be seen 
 in the engine-room of a steamboat, in the rocking arms which raise and let fall the valve 
 rods. 
 
 CAM, Diogo, a Portuguese navigator of the 15th c., who continued the w. African 
 discoveries commenced by Don Henry. He had sufficient influence with the king of 
 Congo to induce that monarch to permit the establishment of Christianity in his 
 dominion. 
 
 CAMAL'DOLITES, a religious order founded in the vale of Camaldoli, near Arezzo, 
 in the Apennines, in 1018, by St. Romauld, a Benedictine monk, and a member of the 
 noble family of the aukes of Ravenna. From Italy it spread into France, Germany, 
 and Poland. The brethren, who wear a white garment, are, and have always been, 
 characterized for the excessive rigidity of their monastic rule ; but except to show to 
 
333 
 
 Cam. 
 
 Cambalutt. 
 
 what lengths in a cruel mortification of natural life man can proceed, they have been 
 practically useless in the world. The order is now almost extinct. 
 
 CAMABGUE. See Bouches du Rhone. 
 
 CAMAEIL'LA, a Spanish word, diminutive of camara, literally signifies a little cham- 
 ber. As camara is used to designate, par excellence, the chamber of the king of Spain, 
 the royal chamber, so C. is also used to designate his private chamber or cabinet, the 
 place where he receives his most intimate friends, courtiers, sycophants, and all the 
 moral refuse that naturally gathers round a weak throne. Hence, in the political lan- 
 guage of modern Europe, it has come to signify the influence exercised on the state by 
 secret and unaccredited councilors, in opposition to the opinions of the legitimate 
 ministry, an influence which in Spain particularly is most pernicious. The word first 
 obtained this meaning in the time of Ferdinand VII., who was excessively addicted to 
 the unkingly habit of listening to the insinuations of the companions of his pleasures. 
 
 CAMARI'NA, an ancient city of Sicily, near the mouth of the Hipparus, 20 m. e. 
 of Terranova. It was founded by Syracusans in the 6th c. b.c., but soon after was 
 destroyed, because it had thrown off its allegiance. It was restored 495 b.c., but again 
 depopulated, being finally established about 34 years later. In 258 b.c., most of its 
 people were sold by the Roman consuls as slaves. It continued to exist until the 2d c., 
 but since then has been in ruins. 
 
 CAMAY'ETT and Mon'ochbome are terms by which painting in one color is desig- 
 nated. The ancients painted thus both in gray grisaille) and in red. Pictures of sev- 
 eral tints, but where the natural colors of the objects are not copied, are said to be 
 en camayeu. As one color generally prevails, we speak of blue, red, yellow, green 
 camayeu. Polidori Caravaggio, for example, so overlaid his other colors with brown, 
 that his works give the impression of monochrome paintings. Drawings in Indian ink, 
 red and black chalk, pencil, etc., as well as engravings, may be said to be en camayeu. 
 
 CAMBACERES, Jean Jacques Regis, Duke of Parma, and high chancellor of the 
 French empire, under Napoleon, was b. at Montpellier, Oct., 18, 1753. In 1791, he was 
 appointed president of the criminal court in his native place. Aftewards, as member of 
 the national convention, he took a prominent part in sketching the new code of laws, 
 and distinguished himself by his moderation. He denied the right of the convention 
 to condemn the king, and, when this was done, argued in favor of a reprieve. After 
 the revolution of the 9th Thermidor (July 27, 1794), C. was elected president of the con- 
 vention, and, as head of the committee of public safety, was active in procuring peace 
 with Prussia and Spain. His enemies having succeeded in expelling him from office, 
 he engaged himself in legal studies, and laid before the council of five hundred the 
 sketch of a civil code which afterwards formed the basis of the Code Napoleon. In 1796, 
 C. was for a short time made president of this council. After the changes made in the 
 directory, he was made minister of justice, assisted in the revolution of the 18th Bru- 
 maire (Nov. 9, 1799), was made second consul, and faithfully attached himself to the 
 interest of Napoleon, by whom he was raised to the office of high chancellor of the 
 empire, and in 1808 was made duke of Parma. He endeavored to dissuade Napoleon 
 from the projected invasion of Russia, but in this instance his advice was vainly given. 
 In 1813, when Napoleon took the field against the allies, C. was left as president of the 
 regency, and in this capacity accompanied the empress to Blois, 1814. From this place 
 he sent to Paris his vote for the abdication of Napoleon. During the hundred days, 
 against his own will, he was made minister of justice, and president of the chamber of 
 peers. After the second restoration, C. lived privately in Paris for some time ; but in 
 1816 was exiled for having taken part in the execution of Louis XVI. In 1818, his 
 civil and political rights were restored, and he returned to Paris, where he lived 
 retired to the time of his death. Mar. 5, 1824. Among the men of the revolution, C. 
 was one of the few whose activity was peaceable and truly progressive. His services 
 in the establishment of law were great. His nature was mild and candid, and his intel- 
 lect very acute. 
 
 CAMBA'LUC, or CAMBALU' (Mongol, Kaan-Baligli, “city of the Khan”), the city 
 now known as Peking. It was captured in 1215 by Genghis Khan, and in 1264 adopted 
 as the imperial residence by his grandson Kublai, who founded a new city near the old 
 one of Yenking. The new city, Ta-tu, or “ great capital,” was a rectangle about 5|- by 
 3| m., or more than 18 m. in circumference, surrounded by a colossal wall of mud, 
 having an inner inclosure for the palace and gardens of the khan. There were 11 gates, 
 and the streets ran towards them in direct lines. It was the residence of the Mongol 
 emperors until the fall of their power in 1368. Soon afterwards the native dynasty gave 
 it the name of Pe king, or “north court,” by which name it was known to the early 
 Jesuit missionaries; but now the native name in ordinary use is King-Cheng or King-tu, 
 signifying “ the capital. ” The restoration of Cambaluc was commenced in 1409; the 
 size was diminished, and the town made more nearly a square, and in this form now 
 constitutes the “ Tartar city” of Pe-king. The walls were finished in 437. In 1544, 
 the “ outer city” was formed, the portion now known as “ the Chinese city.” The whole 
 city under the name Cambaluc was made an archiepiscopal see by pope Clement V. in 
 
Cambay. 
 
 Cambridge. 
 
 334 
 
 % 
 
 CAMBAY', a city, district, and gulf at the n.w. extremity of the peninsula of Hindu- 
 stan. — 1. C., the city, stands at the head of its gulf, and on the right bank of the Myhee, 
 in lat. 22° 18' n., and long. 72° 39' e., being 76 m. to the n.n.w. of Surat. It contains 
 about 33,700 inhabitants, having been at one time much more populous — ruinous 
 palaces, mosques, and tombs, and an excavated temple of considerable pretensions, 
 attest its former magnificence and extent. The main cause of its decay has been the 
 gradual obstruction of its seaward navigation. It still exports grain, cotton, and ivory, 
 besides its renowned manufactures in bloodstone and carnelian. — 2. C., the district, 
 contains an area of 350 sq.m., stretching in n. lat. from 22° 9' to 22° 41', and in e. long, 
 from 72° 20' to 73° 5'. It is attached to the presidency of Bombay, though under the 
 government of a nawab of its own. Pop. 85,000. — 3. C., the gulf, extends in n. lat. 
 between 21° and 22° 10', and in e. long, between 71° 50 ' and 72° 40', measuring 80 m. 
 in length, and averaging 25 m. in breadth. In proportion to its size, it receives a vast 
 quantity of freshwater — on the w., the Gooma, Oolowtee, Gelya, and Setroonjee; on the 
 n,, the Saburmuttee and Myhee; and on the e., the Nerbudda and the Taptee. The 
 inundations of so many rivers, and the ebb and flow of tides, which fall and rise 30 ft., 
 conspire not onlj^ to elevate the bottom, but also to generate movable quicksands. 
 
 CAM'BEE, in ship-building, implies a slight arching or convexity upwards. A 
 “cambered” ship is one in which the floor is higher in midships than at the stem and 
 stern. — The name “camber” is also given to a small dock in a dockyard, for containing 
 boats, and for loading and unloading timber. 
 
 CAMBERT, Robert, 1628-77; the first composer of French operas; organist of the 
 church of St. Honore, and musical superintendent to Anne of Austria, the mother of 
 Louis XIV. When Lulli was made musical superintendent to the king, in 1673, C. 
 went to London, where Charles II. made him master of the band. His chief works 
 were Ariadne, w the Amours of Bacchus; Pomona; and The Pains and Pleasures of Love. 
 
 CAMBEBWELL, once a rural village, now a suburb of London, on the s. side of the 
 Thames. 
 
 CAMBERWELL BEAUTY, Vanessa antiopa, one of the largest and most beautiful 
 British butterflies, rare in Britain, although it has been found in many parts of the 
 country, but common in the central and southern parts of Europe. The wings are of a 
 deep brown color, with a band of black around the brown, and an outer band or margin 
 of pale yellow, the black band containing a row of large blue spots, the yellow margin 
 dappled with black specks, all the colors rich and velvety. The margin of the wings 
 exhibits tooth-like angularities. The antennae are terminated by a knob. The cater- 
 pillar feeds on the willow\ It is black, with white dots and a row^ of large red spots 
 down the back, and is rough with soft spines. — When Camberwell was more rural than 
 now, and abounded in willow^s, this butterfly was sometimes taken there. 
 
 CAMBIO — CAMBIST. The former of these two w’ords is the Italian for exchange; the 
 latter, for a money-changer. Cambist is also used figuratively as the title of a book in 
 which the moneys, weights, measures, etc . . of various nations are given in the equiva- 
 lents of some particular one. For instance, Kelly’s Universal Cambist gives these in 
 English, and the Cambista Maltesa in Italian. 
 
 CAMBIUM (Lat. camhio, to change), in botany, a layer of mucilaginous viscid matter, 
 particularly abundant in spring, interposed between the woody layers and the bark of 
 trees and other stems. Delicate cells {cambium cells) are formed in it, which certainly 
 fulfill important functions in the formation of new wood, although, notwithstanding 
 much investigation by some of the greatest vegetable physiologists of our time, the 
 nature of these functions is still very imperfectly ascertained. The medullary rays are 
 connected with the C. cells, and these cells gradually elongate into the shape which 
 belongs to those of w’oody tissue. The C. layer is found only in exogenous stems. 
 
 CAMBO'DIA, or Cambo'ja (native name, Kan-pou-chi), an extensive country of the 
 Indo-Chinese peninsula, now a protectorate of France, bounded on the s.w. by the gulf 
 of Siam, on the s.e. by French Cochin-China, and on the n. by Siam. Area about 
 33,000 sq.m. ; pop. about 900,000. The surface is mostly flat, and tlie soil fertile. There 
 are extensive Wests, w’^hich shelter elephants and deer; there are abio wild cattle and 
 ponies, and the rhinocerous abounds. Among the chief products are rice, betel, areca- 
 nuts, gamboge, spices, sandal-wood, and ivory. Iron occurs. See Cochin-China. 
 
 CAMBO'GE. See Gamboge. 
 
 CAJyiBON, Joseph, 1756-1820; a French financier. He was a member of the 
 national convention of 1792 and of the committee of safety of the next year; and in 
 1794 promoted the downfall of Robespierre. He is credited with having laid the founda- 
 tion of the financial system of France. In 1816 he was exiled. 
 
 CAMBORRE, a t. of Cornwall, 11 m. n.w. of Falmouth. It is surrounded by very 
 productive copper, tin, and lead mines, C. church has a stone inscription of the 10th 
 centuiy. Pop. ’71, 7757. 
 
 CAMBRAI, a city of France, in the department of the Nord, about 32 m. s. s.e. of 
 Lille. It is situated on the right bank of the Scheldt, is strongly fortified and well built, 
 with tolerably wide, but irregular streets, and many picturesque old houses. The 
 
335 
 
 Cambay. 
 
 Cambridge. 
 
 cathedral, archiepiscopal palace, town-house, and theater are among the principal public 
 buildings. The city was greatly injured in 1793, when the revolutionists, among other 
 vandalisms, razed the fine cathedral. They also disentombed the remains of Fenelon, 
 who was archbishop here, and melted his lead coffin into bullets» A monument, how- 
 ever, by Davjd the sculptor was erected (1825) in the new cathedral, in memory of the 
 immortal author of TeUmaque. The manufactures of the city are important, consisting 
 of cambric — so called from its manufacture here — linen-thread, lace, cotton-yarn, beet- 
 root sugar, soap, starch, leather, etc. It has also a trade in agricultural produce. 
 The pop. in 1876 was 16,966. 
 
 C. was known to the Romans under the name of Camaracum, and it was then 
 one of the chief cities of the Nervii. It was fortified by Charlemagne, and was long 
 governed by its own bishops, to whom Charles the Bald ceded it. The celebrated 
 league against the republic of Venice, which comprised the pope, the emperor of 
 Germany, and the kings of France and Spain, was entered into here in 1508, and 
 takes its name from the city. Here also were concluded treaties between the French 
 king and the German emperor in 1529, and in 1724-25, between Charles VI. and 
 Philip V. of Spain. During 1815-18 it was the head-quarters of the British army of 
 occupation. 
 
 CAMBRIA, a co. in s.w. Pennsylvania, drained by affluents of the Susquehanna 
 and Alleghany rivers, and intersected by the Pennsylvania railroad; 670 sq.m.; pop. 
 ’80, 46,824. It is a high and broken table-land, with abundance of coal and iron. 
 Agriculture is the chief business. Co. seat, Ebensburg. 
 
 CAM'BBIA, the ancient name of Wales, the Britannia Secunda of the Romans. The 
 name is derived from that of Cimbri or Cymri* by which the Welsh have always called 
 themselves. See Bretts and Scots. 
 
 CAMBEIAN ROCKS, the name given by prof. Sedgwick to the oldest known fossil- 
 iferous rocks, on account of their extensive development in North Wales. Their true lim- 
 its have been the subject of considerable controversy. When Sedgwick first described 
 them, they were considered inferior to the Silurian measures. Subsequent examination 
 has shown that they are the equivalents of rocks previously described by Murchison as 
 lower Silurian; and accordingly geologists generally, following the classification of the 
 government geological surveyors, confine the term to an extensive series of gritstones, 
 sandstones, and slates, which underlie the Silurian lingula beds. In Anglesea these 
 rocks have been metamorphosed in one place into chlorite and mica schists; in another, 
 into gneiss, and all traces of organisms have been destroyed. In North W ales they are less 
 altered, but have as yet proved unfossiliferous. In the Longmynd (Salop), there is an 
 apparent thickness of 26,000 ft., which may be, however, owing to folds *in the beds. 
 A few fossils have been noticed here, consisting of a fucoid plant or two, the tracks of 
 annelids, and the fragments of a supposed trilobite, called palmpyge ramsayi. In Ire- 
 land, similar rocks occur, containing two species of a small branched zoophyte, named 
 oldJiamia, and numerous tracks and burrows of sea-worms. 
 
 CAMBRIAN SYSTEM (Cambrian Rocks, rocks belonging to the primordial 
 division of palaeozoic time, and comprising the oldest part of the lower Silurian age, 
 appears on the American continent in Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, 
 Canada, northern New York, Vermont, eastern Massachusetts, the Appalachian moun- 
 tains, many parts of the Mississippi valley, and under the secondary and younger palaeo- 
 zoic rocks of the Rocky mountains. They are divided by American geologists into the 
 Acadian and Potsdam groups : the former are the oldest of A merican primordial rocks, 
 and contain a mass, 200^0 ft. deep, of gray and dark bhalee with some sandstones; the 
 latter, also in part sandstone, has in Newfoundland a depth of 5600 ft., but in the val- 
 ley of the St. Lawrence diminishes to. 600 and even 300 feet. The sandstone beds contain 
 ripple marks, mud cracks, layers indicating the wind-drift, and ebb and fiow structure, 
 and animal tracks. The Acadian formation yields primordial trilobites of the genera 
 paradoxides conocoryphe, agnostus, and some others; brachiopods of the gQrxQT^ilingulella, 
 discina, oboxlla, andw^Ms; and several kinds of annelide tracks. The Potsdam rocks 
 contain a few sponges, the earliest forms of graptolite, some brachiopods, including, 
 besides the genera in the Acadian beds, dbolm, camarella, and orthisina; some pteropods, 
 (hyoUtes or theca); two species of m'tJioceran; annelide tracks; trilobites of the genera 
 conocoryphe, agnostus, dikelocephalus, olenellus, ptychaspis, chariocephalvs, aglaspis, and 
 illanurus. Barrande found a remarkable uniformity in the organic remains of those 
 parts of this system which he investigated, extending through Europe and America, 
 and named by him the primordial zone. 
 
 CAMBRIC, a general term applied to the finest and thinnest of linen fabrics. It is said 
 to be derived from Cambrai, wffiere such goods were first made. Some of the finest 
 cambrics of the present day are produced in Switzerland. Scotch C. is really a muslin, 
 being made of cotton with the fiber twisted very hard, to imitatw leal or linen cambric. 
 
 CAMBRIDGE, a t. in the state of Massachusetts, on the Charles river, 3 m. to the n.w. 
 of Boston (q.v.). Here, in 1638, within eighteen years after the landing of the Pilgrim 
 Fathers, was founded Harvard university by the Rev. John Harvard, who bequeathed 
 it a legacy of about £780, and which has gradually been endowed to the amount of 
 
Cambridge. 
 
 336 
 
 1,000,000 dollars, so that its vested income must be at least 60,000 dollars or £12.000. 
 The oldest, it is also generally considered the best, institution of the kind in America. 
 In addition to the coUegiate department proper, tlie university includes a theological, 
 law, scientific, and medical school, and a department for such as wish to prepare them- 
 selves for business avocations without going through a classical course. • In 1875, the 
 students amounted to 1161. The town of C. is rapidly advancing in population, the 
 census in 1830, 1840, and 1850 respectively having been 6072, 8409, and 15,215; that of 
 1870 was 39,634. In 1874, the pop. was 50,337. 
 
 CAMBRIDGE {ante), a city, and one of the co. seats of Middlesex co.. Mass., w. of 
 Charles river, which separates the township from the city of Boston, of which C. is 
 practically a part, as Brooklyn is of New York. There are four principal divisions. 
 North, East, Old Cambridge, and Cambridgeport; pop. ’80, 52,740. The city spreads 
 over a large extent of territory, and is handsomely laid out in broad avenues with, 
 abundance of shade trees, among the most interesting of which is the elm under which 
 Washington assumed command of the revolutionary forces in 1775. The house in 
 which Washington dwelt is now the residence of Longfellow, the poet. The modern 
 residences are generally surrounded with handsomely cultivated grounds, orchards, and 
 flower and fruit gardens. The main feature of C. is Harvard college (q.v.), the build- 
 ings of which are in Old C., 3 m. from Boston, occupying a plot of 14 acres handsomely 
 laid out and shaded with ancient elms. At a little distance n.e. of the college are the 
 museum of comparative zoology, founded by Agassiz, the botanical garden, and the 
 observatory, noted as possessing one of the best telescopes in the country. Near the 
 museum are the Harvard law school and the Lawrence scientific school. Another con- 
 spicuous building is Memorial hall, erected to the memory of Harvard students and 
 graduates who fell in the war of the rebellion: this is probably not exceeded in 
 grandeur by any college hall in the world, it presents three apartments — a memorial 
 vestibule, the Sanders theater for great academic assemblies, and a dining-hall with 
 accommodation for 1000 persons. The whole structure is 310 ft. long by 115 ft. wide, 
 with a tower 200 ft. high. There is also a granite monument near the college erected by 
 the city in honor of the fallen soldiers. C. also contains Mt. Auburn, one of the most 
 beautiful cemeteries in the world. It occupies 125 acres of hill and valley, laid out in 
 a charmingly picturesque manner, while the monuments show a great variety of taste 
 and munificence. This is the oldest of the splendid burial places in the country, having 
 been dedicated in 1831. Bridges over Charles river connect C. with Boston, Brighton, 
 and Brookline. Horse railroads connect with all adjacent towns, and the Boston and 
 Lowell and the Fitchburg railroads pass through East Cambridge. The streets are well 
 drained, an(^ lighted with gas. C. is not a business place, but rather a home for the 
 business people of Boston. Still there are manufactories of locomotives, steam-engines, 
 glass, carriages, marble, chemicals, brushes, biscuit, candles, soap, chairs, cabinet ware, 
 etc. The Riverside press and the university printing-office, are noteworthy; the last 
 named is the oldest printing establishment in the country. C. has a regular city govern- 
 ment, vested in mayor, aldermen, and common councilmen, with the usual executive and 
 judicial courts and functionaries. Water is supplied from two large lakes in the neigh- 
 borhood, and stored in large reservoirs. Under the influence of the college the schools 
 of the city are of a high order, and to these are added the Dana library and free lectures 
 at the Dowse institute. There are in C. three or four newspapers and about 30 churches 
 or congregations. The first settlement here was in 1630, and was called Newtown, and 
 Winthrop and others intended it to be the chief town in the colony. The first minister. 
 Rev. Mr. Hooker, was settled in 1632. In 1636, money was voted to establish a public 
 school, which was further aided by grants from the Rev. John Harvard of Charlestown. 
 The city charter of incorporation was granted in 1846. 
 
 CAM'BEIDGE, the chief t. of the co. so named, lies 48 m. n.n.e. of London. It takes 
 its name from the river Cam, which was anciently called the Granta. By the Saxons, 
 C. appears to have been known as Grantabrycge, which is found with many slight 
 variations of spelling, and probably became abbreviated into Cantbricge. It is also 
 supposed that C., and not the adjacent village of Grantchester, was the Grantaceaster 
 of the Saxons. There are, however, traces of a camp at Grantchester. In 870, the 
 Danes ravaged the country hereabouts, and are said to have destroyed the town. King 
 John, in the second year of his reign (1200 a.d.), granted a charter to the town, permit- 
 ting it to have a guild of merchants, and in 1207, confirmed the burgesses in th<^ir privi- 
 leges in perpetuity. In 1225, they paid a fine of 50 marks for having their liberties; 
 and in 1227, Henry III. confirmed their charters. The town has sent two members to 
 parliament from the earliest period. The university sends two members of its own. 
 The pop. of the municipal borough in 1871 was 30,078, that of the parliamentary 
 borough, 33,996. C. has 18 churches belonging to the church of England, besides 
 chapels belonging to the Baptist, Congregationalist, and other bodies. The most curious 
 church is that of the Holy Sepulchre, which is one of the few in England that have a 
 round tower. The town is not generally pretty or picturesque, but the gardens at the 
 backs of the colleges, by the Cam, are extremely beautiful in the summer months. Its 
 architectural features depend chiefly on the college and university buildings. 
 
337 
 
 Cambridg«. 
 
 CAMBRIDGE, Adolphus Fredekick, Duke of, 1774-1850; youngest son of George 
 III., and uncle of queen Victoria. lie served as an ensign in the army, and was edu- 
 cated afterwards at Gottingen, returning home in liis 20th year. In the Netherland 
 campaign of 1793, he was taken prisoner by the French, but was almost immediately 
 exchanged. Thereafter most of his public duty was in Hanover as governor and vice- 
 roy, until the separation of Hanover from the British crown in 1837, when he returned 
 to England, mixing no further in public affairs. 
 
 CAMBRIDGE, George William Frederick Charles, Duke of, b. 1819; field- 
 marshal and commander-in-chief of the British armies; first cousin of queen Victoria, 
 ion of Adolphus Frederick, duke of Cambridge; succeeded to his title July 8, 1850. 
 In 1837, he was col., and in 1854, lieut.gen. commanding the first division sent in aid 
 of Turkey against Russia. He led the troops at Alma and at Inkerman. In conse- 
 ■quence of ill health he returned to England, and in 1856 succeeded viscount Hardinge 
 ^is commander-in-chief ; in 1862, he was given the rank of field-marshal The duke has 
 never married, but for many years has lived with Miss Fairbrother, once known as a 
 beautiful actress, by whom he has several children. 
 
 CAMBRIDGE, University op, one of the two ancient institutions of the kind existing 
 in England. Overlooking several fabulous accounts of its origin, its true history may 
 be said to begin at the opening of the 12th century. It was in 1110 that Joffrid, abbot 
 of Croyland, sent over to his manor of Cottenham, near Cambridge, Gislebert, his fel- 
 low-monk and professor in divinity, with three other learned monks. These came over 
 to Cambridge, and in a hired barn taught their sciences, and in a short space of time 
 <lrew together so great a number of scholars, that in the second year of their coming no 
 single building was able to contain them. Perhaps even this statement is doubtful. At 
 4iny rate, when Alfred of Beverley was student here — viz., 1129 a.d. — there were as yet 
 no public halls or hostels, but each one lived in his own hired lodging. 
 
 The first regular society of students was that of Peterhouse, founded in 1257. About 
 this time, students began to live together in hostels, under the rule of a principal, at 
 their own charges. These hostels were named after the saints to whom they were dedi- 
 <;ated, the churches which they adjoined, or the persons who formerly built or possessed 
 them. In the year 1280, there were as many as 34, and some of them contained from 
 20 to 40 masters of arts, and a proportionate number of younger students ; but all these 
 hostels decayed by degrees when endowed colleges began to appear. Trinity hostel sur- 
 vived all the rest, and continued to 1540. The hostels were the beginning of what may 
 be called the college system, which distinguishes the sister-universities of Oxford and 
 •Cambridge from those of Edinburgh, London, and the continent. See Universities. 
 
 It was between the latter part of the 13th and the close of the 16th c. that all these 
 royal and religious foundations were endowed which now constitute the university. 
 Hugh de Balsham has the honor of being the first benefactor in this way. Michael 
 house was founded by Hervey de Stanton in 1324, and King’s hall by Edward III. in 
 1332, both of which were absorbed into Trinity college by Henry VIII. in 1546. Clare 
 hall, as it used to be called, one of the earliest and now one of the prettiest colleges in 
 Cambridge, was founded by the countess of Clare in 1326. Henry VI. has left himself 
 ■an imperishable monument in the splendid foundation of King’s college; and his queen, 
 Margaret, commenced the foundation of Queens’ college, which was added to by Eliza- 
 beth Widville, queen of Edward IV. Lady Margaret, countess of Richmond dnd Derby, 
 mother of Henry VII., founded Christ’s college and St. John’s at the beginning of the 
 16th c. , and also the divinity professorship named after her. Henry VIII. appropriated 
 part of the spoils of the monasteries to the foundation of Trinity college, and queen 
 Mary augmented the endowment. The five regius professorships were endowed by 
 Henry VIII. Cambridge was frequently visited by the plague, and university proceed- 
 ings were suspended by it in 1642 and 1666. In 1643, Cromwell took possession of the 
 town, and the most eminent loyalists were expelled from the university. Almost all the 
 -colleges had sent their plate to the king at Nottingham. As riiight be expected, little 
 was done for the university in this troubled century; indeed no new colleges were added 
 until the founding of Downing college in 1800. 
 
 The predominance of the religious element in the college discipline is to be attributed 
 as much to the circumstances and manners of the times in which the colleges were 
 founded, as to the piety of the founders themselves. There had been, from very early 
 times, “religious houses,” and these were in many cases united with the new collegiate 
 foundations. There were, for example, the Dominicans, or preaching friars, whose 
 house is now turned into Emmanuel college. The friars who lived in these convents 
 were capable of degrees, and kept their “acts,” or exercises for degrees, as other uni- 
 versity men. There were, however, frequent quarrels between them and the other stu- 
 dents. To the same cause is to be traced the condition of celibacy, upon which, with 
 few exceptions, the fellowships were formerly tenable. Masters of colleges and profes- 
 sors may all marry, and the restriction in the case of fellows has lately been removed or 
 relaxed at most of the colleges. In like manner, the obligation to take holy orders as 
 the condition of holding a fellowship, has been greatly relaxed at all the colleges. . At 
 St. Peter’s there are 11, and at Trinity hall 10 lay fellowships. 
 
 , U. K. III.-22 
 
Cambridge. 
 
 338 
 
 The present university statutes were confirmed by queen Victoria, by order in coun- 
 cil, July 31, 1858. The governing body is-the senate, and the building where they meet 
 is called the senate-house. All university laws are approved by an elected body called 
 the council, before they are submitted to the senate. The executive powers are intrusted 
 to a chancellor, high-steward, vice-chancellor, commissary, and assessor. The public- 
 orator is the voice of the senate upon public occasions. The proctors superintend the 
 discipline and morals of all persons in statu pupillari; they are present at all congrega- 
 tions of the senate, read the “ graces,” and take the votes. The registrary is responsible 
 for the graces being offered in due form, and has charge of the university records. 
 There are three terms in this university — the Michaelmas or October term, the Lent 
 term, and the Easter term. To take an ordinary b.a. degree, a student must reside nine 
 terms. The m.a. degree follows three years after. Dissenters are not excluded by the 
 terms of the new statutes from taking degrees, except in divinity. 
 
 With respect to the admission of students, their university course, expenses, and 
 proceedings in degrees, the following information may be useful: There are four classes 
 of students — viz., felloio commoners and noblemen, pensioners, sizars, and the more dis- 
 tinguished students who are elected scholars on the foundation of their college. The 
 first class are so called from their dining at the fellows’ table ; they wear silk or em- 
 broidered gowns, and pay heavier fees. The pensioners are the great body of students 
 who are not on the foundation, and who pay for their own commons, viz., dinners in 
 hall, etc., and for their chambers. The sizars are the poorer students, who are admitted, 
 at lower charges than the pensioners, but w'ear the same dress, and are no longer subject 
 to the performance of menial offices as they once were. Some of the colleges, especially 
 St. John’s and Trinity, have very liberal endowments for the sizars, and very consider- 
 able pecuniary assistance is given to the more deserving of them, so that no youth of 
 real ability, industry, and good character, need be deprived by poverty of the advan- 
 tages of a university education. Non-collegiate students have lately been admitted to- 
 the university under special rules. The scholars are elected, by examination, from the- 
 pensioners and sizars; they are on the foundation of the college, have rooms and com- 
 mons free, and other emoluments. The fellows are subsequently elected from the 
 scholars and the students who have distinguished themselves in the tripos examinations. 
 Vacancies are, as a rule, filled up from members of the college, but many fellowships- 
 are open to the competition of the whole university. The usual age of admission is 
 from 17 to 20. Before a student can be admitted, he must obtain a certificate from 
 some master of arts of the university of being sufficiently instructed in Latin, Greek, 
 and mathematics; this certificate must be sent to the tutor of the college, along with the 
 caution-money, which, in the case of a pensioner, amounts to £15. At some colleges 
 there is an examination previous to matriculation in addition to the above. 
 
 Residence is commenced in the October term. It is usual, particularly at the larger 
 colleges, to have the name entered on the college boards for a term or two previous; but 
 this is not necessary now, as it used to be, in order to keep such terms with a view to 
 the degree. When the undergraduate comes into residence, he is called a “freshman;’^ 
 in his second year, a “junior soph;” in his third year, a “ senior soph.” The ordinary 
 B.A., or bachelor of arts degree, may be taken in the ninth term of residence — viz., in 
 the third June after coming up. The subjects of examination are partly fixed, partly 
 variable. They are the Acts of the Apostles in Greek, one Greek and one Latin classic. 
 The History of the English Reformation; Euclid, books i., ii., iii., iv., and proposition* 
 1-6 of book vi. ; together with certain parts of algebra, mechanics, and hydrostatics. 
 The candidates for examination for degree are called questionists. 
 
 Candidates for mathematical “honors” dc not go up till the end of their tenth term 
 — i.e., the Christmas three years after commg up. The examination embraces the 
 whole range of pure mathematics, and mathematics as applied to natural philosophy. 
 The successful candidates are arranged in a tripos — i.e., in three classes, called respect- 
 ively wranglers, senior optimes, and junior optimes; the first mathematician of the 
 year is called the senior wrangler. The Smith’s prize examination for the best mathe- 
 matician sometimes reverses the decision of the tripos. 
 
 The examination for classical “honors” is one term later still, and the candidates- 
 are arranged in a tripos, and distinguished as first, second, and third class. Very accu- 
 rate scholarship is required to obtain a good place in this tripos. The examinations for 
 degree are called “great go.” The previous examination, which comes in the second 
 year of residence, is called “little go.” Students who intend to graduate in classical 
 honors, are required to take mathematical honors in little go. The previous examina- 
 tion is one Greek and one Latin author, one of the gospels in Greek, Raley’s Evidences- 
 of Christianity, and elementary mathematics. After passing the “ little go,” the exam- 
 inations for the ordinary b.a. degree consist of a “general” and a “special” examina- 
 tion, the subjects in the former being similar to those in the little go. The special 
 examination is, at the option of the student, in theology, moral or natural or applied 
 science, or law. The following are the professors: Regius professors of laws, physic, 
 Greek, Hebrew, and divinity, professor of moral philosophy, professor of chemistry, 
 professor of anatomy, professor of modern histor}^, professor of botany, professor of 
 geology, Jacksonian professor of natural philosophy. Downing professors of law and 
 medicine, professor of mineralogy, professor of political economy, professor of arclnaeol- 
 
339 
 
 Cambridge. 
 
 ogy, profes or of music, a lady Margaret, a Hulsean, and a Norrisian professor of divin- 
 ity, two Arabic professors, a Sadlerian and a Lucasian professor of mathematics, a 
 Lowndean and a Plumian professor of astronomy, Slade professor of fine art, professors 
 of Latin, Sanscrit, international law, zoology, experimental physics, and mechanism. 
 Degrees in honors are given in law and in natural and moral science, without requiring 
 further proficiency in the normal studies of the place, classics and mathematics, than is 
 ascertained by passing the little go. The fees for the different degrees will all be found 
 in the Cambridge Calendar. There are different fees at the different colleges in addition 
 to the university fees. It will be sufficient to state, that for the b.a. and m.a. degrees, 
 the fees amount to about £12 and £25 respectively. 
 
 The great prizes at the university are the fellowships, of which there are about 360, 
 some open to all candidates without restriction, but conditions of tenure as to marriage 
 and holy orders vary at different colleges. Their value varies from £100 to £300 per 
 annum,' and the senior fellowships are often £500 or more. There are also stipends 
 attached to all the college oflaces— e.g., those of dean, bursar, steward, etc. The ofSce 
 of tutor is one of great honor and emolument. The chancellor gives annually two gold 
 medals, open to the competition of all students qualified to be candidates for the classi- 
 cal tripos of the year. The members of parliament for the university give annually four 
 prizes for the best dissertations in Latin prose. There are numerous other university 
 distinctions, both scholarships and of other kinds, for an accurate account of which the 
 Cambridge Calendar should be consulted. 
 
 The following is a list of the colleges in the order of their antiquity. A particular 
 notice of each college (except Cavendish) will be found in its alphabetical place : 
 
 Name. 
 
 St. Peter’s college, or Peter-house. . . 
 
 Clare college 
 
 Pembroke college 
 
 Oonville and Caius college 
 
 Trinity hall 
 
 Corpus Christi, or Benedict college 
 
 King’s college 
 
 <^ueens’ college 
 
 St. Catharine’s college or hall. 
 
 Jesus college 
 
 Christ’s college 
 
 St. John’s college 
 
 Magdalene college 
 
 Trinity college 
 
 Emmanuel college 
 
 Sidney Sussex college 
 
 Downing college 
 
 Cavendish college 
 
 Founded. 
 
 U ndergraduates 
 in 1875. 
 
 . 1257 
 
 37 
 
 . 1326 
 
 85 
 
 . 1347 
 
 78 
 
 . 1348 
 
 139 
 
 . 1350 
 
 - 140 
 
 . 1351 
 
 144 
 
 . 1441 
 
 28 
 
 . 1448 
 
 38 
 
 . 1473 
 
 57 
 
 . 1496 
 
 144 
 
 . 1505 
 
 108 
 
 . 1511 
 
 381 
 
 . 1519 
 
 50 
 
 . 1546 
 
 522 
 
 . 1584 
 
 63 
 
 . 1598 
 
 46 
 
 . 1800 
 
 51 
 
 . 1876 
 
 
 Students whose names are not on the boards of any college, and are allowed to pursue 
 their studies and proceed to degrees, were 82 in number at the above date. 
 
 Few of the colleges present an imposing fa 9 ade to the streets — King’s is, perhaps, the 
 only one of which this may be said — but the quiet and picturesque beauty of the courts 
 in the interiors is very pleasing. Dr. Whewell, the late master of Trinity college, built 
 a new hostel in connection with Trinity, which is considered to be in very good taste. 
 Amongst the other public buildings of Cambridge are to be mentioned the senate-house, 
 where university examinations are held, degrees conferred, and all public business of 
 the university conducted. The Fitzwilliam museum is the finest of the modern addi- 
 tions to the university. Viscount Fitzwilliam bequeathed, in 1816, £100,000 South-sea 
 annuities, the interest of which was to build and support a museum. He left also a 
 very valuable collection of books, paintings, etc., as a nucleus for future contributions. 
 G. Basevi was the architect. The university library is a fine mass of buildings of differ- 
 ent periods, and contains at present more than 170,000 volumes. The geological museum 
 •contains the original collection of Dr. Woodward, which, out of respect to the founder, 
 has been kept in its original state, unmixed with more recent and vastly more numerous 
 and interesting acquisitions. The university is indebted for many of these geological 
 treasures to the late prof. Sedgwick. The mineralogical room contains the valuable 
 collections of the late sir A. Hume, Charles Brooke, and Henry Warburton. The Pitt 
 press is a Gothic structure built in honor of Mr. Pitt, who was educated at Cambridge. 
 It contains the university printing-offices, which are very extensive. There is also a 
 good anatopaical museum. 
 
 There is a very good hospital, founded under the will of Dr. Addenbrooke in 1753. 
 The observatory contains some very fine instruments, amongst which is a large equato- 
 rial telescope, presented by the duke of Northumberland in 1835. The income of the 
 university is about £2000, and the aggregate income of the colleges about £200,000 per 
 annum. 
 
 For the most recent information about the university studies, etc., Cambridge 
 
Cambridge. 
 
 Camden. 
 
 340 
 
 Calendar for the current year should be consulted; for the history, biography, and 
 antiquity, see YuWqy's History of Ga,rd)ridge; Dyer; Caius; Le Memorials; Coop- 
 
 er’s Annals; Cooper’s Athence Cantahrigienses; Oraduati Gantahrigienses. 
 
 CAMBRIDGE PLATFORM, the system of church discipline agreed upon by the 
 representatives of the New England churches at the synod held in Cambridge in 1648. 
 In regard to doctrine they adhered substantially to the Westminster confession, though 
 they did not impose that on the churches; but they did not accept that confession which 
 was Presbyterian with respect to church order and polity, for regulating which they 
 constructed the Cambridge platform, which declares that the form of church govern- 
 ment is one and immutable, and prescribed in the word of God. According to this 
 platform, the church in general consists of the whole company of the redeemed; but the 
 state of the visible church militant was before the law economical, or in families; under 
 the law, national; and since Christ, only congregational, or in local companies. In 
 number a church ought not to be greater than may ordinarily meet together conveniently 
 in one place, nor fewer than can conveniently carry on church work. The supreme- 
 power of the church belongs to Jesus Christ, who deputes extraordinary power to^ 
 apostles, etc., and ordinary power to every particular church; officers are necessary to- 
 the well-being but not to the being of a church. Extraordinary officers, as apostles, are 
 temporary; the ordinary, which are bishops (the same as elders or pastors) and deacons, 
 are perpetual. A deacon’s official acts are confined to temporal affairs. Any church 
 may elect and depose its own officers, but in so doing the advice of neighboring churches- 
 should be sought. Ordination is the solemn putting a man into his office; it follows his 
 election. In respect to Christ, the head, the church is a monarchy ; in respect to the 
 body or the brotherhood, it is like a democracy; in respect to the presbytery, or com- 
 pany of ministers, it is an aristocracy. Synods, though not necessary to the being, are 
 useful to the well-being of the churches; but synods are not permanent ecclesiastical 
 bodies. It is declared that local churches are of right distinct, equal, self-governed 
 under Christ ; yet that they should be gathered and should proceed in communion with 
 each other; which communion they are to exercise by mutual care, by consultation, by 
 admonition, by sharing in acts of worship, by needful transfer of members, by relief and 
 succor. Synods have not power of church-censure and discipline, but are to declare 
 the principles on which such acts are based, and their decisions are to be submitted to if 
 found consonant with the word of God. The platform deals also,* as its date required, 
 with the relation of civil magistrates to affairs ecclesiastical. The platform is accepted 
 and largely followed by the congregational churches as a useful guide, and as a strong 
 presentation of the principles of church order given in the New Testament; but its 
 enforcement upon any church as an authoritative rule would of course be attempted in 
 vain. 
 
 CAMBRIBGrESHIBE, an inland co. of England, in lat. 52° 1' to 52° 45' n., long. 0° 
 31' e., and 0° 16' west. Its greatest length, from n. to s., is about 50 m., and its breadth 
 30 m., with an area of 820 sq. miles. Pop. ’71, 186,906. About three fourths of the 
 co. consists of arable land, meadow, and pasture, the rest being fens. The surface 
 of C., except in the s., which is somewhat elevated and on the chalk formations, is 
 marshy and flat, thinly wooded, and with villages and churches here and there on slight 
 elevations, called “ eys” or islands. The upper greensand, which in some places near 
 Cambridge comes to the surface, yields in rich abundance the curious fossils miscalled 
 coprolites (q.v.), which are of great value as an artificial manure. Their value is in 
 some places equal to that of the land itself. The northern part of C. forms part of the 
 Bedford level. The chief rivers are the Ouse, which crosses the middle of the county 
 from w. to e., with its tributary the Cam; the Nene, which borders the co. on the 
 n. ; and the Lark. These are all navigable to a certain extent. C. is an agricultural 
 county. In the higher parts, the land produces fine crops of beans and wheat. Many 
 cattle and sheep are now supported on the thin, chalky soils. The black spongy soil of 
 the fens consists of mud mixed with decayed vegetable matter, and, when drained and 
 burned, produces, in dry years, heavy crops of cole-seed, wheat, oats, barley, hay, 
 potatoes, hemp, and flax. Horses, cattle, sheep, and pigeons are also reared in the fens. 
 The isle of Ely, part of the fen-tract, and within the Bedford level, is famed for garden 
 vegetables; and the meadows of the Cam yield fine butter and cream-cheese. The chief 
 towns of C. are Cambridge, the co. town; Ely, Wisbeach, March, Thorney, Linton, 
 Soham, Newmarket, and Royston. The manufactures of C. are mostly such as belong 
 to an agricultural county. There are paper and parchment mills, and coarse earthen- 
 ware is manufactured. Needle-making is also carried on to some extent. C. returns 3 
 members to parliament. This co. was anciently the seat of a powerful tribe — the 
 Iceni. It was crossed by several British and Roman roads, in some parts now covered 
 by several feet of peat-soil. Remains of Roman camps, sea-embankments, ^nd villas, 
 occur, and Roman antiquities, as coins and urns, have been found. There are some 
 ancient — supposed pre-Roman — ditches miles in length. One of these, the Devil’s ditch, 
 with an elevated vallum, having a slope of 52 ft. on one side and 26 ft. on the other, is 
 about 100 ft. broad. In the 9th and 10th c., C. was the scene of severe contests between 
 the Danes and Saxons. The isle of Ely and its monks withstood William the conqueror 
 for 8 years. C., and especially the isle of Ely, suffered much in the civil wars of Stephen, 
 
341 
 
 Cambridge* 
 
 Camden. 
 
 John, Henry III., and Charles I. There formerly existed 36 religious houses in Cam- 
 bridgeshire. Since Charles I.’s time, much fen-land has been reclaimed by embanking 
 rivers and cutting new channels. 
 
 CAMBRONNE, Pierre Jacques Etienne, 1770-1842: a French general of great 
 renown for daring bravery, and a devoted servitor of Napoleon, whom he accompanied 
 to Elba. He was in command of the imperial guard at Waterloo, and when entirely 
 surrounded, and the battle utterly lost, he contemptuously refused to surrender, but 
 fought until literally cut down. He was nearly killed, but lived to go to London, where 
 he heard that in France he was charged with an attack upon his own country, to answer 
 which he at once went to Paris and demanded a trial. This was granted, and he was 
 honorably acquitted, and after the revolution of July he was restored to his rank in the 
 army. 
 
 CAMBUSLANGf, a parish and mining village in Lanarkshire, celebrated in the revivals 
 of 1741. See Wiiitefield. 
 
 CAMBY'SES, second king of the Medes and Persians, was the son of Cyrus and Cas- 
 sandane, and succeeded his father in the monarchy, 529 b.c. C. is the Greek form of 
 his name, the ancient Persian name is Kabujiya. In 525 b.c., C. invaded Egypt, defeated 
 Psammenitus, the king of Egypt, at Pelusium, and in six months made himself master 
 of the whole country. He meditated further conquests, but was not permitted to carry 
 his designs into effect; the Tyrians, upon whom his maritime power depended, refused 
 to serve him against the Carthaginians; an army which he sent to take possession of the 
 temple of Jupiter Ammon, perished in the desert; and one which he led in person 
 against the Ethiopians, was compelled to return from want of provisions. C. now 
 addicted himself to excessive intoxication, and perpetrated horrid cruelties in Egypt; 
 the accounts of which, however, depending upon his enemies the Egyptian priests, are^ 
 doubtless exaggerated. It is probable, however, that his tendency to epileptic tits, along 
 with the arbitrary disposition induced by success and power, caused him to indulge in 
 violent and capricious acts of tyranny. The Egyptians believed him to be mad. A pre- 
 tender to the Persian throne having appeared, C. marched against him, but died on the 
 way in Syria, 521 b.c. 
 
 CAMDEN, a co. in s.e. Georgia, on the ocean and the Florida border, n. of St. 
 Mary’s river, and including Cumberland island in the Atlantic; 600 sq.m.; pop. '80, 
 6183—4092 colored. It is level, with sandy soil, rice being the chief production, Co. 
 seat, Jeffersonton. 
 
 CAMDEN, a co. in central Missouri, on the Osage river, and touched by the Atlantic 
 and Pacitic railroad; 600 sq.m.; pop. ’80, 7267—115 colored. It has lead mines, and 
 an undulating surface, and tolerably fertile soil, producing tobacco, corn, wheat, etc. 
 Co. seat, Lynn Creek. 
 
 CAMDEN, a co. in s. w. New Jersey, e, cf Delaware river, traversed by tive railroads, 
 all centering at Camden, the chief town, opposite Philadelphia; 220 sq.m; pop. ’80» 
 62,941. Surface mostly level and fruitful, producing grain, butter, milk, vegetables 
 and fruits for city markets. Co. seat, Camden. 
 
 CAMDEN, a co. in n.e. North Carolina, n. of Albemarle sound and e. of Pasquotank 
 river; 280 sq.m., a portion of which is in the Dismal Swamp; pop. ’80, 6274 — 2483 col- 
 ored. The Dismal Swamp canal extends in this county to the Pasquotank at South 
 Mills. Productions — corn, sweet potatoes, and cedar and cypress timber. Co. seat, 
 Camden Court-House. 
 
 CAMDEN, the seat of justice in Wilcox co., Ala., 33 m. s.w. of Selma; pop. ’70, 
 3060 — 2225 colored. The village is on an eminence 4 m. from the Alabama river, and 
 is the center of an important trade. 
 
 CAMDEN, the seat of justice of Washita co.. Ark., 82 m. s.w. of Little Rock,, 
 at the head of navigation on the Washita river, in a good situation for trade; pop. ’70, 
 1612 — 612 colored. The place was formerly a rendezvous for hunters. 
 
 CAMDEN, a city of New Jersey, U. S., on the left bank of the Delaware river, oppo- 
 site Philadelphia, with which it is connected by 4 steam-ferries. It is the terminus of 
 the Camden and Amboy, Camden and Atlantic, and West Jersey railways. It has a 
 court-house, 2 banks, 2 railway depots, 15 churches, ship-yards, iron-works, foundries, 
 manufactories of machinery, etc. Pop. ’70, 20,045. 
 
 CAMDEN {ante), a city in New Jersey, opposite Philadelphia, 87 m. from New York, 
 and an important railroad and shipping point; pop. ’80, 41,658. The streets are on the 
 rectangular plan, but wide, and the city shows many fine buildings, including the rail- 
 road depots, opera house, etc. There are iron foundries, chemical works, and some 
 other manufactories. C. was chartered as a city in 1831. 
 
 CAMDEN, in Kershaw co., S. C , 102 m. n.w. of Charleston, at the terminus of 
 the C. branch of the S. C. railroad; pop. '80, 1780 — 555 colored. Two battles were 
 fought in the vicinity in the war of the revolution; the first on Aug. 16, 1780, when the 
 English commander Cornwallis defeated Gates and the revolutionary forces, mortally 
 wounding baron De Kalb ; and a less important engagement a year later, when Greene 
 and the Americans were repulsed by the English under Rawdon. In 1825, a monument. 
 
Camden. 
 
 Camel. 
 
 342 
 
 was erected at Camden to the memory of De Kalb, the corner-stone of which was laid 
 by Lafayette. 
 
 CAMDEN, a co. in s.e. New South Wales, Australia, on the Pacific ocean; 2201 
 ^;q.m. ; pop. ’66, 22,734, but now much larger. It is the largest grain-producing countj 
 m the colony; has iron mines, and vast herds of cattle. Capital, Berrima. 
 
 CAMDEN,, Charles Pratt, Earl of, a younger son of sir John Pratt, chief justice of 
 die court of king’s bench in the reign of George I., was b. in 1714. Educated at Eton 
 liind Cambridge, he studied for the law, and was called to the bar in 1738. Not until 
 1752, however, when he defended a bookseller successfully against a government prose- 
 cution for libel on the house of commons, did C.’s prospects appear very promising; 
 from this time his success was certain. In 1757, he was appointed attorney-general, and 
 four years afterwards, accepted a seat on the bench in the court of common pleas. 
 Judge in the trial of Wilkes, he declared his opinion emphatically that the action of gov- 
 ernment in this case, by general warrants, was altogether illegal — an opinion which, 
 chiming in Avith public sentiment at the time, made him the most popular of judges. 
 In 1765, he was created baron C. of Camden place, Kent, by the Rockingham adminis- 
 tration; to whose American policy, and to their treatment of Wilkes, notwithstanding, 
 he offered constant opposition. The following year, when he was made lord chancellor, 
 he did not abandon his principles; and four years after — the duke of Grafton being then 
 prime minister — he supported an amendment made by Chatham on the government 
 address, and resigned his place. His judicial career ended here; henceforth, he was 
 entirely a political character, and for more than 20 years took an active part against the 
 ill-advised American policy pursued by lord North, and in discussions on the law of 
 libel, in which he maintained the popular view. As a judge, he is held in high estima- 
 tion, though his manner was somewhat undignified. He filled the office of president of 
 the council in the Rockingham administration in 1782, and also from the following year 
 until his death, under Pitt. He died April, 1794. 
 
 CAMDEN, William, one of the most distinguished scholars and historians, and the 
 most laborious and painstaking antiquary of the 16th c., was b. in London, where his 
 father was a paper-stainer, in May, 1551. His education, commenced at Christ’s hos 
 pital, was completed at St. Paul’s school, and at Oxford. In 1575, he was appointed 
 vecond-master of Westminster school; and it was while discharging the duties of this 
 office that he undertook the work which has made his name famous, his Britannia, giv- 
 ing an account of the British Isles from the earliest ages, which, written in elegant Latin, 
 vvas first published in 1586. It at once brought him into communication with the learned 
 men of his time. Before 1607, the work had passed through six editions, being greatly 
 enlarged and improved by the indefatigable industry of the author. The book, at first 
 but a comparatively small single volume, has received much additional matter from 
 other writers. The best known edition of C.’s Britannia, is that of Edmund Gibson, in 
 English, 2 vols. fol. Of this great work of C., bishop Nicolson said it was “the com- 
 mon sun whereat our modern writers have all lighted their little torches.” In 1593, C. 
 was appointed head-master of Westminster school; and four years later, he was made 
 clarencieux king-at-arms, an appointment which gave him more time for the pursuit of 
 his favorite studies. His other most important works are — Annals of the Beign of Eliza- 
 beth; A Collection of Ancient English Historians; An Account of the Monuments and 
 Inscriptions in Westminster Abbey; and a Narrative of the Gunpowder Plot. He died in 
 1623, at the age of 72, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. Before his death, he 
 endowed a professorship of history at Oxford. The “ Camden Society,” for the publi- 
 cation of early historical and literary remains, is so named in his honor. 
 
 CAMEL, Carnelus, a genus of quadrupeds of the order ruminantia, of which only 
 two species exist, both of great- use to mankind. This genus is the type of the family 
 camelidce, to which there belongs only one other genus, auchenia (q. v.), including the llama, 
 alpaca, etc. The whole number of species of camelidm is, therefore, very small, and 
 they seem to belong originally to limited regions, both in the old world and in the new. 
 To the peculiarities of these regions, they exhibit a wonderful completeness of adapta- 
 tion. The family is regarded as"^ forming a sort of link between the orders ruminantia and 
 pachydermata. The dentition differs from that of all other ruminating animals, particu- 
 larly in the presence of incisors or cutting teeth in the upper jaw ; camels having also 
 canine teeth in both jaws, and the llama and its congeners in the lower jaw of both 
 sexes; and differences equally important appear in the feet, which have not the cloven 
 hoof common to all the rest of the order — two short toes with separate hoofs adapted to 
 one another — but two elongated toes, each tipped with a small nail-like hoof, the feet 
 resting not upon the hoofs, but upon elastic pads or cushions under the toes. — In the 
 camels, the toes are united ’oy a common sole, thus resting upon one extended pad, 
 instead of having each a separate one, as in the genus auchenia; the broader expanse of 
 the foot enabling the animals of the one genus more easily to traverse the loose sand of 
 the desert, wliilst the separation of the toes in the other is suited to the uneven surface 
 of rocky heights. The camels are also distinguished by the females having four teats, 
 whilst those of the other genus have only two ; and by a hump or humps upon the back, 
 of which the llama and its congeners exhibit no trace. The long neck, small head, 
 
343 
 
 Camden*. 
 
 Camel. 
 
 prominent eyes, and tumid and cleft upper lip, with considerable prehensile power, are 
 common to both genera; but with much similarity of form, as well as of particular char- 
 acters, the camelidm of the Andes exhibit a gracefulness of outline which strongly con- 
 trasts with the gaunt angularity of those of the eastern deserts. Camels are indeed 
 animals of uncouth appearance. Of the two species, that known as the Arabian C. (C. 
 droinedaHus) has only one hump on the back, whilst the bactrian C. ((7. hactrianus) has 
 two. Some confusion has arisen from the occasional employment of the name drome- 
 dary as a designation of the former species, it being, however, more properly limited to 
 a particular variety of that species, more slender and graceful than the ordinary variety, 
 and of much greater fleetness. Buffon’s notion, that the hump is a badge of servitude, 
 and the consequence of harsh treatment throughout many generations, is singularly at 
 variance with what we know of its uses. The hump on the C.’s back is a wonderful 
 provision of nature, to adapt the animal to the endurance of long abstinence from food, 
 or subsistence on very scanty supplies, to which it is often subjected in the desert, and 
 without a capacity for which it would be comparatively of little value to man ; and the 
 wide deserts across which he journeys and transports his merchandise by its aid, would 
 be altogether unpassable. The hump is, in fact, a store of fat, from which the animal 
 draws as the wants of its system require ; and the Arab is very careful to see that the 
 hump is in good condition before the commencement of a journey. After it has been, 
 much exhausted, three or four months of repose and abundant food are necessary ta 
 restore it. The backbone of the C. is as straight as that of other quadrupeds. — Another 
 very interesting adaptation to the desert is to be noticed in the thick sole which protects 
 the feet of the C. from the burning sand, and in callosities of similar use on the chest 
 and on the joints of the legs, upon which the C. rests when it lies down to repose, or 
 kneels, as it does for various purposes, and is taught to do that it may be loaded, or that 
 its rider may mount upon its back. — The wedge-shaped cutting-teeth of the lower jaw 
 are also particularly fitted for browsing on shrubby plants, such as the desert produces 
 — the camel’s thorn, tamarisk, etc., which form a large part of the food of the C. ; the 
 eyes are furnished with long eyelashes, to protect them from the glare and from the- 
 drifting sand; whilst the exclusion of the sand from the nostrils is also provided for by 
 a power of closing their oblique openings at will. But most interesting of all is the 
 provision made for the C.’s endurance of long drought, by the lining of the inside of the 
 second stomach, or honeycomb-bag, and of a portion of the first stomach or paunch, 
 with great masses of cells, in which water is stored up and long retained. This store of 
 water is well known to the Arabs, who, when sore pressed by thirst, sometimes avail 
 themselves of it by killing some of the camels of the caravan. — The first stomach of the 
 camelid(E is divided into two compartments by a muscular band — one of the points of 
 difference between them and the other ruminants. Muscular bands, proceeding from 
 this principal one, and intersected by other muscular bands, nearly at right angles, form 
 the cells for containing water. It may be added here, that the senses both of sight and 
 smell are extremely acute in the C., and that it is capable of discerning water at a great 
 distance. 
 
 The Arabian C. carries twice the load of a mule. The Bactrian C. is sometimes, 
 loaded with 1000 or even 1500 lbs. weight, although not generally with so much. The 
 East India company had at one time a corps of camels, each mounted by two men, armed, 
 with musketoons. The use of the C. for the conveyance both of travelers and merchan- 
 dise has won it the name of the ship of the desert. A caravan sometimes contains 1000, 
 sometimes even 4000 or 5000 camels. The supply of food carried with the caravan for 
 the use of the camels is very scanty : a few beans, dates, carob-pods, or the like, are all 
 that they receive after a long day’s march, when there is no herbage on which they may 
 browse. The pace of the loaded C. is steady and uniform, but slow; it proceeds, how- 
 ever, from day to day, accomplishing journeys of hundreds of miles at a rate of about 2^ 
 m. per hour. Some of the slight dromedaries, however, can carry a rider more than 100 
 m. in a day. The motion of the C. is peculiar, jolting the rider in a manner extremely 
 disagreeable to those who are unaccustomed to it; both the feet on the same side being 
 successively raised, so that one side is thrown forward, and then the other. 
 
 The C. produces only one young one at a time, or rarely two. It lives 30 or 40 
 years. 
 
 The patience of the C. has been celebrated by some authors ; and the cries by which 
 it expresses its sense of injury when a heavy load is placed upon its back have been 
 pathetically described. With all its general submissiveness, however, the C. is resentful 
 of injury, and during the rutting season it becomes particurlaly vicious. 
 
 The flesh and the milk of the C. are much valued by the Arabs as articles of food. The 
 dung is used for fuel, and it was from the soot of this dung that the sal-ammoniac, 
 formerly imported from Egypt, was obtained by sublimation, whilst the sources from 
 which that substance is now procured were unknown. The hair is used for the manu- 
 facture of cloth, some kinds of which are coarse, and others comparatively soft and fine. 
 C.’s hair is also imported into Europe for the manufacture of the pencils or small brushes 
 used by painters. The C. can now scarcely be said to exist anywhere in a wild state. It 
 has lately been introduced into Australia. 
 
 A fossil species of C. {G. Siralensis), larger than either of the existing species, hac 
 been discovered in the tertiary deposits of the Sewalik hills, in Hindustan. 
 
Camel. 
 
 Cameo. 
 
 344 
 
 CAMEL, a machine for floating ships over shoals and bars. A long water-tight box. 
 or caisson, nearly filled with water, is sunk on either side and attached to the ship, ami 
 then the water in the caissons is pumped out, adding additional buoyancy as they become 
 empty. The C. is sometimes employed in raising sunken ships, and the principle is 
 applied to dry -docks in some instances. 
 
 CAMELFQRD, a t. in the n.w. of Cornwall, near the source of the Camel (crooked 
 brook), 14 m. w. of Launceston. It lies in a high and hilly tract near the moors. Pop. 
 about 1600. C. is said to have been the scene of a battle, in 542, between king Arthur 
 and Mordred, his nephew, when both were slain. The West Saxons, under Egbert, had 
 a battle with the Britons here in 823. The ruins of king Arthur’s castle, Tintagel, stands 
 on the high rocky coast, 4 m. n.w. of Cameiford. Two m. n. of C. are the celebrated slate- 
 quarries of Delabole, employing a large number of men. Maepherson, the author or 
 translator of Ossian, was member of parliament for C. in 1791, but the reform act of 
 1832 disfranchised the borough. 
 
 CAMELLIA, a genus of plants of the natural order ternstro^miacm (q.v.), natives of 
 China, Japan, and the n. of India — some of which are now among the most common 
 and admired green-house shrubs in Britain and other countries too cold for their cultiva- 
 tion in the open air, receiving the same sort of attention vdiich is bestowed on other 
 florists’ flowers, and with the same result, of an endless multiplication of beautiful 
 hybrids and varieties. The best known and most esteemed is C. Japonica. Its leaves are 
 ovate-elliptical, almost acuminate and serrate, shining; the flowers without stalks, mostly 
 solitary, large, and rose-like. It is native of Japan; and there and in China it has been 
 •carefully cultivated from time immemorial. In its wild state, it has red flowers; and the 
 red single C. is much used by gardeners as a stock on which to graft the fine varieties, 
 the flowers of which are generally double, and in many cases most completely so. Many 
 of them are of Chinese or Japanese origin; many have been raised by cultivators in 
 Britain, continental Europe, and America. Their colors are very various; and the 
 varieties also differ much in the form and position of the petals. It adds to the value of 
 the C. that its flowering time is in autumn, winter, and spring. By those who can afford 
 the expense, entire houses are often devoted to the culture of camellias. Some culti- 
 vators are careful to protect them from direct sunshine, others recommend an opposite 
 treatment in this particular; it is agreed by all that free access of air is of great import- 
 ance, and that water must be given very liberally, yet with such caution that the soil 
 may never remain soaked after the immediate wants of the plant are supplied. The 
 cultivation of camellias in the windows of houses is often attended with disappointment, 
 from the buds dropping off wdien almost ready to expand, which is generally owing 
 either to a neglect or an excess of watering; an apparently slight mistake, either of the 
 one kind or of the other, being very speedily productive of this evil. Too much heat at 
 this time is also apt to cause tlie flower-buds to fall off. The C. flowers well, when the 
 temperature is kept not very much above the freezing-point, but frost it cannot bear. In 
 the s. of England, some of the varieties are occasionally trained to walls in the open air, 
 receiving a little protection in winter. The proper soil for camellias is a loose black 
 mold ; a little sand and a little peat are often advantageously mixed wdth loam to form 
 it. Camellias are often propagated by cuttings, often by layers; but the finest varieties 
 very generally by grafting or by inarching. The single C. is also propagated by seed, 
 ancrin this way the best stocks for grafting are procured. — Of the other species of C., 
 the most hardy, and one of the most beautiful, is G. reticulata, from which not a few' of 
 the varieties now in cultivation are partly derived. — G. oleifera is extensively cultivated 
 in China — not, however, in the more northerly parts — for its seeds, from which an oil 
 is expressed after boiling, very similar to olive oil, and much in use as an article of food 
 and otherwise in the domestic economy of the Chinese. The seeds of almost all the 
 species, however, yield this oil. — G. Sasanqua bears the name of Sasanqua Tea. It is 
 cultivated in China for the sake of its flowers, which are said to be used for flavorin'g 
 certain kinds of tea. 
 
 CAMELLIA'CE.®, an order of exogenous trees and shrubs in s. and e. Asia and 
 South America; North America has four species. The tea plant and the camellia are 
 specimens. 
 
 CAMELOPARDA LIS. See Giraffe. 
 
 CAMELOPARD A'LIS, a constellation defined by Hevelius, between the pole-star, 
 Auriga, Cassiopeia, and the head of Ursa Major, consisted of stars of the 4th and low'er 
 magnitudes, forming, in imagination, the shape of a giraffe. 
 
 CAMEL’S HAIR is w'oven by Persians and Arabs into material for tents and cloth- 
 ing. In early ages rough garments of this stuff were wmrn by monks and priests by 
 way of penance. A fine article of camel’s hair is used for pencils by artists. 
 
 CAMELS HUMP, or Camel’s Back Mountain, one of the peaks of the Green 
 mountains, 4188 ft. high; 17 m. w'. of Montpelier, Vt. 
 
 CAMEL’S THORN, Alhdgi, a genus of plants of the natural order leguminosm (q.y.), 
 sub-order papilionacece, containing a number of herbaceous or half-shrubby species, 
 natives chiefly of the deserts of the east, having simple leaves, minute stipules, racemes 
 of red flowers, and jointed pods wdth one seed in each joint. These plants are of great 
 
345 
 
 Camel. 
 
 Cameo. 
 
 importance on account of the food which they afford for camels, where other vegetation 
 is far from being abundant; and camels are particularly fond of them. A. camelorum, a 
 herbaceous species, yields a kind of manna (q.v.), which appears in the form of drops, 
 as of honey, on the leaves, and gradually hardens. A similar exudation is yielded by A. 
 nipalensis, another herbaceous species; but it is not certain that the manna of Persia and 
 Bokhara is produced, as has been alleged, by A. maurorum, a shrubby species 2 or 3 ft. 
 in height, which certainly does not yield it in India or Egypt; the supposition that this 
 exudation results from some peculiarity in the climate of Persia and Bokhara, being 
 perhaps less probable than that of a mistake concerning species not very dissimilar. 
 
 riAME'Isr /E , nymphs with prophetic powers in Roman mythology, named Egeria, 
 Carmenta, Antevorta, and Postvorta. The poets sometimes give the name to the nine 
 muses. 
 
 CA'MENZ, or Kamenz, a t. in Saxony, 22 m. n.e. of Dresden; pop. ’71, 6406. In 
 1742, the town was nearly destroyed by fire. Lessing was born here, and in 1826 a pub- 
 lic hospital was dedicated to his memory. 
 
 CAMEO (Ital. camei). Gems cut in relief are called cameos, in opposition to those that 
 are hollowed out so as to yield a raised impression, which are called intaglios. The term 
 C., however, is applied more especially to those diminutive pieces of sculpture which 
 are prepared from precious stones having two strata or layers of different colors, the 
 undermost of which is left to form the background, the object to be represented being 
 cut in the upper one. The stone generally used for this purpose by the ancients was 
 the variegated onyx. 
 
 The art of cameo-cutting is of great antiquity. It is believed to have been of Asiatic 
 origin, and to have been practiced by the Babylonians, from whom the Phenicians car- 
 ried it into Egypt. From the Egyptians, it was transmitted to the Greeks, who brought 
 it to great perfection; and latterly it was practiced very extensively, and more success- 
 fully than perhaps any other art, in Rome. To what extent the gems, commonly called 
 Etruscan, are in reality early Greek, is a subject of dispute amongst the learned. It was 
 not till a comparatively late period — the age following Praxiteles — that cameo-cutting 
 became popular in Greece ; and it was in the courts of the successors of Alexander that 
 it was chiefly patronized. At this period, cameos were very extensively used, not only 
 as personal ornaments, but in cups, vases, candelabra, and other objects of domestic lux- 
 urj^ Paterae and other vessels were frequently worked out of a single stone, upon which 
 were exhibited a whole series of figures of the most exquisite workmanship. Many of 
 the antique cameos which have been preserved are wonderfully beautiful both in design 
 and execution. The finest specimen in existence is said to be the Gonzaga C., formerly 
 at Malmaison, now at St. Petersburg. It represents the head of a prince and his wife, 
 probably Ptolemy I. and Eurydice. Winckelmann mentions a C. representing Perseus 
 and Andromeda, in such high relief, tnat almost the whole contour of the figures, which 
 are of the most delicate white, is detached from the ground. It belonged to the painter 
 Mengs, and at his death was purchased by the empress Catharine of Russia. The only 
 other gem which Winckelmann is disposed to rank with that just mentioned, is “the 
 Judgment of Paris” in the cabinet of the prince Piombino at Rome. Of cameos of the 
 Roman time, many fine specimens are to be found in the continental museums. The 
 most celebrated C. in England is the “ Cupid and Psyche,” in the Marlborough collec- 
 tion, by Tryphon, who is supposed to have lived in Macedon under the immediate suc- 
 cessors of Alexander. The stones on which many of these cameos are cut are of sur- 
 prising, and, in modern times, unequaled size and perfection. They are supposed to 
 have been procured by the ancients through their oriental and African commerce. 
 Cameos do not seem to have been made in mediaeval times; but the art revived in Italy, 
 under the auspices of of the Medici; and the production of cameos, both in pietra dura 
 and in shell, has there become a branch of art-manufacture of considerable importance. 
 Impressions from antique cameos in glass, sulphur, porcelain, and other materials, are 
 produced in many places; and for artistic purposes, possess all the value of the originals. 
 
 Glass Gameos . — The manufacture of cameos from artificial substances was not 
 unknown to the ancients. One of the most beautiful specimens of an imitation of C. 
 in glass is the famous Barberini or Portland vase, now in the British museum. The 
 ground is blue, the figures, which are in low relief, being of a delicate, half -transparent 
 white. See Portland Vase. Many fragments of the same kind of manufacture exist 
 in other cabinets, but that which we are fortunate enough to possess is believed to be the 
 only perfect example. 
 
 Shell Cameos. — The art of imitating cameos in shell, which has now attained to such 
 perfection as to rival the delicacy and finish even of antique workmanship, and which 
 is a process quite as artistical as their production from gems, is of modern invention. 
 The shells, like the stones, chosen for this purpose, are such as possess layers of different 
 colors. The most useful are the hull’s mouth, the under layer of which is red, resembling 
 the sardonyx; the black helmet, which has a dark onyx ground; and the queen’s conch, of 
 which the ground is of a pinkish hue. These shells have three strata, the undermost of 
 which forms the ground, the figure being sculptured in the second, and the third serv- 
 ing to mark the hair, wreaths, armor, and other more prominent objects. The portion 
 of shell having been prepared of the requisite size, form, and thickness by various 
 
Camera. 
 
 Cameron. 
 
 346 
 
 mechanical means, it is fixed by some adhesive substance — usually rosin — to a small 
 block of wood, of such form and thickness as to be conveniently grasped by the artist 
 in his left hand. The outline of the object or objects to be represented is then sketched 
 with a pencil, and, in the case of portraits, is usually copied from a previous pencil- 
 sketch on paper. The pencil-marking on the shell is then followed with a scratch-point, 
 and the surrounding white substance is removed by means of files and gravers. This 
 latter process, which is more mechanical than the rest, is usually performed by an assist- 
 ant. The artist then proceeds slowly and carefully to work out his subject by the use 
 of smaller tools ; those used at last for deepening the finer lines being scarcely larger than 
 ordinary darning-needless. The manufacture of shell-cameos in Rome commenced about 
 1805, and is said to have been of Sicilian origin. The art was at first confined to Italy; 
 but during the last 35 years, it has been carried on in Paris to a greater extent than even 
 in Rome, though not with equal success. A large proportion of the whole cameos 
 manufactured in France are imported into England, and many of them are mounted as 
 brooches, and exported to the United States and the British colonies. Saolini and Gio- 
 vanni Dies have long been celebrated as artists in shell-cameo in Rome, whilst Giro- 
 metti has enjoyed a similar reputation for his works in jpietra dura. 
 
 CAMEEA LUCID A, an optical instrument constructed of various forms, and for 
 various purposes. Dr. Wollaston’s C. L., intended to facilitate the perspective delinea- 
 tion of objects, consists of a small quadrilateral prism of glass, of which AB in the 
 
 annexed figure is the perpendicular sec- 
 tion, held in a brass frame, which is at- 
 tached to an upright rod, having at its 
 lower end a screw-clamp, to fix it to the 
 edge of a table. The prism being at the 
 height of about a foot from the table, 
 has its upper face horizontal. Two of 
 its faces, as in the figure, are at a right 
 angle at A ; the contiguous faces make 
 respectively with them angles of 67i° ; so 
 that the remaining obtuse angle at B 
 contains 135°. Rays coming from an 
 object PQ, and falling nearly perpendic- 
 ularly on the first surface, enter the 
 prism, and undergo total reflection at 
 the contiguous surface (see Dioptrics); 
 they then fall at the same angle on the 
 next surface, and are totally reflected again ; finally, they emerge nearly perpendicularly 
 to the remaining surface. An eye, as in the figure, then receives the emergent pencil 
 through one part of the pupil, so that an image, pq, of the object is seen projected 
 ^ipon a sheet of paper upon the table. The rays from the drawing-pencil passing the 
 edge of the prism, enter the other part of the pupil ; and the pencil and image being 
 seen together upon the paper, a sketch of the latter can be taken. There is, however, 
 a practical difficulty — the image and the drawing-pencil are at distances sensibly different 
 from the eye, and so cannot be seen together distinctly at the same time. To obviate 
 this, a plate of metal, with a small aperture as an eye-hole, is placed at the edge under 
 the eye, so that the rays through the prism, and those from the drawing-pencil, which 
 both pass through the eye-hole, form only very small pencils. By this, the difficulty 
 is greatly diminished. It is still, however, difficult to use the instrument satisfactorily; 
 and though many acquire great readiness in its use, others have never been able to attain 
 the same facility. The instrument is remarkable for its small bulk and portability. 
 A good one will pack in a box 8 in. by 2, and ^ in. deep. Besides this form of the C. 
 L. , which is the most common, there are others. Its simplest form is merely a piece 
 of smooth glass fixed at an angle of 45° to the horizon. An image from a horizontal 
 object falling on this glass will be perfectly reflected, and that in the vertical, so that 
 the eye looking vertically down will see the image, and, owing to the transparency of 
 the glass, the artist will be able to trace it out upon paper below. In this case, how- 
 ever (see Catoptrics), the image will be inverted. 
 
 CAMERA OBSCURA (literally, a dark chamber), an instrument invented by Baptista 
 Porta in the 16th century. It is known in its simplest form as a familiar toy, con- 
 sisting of a rectangular box, furnished at one end with a lens whose focal length is 
 equal to the length and depth of the box; at the opposite end of which a plane reflec- 
 tor is placed at an angle of 45°, which throws the image of any objects to which the 
 lens may be directed on a piece of ground-glass on the top of the box in a non-inverted 
 position, so that they may be viewed or sketched from as in nature. 
 
 The C. O. being now an indispensable article in the practice of photography, has 
 received a number of recent improvements, which make it rank as a scientific instru- 
 ment. The principle, however, involved in the simplest and most refined forms is the 
 same, and may be illustrated and made intelligible by the following experiment: Let a 
 small hole be bored in a window-shutter, and the room be darkened. If, now, the 
 beam of light entering the room by this hole be intercepted by a sheet of white paper. 
 
347 
 
 Camera. 
 
 Cameron. 
 
 field at a small distance from the hole, an inverted image of objects without will be 
 seen upon the paper. By placing a small convex lens over the hole, this image is ren- 
 dered much more distinct, or sharp, in photographic language. Moreover, it will be 
 found that, at a certain distance from the hole, the image attains a maximum degree 
 of sharpness; and that if the paper be removed from this point to any position either 
 nearer to the hole or further from it, the image becomes indistinct and confused. At 
 the point of greatest distinctness, the image is said to be focused. Such being the 
 principle of the camera, it is evident that in practice the instrument may assume many 
 forms, provided always that it consists of a darkened box or chamber having a hole at 
 one end for the insertion of a lens, or combination of lenses, and at the other a screen, 
 generally made of ground-glass, on which to receive the image. 
 
 The body of the instrument may be made of any opaque substance; the tube or 
 tubes are generally formed of brass, and contain one or more lenses; there is the 
 obscured or ground-glass, upon which the image is thrown for the purpose of adjusting 
 the focus; and the rack behind, by means of which, and the double »ides of the camera,, 
 the body of the iustrument may be lengthened or shortened till the image on the ground- 
 screen is accurately focused. This rack is most frequently placed upon the tubes car- 
 rying the lenses. The interior of the whole apparatus is blackened, to prevent reflec- 
 tion of the rays falling on their sides, and to impart greater distinctness to the picture. 
 
 The camera-slide is a thin, dark box, and is used for conveying a sensitive plate from 
 the operating-room to the camera, and back again after exposure. It consists of a rec- 
 tangular frame, made to fit exactly into the back of the camera when the focusing- 
 screen is removed. At the back is a hinged door, by means of which the plate is intro- 
 duced into the slide; and in front is a shutter, which is pulled up when the plate is to 
 be exposed, and shut down after the time requisite for the action of the light upon the 
 plate has expired. It must be constructed so that, when substituted for the focusing- 
 screen, the surface of the prepared plate, which is intended to receive the image, shall 
 correspond exactly in distance from the lens with the ground-surface of the focusing- 
 screen. The plate rests upon projections of silver wire in the corners of the slide; and 
 the same slide ma}^ be used for plates of different sizes, by introducing into it thin frames- 
 of suitable dimensions also furnished with silver-wire corners. 
 
 Photographic cameras are generally required for one of three purposes — viz., portraits, 
 landscapes, or copying; and for each of these it is necessary to make suitable modifica- 
 tions in the construction of the instrument. A camera has, however, been recently 
 contrived which combines within itself the conditions necessary for all contingencies. 
 It is called Martin’s universal portrait, landscape, and copying camera, and consists, 
 primarily, of a base-board, 30 in. long and 11 in. wide, divided into three pieces, and 
 hinged together by means of broad brass hinges, so as to diffuse the bearing as much as 
 possible, and bolted together when in use by sliding panels of mahogany, extending 
 across the entire width of the base-board. This base-board being' grooved on its outer 
 edges, allows the sliding portions of the camera to be moved from one end to the other, 
 so as to alter the relation between object, lens, and image ad infinitum. 
 
 What may be regarded as the body of the camera, is of the same construction as an 
 ordinary expanding camera, except that it is furnished with additional apertures for 
 camera slides, and the front and the back are united by means of an accordion or bel- 
 lows body of suitable length to extend from one end of the base-board to the other. 
 
 C AMERA'RITJS, J oachim — originally, Liebhard, which name he changed into C. , because 
 his forefathers had been Kdmmerer (chamberlains) at the court of the bishop of Bam- 
 berg — was born at Bamberg, April 12, 1500, and died at Leipsic, after a life devoted to 
 literature, April 17, 1574.. He was by nature earnest and taciturn ; but the extent of his 
 knowledge, his sobriety of opinion, strength of character, and, when he pleased, over- 
 powering eloquence, won for him the esteem of all his contemporaries. His works, of 
 which several still remain valuable, include an excellent biography of Melanchthon, and 
 a collection of letters by this reformer; also annotations on Cicero’s Quoestiones Tuscu- 
 to77<e(1525); Elements of Rhetoric; Commentarii Lingua, Oracoe et Latina and Epis- 
 
 tola Familiares (1583-95), giving interesting notices of his times. — His son, Joachim C. 
 (b. 1534, d. 1598), was one of the most learned physicians and botanists of his age. 
 
 CAMERA'RIUS, Rudolph Jakob, 1665-1721; a German botanist and physician, 
 professor of medicine and director of the botanic garden at Tubingen. He was the first 
 to observe and establish the sexual theory of plants. 
 
 CAMER'INO (ancient Camerinum), a t. of central Italy, in the province of Macerata, 
 situated on a hill at the foot of the Apennines, 41 m. s.w. of Ancona. It has a cathedral, 
 occupying the site of a temple to Jupiter, a university, and some manufactures of silk. 
 Its bishopric dates from the 3d c. ; and it was made an archiepiscopal see in 1787. 
 Pop. 5,500. 
 
 CAMERON, a parish in s.w. Louisiana, on the gulf of Mexico; surface low, with 
 many swamps; productions, agricultural; pop. ’80, 2415 — 328 colored. Chief town, 
 Grand Cheni5re. 
 
 CAMERON, a co. in n.w. Pennsylvania, traversed by the Philadelphia and Erie rail- 
 road; 400 sq.m. ; pop. ’80,5159. Productions, agricultural. Co. seat. Emporium. 
 
‘Cameron. 
 
 Cameronians. 
 
 848 
 
 CAMERON, a co. in Texas, on the gulf of Mexico and the Rio Grande; 3,000 sq.m.; 
 pop. ’80. 14.959 — 124 colored. The portion along the Rio Grande is very fertile; the 
 remainder is grazing land. Co. seat, the city of Brownsville, opposite Matamoras. 
 
 CAMERON, Donald, a Scottish highland chief who fought for the pretender and 
 was wounded at Culloden, but escaped to France. He was the “Lochiel” of Camp^ 
 bell’s poem. 
 
 CxVMERON, James Donald (usually called “ Don” Cameron), b. Harrisburg, Penn., 
 1833; eldest son of Simon; graduated at Princeton college in 1852, and since largely 
 engaged in iron, coal, and manufacturing industries of his state. As president of 
 the Northern Central railroad, he did great service to the union cause during the war. 
 In 1876, he was appointed secretary of war, and in Mar., 1877, succeeded his father as 
 U. S. senator. In 1879, he was chosen chairman of the republican national committee 
 in place of Zachariah Chandler, deceased. This position he resigned in 1880. 
 
 CAMERON, John, a famous scholar and divine, was b. at Glasgow about the year 
 1580, and educated at the university of that city, where, in his 20^th year, he held an 
 .appointment as reader in Greek. In 1600, he set out to travel in France, where his 
 ability and erudition secured for him a philosophical professorship in the university 
 ■of Sedan. He afterwards acted as a Protestant clergyman at Bordeaux, and on the 
 death of Gomarus, was appointed to the divinity chair in the university of Saumur, 
 an appointment he held until 1620. Returning to Britain, he was appointed professor 
 of divinity at Glasgow; but in less than a year he returned to Saumur; thence to 
 Montauban, where he received a divinity professorship. Here his opposition to the 
 party who advocated a civil war made him many enemies, by one of whom he was 
 stabbed in the street; and he died from the effects of the wound in 1625. He was 
 considered one of the best scholars of his time; in Biblical criticism, he was inclined 
 to be perverse; where there was a difficulty, he usually chose the opposite view to 
 that held by other divines, especially Beza. His theological opinions were of a some- 
 what lax character, his works being said to be the foundation of Amyraut’s doctrine of 
 universal grace. 
 
 CAMERON, Richard, a Scottish Presbyterian preacher in the 17th c., who suffered 
 death for the cause he espoused, and from whom the religious sect ordinarily called 
 Cameronians (q.v.) has been named. C. belonged to the extreme party, who held by the 
 perpetually binding obligations of the solemn league and covenant (see Covenants), 
 which were set aside at the restoration of Charles II. Along with some others, he stren- 
 uously resisted those measures that reinstated the Episcopal church in Scotland, and 
 that proscribed the meetings for public worship of unauthorized religious bodies. Con- 
 trary to law, he persisted in preaching in the fields, and became obnoxious to govern- 
 ment, to which, indeed, he finally assumed an attitude of defiance. In June, 1680, he, 
 in company with about twenty persons of equal zeal, well armed, entered the town of 
 Sanquhar; and in the market-place they formally renounced their allegiance to Charles 
 II., who had so grossly abused his power, and declared war against him and all his 
 adherents. After this act they retired to the hills between Nithsdale and Ayrshire, 
 where they succeeded in evading capture for a month, though a price of 5,000 merks had 
 been set upon C.’s head by government, and 3,000 upon the heads of the others. On the 
 20th July, 1680, however, they were surprised by a vastly superior force in Aird’sMoss, 
 and after a brave fight. C. was killed. His hands and head were cut off, and fixed upon 
 the Netherbow Port, Edinburgh. C. ranks as a martyr, and has an honorable place in 
 the history of Scots Worthies. 
 
 CAMERON, Simon, b. in Lancaster co., Penn., 1799. In 1845, he was elected by 
 the democrats to the U. S. senate, but joined the republicans on the organization of that 
 party, and was by them re-elected to the senate in 1856. In 1861, he was secretary of 
 war, and in 1862 minister to Russia. Twice again he was chosen senator, in 1866 and in 
 1872, and was succeeded in that office in 1877 by his son, James Donald. He is one of 
 the leading financiers and business men of the state. 
 
 CAMERON, Verney Lovett, the African traveler, son of the Rev. J. H. L. Cameron, 
 vicar of Slioreham, Kent, was b. in 1844. He entered the navy in 1857, and served some 
 time on the e. coast of Africa. In 1873, he took charge of an expedition to relieve Liv- 
 ingstone, his orders being to join him by the nearest route. He started from Baga- 
 moyo in Mar., and in Aug., at Unyanyembe, met Livingstone’s followers bearing his 
 remains to the coast. After making arrangements for their safe arrival, he proceeded 
 to Ujiji, where he found some of Livingstone’s papers and a map, which he forw'arded 
 to Zanzibar. He then made a survey of lake Tanganyika, which he found to be dis- 
 connected with the Nile system. In the belief that the Lualaba w^as the upper waters 
 of the Congo, he resolved to follow its course to the w. coast; but owdng to the hostile 
 interposition of the native chiefs, w'as prevented from verifying a conviction, the cor- 
 rectness of which was soon afterwards demonstrated by Stanley. Taking a more south- 
 erly route, he reached the Portuguese settlement of Benguela, on the w. coast, in 
 Oct., 1875, whence he returned to England. An account of his travels, which con- 
 tains a vast number of valuable scientific observations, was published in 1877 in 2 
 
349 
 
 Cameron. 
 
 Cameronians. 
 
 vols., under the title of Across Africa. C. was made a companion of the bath, and 
 raised to the naval rank of commander. 
 
 CAMERON HIGHLANDERS (the Queen’s Own Cameron Highlanders), the designa- 
 tion given to the 79th regiment of infantry in the British service, in consequence of the 
 Tcorps having been raised by Allan Cameron of Erroch in 1793. Originally, it consisted 
 of 1000 men, but a second battalion was added in 1804. This gallant regiment, which 
 wears the Highland garb, performed distinguished services in the Peninsula and at 
 Waterloo, and in the chief warlike struggles of more recent times. 
 
 CAMEROONIAN REGIMENT, the 26th regiment of infantry in the British service, so 
 called from having had its origin in a body of Cameronians (q.v.) during the revolution 
 of 1688. Taking advantage of their zeal and courage, the convention which sat at 
 Edinburgh induced a number of them to assist in the revolution, which it was imagined 
 by some was to re-establish the reign of the covenants. They were induced to enlist 
 on the understanding that the special object of the corps was “to recover and establish 
 the work of reformation in Scotland, in opposition to popery, prelacy, and arbitrary 
 power, in all the branches and steps thereof, till the government in church and stale be 
 brought to that luster and integrity which it had in the best of times.” (See Burton’s 
 Mstory of Scotland, vol. i. p. 49.) Thus was formed the celebrated C. R., with the 
 youthful lord Angus as col., and William Cleland as lieut.col. and actual com- 
 mander. Under Cleland, not yet in his 30th year, the regiment was sent northwards 
 to quell ‘the insurrection, after the fall of viscount Dundee. Surrounded by from 4000 
 to 5000 Highlanders, the Cameronians, only 800 strong, gallantly defended themselves 
 during a whole day in Dunkeld, Aug. 21, 1689. In this terrific struggle, the brave 
 Cleland was killed. Considering the issue of the revolution, they had been entrapped 
 into military service, and their employment on foreign service afterwards greatly scan- 
 dalized the Cameronian sect. The regiment has ever done credit to its origin; being 
 distinguished alike for gallantry and for good cond uct. 
 
 CAMERO'NIANS, the religious sect in Scotland popularly named after Richard Cam- 
 eron (q.v.). Its official designation, however, is that of Reformed Presbyterians. No 
 doubt, the principles of the body are those for which Cameron contended and died; but 
 i not till after 1688 did the small body of Presbyterians, who insisted upon the restoration 
 j of the civil and ecclesiastical polity of 1638 to 1649 in opposition to the revolution set- 
 I tlement, assume a distinct form. According to the solemn league and covenant, ratified 
 j by the parliaments of England and Scotland, and also by the assembly of divines at 
 I Westminster in 1643, presbyterianism was to be maintained in the kingdoms of England, 
 
 1 Scotland, and Ireland, and popery, prelacy, superstition, heresy, schism, etc., were to 
 I be extirpated. As a measure of pacification, presbyterianism was established in Scot- 
 land by act of parliament, 1690; but it was of a modified kind, rendering the church a 
 creature of the state, more particularly as regards the calling of general assemblies. 
 Equally to the disgust of the extreme party referred to, prelacy was confirmed in Eng- 
 land and Ireland, and there was a general toleration of heresy — i.e., dissent. In senti- 
 naent, if not in form, therefore, this party repudiated the government of William HI. and 
 his successors, and maintained the perpetually binding obligations of the covenants. 
 Unquestionably, these C. acted under strong convictions, and only desired to carry out 
 1 to a legitimate issue theoretical principles of the church of Scotland which, for pruden- 
 tial considerations, have been practically in abeyance; and it is in the standards of this 
 «ect that we find a true embodiment of the tenets held by the great body of English and 
 Scotch Presbyterians of 1643. Although thus an elder sister of the existing church of 
 Scotland and all its secessions, it was with some difficulty that, after the revolution, it 
 organized a communion with ordained ministers. The steadfastness of members was 
 put to a severe trial by the defection of their ministers; but in 1706, after their faith and 
 patience had been tried for 16 years, they were joined by the Rev, John M'Millan, from 
 the Established church; and shortly afterwards, by the Rev. John M‘Neil, a licentiate 
 of the same church. To confirm the faith of members, and give a public testimony of 
 ^eir principles, the covenants were solemnly renewed on Auchensauch hill, near 
 Douglas, in Lanarkshire, in 1712. The subsequent accession of the Rev. Mr. Nairne 
 enabled the C. to constitute a presbytery at Braehead, in the parish of Carnwath, on 
 the 1st of Aug., 1743, under the appellation of the Reformed presbytery. Other 
 preachers afterwards attached themselves to the sect, which continued to flourish 
 obscurely in the w, of Scotland and n. of Ireland. For their history and tenets, we 
 gfer to the Testimony of the Beformed Presbyterian Church (Glasgow, John Keith, 1842). 
 Holding strictly to the covenants, and in theory rejecting the revolution settlement, the 
 political position of the C. is very peculiar, as they refuse to recognize any laws or 
 institutions which they conceive to be inimical to those of the kingdom of Christ; from 
 which cause many of them formerly isolated themselves from general society, and 
 refused several of the responsibilities and privileges of citizens. In 1860, there was an 
 attempt on the part of some of the kirk-sessions to prevent the members becoming vol- 
 unteers, on account of the oath of allegiance which required to be taken. On the 
 ^estion coming before the synod, it was decided (1863) that excommunication for taking 
 T should cease. In consequence of this decision, 10 or 12 congregations seceded. 
 
 In 1876, the larger body of the Reformed Presbyterians, consisting of about 45 congre- 
 
Cameronites. 
 
 Camisards. 
 
 350 
 
 gations, was formally united to the Free church of Scotland, so that the distinctive features 
 of the Cameronians are now represented by the few congregations which seceded in 
 1863. 
 
 CAM'ERONITES, a sect in France, followers of John Cameron of Scotland. They 
 are moderate Calvinists, and assert that the will of man is determined only by the prac- 
 tical judgment of the mind; that the cause of men’s doing good or evil proceeds from 
 the knowledge that Cod infuses into them; and that Cod does not move the will pnys- 
 ically, but only morally, by virtue of its dependence on the mind. This peculiar doctrine 
 of grace and free-will was adopted by many eminent teachers who thought Calvin's doc- 
 trine too harsh. 
 
 CAMEKOONS', a river of upper Cuinea, Africa, which enters the bight of Biafra 
 froman.e. direction, in about lat. 4° n., long. 9° 40' e., by an estuary some 20 m. in 
 breadth. Its length is not certainly known, but for 40 m. upwards its breadth 
 averages nearly a quarter of a mile, its depth varying in the dry season from 2 to 20 feet. 
 Tlie left bank of the river is steep and high, the right for many miles low and swampy, 
 and covered with mangroves. There are several populous and thriving villages on ita 
 banks, whose inhabitants carry on an extensive trade in paim-oil, and ivory, obtained in 
 great quantity from dead elephants, which have perished in search of water in a great 
 morass inland. — C. is also the name of a cape on one of the islands of the estuary. — C. 
 Peak is the name of the culminating point in the C. mountains, which in lat. 4° 13' n., 
 and long. 9° 10' e., has an elevation estimated at 13,000 feet. 
 
 CAMEROONS' {ante), mountains on the w. coast of Africa between 3° 57' and 4° 25’ 
 n., and 9° and 9° 30' e. ; a volcanic mass covering 700 sq.m., the highest about 13,000 
 feet. They touch the gulf of Cuinea on the w. and south. Capt. Burton ascended these 
 mountains in 1861, finding the sides for about 4000 ft. covered with a dense growth ot 
 palms, acacias, figs, cardamoms, cabbage -trees, oaks, ferns, and bamboos. Higher up 
 were smaller trees, and at 4580 ft. there began a labyrinth of lava streams and fields of 
 slag. At about 8000 ft., craters appeared, of which there are nearly 30. The natives tell 
 of an eruption in 1838. 
 
 CAME'TA, a t. of Brazil, on the Tocantins, which joins the estuary of the Amazon 
 from the south. It has a fertile district attached to it, which is estimated to contain 
 20,000 inhabitants. 
 
 CAMILLA, in Roman fable, a virgin wonderfully swift of ^ot who aided Turnus 
 against ^neas. She was said to be a daughter of king Metalus. 
 
 CAMILLTTS, Marcus Furius, a celebrated Roman patrician who first makes his 
 appearance as consular tribune, 403 b.c. His military career was a series of unbroken 
 successes, according to the accounts which have come down to us; but these accounts 
 have been shown by Niebuhr to possess a considerable admii^ture of mythological or 
 poetic fiction. In 396, C. was made dictator, during the Veientine war, in which he 
 mined and captured the city of Veii; but the proud splendor of his subsequent triumph 
 offended the Roman populace, who were still further displeased when C. demanded a 
 tithe of the spoils of Veii, in order to fulfill a vow made to Apollo, on condition of vic- 
 tory. In 394, C. was again elected consular tribune, and besieged the Falerii, who after 
 bravely defending themselves, were led by a magnanimous act of C. to yield uncondi- 
 tionally. Afterwards, C., being accused of peculation, and foreseeing certain condemna- 
 tion, banished himself from Rome, 391, and lived in retirement at Ardea, until Brennus, 
 at the head of his wild Gauls, had swept through Etruria, and captured and destroyed 
 the whole of Rome except the capitol. C. was now recalled, and appointed dictator a 
 second time. He achieved a decisive victory over the invaders, rebuilt Rome, and 
 obtained new victories over the Volsci, and others. In 386 b.c., he was elected dictator 
 for the third time, but refused the office. In 381 b.c., C. was victorious in the war of 
 Rome against Praeneste and other Latin towns; and in 368 b.c., he was elected to his 
 fourth dictatorship, but abdicated during the same year. In 367 b.c., when war broke 
 out with the Gauls, C., though 80 years old, accepted the dictatorship for the fifth time, 
 defeated the barbarians near Alba, and made peace between patricians and plebeians. 
 After this, he erected near the capitol a temple to Concord, and, having retired from 
 public life, died 365 b.c., of the plague, lamented by the whole Roman people. 
 
 CAMTLLUS AND CAMILLA, applied in ancient Rome to the boys and girls who 
 shared in sacrificial ceremonies. If they were designed for the priesthood, it was neces- 
 sary that their parents should be still living and free-born. 
 
 CAMINATZIN', or Cacumazin, d. 1521; king of Mexico; nephew of Montezuma. 
 He was one of the victims of the treachery of Cortes, against whom he had declared 
 war. At the instigation of Cortes, Montezuma invited his nephew to the city of Mexico 
 to make a reconciliation with the invaders. He replied that he would enter that city 
 only to destroy the enemies of the country. Still influenced by Cortes, Montezuma had 
 the young prince seized, but his captors permitted Cortes to get possession of him, and 
 lie was kept a prisoner until the expulsion of the Spaniards. He probably died soon 
 after the siege of Mexico. 
 
351 
 
 Cameronites. 
 
 Camisards. 
 
 'CAM'ISARDS, the name given to the peasantry of the Cevennes, a mountainous 
 region in s. France, who for several years from 1703 kept up an organized military 
 resistance to the dragonnades, or conversion by torture, death, and confiscation of pro^ 
 «rty, by which, after the revocation of the edict of Nantes, the Roman Catholic leaders 
 endeavored to enforce their authority in all the Huguenot districts. The name is of 
 doubtful origin; some say it was from camise, a white shirt or frock, outwardly worn 
 by the peasants; others that it was from camisade,a night attack; and still others, 
 from camis, a road runner. The C. were also called barbets (or water dogs, i 
 term also applied to the Vaudois), vagabonds, assemblers (a name given to a meeting or 
 •convention of Huguenots), fanatics, and children of God. They belonged to the 
 romance-speaking people of Gothic descent, who took part in the earliest movements 
 towards religious reform. It was in Languedoc that the peace of God and the mercy of 
 God were formed in the 11th c. against the miseries of private war. (See God’s Truce, 
 ante.) There were preserved the forms of municipal freedom, which nearly all Europe 
 had lost; and there commerce flourished without spoiling the thrift, the patience, or the 
 simplicity of the national character. Calvin was warnfly welcomed when he preached 
 at Nimes, and Montpellier became the chief center for the instruction of Huguenot 
 youth; but it was in the triangular mountainous plateau called Cevennes (see Cevennes, 
 ante), among the small farmers, the cloth and silk weavers, and the vine-dressers, that 
 Protestantism was most universal and intense. The people were, and still are,’ very 
 poor; but they are intelligent and pious, and add to the deep fervor of the Provenci 
 character a gravity that is probably the result of the trials and sufferings of their ances- 
 tors. 
 
 To understand the position of the O. in the war which began at the com- 
 mencement of the 18th c. it is necessary to glance at the preceding history of France. 
 The system of toleration which was established by the edict of Nantes (see ante), April 13,' 
 1598, and the edict of Grace, July, 1639, was essentially a political compromise, and not 
 a recognition of religious equality. The right of having a private chapel was given to 
 certain seignieurs. New public churches were to be authorized at a certain rate in cer- 
 tain places. On the other hand. Calvinists were admitted to all public posts and to all 
 professions; and they could publish books in towns where they had churches. The cham- 
 ber of edict was formed in the parliament of Paris for the impartial judgment of cases 
 brought by Huguenots; and the half-Catholic, half-Protestant constitution was adopted 
 in the town consulates and the local parliaments of the south. After the short struggle 
 between Louis XIII. and the due de Rohan, the Huguenots settled down into contented 
 industry ; the army and navy of France were led by two Huguenots— Turenne and 
 Duquesne— -and Cardinal Bentivoglio wrote to the pope that he no longer found in 
 Frarnce the insane fervor for right of conscience so radical among the Huguenots. But 
 the court in which Mme. de Maintenon had succeeded to Mme. de Montespan, where 
 Louvois, and the Jesuit, pere la Chaise, were as supreme as Bossuet and Flechier in the 
 church, could not long be satisfled with tolerated heresy, which they chose to consider as 
 vailed rebellion. On the death of Mazarin a commissioner had gone over the kingdom 
 to inquire into the titles, or rather to suppress as many as possible, of the Huguenot 
 churches, schools, and cemeteries. The extirpation of heresy had indeed been provided 
 marriage contract between Louis and Maria Theresa as long before 
 as 1660, and in spite of the protection of Colbert, a policy was begun of gradually 
 destroying the privileges of dissenters. They were shut out from public offices and trade 
 corporations; they were forbidden to marry with Roman Catholics, and the conversion 
 ot their children seven years old and upward was encouraged and almost enforced. The 
 farnous ^Jict came in Oct., 1685. It directed all dissenting churches to be destroyed 
 forbade their religious meetings under pain of imprisonment and confiscation of prop- 
 erty, ordered ail pastors who would not change their faith to be banished within fifteen 
 days and to stop preaching at once, promised exemption from taxes and increased 
 salaries to converted ministers, suppressed Huguenot schools and directed all children 
 to be baptized and brought up in the Roman Catholic faith, prohibited all Huguenots 
 except ministers from going abroad, and declared the property of those who had already 
 gone to be forfeited unless they returned within four months. These were the main 
 points of the edict revoking the liberal edict of Nantes. In carrying it out Huguenot 
 ^ibles and boobs of instruction were burned, and Huguenots were forbidden to hire 
 themselves as artisans or as domestic servants. Torture, hangings, insults w^orse than 
 heath to women, the galleys, and imprisonment for life were the ordinary occurrences 
 nnn the twenty years preceding the revocation, it is believed that 
 
 460,000 Protestants fled from France, and that 600,000 escaped in the twenty years that 
 followed. But in the Cevennes the people were too poor to escape, and all over Lan- 
 guedoc began the secret meetings of the church of the desert. At last Louvois the 
 sanguinary war minister of Louis XIV., proposed that this district should be made an 
 ^tual desert An army of 40,000 was raised, and forts were erected at Nimes St. 
 
 ippo yte, Alais, and Anduze. The abbe du Chaila, a Roman Catholic missionary 
 from j5iam, had been appointed inspector of missions in the Cevennes. He introduced 
 the squeezers ” (an instrument of torture which resembled the Scotch “ boot ”) 
 broke the patience of the victims. His assassination, July 33! 
 i/03, was the first blow in the war. There was to have been a general massacre of 
 
Camisards. 
 
 Camoutlet. 
 
 352 
 
 Roman Catholic priests, but the plan failed, and the originator. Esprit Seguier, soon 
 fell. He was succeeded by La Porte, an old soldier, who, as his forces increased, 
 assumed the title of “colonel of the children of God,” and named his country the 
 “ camp of the eternal.” Ills captains were selected from those on whom the prophetic 
 influence had fallen, such as the forest-ranger, Castanet ; the wool-carders, Conderc and 
 Mazel; and the soldiers, Catinat, Joany, and Ravenel; but the most famous were Roland 
 and Jean Cavalier, the baker’s boy (see Cavaliek, Jean). For three years the C. 
 held out. Then there was sent against them an army of 60,000, among them an 
 English brigade which had just returned from the persecution of the Vaudois. A pol- 
 icy of extermination was commenced, and in the upper Cevennes alone 466 villages, 
 were burned, and nearly the entire population put to the sword. In this bloody work 
 the pope, Clement XI., assisted by issuing a bull against the “execrable race of tha- 
 ancient Albigenses,” promising remission of sins to the holy militia which was now 
 formed among the Roman Catholic population under the name of cadets of the cross. 
 The formidable force brought against them induced Cavalier to listen to proposals, and 
 he Anally assented to a surrender on being guaranteed liberty of conscience, the right of 
 assembly outside of walled towns, the liberation of all his people then in durance, and 
 the restitution to emigrants of their civil rignts and property. Still, the greater part of 
 the army, under Roland, Ravenel, and Joany, refused, and insisted upon the complete 
 restoration of the edict of Nantes. They continued the war until the beginning of 
 1705, by wfliich time their leaders were killed or dispersed and they became disorganized. 
 In 1711 all outward signs of the reformed religion had disappeared, and Mar. 8, 1715, 
 a few months before his death, Louis XIV., by a special medal and by proclamatioa 
 announced the entire extinction of heresy. Fourteen years afterward, in spite of the 
 strictest surveillance aided by military occupation, there had been organized in Langue- 
 doc 120 churches, which were attended by 200,000 Protestants. Persecution could not 
 secure suppression, but it was not until 1775 that the last galley slave from Languedoc 
 was liberated, and not till 1789 that the national assembly repealed all the penal laws 
 against Protestanism. 
 
 There was a singular psychologic or spiritual phase in the history of the C. that 
 must be noticed. It was a sort of inspiration or ecstasy. The subject, who had endured 
 long fasting, became pale, and fell insensible to the ground. Then came violent agita- 
 tions of the limbs and the head; and finally the patient, who might be a little child, a 
 woman, or a half-witted person, began to speak in good French of the Huguenot Bible, 
 warning the people to repentance, prophesying the immediate coming of the Lord in 
 judgment, and claiming that these exhortations came directly from the Holy Ghost. 
 After a long discourse the patient returned to his native patois with no recollection of 
 what he had been doing or saying. All kinds of miracles, so they believed, attended 
 upon the Camisards. Strange lights guided them to places of safety, unknown voices 
 spoke encouragement, and wounds were often harmless. Those who were in the ecstasy 
 of trance fell from trees without sustaining hurt ; they shed tears of blood, and they sub- 
 sisted without food for nine days. The supernatural was a part of their life. Many 
 judgments have been passed upon these phenomena. Flechier and Brueys, Roman 
 Catholics, consider them the product of fasting and vanity, nourished by apoca- 
 lyptic literature. Bertrand and Calmeil, physicians, speak of magnetism, hysteria, and 
 epilepsy, and a prophetic mania based on belief in divine possession. Most Protestants 
 are content with the epithet “ ecstasy, ” while semi-radical Roman Catholics consider 
 the whole business the work of the devil. 
 
 CAMISARDS. See Cevennes. 
 
 CAMLET (from Arab, chamal, fine) is properly a fabric made from the hair of th« 
 Angora goat (q.v.). The camlets made in Britain are either wholly of wool, or of wool 
 mixed with cotton or linen, and spun hard. 
 
 CAM'MERHOFF, John Frederick, 1721-51 ; b. in Germany, and one of the first 
 Moravian bishops in America, vdiere he arrived in 1746, as assistant to the bishop then 
 presiding. He won the confidence of the Indians, with whom he w^as a great favorite. 
 In 1750, he attended an important Iroquois council at Onondaga, N. Y., making a canoe 
 journey of 13 days up the Susquehanna, and going thence on foot through the wilder- 
 ness, an exertion which ruined his health. 
 
 CAMOENS, Luis de, the epic poet of Portugal, was b. about 1524, at Lisbon, and 
 studied the ancient classics at Coimbra. On his return to Lisbon, he fell in love with a 
 lady of honor, Catharina d’Atayada. This affair was the beginning of all the poet’s 
 misfortunes. Having been banished by royal authority to Santarem, C. joined the expe- 
 dition of John III. against Morocco, and lost his right eye in a naval engagement with 
 the Moors in the strait of Gibraltar. On his return to Lisbon, his bravery as a soldier 
 was no more honored than his genius as a poet. Disappointed in all his hopes, he deter- 
 mined to leave forever his native land, and sailed for India, 1553. Offended by certain 
 abuses of the Portuguese authorities in India, C. ventured to expose them in a satire, 
 entitled Disparates na India, “ Follies in India,” in which he treated even the viceroy 
 with ridicule. For this offense the poet was banished, 1556, to Macao, w here he lived 
 several years, and was engaged in writing Os Lusiadas. Here C. held the unpoetical but 
 probably lucrative post of administrator of the effects of deceased persons; and having 
 
353 
 
 Camisards. 
 
 Camouflet. 
 
 saved, as he thought, a competency for his future life, was recalled from his banish- 
 ment, 1561. Unhappily, in returning to Goa, he suffered shipwreck, and lost all his 
 property, excepting his epic poem. After other wanderings and misfortunes, C. took 
 ship for Lisbon, where he arrived in 1569, with no other wealth but his epic. He dedi- 
 cated The Lusiad to the young king, Sebastian, who was very gracious ; but, neverthe- 
 less, all the real patronage bestowed on C. consisted of a very small pension (about £4) 
 and permission to remain at the court of Lisbon. Even this small pittance was taken 
 away after the death of Sebastian, and C. was left in such poverty, that a faithful Indian 
 servant begged in the streets of Lisbon for the support of the great epic poet of Portugal 
 C.’s lyric poems, written during this time of destitution, contain many pathetic lanien- 
 tations. He died obscurely in the hospital at Lisbon, 1579; and 16 years afterwards, 
 when it was proposed to erect a splendid monument to his memory, there was some dif- 
 ficulty in finding his burial-place. n 
 
 2 he Lusiad {Os Lusiadas, the Lusitanians”) celebrates the chief events in the history 
 of Portugal, and is remarkable as the only modern epic poem which is pervaded by any- 
 thing like the true national and popular spirit of ancient epic poems. It is a gallery of 
 epic pictures, in which all the great achievements of Portuguese heroism are represented 
 Among the most famous passages are the tragical story of Inez de Castro, and the appa- 
 rition of the giant Adamastor, who appears as the Spirit of the Storm to Vasco da Gama 
 when crossing the cape. The versification of 27ie Lusiad is extremely charming Patri- 
 otic sentiments pervade the whole work. Besides his epic poem, C. wrote sonnets odes 
 Regies, eclogues epigrams, satires, epistles, and three comedies— Os (after 
 
 King Meueus, Filodemo. The latest and best complete edition of his 
 P® ^PP.eared m three volumes (Hamburg, 1834). The best edition of The Lusiad was 
 
 in 1819, and again, with emendations byBerdier in 
 has been translated into Spanish, French, Italian, English Polish 
 and German. » & > . 
 
 CAMOGLIA, a t. of n. Italy, on the gulf of Genoa, about 13 m. e.s.e. of the city of 
 that name. Its inhabitants, amounting, in 1873, to 6,345, are chiefly engaged in fishing. 
 
 CAM'OMILE. See Chamomile. 
 
 CAMOR'EA, the name of a secret society, existing throughout all parts of the 
 former kingdom of JSTaples, the members of which are called eamorristi, and have exer- 
 gsed lawless force to a great extent over the humbler classes of society. Under the 
 Bourbons, they openly presented themselves at markets, hackney-coach stations, public 
 spectacles and all occasions of popular amusement; assumed the right of deciding dis- 
 putes; extorted a portion of whatever money passed from hand to hand for purchases 
 rents, wages, and the like or in games; undertook also the transport of smuggled 
 pods, ap contracted for the commission of serious crimes. Their readiness for vio- 
 > and their close association among themselves, made them so much 
 
 dieaded that even eamorristi who had been thrown into prison, succeeded in exacting 
 money from their fellow-prisoners, and from the jailer himself. The society has a cen 
 tral rendpvous in every large provincial town, and twelve such in the city of Naples 
 
 sections of the society are under the absolute gov- 
 pnment of a chief elected by themselves, with whom is associated a treasurer. The 
 latter has the charge of the common fund into which all the eamorristi of that section 
 pay their whole pins, for equal distribution among all their associates. Candidates for 
 membership must show that they have neither been guilty of espionage nor theft; also, 
 irnn prostitutes ; and must swear upon an 
 
 ^ fidelity and secrecy. The candidate remains for a year 
 
 with the designation of pzcczotto d’onore, as a pupil under an old camorrista; and having 
 eompletp this probation, and given proof of his courage and obedience in circum 
 stpees inplvmg danger of life he is advanced to the rank of a picciotto di sgarro. 
 i inally , after a loper period, and when he has given proof of his fitness on a number of 
 pcasions, he is admitted to full membership of the society as a camorrista. Each 
 carprrista prries about with him two knives of peculiar form, by which the members 
 of the society recognize each other. They are held under the strictest discipline Dis- 
 obedience is punished by flogging, suspension from employment, or expulsion; treach- 
 ^ery, even on tp part of a member who has been expelled, is punished with death If 
 two eamorristi quarrel, their chief decides the question between them ; but in difficult 
 i^ses, a duel with daggers is the mode of decision. Under king Ferdinand II. the C 
 pohtipl reasons. The government of Francis II. endeavored to put ' 
 received instructions to seize and transport all known 
 i mfhi J /I remained entered into alliance with the Garibaldi com 
 
 1 rpdered essential service in the expulsion of the Bourbons. An attempt 
 
 i to employ them in the police service, but completely failed. The C. 
 
 livl blrnhif'" h the new government, the members of the society now chiefly 
 
 uve by robbery m s. Italy.— See Monnier, La Camm'ra, Notizie Storiche (Flor. 1863). 
 
 military pyrotechny, is a stinking composition inclosed in paper- 
 SnV siege-works to blow into the faces of the sappers and miners, wLn 
 
 hostile parties come within reach of each other, and thus to confuse them. 
 
 U. K. III.-23 
 
Camp. 
 
 Campan. 
 
 354 
 
 CAMP (Fr., from Lat. campus, a plain, or level field). The signification of this word 
 in English is rather that which belonged to the Latin castrum, an encampment, or 
 oastra, a collection of tents, huts, and other structures, for the accommodation and 
 protection of troops, than that which its etymology would more directly indicate. The 
 regular system of encampment ultimately adopted by the Romans, was forced upon 
 them by degrees. The most complete account of it is furnished to us by Polybius. A 
 plan will be found in Dr. Smith’s Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, con- 
 structed for the purpose of illustrating his description. When a Roman, army was 
 about to encamp, a tribune and several centurions were sent on before, to select a 
 suitable site for the purpose. As soon as the locality was determined on, they chose 
 the spot for the prsetorium or general’s tent, and marked it with a white flag. Around 
 the praetorium, as a sort of center or heart to the whole system, the rest of the C. was 
 laid out. It was generally placed on an elevated position, in order that the general 
 might have the rest of the encampment under his eye, and be able to transmit his orders 
 with greater facility. Polybius himself tells us, that the best conception which can be 
 formed of a Roman C. of the more permanent kind is by regarding it as a military 
 town, resembling in many respects no doubt that which has recently grown up at Aider- 
 shot (q.v.). The streets were broader than those usually to be found in towns, the 
 wider ones measuring 100, and the narrower 50 ft. ; and X\\e forum, as its name indicates, 
 was a sort of public market-place. A space of 200 ft. was left vacant all round between 
 the tents and the ramparts, partly to afford space for the arrangements of the army, and 
 for stowing away any booty that might be captured, but chiefly to protect the soldiers’ 
 huts from incendiary attempts from without. In form, the Roman C. was square, 
 except in the case in which it was intended to embrace within its ramparts four legions, 
 or two consular armies, when it became an oblong rectangle. The C. was surrounded 
 by a fosse or trench (fossa), which was generally 9 ft. deep and 12 broad. On the top 
 of the rampart, which was of earth, there were stakes. The labor of constructing the 
 rampart and the fosse was divided between the allies and the Roman legions, the former 
 making the sides along which they were stationed, and the legions the rest. The task 
 of superintending the construction of the C. amongst the Romans was intrusted to the 
 tribunes; amongst the allies, to the prefects. Before the arrival of the troops, the dif- 
 ferent parts of the C. were so distinctly marked out and measured off, that they at once 
 proceeded to their respective stations, as if they had entered a well-known city, and 
 were marching to their quarters. The discipline of the C. was of the strictest kind. 
 The tribunes administered an oath against theft both to freemen and slaves, and two 
 maniples were chosen to keep the via pnncipalis, which was a place of general resort, 
 clean and in good repair. The other occupations connected with the C., too numerous 
 to be mentioned here, were portioned out in like manner; and the superintendence of 
 the whole was intrusted to two tribunes chosen by lot from each legion, and appointed 
 to serve for two months. The prefects of the allies possessed a similar authority, which, 
 however, seems to have been limited to their own troops. Every morning at daybreak, 
 the centurions and horsemen presented themselves to the tribunes, and these, in their 
 turn, received their orders from the consul. The watchword for the night, marked on 
 a four-cornered piece of wood, was given out with much formality. The night was 
 divided into four watches, each of three hours’ length; and there was a curious arrange- 
 ment for ascertaining that guard was kept with vigilance. The soldiers of the watch 
 companies received from the tribune a number of small tablets, with certain marks upon 
 them, and these tablets were collected during the night by the horsemen whose duty it 
 was to visit the posts, from such of the guards as they found on duty. Where these 
 inspectors found the guards asleep or absent, they called upon the bystanders to witness 
 the fact, and then passed on to the next. In the morning, the inspectors appeared 
 before the tribunes, and gave up the tablets they had received, when the guards whose 
 tablets were not produced were required to account for them. A regular scale of 
 rewards and punishments was established in the camp. In comparing the encampments 
 of the Romans with those of his own countrymen, Polybius tells us that the Greeks 
 trusted mainly to a judicious selection of their ground, and regarded the natural advan- 
 tages which they thus secured as supplying in a great measure the place of artificial 
 means of defense. The Greeks, consequently, had no regular form of C., and no fixed 
 places were assigned to the different divisions of the army. When the practice of 
 drawing up the army according to cohorts, introduced by Marius and Caesar, was 
 adopted, the internal arrangements of the C. experienced a corresponding change. 
 Latterly, even the square form was abandoned, and the C. was made to suit the nature 
 of the ground. It was always held to be of importance, however, that the C. occupied 
 a defensible position ; that it could not be overlooked ; and that it ^ad a command of 
 water. 
 
 When stationary camps (castra stativa) came into more general use, we hear of several 
 parts which are not mentioned by Polybius, for example, the (valetudinariim), 
 
 the farriery (veterinarium), the forge (fahrica), etc. ; and as a great variety of troops then 
 came to be employed, they must, of course, have had new stations appointed to them in 
 the camp. Many of the stationary camps ultimately became towns, and to this is 
 ascribed the origin of most of the towns in England the names of which end in cester or 
 Chester. Amongst the most perfect of those which retained the form of the simple 
 
356 
 
 Camp. 
 
 Campan» 
 
 encampment is that at Ardoch in Strathearn, Perthshire, in the grass-covered mounds 
 and ridges of which most of the divisions of the C. have been distinctly traced bv 
 antiqiiarie^s. For further information on this subject, the reader is referred to gen. Rov’s 
 Military Antiquities in Great Britain, and the Caledonia Bomana of the late Mr Robert 
 btuart. In these works will be found ample accounts of some of the more remarkable 
 ^^aving™^^ described by Roy being rendered intelligible by large 
 
 It is believed that, during the middle ages, the plan adopted by the Romans in their 
 camps was more or less adhered to, seeing that the weapons employed, which mainly 
 determined the character of the troops, were nearly the same. In Britain before the 
 arrival of the Romans, and also during the Saxon and Danish periods, the camns 
 usually circular in form, appear to have been somewhat rude in character with the 
 ' ISmt grouped round the standard in the center, and the infantry placed near the 
 
 The principles of castrametation, or camp-formation, underwent much change after 
 the invention of gunpowder, owing to the necessity for defending the C. from artillery 
 Modern camps, of different kinds, will be found described under Encampment. 
 
 CAMPAGNA, a t of Italy in the province of Salerno, is situated between high 
 mountains, about 20 m. e of Salerno. It has a fine cathedral, several convents, and a 
 i large annual fair. Pop. 72, 9813. ’ 
 
 CAMPAGl^ DI ROMA, an undulating, uncultivated, and unhealthy plain of Italv 
 surrounding Rome including the greatest part of ancient Latium, and forming the late 
 papal delegation of Frosmone and a great part of the Comarca di Roma. Its lenath is 
 ; variously stated, arising from the fact that different authorities measure it from different 
 
 the district extending from cape Linaro, 
 ^ Terracma, beyond the Pontine marshes, its length is about 90 
 
 m. and its breadth inland, to the Alban and Sabine hills, isstated at from 27 to 40 miles 
 
 Mediterranean. The ground, which never rises 
 above 200 ft. above the sea, is almost entirely volcanic, and the lakes are formed bv 
 craters of extinct volcanoes. The vapors rising from this district, and especially from 
 the Solfatara (q.v.), produce the pestilential atmosphere styled aria cattira. The^ num- 
 ber of inhabitants is very small, and in summer they are driven from the C bv its 
 pestilent air, and seek shelter in Rome and other neighboring places. In autumn" 
 
 ; herdsmen descend from the Apennines to the C. with their herdsf the pasturage in som4 
 parts being rich and abundant. This district was not always uncultivated and depopu- 
 lated as we now find it, for Domitian and Hadrian built here their splendid villas 
 and devastations, the ‘ ; black-death ” (q.v.) in the 14th c., which greatly thinned 
 I the population and inundations from the Tiber, have been the main causes of the 
 1 present state of the C. ; but, according to Livy, it was always an unhealthy district even 
 
 th^P^^^t the popes, especially Pius VI. , have endeavored to drain 
 
 : the Pontine marshes, and, during the dominion of the French in Italy gen Miollis 
 ’Campa<mr^ improvements in drainage, timber-planting, and cultivation in the 
 
 ! CAMPAIGN generally means a connected series of military operations, forming a dis- 
 ^ Lnder the old system of warfare, when armies kept the 
 
 W 1 ^ summer months, a C. was understood to include all that was done 
 
 by an army from the time it took the field till it went again into winter-quarters. Now 
 that winter IS no longer allowed to arrest military operations, it is more difficult to say 
 Where one C. ends and another begins. Some writers make a C. include all the steps 
 taken to accomplish some one immediate object. ^ 
 
 ■To France, in the department of Hautes-Pyrenees, 18 m. s.e. of 
 
 irarbes; pop. 3700. It is in a valley of the same name, on the Adour, and is noted for 
 ^ stalactite grotto, and marble quarries, along the road to 
 iBagneres de Bigorre. Some of the finest of colored marbles, with green, flesh-colored 
 
 p^AArWf, found here. The women are employed in knitting scarfs and 
 
 wonderfully thin gauze from fine wool brought from Spain. 
 
 ) ‘he daughters of Louis XV., was 
 
 ). m i-aris, Uct. 6, 1752 She was favored by Mane Antoinette, and gave her roval 
 o unfortunate quee/was conve/ed 
 
 ^ to share her captivity, but was refused entrance by Petion. 
 
 3urmg the reign of terror, she remained concealed at Combertin. After the fall of 
 opened a boarding-school at St. Germain-en-Laye, which was patronized 
 )y Josephine Beauharnais, who sent her daughter Hortense to it. In 1806 Napoleon 
 laSXers the institution at Ecouen for the eduTatSn of the 
 
 las^snn^rpLpH^ . Am restoration, this institution 
 
 c Abf retired to Mantes, where she died. May 16, 1822 She 
 
 i^^teresting works— Memoiressur la Vie Priree 
 Journal Anecdotique (Par. 1824); 
 if thW 3 Af T f S (2 wols.. Par. 1835)-giving recollections 
 
 he private chLacterofNioLo®?" " revolution, and some traits from 
 
Campana. 
 
 Campbell. 
 
 356 
 
 CAMPANA, La, a t. of Andalusia, Spain, situated on the Madre-Yiega, a tributary of 
 the Guadalquivir, about 37 in. e.n.e. of Seville. The inliabitants, numbering 5,380, are 
 engaged chiefly in agricultural pursuits, and in -weaving and brick-making. 
 
 CAMPANA'RIO, a t. of Estremadura, Spain, about 62 m. e.s.e of Badajos. It is an 
 ill-built place, with narrow, uncared-for streets. It has manufactures of linens and 
 ropes, and a trade in the agricultural produce of the neighborhood. Pop. 5,400. 
 
 CAMPANELLA, Tomma'so, a Dominican monk celebrated for his philosophical ability 
 was b. in 1568 at Stilo in Calabria, and studied in Naples and Cosenza. The writinge 
 of Telesius first awakened his doubts respecting that pile of artificial dogmas styled the 
 scholastic philosophy.” The results of his studies were given in his PMlosophia Sen- 
 sibus Demonstrata, etc. (Naples, 1591), which contained a defense of Telesius. His supe- 
 riority in disputations exposed him to the hatred and false accusations of the orthodox 
 monks and schoolmen. He was in consequence compelled to flee from Naples to Rome, 
 and thence to Florence, Venice, and Bologna. Afterwards, he returned to Calabria, 
 but having involved himself in a political conspiracy, he was seized and confined in 
 a Neapolitan dungeon for 27 years; tried five times, and tortured seven; accused of her- 
 esy; and declared the author of a book which had been published thirty years before he 
 was born. In 1626, pope Urban VIII. had him brought to the prison of the inquisition 
 at Rome, but immediately liberated him, -and treated him in a very generous manner. 
 After being again persecuted by the Spanish government, C., who had formed the friend- 
 ship of the French ambassador at Rome, the due de Noailles, obtained a letter of intro- 
 duction to cardinal Richelieu, and secretly left for France, where he was graciously 
 received. He died in the Dominican monastery of St. Honore, near Paris, 1639. Most 
 of his works — De Oentilismo non Retinendo (Paris, 1636) ; Astrologicorum Lihri VII. 
 (Lyons, 1629); Prodromus PhilosopMm Instaiirandce (Frankfort, 1617); Exordium Meta- 
 physics Norm, De Sensu Rerum et Magia (Frankfort, 1620) — were written during his 
 imprisonment. His philosophical views give expression to that confused fermentation 
 of new ideas which was characteristic of the close of the 16th and opening of the 17th c. 
 — bold and clear opinions strangely mingled with commonplaces and with astrological 
 dreams and fancies. It may seem strange that C. should have been patronized by the 
 pope; but this favor was gained, not by his speculative works, but by several writings 
 in defense of the Roman Catholic church. His De Monarchia Hispanica Discursus is a 
 work of great power and value, comprising a sketch of the political world of C. ’s time, 
 with special reference to Spain. It was translated into English during Cromwell’s pro- 
 tectorate. 
 
 CAMPAN'HA, a t. of Brazil, about 150 m. n. w. of Rio de Janeiro, surrounded by bare 
 hills, much cut up by gold-mines. The houses are built chiefly of earth, and surrounded 
 by gardens. C. has several churches, a Latin school, a hospital, theater, etc. Pop. 
 6 , 000 . 
 
 CAMPANIA, anciently a province of central Italy, having Capua as its capital (now 
 subdivided into the provinces of Benevento, Naples, Salerno, Avellino, and Caserta), 
 was bounded on the s. by Lucania, e. by Samnium, n. by Latium, and w. by the Tyrr- 
 henian sea. It was one of the most productive plains in the world, producing in extra- 
 ordinary abundance corn, wine, and oil; and both by Greek and Roman writers is cele- 
 brated for its soft and genial climate, its landscapes, and its harbors. It was the regio 
 felix of the Romans, who built here many of their most splendid villas, etc. Through 
 it passed the Appian Way, the greatest high-road of Italy. The promontory Misenum, 
 Mt. Vesuvius, the river Vulturnus, the towns Baiae, Cumae, Linternum, Puteoli, Naples, 
 Herculaneum, Pompeii, Nola, Salernum, Capua, etc., belonged to Campania. It was 
 the oldest (ireek settlement in Italy, having been colonized, according to the later 
 chronologers, about 1050 b.c.; but this is in all probability too early a_ date. It was 
 next conquered by the Etruscans, and several of the towns above mentioned, such as 
 Capua and Nola, were founded by that people. The Etruscans then succumbed to the 
 more warlike and hardy Samnites, who, in their turn, yielded to the irresistible valor of 
 Rome (340 b.c.). Through all these vicissitudes of conquest, the substratum of the 
 people remained as at the beginning. The mass of the Campanians were essentially of 
 Oscan race, and Oscan they remained. Indeed, it is mainly from them that our knowl- 
 edge of the Oscan language is derived, and one of their towns — Atella, between (^apua 
 and Naples — had the honor of introducing upon the early Roman stage a species of 
 popular drama or comedy, which was greatly relished for its quaint and vigorous 
 humor. See Atellanje. 
 
 CAMPA'NI-ALIMENIS, Matteo, an Italian philosopher and mechanician of the 
 17th century. He was a curate in Rome, but devoted his time mainly to scientific pur- 
 suits, constructing the object-glasses with which two of Saturn’s satellites were discov- 
 ered; making illuminated and noiseless clocks; and attempting to correct the variations 
 of the pendulum due to temperature. He published a work on horology. Giuseppe, a 
 younger brother, was also an optician and astronomer of some eminence. 
 
 CAMPANILE (Ital., from Mid. Lat. campana, a bell), a name adopted from the Ital- 
 ian to signify a bell-tower of the larger kind, and usually applied only to such as are 
 
357 
 
 Campana. 
 
 Campbell. 
 
 detached from the church. Scarcely any of the existing bell-towers of England answer 
 to the Italian conception of the C., but it is said that there was a very fine one at Salis- 
 bury, 200 ft. in height, which was destroyed by Wyatt. In Italy, they are found every- 
 where — at Bologna, Padua, Ravenna, Cremona, Venice. Perhaps the most remarkable 
 are the so-called “leaning tower” of Pisa, and the C. of Florence. The former, which 
 is circular in form, is decorated with columns and arcades to the summit of its eight 
 stories, and presents a very imposing appearance, reminding the traveler of the Coliseum 
 at Rome, from which, and the now destroyed Septizonium, the idea of it is said to have 
 been taken by the architects Bonano of Pisa, and Wilhelm of Innspruck. But though 
 less curious, the famous C. of Giotto is perhaps even more worthy of the traveler’s 
 attention. It was erected in 1334, with the express object of surpassing, both in height 
 and in richness of workmanship, any of the remains of antiquity. In form, it is a 
 parallelopiped, and is of the same dimensions from bottom to top. Though it is very 
 lofty — 267 ft. — it consists of only four stories, of which the tallest are the uppermost 
 and undermost; and the windows in the upper story are rather larger than those in the 
 two beneath, the object being to counteract the diminution to the eye occasioned by the 
 greater distance. The effect of this arrangement has been much praised by architects; 
 but there seems ground for skepticism as touts advantages. The style is the real Italian 
 Gothic, which unites simplicity with great richness of ornamentation. The original 
 design of Giotto was that a spire of 100 braccia in height should have surmounted the 
 present structure, and on the summit may be seen the four great piers from which it was 
 intended that it should have risen. The splendid C. of Florence, in its present con- 
 dition, must thus be regarded only as a fragment. There is a fine C. at Seville, 350 ft. 
 in height, which was built by Guever the Moor in 1568. It is called La Giralda, from a 
 brazen figure, which, though it weighs a ton and a half, turns with the wind. 
 
 CAMPANI'NI, Italo, b. Parma, 1846; an Italian tenor. He enlisted in the army of 
 ■Garibaldi when fourteen years of age, and took part in the fight before Milazzo. Hav- 
 ing discovered during the campaign that he had a wonderful voice, he studied singing 
 for two years at the conservatory of Parma, and made his first appearance as the notary 
 in La Sonnamhula at one of the theaters of his native town. He sang with very little 
 success with different opera companies till 1869. In that year he went to Milan and 
 placed himself under the tuition of the celebrated teacher, Francesco Lamperti. After a 
 thorough training he made his debut in Faust at La Scala of Milan, and was pronounced 
 by a critical audience to be one of the finest tenors of the age. In 1872, he made his 
 London debut as “ Genaro,” in Lucrezia Borgia, and in 1873 sang with Christine Nilsson 
 in New York. He returned to America during the season of 1879-80. Besides being 
 the greatest tenor living, he is remarkable for the immense scope of his repertory, which 
 includes nearly 80 operas, the tenor roles of which he can sing at a few hours’ notice. 
 
 CAMPANULA (Lat., a little bell), a genus of plants of the natural order campanulacece 
 •(q.v.), distinguished by a bell-shaped corolla with five broad short segments, filaments 
 dilated at the base, a 2 to 5 cleft stigma, and a top-shaped capsule with 2 to 5 cells, open 
 ing by lateral clefts below the calyx segments. The species are very numerous, chiefly 
 Rut not exclusively abounding in the northern parts of the world, and the more elevated 
 districts of the temperate zones. They are mostly herbaceous, some of them annual. The 
 name Bell-flower is common to many of them, and is often extended to all. The 
 flowers are in general beautiful, and many of the species are therefore frequent orna- 
 ments of flower-borders. Of the native British species, the most common, and one of 
 the most beautiful, is the harebell (q.v.), or Bluebell {C. rotundifolia). The Canter- 
 bury Bell {G. medium) is a very beautiful annual, which has long been so generally 
 sown in flower-borders in Britain, that it is almost as familiar to every one as the most 
 common field-flowers. It is a native of the central parts of Europe. — Medicinal virtues 
 were formerly ascribed to some species, particularly in affections of the throat, where- 
 fore G.trachelium, frequent in woods in England, has received the name of throatwort; 
 but they are now regarded as inert. — The roots of some are reckoned among esculents, 
 as those of the rampion (q.v.) ((7. rapunculus), occasionally cultivated in Britain, and 
 much more generally in some parts of continental Europe. 
 
 CAMPANULA'CE.®, a natural order of exogenous plants, herbaceous or half shrubby, 
 with a bitter milky juice; leaves without stipules, and generally alternate; the calyx 
 usually 5-lobed, its tube adhering to the ovary; the corolla monopetalous. inserted into 
 the top of the calyx, usually 5-lobed and regular; the stamens inserted into the calyx, 
 and alternate with the lobes of the corolla; the fruit with two or more many-seeded 
 cells, crowned with the withered calyx and corolla, and opening by division of the cells 
 {loculicidally) ; the seeds fixed to the axis, and having fleshy albumen. About 500 species 
 are known, natives chiefly of the temperate and colder climates of the northern hemi- 
 sphere, where their blue or white flowers are among the finest ornaments of fields and 
 woods. The roots and young leaves of some species are eatable, as is the half-fleshy fruit 
 ■of canarina campanula, a native of the Canary islands. 
 
 CAMPBELL, a CO. in n.w. Georgia, on the Chattahoochie river and the Atlantic and 
 Westpoint railroad; 360 sq.m. ; pop. ’80, 9979 — 3890 colored. Among its minerals are 
 gold and iron. Productions, corn, wheat, and cotton. Co. seat, Campbellton. 
 
CampbelL 
 
 358 
 
 CAMPBELL, a CO. inn. Kentucky, on the Ohio and Licking rivers; 120 sq.m.; pop. 
 ’80, 37,440 — 448 colored. The surface is level in the bottom lands, and undulating away 
 from the rivers; soil generally fertile, producing grain, tobacco, etc. Co. seat, Alex- 
 andria. 
 
 CAMPBELL, a CO. in n.e. Tennessee, on the Kentucky border; watered by Clinch 
 river ; 450 sq. m. ; pop. ’80, 10, 005 — 434 colored. It has a rough surface, and is traversed by a 
 spur of the Cumberland mountains, and is to a large extent covered with forests. It 
 produces corn, wheat, and sugar. Co. seat, Jacksonbourgh. 
 
 CAMPBELL, a co. in s. Virginia, between James and Staunton rivers, intersected 
 by the Atlantic, Mississippi and Ohio railroad; 576 sq.m.; pop. ’80, 36,250 — 18,954 col- 
 ored. It has an uneven surface, and fertile soil; producing tobacco, corn, wheat, etc. 
 Co. seat, Campbell Court-house. 
 
 CAMPBELL, the family name of the lords of Argyle. The origin of the family has 
 not been satistactorily ascertained. One theory makes it of Anglo-Norman origin; 
 another traces its descent through a long line of Celtic chiefs to king Arthur. It first 
 appears in record towards the end of the 13th c., w^hen it held lands in Ayrshire and 
 Argyle. The chiefs of the family having taken a prominent part in public affairs, the 
 most distinguished are noticed under the head Argyle. 
 
 CAMPBELL, Alexander, d.d., 1786-1866; b. in Ireland; educated at Glasgow 
 university, and came to the United States in 1809, settling in Bethany, Penn., as pastor 
 of a Presbyterian church, from which he soon departed and organized a society whose 
 doctrine was that the Bible should be the sole creed of the church. His followers increased, 
 and are now known as “Disciples of Christ,” or “ Campbellites, ” and number about 
 half a million. Dr. C. was the author of many works on religious subjects, and held 
 important controversies with such disputants as Robert Owen, archbishop Purcell, Rev. 
 N. L. Rice, and Rev. Wm. McCalla. 
 
 CAMPBELL, Archibald. See Argyle, Duke of, ante. 
 
 CAMPBELL, Sir Colin, Lord Clyde, one of the bravest soldiers and most distinguished 
 generals of modern times, was born in Glasgow, in 1792. His father was a cabinet- 
 maker, named John Macliver, but Colin assumed the name of Campbell, to gratify an 
 uncle on the mother’s side. He entered the army as an ensign in 1808; fought through 
 tiie war in the Spanish penisula with distinction, and took part in the exped^ition to tlie 
 United States in 1814. In 1842, he attained the rank of col., and in the same year he 
 was present at the attack on Chusan, in China, and for his services there received hon- 
 orable mention in the Gazette. He next served in the Punjab, commanding the left at 
 the battle of Chillianwallah. For his conduct in this battle, lord Gough awarded him 
 the highest praise in his dispatch to the governor-general of India. He next commanded 
 in the Peshawur district, with uniform success against the hill-tribes. On the breaking 
 out of the Crimean war in 1854, he was appointed to the command of the Highland 
 brigade, and took a prominent part at the battle of the Alma; and afterwards at Balak- 
 lava, where, with the 93d Highlanders, which he did not even form into square, he beat 
 back the Russian cavalry, who were swooping down on the port, with its accumulation 
 of shipping and stores. His services in this war were rewarded with promotion to the 
 rank of maj.gen., and he was also created a knight grand cross of the order of the 
 bath, and received the cross of the French legion of honor. He was appointed inspec- 
 tor-gen. of infantry, and in 1857, commander of the forces in India, then engaged in 
 quelling the Indian mutiny, which by his energy and judgment was soon utterly sub- 
 dued. One of the most notable characteristics of C.’s generalship, was the care he took 
 of the lives of his men, all his victories being won with the minimum expenditure of the 
 blood of his soldiers. For his exploits in India, C., in 1858, was created a peer of the 
 realm, with the title of baron Clyde, and appointed a gen., the East India company 
 granting him an annuity of £2000. C. arrived in Britain from India in 1860, and died 
 Aug., 1863. 
 
 CAMPBELL, George, d.d., an eminent theological writer, was born at Aberdeen in 
 1719. He was educated for the law, but abandoned that profession for the study of 
 divinity. In 1746, he was ordained minister of Banchory Ternan, a parish lying some 
 miles s.w. of Aberdeen; and in 1759, he was appointed principal of Marischal college. 
 His first work was his famous Treatise on Miracles, in answer to Hume. The dispute con- 
 cerning miracles has assumed a new form in the present century, and C. ’s arguments would 
 not meet all the objections which the modern school of rationalists urge; but the work 
 in its own day was greatly admired, and characterized as “one of the most acute and 
 convincing treatises that has ever appeared on the subject.” It was speedily translated 
 into French, Dutch, and German. In 1771, C. was elected professor of divinity in 
 Marischal college. In 1776, he published his Philosophy of Rhetoric, which is still a 
 standard w^ork on the subject. His last work was a Translation of the Gospels, icith Pre- 
 liminary Dissertations and Notes. He died April 6, 1796. After his death appeared his 
 Lectures on Ecclesiastical History. 
 
 CAMPBELL, John (Campbell), Lord, high chancellor of England, son of a minister of 
 Cupar, in the co. of Fife, Scotland, was born in 1779. He was at first destined to follow 
 his father’s profession, and was sent, Avhile still a mere boy, to the neighboring univer- 
 
359 
 
 Campbell* 
 
 sity of St. Andrews. C. himself had no inclination for a clerical life, and when he had 
 completed his studies in the faculty of arts, he left for London, being then about 19 
 years of age. He obtained employment on the staff of the Movninr} Chronicle, where, in 
 due time, lie was intrusted with the care of the theatrical criticism and the reports in tlie 
 house of commons. He.was called to the bar in 1806. His sound sense, and unpretend- 
 ing activity and devotion to business, were awarded with an extensive common-law prac- 
 tice, and, after a time, with professional promotion. The silk-gown of a king’s counsel 
 'vvas conferred upon him in 1827. Three years afterwards, he entered parliament, 
 actuated, he tells us in the preface to one of his works, by a desire to obtain for England 
 the benefits of a national registry of titles to land. The effort, at the time, was unavail- 
 ing, as the landlords, whom it was destined more immediately to benefit, completely 
 misunderstood the purport of the project. C. was promoted by the Whig party, to 
 which he had attached himself, to the solicitor-generalship in 1832, and to the attorney- 
 generalship in 1834. In the same year, he was chosen the representative in parliament 
 for Edinburgh. He continued to represent Edinburgh down to 1841, and remained in 
 the office of attorney-general during that period, with the exception of the short time in 
 1835, when the conservatives were in power. In 1841, he was made chancellor of Ire- 
 land and a peer of the United Kingdom ; but held the office of chancellor for only a few 
 months, when the Melbourne cabinet left office, necessitating C. also to resign. For the 
 first time since boyhood, he found himself without regular daily labor, and at the mature 
 age of 60, set to work to win the literary fame which he professes always to have secretly 
 coveted. His first publication was a collection of his speeches at the bar and in the 
 house of commons. For three or four years after the publication of his speeches, C. 
 was engaged in the preparation of the Lives of the Chancellors, the first series of which 
 appeared in 1845. In 1846, he joined the Russell cabinet in the capacity of chancellor of 
 the duchy of Lancaster. His ministerial duties were not sufficiently arduous to inter- 
 rupt his literary labors, and he proceeded to complete the Lives of the Chancellors, and to 
 publish a supplemental series of Lives of the Chief-justices of England. Both works have 
 enjoyed great popularity, but leave no doubt that the author was more fitted for a prac- 
 tical lawyer than for a man of letters. C. returned to more congenial labors in 1850; he 
 was then appointed to succeed Denman as chief -justice. He held the office for nine 
 years, at the end of which he received the highest honor that can be obtained by a mem- 
 ber of the legal profession — the chancellorship of England. He died June, 1861. 
 
 CAMPBELL, Thomas, a distinguished English poet, was b. in the city of Glasgow, 
 27th July, 1777. His father was a merchant, and the poet was the youngest of ten chil- 
 dren. He was sent to the university of his native city, and remained there six years. 
 During his collegiate course, he received several prizes, and was particularly dis- 
 tinguished for his knowledge of Greek literature. On leaving the university, C. went 
 to reside as a tutor for a year in the island of Mull. The scenery of the w. Highlands 
 made a deep impression on his mind, and to his abode in these grand and desolate 
 regions we are indebted for many of the touches of sublimity which occur in his verses. 
 Returning from Argyleshire, C. meditated the study of law, and repaired to Edinburgh ; 
 but he could not shake off his recollections. In his eyes, the mists were folded on the 
 hills ^f Morven, the roar of Corrievrekin was in his ears, and instead of prosecuting the 
 study of jurisprudence, he wrote The Pleasures of Hope. The poem was published in 
 1799, and went through four editions in a twelvemonth. After its publication, C. went 
 to the continent; and on Dec. 3, 1800, witnessed from a Bavarian monastery the battle 
 of Hohenlinden, fought between the French and Austrians. In 1801, he returned to 
 England with The Exile of EhHn and Ye Mariners of England in his portmanteau; 
 and shortly after, took up his abode in Edinburgh, where LocheiVs Warning was com- 
 posed. In 1803, C. proceeded to London, and adopted literature as a profession. He 
 contributed articles to The Edinburgh Encyclopcedia, and compiled The Annals of Great 
 Britain from the Accession of George LI. to the Peace of Amiens, in 3 vols. In 1806, through 
 the influence of Mr. Fox, C. received a pension of £200 per annum from government. 
 In 1809, he published Gertrude of Wyoming, which bears the same relation to The Pleas- 
 ures of Hope that The Castle of Indolence bears to The Seasons — a less brilliant and strik 
 ing, but more mature and finished performance. In 1818, C. was again in Germany, 
 and on his return, he published his Specimens of the British Poets, in 7 vols. In 1820, he 
 delivered a course of lectures on poetry at the Surrey institution. From this date to 
 1830, C. edited The New Monthly Magazine, and contributed thereto several poems, one 
 of which, 'Ihe Last Man, is in some respects the loftiest of all his performances. In 
 1824, he published Theodoric and other Poems. In 1827, he was elected lord rector of the 
 university of Glasgow, and received the unusual honor of re-election the two following 
 years. He published The Pilgrim of Glencoe and other Poems in 1M2. His later publi- 
 cations did not add to his fame. He died at Boulogne, in 1844, and was buried in West- 
 minster abbey, Macaulay, dean Milman, and other celebrated persons bearing the pall. 
 
 C. is an established English classic. With the young. The Pleasures of Hope will ever 
 be a chief favorite; while readers of maturer years will linger with delight over the syl- 
 van scenery and tender domestic scenes of Gertrude. It is in his lyrics, however, that 
 O. has ascended highest into the heavens of song — Hohenlinden; Ye Mariners of England; 
 ^nd The Battle of the Baltic, cannot be paralleled in the language. Than these lyrics. 
 
CampbelL 
 
 Campbor. 
 
 360 
 
 nothing can he more simple and spirited. Once read, they cannot be forgotten. They 
 will fan the patriotism of many generations. 
 
 CAMPBELL, William, 1745-81; b. in Va. ; an officer in the revolutionary war. 
 He was among the earliest of the patriot troops from that colony, and was distinguished 
 in the conflicts of King’s mountain and Guilford, for which he was promoted to be 
 brig. gen. He died in Lafayette’s camp, just before the Yorktown surrender. 
 
 CAMPBELL, William, Lord, d. 1778; the last English governor of South Carolina. 
 He was a capt. in the navy; a member of parliament in 1764; in 1766, governor of 
 Nova Scotia, and 1775, of South Carolina. He was active in stirring up the Indians 
 against the colonists, and was in the expedition led by sir Peter Parker against South 
 Carolina, in the course of which he received the wound that caused his death. 
 
 CAMPBELL ISLAND, a lonely spot on the s. Pacific, in lat. 52° 33' s., and long. 169° 
 9' e. Though it is mountainous, and measures only 36 m. round, it is yet valuable on 
 account of its harbors. It is also scientifically interesting, being volcanic, and display- 
 ing a rich and rare flora. 
 
 CAMPBELLITES. See Disciples op Christ. 
 
 CAMPBELTON, a royal burgh and seaport, on the e. coast, near the s. end of the 
 peninsula of Can tire, Argyleshire, and the most important town in that co., is 65 m. 
 w.s.w. of Glasgow, on a fine harbor or sea-loch, 2 m. long, and one mile broad. It i^ 
 noted for the number — between 20 and 30 — of its whisky distilleries. It unites with 
 Ayr, Inverary, Irvine, and Oban to return one member to parliament. A sculptured 
 granite cross stands in the principal street, and is supposed to have been brought from 
 Iona. Pop. ’71, 6680. The chief exports are whisky, herrings, and Highland cattle and 
 sheep. In 1874, 806 British vessels of 6838 tons, and 18 foreign of 2353 tons, entered 
 the port. C. is a favorite summer resort. 
 
 CAM'PE, Joachim Heinrich, 1746-1818; a German teacher educated at Halle in 
 theology, and chaplain at Potsdam. In 1787, he was counselor of education in Bruns- 
 wick, where he published books for schools, and established a prosperous business. 
 His works on education have been widely circulated, not only in German, but in other 
 languages. 
 
 CAMPEACHY, one of the states of Mexico occupying the s. part of the peninsula 
 of Yucatan, and bordering on Guatemala and the Belize; 26,000 sq.m.; pop. about 
 90,000, of whom a large proportion are Indians. The soil is for the most part sandy 
 and unproductive, but there are good pasture lands. The main productions are rice, 
 sugar, and salt. 
 
 CAMPEA'CHY, a seaport on the w. side of the peninsula of Yucatan, which divides 
 the Caribbean sea from the gulf of Mexico. It is in lat. 19° 50' n., and long. 90° 33' 
 west. Though it has a shallow haven, yet it is the center of the trade in logwood; it 
 exports likewise cotton and wax. It is a handsome city of 15,000 inhabitants, contain- 
 ing churches, convents, a cemetery, a theater, a college, and ship-building docks. 
 Campeche is the Spanish spelling. 
 
 CAMPEG'GIO, or CAMPEGGI, LorenzP, 1479-1539; in early life a lawyer, but on 
 losing his wife he joined the Roman Catholic church and rapidly rose to the position of 
 cardinal. In 1519, he was sent to England to preach a crusade against the Turks, but 
 was unsuccessful. Henry VIII. made him bishop of Salisbury in 1524, and he came 
 again to England in 1528 to assist Wolsey in the case of Henry’s divorce from Catherine. 
 He accomplished nothing, however, and the see of Salisbury was taken from him. 
 
 CAMP EQUIPAGE is a general name for all the tents, furniture, fittings, and utensils 
 carried with an army, applicable to the domestic rather than the warlike wants of the 
 soldier. In the days when armor was worn, the C. E. was enormously heavy and com- 
 plicated. In the present day, a certain amount of C. E. is provided for a given number 
 of troops. See Encampment, Tent, etc. 
 
 CAMPER, Peter, one of the most learned and acute physicians and anatomists of 
 the 18th c., was born at Leyden, 11th May, 1722, and studied medicine there. In 1750, 
 he became professor of medicine at Franeker; in 1755, at Amsterdam; and in 1765, at 
 Groningen. In 1773, he resigned his post, resided some time at Franeker, and then 
 traveled. On being elected a member of the state council in 1787, he removed to the 
 Hague, where he died, 7th April, 1789, C, was distinguished not only for the services 
 he rendered to anatomy, surgery, obstetrics, and medical jurisprudence, but also as a 
 promoter of the fine arts. He was remarkably skillful in pen-and-ink drawing, painted 
 in oil, embossed, and even acquired considerable experience as a sculptor. For his 
 observations on the facial angle, see article Angle. His work on the connection of 
 anatomy with the art of drawing was an important contribution to the theory of art. 
 Another work. Description Anatomique d'un Elephant Male, edited by his son, G. A. 
 Camper, and published at Paris in 1802, is also worthy of notice. C. ’s collected writ- 
 ings, with plates, appeared under the title, (Euwes qui ont pour Objet VHistoire Naiurelle, 
 la Physiologic et V Anatomic comparee, 3 vols. (Par. 1803). 
 
 CAMPERDOWN, a broad tract of low downs which separates the small hamlet of 
 Camp, in North Holland, from the German ocean, about 30 m. n. from Haarlem. It is 
 
361 
 
 Campbell. 
 
 Camphor. 
 
 known on account of the victory obtained, off that part of the coast, by admiral Duncan 
 over the Dutch fleet, Oct. 11, 1797. The Dutch fleet under admiral Van Winter had 
 stolen out of the Texel, with the view of joining the French fleet at Brest, when it was 
 intercepted by admiral Duncan, and after an obstinate battle, attended with great loss 
 on both sides, the Dutch admiral was compelled to yield, leaving 8 sail of the line and 
 several smaller vessels in the hands of the English, himself becoming a prisoner. 
 
 T followers are the sutlers and dealers in small-wares who follow an army 
 
 In India, owing to the peculiar habits and customs of the Hindus, and the We 
 number of servants retained by English officers, the C. F. are in immense number: 
 comprising servants, sutlers, cantiniers, hostlers, water-carriers, snake-charmers danc- 
 ers conjuror, and women. In Feb., 1839, when a Bengal army of 15,000 men left 
 bliikarpoor tor Afghanistan, it was accompanied by no fewer than 85 000 C F • the 
 commander took with him six weeks’ food for the whole 100,000. All English com- 
 manders in India find this regulation a very burdensome one. Even in European 
 armies, however, C. F. are regarded as necessary; they are under the control of the 
 commanding officer, and are subject to the articles of war— not, however, in canton- 
 ment^ only in the field. French armies are accompanied by women much more larg:elv 
 than English. ^ ^ 
 
 CAMP HAUSEN, Wilhelm, b. 1818; a German painter whose specialty is battle 
 pieces, to qualify for which he served as a volunteer in the army. Among his works are 
 . . ^ Breitenfeld, ‘ ‘ Prince Eugene at Belgrade, ” ‘ ‘ Godfrey de Bouillon at Ascalon ” 
 
 Enemy,” “A Convoy of Prisoners of Cromwell’s Camp” 
 n?: Roundheads,” “ Storming of an English Castle by Cromwell’s Soldiers’” 
 
 Charles 11. in the Retreat from Worcester,” “Charles I. at Naseby,” etc. In 1859 he 
 was made professor of historical painting in the Dusseldorf academy, * 
 
 CAMPHENE, or Camphilene, is an artificial variety of camphor obtained from tur- 
 pentine, by acting thereon with the dry vapor of hydrochloric acid, and keeping the 
 whole at a low temperature by immersing the vessel in a freezing mixture. A solid 
 substance IS produced, which separates in white crystalline prisms, and has the taste and 
 agreeable aromatic smell of common natural camphor. As prepared, it is strictly a 
 f h} drochlorate of C. ; but the latter can be obtained free from hydrochloric acid by 
 ' vapor of the compound substance over dry heated quicklime, when the acid 
 
 Py lime, and pure C. passes over. It is not so similar to ordinary camphor 
 I when thus freed from the hydrochloric acid. ^ ^ 
 
 , CAMPHINE is the name applied to a variety of spirit of turpentine obtained from the 
 I pirms australis of the southern states of America, and rather extensively sold and used 
 j in Britain for burning in out-of-door lamps. It is very volatile, and burns very freely 
 ( giving off a pure white brilliant light; and when the vapor diffuses itself through air’ 
 
 I and IS set lire to, it forms a dangerous and violently explosive mixture. 
 
 CAMPHOR is a solid essential oil which is found in many plants, and may be 
 separated from many essential oils. It particularly abounds in certain species of the 
 natural o^er lauracem {q^.Y.). Almost all the C. of commerce is the produce of the C 
 laurel or C. tree {camphora officinarum, formerly known as laurus camphora), a native of 
 Chi^, Japan, Formosa, and Cochin-China, and which has been introduced into Java and 
 (ine west indies. ^ Ihe genus camphora differs from cinnamomum (see Cinnamon) chiefly 
 iin hayng a thin instead of a leathery calyx. The C. laurel is a tree of considerable 
 Height, much branched, with lanceolate, evergreen leaves on short stalks, and small 
 yellowish-white flowers in axillary and terminal panicles. The fruit is in size and 
 appearance not unlike an imperfectly ripened black currant. Every part of the tree 
 but especially the flower smells strongly of camphor. The wood is light and durable’ 
 not liable to be injured by insects, and much valued for carpenter’s work. In the 
 extraction of C. from the C. laurel, the wood of the stem and branches is chopped up 
 into fragments, and introifficed into a still with water, and heat applied, when the steam 
 Si These vapors rise, and in passing through rice- 
 
 traw, with which the head of the still is filled, the C. solidifies, and is deposited round 
 the straw in minute grams or particles, somewhat about the size of raw sugar or coarse 
 sand. These grams of impure C. are detached, and being introduced into a large globu- 
 lar glass vessel in quantities of about 10 lbs., are reheated, when first the water rises in 
 qnS escape at a small aperture; and thereafter, this aperture being 
 
 sublimes and resolidifies in the interior upper part of the flask, as a semi 
 '^rntp^ L ^ 1 ? ^ ^ ^ impurities behind. The flasks are then cooled and 
 
 cold water on them, and the C. taken out, and sent into market. 
 
 ^ Italian name, bomboloes, the sublimation of 
 
 md ''' ^nknown to the Greeks and Romans, 
 
 hanTT^tPr !nH fl fL Europe by the Arabs. It is a white tough solid, slightly lighter 
 n pfL^ floats thereon. It is very sparingly soluble in water, but freely soluble 
 
 ind whpn the essential oils. It fuses at 347°, and boils at 399°, 
 
 moTTwatP^h inflammable, and burns with a white smoky flame. Thrown 
 
 ’ It floats, and may be set fire to, when the currents generated alike from the 
 ? . if r irregular burning of the pieces, cause a curious rotatory motion. 
 
 .1 has a peculiar hot aromatic taste, and an agreeable characteristic odor 
 
Cainphuysen. 
 
 Campo. 
 
 362 
 
 C. is used in medicine, both internally and externally, as a temporary stimulant. It 
 is frequently employed in gout and rheumatism. In small doses, it acts as an anodyne 
 and antispasmodic; in very large doses, it is an irritant poison. It is generally reckoned 
 an anaphrodisiac. Its alcoholic solution and liniments in which it is the principal 
 ingredient,, are much used for external application in sprains and bruises, chilblains, 
 chronic rheumatism, and paralysis. — The effluvia of C. are very noxious to insects, and 
 it is therefore much used for preserving specimens in natural history. 
 
 The Borneo C. or Sumatra C. of commerce, sometimes called hard C., is the 
 produce of dryohalanops aromaiica, a large tree of the natural order dipteracem (q.v. ). 
 The C. is obtained by cutting down the tree, and splitting it into small pieces; being 
 found in crystalline masses in natural cavities of the wood. To this substance, the 
 Chinese ascribe extraordinary medicinal virtues, so that it is sold among them at more 
 than 50 times the price of common c.amphor. It is seldom brought to Europe as an 
 article of commerce. — The dryohalanops aromatica yields also a pale-yellowish limpid 
 fluid, which gushes out when deep incisions are made in the tree with an axe, and 
 which is generally called liquid C. or C. oil. It is sometimes imported into Europe. It 
 has a smell somewhat resembling that of C., but more aromatic, like oil of cajeput. 
 It is supposed to be from this fluid that the crystalline hard C. is deposited. See 
 Borneene. 
 
 CAMP'HUYSEN, Dirk Rapaelsz, 1586-1627; a Dutch painter, theologian, and 
 poet. He made a translation of the Psalms, and wrote many short poems of merit; 
 also several theological works, among which was a compendium of the doctrines of 
 Socinius. His fame rests upon his work as a painter, which was more than ordinarily 
 good. 
 
 CAMPI, a family of artists, who founded at Cremona, in the middle and near the 
 close of the 16th c., an eclectic school of painting, parallel with that founded by the 
 family Caracci (q.v.). Giulio C. (1500-72) was the head of the school. He studied 
 painting, sculpture, and architecture under Giulio Romano. He also imitated the works 
 of Titian (at least in coloring) and Pordenone with such success that his pictures have 
 sometimes been ascribed to both of these artists. His female heads, like those of his 
 brothers, are remarkably beautiful. — Antonio C. studied, under his brother, both paint- 
 ing and architecture. His knowledge of the latter was very serviceable in several of his 
 paintings ; for example, that of the sacristy of St. Peter. He was also a plastic artist, 
 an engraver, and the historian of his native place. — Vincenzo C. (b. before 1532, d. 1591> 
 seems to have followed the guidance of Antonio rather- than that of Giulio, and 
 excelled more in small figures than in large pictures. His paintings of fruits are highly 
 valued. — Bernardino C. (b. 1522, d. about 1590), a kinsman of the three brothers C., 
 was the most famous of the whole. Lanzi terms him “ the Annibale Caracci ” of the 
 school. He studied first under Giulio C., but soon excelled his master. Afterwards, 
 he chose Giulio Romano, Titian, and Correggio as models, but chiefly followed Raphael, 
 yet without servile imitation. Many of his works are found in Milan and Cremona. 
 In the latter place, the cupola of the choir in the church San-Gismondo is Bernardino’s 
 master-piece. He was distinguished as a portrait-painter and engraver. The lady- 
 painter, Sophonisba Anguissola, was a distinguished pupil of Bernardino. 
 
 CAM'PIAN, or CAMPION, Edmund, 1540-81; one of the few English Jesuits of 
 celebrity; educated at Oxford; ordained deacon in 1567, but as he could not consent to 
 the Protestant formulary as required by the English church, he went to Ireland and 
 wrote a history of that country; and then to Douay, where he joined the society of 
 Jesus. In 1580, he returned to England as a propagandist missionary. The next year 
 he was charged with exciting the people to rebellion and holding treasonable corre- 
 spondence with foreign powers, found guilty, and hanged at Tyburn, with several others 
 of his order. 
 
 CAMPIDO'GLIO, Palaz'zo del, a famous palace erected by Michael Angelo on. 
 the Capitoline hill, in Rome. It stands on the site of the ancient capital. 
 
 CAMPI NAS, or San Carlos, a t. of Brazil, in the province, and 70 m. n. of the 
 city of Sao Paulo, is situated in a fertile and picturesque district, on a small river, the 
 Piraticaba, a feeder of the Parana. There are large coffee and sugar plantations in 
 the surrounding district, and large quantities of sugar are exported. Many of the 
 houses are built of mud or clay, and the immense church, whose walls are 5 ft. thick, is 
 composed of beaten earth. Pop. 6,000. 
 
 CAM'PION. See Lychnis and Silene. 
 
 CAMPOBAS'SO. a province in s. Italy, 1178 sq.m.; pop. ’70, 864,208. The surface 
 is almost wholly mountainous, the highest point being monte Miletto, 6,740 feet. Chief 
 products, grain, wine, and vegetables. There are manufactories of steel and iron ware 
 The most Important stream is the Biferno. 
 
 CAMPOBAS'SO, a fortified t. of s. Italy, in the province of the same name, about 
 53 m. n.n.e. of the city of Naples. The town stands on a slope of the monte 
 Verde, in a cool, airy, and healthy region. It has a fine cathedral, a ruined castle, some 
 convents, and palaces belonging to resident nobles. It has manufactures of cutlery, 
 which enjoys a considerable reputation for excellence. Its situation, though far from 
 
3b3 
 
 CamphnyMiu 
 
 Campo. 
 
 inviting as regards scenery, is favorable for trade, which is facilitated by good roads. 
 Pop. 13,500. 
 
 CAMPOBAS'SO, Nicolo, Count of, a soldier of fortune in the 15th c. ; the son of a 
 noble family whose estates were confiscated because he sided with Anjou in a war 
 against Naples. He sold his services to Charles the bold, but subsequently betrayed 
 him, and was suspected of being concerned in Charles’s death. Walter Scott depicted 
 C. in Anne of Oeierstein. 
 
 CAMPOBELLO, an island in Passamaquoddy bay, 2 m. from Eastport, Maine, 
 belonging to New Brunswick; 8 m. long; pop. 1073. There are copper and lead ores; 
 but fishing is almost the only occupation. 
 
 CAMPOBELLO, an island of New Brunswick, situated at the mouth of the Passama- 
 quoddy bay, in lat. 44° 57' n., and long. 66° 55' west. It is small, being 9 m. long, and 
 from 1 to 3 m. broad; but it is decidedly valuable, possessing some good harbors, and, 
 at its n. end, a light-house of 60 ft. in height. 
 
 CAMPO DE CRIPTANA, a t. of Spain, in the province of, and about 50 m. n.e. of the 
 city of Ciudad-Real. It has manufactures of coarse cloths, and some trade in corn and 
 fruits. Pop. 5250. 
 
 CAMPO-FORMIO, a village in the province of Udine, northern Italy, about 7 m. s.w. 
 of the city of Udine, is celebrated for the treaty of peace here concluded, Oct. 17, 1797, 
 between Austria and the French republic. After subjugating Italy (1796), the French 
 army had crossed the Noric Alps, and threatened Vienna. Austria, therefore, hastened 
 to an-ange preliminaries of peace. In the treaty which was concluded by Bonaparte 
 with the count of Coblenz, 17th Oct., 1797, Austria ceded the Netherlands, Milan, and 
 Mantua, and received as compensation the districts Istria, Dalmatia, and the left bank 
 of the Adige in the Venetian states, and the capital, Venice; while France took the 
 remaining territory of Venice, its possessions in Albania, and the Ionian islands. In 
 the secret articles of the treaty, Austria, in ceding the left bank of the Rhine, was to 
 receive as cosmpenation Salzburg and the Bavarian district on the Inn; and promises 
 were held out to the duke of Modena, and other Italian houses, that their concessions 
 should be compensated at the cost of Germany. 
 
 CAMPOMA'NES, Pedro Rodriguez, Count of, Spanish minister and director of the 
 royal academy of history at Madrid, founded by Philip V. in 1738, was b. in Asturias 
 in 1723. His talents and learning were devoted to the advancement of his native coun- 
 try. By his enlightened views of state policy, as well as by his writings, which ranked 
 him among the most eminent Spanish authors, he obtained a great reputation through 
 out Europe. He gave effectual assistance to count Aranda in his difficult enterprise of 
 driving the Jesuits out of Spain. He died Feb. 3, 1802. C.’s chief works are Antigue- 
 dad Maritima de la Repuhlica de Cartago con el Periplo de su general Hannon, traduddo 
 del GHego y ilustrado 1756); Discurso sohre el fomento de la Industria pormlo/r 
 
 (1771); Discurso sohre la Educacion popular de los Artisanos y su fomento {111^)-, Apendice 
 a la ^ucacion popular (1775-77). These writings contained his opinions on politics, 
 taxation, agriculture, manufactures, and commerce. The best known of his financial 
 productions is Tratado de la Regalia de Amortizacion (Madrid, 1765). 
 
 CAMPO SANTO (holy field) is now the Italian designation for a cemetery or burying- 
 ground, but more especially for an inclosed place of interment, surrounded internally by 
 an arcade, and destined to receive the remains of persons of distinction. The most 
 famous C. S., and that from which the others derived the name, is that of Pisa — in the 
 neighborhood of the Dome, and consecrated to the memory of men who had deserved 
 well of the republic. It was founded by archbishop Ubaldo, towards the end of the 
 12th century. The archbishop, having been driven out of Palestine by Saladin, brought 
 his fifty-three vessels, which had been destined for the conquest, laden with the earth of 
 the Holy Land. This he deposited on the spot which was thence called the holy field, 
 and which, as we have said, gave its name as a generic term to the burying-grounds of 
 Italy. The architect of the existing building was Giovanni Pisano, under whose super- 
 intendence it was completed in 1283. It contains an area of 400 ft. in length, and 118 in 
 breadth ; and is surrounded by a lofty wall, on the inner side of which a wide arcade 
 runs round the whole inclosure, giving to it the character of one magnificent cloister. 
 At the smaller eastern side, there is a large chapel, and two smaller chapels of smaller 
 size on the northern side. The lofty circular arches of the arcade are filled with the 
 richest Gothic tracery, which belongs, however, to a later date— the latter half of the 15th 
 €. — and consequently formed no part of the original design. The walls are adorned with 
 frescoes which are of great interest and value, both absolutely and with reference to the 
 history of art. The oldest of those which have been preserved adorn one side of the 
 eastern wall: they, represent the passion of Christ, his resurrection, and other sacred 
 subjects. These remarkable paintings are supposed to date before the middle of the 
 14th c., and are ascribed to Buffalmaco. But the most marvelous productions are 
 those of Giotto (q.v.), of Simone Memmi, the friend of Petrarch, and of Andrea and Ber- 
 nardo Orcagna. As a museum of classical antiquities, the C. S. is perhaps even more 
 remarkable than in any other point of view. Altars, sarcophagi, bass-reliefs, statuea, 
 
Campus. 
 
 Cauaanites. 
 
 364 
 
 inscriptions, everything that is interesting or curious which has come into the possession. 
 of the Pisans for centuries, they have accumulated within its walls. 
 
 CAMPUS, in ancient Rome, a vacant space in or near a city, for public shows, com- 
 bats, etc. There were eight around Rome, of which the C. Martins (camp of Mars) was 
 the most important. It was outside the walls, occupying the level space between the 
 Quirinal, Pincian, and Capitoline hills. In this met the comitia centuriata and the comitia 
 tributa; and in it was the public hall for the use of the magistrates and foreign ambas- 
 sadors, who were not permitted to enter the city. In later times it became a pleasure 
 ground, with shaded walks, gardens, baths, theaters, and a race-course. Julius Caesar 
 built within it the marble halls for the comitia; Agrippa the baths and the pantheon; 
 Augustus his own mausoleum ; and Statilius Taurus the first stone amphitheater. Later 
 emperors crowded this particular C. with public buildings and private residences. 
 Under Aurelian it was taken in as a part of the city. The district in which the old 
 C. was situated is now called Campo Marzo. Another ancient C. was the Sceleratus, 
 the polluted field, where vestals who had been untrue to their vows of chastity were 
 buried alive. The open grounds around modern colleges often bear the name of campus. 
 
 CAMPVERE, now called Verb, Veere, or Ter-Yere, a small fortified t. on the 
 n.e. of the island of Walcheren, in the Netherlands province of Zealand, 4 m. n.n.e. 
 of Middelb urg. It has a port on the Veersche Gat, which runs from the Sloe to the 
 Roompot, separating Walcheren from North Beveland. The town has fallen into- 
 decay; but its former prosperity is indicated by the town-house of white freestone, with 
 elegant tower, and the front ornamented by statues of several lords and ladies of the 
 house of Borssele ; and by the large and beautiful cathedral church which is no longer 
 used. Pop. Jan. 1, 1875, 1192. C. owed its name to the ferry (Dutch, 'ceer) existing 
 from thence to the village of Campen, in North Beveland, the site of the present ham- 
 let of Kamperland. 
 
 From a historical point of view, C. is a town of great interest. In 1304, it was the 
 scene of a battle between William, governor of Holland and Zealand, and Guy, count 
 of Flanders, who was victorious. In 1572, the Spaniards were driven away; and a cen- 
 tury later, C. was the first town which proclaimed William III., the prince of Orange, 
 general stadtholder. It is chiefly interesting as the seat of a Scottish factory for three 
 and a half centuries. Wolfaard van Borssele, lord of C., having, in 1444, married 
 a princess of the Stuart line, an impulse was given to the Scottish trade. A factory 
 of merchants was formed, and by contract between the royal burghs of Scotland and the 
 united provinces, C. became the only staple port. The goods could not be transferred 
 to any other place until sold, merchants resorting thither to do business. The factors 
 obtained many privileges, such as freedom from several duties and the right of being 
 governed by the law of Scotland, having a lord conservator who was supreme judge in 
 all matters. No factor might settle at C. without the written authority of the commis- 
 sioners of royal burghs of Scotland, who took security for his honorable behavior. In 
 1795, the Batavian republic withdrew the privileges, and the factory was broken up, 
 but the conservatorship was held as a sinecure long after the necessity for the office had 
 ceased, the name of sir Alexander Ferrier appearing in the Edinburgh Almanac as 
 “conservator at Campvere” so lately as 1847. The magistrates of C. were bound to 
 provide a church for the factory, “ to the end that the people of the Scottish nation be 
 not frustrate of the Word of God and exercise of the reformed religion in their own 
 proper language. ” The ministers were appointed by the commissioners of royal burghs, 
 from 1613 to 1790, when the last appointment was made. 
 
 CAMTOOS, or Gamtoos, a river of the e. division of the Cape Colony, of 200 m. in 
 length. It rises in the Niewveld mountains, near lat. 32° s., and, flowing through the 
 inland district of Beaufort, and the maritime one of Uitenhage, falls into that inlet of 
 the sea which is immediately to the w. of Algoa bay. It is valuable as an aid to irriga- 
 tion. For instance, Hankey, a station of the London missionary society on its banks, 
 is thoroughly watered by means of a splendid tunnel carried through solid rock at the 
 expense of the association just mentioned. 
 
 CAMUCCI'NI, Vincenzo, one of the most distinguished modern historical painters in 
 Italy, was b. in Rome, 1775. The school of which he became the head was founded on 
 the theatrical antique style of the French painter David. The first important works by 
 C. were the “Assassination of Caesar” and the “ Death of Virginia;” both painted for 
 lord Bristol at the commencement of the present century. His picture of “Unbelieving 
 Thomas” was copied in mosaic for St. Peter’s church. For the church of San Giovanni 
 in Piacenza he executed a “Presentation in the Temple,” which was greatly admired. 
 These works were followed by many scenes from Roman history; among them, the pic- 
 tures of “ Horatius Codes,” and “Romulus and Remus” as children. C., who, as a 
 man and an artist, was highly honored during his career, died at Rome, Sept. 2, 1844. 
 
 CAMUS, Armand Gaston, a prominent character in the French revolution, was b. 
 in Paris, April 2, 1740. On account of his superior knowledge of ecclesiastical law, he 
 was elected advocate-general of the French clergy. He was a zealous and ascetic Jan- 
 senist, and possessed of extraordinary firmness of character. He hailed the movements 
 of 1789 with joy, and was elected member of the states-general by the people of Paris. 
 
365 
 
 Campus. 
 
 CauaanitM. 
 
 In this position, he appeared as the resolute foe of the ancient regime. He gained pos- 
 session of, and published, the so-called Red Book, giving accounts of court expenditure, 
 which was highly disadvantageous to the court and its ministers. After the fight of 
 Louis XVI., C., with Montmorin, Lafayette, and Bailly, accused the king of treason 
 and conspiracy, and insisted on the suppression of all orders and corporations based on 
 hereditary rights. As conservator of the national archives, he rendered an important 
 service by preserving from destruction the old documents of the abolished corporations 
 and institutions. He was absent in Belgium during the king’s trial, but sent his vote 
 for death. In Mar., 1793, when he was commissioned to make prisoners of Dumouriez 
 and other generals suspected of treason, C. himself and his four colleagues were taken 
 prisoners and delivered over to the Austrians (April 3); but, after an imprisonment of 
 two and a half years, he was exchanged for the daughter of Louis XVI. On his return 
 to Paris, he was made member of the council of five hundred, of which he became presi- 
 dent, Jan. 23, 1796, but resigned 20th May, 1797, and devoted his time to literature. 
 Remaining, however, true to his principles, he voted, July 10, 1802, against Napoleon’s 
 proposed consulship during life. C. died of apoplexy, Nov. 2, 1804. 
 
 CAMUS, Charles Etienne Louis, 1699-1768; a French mathematician, associate 
 of the Paris academy of sciences, and member of the royal society of London. In 1736, 
 he accompanied Maupertuis and Clairaut in an expedition to Lapland to measure a 
 degree of the meridian. He was the author of a Course of Mathematics, and several 
 essays on mechanical and mathematical subjects. 
 
 CAMWOOD, or Barwood, a dyewood which yields a brilliant but not permanent red 
 color, and is used along with sulphate of iron to produce the red color in English ban- 
 dana handkerchiefs. It is the wood of haphia nitidia, a tree of the natural order 
 leguminosm, sub-order ccesalpiniem, a native of Angola. It is preferred to Brazil wood 
 (q.v.), as producing a finer and richer red. 
 
 CA'NAAN, the fourth son of Ham, and grandson of Noah. The posterity of Canaan 
 were numerous, there being ten sons who were the fathers of as many tribes dwelling in 
 Palestine and Syria. His eldest son, Zidon, is supposed to have been the founder of the 
 city of Sidon. The whole of Palestine was called after the patriarch the “Land of 
 Canaan.” As to the curse pronounced by Noah upon Canaan and his descendants, 
 there is no just reason to suppose that it was the immediate consequence of the unfilial 
 conduct of Ham. 
 
 CA'NAAN. See Palestine. 
 
 CA'NAANITES, a collective name for the several nations conquered by the 
 Israelites on the w. side of Jordan. Five, six, seven, and ten nations are mentioned 
 in various places in the Old Testament; but of only two of them have we any col- 
 lateral information — the Hittites, and the Amorites. And the former of these appears 
 to have been included not with strict propriety among the Canaanites, evidence now 
 tending to show that they not only dwelt beyond the border of Canaan, but did not even 
 speak a Semitic language; nor were they homogeneous with other Canaanitish people. 
 In general, the Canaanites are described as living in a state of political disintegration; 
 the combined result of Semitic love of independence, and of varied conformation of the 
 soil. Thirty-one of their petty kings are mentioned in the book of Joshua. That the 
 Israelites were not immediately successful in conquering the C. is now universally 
 recognized. The work of many years was concentrated by tradition on a single 
 great name. The immediate result of the Israelite invasion was, not the extinction 
 of the old, but the addition of a new element of stronger material, but less advanced 
 culture. The chief object of Canaanitish worship was the dual-natured god of life and 
 fruitfulness, Baal, or the Baal, “ the lord,” and his consort Asherah, “the happy.” The 
 masculine form of the latter was the name of one of the twelve sons of Jacob. Asherah 
 must not be confounded with Ashtoreth or Astarte, who belonged to another type of 
 Semitic religion. The symbol of Asherah was the stem of a tree, though possibly some- 
 times carved into an image ; that of the Baal probably had the form of a cone and repre- 
 sented the rays of the sun, or the generative power. It is these symbols which are 
 referred to in the phrase “ the Baals and Asherahs” (Judges iii. 7), where “the groves” 
 of the king James’s version is clearly a mistranslation. The licensed harlotry which 
 formed a part of the worship of Asherah was peculiarly obnoxious to the later Hebrew 
 prophets, though, indeed, even the folk-lore of the Israelites shows traces of aversion to 
 its attendant immorality. Another characteristic of the Canaanitish religion was sooth- 
 saying, and this was vigorously denounced by the conquerors (Deut. xviii. 10-14). 
 There were relics of Canaanitish times in old traditions which the Israelites did not sup- 
 press, and it is alleged by uncompromising historical critics that some of the narratives 
 in Genesis are revised and purified versions of Canaanitish legends. The most obvi- 
 ous of these are said to be the stories which are attached to localities in Canaan, such as 
 Luz and Beersheba. The question whether a remnant of the old population of Pales 
 tine may not be still in existence is answered in the aflirmative by several recent investi- 
 gators, who find descendants of the C. in the fellahs or peasants of the Holy 
 Land. From an ethnological point of view there seems to have been a close affinity of 
 the three peoples, the Israelites, the C., and the Phoenicians, who appear to have 
 
Canadian. 
 
 Canada. 
 
 366 
 
 migrated successively from a Babylonian center, and the last to move westward were 
 probably the Hebrews. 
 
 CANADIAN RIVER, rising in n.w. Mexico, 25 m. n.e. of Santa Fe, running s. 
 150 m., and then e. near the bounds of the Indian territory and Texas, thence through 
 the Indian territory, and emptying into the Arkansas river near the w. boundary of the 
 state of Arkansas; whole length about 600 miles. 
 
 CANADA, as a geographical designation, has had in history a variety of meanings. 
 Originally, it comprised an extensive range of country reaching, under the French, as 
 far as even the Mississippi, away beyond the boundary lakes. It was subsequently lim- 
 ited to a region chiefly in the basin of the St. Lawrence — including in that term both 
 the lakes and the river. C., in the sense in which that word is most generally known, 
 was, in 1791, divided into two provinces, Ontario and Quebec, or Upper and Lower 
 Canada.* These two sections were reunited in 1840; but became separate members of 
 the confederation — the Dominion of Canada — in 1867. The country composed of these 
 two provinces extends eastwards from a line drawn between lake Superior and James 
 bay, a branch of Hudson’s bay, to the gulf of St. Lawrence. Northward, it reaches 
 from the Canadian lakes and the St. Lawrence to the high ridge of land which separates 
 the rivers of C. from those of the region long known as the Hudson bay territory, but 
 since 1870 forming a part of the Dominion of Canada. C. is bounded n. by the (former) 
 Hudson bay territory; e., by the gulf of St. Lawrence; s., by the states of Maine, New 
 Hampshire, Vermont, New York, and the lakes Erie and Ontario; w., by lakes St. 
 Clair, Huron, and Superior; and n.w., by the Indian territories. The area of C. is about 
 331,280 sq.m., of which 121,260 are in the province of Ontario, and 210,020 in the prov- 
 ince of Quebec. The principal river of C. is the St. Lawrence, and its most important 
 tributaries are all from the left. The St. Lawrence drains an area of 565,000 miles. 
 The Ottawa, 450 m. long, forms the boundary between Ontario and Quebec. The St. 
 Maurice, nearly 400 m. in length, and the Saguenay, noted for its fine scenery, rank as 
 rivers of the first magnitude, according to European analogies. The only afiluents 
 from the right worth naming are the Richelieu, the St. Francis, and the Chaudiere; 
 and even of these subordinate streams, the last two are totally Canadian, while the 
 first, as the outlet of lakes Champlain and George, belongs to the United States only 
 in part. 
 
 In 1535, Jacques Cartier, a French navigator, b. at St. Malo in 1494, entering the 
 St. Lawrence on the festival of the saint of that title, took nominal possession of North 
 America in the name of his king, Francis I. It was not, however, till nearly a century 
 later (1608) that Quebec was taken formal possession of. From that stronghold, France 
 ruled for 150 years a vast region, extending eastward to Acadia — Nova Scotia — west- 
 ward to lake Superior, and down the Mississippi to Florida and Louisiana. In 1759, a 
 small British army — 5000 in number — under the command of gen. Wolfe (q.v.), virtually 
 wrenched La Nouvelle France, on the “plains of Abraham,” from her first European 
 rulers by the taking of Quebec. Isle aux Noix, and forts Oswegatchie and Levis, suc- 
 cessively passed into the hands of the British, and then Montreal was beleaguered and 
 taken by gen. Amherst with an army of 17,000 men. The capitulation of that city, 
 which was signed Sept., 1760, brought to a final close the era of French dominion in 
 Canada. The people of the conquered country w’ere secured, by the terms agreed to, 
 in the free exercise of their religion ; and peace was concluded between Britain and 
 France in 1763. 
 
 In that year, a small portion of the recently acquired territory was organized by 
 royal proclamation under English laws. In 1774, the new province was extended by 
 parliamentary enactment, and that under French laws, down the Ohio to its confluence 
 with the Mississippi, and up the latter stream to its source. Finally, C. receded to its 
 present limits in 1783, giving up to the American republic the sites of six sovereign 
 states — Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois. In 1791, it was 
 divided, under separate legislatures, into two sections — the eastern retaining French 
 institutions, and the western receiving those of England; and these sections, again, 
 after political discontent had in each ripened into armed insurrection, were re united for 
 legislative purposes in 1840. 
 
 In 1763, the French population amounted to about 65,000, occupying the immediate 
 banks of the lower St. Lawrence and its tributaries. Excepting within the cities of 
 Montreal and Quebec, the immigrants of a different origin, whether from the old colo- 
 nies or from the mother country, scarcely attempted to establish themselves among the 
 ancient settlers; thus producing a kind of reciprocal isolation, which, even down to the 
 present day, has not been materially disturbed. Generally speaking, therefore, the two 
 grand elements of the provincial population are locally distinguished from each other — a 
 relative position which has happily excluded, as between them, nearly every difiiculty 
 as to education and religion. The settlers of French origin, almost entirely confined to 
 lower C., occupy the banks of St. Lawrence and of the lower courses of its tributary 
 strea)ns; all the rest of lower 0. and the whole of upper C., so far as they are reclaimed 
 at all, belong to colonists of English race. 
 
 The origin of the name is most probably to be found in the assertion that Jacques 
 
 * In the first half of the article the name Canada is used in this sense ; the second haJf gives a notice 
 of the Dominion as now constituted. 
 
Canadian. 
 
 Canada. 
 
 3G7 
 
 Cartier, the discoverer of Canada, having heard the natives apply the Indian word 
 Kannaiha (village) to their settlements, mistook it for the name of the whole country. 
 
 Upper and lower C. have presented a striking contrast in their rates of progress. 
 To take, for instance, the growth of towns: In lower C. there are only two towns with 
 a pop. (1871) above 5,000 — Levis, on the St. Lawrence, 6,691, and Sorel, at the confluence 
 of the St. Lawrence and the Richelieu, 5,636 — in addition to Quebec, Three Rivers, and 
 Montreal, the three French foundations. The growth of Montreal and Quebec, remark- 
 able enough in itself, has been owing rather to their commercial facilities with regard 
 to the country at large than to the agricultural resources of their immediate vicinities; 
 while Toronto, London, Kingston, and Hamilton — each nurtured chiefly by its own 
 locality — have an aggregate population of above 110,000. Great part of upper and lower 
 C., more especially the shores of lake Superior, is valuable only for mineral resources, 
 such as iron, zinc, lead, copper, silver, gold, cobalt, manganese, gypsum, marl, granite, 
 sandstone, limestone, slate, and marbles of nearly every imaginable color. Considerable 
 portions also, though heavily timbered, chiefly with pine, are yet but little adapted to 
 settlement and cultivation. Towards the gulf of St. Lawrence, again, a considerable 
 section derives importance mainly from the flsheries, being, with partial exceptions in 
 Gaspe, comparative!}’- worthless for every other object. Thus the area for the profitable 
 production of ordinary cereals cannot materially exceed 40,000 sq.m., containing, how- 
 ever, within this space a singularly small proportion of irreclaimable surface. This cul- 
 tivable block increases in width and fertility from its commencement on the lower St. 
 Lawrence to the shores of lake Huron. Below Quebec — to say nothing of the precari- 
 ous nature of the crops — there may always be seen, on one or on both sides, the 
 primeval forest. Between that city, again, and the basin of the Ottawa, a gradual 
 improvement shows itself, even on the n. side; and towards the s., there stretches away 
 to the frontier of the United States a broad belt of generally undulating character, 
 probably the best field in the country for the blending of pasturage and agriculture. 
 From the basin of the Ottawa inclusive, the parallel of the s. end of lake Nipissing may 
 be said to cut off, towards the s.w., the entire residue of the practicable soil, in the 
 shape of a roughly defined triangle, which, as a whole, is at least equal, in the growth 
 of grain in general and of wheat in particular, to any region of the same extent in 
 North America. 
 
 As C. slants southwards eight or nine degrees from the mouth of the St. Lawrence 
 to that of the Detroit, which communicates b^etween lakes St. Clair and Erie, the climate 
 of the w. must be warmer than that of the east. In addition to this cause of difference, 
 it holds as a general law over the continent that the climate improves in advancing west- 
 ward, even on the same parallel. Besides, the lakes of upper C. appear, in a good 
 measure, to neutralize and mitigate the extremes of a Canadian climate. While Quebec 
 in winter ordinarily enjoys five or six months of sleighing, the corresponding season in 
 Toronto ranges from five or six days to five or six weeks. As to summer, the difference 
 in favor of Toronto is rather in point of duration than of intensity. As indications of 
 the climate of C. , it may be stated that the isle of Orleans, immediately below Quebec, 
 is famous for its plums, and the island of Montreal for its apples; and from the neigh- 
 borhood of Toronto to the head of lake Erie, grapes and peaches ripen without any aid 
 whatever. Melons, again, of large size, come to maturity, through the settled parts of 
 the province, in the open air; and pumpkins and squashes attain enormous size, some of 
 them near Toronto having weighed 300 lbs. The climate of C., though, as a whole, 
 vastly steadier than that of the British isles, is yet occasionally liable to such changes as 
 among us are all but impossible. Montreal, for instance, may be said, on an average, 
 to have an extreme cold of 24° below zero, and an extreme heat of 96° above it. Now, 
 on short notice, a thaw may surprise the former temperature, and a frost the latter; so 
 that there is room, in winter and summer respectively, for a comparatively sudden rise 
 or fall of about 60°. In fact, it may be said that C. has the summer of Italy and the 
 winter of Southern Russia or North Germany. The average summer temperature of Tor- 
 onto is 67.8°, of Paris, 64.5°, and of Rome, 74.2°; while the average winter temperature 
 of Toronto is 24.5°, of Berlin, 31.4°, and of St. Petersburg, 18.1°. And, lying in the 
 latitudes of the summer rains, and of the most valuable cereals and grasses, the latitude 
 most favorable for animals which enhance domestic wealth — the ox, the sheep, and the 
 horse — C. occupies one of the best positions in the world for rearing men and women. 
 It lies in the latitude where man attains the greatest energy of body and mind, and fiom 
 which have hitherto issued the conquering races. C. may thus be looked on as destined 
 to influence the future of the world. 
 
 The Dominion of Canada . — The name Canada has lately acquired an enormous exten- 
 sion of territorial signification. In 1867, an act for the union of C. (Upper and Lower), 
 Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick was passed, and by it these provinces were federally- 
 united into one Dominion of C. under the crown of the United Kingdom, with a consti- 
 tution similar to that of the mother country and with Ottawa for its capital. All the 
 vast territory which the Hudson bay company held under a charter issued by Charles 
 II., was transferred to the imperial government in Dec., 1869 — the company receiving 
 an indemnity from the Canadian government of £300,000 — and was, by order of H. M. 
 the queen in council, received into the Dominion the following year. The portion of 
 that territory known as Red River Settlement (q.v.) was in 1870 erected into the pro- 
 vince of Manitoba. (The district to the n. and e. of Manitoba is now known as 
 
Canada. 
 
 368 
 
 Keewatin. The vast region towards the n.w. was organized as a territory in 1875 under 
 the name of the North-west territory.) British Columbia became a member of the 
 Dominion in 1871. Prince Edward island joined the confederation in 1873, and the 
 accession of Newfoundland cannot be long deferred. 
 
 This vast extent of territory, extending from the latitude of Rome to the Arctic 
 ocean, stands in superficial area (3,500,000 sq.m.), even if we exclude Labrador and the 
 islands of the Arctic ocean, little behind the United States (3,603,000) and Europe 
 (3,720,000). East and w. it extends from the 53d to the 141st meridians. The total 
 habitable area is, however, diminished considerably when the frozen regions n. of the 
 60th parallel of latitude are deducted. 
 
 The physical characteristics and statistics of the various provinces will be found 
 discussed under their several heads. 
 
 The census of 1871 gives the following figures for the several provinces: 
 
 Provinces. 
 
 Ontario 
 
 Quebec 
 
 New Brunswick 
 
 Nova Scotia 
 
 Manitoba . 
 
 British Columbia 
 
 Prince Edward island 
 
 North-west territory 
 
 Total for Dominion 
 
 Newfoundland (1869) 
 
 Total for Dominion of the future. 
 
 Area in 
 
 sq. miles. 
 
 Pop. 1871. 
 
 107,780 
 
 1,620,851 
 
 193,355 
 
 1,191,516 
 
 27,322 
 
 285,594 
 
 21,731 
 
 387,800 
 
 13,969 
 
 12,228 
 
 356,000 
 
 33,586 
 
 2,133 
 
 94,021 
 
 2,650,000 
 
 60,500 
 
 3,372,290 
 
 3, 6}: 6, 096 
 
 40,200 
 
 146,536 
 
 3,412,490 
 
 3,832,632 
 
 The Indian population of the Dominion was in 1877 reported by the superintendent 
 of Indian affairs to amount to 99,650. In 1871, the number of immigrants into the 
 Dominion was 37,949; in 1873, they numbered no less than 99,059; and in 1874, 80,022. 
 Of these a fair proportion became actual settlers; thus of a total of 31,650 immigrants 
 in 1876, 25,633 settled in the country. Of late there has been some immigration from 
 the United States. In 1879, there were upwards of 6000 Chinese residents in British 
 Columbia. 
 
 Church and Education . — There is no state church in C. In 1871, there were 1,492,000 
 Roman Catholics in the Dominion, the mass of the inhabitants of Quebec province 
 being French Catholics. The Presbyterians numbered 544,000; the Methodists, 514,000; 
 and the Episcopal church, 494,000. Lutherans, Congregationalists, and many other 
 sects are also represented. The Episcopal church is governed by nine bishops, and the 
 Roman Catholic church by four archbishops and fourteen bishops. 
 
 Education is carefully fostered in the Dominion. Especially in the oldest settlement 
 both primary and secondary schools are numerous. The province of Ontario had in 
 1871 nearly 5000 educational establishments, including 16 called colleges. Quebec has 
 3 universities, 1 being Catholic, and above 20 classical and industrial colleges. New 
 Brunswick has nearly 1000 primary schools. Nova Scotia has a university at Halifax; 
 and the new province of Manitoba has already a university at Winnipeg. In 1871, there 
 were 420 newspapers and other periodicals published in C., of which 255 appeared in 
 Ontario. 
 
 Revenue . — The total revenue of the Dominion of C. for the financial year ending 
 June, 1877, amounted to £8,877,956, and the gross expenditure was £8,840,324, leaving 
 a surplus of £37,632. In the financial estimates for the year ending June, 1879, the 
 total expenditure was fixed at £7,866,876. The debt of the Dominion, incurred chiefly 
 on account of public works, the interest of which forms the largest part of the expend- 
 iture, amounted in 1878 to £29,879,421; and of this capital, £24,497,524 represented 
 debt payable in London. 
 
 Commerce . — The trade of the Dominion is chiefly with the United States and Great 
 Britain; and while the greater part of the Canadian exports finds its way to Great 
 Britain, the imports are now chiefly from the United States. Thus, of a total expor- 
 tation of 76,000,000 in 1877, 41 millions went to Great Britain, 26 millions to the United 
 States; while of a total importation of 99,000,000, 40 millions came from Great Britain, 
 but 51 millions from the United States. In 1878, the total exports were valued at 
 $79,323,667 (£15,864,000); the imports at $93,081,787 (£18,616,000). The staple articles 
 of export are wood and breadstuffs; also fish, furs, etc., and minerals. The chief 
 imports from the United Kingdom are iron, wrought and un wrought, woolen manufac 
 tures, and cotton goods. 
 
 Shippinr/. — The merchant shipping of C. is important, and, considering its popula- 
 tion, remarkably extensive. At the end of 1877, there were 7362 vessels on the regular 
 books of the Dominion, measuring 1,310,468 tons of register tonnage. C. is, accord- 
 ingly, the fifth in rank of the ship-owning states of the world, following, for extent of 
 shipping, Britain, the United States. Norway, and Italy, but taking precedence of Ger- 
 many, France, and all other maritime powers. 
 
369 
 
 Canada. 
 
 F'sherm— The total produce of the Canadian fisheries in 1877 was valued at £2,- 
 405,991. In that year fish to the value of £1,400,140 were exported. This includes the 
 fisheries of British Columbia, but of course excludes those of Newfoundland. In 1879, 
 there were seven establishments in C. for artificial fish culture, from which in the pre- 
 ceding year 13,500,000 young. fish (salmon, speckled trout, and white fish) were sent 
 forth into the waters of the Dominion. 
 
 Mines . — In the year 1876-77, Canadian mines gave produce (including, coal, gold, 
 gypsum, manganese, mineral oil, copper, iron, lead, silver, salt, slate, and stone) to the 
 value of £739,790. 
 
 Canals and Railways . — In the matter of communication C. is unrivaled. The St. 
 Lawrence, with its lakes, puts great part of it in connection at once with the most com- 
 mercial section of the United States and with the open ocean. The navigation of this 
 great water system has been greatly assisted by art; numerous and extensive canals, of 
 which the Rideau and the Welland are the most important supplement to the main 
 artery. The revenue of the canals in 1877 amounted to £74,790. C. is also not deficient 
 in roads of every description, at least in the settled regions; and it already possesses an 
 immense and steadily increasing network of railways. In 1877, there were in operation 
 over 5,570 m. of railway, while nearly 2,000 m. were in course of construction. The 
 Orand Trunk railway, 1388 m. in length, and giving unbroken communication between 
 Portland and Detroit, is the longest line in the world owned by one company and under 
 the same management. The Victoria bridge, by which the railway crosses the St. Law- 
 rence at Montreal, is one of the wonders of the world. In 1872, the imperial parliament 
 notified the guarantee of a Canadian loan, to be applied to the construction of a railway 
 through British territory to the Pacific shores; but the original arrangements have been 
 departed from, and the undertaking progresses but slowly. There has been much debate 
 as to the best point for the terminus. The total revenue of the railways in the year 
 1876-77, was £3,748,413. There is weekly communication betwen Liverpool and (Glas- 
 gow and Montreal and Quebec. 
 
 Army and Naval Force . — The number of imperial troops in C. was in 1871 reduced 
 to 2,000 men, who form the garrison of the fortress of Halifax — still accounted an 
 “imperial station,” as it also is the headquarters of the British fleet in these waters. C. 
 has besides a large volunteer force, and a recently organized militia, consisting of all 
 male British subjects in C. between the ages of 18 and 60. The active militia consisted 
 in 1879 of 43,729 officers and men, and the reserve comprised 665,000 men. C. is 
 divided into 11 military districts; there is a royal military college at Kingston, and several 
 centers of military instruction. The naval armament of C. consisted in 1877 of 8 armed 
 screw-steamers, of a total tonnage of 2,014 tons, besides two other fast steamers available 
 as gun-boats. These are provided partly by the imperial government, partly by the 
 Dominion, and are kept on the great lakes and on the St. Larrrence. 
 
 Money, Weights, and Measures. — The decimal system of currency was introduced in 
 1871, the unit of account being the dollar (at the average rate of exchange equal to 4s.). 
 The English imperial yard, pound avoirdupois, and gallon are standards for C. ; but in 
 1859 the hundredweight of 112 lbs. and the ton of 2,240 lbs. were abolished, a hundred- 
 weight of 100 lbs. and a ton of 2,000 lbs. being substituted. 
 
 See the articles on the various provinces and the towns of the Dominion; and 
 Canada. 
 
 CANADA has recently acquired a more enlarged signification. An act of the imperial 
 parliament (called shortly Xhe British North America 2 ,e‘i) passed 29th Mar., 1867, 
 and came into force 1st J une of the same year, uniting federally the former separate 
 provinces of Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick into one Dominion, under the 
 name of Canada. The upper and lower divisions of the former Canada (q.v.), which 
 had been politically united since 1840, are again dissociated, so that the federation con- 
 sisted, in 1867, of four members or provinces, as under; 
 
 Quebec (formerly Lower Canada, or Canada East). 
 Ontario (formerly Upper Canada, or Canada West) 
 
 New Brunswick 
 
 Nova Scotia 
 
 English 
 square miles. 
 210,020 
 121,260 
 27,105 
 18,660 
 
 Total 377,045 
 
 Estimated population (1867) 8,800,000 
 
 fihe constitution of the Dominion is after the model of the mother-country. The par- 
 liament consists of the queen, an upper house styled the senate, and a house of com- 
 mons. The queen is represented by a governor-general (with a salary of £10,000), who 
 exercises his authority with the aid ana advice of a council, styled the queen’s privy 
 council for Canada, chosen from time to time by the governor. The senate, in 1867, 
 consisted of not more than 72 members, 24 for each of the provinces of Ontario and Que 
 bee, and 12 each for the maritime provinces. The senators are chosen by the governor- 
 U. K. III.— 24 
 
Canada. 
 
 Canal. 
 
 370 
 
 general, and hold the appointment for life. Among other qualifications, a senator must 
 have real property to the value of $4,000, and must be resident in the province for 
 which he is appointed. The speaker of the senate is nominated by the governor-general. 
 The house of commons consisted at the same dale of 181 members — 82 for Ontario, 05 
 for Quebec, 19 for Nova Scotia, and 15 for New Brunswick. The duration of a house 
 of commons is five years. Until the parliament of Canada otherwise provides, the fran- 
 chise and other regulations are to be the same as those hitherto in force in returning 
 members to the house of assembly in the several provinces. The house of commons 
 elects its own speaker. Any bill passed by the houses of parliament, even though assented 
 to by the governor-general in the queen’s name, may afterwards be disallowed by the 
 queen in council. Each province has an executive and legislature of its own, presided 
 over by a lieutenant-governor, and constituted in the mean time pretty much as before the 
 union. The lieutenant-governors are appointed by the governor-general. The provin- 
 cial parliaments may, under the provisions of the act, amend from time to time their 
 own constitutions. 
 
 In the distribution of legislative power between the general and the provincial par- 
 liaments, certain classes of subjects of a local nature are assigned exclusively to the leg- 
 islatures of the provinces, while subjects of more general concern are assumed by the 
 parliament of Canada. Among the subjects enumerated in the act as coming under 
 the latter description are: the public debt and property; taxation (for federal pur- 
 poses), postal service, military and naval defense, the salaries of the civil officers of the 
 general government; the census; navigation; money, weights, and measures; copy- 
 rights; marriage and divorce; criminal law. The provincial legislatures, again, have 
 the power of taxing themselves for provincial purposes, and of borrowing money on the 
 sole credit of the province; of regulating and paying provincial officers; of establishing 
 asylums, etc. Education is also left to the provincial legislatures, with certain provi- 
 sions against encroachment on the rights of religious minorities. 
 
 The debts of the several provinces, at the union, are assumed (with certain limitations) 
 by the federal government; and on the other hand, certain duties and revenues, and 
 certain public works and properties belonging to the several provinces before the union, 
 are taken possession of, to form a consolidated revenue fund for defraying the interest 
 of these debts, and for the other expenditure of the federal government. 
 
 Provision is made for the introduction of uniformity of laws, which, however, must 
 be with consent of the legislatures of the several provinces. 
 
 The union of the various British American provinces had been long and eagerly dis- 
 cussed, public opinion in Canada being generally in its favor, but in the other provinces 
 strongly opposed to it, from the natural apprehension that the immense preponderance 
 of C. in population, wealth, and general importance would utterly swamp the others. 
 However, after much and careful consideration, the great advantages which it was 
 shown the scheme would confer, overcame the provincial jealousies, the pro-federalists 
 in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick came to preponderate, and these two provinces 
 w^ere, in 1867, united with Quebec and Ontario to form the Dominion of Canada. In 
 British Columbia and the Hudson’s bay territories the feeling in favor of annexation 
 was strong, and in 1869 the latter, and in 1871 the former, was transferred to the imperial 
 government. The Hudson’s bay company received an indemnity of £300,000, In 1871, 
 the Red river settlement was formed into a province under the name Manitoba. In 1873, 
 Prince Edward island was annexed. The only part of British North America which 
 stands aloof is Newfoundland, but provision has been made for its admittance in the act 
 of union, and its accession cannot be long deferred. The area of the vast dominion is 
 about 3,500,000 sq.m., exceeding that of the United States, and little inferior to 
 Europe. The number of members of parliament given above has, of course, been in- 
 creased by the representatives of the new provinces — viz., 2 senators and 4 members 
 of the house of commons for Manitoba, 3 senators and 6 members for British Columbia, 
 and 4 senators and 6 members for Prince Edward island. The total (with a few addi- 
 tional members in the old provinces) was in 1879, 75 senators, and 205 members of the 
 house of commons. 
 
 CANADA BALSAM is a kind of turpentine (q.v.) obtained from the balm of Gilead 
 fir {abies or picea halsamea), a native of Canada and the northern parts of the United 
 States. See Fm. It exists in the tree in vesicles between the bark and the wood, and is 
 obtained by making incisions, and attaching bottles for it to flow into. It is a trans- 
 parent liquid, almost colorless, and with an agreeable odor and acrid taste. It pours 
 readily out of a vessel or bottle, and shortly dries up, and becomes solid. When fresh, 
 it is of the consistence of thin honey, but becomes viscid, and at last solid by age. It 
 consists mainly of a resin dissolved in an essential oil, and its composition is aa 
 
 follows; 
 
 Essential oil 18.6 
 
 Resin, soluble in alcohol 40.0 
 
 Resin, sparingly soluble 33.4 
 
 Elastic resin 4.0 
 
 Bitter extractive and salts 4.0 
 
 100.0 
 
Canada. 
 
 Canal. 
 
 o -I 
 
 O i i 
 
 It is the finest kind of turpentine obtained from any of the coniferm, and is much 
 -employed for medicinal purposes, particularly as a stimulant for the cure of mucous dis- 
 charges, and as a detergent application to ulcers. It is also used for a variety of pur- 
 poses in the arts — as an ingredient in varnishes, in mounting objects for the microscope, 
 in photography (q.v,), and by opticians as a cement, particularly for connecting the 
 parts of achromatic lenses to the exclusion of moisture and dust. Its value for optical 
 purposes is very great, and depends not only on its perfect transparency, but on its 
 possessing a refractive power nearly equal to that of glass. 
 
 CANADA GOOSE. See Goose. 
 
 CANAJOIIA'RIE, a t. and village of Montgomery co., N. Y., 50 m. n.w. of 
 Albany ; pop, of township ’80, 4294. There are fine stone quarries in the vicinity. 
 
 CANAL, an artificial channel for water, formed for purposes of drainage, irrigation, 
 or navigation, but now usually employed to designate only such cuts as are intended for 
 the passage of vessels.* 
 
 Canals date from a period long anterior to the Christian era, and were employed as a 
 means of irrigation and communication by Assyrians, Egyptians, and Hindus ; also by 
 the Chinese, whose works of this kind are said to be unrivaled in extent; one of them, 
 the Imperial C., having a length of about 1000 miles. For the most part, however, these 
 early canals were of one uniform level, and hence exhibit no great skill or ingenuity- 
 and the moderns were content to follow the rudimentary efforts of the ancients in 
 this way until the 15th c., when the invention of the lock (q.v.) — showing how 
 canals might be generally and advantageously used for inland navigation in 
 countries whose surface was irregular — gave a great impulse to this branch of engineer- 
 ing. The Italians and Dutch, for both of which nations the invention of the lock 
 has been claimed, were the first to develop this kind of engineering in Europe. In 
 France, the first C., that of De Briare, to form a communication between the Loire and 
 the Seine, was opened in 1642. In 1681 was completed the greatest undertaking of the 
 kind on the continent, the C. of Languedoc, or the C. du Midi, to connect the Atlantic 
 with the Mediterranean. The length of this C. is 148 m., it has more than 100 locks, 
 and about 50 aqueducts, and in its highest part it is no less than 600 ft, above the sea. 
 It is navigable for vessels of upwards of 100 tons. It was not until nearly a century 
 later that C. navigation assumed importance in England, through the sagacity, energy, 
 and liberality of the duke of Bridgewater (q.v.), and his celebrated engineer, James 
 Brindley (q.v.). The success of these works stimulated other public persons to engage 
 in similar undertakings. Speculation in C. shares became a mania similar to that which 
 overtook the people in connection with railways at a more recent period, and a crash 
 ensued on the prospect of war in 1792. It would be an endless task to pursue the his- 
 tory of canal development in Britain, which speedily became intersected with these 
 watery highways to an extent unequaled in any European country save Holland. Ir 
 the space at our disposal, we shall briefly consider the several kinds of canal. See Sue 2 si 
 and Suez Canal. 
 
 Canals may be divided into three general heads — viz., 1. Canals proper, i.e., entirely 
 artificial channels, having no water running through them beyond what is necessary for 
 their own purpose; 2. Tidal, i.e., affected by the rise and fall of the tides; and 3. Rivers 
 rendered navigable by w’^eirs built across them to increase their depth, and having a lock 
 at one end for the ascent or descent of vessels; and occasionally, when there is much 
 fall, or any formidable obstruction in the river, by lateral cuts, with locks for part of 
 their course. 
 
 Another division may be made (1) of ship-canals for the transit of sea-going vessels 
 generally, from sea to sea; these are necessarily of large dimensions, and must be crossed 
 by swing or draw bridges; and (2) of canals for the passage of mere boats or barges, gen- 
 erally without masts, so that they may be crossed by stone or other solid bridges. The 
 largest ship C. in Europe is the Great North Holland C., completed in 1825, which has 
 a breadth of 125 ft. at the water-surface, and of 31 ft. at the bottom, with a depth of 20 
 feet. It extends from Amsterdam to the Helder, a distance of 51 m. ; it thus enables 
 ships of as much as 1400 tons burden to avoid the shoals of the Zuyder Zee. The sur- 
 face of the water in this C. is below the high-water level of the German ocean, from 
 which it is protected by embankments faced with wicker-w-ork. The locks on this C. 
 are 297 ft. long, 51 ft. broad, and 20 ft. deep. There is a similar C. from near Rotterdam 
 to Helvoetsluis, to avoid the shallows of the Brill at the mouth of the Maas. Another 
 great ship C. is the Caledonian C (q.v.). The Forth and Clyde C. is also one on a 
 smaller scale for the passage of sea-going vessels. Its length is 35 m. ; its medium width 
 is 56 ft. at the surface, and 27 ft. at the bottom, and its depth 9 feet. It has -39 locks, 
 each 75 ft. long, and 20 ft. wide, and a rise of 155 feet. In constructing ship-canals, it 
 
 * In the fen-districts of the e. coast of England, however, the large channels required for drainage 
 are made subservient to purposes of inland navigation by sluices at the mouth— one to keep out the 
 tide at high water, and another acting in the opposite direction, to retain water of depth sufficient in 
 the channel to float such boats as make use of it. These combinations of drain and canal are com- 
 monly called navigations; hence the workmen employed in their construction wc-e called navigators, 
 which, contracted into navvy, is now applied indiscriminately to persons engaged in any kind of earth- 
 works. 
 
Canal. 
 
 Cananore. 
 
 372 
 
 is important to secure a sheltered entrance, one not likely to become silted up, and of 
 sufficient depth to admit vessels at all times of the tide; and towing-paths on both sides 
 are desirable. 
 
 Among the principal canals in England for the passage of barges, some of which run 
 to very great elevation, are the — 
 
 Length, Rise, 
 
 Miles. Feet. 
 
 Grand Junction 128 
 
 Leeds and Liverpool 128 433 
 
 • Trent and Mersey 93 326 
 
 Kennet and Avon 57 402 
 
 The C. of the Loire is one of those aiding the navigation of a river. It has a width 
 on the water line of 33 ft., and a depth of 5^ ft., the locks being 17 ft. broad, and 100 ft. 
 long. The river Lea and the Mersey and Irwell Navigations in England, and the 
 Welland C. in Canada, formed to connect lake Erie with lake Ontario, and avoid the 
 falls of Niagara, are also among the most noteworthy works of this class; the river 
 Thames, above the first lock at Twickenham, partakes also of the nature of a canal. 
 
 Many canals pass through long tunnels, some very low and without towing-paths, in 
 which case the mode of propulsion is by the boatmen lying on their backs and pushing 
 with their feet against the roof of the tunnel. 
 
 The great expenditure of water and time in “locking” have led to the trial of various 
 other plans for overcoming differences in level. On the Great Western C., boats are 
 raised and lowered by means of machinery, called a perpendicular lift. On the Morris 
 C. (United States), boats are conveyed on a carriage up a railway inclined plane, from 
 one reach to another; on the Chard C., Somersetshire, and on the Monkland C., near 
 Glasgow, they are taken afloat in a caisson, or water-tight vessel, up or down an inclined 
 plane — in the latter case, empty boats of 60 tons burden are raised or lowered 96 feet. 
 
 Other matters engineers have to consider are an ample supply of water, by means of 
 feeders and reservoirs to the summit-level ; stop-gates at convenient distances, to shut off 
 the water in case of damage to any part of the C. ; means of drainage when repairs are 
 necessary; and provision against leakage through the banks, by puddling or otherwise. 
 The floor-line or bottom of a C. is usually made twice the width of the largest boat likely 
 to enter the C., with an addition of 6 or 8 in. for play at each side, and the depth 12 or 
 18 in. more than the draught of the boat. 
 
 The introduction of railways has materially interfered with C. traffic, and some canals 
 have been altogether abandoned. Many, however, still continue to prosper, as, for 
 instance, the Grand Junction, the Lea Navigation, and the Trent and Mersey. It is 
 estimated that the inland boat navigation constructed in Great Britain exceeds 4,700 
 miles. In the United States there are upwards of 4,000 m, of C., of which 1300 m. are 
 in New York state. The C. system has also been very extensively carried out in France, 
 which has a large mileage of artificial inland water navigation. A new canal, which 
 shortens the distance from Amsterdam to the North sea to 15 m., has recently been com- 
 pleted. The harbor is near Wyk-aan-Zee, and the minimum width is to be 80 yards. 
 This canal was constructed mainly by British capital and engineers. 
 
 Laws regarding Canals . — The traffic, and generally the rights, duties, and liabilities- 
 of canal companies are regulated by two acts of parliament, the 8 and 9 Viet. c. 42, and 
 the 17 and 18 Viet. c. 31, called “the railway and canal traffic act, 1854.” The word 
 canal is declared to include any navigation whereon tolls are levied by authority of 
 parliament, and also the wharves and landing-places used by such canal or navigation; 
 and traffic is defined as including not only passengers and their luggage, but also goods, 
 animals, trucks, boats, and vehicles of every description. All tolls and charges in 
 respect of the traffic are to be charged equally to all persons. It is declared to be the 
 duty of canal companies to make arrangements for the receiving and forwarding of 
 traffic without unreasonable delay and without partiality, and facilities are given for a 
 remedy to parties complaining of want of attention in these respects. 
 
 According to section 7 of the 17 and 18 Viet. c. 31, companies are liable for neglect or 
 default in the carriage of animals or goods, although they may have given notice to the 
 contrary. Where the effect of such neglect or default occasions the loss of or injury to 
 animals, the act provides that no greater damages shall be recovered than as follows: for 
 any horse, £50; for any neat cattle, per head, £15; for any sheep or pigs, per head, £2, 
 unless at the time of delivery for transit, the animals were declared to have been of 
 higher value. No special contract between the company and parties employing the 
 canal shall be binding on the latter unless signed *by them. The act saves the rights, 
 privileges, and liabilities of companies under the carriers’ act, the 11 Geo. IV. and 1 
 Will. IV. c. 68. 
 
 Injury to canals, with intent to obstruct the navigation, is punishable with penal ser- 
 vitude for not more than seven, or less than three years; or imprisonment for two years, 
 with the addition of hard labor, solitary confinement, and whipping, at the discretion 
 of the court. See Carriers. 
 
 CANAL {ante). Since the great extension of railroads in the United States, the 
 building of canals has been suspended, except for mining or manufacturing purposes. 
 
373 
 
 Canal. 
 
 CauanoreD 
 
 For purposes of transportation none have been commenced and very few enlarged 
 or improved within the past half-century. The whole length of canals in the union is 
 about 4,200 m., of which New York has over 1300 m,, Pennsylvania 920, Ohio 800, 
 Indiana 374, Virginia 225, etc. The most imjrortant is the Erie in New York, 363 m. 
 long, connecting lake Erie with the Hudson river, finished in 1825 and enlargement 
 finished in 1862, at a cost of more than $50,000,000. The other large canals are the 
 Delaware and Hudson, the great coal route to New York from the Pennsylvania mines, 
 108 m. long, completed in 1829, cost $6,300,000; the Chesapeake and Ohio, 185 m., cost 
 $11,375,000; the Schuylkill Coal and Navigation company’s canal, 108 m., cost $13,207,- 
 000; and the Wabash and Erie, in Indiana, 374 m., cost $6,000,000. There are 13 canals 
 in New York, 14 in Pennsylvania, 5 in Ohio, 4 in Virginia, 2 in New Jersey, and 1 each 
 in Delaware, Maryland, Indiana, Illinois, and Michigan. The Chesapeake and Ohio canal 
 originated in a project formed by Washington as early as 1774, to make the Potomac 
 navigable from tide-water to Cumberland, and to connect it by common roads and 
 portages with the affluents of the Ohio w. of the Alleghanies. The -war of the revolu- 
 tion postponed the scheme, but in 1784 it was again broached by Washington, and 
 Maryland and Virginia appointed a joint commission, with him at the head, to inves- 
 tigate the subject. The result was the incorporation of a company to make the Potomac 
 navigable from tide-water to the highest possible point by the construction of such locks 
 as might be necessary for that purpose. Of this company Washington was the president 
 until his election as president of the United States compelled his resignation. The 
 project encountered many obstacles, until at last in 1820 it was abandoned as impractica- 
 ble; when the board of public works of the state of Virginia took steps which led to the 
 organization of a new company, which constructed the Chesapeake and Ohio canal from 
 Georgetown to Cumberland, completing it in 1850. It passes through the Potomac 
 valley to Paw Paw Bend, from which point it passes through the mountain by a tunnel 
 3,118 ft. long. The whole length of the canal is 184 m., its depth 6 ft., its width to 
 Harper’s Ferry 60 ft. at the surface and 42 ft. at the bottom. By means of 74 locks, 100 
 ft. long and 15 ft. wide, an elevation of 609 ft. is gained. All the water is supplied by 
 the Potomac. The cost of the work was over $11,000,000. 
 
 CANALET'TO, orCANA'LE, the name of two Venetian painters, who have acquired a 
 reputation for their landscapes and views of towns. The elder, Antonio C., b. 1697, 
 was the son and pupil of a theatrical decorator in Venice. He studied at Rome. He- 
 < painted a numerous series of excellent views in Venice, among which that of the great 
 canal are especially admirable for their fresh coloring, faithfulness, and the invention dis- 
 played in accessory objects. He came to England by the advice of Amiconai. He died, 
 in 1768, after having acquired both wealth and fame by his representations of English 
 scenes, several of which are in Buckingham house, and are highly admired. 
 
 Bernardo Bellotto, surnamed Canaletto, nephew and pupil of Antonio, was b. 
 at Venice, 1724, and attained high excellence as a painter, and also as an engraver on cop- 
 per. He practiced his art in his native place, and afterwards in Rome, Verona, Brescia, 
 Milan, and Dresden. Correct perspective, powerful effects of light and shade, and 
 beautiful sky-tints, are the most prominent characteristics of his works. C. visited Eng- 
 land, where, among several other excellent works, he painted a masterly interior view of 
 King’s College chapel, Cambridge. He died in Warsaw, 1780. 
 
 CANAMI'NA, a t. of Dahomey, Africa, about 12 m. s. of the capital, Abomey. It is. 
 situated in the midst of a cultivated plain, and has a house for the accommodation of 
 white men, set apart by the king. Pop. 10,000. 
 
 CANANDAI'GUA, a beautiful village in New York. U. S., at the n. of the lake of the* 
 same name, on the Rochester and Syracuse railway. Pop. ’70, 4,862. 
 
 CANANDAI'GUA {ante), a beautiful village in Ontario co., N. Y.; the co. seat, 
 situated at the n. extremity of Canandaigua lake, 24 m. s.e. of Rochester, on the New 
 York Central railroad, where it is joined by the Rochester and Elmira, and the Canan- 
 daigua, Black Rock and Tonawanda railroads. The village is celebrated for picturesque* 
 scenery and the elegance of its private residences. Pop. ’75, 7,771. Among the pub- 
 lic buildings are a fine court-house, two orphan asylums, several churches, an academy, 
 and a seminary for women. The Indian name “ Canandaigua” means “ the chosen spot. ’ 
 
 CANANDAI'GUA LAKE, in Ontario co., N. Y., 15 m. long by about 1 m. wide: 
 668 ft. above the tide and 437 ft. above lake Ontario, into which it is emptied by tli€ 
 Clyde and Seneca rivers. It is surrounded with high banks and charming scenery, 
 and its steamboats are largely patronized by pleasure-seekers. 
 
 CANANO'RE, a seaport and military station of the district of Malabar, in the presi- 
 dency of Madras. It is in lat. 11° 52' n., and long. 75° 26' e., being about 50 m. to the 
 n. of Calicut. The town stands at the head of a bay, which, opening from the s., forms 
 its harbor, while the fort and cantonments occupy the bluff headland, which shelters the 
 inlet on the side of the Arabian sea. Besides pepper, grain, and timber, the neighbor- 
 hood produces immense quantities of cocoa-nuts, which are largely exported to the- 
 northward, where they are said to be scarce. C. has been a British possession since- 
 1791, having in that year been taken from Tippoo Sultan. Pop. ’71, 31,070. 
 
Cana. 
 
 Canary. 
 
 374 
 
 CANA OF GALILEE, called by the natives “Kefr Cana.” This place, celebrated in 
 Scripture as the scene of our Lord’s first miracle, when he turned water into wine, is 
 now a small village of a few hundred inhabitants, who are principally Greek Christians 
 or Nazarenes, situated about 13 m. w. of the sea of Galilee, and 6 m. n, of ISazareth. 
 At the entrance to the village there is a fountain of the clearest and most delicious 
 water— the best, say the Christians of Palestine, in the world : from it, it is supposed, 
 the vessels for the marriage-feast were filled ; and near the fountain are also lying the 
 fragments of a Roman column. A house is still shown as that in which the miracle was 
 performed; and some earthen jars sunk into the floor are said to be the very jars in use 
 on that day. A church was built over the spot, but it is now in ruins. 
 
 CANABA, a region on the w. coast of the Indian peninsula, comprising two British 
 collectorates. North C., also called Honawar, the most southerly portion of the Bom- 
 bay province, is, like the other districts in the coast southwards, exceedingly fertile. The 
 area of the district is 4,235 sq.m., and the pop. was 398,406 in 1872. South C., a nar- 
 row strip of hilly and very fertile country, lies in the Malabar like the preceding, but is 
 comprised for administrative purposes in the province of Madras. It is sometimes called 
 Mangalore, from its chief town. Area, 3,902 sq.m. ; pop. in 1871, 918,362. 
 
 CAN ABAC, a t. on the Orissa coast, at the n.w. angle of the bay of Bengal, in lat. 
 19° 54' n., and long. 86° 10' e., being 235 m. to the s.w. of Calcutta. It is remarkable 
 chiefly for the remains in its vicinity of a colossal pagoda. The entire area, a square of 
 about 13 acres, is said to have been surrounded by walls 150 cubits high and 19 broad; 
 and the principal materials appear to have been red granite and black basalt, some of 
 the blocks measuring 15 or 16 ft. in length, by 6 or 8 in width, and 2 or 3 in thickness. 
 Most of the sculptured embellishments have been removed to the temple of Juggernaut, 
 which is in the same district of Pooree as C. itself. 
 
 CANA'BIES, or Canary Islands, a group of islands belonging to Spain in the Atlantic 
 ocean, off the n.w. coast of Africa, in lat. 27° 40' to 29° 25' n., and long. 13° 25' to 18° 16' 
 w. , forming a Spanish province. The group consists of seven large and several small 
 islets, with a joint area of about 3,800 sq. m., and a pop. of (1870) 283,859. The principal 
 islands, proceeding from e. to w., are Lanzarote, Fuerteventura, Gran Canaria, Teneriffe, 
 Gomera, Palma, and Hierro or Ferro. The coasts are steep and rocky, and the surface 
 is diversified with lofty mountains (the greatest elevation being attained in the Pico de 
 Teyde, in the island of Teneriffe, which has a height of 12,182 ft.), narrow gorges, and 
 fertile valleys. All the islands are of volcanic origin. On the summits of the highest 
 elevations, depressions, like those left by fallen cones of volcanoes, are almost every- 
 where found; and the steep declivities are marked by deep fissures, of which, usually, 
 only one penetrates the depressed summit, and exposes to view the several strata of the 
 volcanic rock. There are numerous torrents, but no rivers, and fresh water is very 
 scarce in the southern parts of the islands, and especially in Hierro. 
 
 The researches of Humboldt and Von Buch led to the division of the botanical geogra- 
 phy of Teneriffe into five distinct regions. The first, or region of African forms of 
 vegetation, extends to about 1300 ft. above the sea, and is marked by the growth of the 
 date palm, sugar-cane, dragon’s-blood tree, etc. The second region extends to the height 
 of 2,800ft., and produces vines, corn, maize, olives, chestnuts, etc., in luxuriance. This 
 zone represents the vegetation of southern Europe. In the third region, rising 1200 ft. 
 or so higher, we have laurels and evergreens. In the fourth, extending to above 6000 
 ft., we find vegetation nipped by cold and excessive dryness, snow falling several 
 months of the year, and only the pinus Canariensis and other coniferse flourishing. The 
 fifth region attains an elevation of nearly 11,000 feet. Here are found a kind of spartium 
 (broom) peculiar to this zone, with cedrine junipers, and one Alpine plant, Arahis Alpina. 
 The barren mountain-peaks are just below the limit of perpetual snow, although in a 
 cavern at the height of 11,000 feet above the sea, snow is said to be preserved throughout 
 the year. All the rest of the islands are similar in character, with the exception of 
 Fuerteventura and Lanzarote, which are less elevated, more abundantly wooded, and 
 more luxuriant in vegetation generally. 
 
 Minerals are few, and of little importance. Near the sea, the general temperature 
 ranges from 60°-66° F. in Jan., to 78°-87° F. in October. The rainy season lasts 
 from Nov. to Feb. ; from April to Oct. , the weather is uniformly fine. The islands, 
 however, suffer much from the e. and s.e. winds, which, blowing over the hot deserts 
 of Africa, burn up vegetation, and generate disease. Very little wine is now produced, 
 the grape disease having destroyed almost all the vines. Cactus plants, on which the 
 cochineal insect feeds, now mainly occupy the desolated vineyards, and the value of 
 cochineal exported in 1874 was £435,000, out of a *total value for exports of £596,244. 
 Other products are cereals, tobacco, potatoes, barilla, oil, and fruits. The chief foi- 
 eign trade is with the United States, England, and Hamburg. There is little manu- 
 facturing. 
 
 Teneriffe, the largest island of the group, has an area of 877 m.,with a population 
 of 95,000.* In the n.w. of this island, which is the principal seat of the cochineal cul 
 
 * The population of the separate islands is not from the census of 1870, of which only the total 
 return is available. 
 
375 
 
 Cana. 
 
 Canary. 
 
 tivation, is situated the famous Pico de Teyde, or peak of Teneriffe (q.v.). The chief 
 town and port is Santa-Cruz de Santiago (q.v.), on the n.e. coast. 
 
 Gran Canaria, which is next in importance, has an area of 758 sq.m., with a pop. 
 of 69,000. Its culminating peak is El Cumbre, with a height of 6,648 feet. The capi- 
 tal, Las Palmas (q.v.), on the e. coast, is the largest town of the archipelago. 
 
 Palma has an area of 718 sq.m., and a pop. of 33,000. Its highest peak, Pico de 
 los Muchachos, has an elevation of more than 7,600 feet. Capital, Santa-Cruz des las 
 Palmas (q.v.), on the e. coast. 
 
 The area and population of the other islands are as follows: Lanzarote is 323 
 gq.m., pop. 17,400; Fuerteventura, 326 sq.m., pop. 13,800; Gomera, 169 sq.m., 
 pop. 11,700; Hierro, 82 sq.m., pop. 4,400. The chief towns of these islands are small. 
 
 The C. are supposed to have been the Fortunate islands of the ancients. The Car- 
 thaginians are said to have visited them, and Juba II., king of the two Mauritanias, 
 wrote an account of them that has been transmitted to us by Pliny. In modern times, 
 the first account of them was furnished in the first half of the 14th c., by the crew of a 
 vessel that had been driven among them by stress of weather. A Spanish gentleman 
 obtained a grant of them from the pope ; but when an attempt at settlement was made, 
 the Spaniards were driven off by the natives. In the beginning of the 15th c., the 
 Spaniards succeeded in obtaining a footing in the islands ; but a difference having arisen 
 with Portugal concerning them, it was not until 1493 that the authority of Spain was 
 finally established. Since that time, they have remained attached to the Spanish crown. 
 The Guanches, who were the aborigines of the islands, have long ceased to exist as a 
 separate people, the population being now quite Spanish. They were a brave and intel- 
 ligent race. 
 
 CANA'SHTM, a genus of trees of the natural order amyridacm, natives of the south- 
 eastern parts of Asia, the Malayan archipelago, etc. The fruit is a drupe. The kernel 
 of the fruit of G. commune is eaten both raw and roasted; and in Amboyna, bread is 
 made of it, which is generally in the form of rolls about a yard long and an inch thick. 
 An oil is expressed from it, which is used both for the table and for lamps. The tree 
 is about 50 ft. high. G. sylvestre also produces eatable kernels. G. commune is supposed 
 to be one of the trees which yield elemi (q.v.), and G. microcarpum yields an oil very 
 like copaiva, known in ship-building yards as damar (q.v.). 
 
 CANARY, or Canary Bird, a beautiful little bird, very common as a cage-bird, and 
 much esteemed for its musical powers. It is one of the numerous family of finches 
 {fringillidcB), and isfringilla canaHa of Linnaeus. Some modern ornithologists place it 
 in the genus carduelis, others in linota; it is indeed intermediate between these genera, 
 the goldfinches and the linnets. Some make it the type of a genus or sub-genus, canaria. 
 It is found in Madeira, the Canary isles, and the Cape Verd isles; frequents the neigh- 
 borhood of human habitations; builds its nest of moss, feathers, hair, etc., in thick, 
 bushy, high shrubs or trees; and produces four, five, or even six broods in a season. In 
 its wild state, its plumage is greenish, or greenish-yellow, sometimes tinged with brown, 
 and exhibits less variety and beauty than, in domestication. It was brought to Europe 
 in the beginning of the 16th century. It breeds readily in confinement, and seems 
 thoroughly reconciled to its cage-life; but although canaries of long domesticated races 
 sometimes excel in imitative powers and acquired strains, yet they are surpassed in 
 loudness and clearness of note by some of the wild birds, which, when caught and 
 imported, are occasionally sold for extraordinary prices. Even in confinement, the C. 
 often breeds four or five times a year, laying from four to six eggs each time. The eggs 
 are pale blue. The male assists the female in building the nest and in feeding the 
 young. Besides seeds of various kinds, which are their principal food, canaries are very 
 fond of bland green leaves, such as those of chickweed, a supply of which is very 
 necessary for their health; and one of their favorite luxuries is sugar. The C. not 
 unfrequently lives 15 or 16 years. It can be taught various notes and airs, and some 
 even learn to articulate words. The rearing and training of canaries afford occupation 
 to no small number of persons, particularly in the Tyrol. The C. hybridizes readily 
 with some other species of finch, producing “ mules,” some kinds of which are valued 
 as song-birds. — There are several species very closely allied to the C., one of which, a 
 beautiful little bird, entirely yellow, with an orange crown, a native of Brazil, is some- 
 times sold in Britain as a song-bird, but its musical powers are very inferior to those of 
 the common species. 
 
 CANARY GRASS, Phalaris canariensis, a grass of which the seed is mucli used, under 
 the name of Ganary seed, as food for cage-birds, and which is, on that account, cultivated 
 to some extent in the s. of Europe, nnd in certain districts of Germany and England. 
 It is a native of the Canary islands, naturalized in the s. of Europe, and in many places 
 in Britain. The chief seats of its cultivation in England are the counties of Kent and 
 Essex. The seed is sown early, generally in Feb., yet the crop is not reaped till 
 after the ordinary grain harvest, for which reason the cultivation of C. G. is seldom 
 attempted in the northern parts of Britain. — This grass attains a height of 2 or 3 ft., and 
 has a crowded, egg-shaped, spike-like panicle, from an inch to almost 2 in. long; the spike- 
 lets are one-flowered, very much laterally compressed, a rudimentary scale-like floret on 
 each side of the perfect floret; the winged on the keel, and with two strips of 
 
Canary. 
 
 Cancer. 
 
 37G 
 
 darker green on each side ; the paleoB awnless, shining, and at last firmly inclosing the 
 seed. A fine flour is prepared from Canary seed, which is employed as dressing in fine 
 cotton-weaving, and for the finishing of silken stuffs. The groats and flour of this small 
 kind of grain are also used in the Canary islands, in Barbary, and in Italy, as food, the 
 flour being made into bread, which is very nutritious and pleasant. — Other closely allied 
 species of plialaris produce a similar grain, but are inferior in productiveness and qual- 
 ity. — A grass, now generally referred to this genus, and sometimes called Reed C. G. 
 {phalaris arundinacea), is very common on the banks of lakes and rivers, and in other 
 wet places in Britain, and throughout southern and central Europe. It differs very much 
 in appearance from C. G., having a large spreading panicle, generally of a reddish color; 
 and the glumes are not winged at the keel. It is a somewhat reed-like grass, 4 to 6 ft. 
 high, with creeping roots, which help to secure river banks; and yields a great bulk of 
 hay, but has been very generally despised as a coarse grass, fit only for littering cattle. 
 The justice of this opinion has, however, been called in question, and the grass pro- 
 claimed to be very nutritious, and sufficiently acceptable both to horses and oxen when 
 cut early. It may be mown twice a year. A variety with curiously striped leaves is 
 well known in gardens, as ribbon grass, gardeners’ garters, or ladiss’ traces. 
 
 CANAKY PLANT. See Trop.®olum. 
 
 CANAKY WINE, also known as Teneriffe, is the produce of the Canary islands, and 
 resembles Madeira; but the name is properly applied only to the Bidogne wine, which 
 must be distinguished from the Malvoisie of the Canaries. The former is made from 
 grapes gathered before they have ripened, and, when. new, is crude and unpleasant; but 
 in the course of two or three years, increasing in mildness as in age, becomes so much 
 like Madeira, that it is often sold for it. Like Madeira, it is greatly improved by a voy- 
 age to the tropics. It is produced chiefly on the island of Teneriffe, and the trade in the 
 wine is mostly carried on at the chief poFt of this island. The Canary of the island 
 of Palma is inferior to Teneriffe, but may be consumed sooner, and has a pleasant flavor. 
 
 CANAS TER, the name given to a rush basket in which tobacco is placed in Spanish 
 America; hence is said to be derived the name canaster, now applied to tobacco of a 
 certain kind. 
 
 CANBY, Edward Richard Sprigg, ll.d. ; 1819-73; b. Ky. ; a graduate of West 
 Point; served in the Florida and the Mexican war, and in the war of the rebel- 
 lion; in 1862, made brig.gen. of volunteers, and maj.gen. in 1864. He was severely 
 wounded on two occasions, and was often chosen for special and difficult duty. In 
 1866, he was commissioned as brig, in the regular army. In the winter of 1872-73, he 
 was sent to make a settlement of the difficulties between the Modoc Indians and the 
 Avhites of n. California and Oregon, and was holding a talk under a flag of truce near 
 his camp when he was treacherously shot by capt. Jack, one of the Modoc leaders. 
 
 CANCALE, a seaport of France, 10 m. e. of St. Malo, on the bay of St. Michael; 
 famous for its oyster trade; pop. ’72, 3814. In 1758, the duke of Marlborough here 
 landed an English army of 14,000, intending to attack St. Malo, but returned without 
 making the attempt. 
 
 CANCAN, a wild dance, or rather a series of violent gymnastic exercises, originated 
 by the demi-monde of Paris. Though perhaps quite as decorously clad as the opera- 
 ballet, the C. is considered out of the pale of respectable diversions. There is some 
 resemblance between it and the wild orgies of the Bacchic or Dionysian festivals of 
 ancient Greece. 
 
 CANCAO', CANCAR, or KANG-KAO, also known as Ponthiamus or Potai- 
 MAT, the capital of a small state in w. Cambodia, on the e. side of the gulf of Siam, at 
 the mouth of the river Cancao, 10° 14' n. and 105° 55' east. It was once the center of Cam- 
 bodian trade, but in 1717 the Siamese drove out the merchants who had settled there, 
 since which time the trade of the town has greatly decreased. The harbor is shallow, 
 but there is a good depth of water in the river. 
 
 CAN'CELING of DEEDS and WILLS. The word cancel comes from the Lat. cancelli 
 {lattice-work), and a deed was formerly said to be canceled when lines were drawn over 
 it in the form of lattice-work. The word cancel is now used to signify any sort of 
 obliteration. 
 
 The court of chancery in England gives relief against the effect of improper cancella- 
 tion ; on the other hand, it may order a deed which has been improperly obtained to be 
 delivered up in order to be canceled. The effect of the cancellation is to make the deed 
 void. If a deed is given up to be canceled, and the cancellation does not take place, it 
 remains in force at law. But if an obligee deliver up an obligation to be canceled, and 
 the obligor do not afterwards cancel it, and the obligee happen to get it again into his 
 hands, and sue the obligor on it, the latter cannot plead its voidance, for the deed still 
 remains in force at law — although here, too, equity w'ould relieve, and decree according 
 to the original caneellation. Wliere a deed is canceled by consent of the parties to it, it 
 is thereby destroyed as to their interest under it, but third parties may still produce it 
 in evidence. As to a will, its cancellation may liave the effect of revoking it, if done 
 with such intention. 
 
 In Scotland, the system of registration of deeds and other writings prevents the 
 
377 
 
 Canary. 
 
 Cancer. 
 
 occurrence of many of the questions that arise in England on this head, but the inten- 
 tion and effect of the cancellation or destruction of documents would in most cases be a 
 question of evidence; and where it is necessary to know the contents of the destroyed 
 paper, its effect may be judicially declared by a form of suit called an action for j)romng 
 the tenor, as indeed may be done in an English court of equity by a bill to recover the 
 contents of a lost document. In the Scotch law, again, a deed or other writing may be 
 judicially canceled or set aside by an action of reduction, and the courts in England sub- 
 stantially exercise a similar jurisdiction. 
 
 It would appear that where a testator has prescribed certain forms for the authenti- 
 cation of his will, and such forms have either not been observed by him, or if observed, 
 have, in some essential particular, been negatived by obliteration, an intention to revoke 
 will be presumed: thus, where a Scotchman, who had long resided in India, executed a 
 will, concluding, “In testimony of this being my last will and testament, I hereto set 
 my hand and seal and the document was found in his repositories with the part to 
 which the seal had evidently been affixed cut (not torn) off, the house of lords held the 
 deed to be canceled, because the testator had himself, besides the usual solemnities, 
 prescribed a seal as necessary to the authentication of his will. A will, however muti- 
 lated or canceled by a testator during his insanity, would be good; and of course there 
 is no effectual cancellation when done by a third party without sufficient authority. 
 But all such considerations are questions of evidence. See Deed, Will. 
 
 CANCELING of LETTEES-PATENT. The lord chancellor may cancel the queen’s 
 letters-patent, when granted contrary to the law, “which,” says Blackstone, quoting sir 
 Edward Coke, ‘ ‘ is the highest point of his jurisdiction. ” See Letters-Patent, Chaft- 
 
 CELLOR. 
 
 CANCELLA'EIA, a genus of mollusks — class gasteropoda (q.v.), order pectinibrancM- 
 ata — with univalve shells, sometimes regarded as belonging to the family volutidm, or 
 volute shells (q.v.), but now generally placed among huccinidce, or whelks (q.v.). The 
 spire is prominent, the last whorl ventricose, the surface reticulated, the mouth large, 
 the columella plaited. All the recent species are natives of tropical or subtropical seas, 
 and are found chiefly on sandy bottoms, at the depth of a few fathoms. The fossil 
 species, amounting to 19, occur in thq newer strata from the chalk upwards. 
 
 CANCEE, a disease characterized by slow alterations of structure, or tumors in vari- 
 ous parts of the body, occurring either simultaneously or in a certain order of succes- 
 sion. In many cases, an isolated tumor in an external part is the earliest symptom ; it 
 is then viewed at the starting-point of the disease, and is termed a malignant tumor 
 {tumor mali moris), from its presumed tendency to infect the system, and to cause the 
 reproduction of growths similar to itself. It is right, however, to remark, that upon 
 the pathology of C. authorities are by no means agreed, some holding that a constitu- 
 tional taint or diathesis must always precede any local development of C., and that the 
 first growth in point of time (or primary C.) is therefore only the first of a series deter- 
 mined by a pre-existing cause in the blood or general system; while others hold that C. 
 is originally a truly local disease, or even that a growth at first simple {non-malignant or 
 benign), may, in consequence of local causes, degenerate — i, e., become cancerous, and 
 infect the whole system with the morbid tendency thus secondarily acquired. The dis- 
 cussion of this disputed question involves statements of a too complicated kind to be in 
 place here; but it is a question of considerable importance, as bearing on the probability 
 or improbability of curing the disease by extirpating the primary tumor at an early 
 stage of its development. All authorities are agreed that, when any trace of secondary 
 C. exists, the removal of the parts affected gives scarcely any hope of a favorable result, 
 and, accordingly, operations under these circumstances, unless merely for the relief of 
 local suffering, are discountenanced by all respectable surgeons. The disease, however, 
 is one of which the ignorant as well as the learned have a well-founded dread, and hence 
 it presents a large field for the practice of imposture, and for that less deliberate, but 
 often not less hurtful kind of quackery which is the result of pure ignorance, grafted on 
 a meddlesome desire to do good. We propose to give such a sketch of the characters 
 and progress of cancerous disease as may serve, in some degree, as a protection against 
 ignorance on the one hand, and deception on the other. 
 
 The leading character of C. being a tumor or morbid growth in a part, it is import- 
 ant, in the first place, to observe that not all, nor even the majority, of morbid growths 
 are cancerous. A very large proportion of growths, involving swelling or change of 
 structure in a part, are either determined by a previous process of inflammation — leading 
 to chronic abscess and induration — or belong to what is called the non-malignant order 
 of tumors — e. g., cysts, fatty and fibrous tumors, simple hypertrophy of glandular struc- 
 tures, cartilaginous, bony, calcareous, and vascular growths. See Tumors. Further, 
 among the tumors admitted by general consent into the order of cancerous, there are 
 widely different degrees oi malignancy or cancerousness, so to speak; some having the 
 tendency to spread rapidly, and infect the system at an early period, while other.s remain 
 local for a considerable time, and may be removed while yet local, with good hope of a 
 permanent recovery. 
 
 Now, the practical distinction, or diagnosis, to use the technical phrase, of these dif- 
 ferent tumors, is founded upon a very careful and delicate appreciation of the characters. 
 
Cancer. 
 
 Caucrum. 
 
 378 
 
 of the malignant and non-malsgnant tumors, considered as morbid products, and also 
 upon a thorough knowledge of the anatomy and relations of the textures in which they 
 arise. One of the leading characters of malignant tumors is the tendency to involve, by 
 a kind of specific destruction or degeneration, the ultimate elements of the textures in 
 which they arise and in which they spread. The attempt, therefore, to distinguish these 
 from other growths, must always call for the highest qualities of the surgeon — large 
 experience, guided at every step by consummate science, and, in particular, by minute 
 and thorough knowledge of natural structure. And the difficulties of the inquiry are 
 such, that even in the dead body, or in a tumor excised from the living body, all the 
 resources of the anatomist, aided by the microscope, will occasionally fail in distinctly 
 and surely discovering the true character of the morbid structure. 
 
 The most common seats of C. are, among external parts, the female breast, the eye, 
 the tongue, the lip, the male genital organs, and the bones; among internal organs, the 
 liver, stomach, uterus, rectum, gullet, peritoneum, and lymphatic glands. Some of 
 these parts are more liable to primary, others to secondary cancer. Thus, the female 
 breast, the neck of the uterus, the lower lip, the scrotum, the extremity of the penis, 
 are very often the seats of a single cancerous tumor, which in its early stage at least 
 seems to be unconnected with any constitutional taint; while the liver, the bones, and 
 the lymphatic glands are more frequently the seats of secondary or multiple cancerous 
 tumors. There are also differences in the character of C. itself, apart from its anatom- 
 ical seat, which are to be taken into account in estimating the probability of its being 
 solitary. Some of these differences are regarded by pathologists as amounting almost 
 to specific distinctions; thus, scirrhus, or hard C., observed most frequently in the 
 breast, uterus, and stomach, is more frequently solitary than encephaloid (brain-like), 
 otherwise called medullary, or soft C. ; again, melanosis, ormelanic C., a variety charged 
 with a brown or black pigment, is almost always multiple in its occurrence; while 
 epithelial G. , or epithelioma, as it has been recently termed, of which examples are fre- 
 quently found in the lip, scrotum, penis, or tongue, is so generally solitary as to have 
 led some pathologists to place it in a class altogether apart from the truly cancerous 
 growths, with which, however, it presents too many points of affinity in its fatal ten- 
 dency to recur after operation, and to infect the lymphatic glands and other structures 
 adjoining the part primarily affected. Again, there are certain varieties of fibrous and 
 of cartilaginous tumor, as well as certain tumors of bone, and bone-like tumors devel- 
 oped in soft parts (osteoid), which must be regarded, in the meantime, as occupying a 
 doubtful position between the malignant and non-malignant growths. (Paget, Lectures 
 on Surgical Pathology, vol. ii.) 
 
 Generally speaking, a tumor may be said to fall under the suspicion of being C. when 
 it more or less completely infiltrates the texture in which it arises, and passes from it 
 into the surrounding textures; when it invades the lymphatic glands adjoining the part 
 first affected ; when it is attended by stinging or darting pains, or b}’^ obstinate and 
 slowly extending ulceration, not due to pressure ; wdien it occurs in a person having 
 impaired health, or past the middle period of life, and is not traceable to any known 
 cause of inflammatory disease or local irritation, nor to any other known constitutional 
 disease, such as syphilis or scrofula. The probabilities are of course increased if the 
 tumor be in one of the habitual seats of C., or if it be attended by evidence of disease 
 in some internal organ known to be frequently thus affected. But it is hardly neces- 
 sary to point out that the very complex elements of diagnosis here referred to ought to 
 be always submitted to the scrutiny and judgment of a well-educated medical adviser, 
 whose skill and personal character place him above suspicion, before the disease has 
 assumed such a form as to be beyond the reach of remedial procedure. The patient 
 who broods in secret over a suspicion of C., or who declines to apply for advice from a 
 fear of encountering the truth, is in all probability only cherishing the seeds of future 
 suffering; while if, as often happens, the suspicion is unfounded, a few minutes’ care- 
 ful examination would suffice to remove a source of misery which otherwise would 
 poison the mind for years. 
 
 These remarks apply still more emphatically to the misguided persons who trust to 
 the non-professional cancer-curer, or to the quasi-professional specialist. The charlatan, 
 who pretends to hold in his hands a secret remedy for this most terrible disease, will 
 invariably be found to pronounce almost every tumor C. , and every C. curable. By 
 this indiscriminating procedure, and by the fallacious promise of a cure without an 
 operation, many persons who have never been affected with C. at all, have been per- 
 suaded to submit to the slow torture of successive cauterizations by powerful caustics, 
 at the expense of needless mutilation and no small risk to life. In other cases, truly 
 cancerous tumors have been removed slowly and imperfectly, at the cost of frightful 
 and protracted sufferings, only to return at the end of a few weeks-, and Mr. Spencer 
 Wells has lately shown that in some notorious instances persons were reported as cured, 
 when they had actually died of the disease at no long period after the supposed cure 
 was stated to have taken place. {Cancer and Gancer-curers, Bond. 1860.) 
 
 What is really known as to the cure of C., may be stated in few words. Modern 
 pathological researches render it probable that a complete suspension of the progress of 
 C. sometimes, though rarely, takes place; and individual tumors are found not unfre- 
 quently to undergo partial healing, or even to become entirely metamorphosed into inert 
 
379 
 
 Cancer. 
 
 Cancrum. 
 
 cicatrices, •while others, associated with them, continue to advance. The degree of 
 rapidity of the advance of C. is also, as we have already stated, exceedingly variable. 
 But these observations modify only to a very slight degree the general doctrine, that C, 
 is a disease tending to a fatal issue, and hardly, if at all, under the control of remedies, 
 as to its ultimate result. The removal of a cancerous tumor, indeed, is still resorted to 
 by surgeons; and there appears to be no reasonable doubt that, when performed early, 
 and in well-selected cases, it has been followed by long-continued exemption. But the 
 occasional spontaneous arrest of such growths on the one hand, and the doubtful results 
 of operation in a large proportion of cases on the other, have combined to render 
 surgeons of late years more chary of the use of the knife. In aged persons, in par- 
 ticular, the question often resolves itself into a calculation of the chances of life, founded 
 on a great number of conflicting data, and only to be solved by a careful attention to 
 the state of the general health, as well as to the rate of progress of the local disease. 
 Operations are now very rarely performed after the lymphatic glands are involved, or 
 when tlicre is evidence of a deteriorated constitution, or of internal disease; but some- 
 times great pain, or profuse and exhausting discharge from an external tumor, may 
 justify its removal, as a palliative measure, even under these unfavorable circumstances. 
 For the mode of removal of cancerous and other tumors, see Tumors. 
 
 Among the lower animals, this disease is more rare; nevertheless, cases are not 
 unfrequent, presenting the same malignant characters as those observed in the human 
 subject. Usually manifesting itself in the form of a specific tumor of some organ or 
 tissue, there is a tendency to the invasion of other parts of the system, and the develop- 
 ment of a constitutional state called the cancerous cachexia. M. U. Leblanc of Paris, 
 the best veterinary authority on this subject, has shown that the dog and cat are most 
 frequently affected with C. ; and next in frequency come the pig, ox, horse, and mule. 
 It has not been observed in birds, reptiles, or fishes. Females are more liable to C. than 
 males. It is hereditary, but not transmissible from animals to man, or from one animal 
 to another. It does not disappear under the influence of remedies, but, if possible, the 
 tumors should be excised when first seen, and, if the knife fail to extirpate the malady, 
 cauterization should be had recourse to. A relapse is almost certain ; but Leblanc says 
 there is greater chance for the patient, w^hen a carnivorous animal, if it is kept on a 
 strictly vegetable diet. 
 
 CANCER, the Crab, the fourth of the twelve constellations of the zodiac, usually 
 represented on the globe as a crab, and denoted in works on astronomy by the sign 23, 
 which resembles the number 69 laid sideways. It contains, according to Flamsteed, 83 
 stars, of which the prineipal is Acuhens, a star of the third magnitude. In the divisions 
 of the ecliptic, the sign called C. occupies a place between 90° and 120° from the vernal 
 equinox ; but, owing to precession, the sign and the constellation have not coincided for 
 nearly 2,000 years. See Ecliptic, Precession, Zodiac. Besides Acubens, it has two 
 stars of the fourth magnitude, called by the Romans Aselli or the Little Asses; and a 
 nebulous cluster of minute stars about 2° from the Asses, visible to the naked eye, and 
 which goes by the name of Prmepe, or the Manger. 
 
 CANCER. See Crab. 
 
 CANCER, Tropic op. See Tropics. 
 
 CANCER ROOT, or Beech-drops, Epiphegus Virginiana, a parasitic plant of the 
 natural order orobancliecs (q.v.), a native of North America, growing almost exclusively 
 on the exposed roots of beech-trees. Like all the other plants of its order, it has a 
 curious appearance, having scales instead of leaves. Its stem is branching, and pro- 
 duces distant alternate white flowers, streaked with purple. The whole plant is power- 
 fully astringent; and the root is brownish, spongy, and very bitter and nauseous in taste. 
 It has acquired, in its native country, the reputation of being a cure for cancer. All 
 parts of the plant are used, and externally more than internally. This plant, in conjunc- 
 tion with white oxide of arsenic, is believed to have formed a medicine once famous in 
 North America under the name of Martin's cancer -powder. — Another American plant of 
 the same order, Phelipcea biflora, is sometimes also called C. R., and is used in the same 
 way; and an infusion of the common broomrape {orobanche major) — a native of Britain 
 and of the s. of Europe, parasitic on the roots of broom, furze, and other leguminous 
 plants — has been employed as a detergent application to foul sores. 
 
 CANCRIN', Georg, Count, 1774-1845; a Russian statesman, educated in Germany, 
 and employed in various capacities in Russian service. In 1813, he was commissary- 
 gen. of all the forces, and in 1814, he accompanied the emperor Alexander to Paris. 
 He was minister of finance from 1823 until his death. He was one of the few Russian 
 writers on political economy. 
 
 CANCRUM O'RIS, known also as noma, water-cancer, and water-canker, is a peculiar 
 form of mortification, arising apparently from defective nutrition. The disease seldom 
 occurs except between the 2d and 11th years, and is usually preceded by measles, 
 remittent or intermittent fever, or some other serious disease. The following is the 
 ordinary train of symptoms; more or less general disturbance of the system, accom- 
 panied by loss of appetite, followed by swelling of the salivary glands, and a profuse 
 flow of saliva, which escapes from the mouth involuntarily during sleep ; ulceration of 
 
4^andace. 
 
 Candia. 
 
 380 
 
 the gums, which swell and become livid; looseness of the teeth; and the appearance of 
 ash-colored spots on the gums and adjacent mucous membrane, which turn into dark- 
 colored sloughy sores. These sores spread rapidly by a gangrenous process, expose the 
 bone, and finally make a large aperture in the cheek. In some cases, the entire cheek 
 has been destroyed in a very few days. Fortunately, this terrible disease is more rare 
 in this country than in some parts of the continent, and most of the cases recorded are 
 described by foreign writers. Van Swieten describes a case in which he saw the first 
 set of teeth fall out, the second set destroyed, the lower jaw exfoliated, and the lips, 
 cheeks, tongue, and chin eaten away before the child died. The obvious indications of 
 treatment are to remove the patient to pure air, to administer tonics, nourishing food, 
 and (in moderation) stimulants ; to touch the diseased parts with nitrate of silver, or 
 glyceride of carbolic acid, and to wash out the mouth frequently with a weak solution 
 of Condy’s fluid. 
 
 CAN'D ACE, queen of the portion of upper Nubia called by the Greeks Mero6, prob- 
 ably corresponding with the present province of Athbara, between 13° and 18° north. 
 From its fortunate situation, MeroB became one of the richest countries in the world. 
 Candace appears to have been the name of several female rulers in Ethiopia. The one 
 here meant invaded Egypt 22 b.c., but was defeated by the Roman governor, Petronius, 
 who destroyed Napata, the queen’s capital city. The queen was leniently treated by 
 Augustus. The high chamberlain or treasurer of Candace was converted to Chris- 
 tianity by Philip the evangelist, and there is a tradition that through the efforts of this 
 oflicer the queen herself was converted. 
 
 CANDAHAR', or Kandahar, a mountainous province of Afghanistan, s.w. of 
 Cabool. It is for the most part sterile, though there are fruitful belts along the rivers 
 where tobacco, grain, and fruits are produced. A large transit trade passes through C. 
 between India and Persia. Candahar once formed a part of the latter kingdom; was 
 afterwards subjected to the sovereigns of Delhi ; was once more annexed to Persia, but 
 after the death of Nadir Shah it became a province of Afghanistan. The people are 
 Mohammedans, chiefly of the Sunni sect. 
 
 CANDAHAR', or Kandahar, the capital of central or southern Afghanistan, situated 
 about 200 m. to the s.w. of Cabool. It is in lat. 32° 37' n., and long. 66° 20' e., and has an 
 elevation of 3,484 ft. above the level of the sea. It is in the form of an oblong square, 
 while all its streets run straight, and cut one another at right angles. At the point of 
 intersection there is a large dome {charsu), 50 yards in diameter. Pop. variously esti- 
 mated from 25,000 to 100,000. C. is well watered by two canals drawn from a neigh- 
 boring river, which send to almost every street its own adequate supply ; and the same 
 means of irrigation have covered the immediate vicinity with gardens and orchards. C. 
 IS a place of great commerce, trading with Bombay, Herat, Bokhara, Samarcand, etc. 
 Among its permanent residents, C. has a larger proportion of Afghans, chiefly of the 
 Dooraanee tribe, than any other city of Afghanistan. There are numerous Hindu and 
 Persian merchants. About 2 m. to the northward rises a precipitous rock, crowned by 
 a fortress impregnable to everything but heavy artillery. Here, amid all the disasters 
 of the Afghan war, the British maintained their ground. C. has been a pivot for the 
 history of central Asia during more than 2000 years. It is supposed to have been founded 
 by Alexander of Macedon, owing, most probably, its name to the oriental corruption of 
 Iskender or Scander, as in Scanderoon or Iskenderun of Syria. A comparative blank of 
 upwards of 13 centuries in the history reaches to the famous Mahmoud of Ghiznee, 
 who wrested the stronghold from the Afghans. From that epoch down to 1747, when 
 the native rule was permanently established, C., with brief and precarious intervals of 
 independence, was held by Tartary, India, and Persia in turn. In the war of 1878-79, 
 the British entered C. unopposed. 
 
 CANDAU'LES. See Gyges, ante. 
 
 CANDEISH', or Khandesh, a collectorate in the presidency of Bombay, and con- 
 taining 10,166 sq.m., with a comparatively scanty pop. of (1872) 1,028,642. It lies 
 chiefly in the valley or basin of the middle part of the Tapti, which enters the gulf of 
 Oambay below Surat; and it is bounded mostly by territories of nearly all the powerful 
 native princes — the Nizam, Scindia, Holkar, and the Guicowar. Through its situation^ 
 it necessarily suffered much from the long contest between the Mohammedans and the 
 Mahrattas, and also from the struggles among the rival chiefs of the latter. Accordingly, 
 when, in 1818, it fell to the East India company on the overthrow of the Peishwa, it 
 presented little better than a scene of desolation, with ruined mansions, dismantled 
 towns, and dilapidated temples. The difficulties of the new government were consider- 
 ably aggravated by the Bheels, a more than half-savage race, that formed about an 
 eighth of the population ; and even beasts of prey, particularly tigers, had, under the 
 constant influences of human strife, multiplied to an unusual extent. But the improve- 
 ment was regular and steady. Peace and security reigned; so that roads, formerly haz- 
 ardous for armed parties, were traversed in safety by unarmed individuals. The staple 
 productions are cotton, wheat, and other grains, and also a little indigo. The cultiva- 
 tors are generally in a progressive condition, more especially in the cotton districts, and 
 the well-watered talooka of Baglan. 
 
381 
 
 Candace. 
 
 Candia. 
 
 CANDE'LA, a t. of southern Italy, j>rovince of Foggia, 22 m. s. of the town of Fog- 
 gia Pop. 5,600. It is pleasantly situated on the summit of an eminence. The sur- 
 rounding district is very fertile. 
 
 CANDELA BRUM, a Latin word signifying properly a candlestick (from candela, a 
 candle), but more frequently employed to mean a support for a lamp. There were, per- 
 haps, no articles of furniture in which the ancients combined the beautiful with the 
 useful to so large an extent as in their candlesticks and lamps. Candelabra usually stood 
 on the ground, and were of considerable height — from 4 to 8, or even 10 feet. The most 
 common were of wood; but metals of all kinds, including the precious metals, were 
 used for their construction, and sometimes they were even adorned with gems. The 
 candelabra found at Herculaneum and Pompeii are mostly of bronze. In the temples 
 and palaces of the emperors, they were frequently of marble, and of great size and rich- 
 ness. They have usually a capacious cup at the top, either for the purpose of contain- 
 ing oil enough to feed a large flame, or that they might be used for burning incense. 
 Though varying greatly in details, a general design runs through the forms of the can- 
 delabra of antiquity. They have all a foot or feet, a shaft, and a plinth on which a lamp 
 is placed, or which is furnished with a socket for a candle. The base often consists of 
 three feet of a lion, goat, griffin, or other animal real or imaginary. Sometimes a figure 
 was introduced either into the body of the shaft, or placed on the top of it, in either case 
 supporting the superincumbent portion of the C. on its head. Sometimes a figure was 
 substituted for the shaft altogether, the receptacle for the oil being placed in one hand. 
 In others, the shaft is a sliding one, like that of a music-stand, the object being, of 
 course, to raise or depress the light at pleasure. 
 
 In addition to the various kinds of candelabra which, from their height, seem to have 
 stood on the floor, the ancients had others intended to be placed on a table. These con- 
 sisted either of a pillar or of a tree, and from the capital of the former, or the branches 
 of the latter, lamps were suspended, as in the accompanying illustration, which we 
 •copy from Smith’s Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. The C., in this instance, 
 including the stand, is only 3 ft. high. From the size of the stand in proportion to the 
 rest of the C. , it would seem to have been used for some other purpose. 
 
 CANDIA, in Turkish, “Kirid',’’ called in the most ancient times Idem, afterwards 
 Crete, one of the largest islands of the Mediterranean, is situated at the entrance of the 
 archipelago, in long. 23° 40' to 26° 40' e., lat. 34° 50' to 35° 55' north. It is very irregular 
 in form, its length being about 160 m., and its breadth varying from 6 to 35 miles. The 
 history of C. commences with Greek mythology, and historians and poets say that it 
 was governed by its own kings, among whom were Saturn, Jupiter, and Minos, 1300 
 years before Christ. C. was conquered by the Romans under Metellus, who, on that 
 account, had the title of “Creticus;” on the division of the empire, it fell to the share 
 of the eastern monarchs. In 823 a.d., it was conquered by the Saracens, who built the 
 city of C. on the ruins of Heraclea. In 1204, it was sold by pope Boniface — to whom 
 Baldwin I. gave it — to the Venetians. In 1645, the Turks besieged Canea, and in 1669 
 conquered the island, after a war, which lasted 24 years. The Cretans sigh for a union 
 with Greece, and have repeatedly risen in insurrection against Turkish rule, notably in 
 1866. At the Berlin congress in 1878, the porte engaged scrupulously to carry out in 
 C. the reformed system of government drawn up in 1868. 
 
 The island of C. is for the most part mountainous, the mountains being chiefly com- 
 posed of freestone or marble, which is either gray or white. Towards the s. side of the 
 western part of the island, there is a chain of high mountains, extending in length about 
 37i m., which, from their appearing white, especially at their w. end, were anciently 
 •called Leuci. Mt. Ida, now called by the natives Upsilorites, is one in a chain of 
 mountains extending to the n.w. of the island almost to Retimo; the mountain is of 
 gray marble, and the surface loose stones: there is no verdure on it except a few small 
 shrubs. Jupiter is said to have passed great part of his youth amongst these mountains 
 in the exercise of hunting and drawing the bow. 
 
 The island abounds in springs and fountains, which are found even by the sea-side ; 
 most of the rivers are dry in summer, but in winter many of them are very dangerous 
 torrents. The island does not produce any minerals of importance. The soil of C. is 
 fertile, and produces wheat in abundance. The exports, which consist chiefly of oil, 
 wool, linseed, and fruit, amount in annual value to above £400,000, and the imports to 
 about £440,000. 
 
 C. had once, according to Homer in his Odyssey, 90 cities; there are now only 3 
 principal towns: Megala Kastron, or Candia, pop. 15,000, of which 5,000 are Christians; 
 Retimo or Rhithymnos, pop, 6,000, of which 2,000 are Christians; Canea or Khania, pop. 
 12,000 of which 8,000 are (Christians. The total pop. of the island now numbers 
 little more than 290,000 — less than half its amount at the outbreaking of the Greek revo- 
 lution in 1821. 
 
 The population is for the most part of Greek descent; there are only about 70,000 
 Turks, with a few Arabs and Armenians, in the island. There are, however, many 
 Greek Moslems in C., the worldly advantages which used to result from embracing 
 Islamism having induced whole districts to abandon the faith of their forefathers; but 
 their change of religious faith was unaccompanied by any change of language. 
 
Candia. 
 
 Candleberry. 
 
 382 
 
 CAN'DIA, or Megalo-Castron, formerly the capital and still the most populous^ 
 city of Crete, on the n. shore of the island, 13° 20' n., and 25° 9' east. It is surrounded 
 by fortifications built by the Venetians, but which are now out of repair; and much of 
 the town has also been much injured by earthquakes. The main buildings are the 
 pasha’s palace, 14 mosques, three churches, a monastery, the bazaars, and the baths, 
 it is the seat of an archbishop of the Greek church. The chief trade is in oil and soap, 
 besides which there is considerable coasting commerce. There are manufactures of 
 leather and of wine. The pop. is from 15,000 to 18,000, of whom about two thirds are 
 Turks. Candia occupies the site of the ancient Heracleion, the seaport of Gnossus. 
 The present city was founded by the Saracens in the 9th c. ; was fortified in the 12th 
 G. by the Genoese, and greatly strengthened by the Venetians in the following three 
 centuries. It was taken by the Turks in 1669 after a stubborn defense by the Vene- 
 tians, who lost 30,000 men. 
 
 CANDIAC, Jean Louis Pierre Elizabeth de Montcalm de, 1719-26; a child of 
 wonderful precocity, b. in Msmes, France. At four years of age he read Latin, either 
 printed or written ; at six he understood Greek and Hebrew, had a remarkable acquaint- 
 ance with arithmetic, history, geography, and heraldry, and had read many of the best 
 autllors. He died in Paris at the age of seven. 
 
 CANDIDATE (Lat. candidatus). Among the Romans, a suitor for the office of consul, 
 quaestor, praetor, etc. , was named C. because, in appearing before the people, he wore 
 a white {Candida) toga without a tunic. His dress was chosen partly as an ostentation 
 of humility, and partly as it served to display wounds received in battle. The candi- 
 dature commonly lasted two years: in the first year, the C. was proved by the senate, 
 whose decision, if favorable, was ratified by the popular assemblies; and, in the second, 
 his name was entered in the list of candidates. During this period occurred the ambitio, 
 or canvassing of voters, which often gave occasion to enormous bribery, in spite of the 
 severe enactments passed to prevent the corruption of the electors. The elected C. was 
 styled designatus. 
 
 In the early Christian church, newly baptized converts were styled Candidates, on 
 account of the white garments worn during eight days after baptism. In modern 
 times, a German probationer or theological student who has been approved before the 
 highest ecclesiastical authorities, is called a C. ; but a still broader signification is alse 
 attached to the word, an applicant for any office whatever, religious or secular, being 
 termed a candidate. 
 
 CANDLE, a cylinder of wax or fatty matter, with a wick, intended for giving light. 
 Candles are made principally of tallow; also of the solid portion of palm and cocoa-nut 
 oils, bleached wax, spermaceti, and paraffin, and other oily substances found in coal, 
 shale, and gas-tar. They are either dipped, molded, or rolled. “Dips” are made by 
 stretching a number of wicks upon a suitable frame, so that they may hang down at a 
 distance from each other equal to about double the intended thickness of the C. ; these 
 are then dipped in a trough of melted tallow, and hung upon a rack until cooled, then 
 dipped again and again, until the required thickness is obtained. The dipper has a 
 number of frames prepared before commencing, and by the time he has dipped the last, 
 the first is cool enough to dip again. The tallow in the trough has to be kept only a 
 little above its melting point, for if it were much hotter, it would melt away a portion 
 of the tallow already on the wick, instead of adding to it. Tallow- candles are much 
 improved by being kept a year or a winter before using. 
 
 Molds, or mold-candles, are cast by pouring the tallow down a pewter tube, along 
 the axis of which the wick has been previously fixed. These tubes are well polished in 
 the inside, and several are fitted in a frame, the upper part of which forms a trough, 
 into which the molds all open: thus, by pouring into the trough, all the molds are 
 filled at once. 
 
 Wax-candles are not molded, on account of the great amount of contraction which 
 wax undergoes in cooling, and the difficulty of drawing it from the molds. The wicks 
 are warmed^, and suspended over a basin of melted wax, which is poured over them until 
 they acquire the proper thickness; they are then rolled, while hot, between two flat 
 pieces of smooth hard wood, kept wetted to prevent adhesion. 
 
 Great improvements have recently been made in the manufacture of candles, and 
 these are especially interesting from being the direct results of the progress of scientific 
 chemistry — of theory applied in practice. All oils or fats are composed of one or more 
 fatty acids combined with a base, called glycerine. The fatty acids constitute the com- 
 bustible and more solid portion of the compound. Both acid and base are very weak, 
 and it is a general law in chemistry, that a strong base, under favorable conditions, will 
 separate a weaker one from its acid, by combining with the acid, and taking the place 
 of the weak base; and a strong acid will in like manner displace a weaker one. Lime 
 is a strong base, and being cheap, is used to separate the glycerine from the fatty acid of 
 tallow, palm-oil, etc. This it does when the melted fat is stirred for some hours with a 
 mixture of lime and water. The lime forms a hard insoluble soap, by combining with 
 the fatty acid, and the gl5'^cerine remains in solution with the water. This lime-soap is 
 llien broken to powder; and the weak fatty acid separated^ by means of sulphuric acid. 
 
383 
 
 Candia. 
 
 Candleberrj. 
 
 which combines with the lime, forming sulphate of lime. The whole being heated, the 
 fatty acid floats on the top, is skimmed off, and the candles made from it. These are 
 called composite candles; they give a purer light than ordinary tallow, from being freed 
 from the glycerine, which not only softens the fat, but diminishes its combustibility. 
 Pure stearic acid, or stearine, the chief fatty acid of tallow, is a hard crystalline sub- 
 stance, perfectly dry, and free from any greasiness, with a somewhat pearly luster. Its 
 crystalline structure presents a diflSculty in the manufacture of candles, for when cast in 
 molds, it contracts on cooling, and leaves small spaces between the crystals. This has 
 been obviated by mixing a little arsenic with it ; but this method is now abandoned, on 
 account of the poisonous gas evolved by the combustion of such candles, and the 
 desired effect is obtained by mixing the stearine with a little wax, and pouring it into 
 hot molds. 
 
 To obviate the necessity of snuffing candles, several contrivances have been adopted ; 
 in all of them, the object is effected by causing the wick to bend over and its end to fall 
 outside of the flame, and thus, by coming in contact with the oxygen of the air, to be 
 completely burned — for such combustion cannot take place within the flame. See 
 Flame. This bending over is variously brought about. One method is by twisting 
 the wick with one strand shorter than the rest, which is strained straight while the 
 candles are being cast; and when released by the melting of a portion, it contracts, and 
 bends the wick. Another method is by adding on one side of the wick a paste, consist- 
 ing of a mixture of borax, bismuth, flour, and charcoal. Another, by coating one of 
 the threads of the wick with a metallic envelope, by dipping it in fused bismuth; the 
 metal fuses at the end of the burning wick, and forms a small globule, which bends the 
 wick over, and is itself readily combustible at a red heat. These are called metallic 
 wicks. Various other contrivances have been adopted for the same object. Price’s 
 manufactory of “patent” candles, as these improved candles usually are called, is 
 perhaps the largest in England. It is situated at Vauxhall, in the neighborhood of 
 London, and its economic arrangements have attracted not a little public attention. 
 Paraffin (q.v.), a white crystalline body, obtained by* distillation from cannel coal, etc., 
 iiffords a beautifully white and clear material for candles, and having thus in a great 
 degree the properties of wax at a much smaller expense, it has lately been much used 
 for this purpose. Ozokerit is another oily mineral substance used for candles. 
 
 Candles were early introduced — with symbolical signifleation — into Christian worship, 
 and are still so employed in the Roman Catholic church. In the church of England, 
 candles are sometimes placed on the altar; but the practice is a subject of contro- 
 versy. The numerous superstitious notions and observances connected with candles 
 and other lights in all countries had a more remote origin, and may be considered as 
 relics of the once universally prevalent w^orship of the sun and of Are. Numerous 
 omens are taken from them, and they are also used as charms. In Britain, a portion of 
 the tallow rising up against the wick of the candle, is called a winding-sheet, and 
 regarded as a sure omen of death in the family. A bright spark at the candle denotes 
 that the party directly opposite is to receive a letter. Windy weather is prophesied from 
 the waving of the flame without visible cause, and wet weather if the wick does not 
 light readily. Lights appearing to spring up from the ground, or issue out of a house, 
 and traverse the road or air by invisible agency, the superstitious in Wales and else- 
 where call coi'pse-candles. They are ominous of death, and their route indicates the 
 road the corpse is to be carried for burial. The size and color of the light tell whether 
 the fated person is young or old. It is or was customary in some places to light a 
 candle, previously blessed, during the time of a woman’s travail. C. were supposed to 
 be efficacious after death as well as before birth, for they were placed on the corpse. 
 The object was doubtless to ward off evil spirits, who were supposed to be always on 
 the alert to injure souls on entering and on quitting the world. See also Candlemas. 
 
 CANDLEBERRY, Candleberey Myrtle, Wax Tree, Wax Myrtle, Tallow Tree, 
 or Bayberry, Myrica cenfera, a small tree or shrub of 4 to 18 ft. high, but generally a 
 low-spreading shrub, a native of the United States of America, but most abundant and 
 luxuriant in the south. It belongs to the natural order amentacece, suborder myricem, 
 according to some, a distinct natural order, distinguished by naked flowers, with 1-celled 
 ovary, a drupaceous fruit (stone-fruit) — the scales becoming fleshy — and a single erect 
 seed. The genus myrica has male and female flowers on separate plants; and the scales 
 of the catkin, in both male and female flowers, are concave. The C. has evergreen 
 oblongo-lanceolate leaves with two small serratures on each side at the point, sprinkled 
 with resinous dots. The bark and leaves when bruised emit a delightful fragrance. 
 The drupes — properly called berries — are about the size of peppercorns, and when ripe 
 are covered with a greenish-white wax, which is collected by boiling them and skim- 
 ming it off, and is afterwards melted and reflned. A bushel of berries will yield 4 or 
 5 pounds. It is used ehiefly for candles, which burn slowly, with little smoke, and emit 
 an agreeable balsamic odor, but do not give a strong light. An excellent scented soap is 
 made from it. — M. gale is the Sweet Gale of the moors and bogs of Scotland, well 
 known for its delightful fragrance, a native of the whole northern parts of the world. 
 Several species are found at the cape of Good Hope, one of which, M. cordifolia, bears 
 the name of Wax Shrub, and candles are made from its berries. 
 
Candle-fish.. 
 
 Cane. 
 
 384 
 
 CANDLE-FISH, or Eulachon, TlmleicJitliys Pacificus, a remarkable fish of the familjr 
 salmonidoB, nearly allied to the capelin (q.v.), and, like it, strictly a sea-fish approaching the 
 coasts to spawn, but not entering rivers. The candle-fish inhabits the Pacific ocean, near 
 the western shores of America, from Vancouver’s island northwards. It is not larger than 
 a smelt, has a somewhat pointed and conical head, a large mouth, teeth on the pharyn- 
 geals, and the tongue rough, but the lower jaw, palatines, and vomer destitute of teeth. 
 The color is greenish olive on the back, passing into silvery white on the sides and belly, 
 sparsely spotted with dirty yellow. It is probably the fattest or most oleaginous of all 
 fishes, or indeed of animals, and is used by the Indians not only as an article of food, 
 but for making oil. To broil or fry it, is nearly impossible, because it almost com- 
 pletely melts into oil. Indeed, the Indians often use it, in a dried state, as a lamp for 
 lighting their lodges, merely drawing through it a piece of rush pith, or a strip from the 
 inner bark of the “cypress tree” of these regions, thuja gigantea — a species of arbor 
 vitse— as a wick, a long needle of hard wood being used for this purpose, and the fish 
 being then lighted at one end, burns steadily until it is all consumed. In order to use 
 the dried fish for food, the Indians often melt it into oil, by the application of heat, and 
 drink the oil. It is also eaten uncooked. Drying is accomplished without any gutting 
 or cleaning, the fish being fastened on skewers passed through the eyes, and hung in the 
 thick smoke at the top of sheds in which wood fires are kept burning. They soon 
 acquire a flavor of wood-smoke, and the smoking helps to preserve them. They are 
 then stowed away in large frails, made from cedar-bark or rushes, in order to be used for 
 food in winter. Immense shoals of candle-fish approach the shores in summer, and are 
 caught in moonlight nights, when they come to sport at the surface of the water, which 
 may often be seen glittering with their multitudes. The Indians paddle their canoes 
 noiselessly amongst them, and catch them by means of a monster comb or rake — apiece 
 of pine-wood from 6 to 8 ft. long, made round for about 2 ft. of its length at the place 
 of the hand-gripe, the rest flat, thick at the back, but having a sharp edge in front, 
 where teeth are driven into it abo^ut 4 in. long, and an inch apart. These teeth are usu 
 ally made of bone, but the Indian fishers have learned to prefer sharp iron nails when 
 they can get them. One Indian, sitting in the stern, paddles the canoe; another, stand- 
 ing with his face to the bow, holds the rake firmly in both hands, the teeth pointing 
 stern wards, sweeps it with all his force through the glittering mass, and brings it to the 
 surface teeth upwards, usually with a fish, and sometimes with three or four, impaled 
 on each tooth. This process is carried on with wonderful rapidity. When a sufficient 
 quantity of candle-fish has been dried for winter, the rest that are caught are made into 
 oil, being for this purpose, piled in heaps until partially decomposed, and then placed 
 in large square pine-tree boxes ; a layer about 3 deep in the bottom of each box, covered 
 with cold water, and a layer of hot stones put in, then a layer of small pieces of wood, 
 another layer of fish, stones, and so on. The oil is skimmed from the surface of the 
 water in the boxes. A vast quantity of oil is thus obtained. The candle-fish is an excellent 
 article of winter food in a climate of which the winter is severe ; and notwithstanding 
 its excessive fatness, is of agreeable flavor. It has not yet become an article of econom- 
 ical value to the civilized inhabitants of North-western America, but seems very likely 
 to do so, and to acquire very considerable commercial importance. 
 
 CANDLEMAS, in its ecclesiastical meaning, is the feast of the purification of the 
 Virgin Mary, and is observed on the 2d of Fetouary. This festival is very strictly kept 
 by the Roman Catholic church, there being a procession with many lighted candles, 
 and those required for the service of the ensuing year being also on that occasion con- 
 secrated ; hence the name Candlemas day. In Scotland, this day is one of the four 
 term-days appointed for periodical annual payments of money, interest, taxes, etc., and 
 of entry to premises — the three other term-days there being Whitsunday, Lammas, and 
 Martinmas. See Term. 
 
 An old document of the time of Henry VIII., preserved in the archives of the 
 society of antiquaries, London, concerning the rites and ceremonies in the English 
 church, speaks thus of the custom of carrying candles ; “On Candlemas daye it shall 
 be declared that the bearyinge of candles is done in the memorie of Christe, the spirit- 
 ual! lyghte whom Simeon dyd prophecye [‘a light to lighten the Gentiles’], as it is 
 redde in the churche that daye.” But an older and heathen origin is ascribed to the 
 practice. The Romans were in the habit of burning candles on this day to the goddess 
 Februa, the mother of Mars; and pope Sergius, seeing it would be useless to prohibit a 
 practice of so long standing, turned it to Christian account by enjoining a similar offer- 
 ing of candles to the Virgin. The candles were supposed to have the effect of frighten- 
 ing the devil and all evil spirits away from the persons who carried them, or from the 
 houses in which they were placed. An order of council in 1584 prohibited the cere- 
 mony in England. There is a tradition in most parts of Europe to the effect that a fine 
 C. portends a severe winter. In Scotland, the prognostication is expressed in the fol- 
 lowing distich : 
 
 “ If Candlemas is fair and clear, 
 
 There 'll be twa winters in the year.” 
 
 Christ’s presentation, the holiday of St. Simeon, and, in the n. of England, the wive’* 
 feast-day, were names given to Candlemas day. See Brand’s Popular Antiquities, Bohn’s 
 edition. 
 
385 
 
 Candle-fish. 
 
 Cane. 
 
 CANDLE-NUT, Aleurites triloba, a tree of the natural order euphorbiaceoe (q.v.), a 
 native of the South sea islands, Madagascar, Molucca, Java, etc., which produces a 
 heart-shaped nut with a very hard shell, and a kernel good to eat when roasted, although 
 in a raw state it possesses in a slight degree some of the active properties so common in 
 the eupJhorbiaceoE, and is apt to cause purging and colic. It is about as large as a walnut. 
 An excellent bland oil is procured from it, used both for food and as a lamp-oil. The 
 inhabitants of the Society islands after slightly baking these nuts in an oven, and 
 removing the shell, bore holes through the kernels, and string them on rushes, hanging 
 them up in their houses, to be used for torches, which are made by inclosing four or five 
 strings in a leaf of the screw-pine {pandanus). These torches are often used in fishing 
 by night, and burn with much brilliancy. The lamp-black used in tattooing was 
 obtained from the shell of the candle-nut. A gummy -substance exudes from the 
 candle-nut tree, which the Tahitians chew. 
 
 CANDLESTICK. The ordinary C. is so well known that no description is needed. 
 The most important modern improvement in the C. is a contrivance for maintaining 
 the candle at a uniform height, by means of a spring placed below the candle, and con- 
 fined in the cylindrical body of the C. ; this spring presses the candle upwards with 
 sufficient force to drive it completely out, but for a collar at the top, against which the 
 surface around the wick bears, and thus, as the candle melts, it yields to the pressure 
 of the spring, and maintains a uniform height. The collar, when properly adjusted, 
 also prevents the guttering to which composite candles are liable when exposed to cur- 
 rents of air or moved about. 
 
 CANDLISH, Robert Smith, d.d., an eminent Scottish divine, wash, in Edinburgh 
 in 1806, entered the university, of Glasgow in 1822, and was licensed as a preacher in 
 connection with the established church in 1828. In 1834, he became minister of St. 
 George’s, Edinburgh. From this period, his public career may be said to have com- 
 menced. With intense zeal, he advocated the justice and necessity of ecclesiastical 
 reforms, and became one of the boldest and most vigorous leaders of the popular or 
 “non-intrusion” party. After the disruption (see Free Church), he co-operated with 
 Dr. Chalmers and other chiefs of the newly formed denomination in organizing, con- 
 solidating, and extending its aggressive efforts. In 1845-46, he took an active part in 
 the establishment of the evangelical alliance. In 1847, he was, when Dr. Chalmers 
 died, appointed to the chair of divinity, in the new college, Edinburgh, but did not 
 assume the functions of this office. In 1862, he was appointed principal of the same 
 college. He died Oct. 19, 1873. His best known teachings through the press are Con- 
 tributions towards the Exposition of the Book of Genesis; The Atonement, its Reality and 
 Extent; An Examination of Mr. Maurice's Theological Essays; The Fatherhood of God; 
 and an Exposition of the First Epistle of 8t. John. 
 
 CANDY, See Ceylon. 
 
 C ANDYS (Gr.), a loose gown, worn by the Medes and Persians over their other gar- 
 ments. It was made of woolen cloth, which was either purple or of some other bril- 
 liant color, and had wide sleeves. In the sculptures at Persepolis, nearly all the per- 
 sonages are represented as so attired. A gown of a very similar kind is still worn by 
 Arabians, Turks, and other orientals. 
 
 CANDY-SUGAR is the popular name applied to ordinary sugar when procured in large 
 crystals by the gradual and slow cooling of a concentrated solution of sugar. See Sugar. 
 
 CAN'DYTUFT, Ibh'is, a genus of plants of the natural order cruciferoe, distinguished 
 by unequal petals, the largest being towards the circumference of the dense corymbs in 
 which the ffowers grow, and by an emarginate pouch with the valves keeled and winged, 
 the cells one-seeded, and the cotyledons accumbent. See Cotyledon. The species are 
 chiefly found in the countries surrounding the Mediterranean sea, and the name C. is 
 supposed to be derived from that of the island of Candia, the name Iberis from Iberia 
 (Spain). One species, I. amara, remarkable for its bitterness, is a doubtful native of 
 England. Some species are slightly shrubby, some are herbaceous perennials, some 
 annuals. Some are among the most familiar ornaments of our flower-gardens, as the 
 annual white and purple C. (7. umbellata), the sweet-scented C. (/. odorata), and two 
 slightly shrubby species, I. sempervirens and I. semper for ens, the latter of which, in 
 favorable situations, continues to blossom throughout the whole winter, and pleases the 
 eye at all seasons, both by the abundance and the perfect whiteness of its flowers. 
 
 CANE, a term sometimes indiscriminately applied to any small and smooth rod, of 
 the thickness of a walking-stick or less; but more correctly limited to the stems of the 
 smaller palms and the larger grasses. We thus speak of sugar C., bamboo C., etc., 
 among the latter; whilst among the former, this name is particularly appropriated to» 
 the species of the genus calamus, also called rattan. To this genus belong the canes 
 largely imported from the tropical regions of the east for making bottoms of chairs, 
 couches, etc. See Rattan. 
 
 CANE, or Ken, a river rising in Bundelcund, near lat. 23° 54' n., and long. 80° 13^ e., 
 and, after a n.n.e. course of 230 m., entering the Jumna in lat. 25° 47' n., and long. 
 80° 35' east. It is too rapid and rugged for navigation ; and is remarkable for the match- 
 less beauty of its pebbles. 
 
 U. K. III.— 25 
 
Canea. 
 
 Canis. 
 
 386 
 
 CANE'A, or Can'na, called ^7 the Greeks,^ 
 
 Candia or Crete, and is capital DreLnt city is of Venetian origin, and 
 
 occupies the site of the ^ydonia. The^p^^^^^ 
 
 dates from 1252 a.d., when a colony , been in arms, and at open war 
 
 Its foundation was to keep ^ the day when the Venetians 
 
 withtheivltahaniords almost ^ 
 
 first set foot on their shores. ^ ^cnet a surrounded by a strong wall and deep 
 
 ways of some of the principal k •' ’ ^ ^ * _c o>rpnt dilanidation* it has a good but 
 
 ditc\, both of which, l^owever are Jp.rts to 
 
 very shallow harbor. C. is the principal 1874) wax, etc. Several 
 
 France and Italy, oil (530 tuns lo Turkish governor of the province, 
 
 nAi'crTf' DFTT A SC ALA 1291-1329; known also as Can Grande, great ^og, a 
 CANE DELLA SOAIjA, rinplnhs In 1318. he was appointed 
 
 noted prince of Verona, A^hich brought upon him the pope’s 
 
 to the chief command of the illness while making a 
 
 excommunication After cathedral of that city. His court was the 
 
 triumphal entry into Treviso, and died time entertaining: Dante, among otlier 
 
 . small asce“ 
 
 whole tree is very aromatic, in commerce as white-wood. . 
 
 young branches is the G. tark rV Wms a considerabie articie of export, 
 
 Lrt,and sometimes called regarded as intermediate between' 
 
 tudes (which may be seen on the . artists of Greece. Similar statues are' 
 
 fru's:St "“"j 
 
 caryatides. j 
 
 CANE SUGAR. See Sugar. ' 
 
 CA'NES VENA'TICI (Lat. hunting dogs)., a constellation of the ^ 
 added by Hhlvetius and known 2™^% an*Chara''°'on the celestial globe, they are 
 
 " Cb “rin instrument of de^^ad^P— 
 
 It consists of a large wooden mrtTwhere the C. fastens are pasted slips o1 
 
 is usually from 50 to 60 pounds. t the culprit may not be relieves 
 
 paper, on which the mandarin places ’ sometimes extends to 15 days. Or ► 
 
 until the full term of and the duration of the punishment 
 
 the C. is also inscribed, in 'arge letters the ugg is then left expose! 
 
 Srml* timrlulS^T ‘Ms tcapable o^ using his hands, he has to b|. 
 
 fed during the time he is suffering the penalty. 
 
 CANGA.ARGUEL'LES, Josb', ret‘ur.| 
 
 opponent of Napoleon, and an energetic “^mbe , . Under the restoration o| 
 
 of the Bourbons he was exiled to the made many reforms. Aftel 
 
 KroMthS i“?rcMe^”otf »» <! 
 
 apo'o^^re.”bySvicV^^^^^^^^^ 
 
 ?„"‘7’‘l8‘‘«ievtsuel ‘araL'ihilated the Moorish invaders. Pop. 700, 
 
387 
 
 Canea. 
 
 Canis. 
 
 CANGE, Du. See Dufeesne, Charles, ante. 
 
 CANGIA'GI, or CAMBIA'SO, Luigi, 1527-85; a Genoese painter, taught by his father. 
 He gained celebrity at an early age, and, in 1583, was invited to Spam by Philip II. to 
 assist in the decoration of the Escurial, in which he painted the ceiling of the choir, 
 representing the “Assemblage of the Blessed,” which is considered his best work. 
 Among others of his works are the “ Rape of the Sabine Women,” the “ Sleeping Cupid,” 
 and “Judith.” 
 
 CANICAT'TI, a t. in Sicily, in the province of Girgenti, and 15 m. e.n.e. of the city 
 of that name. It is situated on the banks of the Naro, is well built, and has sulphur 
 mines. The inhabitants (1872), 20,908 in number, are principally engaged in agricultu- 
 ral pursuits. 
 
 CANIC ULAR, Canicular Days, or Dog-days, Canicular Year. Canicular was an 
 old name of Canis Minor (q.v.); it was also used to denote Sirius, or the dog-star, the 
 largest and brightest of all the stars, and which is situated in the mouth of Canis 
 Major (q.v). From the heliacal rising (q.v.) of this star (Sirius), the ancients reckoned 
 their dog-days, or dies caniculares, which were 40 in number — 20 before, and 20 after 
 the rising of the star. The rising of the dog-star was in ignorance supposed to be the 
 occasion of the extreme heat and the diseases incidental to these days. It was by mere 
 accident that the rising of the star coincided with the hottest season of the year, in 
 the times and countries of the old astronomers. The time of its rising depends on 
 the latitude of the place, and is later and later every year in all latitudes, owing to 
 precession. In time, the star will rise in the dead of winter. The canicular year was 
 that known among the Egyptians and Ethiopians. It was computed from one rising of 
 Sirius to the next, and consisted ordinarily of 365 days, and every fourth year of 366. 
 This year was sometimes called the heliacal year. The reason for computing the year 
 from the rising of Sirius, seems to have been that, at the time, the heliacal rising coin- 
 cided with the greatest swelling of the Nile. 
 
 CAN'IDJE (Lat. canis, a dog), a family of the digitigrade (q.v.) section of carnivorous 
 mammalia, which, as now generally defined, is less extensive than the Linnsean genus 
 canis, the hyenas being excluded from it, and referred to the famil}’' viverridm (civets, 
 ichneumons, etc.). Those families are, indeed, closely connected, and hyenas may b® 
 said to form a connecting-link between them, the dentition, however, making a nearei 
 approach than in either of them to that of the cats or felidm . — The C. have two flat 
 tuberculous molar teeth or grinders on each side, behind the great carnivorous cheek- 
 tooth — the last premolar — of the upper jaw, a dentition resembling that of the bear 
 family, or ursidoc, to which they exhibit a further resemblance in their power of adapt- 
 ing themselves to the use of vegetable food. Their whole organization fits them to be 
 less exclusively carnivorous than the feline tribe. They have generally three incisors or 
 cutting teeth, with one large canine tooth, and four premolars on each side in each jaw, 
 two true molars on each side in the upper jaw, and three in the lower. The true molars 
 are adapted for crushing either bones or vegetable food. The last premolars in the 
 upper jaw are remarkably large, and particularly adapted for cutting flesh. See Dog, 
 Fennec, Fox, Jackal, Lycaon, Wolf, etc. 
 
 CANFNA, Luigi, Cavaliere, 1793-1856; b. in Piedmont; an architect and archae-’ 
 ologist. He was professor of architecture at Turin, and superintended the excavation of 
 Tusculum in 1829, and of the Appian Way in 1848. He wrote many works on archi- 
 tecture and archaeology, some of which were published in the most sumptuous manner 
 by his patroness, the queen of Sardinia. 
 
 CANINES, or Canine Teeth, the four teeth, two in each jaw, which are pointed 
 and stand between the incisors and the bicuspids; sometimes called “eye teeth” or 
 “ stomach teeth.” In lions, wolves, dogs, and other carnivora they are large and strong, 
 for holding prey and tearing raw flesh. 
 
 CANI'NI, Giovanni Agnolo, 1617-66; b. in Rome; a painter and engraver, pupil 
 of Domenicheno and of Barbalvenga. He painted altar-pieces in Rome, among which 
 are the “ Martyrdom of St. Stephen,” and that of St. Bartholomew. He was engaged 
 by Colbert to design from medals, antique gems, and other sources, portraits of 
 the most illustrious characters of antiquity; but he died soon after the work was begun, 
 
 U leaving the completion to his brother Marcantonio, who, with the assistance of Picard 
 and Valet, published, in 1699, 150 engravings. 
 
 CANISTUS, Petrus, 1521-97; a Dutch Jesuit, who took a prominent part in the 
 council of Trent in 1545; was preacher to Ferdinand I., and the first ecclesiastical gov- 
 ernor of the Jesuits in Germany. He established colleges of the order at Prague, Fri- 
 I bourg, Ausburg, and Dillengen. He was the author of two catechisms, the larger and 
 r the smaller, the latter of which has passed through more than a hundred editions. 
 
 !: CA'NIS MA'JOR, the Greater Dog, a constellation of the southern hemisphere, below 
 
 |i the feet of Orion. It contains Sirius, the brightest of all the stars, and its place may be 
 i; found by means of this star, which is on the continuation of the line through the belt of 
 ^Crion. According to Flamsteed, it contains 31 stars. 
 
Canig. 
 
 Cannibal. 
 
 388 
 
 CA'NIS MI'NOR, the Lesser Dog, is a constellation of the southern hemisphere. It is 
 near Ciiiiis Major, and just below Gemini. Procyon, of the first magnitude, is its prin- 
 cipal star, and lies in a direct line between Sirius and Pollux; so that the position of 
 the constellation may be found by means of this star. According to Plamsteed, it con- 
 tains in all 14 stars. 
 
 CANISTER SHOT. See Case Shot. 
 
 CANKER, a disease of plants, especially fatal to fruit-trees in many gardens. It is a 
 kind of gangrene, usually beginning in the young shoots and branches, and gradually 
 proceeding towards the trunk, killing the tree in the course of a few years. Wet sub- 
 soils seem in many cases to induce it, and it begins most readily in shoots that have been 
 imperfectly ripened and injured by frost, or which have received some accidental 
 wound. Those varieties of fruit-trees which have been long propagated by grafting 
 and budding are most liable to it. It is sometimes cured by heciding down the tree, and 
 causing it to throw out new branches. 
 
 CANKER, a vague term applied to various diseases of the lower animals, characterized 
 by their chronic nature, and consisting chiefly in ulceration, suppuration, and the devel- 
 opment of fungoid excrescences in the parts affected. 
 
 CANKER, in the foot of the horse. This malady, believed by Gerlach, of Berlin, to 
 be truly cancerous, is observed in two different forms : in the acute stage, when the 
 naalady is chiefly local ; and in the chronic stage, when the constitution suffers, and all 
 local remedies fail to restore a healthy function of the structures of the foot. 
 
 Symptoms . — It usually commences by discharge from the heels, or the cleft of the 
 frog of the horse’s foot. The horn becomes soft and disintegrated, the vascular struct- 
 ures beneath become inflamed, and the pain which the animal endures is intolerable. It 
 is therefore very lame on one, two, or all feet, according to the number affected. 
 Though there is no constitutional fever, the horse becomes emaciated, and unfit for 
 work. During wet weather, and on damp soil, the symptoms increase in severity. The 
 sore structures bleed on the least touch, and considerable fungoid granulations, 
 commonly called proud flesh, form rapidly. 
 
 Causes . — This disease is occasionally hereditary, and it is most frequently seen in 
 low-bred draught or coach horses. Dirt, cold, and wet favor the production of the 
 disease, and there is always a tendency to relapse when once an animal has been 
 affected. 
 
 Ireatment . — Pare away detached portions of horn, and, in mild cases, sprinkle pow- 
 dered acetate of copper over the sore; apply over this pledgets of tow, fixed over the 
 foot by strips of iron or wood passed between shoe and foot. In severe cases, tar and 
 nitric acid, creosote and turpentine, chloride of zinc paste, and other active caustics, 
 have to be used for a time with the regular employment of pressure on the diseased 
 surface. The animal requires to be treated constitutionally by periodical purgatives 
 and alteratives. Good food, fresh air, and exercise often aid much in the treatment of 
 the disease. 
 
 CANKER {ante), in the human being, is developed chiefly among children in the 
 form of ulceration of the mucous membrane of the mouth, commonly the result of indi- ■ 
 gestive derangement. In general it is only a local and temporary aflfliction, and may be ; 
 removed by proper application of nitrate of silver, either solid or in a solution, or with < 
 borate of soda. ' 
 
 CANKER WORM, Anisopterys, a genus of destructive insects of the order lepidoptera 
 and family geometridae. The female moths, from the eggs of which this worm comes, '< 
 are wingless. In the spring they creep up the trunks of trees, on which they deposit 
 their eggs. These soon produce the worms, which feed upon young leaves of fruit- 
 trees and of nearly all cultivated trees. After about four weeks of feeding they creep 
 down, or let themselves down by a web, and burrow in the ground, where they change 
 to chrysalis, and remain until the following spring. Like other geometridae, the worm I 
 has six legs forward and four stout prop legs behind. In consequence of their eingular 
 mode of locomotion they are often called measuring, or inch or span, or loop worms or 
 geometers. As the female moth cannot fly, trees may be protected from this worm by | 
 surrounding their trunks with a hollow vessel filled with oil or thin tar, which prevents 
 the ascent of the egg-laying moth; but in recent years the sparrows introduced from 
 England have entirely subdued this worm in many districts that had been completel}' 
 denuded of leaves almost every summer. This remedy, however, is worse than the 
 disease. The English sparrow is not, in general, an insect-eating, but is a grain-eating 
 bird; it is very pugnacious, and as prolific as the rabbit; it has driven away the native | 
 birds wherever it lias gained a footing, and as there are many other insect leaf-eaters : 
 which it will not touch, and which no other birds are left to destroy, the trees are in ji 
 nearly as great danger as before, while the grain-fields of farmers are beginningto suffer r 
 severely from the ravages of the sparrows. • ! 
 
 GANNA, a plant of the order marantacece, a species of reed, the fruit of which is a 
 hard black seed growing in a capsule. The starch of C. is sometimes used instead of i 
 arrow-root. It grows along the coast in the southern states, and is becoming a common || 
 ornamental plant in the north. I 
 
389 
 
 Canis. 
 
 Cannibal. 
 
 CANNA, one of the islands of the Hebrides, off the w. coast of Scotland, 7 m. s.w. 
 of Skye, and 3 m. n.w. of Rum. It belongs to Argyleshire, and is m. long from e. 
 to w., and 1 m. broad. The surface stands high above the sea, and consists of trap 
 (clay-stone, porphyry, and trap conglomerate, with fragments of old red sandstone and 
 bituminous wood), which has overflowed thin laminae of coal and shale. The island 
 has a hill of basalt, called Compass hill, which reverses the magnetic needle. Pop. 
 ’71, 48. 
 
 CANNABINA'CE.®, a natural order of dicotyledonous plants, or, according to many, 
 s, suborder of Urticace^ (q.v,), differing from the proper urticacm chiefly in the sus- 
 pended exalbuminous seed, and hooked or spiral embryo. But only two plants of the 
 order or suborder are known, both of them valuable. Hemp (q.v.) and the Hop (q.v.). 
 
 CAN'NABIS IN'DICA. See Hemp, ante. 
 
 CAN'NE (ancient Cannot, a t. of Southern Italy, in the province of Bari, 8 m. w.s.w. 
 of Barletta, not far from the mouth of the Ofanto, formerly the Aufldus. It is celebrated 
 on account of the great victory here gained by Hannibal over the Romans in the summer 
 of 216 B.c. Hannibal crossed the Aufldus at a ford, and attacked the Romans, who in 
 a short time were almost annihilated by the terrible Numidian cavalry. Among those 
 left on the field were Paulus JEmilius, the consul of the previous year; Minucius, the 
 late master of the horse ; and a vast number of Roman knights. The loss of the Romans 
 is stated by Livy at 45,000 infantry and 3,000 cavalry. As Hannibal lost in the battle 
 8,000 men, he did not think it prudent to follow the advice of Maharbal, and advance 
 rapidly on Rome. Twenty thousand Romans were made prisoners, partly on the field 
 of battle and partly in the camp. 
 
 CANNEL COAL. See Coal, ante. 
 
 CANNELTON, a t. in Perry co., Ind., 70 m. above Evansville; pop. ’70, 2,481. Near 
 the town are the most extensive coal mines below Pittsburg. Fire-clay, sandstone, and 
 limestone are also abundant. There is a large cotton mill in the village. 
 
 CANNES, a seaport t. of France, in the department of Alpes-Maritimes, pleasantly 
 situated on the Mediterranean, on the road to Nice. It is famed for its salubrity, which 
 has induced a number of English families to make it a winter residence. Lord Brougham 
 used to occupy a fine villa here. Latterly, the town has been much improved. It has 
 fisheries of anchovies and sardines, and a trade in the produce of the district. After his 
 escape from Elba, Bonaparte landed about a mile and a half to the e. of C., Mar. 1, 1815. 
 Pop. ’76, 13,519. 
 
 CANNIBAL (derived from a variety in the spelling of Caribs, the original inhabitants 
 of the West India islands, who were reputed to be man-eaters, and some tribes of whom, 
 having no r in their language, pronounced their name Canib), means, like the Greek 
 word anthropophagos, which is often used instead of it, one who feeds on human flesh. 
 The practice is often attributed by classical and early Christian writers to races whose 
 practices they denounce as abominable; but the denunciation is often better evidence 
 of the abhorrence of cannibalism by those making the accusation than of its practice by 
 the accused. Homer makes Polyphemus eat men, but only as one of his other unnatural 
 attributes as a monster. The early Christian writers frequently attributed cannibalism 
 to the unconverted. St. Jerome gives his personal testimony to the practice, stating that 
 when he was a little boy living in Gaul he beheld the Scots — a people of Britain — eating 
 human flesh; and though there were plenty of cattle and sheep at their disposal, yet 
 would they prefer a ham of the herdsman or a piece of female breast as a luxury. State- 
 ments in old authors still more absurd induced some thinkers to believe that cannibalism 
 is unnatural, and to deny that it was ever practiced by human beings expect under the 
 pressure of starvation. The accurate observation of late travelers has, however, put it 
 beyond doubt that cannibalism has been and is systematically practiced. Comte, as part 
 •of his system of positive philosophy, accepting of cannibalism as a condition of barbar- 
 ism, maintains that the greatest step in human civilization was the invention of slavery, 
 since it put an end to the victor eating the vanquished. The facts, however, which we 
 possess, show that the people systematically addicted to human flesh are not the most 
 degraded of the human race. For instance, in the Australian continent, where the 
 larger animals are scarce, the people, who are of an extremely degraded type, feed on 
 Worms and herbs, and have only been knowm in casual and exceptional conditions to 
 feed on human flesh. The New Zealanders, on the other hand, who are the most highly 
 developed aboriginal race with which late European civilization has had to compete, 
 w^ere, down to a late period, systematic feeders on human flesh, despising the inefficient 
 food which satisfled the natives of Australia. In Angas’s New Zealand Illustrated, there 
 is a picture of the country mansion of the accomplished chief Rangihaeta, “ one of the 
 finest specimens,” says the author, “of elaborately ornamented dwellings yet extant.” 
 Its nanie is Kai Tangata, which means, eat man; and it has been so called in pleasing 
 memorial of the feasts held within its walls. It has been supposed that the reason why, 
 among the Jews and several eastern nations, the eating of swine’s flesh was forbidden 
 as an unclean food, was its resemblance to human flesh, and the danger that persons 
 accustomed to the one might not retain their abhorrence of the other. In the crusades, 
 the Saracens charged their Christian enemies with eating unelean food, including flesh 
 
Canning'. 
 
 Cannon. 
 
 390 
 
 of men and of swine. In the old romance of Richard coeur de lion, he is represented,, 
 on recovering from sickness, as longing for a piece of pork; but that not being procur- 
 able, a piece of a Saracen’s head was substituted for it, and pronounced by him to be 
 infinitely more palatable. There have been many sad instances where people whe 
 naturally had a horror of such food, have been driven by starvation to eat human flesh 
 — as in sieges and shipwrecks. Besides these instances, however, and the systematic can- 
 nibals, there is no doubt that people not otherwise habituated to the practice, have been, 
 excited by ferocity and revenge to eat, and with relish, the flesh of enemies. In 
 many of the cannibal countries, only the flesh of enemies is consumed. As an instance 
 that this is a natural development of ferocity in degraded natures, we may take the fate 
 of the princess Lamballe in the French revolution, whose heart was plucked out by one 
 of the savages of the mob, taken to a restaurant, and there cooked and eaten by him. 
 The great Highland chief, sir Ewen Cameron of Locheil, in a death-struggle with an 
 English trooper, killed him by biting a piece out of his throat, and used to say it was the 
 sweetest morsel he had ever tasted. 
 
 CANNING, Charles John, Viscount, second son of the statesman George, was b. 
 Dec., 1812. Educated at Eton and Oxford, he succeeded to the peerage as viscount C. 
 on his mother’s death in 1837, his elder brother, who was a captain in the navy, having 
 been drowned at Madeira in 1828. In 1841, he became under-secretary of state for for- 
 eign alfairs in sir Robert Peel’s government, and afterw^ards commissioner of woods and 
 forests. When lord Aberdeen came into office, he was made postmaster-general; and in 
 the beginning of 1856, he succeeded lord Dalhousie as governor-general of India. His 
 conduct during the awful crisis of the Indian mutiny was decried at the time by many 
 as weak and pusillanimous; but the general opinion now, when all the circumstances of 
 the case are better known, is that he acted with singular courage, moderation, and judi- 
 ciousness. He died in London, 17th June, 1862. 
 
 CANNING, George, a distinguished British statesman and orator, was b. in London,. 
 April 11, 1770. His father, who was descended from an ancient family, incurred the 
 displeasure of his relatives for marrying beneath his station, and died in poverty when 
 his son was only a year old. His mother (who for a subsistence tried the stage, with but 
 little success, married an actor, and subsequently a linen-draper) lived to rejoice in the 
 success and participate in the good- fortune of her boy, whose education was liberally 
 provided by an uncle. C. was first educated at Eton, from which he passed, at the age 
 of 17, to Christ’s church college, Oxford, where he greatly distinguished himself, espe- 
 cially in classics. While here, he cultivated the friendship of the Hon. Charles Jenkin- 
 son (afterwards lord Liverpool), who was of considerable service to him in after-life. 
 Prom Oxford he went to Lincoln’s inn, but on the suggestion of Burke, as it is said, he 
 soon relinquished the bar for a parliamentary career. He entered the house for Newport, 
 Isle of Wight, in 1793, as the protege and supporter of the minister, Pitt. In 1796, he was 
 appointed an under-secretary of state. It was not, however, until 1798 that C. made a 
 reputation as an orator and a statesman, by his speeches in favor of the abolition of the 
 slave-trade, and against Mr. Tierney’s motion regarding peace with the French directory, 
 the latter of which, especially, was regarded as a masterpiece of eloquence, alike by the 
 house and the country. In the debates on the habeas corpus suspension act, the union 
 with Ireland, and other important questions, C. gave valuable assistance to the ministr}', 
 not only by his voice in parliament, but by his pen in a satirical paper, called the Anti- 
 Jacohin, in which he especially lashed the “ new philosophy,” as it was called, promul- 
 gated by the French republicans. The Knife Grinder is one of the best known and hap- 
 piest of his efforts in this line. In 1801, Pitt resigned office, and C. joined the opposi- 
 tion against the Addington ministry. When Pitt again became premier in 1804, 0. was- 
 made treasurer of the navy, an office which he held until Pitt’s death in 1806. His oppo- 
 sition to the short-lived Grenville ministry which succeeded, savored of the bitterness of 
 party feeling, and his treatment of Pox in his last days, and of his memory after his 
 death, was far from generous. When the Portland ministry was formed in 1807, C. was 
 appointed minister for foreign affairs, a position for which he was specially qualified, 
 and his dispatches, written at this time, are models of manliness and lucidity. In 1812, 
 all his eloquence was enlisted in favor of Catholic emancipation. During the same year 
 he was elected for Liverpool, for which he was again returned three successive times. 
 In 1814, he went as ambassador to Lisbon, returned in 1816, and was made president of 
 the board of control, and supported the Liverpool ministry in all their arbitrary and 
 repressive measures until 1820, when he resigned, in consequence of the action of the 
 government against queen Caroline. Nominated governor-general of India in 1822, he 
 was on the eve of departure when the suicide of the marquis of Londonderry called him 
 to the head of foreign affairs. In this capacity, C. conferred lasting benefits on his 
 country. He infused a more liberal spirit into the cabinet, he asserted the independence 
 of British politics against the diplomacy that would have entangled the nation with the 
 Holy Alliance, and gave a new direction and impetus to commercial affairs by a gradual 
 laying aside of the prohibitive system. He arranged the relations of Brazil and Portu- 
 gal ; drew the French cabinet into agreement with the British respecting Spanish Araeri- i 
 can affairs; was the first to recognize the free states of Spanish America ; promoted the i 
 treaty combining England, France, and Russia, for a settlement of the affairs of Greece, j 
 
391 
 
 Canning:. 
 
 Cannon. 
 
 and which was signed July 6, 1827; protected Portugal from Spanish invasion; con- 
 tended earnestly for Catholic emancipation ; and prepared the way for a repeal of the 
 corn-laws. In Feb., 1827, a stroke of paralysis forced the earl of Liverpool to resign, 
 and Mr. C. was called upon to form a new administration. His health, however, gave 
 way under the cares of office, and he died 8th Aug. of the same year. His remains 
 were interred in Westminster abbey, near those of Pitt. As a parliamentary orator, C. 
 holds a prominent place in British annals. His acuteness of mind, power of expression, 
 and well-pointed wit, were remarkable; but, on the whole, he was inferior to Pitt, Burke, 
 and Fox. He lacked the imposing characteristics of the first, the overpowering enthu- 
 siasm of the second, and the winning address of the last. He was intensely British, and 
 his foreign policy was of the character best calculated to promote British interests. 
 
 His speeches have been reprinted in 6 vols. 8vo, by Therry, and several memoirs, 
 including one by his private secretary, Mr. Stapleton, have been published. 
 
 CANNING, Sir Stratford. See Stratford de Redcliffe, Viscount. 
 
 CANNON is a general name for large pieces of ordnance or artillery, as distinguished 
 from those pieces which can be held in the hand while being fired. No military weapon 
 in use before the invention of gunpowder can fairly come under this designation ; they 
 were more generally of the kinds described under Balista. At what exact date C. were 
 first used is not known; but C., called “ crakys of war,” were employed by Edward III. 
 against the Scots in 1327, by the French at the siege of Puy Guillaume in 1338, and by 
 Edward III. at Crecy, and at Calais in 1346. The first C. or bombards were clumsy, 
 wider at the mouth than at the chamber, and made of iron bars hooped together 
 with iron rings. The balls fired from them were first made of stone, afterwards super- 
 seded by iron. In the 15th c., various kinds were known by the names of C., bom- 
 bards, culverins, serpentines, etc. Bombards of great length and power were employed 
 by Louis XI. during his Flemish campaign in 1477, some with stone balls, some with 
 iron. About this time, C. began to be made by casting instead of with hooped bars; and 
 bronze or brass as a material began to be used as well as iron. The C. of the 16th c. 
 were generally smaller, but better finished, than those of the 15th. The largest C. made 
 in the 17th c., so far as is known, was the Bejapoor cast-iron gun, “Malick e Meidan,” 
 or “Lord of the Plain,” made either by Aurungzebe or by the Mahrattas; it was 14 ft. 
 long, 28 in. bore, and required a ball of 1600 lbs. weight. From the time of the great 
 European wars in that century, C. have undergone vast improvements, as well as the 
 science and art of artillery necessary for their management. Major Straith, a leading 
 ;authority on this matter, gives the following 'tabular view of the chief kinds of ordnance 
 in use in the British service, prior to the introduction of rifled guns: 
 
 Kind. 
 
 Iron shell guns. . 
 Long iron guns. . 
 
 Long brass guns. 
 
 Iron howitzers.. . 
 Brass howitzers. . 
 
 Iron carronades. 
 
 Iron mortars. . . . 
 Brass mortars . . , 
 
 Name. 
 
 Caliber. 
 
 Inch. 
 
 Lens^th. 
 Ft. Inch. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 Cwt. 
 
 12 inch 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 90 
 
 ■^10 “ 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 84 
 
 8 “ 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 60 
 
 f 32-pounders 
 
 6.4 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 56 
 
 24 “ 
 
 5.8 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 47 
 
 ^18 “ 
 
 5.3 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 42 
 
 12 “ 
 
 4.6 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 33 
 
 9 “ 
 
 4.2 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 28 
 
 12 “ (medium). 
 
 4.6 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 18 
 
 1 9 “ 
 
 4.2 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 13 
 
 6 “ (lieavy)... 
 
 3.7 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 23 
 
 1 6 “ (light) 
 
 3.7 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 3 “ (colonial).. 
 
 . 1 “ “ .. 
 
 2.9 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 2.0 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 10 inch 
 
 10.0 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 40 
 
 8 “ 
 
 8.0 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 20 
 
 32-pounders 
 
 •^24 “ 
 
 6.3 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 17 
 
 5.0 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 12 
 
 12 “ 
 
 4.6 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 f68 “ 
 
 8.0 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 29 
 
 42 “ 
 
 6.8 
 
 . 4 
 
 4 
 
 22 
 
 32 “ 
 
 6.2 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 17 
 
 ] 24 “ 
 
 5.7 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 13 
 
 18 “ 
 
 5.2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 12 “ 
 
 4.5 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 13 inch. 
 
 13.0 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 36 
 
 ilO “ 
 
 , 10.0 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 16 
 
 
 , 8.0 
 
 1 
 
 11 
 
 8 
 
 i “ 
 
 5.5 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 150 lbs 
 
 \ ^ “ 
 
 4.6 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 104 lbs 
 
 It must be borne in mind, however, that many of the novelties introduced within the 
 last few years are not here included. Nevertheless the table will be useful for occa- 
 sional reference. The apparent inconsistencies in length and weight are due to the 
 
Cannon. 
 
 Canoe. 
 
 392 
 
 great differences in thickness of metal ; and if we were to go beyond the limits of the 
 table, we should find that, during half a century, iron 32-pounder*s have varied from 63- 
 down to so low as 25 cwt., and 24-pounders from 50 to 33 cwt. ; in each case the length 
 and weight varying, while the caliber remained constant. In the above table, the caliber 
 is not always precisely the same for the same weight of ball ; as instanced by the 
 32-pounders, which have 6.2, 6.3, and 6.4 in. caliber; this is due to the fact that some 
 guns have more windage, or space round the ball, than others. 
 
 In England, during the last few years, great expense has been incurred in replacing 
 old C. by others of larger power and caliber; while the French are gradually bringing 
 about a limitation in the number of kinds and sizes, for the sake of simplicity. 
 
 This being merely a general or collective notice of all kinds of C. as a class, particu- 
 lars concerning each kind will be found under such headings as Armstrong Gun, Car- 
 RONADE, Gun, Howitzer, Lancaster Gun, Mortar, Shell Gun, etc. 
 
 CANNON, Alloys for. The material formerly used for the manufacture of ord- 
 nance was bronze (q.v.), consisting of about 90 parts of copper to about 10 parts of tin. 
 In the casting of small C., such as 8-pounders, the alloy used contained 92| parts of cop- 
 per to parts of tin ; while in the larger C. the tin was increased until the proportion 
 reached 88 to 12. The presence of the tin increased the hardness of the alloy, but this 
 was obtained at the expense of the tenacity. Great care must be taken to insure the 
 purity of the copper and the tin. If lead is present, the alloy is always more or less 
 soft, and, moreover, liable to fuse after repeated explosions; while the presence of a 
 mere trace of sulphur, arsenic, phosphorus, etc., renders the alloy very brittle. It was 
 customary, in the casting of C., to use up old C. or other bronze implements, so as to 
 form a beginning of the fused metal in the furnace, and then to add little by little the 
 extra amount of copper and tin. This mode of procedure was followed, owing to the 
 difficulty found in getting copper and tin to amalgamate readily, so as to yield an alloy 
 of uniform composition. This point is of great importance in the casting of ordnance, 
 as the metals, when not properly alloyed, are liable to separate during cooling, and yield 
 a C. of variable composition throughout. With the exception of small steel mountain^ 
 guns, all British cannon are made of wrought iron. 
 
 CANNON, a co. in central Tennessee; 220 sq.m. ; pop. ’80, 11,859 — 1163 colored. The- 
 surface is uneven, but the soil is generally fertile, producing grain, tobacco, etc. Co. 
 seat, Woodbury. 
 
 CAN'NON-BALL TREE, Couroupiia Gnianensis, a tree of the natural order lecyiliidacew, 
 a native of Guiana, of great size, the trunk being often more than 2 ft. in diameter. It 
 has large ovate-oblong leaves; the flowers are produced in racemes, they are white and 
 rose-colored; and the fruit is large, “ about the size of a 36-pound shot,” nearly round. 
 The hard woody shell of this fruit is used for drinking-vessels. 
 
 CANNON FOUNDING. Since sir W. Armstrong succeeded, by a process first brought, 
 under the notice of the British government in 1854, in making of malleable iron a field- 
 gun of far greater efficiency than any previously in use, cannon founding has iii most, 
 European countries gradually ceased. This manufacture, which was formerly an impor- 
 tant one, is, however, still carried on in the United States, Sweden, and Russia, all three- 
 of which countries produce cast-iron of a very superior quality. 
 
 Cannon are cast in molds of loam or sand prepared with the help of a pattern, as- 
 described under Founding. They are usually cast vertically with an extra mass of 
 metal poured in at the top end of each mold to secure by its pressure greater solidity in 
 its walls, as is often done in the case of a hydraulic cylinder. This superfluous portion 
 is, of course, afterwards removed. Cannon are, or at least were, often cast solid with 
 the same object, and afterwards bored, although it is by no means certain that such are 
 generally sounder or of closer texture than those which are cast hollow. In either case- 
 the inner surface of the cannon is accurately finished with a boring tool to the required 
 calibre, and the outer surface turned. Brass, or rather bronze cannon, were usually cast 
 in loam by means of a clay model on which were often stuck ornamental figures^in wax, 
 these being melted out of the mold before casting. 
 
 In the United States, cast-iron guns are made by Rodman’s process; that is, they are 
 cast hollow on a core barrel which is filled with water. This is applied so as to cool the- 
 metal of the gun in layers thus modifying the initial strain upon it, and producing the 
 best result that can be obtained from cast-iron for ordnance purposes. Within the last 
 few years guns as large in the bore as 20 in. have been cast by this method at Pittsburg, 
 and one of the same size has been made by it in Russia. The latter weighs 44 tons, 
 throws a spherical ball of 9 cwt., and took 34 months to finish. Its cost was not more 
 than one fourth that of a built-up gun of steel for the same weight of projectile. 
 
 Many of the earlier pieces of ordnance, it is curious to observe, were made of hooped 
 bars, in which one can trace the germ of the process by which the Armstrong gun is- 
 made. Indeed, it is doubtful if any modern plan of constructing large guns was not 
 tried in olden times, as is seen by an examination of the different kinds of old cannon 
 still preserved. These, however, had to be constructed without the aid of the steam-ham- 
 mer and other appliances, which render such work comparatively easy nowadays, ana 
 were accordingly deficient in strength. The earlier wrought-iron cannon were eventually 
 superseded by those made of cast-iron and bronze, but not entirely for some considerable- 
 time after the latter had been in use. 
 
393 
 
 Cannon. 
 
 Canoe. 
 
 The mortar, which was introduced about the commencement of the 14th c., appears 
 •to have been not only the most ancient form of cannon, but the first European fire-arm 
 .as well. From the beginning of the 15th c., cannon were cast in bronze, and some of 
 great size are stated to have been used at the siege of Constantinople in 1463. Probably 
 hand cannon of cast-iron date as far back as bronze guns, and at any rate we know that 
 large and excellent cannon were made of cast-iroh in the early part of the 16th c., they 
 having been used at Flodden, and England having even then acquired a reputation for 
 this kind of ordnance. See Fire-arms. Cannon founding has therefore been practiced 
 for nearly 500 years, and although the art is now to all appearance doomed to decay, no 
 one can predict, in these days of metallurgical wonders, what further change improve- 
 ments in the manufacture of iron and steel may bring about as respects the making of 
 large fire-arms. In order that the cast guns made on the old system may still be avail- 
 able for some purposes in modern warfare, col. Hay Campbell, some years ago, proposed 
 a plan for lining bronze, and sir W. Palliser another for lining cast-iron cannon with a 
 tube of wrought-iron. Some have been transformed on the Palliser system, which con- 
 :sists in boring a certain thickness off the old gun, and forcing a coiled wrought-iron 
 barrel into the interior, and are said to have given very remarkable results as regards 
 ■endurance. 
 
 Certain peculiarities in the manufacture of special kinds of ordnance are noticed in 
 the articles relating to them. See War-Services. 
 
 CANNONSBURG. See Canonsburg. 
 
 CANNSTADT, a t. of Wiirtemberg, beautifully situated on the Neckar, about 3 m. 
 n.e. of Stuttgart. It owes its origin to the Romans, of whose presence there are still 
 found many traces. It has numerous mineral springs, discharging 800,000 cubic ft. of 
 water in 24 hours, which are much frequented during the season; manufactures of 
 woolens, cottons, tobacco, etc. ; and a large trade by means of the Neckar. Pop. (’75) 
 15,065. 
 
 CANNSTADT, or Kannstadt {ante), a t. in Wurtemberg, m. n.e. of Stuttgart, 
 in a fertile and populous part of the country, and now one of the most flourishing 
 towns in Germany. Among its public buildings are a cathedral of the 15th c., a town 
 hall, the royal theater, market house, etc. The Wilhelm palace, built in 1842-51, for 
 king William, is a fine specimen of elaborate Saracenic architecture. The more impor- 
 tant industries are spinning, cotton- weaving, dyeing, and the manufacture of machinery. 
 The mineral springs, about 40 in number, attract a large temporary population of those 
 who suffer from dyspepsia and nervous weakness. In the hill of Seilberg, near by, are 
 •caverns in which many fossils are preserved. Down to the middle of the 15th c., C. was 
 the capital of Wurtemberg. Pop. ’71, 11,804. 
 
 CA'NO, Alonso, an illustrious Spanish painter, the founder of the school of Granada, 
 in which city he was born. Mar., 1601. He received his first instructions in the princi- 
 ples of art from his father, Miguel Cano, who was an architect ; studied sculpture under 
 J. Montanes, and painting under Pacheco and Juan de Castillo; and attained celebrity 
 so early, that, in 1638 or 1639, he was appointed court painter and architect to the 
 king. C. was of a hasty temper, and was accused of having murdered his wife in a fit 
 of violent jealousy, but the accusation appears to have been quite groundless. He was, 
 however, subjected to the torture ; but no confession having been elicited, he was acquitted 
 and received again into the royal favor, named residentiary of Granada, and spent his 
 last years in acts of devotion and charity. He died at Granada in 1664 or 1667. In the 
 opinion of Fuseli, he excelled all his contemporaries except Velasquez. His eminence 
 in the three departments of the fine arts — sculpture, painting, and architecture — obtained 
 for him the hyperbolical honor of being called the Michael Angelo of Spain. His pic- 
 tures, rnarked by graceful design and pleasing coloring, are very numerous, and are pre- 
 served in Granada, Seville, Madrid, Malaga, and other Spanish cities. 
 
 CANO, Alonzo, 1601-65: a Spanish painter, called by his countrymen the “Michael 
 Angelo of Spain.” His uiaster- piece is said to be the “ Conception of the Virgin” in 
 the church of San Diego, in Granada. He was a contemporary of Velasquez, and was 
 court painter to Philip IV . He was a man of violent temper, and was once tried (but 
 acquitted) on a charge of having killed his wife, when the judges who put him to torture, 
 •exempted his right arm from the rack, because of its surpassing skill in art. In statuary 
 his famous works are a Madonna and Child, and colossal figures of San Pedro and San 
 Pablo. 
 
 CANO, or CANUS, Melchior, 1523-60; a Spanish theologian and bishop, professor 
 at Salamanca. By reason of his violent opposition to the establishment of the Jesuits in 
 Spam, he was sent to the Canaries, but by the king’s influence, was soon afterwards 
 permitted to return, and became provincial of the Dominican order. 
 
 CANOE * is a boat made of a hollow trunk of a tree, or of the bark shaped and 
 
 * The word is sometimes said to have been borrowed by the Spaniards from the native Indian name 
 or such boats. But a similar name exists in the Aryan languages : Ger. kahn, a boat ; old Fr. cane, a 
 snip, and canot,a boat. The root of these words is the same as that of cane (Lat. canna), a reed or 
 nollow stem, and signifies hollowness, capacity; Gr. chaino, to gape or yawn. From the same root 
 •come cann, a drinking cup ; cannon (Ital. cannone, properly a large tube, being an augmentative 
 trom canna, a hollow stem or tube); canon (Gr.) a ruler or straight rod, most readily obtained from a 
 .loint ot a reed ; canal (Lat. canalis, a pipe or conduit). 
 
Canon. 
 
 394 
 
 strengthened. Canoes have been made large enough to carry twenty or thirty hogs- 
 heads of sugar. Some have decks, and carry sail of rush or silk-grass; but they are 
 generally open boats, rowed by paddles, and steered by an oar. They are seldom wide 
 enough for two men to sit abreast, but vary greatly in length. Near sea-coasts, canoes, 
 are often made of light wooden-frames, covered with seal-skins, which are also drawn, 
 across as a deck, with only a hole left for one man to sit in. In the Hudson Bay terri- 
 tories, canoes are used which are light enough to be carried over the portages, or por- 
 tions of rivers too shallow for navigation. Canoes, hollowed out of the trunks of oaks,, 
 seem to have been in use among the early inhabitants of the British islands. They have 
 been dug up in considerable numbers in England, Scotland, and Ireland. They appear 
 to have been chiefly of two sorts — one about 10 ft. long, with square ends, and projecting 
 handles; the other, about 20 ft. long, sometimes sharp at both ends, sometimes round 
 at the prow and square at the stern. 
 
 CANON, a word originally Greek, and signifying a measuring-rod (see Canoe — foot- 
 note), applied in various arts and sciences to what serves for a rule or standard, but 
 particularly employed to designate collectively those books which constitute the Holy 
 Scripture, and are accepted by Christians as a rule of faith. See Bible. In ecclesiast- 
 ical language, the word canon signifies, besides, not only a church-precept, but also the 
 decree of a universal council, which is held valid as law. See Canon Law. At 
 one period the word was used to designate the prayers which the Roman Catholic 
 priests said before, at, and after the consecration of the Host; the term is also employed 
 to denote the catalogue or register of Catholic saints. 
 
 CANON, an ecclesiastical dignitary, so called as living under a rule, or as following 
 the rule or canon of divine service. His office is of no great antiquity. According to 
 Paschier, the name was not known before Charlemagne. This, however, is not precisely 
 true, for the term C. was applied in the 4th c. to cenobites living under a common rule ;. 
 but the office of C. is supposed to have been first instituted by Chrodegand or Chrodegang, 
 bishop of Metz, in 763. It is at least certain that he was the author of the oldest canonical 
 rule, which was simply an adaptation of the monastic rule (commonly but erroneously 
 attributed to St. Augustine) to the priests and “clerks ” specially attached to the service 
 of a cathedral or other church. It enjoined on the canons manual labor, the practice of 
 silence at certain times, confession twice a year, and other duties needless to specif3^ 
 The canons formed the council of the bishop, and assisted him in the government of his 
 diocese. They lived in a house called a monastery, slept in a common room, ate at the 
 same table, and were originally supported out of the episcopal revenues. In 816, Louis^ 
 le Debonnaire induced the council of Aix-la-Chapelle to draw up a general rule for the 
 whole body of canons. Canons found their way not long afterwards into England, 
 Scotland, and Ireland. Various reforms of C. were made in the 11th and beginning of 
 the 12th century. Gradually, however, many began to emancipate themselves from the 
 restrictions of monastic life, and to live independent of any rule, which is not at all sur- 
 prising, for the canons were wont to keep apart from the “lower clergy,” as they called 
 parish priests and others who really labored to impart religious instruction. They were 
 often of noble families, loved titles — at Lyon, they were called counts — and in general 
 were men of the world rather than true churchmen. Some of these reformed or 
 remodeled canons were called black canons, from wearing a black cassock; white 
 canons, from wearing a white habit like the Proemonstratenses of Picardy in France. 
 The class of secular canons, whose manner of life was not conventual, and who there- 
 fore escaped destruction in England when the monasteries were abolished by Henry 
 VIII., probably originated in a tendency to relax the severity of rule enjoined on the 
 regulars, which indeed was hardly less stringent than in the case of ordinary monks. 
 Secular canons still exist in the Anglican church, and their duties — making allowance 
 for the difference between the Roman Catholic and Protestant religions — are much the 
 same in kind as they were before the reformation. See Cathedral. 
 
 CANON, in music, a kind of fugue in which not merely a certain period or phpase is 
 to be imitated or answered, but the whole of the first part with which the C. begins is 
 imitated throughout by all the other parts. As in fugues, the melody of the part to be 
 imitated is called the subject, and the others its reply. The C. is the highest degree of 
 mechanical musical contrivance. The ancients spent more time in the construction and 
 resolving of mere puzzling and unentertaining canons, than in the cultivation of good 
 harmony and melody. Good canons, however, are alway interesting, and different 
 from any other composition. For a full treatment of the method of writing a C., see 
 Marpurg’s Abliandlung ron der Fuge (Peters, Leipsic). 
 
 CA^ON (Sp. a “tube”), used in the western states and territories to designate a 
 deep ravine, especially if worn down by running stfeams. Of late the w^ord is often 
 spelled canyon. There are many canons in the Rocky mountain region and further 
 westward; but the greatest is the Grand Canon of the Colorado, wiiich is more than 30(> 
 m. long, with nearly perpendicular walls from 3,000 to 7,000 ft. high. Through this 
 awful gorge the river flows, now down swift declines, now in peaceful pools, or long 
 stretches of navigable water. 
 
395 
 
 Canon. 
 
 CA^SrON CITY, in Fremont co., Colorado, on the Arkansas river at the foot of the 
 Pocky mountains, and on the Denver and Rio Grande railroad. There is unlimited 
 water-power, and in the neighborhood are iron, silver, copper, coal, petroleum, marble, 
 :and limestone. There are also hot and cold medicinal springs. 
 
 CANONESS, the name given to female members of certain orders in the Roman 
 Catholic church, who seldom took monastic vows, but lived in common. The com- 
 munities were favored by noblemen, who intrusted their daughters to them, but with 
 the privilege to marry at any time. After the reformation, there were Protestant houses 
 of similar kind in Mecklenburg and Westphalia. 
 
 CANONICAL HOURS, are the times fixed for divine service in the Catholic church, 
 but no longer strictly adhered to. These have not always been the same, and it is 
 not known when nor by whom they were settled — some say by popes Damasus, 
 or Gelasius, or Gregory — but they are now fixed at seven; viz., matins and lauds, 
 prime, tierce, sext, nones, vespers, and compline. These used to be observed as 
 follows: Prime, tierce, sext, and nones, at the first, third, sixth, and ninth hours 
 of the day, counting from six in the morning; vespers at the eleventh hour; com- 
 pline, or completorium, as completing the services of the day, at midnight; and 
 matins shortly after midnight. These hours were by the Anglo-Saxons called uhtsang, 
 primesang, undersang, middaysang, noonsang, evensang, and nightsang. The firs, 
 two and the last formed the nocturnal, the remaining four the diurnal offices. The 
 reasons given for the dividing the day into seven parts were — that in seven days the 
 creation was completed, that seven times a day the just man falls, there are seven 
 graces of the Holy Spirit, seven divisions of the Lord’s prayer, seven ages of a man’s 
 life, etc. The hours had also each its mystical reference to certain sacred occurrences, 
 such as the incidents at our Lord’s birth and crucifixon. The word “hour,” in C. H., 
 is derived, as some have suggested, from ora, a prayer; but more probably from hora, 
 ^n hour, and called canonical because according to the canon or rule of the church. 
 The proper offices for the C. H. are to be found in the Breviary (q.v.). 
 
 CANONICALS, a term used to describe the proper ecclesiastical dress of the clergy. 
 See Vestments. 
 
 CANONICAL VIRGINS, young women of the early church who took vows of 
 perpetual virginity, but were not gathered into communities. They were inrolled at 
 their homes, where they continued to reside. 
 
 CANONTCUS, a Narragansett Indian chief, 1565-1647; the constant friend of the 
 early white colonists, and especially of Roger Williams, to whom he was strongly 
 attached. It was from him that Williams obtained his title to the lands that now con- 
 stitute Rhode Island. 
 
 CANONTCUT, or Conanicut, an island in Narragansett bay, about 8 m. longl)y 
 1 wide. It forms the town of Jamestown, R. I. ; pop. 70, 378. 
 
 CANONIZATION, in the church of Rome, the act of the pope by which a deceased 
 person is solemnly declared to be a saint. It had its origin in the practice of the early 
 church, of inserting in the commemorative prayer of the eucharistic liturgy the roll of 
 the names of those who had died as martyrs, or distinguished themselves as confessors 
 of the faith. This record was entered in the diptychs of the church, and read in the 
 so-called “canon” of the liturgy. Each bishop was at first accustomed to declare 
 deceased persons to be saints. In the west, the exercise of this power came to be 
 reserved to the popes, and the ceremonial itself was invested with much solemnity, and 
 regarded as of very great importance. The first papal C. was accomplished by John 
 XV. The popes have possessed the exclusive right since 1170. The right of beati- 
 fication (q.v.) also belongs to them. When it is proposed to canonize a person of 
 reputed sanctity, the pope declares his views in a consistory, and an inquiry is instituted 
 as to the virtues and merits of the person proposed. The form of inquiry is that of a 
 regular process at law, and an ecclesiastic is specially appointed to contend against the 
 claims advanced, who receives the designation of adrocatm diaboli; and on failure of 
 sattefactory proof, the process is abandoned. When a favorable decision is pronounced, 
 the ceremony of C. is performed m St. Peter’s church with great pomp. The last C. 
 was in 1862. 
 
 The Greek church also recognizes canonization. The right to perform the ceremony 
 ies with the patriarch of Constantinople, but it has rarely occurred. An analogy to 
 Christian canonization has been found in the apotheosis (q.x.) of the ancient Romans. 
 
 CANON LAW is a collection of ecclesiastical constitutions for the government and 
 regulation of the Roman Catholic church, although many of its regulations have been 
 admitted into the ecclesiastical system of the church of England, and still influence 
 other Protestant bodies. It was compiled from the opinions of the ancient Latin fathers, 
 the decrees of general councils, and the decretal epistles and bulls of the holy see. 
 These, from a state of disorder and confusion, were gradually reduced into method, 
 and may be briefly described in the following chronological order; 1. Oratian' s Decree, 
 which was a collection of ordinances, in three books, commenced by Ivo, bishop of 
 Chartres, 1114 a.d., and subsequently corrected and arranged by Gratian, a Benedictine 
 monk, in the year 1150, after the manner of Justinian’s of the Boman Law 
 
Canonry. 
 
 Canopy. 
 
 396 
 
 This work comprises ecclesiastical legislation, as it may be called, from the time of 
 Constantine the great, at the beginning of the 4th, to that of pope Alexander III., at the 
 end of the 12th century. 2. The Decretals. They are a collection of canonical epistles, 
 in five books, written by popes alone, or assisted by some cardinals, to determine any 
 controversy, and first published about the year 1230, by Raimundus Bareinus. They 
 lay down rules respecting the lives and conversation of the clergy, matrimony ancB 
 divorces, inquisition of criminal matters, purgation, penance, excommunication, and 
 other matters deemed to be within the cognizance of the ecclesiastical courts. To these 
 five books of Gregory, Boniface VIII. added a sixth, published 1298 a.d., called Sextus 
 Decretalium, or the ^xt, which is itself divided into five books, and forms a supplement 
 to the work of Bareinus, of which it follows the arrangement. The Sext consists of 
 decisions promulgated after the pontificate of Gregory IX. Then there came the Clem- 
 entines, which were constitutions of pope Clement V., published 1308 a.d. These 
 decretals form the principal portion of the canon law. John Andreas, a celebrated 
 canonist in the 14th c. , wrote a commentary on them, which he entitled Nomllm, from a 
 very beautiful daughter he had of that name, whom he bred a scholar; the father being 
 a professor of law at Bologna, had instructed his daughter so well in it, that she assisted 
 him in reading lectures to his scholars, and therefore, to perpetuate her memory, he gave' 
 that book the title of Novelloe. 3. The Extraxagants of John XXII. and other later popes, 
 by which term is meant to be denoted documents which transcend the limits of a partic- 
 ular collection of regulations. These books, viz. , Gratian's Decree, the Decretals, and the 
 Extravagants, together form the Corpus Juris Canonici, or great body of the C. L. , as 
 formerly received and administered by the church of Rome. There are, however, other 
 publications of a later period, of more or less authority, but which do not appear to have 
 received the formal sanction of the holy see. 
 
 This C. L. , borrowing from the Roman civil law many of its principles and rules of 
 proceeding, has at different times undergone careful revision and the most learned and 
 scientific treatment at the hands of its professors, and was very generally received in 
 those Christian states which acknowledge the supremacy of the pope; and it still gives 
 ecclesiastical law more or less to Roman Catholic Christendom, although its provisions 
 have in many countries been considerably modified by the concordats (q.v.) which the 
 popes now and then find it expedient to enter into with Roman Catholic sovereigns and 
 governments, whose municipal system does not admit of the application of the C. L. in 
 its integrity. Indeed, the fact of its main object being to establish the supremacy of the 
 ecclesiastical authority over the temporal power, is sufficient to explain why, in modern 
 times, it is found to conflict with the views of public law and government, even in the 
 case of the most absolute and despotic governments. 
 
 This ecclesiastical system, however, never obtained a firm footing in England, and 
 the great lawyers and statesmen have always shown not only an unwillingness to defer 
 to its authority, but even an aversion to its rule. There was, however, a kind of national 
 C. L. in England, composed of legative and provincial constitutions, adapted to the par- 
 ticular necessities of the English church. The legative constitutions were ecclesiastical 
 laws, enacted in national synods, held under the cardinals Otho and Othobon, legates- 
 from pope Gregory IX. and pope Clement IV., in the reign of king Henry III., about 
 the years 1220 and 1268. The provincial constitutions are principally the decrees of 
 provincial synods, held under divers archbishops of Canterbury, from Stephen Langton, 
 in the reign of Henry III., to Henry Chicheley, in the reign of Henry V., and adopted 
 also by the province of York in the reign of Henry VI. At the dawn of the reformation, 
 in the reign of Henry YIII. , it was enacted in parliament that a review should be had 
 of the C. L. ; and till such review should be made, all canons, constitutions, ordi- 
 nances, and synodals provincial being then already made, and not repugnant to the law 
 of the land or the king’s prerogative, should still be used and executed. And as no 
 such review has yet been perfected, upon this enactment now depends the authority of 
 the C. L. in England, the limitations of which appear, upon the whole, to be as follows: 
 that no canon contrary to the common or statute law, or the prerogative royal, is of any" 
 validity; that, subject to this condition, the canons made anterior to the parliamentary 
 provision above mentioned, and adopted in our system (for there are some which have 
 had no reception among us), are binding both on clergy and laity; but that canons made 
 since that period, and having no sanction from the parliament, are, as regards the laity 
 at least, of no force. See Canons of the Church of England. 
 
 In Scotland, Presbyterian though the ecclesiastical system of that country be, the old 
 Roman C. L. still prevails to a certain extent. ‘ ‘ So deep hath this canon law been 
 rooted,” observes lord Stair in \i\s Institutes of the Scotch Law, “that even where the 
 pope’s authority is rejected, yet consideration must be had to these laws, not only as 
 those by which church benefices have been erected and ordered, but as likewise con- 
 taining many equitable and profitable laws, which, because of their weighty matter, and 
 their being once received, may more fitly be retained than rejected.” In two old Scotch 
 acts of parliament, made in 1540 and 1551, the C. L. is used in conjunction with the 
 Roman law to denote the common law of the country, the expression used being “the 
 common law, baith canon, civil, and statutes of the realme.” See on the subject of this 
 article generally the following authorities — Blackstone’s Comm^rtaries, by Kerr, vol. i. 
 pp. 65 and 66; Stephen’s Commentaries, 4th edition, vol. i. pn. 61 'ind 69 — vol. ii. pp. 
 
397 
 
 Canonrj. 
 
 Canopy. 
 
 251, 256, 257, and 290 — vol. iii. pp. 45, 48, and 421 — and vol. iv. p. 242; Dr. Irving’s 
 Study of the Civil Law; and Phillimore on the Influence of the Ecclesiastical Law, etc., 
 1851. See also a discriminating article on this subject in Knight’s Political Dictionary, 
 1845; and ^(i(i'W\inxtovisLawDictiona,ry, 2d edition, 1859. It will also be found care- 
 fully treated in Dr. Hook’s Church Dictionary, 7th edition, 1854. In regard to Scotland, 
 see Si 2 i\v'& Institutes of the Law of Scotland, I. 1, 13, and II. 8, 29; and Erskine’s Institutes 
 of the same law, I. 1, 28. 
 
 CANONRY, the office and dignity of a Canon. See Cathedral. 
 
 CANONS, BOOK OF, in Scottish ecclesiastical history, a code of canons or rules for 
 tlie church of Scotland, prepared by the Scottish bishops, in obedience to the command 
 of Charles I., revised by Laud, and confirmed by letters-patent under the great seal, 23d 
 May, 1635. It tended much to increase the dissatisfaction prevalent throughout Scot- 
 land, and which soon broke out so violently. It not only required the most strict 
 adherence to the liturgy, then not yet published, but enjoined man y things concerning 
 ceremonies in worship beyond what Laud had been able to introduce in the church of 
 England; it also took away the powers of church-courts, and decreed the penalty of 
 excommunication against all who should deny the government of the church by bishops 
 to be scriptural, whilst its very first canon decreed that penalty against all who should 
 deny the king’s supremacy in ecclesiastical affairs. 
 
 CANONSBUIIG, a t. in Washington co., Penn., on the Chartier’s Valley railroad, 22 
 m. s. w. of Pittsburg ; formerly the seat of Jefferson college and of the Pennsylvania reform 
 school. Pop. ’70, 641. 
 
 CANONS OP THE CHURCH op ENGLAND, called constitutions and canons ecclesias- 
 tical, agreed upon, with the king’s license, in the synod held at London in 1603-04. 
 They were drawn up by the , convocation, in order to give effect to the decisions of the 
 conference held at Hampton; and are, for the most part, a digest of old canons, with 
 some new ones added. They are 141 in number. They are the basis of the ecclesiastical 
 law, as far as the clergy are concerned, but they are not binding upon the laity, except 
 in so far as they are declaratory of the ancient canon law. There had been a previous 
 body of canons drawn up in 1571, but these had not been sanctioned by the sovereign. 
 In 1640, the convocation, which was then assembled with the parliament, prolonged its 
 session beyond it, and passed a body of canons of a very arbitrary character; amongst 
 other things, enjoining that on some Sunday in every quarter, every officiating minister 
 should insist on the divine right of kings and their prerogatives, and enforce conformity 
 to the rites of the church of England. In these canons, it was directed that the com- 
 munion-table should be railed in, and be placed as in cathedrals, as is now done in all 
 churches. These canons were abrogated by an act passed in the 13th year of Charles 
 II. An account of these canons and those now in force may be found at length in 
 Hook’s Church Directory. — Every clergyman, when instituted to a benefice or licensed to 
 a cure, promises Canonical Obedience to the bishop — i.e., the obedience due accord- 
 ing to the canons of the church. 
 
 CANO'PIC VASES were vases used by the Egyptian priests to contain the viscera of 
 embalmed bodies. They were arranged in a series of four — the first contained the 
 stomach and larger intestines; the second, the smaller intestines; the third, the lungs 
 and heart; the fourth, the liver and gall-bladder; and each had on its lid the head of the 
 particular deity who was supposed to preside over the contents. 
 
 CANO'PUS or CANO'BUS, a city of ancient Egypt, from which the Canopic mouth of 
 the Nile derived its name, was situated on the sea-coast, 15 m. e. of Alexandria. The 
 Canopic mouth of the Nile appears to have been at an early period the only one into 
 which foreign ships could enter. At C. the boundry-line between Asia and Africa was 
 drawn by the ancient geographers. There was a temple of Hercules here, which was a 
 secure sanctuary to all who fled to it ; also one of Serapis, as several extant Greek inscrip- 
 tions show. The inhabitants of C., a mixed Egypto-Hellenic people, were infamous, in 
 the Greek and Roman times, for their profligacy. The city declined after the rise of 
 Alexandria. Traces of its ruins are visible about 3 m. from Aboukir. 
 
 Canopus is also the name of a very brilliant star of the southern hemisphere, in ths 
 constellation of the ship Argo, and, as Plutarch relates, received its name from Canopos, 
 the pilot of Menelaus. 
 
 CANOPY (Lat. canopeum; Gr. Mndpeion, from Tcbnbps, gnat or mosquito). Th< 
 derivation of this word throws a curious light on its original meaning, which probablj 
 was a mosquito curtain. The simplest form of C. , in this its primitive sense, is tha;. 
 mentioned by Herodotus (ii. 95), who tells us that the fishermen on the Nile were in 
 the habit of suspending the net with which they had fished during the day on an upright 
 pole, from which it was rapanded into the form of a tent, and served to protect them 
 from the attacks of insects during the night. As it has been proved that insects will not 
 pass through the meshes of a net, though wide enough to admit them, it is probable that 
 this simple contrivance may have been quite effectual for the purpose for which it was 
 used. Horace (Epod. ix. 9), and others of the ancient writers, mention gnat-curtains 
 (canopea). Subsquently, the same term came to be used for the projecting covering 
 and hangings of a bed, without reference to their original use, and latterly for any 
 
Caiiosa. 
 
 Cantabile. 
 
 398 
 
 projecting covering of a similar form, to whatever use it might be adapted, or whatever 
 materials it might be formed. C. is thus used to signify the covering which is borne 
 over the heads of kings and other persons of distinction, and still more frequently over 
 the holy sacrament and the image of Christ, in processions in Roman Catholic coun- 
 tries. See Baldachin. 
 
 In Gothic architecture, C. is the term applied to those rich coverings which are 
 frequently met with over niches and tombs, aud sometimes over doors and windows. 
 It belongs chiefly to the decorated and perpendicular styles, though it was not unknown 
 much earlier. The C. consists of a roof which may be supported on pillars all round, 
 or may have one, or if in an angle two, sides attached to the wall, with dependent 
 ornamental work representing drapery. The early English canopies are usually simple 
 in form ; those in French buildings of the same period being greatly more complicated 
 and elaborate, as, for example, those in the cathedrals of Chartres and Bayeux. In the 
 decorated style, the canopies were richly ornamented and very various in form. Some 
 canopies are ornamented by pinnacles supporting smaller canopies, the whole term- 
 inating in a structure resembling a small turret, or crocheted spire. In the perpen- 
 dicular style, though more varied inform, the canopies resemble those in the decorated. 
 Most of the cathedrals and larger churches of England furnish examples of canopies, 
 many of which are enumerated in Parker’s Glossary of Architecture. For the use of 
 canopies in Italian architecture, see Baldachin. 
 
 CANO'SA, a t. of southern Italy, in the province of Bari, 13 m. s.w. of Barletta. It is 
 situated on the declivity of a steep hill, upon the summit of which there are the remains 
 of an old castle. It has a cathedral; and in an adjoining court is a tomb to Bohemond, 
 prince of Antioch. It is chiefly remarkable, however, in connection with the discovered 
 antiquities of ancient Canusium (one of the chief cities of the Apulians, the origin of 
 which is obscured in the mists of mytholog}^, on the site of whose citadel the modern 
 town is said to stand. The antiquities consist of subterranean sepulchers, containing 
 painted vases and funereal furniture of the most magnificent description in perfect order, 
 painted busts, marble statues, etc. Many of the bodies found here were attired in cloth 
 of gold, with head-dresses gleaming with precious stones, and ear-rings and bracelets of 
 rich and exquisite workmanship. The objects were transferred to the museum at Naples. 
 The ruins of an amphitheater, aqueduct, etc., have also been found. C. suffered by earth- 
 quake in 1851. Pop. 14,500. 
 
 CANOS'SA, a t. of northern Italy, in the province of Reggio, about 12 m s.w. of the 
 city of Reggio, celebrated as the place where, in 1077, the emperor Henri lY. of Germany 
 obtained absolution from pope Gregory VII., after three days’ humiliation. The place, 
 formerly of some importance, is now deserted. 
 
 CANO'VA, Antonio, the founder of a new school of Italian sculpture, was b. Nov. 1, 
 1757, at Possagno, a village in the Venetian territory. Having displayed in boyhood 
 great talent in modeling, the artist gained the patronage of Giovanni Faliero, a Venetian 
 senator, by whom he was sent to work under a sculptor at Bassano. His first imagina- 
 tive performance, “ Eurydice,” half the size of life, was executed in his 17th year. After 
 this he went to Venice, where his study of art properly began. In 1779, Faliero sent 
 him to Rome, with an introduction to Cav. Zuliano, the Venetian ambassador, and one 
 of the most illustrious patrons of art at this time in Italy. In Rome the first result of 
 his studies appeared in the statue of “ Apollo,” which must be regarded as his earliest 
 effort in ideal sculpture ; but a far greater progress toward the pure style of the antique 
 was evident in his next work, “Theseus with the Centaur.” Nevertheless, C. did not 
 rigorously adhere to the severe simplicity of the antique, but rather took pains to miti- 
 gate it by a peculiar grace and loveliness of his own, such as characterized his group of 
 “Cupid and Psyche,” which was produced soon after he had completed the monument 
 of pope Clement XIV. This is apparent even in the colossal monument of Clement 
 XIII. (erected in St. Peter’s, 1792); though this work, on the whole, is a magnificent 
 effort of genius, simple in style, and with nothing overwrought in the figures. Among 
 his other works may be noticed a “Winged Cupid,” “Venus and Adonis,” a “Ps}'che 
 holding a Butterfly;” “ Penitent Magdalen,” in life-size; “Hercules hurling Lichas from 
 the Rock,” a colossal work, but not free from affectation; “ Kreugas and Dainoxenos” 
 (two pugilists), “ Palamedes,” and “ Perseus with the Head of the Medusa,” a work which, 
 more than all previous efforts, served to raise his fame. In 1802, C. was appointed by 
 pope Pius VII. chief curator of all Roman works of art in the papal states; but was soon 
 called away to Paris, to prepare the model of a colossal statue of Bonaparte. 
 
 After the fall of the French empire, C., in 1815, was employed by the Roman govern 
 ment as ambassador to recover the works of art which had been taken to Paris, and paid 
 a visit to England. On his return to Rome, he was creat||d marquis of Ischia, with a 
 pension of 3000 scudi. This money he expended in the ^pport of art and artists in 
 Rome. C. died in Venice, 13th Oct., 1822. A marble statue was erected to his memory 
 in the church de’ Frati, 1827. Another monument to C. was erected in the library of 
 the capitol, by order of Leo XII., in 1833. 
 
 It is universally allowed that to C. belongs the honor of having restored to sculpture 
 the position which it had lost among the modern fine arts. After Michael Angelo Buon- 
 arotti and Bernini, he was the third of epoch-making Italian sculptors. His delicate 
 
399 
 
 Canosa. 
 
 Cantabil*. 
 
 execution and masterly treatment of marble are unrivaled, and even his faults — viz., his 
 exaggerated nicety and carefulness, and his use of corrosives to produce fine finish — 
 served to attract by the novel effects which they produced. The essential characteristic 
 of all his works is sentiment — often verging, however, on sentimentalism — and this also, 
 like his delicacy in details, was accordant with the taste prevalent in his time, and was 
 the chief cause of his popularity, as of his errors. When judged by the sterner princi- 
 ples of antique sculpture, the works of C. are found deficient in that objective or realistic 
 character which Thorwaldsen could express so well. 
 
 During his leisure hours C. amused himself in painting, in which he attained such a 
 degree of excellence in following the coloring of the Venetian masters, that his pictures 
 have even deceived connoisseurs. In his private life, C. was a very amiable and benev- 
 olent man. Biographies of C. have been written by Missirini (4 vols., Prato, 1824), Cicog- 
 nara (Venice, 1823), Rosini (Pisa, 1825), and D’Este (Florence, 1864). 
 
 CANROBERT, Francois Certain, De, Marshal of France, b. in 1809, studied in the 
 military school of St. Cyr, and in 1828 entered the army. In 1835, he sailed for Algeria, 
 and during the war in the province of Oran was made a capt. In the storming of 
 Constantine, he was one of the first who entered the breach, when he received a wound 
 in the leg. About the same time he had the decoration of the legion of honor conferred 
 upon him. In 1846, he became lieut.col., and soon after col. In 1848, he had the 
 command of an expedition against the tribes of the Bouaoun, whom he defeated at the 
 pass of Djerma, and was victorious against the Kabyles. As gen. of brigade, in 1850 he 
 led an expedition through the rocky country of Narah, and destroyed the Arab strong- 
 hold there. In Jan., 1853, he became a gen. of division. He had the command of the 
 first division of the French army under marshal St. Arnaud,*sent to the Crimea in 1854; 
 and at the battle of the Alma, was wounded in the breast and hand by the splinter of a 
 shell. On the death of the marshal, C. took the chief command of the French army. 
 In the war in Italy against the Austrians, in 1859, C. had the command of the third divi- 
 sion of the French army; and at the battle of Magenta, June 4, his corps d'armee turned 
 the left of the Austrians. In the great battle of Solferino, on the 24th of the same month, 
 his division was hotly engaged, and lost 1000 men in killed and wounded. In 1860, he 
 married Miss Macdonald, a Scotch lady. When war was declared by France against 
 Prussia, in 1870, he was one of the generals in command at Woerth, where the French 
 received such a defeat. C. was shut up in Metz with Bazaine, and became a prisoner 
 in Germany. In 1877, he was elected a member of the French senate. 
 
 CANSO, Cape, the eastern extremity of Nova Scotia, and the southern boundary of 
 the entrance of Chebucto or Chedabucto bay. It is in lat. 45° 17' n., and long. 61° west. 
 — 2. (Strait), a passage of 17 m. in length and 2^ in average breadth, connecting the 
 inlet just mentioned with the gulf of St. Lawrence, so as to form an island of cape Bre- 
 ton. Of the three channels between that inland sea and the open ocean, it is the one 
 that is least frequently used by European vessels. 
 
 CANSO, Cape, the e. point of Nova Scotia; a port of entry, with a large fishing 
 trade. There is a light on Cranberry island, in 45° 19' n., 60° 55' west. 
 
 CANSTEIN, Karl Hilderbrand, Count of, 1667-1719; studied law at Frankfort, 
 but did not practice because of failing health. At Berlin he became intimate with 
 Spencer and Francke, who persuaded him to devote his time to increasing the circula- 
 tion of the Bible, and that led him to form the Bible society at Halle which bears his 
 name. He published the New Testament for about 8 cents, and the whole Bible at a 
 proportionate price. He wrote a Life of Spenser, a Harmony of the Gospels, and other 
 theological works. 
 
 CANT, on shipboard, is a name given to such timbers, near the bow and stern, as lie 
 obliquely to the line of keel. It is also a general term for anything sloping, inclined, or 
 turned aside. “ Canting” is to turn anything over, or out of its proper position. 
 
 CANT, Andrew, a Scottish divine of the 17th c., was first minister of Pitsligo, in the 
 n. of Scotland, and afterwards in Aberdeen. In July, 1638, he was one of the commis- 
 sioners sent to that city, to compel the inhabitants to subscribe the national covenant; 
 and in Nov. of the sarne year, he was a member of the memorable general assembly, held 
 at Glasgow, which abolished Episcopacy in Scotland. He was with the Scots army when 
 it obtained possession of Newcastle, Aug. 30, 1640; and in 1641, on the second visit of 
 (Charles I. to Scotland, C. preached before his majesty at Edinburgh. In 1660, in con- 
 sequence of a complaint presented to the magistrates of Aberdeen, charging him with 
 having published a seditious book, entitled Lex Lex, and with fulminating anathemas 
 and imprecations against many of his congregation, C. relinquished his charge and left 
 the town. He died about 1664. 
 
 CANTAB'ILE, in music, is found in several significations. In general, it is placed over 
 passages of easy and flowing melody, as well in instrumental as vocal music. In songs, 
 the melodies which lie chiefly in the middle region of the voice are marked C. ; extreme 
 tones of the voice have a peculiar timbre and character quite foreign to the cantabile. C. 
 marked at the beginning of a piece means rather slow than quick. In the C. style the 
 finest effects can be produced by the singer in swelling, sustained sound, the portamento, 
 etc. C. is also called cantilene. ’ 
 
Cantabri. 
 
 Canterbury. 
 
 400 
 
 Cil^TA'BRI, a rude race of mountaineers in ancient Spain, were of Iberian origin, 
 and lived in the district now known as Burgos, and on the coasts of the bay of Biscay, 
 which derived from them its name, Oceanus Cantahricus. The most important of their 
 nine towns were Juliobrica (near the source of the Ebro), Vellica, and Concana. The 
 C. are described as like the Scythians and Thracians in hardihood and martial character, 
 sleeping on the bare earth, enduring extreme pain without a murmur, and, like most 
 savages, leaving agricultural toil to their women. Their bravery was evinced in the 
 Cantabrian war, a six years’ contest with the Romans, begun under Augustus, and con- 
 cluded by Agrippa, 25-19 b.c. Tiberius afterwards stationed garrisons in the towns of 
 the conquered C, ; but some portion retreated into their fastnesses among the mountains, 
 where they preserved their independence. They are supposed to be the ancestors of the 
 Basques (q.v.). 
 
 CANTA'BRIA, a district in Spain on the s. coast of the bay of Biscay. The old 
 geographers give the name to nearly the whole of the Biscayan coast, but it is now 
 restricted to the province of Santander and the e. portion of Asturias; indeed, Cantabria 
 is not now a geographical division. 
 
 CANTABRIAN MOUNTAINS, the general name of the several ranges of coast and 
 boundary mountains, extending along the n. coast of Spain, from cape Finisterre, to 
 the southern base of the w. Pyrenees, and so dividing the coast districts from the 
 interior elevated plateau of Castile. The summits of the mountains here and there 
 reach the lower line of the snow region, with a more gentle slope on the s. side, and 
 forming plateau districts from 1600 to 2,000 ft. high on the n., where the slopes are steeper 
 and intersected by coast liters, leave in several parts only narrow stripes of flat coast- 
 land, and running out into the sea form several bold promontories. The whole group 
 of mountains is named variously by the people of various localities, and includes the 
 Sierra de Aralar, Salvada, Anagna, Sejos, Albas, and Altuna — all more or less wild and 
 romantic, but having those fertile and prosperous trading districts which distinguish 
 the Basque Provinces and Asturias from the sterile central plateau of Spain. 
 
 CANTACUZE'NUS, Johannes, b. about 1300 at Constantinople; a statesman, gen- 
 eral, and historian, and under Andronicus II. had principal charge of the government. 
 When Andronicus died he was left regent, the successor being John Palaeologus, then 
 only nine years old. C. was suspected by the empress, fled from Constantinople, and 
 got himself crowned in another place. Six years of civil war followed in which the 
 rivals employed foreign mercenaries of every description, and nearly ruined the empire. 
 C. formed an alliance with the sultan of Broussa, agreeing to send his daughter to his 
 ally’s harem, and to permit the sultan to make slaves of the Greek subjects. In 1346, he 
 entered Constantinople and became joint emperor with John, but retained full power 
 during John’s minority. He badly governed the almost ruined empire until 1354, when 
 John made an easy success, and C. took refuge in a monastery, where he wrote a history 
 of his life and times. 
 
 CANTAL, a central department of France, formed out of the s. portion of the old 
 province of Auvergne. It has an area of 2,090 sq.m., and a pop. in ’76 of 231,086. See 
 Auvergne. 
 
 CANTALIVER, or Cantliver, a large bracket used in architecture for supporting 
 cornices, balconies, and even stairs. Cantalivers are often highly ornamented. 
 
 CANTALOUPE, or Musk-Melon, a well-known fruit, taking its name from 
 Cantalupo in Italy. It is extensively cultivated in the United States, and is much 
 esteemed for the table. 
 
 CANTARINI, Simone, also known as Simone da Pesaro or il Pesarese, an Italian 
 painter, was b. at Pesaro in 1612. He studied under Guido Reni at Bologna; but his 
 intolerable arrogance made him numerous enemies, and in consequence he left the city, 
 and went to Rome, where he won a high reputation, and was thought by many to excel 
 even his master in the graceful finish of his brush. On his return to Bologna, he 
 opened a school, but shortly after accepted an invitation from the duke of Mantua to 
 visit that city. Here also his excessive self-esteem involved him in disagreeable relations 
 with everybody, and at last he quarreled with the duke himself, on which he left for 
 Verona, where he died in 1648, under suspicion either of having poisoned himself, or of 
 having been poisoned by a Mantuan painter whom he had injured. C. was distinguished 
 in modeling and flesh-coloring. A “ Madonna upborne by Angels,” and a head of Guido 
 when old, in the gallery at Bologna; and others elsewhere, remain as proofs of his skill. 
 His 37 etchings closely resemble the etchings of Guido Reni, and have, in several in- 
 stances, been fraudulently sold with the mark of the master forged upon them. 
 
 CANTA'TA, in music, is a name given to a vocal composition; but it is so very indef-. 
 inite, that it in no way shows in what respect such composition differs from any other. 
 In Zedler of Halle’s great Lexicon, the C. is defined as a “long vocal composition, the 
 text of which is Italian,” etc. ; while in Sulzer’s Theorie der Schonsii Kdnste, it is said to 
 be “a short piece of vocal music of a pathetic nature,” etc. The C. is always more 
 extended and wrought out than the simple song, and consists of different movements. 
 
401 
 
 Cantabri. 
 
 Canterbury. 
 
 CANTEEN', is a refreshment-house in a barrack, for the use of the soldiers. Tho 
 chief articles of food are supplied to the troops direct the government; but wine, 
 malt liquor, and small grocery-wares, the soldier is left to buy for himself ; and the C. 
 
 is, or is intended to be, a shop where he can make these purchases economically without 
 tlie necessity of going beyond the precincts of the barrack. No soldier is obliged to buy 
 ^iny thing at the C. ; he may lay out his small sums elsewhere if he prefer. Formerly, 
 the canteens were under civilians called canteen-tenants, and spirits were sold. Between 
 the years 1836 and 1845, it was found that, among 112 canteens in the United Kingdom, 
 the rent and head-money paid varied from £4 per annum (one at Guernsey) to £1344 per 
 annum (one at Woolwich); they brought in collectively to the government about £70,000 
 annually. Great intoxication having resulted from the sale of spirits at the canteens, 
 the war office prohibited such sale in 1847; as a consequence, the rents had to be lowered 
 to the extent of £20,000 in the following year, the cantineers finding their profits much 
 reduced. The rent paid was found to be injurious to the soldiers, vffio were charged 
 higher prices within the barrack than without, and who were thence driven to places 
 where dangerous temptations are at hand. The result of this system being undeniably 
 bad and demoralizing, the war office now makes the C. a regimental establishment, con- 
 trolled by a committee of officers and with a canteen-sergeant as salesman. Pensioned 
 non-commissioned officers may be appointed canteen-sergeants. The profits are applied 
 for the benefit of the men of the corps. 
 
 In French barracks, the C. is a sort of club-room for the whole regiment. The 
 cantineer is a non-commissioned officer, who acts merely as an agent for all, selling 
 the liquors and commodities at prime cost. 
 
 CANTEEN, besides its application to a room or building, is a name also given to a 
 vessel used by soldiers to contain whatever beverage may be obtainable on the march 
 or in the field. It is sometimes of tin, sometimes of wood. In the British army, the 
 C. is a wooden vessel, holding about three pints, painted blue, and inscribed with the 
 number or designation of the regiment, battalion, and company to which the soldier 
 belongs. 
 
 There is still another use of the word C., as a name for a leathern or wooden chest, 
 •divided into compartments, and containing the plate and table-equipage for a military 
 officer when on active service. 
 
 CAN'TEMIR, Anti'ochus, or Constantine Deme'trius, 1704-44; the youngest son 
 of Demetrius Cantemir. He was a member of the St. Petersburg academy; wrote 
 satires, and assisted in fixing versification and developing Russian poetry. At the age 
 of 30 he was sent as minister to Great Britain, and in 1736 to France. He was a suc- 
 oessful diplomatist, and was highly esteemed both at home and abroad. Besides trans- 
 lating into Russian the main works of Anacreon and Horace, he wrote odes, satires, and 
 fables, and translated important works from French and Italian. 
 
 CAN'TEMIR, Deme'trius, 1673-1723; a son of a Moldavian prince and heir to the 
 throne^ which, however, he never claimed, preferring to serve the Turks. In 1 710, he 
 was appointed prince to resist the expected invasion of Peter the great. Convinced that 
 ruin would come to the Turks, C. joined the czar and shared in the unfortunate cam- 
 paign on the Pruth in 1711. When peace was made, Peter refused to surrender him to 
 the Turks, and kept him employed in Russia, where he became a great favorite. His 
 most important work was a history of the rise and fall of the Ottoman empire. 
 
 CANTERBURY, a municipal and parliamentary borough, aco. by itself, a cathedral city, 
 and seat of the metropolitan see of all England, in East Kent, on the Stour, 56 m. e.s.e 
 of London, on the high-road from London to Dover. The distance from London by the 
 South-eastern railway is 81 m. ; by the London, Chatham, and Dover line, about 60. 
 It stands on a flat between hills of moderate height. It has the aspect of an old town, 
 many of the houses along the high street having gabled ends and projecting fronts. It 
 has little manufacture or traffic. The chief trade is in corn, wool, and hops. Pop. ’71, 
 '20,962. Many are engaged in the hop-grounds. C. returns two members to parliament. 
 It is noted for its brawn. Some remains of the walls (If m. in circuit and 20 ft. high) 
 which formerly surrounded C., and one of the gates, still exist. Near the city wall is a 
 large artificial mound, known as the Dane John (probably Donjon), and connected with 
 this mound is a public garden, laid out in the end of the 18th c., from the top of which 
 is a fine view of the country around. But the great glory of C. is its magnificent 
 
 Cathedral. When St. Augustine became archbishop of Canterbury, 597 a.d., he 
 ■consecrated, under the name Christ’s church, a church said to have been formerly 
 used by Roman Christians. Cuthbert, the 11th archbishop, 740 a.d., added a church to 
 the e. of this. In the course of ages, it received numerous additions, until it assumed 
 its present magnificent form. Among those who helped to repair, enlarge, and rebuild 
 
 it, were archbishops Odo (940 a.d.), Lanfranc (1070), and Anselm (1093). In 1174, the 
 choir was destroyed by fire, and in order to the rebuilding of it, a number of French 
 and English artificers were summoned. Among the former was a certain William^ of 
 Sens, and to him, a man of real genius, the work was intrusted. The church was rich 
 in relics: Plegemund had brought hither the body of the martyr Blasius from Rome; 
 there were the relics of St. Wilfred, St. Dunstan, and St. Elfege; the murder of Thomas 
 Becket (q.v.) had recently added a still more popular name to the list of martyrs. The 
 
 U. K. III.— 26 
 
Canterbury, 
 
 Canticles. 
 
 402 
 
 offerings at these shrines, especially the last, contributed greatly to defray the expenses 
 of the magnificent work. William of Sens did not, however, live to see its completion. 
 He was succeeded by another William, an Englishman, and to him we owe the comple- 
 tion of the existii^ unique and beautiful choir, terminated by the corona or circular 
 chapel called Becket’s crown. Gervasius, a monk, who witnessed the fire of 1174, and 
 has left an account of it, tells us that the parts of Lanfranc’s church which remained in 
 his time were the nave, the central and western towers, the western transepts, and their 
 eastern chapels. In the 14th c., the nave and transepts were transformed into the per- 
 pendicular style of that period. The central tower, called the Angel steeple, was carried 
 up (1486-1504) to about double its original height, also in the perpendicular style; it is 
 ' 234 ft. high, and 35 ft. in diameter. The n.w. tower was taken down in 1834; it was 
 113 ft. high, and divided into five stories. The Norman plinth still remains on each side 
 of the nave in the side aisles, and portions of Norman ashlaring may still be seen about 
 the transepts outside the w. wall, and on the eastern piers of the great tower. The 
 indiscriminate use of the “round” or “Norman,” and the “pointed” or “early Eng- 
 lish ” arch, is also a very striking feature in the eastern part of the building. The Lady 
 chapel, now called the Dean’s chapel, stands on the n. side of the church, and was built 
 in 1468; the roof is a fan- vault. The n. transept is called the Martyrdom, for here took 
 place the murder of Becket, on Tuesday, Dec. 29, 1170. Fifty years later, his remains 
 were translated from the crypt to a shrine in the newly erected Trinity chapel, eastward 
 of the choir. About the year 1500, the yearly offerings at this shrine amounted to 
 £4,000; but they had then declined much in value. A curious mosaic pavement still 
 remains in front of the place where the shrine stood, and the stone steps which lead up 
 to it are worn by the knees of countless pilgrims ; but the shrine itself was demolished 
 in 1538, and the bones of the saint burned by order of Henry YIII. In 1643, the build- 
 ing was further “purified,” as it was called, by order of parliament. Still very many 
 most interesting monuments remain— such as the tombs of Stephen Langton; that which 
 is commonly, but wrongly, supposed to be the tomb of archbishop Theobald; with those 
 of the black prince, of Henry IV., of archbishops Maphan, Peckham, Chicheley, Courte- 
 nay, Sudbury, Stratford, Kemp, Bourchier, Warham, and of cardinal Pole. The total 
 exterior length of the catliedral is 545 ft., by 156 in breadth at the eastern transept. The 
 crypt is of greater extent and loftier — owing to the choir being raised by numerous steps 
 at the east end — than any other in England. 
 
 The archbishop of C. is primate of all England, metropolitan, and first peer of the 
 realm. He ranks next to royalty, and crowns the sovereign. His ecclesiastical province 
 includes all England, except the six northern counties. Among his privileges, he can 
 confer degrees in divinity, law, medicine, and music. His seats are at Lambeth and. 
 j Addington park. He is patron of 149 livings, and has an income of £15,000 a year. 
 There are 14 old churches in C., mostly of rough flint, and containing fragments of still, 
 older structures. St. Martin’s church stands on the site of one of the 7th c., and is 
 partly built of ancient Roman brick and tile. Attached to the cathedral is a gram- 
 mar school, remodeled by Henry VIII. Part of St. Augustine’s Benedictine abbey still 
 remains, with its fine gateway, near the cathedral. It occupied, with its precincts, 16* 
 acres. The old buildings have lately received large modern additions, in order to fit them 
 for the purposes of a missionary college in connection with the church of England. 
 Another recent institution for education is the clergy orphan school, which occupies a 
 conspicuous position on St. Thomas’s hill, about a mile out of the city. The ruins of a 
 Norman castle, 88 by 80 ft., the third in size in England, stands near the city wall. C. 
 stood, in Roman times, at the union of two Roman roads from Dover and Lympne, the 
 chief seaports of the Romans. C. was the capital of Kent, and the center from which' 
 England was Christianized. St. Augustine, the apostle of England, sent b}^ Gregory I., 
 was the first archbishop, and baptized king Ethelbert of Kent. C. was the Saxon Caer 
 Cant, city of Kent, and capital of the kingdom of Kent. The Danes, in the 9th, 10th, 
 and 11th centuries, often ravaged and burned the city. Henry VIII. confiscated the 
 treasures of the cathedral, and Edward VI. levied fresh exactions from it. The cathe- 
 dral suffered much in the parliamentary struggles, but it has since been repaired. 
 
 CANTERBURY, a settlement of about 13,000 sq.m., on the e. coast of South island. 
 New Zealand, with Christchurch as its capital, and Lyttleton as its port. The district 
 was settled in 1850 by the Canterbury association, a society of peers, bishops, and com- 
 moners interested in the colonization of New Zealand. It has a coast-line of about 200 
 m., and is well watered by numerous rivers. Coal (in abundance), iron-ore, fire-clays, 
 and quartz have been discovered in the province, and several coal-mines are in oppa- 
 tion. On the eastern side of tlie great range of hills are the far-famed Canterbury plains, 
 the great sheep district of the colony — “3,000,000 of acres rolling back in gentle rise 
 40 m., to the foot of the central highlands, watered by 20 rivers, and spreading n. and s. 
 further than the eye can reach.” The natural pastures of C. are very fine; and to this 
 circumstance is mainly due the rapid advance in prosperity of the country. Pop. ’75, 
 78,715. In 1876, wheat occupied 57,500 acres, estimated to yield 1,770,363 bushels; 
 oats, 72,522 acres, estimated to yield 2,788,688 bushels; barley, 16,820 acres, estimated 
 to yield 620,699 bushels; and the estimated yield of potatoes was 17,895 tons. The 
 total value of exports in 1875 was £42,750; of imports, £1,302,440. Very excellent 
 timber grows in the province. 
 
403 
 
 Canterbury, 
 
 Canticles. 
 
 CANTEEBUEY BELLS. See Campanula. 
 
 CANTHAEEL'LUS. See Fungi, Edible. 
 
 CANTHAE'IDINE. See Cantharis. 
 
 CAN'THAEIS (Gr. a small beetle, plural canthar'ides), a genus of insects of the order 
 iioleoptera, section heteromera. See Coleoptera. It belongs to a family called trachel- 
 ides, or necked beetles, the head being separated from the thorax by a distinct neck or 
 pedicle, and forms the type of a subdivision of that family called cantliaridim, rrtany of 
 the species of which possess blistering properties analogous to those of the common 
 Blistering Fly, Spanish Fly, or Blister Beetle {(J. 'Desicatoria). This insect, the 
 best known and most important of the genus, is about an inch long; has a large heart- 
 shaped head, rather broader than the thorax; thread-like anteimm three times longer 
 than the head ; a nearly quadrangular thorax ; and soft elytra (wing-covers) concealing 
 the abdomen, and of equal breadth throughout. It is of a bright glossy green color. 
 The common blistering fly is found in the s. of Europe, and in the s. of Siberia. It is 
 abundant in Italy, Sicily, and Spain, in the s. of France, and in some parts of Germany 
 iind Russia. It is rare in England. The larva is not well known. The perfect insect 
 feeds on the leaves of the ash, privet, lilac, elder, and honeysuckle ; and rests on them 
 during the night, the day being its time of activity. It is therefore taken by beating 
 the branches of the trees in the morning or evening, when it is comparatively lethargic, 
 R cloth being spread below to receive the insects as they fall. The gathering of canthar- 
 ides takes place, in the s. of France, in the month of May. It requires great caution 
 to prevent injury to those who engage in it, the insects emitting a volatile substance 
 with a strong smell, which causes inflammation of the eyes and eyelids, convulsive 
 sneezing, and irritation of the throat and bronchial tubes, nor can they be handled 
 without danger of blistering. Those who collect them, therefore, generally wear 
 gloves and veils. Unpleasant effects have been experienced from even sitting under 
 trees on the leaves of which cantharides were numerous. Various methods are employed 
 for killing cantharides when they have been taken; the cloths containing them are 
 very generally immersed in hot vinegar and water, and they are afterwards carefully 
 dried; sometimes they are killed by the vapor of vinegar, and sometimes by oil of tur- 
 pentine. Unless kept with great care, they soon begin to lose their active properties, 
 although, in stoppered bottles, they remain fit for use for years. They are very liable 
 to be injured by mites, and afford a favorite food also to a kind of moth and to some 
 Gther insects. They are imported into Britain from the s. of Europe, and also from St. 
 Petersburg. 
 
 The active principle of the blistering flies is cantharidine, which possesses such pow- 
 erful blistering properties, that of a grain placed on the lip rapidly causes the rise 
 
 of small blisters. Administered internally, blistering flies cause heat in the throat, 
 stomach, intestines, respiratory organs, etc. ; and if in large doses, they give rise to 
 inflammation of a serious nature, and sufficient to cause death. Externally, they are 
 ■employed as a blistering agent. There are various medicinal preparations of blistering 
 flies, such as rinegar of cantharides, obtained by macerating blistering flies in acetic 
 acid; tincture of cantharides, procured by digesting blistering flies in proof-spirit, etc.; 
 but that most commonly employed is piaster of cantharides or blistering plaster, obtained 
 by mixing equal parts of blistering flies, yellow wax, resin, and lard. See Blister. 
 
 CANTICLES, a word which literally signifies songs, but which is specially applied to 
 a canonical book of the Old Testament, called in Hebrew The Song of Songs — i.e., the 
 most beautiful song. The author is commonly supposed to be Solomon, and in the rich 
 luxurious splendor of its coloring, it admirably harmonizes with the “golden time” of 
 that magnificent monarch. The theme which it celebrates is love; but what kind of 
 love, whether earthly or spiritual, is a question that has perplexed Biblical critics. The 
 oldest interpretations are allegorical, and are either political or religious. The former 
 ■of these, considered C. as the symbolical expression of a deep longing for the reunion of 
 the kingdoms of Judah and Israel; the latter, of the love of God for his chosen people, 
 the Jews. The religious interpretation passed over from Judaism to Christianity, and 
 assumed a new aspect in consequence. Origen found the beloved bridegroom in Christ, 
 and the bride in the church or the believing soul. Only among the theologians of the 
 Syrian school do we find an effort made to adhere to more intelligible principles of inter- 
 pretation, but the “ mystical view” obtained the upper hand, and has continued to be the 
 predominant view of the poem amongst orthodox theologians. For a while an attempt 
 was made to distinguish between a primary and a secondary sense, both more or less 
 directly present to the mind of the author; but modern scholarship in the main contents 
 itself with endeavoring to fix the primary or literal meaning. Nor is this an easy task. 
 Some commentators hold, for example, that C. is an anthology of detached idyls; others 
 argue that it is a dramatic unity composed of connected parts. Ewald has done much 
 to establish the latter view. Ewald’s followers hold that the poem was written about 
 the middle of the 10th c. b.c. in the northern kingdom of Israel, and conceived in a 
 spirit of hostility against the luxurious court of Zion. Solomon, the type of a sensual 
 monarch, has carried off to his harem a northern shepherd maiden, who in the poem 
 appears surrounded by the ladies of his court. The king fails even by the proffer of 
 honorable espousals to overcome the maiden’s fervent attachment to her shepherd lover 
 
Cantire. 
 
 Canton. 
 
 404 
 
 in the north country, and wholly abashed, ceases to press his suit. Finally, true and 
 chaste love triumphs in the union of the peasant lovers. 
 
 CANTIRE, or Kintyre (Gaelic, headland), a long narrow peninsula of Argyleshire,, 
 running n. and s. between Arran isle and the Atlantic, and united at the n. end with 
 the mainland of Scotland, by the isthmus of Tarbet, a mile broad between e. loch Tar- 
 bet, a small loch or bay of loch Fyne, and w. loch Tarbet. It is 40 m. long, and, on 
 an average, 6| broad. The surface is much diversified by low, undulating, moorish 
 hills, with many lochs. The highest point is Bennear, 1515 feet. It contains much 
 cultivated land. The n. four fifths of C., and the s.w. corner round the Mull, or promon- 
 tory, of Kintyre, consist chiefly of mica slate. Old red sandstone occurs on the s.e. 
 shore. Coal is found between Campbelton and the w. coast. A light-house, 297 ft. 
 above the sea, stands on the Mull of Kintyre. C. includes 10 parishes. Pop. about 
 18,000. Campbelton (q.v.) is the chief seat of population. C. was in ancient times peo- 
 pled by Piets and Celts more densely than the rest of Scotland. The Scots from Ireland 
 subdued it in 210 a.d., were expelled from it in 446, but returned in 503 under Fergus, 
 the first Scottish king, who fixed his seat at Campbelton. Kenneth II. (MacAlpine), on 
 defeating the Piets in 843, removed to Forteviot. From the 8th to the 12th c., C. was 
 occupied by Northmen from Scandinavia, and afterwards by the Macdonalds of the 
 isles, and more lately by the Campbells. Many burying-grounds and small ruined 
 chapels or monasteries in C., show its former populousness. Near these chapels, and 
 in the villages, are many high, upright slate crosses, with rude figures and inscriptions 
 on them. C. contains many ancient watch or ward forts often vitrified. 
 
 CANTIUM, a Roman district in ancient Britain, covering nearly the same territory^ 
 as the modern co. of Kent. Caesar speaks of the inhabitants as the most civilized 
 people of the island. 
 
 CANTO FERMO, in church music, means plain song, or choral song in unison, and in 
 notes all of equal length. Its introduction into the Clhristian church is attributed tO' 
 pope Gregory the great, before the invention of the modern notation. See also Gre- 
 gorian Tones. 
 
 CAN'TON. In heraldry, the C. occupies a corner of the shield, either dexter or sinis- 
 ter, and in size is the third of the chief. It is one of the nine honorable ordinaries, 
 “ and of great esteem.” 
 
 CANTON (from the Fr. canton, a corner, a district; Ger. kante, a point, corner, bor- 
 der; allied to Eng. cantle) signifies in geography a division of territory, constituting a 
 separate government or state, as in Switzerland. In France, C. is a subdivison of an 
 arrondissement. 
 
 CANTON, a city in Fulton co.. 111., on the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy, and 
 the Toledo, Peoria and Western railroads; 210 m. from Chicago, and 28m. from Quincy; 
 pop. ’70, 3,308. Manufacturing and coal mining are the main industries. 
 
 CANTON, a t. in Lewis co.. Mo., on the Mississippi river and the Mississippi Valley 
 and Western railroad, 200 m. above St. Louis, and 22 m. below Keokuk; pop. ’70, 2,363. 
 It is a prominent shipping place, has a number of manufactories, and is the seat of Can- 
 ton university, an educational institution under the charge of the Christian denomina- 
 tion. 
 
 CANTON, a t. in St. Lawrence co., N. Y., on Grass river and the Rome, Watertown 
 and Ogdensburg railroad; 60 m. n.e. of Watertown; pop. ’75, 6,123. It is the co. 
 seat, and has a court-house, almshouse, St. Lawrence university, and several churches. 
 There is abundant water-power, used in the manufacture of lumber, flour, etc. 
 
 CANTON, a t. in Stark co., O., on the Pittsburg, Fort Wayne and Chicago rail- 
 road, 100 m. n.e. of Columbus. There is abundance of water-power, and considerable 
 manufacturing is carried on. Coal and limestone are found, and the surrounding coun 
 try is a fine wheat-growing district. 
 
 CANTON, a large commercial city and port in the s. of China, and capital of the 
 province of Kwang-tung (of which the name C. is merely a corruption). It is situated 
 in lat. 23° 7' 10” n., and long. 113° 14' 30” e., on the n. side of the Chookeang, or Pearl 
 river, in a rich alluvial plain, 32 m. from the sea. The river (the entrance to which is 
 known by the name of the Boca Tigris, a Portuguese translation of the Chinese Hu-mun 
 (“ Tiger’s Mouth”), is very picturesque. The city is surrounded by a brick rampart 6 m. 
 in circumference, and entered by 12 gates, to each of which a guard-house is attached. 
 It forms an irregular square, and is divided by a wall into the n. and s., or old 
 and new city. The former is inhabited by the 'Tartar population, the latter bj^ Chi- 
 nese; and between the two, communication is maintained b}' four gates in the separat 
 ing wall. The suburbs are very extensive, and in one of these, facing the river, stood 
 the Euro^iean factories or hongs. Most of the streets of C. are crooked and labyrinthine 
 beyond description, but there are a small number of straight thoroughfares which make 
 it easy enough for a stranger to find his way. As a rule, a tolerablj^ straight street leads 
 from the water-side to each gate of the city on the southern front, and is more or less 
 prolonged through the interior. Many of the streets are devoted to distinct trades;, 
 thus, there is “Carpenter” street, “Apothecary” street, etc. The Joss-houses, chiefly 
 
405 
 
 Cantire. 
 
 Canton. 
 
 Buddhist temples, are said to be 124 in number. The largest of these, on Honam island,, 
 covers seven acres, and has 175 priests attached. It is called Hae Chwang 8ze, or “ the 
 temple of the ocean banner,” Another famous structure is “the temple of the five 
 hundred gods,” situated in the western suburbs. There are also several many-storied 
 towers or pagodas, a Mohammedan mosque, founded about a,d, 850 by the Arabian 
 voyagers, who then were accustomed to visit C,, a foundling-hospital, an English and 
 an American missionary hospital, Streets of wooden houses were formerly to be seen 
 on the river-side, but these were swept away during the late quarrel with Yeh; and one 
 large site that they occupied was walled in for the purpose of erecting new foreign fac- 
 tories, the old ones having been totally destroyed by fire, A very remarkable example 
 of life upon the water is the boat-town of Canton, The total population of the city has 
 been vaguely estimated at 1,000,000, The climate of C, may be pronounced healthy; 
 though the heat from June to Sept, is oppressive, and the thermometer sometimes, 
 though rarely, stands at 100° in the shade. In ordinary years, the winter minimum is- 
 42°, and the summer maximum 96°, The n,e, monsoon commences in Oct,, and 
 is the prevailing wind till Mar,, when the s,w, monsoon sets in. Its average tem- 
 perature is 70i° P,, and the annual fall of rain 70,625 inches. The Cantonese are notori- 
 ous for their turbulence and hatred of foreigners, and the European factories have 
 more than once been attacked by infuriated mobs, who were only kept at bay by 
 force of arms. This hostility may, however, be greatly due to the baneful infiuence of 
 those in power; for here the government of the mandarins of the present Manchu 
 Tartar dynasty appears to have reached its maximum of corruption and barbarity, and 
 and was fitly represented by the notorious Yeh, late governor-general of Kwang-tung 
 and Kwang-se, The author of Twelve Tears in China gives us some startling facts 
 illustrative of mandarinic rule in this part of China, After the defeat of the Triad 
 rebels, who besieged C, in 1844-45, it is estimated that 1,000,000 of people perished ia 
 the province. 
 
 The admirable situation of C, for conducting traffic explains how, from an early 
 period, it was a favorite port with foreign merchants. The Arabs, as has been said, 
 made regular voyages hither as early as the 9th century. The Portuguese found 
 their way to it in the 16th c,, and were followed by the Dutch a hundred years later. 
 These in turn were overtaken and supplanted by the English before the close of the 17th 
 c., and an immense trade was carried on by the agents of the East India company. 
 Their monopoly ceased on the 22d April, 1834. Since that date the proceedings of 
 the C, government officers have originated two wars with the British. The city was 
 captured by the allied French and English forces Dec., 1857, and continued to be 
 garrisoned by them till Oct., 1861. See China. After the treaty of Nankin (signed 
 Aug. 29, 1842), C. was known as one of the five ports; Amoy, Foochow, Ningpo, and 
 Shanghai having also been thrown open to foreign commerce. 
 
 The chief exports from C. are tea, silk, sugar; the chief imports, raw cotton, 
 piece-goods, opium, metallic wares, etc. War and rebellion” (say the authors of 
 the Treaty Ports of China and Japan, Lond. and Hong-Kong, 1867), “the opening of 
 Hankow as a shipping port for tea, and, above all, the proximity of Hong-Kong and 
 Macao to the delta of the Canton river, with its unrivaled facilities for smuggling, 
 have robbed C. of the pre-eminence it so long enjoyed in commercial prosperity.” 
 Yet the following statistics show that the city is recovering ground: 
 
 Total Value of Imports Total Value of Exports 
 
 in Mexican Dollars. in Mexican Dollars. 
 
 1860 18,415,727 16,257,623 
 
 1861 12,977,353 15,811,512 
 
 1862 10,580,928 17,742,590 
 
 1863 9,505,285 16,083,062 
 
 1864 8,192,795 13,659,177 
 
 1865 10,556,602 18,054,577 
 
 1866 14,171,101 18,832,622 
 
 1867 14,090,581 18,403,154 
 
 1868 12,991,266 18,491,156 
 
 1869 11,487,679 20,010,626 
 
 1870 12,053,394 19,857,543 
 
 1871..... 15,661,889 23,612,439 
 
 In 1874, the total value of exports was £4,610,470; of imports, £1,985,701, exclusive 
 of treasure. 
 
 The Middle Kingdom, by Dr, S. W. Williams; The Chinese, by sir John Davis; 
 Meadow’s Chinese; Twelve Tears in China (Edin. 1860); Report of the Missionary HospitaZ 
 in the Western Suburbs of Canton; Treaty Ports of China and Japan (Lond. and Hong- 
 Kong, 1867). 
 
 CANTON, John, 1718-72; an English natural philosopher, who made valuable dis- 
 coveries in the then new science of electricity. For constructing artificial magnets he 
 was honored with the membership and a gold medal of the royal society, and, in 1751, 
 he became one of the council of the society. He was the first person in England 
 to verify Franklin’s theory of the identity of lightning and electricity, having, in 1752, 
 
Cantonments, 
 
 Caoutchouc. 
 
 406 
 
 obtained fire from the clouds during a thunder-storm. He and FranlHin almost simulta 
 neously discovered that some clouds were charged with positive and others with nega- 
 tive electricitj^, a circumstance that made them warm personal friends. C. opposed the 
 theory then generally accepted that water was incompressible. 
 
 CANTONMENTS, in the general operations of European araiies, are temporary rest- 
 ing-places. Many circumstances, especially the state of the weather and the supply of 
 food, influence a gen. in determining whether to go into C. or to encamp, in the inter- 
 vals between active operations ; or he may take the former course during an armistice. 
 The quartermaster-gen. previously examines the district, and determines how many 
 men and horses to place in each village; arrangements are also made for a main-guard, 
 cavalry pickets, alarm-posts, road-barricades, lines of sentries, mounted orderlies, etc. , 
 to guard against a sudden surprise from the enemy. In C. the men are not generally 
 under canvas, as described in Camp. 
 
 In India, C. are permanent places, regular military towns, distinct and at some little 
 distances from the principal cities. If on a large scale, such a cantonment contains bar- 
 racks for European cavalry, infantry, and artillery; rows of bungalows or houses, each 
 inclosed in a garden, for the officers; rows of huts for the native soldiery; magazines 
 and parade-grounds ; public offices and buildings of various kinds ; and a bazaar for the 
 accommodation of the native troops. During the revolt in 1857-58, most of the out- 
 breaks began in the cantonments. It was in the cantonment outside Cawnpore that Nana 
 Sahib commenced his treachery. 
 
 CANTONNEE, in heraldry. When a cross is placed between four other objects, e.g., 
 scallop shells, it is said to be cantonnee. 
 
 CANTON’S PHOSPHORUS, or Pyro'phorus, is obtained by heating in close a vessel 
 8 parts oyster-shells and 1 part sublimed sulphur, when the sulphuret of calcium (CaS) is 
 formed, which takes fire when exposed to or thrown into the air. 
 
 CANTOR. See Precentor. 
 
 CANTU, Cesare, one of the best of modern Italian authors, was b. Sept. 5, 1805, at 
 Brescia, in northern Italy, and was educated at Sondrio, where he was appointed pro- 
 fessor of belles-iettres. Having been imprisoned for the offense of expressing liberal 
 tendencies in a historical work on Lombardy, C. spent his leisure hours in describing 
 the sorrows of a prisoner in the form of a historical romance, Margherita Pusterla 
 (Florence, 1845). C. has also written several religious hymns and songs, which have 
 become popular; but his great work is the Storia JJ nimrsale Turin, 1837-42). 
 
 His History of Italian Literature appeared in 1851 ; History of the Last Hundred Tears, 
 1852; History of the Italians, 1859; and Milano, Storia del Popolo epel Popolo, 1871. 
 
 CANTURIO, or Cantu', a t. in northern Ital}’", 5 m. s.e. of Como. It is situated in 
 the midst of a rich district, has a church with an elegant tower, which served as a bea- 
 con during the middle ages, and manufactures of iron-wares. Pop. 5,500. 
 
 CANUN, a Turkish musical instrument, strung with gut-strings; is played on by the 
 fingers, on which are thimbles of tortoise-shell, pointed with pieces of cocoa-nut, form- 
 ing plectra for striking the strings with. The C. is a favorite instrument with the ladies 
 in seraglios, many of whom produce very pleasant music and harmony on it. 
 
 • CANUTE, or Cnut, succeeded to the rulership of the Danes in England on the death 
 of his father, Swein or Sweyn, and was by them proclaimed king of England. On the 
 death of Ethelred, he shared the sovereignty with Edmund Ironside, who ruled over 
 the s., while C. was monarch over the n. of England. The sudden decease or assassina- 
 tion of Edmund made C. sole ruler in 1017, and he continued to reign until his death, 
 in 1035 or 1086. His rule was marked at first by cruelty, but when all who were likel}^ 
 to interfere with his power had been disposed of, he exhibited great mildness and jus- 
 tice, combined with talent and judgment. The Anglo-Saxons, whose complete subju- 
 gation he had effected, did not feel their chains: they had experienced no such good 
 government since the time of Alfred and Athelstane. He was easily accessible to all 
 his subjects; and won the hearts of the people by his love song and ballad, and his 
 liberal patronage of gleemen. One verse of an English song written by C. is still 
 extant. As soon as English affairs were settled, C. superseded his brother Harold as king 
 of Denmark; and in 1028 he extended his dominion over Norway — becoming thus one 
 of the most powerful princes of Europe. In his latter years he was devout. 
 
 CANVAS, regarded from an artist’s point of view, is the principal material upon which 
 oil-paintings are made. Two kinds are prepared for this purpose, of which the best is 
 called ticking. Before it is put into the artist’s hands, it is usually or grounded 
 
 (see Ground) of a neutral gray, or other tint, as he may direct. Certain sizes of C. 
 being in greater request than others, are kept ready stretched on frames. Those used 
 for portraits are known by the names of kit-cat, which measures 28 or 29 in. by 86: 
 three-quarters, 25 by 30 in.; half-length, 40 by 50; Bishop's half-length, 44 or 45 by 56; 
 Bishop's whole length , 58 by 94. 
 
 CANVAS, Snip’s. See Sail, Sailci.oth. 
 
407 
 
 Cantonments^ 
 
 Caoutchouc. 
 
 CANVAS-BACK, fuUgina {athya) valUsneria, a species of duck frequenting the- 
 Atlantic coast of the United States, greatly prized for its flesh. The canvas-back reaches 
 its highest perfection in and around Chesapeake bay, where these birds pass the winter 
 after returning from their breeding grounds in the far north-west. In its annual migra- 
 tions it is taken in great numbers in the marshes which surround the southern extremity 
 of lake Michigan, where the zostera vallisTieria, or so-called wild celery, known to be 
 identical with the plant of that name in the Chesapeake baj^ abounds. 
 
 CANZO NE is the name of one of the oldest and most prized forms of the Italian lyric. 
 The word is borrowed from the Proven 9 als, whose cansos or chansos, however, were not 
 restricted to any precise form, but were simply verses intended to be sung. The Italian 
 writers first attempted to regulate the wayward and arbitrary character of the Proven 9 al 
 cansos; Dante, and subsequently Petrarch, being especially successful. The canzone 
 Petrarchesca or loscana was any considerable lyrical poem, composed of stanzas exactly 
 corresponding to one another in number of lines, measure, and position of rhymes, and 
 which customarily closed with a short stanza. About the end of the 16th c., the Italian 
 writers began to deviate from the strict form of the Petrarchian canzone. Torquato- 
 Tasso and Chiabrera are the most notable names in the new movement. The most of 
 tile canzones of the latter — called by their author canzonette — are written in short lines- 
 ifcftd stanzas, the position of the rhymes being also completely arbitrary. 
 
 CAOUTCHOUC', Gum Elastic, or India Rubber, a substance wdiich, on account of 
 i.is peculiar properties, is extensively used in the arts, and of which the use is continually 
 und rapidly increasing. It is one of the products of the wonderful chemistry of nature, 
 being found in the milky juices of plants, and most abundantly in the natural orders 
 '^.noracem, artocarpacece, eupliorbiacem, apocynacem, asdepiadaceos, and papayaceoc. It exists 
 in the milky juice of plants growing in temperate climates; but it is only in tropical 
 and subtropical countries that it occurs so abundantly as to be of economical importance. 
 Its uses to the plants in which it is elaborated have not been ascertained ; and the con- 
 jectures of theorists on this subject are not supported by arguments sufficient to give 
 them much probability. In the milky juice, the C. is diffused in the form of minute 
 globules, and not, strictly speaking, in solution; and when the juice is extracted from 
 the plant, and allowed to stand for a short time, these globules separate from the w’atery 
 part of it, and form a sort of cream on the top, or, in close vessels, appear throughout it 
 as a flaky coagulum. C., as well as some of its useful and curious properties, must have 
 been known in America at a very early period, because balls made of the gum of a tree, 
 lighter and bouncing better than the wind-balls of Castile, are mentioned by Herrera 
 when speaking of the amusements of the natives of Hayti, in his account of Columbus” 
 second voyage. In a book published in Madrid in 1615, Juan de Torquemada mentions 
 the tree which yields it in Mexico, describes the mode of collecting the gum, and states 
 that it is made into shoes; also that the Spaniards use it for w^axing their canvas cloaks 
 to make them resist water. More exact information regarding C. was afterwards fur- 
 nished by M. de la Condamine, who visited South America in 1735, but it is curious to 
 note that some of the purposes for which india- rubber is most extensively used at the 
 present time are the same as those for which it was employed in South America nearly 
 three centuries ago. It was at first known by the name of elastic gum, and received that 
 of india-rubber from the discovery of its use for rubbing out black-lead pencil marks, 
 for which purpose it began to be imported into Britain in small quantities about the end 
 of last c. , being much valued by artists, and sold at a high price. Even before this- 
 time its employment for the manufacture of flexible tubes for the use of surgeons and 
 chemists had been successfully attempted ; but the expensive character of the solvents 
 then known for it, prevented its general application to any purpose in the arts. It was 
 not till 1830 that its employment began to extend beyond the rubbing out of pencil 
 marks, although in the meantime the quantity imported had considerably increased. 
 Its application to the manufacture of water-proof cloth first gave it commercial impor- 
 tance. About the same time a method was discovered of fabricating articles of various; 
 kinds by casting C. in molds. Its elasticity and flexibility, its insolubility in water, and 
 its great impenetrability to gases and fluids in general, have now been found to adapt 
 it to a great variety of uses ; but for by far the greater number of its applications it is 
 now employed in the vulcanized state. 
 
 The C. of commerce is obtained most largely from South America, but considerable 
 quantities are also procured from British India, the Indian archipelago, the west coast 
 of Africa, and the Mauritius. During the year 1873, the actual imports of this material 
 
 into Great Britain were< 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 .'Trom Brazil 68, 143 
 
 '' New Granada^ Ecuador, and Central America 16,390 
 
 ' British India. . 13,855 
 
 Strait Settlements 15,396 
 
 West Coast of Africa 14,135 
 
 Mauritius 10,433 
 
 Other Countries 18,863 
 
 Total 157,114 
 
Caoutchouc. 
 
 408 
 
 In 1852, the total imports were only 15,269 cwts. ; in 1862, 59,703 cwts. ; and in 1876, 
 157,509 cwts. The average annual yield of Brazil for the five years preceding 1871, 
 according to a table sent from that country to the Vienna exhibition of 1873, was about 
 5,000,000 kilogrammes. The value of the 159,753 cwts. of C. imported in 1877 was 
 jei,484,794. 
 
 Brazilian C. is the product of several species of siphonia (natural order euphorhiacem), 
 \mt siphonia elastica. Bates says that “this tree is not remarkable in appear- 
 
 ance; in bark and foliage it is not unlike the European ash, but the trunk, like that of 
 all forest trees, shoots up to an immense height before throwing off branches.” The 
 C. of New Granada, Ecuador, and Central America is obtained from castilloa elastica 
 (nat. ord. artocarpacecB), that of East India from the beautiful glossy-leaved ficus elastica 
 (nat. ord. moracece), now so common as an ornamental plant in our conservatories, that 
 of Borneo from urceola elastica, and that of western Africa from several species of 
 landolphia,^ and also Jicus. Species of vahea, willughheia, euphorbia, and other genera 
 likewise yield useful varieties of C., and the sources of some kinds are unknown. 
 
 C. is sometimes collected by cutting the trees down, but much more usually by mak- 
 ing simple incisions in the trunks. The method of collecting and preparing the liquid 
 C. is thus described in a work recently published at Rio Janeiro. In a few hours, the 
 juice which flows out fills the basins, made of large leaves and plastic clay, which are 
 adapted to the lower part of the tree. It is then poured into other vessels of various 
 shapM3S; in a short time it becomes thickened, and solidifies in consequence of the evapo- 
 ration of the liquid part. In order to dry it completely, the practice is to expose it to a 
 gentle heat; for this purpose it is suspended over a brazier lighted with wood, and the 
 flame maintained \vith the fruits of auricuri, in such a manner that it may receive the 
 smoke, hence the blackish color which the C. of commerce generally presents. Whilst 
 it is liquid, it is fashioned by means of molds, according to the purposes to which it is 
 destined. An attempt has recently been made to import the juice of the tree, and sub- 
 ject it to the drying process in this country, but little has as yet been imported into 
 Britain. The characters of the juice are, that it possesses the consistence of cream, has 
 a yellow color, is miscible with water, but n«t with naphtha or other of the solvents of 
 ordinary C., and its specific gravity varies from 1.02 to 1.41 — ordinary C. being 930. The 
 juice contains about 30 per cent of caoutchouc. When heated, it coagulates (as the 
 glaire of egg does), owing to the presence of albumen ; and exposed to the air, it dries 
 up and leaves a film of caoutchouc. In the preparation of pure C., the natural juice is 
 mixed with five or six times its bulk of water, and then either heated or mixed with 
 common salt or hydrochloric acid, when the pure C. separates as a white opaque sub- 
 stance. which becomes transparent when dry. Pure C. is a carbo-hydrogen, its compo- 
 sition beiog carbon 87.5 and hydrogen 12.5. 
 
 Para C. is the best, and commands the highest price in the market. The other 
 South American kinds are of medium quality. East Indian rubber — naturally a fine 
 quality — is too often injured by adulteration and careless collecting. The poorest kind 
 is the w. African, being clammy, offensive in its odor, and only slightly elastic. 
 
 Commercial C. is a tough fibrous substance, possessing elastic properties in the high- 
 est degree. Reduced to the temperature of freezing water (32° F.), it hardens, and in 
 greater part, if not entirely, loses its elasticity, but does not become brittle. When 
 heated, as by placing in boiling water, it softens, and becomes very much more elastic 
 than at ordinary temperatures, though it does not in any degree dissolve in the water. 
 If suddenly stretched to seven or eight times its original length, it becomes warm ; and 
 if kept in this outstretched form for several weeks, it appears to lose, in great part, its 
 elastic properties, and in this condition is readily cut into those thin threads which are 
 used in the elastic put in gloves, bonnets, etc. , and the elasticity of which is readily 
 renewed by the application of gentle heat. Of late years, however, elastic thread is 
 usually prepared with vulcanized rubber. Commercial C. is insoluble in water and 
 alcohol, is not acted upon by alkalies or acids, except when the latter are concentrated, 
 and heat is applied; but is soluble in ether, chloroform, bisulphide of carbon, naphtha, 
 petroleum, benzol, and the essential oils of turpentine, lavender, and sassafras. Many 
 other essential and fixed oils, when heated with C., cause it to soften, and produce 
 thick glutinous compounds, especially linseed oil, which, in the proportion of If lb. of 
 the oil to 4 ozs. C. in thin strips or films, yields a solution which, when strained, is of 
 great use in rendering shoes, cloth, etc , water-proof. When heated to 248° F., C. 
 fuses; and at 600° it is volatilized, at the same time undergoing decomposition, and 
 yields a liquid called caoutchoucine or caoutchisine, with the specific gravity 680, and 
 possessing great solvent powers over C. and other substances. Qaoutchoucine is neces- 
 sarily very expensive, and hence its use is limited ; but cordage steeped in it and dried 
 acquires great supple and tenacious properties, and cloth saturated with it, and dried by 
 exposure to the air, becomes water-tight. 
 
 In the emplo}"ment of C. as a branch of manufacture, the first operation is the puri- 
 fication of the crude material as it comes from abroad. The crude material is cut into 
 minute shreds, and washed by powerful machinery, immersed in water, which releases 
 the solid impurities, and the pure C. being removed, is placed on iron trays, and dried 
 in a room heated by steam. The material then undergoes a process of kneading under 
 very heavy rollers, which causes the adhesion of the various pieces of G. to each other. 
 
409 
 
 Caoutchouc. 
 
 and ultimately yields a mass or block of C. in which the condensation is so perfect that 
 all air-holes, and other cells and interstices, disappear. The block of C. is then cut 
 under water by powerful knives or shears into sheets, from which the pieces sold by 
 stationers may be shaped out, or from which C. bands or thread may be obtained. In 
 the manufacture of square threads, mere cutting is had recourse to; and the delicacy of 
 the operation may be understood when it is stated that 1 lb. of C. will yield 32,000 yds. 
 of thread. The round thread elastic is prepared from C. which has been treated with 
 about double its weight of bisulphide of carbon, containing about 5 per cent of alcohol, 
 which yields a soft material resembling in consistence bread dough or putty; and this 
 being squeezed through a series of small holes, is obtained in minute round threads, 
 which are first received on an endless piece of velvet and ultimately on an endless 
 web of common cloth 500 to 600 yds. long, during the transit of the threads across 
 which, the solvent or bisulphide of carbon evaporates, and leaves the caoutchouc. 
 When it is wished to weave these threads into cloth, they are wound upon bobbins, 
 taking care to stretch the C. as much as possible, so as to deprive it, for the time being, 
 of its elasticity; and after it has been woven into the cloth, a hot iron is passed over the 
 fabric, and immediately the C. resumes its elasticity. 
 
 In the manufacture of water-proof clothing, or Mackintoshes (see Mackintosh), 
 which was the first application of rubber on a large scale, the C. is made into a solu- 
 tion with spirits of turpentine, or other solvent, and spread upon the cloth; when 
 thus coated, the fabric is pressed between heavy rollers. This variety of water-proof 
 cloth has now, however, been almost entirely superseded by another kind made with 
 vulcanized rubber, which we shall notice presently. 
 
 Vulcanized Caoutchouc . — Pure india-rubber is now used only to a limited extent in the 
 arts, but it is applied in the vulcanized state to an almost endless variety of pur- 
 poses. The remarkable change which C undergoes when mixed with sulphur and 
 heated, according to circumstances, from 240° to 310° F., was discovered by Charles 
 Goodyear, in America, in 1843, and independently, about the same time, by Mr. Thomas 
 Hancock, in England. In the process of vulcanizing, the rubber, as a preliminary step, 
 is either ' torn into shreds or crushed into thin pieces by machinery, and afterwards 
 washed. There are two principal kinds of vulcanized rubber, one hard and horny in its 
 texture, the other soft and elastic. In the case of the former, the C. is mixed 
 with about one third of its weight of sulphur, and heated for several hours, the tem- 
 perature finally rising to fully 300° F. For the soft kind of vulcanized rubber, on the 
 other hand, a much smaller proportion of sulphur is required — namely, from 2^ to> 
 10 per cent, and the heat to which it is subjected in the vulcanizing chamber is con- 
 siderably less. Usually, too, with this latter kind, the articles are made before the 
 rubber is heated. The sulphur is commonly added in the ground state, but sometimes 
 the rubber is treated with some solution containing this element, such as the bisulphide 
 of carbon 
 
 Although sulphur is the only essential ingredient required for vulcanizing rubber, 
 yet other substances are usually added. Thus, in the case of machinery belting, pipes, 
 and some other articles, the silicate of magnesia (French chalk) is used to prevent adhe- 
 siveness. Litharge, or carbonate of lead, again, is frequently mixed with the rubber 
 and sulphur for certain purposes; but there is really a long list of materials more or 
 less used in preparing different qualities of vulcanized C., each manufacturer using 
 mixtures, the exact nature of which he is careful not to divulge. Asphalte, tar, lamp- 
 black, whiting, rosin, sulphide of antimony, and ground cork are some of the ingredients 
 most commonly employed in this way. Belting for machinery, and some kinds of 
 tubing, are formed of alternate layers of canvas and vulcanized rubber 
 
 Natural C., as already stated, is elastic, cohesive, impervious to gases, insolu- 
 ble in water, and resists many chemical re-agents ; but it loses its elasticity by cold, 
 softens by heat, and is destroyed by many fixed oils. After being vulcanized, C. has its 
 elasticity greatly increased, is not hardened by cold, and does not soften or become viscid 
 at any temperature short of its absolute decomposition. Besides, it is barely soluble in 
 turpentine, naphtha, and the other solvents of pure C. ; nor does oil readily penetrate 
 or soften it. 
 
 It would be a hopeless task to attempt to specify the many useful purposes ta 
 which vulcanized C. is applied, even if we had the space to spare. From the year 
 1843, when it was first made, to the present time, the various patented applications of it 
 must be two or three thousand in number. The mere abridgments of the specifications 
 connected with this material, issued by the English patent office, form a thick volume. 
 Under the head Goloshes, will be found a brief description of the process of making 
 india-rubber shoes. Water-proof coats are now made in a similar way, the mixture of 
 rubber and vulcanizing materials being pressed on the surface of any suitably woven 
 fabric by heated iron rollers in a calender. The coats are then cut out and the various 
 pieces put together, without sewing, by some solvent, such as turpentine, which makes 
 the edges adhere. They are afterwards heated in the vulcanizing chamber. Both coats 
 and shoes of this material have, however, the objectionable property of preventing the 
 escape of moisture from the skin. Belting, buffers, wheel tires, washers, valves, pipes, 
 fire-hose, and other engineering appliances, form a large branch of the rubber trade. For 
 medical and surgical purposes, many articles are made of this material. Of such an 
 
Cap 
 
 •Cape. 
 
 410 
 
 apparently trivial matter as vulcanized rubber threaa, one English firm turns out about 
 •3,000 lbs. per day, and another single small article — namely, tobacco pouches — is made 
 in another factory at the rate of 3,000 per diem. 
 
 Hard vulcanized rubber, termed vulcanite, and sometimes ebonite, is made into a 
 great many small .iiticies, such as combs, chains, bracelets, boxes, penholders, paper- 
 knives, knife-handles, buttons, etc., as a substitute for materials like horn, bone, ivory, 
 and jet. As in the case of these substances, it is formed into various objects by molding, 
 cutting, carving, polishing, and other processes. Vast numbers of these articles are now 
 sold, but some time must yet elapse before the quality of this material is thoroughly 
 tested. The black color of vulcanite ornaments has still a tendency to turn gray, but 
 the brittleness which was a fault of combs made of it a few years ago, seems to be over- 
 come. With respect to objects of considerable size, vulcanite has been made into 
 furniture, ornamental tiles, and even rails for railroads. A kind of vulcanite is now 
 very largely employed as an insulator in electric cables, experience having shown that 
 there are certain objections to gutta'-percha being used for this purpose. 
 
 There are some useful applications of india-rubber in the liquid or semi-liquid state, 
 which it is worth while to note; thus, when melted at 398° F., and mixed with half its 
 weight of slaked lime, it forms a useful cement or lute, which can be easily loosened, 
 but it will dry and harden if red lead is added. A very tenacious glue is formed by 
 heating C. , coal tar, and chell-!.ac together. It forms an ingredient in some special kinds 
 of varnishes, and it also imp: eves the lubricating qualities of mineral oils, when a small 
 quantity is dissolved in them. 
 
 In Great Britain there are six or eight large india-rubber factories, each employing 
 from 400 to 600 hands, besides a great number of smaller works. The manufacture 
 of C. is also an extensive industry in the United States, and in some continental 
 countries, especially France. According to an estimate made by M. Ballard in 1867, the 
 annual French consumpt of raw india-rubber was then 180,000 lbs., the value of which 
 in a manufactured state was fully £3,000,000. This would indicate that the industry is 
 more largely developed in France than in England. In most india-rubber factories a 
 large number of the work-people are females; and with respect to the operatives engaged 
 in them generally, there is this peculiarity, that as no great skill is required on their part, 
 employment in such works has proved quite a boon to many persons who have never 
 learned a trade. 
 
 CAP, in ship-building, is a strong, thick block of wood fixed near the top of each 
 mast; it has a hole to receive the upper end of the lower mast, and another to receive 
 the lower end of the topmast, with eyebolts to aid in hoisting the topmast. There is also 
 a C. of smaller size at the point of junction between the topmast and the top-gallant- 
 iiast. When made of iron, the C, is called a crance. 
 
 CAP. See Percussion Caps. 
 
 * CAPACITY, Legal, is such a condition of individuals, in regard to their natural quali- 
 fies and actual position under the constitution of the country, as fits them for the appli- 
 cation of the laws civil and criminal. Generally speaking, all persons have this legal 
 capacity excepting aliens, persons attainted, convicts, insane persons, and to some extent 
 pjso infants, femmes coverts or married women, and persons under duress; see these heads. 
 See also Conveyance, Contract, Plaintiff, Pursuer, Defendant, Suit. 
 
 CAPANNORI, a city of Italy, 5 m. e. of Lucca; situated in a fertile plain, on the rail- 
 road from Pisa to Florence; pop. ’71, 48,313. 
 
 CAP-A-PIE' (Fr. head to foot), in the military language of the middle ages, was applied 
 io a knight or soldier armed at all points, or from head to foot, with armor for defense 
 and weapons for attack. 
 
 CAPAR'ISONED, in heraldry. A war-horse completely furnished for the field is said 
 to be caparisoned. 
 
 CAPE, in geography, the extremity of a portion of land projecting into the sea beyond 
 the general line of the shore. On a low sandy coast, a C. generally forms an obtuse 
 angle, being merely a change in the trending of the land. On rocky shores, capes usually 
 form acute angles, and are here sometimes called points or promontories. 
 
 CAPE AGULHAS. See Agulhas, ante. 
 
 CAPE ANN, in n. e. Massachusetts, 31 m. from Boston; 42° 38' n., 70° 35' w. ; has 
 two fixed lights 90 feet above tide, and about half a mile apart. There are two other 
 lights on Thatcher’s island, anout a mile off shore. There are valuable stone-quarries at 
 the cape. The whole rocky peninsula generally included under this name, projects about 
 30 m. into the Atlantic ocean. 
 
 CAPE BAB-EL-MANDEB. See Bab-el-mandeb, ante. 
 
 CAPE BIANCO, the most northerly point of Africa, on the Mediterranean; 37° 20' n., 
 9° 48' east. 
 
 CAPE BLANCO, or Orford, in s.w. Oregon, 42° 45' n., 125° 45' w. ; 25 m. from the 
 mouth of the Rogue river. A little s. of the cape is Port Orford; on the cape is a light 
 1 25 ft. above tide. 
 
411 
 
 Cap. 
 
 Cape. 
 
 CAl^E BLANCO, on the w. coast of Africa. See Blanco, ante, 
 
 CAPE BOE'O, the w. point of Sicily, a mile from Marsala; 37° 28' n., 12° 25' eas.. 
 Oft this cape, in 241 b.c., the Romans gained a naval victory over the Carthaginians, 
 closing the first Punic war. 
 
 CAPE BOJADOR'. See Bojador, ante. 
 
 CAPE BON, or Ras Adder, in Tunis, Africa, 37° 6' n., 11° 3' e., at clie entrance a: 
 uhe gulf of Tunis. 
 
 CAFE BRET'ON, a rocky island of irregular form in British North America, stretching 
 in n. lat. between 45° and 47°, and in w. long, between 60° and 61° SO'. It is separated 
 from the peninsula of Nova Scotia by Chebucto or Chedabucto bay and the gut of Canso, 
 contains 3,120 sq.m., with a pop. (1871) of 26,454. Its principal exports are pine, oak, 
 birch, maple, fish, and coal. Though the island produces maize and other grains, yet it 
 depends for its breadstuffs chiefly on the United States. C. B., originally a French pos- 
 session, was taken by the English in 1745; but being subsequently restored to France, it 
 was again captured in 1758, and ceded in 1763. After having been for a time a distinct 
 colony, it now forms part of the province of Nova Scotia. 'The towns are Sydney, Ari- 
 chat, and Port Hood, the once famous Louisbourg, stripped of its fortifications, having 
 bdcome merely a village. 
 
 CAPE BRET'ON, a co. in e. Nova Scotia, a part of the island of the same name, 
 nearly surrounded by the ocean; pop. ’71, 76,424. Coal is the chief production. Chiei 
 town, Sydney. 
 
 CAPE CANAV'ERAL, about the middle of the Atlantic coast of Florida, 28° 27' n., 
 GO* 33' west. It has a revolving light 139 ft. above the water. There are dangeroue 
 choals around the cape. 
 
 CAPE CHARLES at the n.e. entrance of Chesapeake bay, Virginia. On Smith’s 
 island there is a revolving light 37° 3' n., 76° 2' west. This cape is the extreme s. pro- 
 jection of the “eastern shore ” of Maryland. 
 
 CAPE CLEAR, a high promontory on the s. side of Clear island, co. Cork, Ireland, 
 usually the first land seen when steamers are approaching England from America. 
 'JL'here are two lights, one in 51° 26' n., 9° 29 w. ; and one on Fastnett rock, 3^ m. n.w. 
 hj s. from the cape, 148 ft. above high water. 
 
 CAPE COAST CASTLE, the chief settlement of Great Britain in north or upper Guinea,, 
 lat. 5° 5' n., and long. 1° 13' west. The place, as its name implies, is defended by a 
 fort, or rather by three forts. It has a pop. of 10,000. During 1871, the external trade 
 of the entire Gold Coast, C. C. C. being the capital, was as follows: imports, £364,672; 
 exports, £327,012. Under the latter head, the principal articles were palm-oil, gold-dust, 
 tortoise-shell, and maize. 
 
 CAPE COD, properly a narrow peninsula of Massachusetts, which, with a length of 
 (35 m., forms the s.e. boundary of the great bay of that state. The northern extremity, 
 marked by a revolving light 155 ft. high above the level of the sea, is in lat. 42° 3' 40" 
 II., and long. 70° 14' 48" west. 
 
 CAPE COD {ante), ^he n.w, point of the long sandy strip running around Cape Cod 
 bay and forming Barnstable co., Mass., inclosing Provincetown and Cape Cod harbors, 
 tl'he name is applied also to the whole strip of land. On Race point, at the n. extremity, 
 there is a revolving light 155 ft. above tide, in 42° 4' n., 70° 15' west. There are also 
 ueveral other lights. The cape was discovered by Gosnold 18 years before the arrival 
 of the pilgrims. 
 
 CAPE COLONY. See Cape op Good PIope, ante. 
 
 CAPE COM'ORIN, See Comorln, ante. 
 
 CAPE DIAMOND, the high rock at the junction of the St. Lawrence and the Sp 
 Charles on which stands the citadel of Quebec. 
 
 CAPD DISAPPOINTMENT, or CapeH .\ncock, the s.w. point of Washington terri- 
 tory, at the entrance of Columbia river; 46° 16' n., 124° 2' w.; has a white light 232 ft, 
 above the water. 
 
 CAPE DU CA’TO. See Ducato, ante. 
 
 CAPE ELIZABETH, in the town of that name in Cumberland co.. Me., 6 m. s.e. of 
 Portland, 43° 33' n., 70° 11' w. There are two lights, one fixed and one floating. The 
 town is a suburb of Portland, and a popular summer resort; pop. ’70, 5,106. 
 
 CAPE FAREWELL, the s. point of Greenland, a precipitous headland on an_ 
 island; 59° 49' n., 43° 54' w. The currents, the ice, and the winds combine to make 
 this probably the most boisterous point on the globe. 
 
 CAPE FEAR, the s. point of Smith’s island at the mouth of Cape Fear river in 
 North Carolina; 33° 48' n., 77° 57' w. There is a light about a mile from the shore. 
 
■Cape. 
 
 412 
 
 CAPE FEAR RIVER, in North Carolina, formed by the Haw and Deep rivers, and 
 affording navigation from the ocean to Wilmington, and further for steamboats. It 
 ■enters the Atlantic n. of Smelt island. 
 
 CAPEFIGUE, Baptiste Honore Raymond, a French publicist and historian, was b., 
 1802, at Marseilles. He studied law at Aix, and in 1821 proceeded to Paris, for the pur- 
 pose of completing his juridical course, but soon betook himself to journalism and autlior- 
 -ship. He held a post in the foreign office until 1848. This, however, did not interfere 
 with his amazing activity. Besides contributing extensively to many of the Parisian 
 journals, he has “manufactured” not less than a hundred volumes of history — not, 
 indeed, intrinsically valuable, but indicating wonderful facility in the use of the pen. 
 The best is theHistoire de la Bestauration (3d edit., 1842). He has published of late years 
 many interesting biographical works. 
 
 CAPE FINISTERRE'. See Finisterre, ante. 
 
 CAPE FLATTERY, the extreme w. point of the United States (except Alaska), in 
 Washington territory, s. of the strait of Juan de Fuca. On an island half a mile from 
 the cape is a light, 48° 20' n., 124° 43' 48" west. 
 
 CAPE FLORIDA, the s. extremity of Key Biscayne in Dade co., Fla., e. of the 
 Everglades. There is a fixed white light. 
 
 CAPE GAT A, or Cape de Gatte, a promontory of Spain in the province of Gra- 
 nada extending into the Mediterranean ; a mass of rock about 24 m. in circumference. 
 The most notable of the pile is the ancient Promitorium Charidemi, the Moorish 
 Kheyran, and is formed chiefly of agates, spars, and crystals. The cape was once a 
 resort of Moorish pirates. 
 
 CAPE GIRARDEAU, a co. in s.e. Missouri, on the Mississippi and the St. Louis 
 and Iron Mountain railroads. It is level, fertile, and well cultivated ; producing wheat, 
 corn, oats, potatoes, tobacco, etc.; 875 sq.m.; pop. ’80, 20,998 — 1994 colored. Co. seat, 
 Jackson. 
 
 CAPE GIRARDEAU, a city in the co. of the same name in Missouri on the 
 Mississippi river, 100 m. below St. Louis; pop. ’70, 3,585. It is in a rich and well culti- 
 vated section. St. Vincent’s college, Roman Catholic, is the principal public institution. 
 
 CAPE GUARDAFUI'. See Guardafui, ante. 
 
 CAFE HATTERAS, a dangerously low point of North Carolina, U. S., in lat. 35° 14' 
 n., and long. 75° 30' w. It forms the eastern extremity of the insular banks of the same 
 name, projecting virtually into the Florida stream, and marking the spot where the 
 coast-line abruptly turns from the direction of n.e. to that of due north. 
 
 CAPE HATTERAS {ante), the point of the coast of North Carolina stretching fur- 
 thest into the Atlantic, and by far the most dangerous part of the American coast for 
 navigators, on account of shoals and frequent gales and storms. Coasting vessels are 
 npt to be crowded up towards this cape by the gulf stream, which is only about 20 m. 
 cast. There is a light near the cape 192 ft. above the sea. Cape Hatteras is off about 
 the middle of Pamlico sound, and is one of the most desolate and barren regions on the 
 U. S. coast. 
 
 CAPE HAYTIEN (formerly called Cape Frangais and Cape Henri), a seaport t. of 'the 
 island of Hayti, on its n. coast, in lat. 19° 40' n., long. 72° 54' west. It is pleasantly situ- 
 ated on a small bay, partly encircled by hills, has wide and well-paved streets, and some 
 handsome squares. A great portion of it, however, is in ruins, the effects of the revo- 
 lutionary wars at the end of last century. Safe anchorage is found within the harbor, 
 which, however, is rather difficult of access. C. H. carries on a considerable trade with 
 the United States. Pop. stated at from 12,000 to 16,000. 
 
 CAPE HENLO'PEN, on the e. coast of Delaware, at the s. entrance of the Dela- 
 ware bay, 13 m. s.s.w. of cape May, which is in New Jersey, on the other side of the 
 entrance. Cape Henlopen is in 38° 47' n., 75° 5' w., and has a fixed light 182 ft. above 
 the sea. 
 
 CAPE HENRY, on the coast of Virginia, at the s. entrance to Chesapeake bay, 
 opposite to cape Charles in Maryland ; 36° 56' n. , 76° 4' w. ; has a fixed light 120 ft. above 
 the sea. 
 
 CAPE HORN, or Hoorn, the most southerly point of America, terminating an island 
 of its own name, in the archipelago of Terra del Fuego. It is in lat. 55° 58' 40" s., and 
 long. 67° 16' w., having a perennially antarctic climate, and being in itself merely a 
 detached link, bare and rugged, of the chain of the Andes. It was discovered by 
 Schouten, a native of Hoorn in Holland, about 90 years later than the strait of Magellan, 
 and since then the course of navigation of sailing vessels has been round the cape instead 
 of through the strait. 
 
 CAP'EL, Arthur, Lord, 1600-49; representative of Hertford, in the Long parlia- 
 ment of 1640. He was a roj’^alist officer, acting with lord Colchester and Edward Hyde 
 SLS a general, and was in the actions of Bristol, Exeter, and Taunton. At Colchester, 
 
413 
 
 Cape. 
 
 he was compelled by famine to surrender to Fairfax. He was tried for treason and exe- 
 cuted' Mar. 9, 1649. He was the author of Daily Observations or Meditations. 
 
 CAP'EL, Thomas John, b. 1835; an English Roman Catholic priest. When but 17 
 years old, he, with others, founded a normal training college for the education of school- 
 teachers, of which, in 1856, he was made vice-principal. Being compelled to seek southern 
 Europe on account of ill health, he founded at Pau a mission for English-speaking 
 Roman Catholics, in consequence of which the pope advanced him to “ mousigoore,” a 
 position equivalent to that of bishop. Returning to England, in 1873 he established the 
 Roman Catholic public-school at Kensington, and devoted much of his time to preach- 
 ing. In 1874, he published a Reply to Gladstone’s Political Expostulation. 
 
 CAPE LA HAGUE, a promontory of France, forming the n.w. extremity of the penin- 
 sula of Cotehtin, in the department of Manche. It juts out into the English channel, 
 opposite the island of Alderney, and about 16 m. n.n.w. of Cherbourg, and 50 m. s. of 
 St. Alban’s Head, in Dorsetshire. 
 
 CAFE LA HOGUE, often confounded with cape la Hague, is situated on the e. side 
 of the same peninsula. Here the united English and Dutch fleets defeated the French 
 in 1692. 
 
 CA'FELIN, Mallotus Grcenlandicus, a small fish of the family of salmonidoe, extremely 
 abundant on the coasts of Newfoundland, and much used as bait in the cod-fishery. It 
 h also, in a dry state, an article of commerce, and is imported, although not very 
 largely, into Britain, where it sometimes appears on the breakfast or supper table. Its 
 flavor, which is very agreeable, suggests to most persons the idea of its belonging to the 
 herring rather than the salmon family. It is nearly allied to the smelt, but the teeth are 
 smaller and more numerous. It is the only known species of its genus. — Shoals of cape- 
 lins arrive periodically on the coast of Newfoundland, the vast numbers changing the 
 very color of the sea. 
 
 CAP'ELL, Edwakd, 1713-81 ; b. in Suffolk, England ; a Shakespearean annotator 
 and critic. As deputy-inspector of plays, he became so much disturbed by the inaccura- 
 cies in the current edition of Shakespeare, that he projected an entirely new print, care- 
 fully compared with the original as far as possible. This was published at the expense 
 of the London book-sellers. He continued his Shakespearean researches during his life, 
 and shed much light on the great author’s works. He also published a volume of ancient 
 poems under the title of Prolusions. 
 
 CAFELLA, a bright star of the first magnitude, on the left shoulder of Auriga. C. is 
 also called Capra or the She-goat, a name also sometimes given to Capricorn. — ^The poets 
 fable C. to be Amalthea’s goat, which suckled Jupiter in his infancy. 
 
 CAFELLA. See A Capella. 
 
 CAFELLA, Martianus Mineus Felix, a learned author belonging to the second half 
 of the 5th c., was born in Africa, but where is not definitely ascertained. Of his life 
 nothing whatever is known. The work which has preserved his name to posterity is the 
 Satiricon, a kind of encyclopaedia, highly esteemed during the middle ages as a work of 
 reference. It is written in a medley of prose and verse, and is full of curious learning, 
 but possesses no literary value ; the style has all the bombastic pomp of the African 
 school of later Latinists. It consists of nine books. The first two consist of an allegory. 
 The Nuptials of Philology and Mercury, while the remaining seven are devoted to the 
 ■"‘liberal arts,” grammar, dialectics, rhetoric, geometry, arithmetic, astronomy, and 
 music. The first edition of the Satiricon appeared in 1499, under the care of Franciscus 
 Bodianus; the best in 1836, under the care of U. F. Kopp. 
 
 The book on astronomy is remarkable as containing a hint of the true theory of the 
 solar system. Mercury and Venus are there declared to move round the sun, and not 
 round the earth; and their relation to these bodies is properly explained. Now as Coper- 
 nicus knew C., and quotes from him, it is not unlikely that he derived the first idea of 
 his doctrine from this writer. 
 
 CAPE LOOKOUT, on the e. coast of North Carolina, 85 m. s.w. of cape Hatteras; 
 34° 7' n., 76° 33' w., having a fixed white light 100 ft. above tide. 
 
 CAPE’ MATAPAN', the s. extremity of the continent of Europe, in Greece, 
 between the gulf of Laconia and Kalamatia, 36° 23' n., 22° 29' east. The ancient Greeks 
 called it Tsenarium, and made it sacred to Neptune, whose temple stood near the cape, 
 the remains of which are yet to be seen. 
 
 CAPE MAY, the s. point of New Jersey, at the n.e. entrance to Delaware bay. 
 There is a revolving light 152 ft. above tide; 38° 56' n., 74° 57' west. 
 
 CAPE MAY, a co. in s. New Jersey, on the ocean and Delaware bay, intersected by 
 the Cape May and Millville railroad; 250 sq.m. ; pop. ’80, 9765. The surface is level, and 
 somewhat swampy, with alluvial soil, producing grain, hay, and fruit. In one of the 
 swamps is a deposit of cedar trees, the timber of which is still good, though it must have 
 been under-ground more than 2000 years. Co. seat, Cape May Court-house. 
 
Cape. 
 
 414 
 
 CAPE MAY, or Cape Island, a t., village, and celebrated watering place, in Cape 
 May CO., N. J. ; connected with Philadelphia by railroad; sometimes called Cape city «r 
 Cape Island city. There is a line beach several miles long, and the bathing facilities are 
 of the first order. The hotels are numerous, and of modern construction, and in sum- 
 mer the place is the favorite resort of Philadelphians as well as of people from cities 
 more remote. The climate is usually equable and pleasant. 
 
 CAPE MENDOCI'NO, in Humboldt co., Cal., the extreme w. point of the state; 
 40* 1.6' 24" n. , 124° 23' 27" west. There is a flashing light 428 ft. above the water. 
 
 CAPE NORTH. See Mageroe, ante. 
 
 CAPE ORTEGAL', the n. extremity of Spain, projecting into the bay of Biscay in 
 the province of Corunna; 43° 47' n., 7° 56' w. ; on a rugged and barren coast. 
 
 CAPE OF GOOD HOPE, popularly regarded as the most southerly promontory of Africa, 
 though it is half a degree to the n. of cape Agulhas. The latter is merely a projection, 
 on a coast-line, which diverges inconsiderably from a parallel; but the former is really 
 the turning-point from s. to e. on the voyage from Europe to India. Tliis celebrated 
 promontory is in lat. 34° 22' s., and long. 18° 29' e., being the termination of Table moun- 
 tain, which, as it recedes towards the bay of its own name, rises from the height of lOOO 
 ft. above the sea to that of 3,582. The cape (for so it is called by way of eminence) was 
 discovered and doubled by Diaz, a Portuguese navigator, as earl}'- as 1486 — six years 
 before Columbus, in aiming at the same goal by a different route, led the way to Amer- 
 ica. But it was only in 149^7 that Vasco da Gama realized the value of Diaz’s discovery, 
 by rounding it on his adventurous voyage from Lisbon to Calicut. The result was not 
 merely to open a new channel for the traffic of the east, but it was also to transfer trad- 
 ing superiority from the republics of Italy to the states of Western Europe. 
 
 CAPE OF GOOD HOPE, a British colony, was so called from the cape on its s.w. 
 extremity. It was established by the Dutch in 1652, some attempts at a settlement hav- 
 ing been previously made by the Portuguese. The former only intended it at first as an 
 intermediate station between Holland and their East Indian possessions; and at first 
 occupied only a small tract of ground on the slopes of Table mountain, with some por- 
 tion of the adjoining flats; but they had in their neighborhood scattered tribes of 
 improvident natives, singularly feeble of purpose, and incapable of organization on a large 
 scale. The tide of immigration set in from Holland, and when the country was finally 
 taken possession of by the British in 1806 (there having been a brief occupation of it 
 from 1796 till 1803), the Dutch hhd extended their dominion as far to the e. as the mouth 
 of the Great Fish river, and from that point in a waving line a.cross the country to the 
 w., a little s. of Orange river. 
 
 In entering upon the government of this large territory, the British found themselves, 
 face to face with a race of a totally different sort from that of the purposeless Hottentot 
 — a people styled Kaffirs, mainly of Arab descent, consisting of tall, athletic, finely 
 formed men, of warlike dispositions, with an incurable propensity to steal from any one, 
 provided he was not of their own tribe, and particularly so if he was a foreigner. The 
 inevitable result was a succession of wars — those, namely, of 1812, 1819. 1828, 1835-36, 
 1846-47, 1851-52. 
 
 Cape Colony proper is bounded on the n. by the Orange river and the Kei. But of 
 late the area of this British possession has been greatiy extended by the annexation of 
 districts lying to the northward. Of these successive annexations the most important 
 are that of British Kaffraria (see Kappraria) in 1866; of Basuto-land, lying in the upper 
 basin of the Orange river, in 1868; of two vast districts across the Kei called Fingo-kand 
 and Noman’s-land, now called Griqua-land East (q.v.), in 1875; of Griqua-land West, in 
 1876; and of the 'Transvaal (q.v.) in 1877. The area of cape Colony proper is 181,592; 
 sq.m., and its pop. in 1875, 496,381. The area of the whole colony, with the newly 
 incorporated districts, is estimated at 329,495 sq.m., and its pop. at 1,142,782. 
 
 The highest range of mountains within the colony is 9,000 ft. above the sea. The 
 mountains keep at a distance from the coast-line of from 30 to about 100 m., and receive 
 different names on their course, such as the Stormberg, Sneeuwberg, Nieuwveld, Rog- 
 geveld, and Kamiesberg. Between this principal range and the sea on the e., there are 
 two other ranges less continuous and regular, the intermediate one generally more dis- 
 tant from the first than they are from each other. 
 
 South Africa being not far from the region of the trades, s.e. winds prevail, especially 
 in the summer time; the only other wind that may be said to blow is that from the 
 11 . w., which prevails during the colder months. But whichever of these two winds 
 predominates — the one bearing a supply of rain from the Indian ocean, the other, if less 
 frequent, more richly laden from a part of the Atlantic nearer the line than the country 
 which it fertilizes — it fails to deposit its stores on the opposite side of the principal 
 water-shed which crosses its path. Hence the curious fact of the transposition of sea- 
 sons in the same latitude. As the harvest in such latitudes depends more on the sup- 
 ply of rain than anything else, people are reaping on the one side of the country whilst 
 they are sowing and planting on the other. Certain parts of the country are liable to 
 long continued droughts, because while very heavy rain-falls take place, the rain is 
 confined to a particular part of the year. The country, however, is admirably adapted 
 
415 
 
 Cape. 
 
 for the storage of water. In many places one meets with the successive beds of dried- 
 up lakes, with a narrow outlet at the lower ends, through which a periodic stream 
 flows. By closing up this outlet, artificial lakes or dams may be formed to almost any 
 extent, and of unlimited number; and from the steepness of the slope, the lands lower 
 down admit easily of being laid under water. 
 
 As regards minerals, the diamond fields are in Griqualand (q.v.), till recently beyond 
 the limits of the colony, and in the free state. In 1874, the lieutenant of West Griqua- 
 land issued an order for the better management of diggings and mines of precio.us 
 stones and minerals, in which he requires that miners shall have a certificate, dealers a 
 license, and the mines be under official inspection. This ordinance created a great out- 
 cry against it by a great body of dealers, but it seems necessary that such protection 
 should shield the weak and the dealer who wishes to trade according to recognized law. 
 Gold is confidently reported to have been found in the Transvaal in payable quantities; 
 but the only mineral within the colony which has greatly added to its wealth is the 
 rich copper ore found in Namaqualand. 
 
 There is in the colony almost a total want of navigable rivers, but the system of rail- 
 ways is rapidly extending. Already the copper mines are connected with Port Nolloth; 
 the line which connected Cape Town with Wellington has been carried forward to 
 Worcester. When completed, it will be a trunk line extending from one end of the 
 colony to the other. Another line has been begun at Port Elizabeth, in order that it 
 may pierce the gaps in the mountain regions, and open up the way to the country 
 behind them. A line is projected from East London with a similar view. The ship- 
 ping at Cape Town is now secure by a breakwater and docks. The same cannot be 
 said of Port Elizabeth, East London, and the Kowie; but measures are being taken 
 which, it is hoped, will result in making these also safe from the fierce s.e. winds. 
 
 This splendid country is at present occupied by an assemblage of very varied races. 
 The Portuguese were the first Europeans who landed here. The Dutch are probably 
 still the most numerous, notwithstanding the exodus to the Orange river free state, 
 prompted by the slave question. Next in number are the English, by whom some parts 
 -of the country, particularly in the e., are occupied almost exclusively. The French, 
 .are also largely represented, many refugees having settled in it subsequently to the 
 revocation of the edict of Nantes, but they are now nearly absorbed in the Dutch 
 population. They were at first located principally in the w., where they introduced 
 the culture of the vine, but their names are now found in almost every part of the land. 
 There is also a considerable importation of Germans, who have been settled on the 
 frontiers adjoining the Kaffirs for defensive purposes. *As regards the colored inhabit- 
 ants, large numbers of Kaffirs have been retained in the districts which they formerly 
 occupied, and others have come into the country as shepherds and servants. There is 
 a large number of people of Malay origin in and around Cape Tow^, and in towns on 
 the e. coast, who gain a livelihood as fishermen, porters, and the more laborious sorts 
 of skilled labor. There are a few Mozambiqueres and Hottentots, besides a number of 
 half-castes, to whom the name of Africander properly belongs. 
 
 The constitution of the country, after several changes, was fixed in its present form, 
 by an act passed by the colonial legislature in 1872, which provides for responsible gov- 
 ernment. There are two elective chambers, the upper house, consisting of 21 members, 
 11 of whom represent the western province as one constituency, and 10 the eastern. 
 They are presided over by the lord chief-justice. To the lower house, or house of 
 assembly, two representatives are appointed by each division of the colony, with the 
 exception of the Cape district, which, as being more populous, returns four. They 
 amount in all to 68, and are presided over by a speaker of their own choice. The 
 16 electoral divisions into which the western and eastern provinces are each divided, 
 are again subdivided for magisterial and fiscal purposes. The governor carries on 
 the administration along with a ministry of 5 members — the colonial secretary, the 
 attorney-general, the treasurer-general, the commissioner of crown lands and public 
 works, the secretary for native affairs. The supreme court, which has its sittings in 
 Gape Town, has two judges beside the lord chief -justice. Another court holds its 
 sittings in Graham’s Town, in which there are two judges only, but there lies an appeal 
 to the supreme court. In other parts of the colony, justice is administered by the 
 judges going on circuit. A colonial university has recently been founded. 
 
 Wool is the staple product of the colony; ostrich farming and the culture of the 
 vine are carried on. The following tables show the exports and imports of the colony 
 for recent years: 
 
 Imports. Exports. 
 
 1870 £2,352,043 £2,453,768 
 
 1874 5,725,412 4,468,747 
 
 1877 5,158,348 3,634,073 
 
 The Cape Colony is not exceptional in showing a decline in imports and exports 
 in 1877; but the insecurity caused by the troubles ending in the Zulu war of 1879 
 has told against the prosperity of the colony. The official tables include in the 
 returns of revenue also the loans raised by the government; the increase since 1873 is 
 accordingly not to be regarded as normal. 
 
Cape. 
 
 Capetiau. 
 
 416 
 
 Revenue. Expenditure. 
 
 1870 £831,211 £795,695 
 
 1873 2,078,220 2,159,658 
 
 1875 2,246,179 2,272,275 
 
 1877 2,631,602 3,428,392 
 
 CAPE PALMAS, the s. extremity of Liberia, Africa, 4° 27' n., 7° 44' west. This 
 was the point at which the Maryland colony of free colored emigrants settled in 1834. 
 The surrounding country is one of the Liberian states, and is called Maryland. There 
 is a light-house on the cape. 
 
 CAPE PRINCE OF WALES, in Behring sea, the w. point of the mainland of 
 Alaska, directly opposite to East cape in Siberia, the strait between the two being the 
 narrowest water between America and Asia. The cape is a few miles s. of the Arctic 
 circle, and terminates in a bold bluff, n. of which are dangerous shoals. 
 
 CAPE RACE, the s.e. point of Newfoundland, usually the first American land seen 
 by steamers from England, 46° 40' n. , 52° 54' west. There is a revolving light 180 ft. 
 above the sea The cape terminates in a bold rough headland. 
 
 CAFERCAIL'ZIE, Capercaillie, Wood-grouse, or Cock of the Woods {tetrao uro- 
 gallus), the largest of the gallinaceous birds of Europe. It is a species of grouse (q.v.), 
 almost equal in size to the turkey ; the male, which is the largest, sometimes weighing 
 fifteen pounds or more. In figure and appearance, it much resembles the black-cock, 
 but the tail of the male C. is rounded, and not forked, as in that species; and the male 
 C. has the feathers of the head elongated. The general color of the adult male is 
 brownish black, minutely freckled with grayish white, and with lighter brown; the 
 qn ill-feathers dark brown; the tail-feathers nearly black, some of the longer tail-coverts 
 on the sides of the tail tipped with white ; the chest is of a shining dark green ; there is 
 a small scarlet patch of naked skin above the eye, and the bill is whitish. The general 
 color of the female and of young males is dark brown, freckled with yellowish brown; 
 the front of the neck and the chest are yellowish chestnut; and the feathers of the under 
 parts are generally edged with white. The C. has the feet feathered to the toes, but the 
 toee are naked. It is an inhabitant of pine-w^oods; feeds on berries, seeds, worms, 
 insects, etc., and on the young shoots of the pine, greatly preferring the Scotch fir to 
 the spruce; occasionally also eating, at least in winter, the buds of the birch and other 
 trees. The female makes her nest on the ground, and lays from six to twelve eggs, of a 
 pale reddish or yellowish brown, spotted with other shades of brown, and more than 
 2 in. long. Like the black-cock, the C. is polygamous. — The geographical dis- 
 tribution of the C. is very extensive : it is found on the pine-covered mountains of all 
 parts of Europe, from Spain and Italy almost to the North cape, and is abundant in the 
 northern parts of Asia. It was at one time found both in Scotland and Ireland, but was 
 completely extirpated about the end of the 18th or beginning of the 19th century. 
 Through the exertions, however, of the earl of Fife and other proprietors of great High- 
 land estates, but particularly of the marquis of Breadalbane, it has again been restored 
 to the forests of the Highlands of Scottand. The C. is very capable of domestication, 
 and breeds readily, if aUowed the range of a space containing a few pine-trees. It is 
 much esteemed for the table. The market of Stockholm is well supplied with it in win- 
 ter; and since the establishment of steam communication, it has been regularly brought 
 from Scandinavia to London. 
 
 CAFE RIVER, properly Vaunks, taking its popular name from the proximity of its 
 mouth to cape Gracias a Dios, on the e. reach of the Mosquito shore in Central America. 
 After a generally n.e. course of nearly 300 m., it enters the Caribbean sea, about lat. 14° 
 69' n., and long. 83° 11' w., being navigable for a considerable distance upw^ards. 
 
 CAFERNAUM, meaning “the field of repentance,” or “city of comfort,” w^as in the 
 time of our Savior a favorite and exalted city, and one of the three which he upbraided 
 “because they repented not.” It was situated on the north-western coast of the sea of 
 Galilee, or lake of Gennesareth. It is now a heap of ruins, extending more than a mile 
 along the shore and back towards the mountains, so overgrown with grass and bushes, 
 that it is difficult to move among them. C. is called by the natives of Syria Tell-hfin. 
 
 CA'FERS are the pickled flower-buds of the caper-bush {capparis spinosa). They have 
 an agreeable pungency of taste, with a slight bitterness, and have long been in very gen- 
 eral use as a condiment and ingredient of "sauces, along with boiled mutton and other 
 kinds of food. They possess medicinal properties, being antiscorbutic, stimulant, and 
 laxative. They are of a grayish green color, to improve which, however, copper is some- 
 times used, as in the case of gherkins and other pickles, rendering them poisonous. 
 This can be detected by thrusting a polished iron rod into the vessel which contains the 
 C.; the surface of the rod soon becoming coated with copper, if it is present.— The 
 caper-bush is a native of the s. of Europe, and other countries near the Mediterra- 
 nean. It is extensively cultivated in some parts of the s. of France and in Italy, 
 but most of all in Sicily. It succeeds in the open air even at Paris, but in Britain 
 requires the aid of artificial heat. It is a trailing, rambling shrub, loving dry places, 
 and often growing on rocks or walls, adding a fresh charm of beauty to many an ancient 
 
417 
 
 Cape. 
 
 Capetian. 
 
 ruia. It begins to flower early in summer, and continues flowering till winter. The 
 l)uds are gathered every morning, and are immediately put into vinegar and salt: at the 
 'cnd of the season, they are sorted according to their size and color, the greenest and 
 least expanded being the best, and are again put into vinegar, the finest being sent to 
 the market in bottles, the coarser in small barrels. The fruit, which is a small berry, is 
 also pickled in the s. of Italy. The flower-buds of the caper of Mount Sinai {cappa- 
 ris Sinaica) are pickled like those of the common species; the seeds are also pickled, 
 4 ind are called by a name signifying mountain pepper. The fruit of capparis aphylla is 
 made into a pickle in India. Species of capparis are numerous in India, the warm parts 
 of America, etc. See Capp abided. — Various substitutes for C. are sometimes used, 
 as the flower-buds of the marsh marigold {caltha palustris), those of the Indian cress 
 ■{tropmlum majus), and those of the bean caper {zygophyllum fahago). 
 
 CAPERS, William, d.d., 1790-1855; a Methodist minister of South Carolina, in 
 ■early life a missionary among the Indians in Georgia. He was for several years presid- 
 ing elder in Charleston, where he edited the Wesleyan Journal, afterwards merged in 
 Tdon's Herald, and still later changed to the Christian Advocate and Journal, of New 
 York. In 1838, he was representative to the Wesleyan conference in England, and in 
 1855 was chosen professor of the evidences of Christianity in the South Carolina uni- 
 versity. In 1846, he was elected bishop, and fllled the oflice until his death. 
 
 CAPE SABLE, the s. point of the mainland of Florida, and the s.e. extremity of 
 the mainland of the United States, 26° 55' n., 81° 15' west. The cape is occupied by 
 fort Poinsett. 
 
 CAPE SABLE, the s. point of Nova Scotia, 43° 26' n., 66° 38' west. There is a light 
 on Cape Sable island, which island has a pop. of about 600 flshermen. 
 
 CAPE SAN LUCAS, the s. point of the peninsula of Lower California, 22° 44' n. 
 109° 54' west. Directly e. across the gulf is the Mexican port and city of Mazatlan. 
 
 CAPE SAN ROQUE, in n.e. Brazil, in the province of Rio Grande, 5° 28' s., 35° 16' 
 west. Behind the cape is a bay, on which is the town of St. Joseph. 
 
 CAPE SPARTIVEN'TO, in s. Italy, in the Mediterranean, 37° 57' n., 16° 5' east. The 
 ^incients called it “ Hercules’ Promontorium,” and supposed it to be the most southerly 
 point of Italy. 
 
 CAFE ST. VINCENT, a headland forming the s.w. extremity of Portugal, in lat. 37° 
 :2' n., long. 9° w., is celebrated on account of two naval battles in which British ships 
 were engaged, fought off it, one in 1693, the other in 1797. In the former, admiral 
 Rooke, who with some 20 English and Dutch men-of-war was convoying a fleet of some 
 400 merchantmen, was attacked off this point by the French admiral De Tourville, and 
 after a running flght lost several ships and 80 merchantmen. In Feb. 1797, sir John 
 Jervis, with a fleet of 15 sail, gave battle to a Spanish fleet of 27 sail of the line, 
 and defeated them, capturing four ships and driving the rest into Cadiz bay, where they 
 were blockaded. 
 
 CAPE ST. VINCENT, the s.w. extremity of Portugal, 37° 2' n., 9° west. Off the 
 •cape, Feb. 14, 1797, the English admiral Jervis defeated a Spanish fleet much larger 
 than his own. 
 
 CA'PETIAN DY'NASTY, the third Frankish dynasty, founded about the close of the 
 10th c., when Hugo Capet ascended the throne. The surname Capet has been derived 
 from cappetus, “a monk’s hood,” because, though duke of France, Hugo was also abbot 
 of St. Martin de Tours. On the death of the last Carlovingian monarch (Louis V., sur- 
 named Le Faineant — i.e., the Slothful), Hugo^, the most powerful of French vassals, 
 seized the throne, and by moderation and prudent concessions made to the authorities 
 of the church, as well as to his brother-nobles, who had made themselves independent, 
 ■contrived to retain the power he had seized. He was crowned at Noyon, July 3, 987. 
 In order to establish his dynasty, Hugo caused his eldest son Robert to be crowned as 
 co-regent, 988. Capet first made Paris the capital of France. He died in 996; when his 
 son Robert, a well-disposed but feeble ruler, ascended the throne, who died 1031, beloved 
 by his domestics, but despised by his neighbors and vassals, forgotten by his people, and 
 permitting all power to vanish from his hands. It was during his long lethargic reign 
 that the towns and cities of France began to form themselves into corporations, to act in 
 their own name, to contract obligations, and lay the foundations of middle-class free- 
 dom. In many other ways, also, the happy dissolution of royal power sowed the seeds 
 of national prosperity. Robert’s sons were Henry, who succeeded him, and Robert, 
 ancestor of the older house of Burgundy. 
 
 Henry left two sons — Philippe I. , who ascended the throne, and Hugo, who distin- 
 ^ished himself in the first crusade (1096), and died 1102. Philippe, under the regency 
 ■of Baldwin, count of Flanders, came to the throne when only eight years old, and first 
 really began to reign after the death of the regent (1066). He took hardly any part in 
 the great movements and events of his times, but supported Robert, son of William the 
 -conqueror, in his rebellion against his father. Consequently, William commenced an 
 •expedition against Paris, and would probably have dethroned Philippe, but died in 
 U. K. HI.— 27 
 
Cape. 
 
 Capias. 
 
 418 
 
 1089. By his dissolute course of life, Philippe fell under a sentence of excommunica- 
 tion issued by pope Gregory VII. in 1094, and, after doing penance, died in 1108. 
 
 His successor, Louis VI., surnamed Xe Gros, had, during Philippe’s lifetime, been 
 active in the support of the crown, and now extended the royal power, which had been 
 almost entirely confined within the duchy of Paris. By bold and vigorous measures 
 he brought everywhere his vassels into real subjection to his authority, liberated the 
 towns from baronial oppression, partly abolished feudal bondage, and extended con- 
 siderably the jurisdiction of the crown. His life was an almost incessant contest 
 with the small and turbulent vassals who had rioted in the license afforded them by the 
 weakness of his predecessors. He died 1137, leaving a numerous family. 
 
 As his eldest son and co-regent, Philippe, had died during the reign of Louis, his 
 second son, Louis VII. , le Jeune, now came to the throne, and by his marriage with 
 Eleanor of Guienne, heiress of the duke of Aquitaine, gained a considerable accession 
 to the power of the crown. He engaged in the second crusade, and led 100,000 men to 
 the east; but was unsuccessful, and returned to France after an absence of two years. 
 In 1152, he divorced his unfaithful wife Eleanor, who subsequently married Henry 
 Plantagenet, afterwards Henry II. of England. This marriage made Henry far morn 
 powerful than the king of France, and Louis would probably have lost his crown had. 
 not the disturbances in England — the quarrels with Becket and with his own sons — 
 proved sufficient to occupy Henry’s attention. Louis le Jeune died 1180. 
 
 Philippe Auguste (q.v.), his son by a third marriage, ascended the throne ten months 
 before his father’s death, and proved himself the most able ruler of the Capetian dynasty. 
 Against the wishes of his family, he married Isabelle of Hainault, great-granddaughter 
 of the last of the Carlovingians, and thus finally united the two houses. His successor, 
 Louis VIII. , who died 1226, was said to have been poisoned by the count of Champagne, 
 paramour of the queen, Blanca of Castile. Louis VIII. was followed by his son, Louis: 
 IX. (Saint Louis, q.v.), who died at Tunis, 1270. Of the eleven children of St. Louis, 
 the eldest, Louis, died aged 16 years, while the youngest, Robert, became the founder of 
 the Bourbon dynasty (see Bourbon). The second son, Philippe HI., lehardi, succeeded 
 his father, and, by the decease of two brothers and two uncles, acquired possession of 
 Poitou, Auvergne, and Toulouse. His son (Philippe IV., le heJ) acquired by marriago 
 Champagne with Navarre. These acquisitions, and his attempt to secure for his uncle, 
 Charles* of Anjou, the throne of Naples, involved Philippe III. in contentions with Italy 
 and Spain. He subjugated Navarre, 1276, and died of the plague in 1285. Philippe 
 IV., le hel, succeeded to the throne when 17 years old. He soon gave signs of a despotic 
 ’ character, plundered the estates of the church, defied papal authority, persecuted the 
 order of Templars (q.v.), and removed the residence of the pope to Avignon. The atro- 
 cious act of burning the grand-master, with sixty knights, of the order of Templars, after 
 they had recalled all the confessions drawn from them by torture, has left an inefface- 
 able blot on the name of Philippe le bel. He died 1314, and left three sons and a 
 da.ughter. 
 
 The eldest son, Louis X., lehutin, who ascended the throne, displayed remarkable 
 weakness of character, and died 1316. He was succeeded by Philippe V., le long, 
 second son of Philippe le bel, who died without issue. By his death (1322) the crown 
 came to Charles IV., le hel, third son of Philippe le bel, and the last of the direct line of 
 the Capetian kings. He died 1328, leaving by his third marriage a daughter, named 
 Blanche, who married Philippe, duke of Orleans, and died (1392) leaving no issue. 
 Isabelle (daughter of Philippe le bel) married Edward II. of England, and was mother 
 of Edward III., who consequently took the title of king of France, which was retained 
 by the kings of England until the reign of George III. ; but Philippe of Valois, cousin of 
 the last Capetian king, and grandson of Philippe HI. , le hardi, claimed the crown of 
 France by virtue of the Salic law, and so founded the dynasty of Valois (q.v.). 
 
 CAPE TITMOUSE, Rarus capeusis, a small bird of the cape of Good Hope, remark- 
 able for its curious nest, which is built of cotton or other fiber in the form of a bottle, 
 and suspended from the limb of a tree. On the outside, near the opening, is built a 
 pouch or pocket, in which the male bird rests while the female is on the nest, and when 
 she leaves he manages by strokes of his wings to close the mouth of the nest, to prevent 
 intrusion while they are in search of food. 
 
 CAPE TOWN, the capital of Cape Colony, faces Table bay to the n.e., is fianked by 
 the mountain Lion’s Head, with its continuation to Lion’s Rump or Signal hill, and has 
 behind it the precipices of Table mountain. Its lat. is 33° 56' s., its long. 18° 28' 7" east. 
 Its mean temperature 58.3° F. for winter, 76.6° for summer, and 67.3° for the whole 
 year. Pop. 40,000. Two lines of passenger wagons connect it with the diamond fields, 
 which are reached in about a week, railways with Worcester, etc., and electric telegraphs 
 with the principal parts of the colony. It is the principal port for the coasting trade as well 
 as foreign exports and imports; is well supplied with fish, as well as meat, dairy prod- 
 uce, and every sort of fruit and vegetables, at a moderate price. It has a supply of fresh 
 water of excellent quality. C. T. is the seat of the government, the supreme court, and 
 a college and university. All the churches are well represented — the English Episcopal, 
 the Roman Catholic, and representatives of Presbyterians, Lutherans, Wesle 5 ’’ans, Con- 
 gregationalists, a Free church (chiefly an off-break from the Dutch church), a Jewish 
 
419 
 
 Cape. 
 
 Capias. 
 
 synagogue, and a Mohammedan mosque, the Malay population being of that faith. There 
 are also banks and insurance offices. The town is built upon a double slope, which sub- 
 sides into a plain on the n.e. side. Its streets, at right angles to each other, are lined 
 with houses, for the most part of an eastern type, with heavy walls, flat roofs, and large 
 public apartments, interspersed with increasing numbers of shops and warehouses, of the 
 -sort to be met with in England. 
 
 The most remarkable structures are the breakwater, with the docks and patent slip ; 
 the castle, with its outworks and bastions; the barracks for the military, the Roman 
 Catholic cathedral, with a few other places of worship; the museum and library, with 
 the Botanic gardens in front ; and between it and Government house, a park, with its 
 avenues shaded by stately oaks. Out of town, a little distance to the n.w., is Somerset 
 hospital, and the Royal observatory, about two and a half m. to the n.e. 
 
 C. T. returns four members to the colonial assembly. The municipality is adminis- 
 tered by a town-council of 18 members — three from each of six separate districts — and 
 is presided over by a mayor elected annually by the council. In Sept., 1873, it possessed 
 44 vessels, and their united tonnage was 4,416. There are 5 newspapers in C. T., which 
 are issued three times a week; 3 bi-weeklies, 1 weekly, 1 fortnightly, and 3 monthly 
 magazines. 
 
 CAPE TRAFALGAR'. See Trafalgar, ante. 
 
 CAPE VERB, the most westerly headland in Africa, jutting out into the Atlantic 
 ocean, between the rivers Gambia and Senegal, in lat. 14° 43' n., long. 17° 34' west. It 
 was discovered by the Portuguese about 1445, and is said to have derived its name from 
 a group of gigantic baobab trees which adorns its summit. 
 
 CAPE VERB ISLANBS {llhas Verdes), a group of islands belonging to Portugal, lying 
 in lat. 14° 45' to 17° 19' n., and long. 33°45' to 35° 35' w., and distant about 330 m.w. of the 
 cape from which they take their name. The principal islands are ten — viz. , Santiago, 
 the largest and most important, Fogo, Brava, Maio, Boavista, San Nicol^o, San Antonio, 
 San Vicente, San Luzia, and Sal. There are besides four islets, barren and uninhabited. 
 The total area is about 1700 sq.m., with a pop. (1873) of 76,000. The islands are all 
 very mountainous, and owe their origin to the action of submarine volcanoes. The 
 highest elevation is reached in a volcanic peak, 9,157 ft. above the sea, on the island 
 -of Fogo, and which is still active. The climate is unhealthy during the rainy season. 
 Though water is deficient, vegetation is luxuriant, yielding African and southern 
 European products. Sugar, cotton, coffee, tobacco, and indigo are grown, and the 
 trade in archil, monopolized by government, has in some seasons yielded as much as 
 £34,000. Several of the European domestic animals thrive well. Turtles are abundant 
 in the surrounding seas, and whales also are fished by British and American vessels. 
 Amber is found on the coasts, and great quantities of salt formed by solar evaporation 
 is obtained from the lagunes on the shores, especially on the island of Sal. The inhabi- 
 tants, who are mostly negroes, indolent but harmless, speak a corrupted form of Portu- 
 guese, called Lingua Creoula. The revenue for 1874-75 was estimated at about £43,000, 
 and the expenditure for the same year at £43,000. The islands are under a governor- 
 general, exercising both civil and military authority. The chief ports are Porto Praya, 
 on the island of Santiago, and Porto Grande, the best harbor in the whole group, on 
 the island of San Vicente. The islands were discovered about the middle of the 15th 
 c. by the Portuguese, who shoftly after colonized them. 
 
 CAPE VINCENT, a t. in Jefferson co., N. Y., on the St. Lawrence river; pop. of 
 township, ’75, 3,180. The village is a port of entry; is in connection with Watertown 
 by railroad, and with Kingston, Canada, by ferry. 
 
 CAPE WRATH, a pyramidal promontory of unrivaled wildness and grandeur, 
 forming the n.w. extremity of Scotland and of Sutherland, and running out into the 
 Atlantic, in lat. 58° 38' n., and long. 4° 58' 5" west. It consists of gneiss, with beds of 
 dark hornblende rock, is intersected by complex granite veins, and presents deep fissures 
 and tall pinnacles. From it a reef of rocks, perforated with arches and caverns, juts 
 out into the sea. Off the cape is Stag Rock, a pillar 300 ft. high. C. W. is 600 ft. high, 
 and there is a light-house near it, 400 ft. above the sea, and seen 35 m. off. From the 
 cape can be seen N. Rona, 50 m. off; Hoy Head, Orkney; the Butt of Lewis; and a 
 grand panorama of mountains in Sutherland. 
 
 CA'PIAS, in the practice of the English common law, is a writ directed against the 
 person, and so called from the commencement of the process in the old Latin form. It 
 has various applications, the principal of which are the following: 
 
 Capias ad Respondendum is a writ which a plaintiff, after action, may sue out 
 upon atfidavit against a defendant who, there is reason to believe, is about to quit Eng- 
 land, and against whom there is a cause of action to the amount of £50 or upwards, 
 whether as matter of contract or of damage. The writ directs the sheriff to arrest the 
 defendant, who remains in custody on such arrest until he shall have either given a 
 bail-bond with reasonable sureties. This arrest is only when the defendant’s absence 
 will prejudice plaintiff. 
 
 Capias ad Satisfaciendum, or Ca. Sa. This is one of the writs by which a plaintiff 
 'Can put a judgment recovered by him in execution. The object of it is to imprison 
 
Capillaire. 
 
 Capillary. 
 
 420 
 
 tlie debtor till satisfaction, when imprisonment is still permitted. See on the subject, 
 of Capias generally, Apprehend, Arrest, Attachment, Execution, and Bail. 
 
 CAPILLAIRE', a medicinal syrup, used as a pectoral in chronic catarrhs, is prepared 
 by adding sugar and orange-flower water to an infusion of the fern called maidenhair 
 (q.v.), or by pouring boiling syrup on the fern. 
 
 CAP'ILLARIES. The tubes which convey the blood from the left side of the heart 
 to the various parts of the body are termed arteries, while those which return it to the 
 right side of the heart, after it has discharged its various functions in the body, are 
 known as veins. The name of capillary (from capilla, a hair) is given to the minute 
 vessels which form the connection between the terminal branches of the arteries and the 
 commencements of the trunks of the veins. These little vessels are of various sizes, 
 some admitting only one blood-corpuscle at once, while others are large enough to allow 
 of the simultaneous passage of two, three, or more corpuscles. In the muscular tissue 
 their average diameter is 0.003 of a line ; they are smallest in the brain, and largest in 
 bone. Their arrangement varies in different parts. In some cases, as in muscular 
 tissue, they run for the most part parallel to one another; in other cases (as around fat- 
 cells) they have a spherical arrangement, and in the skin and in parts of the intestines 
 they form loops; and many other forms of distribution might be mentioned. These 
 various arrangements have been discovered by the microscopic examination of tissues 
 that have been successfully injected with colored fluids. 
 
 The circulation of the blood through the C. may be readily seen in the web between 
 the toes of the hind-foot of the frog, in the tongue of that animal, in the tail or gills of 
 the tadpole, in the wing of the bat, etc. 
 
 The principal uses of the capillary system of vessels will be noticed in the articles on 
 DiGESTK»r, Nutrition, Respiration, and Secretion. 
 
 CAP ILLARY AC'TION. When a clean glass tube with a fine bore, open at both ends, 
 is plunged into a liquid capable of wetting it, such as water, the liquid is found (1) to 
 rise in the tube above the level of its surface in the vessel containing it ; (2) to rise the^ 
 higher in the tube above that level the finer its bore is; (3) to stand above the general 
 level in the tube where it approaches the sides (as in fig. 1, which is drawn on a greatly 
 exaggerated scale), so that its upper surface in the tube is curved and concave. When 
 a similar tube is plunged into a liquid incapable of wetting it, such as mercury, phenomena 
 of a precisely opposite nature are presented. The liquid stands in the tube below 
 
 the level of its surface in the vessel; and, where it 
 approaches the sides of the tube, it stands below its 
 general level in the tube, so that its upper surface is 
 curved and convex as in fig. 2, the convexity and 
 depression in the tube increasing with the fineness of 
 its bore. While such is the case with the two classes 
 of liquids described, there are others on which fine 
 tubes have no action, so that they stand in such tubes^ 
 at the same level as in the vessel, and with plane upper surfaces. These are the leading 
 phenomena to be explained by what is called C. A., the tubes with fine hair-like bores 
 being called capillary tubes, from Lat. capillus, a hair. The phenomena, however, 
 though connected by name with such tubes, are not dependent on them, but may be 
 produced without their intervention by any contrivance which gives room for the 
 so-called capillary action. For instance, if two plates of glass with parallel faces be 
 placed together with two of their edges in contact, and the two opposite be separated a 
 very little by a fine wedge; and then if they be put standing with their common edge 
 vertical in a trough (fig. 3), containing a little colored fluid 
 capable of wetting the glass, the fluid will rise between the 
 plates, the height attained at any point being inversely as 
 the distance between the plates at that point, so that its upper 
 surface will be a curve of the kind known as the hyperbola 
 — being highest near the common edge, and lowest near the 
 edges separated by the wedge. If the same apparatus be 
 placed in a trough containing mercury, the mercury will be 
 depressed between the plates till its upper surface forms a 
 hyperbola convex to the zenith. 
 
 To understand the peculiar action producing these phe- 
 nomena, it must be kept in view that the surface of a fluid at 
 rest under gravity is a horizontal plane (see Hydrostatics), 
 and that this plane is maintained by gravity and the mutual attractions of the particles 
 of the fluid mass. Suppose now a fluid at rest in a vessel to have a foreign bod}’’, such 
 as a capillary tube, suddenly plunged into it, and separating, as by walls, a portion of 
 the fluid from the rest. By cohesion (q.v.), the fluid particles inside the tube will 
 held on — drawn downwards— to the mass of the fluid, while by adhesion (q.v.) they will 
 be drawn upwards towards the sides of the tube. By the ordinary action of gravity, as 
 in tubes of a large size, the fluid will at once tend to rise in the tube to its level in the 
 vessel. Whether it will succeed in doing so, or whether it will rise still higher, must 
 depend on the adjustment of the forces of cohesion between the fluid particles and their 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
421 
 
 Capillalre* 
 
 Capillary. 
 
 (L 
 
 arv 
 
 !S may be generally 
 
 
 of 
 
 
 
 
 m! 
 
 
 
 
 7^ 
 
 d, 
 
 
 imS 
 
 
 
 
 t 
 
 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 
 adhesion to the solid of the tube. The relation of these forces may 
 explained as follows: Let mm' (fig. 4) be the surface of the 
 column, mn, of a liquid contained in a space, abb'a', above or 
 below the surface, nn', of the external liquid. There being 
 equilibrium between the liquid in the tube and in the vessel, 
 any line of liquid particles may be taken and supposed to be 
 detached from the rest and inclosed in a tube, without altering 
 the forces exerted. Let the line included between the dotted 
 lines be conceived so detached. The actions which the particles 
 ©f the liquid in the tube exert on each other, or sustain from the 
 sides of the tube, have no tendency to make the liquid move 
 either up or down. But the column, mb, in the tube has some 
 action exerted on it by the sides of the tube above the surface, 
 mm'. Let A, depending on the force of adhesion, represent 
 this upward action of the tube. The column is also attracted 
 downwards by the detached column be, i.e., by the liquid in the 
 imaginary tube. Let C, depending on the force of cohesion, 
 represent this downward action of the liquid. Also the part be of the liquid is attracted 
 upwards by the tube ab by the attraction which we have represented by A. Thus the 
 liquid column is acted on by two upward actions =2 A, and a downward action, C. The 
 whole force acting on it, excluding gravity, is 2A — C. Gravity would make the liquid 
 rise to nn' at once, i.e., till it stood as high in the tube as in the vessel. Whether, then, 
 it will rise above nn', or be depressed below it, must depend on whether 2A is greater 
 than C, equal to it, or less than it. If 2A=C, the liquid will stand in the tube at the 
 level nn', as if these forces did not act at all. If 2A be>C, then 2A— C will be an 
 upward force, and the column will be raised above the level nn'. If 2A be<C, then 
 2A— C will be a downward force, and the column be depressed. 
 
 Kegarding the forms of the upper surfaces of columns of liquid in capillary tubes, it 
 can be demonstrated mathematically that the same relations of the forces of attraction and 
 cohesion which determine the elevation or depression of the liquid column, determine 
 also the form of its upper surface in the two cases of elevation and depression. In 
 fact, the case of the elevated column resembles that of a cylinder of any very elastic 
 substance (so elastic as to suffer change of form very readily under pressure), supported 
 wholly by the rim at one of its ends; or, what is the same thing, by vertical forces act- 
 ing in the lines composing its outer surface. Gravity draws down the concentric shells, 
 of which the cylinder may be conceived to be composed, the further the more remote 
 they are from the outermost, or that which is directly supported, the central rod being 
 the most depressed. It would appear that the form of the surface has an important 
 bearing on the cause of the production of the whole phenomena. 
 
 The third fact of observation — viz., that the liquid rises higher or is more depressed 
 the finer the bore of the tube — is thus explained in the case of elevation : Since the 
 action of adhesion is confined to the superficial layer of the fluid, and between the 
 same substances is, cceteris paribus, constant in quantity for an equal extent of surface, 
 the wider the tube the shorter must be the column sustained, as the contents of the 
 column raised by cohesion increase more rapidly when the bore increases than the 
 attracting surface. The column increases with the square of the diameter of the tube, 
 while the attracting surface increases only with the diameter. The height, therefore, 
 is inversely as the breadth of the tube. That the depression must increase as the bore 
 of the tube diminishes, appears from reasoning similar to that employed in the case just 
 discussed. 
 
 The degree of elevation varies with the nature of the fluid, the variation depending 
 partly on the difference of cohesion between the particles of the fluid, and partly on 
 the difference of adhesion between the fluid and glass. It is found that temperature 
 affects these forces, so that the height diminishes as the temperature rises. 
 
 The depression of mercury in a fine glass tube makes it necessary to use a correc- 
 tion in reading off the height of the mercurial column in the barometer, which, owing 
 to it, stands always a little lower than the height due to the atmospheric pressure. 
 Experience, however, has shown that the capillary depression is nearly one-half less in 
 tubes which have had the mercury boiled within them than in unboiled tubes, as by 
 the boiling a film of air, which in unboiled tubes adheres to the glass, is expelled. By 
 widening the bore of the tube also, the error may be diminished so as to be neglected 
 altogether. In a tube of i in. in diameter, in which the mercury has been boiled, the 
 depression is 0.02 in., while with a similar tube of ^ in, diameter it is only 0.003. The 
 depression of mercury, it is found, is slightly increased by an elevation of temperature. 
 It may be mentioned that in reading off the level of mercury in any instrument, such 
 as the barometer, the height should be taken from the convexity of the curve. If the 
 liquid used in the instrument, however, wets the tube, the height should be taken from 
 the concavity. 
 
 As already stated, the phenomena are not dependent on the intervention of tubes; 
 any capillary cavity suflQces to produce them. When two light bodies, such as two bits 
 of cork, are left to float on water, near each other, they soon come together, moving at 
 last with a rush. This is sometimes given as an example of the gravitation that draws 
 
Capistrano. 
 
 Capital. 
 
 422 
 
 the planets to the sun ; but it is really owing to this capillaiy action that we are con- 
 sidering. When the liquid wets the floating bodies, it rises slightly all round them, and 
 this sustained liquid hangs as a weight on them on all sides. So long as it rises equally 
 there is no motion ; but when the bodies come near each other, the space between them 
 becomes like part of the inside of a capillary tube, the water rises higher there than on 
 the other sides, and the bodies move towards the sides that are most strongly pulled. 
 When the floating bodies are not wetted by the liquid, the surface between the two 
 bodies is depressed, as that of mercury is inside a glass tube, and the bodies descend, 
 as it were, down the opposing slopes, and meet in the bottom of the hollow. If one of 
 two bodies floating on water is smeared with oil so as to prevent the water from adhering, 
 instead of coming together, the two will recede from each other, for reasons analogous 
 to the above. 
 
 C. A. plays a most important part in nature in a great variety of ways. An instance 
 of its employment by man is seen in the wicks of lamps and candles, which, being 
 composed of flbrous materials, furnish hair-like channels by which the melted oil is 
 elevated to the flame, and supplied as fast as it is consumed. C. A. influences the cir- 
 culation of fluids in the porous tissues of animals, and it is the principal mode in which 
 water, with the various substances which it holds in solution, is supplied to the roots of 
 growing plants. It is through it that in summer droughts moisture is raised to the sur- 
 face for the maintenance of vegetable life. C. A., too, affects many phenomena 
 usually considered under the head Diffusion (q.v.) of fluids and gases. The reader, 
 on referring to the article Osmotic Action, will also see that it enters into the explana- 
 tion of the phenomena known as exosmose and endosmose. 
 
 A familiar illustration of C. A. is furnished when one end of a towel happens to be 
 left in a basin of water, while the other hangs over the side below the level of the 
 water; the basin is soon emptied of its contents. It is important to observe that, 
 although the towel will become w^et, not a drop will flow from it, unless the outside 
 end reach below the level of the water in the basin. In this respect C. A. resembles 
 that of the siphon. And this shows the error of supposing that water may rise 
 through the earth by C. A., and flow out as springs at a higher level than the source 
 whence it is drawn. 
 
 Some very interesting experiments have been made by M. Poisenille {Ann. de Chimie 
 et de Phys. III. xxi. 76) concerning the flow of liquids through capillary tubes, the 
 results of which must here be stated. It appears that when the tube exceeds a certain 
 length — which is greater as the bore increases — the following laws regulate the rate of 
 efflux of the liquid, the efflux taking place under pressure: 1. The flow increases directly 
 as the pressure, so that under double the pressure, double the amount is discharged in 
 equal times. 2. In tubes of equal diameter, the quantities discharged vary inversely as 
 the length of the tube. If a tube 2 in. long discharge 100 grains in 5 minutes, a tube 4 
 in. long will only discharge 50 grains. 3. In tubes of equal lengths, but different diam- 
 eters, the flow is as the fourth power of the diameters. If one be of an inch in bore, 
 and the other the efflux from the larger will be 16 times as great as from the smaller. 
 It is further found that the efflux varies with the nature of the liquid, the material of 
 the tube not appearing to affect the result in any great degree. No law of the rate of 
 efflux has yet been discovered, depending on the density, capillarity, or fluidity of the 
 fluids. 
 
 It may be mentioned, in conclusion, that the tubes to be used in the experiments on 
 capillarity should be perfectly clean and dry. If wetted, the film of moisture on the 
 tube forms a new tube, and the action will be the same as with a tube of the sub- 
 stance forming the fllm. The reader should consult Miller's Elements of Chemistry, 
 and J. Clerk Maxwell’s Theory of Heat, where the phenomena are treated from a differ- 
 ent point of view; the phrases “superflcial energy ’’and “superficial tension” being 
 substituted for “capillarity,” and the hypothesis of molecular attraction being avoided. 
 
 CAPISTRA'NO, Giovanni di, 1386-1456; an Italian lawyer who became a Fran- 
 ciscan monk and a powerful and popular preacher. In 1450, the pope sent him to Ger- 
 many to preach against the Hussites, and also to forward the projected crusade against 
 the Turks, who threatened to overrun Europe. He failed to start the crusade, but in 
 the siege of Belgrade he led the inhabitants with the cross in his hand in three success- 
 ful sorties. He was canonized, and his tomb became a popular resort for pilgrims. 
 
 CAPITA, Distribution per — i.e., distribution by heads, or by numbers, equally— 
 occurs in the case of several claimants to the property of a deceased person, all severally 
 claiming in their own right, in equal degree of kindred, and not under any right of rep- 
 resentation. See Inheritance, Succession. 
 
 CAPITAL (Lat. capitulum, from caput, the head), the head of a column, pilaster, etc. 
 Till the period of the renaissance, the head of a column in English was called chapiter 
 (chapter), its diminutive being chapitrell. See Column. 
 
 CAPITAL, in fortification, is an imaginary line dividing a defense- work into two sim- 
 ilar and equal parts. The C. of a bastion is a right line drawn from the point or salient 
 angle to the middle of the gorge or entrance in the rear. The C. of a ravelin is a right 
 line drawn from the re-entering angle of the counterscarp to the salient angle of the 
 ravelin. 
 
423 
 
 Capistrano* 
 
 Capital. 
 
 CAPITAL, in geography, the principal city or town of a country, that in which the 
 sovereign usually resides, and where the legislature meets, and the chief legal courts are 
 held. 
 
 CAPITAL, in trade and political economy, is in its restricted sense applied to the 
 money, or the property convertible into money, with which a trader or producer car- 
 ries on his business. In this sense, Adam Smith and many other writers call it stock; 
 and there is a convenience in having a separate term for expressing this sense of the 
 word C., since it is totally different from its wider sense as an element in political 
 economy. Many attempts have been made to define C. in its general sense, but with 
 very imperfect success, since no sooner is a restrictive definition laid down, than some 
 one can point at things which are C., and yet are not included in the definition. It has, 
 for instance, been called the produce of past labor stored up and applied to the facilitat- 
 ing of future labor; but, as we shall see, many things become C. which the hand of man 
 has never touched. There is no doubt, however, that the existence of C. arises out of 
 the fact of labor or industry having been exercised ; and perhaps a good general under- 
 standing of its character may be derived from treating it as the impulse or impetus which 
 past industry gives to facilitate future industry. Wherever something is reserved from 
 immediate consumption, and made to serve in future production, there is capital. 
 We cannot have a better illustration than in the first bow and arrow made by the savage. 
 He has expended on this machine for securing his food a portion of the time and labor 
 which he might have given to the tedious task of catching his food with his own hands, 
 and at this sacrifice he has obtained the means of more easily and economically obtain- 
 ing it in future. All C. is not, however, directly made by the industry of the owner, or, 
 indeed, by industry at all. The accidental finder of a diamond, or a pearl, worth £100, 
 possesses so much capital. His acquisition, however, would have no value but for those 
 productions of industry which it is permitted to represent, and if pearls and diamonds 
 were often found, they would cease to be valuable ; the trade of finding them is as labo- 
 rious and as ill remunerated in the long-run as most others. The owner of a barren 
 heath, which was intrinsically worth nothing, finds it become suddenly valuable by the 
 progress of a large town; but it is the industry of that town which has given the value, 
 and the owner having the good-fortune to have a hold on a portion of the produce of 
 that industry, becomes a capitalist. It is impossible to enumerate all the elements of 
 which C, in the general sense consists, or all the ways in which it can be made. What- 
 ever thing done enables some other thing to be done which supplies any of the necessi- 
 ties or wishes of the human race becomes capital. Thus, the education and skill of the 
 barrister, the physician^ and the artist — the agility, acquired through long and toilsome 
 practice, of the rope-dancer and the juggler — all are capital. It makes C. to shift the 
 place of a thing, bringing it from where it is not, to where it is, wanted. So, also, the 
 changing of a person’s place may become C. to him, as where he leaves a district in 
 which his trade is not required, or exceeds the demand, for one where he can pursue it 
 to advantage. Successful emigration thus creates C., bringing into human use districts 
 of land which previously lay useless. The total C. at any time in existence consists of 
 an aggregate of the several capitals at the command of individuals or communities. But 
 it is essential to any unit of C. that it should be sufficient for the purpose it is intended 
 for, otherwise it may seem to be, but will not in reality be, a part of the general aggre- 
 gate— it will, in fact, be lost. If an expenditure of £1000 be necessary to raise a sunk 
 ship, and only £900 are expended, that sum, which might have been available for some 
 other purpose, is lost. C., as distinguished from property or wealth, is a moving fm'ce; 
 and if it be not sufficiently strong for accomplishing its purpose, it is lost. This is one 
 of the most important truths in all political economy, since most of the great losses suf- 
 fered by communities and individuals arise from undertakings for which they have not 
 adequate C., or for which that which seems to be C. does not really turn out to be so. 
 Perhaps the most memorable mistake of this kind ever made was when the French revo- 
 lutionary government issued assignats (q.v.). These were ostensibly issued on a good 
 security — namely, the security of the forfeited land. But, however valuable that 
 land might be in the long-run, it was not available to pay the assignats; there was no 
 purchaser for it ; and the assignats consequently fell in value. Gold to a far less amount 
 than the money value of the land — that is to say, than the price which would be paid 
 for it when sold in the natural course of things — would have been a suff dent C. for the 
 issue of these assignats. The same mistake is often exhibited on a small scale when a 
 landed proprietor keeps together a large estate which he cannot afford to improve and 
 cultivate properly. It loses its power of C. in his hands; and he would be much better 
 off if he sold a portion of it for money to be invested in improvements on the remainder. 
 Probably 19 out of every 20 bankruptcies arise from the bankrupts having undertaken 
 enterprises beyond the reach of their C. — from over-trading, or over-speculating, as it 
 is otherwise called. When speculation becomes epidemic, the whole community suffers 
 from undertakings too great for its C., and a crisis occurs. Such was the great railway 
 crisis of 1847. Parliament had, in the previous year, passed bills for the construction of 
 railways, which, if they had all been made, would have cost upwards of £130,000,000 — 
 a sum which the country, rich as it was, could not afford to advance. Though it is an 
 axiom that people cannot trade beyond their C., yet what can be accomplished by any 
 
Capital. 
 
 424 
 
 given amount of C. must depend on the skill and sagacity of the person employing it. 
 Competition no doubt tends to equalize profits, but competition is itself a contest in 
 which each tries to drive a more profitable trade than his neighbors, and some are more 
 successful than others. A frequent element of success is the rapid circulation of C., by 
 which it is made to return many profits, though perhaps small ones, in the course of 
 the year. The trader who turns over his C. ten times at a profit of 3 per cent, makes 
 more than he who draws a single profit of 10. 
 
 If the nature of C., as the produce of past and the promoter of future industry, were 
 better understood by the worMng-classes, they would be saved from much unhappiness 
 and mischief. Whatever C. may be to the rich man, it is bread itself to the working 
 family. The withdrawal of the C. embarked in the cotton trade alone would starve 
 millions; and yet many educated men have endeavored to teach working-people that C. 
 is their natural enemy. Its strength may no doubt be sometimes used for evil purposes, 
 but none save evil results can arise from destroying it. The only way in which any man 
 can effectually protect himself from such mischief as he supposes it may do, is to save, 
 and become a participator in it. Itself the result of industry, it is a more powerful 
 instrument in the hands of him who has made it than in any other’s. The savings of 
 working-men are the best laid out C. in the world. The first pound laid past is the most 
 profitable of all — it represents freedom from debt, and the capacity of its owner to pur- 
 chase *what he wants with ready money — a privilege probably bringing him a profit of 
 many pounds, or many hundreds per cent upon his capital. 
 
 CAPITAL ACCOUNT— such is the name given to what concerns the capital stock 
 of a railway or other public company. In authorizing a railway company — which 
 we take as an example — parliament gives power to raise so much money by shares, 
 and so much by borrowing. The amount that may be borrowed is equal to a 
 third of the share stock, but it cannot be legally borrowed until at least one half 
 of the share stock has been paid up. The form of borrowing is that of giving a 
 mortgage on the whole property of the railway ; the deed of mortgage, which is called 
 a debenture, expresses the sum lent, the rate of interest that is to be paid, and the period 
 for which the loan is given. See Debenture. Unitedly, the money got for shares and 
 by debentures forms the capital of the company; and, deposited in a bank, constitutes 
 the capital account. On this fund the directors of the company make draughts to pay 
 for the land, and all the works connected with the line, as also rails, locomotives, car- 
 riages, and, in short, everything involved in perfecting the railway up to the point of 
 working. From the first, the holders of debentures receive interest, which must be paid 
 in all circumstances, and the principal must be returned at the conclusion of the period 
 for which it has been borrowed ; at least, such are the ordinary obligations towards 
 debenture holders. For the share part of the capital no return is made till the railway 
 has been in operation, and drawings come in from the traffic. 
 
 As soon as traffic commences, there begins a new account called the revenue account, 
 and which, kept in the same or a different bank, has no connection with the capital 
 account. This, it may be judged, at once introduces a great complexity into the finan- 
 cial affairs of railways. In ordinary businesses, the profits of a concern are the free pro- 
 ceeds after deducting interest on capital and all expenses ; and no attempt is made to 
 keep two accounts, or to detach one part of the revenue from the other. As sharehold- 
 ers in a railway occupy the position of partners in a business, it might be expected that 
 they would receive a divisible part of the proceeds equal to their respective claims after 
 all expenses whatsoever had been paid. This is not the plan usually adopted. In gen- 
 eral, the shareholders are only temporary partners ; they buy shares in order to sell them 
 at an advance. What they mainly look to is the rise on shares in the market, and there- 
 fore any process of management which can promote this important object meets their 
 approval. Hence, the keeping of two accounts, two bank pass-books, and two books of 
 checks. From the revenue account are drawn all payments for wages, rates, and taxes, 
 coke, oil, and other petty furnishings, also repairs on carriages and locomotives, main- 
 tenance of way, and general management. What remains is the fund, whence is paid, 
 first, the interest on debentures, and second, the dividend of the shareholders. From 
 the C. A. are drawn all other outlays : first, the repayment of principal to debenture 
 holders, and, second, the expenditure for new carriages and locomotives, new rails, and 
 other substantial repairs upon and additions to the plant. As all railway traffic exceeds 
 the expectations formed respecting it, the demands on the C. A. for fresh additions of 
 one kind or other become exceedingly onerous. Were the shareholders to look to 
 ultimate advantages, they would sanction the payment for permanent improvements 
 out of the current revenue; but, as has been stated, shareholders for the most part care 
 nothing for the remote and contingent prosperity of the undertaking, and will not or 
 cannot make a corresponding sacrifice. Greatly diminished by primary outlay, and now 
 operated upon for all sorts of additions and improvements, the C. A. is at length 
 exhausted, and new powers have to be got from parliament to create new shares and 
 new debentures, and which shares are only taken up by being guaranteed a preferable 
 claim on the funds of the company. Where a large extension of traflic must be pro- 
 vided for, the creation of fresh capital is indispensable and legitimate; but it is equally 
 open to remark that the C. A., as usually conducted, affords the means of enormously 
 
425 
 
 CapltaL 
 
 increasing the company’s obligations, and is, in fact, an expedient to give good divi- 
 dends to present holders of stock at the cost of their successors. Perceiving what must 
 be the consequences, those among the proprietary of the small and more prudently man- 
 aged railways who look to permanent investment, lose no opportunity to urge “ that the 
 C. A. shall be closed, and the whole expenditure of the company, including the pay- 
 ment of dividends and interests, be taken from revenue.” Objections are raised to 
 these remonstrances, sometimes on plausible, sometimes on sufficiently valid, grounds; 
 and it may be said that in remarkably few cases have railway companies been able, or 
 been disposed, to close their capital account. See Railways (Legislation and Manage- 
 ment). w. c. 
 
 CAPITAL FELONIES. See Felon. 
 
 CAPITAL PUNISHMENT in criminal jurisprudence is the punishment of death. It 
 is called capital punishment because the head (Lat. caput), from being the most vital, is 
 usually that part of the body which is acted on. This applies especially to beheading 
 and hanging; but almost all modes of depriving a criminal of life appear to have in view 
 the peculiar vulnerability, and, at the same time, vitality of the head. This extreme 
 penalty, notwithstanding the practice of the world from the remotest times down to the 
 present day, has frequently been reprobated by philosophers and philanthropists, who 
 have even gone so far as to deny the right so to punish to any earthly power. The 
 weight of authority, however, appears in favor of capital punishment. Mr. Bentham, 
 one of the most reasonable and discriminating authorities on the subject, in his well- 
 known and valuable treatise, says that the idea of C. P. would naturally suggest itself 
 in the infancy of a state. When any one had committed an offense, and disturbed the 
 peace of society, the question would then first arise: “How shall we prevent these 
 things?” and the answer most likely to occur to a set of barbarians would be: “ Extir- 
 pate the offender, and give yourself no further trouble about him.” And in conformity 
 with this view of the matter, he alludes in a note to the case of the Hottentots, who 
 have no fixed laws to direct them in the distribution of justice, and consequently, when 
 an offense has been committed, there is no form of trial, or proportion of punishments 
 to offenses; but the kraal (village) is called together, the delinquent is placed in the 
 midst, and, without further ceremony, demolished with their clubs, the chief striking 
 the first blow. The marquis Beccaria, in his remarkable Essay on Grimes and Punish- 
 ments, strongly argues against the capital sentence being carried out in any case, denying 
 the right, in fact, of government so to punish, and maintaining, besides, that itis a less 
 efficacious method of deterring others, than the continued example of a living culprit con- 
 demned, by laboring as a slave, to repair the injury he has done to society. Bentham, 
 on the contrary, holds that death is regarded by most men as the greatest of all evils ; 
 and that especially among those who are attached to life by the ties of reputation, affec- 
 tion, enjoyment, hope, or fear, it appears to be a more efficacious punishment than any 
 other. On the question of right, Beccaria is still more pointedly refuted by sir Samuel 
 Romilly, who observed: “Beccaria and his disciples confess that itis not the greatest 
 of evils, and recommend other punishments as being more severe and effectual, forget- 
 ting, undoubtedly, that if human tribunals have a right to infiict a severer punishment 
 than death, they must have a right to inff ict death itself” {Memoirs, vol. iii. p. 278). It 
 is not a little interesting to know that such was the opinion of one who did so much as 
 a statesman to mitigate the severity of the criminal law. 
 
 Against C. P. arguments are often urged from Scripture, based on the general prin- 
 ciple of Christian charity. To these it is replied that they proceed on a misapprehen- 
 sion and misapplication of the principle ; and reference is confidently made to the Old 
 Testament as sufficiently exhibiting the mind of the great Lawgiver in regard to this 
 matter. 
 
 Death was, in former times in England, the ordinary punishment for all felonies, 
 and the certain doom of those who could not avail themselves of benefit of clergy (q.v.), 
 i.e., the common law infiicted death on every felon who could not read, and the law 
 implied that punishment, where a statute made any new offense felony. On the other 
 hand, the numerous acts of parliament creating felonies without benefit of clergy, show 
 that the statute law was still more sanguinary, so that of the 160 offenses referred to by 
 Blackstone as punishable with death, four fifths had been made so during the reign of 
 the first three Georges. That some idea may be formed of such Draconian justice as 
 was then established, we may mention the following as among the offenses which 
 involved sentence of death : stealing in a dwelling house to the amount of 40s. ; steal- 
 ing privately in a shop goods of the value of 5s. ; counterfeiting the stamps that were 
 used for the sale of perfumery; and doing the same with the stamps used for the certifi- 
 cates for hair powder. Thanks, however, to the exertions of sir Samuel Romilly, the 
 inhumanity and impolicy of such a state of the criminal code gave way, towards the end 
 of the reign of George III., to a course of legislation which has reduced the application 
 of death as a punishment within its present humane limits. Practically, indeed, it is 
 only in the case of treason and murder that the capital sentence is ever pronounced ; and 
 even then, it is not always carried out, for the crown reserves to itself and exercises a 
 right of review which frequently leads to such a change in the convict’s fate as at least 
 spares his life. This discretionary control on the part of the executive is essential in 
 
Capital. 
 
 426 
 
 the present state of the law, which affords no means for a judicial appeal on the merits; 
 for the very nature of the punishment, when finally executed, precludes the idea of all 
 benefit to the sufferer, should the verdict of the jury afterwards turn out erroneous, and 
 the innocence, instead of the guilt, of the accused be established. The law as it stands, 
 indeed, allows a capital sentence to be reversed if technical error can be shown on the 
 face of the judgment or other matter of record — but what avails that, after the sentence 
 has been executed. 
 
 In Scotland, the administration of the criminal law has perhaps been, on the whole, 
 as severe as in England. Mr. Erskine says that “ those crimes that are in their conse- 
 quences most hurtful to society, are punished capitally or by death, ” a category that is 
 certainly sufficiently indefinite ; and anciently, it might be shown that the executions 
 in Scotland for offenses corresponding to those which were capitally punished in Eng- 
 land, were, in proportion to the population, quite as numerous as those in the latter 
 country. But in the more modern practice of Scotland, capital sentence was only pro- 
 nounced in the four pleas of the crown — viz., murder, rape, robbery, and willful fire- 
 raising, to which may be added housebreaking. At present the penal system in Scot- 
 land may be said to be identical with that in England, death, as a punishment, being 
 only inflicted in the case of convictions for murder. 
 
 With respect to the mode of executing C. P., we need not detain the reader by any 
 account of the obsolete cruelties and tortures of former times. It may suffice to state 
 that hanging and beheading are the two methods which now, for the most part, are prac- 
 ticed in the different European states — indeed, with the exception of Spain, by all. In 
 the last country, the death of the culprit is instantaneously caused by the garrotte (q.v.). 
 In England, Scotland, and Ireland, and in all the dependencies of the crown, the con- 
 vict is hanged; while in France he is decapitated by guillotine (q.v.), an instrument 
 which an old Scotch machine called the maiden (q.v.), and used for the same purpose, 
 very much resembled. In most of the German states, beheading is the mode of execu- 
 tion adopted; but in Austria, criminals convicted of capital offenses are hanged, as in 
 England. See Execution. 
 
 The following works may be consulted on the subject of this article: Basil Montagu 
 On the Punishment of Death, 3 vols. (1809, 1812, 1813), in which he collects the opinions 
 of different eminent authorities ; Memoirs of Sir Samuel Bomilly, 3 vols. (1840), and his 
 miscellaneous law pamphlets; Jeremy Bentham’s Rationale of Punishment (1830); Bec- 
 caria’s Essay on Grimes and Punishments (1775); Edward Gibbon Wakefield’s Facts 
 Relating to the Punishment of Death in the Metropolis (1831); and Frederic Hill’s Crime, 
 its Amount, Causes, and Remedies (1853). 
 
 Capital Punishments in the Army and Navy. — 1. In the army. — The law on this 
 subject is contained in the 19th of the articles of war now in force, which prescribes 
 death as the punishment of the following offenses, or such other punishment as by a 
 court-martial shall be awarded. (1) Any officer or soldier who shall excite or join in 
 any mutiny or sedition in any forces belonging to her majesty’s army, or royal marines, 
 or who shall not use his utmost endeavors to suppress it, and knowing of it, shall not 
 give immediate information of it to his commanding officer; or (2) who shall hold cor- 
 respondence with, or give advice or intelligence to any rebel or enemy of her majesty; 
 or (3) who shall treat with any rebel or enemy without her majesty’s license, or license 
 of the chief commander; or (4) shall misbehave himself before the enemy; or (5) shall 
 shamefully abandon or deliver up any garrison, fortress, post, or guard committed to 
 his charge ; or (6) shall compel the governor or commanding officer to deliver up or 
 abandon such place; or (7) shall induce others to misbehave before the enemy, or abandon 
 or deliver up their posts; or (8) shall desert her majesty’s service; or (9) shall leave his 
 post before being regularly relieved, or shall sleep on his post; or (10) shall strike or offer 
 any violence to his superior officer, being in the execution of his office, or shall disobey 
 any lawful command of his superior officer; or (11) who, being confined in a military 
 prison, shall offer any violence against a visitor or other his superior military officer, 
 being in the execution of his office. 
 
 By article 20, it is declared that no judgment of death by a court-martial shall pass, 
 unless two thirds at least of the officers present shall concur therein; and by article 21, it 
 is provided that judgment of death may be commuted for penal servitude for any term 
 not less than four years, or for imprisonment for such term as shall seem meet. 
 
 It would appear that the employment of a soldier in the service subsequent to his 
 arrest on a capital charge, may operate as a remission of the sentence of death. This is 
 illustrated by the following case, mentioned by Mr. Prendergast in his Law Relating to 
 Officers in the Army (2d ed., 1855, p. 245): In 1811, private John Weblin of the 3rd buffs 
 was sentenced to be shot. The commander-in-chief, the duke of Wellington, in his 
 “remarks” upon the proceedings, took notice that, through some extraordinary inat- 
 tention, the prisoner had actually been permitted to serve in an engagement with the 
 enemy, after he had been put into arrest for his crime. On this ground, the duke pro- 
 nounced that he was under the necessity of pardoning the prisoner. 
 
 In the army, C. P. is indicted by the offender being either shot or hanged — the 
 latter being the more disgraceful mode of execution. 
 
 2. In the navy. — These are regulated by the 22 Geo. II. c. 33, amended by the 10 and 
 11 Viet. c. 59. By the first of these acts, certain offenses in the navy, whether on board 
 
427 
 
 Capital. 
 
 ship or on shore, were pnnished with death absolutely, without any discretion in the 
 court to alter or mitigate the sentence. But, by the 10 and 11 Viet., this severity is 
 removed (excepting in the cases of murder and other unnatural offenses mentioned in 
 the act), and courts-martial are authorized to abstain from pronouncing judgment of 
 death, if they shall think fit, and to impose such other punishment instead as the nature 
 and degree of the offense may deserve. In this discretionary sense, the following 
 offenses are punishable, in the navy, with death : (1) The holding illegal correspondence 
 with an enemy; (2) the not acquainting, within 12 hours after the opportunity to do 
 so, the commander-in-chief, or other superior officer of the squadron, with any message 
 from an enemy or rebel ; (3) all spies bringing seducing letters from an enemy or rebel, 
 or endeavoring to corrupt any one in the fleet to betray his trust; (4) the relieving an 
 enemy or rebel in any way, directly or indirectly; (5) not preparing for fight when duty 
 commands, or not making due preparations on likelihood of engagement, and not encour- 
 aging the inferior officers and men to fight courageously ; (6) the treacherously or cow- 
 ardly yielding or crying for quarter; (7) disobeying orders in time of action, or not using 
 all possible endeavors to put the same effectually in execution ; (8) being guilty of coward- 
 ice or neglect of duty in time of action ; (9) through cowardice, negligence, or disaffec- 
 tion, forbearing to pursue the chase of any enemy, pirate, or rebel, beaten or flying, or not 
 relieving or assisting a known friend in view to the utmost ; (10) deserting to the enemy, 
 or running away with any of her majesty’s ships or their belongings, or any pieces to 
 the weakening of the service, or cowardly or treacherously yielding up the same; 
 (11) deserting simply, or enticing others so to do; (12) making, or endeavoring to make, 
 any mutinous assembly on any pretense whatsoever; (13) uttering words of sedition or 
 mutiny; (14) concealing traitorous or mutinous practices or designs; (15) striking a 
 superior officer or offering any violence to him, being in execution of his office, on any 
 pretense whatsoever; (16) unlawfully burning or setting fire to any ship, property or fur- 
 niture, not then appertaining to an enemy, pirate, or rebel; (17) neglect in steering any 
 of her majesty’s ships, so that the same be stranded, split, or hazarded ; (18) sleeping on 
 watch, or negligently performing duty, or forsaking station; and (19) robbery. 
 
 It is stated hy Mr. Prendergast, in the work to which we have referred (p. 244), 
 that a sentence of death pronounced by a court-martial does not operate as an absolute 
 dismissal from the service ; for if the offender should be pardoned, he 5s restored to his 
 former position. 
 
 But though a pardon operates as a restoration to the service, the greater question 
 still remains to be judicially decided, whether a restoration to the service operates as a 
 pardon. This question is inseparably connected with the fate of the gallant but unfor- 
 tunate sir Walter Raleigh. He had been condemned to death for alleged participation 
 in a treasonable plot to raise Arabella Stuart to the throne; and, after undergoing 13 
 years’ imprisonment, he received from James I., by a commission under the great seal, 
 the command of a fleet and army fitted out against the Spanish possessions in South 
 America, with power of life and death over the king’s subjects serving in the expedition. 
 The enterprise failed; and on sir Walter’s return to England, James caused his head to 
 be struck off, according to the sentence originally pronounced. On showing cause 
 against his execution, sir Walter pleaded that his commission was tantamount to a par- 
 don, and quoted a case of a man who had been condemned for felony, having been par- 
 doned on account of his subsequent service in the wars of Gascony. Lord chief- justice 
 Montague, however, held that though an implied pardon of the kind cited might hold 
 good in felony, that treason could only be pardoned by express words. There is the 
 high legal authority of the late lord chancellor Campbell* for saying that the chief-justice 
 declared and expounded the law soundly; and that in strictness sir Walter’s attainder, 
 under the former judgment, could only be done away with by letters-patent under the 
 great seal, expressly reciting the treason, and granting a free pardon. See, on the sub- 
 ject of these two articles. Articles op War, and Mutiny Act. 
 
 As to the mode of C. P. in the navy, the culprit, where he is an officer, is shot; where 
 he is a common seaman, he is usually hanged at the yard-arm. 
 
 CAPITAL PUNISHMENT (ante) under the laws of the United States may be 
 inflicted for treason, murder, arson, rape, piracy, robbery of the mails with jeopardy to 
 the lives of persons in charge, rescue of a convict going to execution, burning a vessel of 
 war, and corruptly destroying a private vessel. Until within a few years C. P. was the 
 rule for the highest crimes in all the states, but it was abolished in Wisconsin and in 
 Maine in 1874, and had been about that time abolished in Iowa; but in the latter state 
 it was restored in 1878, the argument showing from the record that during its abolition 
 crimes of violence had largely increased. Under the present law, a year must intervene 
 between the sentence and execution, and the term may be further extended by reprieve. 
 There is much difference of opinion as to the effect of the abolition of the death penalty, 
 and perhaps no settled conclusion can be reached. The effect of its abolition has not 
 thus far supplied any very strong reasons for the stand of those who would abolish it 
 altogether. Perhaps the most notable suspension of this punishment in all history was 
 during the war of the rebellion in the United States, when, in the face of the most pow- 
 
 Lives of the Chief-Justices, vol. i. pp. 357, 358, 591 
 
Capitals. 
 
 Capo. 
 
 428 
 
 erful, open, and dangerous treason, not one person was deliberately executed for that 
 crime, the extreme penalty visited even upon the captured leader of the rebellion being 
 the loss of the political (but not the personal) rights of a citizen. 
 
 CAPITALS {majuscula), in contradistinction to small letters {minuscula), are the large 
 letters employed in writing and printing to help the eye, to relieve the uniformity of the 
 page, to increase the facility of keeping and finding the place, to mark the beginnings of 
 sentences, proper names, etc. Among the ancients, and during the earlier part of the 
 middle ages, no distinction of C. and small letters was known; and after the practice 
 had been introduced of beginning books and chapters with great letters often adorned 
 or illustrated with much artistic ability, it was long before C. were employed in such a 
 way as could afford much real advantage to the reader. At the present day, they are 
 universally employed, even in the printing of Greek and Latin books. Considerable 
 diversity has existed at different times with regard to the employment of them, the books 
 of the 17th and 18th c. exhibiting a much greater proportion of them than those of the 
 present day. In German books, all substantives usually begin with a capital letter; in 
 English and French books of the present day, they in general appear only at the begin- 
 nings of sentences and of proper names. Adjectives formed from proper names, as Eng- 
 lish, French, etc. , are generally begun with a capital in English books, but not in French 
 nor in German ones. 
 
 CAPITANA'TA, or Foggia, a province of Italy, tYieBaunia of the ancients, is bounded 
 n. and e. by the Adriatic, and on the s.w. by the Apennines. It stretches along the 
 Adriatic about 70 m. in a straight line, and its average breadth is about 45 m. ; but its 
 coast-line, measuring round the great promontory of Monte Gargano, which has been 
 called “the spur of Italy,” is fully 100 m., and its breadth between the extremity of 
 that projection and the Apennines, 75 miles. Pop. ’71, 319,164. The greater part of 
 the surface is a sandy plain sloping from the Apennines to the Adriatic, and watered 
 only by some inconsiderable streams. The rearing and feeding of cattle form the chief 
 occupations of the inhabitants. Wheat, wine, and fruits of various kinds are produced 
 in quantities sufficient to admit of exportation. There are important salt-works, quarries 
 of alabaster, and potters’ clay. Foggia is the chief town. 
 
 CAPITATION, from the Latin caput, a head, means something applicable to all per- 
 sons, or to the people by the head. A tax levied on all persons, without reference to 
 property or other incidents, is called a C. tax, and sometimes a poll tax. The former 
 term was often used in France for the tax better known as the taille, although this 
 offensive impost was not imposed on all alike, the nobility enjoying many exemptions 
 from it. 
 
 CAPITOL, the fortress of ancient Rome, and site of the national sanctuary the temple 
 of Jupiter, was situated on the Mans GapitoUnus, the smallest but most famous of the 
 seven hills on which Rome was built. The hill itself was first termed Mons Saturninus^ 
 afterwards Mons Tarpeius and Rupes Tarpeia, and after the foundation of the capitol, 
 Mons Gapitolinus, though a particular portion of it retained its ancient name of Rupes 
 Tarpeia. It was steep and abrupt in almost every part, formed a natural fortress, and 
 was strengthened here and there by towers. The C. was founded by Tarquinius 
 Priscus, and completed by Tarquinius Superbus, who tasked the people to work at it. 
 The whole mount had a circumference of about 800 paces. During the civil wars 
 under Sulla, the temple was burned (according to Tacitus, by design), and after its res- 
 toration, destroyed during the Vitellian riots. It was rebuilt by Vespasian, after whose 
 death it was again destroyed by tire, but was once more restored by Domitian, who 
 instituted here the capitoline games. Domitian’s structure lasted to a late period of the 
 empire. Regarding the site of the C., there has been great dispute; the German 
 scholars, for the most part, maintaining that it occupied the s.w. summit of the hill, 
 and the Italians, the n.e. The latter situation has the weight of probabilities in its 
 favor. From that portion of the mount named the Tarpeian rock, state criminals were 
 thrown down. According to the description given by Dionysius of Halicarnassus, the 
 temple of Jupiter, with its peristyle of columns, was 200 ft. long by 185 ft. wide, and 
 was divided into three cellae, separated from each other by walls, and respectively dedi- 
 cated to Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva. In the spacious portico, the people feasted on 
 triumphal occasions. The scanty ruins remaining in the present day consist of a sub- 
 structure of peperino or volcanic tufa, a wall of the same materials, and some remains 
 of the s. front, together with a portion of the great flight of steps leading to the temple. 
 
 The modern 0. {Gampidoglio), built on the site, and partly on the foundation of the 
 ancient C. , was designed by Michael Angelo, but is one of his inferior works. The 
 main entrance, however, presents a splendid view. It is used as a kind of hotel-de-ville 
 and museum. 
 
 Besides the great temple of Jupiter, the most important structures on the Capitolina 
 Mount were the temple of Jupiter Tonans, built by the emperor Augustus ; and the 
 magnificent Tabularium, containing archives, and, in connection with the ^rarium 
 (“Treasury”), serving as a library and place for lectures, etc. The remains of this struc- 
 ture, built by Quintus Catulus, 73 b.c., have still an imposing aspect. — For the U. S. 
 Capitol, see W ashengton. 
 
429 
 
 Capitals. 
 
 Capo. 
 
 CAP'ITOLINE GAMES, instituted 387 b.c., in commemoration of the preservation 
 of the Roman capitol (fortress) from the Gauls. Nero revised them, modeled them after 
 the Olympian games, and proposed to institute a new computation of time founded upon 
 the 5-year period intervening between the celebrations. 
 
 CAP'ITOLINE HILL. See Capitol, ante. 
 
 CAPITOLI'NUS, Julius, a Latin historian of the 3d c., who wrote the lives of sev- 
 eral of the Roman emperors, and was one of the authors of the Historia Augusta. 
 
 CAPIT'ULARIES (Lat. capitularia). Capitularium is literally a book divided into 
 chapters ; and the plural of the word was the name given to the laws issued by the kings 
 of the first and second of the Frankish races, from Charles Martel downwards. These 
 laws proceeded from the great assemblies of the king, nobles, and bishops, which 
 formed the states of the kingdom, and, from their general character, were opposed to 
 the laws issued for the separate states, which were called leges. They were divided into 
 general and special C. , according to the more or less general nature of the interests 
 which they embraced, and the mode of their publication. They have by no means been 
 all preserved. The most famous are those of Charlemagne and of St. Louis. In 827, 
 abbot Angesius, of Pontenelles, made a collection of the C. of Charlemagne, and of his 
 son, Louis le Debonnaire. Other collections were made by private persons, and, in 847, 
 one by authority of the king, but they are all very imperfect and ill arranged. After 
 Charles the simple, in 922, no more C. were issued, and no similar laws or statutes exist 
 from that period till the time of Louis le Gros, in 1100. The best collections are those 
 of Baluze (Paris, 1677 and 1780), and of Pertz, in the Monumenta OermanicB. 
 
 CAPITULATION, a treaty consisting of several specified conditions (Lat. capitula, 
 heads). In the military sense of the word, a C. is a treaty of surrender to an enemy. 
 When a place can no longer be defended, on account of failure of ammunition or pro- 
 visions, or the progress made by the besieging-party, a white flag is commonly put up, 
 ^is a sign that the b^esieged are willing to capitulate. According to the kind and degree 
 of peril in which the fortress is placed, so are the terms which the governor may reason- 
 ably expect from his successful opponent. Sometimes the arms and military stores are 
 left to the besieged, but more frequently they are taken by the besiegers, except articles 
 of private property belonging to the officers and men. The “honors of war,” the 
 marching out with drums bleating and colors flying, are usually stipulated for, unless 
 ^he conqueror exacts very severe terms. The mildest form of a C. is a convention, 
 tgreed to when the conqueror is not strong enough to insist on stringent conditions. 
 
 CAPIZ', a t. on the island of Panay, in the Philippine archipelago. It is situated on 
 a plain on the n. coast, near the rivers Panay, Panitan, and Ivisan, by which it is some- 
 times inundated during the rainy season. It is defended by a small fort, and is the 
 residence of a Spanish alcalde. Pop. 11,000. 
 
 CAP'NOMANCY, a word formed from the Greek capnos, smoke, and manteia, divina- 
 tion. The ancients practiced it in two different ways — either they threw grains of 
 jasmine or poppy on the burning coals, and watched the motions and the density of the 
 smoke that rose from them, or they watched the smoke of sacrifices. This latter kind 
 of C. was most generally employed, and that to which the greatest importance wa,s at- 
 tached. If the smoke was thin, and ascended in a right line, instead of being blown 
 back by the breeze, or spreading over the altar, the augury was good. It was also 
 believed that the inhalation of the smoke rising from the victims or from the fire which 
 consumed them, gifted the priests with prophetic inspiration. 
 
 CA'PO D’IS'TRIA, a fortified seaport t. of Austria, situated on a rocky island in the 
 gulf of Trieste, 8 m. s.w. of the city of Trieste. It is capital of the circle of Istria, 
 with the peninsula of which it is connected by a stone causeway, nearly half a mile long. 
 Its old buildings, ruinous walls, and narrow streets give the town a gloomy aspect. It 
 has a cathedral, manufactures of leather and soap, and a trade in wine, oil, and salt. 
 Pop. ’69, 7,539. In ancient times, this place was known as ^gida, and afterwards as 
 Justinopolis, in honor of Justin II., who restored it. 
 
 CAPO D’ISTRIA, or CAPO D’ISTRIAS, John Anthony, Count, president of the 
 Greek republic from 1827 to 1831, was b. in Corfu, 1780. His family had been 
 settled in that island since the 14th c. , but originally came from the Illyrian town of 
 Capo d’Istria (q.v.), near Trieste. He devoted himself to political life, and after having 
 held a high position in the Ionian islands, he entered the diplomatic service of Russia. 
 Here his diplomacy tended to the separation of Greece from Turkey. In 1827, he was 
 elected president of Greece; and in Jan., 1828, he landed in Greece, and entered upon 
 the duties of his office. He was a patriot, a philanthropist, and an able diplomatist, 
 but by no means equal to the task which he now undertook. Everything was in dis- 
 order; the people had been long enslaved, and knew not how to use their freedom; and 
 the president had been so much imbued with the centralizing principles prevalent at the 
 courts which he had frequented, that some of his measures, especially that restricting 
 the liberty of the press, gave off^se to the most temperate of the enlightened lovers of 
 civil liberty. His career was cut short by his assassination in a church at Nauplia on 
 Oct. 9, 1831. The assassins were relatives of Peter Mauromichali, against whom he 
 was urging on a prosecution, for alleged offenses against the state. 
 
Cap. 
 
 Caprification* 
 
 430 
 
 CAP OF MAIN'TENANCE, Dignity, is a cap worn by noble and royal personages 
 on certain state occasions. Such a cap was sent by pope Julius II. to king Henry Vlft.^ 
 for writing his book against Martin Luther. 
 
 CAFONIEBE', or Caponniere, in fortification, is a parapet 8 or 10 ft. high, with a 
 superior slope, terminating in a small glacis. It is placed in the ditch of a fortified 
 place, to cover or screen the defenders while passing from one defense-work to another. 
 Generally, it has a banquette, on which musketeers may stand to fire over the crest. 
 If there is a passage between two such parapets, it is a full caponniere; if on ono 
 side only, a half caponniere. Generally, the parapets are of earth, and the passage 
 open overhead ; but sometimes caponnieres are vaulted galleries of brickwork, loopholedL 
 at the sides for musketry; while in field-works, palisade caponnieres are occasionally 
 thrown across the ditches of redoubts. 
 
 CAPPADO'CIA, anciently, a province, and subsequently a kingdom in the w. of Asia, 
 (in part the present Caramania). It was bounded by Lycaonia on the w., by Cilicia and 
 Syria on the s., by Armenia on the e., and by Pontus on the north. During the time that 
 it belonged to the Persian empire, however, it included Pontus, which was called 
 Lesser Cappadocia. In 17 a.d., C. was erected into a separate province of the Roman 
 empire, by Tiberius. 
 
 CAP'PAGH BROWN, a bituminous earifh, which yields pigments of various shades of 
 brown, the two most strongly marked being known as light and dark Cappagh brown. 
 The coloring matter are oxide of manganese and iron. The Cappagh browns ar» 
 transparent and permanent; and when not applied too thickly, they dry well in oil. 
 The name is derived from Cappagh, near Cork, in Ireland. C. B. is also called encrome 
 mineral, and more frequently manganese brown. 
 
 CAPPARIB'E.S, or CAPPARiDA'CEiE, a natural order of exogenous plants, allied ta 
 cruciferm, and including about 350 known species, herbaceous plants, shrubs, and trees, 
 mostly natives of tropical and sub-tropical countries. The leaves are generally alternate, 
 ptalked, undivided, or palmate; the flowers solitary or clustered; the calyx of four 
 sepals, sometimes cohering in a tube ; the corolla of four, or sometimes eight petals, 
 sometimes wanting, the stamens generally a multiple of four, or indeflnitely numerous, 
 placed on a hemispherical or elongated disk; the ovary one-celled, the style thread-like 
 or wanting; the ovules curved; the fruit either dry and pod-like (tribe cleomeoe), or a 
 berry (tribe capparm ). — To this order belongs the well-known caper-bush. See Capers. 
 Many of the species possess stimiilant properties; some are poisonous. One of the 
 most interesting plants of the order is the siwak {capparis sodata), a bush or small tree, 
 one of the most characteristic features of the vegetation of Africa, from the Great 
 Desert to the Niger, the small berries of which have a pungent taste like pepper, and, 
 when dried, constitute an important ingredient in the food of the inhabitants of those 
 regions; whilst the roots when burned yield no small quantity of salt. — Barth's Travels. 
 
 CAPPE, Newcome, 1732-1800; an English dissenting clergyman who studied under 
 Doddridge, and adhered to Dr. Priestley’s Unitarian doctrine. He was pastor of a dis- 
 senting congregation in York for more than 40 years, and was one of the ablest and 
 most eloquent of his denomination. He was also the author of a number of devotional 
 works. 
 
 CAPPEL, a village of Switzerland, in the canton of Zurich, and 10 m. s.s.w. of the 
 city of that name. It is interesting as the place where the great reformer Zwinglius 
 wa3 killed in a conflict with troops of the Roman Catholic cantons, Oct., 1531. A 
 monument has been erected here to his memory. 
 
 CAPPEL, a French family of scholars, theologians, and lawyers. Guillaume, in 
 1491, had the boldness to refuse the payment of tithes demanded by the pope. Jacques, 
 his son, was councilor of state under Francis I., and in 1537 made a powerful speech 
 against Charles V. Louis, son of Jacques, was professor of theology at Sedan, and 
 more than once risked his life in the cause of Protestantism. One of his acts was to 
 present to Charles IX. the confession of faith drawn up by the Protestants of Paris. 
 Two others, a son and grandson of Jacques, were distinguished, one in the law, and the 
 other in theology, history, philogy, and antiquities. Both these were named Jacqu^; 
 and the younger was the father of Louis, the most celebrated member of the family 
 (1585-1658), who studied at Sedan, Oxford, and Saumur, and was professor of Hebrew 
 at the latter place. He devoted much attention to the text of the Scriptures. On th^ 
 revocation of the edict of Nantes, I^ouis fled to England, where he died. His life wa» 
 published by his nephew James, who at only 19 years of age was professor of Hebrew 
 at Saumur. 
 
 CAPRA'RA, Giovanni Battista, 1733-1810; an Italian statesman and bishop, wh^ 
 served as papal legate or nuncio at Cologne, Lucerne, Vienna, and to the French repub- 
 lic in 1801, where he arranged the concordat of that year re-establishing the Roman 
 Catholic form of worship. In May, 1805, he crowned Napoleon as king of Italy. 
 
 CAPBE'RA, or Cabrera, one of a group of smaP islands called the Buccinari islands, 
 in the strait of Bonifacio, to the e. of the n. point of Sardinia (q.v.V They belong to 
 the Italian province of SassarL C. is separated from the coast of Sardinia by a strait of 
 
431 
 
 Cap. 
 
 Caprificatloo* 
 
 .little more than a mile in breadth, and by a similar narrow strait from the island of 
 Maddalena, which lies to the west. Its greatest length, from n. to s., is about 6 m., and 
 Its breadth is from 2 to 3 miles. Like Maddalena and the rest of the Buccinari 
 isles, and the neighboring coast of Sardinia, C. is rocky, bare, and unfertile. It has no 
 streams, and is in few places adapted either for the pasture of cattle or for the plow. 
 In former times, it was the abode only of wild goats — whence its name (Lat. and Ital. 
 cajyra, a goat) — and rabbits, and was occasionally visited by goat-herds and fishermcm. 
 It has of late years acquired celebrity as the ordinary residence of Garibaldi, who 
 acquired a property and built a house here in 1854. He dwelt here from 1854 to 1858, 
 and again made it his abode in the autumn of 1860. It was to C. that he was sent in 
 Sept., 1867, in honorable banishment by the Italian government, after having been 
 taken prisoner at Asinalunga, in consequence of his design of entering the Roman terri- 
 tory to promote an insurrection and overthrow the papal government, and in C. he still 
 resides, when not in Rome. 
 
 CA'PRI (the ancient Caprem), a charming island in the Mediterranean, at the entrance 
 of the bay of Naples, about 3 m. from cape Campanella, and 20 m. s. of the city of 
 Naples. On its small area of about 11 m. in circumference, it displays a rich variety of 
 beautiful scenery, ruins of antiquity, and points of historical interest, and contains a 
 pop. of about 6,000 souls. The island is composed of two mountain masses, sepa- 
 rated from each other by a depression like the seat of a saddle. That on the w., 
 called monte Solaro, which is the highest and largest, has an elevation of about 1900 
 feet. The eastern part does not attain a height of more than 860 ft. above the sea. At 
 the base of the eastern mountain is situated the town of C. , built on a shelving rock, 
 and guarded by walls, gates, and draw-bridges, with a cathedral, and a pop., including 
 the district, of about 4,000. It commands a beautiful prospect, and communicates with 
 the little town of Anacapri, on the western table-land, % a flight of 535 rude steps, cut in 
 the face of the rock. There are only two safe landing-places on the island, and these 
 are at C. and near it. C. was a celebrated place, in the times of Augustus and Tiberius. 
 Ruins are still found of Roman baths and aqueducts, and of the 12 grand villas or 
 palaces built in honor of the 12 chief deities by the emperor Tiberius, who passed the 
 last 10 years of his life here in the practice of the grossest licentiousness and cruelty. 
 The inhabitants now consist of flshermen, sailors, and a few traders, with vine-dressers 
 and cultivators of olives in Anacapri. Wherever a tree can be planted, the hopeful and 
 industrious people have prepared for it a soil by persevering toil in terrace-culture. 
 Delicious quails, which in vast numbers alight on the island during their migrations to 
 and from Africa, in spring and autumn, are taken in nets, and form an important item 
 in the resources of Capri. To the w. of the town of C. is situated the Orotta Azzurra 
 <blue grotto), a remarkable cavern, entered from the sea by a narrow opening not more 
 than 3 ft. high. Inside, however, it is found to be of magnificent proportions, and of 
 marvelous beauty, the gorgeous coloring being said to be produced by the reflection and 
 refraction of the sun’s rays through the water. Elliptical in form, it has a length of 165 
 ft., a breadth of 100 in the widest part, and a height of 40 in the loftiest, with 48 ft. of 
 water beneath. 
 
 CAPRIC'CIO (Ital.), in art, is applied to a picture or other work which designedly vio- 
 lates the ordinary rules of composition. Foliated ornaments, with cupids or other fig- 
 ures appearing in them in situations not strictly natural, are capriccios. 
 
 CAFRICCIO, in music, is a species of free composition, without being subject to rule 
 as to form or figure. Locatelli, at the beginning of the 18th c., composed capriccios for 
 the violin. The most celebrated C. of modern times is Mendelssohn’s B minor C. for 
 pianoforte and orchestra. 
 
 CAPRICORNUS, the Goat, a southern constellation, and th^ tenth sign of the zodiac 
 <q.v.); denoted by the sign V 3 , representing the crooked horns of a goat. It is usually 
 represented on the globe as having the forepart of a goat, but the hinder part of a fish. 
 It is one of the least striking of the zodiacal constellations. It w’^as, however, 
 celebrated among the ancients, who regarded it as the harbinger of good-fortune, and as 
 marking the southern tropic or winter solstice, wherefore they called it the “ Southern 
 Gate of the Sun.” It contains no large stars, the two largest, which are situated in the 
 horns, being only of the third magnitude. Neither of these rises above the horizon in 
 our latitude. See Tropics. 
 
 CAP'RIDS, a family of ruminant quadrupeds, which, as defined by some naturalists, 
 may be described as the sheep and goat family, including the Linnaean genera oms (sheep, 
 q.v.) and eapra (goat, q.v,); but which is extended by others to include antelopes, their 
 persistent horns being regarded as the great distinction between them and the cermdoe or 
 deer family. In the more restricted sense, the name designates a very natural family, 
 yet differing from the hovidcB or ox family more in general appearance than in other 
 characters; whilst links of connection with the antelopes are not wanting, a very 
 remarkable one being found in the prong-horn of America. 
 
 CAPRIFICATION, a method which has long been employed in the Levant for securing 
 and hastening the maturation of figs, and which consists in suspending fruit-bearing 
 branches of the wild fig above or beside those of the cultivated tree. The notion once 
 
Caprifoliaceae. 
 
 Captain. 
 
 432 
 
 entertained, that this practice is analogous to that by which the fecundation of the? 
 female palm-tree is secured, is inconsistent with the now well-known fact, that the fig ha& 
 both male and female flowers within its own receptacle; and it is therefore supposed 
 that the effects of C. may result from the agency of a species of insect, of which the 
 eggs have been deposited in the early wild figs, and which may promote fecundation by 
 entering the receptacle of the cultivated fig, or perhaps by puncturing it may cause it to 
 ripen sooner. In hope of a similar advantage, some French and English cultivators have- 
 inserted into figs straws dipped in olive-oil. But C. is scarcely practiced in the western 
 parts of Europe, and has even been discontinued as unnecessary in some parts of the 
 east where it once prevailed. 
 
 CAPEIFOLIA'CE.®, a natural order of exogenous plants, consisting of shrubs and 
 herbaceous plants, which have opposite leaves without stipules, and flowers disposed in 
 corymbs, in heads, or in whorls. The calyx is 4 to 5 cleft ; the corolla monopetalous, 
 tubular, or wheel-shaped, sometimes irregular. The stamens are adherent to the corolla 
 at its base, and alternate with its lobes. The ovary is free, 1 to 5 celled. The fruit is 
 generally a berry, sometimes dry, but not splitting open when ripe. The order is very 
 nearly related to cinchonacem, differing chiefly in the want of stipules. More than 200 
 species are known, chiefly natives of the temperate and colder parts of the northern 
 hemisphere. To this order belong the honeysuckle, elder, viburnum, and snowberry. 
 Emetic and cathartic properties are prevalent in it. 
 
 CAPRIMUL'GID.E, a family of birds, of the order insessores, and tribe Jissirostres , ' 
 nearly allied to the hinindmid(jB or swallow tribe, but differing from them in the still 
 greater width of gape, and in having long stiff bristles at the base of the bill. They are 
 insectivorous birds. They have very long wings, short legs, and toes united at the base 
 by a membrane. The European goatsucker may be said to be the type of the family, 
 which includes also the whip-poor-will and night-hawk of America, with many other 
 species widely distributed over the globe, and now arranged by naturalists in a number 
 of genera. 
 
 CAPRO'IC, Capry'lic, and Capric Acids are represented by the formulae Ci!iHi 204 » 
 C 16 H 16 O 4 , and C 20 H 20 O 4 , and are members of the acetic or fatty-acid series. They derive 
 their names from capra, a goat, in consequence of their more or less resembling in smell 
 the odor of that animal. They may all be obtained from butter by pressing out the por- 
 tion which remains liquid at 60°, saponifying this oil, and distilling the soap which is 
 thus formed with sulphuric acid. The liquid which passes over contains these three 
 acids, together with butyric acid, which, by being converted into baryta salts, are separa- 
 ble from one another. All three of these acids are also obtained by the oxidation of 
 oleic acid by nitric acid ; and capric acid is also obtained by acting upon oil of rue with 
 fuming nitric acid; hence it is frequently called rutic acid. 
 
 CAPSA'LI, a seaport t. of the Ionian islands, capital of Cerigo, or Cythera, is built 
 upon a narrow ridge, terminating in a precipitous rock near the s. end of the island. It 
 has an old castle and a good harbor. Pop. 5,000. 
 
 CAPS AND HATS, names of political parties in Sweden in the early part of the 18th 
 c. , the former favoring and the latter opposing the alliance with Russia. 
 
 GAFSICINE, an alkaloid, is the active principle in capsicum or Cayenne pepper, and 
 can be obtained from it. It is a thick liquid, of a reddish color, and possessing such 
 acrid properties that half a grain diffused through a large room causes every one therein 
 to sneeze violently. 
 
 CAPSICUM, a genus of plants of the natural order solanacm, having a wheel-shaped 
 corolla, projecting and converging stamens, and a dry berry. The species are all of a 
 shrubby, bushy appearance, and have more or less woody stems, although they are 
 annual or biennial plants. The number of species is very uncertain, some botanists dis- 
 tinguishing many, whilst others regard them as mere varieties of a few. They are natives 
 of the warm parts of America and of Asia, have simple leaves, and rather inconspicuous 
 flowers, and some of them are in very general cultivation in tropical and sub-tropical 
 countries for their fruit, which is extremely pungent and stimulant, and is employed in 
 sauces, mixed pickles, etc. , often under its Mexican name of chillies; and when dried and 
 ground forms the spice called Cayenne pepper. As a condiment it improves the flavor of 
 food, aids digestion, and prevents flatulence. In tropical countries, it counteracts the 
 enervating influence of external heat. In medicine, it is used as a stimulant, rubefacient, 
 and vesicant ; is often administered in combination with cinchona ; and is particularly 
 valuable both internally administered and as a gargle ; not only in relaxed conditions of 
 the throat, but in some of those diseases in which the throat is most dangerously affected. 
 As a medicine, C. is administered in pills, mixed with bread; in the form of tincture, 
 obtained by digesting the bruised C. in alcohol, or of an infusion, procured by digestion 
 in water, with varying proportions of salt and vinegar. A gargle of C. is prepared by 
 infusing it in water, along with candy-sugar and vinegar, and thereafter adding a little 
 infusion of roses. It has no narcotic properties. It owes its power chiefly to capsicine 
 (q.v.). The fruits of the different species of C. differ in form, being round, oval, coni- 
 cal, heart-shaped, etc. ; they vary from half an inch to 4 in. in length, and are sometimes 
 of a bright red, sometimes of a yellow color. In all, the dry berry has an inflated appear- 
 
433 
 
 Caprifoliaceee. 
 
 Captain. 
 
 ance, and contains numerous whitish flattened seeds, which are even more pungent than 
 the leathery epidermis, or the spongy pulp. Cayenne pepper consists chiefly of the 
 ground seeds. G. annuum, sometimes called common C., or Chilly pepper, is perhaps 
 the most common species in cultivation ; and in the sourthern parts of Britain, if raised 
 on a hot-bed as a tender annual, it produces fruit in the open border. There are several 
 varieties of it. C. frutescens, sometimes called goat pepper, and G. haccatum, sometimes 
 called bird pepper, have great pungency, and the former is generally described as the 
 true Cayenne pepper. G. cerasiforme, with a small clierry-like fruit, and therefore called 
 cherry pepper, and G. grossum, with a large, oblong, or ovate fruit, known as bell 
 pepper, are frequently cultivated. — The fruit is used either ripe or unripe, except for 
 making Cayenne pepper, for which ripe fruit is employed. The fruit brought from 
 South America is sometimes sold by druggists under the name Guinea pepper. 
 
 CAPSTAN, on shipboard, is a ponderous mass of timber, whose uses are to heave 
 the anchor, hoist up masts and guns, take in and discharge cargo, etc. It has very firm 
 supports on the deck underneath it. It comprises a barrel, round which a rope or a 
 chain coils ; whelps, or pieces of timber, which enlarge the diameter without greatly 
 increasing the weight ; the drum-head, a polygonal flat piece of timber at the top, pierced 
 laterally with holes; the step, or lowest part, which rests upon and is bolted to the beams; 
 the saucer, an iron socket let into the top of the step ; the piwt or spindle, which, resting 
 on the saucer, forms the axis around which the C. turns; the pawls, short bars of iron, 
 to prevent the reaction of the C. ; bars, which enter the holes, and are the levers for 
 enabling the sailors to work the C. ; pins, placed vertically through the drum-head, for 
 temporarily retaining the bars in their places; and the shifter, a rope connecting the outer 
 ends of the bars. Among many improvements made in the arrangement and action of 
 capstans is Wardill’s, for increasing the bite or holding of a chain-cable around the cir- 
 cumference. In large vessels they are generally worked by steam. 
 
 CAPSULE, in botany, a dry fruit, syncarpous (or formed of several carpels united 
 together into one), and opening either by valves, as in the fox-glove, primrose, and rho- 
 dodendron, or by pores near the summit, which some regard as a sort of valves, and of 
 which beautiful examples may be seen in the poppy and snapdragon. Capsules are 
 either one-celled or many-celled. The pyxidium is a variety of C., which opens as if cut 
 around near the summit, presenting the appearance of a cup with a lid, of which a very 
 beautiful example may be seen in the anagallis, or pimpernel ; and another in the great 
 woody fruit of the different species of lecythis and other lecythidacem. 
 
 CAPTAIN, Militaky, is perhaps the most general designation given to an officer of 
 land forces; something equivalent to it being found in most European languages. As 
 a word, it simply means a head or leader, and may be applied to a chief over any number 
 of men. Gaptain-general is in some countries a very high command. In the time of 
 queen Elizabeth, there was, among other high military officers, a capt.gen. of footmen. 
 In the organization of the British army at the present day, there is one C. to every com- 
 pany of infantry, and every troop of cavalry. Formerly every battery of artillery had 
 two captains — a first and a second, the latter being called capt.lieut. Now, the first in 
 command has the title of maj., and the second that of capt. The first in command of a 
 battery of artillery, even when styled C., was considered higher than a C. of infantry 
 or cavalry, and was privileged to be mentioned by name in military dispatches like 
 cols, and majs. 
 
 The duty of the C. is to see to the men of his company in everything that relates 
 to discipline, exercises, billeting, pay, settlement of accounts, mess, kit, clothing, arms, 
 ammunition, accouterments, stores, barracks, cooking, etc. ; to receive orders concern- 
 ing these matters from the maj., and to enforce these orders among the men. He is 
 responsible to the maj., and is assisted in his duties by the lieut. and sub-lieut. The 
 number of captains on the peace establishment of the British army, in its several 
 branches, are about 239 cavalry, 1236 infantry, 248 artillery, 115 for engineers, and 28 
 for colonial corps — 1866 in all, in full commission. The former value of a C.’s com- 
 mission, and the circumstances of purchase connected with it, are noticed under Com- 
 missions, Akmy. 
 
 CAPTAIN, Militaky {ante). In the II. S. army a C. is responsible for the camp 
 and garrison equipage and the arms and clothing of his company. The rank is between 
 lieutenant and major. 
 
 CAPTAIN, Naval, is the general designation for the commander of a ship. It is 
 not universal, for some vessels of war are commanded by officers lower in rank than C. ; 
 while the chief officer of a merchant- vessel is often called master. The commanders of 
 all rated ships are capts. The capts. rise to the command of larger and larger ships, 
 with increase of pa^, according to length of service. The C. is responsible for every- 
 thing on shipboard, in discipline, navigation, equipment — all, in short, that concerns the 
 personnel or the materiel of the ship. If his ship belongs to a particular fleet or naval 
 station, he is responsible to some admiral or commodore ; if not, he is directly responsi- 
 ble to the admir^ty. The C. of that particular ship in a fleet which carries the admiral 
 is called C., and is for the moment higher in rank than others. A naval officer is 
 always on half-pay, except when attached to a ship in actual commission; and thus in 
 U. K. III.— 28 
 
Captain. 
 Cap u lets. 
 
 434 
 
 times of peace there have been always more naval capts. on half than on full pay; 
 but recent measures have been adopted Ito assuage this evil. The number of capts. in 
 the naval service during peace are about 83 in commission on full-pay. About 142 are 
 on half-pay, under the designation of the active list; these are eligible for re-employment; 
 while on the reserved list and the retired list there are 426 more. They rank in dignity 
 with lieut.cols. in the army, and with cols, after three years’ service. 
 
 The word C. is used in other \\^ays also in the navy. The C. of the fleet is a temporary 
 oflScer in large fleets ; he promulgates the admiral’s orders, and receives all the reports 
 and returns. Ailing, in short, a post equivalent to that of chief of the staff in an army. 
 Among the seamen on board a ship, the chief of each gang is called C. ; such as the G. 
 of the after-guard, of the forecastle, of the hold, of the main-top, of each gun, etc. 
 
 CAPTAIN, Naval {ante), in the U. S. navy, ranks with a col. in the army, and next 
 below a flag-officer in the navy. Before the war of the rel ellion there was no definite 
 legal rank in the navy higher than captain. A C. of marines ranks with a lieutenant 
 in the navy and with C. in the army. 
 
 CAPTION, in the practice of the law of England, may be defined as that part of a 
 legal instrument which shows the authority under which it is executed, or taken, as the 
 word implies. It also states the time and place of the execution. The word C. is also 
 improperly used in England to signify an arrest — a meaning which it strictly and tech- 
 nically bears in Scotland, where, until the passing of the 1 and 2 Viet. c. 114, called the 
 personal diligence act, which authorizes more simple forms of legal process, it was the 
 only recognized civil warrant for the apprehension of a debtor or obligee. This word is 
 also used in Scotland to denote a summary warrant of imprisonment, granted on the 
 application of the clerk of court, for the purpose of forcing back the pleadings and 
 other papers in a lawsuit, which had been borrow^ed by the party against whom tl e C. 
 has issued, and by whom they are unduly and illegally retained. See on the subject of 
 this article Indictment, Commission, Diligence, Waekant, Horning. 
 
 CAPTIVES. It is laid down by Blackstone, that, as in the goods of an enemy, so also 
 in his person, a man may acquire a sort of qualified property in him as a captive, or 
 prisoner of war — at least till the ransom of the captive is paid. In Scotland, all legal 
 proceedings against a captive are stopped till his liberation, although, in some cases, 
 execution against his estate may proceed. 
 
 CAPTURE may be simply defined as prize taken in time of war. The law on this 
 subject is stated with precision in a paper addressed on behalf of the British govern- 
 ment to the American ambassador at London in Sept., 1794: “ When two powers are at 
 war, they have a right to make prizes of the ships, goods, and effects of each other, 
 upon the high seas. Whatever is the property of the enemy, may be acquired by cap- 
 ture at sea; but the property of a friend cannot be taken, provided he observes his neu- 
 trality. Hence the law of nations has established — that the goods of an enemy on 
 board the ship of a friend may be taken — that the lawful goods of a friend on board 
 the ship of an enemy ought to be restored — that contraband goods going to the enemy, 
 though the property of a friend, may be taken as prize ; because supplying the enemy 
 with what enables him better to carry on the war, is a departure from neutrality.” 
 The procedure to be adopted for determining whether the C. be or be not lawful prize, 
 is now regaulted by the 3 and 4 Viet. c. 65. 
 
 During the Russian war in 1854, there appeared in the London Gazette, under date 
 the 28th Mar., of that year, a declaration stating, inter alia, that her majesty would 
 waive the right of seizing enemy’s property laden on board a neutral vessel, unless it be 
 contraband of war, and that it was not her majesty’s intention to issue letters of 
 marque for the commissioning of privateers. The right of seizing enemy’s property on 
 board a neutral vessel, whether contraband of war or not, had always before been main- 
 tained by England. On the re-establishment of peace with Russia, a treaty was signed, 
 and the following declarations adopted: 1. Privateering is and remains abolished; 2. 
 
 A neutral flag covers an enemy’s goods, wdth the exception of contraband of war; 3. 
 Neutral goods, with the exception of contraband of war, are not liable to C. under an 
 enemy’s flag; 4. Blockades, in order to be binding, must be effectual — that is to say, 
 maintained by force sufficient to prevent effectually access to the coast of the eneiny. 
 
 As to the right to property captured from the enemy, and its distribution as prize or 
 booty of war among the officers and men of the army and navy, see Booty and Prize. 
 
 CAPTURE {ante). See International Law, ante. 
 
 CAP'UA, a fortified city of Italy, in the province of Caserta, beautifully situated in a 
 rich plain, on the left bank of the Volturno, about 18 m. n. of the city of Naples, with 
 which it is connected by railway. It is a military station of the first class, its defenses 
 having been greatly extended and improved by Vauban. As it is the only fortress 
 which guards the approach to Naples from the n., it was regarded as one of the keys of 
 the former kingdom of that name. The only objects of interest in the city are the cathe- 
 dral, with some splendid granite columns from ancient Ca&ilinum, upon whose site C. 
 was built in the 9th c.; the church of Annumiata yfiGa. some bas-reliefs; and the 
 arch of the Piazza dei Oiudici, under which many ancient inscriptions still exist. Pop. 
 ’71, 12,174 
 
435 
 
 Captain. 
 
 Capulets. 
 
 The ancient Ca/pua, which enjoyed a reputation for wealth and population second 
 only to Rome and Carthage, was situated about 2 m. s.e. of the present city, where its 
 ruins are still to be seen, its site being occupied by the modern town of Santa Maria di 
 Capua. C. was founded by the Etruscans, under the name of VoUurnum, as early, 
 according to some authorities, as 800 b.c., and was the chief city of the twelve said ta 
 have been founded by them in this part of Italy. Its present name was derived from 
 the Samnites, who captured it in 423 b.c. After the battle of Cannae, 216 b.c., the 
 popular party opened the gates to Hannibal, whose army was greatly enervated by its 
 luxurious winter-quarters here. The Romans obtained possession of the city in 211 b.c. 
 In the 5th c., a.d., C. was devastated by the Vandals under Genseric. It recovered its 
 prosperity again to some extent, but it was totally destroyed by the Saracens in 840. 
 The citizens, who had fled to the mountains, were induced by their bishop to return 
 some 16 years later, and found the modern Capua. From the existing remains of the 
 walls and fortifleations of ancient C., it has been estimated that it had a circumfer- 
 ence of 5 or 6 miles. It had seven gates. Among the Roman antiquities, one of the 
 most remarkable is the amphitheater, built of bricks, and faced with white marble. 
 Well-preserved arches, corridors, and seats for spectators, still remain. It is calculated 
 to have been capable of holding 60,000 persons, and must have been altogether one of 
 the most magnificent buildings of the kind in Italy. 
 
 CAP'UCHIN MONKEY, or Capuchin Sapajou, a name often given to cehus capucliu 
 nus, and some other species of the genus cebus, South American monkeys, which have 
 the head covered with short hair, so disposed as to resemble the cowl of a capuchin, 
 the face being almost naked, or only covered with a little down. See Cebus. Pithe- 
 cia chiropotes, a South American monkey of a genus allied to cehus, is also sometimes 
 called the C. M. , or capuchin of the Orinoco. 
 
 CAP'TJCHINS, a branch of the order of Franciscans (q.v.l, so designated from the 
 capuche which is their head-dress. 
 
 CAPU'CHINS, ante, a branch of the Franciscan order whose rule is essentially the 
 same as that of the friars minor, or Minorites. They were founded by Matthew da Bassi, 
 a Franciscan of Ancora, and were authorized by a bull of Clement VII. in 1528. At 
 first they were persecuted by the other orders, but through the influence of the duchess 
 Cibo, wife of the duke of Camerino, they obtained papal favor, and were permitted to 
 impart their peculiar hooded habit to any who might be willing to join them, to live as 
 hermits in wild and desolate places, to go barefoot, to wear beards, and to call them- 
 selves “ Hermits Friars Minor.” The pope, however, soon gave them the nickname 
 “ Cappucino,” referring to the hood, one of their more conspicuous articles of apparel. 
 They grew rapidly, and Matthew became the superior of the first convent. They have 
 always had the reputation of great success in making converts. By late accounts they 
 had 82 missions, in Europe, Asia, the East Indies, Africa, and South America. In the 
 United States they have houses in the states of New Jersey, New York, and Wisconsin, 
 Nuns of the order were first established at Naples in 1538. 
 
 CAPUDAN-PASHA', the high admiral of Turkey. He has the entire command of the 
 navy and the management of all naval affairs. The port of Pera, the Turkish islands 
 in the archipelago, and a number of seaports and maritime districts, are under him. 
 even in their civil administration. 
 
 CAPXJLETS AND MONTAGUES, the English spelling of the names of the Cappelletti and 
 Montecchi, two noble families of northern Italy, chiefly memorable from their connec- 
 tion with the legend on which Shakespeare has founded his play of Borneo and Juliet. 
 According to tradition, both families belonged to Verona; but this does not appear to 
 have been the case. The Cappelletti were of Cremona, and the fact that their burying- 
 ground and the tomb of Juliet are shown at Verona, only proves how easy it is, in a 
 country of ruins like Italy, to connect fact with fable. It has also been asserted that one 
 family was Guelph and the other Ghibelline; but this is disproved by a reference to them 
 in the Purgatorio of Dante (canto vi. 1. 106). The poet is blaming the emperor Albert 
 for neglecting Italy, the very garden of his domain. “ Reckless man,” he says, “ come 
 see how the Montecchi and the Cappelletti are oppressed ;” and the context shows that 
 the Guelphs were the oppressors in both cases of these great Ghibelline families. The 
 emperor Albert was murdered in 1308, and this event has supplied the Veronese with a 
 date for their legend. The first publication in which we recognize the essential inci- 
 dents of Shakspeare’s play is the novel La Qiulietta, by Luigi da Porto, printed in 1535, 
 after the death of the author. He states, in an epistle prefixed to the work, that the 
 story was told him “by one Perigrino, a man fifty years of age, much experienced in 
 the art of war, a pleasant companion, and, like almost all the Veronese, a great talker.” 
 In 1554, Bandello published in his collection of tales another Italian version of the 
 legend. It was entitled The unfortunate Death of two unhappy Lovers, one hy Poison a'nd 
 the other of Orief. Both writers fix the date of the event by saying it took place when 
 Bartholomew dalla Scala or Scaliger ruled Verona. A French version of the tale was 
 published by Pierre Borsteau in Belief orest’s Histoires Tragiques. It was translated into 
 English in 1567, and published in Painter’s Palace of Pleasure. About the same time, 
 Arthur Brooke published an English poem on the same subject, entitled The Tragicsal 
 
Caput. 
 
 Caracci 
 
 436 
 
 History of Romeus and Juliet, written first in Italian hy Bandell, and now in English. 
 Tliere is evidence that an English play had appeared previously, and that before Shake- 
 speare’s time the story was so well known in England that it had supplied subjects 
 for tapestries. Shakespeare’s play seems to have been principally based on the English 
 poem. It was Brooke who first called the Montecchi Montagues, and the prince of 
 Verona Escalus, instead of Scala. Wright and Cary, in translating Dante, have followed 
 the example of Shakespeare, and render the Italian names of the Divina Commedia into 
 the familiar “ Capulets and Montagues” of Romeo and Juliet. The historical date of the 
 tragedy has not, however, been adopted by modern stage managers and Shakespearian 
 critics, who very properly bring down the action from the beginning to the close of 
 the 14th c., when commercial opulence, and the revival of arts and letters, supply acces- 
 sories more in keeping with the drama than the ruder age to which history must assign 
 the “civil broils” and the fall of the Capulets and the Montagues. — See notes to Dante 
 in Classici Italiani, and Knight’s and Dyce’s Shakespeare. 
 
 CAP UT MOR'TUUM VITKI'OLI, or Colcothar, is the name given by the alchemists 
 to the red powder (mainly red oxide of iron) which remains in the retorts when green 
 vitriol or the sulphate of iron is calcined. 
 
 CAFY'BARA, Hydrocho&rus capyhara, a quadruped of the order glires or rodentia, and 
 of the family cavidce, strongly resembling the cavy or Guinea-pig, although it is the lar- 
 gest existing rodent known, and aquatic in its habits. It is a native of South America, 
 and abounds in many of the large tropical rivers. It is equal in size to a small pig. The 
 dentition resembles that of the cavy, except that the grinding teeth are composed of 
 numerous transverse plates, the number of the plates increasing as the animal advances 
 in age ; an interesting point of resemblance to the dentition of the elephant, and a link 
 of connection between the rodents and the pachydermata. The C. feeds exclusively 
 on vegetable food, browsing on the grass near the rivers, and often committing great 
 ravages in plantations of sugar-cane. It runs badly, but swims and dives well, and has 
 the power of remaining under water for seven or eight minutes. It is very inoffensive, 
 and easily tamed. The fiesh, except that of old males, is good, and is eaten by all classes 
 of persons. The C. is sometimes called water-hog, oi ysihich. hydrocTmrus' is, a Greek 
 translation. In Demerara, it is called water-horse, a corruption of the Dutch water haas 
 — i.e. water-hare. 
 
 CARAB'IDJE, a tribe of beetles, or coleopterous insects, of the section pentamera (see 
 Coleoptera), corresponding with the genus carabus of Linnjeus, but of which the 
 species are extremely numerous, those already known being numbered by thousands. 
 They mostly feed on other insects, worms, etc., and are extremely voracious and active, 
 habits which are fully shared by their larvae. Some of them burrow in the earth; most 
 of them live under stones, under the bark of trees, among moss, etc. ; and their bodies 
 are adapted to this mode of life, being very firm and hard. Their legs are in general 
 pretty long, and most of them pursue their prey rather by the use of their legs than of 
 their wings, some of them indeed being wingless, or having only rudimentary wings. 
 Many of them exhibit much beauty of colors and metallic lustre. The largest British 
 species is only about an inch long, but some foreign ones are much larger. Some of the 
 species of the restricted genus carabus are among the most common British insects. 
 Their wings are not fitted for flight. — A very large and singular insect of the tribe C. is 
 mormolyce phyllodes, a native of Java, which, in consequence of the extremely depressed 
 form of its body, resembles some of the mantidce (q.v,), and the insects known as leaf- 
 insects (q.v,). To this tribe belong also the bombardier beetles (q.v.). 
 
 CARBIDES, formerly termed Carburets, are compounds of carbon with metal 
 None of them occur in a natural state. 
 
 CARABO'BO, a state in Venezuela on the Caribbean sea; a fertile well-watered 
 region, producing grains, fruits, and cattle. The chief exports are coffee, cacao, indigo, 
 rice, corn, rum, and fruits. The climate is good in the inland region, but the coast is 
 subject to fevers. Capital, Valencia. 
 
 CARABOU. See Reindeer. 
 
 CARACAL, Felis caracal, a species of lynx (q.v.), found in the warmer parts of Asia, 
 and throughout the whole of Africa; and more probably than any European species, tho 
 lynx of the ancients. It is larger than a fox, about the same height, but much monj 
 powerful ; of a uniform deep brown or wine-red color, except two spots near each eye, 
 the under parts of the body, and inner parts of the legs, which are white, and tufts of 
 long black hair which terminate the ears. The C. is powerful enough to tear a hound 
 to pieces. It is often represented as of a very savage disposition ; but it is capable of 
 being tamed, and has been employed in hunting. 
 
 CARACALLA, properly named Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Bassianus, a Roman 
 emperor, the son of the emperor Septimius Severus, was b. at Lyon, 188 a.d. He 
 was playfully named by his father Caracalla, from his long hooded tunic, made in the 
 fashion of the Gauls, and so called in their language. After his father’s death, 211 a.d., 
 he ascended the throne as co-regent with his brother Publius Septimius Antoninus Geta, 
 whom he afterwards caused to be murdered. Having bribed (at enormous cost) the 
 Praetorians to overlook this foul deed, and to make him sole emperor, C. next directed his 
 
437 
 
 Caput. 
 
 Caracci. 
 
 cruelty against all the friends and adherents of Geta, of whom twenty thousand of both 
 sexes — including the great jurist Papinianus — were put to death. Innumerable acts of 
 oppression and robbery were employed to raise supplies for the unbounded extravagance 
 of the despot, and to pay his soldiers. In his famous constitution, he bestowed Roman 
 citizenship on all his free subjects not citizens — who formed the majority, especially in 
 the provinces — but simply in order to levy a greater amount of taxes on releases and 
 heritages, which were paid only by citizens. In his campaigns, he imitated, at one time, 
 Alexander, at another time, Sulla; while his main object was to oppress and exhaust the 
 provinces which had been in a great measure spared by the tyranny of former emperorSr 
 In 217, he was assassinated, at the instigation of Macrinus, prefect of the Praetorians, by 
 one of his veterans named Martialis, on the 8th of April, 217, on the wa}’’ from Edessa to 
 Carrhae. Historians paint the life of C. in the darkest colors. Among the buildings of 
 C. in Rome, the baths — Thermae Caracallae — near Porta Capena were most celebrated, 
 and their ruins are still magnificent. 
 
 CABACABA, or Caracara Eagle {polyhorus), a genus of birds of prey peculiar to 
 America, and regarded as a connecting-link between eagles and vultures ; agreeing with 
 the former in th^eir strongly hooked bill and claws, but with the latter in their naked 
 face and propensity to prey on carrion. The name C. is originally Brazilian, and is 
 derived from the peculiar hoarse cry of a common Brazilian species (P. Braziliensis), a 
 bird of very fine plumage, and about 50 in. in expanse of wings, which is of frequent 
 occurrence over a large extent of the American continent, and is sometimes to be seen 
 even in the southern parts of the United States. 
 
 CABAC'AS, the province of which the following city is the capital, extends in n. lat. 
 from 7° 38' to 10° 46', and in w. long, from 65° 30' to 68°, and contains 300,000 inhabit 
 ants. With a generally mountainous interior, the immediate coast is flat, presenting 
 besides La Guayra mentioned below, several harbors or roadsteads. The exports of the 
 province are cocoa, colfee, dye-woods, hides, indigo, and sarsaparilla. 
 
 CABAC'AS, the capital of the republic of Venezuela, the most northerly state in South 
 America, with Guiana on the e., and Columbia on the w., is situated in lat. 10° 30' n., 
 and long. 67° 5' w., 16 m. s. of La Guayra, its port, with which it is joined by railway. 
 It is 2,880 ft. above the tide-level, enjoying from this elevation a healthy air and a tem- 
 perature so moderate as to average 68° and 72° F. in Feb. and June respectively. 
 Standing immediately above the confluence of four streams, it is well supplied with cool 
 water, which is distributed by means of fountains, pipes, and reservoirs. The neighbor- 
 hood is subject to earthquakes — 12,000 citizens having, in 1812, perished from this cause. 
 The pop. in 1873 amounted to 48,897. The streets are straight and regular. The 
 most splendid edifice is the church of Alta Gracia for the people of color, excelling the 
 cathedral in the richness of its decorations. C. has a university founded in 1778. 
 
 C ABAC 'Cl, a celebrated family of Italian painters, the founders of the Bolognese 
 school of painting. 
 
 Caracci, Ludovico, the son of a butcher, was born at Bologna, 1555. As a student, 
 he was so inapt that his master recommended him to abandon the pursuit; but instead 
 of that, he went to Venice and Parma, making acquaintance with the works of the great 
 masters there, and returned to Bologna imbued with art principles quite opposed to the 
 superficial mannerism then prevailing in his native city. In conjunction with two of his 
 cousins, who, instructed by him, had imbibed the same ideas, he founded, in spite of 
 great opposition, the school which afterwards became so famous in the history of paint- 
 ing. The first principle of this new school was, that “observation of nature o^ught to be 
 combined with imitation of the best masters. ” The allied artists found numerous pupils, 
 to whom they gave practical instructions in drawing from natural and artistic models, 
 with theoretical lessons on perspective, anatomy, etc. So great was their success, that, in 
 the course of a short time, all other schools of painting were closed in Bologna. Some of 
 the finest works of this master are preserved in the Academia delle Belle Arte, Bologna — 
 among others, the “Madonna and Child Throned,” “ Madonna and Child Standing,” the 
 “ Transfiguration,” and the “ Nativity of St. John the Baptist.” Ludovico died in 1619. 
 
 Caracci, Agostino, cousin of Ludovico, was b. (1558) in Bologna. He became a 
 disciple of his cousin, but he was of too versatile a genius to devote himself closely to 
 any subject, though his magnificent painting of the “ Communion of St. Jerome” proves 
 that he might have attained to very great eminence had he devoted his undivided atten- 
 tion to the art; but he was in the habit of abandoning his easel for literature, poetry, 
 and engraving on copper. As an engraver, indeed, he holds an important position in 
 Italian art. He accompanied his younger brother, Annibale, to Rome, and there assisted 
 in some of the paintings in the Farnese gallery ; but his brother, who was a slave to 
 his art, soon quarreled with him for his inattention, and he left Rome, and went to Parma. 
 He died in 1602. 
 
 Caracci, Annibale, brother of Agostino, was b. (1560) in Bologna, where he 
 learned, under his father, the business of a tailor, from which he was called away by 
 Ludovico Caracci. His progress in the study of painting was rapid, and at first he 
 took principally for his models Correggio, Titian, and Paul Veronese. His picture of 
 “ St. Roche distributing Alms” first gained for Annibale C. a wide reputation. His 
 fame reached Rome, and he was employed to paint the Farnese gallery there, which is 
 
Caraccioli. 
 
 Caravaca. 
 
 438 
 
 considered his greatest work, and the manner of which partakes somewhat of Haphael. 
 and Correggio. On this gallery he was employed some eight years, and he received for 
 his work the incredibly paltry sum of 500 crowns. In disgust and vexation, the artist 
 threw aside his palette. He died in Rome in 1609, where his remains were interred, close 
 to Raphael’s tomb, in the Pantheon. Annibale C. was one of the greatest followers of 
 Correggio, and in composition approached most nearly to the style of Raphael, Ludo- 
 vico had a greater talent in teaching, and Agostino had a more versatile invention, but 
 Annibale was unquestionably the greatest artist of the three Caracci. 
 
 Caracci, Antonio, natural son of Agostino, was b. at Venice 1583; d. in 1618. He 
 was a pupil under Annibale, and painted some excellent pictures. 
 
 Caracci, Francesco (styled Franceschini), brother of Agostino and Annibale, was 
 b. in 1595, and distinguished himself as an eminent designer. He died 1622. — The best 
 Italian masters of the 17th c. — Domenichino, Guido Rcni, Albani, and others — proceeded 
 from the school of the Caracci. 
 
 CAEACCI'OLI. The name of a Neapolitan family unfortunately associated with the 
 memory of lord Nelson. Several members of this family were employed in political 
 offices. — Louis Antoine de C., b. in Paris, 1721, d. 1803, was the author of a 
 pseudograph, entitled Lettres Interessantes du Pape Clement XIV., which mystified 
 many readers throughout Europe. — Francesco C., a meritorious Neapolitan admiral, 
 entered in early life the marine service, and distinguished himself at Toulon, 1793, In 
 the year 1798, the offensive conduct of the court of Naples toward C. induced him to 
 return from Palermo, where the court was then residing, to Naples, where he entered 
 into the service of the republic established by the French invaders, and, with a few 
 vessels, prevented the attempted landing of a Sicilian and British fleet. In 1799, when 
 Ruffo took Naples, C. was arrested, contrary to the terms of capitulation, sentenced to 
 death by the junta, hanged on the mast of a frigate, and his corpse thrown into the sea. 
 This affair, to which lord Nelson was a consenting party, is a stain on the reputation of 
 the English admiral. 
 
 CAR'ACOLE, in horsemanship, a sudden half turn, sometimes performed frequently 
 in an attack of cavalry to mislead the enemy as to the point at which the assault is to 
 be made. 
 
 CARACTACUS, a king of the Silures, who inhabited s. Wales, was one of the most 
 persistent enemies of the Romans in Britain. For nine years he warred gallantly against 
 the invaders, but at length was completely overthrown. His wife and daughters fell 
 into the hands of the victors, and his brothers surrendered. C. himself fled to Cartimaru 
 dua, queen of the Brigantes, who delivered him up to the Romans. He was carried to 
 Rome, 51 a.d., and exhibited to the people by the emperor Claudius. When he ap- 
 proached the imperial seat, we are told, he addressed Claudius in so noble a manner, that 
 he and his relatives were immediately pardoned. They appear, however, to have lived 
 during the remainder of their lives in Italy. 
 
 GAR'ADOC SANDSTONE and Ba'la Beds, a division of the lower Silurian system, 
 so named from their development at Caer Caradoc, in Shropshire. They consist of 
 sandstones, grits, and slates, with occasional beds of limestone. Enormous masses of 
 contemporaneous igneous rocks are interstratified with them. They attain a thick- 
 ness of 9,000 ft., not including the igneous rocks. Fossils are very abundant in 
 some beds. They consist chiefly of trilobites (q.v.), brachiopoda (q.v.), and grapto- 
 lites (q.v.). 
 
 The Silurian rocks in the southern districts of Ayrshire belong to this division. 
 
 CARA'FA DE COLOBRANO, Michele, 1785-1872; an Italian composer ; in early 
 life a soldier in the French army. Among his operas are Masaniello and Le Solitaire. 
 He was a member of the Paris academy of fine arts, professor in the conservatoire, direc- 
 tor of military music at the gymnase, and a member of the legion of honor. 
 
 CARAGLIO, a t. of northern Italy, in the province of Coni, 6 m. w. of the city of that 
 name. It is situated on the Grana, and has manufactures of silk. Pop. ’72, 3,379. 
 
 CA'RAITES. See Jewish Sects, ante. 
 
 CARAMA'NIA. See Karaman. 
 
 CAR AMD OLA, an East Indian fruit, of the size and shape of a duck’s egg, but with 
 five acute angles, or longitudinal ribs. It has a yellow, thin, smooth rind, and a 
 clear watery pulp, in some varieties sweet, in others acid, of very agreeable flavor. It 
 is often used in making sherbets, and in tarts and preserves; and is known to th« 
 British in India as the Coromandel gooseberry. It is one of the most universally cul- 
 tivated and abundant of the fruits of India. It is produced by the averrhoa carambola, 
 a small evergreen tree, or bush, of the natural order oxalideoe. The Bilimbi, or Blim- 
 BiNG, is the very acid fruit of another species of the same genus, A. bilimhi,^ also East 
 Indian. Both species are now much cultivated in the tropical parts of America. Both 
 exhibit an irritability of leaf resembling that of the sensitive plant; they also display in 
 a remarkable degree the phenomena known to physiologists as those of sleep of 
 plants (q.v.). 
 
439 
 
 Caraccioll. 
 
 Caravaca. 
 
 CARAMEL is the name applied to the dark brown and nearly tasteless substance pro- 
 duced on the application of heat to sugar (q.v.). It is likewise formed during the roast- 
 ing of all materials containing sugar, such as coffee, chiccory, and malt (see Beer), and 
 is one cause of the dark color of porter and infusions of coffee. It is also employed in 
 the coloring of whisky, wines, vinegar, etc. 
 
 CARAMNAS'SA, a river in the presidency of Bengal, which rises in lat. 24“ 34' n., and 
 long. 83° 46' e., and, after a course of about 156 m., enters the Ganges from the right in 
 lat. 25° 28' n., anti long. 83° 58' east. It is remarkable on several grounds. Though, 
 on issuing from its source, it is clear as crystal, it is yet said to be both nauseous and 
 noxious — a peculiarity which the natives impute to various supernatural causes; about 
 60 m. from its mouth, it is crossed by a stone bridge of three wide arches, which forms 
 part of the grand road from Calcutta to Delhi; and lastly, it is so exceptionally subject 
 to floods, that it has been known to rise 25 ft. in a night, when scarcely any rain had 
 fallen in the adjacent plain of the Ganges itself. 
 
 CARA'NA RESIN, more commonly, but less correctly, called Gum Carana, is a resin- 
 ous substance imported from the tropical parts of America. Its properties and uses 
 resemble those of tacamahac. It is entirely soluble in alcohol, and melts in a slight 
 heat. It is not well known what tree produces it. 
 
 CARAN' JA, an island on the e. side of the ordinary entrance of the harbor of Bombay 
 (q.v.), separated from the mainland by a narrow and unserviceable channel of 4 m. in 
 length. It is itself 2 m. broad, being comparatively level and fertile, with the exception 
 of two hills — the Little Hill in the n., and the Great in the south. 
 
 CARANX. See Scad. 
 
 CARAFA, a genus of plants of the natural order meliacm, natives of warm climates. 
 G. Guianensis or guareoides, sometimes called the anderaba, also the C. tree, is a 
 large tree with beautiful shining pinnate leaves, which have many leaflets, a native of 
 Guiana and the adjacerft countries, where its bark has a great reputation as a febrifuge, 
 and the oil obtained from its seeds is much used for lamps. Masts of ships are made of 
 its trunk. The oil, which is called oil of carapa, is thick and bitter, and is anthelmin- 
 tic. — (7. Touloucouna, or Guineensis, an African species, yields a similar oil, which is 
 employed by the negroes for making soap, and for anointing their bodies, its bitterness 
 protecting them from the bites of insects, a purpose to which the oil of C. is also applied 
 in South America. — These species are very similar, and are supposed by some botanists 
 not to be essentially distinct. 
 
 CARAPACE, the dorsal shield or buckler of chelonian reptiles (tortoises and turtles), 
 and of the Crustacea malacostraca (crabs, lobsters, etc.). In animals so widely different, 
 however, there is only, a general similarity in the appearance of the C., and the purpose 
 which it serves ; its organic relations are very different. For notice of these, we refer to 
 the articles Chelonia and Crustacea. 
 
 CAR'AT, originally, it would seem, the name given to the seeds of the Abyssinian 
 <joral flower (q.v.) or coral-tree {erythrina Abyssinica)-, but these, which are small, and 
 very equal in size, having been used in weighing gold and precious stones, C. has 
 become the designation of the weight commonly used for weighing precious stones, and 
 particularly diamonds. The seeds of the carob (q.v.) tree have also been said to be the 
 original C. weights of jewelers, but with less probability. 
 
 Goldsmiths and assayers divide the troy pound, ounce, or any other weight, into 24 
 parts, and call each a C., as a means of stating the proportion of pure gold contained in 
 any alloy of gold with other metals. Thus, the gold of our coinage and of wedding-rings, 
 which contains || of pure gold, is called “22 carats fine,” or 22 C. gold. The lower 
 standard used for watch-cases, etc., which contains of pure gold, is called 18 C., 
 and so on. The C. used in this sense has therefore no absolute weight; it merely 
 denotes a ratio. This, however, is not the case with the C. used for weighing dia- 
 monds, which has a fixed weight, equal to 3| troy grains, and is divided into quarters, 
 or “C. grains,” eighths, sixteenths, thirty-seconds, and sixty-fourths. These C. grains 
 are thus less than troy grains, and therefore the jeweler has to keep a separate set of 
 diamond weights. 
 
 CARAU'SIUS, a supposed native of Holland, of whom nothing is certainly known 
 except that he had a conspicuous part as an ally of the Romans in the conquest and rul- 
 ing of Britain near the close of the 3d century. He had been put in command of the fleet 
 in the English channel for the purpose of protecting the coasts of Britain and Gaul 
 from the Frisian pirates; and his conduct had been such that the Roman emperor Max- 
 imilian gave an order for his death. C. immediately assumed the title of emperor of 
 Britain, and held power for about seven years, his independence having been acknowl- 
 edged b}’- the Romans, whose empire was rapidly falling into ruin. He was assassi- 
 nated at York in 293 by his chief officer and rival, Allectus, who held the imperial title 
 for three years, at end of which time (296) Constantine Chlorus re-established the rule 
 of Rome. 
 
 CARAVA'CA, a t. in Spain, in the province of Murcia, about 39 m. n.w. of the city of 
 that name, is situated on the slope of a hill crowned with a fine old castle. Its principal 
 
Oaravagrgrio. 
 
 Carbohydrogens. 
 
 440 
 
 streets are wide, clean, and well paved; it has a fine church, with a miraculous cross, 
 that is annually taken down and bathed in the waters of the town, to which it is sup- 
 posed to communicate sanitary properties. It has manufactures of linen and woolen 
 fabrics, soap, paper, leather, etc. Pop. about 10,000. 
 
 CARAVAG'GIO, a t. of northern Italy, in the province of Bergamo, about 24 m. e. of 
 Milan. In the principal church are some esteemed paintings by Campi ; and C. is also cel- 
 ebrated as the birthplace of the painters Polidoro Caldara, and Michael Angelo Merighi, 
 both surnamed Caravaggio. In the neighborhood is a sanctuary of the Madonna, built 
 from designs of Pellegrini (1575). Pop. about 7,000. 
 
 CARAVAG'GIO, Michael Angelo Amerighi or Merighi da, a celebrated Italian 
 painter, was b. 1569, at Caravaggio, in Lombardy, northern Italy. His father, who was 
 a mason, employed him in making paste for the fresco-painters, and in this way the 
 artistic genius of the boy was stirred. After studying the works of the great masters 
 in Milan and Venice, he went to Rome, where he lived for some time in very reduced 
 circumstances. At length a picture of his attracted the notice of cardinal del Monte, 
 who now patronized the young artist; but the ferocious and quarrelsome character of C. 
 soon involved him in difficulties. Having fled from Rome to Malta, on account of man- 
 slaughter, he obtained the favor of the grand-master by painting an altar-piece in the 
 church of St. John, and other pictures. His quarrelsome nature soon forced him to 
 flee from Malta; and, in making his way back to Rome, he was wounded, lost all his 
 baggage, caught a violent fever, and on reaching Porto Ecole, lay down on a bank and 
 died (1609), at the age of 40. Triieness to nature was the object aimed at by C., who 
 left all schools, and devoted himself to paint life as he found it in lanes, alleys, and 
 other resorts of the lower classes. He studied no such matters as refined sentiment or 
 elevation of realities, but gave in his paintings expression to his own wild and gloomy 
 character. One of his best paintings, “The Fraudulent Gamblers,” is preserved in the 
 Sciarra gallery, at Rome. His shadows are deep, his backgrounds very obscure; in 
 consequence of which the whole picture seems to possess a kmd of mysterious great- 
 ness, that is very imposing. Even Rubens confessed that C. was his superior in chiaro- 
 oscuro. When he painted sacred subjects, he remained falsely faithful to the low real- 
 ities of Italian life ; so that several of his pictures painted for churches, had to be 
 removed from their places, because they could not be harmonized with sacred asso- 
 ciations. Kugler, the German critic, has justly said of one of C.’s most celebrated 
 works, a “Burial of Christ,” that it appears “ like nothing better than the funeral of a 
 gypsy chieftain.” — An earlier Italian painter of less eminence, Polidoro Caldara da. 
 Caravaggio, was born in 1495, and murdered in 1543. 
 
 CARAVAN (from the Persian karvan, i.e., trader), the name given to the great assem- 
 blages of travelers which, at stated times, traverse the deserts of Asia and Africa. 
 Many caravans are entirely for the purposes of trade, the merchants associating them- 
 selves for mutual help and protection. A C. sometimes has so many as 1000 camels, 
 which follow each other in single file, so that it may be a mile or more in length. The 
 most celebrated caravans are those formed by pilgrims going to Mecca, particularly 
 those which annually assemble at Cairo and at Damascus. The latter consist of 30,00(> 
 to 50,000 pilgrims, and is under the special protection of the Turkish sultan. The car- 
 avan by which the Persians travel to Mecca starts from Bagdad, and is the vehicle of a 
 very important trade. The great Indian C. to Mecca, which started from Muscat, 
 has been long given up. Mecca, upon the arrival of the caravans, bringing goods from 
 so many different parts of the world, presents all the appearance of a vast fair. The 
 trade between Tripoli and the interior of Africa is exclusively carried on by caravans, 
 likewise that between Darfur and Egypt. The great trade between Russia and China 
 is also a C. trade. In the east, caravans in which the camels have a load of 500 to 
 600 lbs. are called caravans ; light caravans are those in which the camels have 
 
 only half that weight, so that the daily journeys may be longer. Heavy caravans travel 
 from 17 to 18 m. a day; light, from 22 to 25. The caravans are generally conducted, 
 with great regularity, and assemble at and start from stated places on stated days. 
 The leader of the Mecca caravans is called emir-el-hadsch, i.e., prince of the pilgrims. 
 In trade-caravans, a leader, who is called karwan-baschi, is elected by the merchants 
 from their own number. 
 
 Among the knights of Malta, caravans meant the troops of knights appointed by the 
 order to serve in garrisons, and also the cruises of their galleys against the Turks. 
 
 CARAVANCES. See Chick Pea. 
 
 CARAVANSARAI, or Khan, an eastern institution, a sort of unfurnished inn to pro- 
 vide travelers with a shelter. Those in towns and cities, which are generally built for 
 traders, and charged a small sum a day, are handsomer and more convenient — having 
 doors to the apartments — than those met with on the roads or outside the walls of the 
 cities. They commonly consist of a square building of four wings built round a court- 
 yard, in which the beasts of burden may be inclosed, and where there is usually a well 
 of water; the lodgings are small rooms, about 7 or 8 ft. high, which run round the 
 courtyard, and are bare of every article of furniture. 
 
 These caravansarais are an institution of very ancient date, being the “ inns” of Gen. 
 
441 
 
 Caravaggio. 
 
 Carbodydrogens. 
 
 xlii, 27, xliii, 21 ; and it was in the stable of such a place, there being no room for his 
 parents in the lodging apartments, that our Savior was born (Luke ii. 7). They belong 
 cither to government, to some private individual, or are the property of the church 
 (mosques); those situated in towns or cities are charged, but not more than two or three 
 Turkish piastres a day ; those situated on the road are usually free. There are some 
 large and very handsome caravansarais at Cairo, Damascus, Beyrout, Aleppo, etc. The 
 steward or keeper of a C. is called a caramnseraskier. 
 
 CARAVEL'LAS, a seaport of Brazil, in the province of Espiritu Santo, near a bay 
 of that name; pop, about 5,000. It is the principal port of the surrounding country, 
 and the head-quarters of the whale fishery of the Abrothos islands, which lie off the 
 coast, 
 
 CARAWAY, Carum carui, a plant of ^ the natural order umhelUfercB, growing abun- 
 dantly in meadows and rich pastures in the middle and s. of Europe, and in some 
 parts of Asia, naturalized in many places in Britain. In some parts of Holland 
 and Germany, and also in the counties of Kent and Essex in England, it is 
 extensively cultivated for its aromatic seeds — in more strict botanical language, 
 carpels — which are used medicinally as a carminative and tonic, and are also very much 
 used as an aromatic condiment, and by confectioners, distillers, and perfumers, enter- 
 ing into the preparation of liqueurs, cakes, sweetmeats, scented soaps, etc. They depend 
 for their aromatic properties on a volatile oil called oil of C., which is obtained by 
 bruising C. seeds, and distilling them with water, and is at first limpid and colorless, 
 but becomes yellow and subsequently brown by keeping. Oil of C. is used medicinally 
 to relieve flatulence, and to correct the nauseating and griping tendencies of some 
 cathartic medicines; also in the preparation of spirit of C. and G. water. — Spirit of C., 
 which may be prepared either by dissolving the oil of C. in proof -spirit, or by distilling 
 bruised C, seeds along with proof -spirit, is much used in Russia and Germany as a 
 liqueur {kiXmmel-hranntwein), sweetened with sugar. — C. has a branching stem 1 to 2 ft, 
 high, with finely divided leaves, and dense umbels of whitish flowers. The fruit is 
 oblong, each carpel having five thread-like ribs, with a single mlla (see Umbellifer^e) 
 in each of the interstices. The white carrot-shaped root of C. is sometimes used like 
 carrots or parsnips, but has a very strong flavor. — C. has a great enemy in the Cara- 
 way Moth Qiaemylis daucella), the larva of which destroys both its stem and flowers. 
 
 CARBAZO'TIC ACID, or Picric Acid, is a substance of great importance in dyeing, 
 which is obtained by the action of strong nitric acid and heat on many complex organic 
 materials, such as silk, indigo, salicine, and a variety of resins. On a* commercial scale, 
 it is best obtained from the oil of tar, which distills over from crude tar between 300° 
 and 400°, or from the resin of xanfhorrhem hastilis. The hot nitric acid solution is 
 strained from impurities, and on cooling, yellow crystals separate of C. A,, which can 
 be purified by washing with cold water. These crystals are readily soluble in alcohol and 
 ether, and dissolve in 80 or 90 times their weight of cold water, yielding a yellow solution, 
 which has a very bitter taste, and stains the skin yellow ; and when silk which has 
 been treated with a mordant of alum, or cream of tartar, is immersed in a solution of C. 
 A., it is dyed of a beautiful permanent yellow color. The bitter taste of C, A. has led 
 to its being fraudulently employed, instead of hops, in communicating a bitter taste to 
 beer. 
 
 CARBINE is a light kind of musket, named probably from the Carabins. See next 
 article. It is now used by the cavalry, the yeomanry cavalry, the Irish constabulary, and 
 other corps. The best carbines are now rifled, A considerable number of American 
 carbines, rifled and breech-loading, were purchased at a high price by the English govern- 
 ment in 1856. This American C. has a barrel only 22 in, in length, and a total weight 
 of 7i lbs. It is simple in construction, has a great range, hits a mark with accuracy, 
 maybe fired with rapidity, requires little cleaning, can be loaded without a ramrod, 
 and supplies itself with caps from a reservoir in the hammer. Among English makers, 
 Mr. Prince has successfully applied the breech-loading principle to carbines. The Vic- 
 toria cavalry C. has a barrel 26 in. long, with 0.733 in. bore; its weight is 7i lbs., and it 
 is fired with 2i drams of powder. 
 
 CARBINEERS, or Carabineers, are said to have derived their designation from the 
 Arabs, among whom the Garabin s or Karahins were light horsemen, stationed at out- 
 posts to harass the enemy, defend narrow passes, etc, ; in action, they took the place of 
 skirmishers. A corps under the same name was raised in France in 1560; but the des- 
 ignation has not been much used in that country since the introduction of hussars and 
 lancers. In the English army, C. was at one time a frequent designation for cavalry; 
 but now there is only one regiment, the 6th dragoon guards, known by this title; and 
 the distinction between them and other cavalry is little more than nominal. 
 
 CARBOHY DROGENS, or Hydrocar'bons, are a series of compounds belonging to 
 organic chemistry, which are composed of carbon and hydrogen, in such proportions 
 that the various members of the group differ from each other in definite and regular 
 numbers of atoms of carbon and hydrogen. The best marked group of hydrocarbons 
 commences with methylene (CaHiz), which may be regarded as the first step in the 
 ladder, and by the successive addition of other Wo atoms of carbon and hydrogen, we 
 
Carbolic. 
 
 Carbon. 
 
 442 
 
 obtain ethylene or olefiant gas (C4H4), propylene (CoHe), butylene or oil gas (CsHg)^ 
 amylene (CioHio), etc. There are also series beginning with methyl (C3H3), then ethyl 
 (C 4 H 6 ), and with hydride of methyl or marsh gas (CaH 4 ), then hydride of ethyl (C 4 H 6 ). 
 The members of these groups are likewise characterized by a gradual ascending differ- 
 ence in their chemical and physical properties, especially the boiling-point, which 
 rises by a given amount. 
 
 CABBOLIC ACID, or Phe'nic Acid (CeHeO), is the principal acid substance procured 
 during the distillation of coal-tar. It is produced also by the distillation of gum ben- 
 zoin and the resin of xanthorrlu&a hastilis, and is present in the urine of the cow and 
 some other animals. It crystallizes at ordinary temperatures in colorless needles. It 
 smells like tar or creosote, and has a hot taste. It is a powerful antiseptic, and 
 qui/ 3 kly arrests all putrefactive and fermentive changes. Hence it is used, freely 
 diluted in water, as a dressing in the antiseptic system of treating wounds, first prac- 
 ticed by Mr. Lister, when professor of clinical surgery in Edinburgh university. It is 
 also used for purifying or rendering inoffensive sewage (q.v.), etc. 
 
 CABBOLIC ACID. Since the article on this substance first appeared in the Encydo- 
 pcBdia, much has been ascertained regarding its uses, both as a therapeutic agent and as 
 a disinfectant. It has been introduced into the new British pharmacopoeia (1867), 
 where its characters and tests are thus described : “In colorless acicular crystals, which 
 at a temperature of 95° become an oily liquid, having a strong odor and taste resembling 
 that of creosote, which it also resembles in many of its characters and properties. Its 
 specific gravity is 1.065; boiling point, 370°. The crystals readily absorb moisture on 
 exposure to the air, and they are thus liquefied ; the acid, however, is but slightly soluble 
 in water, but it is freely soluble in alcohol, ether, and glycerine. It does not reddeu 
 like litmus paper; a slip of deal dipped into it, and afterwards into hydrochloric acid, 
 and then allowed to dry in the air, acquires a greenish-blue color. It coagulates albu- 
 men. It does not affect the plane of polarization of a ray of polarized light.” It may 
 be taken internally in doses of from one to three grains in the same class of cases as 
 those in which creosote is prescribed. Its principal uses are as external applications, in 
 which, in various degrees of dilution, it is serviceable in unhealthy ulcerations, gangren- 
 ous sores, ozgena and all fetid discharges, gleet, the destruction of lice, and especially, 
 as prof. Lister has shown, as an application in compound fractures (in which it coagulates 
 all albuminous effusions, and forms a solid crust, impermeable to air, over the broken 
 surface), and to abscesses immediately after they have been opened. Indeed, it is most 
 probable that his investigations on the treatment of abscess will, like those on the treat- 
 ment of compound fractures, lead to a total alteration in this department of surgery. 
 The observations of Pasteur and others have shown that, in even apparently the purest 
 air, numerous organic germs are always floating. In a hospital ward, these germs are 
 multiplied to an extraordinary degree. In any wound exposed to the atmosphere (as a 
 compound fracture), decomposition takes place by the action of these germs, and hence 
 it is necessary to introduce the C. A., vrhich has the power of destroying these 
 germs, into the interior. In an unopened abscess, no septic organisms are present, and 
 the object of the surgeon is to guard against their introduction from without, and at 
 the same time to afford a free exit for the discharge of the contents of the abscess. The 
 following are the outlines of prof. Lister’s mode of proceeding: A square piece of rag 
 is dipped in a solution of one part of crystallized C. A. and four parts of boiling 
 linseed oil, and is laid upon the skin where the incision is to be made. The lower edge 
 being raised, a scalpel dipped in the oil is plunged into the cavity of the abscess, and a 
 sufficient opening made ; and the moment the knife is drawn, the raised part of the rag 
 is dropped upon the skin as an antiseptic curtain, beneath which the pus escapes. The 
 cavity of the abscess is firmly pressed, so as to remove as nearly as possible all the exist- 
 ing pus, and if it should seem expedient, a piece of lint dipped in the oily mixture may 
 be introduced, so as to check bleeding and prevent primary adhesion of the cut surfaces. 
 “Thus,” says prof. Lister, “the evacuation of the original contents is accomplished with 
 perfect security against the introduction of living germs. This, however, would be of 
 no avail unless an antiseptic dressing could be applied that would effectually prevent 
 the decomposition of the stream of pus constantly flowing out beneath it.” He finds 
 that the most suitable dressing is made as follows: Six tea-spoonfuls of the oily solution 
 are mixed with common whiting (carbonate of lime) so as to form a putty, w'hich is 
 spread upon six inches square of common tinfoil, strengthened with adhesive plaster 
 to prevent its tearing. The tin thus spread with putty is laid upon the skin, so that 
 the middle of it corresponds with the point of incision, the antiseptic rag used in open- 
 ing the abscess being removed the moment previously. The tin is then fixed with 
 adhesive plaster, the lowest edge being left free for the escape of the discharge into a 
 folded towel placed over it, and secured with a bandage. The dressing must be removed 
 every day, and a piece of rag dipped in the oily solution must be placed on the incision 
 when the first tin is removed, so as to guard against the possibility of the entrance of 
 germs during the cleansing of the skin with a dry cloth, and pressing out any discharge 
 that may exist in the cavity. If a piece of lint was inserted into the wound, it must 
 be removed when the tin is applied. From the absence of the irritation excited by 
 decomposition, pus alnmst at once ceases to be formed under this treatment; and large 
 
443 
 
 Carbolic. 
 
 Carbon. 
 
 abscesses, after their original contents have been evacuated, often yield in 24 hours only 
 a few drops of serum in the course of a few days. The pharmacopoeia gives the glyceride 
 of C. A. (consisting of one part of the acid to four of glycerine) as a good form for 
 local application; but the proportion of acid must vary with the case. 
 
 The value of C. A. as a disinfectant was placed beyond all doubt by the investiga- 
 tions made at the request of the' royal commissioners, who were appointed to obtain 
 information and report on the cattle disease. In the same way, C. A. is highly ser- 
 viceable in military camps, on board ship, in disinfecting dunghills, in purifying the 
 air of sick-rooms, stables, bird-cages, and any place where the germs of disease do or 
 may lurk. It is extensively used for preserving wood, as in railway sleepers. It has 
 recently acquired importance as a source of dye-stuffs, Victoria orange, phenicienne or 
 phenyl brown, coralline, etc. C. A. acts as a powerful poison on animal and vege- 
 table life in general. The creosote (q.v.) obtained from coal-tar is often simply a form 
 of carbolic acid. 
 
 CARBON is one of the elementary substances largely diffused in nature. It occurs 
 uncombined in the mineral graphite, or black-lead (q.v,), and in the diamond (q.v.), 
 which is pure crystallized carbon. It is much more abundant, however, in a state of 
 combination. United with oxygen, it occurs as carbonic acid (CO 2 ) (q.v.) in the atmos- 
 phere, in natural water, in limestone, dolomite, and ironstone. In coal, it is found com- 
 bined with hydrogen and oxygen; and in plants and animals, it occurs as one of the ele- 
 ments building up wood, starch, gum, sugar, oil, bone (gelatine), and flesh (fibrine). 
 Indeed, there is no other element which is so characteristic of plant and animal organ- 
 isms, and it ranks as the only element never absent in substances obtained from the two 
 kingdoms of organic nature. Wood-charcoal, coke, lampblack, and animal charcoal are 
 artificial varieties, more or less impure, of carbon. The atomic weight or equivalent of 
 C. is 6 (new sys. 12); the specific gravity greatly varies; that of the diamond is 3.330 to 
 3.550 (water being 1.000), and of graphite 1.800. C., in its ordinary forms, is a good 
 
 conductor of electricity; in the form of diamond, it is a non-conductor. Of heat, the 
 lighter varieties of C., such as wood-charcoal, are very bad conductors; graphite in mass 
 has very considerable conducting powers. At ordinary temperatures, all the varieties of 
 C. are extremely unalterable ; so much so, that it is customary to char the ends of piles 
 of wood which are to be driven into the ground, so as by this coating of non-decaying 
 C. to preserve the interior wood ; and with a similar object, the interior of casks and 
 other wooden vessels intended to hold water during sea-voyages, are charred (coated 
 with C.), to keep the wood from passing into decay, and thereby to preserve the water 
 sweet. Its power of arresting odors and colors likewise varies much. See Bone-black. 
 In the simple property, even of combustion, there is a marked difference. Wood-char- 
 coal takes fire with the greatest readiness, bone-black less so ; then follow in order of 
 difficulty of combustion — coke, anthracite, lampblack, black-lead, and the diamond. 
 Indeed, black-lead is so non-combustible, that crucibles to withstand very high heats 
 for prolonged periods without breakage or burning, are made of black-lead; and the 
 diamond (q.v.) completely resists all ordinary modes of setting fire to it. In the prop- 
 erty of hardness, C. ranges from the velvet-like lampblack to diamond, the hardest of 
 gems. In 1879, it was announced that a method of producing pure crystallized carbon, 
 or diamond, had been discovered in Glasgow. 
 
 Carbon for electrical purposes . — When C. is obtained of sufficient density, it is found 
 to be a good conductor of electricity, and to make an excellent electro-negative element 
 in a galvanic pair. Graphite displays these qualities to advantage, and so does the hard 
 incrustation of C. that is found sublimed in gas retorts. Coke and wood-charcoal are 
 too porous to possess them to any great extent. The scarcity of graphite, and the pre- 
 carious supply of retort C. , preclude the possibility of obtaining much practical advan- 
 tage from the electrical properties of C. with these substances alone. We are indebted, 
 however, to prof. Bunsen, of Heidelberg, for the discovery of a process whereby a C. of 
 the requisite density can Idc manufactured with great ease and economy. The carbons 
 thus obtained for galvanic batteries rival platinum in electric energy, and they have 
 aided in no small degree, from their cheapness, in heightening the utility of galvanic 
 electricity. The Bunsen carbons, as manufactured in Germany, are of the form of hol- 
 low cylinders, whereas those made in France and this country are solid rectangular 
 prisms. The following are the more important details of the process. Two parts of 
 coke, and one of baking-coal — the proportion varying to some extent with the materials 
 — are ground to a fine powder, and passed through a sieve. The powder so got is trans- 
 ferred to iron-plate molds of the required shape, the seams of which are merely clasped 
 together, and luted with clay. No pressure is employed in filling them, other than that 
 of shaking. When the molds are filled, they are placed in a furnace, and kept there 
 till all carburetted hydrogen has escaped from them. They are then taken out, and 
 allowed to cool before the mass within is removed, which is now found to have taken a 
 solid form, and to be so hard that it may be turned or ground to the exact size wanted. 
 At this stage, the carbons are destitute of electrical action, and they must consequently 
 be rendered more dense by a subsequent process. This consists in soaking them thor- 
 oughly in thick sirup, or, better still, in gas-tar thickened by boiling, and laying them 
 aside till dry, after which they are packed with charcoal-dust in fire-proof crucibles. 
 
Carbon. 
 
 Carbonic. 
 
 444 
 
 and exposed for a considerable time to a high heat. If one soaking and charring is not 
 enough, the same may be repeated until sufficient density is obtained. Throughout the 
 process, it is essential that all flaming matters be driven off, so as to leave only the C. in 
 the mold; and care must be taken that no air be admitted to the mold when under 
 the action of heat, otherwise there would be a loss of C. from combustion. The manu- 
 facture of these carbons may be carried on contemporaneously with that of gas. The 
 sticks of C. used for the electric light are obtained by sawing up either C. made by this 
 process or the C. of the gas retorts. 
 
 CARBON, a co. in e. Pennsylvania; 400 sq.m.; pop, '80,31,922; a mining region, 
 on the Lehigh river, and the Lehigh Valley and other coal-transporting railroads. Next 
 to the mining of anthracite coal, the chief business is agricultural. Co. seat, Mauch 
 Chuuk. 
 
 CARBON, a co. in Wyoming territory, extending entirely across the territory, from 
 Montana to Colorado; 15,000 sq.m.; pop. '80, 3438. The co. is crossed by the Union 
 Pacific railroad. Co. seat, Rawling’s Springs. 
 
 CABBONA'RI (literally “colliers” or “charcoal-burners”), the name of a secret politi- 
 cal society, first, in some degree, made known in 1820. The constitution, like the pre- 
 cise objects of the C., still remains in a great measure secret; though they have printed 
 instructions, catechisms, statutes, rituals, etc., for their associates. The statements 
 respecting the high antiquity of this secret confederacy are quite fabulous. There is 
 every reason to believe that it originated during the last French regime in Naples. Botta, 
 in his Storia d' Italia, states that, under Murat’s government, the Neapolitan republicans, 
 equally hating the French and king Ferdinand, escaped into the wild defiles of the 
 Abruzzi, and here, naming themselves “C.,” formed a secret society. It is said that 
 their leader, Capobianco, had great powers of popular eloquence, and that their motto 
 or war-cry was, “ Vengeance for the lamb torn by the wolf.” 
 
 The peculiar phraseology of the C. is taken from the vocation of charcoal-burners. 
 For instance, they are (or were) wont to speak of “clearing the forest of wolves." 
 The ‘ ‘ wolves” probably meant at first foreign tyrants ; but in the course of time, after 
 the restoration of the Neapolitan Bourbons, such symbolical expressions had reference 
 to their despicable misrule. Among themselves the initiated were styled “good cou- 
 sins.” The various societies do not seem to have possessed a common center, or to have 
 been properly organized for combined action. A place of meeting was styled “ a hut" 
 (paracca)', the external neighborhood “the forest;” and the interior of the hut was the 
 vendita or “place for selling coal.” A union of several of these huts formed a “ repub- 
 lic.” The superior huts (a^te rendite) at Naples and Salerno, endeavored, but without 
 success, to effect a centralization of the Carbonari. The society, soon after its institu- 
 tion, numbered 24,000 to 30,000 adherents, and increased so rapidly in Italy, that in 
 Mar., 1820, it is said as many as 650,000 new members were initiated, including consider- 
 able numbers of the military and the clergy. The religious and Protestant character of 
 the order is expressed in its statutes, which include the article : ‘ ‘ That every carbonaro 
 has the natural and unalterable right of worshiping God according to his own convic- 
 tions. ” Though carbonarism did not arise from the lodges of freemasons (as several 
 have supposed), it has borrowed many forms of masonry. 
 
 After the restoration of the Bourbons several secret political unions were formed in 
 France, and in 1820 were confederated with the Carbonari. Paris, after the prosecu- 
 tions against the secret societies of Italy, was made the head-quarters of a carbonarism 
 which, adopting all the symbolic phraseology, rules, and regulations of the Italian socie- 
 ties, received from the rapidly systematizing genius of the French, an organic character 
 which it had never before possessed. The initiated styled themselves bons cousins, and 
 spoke of the uninitiated as pagani (heathens). Written documents and communications 
 were strictly prohibited by the heads of the union, and treachery was to be punished by 
 assassination. After the close of the French and Spanish war, the C., whose activity in 
 contriving plots had excited the terror of the French prefects, restricted its endeavors 
 to the circulation of republican ideas, without direct attempts towards insurrection. 
 After the July revolution, several of the leading French C. attached themselves to the 
 new regime, and their society w^as gradually dissolved. In its place the new CharhoTv- 
 nerie Democratique was founded, having for its object the establishment of a republican 
 government, founded on the principles of Babeuf (q.v.). The endeavor of these new 
 C. to make Paris the center of all political movements, led to the secession of the Italian 
 refugees, who associated themselves under the title “ Young Italy.” French carbonar- 
 ism is not known to exist at present, and it is possible that even in Italy the triumphs of 
 constitutional patriotism during recent times have rendered its existence no longer 
 necessary, but it certainly was alive at the commencement of the Franco-Sardinian war 
 with Austria; and one of the rumors of the time was, that the French emperor—' 
 who, in his young republican days, had been a member of this society — had entered on 
 the war of liberation, to conciliate his old associates, who had menaced him with the 
 fate of a traitor. 
 
 CABBONATED or Acid'ulous Waters are those which contain a great excess of 
 carbonic acid gas. The amount of gas in ordinary spring and well waters does not 
 amount to more than 3 to 8 cubic in. in 100 cubic in. of the w^ater; but in waters enti- 
 
445 
 
 Carbon. 
 
 Carbonic* 
 
 tied to be called C., the proportion of gas to 100 cubic in. of water rises 30 to 60, when 
 they are considered rich; 100 to 200 when they are very rich; and in the waters of St. 
 Nectaire it is said that the proportion of gas is as high as 400 volumes to 100 of the 
 water. These waters sparkle much when poured from one vessel to another. The 
 carbonic acid is free, but is generally accompanied (1) by bicarbonate of soda, when the 
 water is called carbonated-alkaline or acidulo-alkaline, as in the Seltzer, Pyrmont, Salz- 
 brunn, Altwasser, and Reinerz acidulous mineral springs ; or (2) by carbonate of iron, when 
 the water is named carbonated or acidulous chalybeate. See Chalybeate Waters. The 
 mineral spring at Irkeston, near Nottingham, is the only water of this nature in Britain. 
 The C. or acidulous waters are very refreshing and exhilarating, and are useful in cer- 
 tain disordered states of the stomach; they relieve nausea, and generally increase the 
 discharge of liquid from the system. They are objectionable in the case of persons of 
 a full and inflammatory state of body. 
 
 CARBONATES, chemical substances which are compounds of carbonic acid with a 
 base; e.g., carbonates of lime, potash, soda, iron, lead, copper, silver, etc. Their for- 
 mulae are: carbonate of lime (marble), CaO,Coa; carbonate of potash, KO,COa; carbonate 
 of iron (protoxide), FeO, CO 2 , etc. As affinities of carbonic acid are very weak, carbonates 
 are easily decomposed : by heat, as in reducing marble and limestone to lime ; by a more 
 powerful acid, as in the preparation of certain kinds of bread, which are made light by 
 the carbonic acid set free from the bicarbonate of soda, the carbonate of potassa, or 
 the carbonate of ammonia, by the acid of sour milk; by the acid tartrate of potash 
 (cream of tartar) ; by an acid phosphate, prof. Horsford’s method ; or by hydrochloric 
 acid ; or as in the preparation of so-called soda-water, which is merely common water 
 surcharged with carbonic acid set free from marble chips by sulphuric acid. 
 
 CARBONDALE, a city in Luzerne co., Penn., near the head of the Lackawanna 
 river, and on the Delaware and Hudson railroad; 110 m. n.w. of Philadelphia; pop. ’70, 
 6,393. The city was incorporated in 1851, and is in the midst of one of the most 
 important coal-mining districts in the state. 
 
 CARBON DISULPHIDE, or Bisulphide, also called by workmen sulphur alco- 
 hol, a chemical compound produced by burning carbon in an atmosphere of sulphur, or 
 by distilling certain metallic sulphides with charcoal. It is a colorless liquid, of spe- 
 cific gravity of 1.268, and boils at 114° Fahrenheit. It does not combine with water, but 
 readily mixes with alcohol, ether, and other hydrocarbons. It readily dissolves India 
 rubber, gutta-percha, resins, oils, camphor, phosphorus, sulphur, and iodine, and is very 
 inflammable. With oxygen or atmospheric air it forms an explosive compound. It is 
 of great use in manufacturing in many ways, such as vulcanizing India rubber, extract- 
 ing fat from bones, dissolving oil from seeds, removing sulphur and bitumen from rocks, 
 making pure spices, purifying paraffine ; also for destroying vermin, producing artificial 
 cold, making photographic light, cleaning greasy rags, preservinghides and fresh meat, 
 and making delicate perfumes. It is also used to some extent in medicines. The odor 
 of the crude article is most sickening. It has a high refracting power, and is used in 
 prismatic glass bottles for producing, on a large scale, a spectrum, with an electric or a 
 lime light. 
 
 CARBON'IC ACID, Fixed Air, or Choke-Damp, is a substance occurring free as a 
 gas in the atmosphere, to the extent of 1 volume to 2,500 of air, and also in combination 
 with a variety of substances. It is most easily prepared for experimental purposes 
 from chips of marble, water, and hydrochloric acid, which are placed in a gas bottle 
 with tubes. The hydrochloric acid (HCl) acts on the marble (CaO,C02), and forms 
 chloride of calcium (CaCl), water (HO), and carbonic acid (CO 2 ), which escapes as gas 
 with effervescence, and may be conducted by a proper tube under the mouths of jars 
 filled with water and placed on a pneumatic trough. Where C. A. is required in large 
 quantities, it is prepared in a leaden vessel from chalk (CaO,C 02 ) and sulphuric acid 
 (SO3) diluted with water, when sulphate of lime (CaO,S 03 ) is formed, and C. A. escapes 
 as gas. 
 
 The atomic weight or equivalent of C. A. is 22; it is a clear, colorless gas, with a 
 pleasant acidulous smell and taste. Under great pressure and cold, it can be condensed 
 into a liquid, and even a solid resembling snow in appearance. Under ordinary atmos- 
 pheric pressure, C. A. dissolves in water to the extent of 2 volumes of gas in 3 of water; 
 but under increased pressure, a very much larger amount of gas is taken up by the water^ 
 and in this way the various kinds of Aerated Waters (q.v.) are prepared. The gas 
 is more than half as heavy again as ordinary air, being 1529. It is incombustible, and 
 a non-supporter of combustion, at once extinguishing a lighted candle, gas jet, or even 
 a piece of burning phosphorus, when these are placed in a jar filled with the gas, or 
 even in a mixture of C. A. and air. This power of putting out flame and fire has been 
 turned to account in the extinguishing of burning coal-mines, where, all the openings 
 to the mine being properly secured, C. A. , in the form of the spent air from an ordi- 
 npy coal-furnace, has been passed into the mine, with the result of successfully stop- 
 ping the fire. It is irrespirable in a concentrated form, producing spasm of the glottis, 
 which prevents the admission of the gas into the system; and when mixed with air, it 
 can be breathed without suspicion, and then acts as a narcotic poison, even when pres- 
 ent only to the extent of 4 or 5 per cent of the air. The deadly effects of C. A. are 
 
Carbonic. 
 
 Carboniferous. 
 
 446 
 
 observed, in the combustion of charcoal, coal, or coal-gas, in chauffers, furnaces, or in 
 fireplaces with the dampers down, when the deadly fumes of C. A. steal more or less 
 quickly over the inmates of the room, and they almost unconsciously become its vic- 
 tims — thus unknowingly following the course of the Parisian suicide, who purposely 
 lights a charcoal fire in the center of his room, and prepares for death ; and in over- 
 crowded rooms where the C. A., exhaled from the lungs of each inmate at every breath, 
 poisons the air of the apartment, and day by day slowly but surely robs the robust of 
 health, and ultimately of life. In such cases as the Black Hole of Calcutta (q.v.), where 
 there was scarcely any outlet for the poisonous gas, only a few hours may be required 
 to complete the catastrophe. 
 
 Though poisonous when inhaled by the lungs, C. A. is rather refreshing when taken 
 into the stomach. Thus, aerated beverages of all kinds — beer, champagne, and car- 
 bonated mineral waters — owe their refreshing and invigorating qualities to the presence 
 of C. A. ; and if the gas be allowed to escape, they become almost tasteless, stale, and 
 mawkish. 
 
 Besides abounding everywhere in the atmosphere, C. A. is largely evolved from 
 fissures in the earth, especially in volcanic districts. In the poison or Upas ralley of 
 Java, which is a valley of an oval form, about f of a mile in circumference, and 30 to 35 
 ft. deep, the carbonic rises to a height of about 18 ft. from the surface, and the whole 
 bottom of the valley is devoid of vegetable and animal life, and is strewn here and there 
 with the bleached bones of man and other animals that have unluckily stepped within 
 the deadly circle. A dog thrown in dies in 14 seconds; and birds attempting to fiy 
 across the valley, instantly drop down dead. In the neighborhood of the lake of Laach, 
 in Rhenish Prussia, the amount of C. A. evolved every day has been estimated at 
 600,000 lbs. weight. In a state of combination, C. A. forms an ingredient in a great 
 number of minerals called such as chalk, limestone of various kinds (CaO,C 02 ), 
 
 black-band iron-stone (carbonate of iron, FeO.COa), malachite (carbonate of copper, 
 CuO,HO,-|-CuO,C 02), etc. C. A. is the principal product of combustion; the carbon 
 of the burning substance (coal, candle, coal-gas, wood, paper, etc.) uniting with the 
 oxygen of the atmosphere, and forming C. A. (CO 2 ). It is also a product of respiration 
 (q.v.), and is evolved more or less largely by all animals, not only by the mouth, but in 
 exhalations from the skin, and is present in blood, urine, etc. It is evolved during the 
 fermentation (q.v.) of beer, wine, etc., and often remains in brewers’ vats when the 
 liquor has been drawn off. During the decay of vegetable and animal matter, C. A. is 
 produced, and in explosions of fire-damp in coal mines, it is formed in large quantity, 
 and fills the underground passages. 
 
 C. A. forms the largest ingredient in the food of vegetables, and is therefore 
 abstracted in large quantity from the air by plants. It enters into combination with 
 the majority of the oxides of the metals and other compounds, to form a class of salts 
 called carbonates, several of which have been referred to. C. A. when present in a 
 vessel in quantity may be recognized by the power of extinguishing a lighted candle, 
 or by not burning itself. C. A. in the foriii of gas may be readily recognized in the 
 atmosphere by exposing a little lime-water in a saucer, or other shallow vessel, when 
 the lime (CaO) abstracting the C. A. (CO 2 ) from the air, a white film of carbonate of 
 lime or chalk (CaO,C02) is formed on the surface of the liquid. A solution of baryta 
 (q.v.) in water is more delicate in its action on the C. A. of the air, and more readily 
 indicates its presence. 
 
 CAEBONIC OXIDE is a compound of one atom of carbon and one atom of oxygen, is 
 represented by the symbol CO, and has the atomic weight 16. It does not occur natu- 
 rally, but may be observed burning with a pale-blue flame in fire-places and stoves, 
 especially in frosty weather. During the combustion of the fuel at the low’er part of the 
 grate, the oxygen of the air unites with the carbon of the fuel to form carbonic acid 
 (CO 2 ); and this gas rising up through red-hot coal or carbon (C), has part of its oxygen 
 abstracted by the carbon, and two atoms of C. O. (CO) are produced, which, taking 
 fire on the top of the coals, burn with the characteristic blue flame, abstracting more 
 oxygen from the air, and re-forming carbonic acid (CO2). C. O. can be prepared 
 for experimental purposes by heating a mixture of oxalic acid (HO, C2O3) and sulphuric 
 acid (SO3) in a retort, when the latter abstracts the water from the oxalic acid, and the 
 other elements (C2O3) escape as carbonic acid (CO2), and C. O. (CO). On passing the 
 mixed gases through a solution of potash (KO), the carbonic acid is retained as carbonate 
 of potash (KOCO2), whilst the C. O remains as gas. C. O. is a transparent, colorless gas, 
 SL little lighter than air, being 967, and has never been liquefied nor solidified. It burns 
 with a biue flame, but is a non-supporter of combustion, and at once extinguishes a 
 lighted candle introduced into it. It is very poisonous, and even w’hen largely diluted 
 with air, if inhaled, it produces a sensation of oppression and tightness of the head, and 
 ultimately acts as a narcotic poison. It does not take part in any natural phenomena, nor 
 is it put to any use in the arts and manufactures, and in these respects, affords a striking 
 contrast to carbonic acid, which has so many duties to perform in nature and in the 
 
 CARBONIF'EROUS LIMESTONE, or Mount Am Limestone, one of the lower rocks 
 of the carboniferous system, generally of coralline formation, containing magnesia, and 
 rich in organic remains. Some varieties make good building stone. 
 
447 
 
 Carbonic. 
 
 Carboniferous.. 
 
 CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM, the name given to the strata whidi, in geological order, 
 rest upon the Devonian measures, and are capped by the Permian series. They derive 
 their designation from the amount of carbon contained in them, for to them the great 
 coal-fields of the world belong. In an economic sense, they are the most valuable series- 
 of rocks in the earth’s crust, forming the great store-house from which is obtained the 
 chief supply of coal, iron, and lime. 
 
 The rocks of the system are composed of a vast series of beds of sandstone, lime- 
 stone, shale, and coal. In some coal-fields, these are so interstratified, that it is impos- 
 sible to subdivide the strata in the order of time. In the Edinburgh district, there are 
 nearly 100 coal-seams, omitting all under 6 in. in thickness. Out of the whole depth 
 of the strata, amounting to about 6,300 ft., these seams occupy only 204 feet. The 
 remainder consists of sandstone and shale in the upper half; towards the middle, lime- 
 stones appear, and these increase downwards in the number and thickness of the beds, 
 but are still intermixed with seams of coal. The same arrangement exists in the other 
 coal-fields of Scotland, as well as in those of the n. of England. In other districts, the 
 limestone is confined to the lower portion of the measures, and separated from the coal 
 bearing strata, so as to form a natural subdivision of the system into— 1. The coal meas- 
 ures, consisting of shale, sandstone, and grit, with occasional seams of coal; and 2. Ihe- 
 mountain or carboniferous limestone, a calcareous rock, containing marine shells and 
 corals, and devoid, of coal. A coarse quartzose sandstone, passing into conglomerate, is^ 
 occasionally developed to a considerable extent between these two divisions. This is a 
 local deposit, being almost confined to England, and may be considered as one of the 
 coal sandstones, of coarser texture than usual. Being occasionally used for millstones, 
 it is called millstone grit. It is accompanied with shales containing the usual coal plants, 
 but generally without any true coal seams. Another locally developed series of beds, 
 consisting of indurated shales, sandstones, and grits, occurs below the carboniferous- 
 limestone in South Wales and Ireland, and is known as the lower limestone shales. These 
 rest conformably on a series of yellow sandstones, which have been generally referred te 
 the Devonian measures, but which, from their organic contents, as well as from their 
 stratigraphical position, seem to be basement beds of the carboniferous series. The 
 existence and development of these various beds in the United Kingdom will be better 
 understood by an examination of the following table. The maximum thickness of the 
 beds is given in feet when known; the blanks show the absence of the division from th© 
 particular coal-field: 
 
 Edinburgh. 
 
 Coal Measures 6,300 
 
 Millstone Grit 
 
 Mountain Limestone . . 
 
 Lower Limestone Shales 
 
 Yellow Sandstone 
 
 Glasgow. 
 
 N. York. 
 
 Derby. 
 
 * S. Wales. 
 
 Kerry. 
 
 Clare. N. Ireland- 
 
 2,800 
 
 2,000 
 
 2,700 
 
 12,000 
 
 2,000 
 
 2,000 2,200 
 
 
 400 
 
 1,600 
 
 1,000 
 
 
 1,800 
 
 
 1,659 
 
 1,000 
 
 1,500 
 
 1,500 
 
 3,000 6,400 
 
 
 
 
 500 
 
 4,650 
 
 150 1,200 
 
 
 
 
 
 3,000 unknown depth 2,000 
 
 In the midland countries, the coal measures are the only portion of the C. S. present, 
 and these rest on the Silurian or older rocks. In Devonshire, there occurs an exten- 
 sive series of shales and sandstones, with a few beds of earthy anthracite or culm, asso- 
 ciated with argillaceous rocks, probably belonging to the lower limestone shales, much 
 indurated, and traversed by slaty cleavage. 
 
 From the great economic value of the contents of the C. S. , we are better acquainted 
 with its fossils than with any fauna or flora that flourished before the tertiary epoch. 
 As coal is the result of the mineralization of vegetable matter, the coal measures must 
 necessarily abound in the remains of plants. No less than 294 species have been 
 described as found in Britain alone. Numerous impressions of plants, as well as traces 
 of structure, are found in the seams of coal themselves; but the more distinct forms ar& 
 preserved in the interstratified beds of mud and ironstone, often in great number and 
 exquisite beauty. Such remains consist chiefly of impressions of leaves separated from 
 their branches; of casts of trunks, more or less in a broken state; and of roots much 
 compressed, yet occupying their original position in the clay soil now indurated into shale ; 
 with these occur pieces of wood, or remains of trees, in which the vegetable texture is to 
 some extent preserved. The great proportion of the plants seem to have flourished in 
 marshy swamps, and to have accumulated where they grew, like peat, the material after- 
 wards converted into coal. Hence a stratum of shale in which are imbedded the roots- 
 of sigillaria, calamites, etc., is the invariable floor on which the coal seam rests. The 
 chief coal plants are lepidodendron (q.v.), sigillaria (q.v.), calamites (q.v.), trigonocarpoii 
 (q.v.), and ferns (q.v.). The existence of cone-bearing trees during this epoch has bee;_ 
 provedfrom the microscopic examination of prepared sections of fossil woods, in whicl- 
 the small discs occur that are characteristic of and peculiar to the coniferse. 
 
 The animal remains are as numerous and as well preserved as the vegetable. They^ 
 are found chiefly in the limestone ; the greater part, indeed, of this rock, is made up 
 bodily of corals and crinoids. No other such accumulation for extent and variety is 
 known; it has its nearest parallel in the somewhat similar formation now going on 
 in the southern archipelago. The corals and crinoids were specifically as well as indi- 
 vidually numerous. The terebratulae and other allied forms of bivalve shells, though 
 belonging to a comparatively limited number of genera, were very abundant. The more 
 highly developed mollusca were also numerous; they belonged to a great number of 
 
Carboniferong. 
 
 Cardan. 
 
 448 
 
 generic types. But the most remarkable group was the fishes. At no time were they 
 more abundant. They belonged to the ganoid and placoid groups of Agassiz. The 
 ganoids, having their entire surface covered with scales, were numerous; some of them 
 inhabited shallow water near the shore, and fed on crustaceans and shell-fish, for crush- 
 ing which they had a formidable apparatus of conical teeth of a very complicated struc- 
 ture. Others were inhabitants of deep water, and were more powerful and predaceous, 
 and more rapid in their movements. Their jaws were produced into a long snout, like 
 the crocodile of the Ganges, and armed with a double series of enormous teeth, which 
 were sometimes as much as 4 in. long by 2 in. broad, as in megalichthys (q.v.), dimen- 
 sions rarely attained even by the largest known reptiles. Associated with these were a 
 great number of sharks belonging to the cestraciontidse (q.v.), a family of which we have 
 only a single living representative. They were furnished with a long bony spine tq 
 strengthen the dorsal fin, and thus enable them to turn speedily in the water, as they 
 required to do in seizing their prey. These spines are often found fossil. The only 
 remains referred to a higher division of the animal kingdom yet found belong to the 
 saurian archegosaurus (q.v.). 
 
 CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM {ante). Most of the great coal fields of the world 
 belong to this system of formation. In this country, coal is widely distributed over 
 Pennsylvania, Ohio, Illinois, Kansas, Virginia, and other states. It is estimated that 
 there are 400,000 sq. m. of the earth’s surface now covered by productive coal fields. 
 Now as there are about 3,100,000 sq. yards in a m., and as a cubic yard of coal weighs 
 nearly a ton, and as in some of the fields the vein or deposit is from 30 to 60 ft. thick, 
 there would not seem to be any immediate danger of failure in the supply of coal. See 
 Anthracite, and Coal. 
 
 CAKBON PRINTING. See Positive Printing. 
 
 CARBUNCLE, a name given by lapidaries to the beautiful mineral called jpyrope (q.v.) 
 by mineralogists. The C. of the ancients appears to have been either pyrope, or the deep- 
 red variety of noble garnet (see Garnet), which is in every respect very similar to it, or 
 probably included both. 
 
 CARBUNCLE (Lat. carbunculus, a little coal) derives its name from the two prominent 
 symptoms — a glowing fiery redness, and a burning pain. It consists of an inflammation, 
 caused by some vitiated condition pf the blood, or some atmospheric influence, attacking a 
 patch of skin on the shoulders, nape of the neck, or indeed on any part of the body. 
 The part swells slightly, feels hard, and this hardness extends deeply into the tissues; 
 the pain is very severe, and the patient much depressed with loss of appetite, and general 
 derangement of the secretions. As the disease advances, the redness assumes a dark 
 purple or livid hue, the cuticle rises in blisters, and many small specks of matter appear 
 on its surface, which discharge, and leave apertures like those in the rose of a watering- 
 pot; through this a thin viscid fluid escapes, and occasionally a small slough or core of 
 the true skin which has been killed by the disease. Sometimes these apertures meet, 
 forming large openings, and in others the whole patch of skin sloughs and comes away. 
 
 The treatment of C. consists in restoring the secreting organs to a healthy condition, 
 the agents for which must depend on the individual case ; in supporting the patient’s 
 strength by easily digested food, wine, brandy and bark, with nitric acid ; relieving pain 
 by opiates, and encouraging suppuration with warm poultices ; carrot, turnip, and yeast 
 poultices being favorite applications in this disease. To prevent excessive loss of skin, 
 the C. must be divided freely with a knife from one margin of the inflamed patch to the 
 opposite one. 
 
 CARBURETS. See Carbides, ante. 
 
 CARBURETED HYDROGEN is a term in chemistry applied to several compounds of 
 carbon and hydrogen. Thus, light carbureted or monocarbureted hydrogen (CHa) is 
 the gaseous compound popularly known as marsh gas and fire-damp, and is the principal 
 constituent of coal-gas. See Gas, Heavy carbureted or bicarbureted hydrogen (CaHa) 
 is otherwise known as olefiant gas (q.v.). 
 
 CARCAJENTE, a t. of Valencia, Spain, about 28 m. s.s.w. of the city of Valencia, 
 situated on a rich plain near the right bank of the Juncar. It is well built, with good 
 streets, and has a palace belonging to the marquis of Calzada. It has some manufac- 
 tures of linen and woolen, and a trade in the agricultural produce of the district. Pop. 
 about 7,000. 
 
 CARCANET, a jeweled chain or necklace. Venice was famous for the manufacture 
 of carcanets in the 15th century. 
 
 CARCASS, in military pyrotechny, is a hollow case of iron, sometimes globular, and 
 sometimes ovate, filled with combustibles. It is fired from a mortar. Its chief use iS 
 to ignite buildings in the enemy’s quarter, and to give sufficient light to aim the shot 
 and shells. Carcasses are said to have been first used by one of the princely ecclesias- 
 tics of Germany, the bishop of Munster, when he fought against the duke of Luxem^ 
 

 449 
 
 CarboniferouB. 
 
 Cardan. 
 
 bourg at Groll, in 1672. The oval carcasses, being uncertain in their flight, are now 
 nearly abandoned. The round carcasses now made are chiefly those here indicated: 
 
 Diameter. 
 
 13 inch 
 
 10 “ 
 
 Composition. 
 
 18 lbs 
 
 7 “ 
 
 Weight. 
 
 100 “ 
 
 8 “ 
 
 3 “ 
 
 61 “ 
 
 5 “ 
 
 4|“ 
 
 7 “ 
 
 17 “ 
 
 9 “ 
 
 Carcasses are not intended to burst, but to send out, through holes, a furious and 
 inextinguishable fire, which lasts from 3 to 12 minutes. The composition with which 
 they are filled consists of saltpeter, sulphur, meal gunpowder, pitch, rosin, tallow, and 
 Venice turpentine, about half being saltpeter. The composition is packed in tightly 
 through one of the holes; and the holes are stopped with fuses adjusted to ignite the 
 composition after a certain space of time. Sometimes old pistol barrels, loaded to the 
 muzzle, are introduced with the composition. Compare those details with Case-shot, 
 ^ind Shells. 
 
 CARCASSONNE, a t. in the department of Aude, France, situated on the river Aude, 
 and the Canal du Midi, about 55 m. s.e. of Toulouse. It is divided into two parts, the 
 old and new towns. The modern town is well built, with streets running at right angles 
 to each other, squares adorned with trees, pleasant boulevards, and several marble foun- 
 tains. The old town, built on a height, is much more picturesque, with its ramparts 
 and towers, some parts of them dating from the time of the Visigoths, and the rest, 
 with the castle, from the 11th or 12th century. This old town suffered greatly at the 
 hands of the fierce bigot Simon de Montfort and his crusaders, who here burned 400 of 
 the Albigenses. In the 14th c. it effectually resisted the black prince. The cloth manu- 
 factures are important, employing, it is said, upwards of 7,000 people. C. has also 
 manufactures of paper, leather, linen, and soap. Pop. ’76, exclusive of garrison, 23,517. 
 The ancient name of the town was Carcaso, which was a place of some note in the time 
 of Caesar. 
 
 CAECHARIAS. See Shark. 
 
 CARCINO'MA. See Cancer, ante. 
 
 CARDAMINE. See Cress, Bitter. 
 
 CARDAMOMS are the capsules of certain species of plants of the natural order scita- 
 minecB (q.v.), and belonging to at least two genera, amomum and elettaria. They are 
 three-celled, and contain numerous wrinkled seeds, which form an aromatic pungent 
 spice, weaker than pepper, and with a peculiar but agreeable taste. On account of 
 their cordial and stimulant properties, they are employed in medicine, very generally 
 to qualify other medicines; they are also used in confectionery, although not to a great 
 extent in Britain; but in Asia they are a favorite condiment; and in the n, of Germany, 
 they are used in almost every household to flav or pastry. — The C. recognized in the 
 British pharmacopoeias, and called true or officinal C. , also known in commerce as Malabar 
 €., are the produce of elettaria cardamomum, a native of the mountains of Malabar and 
 Canara. They depend for their qualities on a peculiar pungent essential oil, called oil 
 
 cardamom, which may be obtained from them by distilling them with water, and 
 when fresh, is colorless. Other kinds of C. occur in commerce, but none is equal to 
 the true C. in commercial value. The different kinds of C. differ not only in strength, 
 but in the character of their aroma. The plants producing them have much general 
 similarity. 
 
 CARDAN, Jerome, a celebrated mathematician, naturalist, physician, and philosopher, 
 h. at Pavia, Sept. 24, 1501, was the illegitimate son of a physician and jurisconsult at 
 Milan. He received his early education at home, and completed his studies in Pavia 
 and Padua. After some years, he became professor of mathematics at Milan. ^ Here 
 his reputation began to grow. After a few years, he began to lecture on rnedicine, to 
 the practice of which he ultimately betook himself. By 1546, his reputation had so 
 increased, that he was invited by the king of Denmark to accept a professorship at 
 Dopenhagen, which, however, he declined; and, in 1552, we find him proceeding to 
 Scotland, on an invitation from Hamilton, primate of that country. He managed to 
 cure the primate of an inveterate asthma, which had defied the skill of the most cele- 
 brated physicians, and returned to Milan enriched b}'" the bounty of his patient. Here 
 he again settled for some time. In the autumn of 1559, however, he removed to Pavia 
 as professor of medicine, whence, again, in the same capacity, he removed to Bologna, 
 where he continued teaching till*1570, when we find him imprisoned for debt. Having 
 regained his liberty in 1571, he went to Rome to avoid' his creditors. Here he was 
 speedily admitted a member of the medical college, and pensioned by pope Gregory XII. 
 The rest of his life he spent, without public employment, in Rome, where he died Sept. 
 2, 1576, a few weeks after finishing his autobiography. Some writers assert, but on no 
 sufficient authority, that he starved himself to death, to fulfill a prediction which he had 
 made as to the time when he should die. It is certain, however, that he was a devoted 
 astrologer, and cast horoscopes for himself and others. The fancifulness necessary to 
 U. K. HI.— 29 
 
Card-board. 
 
 CardigauHkire. 
 
 450 
 
 support the faith of an astrologer imbued all his scientific writings. These were very 
 voluminous. A summary of his notions on physics and metaphysics is given in his two 
 works— Svhilitate, in 21 books, and De Rerum Varietate, in 17 books. On the whole, 
 he wrote 122 treatises on physics, mathematics, astronomy, astrology, rhetoric, history, 
 ethics, dialectics, natural history, music, and medicine. These, it need scarcely be 
 said, abound in incoherent paradoxes, contradictions, and capricious abstractions, more 
 than enough to overwhelm the few profound ideas which he originated. A formula for 
 the solution of certain kinds of cubic equations is called “ Cardan’s formula,” and was 
 published by him, as his own invention, in the Are Magna dve de Begulis Algebraici» 
 (1545); but it would appear that the formula was really the invention of one Tartalea or 
 Tartaglia. In religion, C. was heterodox, and commonly reputed an atheist. His 
 numerous writings were collected and edited by Charles Sphon (10 vols., Lyon, 1663). 
 
 CARD-BOABB, or Card, is made by pasting together several layers of paper, accord- 
 ing to the thickness and quality required. Bristol-board, used by artists, is made entirely 
 of white paper; ordinary card-board, of fine white paper outside, with one or more 
 sheets of coarse cartridge-paper between. According to the number of layers, they are 
 called three, four, six, or eight sheet boards. Mill-board, used by book-binders as the basis 
 of book-covers, is made of coarse brown paper, glued and strongly pressed. 
 
 The workman arranges the paper in the order required for pasting, and the pile^ 
 called a head, is placed at his left hand, the paste-tub on his right. He lifts a sheet from 
 the head with his left hand, brushes it over with paste with his right; then another is 
 laid upon that and pasted, until he comes to the last required to complete the thickness 
 of one board, when he removes two sheets, and only pastes the upper one, which thus 
 forms the lower sheet of another board. This is repeated till the whole head is pasted,, 
 when it is removed to a press, and the water of the paste squeezed out at the edges. 
 The boards are then separated, and dried by hanging them in a room artificially heated. 
 The card-board, which is now rough and warped, is smoothed and flattened by making 
 a pile consisting alternately of sheets of rough card-board and copper plates, with a. 
 copper plate at top and bottom. This pile is passed between iron rollers, and the smooth 
 surface of the copper impressed upon the card-board, which is thus flattened and beauti- 
 fully polished. 
 
 The enameling of address-cards is produced by brushing over the card-board a 
 mixture of china or kremnitz white (a fine variety of white lead) and size. After drying, 
 this surface is rubbed lightly over with a piece of flannel, previously dipped in finely 
 powdered talc; it is then polished by rubbing vigorously with a hard, close-set brush. 
 
 CAR'DENAS, a seaport and city of Cuba, capital of a district, 105 m. e. of Havana, 
 on a bay of the n. coast, and having railroad communication with Matanzas and Havana. 
 There is good anchorage in the harbor. Sugar is the chief article of export. Pop. 11,- 
 000. The streets are well laid out and lighted, and the houses are usually neat and solid. 
 There is a bronze statue of Columbus in one of the squares. Much of the business is. 
 done by people from the United States, a fact that gives it the name of the “ Americaa 
 city.” In 1850, the city was plundered by Lopez. 
 
 CABBIA, the upper orifice of the stomach, called, on account of its vicinity to the 
 heart, by the same Greek name, cardia, and probably hardly distinguished from it in the 
 earliest times of Greek medicine. 
 
 CARDIAC MEDICINES, stomachic and stimulating remedies — cordials, so called from 
 their action on the heart through the stomach. See Cardia. 
 
 CARDI'AD^, a family of bivalve lamelli branchiate mollusks, of which the cockle 
 is a specimen. 
 
 CARDIALGIIA, pain of the heart or stomach (Cardia). The name is commonly 
 applied to the particular variety of pain called heartburn, arising from a disordered 
 stomach, and accompanied with acid eructations. See Indigestion. 
 
 CARDIFF Fort of theTaff), a parliamentary and municipal borough and sea- 
 
 port, one of the county towns of Glamorgan, South Wales, situated on the river Taff, 
 170 m.^ w. of London by railway. The population has risen from 2,000 in 1801, to 
 56,911 in 1871, with a floating population of about 5,000. C.,with Cowbridge and Llantris- 
 sant, returns one member to parliament. The town extends about one mile in each direc- 
 tion from the town-hall. Among the public buildings are the Glamorganshire and 
 Monmouthshire infirmary, town-hall, free library and museum, county jail, law-courts, 
 an in^irmap^ a county lunatic asylum, baths, and a theater. There are also many 
 private buildings of a superior character, and a public park. Of about 30 places of 
 worship in C., only 4 belong to the church of England. . 
 
 The port of C. is the outlet for the large mineral and manufactured produce of the 
 central portion of the South Wales mineral-field, in which are the populous districts of 
 Merthyr-Tydvil, Rhymney, Aberdare. and the Rhondda valley, with which this port ia 
 connected by the Taff Vale, the Rhymney, and the Ely Valley railways, and the 
 (Glamorganshire canal. The town is also one of the chief stations on the Great Western 
 line from London to Milford-Haven. The Bute docks, e. and w., with an area of 7A 
 acres, constructed at the expense of the Bute estate, have cost up wards of a million, 
 sterling, and belong entirely to the present marquis. There are about 40 staiths on the 
 
451 
 
 Card-board. 
 Card! gauHhire. 
 
 quHys of the docks, with machinery of a peculiar construction for the purpose of load- 
 ing vessels with coal, by which the breaking of the coal is almost entirely prevented. 
 Euch of these staiths is capable of shipping 560 tons of coal in a day of 12 hours. There 
 i« also a tidal harbor, with 7 staiths, each capable of shipping 400 tons of coal per day, 
 and a lower-water pier 1400 ft. in length. Height of water at spring-tide, 31 ft. 8^ 
 inches; at neap-tide, 21 ft. 7| inches. Width of sea-gates, 55 ft. ; length of quays, 11,100 
 ft. ; width of dock, 300 ft. southern, and 500 ft. northern part; depth, 25 feet. Exports 
 during 1873 — coal, 3,591,218 tons; iron, 154,570 tons; coke, 1276 tons. The quantity of 
 coal exported has immensely increased. In 1875, 5,450 vessels, of 1,170,122 tons, 
 •entered the port, and 10,105, of 2,428,721 tons, cleared it. The imports to C. include 
 copper ore, live cattle, salted provisions, foreign fruit and vegetables, corn and flour, 
 etc. The Penarth docks, about 3 m. to the westward, form another outlet for the trade 
 of the district. Steamers ply between the port of C. and New York, London, Liver- 
 pool, Glasgow, Bristol, Cork, Whitehaven, and Burnham. 
 
 The assizes (half-yearly, alternately with Swansea) and the quarter-sessions are held 
 at the town-hall. The ancient city of Llandaff , now a mere village, is almost connected 
 with Cardiff. Cardiff castle, built in the 11th c., is partly now in ruins, and partly 
 occupied by the marquis of Bute, to whom nearly the whole of the modern town 
 belongs. Robert duke of Normandy, brother of Henry I., died in the castle, after 
 being a prisoner for 28 years. Cromwell (1648) got possession of the castle by treachery, 
 after bombarding it three days; and he afterwards hanged the traitor, as an example to 
 his own soldiery. This town was anciently an important one, successively under the 
 British, Romans, and Normans. 
 
 CARDIFF GIANT, a rude statue of a man 10^ ft. high, cut (in Chicago) from a block 
 of gypsum sent from Iowa. It was secretly buried near the village of Cardiff, 
 Onondaga co., N. Y., where it was pretended to have been found in Oct., 1869, and was 
 exhibited with great success for several months as “the petrified giant,” deceiving even 
 some men of science. The fraud, one of the most notable in recent times, was finally 
 confessed. 
 
 CARDIGAN (anciently, Aherteifi, Mouth of theTeify), the co. t. of Cardiganshire, a 
 parliamentary and municipal borough and seaport, in the s.w. corner of the county, on 
 the right bank of the Teify, 3 m. from its mouth, and 239 m. n. by w. of London. The 
 vicinity exhibits romantic scenery on the Teify, and grand rocks on the coast. The 
 streets, except the chief one, are narrow and steep, the houses built of slate-rock. Pop. 
 of the municipal borough, ’71, 3,461; of the parliamentary borough, 4,939. With 
 Aberystwith, Lampeter, and Adpar, C. returns one member to parliament. In 1875, 
 G83 vessels, of 31,486 tons, entered and cleared the port. The general trade is confined 
 to vessels of 20 to 100 tons. Vessels of 400 tons reach the town by spring-tides. C. 
 became an important town about the Norman conquest. The Normans were frequently 
 ■defeated before mastering it. There are the remains of a castle on a low cliff on the 
 Teify, which is supposed to have been founded, in 1160, by a Norman baron. The 
 town suffered much in the struggles between the Welsh and the Normans. The Teify 
 is said to have been the last British resort of the beaver. 
 
 CARDIGAN, James Thomas Brudenell, 7th earl of; also baron Brudenell, 
 lieut.gen. ; 1797-1868. He was educated at Oxford, and went into parliament in 1818. 
 In 1824, he entered the army in the hussars, and rose (1832) to be lieut.col. He was 
 overbearing and quarrelsome, and treated his men with great severity, so that out of a 
 regiment of 350, he made within two years 700 arrests, and held 105 courts-martial. In 
 1837, he succeeded to the peerage. In 1840, he fought a duel with capt. Tuckett, an 
 officer of his regiment, in which his adversary was wounded. The house of lords sub- 
 jected the earl to a show of trial, and he was acquitted. The Crimean war sent him to 
 the field as commander of the light cavalry, and he led that body of 600 through the 
 desperate charge at Balaklava, cutting his way through six times the number of Rus- 
 sian heavy cavalry, but leaving half his men dead or wounded on the field. This charge, 
 ■celebrated in Tennyson’s poem, was desperate and brilliant work, but in the opinion of 
 many critics a wanton and needless sacrifice of his men. In 1861, he was made lieut. 
 gen. He left no children, and the titles passed to his relative, the marquis of Ailesbury. 
 
 CARDIGAN BAY, a semicircular bend of St. George’s channel, on the w. coast of 
 Wales, 45 m. wide from n. to s., and 20 m. deep, with a sweep of coast of 110 miles, 
 Its exterior points are Brach-y-Pwll, off which lies Bardsey isle, in Caernarvon, and 
 Sturm Head, in Pembroke. It receives the rivers Mawddach, Dovy, Ystwith, Yren, and 
 Teify. It has 3 to 30 fathoms water, with three reefs. A strong current sweeps round 
 the bay from s. to north. Almost all the harbors on the coast are obstructed by bars. 
 A great part of C. B. is said to have been once dry land, protected, as Holland now is, 
 by dams and dikes, and containing 16 towns, and the land is said to have been sub- 
 merged about 520 a.d. 
 
 CARDIGANSHIRE, a maritime co. in South Wales, on Cardigan bay, with an area of 
 675 sq.m. , a half being waste. The surface is hilly, interspersed with fertile valleys. A 
 Tugged, bleak range of hills runs through the middle of the co., from the s.w. to the 
 n.e., between the coast and the Teify, ending abruptly in a shelving beach in the middle 
 
Cardinal. 
 
 452 
 
 of the coast, but on other parts there are rich flat tracts. The co. contains little 
 wood. The chief rivers are the Teify, which rises in a small lake near the center of 
 the co., and runs 70 m. s.e. and e. along the s. border of the co., the Claerwen, Ystwith, 
 and llheidol. C. contains some romantic water-falls, especially the Rheidol falls 
 and the Devil’s bridge, and above 20 small lakes or llyns, noted for their wild beauty. 
 C. reposes on lower Silurian slates and shales, containing few or no organic remains. 
 Rich veins of copper, lead, zinc, and silver occur. The climate is cold and wet, but 
 mild though wet on the coast. Snow lies long on the hills in winter. Summer is 
 delightful in the valleys. C. is an agricultural co., and its chief branch of industry 
 is the rearing of live-stock. The chief crops are oats, barley, and potatoes on the poor 
 clay and peat soils of the mountains, and wheat, barley, and potatoes on the flat loams 
 of the coast and valleys. The cattle and horses are small. There are some manufac- 
 tures of coarse woolens and gloves, stockings, and hats. Oats, barley, cattle, sheep, 
 pigs, butter, slates, and woolens are exported. Cardigan is the co. town ; the other chief 
 towns being Aberystwith, Lampeter, Adpar, Aberayron, Tregaron. C. sends one member 
 to parliament. Pop. ’71, 62,712; registered electors, 5,554. In 834, the king of C. became 
 king of all Wales, under the title of Roderick the great. He divided Wales among his 
 three sons. After this, the Danes and Normans overran Cardiganshire. The co. 
 has many remains of British and Roman camps and roads, Druidical circles, cairns, and 
 castles. Many Welsh princes and bards were buried in the abbey of Strata Florida, IG- 
 m. s.e. of Aberystwith, and some of the records of the principality were kept here. In 
 C. there is a curious practice of sending presents {biddings) to a new-married couple, which, 
 when sold, often realize £50 or £60. C. was disturbed, 1843-44, by the Rebecca riots. 
 
 CAHDINAL (Lat. cardinalis, principal, from cardo, a hinge). Cardinals are the high- 
 est dignitaries in the Roman church after the pope, whose electors and councilors they 
 are. The title, however, had at first a more general application. The pope being the 
 sovereign bishop over the whole Romish church, and having, as such, many duties to 
 fulfill inconsistent with those of a particular diocese, had, from very early times, a num- 
 ber of bishops, priests, and deacons whom he appointed his vicars and coadjutors for 
 the management of the diocese of Rome. The bishops exercised the episcopal function 
 in the pope’s stead, each having a peculiar church within the diocese. The priests were- 
 titular parsons of the churches in the city of Rome, and had the cure of souls. The 
 deacons had charge of some churches and chapels of devotion, which they held as dea- 
 conries, with the additional duty of assisting the pope when he officiated in public. 
 These three classes of ecclesiastics were called cardinati or cardinales, to denote that 
 they were the first or chief over the rest, and that all the affairs of the diocese of Rome 
 were under their direction. At a subsequent period, the priests and deacons of other 
 cities of importance assumed the title of C., to distinguish them from other priests and 
 deacons over whom they claimed supremacy; but the popes subsequently ordained that 
 none but those whom they had chosen should be honored with that title. Amongst 
 those whom the popes thus appointed were the seven bishops sitburhicarii, who took 
 their titles from places in the neighborhood of Rome. These bishops were called Jieb- 
 domadarii, because they attended the pope for a week each in his turn. These cardinals 
 took part with the Roman clergy in the election of the pope, who was generally chosen 
 from their number. About the beginning of the 12th c., the popes having formed a 
 regular court, began to bestow the rank of C. priest or C. deacon on any individual of 
 the clergy, or even of the laity, whom they chose to select; and to each, whether Roman 
 or foreign, they gave the title of some particular church in Rome, but without attaching 
 to it any obligatory service. Thus the cardinals became a separate body elected for lifp 
 and the officiating priests of the Roman parishes were gradually deprived of the title. 
 In 1159, Nicholas II. limited the right of election to the popedom to the cardinals thus 
 appointed, leaving to the rest of the clergy and people of Rome merely the right of 
 approving of the election of a new pope, and to the emperor that of^ confirming it. 
 Even these prerogatives, in course of time, were withdrawn. Notwithstanding the 
 great powers thus intrusted to them, the bishops in the great councils of the church 
 continued to take precedence of the cardinals; and it was not till 1614 that Louis XIII. 
 of France, in the sitting of the parliament of Paris, adjudged precedence to the 
 cardinals over the ecclesiastical peers — bishops and abbots. The power of the popes 
 to appoint cardinals has often been contested, and their right to precedence denied, by 
 the other dignified ecclesiastics. In 1567, pope Pius N. forbade any clergyman not 
 appointed by the pope to assume the title of C. ; and Sixtus V., in Dec., 1586, fixed 
 their number at 70 — viz., the 6 bishops suburbicarii, 50 priests, and 14 deacons, and on 
 this footing they have since remained, though the number is seldom complete, the pope 
 generally leaving some vacancies for extraordinary cases. The number has frequently 
 fallen greatly under 70. When Nicholas III. was chosen pope, there were but^cight 
 cardinals; and a little before the death of Alexander IV., there were but four. ^ Some- 
 times before Sixtus V. the number was exceeded, as in the pontificate of Pius IV., 
 when there were 74. The body of cardinals is styled the sacred college. Most of the 
 cardinals reside in Rome, and either enjoy ecclesiastical benefices, or are employed in 
 the administration. When not so provided for, the cardinals receive an allowance of 
 100 dollars monthly from the papal treasury. Some cardinals belong to monastic 
 
453 
 
 CardinaL 
 
 orders, and reside in their convents even after their election. The jurisdiction of the C. 
 bishops in the place in which they are established is truly episcopal, but they are not 
 obliged to reside. That of tlie C. priests and deacons is almost episcopal, but extends no 
 further than the church and sacristy. They have there an episcopal seat under a canopy, 
 like bishops, and they there solemnly give the people their blessing. The creation of 
 cardinals is wholly in the pope If the new-created C. is at Rome, he goes the same day 
 to visit the pope, who puts the red cap on his head. The red hat, which Innocent IV. 
 ordained that cardinals should wear, to show that they ought to expose themselves to 
 the shedding of their blood in the cause of the church, is afterwards given in a public 
 consistory. A number of symbolical ceremonies accompany this investiture. The car- 
 dinals that are absent, when chosen, have the cap sent them by a special messenger 
 from the pope. The hat is given by the pope’s own hands; and many cardinals who do 
 not visit Rome, die without ever having received it. The only exception is in favor of 
 members of royal houses, to whom the hat is sent. Pope Urban VIII., in 1630, gave to 
 the cardinals the title of eminence, which they shared with the grand-master of the 
 order of Malta, and the ecclesiastical electors of the German or Roman empire. The 
 pope often employs cardinals as ambassadors, and the individual thus employed is 
 styled legate a latere. A C. legate acts, or recently acted, as governor of the northern 
 provinces of the Papal states, which thence received the name of legations. The chief 
 secretary of state, the caimrlengo or minister of finances, the vicar of Rome, and other 
 leading officials, are always chosen from among the cardinals. The council of car- 
 dinals, when assembled under the presidency of the pope to discuss matters of church 
 and state, is called the consistorium. There are public consistories, which are held on 
 great occasions, and correspond to the levees of other sovereigns; and private and 
 secret consistories, which are the privy council of the pope. Moreri’s Dictionary, 
 voce Cardinal, contains a list of cardinals from 1119 to 1724, with their names, coun- 
 tries, etc. , and the dates of their election and death. 
 
 CARDINAL BIRD, or Red Bird, Quarica cardinalis, also called cardinal finch, car- 
 dinal grosbeak, and Virginian nightingale, one of the finest song-birds of America, 
 belongs to the family of f ring ilUdce, and differs from the true grosbeaks {coccotliraustes) 
 in having the beak slightly bulging. The general color of the male is red, the head 
 being vermilion, and only a small portion of the plumage around the base of the bill 
 being black. The feathers of the crown are long, and erected into a conical crest, 
 like a red cap. The C. B. abounds in Texas, Florida, and the southern states of 
 America generally, migrating northwards in spring, but never further than Massachu- 
 setts, where only a few stragglers are seen. Its loud, clear, sweet, and varied song is to 
 be heard chiefly in the mornings and evenings. In size it exceeds any of the British 
 fringillidm, being about equal to the starling. 
 
 CARDINAL FLOWER. See Lobelia. 
 
 CARDINAL POINTS. See Compass, Mariners’. 
 
 CARDINAL VIRTUES (Lat. cardinalis, chief, from cardo, a hinge). The C. V. of the 
 ancients were justice, prudence, temperance, fortitude. They were so called because 
 the whole of human virtue was supposed to hinge or turn upon them. In other words, 
 they were considered as a full and comprehensive classification of man’s various duties. 
 
 This mode of dividing the virtues is to be found as far back as Socrates. The 
 ancient moralists treated under ethics the whole sum of human duty and virtue. Thus, 
 Aristotle considers the great problem of the science to be the determination of man’s 
 highest good, together with the means of realizing it. Hence, he includes both the social 
 virtues and the prudential regard to the welfare of the individual in the same scheme. 
 Of the four C.V., it will be seen that the first, justice, is the social virtue ; that prudence 
 (which, properly speaking, includes temperance also) regards the well-being of the indi- 
 vidual ; while fortitude is necessary to both. This last was a virtue greatly esteemed in 
 the ancient world, each one’s lot being much less secure than with us in the present day; 
 it was impossible to say what sufferings might be in store for the most prosperously sit- 
 uated of men. 
 
 Dr. Whewell has made an attempt to correct the more obvious defects of the classifi- 
 cation, and has substituted one which he deems free from those defects. The most 
 notable omission, in the ancient scheme, judged from the modern point of view, is the 
 absence of all reference, either expressly or by implication, to the virtue of goodness or 
 benevolence. This was characteristic of the pagan moralists; for although good deeds 
 were abundantly practiced among the ancients, they did not account it a part of human 
 virtue to flow out spontaneously in every kind of active benevolence, includina: the most 
 wicked and worthless among the objects of it. Aristotle, in discussing the various acts 
 and outgoings of friendship, never loses sight of the reciprocal obligations on the other 
 side; so that when a rich man befriends, with his wealth, one that is poor, the inequality 
 must be made good by a greater amount of honor or respect on the part of him that is 
 so befriended. 
 
 Accordingly, to adapt the classification to the altered point of view, benevolence has 
 to be added to the list. This is Dr. Whewell’s first virtue; the others are justice, truth, 
 purity, and order. But the scheme, as thus amended, is scarcely less objectionable than 
 before. The virtue named last, order, which means obedience to authority, cannot but 
 
Carding. 
 
 Cards. 
 
 454 
 
 contain a very large portion of all the rest; seeing that justice, truth, etc., are enjoined 
 by positive law. Then, what is understood by purity, including the control of the two 
 powerful appetites, hunger and sex, is partly prudential and partly social. 
 
 The ethical discussions of modern times may be very much aided, if we divide the 
 totality of human virtue on the following plan. There are three distinct classes of human 
 actions, which are all approved of or accounted virtuous, but on different grounds, and 
 in a different manner. 
 
 1. There are actions which are forbidden by society under penalties; in other words, 
 men are punished for committing them. Such are theft, breach of bargain, slander, 
 violence to the person, and all the offenses against our fellow-men that are prohibited 
 by the law of the land. The avoiding of all these actions is signified to be a part of our 
 duty, by the suffering infiicted on the doers of them. The law fines, imprisons, or puts 
 to death those who will not conform to its regulations. 
 
 The law of the land is not the only power that prescribes conduct enforced by penal- 
 ties. The public opinion of the country at large forbids certain actions, and punishes 
 transgressors by excluding them from social intercourse ; such, for example, are acts of 
 unchastity, more especially when committed by women. There are also codes enacted 
 by particular societies, as the code of honor among gentlemen, which constitutes some 
 actions offenses that are not so by law, or by universal opinion. Cowardice is one of the 
 qualities most obnoxious to the code of honor. 
 
 The actions prohibited by law are obviously such as could not be allowed without 
 the entire subversion of human society. If murder and theft were to go unpunished, 
 the principal end for which men associate together in communities — that is, protection 
 and security — would not be attained. It is impossible that we should not disappove of 
 all such actions, and approve of the contrary. 
 
 2. There are some actions that are accounted virtuous, while their opposites are not 
 punished, as in the case of those now mentioned. Doing good to persons that have no 
 claim upon us — in other words, benevolence or philanthropy — is considered highly 
 praiseworthy ; but the neglecting of this is not usually visited with any punishment or 
 censure ; so that if it be a duty to perform acts of benevolence, it is a duty generically 
 different from paying our debts, and respecting the person and property of our neigh- 
 bor. The motives brought to bear on the two cases are widely contrasted : in the one, 
 vfe punish for doing the action forbidden; in the other, we reward for doing the thing 
 enjoined, and inflict no punishment if that is neglected. Here lies the difference between 
 duty, strictly so called, and merit. In the bare performance of duty there is no merit ; a 
 man would not even be commended for the punctual payment of his just debts, if it 
 were not that many people are deficient in this respect, and in the comparison with these 
 the correct person excites in our minds a feeling of satisfaction. Disapprobation is the 
 sentiment properly concerned with duty, or rather, with breach of duty; approbation is 
 bestowed on all who do something over and above their duty. This distinction is known 
 in every department of practical life; while speculative moralists habitually lose sight 
 of it. 
 
 3. The virtues included under prudence are in a different position from either of the 
 foregoing classes. Bearing the common names, virtue and duty, by which they are recog- 
 nized as worthy of approbation or commendation, they are nevertheless unaccompanied 
 with the sanctions either of punishment or of reward. The imprudent man is subject 
 to no legal penalty, unless he clearly involves other persons in his imprudence ; and the 
 prudent man is not rewarded with the praise, esteem, or other benefits conferred upon 
 the benevolent man. It is true that the young are punished by parents or teachers for 
 imprudences; and some governments take such a paternal care of their subjects, as to 
 punish them for sins against themselves. Men have been sent to prison, because of their 
 endangering their own salvation by embracing heresy; but at the present day, such a 
 proceeding is considered beyond the function of government. Men and women, arrived 
 at maturity, are expected to take care of their own interests; even if they do not, no one 
 punishes them; if they do, no one rewards them. We have, it is true, a certain feeling 
 of disesteem in the one case, and of esteem or commendation in the other; neither of 
 which, however, attains any considerable strength until more than the individual’s self 
 is involved. In short, although we cannot divest ourselves of all sentiment as lookers 
 on, when men behave prudently or imprudently, our rule is non-interference; and this 
 constitutes a marked distinction between the self -regarding and the social vices and 
 virtues. 
 
 Accordingly, when ethical writers are endeavoring to probe the foundations of the 
 moral sense in man, they ought to consider separately those three different species of 
 conduct, for the sentiment excited by each is marked by strong peculiarities. To class 
 social duties enforced by punishment, social virtues stimulated by rewards, and pru- 
 dence, which is accompanied by neither, under one common designation, and discuss 
 them as if they were essentially the same, is to confuse, instead of clearing up, the first 
 principles of morality. 
 
 In Roman Catholic systems of theology, there are declared to be four cardinal virtues 
 — “prudence, fortitude, temperance, and justice” — from which all other “moral” vir- 
 tues are represented as flowing. But there is a prior division of virtues into the two 
 classes of theological and moi'dl; the theological virtues being faith, hope, and charity. 
 
455 
 
 Carding. 
 
 Cards. 
 
 The distinction between these two classes is represented as consisting in this, that the 
 theological virtues “ immediately God;” and the moral virtues do not immediately 
 
 regard God, but are commanded and rewarded by God, and are beneficial to ourselves. 
 
 CABBING OP COTTON, etc., the process of disentangling and arranging in parallel 
 rows the fibers of cotton. This operation may be compared to the combing and brush- 
 ing of one’s hair, and the card combines the properties of the comb and brush, being a 
 brush with wire teeth instead of hairs. These teeth are inserted in strips of leather 
 which are fixed upon the surface of a cylinder. Several such cylinders are arranged so 
 that the ends of the teeth are nearly in contact; and the cotton being brought to them, 
 is caught up, passed from one to the other, and combed out as the cylinders revolve in 
 the form of beautiful films or fieeces, which are removed by a smaller dnim-card, called 
 the “doffer,”and again from this by the “ doflSng-knife. ” These films, which are of 
 the width of the drum, are next contracted to a narrow ribbon, by being passed through 
 a funnel; and thus narrowed, are called the “ card ends” or “slivers,” and are now ready 
 for the next process of “ drawing” or “ doubling. See Spinning, 
 
 CABDINIA, a genus of fossil conchiferae, containing 85 species, which extend from 
 the Silurian to the inferior oolite. They have an oval or oblong shell, attenuated poste- 
 riorly, and marked with lines of growth, and an external ligament. They occur abun- 
 dantly in the valuable layers of clay-ironstone called “mussel-bands.” In Derbyshire, 
 this material is wrought, like marble, into vases. 
 
 CABDI'TIS, or infiammation of the heart, a form of disease of very rare occurrence, if 
 the term be limited in its application to cases of true acute inflammation of the muscular 
 structure of the heart itself. C. , however, was commonly understood in a wider sense, 
 so as to include certain forms of disease of the external and internal lining membrane of 
 the heart ; and it is only since the beginning of the present century that, owing to the 
 improvements in medical pathology and diagnosis, the names of pericarditis and endo- 
 carditis (q.v.) have come prominently into view as indicating the most ordinary inflam- 
 matory affections of the heart. See Heart, Diseases op the. 
 
 CABDITJM AND CABDIA'CE.£. See Cockle. 
 
 CABDO'NA, a t. of Catalonia, Spain, about 44 m. n.w. of Barcelona. It is situated 
 on a declivity on the right bank of the Cardener, is surrounded by walls, pierced with 
 six gates, and commanded by a castle on a height. It is celebrated on account of a 
 mountain of salt in its vicinity, which has a height of about 500 ft., and measures a 
 league round. When the sun shines on this gigantic mass, the effect is of the most 
 brilliant and gorgeous description. Pop. about 2,500. 
 
 CABDOON', Cynara cardunculus, a perennial plant of the same genus with the arti- 
 choke (q.v.), a native of the s. of Europe and the n. of Africa. It very much resem- 
 bles the artichoke, but is of larger size, whilst the flowers (heads of flowers) are 
 smaller. Tt has long been in cultivation, for the sake of the blanched leaf -stalks and 
 midribs of the leaves, which are used as a salad, or more generally as a boiled vegetable 
 during winter. 
 
 CABDS. All that we know of C. , for certain, is, that they are of ancient and eastern 
 origin. What is asserted by count de Gebelin and the earliest writers upon the subject, 
 that in their primary stage they constituted some sort of symbolic and even moral game, 
 is not so well established. The Hindu and Chinese C. are, however, emblematic in a 
 very high degree — the former illustrating the ten avatars, or incarnations of the deity 
 Vishnu; and the so-called paper-tickets of the Chinese typifying the stars, the human 
 virtues, and, indeed, almost anything you please. The learned sir William Jones 
 expresses himself convinced that the Hindu game of chaturaji — the four rajahs or kings 
 — a species of highly, complicated chess, was the first germ of that parti-colored paste- 
 board which has been the ruin of so many modern fortunes. In the wardrobe accounts 
 of Edward I. , there is an item of money paid for the use of that monarch for playing at 
 the four kings — “ ad opus regis ad ludendum ad quatuor reges, viii.s. v.d.” — which is 
 supposed to have been a game at C. ; but how and when painted C. took the place of 
 carved figures, is still but matter of conjecture. 
 
 A pack of Hindustani C. , in the possession of the royal Asiatic society, and presented 
 to capt. Cromline Smith in 1815 by a high-caste Brahman, was declared by the donor to be 
 actually 1000 years old. “ Nor,” quoth the Brahman “can any of us now play at them, for 
 they are not like our modern cards at all.” Neither, indeed, do they bear any remarkable 
 resemblance to our own — the pack consisting of no less than eight suits of divers colors, 
 the kings being mounted upon elephants, and the viziers, or second honors, upon horses, 
 tigers, and bulls. Moreover, there are other marks by which the respective value of the 
 common C. may be distinguished, which would puzzle our club quidnuncs not a little — 
 such as “ a pine-apple in a shallow cup,” and “a something like a parasol without a 
 handle, and with two broken ribs sticking through the top.” In the Chinese dictionary, 
 called Ching-tsze-tung, it is asserted that dotted C. were invented in the reign of Seun-ho 
 (1120 A.D.), and devised for the amusement of his numerous wives; there are 30 C. in 
 each of these packs, 3 suits of 9 C. each, and 3 single C. superior to all the others. The 
 name of one of the suits is Kew-ko-wan — that is to say, the nine ten-thousands of kwau- 
 strings of beads, shells, or money; and the titles of the other two suits are equally cou- 
 
Carduccl. 
 
 456 
 
 cise and significant. The Chinese C. have, however, a decided advantage over those of 
 Hindustan in being oblong instead of circular. 
 
 C. do not appear to have been known in Europe until towards the end of the 14th 
 century. “ In the year 1379,” writes Carelluyzo, “was brought into Viterbo the game 
 at cards, which comes from the country of the Saracens, and is with them called naib." 
 “ Whence afterwards,” says Mr. W. Chatto {Origin and History of Playing Cards, Lond., 
 1848), “perhaps Jackanapes, Jack of cards.” This entry occurs in the accounts of the 
 treasurer of Charles VI. of France, in 1393: “Given to Jacquemin Gringonneur, painter, 
 for three packs of cards, gilt and colored, and variously ornamented, for the amuse- 
 ment of the king, 56 sols of Paris.” From the date of this year being immediately 
 subsequent to that in which the king lost his reason, the story goes that C. were 
 invented to divert his royal melancholy; but they were certainly of earlier use in France. 
 The French clergy took greatly to C. about this time; we are afraid, too, it was to the 
 ungenteel game of all-fours, since we find them specially forbidden that amusement by 
 the synod of Langres, in 1404. 
 
 Card-making became a regular trade in Germany 14 years after this, and it, as well 
 as card-painting, seems to have been carried on for some time exclusively by females; 
 the wood-engraving of C., however, did not begin until some time afterwards. The 
 pips were then very prettily imagined, the suits consisting of hearts, bells, acorns, and 
 leaves. The place of her majesty the queen was filled by a knight in those days; and it 
 is to Italy, and not to Germany or France, that the glory of giving place aux dames 
 must be conceded. There was also no ace whatever! By 1420, gambling by means of 
 C. had grown to such a pitch as to provoke St. Bernardin to preach against it at 
 Bologna; and that so eloquently as to cause his hearers to make a fire in the public 
 place and throw all the C. in their possession into it — a proceeding which must have 
 been hailed with joy by the Messrs. De la Rue of that period. The signs upon Italian 
 C., which seem to have been the first imported into England, were cups, swords, 
 money, and clubs; but in the third year of Edward IV., their further importation was 
 forbidden, and the home-trade of card-making protected. C. were played by that time, 
 we read, “ in all places of worship” in this country, by which it was meant, not in the 
 churches, but in the houses of all the gentry. Henry VII. was a card-player; and there 
 are not a few entries in that mean monarch’s privy-purse account of his majesty’s little 
 losings. His daughter Margaret, at the age of 14, was found by James IV. of Scot- 
 land — the first time he ever saw her — in the act of playing cards; and it was most prob- 
 ably ecarte, for he at once “ proposed” to her, and she “ accepted” him. There was a 
 sum regularly allotted to the princess, afterwards queen, Mary, as pocket-money for this 
 especial purpose; the sums given her at a time for immediate disbursement ranging from 
 20s. to 40s., but one entry being so disgracefully low (for a princess) as “two and 
 tuppence.” James I. likewise played a good deal, but so sleepily that he required some- 
 body to hold his C. for him. 
 
 About the year 1660, heraldic C. were first introduced into England, the king of clubs 
 being represented by the arms of the pope; of spades, by those of the king of France; 
 of diamonds, by those of the king of Spain; and of hearts, by those of the king of Eng- 
 land. From these heraldic C., we suppose, Mr. Chatto derives the word coat-card, 
 instead of court-card, which is certainly in more general use. In 1679, a pack was 
 published containing the history of all the popish plots, “excellently engraved on 
 copper-plates, with very large descriptions under each card. Aspersers of this pack,” 
 it is added by their disinterested publisher, “ plainly show themselves to be popishly 
 affected.” 
 
 The French, from whom we derive our ordinary suits of diamond, heart, spade, and 
 club — carreau, cceur, pique, and trejle — were continually changing their court-cards, and 
 representing on them all sorts of historical characters. In the earlier periods, their kings 
 were David, Alexander, Caesar, and Charlemagne, or Solomon, Augustus, Clovis, and 
 Constantine; about all of wiiom, as well as their queens, P^re Daniel has the most 
 ingenious theories. Troops, says he, however brave and numerous, require to have 
 prudent and experienced generals. The trejle or clover-plant, which abounds in the 
 meadows of France, denotes that a chief ought always to encamp his army in a place 
 where he may obtain forage for his cavalry; piques and carreaux signify magazines of 
 arms, which ought ever to be well stored — the carreau being a sort of heavy arrow shot 
 from a cross-bow, and which was so called from its head being squared {carre)-, cceurs, 
 hearts, signified courage of both commanders and soldiers; the was the Latin as, and 
 represented money, the sinews of war; and so on. 
 
 At the time of the French revolution, the places of the card-kings were filled by four 
 philosophers — MoliSre, Lafontaine, Voltaire, and Rousseau; and those of the queens by 
 four virtues — prudence, justice, temperance, and fortitude. 
 
 Many attempts have been made to put down card-playing by the strong hand of the 
 law; but the history of the four kings has, nevertheless, always retained its students. 
 Not a few enthusiastic players have absolutely died in harness, with cards in their 
 hands, such as the great Bath player Lookup, who expired at his favorite “double 
 dumby,” not even being permitted by inexorable death to play out the game. The four 
 kings, like their flesh-aiul-blood originals, are likely to lose all sway over the new world; 
 for Mr. Chatto informs us, that the court-cards, if they can be called so, of a republican 
 
457 
 
 Carduccl. 
 
 pack manufactured in 1848 at New York, have neither kings nor queens; the president 
 of hearts being Washington; of diamonds, John Adams; of clubs, Franklin; and of 
 spades, Lafayette. One of the queens is Venus, modestly concealing her charms; and 
 the others are respectively Fortune, Ceres, and Minerva; while the knaves are fitly repre- 
 sented by Indian chiefs. 
 
 The manufacture of playing-cards comprises many interesting processes. The card- 
 board employed for this purpose is formed of several thicknesses of paper pasted 
 together; there are usually four such thicknesses; and the paper is so selected as to 
 take paste, paint, and polish equally well. The sheets of paper are pasted with a brush, 
 and are united by successive processes of cold-drying, hot-drying, and hydraulic press- 
 ure. Each sheet is large enough for 40 cards. The outer surfaces of the outer sheets 
 are prepared with a kind of flinty coating, which gives sharpness to the outline of the 
 various colored devices. Most packs of cards are now made with colored backs. The 
 ground-tint is laid on with a brush, and consists of distemper color, or pigments mixed 
 with warm melted size. The device impressed on this ground-tint is often very beauti- 
 ful. Messrs. De la Rue, the leading firm in the manufacture, employ tasteful artists, 
 and invest a large amount of capital, in the introduction of new patterns. On cards 
 sold at moderate prices, the colors at the back are generally two — one for the ground, 
 and one for the device; but some of the choicer specimens display several colors; and 
 many of the designs are due to the pencil of Mr. Owen Jones. The printing of the design 
 is done on the sheets of paper, before the pasting to form cardboard. The pips or spots 
 on the faces of playing-cards are now spades, clubs, hearts, and diamonds; but at differ- 
 ent times, and in different countries, there have been leaves, acorns, bells, cups, swords, 
 fruit, heads, parasols, and other objects similarly represented. In English cards, the 
 colors are red and black; Messrs. De la Rue once introduced red, black, green, and blue 
 for the four suits ; but the novelty was not encouraged by card-players. The same 
 makers have also endeavored to supersede the clumsy devices of kings, queens, and 
 knaves, by something more artistic; but this, too, failed commercially; for the old 
 patterns, like the old willow-pattern dinner-plates, are still preferred — simply because 
 the users have become accustomed to them. Until within the last few years, the print- 
 ing of cards was generally done by stenciling, the color being applied through perforated 
 devices in a stencil-plate. The color employed for this purpose is mixed up with a 
 kind of paste. When there is a device at the back, the outline of the device is printed 
 from an engraved wood-block, and the rest filled in by stenciling. The stenciling of 
 the front and back can be done either before or after the pasting of the sheets into card- 
 board. One great improvement in the manufacture, has been the substitution of oil 
 color for paste or size color; and another, the substitution of printing for stenciling. 
 Messrs. De la Rue have expended large sums of money on these novelties; for many 
 experiments had to be made, to determine how best to employ oil color so that the spots 
 or pips may be equal-tinted, the outline clear and sharp, the pigment well adherent to 
 the surface, and the drying such as to admit of polishing without stickiness. The plates 
 for printing are engraved on copper or brass, or are produced by electrotype, or are 
 built up with small pieces of metal or interlaced wire. The printing is done in the 
 usual way of color-printing, with as many plates as there are colors (usually five), and 
 one for the outlines; it is executed on the sheets of paper, before being pasted into card- 
 board. When the printing, drying, and pasting are all completed, a careful polishing 
 is effected by means of brush-wheels, pasteboard wheels, heated plates, and heated 
 rollers, in such a way that the polish on the back may differ from that on the face — since 
 it is found that two equally polished surfaces do not slide quite so readily over each 
 other. Every pack of cards made in England for home-use pays a duty of threepence, 
 which duty is levied on the ace of spades. The makers of cards pay £1 per annum for 
 a license, and formerly the venders had to pay 2.?. 6(Z. per annum, but this latter tax 
 was repealed on the 5th July, 1870. The carboard, when all the printing is finished, is 
 cut up into cards; every card is minutely examined, and placed among the “moguls,” 
 “harrys,” or “highlanders,” as they are technically called, according to the degree in 
 which they may be faultless or slightly specked; and the cards are finally made up into 
 packs. Persons wishing the best cards should ask for “moguls,” the usual retail price 
 for a pack of which is 2/3 to 3/9. 
 
 A few years ago, it was estimated that about half a million packs of cards are 
 made annually in England, by about seven or eight firms. Card-playing is not now so 
 general in England as it was early in the century, and the number made has conse- 
 quently lessened, although the quality has greatly improved. All the cards used in 
 Russia, with a few exceptions, are made at an imperial manufactory in St. Petersburg, 
 where the operations are conducted on a large scale, and where the number of packs 
 made exceeds manifold the whole produce of England. The French cards are some- 
 what smaller and thinner than those of England. 
 
 CARDUC'CI, Bartolommeo, 1560-1610; an Italian artist; b. in Florence; studied 
 under Zucchero, whom he accompanied to Madrid, where he painted the ceiling of the 
 Escorial library. He died in Spain, where most of his works are to be found, the most 
 celebrated being a “Descent from the Cross,” in a church in Madrid. His brother, 
 Vincenzo, was also a painter of celebrity, and the author of a dialogue on the excellencies 
 of painting. 
 
Carduchi. 
 
 Carey. 
 
 458 
 
 CARDU'CHI, a warlike people once inhabiting the mountains of Kurdistan, sup- 
 posed to have been the ancestors of the Kurds of the present day. The Greeks, in the 
 famous retreat of the 10,000, had to pass through their country, and were greatly har- 
 assed by them. 
 
 CAKDUE'LIS. See Goldfinch. 
 
 CARDUUS. See Thistle. 
 
 CARDWELL, a co. in central Ontario, Canada, formed recently from Peel and 
 Simcoe cos.; pop. ’71, 16,500. 
 
 CARDWELL, Edward, 1787-1861 ; an English clergyman and ecclesiastical historian, 
 educated at Oxford. In 1826, he was chosen Camden professor of ancient history, and 
 during his period of office he wrote a translation of the Ethics of Aristotle, with notes, 
 and The Coinage of the Ancient Creeks and Bomans. In 1831, he was made principal of 
 St. Alban’s hall, and held the place through life. Among his publications were a 
 student’s edition of the Greek Testament; Josephus’s history with notes; 
 
 Annals of the Reformed Church of England from 1546 to 1716; History of Conferences, etc., 
 connected with the Revision of the Book of Common Prayer; Synodalia, a Collection of Religious 
 Canons, and Proceedings of Convocation from 1547 to 1717; and Reformatio Legum 
 Ecclesiasticarum. 
 
 CARDWELL, Edward, Viscount, b. 1813; nephew of the Rev. Edward; graduated 
 at Baliol college, and admitted to the bar, but preferred political life and entered parlia- 
 ment in 1842, being several times thereafter re-chosen. In 1845, he was secretary of the 
 treasury and president of the board of trade. He was subsequently chief secretary for 
 Ireland, chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, and secretary of state for the colonies. 
 In Gladstone’s cabinet, 1868, he became secretary for war and a member of the com- 
 mittee of the council on education. In the war office he proposed and effected a re- 
 organization of the army. With earl Stanhope he was one of the literary executors of 
 sir Robert Peel, and one of the editors of Peel’s Memoirs. 
 
 CARE or Carle Sunday, the Sunday before Palm Sunday, said to be so called 
 because it was the practice in many parts of the country to eat gray peas, called callings, 
 fried in butter, pepper, and salt, on this day. This practice apparently had its more 
 immediate origin in the custom of the Roman Catholic Church of eating hallowed beans 
 fried at this time — these beans being described in some religious books as symbolical of 
 confession, and their steeping before use, of meditation. It appears, however, to have 
 been adopted by this church from a heathen custom. See Brand’s Popular Antiquities. 
 
 CAREENING is the operation of heaving down a ship on one side, in order to expose 
 the other side for cleaning by the process of breaming (q.v.). C. is seldom now per- 
 formed upon English ships, partly because the use of copper-sheathing lessens the foul- 
 ing of the bottom, and partly because caissons and hydraulic lifts afford means for 
 raising ships out of the water. The Great Eastern, in 1860, was placed upon an open 
 scaffolding or frame, called a gridiron, in Milford Haven, and floated so as to render 
 cleansing possible without the dangerous and difficult process of careening. 
 
 In sea-phrase, a vessel is said to “ careen” when she leans over very much through 
 press of sail. 
 
 CA'RET (from the Latin careo, I am wanting), a character of this form. A, denoting 
 that something has been omitted, and is interlined. 
 
 CAREW, George, 1557-1629; Earl of Totness and Baron of Clopton; educated at 
 Oxford and joined the army, holding an important command in the Irish wars against 
 the earl of Desmond. He filled several offices, among them that of one of the lord 
 judges of Ireland, in which by a vigorous but prudent policy he speedily reduced the 
 rebels to submission. His crowning exploit was the capture of Dunboy castle, an event 
 that greatly disappointed the Spanish allies of the Irish, and ended the war. For these 
 services he was raised to the peerage and made governor of Guernsey. His last office 
 was that of privy councilor to James I. He wrote Hibernia Pacata, a history of the 
 wars in Ireland. 
 
 CAREW, Sir George, d. about 1613; educated at Oxford, and knighted by queen 
 Elizabeth. He was secretary to sir Christopher Hatton, and was sent as ambassador to 
 the king of Poland. Under James I. he was employed in negotiating the treaty of 
 union between England and Scotland, and afterwards as ambassador to France. He 
 was the author of a Relation of the State of France. 
 
 CAREW, Richard, 1555-1620; an Oxford student who at the age of 14 was chosen 
 to dispute extemporaneously with sir Philip Sidney in the presence of an audience of 
 noblemen. He was sheriff of Cornwall, and the author of a Survey of that county, a 
 work that enjoyed a high ^utation. He also wrote, or translated from the Italian, 
 The Examination of Men’s Wits; The True and Ready Way to Learn the Latin Tongue; 
 and made a translation of the first five cantos of Tasso’s Jerusalem Delivered. 
 
 CAREW, Thomas, a poet of the reign of Charles I., descended from an old family in 
 Gloucestershire, was b. 1589. Having been educated at Oxford, he traveled abroad for 
 some time, and on his return was received at court, and patronized by Charles I. C. 
 deserves mention chiefly as the precursor and representative of what may be called the 
 
459 
 
 Carduchi. 
 
 Carey. 
 
 courtier and conventional school of poetry, whose chief characteristic was scholarly 
 ease and elegance, with a spice of indelicacy, and even indecency. C. ’s poems, mostly 
 lyrical, and treating of trifling subjects, are among the best of their kind, and exhibit 
 much fancy and tenderness. He died 1639. Several editions of his poems, which first 
 appeared in 1640, have been published. 
 
 CA'BEX, a genus of plants of the natural order cyperacm, of which the species are 
 i^ery numerous — more than 450 — principally abounding in the temperate and colder 
 parts of the world. More that 60 are natives of Britain. The English name Sedge or 
 Seg is sometimes employed as synonymous with C., but is popularly applied only to 
 some of the species. This genus is distinguished by unisexual flowers, the male flowers 
 with one glume, the female inclosed in a flask-shaped involucre. Some of the species 
 are plants of the very humblest growth, others are 2 or 3 ft. in height; all are of unpre- 
 tending, grassy, or rush-like appearance. Some grow in wet, and others in dry situa- 
 tions ; some are of great value in the economy of nature, as forming the principal part 
 of the vegetation of swamps, which they gradually convert into fertile ground. The 
 running roots, or rather rhizomes, of some help to bind the sands of sea-shores, particu- 
 larly (7. arenaria, which is carefully planted for this purpose on the dikes of Holland. 
 None are valued by the agriculturist, as they are very deficient in nutritive quality, and 
 in general they abound only in very inferior pastures, and good tillage and drainage 
 lead to their speedy disappearance. The rhizomes of (7. arenaria, C. hirta, and G. 
 disticha, are sometimes used under the name of O&rman sarsaparilla, as a diaphoretic 
 and demulcent medicine — a bad substitute for sarsaparilla. The two former are com- 
 mon in Britain. The dried leaves of C. sylmtica are used by the Laplanders to cover 
 their legs and hands as a protection from frost-biting and cmlblains, being worn in the 
 inside of their shoes and gloves. 
 
 CAREY, Henry, d. 1743; an English musical composer and poet, an illegitimate 
 son of George Saville, marquis of Halifax. Carey’s ballads and songs, though of no 
 great merit as compositions, were very popular at the time. He wrote a number of 
 dramatic pieces, among which were Chrononhotonthologos, a burlesque on trage(^; the 
 Honest Yoi'kshireman, an operetta; Nancy and Thomas and Sally, interludes; The Dragon 
 of Wantley, Margery or the Dragoness, burlesque operas. One of his songs, Sally in our 
 Alley, is still remarkably popular in England. 
 
 CARET, Henry C., a political economist of the United States, b. at Philadelphia in 
 1793. In 1836, he published an essay on the Rate of Wages, which was expanded into 
 the Principles of Political Economy (1837-40). The value of this work may be estimated 
 from the fact, that no less an authority than Frederic Bastiat copied its leading ideas. 
 It was translated into Italian and Swedish, and favorably noticed in all the important 
 politico-economic journals of Europe.' In 1838, C. published The Credit System of 
 France, Great Britain, and the United States; and in 1848, The Past, the Present, and the 
 Future, a work marked by great vigor and originality. In 1853, appeared the Letters on 
 the International Copyright; in 1858, Principles of Social Science; in 1867, Review of t?ie 
 Decade 1857-67 ; and, in 1873, The Unity of Law. C. was originally a free trader, but 
 was ere long recognized as the head of a new school of political economy. According 
 to this system, free-trade may be the ideal towards which we should tend, but a period 
 of protection is an indispensable stage in the progress towards it. 
 
 CAREY, Mathew, b. Ireland, 1760, d. Philadelphia, 1839; an author and publisher. 
 In consequence of publishing an address to the Irish Roman Catholics on their oppres- 
 sion by the penal code (about 1778) he was compelled to leave Ireland, but returned 
 within a year and established, in 1783, the Volunteer’s Journal. His attacks upon parlia- 
 ment and the ministry caused his imprisonment in Newgate until the dissolution of 
 parliament. He arrived in Philadelphia by the aid of Lafayette, who sent him $400, 
 and immediately started The Pennsylvania Herald, one of the first papers in the country 
 to furnish accurate reports of legislative debates. In Jan., 1786, he fought a duel with 
 col. Oswald, another editor, and was seriously wounded. He was sub^sequently con- 
 nected with the Columbian Magazine and the American Museum. In 1791, he began 
 trade as a bookseller, and with his sons built up a prosperous business. During the 
 epidemic of yellow fever in 1793 he was active in the work of relief, and afterwards wrote 
 a history of the disease. In 1793, he, with others, founded the Hibernian society, and 
 in 1796 he assisted bishop White in establishing the first Sunday-school society. Carey 
 was a constant writer, and published a great number of essays on party politics, polit- 
 ical economy, and social questions. Among his favorite ideas were internal improve- 
 ments and a protective tariff. His son Henry C. (see ante) was one of the foremost 
 American writers on political economy. 
 
 CAREY, William, d.d., a distinguished minister and missionary belonging to the 
 Baptist body, was b. at Paulersbury, a village in Northamptonshire, Aug, 761. He 
 served his time as a shoemaker, but began to preach about his 20th year. A pamphlet 
 which he published about this time, attracted the attention of his co-workers in the minis- 
 tr}^ to the subject of foreign missions, and ultimately a missionary society, chiefly 
 through C.’s exertions, was formed, C. and a Mr. Thomas were chosen its first mis- 
 sionaries to India in 1793. From that time until his death in 1836, C. was indefatigable 
 
Cargill. 
 
 Caries. 
 
 460 
 
 (under many difficulties, especially in his early years) in his efforts to spread the knowl- 
 edge of thc*^ Gospel among the heathen. Under his direction, the Serampore mission, of 
 which he was the principal founder, had up to 1832 issued above 200,000 Bibles, or por- 
 tions thereof, in about forty oriental languages or dialects, besides a great number of 
 tracts and other religious works in various languages. A great proportion of the actual 
 literary labor involved in these undertakings was performed by C. himself, whose San- 
 skrit and other grammars have been very highly spoken of by the late Mr. Wilson Boden, 
 professor of Sanskrit at Oxford. C. was professor of oriental languages at Fort-William 
 college, Calcutta, from 1800 to 1830. 
 
 CARGILL, Donald, 1610-81 ; a leader of the covenanters appointed to a church in 
 Glasgow, where he made himself so obnoxious to the government that he was forced to 
 leave. He was wounded in the battle of Both well, and fled to Holland ; but returned 
 almost immediately and joined Richard Cameron in publishing the Sanquhar declara- 
 tion, and boldly excommunicated the king and his officials. He was soon afterwards 
 arrested and beheaded at Edinburgh, July 27, 1681. 
 
 CARGO is a general name for all the merchandise carried on board a trading-ship. 
 Sometimes it is applied also to the invoice of the cargo. The term deck-cargo, is given 
 to the commodities on deck, which are not usually included in the policy of insurance. 
 
 For the security of the customs’ revenue, the master of every coasting- vessel is bound 
 to keep a cargo-hook, recording the name of the vessel, the name of the owner, the port 
 of departure, the port of destination, the goods taken, the name of the shippers and 
 consignees, the time of departure and other particulars. The custom-house officers may 
 demand to see this book at any time. The C. of passenger ships is placed, in some 
 degree, under the control of the emigration officers by an act passed in 1852. 
 
 CARHEIL, Etienne de, a Jesuit missionary among the Indians of Canada about 
 1668. He was among the earliest to master the native languages. The time of his death 
 is not known, but he was at missionary work as late as 1721. 
 
 CA'RIA, in ancient geography, the south- westernmost country of Asia Minor, bounded 
 n. by Lydia, e. by Phrygia, s.e. by Lycia, and w. and s.w. by the Mediterranean. A 
 large portion of what was C. is mountainous. The chief ranges were called the Cad- 
 mian and the Latmian. The most important river was the Mmander, famous for its 
 windings. C. was, at an early date, governed by petty princes or kings; it afterwards 
 became a part of the Persian empire, the former princes continuing to rule as satraps ; 
 and it subsequently came into the hands of the early Macedonian kings of Egypt; and 
 finally, with the rest of Asia, into those of the Romans. Among the chief towns were 
 Cnidus, Halicarnassus, and Miletus. 
 
 CARIA'CO, a seaport of Venezuela, at the mouth of a river, and at the head of a gulf 
 of the same name. It is 40 m. to the e. of Cumana, in lat. 10° 30' n., and long. 63° 40' 
 west. Pop. 7,000. The gulf, long and narrow, with good anchorage, and well- wooded 
 shores, is open only on the w., and that to a portion of the Caribbean sea, which is itself 
 breasted by a chain of islands. 
 
 CA'RIACOU, Carjacou, or Virginian Deer, Germs Virginianus, a species of deer 
 found in all parts of North America, from Mexico to about n. lat. 43°, and from the Atlan- 
 tic to the Pacific ocean. It is the species commonly called deer by the Anglo-Americans. 
 It is smaller and more elegant than the common stag; of very variable color — light reddish 
 brown in spring, slaty blue in autumn, and dull brown in winter; the belly, throat, chin, 
 and inner parts of the limbs white. The horns of the adult male are of moderate size, 
 bent strongly backward, and then suddenly forward, so as to bring their tips nearly 
 above the nose; they have several snags. The fawn is profusely decked with white 
 spots, arranged in lines, and sometimes running into stripes. The name C. is extended 
 generically to several nearly allied species, found in Mexico, California, etc. 
 
 ^ARIA'MA, Microdactylus cristatus, a bird of the order gralloe, allied to the cranes, 
 but exhibiting also points of strong resemblance to gallinaceous birds, among which it 
 has therefore been proposed to rank it, next to the guans. It is a native of Guiana, 
 Brazil, and Paraguay, inhabiting open plains and tlie outskirts of forests, where it 
 feeds chiefly on serpents, lizards, and insects. It is larger than the common heron; the 
 plumage is brown, finely waved with darker brown, whitish on the lower parts. When 
 pursued, the (^. seeks safety by running, and does not readily attempt to use its wings. 
 Its voice resembles that of a young turkey. It is much esteemed for the table, and it is 
 sometimes reared in a domesticated state. 
 
 CARIBBE'AN SEA, the grandest inlet of the western hemisphere— corresponding, in 
 several respects, to the Mediterranean in the eastern — is separated from the gulf of 
 Mexico by Yucatan, and from the Atlantic ocean by the great arch of the Antilles, 
 between Cuba and Trinidad inclusive, stretching in n. lat. from about 8° to about 22°, 
 and in w. long, from about 61° to about 89°. The C. S. forms the turning-point in the 
 vast cycle of waters known as the Gulf stream (q.v.), that wheels round, with the regu 
 larity of time itself, from southern Africa to northern Europe. Its pours its waters into 
 the gulf of Mexico on the w., which shoots forth, on the e., the Florida stream with the 
 computed volume of 3,000 Mississippis. To supply this enormous efflux, theC. S. draws 
 on the Atlantic, laying under contribution nearly all the trade-wind regions of that ocean, 
 
461 
 
 Carg'llL 
 
 Caries. 
 
 tio as literally to become the receptacle of the Amazon and the Orinoco. To the British 
 isles, it is, in this connection, an object of peculiar interest. Rendering still warmer 
 the warm floods which it concentrates, it imparts to the Florida stream that high tem- 
 perature which tends, with the aid of the prevalent winds, to mitigate climate from 
 Guernsey to Shetland. In common with the islands of its eastern boundary, the C. S. 
 takes its name from their now extinct aborigines, the Caribs. 
 
 CARIBBEE BARE, or Piton Bark, is the bark of exostemma CaribcBum, a small tree 
 which grows in the West Indies and in Mexico, and belongs to the natural order <nn- 
 chonaceoR. The genus exostemma is very nearly allied to cinchona, from which it differs 
 in having the stamens exserted, whereas in cinchona they are included within the corolla. 
 
 Caribceumh^^ ovate lanceolate leaves, and is known in the West Indies as sea-sids 
 beech. C. B. has a very bitter taste, and a very faint smell. It contains none of the 
 characteristic alkaloids of cinchona, 5’-et very much resembles it in some of its properties, 
 and is one of the barks sometimes substituted for the true cinchona barks. 
 
 CARIBBEE ISLANDS. See Antilles, ante. 
 
 CARIBOU'. See Reindeer, ante. 
 
 CA'RIBS, Indians of the West India islands, who were in the time of Columbus 
 numerous and powerful; a warlike and aggressive people, who pertinaciously opposed 
 the advances of the Europeans. It is supposed, though not proved, that they were 
 addicted to cannibalism. They have almost entirely disappeared from the islands; and 
 at present their chief settlement is in Honduras, where they form an industrious and 
 prosperous portion of the people, though still retaining their language and many of their 
 customs. In 1796, the English, weary of the continual disturbances occasioned by the 
 Caribs, transported them in a body from Dominica and St. Vincent to the island of 
 Ruatan. There are two great tribes, the red, and the black ; the former were descend- 
 ants of the ancient stock, and the latter mixed with negro blood. Some of the Indians 
 in South America are apparently of the same race. 
 
 CARICA. See Pap aw. 
 
 CARICATURE (Ital. caricatura, from caricare, to load or overcharge). The etymology 
 of this word indicates its meaning very distinctly, which is that of a representation of a 
 face, form, or character, in which the salient features are exaggerated or overloaded, to 
 the extent of producing a ludicrous effect, without entirely, or even essentially destroy- 
 ing the resemblance. C. may be regarded as the opposite of idealization ; the former 
 consisting in a disproportionate development of some, very frequently of one only, of the 
 characteristics of the subject treated, the latter in a proportionate elevation of them all. 
 Nay, further, the destruction of harmony is essential to C., and where harmony is the 
 prevailing quality of its subject, the required effect may frequently be produced by 
 this means alone; whereas harmony belongs of necessity to idealization, and where 
 its absence was the characteristic defect of the object as a real existence, an ideal of 
 R humble kind may frequently be produced by simply restoring it. 
 
 When used with reference to sensible representation, C. stands, to the genuine 
 productions of the plastic and pictorial arts, in the same relation in which farce 
 stands to the legitimate drama. Both C. and farce are thus degenerate forms of art; 
 and though requiring much cleverness for their successful execution, and often afford- 
 ing lively satisfaction to the spectator, can scarcely be said in general to have an 
 elevating object, or any other tendency than to amuse. When used as ancillary to 
 well-directed and merited satire, C. assumes a noble character, and it is to the credit 
 of our nation that it is so frequently thus employed in our ephemeral literature? 
 The best examples of C. which have -ever appeared in the literature of any people, 
 are to be found in the pages of Punch. 
 
 CA'RIES {rottenness) is a disease of bone analogous to the ulceration of soft tissues. 
 It is characterized by a gradual loss of substance, from the particles of bone being 
 absorbed, or being cast off and washed away in a purulent discharge. It begins as an 
 unhealthy inflammation, followed by exudation of new materials, and softening of the 
 part affected. On examination, the bone-cells are found filled with a reddish glairy 
 fluid, and in scrofulous patients, deposits of tubercle. After C. has existed for some 
 time, an abscess forms, and bursts; its aperture remains open, discharging a thin fluid, 
 which contains particles of the bone. If a probe be passed through this opening, it 
 will be felt to sink into some soft gritty substance; this is the carious bone, which, if 
 removed, and well washed, will be found to resemble in whiteness and fragility loaf- 
 sugar softening in hot water. 
 
 C. may attack any bone, but it usually selects the vertebrae, those of the wrist and 
 foot, and the soft ends of long bones forming joints. To this terrible disease most 
 deformities, not congenital, are owing. The carious vertebrae yield under the weight 
 of the trunk, and the spine curves forwards, or to one side. In the joint-ends of bones, 
 the part enlarges, the cartilages become affected, matter forms, and amputation of the 
 limb, or excision of the joint, is frequently necessary to save the patient’s life. Too 
 often the disease recurs with night-sweats, hectic, and death. 
 
 The causes of C. are constitutional, though it may be accidentally determined to some 
 
Carigrnano. 
 
 Cai’leton. 
 
 462 
 
 particular part of the body by any irritation, such as a blow, or exposure to atmospheric 
 changes. Scrofulous persons, and those who have had syphilis or mercury in excess at 
 any period of their lives, are more subject to it than others. If affecting a small bone, 
 the latter may be entirely removed ; and if the disease is strictly limited to the ends of 
 bones forming a joint, these may be excised. Within the last 30 years, great advances 
 have been made in this department of surgery, and C. of the joints is but seldom counted 
 a sufficient reason for amputation; the knee, hip, shoulder, elbow, ankle, and wrist 
 joints have all been repeatedly excised successfully in this country. In situations where 
 the part cannot be reached by instruments, lotions of dilute acid may be injected, with 
 the view of stimulating the carious surface to assume a healing action. 
 
 The treatment of C. consists in supporting the patient’s strength by judicious change 
 of air, and tonics, with the administration of medicines, such as cod-liver oil in scrof- 
 ula, which appear to combat the constitutional predisposition to the disease. In those 
 parts where the diseased bone can be reached, it should be gouged or scraped away, so as 
 to leave a healthy surface of bone, which may granulate up, and heal. 
 
 Caries op the Teeth depends, it is supposed, on an original faulty formation of 
 their substance, when, after any depressing cause, especially in scrofulous and ill-nour- 
 ished persons, they soften and crumble away, at last laying open the cavity which con- 
 tains the nervous pulp of the tooth, and producing toothache. Treatment. — The carious 
 surface should be removed, and, as a substitute for the lost substance, gold or some 
 other substance should be stuffed into the cavity. If the pulp be exposed, the hole 
 should be stuffed with some softer material, till the parts are somewhat hardened; for 
 this, Mr. Tomes of London recommends a plug of cotton-wool dipped in a mixture of 
 mastich, a dram, and rectified spirit or eau-de-Cologne, 1| oz. ; or of gutta percha dis- 
 solved in chloroform. 
 
 CABIGNA'NO, a t. of Piedmont, in the province of Turin, about 11 m. s. of the city 
 of that name. It is situated near the left bank of the Po, in the midst of a most beau- 
 tiful country; has some fine churches, manufactures of silk-twist, and a pop. of 7,713. 
 This town gives name to a branch of the house of Savoy. 
 
 CARILLON. See Bell. 
 
 CARIMA'TA, a name applied to the passage between Borneo and Billiton; also tp 
 a cluster of islets in the same passage; and lastly, to the principal member of tbe 
 group, whose highest point, a peak of 2,000 ft., is in lat 1° 36' s., and long. 108° 54' e. 
 
 CARINA'RIA, a remarkable and interesting genus of gasteropodous mollusks, of the 
 order called heteropoda or nucleohranchiata, having a thin shell, in form somewhat like 
 that of a limpet, which, however, only covers the visceral sac (heart, gills, etc.), leaving 
 the greater part of the animal exposed. The shells of some of the species have been 
 sometimes denominated Venus's slipper and glass nautilus. The body is gelatinous, and 
 so transparent that much of its interior organization can be seen. Nearly opposite to 
 the part of the back occupied by the shell is a sort of vertical fin, answering to the foot 
 of the other gasteropods. The species of C. are all marine, are found only in the seas 
 of the warmer latitudes, and generally swim with the back downward. Closely allied 
 to C. is the genus in which there is no shell at all. 
 
 GARI'NI, a t. of Sicily, in the province of Palermo, and 12 m. w.n.w. of the city of 
 that name. It has an old castle; and a pop. of 9,600, chiefiy engaged in fishing. 
 
 CARINO'LA, a t. of s. Italy, in the province of Caserta, 20 m. s.e. of Gaeta. It has a 
 cathedral, and a Franciscan convent. The district produces excellent wine. Pop. 6,630. 
 
 CARIN'THIA (Ger. Edrnthen), a crown-land of the Austrian empire, forming part 
 of the old kingdom of Illyria, with an area of 3,958 sq.m., and a pop. in 1869, of 
 337,694, which is rather less than what it was in 1854. The principal river is the Drave, 
 which passes through the country from w. to e., in a course of almost 150 miles. The 
 general aspect of the country is mountainous, with long deep valleys, that of the Drave 
 widening at Villach and Klagenfurt into a great plain. The valley of the Drave divides 
 the Noric from the Corinthian Alps. Agriculture is carried on to a limited extent, owing 
 to the mountainous character of the country, great part of which is occupied in pasture, 
 or covered with brushwood. Many horses and cattle are reared and exported. The 
 principal products are mineral. One of the principal branches of industry is the manu- 
 facture of hardware ; the other manufactures include woolens, silk stuffs, and cottons. 
 The capital is Klagenfurt. — The ancient inhabitants were the Garni, who derived their 
 name from the Celtic Vfor6.carn or corn, Lat. cornu, Eng. horn — an allusion to the craggy, 
 horn-like pinnacles of their hills. Before the time of Augustus, it belonged to Noricum, 
 afterwards to the Roman empire. By and by the Garni were swept away in the deluge 
 of immigation from the e., and Slaves settled in the country. After some time the Slaves 
 themselves were so heavily oppressed by the Avari, that they called to their assistance a 
 Frank, named Samo, who founded the kingdom of Carantania, which included much 
 more than the present C. , but fell to pieces after his death. Finally, it came into the 
 
 P ossession of Austria (q.v.). Only about two sevenths of the present population is 
 lavic (Slovenians), the remainder being Germans. 
 
 CARI'NUS, Marcus Aurelius, son of Carus, succeeded his father as emperor of 
 Rome in 383 a.d. He was a cruel and profiigate ruler, and the soldiers naturally 
 
463 
 
 Cari^naiLO* 
 
 Carleton. 
 
 rebelled, proclaiming Diocletian. Carinas marched into Moesia to quell the revolt, and 
 ivon a decisive victory, but at the moment of triumph he was killed by one of his sol- 
 diers whose wife the profligate emperor had led away. 
 
 CAEI'PE, a t. of Venezuela, South America, situated in a fertile valley of the same 
 name, 50 m. s.e. of Cumana. The valley is noted for a cavern frequented by the remark- 
 able bird called guacharo (q.v.). Pop. of town and valley, 5000. 
 
 CAR'ISBROOKE, a village in the isle of Wight almost adjoining Newport, chiefly 
 noted for its castle, which is supposed to have been built by the Saxons in the 6th cen- 
 tury. It was enlarged in the 11th c. by the flrst lord of Wight; was captured by Ste- 
 phen in 1136, and in the time of Richard II. successfully resisted attacks by the French. 
 During Elizabeth’s reign it was further enlarged until its outer walls inclosed 20 acres. 
 It was in this castle that Charles I. took refuge in Nov., 1647, but he soon found his 
 asylum a prison. After his execution his two youngest children were conflned in the 
 castle, and the princess Elizabeth died there. The remains of the castle are still exten- 
 sive. Opposite the castle-hill are the remains of a Cistercian priory founded in the 11th 
 €., and the parish church claims even a greater antiquity. Pop. of parish ’71, 8198. 
 
 CAEIS'SA, a genus of plants of the natural order ayocynacece, C. carandas is a thorny 
 shrub, much used for fences in India ; and the fruit, called carandas — a berry about the 
 size of a small plum — for tarts and preserves. 
 
 CARIS'SIMI, Giovanni Giacomo, b. about 1604 near Rome; became chapel-master, 
 or director of music, at the age of 20. By education he belonged to the old Roman 
 school of music, but his compositions mark the turning-point from the traditions of the 
 renaissance period to the incipient aspirations of modern music. His numerous compo- 
 sitions include masses, cantatas, motets, and oratorios. 
 
 CAR'LEE, or Kakli, a village in India, 40 m. e. of Bombay, remarkable only for 
 a Buddhist temple hewn into a rocky precipice which rises 800 ft. above the plain, the 
 temple being about two thirds of the way up. The temple is 130 by 40 ft., with a high 
 arched roof. An arch rises over the entrance to the artificial cavern, and before each of 
 the side entrances are screens of stone-work ornamented with naked male and female 
 figures in alto-rilievo. In front are three large lions, and around the portico are figures 
 of elephants, each one surmounted by a driver and a howdah or saddle containing fig- 
 ures of two persons. The interior is finished with a double row of sculptured pillars 
 forming a semicircle. This curious temple is well preserved. 
 
 CAELEN, Emilie, a well-known Swedish novel-writer, was b. 8th Aug., 1807, at 
 Stromstad, near the frontier of Norway. She was the youngest of 14 children of a 
 merchant named Smith. During childhood her talent in imaginative fiction was 
 remarked by her friends; but it was not till 1838 that her first novel, Waldemar Klein^ 
 was given to the world. She was then a widow, having been married, in 1827, to Dr. 
 Flygare. In 1841, she was again married to J. G. Carlen, a lawyer, and known as a 
 poet, in Stockholm. Her literary productiveness has been very remarkable, her fictions 
 being chiefly founded on the characteristics of the lower orders in Sweden; and, although 
 faulty in many respects, they are especially rich and striking in incident ; and her char- 
 acters, without exhibiting any very deep insight or subtle analytic power, are yet intel- 
 ligent and consistent. Among her many works, which have been translated into English, 
 are The Bose of TMsfleland; The Birthright; The Hermit; The Events of a Year; The 
 Lover's Stratagem; Gustavus Lindurm; The Maiden's Tower; Woman's Life, etc. Her 
 works are largely circulated both in Europe and in America. 
 
 CARLETON, a co. in New Brunswick, Can., on the Maine border, drained by the 
 St. John and its tributaries; 3,008 sq.m. ; pop. ’71, 19,938. The surface is rough, with 
 forests and excellent timber. Chief town, Woodstock. 
 
 CARLETON, a co. in e. Ontario, Can., on the Ottawa river; 647 sq.m.; pop. ’71, 
 21,739. The co. is traversed by the Ottawa and Prescott railroad, and the Rideau 
 canal. Lumbering is the principal business of the people. Chief town, Ottawa City. 
 
 CARLETON, Sir Guy, Lord Dorchester, 1724-1808; a British officer distinguished 
 at Louisburg, Quebec, and Belle Isle, and wounded in the siege of Havana in 1762. He 
 was a lieut.gen. in the British army, and the successor of sir Henry Clinton in chief 
 command in the American colonies during the war of the revolution and till its close. 
 
 CAELETON, William, one of the most popular writers of tales describing Irish 
 life and manners, was b. 1798, at Prillisk, in the cA of Tyrone, Ireland. Bred and 
 educated among the peasantry, he passed through the common sufferings and privations 
 of Irish poverty, and, after receiving some scanty instruction in a hedge-school, he, in his 
 17th year, went to an academy which a relative had opened at Glasslough, where he 
 remained two years. Afterwards, a vague ambition led him to Dublin, where he arrived 
 with only some three shillings in his pocket, and where, in 1830, he published his Traits 
 and Stories of the Irish Peasantry. Their freshness of style pleased the public, and won 
 the favor of critics. A second series, issued in 1832, was also well received; and, in 
 1839, he published a powerful story, entitled Fardorougha the Miser, in several passages 
 of which, however, his humor becomes extravagant. Subsequently, C. published a 
 series of tales (3 vols., Dub. 1841), mostly of pathetic interest, but including a very genial 
 
Carli. 
 
 Cai'los. 
 
 464 
 
 and humorous sketch of the Misfortunes of Barney Branagan, which proved a great 
 favorite. The story of Valentine MG lutchy is half-political and half-religious in its ten 
 dency, defending the Irish Catholic priesthood, and advocating repeal of the union, it 
 appeared in 1845. Other narratives — Bady the Rover, 1846; The Black Prophet, 1847; and 
 The Tithe Proctor, 1849 — contain many proofs of the author’s genius. Willey Reilly, 3 
 vols., appeared in 1855, and The Evil Eye in 1860. C. is the true historian of the Irish 
 people. Sharing in their qualities of mind and temperament, he has a true sympathy 
 with all their joys and sorrows, and a graphic and picturesque pen with which to describe 
 them. In consideration of his literary services, he enjoyed a government pension of 
 £200 a year, and on his death in Jan., 1869, the queen granted a pension of £100 to his 
 widow. 
 
 CARLI, Giovanni Rinaldo, a distinguished Italian economist and archaeologist, was 
 b. at Capo d’Istria, April, 1720. Educated at home and at Flambro in the Friuli, he was,, 
 in his 24th year, appointed professor of astronomy and navigation at Padua. In 1754, 
 he published the first volume of his great work On the History of the Coins and Currency, 
 and on the Institution of the Mints of Italy, the fourth and last volume of which appeared 
 six years later. The book treats of the monetary history of Italy from the fall of the 
 western empire until the 17th c., and is profusely illustrated with representations of 
 coins, national and foreign, circulating in Ital}'- during the various ages; and their value 
 as compared with the price of provisions at different periods is also calculated. His 
 merits as a financier were not overlooked. He was made president of the council of 
 commerce and public economy at Milan, and afterwards president of the new council of 
 finances, into w^hich branch of administration he introduced many admirable reforms. 
 The inhabitants were also indebted to his influence for the abolition of the inquisitional 
 tribunal. He also wrote some valuable works on Istrian and other antiquities; disser- 
 tations on classical subjects; against sorcery; against Rousseau’s theory of natural 
 religion, etc. He died Feb., 1795. His works, exclusive of his Italian Antiquities, were 
 published in 19 vols. 8vo (Milan, 1784-94). 
 
 CABLINE THISTLE, Carli'na, a genus of plants of the natural order compositce, 
 closely allied to the true thistles, from which they are distinguished by the inner scales 
 of the involucre spreading like rays, and being colored and shining. These involucral 
 scales are remarkably hygrometric, expanding in dry and closing together in wet 
 weather, and this property they retain for a long time; the heads of flowers are there- 
 fore often nailed on cottage-doors in many parts of Europe, to indicate the weather. 
 The name C. T. is derived from a legend, that an angel showed the root of one of the 
 species to Charlemagne, as a remedy for a plague. This species, C. acaulis, grows on 
 hills and mountains, especially in calcareous soils in the middle latitudes of Europe 
 It has a very short stem, and very large heads of flowers, and was formerly in high 
 repute for the medicinal virtues of its root — which is in large doses a drastic purgative 
 — but its use is now almost confined to veterinary practice. — The only British species is 
 the common C. T. ((7. vulgaris), not unfrequent in England and some parts of Scotland, 
 and sometimes rather a troublesome weed, but always indicative of a poor soil. It has 
 a stem about a foot high ; and many purplish heads of flowers set amidst straw-colored 
 rays. 
 
 CAB'LINGS, in ship-building, are small beams laid fore and aft, and resting upon the 
 main or deck beams. These, with other pieces called ledges, laid at right angles to 
 them, form a framework by which the deck is supported. 
 
 CARLINVILLE, a t. and seat of justice in Macoupin co.. 111., on the Chicago and 
 Alton railroad, 39 m. s.w. of Springfleld. C. is the seat of Blackburn university, and 
 is an important center for local trade. Pop. township, 1870, 5,808. 
 
 CARLISLE {ante), the seat of justice of Cumberland co., Penn., on the Cumberland 
 Valley railroad, at the junction of the Pine Grove branch, 18 m. w. b}^ s. of Harrisburg; 
 pop. about 7,000. It is in a highly productive agricultural region; is well built, with 
 wide and handsome streets, and several fine public buildings. Dickinson college was 
 founded here in 1783 by the Methodist denomination. Near the town are the well- 
 known C. barracks; and in the mountains 4 m. n. is C. Springs, a famous watering- 
 place. Washington had his head-quarters in C. during the whisky rebellion in 1794, 
 and in July, 1863, the place was bombarded by the confederates. 
 
 CARLISLE, a parliamentary and municipal borough, episcopal city, and ancient town 
 in North Cumberland, the capita? of the co., 12 m. e. of the Solway firth, 300 m. n.w. 
 by n. of London, 101 m. s. of Edinburgh, and 60 w\s.w. of Newcastle. It is a chief 
 station on the w. railway route from London to Edinburgh, and is the terminus of seven 
 different lines of railway. It stands on an eminence in a wide plain at the confluence 
 of, and nearly surrounded by, the Eden, Caldew, and Peteril. Many fine new streets 
 and buildings have been lately added to the city. The chief branches of industry are 
 cotton, gingham, and check manufactures; print, iron, and dye wrorks; and salmon 
 fisheries. It has a small cathedral of red freestone, of which Paley was archdeacon. 
 The castle was founded in 1092, and is now a barracks; the remains of the keep form a 
 massive lofty tower, with a very deep well. Mary queen of Scots was confined in the 
 castle after the battle of Langside. A canal of 11 m., from Bowness on the Solway 
 
465 
 
 Carli. 
 
 Carlos* 
 
 firth to C., formerly admitted vessels of 100 tons; but the bed of the canal has now been 
 converted into a railway, from which a line also branches to the newly formed port of 
 Silloth, where an extensive dock has been constructed on the Solway, at a distance of 
 20 m. from Carlisle. Pop. inl763, 4,000; 1801,10,221; 1851, 26,310; 1861, 29,417; 1871, 
 31,049. C. returns two members to parliament. The total number of vessels that 
 entered the port of C. in 1876 was 568, of 109,905 tons; cleared 695, of 123,305 tons. 
 Roman remains have been found here — coins, altars, inscriptions, brass incense vases, 
 etc. Being near the w. end of Hadrian’s wall, C. was probably a Roman station. It 
 was the seat of the ancient kings of Cumbria. The Piets and Scots ravaged it. About 
 900, it was destroyed by the Danes, after which it remained desolate for 200 years. 
 Thence to the union of England and Scotland, it was closely connected with the border 
 wars, and underwent many sieges. To its being long a fortified border town it owed 
 much of its importance and privileges, but it declined mMch after the union. The C. 
 corporation, in 1745, proclaimed prince Charles king of Great Britain. The duke of 
 Cumberland afterwards took the city, and punished the chief actors with death, and the 
 inhabitants with other cruelties. In 1133, Henry I. made C. a bishopric. — The C. tables 
 of mortality, based on the deaths which occurred in C. 1779-87, were drawn up by Dr. 
 Heysham, and have been ever since much used by life-insurance offices, as being near- 
 est the average. 
 
 Carlisle Cathedral was commenced about 1092 by Walter, a Norman. It was 
 founded by William Rufus, and dedicated in 1101 by Henry I. ; and in 1133, was made 
 the cathedral church of the newly formed diocese. A great part of the original Norman 
 building was destroyed by fire in 1292. The new edifice contains specimens of all the styles 
 of early English — simple pointed, geometric, and fiowing. Two thirds of the fine Nor- 
 man nave, originally 141 ft. long, were destroyed by Cromwell; the portion that was 
 left has long been used as a parish church. In 1853, the restoration was commenced. 
 The choir is one of the finest in England, 138 ft. long, and 72 high, and consists of 8 
 pointed arches. The e. window, consisting of 9 lights, is considered the finest deco- 
 rated window in England. The tower is very low, rising but one story above the choir. 
 It formerly supported a timber spire, which was removed in 1661. This cathedral has 
 four canons. 
 
 CARLISLE, the capital of Cumberland co., Penn., U. S., 18 m. s. by w. of Harris- 
 burg, the center of a rich agricultural country; seat of Dickinson college, a fiourishing 
 Methodist institution; with 13 churches, 2 banks. 2 newspapers, machine shops, rail-car 
 factory, and U. S. barracks; was shelled by the Confederates, July 1, 1863. Pop. ’70, 
 6,650. 
 
 CARLISLE, Frederick Howard, Earl of, 1748-1825; an English statesman ; one of 
 the commission sent to the American colonies by lord North about 1778 to endeavor to 
 effect a reconciliation, which effort was a failure, not from mismanagement but because 
 of the unpopularity of North’s administration. In 1780, C. was made viceroy of Ireland, 
 where, in a very critical period, he managed to maintain peace and promote prosperity. 
 In the discussion concerning the regency, C. favored the prince of Wales, and in the 
 period of the French revolution he was a vigorous supporter of the war. After opposing 
 the corn laws in 1815, he took no further part in public affairs. 
 
 CARLISLE, George William Frederick Howard, Earl of, K.G., was b. April 18, 
 1802. Educated at Eton and Oxford, he, in 1821, obtained the Chancellor and Newde- 
 gate prizes for his Latin and English poems. He entered the public service in 1826 as an 
 attache. In 1830, he (then lord Morpeth), along with Henry (afterwards lord) Brougham, 
 was elected one of the representatives of the important constituency of Yorkshire, and 
 after the reform bill for the West Riding, a position which he held in the liberal 
 interest for several years. Under the administration of lord Melbourne, he held the 
 office of chief secretary for Ireland (1835-41), and his impartial distribution of patronage 
 made him very popular in Dublin. Rejected in 1841 by the West Riding, he was again 
 elected in 1846, and remained one of its representatives until the death of his father 
 (1848) called him to the house of lords. Under lord John Russell’s ministry (1846-52), 
 he was chief commissioner of woods and forests, and afterwards chancellor of the 
 duchy of Lancaster. When lord Palmerston was made prime minister in 1855, C. was 
 appointed lord lieutenant of Ireland, a post which he held until the advent of the earl of 
 Derby’s government in 1858; and he succeeded to the same office again when lord 
 Palmerston was reinstated in 1859. C. obtained som^ reputation as a literary man, 
 chiefiy by his lectures on his travels in the United States, on the life and writings of 
 Pope, and his Diary in Turkish and Greek Waters. He died in 1864. 
 
 CARLISTS. See Carlos de Bourbon {ante) and Carlos, Don. 
 
 CARLOS, DON, Infante of Spain, b. July 3, 1545, at Valladolid, was a son of Philip 
 II. After liis recognition as heir to the throne, in 1560, Don C. was sent to study at 
 the university of Alcala de Henares; where, however, he profited so little, that the king, 
 regarding him as unqualified to reign, invited a nephew, the archduke Rudolf, to 
 Spain, intending to make him heir to the throne. Excluded from all participation in 
 the government, Don C. conceived a strong aversion toward the king’s confidants, and 
 especially was unwilling that the duke of Alva should have the government of Flanders. 
 U. K. III.— 80 
 
Carlos. 
 
 Carlovitz. 
 
 466 
 
 In confession to a priest, on Christmas eve, 1567, ho betrayed his purpose to assassinate 
 a certain person; and as the king was believed to be the intended victim, this confession 
 Avas divulged. The papers of Don C. were seized, and being tried, he was found guilty 
 of conspiring against the life of the king, and of traitorously endeavoring to raise an 
 insurrection in Flanders. The sentence was left for the king to pronounce. Philip 
 declared that he could make no exception in favor of such an unworthy son; but 
 sentence of death was not formally recorded. Shortly afterwards, he died, July 24, 
 1568, and was interred in the Dominican monastery, El-Real, at Madrid. The suspicion 
 that he was poisoned or strangled, has no valid evidence to support it. Schiller, in his 
 tragedy Don Carlos, has widely departed from historical testimonies. 
 
 CARLOS, Luis Maria Fernando, Don, 1818-61 ; son of Don Carlos Maria Isidor. 
 In 1846, he lived in England with his father, under the name of Montemolin. In April, 
 1849, he went in disguise to Spain, was discovered and kept in prison for a few days, 
 but returned to England before the end of the month. In 1860, he invaded Spain with 
 3,000 men, and was defeated and made prisoner at Tortosa. Being again set free, on con- 
 dition of renouncing his claim to the throne, his first act was to repudiate that renun- 
 ciation. 
 
 CARLOS, Maria de los Dolores Juan Isidor Josef Francesco Quirino 
 Antonio Miguel Gabriel Rafael, Don, b. Mar. 30, 1848; nephew of Luis Maria 
 Fernando; present claimant of the throne of Spain as the legitimate heir of Charles 
 YIII. As Charles YI. died without issue, his rights devolved upon his brother Don 
 Juan, who had married the archduchess Maria Theresa of Austria, princess of Modena. 
 Their son, the present Don Carlos, was educated principally in Austria, and married Mar- 
 garet de Bourbon, princess of Parma, daughter of the late duke Ferdinand, Charles III., 
 and sister of the present count de Chambord, who claims to be Henry Y. of France. 
 In Oct., 1868, Don Juan abdicated in favor of his son, whose standard was raised by some 
 of his partisans in the n. of Spain in April, 1872. On the 16th of July following, Don 
 Carlos published a proclamation calling upon the people of Catalonia, Aragon, and 
 Yalencia to take arms in his cause, promising to restore their ancient liberties; and 
 in Dec. his brother, Don Alfonso, assumed command of the Carlist forces in Cata- 
 lonia. Don Carlos himself made his entry to Spain, July 15, 1873, announcing that he 
 came for the purpose of saving the country. Thenceforward there was incessant war 
 in the n. part of the kingdom or the republic, in which there were victories on both 
 sides ; but for the most part the battles were unfavorable to the Carlists, until Feb. , 
 1876, when their cause was completely crushed at Tolosa, the defenders of that last 
 stronghold flying in a panic toward France. Don Carlos went to Paris, where. Mar. 
 3, 187^6, he proclaimed: “Being desirous of putting a stop to bloodshed, I forbear con- 
 tinuing a glorious but at present fruitless struggle. In the face of a great superiority of 
 numbers, and in view especially of the sufferings of my volunteers, it becomes necessary 
 to return the sword to the scabbard. I will never sign a convention [abandonment of 
 all claims]. My flag remains furled until the moment which God shall fix as the 
 supreme hour of redemption. ” Don Carlos has five children, four daughters and a son. 
 
 CAELOS, San, a t. of Yenezuela, South America, in a valley on the Aguare, a feeder 
 of the Orinoco, 120 m. s.w. of Caracas. Before the wars of independence it was a place 
 of considerable importance, having been one of the richest towns in the province. The 
 town is handsome and well laid out. The pop. was formerly 10,000, but is now con- 
 siderably less. The inhabitants are engaged chiefly in the rearing of cattle, and the 
 cultivation of indigo, cotton, and coffee, of which there are still considerable plantations 
 in the neighboring savannahs. 
 
 CARLOS DE BOURBON, Don Maria Isidor, b. Mar. 29, 1788, was the second son 
 of Charles lY. of Spain, and was educated chiefly by priests. After the expulsion of 
 the French from Spain, his brother, Ferdinand YII., reascended the throne; but having 
 married thrice without issue, Don C. began to cherish the hope of succeeding his 
 brother. An insurrection in his interest broke out in 1825, in Catalonia; but was put 
 down, Don C. himself not participating in it. A fourth time, however, the indefatig- 
 able Ferdinand married, and the result was a daughter, the infanta Maria Isabella (late 
 queen of Spain), b. Oct. 10, 1830. Now, as the Salic law, excluding females from 
 succession to the throne, had been abrogated, the hopes of the Carlists, as the followers 
 of Don C. were called, were destroyed. During the illness of the king, in Sept. 
 1832, the Carlists succeeded so far as to win from him a re-institution of the Salic 
 law ; but he revoked it again as soon as he had partially recovered, and thus Don C. 
 was again disappointed. As he still continued his agitation, he was banished, in 1833, 
 to Portugal, and soon afterwards was commanded to reside in the papal states. But 
 before C. had embarked for Italy, king Ferdinand YII. died. Sept. 29, 1833. Don C. 
 was now recognized as heir to the throne of Spain, not only by the Carlists but also by 
 Dom Miguel in Portugal ; and having refused to obey the queen-regent’s order for his 
 deportation to Italy, he was declared a rebel, Oct. 16, 1833. By the quadruple alliance 
 of Spain, Portugal, England, and France, both C. and Dom Miguel were banished 
 from Portugal, and in June, 1834, the former embarked for England. In the following 
 month, he returned to the continent, passed in disguise through France into Spain, 
 where he excited an insurrection in the northern provinces, but was ultimately com- 
 
467 
 
 Carlos. 
 
 Carlovits. 
 
 pelled to escape into France. In 1836, his claims to the throne were unanimously 
 rejected by the constituent cortes. In 1844, he abdicated in favor of his eldest son, 
 and died at Trieste, Mar. 10, 1855. — Don Carlos, his son, b. 1818, was better known 
 as the count de Montemolin. This second pretender made an attempt, in 1849, to pass 
 under a disguise through France into Spain, but failed. In 1860, a Carlist insurrection 
 was once more attempted, in consequence of which the count de Montemolin and his 
 brother were arrested, but liberated after the former had signed a renunciation of all 
 his claims to the Spanish throne. He d. in 1861. The present representative of his 
 pretensions is his nephew, Don Carlos, son of his brother Juan, b. 1848. On his 
 behalf, Carlist risings — speedily repressed — took place in 1869, 1870, and 1872; but the 
 insurrection headed by Don Carlos, after the abdication of king Amadeo, in 1873, 
 proved much more formidable, and kept the northern provinces of Spain in great con- 
 fusion till the beginning of 1876, when it was crushed. 
 
 CAELOVINGIANS, the second dynasty of Frankish kings. The origin of the family 
 is traced to Arnulph, bishop of Metz, who d. in 631. His son, Ansegise, married a 
 daughter of Pepin, of Landen, in Austrasia. His sons, Martin and Pepin d’Heristall 
 (q.v.), as the greatest territorial lords in Austrasia, were called to the oflSce of mayor of 
 the palace. Martin was assassinated; Pepin, by force of arms, compelled the weak 
 Merovingian king, Theodoric III., to invest him with the office of mayor of the palace 
 in all the three Frankish states, Neustria, Austrasia, and Burgundy. Pepin allowed 
 the Merovingian kings to remain upon the throne, but they were kings only in name. 
 He d. on 17th Dec., 714, and left as his successor, his young grandson, Theodoald, but 
 Charles Martel (q.v.), a natural son of Pepin, was made mayor of the palace by the 
 Austrasians, and in this capacity subjected the three states to his power. He d. in 741. 
 His two sons, Carloman and Pepin ie bref, divided the kingdom, although for a time 
 the nominal Merovingian dynasty still subsisted ; but Pepin at last formally assumed 
 the royal power, and was crowned king of the Franks on 3d May, 752. This is the 
 formal commencement of the Carlovingian dynasty. Pepin began the conquest of Italy. 
 His sons, Carloman and Charles the greater Charlemagne (q.v.), succeeded him, of whom 
 the latter soon reigned alone, and prodigiously extended his dominions. In 800, pope 
 Leo. HI. set upon his head the crown of the western Roman empire. He divided his 
 dominions amongst his sons, of whom, however, only one, Louis le debonnaire, sur- 
 vived him, who, in the list of the kings of France, appears as Louis I., but who was 
 properly emperor and king of the Franks. With Charlemagne, however, the high 
 abilities of his family suddenly disappeared, and his successors showed much 
 weakness of character. Family feuds broke out during the life of Louis le debon- 
 naire, who had divided his dominions in part amongst his sons, and he terminated 
 an inglorious reign in 840. By a treaty concluded in Aug., 843, Lotharius I., the 
 eldest son of Louis, obtained the imperial crown and the kingdom of Italy, with Lor- 
 raine, Franche Comte, Provence, and the Lyonnois; Louis, his brother, called Louis 
 the German, obtained the German part of his father’s dominions ; and Charles the bald, 
 the son of a second marriage, obtained Neustria, Aquitania, and the Spanish Mark, and 
 may almost be regarded as the founder of the French monarchy. The emperer Lotharius 
 I. died in 855, and his dominions were again dividid — his eldest son, Louis II., being 
 emperor and king of Italy, and his two other sons kings of Lorraine and of Provence, but 
 their kingdoms reverted to the emperor. — Charles the fat, a son of Louis the German, 
 having become emperor, was elected by the French nobles to be their king in 882 ; and 
 being previously in possession of Italy and Germany, united under his sway great part 
 of Charlemagne’s empire. But he was a weak monarch, and was deposed in 887. The 
 imperial dignity passed by the marriage of the daughter of the emperor Arnulph with 
 Fritzlar, count of Franconia, to another family. The French dynasty, of which 
 Charles the bald may be deemed the founder, continued in a succession of weak 
 monarchs for about a century, till it terminated with the reign of Louis V. , on whose 
 death, Hugh Capet, the most powerful nobleman in France, seized the crown in 987. 
 The Carlovingian kings had for some time previous possessed no real power. A sub- 
 sequent marriage, however, connected their family with that of the Capets, and enabled 
 the kings of France to trace their descent from Charlemange. 
 
 The Carlovingian dynasty figures in the early history of France as the ally of the 
 church. It aided the popes against the Lombards ; made war on the Aquitanians, who 
 pillaged and despoiled the churches; established the temporal power of the successors 
 of St. Peter; subdued and converted the still pagan Saxons; and fought the Mohammed' 
 ans in Spain. Nor, on the other hand, do we find the church ungrateful: it sanctioned, 
 by benediction and prayer, the conquests of this powerful family; in various ways 
 impressed its sacred stamp of approbation upon it, and for its sake resuscitated the 
 imposing idea of an empire of the west. But this alliance, which was advantageous to 
 the policy of kings like Pepin le Bref and his son Charlemagne, because they had genius, 
 vigor, and design, became at a later period, under their feeble successors, a chief cause 
 of the overthrow of the dynasty, for the clergy, after 814, grew stronger and more 
 exacting every day, and forced the monarchs to new concessions. 
 
 CABLOVITZ, or Karlovttz, a t. of the Austrian empire, in the “kingdom” or 
 province of Slavonia. It is situated on the right bank of the Danube, about 8 m. s.s.e. 
 
Carlow. 
 
 Carlstadt. 
 
 468 
 
 of Peterwardein, and is noted for its excellent wine, and for the treaty concluded here 
 in 1699. The wine — especially the red variety — ranks with the best and strongest 
 obtained in Hungary, and in some years the product has amounted to about If million 
 of gallons. Pop. ’69, 4,419. The important treaty or peace of C. was concluded, in 
 1699, between the allies Austria, Russia, Poland, and Venice on one side, and the porte 
 on the other, and included the following articles; “That Austria should repossess the 
 territories captured by the Turks during two centuries (which included Hungary and 
 Slavonia, and she also acquired Transylvania); that Venice should hold the Morea as 
 far as the isthmus; that Poland should take back Podolia and the lands in the Ukraine 
 conquered by Mohammed IV., but should cede certain places in Moldavia; and that 
 Russia should have the territory of Azof.” 
 
 CARLOW, the capital t. of Carlow co., Ireland, situated at the confluence of the 
 Burren and the Barrow, 56 m. s.w. of Dublin by rail. It is a well-built town, with two 
 principal streets, from which branch many smaller ones, and a suburb, Graigue, in 
 Queen’s co. , on the opposite side of the river, with which it is connected by a bridge. 
 It has a Roman Catholic cathedral and divinity college. C. has extensive flour-mills, 
 and is the emporium for the agricultural produce of the district, largely exported from 
 this place. Pop. ’71, 7,842. It returns one member to parliament. There are here the 
 remains of a castle, picturesquely situated on an eminence on the Barrow, founded in 
 1180 by sir Hugh de Lacy. In 1361, the duke of Clarence established the exchequer of 
 the kingdom in this place. It constituted one of the boundaries of the Pale, beyond 
 which the king’s writ was not recognized by the “ Irishry.” Its first charter was granted 
 in the 13th c. by William Marshall, earl of Pembroke. The town grew up around this 
 castle, which was several times besieged by, and alternately in the possession of, the 
 English and Irish. The castle (one of great extent) was in the possession of the insurgents 
 in 1650, when it was closely invested by gen. Ireton and the republican army. The 
 garrison surrendered on conditions to sir Hardress Waller, whom Ireton had left to 
 conduct the siege. It was then dismantled; and about one half of this once stately 
 castle now remains a picturesque ruin. In the Irish insurrection of 1798, the insurgents 
 attacked the town, but were repulsed by the garrison and yeomanry, and 600 of them 
 killed. The Barrow is here navigable for small-craft to its junction with the Grand 
 canal at Athy. 
 
 CARLOW, a small inland co. of Ireland, in Leinster province, with an area of about 
 346 sq.m., of which fths are arable. C., except in the southern extremity, where it is 
 hilly, is a triangular fertile level, or gently undulating plain, between the Wicklow and 
 Wexford range of hills on the e., and the highlands beyond the Barrow on the west. 
 The chief rivers are the Barrow and Slaney. C. consists chiefly of granite, covered in 
 the middle plain, or richer tracts, by limestone gravel, on which are fine loams and 
 pasture. In the uplands, the soil is gravelly. Lower, carboniferous limestone crops 
 out in the valley of the Barrow. On the w. side of the co. begins the great coal district 
 of Leinster. In 1876, 79,345 acres were under crop, the chief crops being oats, potatoes, 
 barley, and wheat. There are many dairies on the plains. The chief exports are corn, 
 flour, meal, butter, etc. Along the Barrow, which falls above a foot per mile, are a 
 great many extensive corn-mills. Pop. ’41, 86,228; ’51, 68,059; ’71, 51,472. It returns 
 three members to parliament — two for the co. at large, and one for the borough of 
 Carlow. The chief towns are Carlow, Tullow, and Bagenalstown. At Old Leighlin a 
 synod was held, in 630, to settle the time of Easter. Several engagements occurred in 
 the CO. during the Irish rebellion of 1798. The chief antiquities of C. are cromlechs, 
 castles, and the cathedral church of Old Leighlin. A cromlech near Carlow town Jias a 
 covering stone 23 ft. long, and of nearly 90 tons. 
 
 CAR'LOWITZ, or Carlovitz, a t. in Hungary, on the right bank of the Danube, 
 8 m. s.e. of Peterwardein; pop. ’73, 4,419. It is the seat of the Greek archbishop for 
 the Austrian dominions, and has seminaries for Greek and Roman Catholic clergy, a 
 gymnasium, a lyceum, and a hospital. It was here that peace between Austria, Turkey, 
 Poland, and Venice was concluded in 1699. 
 
 CARLSBAD, or Kaiser-Karlsbad, a t. in Bohemia, much celebrared for its hot min- 
 < nil springs, and frequented in summer by visitors of the most aristocratic character 
 from all parts of Europe. The permanent population does not amount to more than 
 about 7,000, who are very industrious, making carpets, knives, scissors, needles, wood- 
 work, and articles of Bohemian glass, such as are likely to induce visitors to purchase. 
 The visitors in a season, which usually lasts from 15th June to 15th Aug., amount to 
 15,000 or 18,000. The wells have been frequented from a very early period, but have 
 been of great celebrity since the 14th century. The scenery is extremely beautiful. 
 The town is well built, the accommodation for guests good, and the place free from 
 some of the abuses too common at other German spas. No gaming-houses exist here. 
 The temperature of the hot springs varies from 117° to 165° Fahrenheit. The princi- 
 pal spring, the Sprudel, has a very large volume, and is forced up to a height of 3 ft. 
 Rom the ground. Altogether, the daily flow of the springs of C. is estimated at 2,000,- 
 000 gallons. The principal ingredient in the water is sulphate of soda. The whole 
 town of C. appears to stand on a vast caldron of boiling water, which is kept from 
 bursting only by the safety-valves the springs provide. On one occasion, after an 
 
469 
 
 Carlow. 
 
 Carlstadt. 
 
 explosion, poles of 30 fathoms in length, thrust into the aperture, did not reach the 
 bottom. A congress of German powers was held here in Aug., 1819, in which various 
 resolutions, denunciatory of a free press and liberal opinions, were arrived at, and meas- 
 ures of repression determined on. 
 
 CABLS'BURG, or Karlsburg, a t. of Transylvania, situated on the right bank of the 
 Maros, here crossed by a bridge some 200 yards in length, 48 m. s. of Klausenburg. It 
 is built partly on a hill, and partly in a valley, is fortified, and has a citadel surrounded 
 by walls with bastions. Gold and silver, obtained from the mines of Transylvania, 
 are purified and coined here. The only manufacture of importance is saltpeter. Maros 
 Porto, the chief shipping-place for Transylvanian rock-salt, is within half a mile of the 
 town. C. occupies the site of the ancient Apulum, remains of which are still found. 
 Pop. ’69, 7,955. 
 
 CARLSCBO'NA, capital of the province of the same name in Sweden, is situated on 
 the rocky island of Trotso, and its adjoining islets in the Baltic, which are connected 
 ^ bridges, in lat. 56° 9' n., long. 15° 35' east. The town was built in 1680 by Charles 
 Al., who gave it his own name, and conferred upon it several important privileges, 
 besides making it the great naval station and arsenal of Sweden, instead of Stockholm. 
 It has a magnificent harbor, with a sufficient depth of water to float the largest vessels. 
 The only practicable entrance for large ships is defended by two strong forts. The 
 dry-docks, blasted out of the granite rock at vast expense, are an attraction to 
 strangers. The inhabitants are chiefly employed in connection with the arsenal. Pop. 
 ’75, 16,877. 
 
 The province of C. or Blekinge is situated in the s. of Sweden, in lat 56° to 56° 30' n., 
 long. 14° 30' to 16° east. It has the Baltic on its s. and e. margins. It has an area of 
 about 1120 sq.m, with a pop. of 131,812. It is hilly without being mountainous, and 
 generally fertile, yielding rye and potatoes abundantly, and also wheat, oats, and peas. 
 The fisheries employ a considerable number of the inhabitants. 
 
 CARLSHAMN, a fortified t. on the s. coast of Sweden, about 30 m. w. of Carlscrona, 
 at the end of a beautiful valley. The harbor is small but secure, and a considerable 
 trade in iron, timber, pitch, and tar is carried on. There are manufactures of sail-cloth, 
 tobacco, hats, soap, and leather; there are also dye-works and ship-building yards. Pop. 
 5,731. 
 
 CARLSRTJHE, the capital of the grand duchy of Baden, is situated a few miles east- 
 ward from the Rhine. It was founded by the Markgraf Charles-William of Baden-Dur- 
 lach, in 1715, and built on a curious and regular plan in connection with the palace, 
 which constitutes the center point from which the streets, so far as constructed, diverge 
 in the shape of an extended fan. The streets are .wide and well paved. There are a 
 number of fine buildings; flourishing educational institutions; the court library con- 
 tains 80,000 volumes; a public library, 90,000; and there are valuable collections of antiq- 
 uities, objects of natural history, etc. An aqueduct from the Durlach supplies the town 
 with water. In the market-place, which is the finest of the public squares, a stone 
 pyramid incloses the remains of the founder of the city. The manufactures include 
 machines of various sorts, engines, locomotives, railway carriages and wagons, jew- 
 elry, carpets, chemical products, and cloth. C. is generally spelled Karlsruhe. Pop. 
 ’75, 42,768. 
 
 CARLSTAD, a t. of Sweden, on the island of Tingvalla, in lake Wenern, about 160 
 m. w. of Stockholm. It is connected with the mainland by two bridges, one of which 
 is a large and very handsome structure. The town is well built, has a cathedral, cabi- 
 net of natural history, etc., and commands extensive views of the most beautiful 
 scenery. Its trade is large, consisting in exports of iron, copper, timber, and corn. Pop. 
 ’76, 6,622. 
 
 CARLSTADT, a t. of Croatia, in Austria, situated in a rich plain between the rivers 
 Kulpa and Korona, 33 m. s.w. of Agram. It is fortified — the original fortress having 
 been erected in the 16th c. to resist the Turks — has an old castle, and armory of 
 30,000 stand of arms. It has a large garrison, the Austrian executive looking upon it 
 as a place of considerable importance, on account of its position on a navigable river, 
 and on the great road into the center of Croatia from the coast. It has few manufactures, 
 but an active transit trade. Pop. ’69, 5,175. 
 
 CARLBTADT, Karlstadt, or Karolostadt (real name, Andreas Rudolf 
 Bodenstein), 1480-1541; a German reformer, at first a friend and afterwards an oppo- 
 nent of Luther. He became a professor in Wittenberg, first in philosophy and then in 
 theology, and in 1511 was rector of the university, about which time he became a per- 
 sonal friend of Luther. Carlstadt went to Rome to study canon law, returning to 
 Wittenberg in 1515, where he took up the defense of Reuchlin, the scholar against 
 whom a violent persecution was raging. In 1517, he published arguments asserting 
 the supreme authority of the Scriptures, and declaring that in the silence of Scripture, 
 appeals from the fathers of the church must be made to reason. When Luther nailed 
 his thesis to the door of the church, Carlstadt supported him. In the bill against Luther, 
 Carlstadt was especially named and condemned; and he was the first to appeal from the 
 pope to a general council. In 1521, by invitation of the king, he went to Denmark to 
 
Carlton. 
 Carmagnola. ' 
 
 470 
 
 teach the doctrines of the reformation ; but he soon returned. About this time, differ- 
 ences sprang up between Carlstadt and Luther, owing to the former’s hot-headedness r 
 he demanded violent measures, where Luther desired prudence and patience. While 
 Luther was imprisoned, Carlstadt greatly impaired the cause by his extreme course, and 
 at last Luther declared against him. Being compelled to leave Wittenberg, Carlstadt 
 became a pastor in Thuringia, where his violence created a suspicion that he was asso- 
 ciated with Anabaptists, and that he might be implicated in the schemes of the peasant 
 revolt. The elector sent Luther to find out the true state of affairs; and when Luther 
 preached against Carlstadt at Jena, they held a discussion on the “ real presence,” which 
 Carlstadt was the first to deny, and an open quarrel broke out between them. Carl- 
 stadt was ordered out of Saxony, and wandered from place to place exciting tumults, 
 and prompting the people to destroy pictures and images in the churches. Again sus- 
 pected of provoking insurrection, he was pursued and exposed to hardships, and even 
 danger to his life. In this extremity he appealed to Luther, through whose influence he 
 was permitted to return to Saxony, where for some years he led a quiet life. This quiet 
 was unendurable by his restless spirit, and he once more attacked Luther; the contro- 
 versy, in which Zwingli agreed with Carlstadt in his views of the Lord’s supper, grew 
 fiercer than ever, and Carlstadt, who was no longer permitted to dwell in Saxony, fled 
 to Friesland, and thence to Switzerland, where Zwingli’s influence made him a pastor, 
 and afterwards an archdeacon at Zurich. In 1534, he settled as professor of theology 
 in Basel, remaining there until his death. He was the first priest to write against celib- 
 acy, and the first Protestant clergyman to take a wife. 
 
 CARLTON, a co. in n.e. Minnesota, on the Wisconsin border, intersected by the 
 Northern Pacific and Lake Superior railroads; 900 sq.m. ; pop. ’80, 1230. Surf ace uneven, 
 and for the most part covered with maple and pine trees. 
 
 CARLTON, Thomas, d.d., 1809-74; b. N. H. ; a Methodist minister, who in 
 1829 began his work in the Western New York conference in Rochester, Buffalo, and 
 other places. He was for 20 years the principal agent of the Methodist book concern, 
 in New York city. 
 
 CARLUDOVI'CA PALMA'TA, a South American shrub or tree bearing the leaves 
 from which Panama hats are woven, the best of which are plaited from a single leaf, 
 the work requiring many weeks of labor. 
 
 CAKLTTEE', a municipal burgh in the middle of Lanarkshire, near the right bank 
 of the Clyde, 6 m. n.w. of Lanark. Pop. ’71, 3,423. The neighborhood is rich in coal, 
 iron, and limestone, and mining is the chief industry of the place. The orchards 
 around cover 130 acres. Not far off is Lee, the seat of the Lockharts, where is preserved 
 the famous Lee penny, noticed by sir W. Scott in the Talisman. Roman coins have 
 been found here. Gen. Roy, the antiquary, author of the Military Antiquities of the 
 Romans in North Britain, was a native of Carluke. 
 
 CARLYLE, Joseph Dacre, 1759-1804; educated at Cambridge, and a fellow of 
 Queens’ college. He succeeded Dr. Paley as chancellor of Carlisle, and in 1794 was 
 appointed professor of Arabic at Cambridge. He had already published a translation of 
 an Arabic history of Egypt, and in 1796 he issued a volume of Specimens of Arabic 
 Poetry. Lord Elgin procured Carlyle’s appointment in the Turkish embassy, which 
 gave him an opportunity to travel in the east, where he collected Greek and Syriac 
 manuscripts for a contemplated revision of the New Testament, but he did not live to 
 do the work. 
 
 CARLYLE, Thomas, was b. 4th Dec., 1795, in the t. of Ecclefechan, parish of 
 Hoddam, Dumfriesshire, Scotland. Educated first at the parish school, and afterwards 
 at Annan, he passed to Edinburgh university, with a view to entering the Scottish 
 church, in his 15th or 16th year. Here he studied irregularly, but with amazing 
 avidity. The stories which are related of his immense reading are almost fabulous. 
 About the middle of his theological curriculum, C. felt wholly disinclined to become a 
 clergyman, and, after a short period spent in teaching at Dysart, in Fifeshire, he 
 embraced literature as a profession. His first efforts were contributions to Brewster’s 
 Encyclopcedia. In 1824, he published a translation of Legendre’s Geometry, to which he 
 prefixed an essay on proportion, mathematics having, during his college years, been a 
 favorite study with him. In 1823-1824, had appeared in the London Magazine^ his Life 
 of Schiller, and, during the same year, his translation of Goethe’s Wilhelm Meister. In 
 1825, the Life of Schiller was recast, and published in a separate form. It was very 
 highly praised; indeed, one can discern in the criticisms of the book certain indications 
 of the genius of Carlyle. The translation of Wilhelm Meister met with a somewhat dif- 
 ferent fate. De Quincey, in one of his acrid and capricious moods, fell foul both of 
 Goethe and his translator; while lord Jeffrey, in the Edinburgh Review, admitting C. to 
 be “a person of talents,” slashed in cavalier fashion at the book. In 1827, C. married 
 Miss Welch, a lineal descendant of John Knox, and, during the same year, appeared his 
 Specimens of German Romance (4 vols., Tait, Edinburgh). From 1827 to 1834, he 
 resided chiefly at Craigenputtoch, a small property in Dumfriesshire, belonging to his 
 wife — the “loneliest nook in Britain,” as he says himself in a letter to Goethe, “fifteen 
 
471 
 
 Carlton. 
 
 Carmagnola. 
 
 m n.w. of Dumfries, among the granite hills and the black morasses which stretch 
 westward through Galloway almost to the Irish sea.” Here C. revolved in his mind the 
 great questions in philosophy, literature, social life, and politics, to the elucidation of 
 which — after his own singular fashion — he has earnestly dedicated his whole life. Here , 
 also, he commenced to write the splendid series of critical and biographical essays 
 which first familiarized Englishmen with the riches of modern German thought. For 
 this work, he was incomparably better fitted than any man then living in Great 
 Britain. Possessing a knowledge of the German tongue such as no foreigner ever 
 surpassed, he was also inspired by the conviction, that the literature of Germany, in 
 depth, truthfulness, sincerity, and earnestness of purpose, was neatly superior to what 
 was admired and relished at home. Gifted, moreover, in a d^egree altogether unex- 
 ampled, with a talent for portraiture, he soon painted in ineffaceable colors on the 
 British memory, the images of Schiller, Fichte, Jean Paul Richter, and other foreign 
 magnates, until then almost unheard of. Gradually, educated circles awoke to the fact, 
 that a literary Columbus had appeared among them, who had discovered a “new 
 world ” of letters, the freshness and grandeur of which were sure to attract, sooner or 
 later, multitudes of adventurous spirits. One of his most beautiful, eloquent, and solid 
 essays written at Craigenputtoch, was that on Burns {Edinburgh Renew, 1828). It has 
 
 f iven the tone to all subsequent criticism on the Scottish poet. The article on German 
 literature, in the same periodical, is a masterly review of a subject, the importance of 
 which C. at length succeeded in compelling his countrymen to acknowledge. But his 
 chef-d'ceuvre written on the moorland farm, was Sartor Resartus (“the tailor done over,” 
 the title of an old Scottish song). This work, like all his after-productions, an inde- 
 scribable mixture of the sublime and the grotesque, was offered to various London 
 firms, and rejected on the advice of their sapient “ tasters,” and at length published in 
 successive portions in Fraser's Magazine (1833-34). It professes to be a history or 
 biography of a certain Herr Teufelsdrbckh (“Devil’s Dirt ”), professor in the university 
 of Weissnichtwo (“ Kennaquhair ”), and contains the manifold opinions, speculations, 
 inward agonies, and trials of that strange personage — or rather of C. himself. The 
 whole book quivers with tragic pathos, solemn aspiration, or riotous humor. C. now 
 removed to London, where he still resides. In 1837, appeared the first work which bore 
 the author’s name. The French Revolution, a History. Nothing can be more gorgeous than 
 the style of this “ prose epic.” A fiery enthusiasm pervades it, now softened with 
 tenderness, and again darkened with grim mockery, making it throughout the most 
 wonderful image of that wild epoch. C. looks on the explosion of national wrath as a 
 work of the divine Nemesis, who “ in the fullness of times ” destroys, with sacred fury, 
 the accumulated falsehoods of centuries. To him, therefore, the revolution is a “ truth 
 clad in hell-fire.” During the same year, he delivered in London a series of lectures on 
 German Literature; in 1838, another series on The History of Literature, or the Succes- 
 sive Periods of European Culture; in 1839, another on 'ihe Revolutions of Modern Europe; 
 and a fourth in 1840, on Heroes, Hero- Worship, and the Heroic in History; of these only 
 the last has been published. Meanwhile, the first edition of his Miscellanies (contribu- 
 tions to the reviews) had appeared in 1838, and his Chartism in 1839. In 1843, followed 
 Past and Present, which, like its predecessor, showed the deep, anxious, sorrowful 
 interest C. was taking in the actual condition of his countrymen. In 1845, he published 
 what is by many considered his masterpiece — Oliver Cromwell's Letters and Speeches, 
 with Elucidations and a Connecting Narrative. The research displayed in this book is 
 something marvelous, but the author has been nobly rewarded for his toil, inasmuch as 
 his vindication of the protector’s character is most triumphant. To C. has thus fallen 
 the unspeakable honor of replacing in the pantheon of English history the statue of 
 England’s greatest ruler. In 1850, the Latter-Day Pamphlets, the fiercest, most sardonic, 
 most furious of all his writings, came out. The violence of the language in these 
 pamphlets offended many. Next year (1851) appeared the Life of John Sterling — a biog- 
 raphy of intense fascination for the younger intellects of the age. In 1858-1860, C. 
 published The History of Frederick the Great; and, in 1875, Early Kings of Norway: 
 Also The Portraits of John Knox. C. was elected lord rector of Edinburgh university in 
 1865; and, in 1873, received the Prussian royal order “for merit.” In 1875, he was 
 offered but refused the order of the bath. 
 
 That C.’s genius will never want ample recognition, is most certain; but his writings 
 derive so much of their interest and power from what is peculiar to, or at least charac- 
 teristic of, the present time, that future ages may possibly wonder at their fiery splendors, 
 and fail to sympathize with their prophetic enthusiasms. 
 
 CAEMAGNO'LA, a t. of n. Italy, situated near the left bank of the Po, about 16 m. s. 
 of Turin. It has a massive old tower, the rentains of a very strong castle, which formerly 
 served as a defense for the town. The condottiere, Francesco Bussone, afterwards Conte 
 di Carmagnola, was a native of this place. It has manufactures of jewelry, and a trade 
 in silk, flax, linen, cattle, and agricultural produce. Pop. 12,512. 
 
 CARMAGNO'LA, Francesco Bussone, Count of, 1390-1432; a celebrated brigand, 
 at first in the service of the duke of Milan, who made him count and governor of Genoa. 
 Having fallen from the duke’s favor, Carmagnola became a gen. in the Venetian army, 
 and took Brescia from his former master, whom he defeated in 1427. In 1431, he incur- 
 
Carmagnole. 
 
 Carnarvon. 
 
 472 
 
 red the suspicion of the Venetian senate because of certain military failures, in con- 
 sequence of which he was tortured and finally beheaded. 
 
 CABMAGNOLE, the name of a popular song and dance, which was notorious as the 
 accompaniment of many excesses in the French revolution. It first became popular in 
 the s. of France, where it was named after Carmagnole, in Piedmont, the home of many 
 Savoyard boys who played the tune. The song began with: 
 
 Madame V6to avait promis, 
 and every verse ended with the refrain: 
 
 Dansons la Carmagnole— vive le son — du canon 1 
 
 Fashion soon adopted the word, which was next applied to a sort of jacket, worn as a 
 symbol of patriotism. Afterwards it was applied to the bombastic and fanatical reports 
 of the successes and glory of the French arms. With the reign of terror, the song and 
 the jacket, associated with so many dismal recollections, together disappeared. 
 
 CARMARTHEN. See Caermarthen, ante. 
 
 CARMEL is a mountain-ridge, 6 or 8 m. long, stretching nearly n. and s. from the 
 plain of Esdraelon into the sea, the only great promontory on the low coast of Palestine. 
 It is composed of a whitish stone, in which flints, sometimes curiously shaped, are 
 imbedded. The height has been variously stated, but is probably about 1000 ft. above 
 the level of the plain. On the e. is the river. Kishon, and the plain of Esdraelon; on the 
 w., a small plain descending to the sea. Oaks, pines, olives, laurels, and other trees, 
 grow abundantly on the mountain ; and various wild-fruits evince its ancient fertility 
 and cultivation. The name C. means the garden of Ood, or “a very fruitful region.’^ 
 Mt. C. is renowned in Jewish history, and is often alluded to in the imagery of the 
 prophets. On the summit of Mt. C., there is a monastery called Elias, after the prophet 
 Elijah, the monks of which take the name of “ Carmelites.” It is built on the supposed 
 site of the grotto where Elijah lived, and the spot where he slew the priests of Baal. For 
 an invalid in search of retirement, with every beauty that climate and natural scenery 
 can offer, there can be no place superior to the convent on Carmel. 
 
 CARMEL, Knights of the Order op Our Lady op Mount, were instituted by 
 Henry IV. of France, and incorporated with the order of the knights of St. Lazarus of 
 Jerusalem. The order of Mt. C. consisted of 100 gentlemen, all French, who were to 
 attend the king in his wars, and had considerable revenues assigned to them. The order 
 was confirmed by bull by pope Paul V., in 1607. The great master was created by the 
 king putting about his neck a tawny ribbon, suspending a cross of gold, with the 
 cloak of the order, and granting him power to raise 100 knights. None were admitted 
 but those who had four descents of nobility both by father and mother. 
 
 CARMELITES, or Order op Our Lady op Mount Carmel, a monastic order prob- 
 ably founded as an association of hermits on Mt. Carmel by Berthold, count of Limoges, 
 about 1156. A legend, however, ascribes the foundation of the order to the prophet 
 Elijah; and another makes the Virgin Mary to have been a Carmelite nun. Driven out 
 by the Saracens in the 13th c., the C. wandered over Europe; and Simon Stoch, their 
 general, changed them into a mendicant order in 1247. From that time, they shared in 
 the usual vices of the mendicant orders. They subsequently divided into several branches, 
 more or less rigid in their rules, one distinguished by walking barefooted. They exist 
 at the present day in many Roman Catholic countries. — The order of Carmelite'sses, or 
 Carmelite nuns, was instituted in 1452, and is very numerous in Italy. 
 
 CARMICHAEL, Gershom, 1672-1729; a Scotch metaphysician, educated at Edin- 
 burgh university, in which institution he became a master, an office which was converted 
 to the professorship of moral philosophy in 1727. He was a successful teacher, but often 
 in difficulty with his superiors in consequence of his hasty temper. His works are a 
 treatise on logic and the psychology of the intellectual powers, in which he affirms that 
 all knowledge piay be resolved into immediate judgments known in their own light; a 
 synopsis of natural theology ; and an edition of Puffendorf ’s De Officio Hominis et Givis. 
 
 CARMINATIVES (from Lat. carmen, a charm), medicines to relieve flatulence and pain 
 in the bowels, such as cardamoms, peppermint, ginger, and other stimulating aromatics. 
 
 CARMINE, or Carmin (Arabic, kermes), is a beautiful red pigment obtained from coch- 
 ineal, and which is employed in the manufacture of the finer red inks, in the dyeing of 
 silk, in coloring artificial flowers, and in miniature and water-color painting. It was 
 first prepared by a Franciscan monk at Pisa, who discovered it accidentally, while com- 
 pounding some medicine containing cochineal ; and in 1656, it began to be manufactured. 
 It is the finest red color known, and wjs more largely used formerly than now for 
 imparting a healthy aspect to the cheek of beauty. One process for its preparation is to 
 digest 1 lb. of cochineal in 3 gallons of water, for 15 minutes; then add 1 oz. of cream 
 of tartar; heat gently for 10 minutes; add half an oz. of alum; boil for 2 or 3 minutes; 
 and after allowing any impurities to settle, the clear liquid is placed in clean glass pans, 
 when the C. is slowly deposited. After a time, the liquid is drained off, and the C. 
 dried in the shade. In the preparation of C., much depends on a clear atmosphere, and 
 a bright sunny day, as the pretty color of the C. is never nearly so good when it has 
 been prepared in dull weather, and this accounts in great part for the superiority of 
 
478 
 
 Carmagnole. 
 
 Carnarvon. 
 
 French C. over that prepared in England. The great expense of pure C. has led to the 
 fabrication and vending of substitutes. The rouge oi the theaters is made from red san- 
 dal-wood, Brazil wood, benzoin, and alum, which are boiled in brandy or vinegar till a 
 paint of an intense red color remains. A more harmless material is obtained by evapo- 
 rating the mixture till the liquid is driven otf, and making up the red residue with balm 
 of Mecca, spermaceti, or butter of cacao. The depth of the red tint riiay be lessened by 
 the addition of chalk. The little color-saucers called rouge dishes, obtained from Por- 
 tugal, contain pure C. ; but imitations are made in London. Spanish wool and oriental 
 wool, which are impregnated with red paint, intended for use on the cheek for improv- 
 ing the complexion, are seldom genuine. 
 
 CARMOE, or Karmoe, an island of Norway, at the entrance of the Bukke fiord, in 
 the North sea, and 20 m. n.w. of Stavanger, in lat. 59° 20' n., long. 5° 15' east. A strait 
 2 m. in width separates it from the mainland. With a length of 21 m., and an average 
 breadth of 5, it has a population of 6,400, who are principally engaged in the fisheries, 
 ■and in cattle-rearing. 
 
 CARMO NA, a t. of Andalusia, Spain, 20 m. n.e. of Seville. It is situated on an ele- 
 vated ridge, overlooking a rich and olive-clad plain, and its old massive Moorish walls 
 and castle give it a very picturesque appearance. It has a fine old Gothic church, and 
 the gate of Cordova is a most interesting piece of architecture. It has manufactures of 
 woolen cloth, hats, leather; also flour and oil mills, and an important annual cattle-fair. 
 Pop. 18,000. 
 
 CARNAC, a village in the department of Morbihan, France, 17 m. s.e. of Lorient. It 
 is remarkable on account of the great Celtic monument situated about three quarters of 
 a mile from the village, on a wide desolate plain near the sea-shore. The monument 
 consists of 10,000 to 12,000 rude broken obelisks of granite, resting with their smaller 
 ends in the ground, rising, many of them, to a height of 18 ft., though a large propor- 
 tion does not exceed 3 ft., and arranged in 11 parallel rows, forming 10 avenues extend- 
 ing from e. to w., and having at one end a curved row of 18 stones, the extremities of 
 which touch the outer horizontal rows. The origin and object of the monument remain 
 a mystery. Similar but smaller structures are found to the w. of C., at Erdevan and St. 
 Barbe. Pop. ’76, 636. 
 
 CARNAHTJBA PALM, or Caranaiba Palm, Copernicia cerifera, a very beautiful spe- 
 cies of palm, which abounds in the northern parts of Brazil, in some places forming 
 vast forests. It attains a height of only 20 to 40 ft.; but its timber is valuable, is used in 
 Brazil for a great variety of purposes, and is imported into Britain for veneering. The 
 fruit is black, and about the size of ah olive ; it is sweet, and is eaten both raw and pre- 
 pared in various ways. Scales of wax cover the under side of the leaves, and drop off 
 when the fallen and withered leaves are shaken. Being collected in this way, the wax is 
 melted into masses; and bees- wax is often adulterated with it. It has been imported 
 into Britain, and used in the manufacture of caudles, but no method has yet been 
 devised to free it of its yellowish color. 
 
 CARNA'RIA (Lat. caro, carnis, flesh), the Latinized form of the French carnassiers, 
 the name given by Cuvier to a great order of mammalia, which, according to his system, 
 includes all the not marsupial ferm of Linnseus, and along with them the bats, from the 
 Linnaean order primates. The C. have the toes terminated by claws; none of them have 
 an opposable thumb on any of the extremities; they have incisors or cutting teeth, 
 canine teeth or tusks, and molar teeth or grinders, but their dentition varies according 
 to their kind of food, some preying on insects, others on the higher animals, whilst 
 many of them are by no means exclusively addicted to animal food, but subsist in great 
 part, and a few bats entirely, on vegetable substances. Cuvier at first included the 
 marsupial quadrupeds in this order; but afterwards, recognizing more fully the great 
 importance of the characteristic from which they derive their name, constituted them 
 into a distinct order, the remaining C. being divided into cheiroptera (bats, q.v.), insect- 
 ivora {o^.Y.), nod carnivora * 
 
 CARNARVON, Henry Howard Molyneux Herbert, fourth earl of, b. in Grosvenor 
 square, 1831.^ His family is a branch of the house of Herbert, earls of Pembroke, spring- 
 ing from maj.gen. the Hon. W. Herbert, whose son, Henry, was created, in 1780, baron 
 Porchester of Highclere, Hampshire, and advanced to the earldom of Carnarvon in 1793. 
 The present earl was educated at Christ church, Oxford, where he was first-class in 
 classics in 1852. His father dying before he was of age to sit in the house of commons, 
 he lost the advantage of the training in public speaking and statesmanship which the 
 sons of peers usually enjoy during the lifetime of their parents, in the lower house. 
 He took his seat on the conservative benches, and soon showed himself ambitious of 
 parliamentary distinction. His earlier speeches in the house of lords were not thought 
 to exhibit much vigor and grasp of intellect, and were marred by a simpering and 
 affected delivery. He was appointed governor of Carnarvon castle in 1854. In 1858, 
 he became under-secretary of state for the colonies, in the administration of the earl of 
 Derby. In 1859, he received the degree of d.c.l., and was elected high steward of the 
 university of Oxford. He resigned office with the conservative ministry in 1859, and 
 a^vailed himself of the period of leisure thus obtained to visit the east. The feuds of the 
 
Carnarvon. 
 
 Carnival. 
 
 474 
 
 tribes in the Lebanon had broken out in a massacre of the Christians; and the earl of C. 
 gave the world the benefit of his investigations, in an interesting work, entitled the 
 Druses (q.v.) of the LebaTwn. On his return, he delivered lectures in the country, and 
 speeches in the house of lords, on prison discipline, education, and other social subjects. 
 When the conservaties again returned to power in 1866, C. accepted from lord Derby 
 the office of secretary of state for the colonies, with a seat in the cabinet. In this he 
 obtained for his colonial administration a large share of public confidence. He censured 
 in calm and measured language the misconduct of the courts-martial during the Jamaica 
 insurrection, and especially the trial and execution of Mr. Gordon ; and the pacification 
 of the colony satisfactorily progressed under his instructions. During the recess, he 
 developed and framed a plan for the confederation of the British North American 
 colonies; and when parliament met in 1867, he explained the provisions of the measure 
 in an elaborate speech. The bill met with general approval in both houses, and it 
 passed; but before it obtained the royal assent, C. had, with two other colleagues in the 
 cabinet, resigned oflSice upon the reform bill of the Derby government, which he regarded 
 as democratic in its operation, and dangerous in its results. When the reform bill came 
 before the house of lords, C., in an animated speech, vindicated his consistency at the 
 expense of his colleagues; and in the discussions in committee, he addressed the house 
 with great vigor and argumentative ability. He edited in 1869 a work by his father, 
 who was an accomplished scholar. It is entitled Reminiscences of Athens arid the Morea; 
 Extracts from a Journal of Travels in Greece during 1839, lyy the late Earl of Carnarvon. 
 He has also published one or two of his lectures. On Mr. Disraeli’s return to power in 
 1874, lord C. resumed office as secretary of state for the colonies; but resigned in Jan., 
 1878, in consequence of the sending of the British fleet to the Dardanelles. Lord C. 
 married, in 1861, the only daughter of the sixth earl of Chesterfield. 
 
 CARNAR VON. See Caernarvon, ante. 
 
 CARNATIC, a country of somewhat indefinite dimensions on the e. or Coromandel 
 coast of the peninsula of Hindustan. While some carry it as far inland as the Western 
 Ghauts, others limit its breadth to about 75 miles. The length is generally taken from 
 cape Comorin to about 16° north. The C. is no longer a recognized division of the 
 country, and exists only in history as the grand theater of the struggle of last century 
 between France and England for supremacy in India. 
 
 CARNATION, one of the finest of florists’ flowers, a double-flowering variety of the 
 clove pink {dianthus caryophyllus, see Pink), and existing only in a state of cultivation. 
 It has long been a universal favorite, both on account of its beauty and fragrance, 
 although it does not appear to have been known to the ancients. The stem is about 3 ft. 
 high, and generally receives support. There are varieties, called tree carnations, with 
 much taller stems, but they are not amongst the varieties esteemed by florists. The flowers 
 are often three inches or more in diameter. Scarlet, purple, and pink are the prevailing 
 colors; but whatever are the colors of a C., it is of no value, in the eyes of a florist, 
 unless they are perfectly distinct. Fullness and perfect regularity are also deemed 
 essential. The varieties are extremely numerous : those which have only two colors, 
 disposed in large stripes through the petals, are called jlake carnations; those which have 
 three shades of color, also in stripes, bizarre carnations; and those which have the flowers 
 spotted with different colors, and the petals serrated or fringed, receive the name of 
 picotees. Great attention is at present paid in Britain to the cultivation of the C., and 
 very fine specmens are often to be seen in the gardens of cottagers, especially about 
 towns and villages. The soil for carnations must be rich, rather open, and the manure 
 well rotted and intimately mixed. The finest kinds are generally grown in pots, and 
 reeive protection from cold winds and heavy rains, although free access of air is indis- 
 pensable. Carnations are propagated in summer either by layers or by pipings, which 
 are short cuttings of shoots that have not yet flowered, each having two joints. The 
 young plants are transferred in spring to the bed in which they are to flower. 
 
 CARNATION (from Lat. caro, flesh). Flesh-tints in painting are called carnations. 
 The art of producing the true color of flesh, from the rarity with which it is acquired 
 by artists, would seem to be one of the most difficult branches of coloring. Whether 
 from their painting less from the nude than the old masters, or from some other cause, 
 it is certain that the moderns, and particularly the English, have been very unsuccessful 
 in this respect. It is said that the pigments must be laid on thick and pasty. The 
 ochres are preferable to vermilion for the local colors; and ultramarine ashes, or Veronese 
 green, mixed with asphaltum, may be used for the shadows. 
 
 CARNE'ADES, a Greek plilosopher, b. at Gyrene, in Africa, about 213 b.c. He 
 studied logic at Athens under Diogenes, but became a partisan of the academy, and 
 an enemy of the stoics, whose stern and almost dogmatic ethics did not suit his skep- 
 tical predilections. Conspicuous for his eloquence and skill in “ tongue-fence,” he was 
 destitute of any convictions moral or intellectual, and had even arrived at the conclusion 
 that no criterion of truth existed in man. In 155 b.c., along with Diogenes and Crito- 
 laus, he was sent as ambassador to Rome, where he delivered two orations on justice, 
 in the first of which he eulogized the virtue, and in the second proved that it did not 
 exist. Honest Cato, who had no relish for intellectual jugglery, and thought it a 
 
475 
 
 Carnarvon. 
 
 Carnival. 
 
 knavish excellence at the best, moved the senate to send the philosopher home to his 
 jchool, lest the Roman youth should he demoralized. C. died at Athens, 129 b.c. He 
 was remarkable for his industry, negligent habits, and impatient temper. 
 
 C ARNE' I A, a festival in honor of Apollo among the ancient Spartans, taking its 
 name from the Greek name of the month (August) in which it was celebrated. The 
 celebration lasted nine days. 
 
 CABNE'LIAN, or Cornelian, in mineralogy, the name given to some of the finer varie- 
 ties of chalcedony (q.v.). The color is blood red or flesh-color, reddish brown, reddish 
 white or yellow, more rarely milk white. The fracture is in the common C. perfectly 
 conchoidal, but there is a variety of a somewhat flbrous structure with a splintery 
 fracture. C. is found in pieces of irregular form and in lamellar concretions. The 
 finest specimens are brought from the east, but it is found in Scotland and in many 
 parts of Europe and America. It is much used by the lapidary, and in the east it is 
 prized beyond every other stone, the gems excepted. Bright red C. of unmixed color is 
 most highly valued, but a mass of considerable size is seldom found with the color 
 equal throughout. 
 
 CARNIFEX FERRY, in Nicholas co., Va., near w^hich. Sept. 10, 1861, there was 
 an engagement between the union forces under gen. Rosecrans, and the confederates 
 under gen. Floyd, the latter being defeated with the loss of camp equipage and war 
 materiah Floyd escaped by retreating over Gauly river, and destroying the bridge. 
 
 CARNIO'LA (Ger. Krain), a crown-land of the Austrian empire, formerly part of the 
 kingdom of Illyria, has an area of 3,850 sq.m., with a pop. (1869) of 466,334, being a 
 decrease of nearly 40,000 as compared with the census return of 1854. A continuation 
 of the Carinthian Alps passes through it in the north, and the Julian Alps in the south. 
 The scenery of the country abounds in interesting and singular features, amongst which 
 one of the most notable is the rock-bridge of St. Kanzian, 130 ft. high, and 160 ft, 
 broad, with a perfect arch 62 ft. high, and 154 ft. long. The Save is the principal river; 
 the Kulpa is its chief tributary. The singular lake of Zirknitz (q.v.) is in Carniola. The 
 climate of C. is in general mild, except in the high mountainous parts. The country does 
 not produce corn or cattle enough to supply the wants of its inhabitants. Millet, pulse, 
 and wild fruits are principal articles of food with many of the lower classes. Maize is 
 cultivated in some places, and some districts yield excellent wines and much fine fruit. 
 Flax is largely cultivated ; silk is produced in some places, and much honey and bees- 
 wax. The principal products of the mineral kingdom are iron, quicksilver, and 
 marble; the quicksilver mines of Idria are the most important in Europe. Linen- 
 weaving, and the manufacture of a coarse lace, are common among the peasantry. Lay- 
 back is the capital. 
 
 C. received its present name after the settlement here of the Slavonic Wends. 
 Charlemagne conquered it and gave it to the dukes of Friuli. From 972 it had mark- 
 graves of its own, sometimes called dukes, who possessed, however, only a part of the 
 country. On the extinction of the male line of the markgraves, part of the territory 
 passed to the dukes of Austria, in the 13th c., and the remainder was acquired by them 
 in the 14th. The vast majority of the inhabitants are Slavs of the Slovenian branch. 
 
 CARNIVAL (from the Lat. caro, flesh, and mle, farewell — “farewell to flesh!”), a fes- 
 tival in Italy, which originally began on the feast of the Epiphany, and continued to 
 Ash- Wednesday, when the fast of Lent made an end of the preceding feasting, masquer- 
 ading, and buffoonery. In later times, the C. was limited to the time of from three to 
 eight days before Ash- Wednesday. Without doubt, the forms and customs still pre- 
 served in the celebration of the C. originated in the heathen festivals of spring-time ; and 
 they still remind us, partly of the Lupercalia and Bacchanalia of southern Europe, and 
 partly of the Yule-feast among northern peoples. Banquets of rich meats and drinking- 
 bouts were the chief attractions of the C. during the middle ages. Shrovetide (q.v.), or 
 Shrove-Tuesday, called also Fasten-even or Pancake-Tuesday, was a relic of the English 
 C., and formerly a season of extraordinary sport and feasting. The rich commenced the 
 festive time at the feast of Epiphany, or on “Three Kings’ Day;” but the middle classes 
 restricted their days of revelry to the week immediately preceding Lent ; while the poor 
 indulged in only a few days of mad mirth. According to a papal order, the clergy were 
 allowed to commence their bacchanalia two days before the laity. The several chief 
 days of C. had distinct names, such as “fat” or “greasy Sunday,” “blue Monday” (or 
 “fool’s consecration”), etc. The Tuesday before the beginning of Lent was especially 
 styled C. — the Fastnacht of the German people. The customs of making presents of 
 green nosegays or garlands, and planting fir-trees before houses during C., remind us of 
 ^ the thyrsus of the ancient Bacchanals, and equally of the decorations of the Yule-tide or 
 Christmas season among northern people. The ancient custom, also, of scourging 
 women accidentally met with during the Lupercalia (q.v.), was preserved in the mediae- 
 val observance of the carnival. In most countries, especially where Protestantism pre- 
 vails, the observance of the C. is now limited to dancing and masked balls on certain 
 days; but in Italy, as Goethe says in his charming sketch of the Roman C., it is still a 
 general popular festive time. In former times, Venice was distinguished ^ the pomp 
 and splendor of the C. ; but afterwards, Rome became most prominent. The years of 
 
Carnivora. 
 
 Carolina. 
 
 476 
 
 tingiy politics, 1848 and 1849, had a discouraging effect on the attempts which had been 
 made to restore the gayety of C. in the Roman Catholic towns of Germany. 
 
 CARNIV'ORA (Lat. flesh-devouring), in Cuvier’s system of zoology, a principal division 
 of the order of mammalia called carnassiers or carnaria (q.v.), and including the most 
 carnivorous or sanguinary of the order — the quadrupeds which chiefly prey on the verte- 
 brate and warm-blooded animals. The C. have six incisors or cutting teeth in each jaw ; 
 their tusks or canine teeth are very strong, and even their molar teeth or grinders are 
 usually furnished with cutting edges. But even the C. are carnivorous in very different 
 degrees, and some of them have teeth and other organs adapted to a partial use of some 
 kinds of vegetable food. Cuvier subdivided the C. into three tribes, plantigrada (q.v.), 
 digitigrada{q.Y.), and amphibia (seals, q.v., etc.). The digestive apparatus of carnivo- 
 rous animals is more simple than that of the herbivorous; the stomach is single, and in 
 general of comparatively small size, and the intestines are comparatively short and 
 unvoluminous. Their muscular energy is very great, their respiration and circulation 
 very active, and their demand for food very constant. Some of them are adapted 
 for seizing their prey by leaping, others by running, a few by swimming and diving. 
 Most of them can only seize it with their mouths; but some have also, for this purpose, 
 sharp retractile claws. 
 
 CAR'NOCHAN, John Murray, b. Georgia, 1817; educated in Edinburgh; studied 
 medicine and surgery with Dr. Mott of New York, beginning practice in 1847. Dr. 
 Carnochan rapidly rose to the first rank among practicing physicians and surgeons, and 
 acquired great celebrity for the boldness and success of his operations, such as the 
 removal of the lower jaw; the cure of elephantiasis by ligature of the femoral artery ; 
 excision of the ulna and still preserving the arm with most of its functions; amputating 
 the hip joint; and particularly for removing, in a case of neuralgia, the entire trunk of 
 the second branch of the fifth pair of nerves. He has been professor of the principles 
 and operations of surgery in the New York medical college, and health officer of the 
 port. He has published a number of important papers on medicine and surgery. 
 
 CAENOT, Lazare Nicolas Marguerite, b. May 13, 1753, at Nolay, in the depart- 
 ment of Cote d’Or, Burgundy, gained distinction at an early period by his talents in 
 mathematical science and military engineering. In 1791, he became a member of the 
 legislative assembly, and, in the convention, voted for the death of Louis XVI. After 
 taking the command of the army of the north, and gaining the victory of Wattignies, 
 he was elected into the committee of public safety, in which he was intrusted with the 
 chief direction of military affairs, and greatly contributed to the successes of the French 
 army. Though he endeavored to restrict the power' of Robespierre, he was accused, 
 with others, after the reign of terror; but the charge was dismissed. In 1797, having 
 opposed the extreme measures of Barras, his colleague in the directory, C.. as a suspected 
 royalist, was sentenced to deportation. He escaped into Germany, where he wrote his 
 defense, which conduced to the overthrow of his colleagues in 1799. The 18th Brumaire 
 brought him back to Paris, where he w^as made minister of war, 1800; and by his energy, 
 skill, and fertility of administrative resource, helped to achieve the brilliant results of 
 the Italian and Rhenish campaigns. He retired, however, from his office when he 
 understood the ambitious plans of the emperor, but hastened, when he witnessed the 
 reverses of the empire, to offer his services to Napoleon, who gave him the command of 
 Antwerp in 1814, which he heroically defended. During the hundred days, he held 
 office as minister of the interior; and after the second restoration, retired first to Warsaw, 
 and next to Magdeburg, where he died, Aug. 2, 1823. Among C.’s numerous writings 
 on mathematics and military tactics, etc., we may notice Essai sur les Machines en 
 General (1786); Reflexions sur la Metaphysique du Calcul Infinitesimal (1797); and the 
 OeomHrie de Position (1813).— His son, Lazare Hippolyte Carnot, b. at St. Omer, 
 April 6, 1801, one of the leaders of the French democracy, was in early life a disciple of 
 St. Simon, but, like others, left that school on account of the lax morals advocated by 
 Enfantin — protesting against “the organization of adultery ” — and devoted himself to the 
 inculcation of a more orthodox and virtuous socialism in various periodicals. In 1847, 
 he declared himself a republican in his brochure, Les Radicaux et la Gliarte; and, after 
 the Feb. revolution, was appointed minister of public instruction, but not finding him- 
 self in sufficient rapport with his colleagues, he resigned. In 1863, he entered the corps 
 legislatif, and the national assembly in 1871. He has written an Expose of St. Simonianism 
 and Mimoires of Henri Gregoire and of Barrere. 
 
 CARNUNTUM, an ancient t. in upper Pannonia, on the Danube, founded by the 
 Celts, but at an early period a Roman post. Marcus Aurelius resided here for three 
 years during his wars with the Marcomanni. In the 4th c. C. was destroyed by German 
 invaders; it was afterward rebuilt, and finally destroyed in the Magyar wars of the middle 
 ages. 
 
 CA'EOB, Al'garoba, or Locust-tree, Ceratonia siliqua, a tree of the natural order 
 leguminosce, suborder ccesalpiniece, a native of the countries around the Mediterranean 
 sea, in size and manner of growth much resembling the apple-tree, but with abruptly 
 pinnate dark evergreen leaves, which have about two or three pair of large oval leaflets. 
 The flowers are destitute of corolla; the fruit is a brown leathery pod, 4 to 8 in. long, a 
 
477 
 
 Carnivora* 
 
 Carolina. 
 
 little curved, and containing a fleshy and at last spongy and mealy pulp, of an agreeable 
 sweet taste, in which lie a number of shining brown seeds, somewhat resembling small 
 flattened beans. The seeds are bitter and of no use, but the sweet pulp renders the poda 
 an important article of food to the poorer classes of the countries in which the tree 
 grows. They are very much used by the Moors and Arabs. They are also valuable aa 
 food for horses, for which they are much employed in the s. of Europe, and have of 
 late years begun to be extensively imported into Britain, under the name of locust beans, 
 which name and that of St. John's bread they have received in consequence of an ancient 
 opinion or tradition, that they are the “ locusts ” which formed the food of John the 
 Baptist in the wilderness. It seems probable that they are the “ husks ” of 
 
 the parable of the Prodigal son. — The Arabs make of the pulp of the C. a preserve like 
 tamarinds, which is gently aperient. — The C. tree is too tender for the climate of Britain. 
 Dr. Royle thinks its introduction into the n. of India would be an important addition 
 to the resources of that country, and a valuable safeguard against famine. The produce 
 is extremely abundant, some trees yielding as much as 800 or 900 lbs. of pods. The 
 wood is hard, and much valued, and the bark and leaves are used for tanning. — The 
 locust tree (q.v.) of America is quite distinct from this. 
 
 CAROL, a Christmas hymn that may be traced to the primitive church. It was 
 customary to call upon such as could sing to praise God in a hymn, either out of the 
 Scriptures or of their own invention; and it was also customary for bishops on Christmas 
 day to make sport with their clergy, and to sing; which custom was in imitation of the 
 Gloria in ExceMs of the angels. See Christmas Carol, ante. 
 
 CAR'OLAN, or O’CAROL AN, Turlogh, 1670-1738; one of the most noted of native 
 Irish bards. When but 18 years old he became utterly blind, and thenceforward followed 
 the profession of wandering minstrel, in which character he won great fame. The num- 
 ber of his compositions, to the greater part of which he fitted words, was about 200. 
 
 CAROLINA, North, an Atlantic state of the American union, having South Carolina 
 and Georgia on the s., Tennessee on the w., and Virginia on the n. ; in lat. 33° 53' to 
 36° 33' n., and long. 75° 25' to 84° 30' w., being about 450 m. long, and about 180 broad, 
 with an area of about 50,704 sq. miles. The census of 1870 gave 678,470 whites, 391,656 
 negroes, and 1241 civilized Indians — 1,071,361 in all. North Carolina was restored to a 
 place in the union in 1868, after a new constitution had been adopted by the state gov- 
 ernment, and approved by congress. It sends 8 members to the lower house of congress, 
 returning also, in common with every other state, 2 senators to the upper. The public 
 debt of North C., in 1874, was 38,921,848 dollars, and its valuation of property waa 
 143,723,813 dollars. Annual expenses of government, 1,400,000 dollars. Of railways, 
 there were, in the year 1875, in actual operation, 1346 miles. The principal rivers are 
 the Chowan, Roanoke, Tar, Neuse, and Cape Fear. Of these, the first four divide 
 themselves equally between Albemarle and Pamlico sounds — inlets which, besides being 
 shallow and difficult in themselves, are almost entirely cut off from the sea by a nearly 
 continuous series of low islands — and the last of the five, though it does fall into the open 
 ocean, is yet not materially superior to the others, never showing more than 14 ft. of 
 water on the bar. With this insular breast-work, the mainland is geologically connected 
 to a depth of about 60 m., being everywhere alluvial, and in many places swampy. To 
 the w. of this , belt, the country, after undulating into hills, is traversed by the ridges of 
 the Alleghanies, which, culminating in Mt. Mitchell to an elevation of 6470 ft., bear 
 aloft between them a table-land of fully one third of that altitude. Through the mari- 
 time tract, and even beyond it, the rivers are generally practicable for steam-boats. 
 Among the productions, the most characteristic is the pitch-pine of the lower level; so 
 that, in the matter of naval stores, this state surpasses all the rest of the union taken, 
 together. In mineral resources, also. North C. takes a lead, more especially in gold, 
 copper, iron, and coal. The value of the manufactured products of North C. in 1876 
 was 19,021,327 dollars; the value of the cotton brought to its shipping ports in 1876 was. 
 £1,122,959. The chief towns are Raleigh, the capital, near the Neuse; Wilmington and 
 Fayetteville on the Cape Fear (the former within reach of tide-water, and the latter at 
 the head of the navigation); New Berne, and Charlotte. North C. was first permanently 
 colonized from Virginia in 1653. Down to 1693, it continued to form one province along 
 with South Carolina, the two being frequently still called the Carolinas. In a local dec- 
 laration of independence of May, 1775, 14 months before the 4th of July, 1776, North C. 
 first demanded a separation from Great Britain. 
 
 CAROLINA, South, an Atlantic state of the American union, of a triangular form, 
 with North Carolina and Georgia on its inland sides. It extends between 32° and 35° 
 10' n. lat., and 78° 25' and 83° 20' w. long., having an area of 34,000 sq. miles. In 1870, 
 the total pop. of South C. was 705,606; of whom 289,667 were whites, 415,814 negroes, 
 and 124 civilized Indians; in 1875, the population was 923,447. The total population in 
 1800 was 345,591. South C. formerly differed from all the other states in appointing its 
 presidential electors, and its executive, not by the popular suffrage, but by the joint vote 
 of the two branches of the local legislature, being thus pre-eminent in the aristocracy of 
 its constitution. In 1868, however, in the reconstruction of the southern states. South 
 C. was restored to a place in the union, with a new constitution adopted by a majority^ 
 of voters, and approved by congress. It is represented in congress by 5 members in the 
 
Carolina. 
 
 Carotid. 
 
 478 
 
 lower house, besides the 2 senators which each state possesses alike. Physically a contin- 
 uation of its northern neighbor, South C., behind a breast- work of islets, presents a low 
 belt, generally swampy, of about 100 m. in depth, rising backward through an undulat- 
 ing region to a height of 4000 ft. in the Alleghanies. With such a range of soil and climate, 
 the productions are very various — cotton, rice, tobacco, indigo, sugar, silk, maize, and 
 wheat. In the first two articles. South C. stands pre-eminent, yielding nearly as much 
 rice as all the other states together, and more cotton, in proportion to area, than any other 
 state. Its mineral treasures are chiefiy granite, sienite, marble, and gneiss, from the 
 primitive formations of the state, for building; along with gold, lead, and iron; it is 
 probable that no coal will be found. The public indebtedness of South C. in 1874 was 
 17,017,651 dollars, and the assessed value of property in 1873 was 176,956,502 dollars. 
 Since the reconstruction of the state, public institutions have made great progress. With 
 not much more than 50 m. of canal. South C. has 1400 of railway. The chief rivers, 
 each the receptacle of considerable affluents, are the Great Pedee, Santee, and Edisto, 
 and also the Savannah, as common to Georgia and South C., the whole being said to 
 furnish an inland navigation of 2400 miles. The cotton product of South C. in 1866 
 amounted to 112,273 bales; in 1868, to 240,225; and in 1873-74, to 438,194 bales. The 
 value of the cotton brought to the shipping ports of South C. in 1876 was £4,320,568. 
 The chief towns are Charleston. Columbia (the capital), Georgetown, and Greenville. 
 
 CAROLINA PINK. See Spigelia. 
 
 CAROLINA, Maria, 1752-1814; daughter of Francis I. and Maria Theresa of Aus- 
 tria, and queen of Naples by her marriage with Ferdinand IV. in 1768. She had great 
 influence with the king, leading him in 1798 to declare war against France, the con- 
 sequence of which was the marching of the French upon Naples and the flight of Fer- 
 dinand and Carolina to British protection. After returning to Naples she conspired 
 against Napoleon, and, with her husband, was again expelled. She died in Vienna 
 before any further restoration to the throne. 
 
 CAROLINE, a co. in e. Maryland, on the Delaware border, intersected by the Mary- 
 land and Delaware and the Dorchester and Delaware railroads; 300 sq.m. ; pop. ’80, 
 13,767 — 4166 colored. It has a level sandy surface, producing corn, oats, potatoes, etc. 
 Co. seat, Denton. 
 
 CAROLINE, a co. in e. Virginia, on the Rappahanock river, and the Richmond, 
 Frederick and Potomac railroad; 480 sq.m. ; pop. ’80, 17,243 — 9637 colored. Produc- 
 tions, wheat, corn, oats, and tobacco. Co. seat. Bowling Green. 
 
 CAROLINE, Amelia Elizabeth, wife of George IV. of Great Britain, was the second 
 daughter of Charles William Ferdinand, duke of Brunswick Wolfenbiittel, and of the 
 princess Augusta of Britain. She was born on the 17th May, 1768, and spent her youth 
 under great restraint at her father’s court. In 1795, she was married to the prince 
 of Wales. The marriage was disagreeable to him, and although she bare him a daugh- 
 ter, the princess Charlotte, he separated from her immediately on her recovery from 
 childbed ; and she lived by herself in a country residence at Blackheath, the object of 
 much sympathy, the people regarding her as the victim of her husband’s love of vice. 
 Reports to her discredit led t& king, in 1808, to cause investigation to be made into 
 her conduct, which was found to be imprudent, but not criminal. In 1814, she obtained 
 leave to visit Brunswick, and afterwards to make a further tour. She visited the coasts 
 of the Mediterranean, and lived for some time on the lake of Como, an Italian, byname 
 Bergami, being all the while in her company. When her husband ascended the throne 
 in 1820, she was offered an annuity of £50, 000 sterling to renounce the title of queen, 
 and live abroad; but she refused, and made a triumphal entry into London, whereupon 
 the government instituted proceedings against her for adultery. Much that was very 
 offensive was proved as to her conduct; but the manner in which she had been used 
 by her husband, and the splendid defense of Brougham, caused such a general feeling in 
 her favor, that the ministry were obliged to give up the divorce bill, after it had passed 
 the house of lords. She now fully assumed the rank of royalty, but was refused coro- 
 nation, and turned away from the door of Westminster abbey on the day of the corona- 
 tion of her husband. She died on 7th Aug., 1821. 
 
 CAROLINE BOOKS, four works drawn up at the request of Charlemagne against 
 the decrees of the second council of Nice on the adoration of images, and contained 
 in the Capiiulare Prolixium of Charlemagne, 
 
 CAROLINE ISLANDS, or NEW PHILIPPINES, a widely scattered archipelago in 
 the Pacific, n. of New Guinea and e. of the Philippines, between 3° and 11° n., and 135° 
 and 137° e. The westernmost are known as the Pelew (q.v. ante) or Palau islands, and 
 cover 346 sq.in. of land, being nearly encircled by a coral reef. The surface is well 
 wooded, and the soil fertile, producing bread-fruit, cocoa-nuts, sugar-cane, oranges, 
 bananas, etc., in abundance. Cattle, sheep, and hogs have been domesticated; there is 
 a great variety of birds, and the lagoons abound with fish. The inhabitants are dark- 
 colored, and evidently of Papuan and Malay blood. The islands, and most of the vil- 
 lages, form independent but co-operative republics. One of the most remarkable insti- 
 tutions is the “ clSbbergall,” a kind of union for mutual aid and defense. The women, 
 too, have clobbergalls of their own, and exercise much political influence. Up to the 
 
479 
 
 Carolihao 
 
 Carotid. 
 
 close of the last century the people used stone instruments and weapons. Their cur- 
 rency consists of pieces, or pieds, of ancient glass and enamel, to which they ascribe a 
 divine origin. The population, supposed to be about 10,000, seems to be decreasing. 
 The central islands, or Carolines proper, consist of 48 groups, and comprise between 
 400 and 500 islands, of about 360 sq.m, in all. The Matelotas group lies n.e. of the 
 Pelews, and consists of three islands, thinly inhabited. Yap, or Guap, further n.e., is 
 10 m. long, and has a good harbor. The natives of Yap are more advanced in civiliza- 
 tion than their neighbors; they cultivate the betel-nut with great care, build good boats, 
 lay out regular villages, pave the streets, and build stone piers and wharves. A Span- 
 ish mission was established in 1856. The Ulea, Swede, and Lutke islands are unim- 
 portant; but the Hugoleu (or Rug) group, discovered in 1824, consists of five large and 
 about 40 small islands, with 35,000 inhabitants of two races, red and black, who are 
 often at war with each other. The Mortlack, or Young William’s, group consists of 
 three islands, with a population of about 3,400, of Samoan origin, who are the only 
 idol- worshipers in all the archipelago. To the n.e. lies Ruveu island, inhabited by 
 immigrants of mixed foreign blood. The Seniavine group, comprising three islands, 
 has a small colony of whites, and one of the islands has been the seat of an American 
 mission since 1851. This island, called Ascencion by the French, is a rendezvous for 
 whaling vessels. In the center is a remarkable pile of ruins which seem to have 
 belpnged to a fortification. Strong’s island, in the center of the Carolines proper, is a 
 volcanic upheaval, discovered by Crozier in 1804, and is now the seat of an American 
 mission. The eastern Carolines, otherwise the Mulgrave archipelago, comprise the 
 Radak or Marshall group, and have a population estimated at 100,000. See Polynesia, 
 ante. 
 
 CAROLINE MATILDA, 1751-75; sister of George III. of England; queen of 
 Denmark, having married Christian VII. in 1768, by whom she became the mother of 
 Frederick VI. Through the jealousy of the queen dowager and the king’s step-mother, 
 she was accused of infidelity, and the king, who had become weak-minded, if not idiotic, 
 caused her and Struensee, her physician, to be arrested. The interference of the British 
 minister saved the queen from death, but she was sent into Hanover, where she died of 
 grief in the castle of Celle. See Struensee, ante. 
 
 CARON, Rene Edouard, b. Canada, 1800; educated in the Quebec seminary; ad- 
 mitted to the bar in 1826. He was mayor of Quebec 1827-37, and speaker of the legisla- 
 tive council 1843-47, and 1848-53; when he abandoned political life, and was appointed 
 judge of the queen’s bench. In 1857 he was commissioner for codifying the laws of 
 Lower Canada, and in 1873 was appointed lieutenant-governor of Quebec. 
 
 CABO'BA, a t. of Venezuela, South America, in the province of Caro, 210 m. w.s.w 
 of Caracas, and 60 m. e. of lake Maracaybo, on the Tocuyo. The town is well built, bar 
 a handsome parish church, convent, hermitage, etc. There are manufactures of leather, 
 ropes, and fine hammocks from the fiber of the agave fatida. A trade is carried on in 
 agricultural produce, and in the aromatic balsams, resins, gums, and wild cochineal for 
 which the district is famous. The pop., which was formerly much larger, is now about 
 6 , 000 . 
 
 CABOT 'ID ABTEBY. The great artery which on each side distributes blood to the 
 different parts of the head, appears to have derived its name either from Gr. Icara, the 
 head, or, more probably, from Gr. karos, sleep, there being an old idea, which the 
 researches of Dr. Alexander Fleming have shown to be correct, that there was some 
 connection between deep sleep and compression of these vessels. 
 
 Each C. A. consists of the primitive or common carotid, which, at the upper margin 
 of the larynx or organ of voice, separates into two great divisions, of nearly equal size — 
 the external and the internal carotid. The external carotid supplies the larynx, tongue, 
 face, and scalp with blood ; its principal branches being the superior thyroid, the lingual, 
 the facial, the occipital, the posterior aural, the internal maxillary, and the temporal. 
 The last-named artery is occasionally opened by the surgeon in preference to a vein, as, 
 for example, in certain cases of cerebral apoplexy. The internal carotid enters the cavity 
 of the cranium through a somewhat tortuous canal in the temporal bone, and after per- 
 forating the dura mater, or fibrous membrane of the brain, separates into the anterior 
 and middle cerebral arteries, which are the principal arteries of the brain; while in its 
 course through the dura mater, it gives off the ophthalmic artery, which subdivides 
 into several small branches that supply the eye and surrounding parts. See Circula- 
 tion. 
 
 Surgery . — Wounds of the carotid trunks are generally from stabs. Suicides have a 
 vague desire to cut them, but rarely cut suflQciently deep by the side of the windpipe. 
 Of course, should either vessel be wounded, death results almost immedi&,tely. Punc- 
 tured wounds, however, may not be immediately fatal; they may heal, or a false aneu- 
 rism (q.v.) may result. Such an occurrence happened about twenty years ago in Scotland. 
 A young man was stabbed close to the root of the neck; a pulsating tumor formed, 
 which rapidly increased, and would undoubtedly have burst before long, had not prof. 
 Syme of Edinburgh cut into it, and, by an operation requiring extraordinary courage 
 and dexterity, tied the common C. A. above and below the part stabbed; thereby savimr 
 
Carouge. 
 
 Carpeuter. 
 
 480 
 
 not only the life of the patient, but that of the man who had inflicted the wound, and 
 who was then in prison awaiting his trial. 
 
 Sir Astley Cooper was the first to tie the common carotid for spontaneous aneurism, 
 in Nov., 1805; and since then, the operation has been successfully performed in a num- 
 ber of cases. Owing to the numerous interchange of branches between vessels of both 
 sides of the'head, cutting oif the supply of blood through one carotid is seldom followed 
 by affections of the brain. Such have, however, occurred in a few instances; but Dr. 
 Mussey of America tied both carotids within twelve days of each other without any such 
 result. 
 
 The common carotid in the horse is the termination of the right arteria innominata. 
 
 It is a large vessel, about an inch long, which emerges from the chest below the wind- 
 pipe, and divides into the right and left carotids. These bend upward, having the wind- 
 pipe between them, gradually inclining inwards at the upper part, where each divides 
 into external and internal carotid, and a large anastomosing branch arising from between 
 these two. 
 
 CAROUGE, a t. of Switzerland, canton of Geneva, about 2 m. from the city of that 
 name, with which it is connected by a bridge across the Arve. It has cotton-spinning, 
 leather, and pottery manufactures; and in 1780 the king of Sardinia, as ruler of Savoy, 
 tried to set it up as the industrial rival of Geneva, but failed. Pop. ’70, 5,871. 
 
 CAROUGE, a t. of Switzerland, in the canton and about one m. s. of Geneva, on the 
 left bank of the Arve. It is beautifully situated, regularly built, and surrounded by 
 villas, orchards, and meadows. It has a handsome Roman Catholic and a Protestant 
 church. There are manufactures of thread, clay pipes, leather, watches, and pottery. 
 There is a bridge across the Arve connecting the town with Geneva. Pop. ’70, 5,871. 
 [From Suppt.] 
 
 CARP, Oyprinus carpio, a fish of the family Gyprinidm (q.v.), of which, indeed, it 
 may be regarded as the type, a native of the central countries of Europe, and corre- 
 sponding latitudes in Asia, but on account of its value as an article of food, long natu- 
 ralized in many countries in which it is not indigenous. No fish, indeed, except its con- 
 gener the goldfish, has been so much transported by man from one place to another; 
 and this has beeu the more easily and successfully accomplished, that the C. can subsist 
 longer than most fishes out of the water, if only kept moist. The C. is said not to be 
 originally a native of England, but the statements sometimes made as to the time of its 
 introduction are untrustworthy ; it certainly existed in England before the 16th century. 
 
 It is mentioned in the famous Boke of St. Albans, in 1496, by Dame Juliana Barnes, as 
 a “ dayntous fysshe, but scarce.” The C. spawns in May, and is out of condition until 
 July. It does not succeed so well in Scotland, of which country it is certainly not a , 
 native, as in the s. of England; and in northern countries generally, it neither increases 
 so rapidly in size, nor exliibits so great fecundity, as in more congenial climates. Its 
 fecundity, in favorable circumstances, is prodigious; more than 700,000 eggs have been 
 found in the ovaries of a single C. of moderate size. The C. is rather an inhabitant of 
 lakes and ponds than of rivers, in which, if it is found, it shows a preference for the 
 stillest parts. It feeds chiefly on aquatic plants, and may be fattened on lettuces and 
 similar soft vegetables, for which its teeth are remarkably adapted, being few, mostl}' 
 large, flat, and situated on the pharynx very far back in the mouth; woims, mollusks, 
 and insects, however, form part of its food. It deposits its spawn on weeds. It is said 
 to live to a great age, even 150 or 200 years ; its scales, “ like the productions of the 
 cuticle in some other animals, becoming gray and white with age.” It is known to 
 attain the weight of 3 lbs. when six years old. A C. of 18 or 19 lbs. weight is deemed 
 of extraordinary size in England, but one of 70 lbs. weight, and nearly 9 ft. long, 
 was taken near Frankfort-on-the-Oder, and 30 or 40 lbs. is not an unusual size in 
 some of the German lakes. In Austria and Prussia, many lakes and ponds are let at a 
 high rent for the C. which they contain. — Of the other species of the genus cyprinus, 
 as now restricted, which are found in Britain, none belong to the section having bar- 
 bules at the angles of the mouth. See Crucian, Gibel, and Goldfish. 
 
 To the angler, the C. is not a very valuable fish, as he is by no means a free biter. 
 When hooked, however, he runs strongly, and fights with considerable determination 
 and cunning. In still water, the best means of fishing for C. is with a very light 
 quill-float. A small piece of dead rush will answer the purpose equally well, or better. 
 The float should be fixed on the line so that the bait may be upon the bottom, and if 
 that be clear of weeds (the angler must take care that it is so), the C. will easily see 
 and pick up the bait. It is advisable, however, in fishing for C. to use two rods, 
 and the float to one of these should be so placed that the bait may be just off the 
 bottom. The former tackle should be baited with well-scoured red worms, gentles, 
 or grubs of some sort; the latter with a green pea, boiled wheat, or paste. The 
 hooks should be of No. 8 size, and tolerably stout in the wire, and the gut perfectly 
 round and good, and as fine as is consistent with the size of the fish angled for. In 
 using green peas or wheat, boil until the skin cracks. Very small potatoes of the 
 size of a bean have been known to attract good carp. The best paste is bread worked 
 up with a little brandy or gin. Gentles, wasp grubs, flies, and other insects, worms, 
 or caterpillars, may all, at times, take carp. When a C. bites, he nibbles at the bait for 
 
481 
 
 Carouge. 
 
 Carpenter. 
 
 Bome seconds before he takes it, and often takes off the tail of the worm, or strips 
 the hook completely. But it is quite useless to strike until the float disappears entirely. 
 
 CARP^'A, a dance in ancient Thessaly ; a pantomime represented by two men, one 
 a robber and the other a plowman, in which there was a contest for the possession of 
 the plowman’s oxen, which are finally captured by the robber. All the action was 
 rhythmical, and performed much like a pantomime of the present day. 
 
 CARPA'THIAN MOUNTAINS, the mountains which inclose Hungary and Transyl- 
 vania on the n., e., and s. in a great semicircle (whose concavity is towards the s.w.), 
 extending over a space of 800 m. from Presburg on the Danube to Orsova on the same 
 river, between lat. 44° 30' to 49° 40' n., long. 17° to 26° east. The C. M. form part of 
 the great mountain system of central Europe, separated from the mountains of Silesia 
 and Moravia by the valley of the March, and from the Alps and Mt. Haemus by the 
 valley of the Danube. Almost the whole of the C. M. lie within the Austrian dominions. 
 They form two great masses, one in Hungary to the n. w., and one in Transylvania to the 
 s.e., with ranges of lower and wooded mountains between. The highest group of the 
 Hungarian Carpathians is thatof 7 atra or the Carpat, in the very n. of Hungary, a majestic 
 mass of granite mountains, exhibiting much grandeur in its naked precipices, and in 
 some of its peaks rising to the height of more than 8,000 ft., the Lomnitz peak being 
 8,133 ft. high. On the northern declivity of the Eisthal peak exists the only glacier in 
 the Carpathians. The Tatra group is penetrated by no valleys, but only by wild ravines, 
 and is separated from the rest of tlie range by deep depressions. There is a great differ- 
 ence of climate between its southern and northern sides. These higher mountains yield 
 few minerals, but the lower Carpathians of Hungary, which stretch around them in 
 groups and ranges, abound in minerals of various kinds. The mines of Schemnitz 
 (q.v.) are of great celebrity. Many of the Hungarian mountains are of limestone. The 
 mountains of Transylvania are mostly of primitive rocks. On the eastern and southern 
 borders, they reach the height of 9,000 ft. and upwards. Mt. Butschetje, the culminat- 
 ing peak, has an elevation of 9,528 ft. above the sea. The C. M. are generally 
 clothed with wood to a height of more than 4,000 ft. — in some parts, forests ar« 
 found at 5,500 ft. — and with steep precipices, narrow ravines, extinct craters, and 
 cones of volcanic origin, they exhibit scenes of grandeur rarely exceeded. The lower 
 parts of the mountains are beautifully clothed with vineyards, walnut groves, etc., 
 above which ascend forests of cherry, beech, and pine. The ranges which connect 
 the high mountains of Hungary with those of Transylvania are in great part composed 
 of sandstone, have an unfruitful soil, and comparatively little population or cul- 
 tivation. 
 
 CAR'PATHOS. See Scarpanto, ante. 
 
 CARPEAUX, Jean Baptiste, b. 1827; a French sculptor, whose more conspicuous 
 works are “ The Fisher Boy,” “Ugolino and his Children,” “ Neapolitan Fisherman,’* 
 “Girl with a Shell,” “France enlightening the World, and protecting Agriculture and 
 Science,” and the noted group, “La Danse,” on the fa 9 ade of the Paris opera-house. 
 
 CARPEL (Gr. Tcarpos, fruit), in botany, a modified leaf forming the whole or part 
 of the pistil of a flower. The number of ovaries and stigmas in the pistil depends on 
 the number of carpels of which it is composed, but sometimes several are so intimately 
 united that they appear as one. It is the upper surface of the leaf which forms the 
 inner surface of the carpel. At its margins, the ovules are developed, like the buds 
 formed on true leaves of some kinds of plants. The fruit, as well as the pistil, may 
 therefore be said to be composed of one or more carpels. 
 
 CARPENTA'RIA, Gulf of, a broad and deep indentation of the n. coast of Austra- 
 lia, stretching from 11° to 17° 30' s. lat., and from 136° to 142° e. longitude. It is said to 
 have been named from Carpenter, a Dutchman, who discovered and partly explored it 
 in 1627. The gulf of C. contains many islands. The shores of the mainland are 
 generally low ; and, in the rainy season, the floods are such as materially to freshen the 
 sea. 
 
 CARPENTER, Francis B., b. 1830; a painter whose portrait of Lincoln, and 
 “Emancipation Proclamation,” have gained some celebrity. He published Six Months 
 in the W kite House. 
 
 CARPENTER, Lant, ll.d., 1780-1840; an English Unitarian minister, successor 
 of Dr. Kenrick at Exeter ; afterwards in charge of a church in Bristol. He was much 
 interested in the religious instruction of children, and established several Sunday- 
 schools. Among his works are An Introduction to the Geography of the New Testa- 
 ment; JJnitarianism the Doctrine of the Gospel; Examination of the Charges against TJni- 
 tarianism; and Harmony of the Gospels. 
 
 CARPENTER, Mary, daughter of the Rev. Dr. Lant Carpenter, of Bristol, and sister 
 of Dr. William Carpenter (b. 1807, d. 1877). She took an active part in the movement 
 for the reformation of neglected children, and besides advocating their cause in her 
 writings, she founded several reformatories for girls, one of which, the Redhedge reform- 
 atory, she superintended. In the prosecution of her philanthropic labors she visited 
 India three times, and, in 1871, instituted the national Indian association, whose journal 
 U. K. III.— 31 
 
C^arpeater. 
 
 Carpentry. 
 
 482 
 
 she edited. Besides her reformatory writings, she published Our Conticts (1864), a book 
 which drew public attention to the treatment of young criminals; The Last Days of th$ 
 Rajah Rammohun Roy; and Six Months in India. 
 
 CAKPENTER, Matthew H., b. Yt., 1824; studied law with Rufus Choate; and 
 in 1848 settled in Wisconsin, from which state he was returned as U. 8. senator in 
 1868, and was re-elected in 1879. He is an able lawyer and a brilliant debater. 
 
 CARPENTEE, Willie Benjamin, m.d., ll.d., f.r.s., f.l.s., f.g.b., one of the 
 most distinguished physiologists and writers on physiology of the present day. Soon 
 after his graduation in Edinburgh in 1839, he published his Principles of General and 
 Comparative Physiology, which was one of the earliest works giving a general view of 
 the science of life. As the treatise grew in size in successive editions, it was divided 
 into two — The Principles of Comparative Physiology, and The Principles of General P7iysi~ 
 ology. These works, together with The Principles of Human Physiology, which origi- 
 nally appeared in 1846, and reached a fourth edition in 1853, and Ihe Principles of Mental 
 Physiology (Lond. 1874), form a perfect cyclopaedia of biological science. C. has like- 
 wise published A Manual of Physiology; Vie Microscope, its Revelations and its Uses; a 
 prize essay upon The Use and Abuse of Alcoholic Liquors; and numerous memoirs on 
 various departments of physiology, microscopical anatomy, and natural history, in the 
 Philosophical Transactions, etc. His most important original researches are On the 
 Structure of Shells; On the Development of Purpura LapUlus; and On the Structure, 
 Functions, and General History of the Foraminifera. For several years he edited 2he 
 British and Foreign Medico- ChirurgicoX Review, and he was one of the editors of The 
 Natural History Review. In 1848, he was appointed professor of medical jurisprudence 
 at university college, and soon afterwards examiner in physiology and comparative 
 anatomy in the university of London; but he resigned these offices on his appointment, 
 in 1856, as registrar to that university. In 1861, the royal medal was awarded to him 
 by the royal society; and in 1873, he was elected a corresponding member of the insti- 
 tute of France. He took a chief part in the government expeditions sent out in 1868- 
 69-70 for deep-sea exploration in the n. Atlantic; and since then he has contributed 
 largely to the discussion of the vexed question of ocean circulation in the journal of the 
 royal geographical society and other periodicals. In the art, Atlantic in the Ency. 
 Brit., 9th ed., his views will be found summarized. He advocates the doctrine of a 
 vertical circulation sustained by opposition of temperature only, independent of and dis- 
 tinct from the horizontal currents produced by winds; see Gulf Stream. This doctrine 
 was first advanced by prof. Lenz of St. Petersburg in 1845; but Dr. C. was ignorant of 
 this, when the deep-sea observations begun in 1868 led him to an identical theory. Dr. 
 C. has written largely on another controverted subject — that of spiritualism, which he 
 maintains to be a delusion. He entered this field as early as 1853, in an article on ani- 
 mal magnetism in the (Quarterly Review; a late contribution to the controversy is Mes- 
 merism, Spintualism, etc,, historically and scientifically considered (Longmans & Co., 1877). 
 
 CAEPENTER BEE, a name given to those bees that excavate their nests in wood. 
 One of these, xylocopa violacea, has been already noticed, and its nest briefly described, 
 in the article Bee (q.v.). 
 
 CARPENTER, SHIP’S, a naval officer whose duty is to keep a ship of war in repair, 
 specially during action in case of damage that may endanger sinking. 
 
 CARPENTRAS, a t, of France, in the department of Vaucluse, is situated on the left 
 bank of the Auzon, about 15 m. n.e. of Avignon. This town was known to the Romans 
 as Carpentoracte, and among other remains, a triumphal arch attests their former presence 
 here. C. has manufactures of cottons, woolens, and leather; brandy distilleries, dye- 
 works, etc. It is the entrepot for the products of the district. Pop. ’72, 7,857. 
 
 CARPENTRY is the art of framing timber for architectural and other purposes. 
 Technically, the term is restricted to the framing of heavy work, such as the roofs, 
 floorings, partitions, and all the wood-work concerned in maintaining the stability of an 
 edifice, while the minor and ornamental fittings are called joinery ; but popularly the 
 workman who does either kind of work is called a carpenter. _ 
 
 The present article will be confined to a populaV description of the most useful 
 methods of framing timber and smaller wood-work. 
 
 The preliminary preparation of timber is the work of the sawyer, who, by the ^w- 
 mill or pit-saw, divides the trunks of trees into planks, etc. ; these are further divided 
 by the carpenter, who uses hand-saws of various kinds, according to the work. For 
 dividing wood into separate pieces in the direction of the fiber, the ripping-saw is used; 
 for cross cutting, or sawing thin pieces in the direction of their length, the common 
 hand-saw or the finer toothed panel-saw; for making an incision of a given depth, and 
 for cutting small pieces across the fiber, the tenon-saw, the sash-saw, or dovetail-saw is 
 used. These are thin saws, stiffened by a strong piece of metal at the back to prevent 
 crippling. When a curved cut is to be made, a very naiTow saw without a back, called 
 a compass-saw or a heyhole-saw, is used. The general name for these is tuming-sa/ws; 
 they have their plates thin and narrow towards the bottom, and each succeeding tooth 
 finer, and the teeth are not bent on contrary sides of the plate for clearing, as in broad 
 saws. 
 
483 
 
 Carpenter. 
 
 Carpentry, 
 
 The surface of wood is smoothed by planing. According to the work, different kinds 
 of planes are used: i\\Q jack-plane, wliicli is large and rough, for taking away the rough 
 of the saw; the trying-plane, for bringing the surface perfectly level and true, or the 
 long-plane for the same purpose, where the work is of great length, as for the joining 
 edges of long boards to be glued together. The smoothing-plane, which is much smaller 
 than these, gives the smooth finished surface. The spoke-shave, a sort of plane with a 
 double handle, is used for paring and smoothing rounded work. 
 
 Ornamental moldings are cut by means of molding-planes, which have their cutting 
 edges curved to the required pattern. A good stock of these is one of the most expen- 
 sive items of the tool-chest. 
 
 The paring of wood, and the cutting of rectangular or prismatic cavities, notches, 
 etc., are done by means of chisels. Those for cutting across the fiber are called 
 or paring-chisels; those for cutting deep and narrow cavities, 'mortise-chisels, which are 
 made very thick and narrow, and fitted in the handles with a strong flange, to bear heavy 
 blows with the mallet. Chisels for paring concave surfaces are called gouges. For 
 boring holes, brad-awls, gimlets, centerbits, and gouges are used — the two latter are fixed 
 in a stock or revolving handle, and are used for large holes. When it is required to 
 ascertain if an angle be square, or of any given inclination, the square, or the bevel set to 
 the required angle, is applied to test the work as it proceeds. When parallel edges are 
 required, the marking gauge is used to draw the line to be worked to. When a simple 
 straight line is required for working to, a piece of string is chalked, then stretched 
 tightly over the wood and lifted in the middle, when, by its recoil, it strikes the wood 
 and leaves a straight chalked line. The straight-edge, a strip of wood with one of its 
 edges perfectly straight, is applied to detect superficial irregularities. The operation of 
 planing the edge of a board straight is called shooting, and such edges are said to be shot. 
 When the joiner requires to ascertain whether the surface of a piece of wood is all in 
 one plane, he takes two slips of wood with edges perfectly straight and parallel, and of 
 equal width; these slips, called ‘winding-sticks, are placed edge upwards, one at each end, 
 across the board, and the workman looks in the longitudinal direction of the board over 
 the upper edges, and if the two edges be not in the same plane, the board is planed 
 down at the elevated parts until it is out of wind. For setting work level, a spirit-level, 
 set in a wooden frame, or a plumb-level is used. For f\irther description of the tools 
 alluded to above, and in the rest of this article, see the special articles. 
 
 When two pieces of timber have to be united at their ends, as in lengthening the 
 beams for roofing, partitions, the masts and keels of ships, etc., the operation is called 
 scarfing, and the joint a scarf. The methods of scarfing are very numerous; those fig- 
 ured below will serve to illustrate the principal. 
 
 The following are the principal rules for scarfing as stated by Tredgold. 
 
 The length of the scarf should be, if bolts are not used — in oak, ash, or elm, six 
 times the depth of the beam; in fir, 12 times the depth of the beam. If bolts and indents 
 are combined, the length of the scarf should be — in oak, ash, or elm, twice the depth of 
 the beam ; in fir, four times the depth. In scarfing beams to resist transverse strains, 
 straps driven on tight are better than bolts. The sum of the areas of the bolts should 
 not be less than one fifth the area of the beam, when a longitudinal strain is to be borne. 
 No joint should be used in which shrinking or expansion can tend to tear the timbers. 
 No joint can be made so strong as the timber itself. When two pieces of timber are 
 connected so that the joint runs parallel with the fibers of both, it is called a longitudinal 
 joint; but when the place of the joint is at right angles to the fibers of both, an abutting 
 joint. A very short tenon is called a stub tenon. When a second minor tenon is made 
 projecting from the principal tenon, it is called a tusk tenon. 
 
 For lighter joiner’s work, other methods of framing are used, and adapted to the 
 work — to boards generally instead of beams; thus, for example, the mortise and tenon 
 joint, made oblong instead of square, is used in framing doors, shutters, drawing-boards, 
 or any other kind of extended superficial work liable to warping. An outside frame or 
 skeleton is made with a panel or panels in the middle, and each piece of the frame has 
 the grain at right angles to the piece into which it is mortised, in order that they shall 
 eventually correct the warping. 
 
 Dovetailing is extensively used for connecting boards at right or other angles, as in 
 making boxes, drawers, etc. Common dovetailing is usually glued. Nails or pins and 
 glue are used with the miter and other notched joints. 
 
 ^ Boards may be united at their edges to form an extended surface, as a flat plank par- 
 tition, etc., either by simple gluing of the shot edges, by a rebate, or by a plowed groove 
 and a corresponding projection. The rebate is cut by means of a rebating plane; that 
 in the figure is combined with a bead, the usual joint for wooden partitions. The 
 groove, a sort of extended mortise, is cut by a plane with a projecting iron called the 
 plow. 
 
 In all cases where glue is used in joints, it should be applied to both surfaces, which 
 should be rubbed and pressed together until nearly all the glue is forced out, then kept 
 pressed by a cramp or weights. White lead is used for outside joints. 
 
 Special departments of this subject, such as roofs, staircases, etc., will be treated 
 under their respective heads. 
 
Carpet. 
 
 Carpzov. 
 
 484 
 
 CARPET-BAGGER, a term of contempt applied by the people of the southern 
 United States to a man who came from any other part of the union to live in the south, or 
 to transact business there after the close of the rebellion. The term has been extended so 
 as to designate any person in any part of the country who has no fixed residence. One 
 offense of the carpet-bagger in the south was in teaching negroes to read and write, and 
 helping them to assert their new political rights, which the greater majority of native 
 whites were in no hurry to see exercised. In the unsettled condition of the southern 
 states after the rebellion, they furnished an inviting field for adventurers and dema- 
 gogues, who gave some ground for the stigma which has largely attached to the name 
 of carpet-bagger. 
 
 CABFETS. Woven C., such as are now so common in this country, were first used 
 in the east, where the custom of sitting cross-legged on the fioor still renders them 
 especially useful. Our rude forefathers covered the fioors of their houses with rushes, 
 hair, or straw; and in Norwegian farm-houses, where so many of our ancient customs 
 still exist, the floor of the best room is commonly strewed with juniper-twigs. The 
 first step towards a woven carpet was made by plaiting rushes to form a matting. 
 
 The principal varieties of C. now in use are the Turkey, the Axminster, the Brus- 
 sels, the Wilton, the Venetian, the Dutch, the Kidderminster or Scotch, Whytock’s 
 tapestry and velvet pile, and the printed felt carpet. 
 
 The real Turkey carpet is made in one piece ; those manufactured for the orientals 
 are usually too small for use in this country. The patterns consist merely of curved 
 «nd angular strips, of variegated but dark and unobtrusive colors. The warp is of 
 strong linen or cotton, to which bunches or tufts of colored worsted are tied according 
 to the pattern, a drawing of which is placed before the weaver to copy. The surface is 
 afterwards shorn level. Rugs are made in a similar manner; the colored worsteds are 
 tied very rapidly by young girls. ^ 
 
 The Axminster carpet is merely the English-made Turkey carpet, formerly manufac- 
 tured as above at Axminster, in Devonshire. They are usually made to order, and of 
 the size required for the room; from the tedious nature of the process of manufacture, 
 they are very expensive. 
 
 Templeton's patent Axminster carpet is a very beautiful fabric, very much resembling 
 that from which it derives its name, but it is wrought on the chenille principle. 
 
 The Brussels carpet is a mixture of linen and worsted, but, like the Turkey carpet, 
 the worsted only is shown on the upper surface. The basis or cloth is a coarse linen 
 fabric, and between the upper and under threads of the weft, several (usually five) 
 worsted threads of different colors are firmly bound in. The pattern is produced by 
 drawing to the surface, between each reticulation of the cloth basis, a portion of the 
 worsted thread of the color required at that spot to produce the pattern; these updrawn 
 portions are formed into loops, by being turned over wires, which are afterwards with- 
 drawn, and the loops thus left standing above the basis form the figured surface of the 
 carpet. The machinery and processes by which this arrangement is produced are rather 
 complex, and require to be seen to be fully understood. 
 
 The Wilton carpet is made like the Brussels, but the wire has a groove in its upper 
 surface, and instead of being drawh out, it is liberated by passing a sharp knife through 
 the worsted loop into this groove, and thus making a velvet pile surface instead of the 
 looped thread. 
 
 The Venetian carpet is produced in a common loom, and the pattern is all in the 
 warp, which alone is visible, as it incloses the weft between its upper and under sur- 
 faces. The patterns are generally checks or stripes; the latter are chiefly used for stair 
 carpets. 
 
 The Dutch carpet is a coarser and cheaper variety of plain Venetian, sometimes 
 made wholly of hemp, or of a mixture of coarse wool and cow-hair. 
 
 The Kidderminster or Scotch carpet has usually a worsted warp and woolen weft, and 
 the pattern is made by the combination of the colors of each. Three-ply C. of this 
 kind are made especially in Kilmarnock. This is the most durable of the moderate- 
 priced C. ; the patterns are not so brilliant as those oj^the Brussels or the tapestry, but. 
 being ingrained and woolen throughout, they retain their character until worn through. 
 This, and the three immediately preceding descriptions of carpet, exhibit their patterns 
 nearly similar on both sides, and are therefore reversible. 
 
 ^hytock's tapestry and xelvet pile carpet, as it is now frequently called, is^ becoming 
 very extensively used as a cheap substitute for Brussels and Wilton, which it is made 
 to resemble very closely in the brilliancy and variety of pattern. The manufacture of 
 this carpet is very curious and ingenious. Instead of five colored yarns, only one^ of 
 which is drawn to the surface at any one place, while the other four remain buried 
 between the upper and under threads of the cloth basis, a single colored yarn is used, 
 aud the variety of color produced by dyeing it of various colors at intervals of its 
 length. The yarn is coiled upon a drum, and printed by means of rollers in such a 
 manner that when the threads that encompass the roller shall be uncoiled and laid in 
 line side by side, they shall present an elongated printing of the pattern, so that a rose, 
 for example, the outline of which should be nearly circular, will be an oval, with len^h 
 equal to four times its breadth. When, however the thread is looped over the wire, 
 
485 
 
 Carpet. 
 
 CarpzoT« 
 
 4 in. of yarn being used for an inch of the carpet pattern, this elongation is exactly 
 compensated, and the rose appears in its proper proportions. The machinery required 
 for this is, of course, much simpler than that for the Brussels, only one yarn having to 
 he looped, and that always in the same manner. 
 
 The printed felt carpets are, as the name implies, simply made by printing colors on 
 felt. These are chiefly used for bedroom carpets. 
 
 A very beautiful fabric has also been introduced, called the patent wool mosaic, 
 formed by cementing a velvet pile upon plain cloth. It is used for rugs, etc. The pile 
 is formed by stretching lengths of woolen yarn between plates of flnely perforated zinc, 
 placed several yards apart, the colors of the threads being arranged so that their ends 
 shall show the pattern. The mass of yarn is then inclosed in a case, open at both ends, 
 and compressed without .deranging the fibers; and by means of a piston or ram at one 
 •end, a portion of this mass of yarn is forced forwards, the ends thus projecting are glued 
 to the plain cloth, and when dried, are cut off to the length required for the pile. In 
 this manner, several hundred slices are made from one setting of the yarn mosaic, and 
 as many rugs produced. 
 
 CABFI, a t. of northern Italy, 10 m. n. of the city of Modena. It is surrounded by 
 walls, defended by a citadel, has a cathedral, and manufactures of silk and straw hats. 
 Pop. 5,000. — Carpi is also the name of a t. of Venetia, in the province of Verona, 28 
 m. s.e of Verona, celebrated for the victory obtained here by prince Eugene over the 
 Prench in 1701. Pop. 1200. 
 
 CARPI, Girolamo da, 1501-56; an Italian painter who became infatuated with the 
 works of Correggio, and so closely imitated them as to pass off his own as originals. 
 Very probably some of these imitations are now figuring as true Correggios. Da Carpi’s 
 best works are the “Descent of the Holy Spirit,” “Adoration of the Magi,” and the 
 saints Catherine, George, and Jerome, in churches at Rovigi, Bologne, and Ferrara. 
 
 CABFINI, Johannes de Plano, a celebrated Franciscan monk, b. in Capitanat!;a, 
 Naples, about 1210 ; was one of the six friars selected by pope Innocent IV. to proceed 
 to the court of the emperor of the Mongols, whose warlike advances in 1246 threw 
 Christendom into consternation, in order to pacify the terrible nomadic warriors, and, 
 if possible, convert them to Christianity. The mission, accomplished under dreadful 
 hardships, though without results so far as its main objects were concerned, was never- 
 theless far from unfruitful. Prior to this, the most monstrous fables had prevailed 
 regarding the Tartars; and C.’s narrative, which gave a truthful and striking picture of 
 their numbers, character, and civilization, was the first to bring these myths into discredit. 
 In this book he also argued, with great good sense, for a union amongst Christian princes, 
 as the only means of resisting those fierce hordes in their progress westward. As a book 
 of travels, its accuracy has been attested by modern travelers. Hakluyt copied most of 
 this work, at second-hand, into his first volume of Navigations and Disco%eries. The date 
 of C.’s death is not certainly known. 
 
 CARFI'NO, a t. of southern Italy, in the province of Foggia, 22 m. n.e. of San Severe, 
 with a pop. of about 6,000. 
 
 CABFOG'EATES, or Carpocras, flourished under Hadrian (130 a. d.) at Alexandria, 
 where he founded the Gnostic sect of Carpocratians. According to him, the essence of 
 true religion consisted in the union of the soul with the Monas or highest God, by means 
 •of contemplation, which elevated it above the superstitions of the popular faith, and 
 liberated it from the necessity of submitting to the common laws of society. He only is 
 to be reckoned wise who attains to this. Among those who have done so, are Jesus, 
 Pythagoras, Plato, and Aristotle. The cosmogony of C. was of the usual Gnostic 
 -character, the central peculiarity of which was the belief that the worlds were created 
 by angels. C. also held the doctrine of the transmigration of souls. His followers 
 existed down to the 6th century. Whether or not they were guilty of the abomina- 
 tions ascribed to them, is more than we can positively affirm; our only information 
 -concerning them being derived from orthodox writers, who were in the habit of slan- 
 dering heretics. 
 
 CAB'FOLITES, a generic term applied to fossil fruits, which, in the present state of 
 cur knowledge, it is impossible to refer more precisely to their place in the vegetable 
 kingdom. Of 100 species described, 70 belong to the carboniferous system. 
 
 CAB'FTJS, Carpal Bones. See Hand, Foot, Skeleton. 
 
 CARPZOV, a Saxon family descended from Simon Carpzov, burgomaster of Bran- 
 denburg about the middle of tlie 16th century. He left two sons — Benedict and Simon. 
 Benedict, 1565-1624, was a jurist and professor of law at Wittenberg ; and in 1602, chan- 
 cellor to Sophia, electress of Saxony. He died at Wittenberg, leaving five sons. Joachim, 
 the eldest son of the burgomaster, reached a high position in the Danish army. Benedict, 
 the second of the five, 1595-1666, was a professor at Leipsic, ordinary of the faculty of 
 jurists at the same university, and in 1653, privy councilor at Dresden. He published 
 several works which had much influence in the administration of justice. His later 
 years were spent in religious study. August, 1612-83, his brother and the fourth son of 
 the first Benedict, was distinguished as a diplomatist, was chancellor of the consistory 
 «t Coburg, and at the time of his death a privy councilor at Gotha. He was a man of 
 
Carquines. 
 
 Carrical. 
 
 486 
 
 piety, and the author of several devotional works. Johann Benedict, 1607-57, fifth 
 son of the first Benedict, was professor of theology at Leipsic, and the author of a 
 system of theology and other works of that nature. He also left five sons, all of whom 
 obtained conspicuous reputation. One of the five was Johann Gotlob, 1679-1767, who 
 became an eminent theologian and professor of oriental languages at Leipsic. He wrote 
 an introduetion to the canonical books of the Old Testament, and a Critica Sacra Veteris 
 Testimenti. Johann Benedict, grandson of the first Johann Benedict, 1720-1803, was 
 professor of philosophy at Leipsic, and professor of poetry and Greek at Helmstadt, 
 and professor of theology. He wrote many philological works, and ended his life as an 
 abbot. 
 
 CARQUI NEZ, or Karquenas, a strait in California, between Suisun and San Pablo 
 bays, 7 m. long, navigable for steam-boats, and for large vessels as far as Benecia. 
 
 CARR. Dabney, 1744-73; a brother-in-law of Thomas Jefferson, and an eloquent 
 member of the Virginia colonial legislature. 
 
 CARR, Sir Robert, d. Rhode Island, 1667; one of the English commissioners to 
 New England, appointed by Charles II., the others being Nichols, Maverick, and 
 Cartwright. After the capture of New Amsterdam (New York) from the Dutch in 
 1664 by Nichols, C, compelled the Dutch and Swedes on the Delaware to submit to a 
 capitulation. He then went with the other commissioners to Boston, where they 
 administered the government. 
 
 CABBA'CA, La, a t. of Andalusia, Spain, one of the chief naval arsenals of the king- 
 dom, is situated 4 m. e.s.e. of Cadiz. It has been completely isolated from the main- 
 land by artificial means; and so low is its situation, that it was necessary to erect 
 the buildings on piles. It is defended by four forts, and is altogether very complete as 
 an arsenal. 
 
 CARR AC' Cl. See Bolognese School. 
 
 CAB'BAGEEN, often incorrectly called C. moss, or Irish Moss, a sea-weed (nat- 
 ural order, algcc; sub-order, ceramiacm), or rather several species of sea-weed, now 
 used to a considerable extent both medicinally and as an article of food. The name 
 C. is originally Irish; and the use of these sea-weeds appears to have been entirely 
 confined to the peasantry of the coasts of Ireland, until, about 30 years since, they 
 were recommended to general notice, and their medicinal virtues proclaimed by Mr. 
 Todhunter, of Dublin. They are, however, found on the rocky sea-shores of most 
 parts of Europe, and of the eastern shores of North America. The species which 
 principally constitutes the C. of commerce is chondrus crispus, of which the varie- 
 ties are remarkably numerous. It is 2 to 12 in. long, branched by repeated forking, 
 cartilaginous, flexible, reddish-brown. (7. mamilloms also frequently occurs. C., 
 after being collected, is washed, bleached by exposure to the .sun, dried, and packed 
 up for the market. Its composition is as follows : 
 
 Vegetable jelly (carrageenin) 79.1 
 
 Mucus 9.5 
 
 Two resins 0.7 
 
 Ash 2.0 
 
 Fiber and water 8.7 
 
 100.0 
 
 When treated for ten minutes with cold water, in the proportion of half an ounce of C. 
 to three pints of water, and then boiled and strained, it yields, with or without spices, 
 a very pleasant drink. With a larger proportion of C., a thickish liquid or mucilage is 
 obtained ; and on boiling down this decoction, and cooling, a stiff jelly is procured. 
 Milk may be employed, instead of water, in the preparation of the various decoctions; 
 and with the stronger one, along with sugar and spices, when thrown into a mold, a 
 kind of hlanc mange is obtained. C. is valued on account of its emollient and demul- 
 cent properties, and is likely to be found useful in most of those cases in which iodine 
 might be exhibited; but its value seems to depend not a little on its being at once nutri- 
 tious, a pleasant article of food, and easy of digestion. See Gelatine. It has been 
 much recommended in pulmonary consumption. In some parts of Ireland, C. boiled 
 with water (mucilage) is used instead of size for mixing with the more common colors 
 ill house-painting. 
 
 CARRAN'ZA, Bartoleme de. 1503-76; a Spanish theologian of the Dominican 
 order, a man of great learning and eloquence. Charles V. sent him as envoy to the 
 council of Trent, where he maintained that it was the duty of priests to reside in their 
 benefices. He accompanied the prince, afterwards Philip II., to England, where he 
 went to settle the marriage with Mary. In England. Carranza became queen Mary’s 
 confessor, and worked hard for the re-establishment of Roman Catholicism. Philip made 
 him archbishop of Toledo, an appointment that aroused such jealousy that Carranza 
 was denounced as a heretic. He was kept in prison ei^ht years, thence taken to Rome 
 and kept in prison, being at last compelled to abjure opinions which he had never held. 
 He was then degraded from his office and sent to a convent, where he died seven days 
 afterwards. He was afterwards honored as a saint by the Spanish people. 
 
487 
 
 Carqulnes. 
 
 Carrical. 
 
 CARRAPA'TO, a species of tick (q.v.) of the genus ixodes, which infests dry bushy 
 places in the interior of Brazil, hanging in clusters of many hundreds on very slender 
 twigs, and ready to attach itself to any quadruped or man that passes, instantly burying 
 its beak in the skin, from which it cannot be detached without considerable force. 
 Horses and oxen suffer very much from the attacks of the C., of which in dry season* 
 the numbers are so great that whole herds of cattle are destroyed by the exhaustion 
 which they produce, 
 
 CARRA'RA, a t. of northern Italy, 60 m. s.w. of Moddna. It is situated on the 
 Avenza, near its mouth in the Mediterranean, and is surrounded by the marble hills 
 which have made its celebrity. Many of the principal buildings are wholly or partially 
 constructed of the inferior kinds of white marble. There are upwards of 30 marble 
 quarries in the vicinity of the town, but not more than 6 or 7 furnish the marble used 
 for statuary. Extensive works, fitted up with English machinery for sawing the marble, 
 have been established near the town, in which are several shops for the sale of marble 
 ornaments. Many foreign artists have set up their studios here, in order to save the 
 expense which the export of the marble in its rough slate entails. C. has a fine collegi- 
 ate church of the 13th and 15th centuries, with some good sculptures, an academy of 
 fine arts, and a pop., in 1872, of 23,827. The quarries have been worked for more than 
 2,000 years, and yield £75,000 worth of marble yearly. 
 
 The famous Cariiara Marble is a white saccharine limestone, which derives its 
 value to the sculptor from its texture and purity. It was formerly supposed to belong 
 to the primitive rocks, but is now known to be a limestone of theoolitic period, highly 
 altered by plutonic action. 
 
 CARREL, Armand, a celebrated French publicist and republican leader, was b. at 
 Houen in 1800, and was educated in the military school of St. Cyr. After serving for 
 some years in the army, he went to Paris, and devoted his attention to political and his- 
 torical studies. In 1830, in connection with "I'hiers and Mignet, he became editor of the 
 National, the most spirited and able of the journals opposed to the government of Charles 
 X. C.’s colleagues being employed by the new government, he was left to conduct the 
 National himself, which he did with a spirit and a freedom such as had not been witnessed 
 in France for a long time — which on more than one occasion checked the arbitrary 
 power government attempted to exercise, and gained for him the high admiration and 
 esteem of the popular party. Government prosecutions of course followed his out- 
 spokenness, and heavy fines were decreed against him; but these were paid by public 
 subscription, and each conviction only made his journal more famous. C., however, 
 dreaded revolution as much as he hated despotism, and had no sympathy with many 
 of those who looked up to him as a leader. Provoked into a duel with Emile de 
 Girardin, by an attack on his personal character, C. was mortally wounded, and died 
 July 24, 1836. His funeral was attended by many of the most distinguished men in 
 France. 
 
 CARRE'RA, Rafael, 1814-65; a Guatemalan of Indian and negro blood, who in 
 1837 led a band of insurgents and the next year captured the city of Guatemala. In 
 1839, he again held the city by force. In 1847, he was elected president of the republic, 
 and in 1851, re-elected for life. In 1863, he made war on San Salvador, captured the 
 capital, and expelled the president. Though almost a savage, and without education, 
 his government on the whole was mild and reasonable. 
 
 CARRIACOU', one of the West India islands, 20 m. n.e. of Grenada; 7 m. long by 
 3 wide. Cotton is the chief production. 
 
 CARRIAGE. See Coach, Cart, Wagon. 
 
 CARRIAGE DEPARTMENT, Royal, at Woolwich, is one of the great national 
 manufacturing establishments maintained for warlike armaments — its duty being the 
 construction of gun-carriages, for army and navy, military wagons, and vehicles of all 
 kinds, and the joinery of the army generally. The department was organized as a dis- 
 tinct establishment in 1803, and has been undergoing gradual enlargement ever since. 
 Since the recent introduction of iron carriages for heavy guns, the department has had 
 a new section added for ironwork. Until 1855, the board of ordinance had the direc- 
 tion of this department, but in that year it passed under the direct control of the secre- 
 tary for war, who, since 1869, administers it through the surveyor-general of the ord- 
 nance. The works, store-rooms, and yards are of vast size, often employing from 2,000 
 to 3,000 hands. There are many steam- engines in various parts of the establishment; 
 and the iron and wood cutting and shaping machines are of the highest order of excel- 
 lence. The internal communications are carried on by locomotives on a tramway of 18 
 in. gauge. See Gun-Carriage. 
 
 CARRICAL, or Karikal, a French port within the limits of Tanjore, a district of the 
 presidency of Madras. It stands in lat. 10° 55' n., and long. 79° 53' e., on the estuary 
 of a small branch of the Cauvery, a tributary of the bay of Bengal. C. is accessible 
 from the sea only after the periodical rains, and then only for coasting craft. The town 
 and territory contain 63 sq.m., and about 50,000 inhabitants. The settlement, origi- 
 nally ceded to France by a native grant in 1759, and subsequently subdued by the British, 
 ■was restored in 1814, on condition of being neither fortified nor garrisoned 
 
Carrickfergns. 
 
 Carriers. 
 
 488 
 
 CABBICKFEB'GTJS, a seaport t. of Ireland, is situated on the lough of Belfast, about 
 10 m. distant from the town of that name. Though locally within the co. of Antrim, 
 it forms a co. of itself. 0. extends nearly a mile along the north-western shore of 
 the lough. Its chief feature is its castle, a fine picturesque object, supposed to have 
 been erected by De Courcy in the 12th century. It is situated on a rock about 30 ft, 
 high, projecting boldly into the sea, by which it is surrounded on three sides. The bal- 
 lium or keep is 90 ft. in height. From the top of the keep a splendid view is obtained, 
 extending, in a clear atmosphere, to the Mourne mountains and the Scotch coast. The 
 castle contains a barrack,’ bomb-proof magazine, and ordnance store-rooms;' and for 
 many years, 22 pieces of ordnance, 12-pounders, were mounted on the works. A total 
 change has, however, been made in the defense of the castle, and cannon of a very large 
 caliber are now mounted, hn order to command the entrance of the lough. In 1575, a wall 
 16 ft. high and 7 thick, with 7 bastions, to surround the town, was commenced, and com- 
 pleted in the year 1608; a considerable portion of the wall is still standing, and one of 
 the 4 entrance-gates. On the 14th June, 1690, king William III. landed here with his 
 army, 12 days before the battle of the Boyne. The rock on which the king stepped on 
 landing is at the end of the quay, projecting from it, and still forming the landing- 
 place. In 1760, commodore Thurot captured the castle, but on the approach of troops 
 from Belfast, was forced to abandon it. The parish church, said to have been founded 
 in the year 1164, on the site of a pagan temple, is a fine old building, dedicated to St. 
 Nicholas. There are several other churches and chapels in the town., and several good 
 day and Sunday schools in connection with the religious bodies, and a fine model school 
 has been erected by the national board. There is a literary and scientific society, with 
 reading-room, library, and museum. The fishery of the bay, which is famous for 
 oysters of an unusual size, employs a good number of the inhabitants. There are four 
 spinning-mills, one for weaving linen, one bleaching establishment, a starch manufac- 
 tory, and a tan-yard. A market is held every Monday and Saturday, and a fair twice a 
 year. Pop. ’71, 9,397. The town returns one member to parliament. There are 
 several barrows or tumuli in the vicinity. C. is connected by railway with Bel- 
 fast, Portrush, and Larne. A few years since, a shaft was opened by the marquis 
 of ilownshire, in the hope of finding coal — without success; but salt of a superior 
 quality, and in great abundance, was found. A company has been formed, and are 
 working the mine. The length and breadth of the co. are nearly equal — about 5 statute 
 miles. 
 
 CABBICE-ON-STJIB, a t. of Tipperary, situated, as its name implies, on the Suir,. 
 which is navigable at this point, 12 m. e. of of Clonmel, in the midst of very fine scen- 
 ery. Pop. ’71, 7,792. C. was formerly celebrated for its woolen manufacture, which 
 has recently been considerably revived, and there are also linen and flax factories. It 
 exports much agricultural produce. The town has recently much improved. C. became 
 a place of note soon after the Norman conquest. There are the remains of a castle built 
 in 1309, on the site of an old priory of the knights of St. John of Jerusalem. 
 
 GARRICK’S FORD, on Cheat river in West Virginia, where, July 13, 1861, a con- 
 federate force under gen. R. B. Garnett was routed by a federal force under gen. T A. 
 Morris, and of the confederates several were killed. 
 
 CABBIEB, Jean Baptiste, one of the most infamous and blood-thirsty members of 
 the French national convention, was b. at the village of Yolai, near Aurillac, in Haut- 
 Auvergne, in 1756. Entering the national convention in 1792, he took an active part in 
 the formation of the revolutionary tribunal, voted for the death of the king, demanded 
 the arrest of the duke of Orleans, and assisted in the overthrow of the Girondists. At 
 Nantes, whither he was sent on a mission against the moderates, in Oct., 1793, he found 
 ample means for indulging his insatiable thirst for human blood. The utter defeat of 
 the Vendeans had filled the prisons with captives, and C. proposed and carried a reso- 
 lution for murdering the unhappy prisoners en masse. Accordingly, on Nov. 15, he 
 compelled 94 priests to embark in a vessel, under pretense of deportation, and during 
 the night drowned the whole of them, by having the ship scuttled. Another of these 
 noyades, as they were called, in which 138 persons were sacrificed, took place soon after, 
 and they were repeated to the number of 25, their perpetrators facetiously terming them 
 “vertical deportations,” Other cruelties C. committed here. Men and women were 
 tied together feet and hands, and thrown into the Loire; and this was called matnage 
 repuhlicain (republican marriage). With such recklessness were these murders com- 
 mitted, that, in one instance, a number of foreign war-prisoners were drowned by mis 
 take. The water of the Loire was so poisoned by corpses, that its use for drinking and 
 cooking was prohibited. Five hundred political prisoners were shot, as in a battue, on 
 the bridge near Nantes. Even Robespierre v^as offended by these enormities, and 
 recalled C., who boldly justified his own conduct before the convention. The fall of 
 Robespierre was, however, soon followed by outcries against Carrier; judgment w^ 
 decreed against him, and he perished under the guillotine, Dec. 16, 1794 — dying with 
 the protestation that, in all his cruelties, he had acted according to orders, and as a true 
 republican patriot. 
 
 CARRIERE', Moritz, b. 1817; a German scholar, professor of philosophy at Giessen 
 and Munich, and author of many works on philosophy, religion, aesthetics, poetry, etc. 
 
489 
 
 Carrickferg^Qt, 
 
 Carriers. 
 
 He is a pronounced liberal, going so far as to advocate the conversion of the cathedral 
 at Cologne into a free church. He is also an art critic of high rank. 
 
 CARRI^iRES, Louis de, 1663-1717 ; a Roman Catholic theologian of France, who 
 published a literal commentary on the Scriptures, in which most of the comments were 
 in the words of the Bible itself. 
 
 GABBIER PIGEON, a variety of the domestic pigeon (q.v.), remarkable for the degree 
 in which it possesses the instinct and power of returning from a distance to its accus- 
 tomed home; and which has been, therefore, much employed to convey letters from one 
 place to another. In eastern countries, where such messengers are most frequently em- 
 ployed, it is the practice to bathe the pigeon’s feet in vinegar to keep them cool, and to 
 prevent it from alighting in quest of water, by which the letter might sustain injury. 
 Pigeons intended for this use, must be brought from the place to which they are to return, 
 within a short period, not exceeding a fortnight of their being let loose, and at a time 
 when they have young in their nest; the remarkable fecundity of the C. P. affording 
 particular facilities for its employment in this way. The bird is also kept in the dark 
 and without food, for at least eight hours before being let loose. The instinct by which 
 it is guided, like most other instincts, has received no sufficient explanation. That it 
 recognizes objects by sight, and so directs its course, is nothing more than a conjecture, 
 and as such, is only very partially supported by the fact of the great power of vision 
 which these birds, in common with so many others, are known to possess, and by that 
 of the C. P., on being let loose, immediately rising spirally to a great height in the air, 
 as if to obtain opportunity for the exercise of this power. The C. P. has probably been 
 more used in the Turkish dominions than in any other part of the world; and during 
 the siege of Paris in 1871, it safely conveyed many important messages. Its rate of 
 flight is not less than 30 m. an hour, and it has been known to pass over great distances 
 still more rapidly. The variety generally described as the C. P. {columba tabellaria of 
 Linnaeus, (J. Turcica of some authors, but not generally regarded by naturalists as a 
 distinct species), is of remarkably large size, about 15 in. in length from the point of 
 the bill to the extremity of the tail, and has the cere very large and carunculated, the 
 eyes surrounded with a broad circle of naked red skin, and the wings reaching nearly 
 to the extremity of the tail. There is, however, a smaller variety, which is said to be 
 superior to it, and which has not the carunculated cere, nor the broad circle around the 
 eye. Carrier pigeons are trained by being conveyed, when young, to short distances of 
 a few milds from home and then let loose, the distanca being gradually increased; and 
 this training is said to render them much more secure as messengers. 
 
 GABRIEBS, a class of persons who, in various forms, by land and sea, undertake the 
 carrying of goods, particularly articles of commerce. In all countries aspiring to commer- 
 cial intercourse, the Carrying Trade, as it is called, has been less or more developed. 
 The method of carrying in Arabia, Persia, and some other countries in the east has, till 
 the present time, been chiefly by means of the camel, an animal of great value, on 
 account of its strength, patience, and power of endurance. See Camel. In England 
 and Scotland, previous to general use of the wheel-carriages, goods were carried on 
 pack-horses, as is still practiced in some parts of Spain with mules. See Pack-horse, 
 also Mule. After the pack-horse came the one-horse cart and the four-wheeled wagon, as 
 engines of land-conveyance. Carrying with one-horse carts settled down as a universal 
 practice in Scotland, where it is still conducted in all districts not traversed by railways. 
 The Scotch C., winding their way by roads over hill and dale, at the rate of about 20 m. 
 a day, have ever been a respectable and useful body of men, exceedingly trustworthy, 
 and moderate in their charges. In connection with Edinburgh, Glasgow, and other 
 centers of traffic, they travel to and from provincial towns for the most part once a week 
 on certain days, so that their arrival at any particular place may be reckoned on with 
 great exactness. In England, the employing of wagons for carrying goods in connection 
 with the metropolis and provincial towns is now of old date. These carriers’ wagons, 
 greatly limited in tlieir range by the introduction of canals and railways, are still to be 
 seen in some of the rural districts. A wagon of this kind is provided with four broad 
 huge wheels; and being a heavy and clumsy engine of conveyance, is drawn by four 
 horses, though, when roads were bad in old times, six horses were not unusual. 
 The driver ordinarily rode on a pony alongside the vehicle; now he more frequently 
 walks, carrying a long whip. The wagon has a hooped top with movable covering ; 
 and the hinder part has always been left vacant for the use of passengers, who are neces- 
 sarily huddled together on straw. Traveling in the “tail of the wagon” is now entirely 
 gone, or nearly so ; but with all its rude inconveniences, it was common till past the 
 naiddle of the 18th c., and has afforded scope for some of the most grotesque descrip- 
 tions of Fielding and Smollett. The tedious process of carriage by these wagons largely 
 increased the prices of goods, and retarded the growth of commerce. The first modifi 
 cation in the carrying trade took place by means of inland navigation, to which refer- 
 ence has already been made. See Canal. The conveyance of cotton goods from Lan 
 cashire, of earthenware from Staffordshire, of metal goods from Birmingham, of salt 
 from Cheshire, etc., became much more easy than before, owing to the large quantity 
 which could be packed in each barge, and to the great amount of work done by each 
 horse. The chief owners of the old wagons became, in time, the chief owners of the 
 
Cfarriers. 
 
 490 
 
 canal-boats; they paid rates or tolls to the canal companies. The celebrated English 
 firm of Pickford & Co. has been for many generations, and still is, at the head of the 
 goods carrying trade. 
 
 When railways were established, a great struggle ensued; the owners of the road- 
 wagons and canal barges had a formidable competition. They wisely accommodated 
 themselves to a state of things which they could not prevent, and added the trade of 
 railway goods C. to their former business. Three systems were tried: 1. The company 
 purchased road-wagons or vans, collected goods at the various towns, conveyed them by 
 railway, and then distributed them at their several destinations. 2. The company con- 
 fined their attention to the mere conveyance on their railway, leaving the collection 
 and delivery to the ordinary carriers. 3. The company combined both systems, con- 
 veying on the railway everything that offered, and competing with the C. for the road- 
 traffic. During the greater portion of the period in which the railway system has been 
 in operation, the second of the above three plans has been adopted more extensively 
 than either of the others. Taking as examples the greatest railway company and the 
 greatest carrying firm, Messrs. Pickford had warehouses or deptos at all the principal 
 towns where the London and North-western railway had stations. The merchants and 
 manufacturers were customers, not to the company, but to the firm, for the conveyance 
 of merchandise. Messrs. Pickford employed their own wagons and horses, clerks and 
 porters, in collecting and delivering goods, and paid to the company so much per ton 
 for the conveyance along the railway, the toll varying according to the nature of the 
 goods and the distance run. There was seldom any quarrels or disputes under this sys- 
 tem. The carrier was responsible to the customer from first to last for the safety of the 
 merchandise; and he had a claim against the company for any injury while the mer- 
 chandise was on the railway. Under the third system, disputes were much more fre- 
 quent. The companies were bound by law to carry goods for all persons at certain tolls; 
 but when they became road C. as well, they competed with the ordinary C. in a way 
 which the latter could barely contend against. The Great Western rail way has been: 
 unfavorably distinguished for jealousies and law-suits between the company and the 
 carriers. 
 
 At the present time, the tendency is for the companies to take the responsibility of 
 the whole conveyance, the C. acting as their agents, if willing so to do, or else endeav- 
 oring to maintain a fair competition. One of the greatest of the companies, the Mid- 
 land, have in this way become C. on their own account, in order to obtain a share of 
 the profit which accrues from road-traffic. The goods-vans traversing the streets of the 
 metropolis, and other great towns, are now more frequently inscribed with the names 
 of railway companies than with those of private carriers. 
 
 The goods-depots of the several railways are scenes of great activity during the night; 
 for it is then that the arrival-trains are mostly unpacked, and the departure-trains mostly 
 made up. During the day, vans are collecting goods from manufactories and ware- 
 houses; these goods are sorted at the deptos, and are, when evening comes on, distri- 
 buted among different trains, according to the part of the country to which they are to 
 be conveyed. On the other hand, goods-trains arriving during the evening and night 
 are unpacked, the goods classified according to districts, and sent out for delivery by 
 road-vans on the following day. 
 
 The four-horse broad-wheel wagons, as already said, have almost disappeared from 
 English roads; vans of lighter construction sufficing to convey merchandise from and 
 to the various railway stations. Canals still command a trade, but it is chiefly in coal, 
 stone, lime, ores, slate, bricks, and other articles very bulky in proportion to their 
 value. The conveyance of manufactured goods has, for the most part, passed over ta 
 the railways. 
 
 In towns, there are C. whose business is confined wholly to short distances. Taking 
 the metropolis as an example, there are C. residing in all the villages and hamlets round 
 about, each possessing one or more single-horse covered carts. Every morning the cart, 
 containing miscellaneous articles collected in the village or hamlet, goes to London, and 
 delivers each article at the particular house or establishment to wdiich it is addressed. 
 When thus emptied, it receives a supply of packages or other articles going from London 
 to the suburbs, and makes its return-journey in the evening. The plan is cheap and 
 convenient, and does not seem likely to be supplanted by any other; for no amount of 
 railway extension would wholly accommodate short traffic. For the metropolis more 
 strictly, however, an excellent system has been established by the “London parcels 
 delivery company.” Two or three times a day, parcels are conveyed from receiving- 
 houses all over the metropolis to a central depot near Fetter lane, there sorted, and sent 
 out again for delivery. The metropolis, out to a wide distance, is separated into dis- 
 tricts, and one or more carts, filled with parcels, are sent to each district at certain hours 
 of the day. The speed is rapid, the times are punctual, and the service in general well 
 conducted. The suburban C. have arranged among themselves a sort of central depot 
 or “house of call ” in the Old Bailey, for the exchange of traffic; but their system is not 
 so well organized as that of the company just named. 
 
 The progress of improvement in the English Carrying Trade is a type of the advances 
 similarly made in the United States, where canals, railways, and coasting steam-vessels 
 have generally superseded the old tedious methods of conveyance ; and it is chiefly on 
 
491 
 
 Carrlera. 
 
 the long and almost trackless routes to the shores of the Pacific that are now seen the 
 old processes of carriage by pack-mules and horses and bullock-wagons, the cost of 
 transit by these means being very great. 
 
 The term Carrying Trade has latterly been applied more specially to all kinds of 
 conveyance of merchandise by sea, whether across the ocean or along the coast. In 
 this broad view, it, in reality, involves the whole question of mercantile marine, British 
 and foreign. 
 
 Carriers, Law respecting. A carrier, in law, is one who offers to the public to 
 convey passengers, or goods, from one place to another, for hire. The offer must be 
 general ; for a private person who contracts with another for carriage, is not a carrier 
 in the legal sense, and does not incur the peculiar responsibilities which, in almost every 
 country, it has been found expedient to attach to the occupation of a public or common 
 carrier. Carriage, in law, is tlius a peculiar modification of the contract of hiring. In 
 Rome, the responsibilities of carriers by water were regulated by a praetorian edict, 
 which was applicable also to inn-keepers and stablers (Nautae, Caupones, Stabularii, 
 Dig.; lib. iv. t. 9); and from that edict the law of carriage in modern Europe has been 
 mainly borrowed, sometimes directly, as in Scotland, sometimes indirectly, as in Eng- 
 land. ‘ The ground on which the edict increased the responsibilities attaching to an 
 ordinary contract of hiring was, that the persons whom it enumerated were under 
 peculiar temptations to consort, either personally or through their servants, with thieves 
 and robbers, without the conne’ction being such as to admit of proof; and that the public 
 safety consequently required that they should be held responsible for whatever had 
 been intrusted to them, till its safe delivery at the place to which they had undertaken 
 to convey it. This responsibility in our own law extends not only to the acts of the 
 carrier’s servants, but also to those of the other guests in an inn, or the other passengers 
 in a conveyance. The only exception to this liability at common law is in the case of 
 loss arising from the act of God (q.v.) or the queen’s enemies — i.e., the fury of the ele- 
 ments, or war. But there are several statutory limitations. The liability for gold and 
 silver, and articles of unusual value, is restricted to £10, unless the extra value has been 
 previously stated and paid for as insurance against the greater risk (11 Geo. IV. and 
 1 Will. IV. c. 68, and 17 and 18 Viet. c. 31); and the proof of value is laid on the 
 person claiming compensation. But the last-mentioned act, commonly called the rail- 
 way and traffic act of 1856, provides, on the other hand, that the company shall be 
 liable for neglect or default in the carriage of goods, animals, etc. ; notwithstanding 
 any notice or condition or declaration made by the company, for the purpose of limit- 
 ing their liability. The decisions of the courts have also somewhat limited the uni- 
 versal responsibility of the carrier. For example, it has been decided that he is not 
 liable, qua C. (and the same applies to an inn-keeper), for money taken from the pockets 
 of the traveler; but that, if the money has been taken from the pockets of clothes which 
 have been stolen, or from trunks which have been broken into, his responsibility comes 
 into operation. 
 
 Under C. are included carters and porters, who offer themselves for hire, to carry 
 goods from one part of a city to another. Whether the same be the case with hackney- 
 coachmen, is more doubtful ; though, from the extent to which they are now employed 
 in the transport of luggage, there seems no sound reason for an exemption in their case. 
 Wharfingers and warehousemen are liable only under the special contracts into which 
 they may have entered, or in accordance with mercantile usage. In England, it has 
 been decided that lodging-house keepers are in a different position from carriers and inn- 
 keepers, on the ground that they do not profess to entertain all-comers, or to receive 
 their goods. C. are liable to make good to the owners of goods intrusted to them all 
 losses arising from accidental fire. This rule was introduced into Scotland by the 
 mercantile law amendment act of 1856. Carriers have a lien upon the goods they have 
 carried for payment of the carriage only. The lien is, however, restricted to the par- 
 ticular goods to which the carriage refers, and ceases on possession of them having been 
 given up. It does not cover any account or balance aue either by the sender or consignee 
 to the carrier. 
 
 CARRIERS {ante). In the United States, common carriers are such as transport for 
 hire for all persons indifferently. They operate both on land and water, and embrace 
 stage-coach proprietors, railway and steamboat companies, truckmen, teamsters, express 
 companies, etc., including owners and masters of every kind of vessel or water-craft 
 who come before the public as the carriers of freight of any kind for whomsoever may 
 choose to employ them, for either a long or a short voyage. Common C. are responsible 
 for loss or damage during transportation from whatever cause, “except the acts of God, 
 or of the public enemy.” The act of God means only such inevitable accidents as occur 
 without man’s agency. The carrier is not responsible for losses occurring from natural 
 causes, such as "fermentation, evaporation, freezing, the ordinary decay of perishable 
 articles, or the natural wear in the course of transportation, provided he exercises 
 reasonable care to have such dangers as little as practicable. C. who undertake 
 general business are bound to carry all matter that offers, under liability of legal action 
 if they refuse without just excuse; but any carrier may restrict his business to certain 
 goods, in which case he is not bound to accept things out of his line. A carrier may 
 
Carrion. 
 
 Carroll. 
 
 492 
 
 require payment of freight in advance ; and he is entitled to a lien upon the goods for 
 his freight and for what he advances to other carriers. But all common-law responsi- 
 bility may be qualified by special contracts. The bill of lading, or receipt for the goods, 
 is an acknowledgment of the carrier’s responsibility, and is presumed to name excep- 
 tions from responsibility if any there be. Railway companies, steamboat owners, and 
 other C. who allow express companies to carry parcels and packages on their cars, 
 boats, or other vehicles, are liable as common C. to the owners of the goods for loss- 
 or damage without regard to the contract between them and such express carriers. 
 Railways, steamers, etc., carrying passengers, although not liable for injury to passengers 
 without the C.’s fault, are responsible for the baggage of such passengers intrusted 
 to them as common C., and the responsibility continues until the delivery of the bag- 
 gage to the owner, or to his order. The baggage-check is the same as a bill of lading 
 for goods, and is evidence of the responsibility assumed. Jewelry and a watch in a 
 trunk are considered baggage, but money, beyond a reasonable amount for expenses, is 
 not so considered. The responsibility of C. begins upon the delivery of the goods for 
 immediate transportation. A delivery at the usual place of receiving freight, or to those 
 employed by the company in the usual course of business, is sufficient. But where C. 
 have a house at which they receive goods that are not to be forwarded until further 
 order or a later time, such C, are in the mean time responsible only as depositaries; 
 and where goods are received as by wharfingers, or warehousers, or forwarders, and not 
 as C,, liabilities are incurred only for ordinary negligence. The responsibility of the 
 carrier terminates when, after the arrival of the goods at their destination, a sufficient 
 time has elapsed for the owner to receive them in business hours. After that the carrier 
 may store them, and is responsible only for ordinary care. The agents of corporations 
 which are common C., such as railway and steamboat companies, bind their prin- 
 cipals to the full extent of the business intrusted to their control, whether they follow 
 their instructions or not; nor will it excuse the company to show that the agents acted 
 willfully in disregard of instructions. The carrier has an insurable interest in the goods 
 both in regard to fire and marine disaster, except such as result from inevitable acci- 
 dent, such as fire by lightning-stroke. If a particular time is set for the delivery of 
 goods, damages may be recovered for exceeding that time. The carrier is liable upon 
 general principles where the goods are delivered through his default, to the extent of 
 their value at the place of destination ; and this includes the profits of the adventure. 
 If the goods are only damaged, or not delivered in time, the owner is bound to receive 
 them. He will be entitled to damages, but he cannot repu iiate the goods and recover 
 for the total loss. 
 
 Carriers of Passengers. (See Carriers, ante.') Persons who carry passengers^ 
 are not held responsible as insurers of the safety of their freight as carriers of goods 
 are held. But they are held to the highest degree of watchfulness and care in all the 
 conduct of their business. So far as human foresight and prudence can secure the pas- 
 senger from harm, there is a right to demand it of all who assume the transportation of 
 persons. It is a practice to print on passes or free tickets a notice that such a passenger 
 assumes the risk of personal injury, but the courts have again and again decided that 
 this in no degree lessens the carrier’s liability, holding even that the transporting party 
 was as much responsible for a non-paying as for a paying passenger. Passenger-carriers 
 are responsible for the baggage of their passengers, and for the safety of parcels 
 intrusted to them or their agents. Many decisions of American courts touch various 
 points in the case of passengers, but all sustain the principle that if anything more could 
 have been done by the carrier to insure the safety of his passengers, and injury occur 
 in consequence of the omission, he is liable. Passenger-carriers are not responsible 
 where the injury occurs through the negligence of the passenger; but when there is 
 intentional wrong on the part of the carrier, the injured party may recover notwith- 
 standing his negligence. And so also, where the carrier’s negligence contributed only 
 remotely to the injury and the passenger’s culpable want of care was its immediate 
 cause, a recovery may still be had. Passengers leaping from a conveyance in conse- 
 quence of any just sense of peril may recover for injury. Carriers are bound to carry 
 for the whole route for which they stipulate, and according to their public notices and 
 the general customs of their business; but they are not bound to carry persons disorderly^ 
 in conduct, or those having contagious diseases, or who are in any way dangerous or 
 offensive to other passengers. The carrier is liable for damages if he fail to deliver the 
 passenger in a reasonable time, or according to the published schedule. The sale of 
 through tickets for a route operated by several successive companies of carriers having 
 no partnership connection, renders each company liable for injuries to passengers 
 occurring only in the part of the route which pertains to it severally. One decision in 
 case of the death of a passenger was that the jury are to estimate damages for the 
 death as they would for an injury to health, by the probable financial accumulations of 
 the deceased had he survived, or not been injured through the culpable negligence of the 
 carrier; therefore he or his estate is entitled to recover not only the damages sustained 
 up to the time of trial, but all prospective damages likely to accrue from the injury. 
 Passengers must conform to the rules of the road or company with re^rd to purchas- 
 ing, showing, and giving up tickets, and in respect to trains and cars. But it has been 
 held that when one purchased a ticket indorsed “good for this trip only,” and was 
 
493 
 
 Carrion. 
 
 Carroll. 
 
 unexpectedly detained, he could lawfully demand transportation by another train, even 
 on the next day. Railway companies may exclude merchandise and articles known as 
 “express” matter from the passenger cars. When an accident occurs to a train, or a 
 stage-coach is overturned, the fact is considered primd facie evidence of fault on the 
 part of the company or its agents. With regard to steam and other vessels, very strict 
 rules are enacted by governments for the safety of passengers and property, regulating 
 the number of passengers, the amount of provisions, the navigating of the ship, pilot- 
 age, etc. 
 
 CABRION CROW. (See Cnow.) C. C., also called Uack milture, is not in America, 
 as in Britain, the name of a species of crow, but of one of the vulture family. See 
 Vulture. 
 
 CARRION FLOWERS, a name which, on account of their smell resembling that of 
 putrid meat, has been given to the flowers of many species of stapelia. The genus 
 stapelia belongs to the natural order asclepiadecje, and is remarkable for the excessive 
 development of the cellular tissue of the stem and reduction of that of the leaves, result- 
 ing in a general aspect like that of the cactus family. The species are natives of the 
 cape of Good Hope. The flowers are often large, and not devoid of beauty, but the 
 carrion stench is very strong. It is not yet known to what chemical substance it is 
 owing. 
 
 CARRO', Jean de, 1770-1857; b. Geneva; a German physician in Vienna and Carls- 
 bad, noted for his advocacy of Jenner’s system of vaccination as a guard against small- 
 pox. Through his efforts, kine-pox inoculation was introduced into India, where the 
 people, hearing that the vaccine matter came from a cow, ascribed its origin to their 
 sacred cow, and called it by a name meaning “immortality.” Carro wrote several 
 works on medical subjects. 
 
 , CARROLL, a co. in n.w. Arkansas, on the Missouri border, and King and White 
 rivers; 700 sq.m.; pop. ’80, 13,337 — 64 colored. Surface varied, and soil generally fertile. 
 There are quarries of excellent yellow marble. Co. seat, Carrollton. 
 
 CARROLL, a co. in w. Georgia, on the Alabama bprder, and the Chattahoochee and 
 Tallapoosa rivers; 572 sq.m.; pop. ’80, 16,903 — 2310 colored. The surface is mostly 
 mountainous; but the soil is generally fertile, producing corn, wheat, cotton, etc. One 
 or two gold-mines have been profitably worked. Co. seat, Carrollton. 
 
 CARROLL, a co. in n.w. Illinois, on the Mississippi river, and crossed by the Western 
 Union railroad; 416 sq.m.; pop. ’80, 16,985. The surface is uneven, occupied by 
 prairie and forest, and the main products are cereals, butter, and wool. Co. seat. 
 Savannah. 
 
 CARROLL, a co. in n.w. Indiana, on the Wabash and Tippecanoe rivers, traversed 
 by the Toledo, Wabash and Western railroad, and the Wabash and Erie canal; 378 
 sq.m. ; pop. ’80, 18,347. It has a diversified and well-timbered surface, and productive 
 soil, agriculture being the chief business. Co. seat, Delphi. 
 
 CARROLL, a co. in central Iowa, on the Chicago and Northwestern railroad, drained 
 by the North and Middle Raccoon rivers; 600 sq.m.; pop. ’80,12,351. The climate is 
 good and the soil fertile. Co. seat, Carrollton. 
 
 CARROLL, a co. in n. Kentucky, on the Ohio and Kentucky rivers, and Louis- 
 ville, Cincinnati and Lexington railroad; 200 sq.m.; pop. ’80, 8953 — 771 colored. It 
 has a calcareous soil, with abundance of limestone. Productions chiefly agricultural. 
 Co. seat, Carrollton. 
 
 CARROLL, a parish in n.e. Louisiana, on the Mississippi river and bayou Boeuf ; 
 1050 sq.m. ; pop. ’70, 10,110 — 7,718 colored. It has a level surface, producing corn and 
 cotton. Seat of justice. Providence. 
 
 CARROLL, a co. in n. Maryland, on the Pennsylvania border and the Patapsco and 
 Monocacy rivers, reached by the Baltimore and Ohio, and crossed by the Western Mary- 
 land railroad; 500 sq.m.; pop. ’80, 30,992 — 2284 colored. It has a hilly surface, and 
 rather thin but well- cultivated soil; its productions are wheat, corn, butter, tobacco, etc. 
 Co. seat, Westminster. 
 
 CARROLL, a co. in w. Mississippi, on the Yalabusha, Yazoo, and Big Black rivers, 
 and crossed by the Mississippi Central railroad; 900 sq.m.; pop. ’80, 17,800 — 9969 
 colored. The surface is level, and the soil is remarkably fertile ; chief productions, corn 
 and cotton. Co. seat, Carrollton. 
 
 CARROLL, a co. in n.w. Missouri, between the Missouri and Grand rivers, traversed 
 by a branch of the North Missouri railroad; 700 sq.m. ; pop. ’80, 23,262 — 1473 colored. 
 It has an uneven surface, in many parts covered 'with black walnut and oak forests; 
 its soil is generally productive. Chief business, agriculture. Co. seat, Carrollton. 
 
 CARROLL, a co. in n.e. New Hampshire, on the Maine border and Winipiseogee 
 Jake, reached by the Portland and Ogdensburg, and the Portsmouth, Great Falls and 
 Conway raUroads. The surface is mostly mountainous; productions chiefly agricul- 
 tmal. Co. seat, Ossipee. Pop. ’80, 18,222—16 colored. 
 
Carroll. 
 
 Carse. 
 
 494 
 
 CARROLL, a co. in e. Ohio, traversed by the Tuscarawas branch of the Cleveland 
 and Pittsburg, and the Carrollton and Oneida railroads; 360 sq.m.; pop. ’80, 16,416. 
 It is hilly, but well-watered and fertile. Iron and coal are found. The chief produc- 
 tions are grain, hay, butter, and wool. Co. seat, Carrollton. 
 
 CARROLL, a co. in n. Tennessee, on the Big Sandy and Obion rivers, and the 
 Louisville and Memphis, and the Nashville and Northwestern railroads; 625 sq.m.; 
 pop. ’80, 22,104 — 5576 colored. It is level and fertile, with forests of black walnut’ 
 hickory, maple, and oak. Chief productions, corn, wheat, cotton, and butter. Co. 
 seat, Huntingdon. 
 
 CARROLL, a co. in s.w. Virginia, on the North Carolina border, drained by the 
 Kanawha river; 440 sq.m. ; pop. ’80, 13,323 — 346 colored. The surface is rough, but well 
 adapted to grazing. Copper, iron, and lead are found. The Grayson sulphur springs 
 are much visited. Productions chiefly agricultural. Co. seat, Hillsville. 
 
 CARROLL, Charles, op Carrollton, b. Md., Sept. 20, 1737; d. Nov. 14, 1832, 
 aged 95 years; the last survivor of the fifty signers of the declaration of American 
 independence. He was educated in the Jesuit colleges of St. Omer and Rheims; studied 
 law at Bourges, Paris, and London, returning to America in 1764. He inherited the 
 last and the largest of the old manorial estates of Maryland, a property estimated in 1775 
 at $2,000,000, and he was then considered the wealthiest private citizen in the colonies. 
 In 1775, he was chosen a member of the “ committee of observation ” at Annapolis, and in 
 the same year sent to the provincial convention. In 1776, he was one of the commissioners 
 sent to persuade the Canadians to join in the revolt against England. Returning to 
 Maryland, he was prominent in bringing the colonial delegates to agree upon union for 
 independence; and July 4, 1776, he was sent to congress, where, Aug. 2, he signed the 
 declaration. At the time of signing, a delegate, alluding to Carroll’s great wealth, 
 remarked, “ There goes a few millions; but there are many Charles Carrolls, and the 
 British will not know which one it is;” whereupon Carroll immediately added after his 
 name of Carrollton, an addition that was ever afterward respected. In congress, he was 
 one of the board of war. About the close of 1776, he was one of the committee 
 that drafted the Maryland constitution, and w^as chosen to the senate of that state. In 
 1777, he was again sent to congress, and in subsequent years was repeatedly elected to 
 the state legislature. In 1789, he was United States senator; in 1799, one of the Mary- 
 land and Virginia boundary commission. July 4, 1821, but four of the signers of the 
 declaration were living: Carroll, William Floyd of New York, and ex-presidents Adams 
 and Jefferson. Floyd died in the next month, and Adams and Jefferson both died July 
 4, 1826, leaving Carroll the sole survivor. His last public act was the laying of the 
 corner-stone of the Baltimore and Ohio railroad, July 4, 1828, when in his 90th year. 
 Carroll’s grand-daughter. Miss Caton (d. 1853), was the Marchioness of Wellesley 
 
 CARROLL, John, d.d., ll.d., 1735-1815; cousin of Charles Carroll of Carrollton; 
 an American Roman Catholic prelate, educated in Europe, and for a time professor at 
 Bruges. Returning to America, he was selected, with his cousin and Dr. Franklin, to 
 go to Canada to urge the people to join the colonies in their effort for freedom. After 
 the revolution, C. was appointed vicar-general, and in 1789, was promoted to bishop, 
 being the first bishop of the Roman Catholic church in the United States. A short time 
 before his death he was made archbishop. 
 
 CARROLLTON, a city in Green co.. 111., 34 m. n.w. of Alton, on the Jacksonville 
 and Alton railroad; pop. 2,700. Its trade is in lumber, agricultural products, and coal. 
 
 CARROLTON, a city in Louisiana, on the Mississippi, 7 m. above New Orleans, in 
 Jefferson parish; pop. 6,495. Its trade is chiefly in sugar and molasses. Horse railroads 
 connect with New Orleans. 
 
 CAR'RON, a village in Stirlingshire, Scotland, on the right bank of the Carron Water, 
 3 m. e.n.e. of Falkirk. It is celebrated for its ironworks, which are among the largest 
 of the kind in Britain. The works were established in 1760; and are carried on by a 
 company, who employ a great number of men. Pop. ’71, 108^ 
 
 CARRONADES' are short iron guns, invented by Mr. Gascoigne, and named after the 
 OaiTon iron works in Scotland, where they were first made. They are lighter than 
 ordinary guns, and have a chamber for powder, like mortars. They were made stand- 
 ard navy guns in 1779, to be carried on the poop, forecastle, and upper works. Being 
 manageable by a smaller number of hands than guns, and being very useful in close 
 engagements, they were held in much favor during the great war; the seamen called 
 them “ smashers.” A 68-pounder carronade weighed not much more than half as much 
 as the 42-pounder gun in use in 1779. They range from 68-pounders down to 6-pounders. 
 The denominations, weights, lengths, caliber, etc., of the chief varieties of carronade arc 
 noticed under Cannon. 
 
 Some C. are made shorter with a given bore. C. are but little used, except by the 
 English and French. Though valuable at close quarters, they are no match for long 
 guns at a distance; and therefore a ship armed only with C. would fare badly in a gen- 
 eral action. In recent years, C. have to a considerable extent been replaced in the Eng- 
 lish navy by howitzers, long guns, and shell guns. 
 
 CARRON OIL. See BuRNa 
 
495 
 
 Carroll 
 
 Carse. 
 
 CARROT, Daucus, a genus of plants of the natural order umhelUferm. They ar? 
 mostly natives of the countries surrounding the Mediterranean sea. The common C. 
 (D. ca/rota) is a biennial plant, common in Britain and most parts of Europe, also in the 
 Caucasus; and is universally cultivated not only in Europe and the European colonies, 
 but in China, Cochin China, etc., for the sake of its root. The root of the wild plant is 
 slender, woody, and of a very strong flavor; that of the cultivated variety is much 
 thicker and more fleshy, much milder in its flavor and qualities, generally red, but some- 
 times orange or yellowish white. The sub- varieties in cultivation are also distinguished 
 by their form — some being longer and more tapering than others — by their size, and by 
 the duration of their growth; the early kinds being also comparatively small, and almost 
 exclusively cultivated in gardens for culinary use, whilst the larger and late kinds are 
 often also grown in fields, for feeding cattle. The field cultivation of the C. is carried 
 on to a much greater extent in some parts of France, Germany, and Belgium, than in 
 Britain; but it is increasing in Britain. The C. appears to have been cultivated at an 
 early period in Flanders and Germany, and to have been introduced into the gardens of 
 England in the beginning of the 16th century. In the reign of Charles I., ladies wore 
 C. leaves as an ornament instead of feathers ; and the beauty of the leaves is still occa- 
 sionally acknowledged by placing a root, or the upper portion of one, in water, that it 
 may throw out young leaves to adorn apartments in winter. The C. prefers a light and 
 rather sandy soil, and often succeeds very well on a peat soil. It is very liable to the 
 attacks of the larva of the crane fly (q.v.), by which the greater part of a crop is some- 
 times destroyed when the young roots are about the thickness of a quill; on which 
 account, in gardens where there is particular reason to apprehend danger from this 
 enemy, it is the practice to make a number of successive sowings, some of which 
 may probably escape. As an article of food, C. contains a large amount of what 
 are called heat-producing compounds, with a small proportion of flesh- forming mat- 
 ter. It consists essentially of starch, sugar, and albumen, along with a volatile oil, 
 which communicates a flavor to many dyspeptics very unpleasant. The following is 
 
 the composition of dried carrot: 
 
 Starch and sugar 93.71 
 
 Albumen 4.35 
 
 Red neutral substance (carotin) 0.34 
 
 Fixed and volatile oils 1.00 
 
 Ash 0.60 
 
 100.00 
 
 C. is easy of digestion, and gently laxative. Boiled C. is used as a poultice for foul ulcers 
 and other sores, and as a vermifuge. Grated C. forms an agreeable cooling but also 
 stimulant application. A sirup is prepared from carrots; and when cut into small 
 pieces and roasted, they are occasionally used in Germany as a substitute for coffee. A 
 strong ardent spirit is distilled from them in some parts of Europe, 10 lbs. of carrots 
 yielding about half a pint. C. seeds are employed as a diuretic, also as a carminative 
 and stimulant; those of the wild C. being preferred. — Besides the crane fly, already 
 noticed, carrots have numerous other insect enemies. One of the most troublesome 
 is the carrot fly {psila rosoe), a small dipterous fly, the larvae of which, by eating away 
 the surface of the root, cause what is commonly known as rust in carrots, and prepare 
 them for the further operations of millepedes and other destroyers. The larvae of 
 several species of moth (depressaria) are very injurious to them when in flower and seed. 
 An aphis {A. dauci) often kills the young plants. 
 
 CARROXT'SEL (Fr.), a species of knightly exercise, which, down even to the bedn- 
 ning of the 18th c., was very common in all the courts of Europe. C. was a kind of 
 imitation of the tournament, and for a time after the discontinuance of the latter, seems 
 to have supplied its place. The dresses, for the most part, were those of the knights of 
 former times, and the combatants, or rather competitors, were divided into two parties, 
 usually according to their different nationalities. One of the favorite exercises in France 
 consisted in running at the pasteboard head of a Moor or Turk with a lance, cutting it 
 down with a sword, or firing at it with a pistol. Another of these tests of skill and 
 horsemanship, if not of courage, consisted in carrying off a whole line of rings, which 
 were suspended for the purpose. The C. in France was not known earlier than the 
 reign of Henry IV. ; but it had existed for some little time previously in Italy. There 
 were brilliant carrousels under Lous XIII., and two celebrated ones were given in 
 honor of Mademoiselle de la Valliere — the one at Paris in 1662, the other at Versailles in 
 1664. The place where the first of these f^tes was held, has ever since been called the 
 place du carrousel. A revival of the C. was attempted at Berlin in 1750; and in 1828 
 the cavalry school at Saumur held one in honor of Madame la Duchesse de Berry. The 
 so-called feglinton tournament — an entertainment given some years ago by the chival- 
 rous earl of Eglinton — was in reality a carrousel. 
 
 CAR3E is a term applied in Scotland to low lands adjoining rivers. The word is of 
 uncertain origin. In Stirlingshire, it is restricted in its sense to the level alluvial soils 
 which are only a few feet above the river Forth. In Perthshire, it also applies to the 
 whole of the slightly undulating lands to the n. of the Tay, which form the C. of Gow- 
 
Carson. 
 
 Cartagena. 
 
 496 
 
 rle. C. soils usually consist of argillaceous deposits, which produce crops of great 
 luxuriance, although there are some which consist of hungry and barren clays. The 
 richest of them are of a hazel color, and become friable when exposed to tlie action of 
 frost; the poorest, on the other hand, are of a yellow color, containing little vegetable 
 matter to render them amenable to cultivation. The be.st kinds of C. soils are generally 
 farmed on the six-course shift — 1. Grass; 2. Oats; 3. Beans; 4. Wheat; 5. Potatoes; 6, 
 Turnips or fallow. Large crops of grass are grown when the clover-plant catches. It 
 is mostly made into hay, and the after-math is used for soiling horses and cattle in the 
 straw-yards. The land is seldom pastured, as the feet of animals trample and destroy 
 the grasses, when the weather is wet. The oat-crop is more uncertain on the carses, 
 but in favorable years, the yield is large, and the quality of the grain is excellent. Beans 
 are very successfully grown, indeed the best of the C. soils are the best bean-soils in 
 Scotland. Where the land is rich, and not too stiff, the potato is sometimes largely 
 grown. On the poorest description of the C. soils, the potato does not thrive. Wheat 
 can be grown in closer succession on the C. lands, than on any other description of land 
 with the same expenditure of manure. A large stud of horses are required on C. lands, 
 to enable the farmers to prepare the land for the various crops, at the moment when the 
 season suits. A small portion of the land is still usually summer-fallowed, as it is found 
 that it cannot be kept thoroughly clean by green crops in rainy seasons. 
 
 CARSON, Alexander, ll.d., 1776-1844; an Independent or Congregational preacher 
 of the n. of Ireland, officiating at Tubbermore for 30 years, within which time he became 
 a Baptist and an earnest advocate of their views. 
 
 CARSON, Christopher, or “Kit Carson,” b. Ky., 1809, d. Col., 1868; one of the 
 most famous pioneers and scouts of the west. When about 24 years old he was appointed 
 hunter to Bent’s fort, where he remained eight years; he was then engaged as a pioneer 
 in Fremont’s explorations among the Rocky mountains. In 1847, he was made lieut. 
 in a riffe corps of the regular army. In 1853, he drove 6,500 sheep over the plains 
 and mountains to California. He was afterward Indian agent in New Mexico, and 
 was instrumental in making a number of treaties of importance. In the civil war 
 he did good service on the borders, and was brevetted brig.gen. The remarkable adven- 
 tures of “ Kit Carson” often surpass the most extravagant romance, though the most 
 daring of them are literally true. Personally he was as modest as he was brave. 
 
 CARSON CITY, the capital of Nevada, in Eagle valley, Ormsby co., 4 m. from 
 Carson river, 178 m. n.e. of San Francisco, on the Virginia and Truckee railroad. It 
 is in a picturesque region near the base of the Sierra Nevada, and only about 10 m. 
 from lake Tahoe. There is a branch mint in Carson City which receives immense 
 deposits of silver and gold ore. There are a state-house, several churches and schools, 
 and many mining and manufacturing establishments. Pop. ’70, 3,042. The state prison 
 is 2 m. n.e. of the city. 
 
 CARSON RIVER, a stream in Nevada, rising in the Sierra Nevada, passing n. near 
 Carson City and Lyon, and emptying into Carson lake, a body of water about 15 miles 
 long, that appears to have no outlet. 
 
 CAESTAIRS, William, a distinguished political and ecclesiastical character of the 
 17th c., who took a very active part in bringing about the revolution of 1688, was b. at 
 Cathcart, near Glasgow, Feb. 11, 1649. He was educated at the village school of Ormis- 
 ton, in East Lothian, and subsequently at the university of Edinburgh, where he dis- 
 played a remarkable aptitude for learning. In his 24th year, Scotland being then in a 
 most unsatisfactory state, alike from a political and religious point of view, C. went to 
 study theology at Utrecht. His scholarship, polite address, knowledge of men, and 
 great political information, especially regarding his own country, recommended him to 
 the notice of the prince of Orange, who chose him as his confidential adviser in all 
 matters relating to Britain. In 1682, being in England on a mission of observation from 
 Holland, he was employed to negotiate between the English and Scotch conspirators in 
 the Rye House plot. With others implicated, he was arrested and put to the torture of 
 the thumbscrew, but refused to confess anything that had not been previously revealed, 
 .and that only on condition that what he said should not be used in evidence, either 
 directl}’- or indirectly, against any other person. At this time, he had secrets from Hol- 
 land of the greatest importance in his possession, which he carefully concealed, although 
 there can be no doubt that their revelation would not only have saved him from torture, 
 but have obtained for him great reward and honor. Britain, therefore, owes very much 
 indeed to the firmness of C. at this juncture. He returned to Holland about the begin- 
 ning of 1685; and, acting mainly on his advice, the prince of Orange planned and 
 carried out the invasion of 1688. He accompanied the prince as chaplain, and after the 
 settlement of the crown, when the prince had been firmly established as William III., 
 C. Avas instrumental in effecting a reconciliation between him and the Scottish church, 
 when the ill advice of other councilors had nearly led to an open rupture. From 1693 
 to the death of the king in 1702, he could not have had more infiuence in Scottish affairs 
 if he had been •prime-minister of the country; and his authority in church matters was 
 such, that he was popularly called “cardinal Carstairs. ” He was elected principal of 
 the university of Edinburgh in 1704, and in this capacity used all his influence with 
 
497 
 
 Carson. 
 
 Cartagena. 
 
 •government to obtain an increase of patronage for the Scottish colleges. In the same 
 year, he was presented to the church of Greyfriars, and was appointed moderator of 
 the general assembly next succeeding, an office to which he was four times elected in 
 the course of eleven years. He died Aug., 1715, deeply regretted by the whole nation, 
 4 ind leaving a reputation for scholarship and sincere piety, as well as for unbounded 
 charity and political sagacity rarely equaled. See Life of 0., by Rev. Dr. Story (1874). 
 
 CAESTENS, Asmus Jacob, an eminent German artist, was b. near Schleswig, May 10, 
 1754. In 1763, he went to Copenhagen, where, when first introduced to the royal gallery 
 of paintings and casts from the antique, he was so excited that he shed tears of joy. 
 After staying seven years in the Danish capital, where he produced his “Baldur’s 
 Death,” and “ Eolus and Ulysses,” supporting himself chiefly by portrait-painting, he 
 •commenced a journey on foot to Rome, but was obliged to return for want of means 
 after reaching Mantua. He resided in Lubeck for some time, but through the kindness 
 of a wealthy amateur artist named Rodde, he contrived to reach Berlin, where his great 
 composition, the “Fall of the Angels” (with 300 figures), gained for him an appointment 
 as professor in the academy, while his decoration of a saloon in the Dorville palace 
 obtained for him an introduction to the king and a pension. He was now enabled to 
 visit Rome, where he devoted himself to the study of the works of Michael Angelo and 
 Raphael. His first work in Rome, a “Visit of the Argonauts to the Centaur Chiron,” 
 w^as distinguished by purity of style, beauty of forms, and fine distribution of light. 
 His numerous subsequent drawings mostly represented scenes from the ancient classic 
 poets, with subjects from Ossian, Dante, and Shakespeare. C. died May 26, 1798. 
 
 CART, a species of carriage with two wheels, in which respect it differs from the 
 ordinary wagon that has four wheels. There are different kinds of carts, according to 
 the nature of the goods or articles to be carried, and they also differ considerably 
 in different countries. The C. is little seen in England, where the heavy and more 
 capacious wagon takes its place. It is, however, used for agricultural and other pur- 
 poses in Cumberland and adjoining northern counties. There, it differs only in a 
 slight degree from the C. universally used in Scotland. The Scotch C. is an exceed- 
 ingly convenient form of carriage for general merchandise, or for agricultural pro- 
 duce, and well adapted for being drawn on roads in a hilly country. A material 
 advantage consists in its weight, being about only half a ton, while its usual load is 
 from a ton to 33 cwt. ; from which circumstance it is a particularly handy vehicle for 
 comparatively light loads, and so far is superior to the English wagon, which is best 
 adapted to carry huge loads of from two to three tons. In carrying hay, straw, or grain 
 from the harvest-field, Scotch farmers employ a peculiar kind of C. without sides to 
 admit of a bulky load ; but they also, as occasion serves, use for a similar purpose an 
 ordinary C., on which they place a movable frame. All grain for market is carried in 
 the one-horse C., and a driver takes charge of two carts. The following advantages of 
 one-horse carts are w^ell enumerated by lord R. Seymour: “A horse, when he acts 
 singly, will do half as much more work as when he acts in conjunction with another, 
 that is to say, that two horses will, separately, do as much work as three conjunctively. 
 This arises, in the first place, from the single horse being so near the load he draws ; and 
 in the next place, from the point or line of draught being so much below his breast, it 
 being usual to make the wheels of single-horse carts low. A horse harnessed singly has 
 nothing but his load to contend with ; whereas, when he draws in conjunction with 
 another,, he is generally embarrassed by some difference of rate, the horse behind or 
 before him moving quicker or slower than himself; he is likewise frequently incon- 
 venienced by the greater or less height of his neighbor: these considerations give a 
 decided advantage to the single-horse cart. The very great ease with which a low C. is 
 filled may be added ; as a man may load it, with the help of a long-handled shovel or 
 fork, by means of his hands only; whereas, in order to fill a higher C., not only the 
 man’s back, but his arms and whole person must be exerted.” To these just observa- 
 tions it need only be added that in many parts of England there is a wasted expendi- 
 ture in horse-power, a pair of horses being often set to draw a clumsy wagon to market, 
 containing a load which could with the greatest ease be drawn by one horse in a less 
 ponderous machine. 
 
 The one-horse C. is employed by carriers all over Scotland, the load being usually 
 piled high in a square form, and covered in with a woolen wrapper, in which state the 
 C. is drawn 18 to 20 miles a day. See Carriers. In France and Germany, the carrier’s 
 C. is a more gigantic machine. Long in the body, very strong in construction, and 
 poised on two high wheels with broad rims, this continental C. carries enormous loads, 
 almost equal to what are seen in the large wagons of England. The ingenious manner 
 in which the load is adjusted to rest exclusively on the wheels, and so relieve the single 
 horse in the shafts, is matter of surprise to all strangers. All carts, whatsoever, in Great 
 Britain, must bear the name and address of the owner, painted conspicuously on them, 
 according to statute 1 and 2 Will. IV. c. 32. See Wagon. 
 
 CABTACxE'NA, a fortified seaport of Spain, on a bay of the Mediterranean, in lat 37° 
 36' n., long. 0° 57' w. It is built partly on the declivity of a hill, and partly on a plain 
 extending down to the sea, and is inclosed by hills which screen it from all winds. The 
 harbor is one of the best in the Mediterranean, capacious enough to hold the largest 
 U. K. III.-83 
 
Cartago. 
 
 iparthage. 
 
 498 
 
 fleets. The entrance is narrow, and completely commanded by the fortifications on an 
 island called La Isoletta, on the south. It was formally the largest naval arsenal not 
 only in Spain but in Europe. The city, which is surrounded by walls, has a Moorish 
 aspect; its streets, cathedral, and the ruins of an old castle being of that architecture. 
 C. has manufactures of sail-cloth and glass, besides extensive blast-furnaces and smelt- 
 ing-works, and a trade in barilla, agricultural produce, and esparto grass. The tunny 
 fishery is important, and its ancient silver and lead mines, recently re-opened, are again 
 productive — the export of lead to Great Britain and France in 1873 being 32,000 tons. 
 The zinc and iron ores amounted to 496,000 tons. In 1873, C. was seized by a commu- 
 nal junta, but was retaken by the national forces in 1874. Pop. of town and suburbs 
 about 54,000. C., which was a colony of the Carthaginians, was built by Hasdrubal 242 
 B.C., under the name of New Cartage. It formed the head-quarters of the Carthagin- 
 ians in Spain, and soon became a city of much wealth and influence. It was captured 
 by P. Scipio in 210 b.c., and became of importance under the Romans, who are said to 
 have employed 40,000 men daily in the mines in the neighborhood. It was sacked by 
 the Goths, and did not again attain any note until the time of Philip II. 
 
 CARTA'GO, a city in the state of Cauca, United States of Colombia, 130 m. n.w. of 
 Bogota. It is in a salubrious and well cultivated region, and has a considerable trade 
 in cotton, fruits, coffee, cocoa, and tobacco. Pop. 8,000. 
 
 CABTE, Thomas, an English historian, distinguished for his industry and research, 
 was b. at Clifton, in Warwickshire, where his father was parish minister, in 1686. Edu- 
 cated at Oxford, he afterwards took the degree of m.a. at Cambridge, and entering holy 
 orders, was appointed reader at the Abbey church, Bath; but being attached to the 
 Stuarts, he resigned his office rather than take the oaths to the new government. In 
 1722, he was suspected of having been concerned in the conspiracy of bishop Atterbury, 
 whose secretary he was, and £1000 was offered for his apprehension ; but he escaped to 
 Prance, where he remained for some years. On his return to England, he published a 
 life of the duke of Ormond, remarkable for the fullness of its information. In 1747-55, 
 he published a History of England, bringing it down to the year 1654. This work 
 is very valuable for its facts, but the author had not the capacity to grapple with these 
 philosophically. Hume and other historians, however, have been much indebted to him 
 for the materials of history. Among his other works was an edition of Thuanus; and 
 at his death, in 1754, he left behind him 20 folio and 15 quarto volumes of MSS., in fur- 
 ther illustration of the history of England to 1688, which have proved of great utility to 
 subsequent writers. These are preserved in the Bodleian library, Oxford. 
 
 CARTEL, during a time of war, is an agreement between the belligerents for an 
 exchange of prisoners. Sometimes the name is given to a ship, called by the French 
 a bdtiment parlementaire, commissioned to convey the exchanged prisoners, or to carry 
 messages to the enemy. A ship, when thus employed, must carry no cargo, ammuni- 
 tion, or implement of war, except one gun for signals. 
 
 CARTER, a co. in n.e. Kentucky, on Little Sandy river; 500 sq.m. ; pop. ’80, 12,845 — 
 371 colored. It has a rough surface, but near the streams the soil is good. The main 
 business is agriculture. Co. seat, Grayson. 
 
 CARTER, a co. in s.e. Missouri, on Current river; 500 sq.m.; pop. ’80, 2168. The 
 surface is hilly and well wooded; productions, grain and tobacco. Copper and iron are 
 found. Co. seat. Van Buren. 
 
 CARTER, a co. in n.e. Tennessee, on the North Carolina border, in the highest part 
 of the state, watered by the Wautauga, Doe, and affluents of Holston rivers; 350 sq m. ; 
 pop. '80, 10,019 — 634 colored. A branch of the East Tennessee, Virginia, and Georgia 
 railroad traverses the county. There are rich iron mines, but agriculture is the chief 
 business. Co. seat, Elizabethtown. 
 
 CARTER, Elizabeth, an English lady, remarkable for her classical attainments, and 
 also for her knowledge of modern languages, was b. Dec., 1717, at Deal, Kent. Slow 
 at first to learn, she afterwards displayed remarkable aptitude. In her 21st year she pub- 
 lished a small volume of poems, an^ in the succeeding year she translated from the 
 Italian of Algarotti An Explanation of Newton’s Philosophy for the Use of Ladies. These 
 publications brought her into note, and obtained for her the friendship of .such men as 
 bishop Butler, archbishop Seeker, sir Joshua Reynolds, Burke, and Dr. Johnson, the 
 latter of whom especially held her in great esteem, and had the highest opinion of her 
 proficiency as a Greek scholar. A translation of Epictetus which she made, was most 
 favoral)ly received by the literary press of her time, both at home and abroad. She died 
 unmarried. Feb., 1806, at the age of 89. 
 
 CARTERET, a co. in e. North Carolina, on Pamlico sound and the Atlantic ocean, 
 traversed by the Atlantic and North Carolina railroad; 450 sq.m. ; pop. '80, 9785 — 2678 
 colored. Much of the surface is occupied by swamps and pine forests. Productions 
 mainly agricultural. Co. seat, Beaufort. 
 
 CARTERET, John, Earl Granville, a distinguished orator and statesman of the 18th 
 c., was b. April, 1690, his father being baron Carteret of Hawnes, Bedfordshire. His edu- 
 eation, commenced at Westminster school, was completed at Oxford. From the latter 
 
499 
 
 Cartagro. 
 
 Carthag^e. 
 
 place, according to dean Swift’s humorous assertion, he carried away more Greek, Latin, 
 and philosophy than was at all becoming a person of such high rank. Introduced into 
 the house of peers in 1711, he spoke in favor of the Protestant succession, and in con- 
 sequence received the early notice of George L, and obtained some lucrative appoint- 
 ments. In 1718-19, he was appointed ambassador extraordinary to Sweden, and in 
 the following year succeeded in concluding a peace between Sweden, Prussia, and Han- 
 over. In 1721, he was appointed secretary of state, and in this capacity defended with 
 great zeal the proceedings of government in the Atterbury conspiracy. In 1724, he was 
 made lord lieutenant of Ireland. During his vice-regency, he was in constant intercourse, 
 and held frequent discussion, with dean Swift about public affairs. His lord lieuten- 
 ancy, which lasted from 1724 to 1726, and again from 1729 to 1730, was popular, par- 
 ticularly the latter period. From 1730 to 1742, he was one of the most able and deter- 
 mined of the leaders of the opposition in the house of lords against sir Robert Walpole, 
 and on his displacement, was made a secretary of state. On the death of his mother, in 
 1744, he succeeded to the title of earl Granville, and in the same year had to resign his 
 seals of office, the Broad-bottom administration (q.v.) expressly excluding him; but he 
 •continued to receive marks of the royal favor. C. was a most liberal patron of men of 
 letters. He died Jan., 1763. 
 
 CARTERET, Philip, an English naval officer who commanded the JSwallow on a 
 voyage of discovery in the South seas in 1766-69. He was gone 2i years, and made 
 some discoveries, among them an island to which he gave his name. 
 
 CARTE SIAN PHILOSOPHY. See Descartes, ante. 
 
 CARTHAGE, a city in s.w. Missouri, in the lead regions, on the line of the Mem- 
 phis, Carthage and Northwest railroad, 220 m. s.w. of Jefferson City; pop. about 300. 
 On Jul}" 5, 1861, a force of confederates under gen. Jackson and gen. Price, consisting 
 of about 3,500 men, while retreating from the main army of gen. Lyon, were, at a point 
 about 7 m. e. of Carthage, confronted by gen. Sigel with about 1500 union troops. Gen. 
 Sigel, being superior in artillery, gave battle, which continued several hours with much 
 loss to the confederates, when, to prevent the confederate cavalry from outflanking him 
 and to protect his baggage train, gen. Sigel fell back in good order, and continued his 
 retreat to Carthage and Sarcoxie, 15 miles to the east. The union loss was 50 in killed 
 and wounded, that of the confederates was reported to be 50 killed and about 150 
 wounded. 
 
 CASTHAGE, called Carthoigohy the Romans, CarcTiedon by the Greeks, both of which 
 are but forms of the native nome Karth-hadtha, i.e., “ New Town” (found on ancient 
 coins), was the greatest city of antiquity on the n. coast of Africa, and was situated in 
 what now constitutes the state of Tunis, on a peninsula extending into a small bay of 
 the Mediterranean sea. It was founded, according to legend, by Dido (q.v.), a Phenician 
 queen, who had fled from Tyre after the murder of her husband, almost nine centuries 
 before the Christian era, but more probably (like the Anglo-Indian Calcutta) it origi- 
 nated in an emporium or factory established by the colonial merchants of Utica, and the 
 capitalists of the mother-city Tyre, on account of the convenience of its situation. 
 Unfortunately, we know very little of its growth. Our information only begins after 
 C. had become one of the greatest commercial cities of the world, and we have but very 
 scanty and one-sided accounts of it even then. The number of the inhabitants before 
 its destruction amounted to about 700,000. The population was partly of Phenician, 
 partly of Libyan descent. The territory which the Carthaginians acquired by the sub- 
 jugation of the Libyan tribes, and by the ultimate annexation of other older Phenician 
 colonies, with which they had at first been simply in alliance, such as Utica, Hadru- 
 raetum, Tunis, Hippo, the two Leptes, etc., extended in the middle of the 5th c. b.c. south- 
 ward to lake Triton, eastward to the Great Syrtis, and westward to Hipporegius (now 
 Bona). The maritime power of the Carthaginians enabled them also to extend their 
 settlements and conquests to the other coasts of the Mediterranean. In the 6th c. b.c., 
 they were masters of Sardinia, and had begun to contend for the possession of Sicily. 
 Hanno (q.v.) founded colonies on the w. coast of Africa beyond the straits of Gibraltar, 
 and Himilco visited the coasts of Spain and Gaul. The relations of C. to foreign states 
 in earlier times are not very clear. The first treaty with the Romans was concluded in 
 509 b.c. ; the second, in 348 b.c. ; the third, in 306 b.c. The connected history of C. 
 begins with the 5th c. b.c., a period of wars between the Carthaginians and the Greeks 
 in Sicily. The Carthaginian army under Hamilcar was destroyed by Gelon at Himera 
 in 480 B.c. It was not till 410 b.c. that the war began which ended in the conquest by 
 the Carthaginians of some parts of the island. Dionysius the elder, or rather the pesti- 
 lence working for him, put a stop to their conquests, but did not succeed in expelling 
 them. War raged almost constantly between Dionysius and the Carthaginians. The 
 more feeble reign of Dionysius the younger afforded them an opportunity of extending 
 their conquests, yet they were frequently repelled and defeated by the Sicilitin Greeks; 
 and during 311-301 b.c., Agathocles carried the war into Africa, and attacked C. itself. 
 After his death, the Carthaginians again increased their dominions in Sicily, and 
 although Pyrrhus contended successfully against them at first, he left that island entirely 
 in 275 B.c. The subjugation of the s. of Italy by the Romans, brought the two great 
 and conquering nations into collision, and the first Punic war arose, 264 b.c., and after 
 
Carthagre. 
 
 Cartier. 
 
 500 
 
 a great naval victory of the Romans, terminated in 241, the Carthaginians giving up 
 Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica, and paying to the Romans a large sum of money. Soon 
 after this, a mutiny of the hired troops of C., combined with an insurrection of the 
 Libyan tribes, the ancient inhabitants of the country, who were kept down by the arbi- 
 trary rule of the Carthaginian colonists, threatened the entire ruin of the city. Hamilcar 
 brought that bloody war, however, to a successful termination, and led an army to 
 Spain, where he, and after him Hasdrubal, obtained great successes. Here was founded 
 New C., now Cartagena (q.v.). After Hasdrubal’s death, 221 b.c., Hannibal (q.v.), 
 burning to revenge the defeat which his native city had sustained from the Romans, 
 broke the treaty with them, and took Saguntum, 219 b.c. Thus began the second Punic 
 war, in which Hannibal pursued his career of conquest from Spain, through Gaul, and 
 across the Alps into Italy itself, defeated the Romans with terrible slaughter in various 
 battles, and, by that of Cannae in particular, brought Rome to the very brink of ruin. 
 Yet the war terminated in the total defeat of the Carthaginians by Publius Cornelius 
 Scipio, who overthrew their power in Spain, and was victorious over Hannibal in the 
 final and decisive battle of Zama, in Africa, in Oct., 202. A peace was then concluded, 
 in which the Carthaginians were limited to their African territories; but most of their 
 ships of war and war-elephants were taken from them, besides an immense sum of 
 money, and they were taken bound not to make war without permission of the Romans. 
 Massinissa, king of Numidia, skillfully availed himself of dissensions which arose 
 within C. between the nobles and the people, to advance his own interests at the expense 
 of the Carthaginians; and as they (151 b.c.) opposed him, and drove his adherents out 
 of the city, the Romans seized the opportunity for a new declaration of war, 149 b.c., 
 on the ground that the treaty was broken; and after a siege of two years, C. was taken 
 by Publius Cornelius Scipio .^milianus, 146 b.c. For six days the combat was main- 
 tained in the streets of the city, and for seventeen days the work of its destruction by 
 fire was carried on by the conquerors. The country became a Roman province. C. 
 Gracchus sent out 6,000 colonists to found a new city on the site of Carthage. It was 
 called Junonia, but it did not prosper. Augustus, carrying out the intention of his great 
 uncle, restored the city, and the new C. had become, in the second and third centuries 
 of the Christian era, one of the finest cities of the Roman empire. In 439 a.d., Genseric 
 made it the capital of the Vandal kingdom; Belisarius conquered it in 533, and named 
 it Justiniana; the Arabs under Hassan utterly destroyed it in 647 a.d. ; and now only 
 two or three small hamlets and a few ruins mark its site. 
 
 We have not very satisfactory accounts of the constitution of the Carthaginian state. 
 It is certain that it was oligarchical, and that the chief power was in the hands of tho 
 
 f reat families (gentes), from whose members the senate, amounting to 300, was chosen. 
 
 his senate appointed, as it were, a more select council of 30, and sometimes a still 
 smaller one of only 10, at the head of whom were two suffetes (probably the same as the 
 Hebrew shofetem, “judges”), but it is not certain what relation these bore to one another, 
 or how their power was apportioned between them. We can gather dimly, from various 
 scattered statements, that the Carthaginian oligarchy, while despising the multitude, 
 was itself split up into factions, and torn by family jealousies. Corruption largely 
 prevailed ; and it would perhaps have been better for the country if the power had been 
 in the hands of a popular despot than of a band of insolent and tyrannical nobles. 
 
 The Carthaginian army was raised from the conscription of the subjugated Libyans, 
 from the hired Numidians, and from slaves. In the time of Agathocles, the city sent 
 forth 40,000 heavy armed infantry, 1,000 cavalry, and 2,000 war-chariots, but the state 
 could easily raise 100,000 troops. The fleet in the first Punic war consisted of 350 ships, 
 carrying 150,000 men. How C. contrived to raise revenues suflicient to cover the enor- 
 mous expense her military and naval organization involved, is not very clear. It was, 
 in all likelihood, derived from tribute imposed on subject Libyan or Numidian races, in 
 great part from mines in Spain, and from import duties derived from her maritime and 
 inland trade, which was prodigiously great. Her merchantmen visited every coast and 
 island of the Mediterranean, and even ventured as far as the Azores, Britain, the Baltic, 
 etc. ; while her caravans penetrated through Sahara to the gold-producing districts of 
 the Niger, and through the Libyan desert to the lands along the Nile. 
 
 The religion of the Carthaginians appears to have been substantially the same as 
 that of the Phenicians — a worship of the stars and of fire. Moloch was the chief 
 deity, and to him children and captives were sacrificed. The highest natural mani- 
 festation of this deity was the sun. Besides Moloch, the Carthaginians worshiped the 
 Tyrian Hercules; Astarte, the goddess of the elements; Esmun, the god of the celestial 
 vault; and a variety of heros, heroines, and genii or spirits, such as the Genius of 
 Death, Hamilcar (who fell at the battle of Himera), Dido, the brothers Philaeni, etc., ^ 
 well as a few of the lesser Greek divinities, of whom a knowledge had been obtained in 
 Sicily. It does not appear that there was a distinct sacerdotal order in Cai thage. 
 Probably religious ceremonies were performed by the dignitaries of the state, but our 
 knowledge on this interesting point is too meager to permit of our arriving at any very 
 definite conclusion. 
 
 CARTHAGE, a headland of n. Africa, jutting out into the Mediterranean, in lat. 36“ 
 52' n., Ion. 10° 22' east. Traces of the ancient city of Carthage (q.v.) are found on it to 
 the n. of the Tunis lagoon. 
 
501 
 
 Carthagre. 
 
 Cartier. 
 
 CABTHAGE'NA, capital of the state of Bolivar, one of the United States of Colombia. 
 It stands on the Caribbean sea, a little to the s.w. of the mouth of the Magdalena, in 
 lat. 10° 26' n,, long. 77° 54' w., having the best harbor on the coast, with a naval arsenal 
 and strong fortifications. Its population is estimated at. 10,000, not more than one-tenth 
 being white. The temperature ranges from 80° to 86° F. — the air, however, being dry 
 and healthy. In the history of Spanish America, and more especially in that of the war 
 of independence, the city occupies a prominent place. 
 
 CARTHAGE'NA {ante), a fortified seaport of the United States of Colombia, founded 
 by the Spaniards, 1508. The city is noted for its fortifications, convent buildings, and 
 fine harbor. The walls and defenses were completed in 1717, at a cost of $59,000,000. 
 In 1585, C. was sacked by the English under sir Francis Drake, and in 1741, besieged by 
 the fleet of admiral Vernon. In 1860, gen. Mosquera abolished the convent system^ 
 allowing priests and nuns but 48 hours to leave the city. The climate is dry and hot,, 
 but salubrious, although C. has been ravaged at intervals by yellow fever. There is a 
 small export of caoutchouc, tobacco, hides, and other interior products. The popula- 
 tion, which in 1800 was about 25,000, is now reduced to 3,000. 
 
 CARTHAGENA BARK. See Cinchona. 
 
 CARTHA GO, a term of various application in Central America. — 1. An almost land- 
 locked bay or lagoon of the Caribbean sea, near the n.w. extremity of the Mosquito 
 shore. — 2. A river entering the same from the s. s.w., about lat. 15° n., and long. 84° west. 
 — 3. A river of Costa Rica, flowing into the gulf of Nicoya, an inlet of the Pacific, near 
 lat. 9° 36' n., and long. 84° 30' w. — 4. A city, or rather the ruins of one, on the same, about 
 60 m. from its mouth. Down to 1841, it was the capital of Costa Rica; but being in 
 that year all but destroyed by an earthquake, it was supplanted by San Jose, previously 
 its superior in wealth and importance, about 15 m. to the w. n.w. of itself. The volcano 
 of its own name, doubtless connected with its overthrow, is valuable as a landmark to- 
 mariners. 
 
 CARTHA'GO NOVA. See Cartagena, ante. 
 
 CARTHAMINE, or Carthameine. The dye so called is obtained by a chemical proc- 
 ess from safflower (q.v.), {carthamus tinctorius) in crystals which are insoluble in water, 
 but slightly soluble in alcohol and ether. When newly precipitated, C. immediately and 
 permanently attaches itself to cotton or silk, but not to wool, requiring no mordant, 
 dyeing the fabric a fine red, which is changed to yellow on the addition of alkalies, and 
 may be returned to red again on being treated with acids. 
 
 CARTHUS IANS, a monastic order which owes its origin to St. Bruno, who retired in 
 1086 with six companions to the solitude of La Chartreuse (whence the name), near 
 Grenoble, where th^ built hermitages, wore rude garments, and lived upon vegetables 
 and coarse bread. In 1134, the fifth prior, Guigo, composed a body of rules, called the 
 Statuta Ouigonis or Gonsuetudines Gartusice, but they have been often changed. After 
 1170, when the order received papal approbation, it extended rapidly. It dates from 
 1180 in England, where the name of Chartreuse-houses was corrupted into charter- 
 houses. The C. were divided into two classes, fathers {patres) and brothers {conwrsi). 
 Each occupied a separate cell, with a bed of straw, a pillow, a woolen coverlet, and the 
 means of manual labor or of writing. They left their cell, even for meals, only on festi- 
 vals and on days of the funeral of a brother of the order. Thrice a week, they fasted 
 on bread, water, and salt, and there were several lengthened fasts in the year. Flesh 
 was forbidden at all times, and wine, unless mixed with water. Unbroken silence, except 
 on rare occasions, was enforced, as well as frequent prayer and night- watching. These 
 austerities were continued, with little modification, by the modern Carthusians. The order 
 at one time counted 16 provinces, and can still boast some of the most magnificent con- 
 vents in the world — as La Grande Ghartreuse, near Grenoble, and Gertosa, near Pavia. 
 They were given to hospitality and works of charity, and were on the whole better edu- 
 cated than the mendicant orders. Their principal seats were in Italy, France, and Switzer- 
 land; but they have shared the fate of the other monastic establishments, and their con- 
 vents are now for the most part solitudes indeed. The Carthusian nuns arose at Salette, 
 on the Rhone, in France, about 1229. They followed the rules of the Carthusian 
 monks, but with some mitigations, of which the most notable is that they have a com- 
 mon refectory. 
 
 CARTIER, Sir George ^^tienne, 1814-73; a laywer of Canada, educated at St. 
 Sulpice, Montreal. He was one of the Papineau “rebels ” in the abortive revolution of 
 1837-38, but was forgiven; and became a member of the provincial legislature, secretary, 
 and attorney-general. In 1858, he became premier. He was instrumental in abolishing 
 feudal tenure in Lower Canada, in making the legislative council elective, in codify- 
 ing the laws, in decentralizing the judiciary, and in bringing about the confederation of 
 the colonies. 
 
 CARTIER, Jacques, b. 1494, in Brittany. In 1534, he sailed from St. Malo in com- 
 mand of two ships to explore the n.e. coast of America. He touched at cape Buenavista, 
 Newfoundland, passed up the straits of Belle Isle and discovered the mainland of Canada, 
 which he claimed for France. The next year, with another expedition, he sailed up the 
 St. Lawrence as far as Hochelaga, a large fortified native village at the foot of a. 
 
Cavtilagre* 
 
 Cartoach. 
 
 502 
 
 bill, which he named Mont Royal (now Montreal). Disgusted with the severe climate, 
 and his men being sick with scurvy, he went back to France in 1536, and nothing was 
 done towards colonization until 1540, when Jean Francis de la Roche, sieur de Roberval, 
 obtained leave to form a setilement. In 1541, Cartier was sent out in command of five 
 ships, and near the present Quebec he built a fort and named it Charlesbourg ; but the 
 Indians, whose chief he had carried off in his previous voyage, gave him so much trouble 
 that he returned to France. Cartier appears no more in public life except as seigneur 
 of his native village of Limoilin, where he was living as late as 1552. 
 
 CABTILAGE is a firm elastic substance, of a pearly whiteness, presenting to an 
 unaided eye a uniform and homogeneous appearance. Cartilages maybe divided into the 
 iemyorary, the permanent, and the accidental. The temporary cartilages are substitutes 
 for bone in the earlier periods of life, and after a certain time become ossified. See 
 Osteology. At birth the extremities and larger eminences of the long bones, and the 
 margins of the flat bones are still cartilaginous, and this C. does not altogether disappear 
 till the period of puberty. The permanent cartilages are either articular or non-articulm. 
 Articular cartilages are attached to the extremities of bones, and enter into the forma- 
 tions of joints. Non-articular cartilages are usually more flexible than the articular. 
 They are sometimes attached to bones, to lengthen them out, as, for instance, in the 
 nose, the auditory canal, and the Eustachian tube. See Hearing, Organs of. In other 
 cases they form the basis of distinct organs, as the larynx, the trachea, and the eyelids. 
 Accidental cartilages are cartilaginous concretions, which are occasionally found in situ- 
 ations where they do not normally occur, and are of no general interest. The physical 
 properties of cartilages, especially their elasticity, resisting power, and incapability of 
 extension, are such as to fit them admirably for the functions which they have to per- 
 form in the animal economy. A brief notice of the microscopical characters of C. will be 
 found in the article Cells, and a reference to its chemical composition will be found 
 in the articles Gelatinous Tissues and Gluten. 
 
 CABTILAGINOTJS FISHES are those fishes which have a skeleton destitute of bony 
 fibers. In some of these fishes, the skeleton is merely rudimentary, so that they seem 
 to form an intermediate link between vertebrate and invertebrate animals. In the lance- 
 lets (q.v.), (amphioxus), it consists of nothing more than a slender, transparent, flexible 
 dorsal column ; in myxine also it is a soft flexible tube, without appearance of vertebrae 
 or of ribs; in the lampreys, the dorsal column is still a mere cylinder of cartilage, with- 
 out any notable division into segments; whilst even in the sturgeon, the center of the 
 backbone is a continuous gelatinous cord, and in the sharks the vertebrae are formed of 
 hollow cones, meeting at their apexes in the middle, and having their cups filled with 
 the remains of the gelatinous cord, an arrangement from which result great elasticity 
 and flexibility. In many instances, even in the higher C. F., several vertebrae are united 
 in a single piece; in all of them the skull is formed of a single piece without sutures, 
 although the general form agrees with that of the skull of other fishes, and the same 
 parts or regions may be recognized. The calcareous matter present in the skeleton is 
 always deposited in a granular manner, giving a characteristic dotted appearance; but 
 even in the skull of the basking shark, one of the most highly organized, the earthy 
 matter has been found to form little more than 3 per cent of the whole substance; in the 
 skeleton of the lamprey, it is only per cent. In other parts of their organization, C. 
 F. differ from each other very widely; some of them possessing the organs of the senses 
 in as great perfection as any fishes whatever, whilst in others these organs are very 
 imperfectly developed. Linnseus placed the C. F. along with batrachian reptiles in his 
 class amphibia. By the general consent of naturalists, however, they are placed in the 
 class of fishes. Cuvier, referring to the very different degrees of organization which 
 they exhibit, says “they form a series ranging parallel to the bony fishes just as the 
 marsupial mammalia range parallel with the other ordinary mammalia.” Owen and 
 others, admitting the justice of this view, have, however, pointed out in the C. F. gen- 
 ^•rally, characters corresponding with those of the osseous fishes in their embryotic state, 
 and with the permanent or mature conditions which prevailed among the fishes of some 
 of the older geological periods. One remarkable characteristic even of the higher groups 
 of C. F. — sturgeons, sharks, rays, etc. — is the heteroco'cal tail, the vertebral column being 
 prolonged into the upper portion of the caudal fin, and the lower one given off on its 
 under side, as in the fossil fishes generally of the old red sandstone and other oldest fish- 
 producing rocks. Cuvier divided C. F., or chondropterygii (Gr. cartilage-finned) into 3 
 orders: (sturgeon, chimera, etc.), having the gills free, and gill-openings with 
 
 a lid, like the osseous fishes: selachii (sharks and rays), having the gills fixed, and con- 
 sisting of folds of membrane on a plane surface, with numerous gill-openings, the jaws 
 movable as in other fishes generally; and (lampreys, etc.), also having fixed 
 
 gills and numerous gill-openings, the mouth adapted for sucking. Muller and Owen, 
 however, separate cyclostomi of Cuvier from the other C. F., on account of important 
 anatomical differences, particularly in the structure of the heart, which in the cyclostomi 
 wants the bulhus arteriosus, or thick muscular swelling of the commencement of the 
 arterial system close to the ventricle; whilst this, which may, in fact, be considered as a 
 third chamber of the heart, is present in the sturiones and selachii, and within it, are 3 
 or more longitudinal rows of valves; characters derived from the vascular system being 
 
503 
 
 Cartilapre. 
 
 Cartouche 
 
 deemed by these great naturalists of the highest value in determining the arrangement 
 of the class of fishes. The lancelets occupy a place by themselves, from their absolutely 
 wanting a heart, and having the circulation carried on by the muscularity of the entire 
 vascular system. 
 
 CAETOON (Ital. cartone, pasteboard ; from Lat. charta, paper). In the fine arts, C. is 
 a design on strong paper, of the full size of a work to be afterwards executed either in 
 fresco, oil color, or tapestry. The object of the artist in preparing a C. is, that he 
 may adjust the drawing and composition of his subject in circumstances in which altera- 
 tions can be effected with facility, before proceeding to the execution of the work itself. 
 Cartoons are generally composed of a number of sheets of stout paper or pasteboard, 
 pasted together at the edges, and stretched on a frame. The surface is sometimes primed, 
 or washed with a ground-color; but more frequently this process is dispensed with. The 
 drawing is made either in chalks or in distemper (q. v. ), in which latter case the C. itself has 
 very much the appearance of a fresco. Frequently only two colors are used, merely for 
 the purpose of producing light and shade, in which case the C. is said to be in chiaro-oscuro. 
 The C., when finished, is transferred to the canvas or plaster on which the work is to 
 be executed, either by tracing with a hard point, or by pricking with pins, charcoal in 
 both cases being used. Sometimes lines are simply drawn across it, or, if it is wished tO' 
 preserve it from injury, threads are stretched across it from pins placed at the required 
 distances along the edges. In fresco painting (q.v. ), the plaster on which the work is 
 executed must be kept wet, in order that it may absorb the color, and consequently only 
 a small portion can be executed at a time. For this reason, the C. must be traced in 
 small compartments of the size that the artist can finish without stopping. It is here, 
 consequently, above all, that the necessity for the previous execution of a C. is greatest, 
 as it would be impossible to sketch the whole design on the plaster in the first instance. 
 But the great masters used such studies in chiaro-oscuro as guides to them in almost all 
 their more extensive works, and many of these monuments of their care, as well as of 
 their genius, have been preserved. We have cartoons of Andrea Mantegna, Domeni- 
 chino, the Caracci, etc. ; but the finest specimens of cartoons in existence are those of 
 Raphael at Hampton court. These marvelous conceptions were sent to Flanders in the 
 reign of Leo X. , in order that they might be copied in tapestry in two sets, one of which 
 was designed for the pope, the other for a present by the pope to Henry VIII. of Eng- 
 land. The tapestries, which are very inferior to the designs, are still in existence. One 
 set is in Rome, the other was in England till the death of Charles I., when it was pur- 
 chased by the Spanish ambassador and carried to Spain. At a recent period it was 
 brought to London and offered for sale, but as no English purchaser was found, it was 
 again carried to the continent. For many years the cartoons, originally twenty-five in 
 number, lay neglected at Brussels, and many of them were destroyed. The seven now 
 at Hampton court were at length purchased by Rubens for King Charles I. It is an 
 instance of Cromwell’s good sense, in a direction in which it was not often exhibited, 
 that at the dispersion of the royal collections, these cartoons were purchased for the 
 nation by his special command. So low was the artistical taste of the lime, however, 
 that whilst the “Triumph of Julius Caesar,” by Andrea Mantegna, still at Hampton 
 court, was valued at £2,000, the cartoons of Raphael were set down at £300! In Charles 
 
 II. ’s time, these remarkable works were again consigned to oblivion. An attempt was 
 made to have them copied in tapestry, by which they were seriously injured. William 
 
 III. , strangely enough, followed in Cromwell’s footsteps in appreciating what Charles 
 II. had neglected. He had the cartoons restored, and built a gallery for them at Hamp- 
 ton court, where, with the exception of a visit to Windsor in George III.’s time, they 
 have since sojourned. The following are the subjects represented: 1. Paul Preaching 
 at Athens: 2 The Death of Ananias; 3. Ely mas, the Sorcerer, struck with Blindness; 
 4. Christ Delivering the Keys to Peter; 5. The Sacrifice at Lystra; 6. The Apostles 
 Healing the Sick at the “Beautiful Gate” of the Temple; 7. The Miraculous Draught 
 of Fishes. Our space and our design equally preclude us from attempting any state- 
 ment of the merits of these exquisite compositions. Several of the lost cartoons are par- 
 tially transmitted to us by engravings, some of which were executed from the tapestries; 
 others, it is believed, from the originals. The subjects of these are — 1. The Adoration 
 of the Kings; 2. Christ appearing to Mary Magdalene; 3. The Disciples at Eramaus; 4. 
 The Murder of the Innocents; 5. The Ascension. These were engraved, along with the 
 others, by Somereau, a French engraver, in 4to. Other cartoons of Raphael exist — one 
 the property of the duke of Buccleuch, and two in the possession of the king of Italy, 
 which are said to have belonged to the set sent to Flanders. There is also a portion of 
 one in the national gallery in London, but it is now painted over with oil color. The 
 best engravings of the cartoons at Hampton court are by Dorigny, Audran, and Hollo- 
 way; but in future it is probable that they will be more known to the public by means 
 of photographs, of which Messrs. Colnaghi and others have already produced very beau- 
 tiful specimens. 
 
 CAETOTTCH is a word much used in the French military service, but less frequently 
 in the English. The name was once given to a wooden case containing 200 to 300 
 musket-bullets, and 8 or 10 1-lb. balls, fired from a mortar or howitzer in defense of a 
 
Cartouche. 
 
 Oarvahal. 
 
 504 
 
 ditch or intrenchment ; but such missiles have been superseded by others. The cartridge- 
 box carried by the soldiers used to be called a C. in England, and still is in France. 
 
 CABTOTJCHE, the name by which the French, and we after them, designate the ovals 
 on which the hieroglyphic characters for the names of Egyptian kings are sculptured. 
 See Cavo-rilievo. C. is also used to signify a tablet, either for ornament or to receive 
 an inscription, so formed as to resemble a sheet of paper or parchment, with the edges 
 and ends rolled up. Cartouches are often seen on tombs. The same term is sometimes 
 applied to modillions, or brackets supporting a cornice. 
 
 CARTOUCHE, Louis Dominique, 1693-1721; the leader of a band of robbers and 
 assassins in France, whose crimes created great terror in Paris. For many years he 
 eluded the police, but at last was arrested by chance in a low drinking-house. He had 
 a long trial, which created a great deal of interest, and was finally sentenced to death, 
 and broken on the wheel before an immense assembly of approving spectators. 
 
 CABTBIDGE is a cylindrical case made to contain either the whole or a part of the 
 materials for discharging from a fire-arm. Those for ordnance or large guns are chiefly 
 made of serge and flannel, sewn up into the form of a bag, which, supplied with a gi /en 
 weight of powder, is tied round the neck, and strengthened by iron hoops. The weight 
 of powder varies from about 300 lbs. for an 81-ton gun, to a few ounces for a mountain 
 gun- 
 
 Cartridges for small-arms which load at the muzzle are usually paper tubes, contain- 
 ing a leaden ball and a few drachms of powder. The tubes are made in such a way that 
 the powder has two or three thicknesses of paper around it, while at the mouth of the 
 tube and over the bullet there is only one. The paper over the bullet is lubricated 
 generally with a composition of beeswax and tallow. In loading, the paper at the 
 mouth of the tube has to be twisted or bitten off; the powder is then poured into the 
 barrel, the tube reversed, and the bullet inserted into the muzzle, and the tube broken 
 away. Cartridges for breech-loading small-arms are generally formed of a thin sheet of 
 brass coiled into a cylinder, and having an iron case, in the center of which is the per- 
 cussion arrangement. Those used for the Snider and the Martini-Henry rifles are 
 described in the article on Breech-Loading Arms, Besides the C. case of coiled brass, 
 there are others made of solid brass or copper (an American invention), and these seem 
 to be gaining favor abroad, the Prussians having adopted such a case for the new 
 Mauser rifle. 
 
 For muzzle-loading shot guns, the chief cartridges used contain a charge of shot 
 packed in a paper cylinder of a size suitable for the bore of the gun. Some of these, in 
 addition to the paper covering, are surrounded with a wire net-work, for the purpose of 
 increasing the range and penetration. 
 
 The C. for breech-loading shot guns is usually a stout cylinder of paper with a metal 
 case. They are made of various sizes to suit the different calibers of guns, and with pin 
 or central fire ignition. In the pin-fire C., a small brass pin passes through the side of 
 the case into the percussion cap, and protrudes through a small hole in the top of the 
 barrels. The pin is struck by the hammer of the gun, and forced -into the percussion 
 cap, which explodes, and ignites the powder. In the central-fire C. , the cap is in the 
 center of the case, and is exploded by the hammer of the gun acting on a piston con 
 tained in the false breech. 
 
 In America, a solid brass C. case is often used for shot guns. 
 
 For sporting rifles, the cartridges are quite as numerous and as varied as for shot 
 guns. With large-bore rifles the same C. case is generally used as for shot guns, but 
 loaded with powder and ball (spherical, solid conical, hollow conical, or shell). For 
 small-bore, or what are known as express rifles, either a coiled brass C. case, similar in 
 construction to that for the Snider or Martini-Henry rifle, but made to contain a larger 
 charge, or a solid brass case is used. The coiled case can be reloaded twice or thrice, 
 while the solid case can be reloaded as often as twenty times, and on this account the 
 latter is rapidly gaining favor with sportsmen in India and Africa. The express C. 
 contains a very heavy charge of powder, with a light hollow conical bullet giving very 
 great velocity, low trajectory, and immense killing power. In the Henry express C., 
 the charge of powder is 4 drachms, while the bullet weighs only 270 grains. 
 
 Cartridges for breech-loading pistols and revolvers are generally small metal cylin- 
 ders containing a charge of powder and a bullet, and with rim, pin, or central fire 
 ignition, the diameter varying from .230 of an inch upwards. 
 
 CABTBIDGE-PAPEB, a light-colored strong paper, originally manufactured for 
 soldiers’ cartridges (q.v.), is extensively used in art, its rough surface being useful for 
 certain kinds of drawing. 
 
 CABTWBIGHT, Edmund, celebrated on account of his invention of the power-loom, 
 was b. April 24, 1743, at Marnham, Nottinghamshire. Educated at Oxford, he obtained 
 a living in the English church, and devoted himself exclusively to hia ministerial duties 
 and to literature, until a casual conversation, in 1784, directed his attention to machinery, 
 and in 1785 he exhibited his first power-loom (q. v.) in action, an ingenious though very 
 rude machine ; upon which, however, he subsequently effected improvements rendering 
 it almost perfect. Its introduction was vehemently opposed, and a mill fitted up with 
 
505 
 
 Cartouche. 
 
 CarrahaL 
 
 500 of his looms was ignorantly and maliciously burned down. 'C., in 1790, took out a 
 patent for combing wool, and secured patents for various other improvements in connec- 
 tion with manufactures. But his patents yielded him little return, and, in 1809, govern- 
 ment, in consideration of his inventions, granted him £10,000. C. was the author of a 
 legendary poem, entitled Arminia and Elvira, and other poetical pieces. He died Oct., 
 1823. 
 
 CARTWRIGHT, John, 1740-1824; usually called maj. C. ; in the English navy in 
 his youth. He was present at the capture of Cherbourg, and subsequently on the New- 
 foundland station, when he was appointed chief magistrate of the settlement, discharging 
 the duties of the office with great ability for five years. When the dispute with the 
 American colonies began, he espoused their cause, declining to fight against them, and 
 thereby rejecting an almost certain high military or naval promotion. In 1774, he pub- 
 lished American Independence the Glory and Interest of Great Britain. The next year he 
 was appointed maj. in the Nottingham militia, which position he served for 17 years, 
 being finally superseded because of his political opinions. In 1776, he appeared in print 
 as the advocate of parliamentary reform, and thenceforth devoted his life to the attain- 
 ment of universal suffrage and annual parliaments. In 1778, he was an unsuccessful 
 candidate for Nottinghamshire, and the same year founded the “ society for constitu- 
 tional information,” a body which embraced many of the distinguished men of the day, 
 and from which organization rose the famous “corresponding society.” His work in 
 the furtherance of reform was incessant. In 1819, he was indicted for conspiracy, found 
 guilty the following year, and sentenced to pay a fine of £100. He spent his last years 
 in London. He was married, but left no children. In 1831, a monument to him was 
 erected on Burton Crescent. 
 
 CARTWRIGHT, Peter, d.d., 1785-1872; a native of Virginia; settled in early life 
 in Kentucky, where, in 1806, he was ordained a deacon in the Methodist Episcopal 
 church. He was subsequently regular preacher and presiding elder, and a member of 
 every quadrennial conference from 1816 to 1860, and once more in 1868. He was a 
 zealous worker, in the course of 33 years preaching about 15,000 sermons, and baptizing 
 12,000 converts. C. was widely known for his homely but powerful preaching; and 
 interesting stories are told of his daring and romantic adventures among the rough back- 
 woodsmen. Many of these can be found in his Fifty Tears a Presiding Elder, and in the 
 Autobiography of Peter Cartwright, the Backwoods Preacher. 
 
 CARTWRIGHT, Samuel A., b. Va., 1793; d. about 1863. He studied medicine 
 under Dr. Rush and graduated at Pennsylvania college. During Jackson’s campaigns 
 against the Indians and the British he w^as surgeon- in- chief, and, after 1815, settled in 
 Alabama and afterward in Natchez, Miss., where he labored for a quarter of a century. 
 Dr. C. wrote many valuable papers upon fevers, cholera, and other diseases. 
 
 CARTWEIGHT, Thomas, a distinguished Puritan divine of the 16th c., was b. in 
 Hertfordshire, about 1535. He studied at Cambridge, where, in 1570, he was chosen 
 Margaret divinity professor. His lectures here were too honestly critical of the polity 
 of the church to be acceptable to the chief authorities, who deprived him of his profes- 
 sorship, and subsequently of his fellowship. C. traveled on the continent, and made 
 the friendship of such men as Beza, who, in a letter concerning him, says, “I think the 
 sun doth not see a more learned man.” On his return to England, he again became 
 embroiled with the church and the government, and for his non-conformity suffered 
 imprisonment several times. He died Dec., 1603. He wrote A Confutation of the Bhem- 
 ish Translation, Glosses, and Annotations on the New Testament. 
 
 CA'BIJS, Karl Gust., a German scholar, physiologist, physician, and artist, was b. at 
 Leipsic, 3d Jan., 1789. He first attracted notice by a series of lectures on comparative 
 anatomy, delivered in his native city about the year 1812. After having superintended, 
 during the war of 1813, the French hospital at Pfaffendorf, he went to Dresden, where 
 he was appointed professor of midwifery in the newly organized medico-chirurgical 
 academy, but resigned his office when elected court physician and councilor of state. 
 His house was the rendezvous of all the most distinguished savants and artists in Dres- 
 den. C. wrote a vast variety of works, some of which are marked by original and strik- 
 ing views, as, for instance, Ueber den Kreislauf des Blutes der Insecten, in which he dem- 
 onstrates the circulation of the blood in insects. He died in July, 1869. 
 
 CA'RUS, Marcus Aurelius, 222-83; Emperor of Rome; supposed to have been the 
 son of a noble Roman lady and an African father. On the assassination of Probus 
 in 282, C. was proclaimed emperor by the legions. He was victorious over the Sarma- 
 tians, and in a winter campaign in Asia, he carried his arms beyond the Tigris. He 
 died very suddenly in camp, and it was given out that he had been struck with lightning. 
 
 CARVAHAL', or CARBAJAL, Tomas JoseGonsalez, 1753-1834; poet and statesman 
 of Spain ; educated at Seville. He held a number of offices of importance, and in 1 812, became 
 director of the university of San Isidore, where, by establishing a chair of international 
 law he offended the government, and was imprisoned for 5 years. He was reinstated 
 by the revolution of 1820, but forced into exile by the counter-revolution 3 years later. 
 He died a member of the supreme council of war. C. obtained celebrity as the authoi 
 
Carvalho. 
 
 CaryophyllaceaD. 
 
 506 
 
 of metrical translations of the i-octical books of the Bible, and for other works in prose 
 and verse. 
 
 CARVAL'HO E MELLO. See Pombal, ante. 
 
 CABVEL-BUILT. The difference between the carvel and the clincher methods of 
 arranging the outer planks in ship and boat building is explained under Cllnchee- 
 
 BUIJLT. 
 
 CARVER, a CO. in s.e. Minnesota, on the Minnesota and Crow rivers; 375 sq.m.; 
 pop. ’80, 14,140. Surface undulating, and soil fertile; productions chiefly agricultural. 
 One or two railroads are in operation or in progress. Co. seat, Chaska. 
 
 CARVER, John, b. England, d. Massachusetts, 1621. He left England on account 
 of religious intolerance, and settled in Leyden, whence he was sent to effect certain 
 arrangements with the Virginia company. In 1619, he got a patent, and sailed in the 
 MayJUmer with 101 colonists. On the landing at Plymouth, Carver was chosen as gov- 
 ernor, and managed affairs prudently for the four months between his election and" his 
 death. 
 
 CARVER, Jonathan, 1732-80; a native of Connecticut; began the study of medi- 
 cine, but became a soldier, and served in the colonial wars previous to the revolution. 
 After the peace of 1763, and the cession of the Canadas to Great Britain, Carver traveled 
 extensively in the northwestern wilderness, for the purpose of finding new openings for 
 trade, going to England to announce his discoveries. In 1778, he published Travels 
 through the Interior Parts of North America, and the next year a treatise on the culture of 
 tobacco. He died in extreme destitution. 
 
 CARVIN-EPINOY, a t. of France, dep. of Pas-de-Calais, 11 m. s.s.e. of Lille, and about 
 the same distance by railway. There are manufactures of beet-root sugar, starch, earth- 
 enware, and leather. Pop. ’76, 6,167. 
 
 CARVING, a subordinate branch of sculpture, is usually performed on ivory or wood. 
 Ivory was the favorite material for this purpose in the e. from an early period. Among 
 the Babylonians, who likewise practiced gem-engraving to a great extent, carved heads 
 for staves were executed in vast quantities, as every Babylonian carried a staff and a 
 signet ring. During the palmy days of Grecian art, ivory was largely employed ; the nude 
 portion of the colossal statues of the gods being composed of some solid material over- 
 laid with plates of ivory, while the remaining portions were of plate gold. At a later 
 period, ivory was chiefly employed in small works, usually of a decorative character. 
 During the earliest period, statues of the gods were generally of wood, painted, gilt, or 
 draped with colored robes, different kinds of wood being appropriated to different 
 divinities. Carvings in ivory form an important branch of early Christian sculpture. 
 Among the most curious of these are the ivory tablets adorned on the outside with low- 
 reliefs, and in the inside coated with wax for the purpose of writing upon. The chair 
 inlaid with ivory that belonged to archbishop Maximilian in the cathedral at Ravenna, 
 is of this period (546-55). In the year 803, Charlemagne received two richly carved 
 doors as a present from Constantinople, but works of the same kind were executed at a 
 much earlier period. Towards the end of the middle ages, the art of C. in wood 
 was brought to a high degree of perfection in Germany. Altars were adorned with 
 carvings of this material, often of large size, and with numerous figures; in general, the 
 nude portions were carefully and tastefully colored after nature, and the draperies gilt. 
 Specimens are to be seen in the churches at Altenberg, Erfurt, Prague, and in some 
 churches in Pomerania. The finest and most perfect specimens are a series of reliefs 
 relating to the doctrine of transubstantiation in the church at Tribsees. Many of the 
 Belgian churches also possess very beautiful examples of wood-carving. Michael Wohl- 
 gemuth of Nuremberg, and after him Veit Stoss, were eminent carvers in wood. The 
 wood-carving on the great altar of the cathedral at Schleswig by Hans Bruggemann 
 belongs to the beginning of the 16th century. Many graceful specimens of wood-carv- 
 ing, on a smaller scale, belonging to this period, are to be seen in museums. Nurem- 
 berg was celebrated for its wood-carvings; but only a few of the many works ascribed 
 to him can be assigned with certainty to Albert Diirer. Portrait medallions, usually cut 
 in box, were much in vogue during the early part of the 16th century. The first artist 
 in this line was Hans Schwartz of Augsburg. During the 17th and 18th centuries, we 
 find ivory again extensively employed in crucifixes, crosses, and goblets, with relief rep- 
 resentations. The most eminent artist is Franz de Quesnoy. 
 
 CARY, Alice, b. near Cincinnati, O., 1820, d. N. Y., 1871. At the age of 18, she 
 began to write for the press, and at the age of 30, with the assistance of her sister 
 Phoebe, she published a volume of verses which were exceptionally popular. In 1851, 
 the sisters removed to New York city, where, under the friendship and patronage of 
 Horace Greeley, they led successful literary and social lives for 20 years. Among the 
 works of Alice, besides many poems, are Glovemook; Hagar, a Story of To-Day; Mar- 
 ried, not Mated; Pictures of Country Life; Snow Berries; The Bishop's Son; The Lover's 
 Diary, etc. 
 
 CARY, Archibald, 1730-86; a Virginian, conspicuous on the patriot side of ihe 
 revolution, his services being mainly in the Virginia convention and house of burgesses. 
 
507 
 
 Carvalho. 
 
 Caryophyllaceea. 
 
 When the state government was organized he was chosen president of the senate. The 
 story is told of him that, on hearing a report that Patrick Henry was spoken of for dic- 
 tator, he said to Henry’s half-brother, “I am told that your brother wishes to be dicta- 
 tor. Tell him from me that the day of his appointment shall be the day of his death, 
 for he shall find my dagger in his heart before the sunset of that day.” Patrick Henry 
 was the last man in the world to aspire to a dictatorship. 
 
 OAUY, Rev. Henry Francis, known for his admirable translation of Dante, was b. 
 at Birm.ugham in 1772. At Oxford, where he entered Christ church as a commoner in 
 1790, he was early distinguished as a classical scholar, and also for his knowledge of 
 Italian, French, and English literature. In 1805, he translated Dante’s Inferno, and in 
 1814, tlie whole of the Dimna Conimedia, a translation remarkable not only for its accu- 
 racy but for its expressiveness and force. He afterwards translated Pindar’s Odes and 
 Aristophanes’s Bii'ds, and wrote a series of memoirs, in continuation of Dr. Johnson’s 
 Lives of the Poets. For some years he held the appointment of assistant-librarian in the 
 British museum, and died in 1844. A memoir by his son was published in 1847. 
 
 CARY, Lott, b. a slave in Virginia in 1780, d. in Monrovia, Africa, 1828. Early 
 in life he became a zealous Baptist; redeemed himself and two children from slavery, 
 and in 1821 went to Liberia, where he was concerned in removing the colonists from the 
 unhealthy locality first chosen for their settlement. He did much to advance the wel- 
 fare of the new republic, and was left in full power when, in 1826, Mr. Ashmun sailed 
 for the United States. 
 
 CARY,. Ph(Ebe, 1824-71 ; sister of Alice, also a poetical and prose writer. Most of 
 her works were issued with those of Alice. She d. at Newport, R. I., three months 
 after the death of her sister, with whom she was a life-long companion. Neither of 
 them were ever married. 
 
 CARY, Sir Robert, son of Henry Cary, lord Hunsdon, was b. in 1559 or 1560, and 
 rose to eminence in the civil service of queen Elizabeth. For a number of years, 
 he acted as English warden on the marches. As a courtier, he was present at the death 
 of Elizabeth, 1603, and expeditiously rode on horseback to Edinburgh to communicate 
 the intelligence to her successor, James VI. At the coronation of Charles I., he was 
 elevated to the peerage as earl of Monmouth. At his death without male issue the earl- 
 dom became extinct. Sir Robert Cary wrote his Memoirs (Edin. 1808), a work interest- 
 ing chiefiy from notices connected with border history. 
 
 CARYA. See Hickory. 
 
 CARYATIDES (pi. of Garyatis, literally, a woman of Caryse), a name given to female 
 figures, in Greek architecture, when applied instead of columns to support a roof. The 
 traditional account of the origin of the name is, that the inhabitants of Caryae, a city in 
 Arcadia, having joined the Persians after the batiie of Thermopylae, the Greeks, after 
 their victory over the Persians, destroyed the town, slew the men, and carried the women 
 into captivity. As male figures representing Persians were used for this purpose, it 
 occurred to Praxiteles, and other Athenian artists, that female Caryatae, in their national 
 costume, might be thus employed to commemorate the disgrace of their country. Les- 
 sing, and various other writers, have treated this account as fabulous; but it seems to be 
 confirmed by a bass-relief preserved at Naples, in which two female figures are repre- 
 sented in the attitude of C., and which has a (Ireek inscription mentioning the conquest 
 of Caryae, Male figures used for the same purpose are called Atlantes (q.v.), 
 
 CAR'YL, Joseph, 1602-73; a non-conformist clergyman, a native of London, edu- 
 cated at Oxford. By order of Cromwell, he attended Charles I. in Holmby house, and 
 in 1650, he was sent with Owen to accompany Cromwell to Scotland. He is remem- 
 bered for a ponderous commentary on the book of Job, in which, after the fashion of 
 his time, he enlarges on every verse, and almost on every word. 
 
 CARYO'CAR, a genus of large trees of the natural order rhizoholacem, and almost con- 
 stituting the whole order. They are all natives of Guiana and Brazil, and are sometimes 
 called pekea trees. They yield good timber for ship-building, and produce the delicious 
 nuts, now not uncommon in the London market, called butter nuts or souari nuts. The 
 fruit is a sort of drupe, containing several combined nuts. The fieshy part of the drupe 
 consists of a butter-like substance, which melts between the fingers, and is used in cook- 
 ery instead of butter, on which account these trees are sometimes called butter-trees. It 
 forms merely a thin covering for the nuts, the bristles on the outer surface of which, in 
 some of the species, sting like the hairs of the nettle, and are very troublesome to those 
 who open them. The kernels are remarkably soft. An oil is extracted from them 
 which is scarcely inferior to olive oil. G. nuciferum is now cultivated in the island of 
 St. Vincent; but G. butyrosum, G. glah'um, G. tomentosum, and other species appear 
 equally worthy of attention. 
 
 CARYOPHYLLA'CEJE, a natural order of exogenous plants, containing upwards of 
 1000 known species, mostly herbaceous plants, a few half shrubby. The stems are tumid 
 at the articulations; the leaves always opposite and entire, often uniting around the 
 stem The fiowersare regular; the calyx persistent, of 4 to 5 sepals, either free or united 
 into a tube; the corolla of 4 to 5 petals, which are frequently bifid, and generally terminate 
 
Caryophyllus* 
 
 Casbin. 
 
 608 
 
 in a claw at the base, sometimes wanting; the stamens as many, or twice as many, as the 
 petals; the ovary of 2 to 5 carpels; the stigmas sessile; the fruit is a one-celled capsule, 
 with central placenta, to which the seeds are attached. — The plants of this order are 
 mostly natives of temperate and cold countries; some of them are only found on tropical 
 mountains, near the limits of perpetual snow. Most of them are inconspicuous weeds; 
 some produce beautiful flowers; almost all are insipid and inert; a few contain saponiney 
 aed afford a substitute for soap. See Soapwort. To this order belong the pink, car- 
 nation, sweet william, lychnis, chickweed, etc. 
 
 CAEYOPHYLLXTS. See Cloves, Myrtace^. 
 
 CAEYOP'SIS, in botany, a fruit in which the seed and pericarp are so incorporated as 
 to be inseparable, and even undistin^uishable. The grain or fruit of grasses, as wheat, 
 barley, rye, maize, etc. , is a caryopsis. 
 
 CAEYO'TA, a genus of palms, natives of the East Indies, one of which, C. urens, 
 remarkable for the acridity of its fruit, which produces a burning sensation when its pulp 
 is applied to the skin, is also highly valuable for the great quantity of ]mc,Q {toddy) which 
 flows from its wounded spathes, sometimes, in the hot season, to the amount of 100 pints 
 in 24 hours from a single tree. Sugar {jaggery) is made from this juice by boiling it down, 
 and on this account tms palm is sometimes called the jaggery palm. The pith of old 
 trees, or farinaceous part of the trunk, is also much used for food, and is said to be 
 equal to the best sago. The outer part of the stem is very hard, and applicable to many 
 purposes. The fibers of the leaf-stalks are made into ropes, which are very strong and 
 durable; the leaf -stalks, merely stripped of the leaflets, are used as fishing-rods, being 
 light, tapering, and elastic ; and the woolly substance found at their base is sometimes 
 used for calking ships. This palm is found both in India and Ceylon, and abounds 
 chiefly in mountainous districts. It rises to a height of 60 ft. , with a trunk of a foot in 
 diameter, and a magnificent spreading head of great double pinnate leaves, and triangular 
 leaflets, the apex of the triangle being their point of attachment. 
 
 CARYSFORT REEF, off the s.e. coast of Florida, in 25° 13' n., and 80" 13' west. 
 There is a light 106 ft. above tide. Navigation is dangerous on account of the proximity 
 of the gulf stream. 
 
 CASA, the prefix to many names in Italian and Spanish, signifying “house” or 
 “home.” 
 
 CASABIAN'CA, Louis, 1755-98; b. at Bastia; an officer in the French navy, and at 
 a later period a member of the national convention; later still one of the council of 500; 
 and finally capt. of U Orient, flag-ship of the fleet that transported Bonaparte and his 
 army to Egypt. In the battle of Aboukir, when the fleet was attacked by the English, 
 Casabianca fought to the last; and, with his son 10 years old, was killed in the blowing 
 up of the vessel. 
 
 GASACALEN'DA, a t. of Italy, in the province of Campobasso, 17 m. n.e. of Campo- 
 basso, on the site of the ancient Calela. Fruits and wine of good quality are produced 
 in the district, where silk-worms are also reared. Pop. 5,900. 
 
 CASA'LE, a city of n. Italy, province of Alessandria, situated on the right bank of the 
 Po, which is here crossed by an iron bridge, 38 m. e.n.e. of Turin. It is a place of con- 
 siderable antiquity, and occupies the site of a more ancient town. Many Roman remains 
 are found, and coins of the early ages of the republic. It has a cathedral, dating from 
 the 8th c., with valuable archives. The old citadel, founded in 1590, was one of the 
 strongest in Italy, and within recent years the fortifications have been greatly strength- 
 ened and extended. During the Italian campaign of 1859, C. was occupied by divisions 
 of the Sardinian army, and for a short time formed the head-quarters of the French 
 emperor. It has manufactures of silk-twist, and a trade in the produce of the district, 
 which is very fertile. Pop. ’71, 20,436. C. formerly gave its name to a province which 
 had an area of about 350 sq.m., and a pop. of about 143,000. 
 
 CASAL'-MAGGIO'EE, a t. of n. Italy, province of Cremona, on the left bank of the 
 Po, 22 m. e.s.e. of Cremona. Being subject to frequent inundations from the river, 
 strong embankments have been constructed for its protection. It has manufactures of 
 earthenware, leather, glass, etc. Pop. 5,000. 
 
 CASAL'-FTJSTEELEK'GO, a t. of n. Italy, province of Milan, 12 m. s.e. of Lodi, on the 
 road to Cremona. It has manufactures of silk fabrics, linen, and earthenware, and an 
 extensive trade in Parmesan cheese, which is here manufactured of the best quality. 
 Pop. 5,600. 
 
 CASAMAS'SIMA, a t of Italy, in the province of Bari, 14 m. s.e. of the city of that 
 name. It has a convent and two abbeys, and the vicinity produces wine and almonds. 
 Pop. 6,600. 
 
 CASANO'VA, Francis, a celebrated painter of battles and landscapes, was b. in Lon- 
 don, of Venetian parents, 1732. Educated in Italy, he afterwards went to Paris, from 
 whicli he was driven by the severe criticism of Diderot. C. then took up his abode in 
 Dresden, where he painted chiefly battle-pieces, and by one of his greatest works gained 
 a place in the academy. He afterwards went to Vienna, and painted for the empress 
 
509 
 
 Caryophyllat. 
 
 Casbin. 
 
 •Catharine her victory over the Turks. He died at Briel, near Vienna, 1805. The exe- 
 cution, and especially the coloring of his works, are excellent. 
 
 CASANO VA DE SEINOALT, Giovanni Jacopo, a notable adventurer of the Cagliostro 
 species, was b., 1725, in Venice, and studied in Padua, afterwards in Venice, intending 
 to enter the church. Having been expelled for sufficient reasons from a seminary of 
 priests, he traveled to Naples, visited Rome, and after many adventures arrived in Con- 
 stantinople. On his return to Venice in 1745, he supported himself for a time by his 
 skill as a violinist, until he gained some celebrity by curing a senator who had been 
 attacked by apoplexy. His irregularities again drove him from Venice. He now wan- 
 dered about for some time among the chief cities in the n. of Italy, Milan, Mantua, 
 Verona, Ferrara, Bologna, Parma, etc., but in 1750 he proceeded to Paris, where he was 
 patronized by the nobility, and became acquainted with several eminent authors. It is 
 needless to mention in detail his endless, inexplicable peregrinations. He visited almost 
 every European capital, was somehow introduced to the best company, invariably excited 
 the disgust or ill-will of those who knew him, and had always to “ vanish” after a brief 
 period of enjoyment. In 1761, we find him distinctly professing the miraculous after 
 the Cagliostro fashion: he having undertaken to regenerate old Madame D’Urfe into a 
 young man — for a consideration ! He died in Bohemia in 1803. His celebrated memoirs, 
 Memoires ecriU par Lui-merm (12 vols., Leip. 1826-38), contain many interesting notices 
 of the manners of his times, intermixed with details of his personal adventures. 
 
 CASABEEF, or Cassimpe, a sauce or condiment made from the juice of the bitter 
 cassava or manioc root. It is in the highest esteem in Guiana, where it is employed to 
 flavor almost every dish; and it is the basis of the favorite West Indian dish called 
 pepper-pot. It is a powerful antiseptic, and meat can by means of it be kept for a long 
 time quite fresh, even in a tropical climate. It is made by evaporating and concentrat- 
 ing the juice, which is also mixed with various aromatics. The poisonous principle of 
 the juice is dissipated in the evaporation, so that although the juice in a fresh state is 
 readily fatal to life, the C. is perfectly safe and wholesome. C. is imported into Hol- 
 land and Britain, and remains unimpaired in quality for several years. 
 
 CA'SAS GRAN'DES (the “great houses”), a t. in Chihuahua, Mexico, 150 m. n.w. 
 of the city of Chihuahua, celebrated for the ruins of early Mexican buildings still to be 
 «een. These ruined houses are built of sun-dried bricks of mud and gravel, each brick 
 about 22 in. thick and 3 ft. in length. The walls, which are in some places 5 ft. thick, 
 seem to have been plastered both ou tside and inside. The main edifice, about 800 by 
 200 ft. in extent, is rectangular, and appears to have consisted of three separate piles 
 united by galleries or lines of lower buildings, and the ruins indicate a height for the 
 main staircase of six or seven stories. In the same vicinity are artificial mounds from 
 which have been excavated stone axes, corn-grinders, and various other utensils. Simi- 
 lar ruins are found near the Gila, the Salimas, and the Colorado rivers. 
 
 CASATTBON, Isaac de, a great scholar and critic, was b. Feb. 8, 1559, at Geneva, 
 where, in 1582, he was appointed professor of the Greek language. Subsequently he 
 held professorships at Montpellier, 1596, and at Paris, 1598, but the death of Henry IV. 
 rendered his position (C. being a Protestant) very insecure, and he therefore gladly 
 accepted the offer of sir Henry Wotton to visit England. King James received him 
 with distinction, and appointed him some time after prebendary of Canterbury and West- 
 minster. He died in London, July 1, 1614. His acute investigation and criticism were 
 applied to several branches of archaeology and theology. Among his chief works may 
 be mentioned the able dissertation, De Satirica OroBcorum Poesi et Pomanorum Satira 
 %ve 2 itise De Libertate Ecclesiastica (1607); and the Exercitationes contra Baro- 
 nium (1614), a confutation of cardinal Baronius. His critical and exegetical works 
 include editions of Diogenes Laertius, Aristotle, Theophrastus, Suetonius, Persius, Polyb- 
 ius, Theocritus, Strabo, etc. — See Daae Casauhon, by Mark Pattison (1875). 
 
 His son. Meric Casatjbon, was b. at Geneva, 14th Aug., 1599; educated first at 
 Sedan, he accompanied his father to England, and entered Christ Church college, Oxford, 
 where he took his degree of m.a. in 1621. He was appointed rector of Ick^ham, near 
 Canterbury, 1628, and afterwards professor of theology at Oxford. He died at Oxford, 
 July 14, 1671. His attachment to Charles I. deprived him of all his preferments during 
 the commonwealth, but at the restoration he received them again. Meric was, like his 
 father, distinguished for his erudition; edited the works of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, 
 Terence, Epictetus, etc. ; and wrote a treatise, De Enthusiasmo (Lond. 1655). 
 
 CASEIN, or Kazvin, a t. of Persia, in the province of Irak-Ajemi, 90 m. w.n.w. of 
 Teheran. It is situated on an extensive plain of the same name, and is inclosed by walls. 
 Before the time of Shah Abbas the great, C. was for a brief period the capital of Persia. 
 The plain affords good pasturage, and in the vicinity of the town are extensive vineyards 
 and orchards. The town is very extensive, but a great part of it is now in ruins, owing 
 to its frequent subjection to earthquakes; and the population, which at one time was 
 estimated at 200,000, in now probably not so much as a fifth of that number. Some 
 velvets, brocades, and coarse cotton cloth are manufactured; and C. has also a consid- 
 erable trade in raw silk, rice, etc. 
 
Casca. 
 
 Caserne. 
 
 510 
 
 CASCA, Publius Ssrvilius, the one among the assassins of Julius Caesar who, accord- 
 ing to Plutarch, struck the first blow. This was done across the back of Caesar’s neck 
 with a short sword, but the wound was not deadly, and the finishing of the work was 
 left to Brutus and the others. 
 
 CASCADE RANGE, in Oregon and Washington territory; a mountain chain form- 
 ing a continuation of the California coast range. The mountains are about 100 m. e. 
 from the Pacific, and the more conspicuous peaks are Mts. Baker, Jefferson, Wood, 
 Pitt, and Rauier, the latter the highest point — 14,444 ft. above tide. 
 
 CASCARIL'LA (i.e., little bark, from Span, mscam, bark), the name given in South 
 America to many different kinds of bitter medicinal barks which form articles of com- 
 merce. Peruvian bark itself bears no other name in the districts which produce it; and 
 the name C. has recently been introduced in botany for a subdivision of the genus aV 
 chona (q.v.). By European physicians and apothecaries, the name C. bark. {corUx casco- 
 rillce) is given to the bark of the croton eleutheria (see Croton), a small tree, a native of 
 the West Indies, where it is known as the sweet-wood the sea-side balsam. It is 
 imported in considerable quantities into Europe from the Bahama islands, and appears 
 in commerce in small thin fragments and in quills. It is sometimes employed as a sub- 
 stitute for cinchona, although inferior in tonic and febrifuge qualities. It is a favorite 
 medicine in Germany. — The barks of a number of other species of croton appear to pos- 
 sess properties similar to those of C. bark. 
 
 CASCO BAY, an indentation of the s.w. coast of Maine, about 20 m. wide n.e. of 
 cape Elizabeth, near Portland. The bay contains hundreds of small islands which are 
 much resorted to in the summer by pleasure-seekers. 
 
 CASE, in grammar. See Declension. 
 
 CASE, in legal phraseology, though often used as synonymous with cause, has, both 
 in the law of England and Scotland, separate though not always very definite meanings. 
 A formal written argument, prepared with a view to obtaining the opinion of a court 
 of law, is called a case. By 15 and 16 Viet. c. 86, s. 61, the practice theretofore pre- 
 vailing in the court of chancery of directing cases for a court of common law, is abol- 
 ished. In Scotland, cases were formerly resorted to in almost every suit of intricacy 
 and difficulty; but the abuse which arose from this practice has been remedied by 13 
 and 14 Viet. c. 36, s. 14. The statements which are laid before the house of lords in 
 appeals from Scotland, are cases in the sense now indicated. — In Scotland and Ireland, 
 as in England, questions in dispute can now be stated for the opinion of courts without 
 the usual formality of pleadings, and decided more quickly. 
 
 CASE, in letter-press printing, a receptacle for types, generally made 34 in. long, 1& 
 in. broad, and 1|^ in. deep, and divided into compartments or “boxes,” each of which 
 contains types of one class or letter. A pair of cases consists of an upper and a lower 
 case: the upper one has 98 “ boxes,” and contains the capitals, small capitals, and some 
 other letters that are only occasionally required in composition ; the lower one has 53 
 “ boxes,” and holds the letters of the small character, figures, spaces, and most of the 
 points. The places assigned to the several letters of the alphabet in the boxes of the case 
 are not precisely the same in all printing-offices, but the differences are few. When 
 in use, the cases lie on a frame 4 ft. high, and the compositor stands in front of them. 
 The different sizes of the boxes in the lower case depend upon the comparative frequency 
 in which the several letters occur in composition, and the position in the case allotted to 
 each letter is such as to afford the greatest facility in composing. The letter e, which is 
 most run upon in the English language, has a box much larger than any of the other com- 
 partments, and is placed directly in front of the compositor. In the upper case, the boxes 
 are of uniform size, and the letters are placed in alphabetical order, the comparatively 
 rare occurrence of capitals rendering it immaterial which letter is nearest the composi- 
 tor’s hand. A case will hold a quantity of “ letter” sufficient to “ set up” three pages 
 of this work, which is equal to 18,000 types. 
 
 CASE, Augustus Ludlow, b. 1812; midshipman in the U.S. navy, in 1828, rising to 
 be captain in 1863, and rear-admiral in 1872. He served in the Mexican war and 
 in the war of the rebellion, in the latter participating in the capture of fort Hatteras 
 and Clarke. In 1867, he was light-house inspector, and in 1869 chief of the bureau of 
 ordnance. In June, 1873, he was named for the command of the European squadron. 
 
 CASE, William, 1784-1855; b. Mass. ; a Methodist minister in the New York con- 
 ference, and for 18 years presiding elder in the western and central part of the state of 
 New York and in Canada. He was superintendent of Indian missions and schools in 
 Canada until his death, and had also the chief direction of the Methodist ministry in 
 that country. 
 
 CASEY, a CO. in central Kentucky, on Green and Salt rivers; 350 sq.m.; pop. '80,. 
 10,983 — 608 colored. It has a rough surface and produces grain, tobacco, butter, and 
 wool. Co. seat. Liberty. 
 
 CxASEY, Silas, b. R. I., 1807; a West Point graduate in 1826; in the Florida war in 
 1837-41, and made capt. ; served in the Mexican war, and was wounded at Chapultepec; 
 
511 
 
 Casoa. 
 
 Caserne. 
 
 served in the war of the rebellion at Fair Oaks and in other engagements, and was retired 
 w'ith the rank of brevet brig. gen. He is the author of a System of Infantry Tactics, and 
 Infantry Tactics for Colored Troops. 
 
 CASE-HABDENING is the process of converting the surface of certain kinds of mal- 
 leable-iron goods into steel, thereby making them harder, less liable to rust, and capable 
 of taking on a better polish. Fire-irons, portions of fine grate-fronts, gun-locks, and 
 other articles of limited size, are very commonly so treated, but the process is sometimes 
 applied to large objects, such as iron railway-bars. The articles are first formed of bar- 
 iron, and being heated to redness, are sprinkled with a little powdered yellow prussiate 
 of potash, and heated again. The result is, that the heat decomposes the prussiate of 
 potash, and the liberated carbon combines with the iron, forming a coating of steel on 
 the surface of the articles. Another mode of case-hardening is to heat the articles along 
 with some animal matter, such as the parings of horns and a little common salt, from 
 one half to several hours; the articles are then cooled in cold water, or in oil, wh^ they 
 are of a delicte nature. Charcoal alone is also employed. The coating of steel is very 
 thin, seldom exceeding -^th of an inch. Where it is wanted to be thicker, the articles 
 are treated several times. A Swedish iron-master has found that a very excellent case- 
 hardening is obtained by treating iron objects with a mixture of animal matter and 
 arsenious acid dissolved in hydrochloric acid, and heating as usual. 
 
 CA'SEINE, or Caseum, is an organic compound allied to albumen (q.v.), found in 
 the milk of the mammalia, and in pease, beans, and other leguminous seeds, when it 
 receives the name of Legumin. The proportion of C. in milk (q.v.) varies, but averages 
 about 3 per cent, and it may be coagulated and separated therefrom by the addition of 
 a little rennet (q.v.), as in the manufacture of cheese (q.v.), or by the employment of 
 a few drops of a mineral acid, such as dilute sulphuric acid. In either case, the C. sepa- 
 rates as curd, which still retains attached to it some oil and earthy salts, though the 
 greater portion of these substances, along with the sugar, remains in the watery liquid 
 or whey. The elementary bodies which enter into the composition of C., and the pro- 
 portion in which these are present in 100 parts, are — carbon, 53.83; hydrogen, 7.15; 
 nitrogen, 15.65; oxygen, 22.52; and sulphur, 0.85. The properties of C. are, that it is 
 not coagulated by heat, as is well evidenced in the heating of milk, but is coagulated on 
 the addition of rennet; sulphuric, hydrochloric, or nitric acids; alcohol, creosote, or 
 infusion of galls, but not by acetic acid. It also forms insoluble precipitates with solu- 
 tions of the poisonous salts, acetate of lead, nitrate of silver, and bichloride of mercury 
 (corrosive sublimate), and hence the efficacy of taking large doses of milk in cases of 
 poisoning by those deadly salts, as the C. in the milk, forming an insoluble compound 
 with the poison, keeps it from exerting its deadly powers. 
 
 The form of C. obtained from plants, and termed legumin, is generally procured 
 from leguminous seeds, like pease or beans, though it can also be extracted from the 
 majority of vegetable substances, especially from sweet and bitter almonds, and even 
 from tea and coffee. Dried pease contain a fourth of their weight of legumin, and this 
 can be extracted by bruising the pease to powder, and digesting in warm water for two 
 or three hours. The liquid is then strained through cloth, which retains the insoluble 
 matters, and allows the water with the legumin dissolved therein, and with starch 
 mechanically suspended, to pass through. On settling, the starch falls to the bottom of 
 the vessel, and the clear liquid holding the legumin in solution, on the addition of a 
 small amount of acetic acid, yields a precipitate of legumin or vegetable Caseine. So 
 perfectly does the vegetable C. resemble the C. from milk, that the one can hardly be 
 distinguished from the other by chemical tests or by taste; and at the present time there 
 is regularly prepared in various parts of China, especially near Canton, a form of cheese 
 from pease, which is sold to the populace in the streets of Canton under the name of 
 iaofoo. C. is a most important article of food. See Nutrition. 
 
 CASEMATE, originally a loopholed gallery excavated in a bastion, from which the. 
 garrison could do execution upon an enemy who had obtained possession of the ditch 
 without risk of loss to themselves. Hence the designation, from Span, casa, house, and 
 matar, to kill. As defense from shells became more important, the term was subse' 
 quently applied to a bomb-proof vault in a fortress, for the security of the defenders, 
 without direct reference to the annoyance of the enemy. A casemated battery consists 
 of such a vault or vaults, with openings for the guns. A C. may also serve for bar- 
 racks, or for an hospital, or for a store-house. The great want of ventilation in case- 
 mates renders them bad places for barracks; and the artillerymen are nearly stifled with 
 smoke when firing from such confined places. 
 
 CASEMENT (It. casamento, a large house), a frame with hinges to open and shut, 
 closing part of the glazing of a window. Windows of this description are rare in 
 this country, but are almost universal on the continent. Also a namr for a deep, 
 hollow, circular molding, similar to the scotia of classical and the cavetto of Italian 
 architecture. The C. is very prevalent in the perpendicular style of Gothic architec- 
 ture, and is sometimes enriched with running foliage. 
 
 CAS'ERNE is a barrack or building for the accommodation of the soldiers forming 
 t.he garrison of a fortified town or post. 
 
Caserta. 
 
 Cashmere. 
 
 512 
 
 CASER'TA, a t. of Italy, in the province of the same name, is situated on a plain about 
 17 m. n.e. of Naples. It is chiefly remarkable on account of its magnificent palace, one 
 of the finest in Europe, and formerly the frequent residence of the Neapolitan court. 
 During 1860, C. acquired celebrity as the head-quarters of Garibaldi and his army. A 
 royal silk manufactory has been established in the neighborhood. Pop., with adjoin- 
 ing hamlets (1872), 29,142. 
 
 CASE-SHOT, or Canister-Shot, is an assemblage of bullets or small balls, inclosed 
 in a cylindrical case or canister. The diameter of this canister is a little less than the 
 bore of the gun from which it is to be discharged. According to the size of the can- 
 ister, the balls vary from 1 lb. to i oz. each, from 30 to 280 in number, and from 3i lbs. 
 to 85 lbs. in total weight. ^ The canister bursts immediately on leaving the gun, and the 
 balls spread out into an irregular sort of cone. Within a range of 500 yards they 
 work great execution among troops; they are generally used at 200 or 300 yards. 
 
 In a»piore modern and effective kind, called spherical case, the bullets are inclosed, 
 along with a charge of powder, in an iron shell, instead of a tin canister. It is often 
 called shrapnel shell, from the name of its inventor. A spherical case-shot for a 68-lb. 
 carronade, or for an 8-inch howitzer, contains 337 balls; for a 24-pounder gun, 128; and 
 for an 18-pounder, 90. It is exploded by a fuse, the length of which depends on the 
 distance of the point where the destructive effect is to be wrought. Its effect is some- 
 thing like that of a prolonged musket-fire. The shrapnel shell is not of much use against 
 the hull of a ship ; but is very destructive against masses of men on shore, or on the 
 decks of a ship, with a greater range than that of ordinary canister. Artillerymen pre- 
 fer just such an amount of charge as will burst the sphere, without scattering the balls 
 very widely. 
 
 CASH (Fr. caisse,^ a chest for containing money) is sometimes used as synonpnous with 
 money, as distinguished from produce, in which sense it includes all immediately nego- 
 tiable paper — bills, drafts, and bonds, as well as coin and bank-notes. At other times, 
 it is used, in a limited sense, to denote coin and bank-notes, as distinguished from nego- 
 tiable instruments which pass by indorsation. 
 
 CASH ACCOUNT, or Cash Credit, a form of account with a bank, by which a person 
 is entitled to draw out sums as required by way of loan to a stipulated amount. The 
 practice began about 1729 in Scotland, with the banks of which country it is still pecu- 
 liarly identified; but it is not unknown elsewhere, though on a somewhat different plan. 
 In connection with the Scotch banks, the C. A. system is placed on a distinct and 
 secure basis, which we shall briefly describe. The persons procuring a credit of this 
 kind are for the most part retail-dealers, tradesmen, and farmers, who possess a lim- 
 ited capital, and need occasional loans. Instead of borrowing money by bills or mort- 
 gages, they apply to a bank for a C. A. to the extent, it may be, of £500. In the 
 origin of the system, the bank may be said to have been influenced by three considera- 
 tions — first, the necessity for making advantageous use of its capital; second, the desire 
 to extend its issues of small notes; and third, the nature of the security offered. Since 
 sir Robert Peel’s act restricting circulation of notes, the second of these reasons no 
 longer operates; for the banks are now much above their authorized issue, and must 
 hold an equal amount of coin against the surplus. What the bank particularly wants, 
 is a customer who will be constantly depositing sums in notes of other banks, and 
 drawing out sums in its own notes. The C. A. system aids this process. It secures 
 a customer who will be frequently operating on his account, according to the exigen- 
 cies of his business, and whose overdrafts, as well as deposits, tend to benefit the 
 concern. Obviously, for the debtor, the system works more advantageously than when 
 a fixed sum is borrowed, for in that case interest would run on for the whole amount, 
 whereas by a C. A. the trader merely draws what he requires; and by paying in his 
 surplus money in small sums, he is charged with interest only on the sum actually at 
 his debit from day to day. In negotiating a C. A. , a bond is prepared by the bank 
 stating the amount and the nature of the security, the cost of which is borne by the 
 borrower. Banks often, in security, accept heritable property and policies of life insur- 
 ance, but more commonly two persons in good credit become cautioners, or co-obli- 
 gants along with the principal. Unless the liability of the cautioners respectively be 
 expressly limited in the bond, each is liable for the whole amount. If the bank lib- 
 erates one cautioner without the consent of the other, it loses its recourse. This recourse 
 is not lost by accepting a dividend from the sequestrated (bankrupt) estate of a princi- 
 pal or cautioner; but it will be lost by accepting a composition from either of these 
 persons without consent of the other. The bank can at a*y time stop the credit, and 
 call for payment of the balance due. A cautioner can at any time withdraw his name 
 from the credit, on paying up the balance, and the bank is bound to assign the debt to 
 him. While cash accounts may be of great service to traders who act upon them dis- 
 creetly, it is found that, in too many instances, these accounts are used as a dead-loan 
 to the entire amount stipulated for; and for this, as well as a reason above assigned, 
 banks care now very much less for this kind of business than formerly. Properlj% 
 traders are to look on the money procured on cash credits not as an addition to capi- 
 tal, but merely a temporary substitute for current business purposes while the capital 
 is out with customers, and to be replaced accordingly until again required. It may be 
 
513 
 
 Caserta. 
 
 Cashmere* 
 
 added, that the progress of commercial wealth in Scotland, now greatly lessens the 
 necessity for haying recourse to the C. A. system. See Marginal Credit. 
 
 CASHEL, a t, of Ireland in Tipperary co., and 105 m. s.w. of Dublin by rail. It is 
 irregularly built on the s. and e. slopes of-an isolated height, rising abruptly from a rich 
 and extensive plain. Pop. 71, 4,562. C. is a bishop’s see, and returns one member to 
 parliament. The ancient kings of Munster resided here. The top of the height, or 
 “ Rock of Cashel,” is occupied by an assemblage of the most interesting ruins in Ire- 
 land, which have a grand effect from the country around. The ruins consist of a cath- 
 edral, the largest and most remarkable in the country, founded 1169, burned 1495, and 
 afterwards repaired; a stone-roofed chapel, built 1127 by Cormac McCarthy, king of 
 Munster, and the most perfect specimen of the kind in the country; Hore abbey, 
 founded 1260; the palace of the Munster kings; and a round tower, 90 ft. high and 56 in 
 circumference. The round tower is built of freestone, but the other ruins of limestone. 
 At C., in 1172, the great synod was held in which the Irish prelates first acknowledged 
 the authority of the English king and church. 
 
 CASHEW’ NUT, anacardium occidentale, a tree of the natural order anacardiacecs, a 
 native probably of the tropical parts of both hemispheres, although it has been commonly 
 regarded as of American origin. It is a spreading tree of no great height. It abounds in a 
 clammy, milky juice, which turns black on exposure to the air, and is used in India for 
 varnishing, but is so acrid as to produce painful inflammation when it comes in contact 
 with the skin of some persons, or when they are exposed to its fumes. Others are appa- 
 Tently unsusceptible of its influence. The fruit of this tree is a kidney-shaped nut about 
 an inch long, seated on the thicker end of a pear-shaped fleshy stalk, from which the 
 botanical character of the genus is derived. The shell is double, the outer shell being 
 ash-colored, and very smooth; and between it and the inner is a layer of very caustic 
 black juice. The kernel is oily, and very pleasant and wholesome, and is in common 
 use as an article of food in tropical countries, being made into puddings, roasted, and in 
 various ways prepared for the table. In the West Indies, it is put into wine, particu- 
 larly old Madeira wine, to which it is thought to communicate a peculiarly agreeable 
 flavor, and for this use it is sometimes imported into Britain. It is also for the same 
 reason sometimes an ingredient in chocolate. Yet the vapor which arises from it in 
 roasting, but which is derived from the coating of the kernel, and not from the kernel 
 itself, is so acrid as to cause erysipelas and other painful affections of the face in those 
 who conduct the process, unless great caution is used. — The fleshy stalk, sometimes 
 called VcLQ cashew apple, varies in size, being sometimes not much larger than a cherry, and 
 sometimes as large as an orange, and is white, yellow, or red. It is perfectly free of the 
 acridity characteristic of the natural order, is acid and eatable, very pleasant and refresh- 
 ing, and much used by the inhabitants of the countries in which the tree grows. A 
 very pleasant vinous liquor is obtained from it by fermentation; and this by distillation 
 yields a spirituous liquor, highly esteemed for its flavor. A gum which exudes from the 
 bark of the tree, quite distinct from the milky juice already mentioned, is bland, and 
 irery similar to gum-arabic. 
 
 CASHGAB, or Kashgar, the political capital of eastern Turkestan, of which khanate 
 — independent of China from 1865 till 1878 — Yarkand is the commercial capital. C. 
 stands 140 m. n.w. of Yarkand, in lat. 39° 25' n., long. 73° 57' e. It is surrounded by 
 an earthen rampart, pierced with four gates, and is strongly garrisoned. It has manu- 
 factures of cotton, gold and silver cloths, carpets, etc. ; and an extensive trade with 
 Central Asia. Pop. estimated at 80,000. C. is said to have been an important com- 
 mercial town before the Christian era, and was possessed for about a century by the 
 Chinese. See Yarkand. — Eastern Turkestan is now frequently called after its capital. 
 See Turkestan. 
 
 CASHIERING is a punishment for officers in the army and navy. It is a severe form 
 of dismissal from the sovereign’s service, and implies that the olficer, by some disgraceful 
 conduct, has deserved not only dismissal, but disqualification forever again entering the 
 service. Sometimes there are words added implying still deeper ignominy and degra' 
 dation. On some rare occasions, when a court-martial has awarded C., the commander' 
 in-chief has mitigated the punishment to simple dismissal. “ Scandalous and infamous 
 conduct,” and “conduct unbecoming the character of an officer and a gentleman,” 
 mark two degrees of offense which may lead, the one to C., the other to dismissal. 
 
 CASHMERE', a valley of the Himalaya, between India proper and middle Tibet, 
 stretching between lat. 33° 15' and 34° 35' n., and long. 74° 10' and 75" 40' e. Its bottom, 
 a comparative level of about 2,000 sq.m., is 5,500 ft. above the sea; while the enclosure, as 
 a whole, from ridge to ridge, besides fully doubling the area, attains, at some points, nearly 
 thrice the altitude. The mountain-wall of this secluded region presents but few passes, 
 and most of these too lofty to be practicable in winter. In fact, the Baramula itself 
 does not admit a wheeled vehicle. Through this single opening, situated at the s.w., 
 the Jhelum carries down towards the Punjab the gathered streams and lakes of the 
 entire basin, and is navigable for the last 70 m. of its course. This net- work of waters, 
 without swelling into inundations, affords everywhere a perennial supply for the pur- 
 pose of irrigation. Besides the copious rains of spring, the snows of winter covering 
 U. K. III.-33 
 
Cashmere. 
 
 Caspian. 
 
 514 
 
 even the plains to a depth of two feet for four months, accumulate, in every gorge and 
 on every declivity, reservoir above reservoir, against the demands of summer. C. ia 
 traditionally believed to have been a vast upland lake, and alluvial deposits beyond 
 the reach of existing influences would seem to confirm the idea. 
 
 In regard to climate, moderate but steady frost prevails from Nov. to Mar. ; and again, 
 the heat, ranging from 75° F. in June, to 85° in August, is often disproportionately 
 oppressive, through the stagnation of the landlocked atmosphere. Tlie staple produc- 
 tion is rice, which, from the singular facilities of irrigation, is an all but sure crop,, 
 yielding, even in a tolerable season, 30 or 40 returns; and in the abundance and excel- 
 lence of its fruits, C. is said to surpass all the rest of the world. The valley is, in gen- 
 eral, considered to be remarkably healthy. The inhabitants, almost universally held ta 
 be models of strength and beauty, amounted, before 1828, to 800,000, or to 400 in a sq. 
 mile. But by casual famine and pestilence they have since been reduced to 200,000. 
 The people are mostly Mohammedans, divided between the Sunnite and Shite sects. 
 The manufactures — all superior of their kind — are shawls, leather, fire-arms, and attar of 
 roses. The principal towns are Serinagur, Islamabad, Shupayon, Pampur, and Baramula. 
 The history goes back, through colossal monuments chie% of marble, beyond the dawn 
 of authentic annals. In 1315, C. first received Mohammedanism; in 1586, it was annexed, 
 to the Mogul empire; in 1752, it fell under the power of the Afghans; and in 1819, it 
 was subjugated by the Sikhs. Lastly being ceded, at the close of the first war of the 
 Punjab, to the British, it was by them transferred to Gholab Sing, as the nucleus of a 
 state of its own name, which comprised also Jamu, Bulti, Ladakh, Chamba, etc. Area 
 of principality, 68,944 sq.m.; pop. 1,500,000. — C. or Srinagar, the capital, lies on the 
 Jhelum, about the center of the valley. Pop. 15,000. See Bellew’s Kasmir and Kas?i- 
 gar (1875). 
 
 CASHMERE GOAT, a variety of the common goat, remarkable for its very long, fine, 
 and silky hair, from which the highly valued Cashmere shawls are made. It is not so 
 much in Cashmere that this variety of goat is to be found, as in Thibet, from which the 
 finest goat-hair is imported into Cashmere, to be there manufactured into shawls. The 
 hair is even longer than that of the Angora goat, and not, like it, curled into ringlets, 
 but straight. It is about 18 in. long. A single goat does not yield more than three 
 ounces, and the fleeces of ten goats are requisite for the manufacture of a shawl a yard 
 and a half square. The hair is spun by women, and dyed after it is spun. It is said 
 that 16,000 looms are kept in constant employment in Cashmere, producing annually 
 about 30,000 shawls. The shawls are woven in rudely constructed looms, a pair of shawls 
 sometimes occupying three or four men a whole year in weaving. C. shawls, of the 
 finest quality, are sold in London at from £100 to £400 each. Plain shawls are simply 
 woven in the loom, but those with variegated patterns are worked with wooden needles, 
 a separate needle being used for each color. These shawls are in the highest request in 
 India; but the hair of several other breeds of goat inferior to that of Thibet is employed 
 for the manufacture of shawls called by the same name. Imitations of these are manu- 
 factured in France rather extensively, some from the Thibet wool entirely, and others of 
 a mixture of this with silk and cotton. It is said that 24 lbs. of the best Thibetan 
 goat-hair sell in Cashmere for 20 rupees, or £10 sterling. 
 
 Attempts have been made to introduce the C. G. into Europe. Baron Alstroemer 
 attempted, in the end of last century, to naturalize it in Sweden; and a very spirited 
 attempt to introduce it into Britain has recently been made by Mr. Towers. A mixed 
 race, produced by crossing the C. G. and the Angora goat, has been found to possess- 
 most valuable qualities, the hair being long, fine, and more abundant than in any of the 
 parent breeds. — The male of the C. G. has very large, flattened, wavy horns. 
 
 CASIA, or Poet’s Casia {osyris alba), a shrub of the natural order santalacem, a native 
 of the s. of Europe, 3 to 4 ft. high, with linear-lanceolate deciduous leaves, long supple 
 branches, numerous small white flowers, and red drupes (stone-fruit) of the size of a pea.. 
 The branches are used for making crates. The shrub has been much admired for its 
 modest beauty. Keats speaks of 
 
 “ The drooping flowers 
 
 Of whitest casia, fresh from summer showers.” 
 
 CASIMIR, properly Kazimierz, was the name of many Polish princes and kings. With 
 the establishment of the power of Casimir I. in 1040, the predominance of Christianity 
 was decided in Poland. But the most distinguished of this name was Casimir III., called 
 Casimir the great, who succeeded his father, Vladislaus Loketek, as king of Poland in 
 1333. He added little Russia and red Russia to his dominions; repelled the Tartars, 
 who then threatened Poland; and waged successful war in Silesia, which he conquered 
 but did not retain. He showed great anxiety for the advancement of the arts and of learn- 
 ing in his kingdom, and for the improvement of the condition of the most oppressed 
 classes, which won him the title of king of the peasants. A Je\yish mistress obtained 
 from him liberties for the Jews, which they have since retained in Poland. He died in 
 consequence of the falling of his horse in 1370. 
 
 CASIMIR I. (see Casimir), called “the peaceful,” son of the Polish king, Miecis- 
 las II., and a German princess named Rixa. The mother endeavored to rule duringr 
 
515 
 
 Caslunere. 
 
 Caspian. 
 
 C.’s minority, but was compelled to fly to Germany, her son following her and leaving 
 Poland in anarchy. In 1040, C. was called upon % his country, and, with the help of 
 the German emperor, established his authority, drove out the plundering Bohemians, 
 and earned the name of “the restorer.” He left a moderately well organized govern- 
 ment to his successor. He died 1058. 
 
 CAS-IMIR II., surnamed “the just,” 1138-94; one of the four sons of Boleslas, 
 king of Poland, and ruler over the reunited kingdom after the expulsion of Miecislas 
 III. in 1177. Under C. II. the first Polish senate was organized, and laws were enacted 
 defending the peasants against the oppression of the nobles. 
 
 CASIMIR lY., 1427-92; brother and successor, as king of Poland, of Ladislas III. 
 He reigned 48 years; waged successful wars against the Teutonic knights; kept his 
 country for most of the time in peace and prosperity; and introduced Latin into schools 
 and official business. Of his six sons, three succeeded each other on the throne, one 
 became king of Hungary and Bohemia, one was a cardinal, and one was canonized as a 
 «aint. 
 
 CASI'NO, an Italian diminutive of cam, a house, signifies a place for social reunions. 
 The Italian nobles have long had casinos detached from the palaces in which they live, 
 whither they can retreat and enjoy themselves, and it is probable that the public casinos 
 were the result of an attempt made by the middle classes to imitate their superiors. In 
 Italy, a C. is generally close by a theater, and is a place where musical or dancing 
 soirees are held, containing a conversation -room, billiard-room, and rooms for other 
 kinds of amusement, as well as small apartments where refreshments may be had. 
 Casinos are numerous in Italy and Germany, and have been introduced into England. 
 In general, they are not supposed to exert an edifying influence on the community, 
 
 CASINO, or Monte-Casino, a mountain overhanging the t. of San-Germano (the 
 ancient Casinum), in the Italian province of Caserta, between 50 and 60 m. n.n.w. of 
 ^Naples, is celebrated on account of the monastery founded here by St. Benedict (q.v.) in 
 529 A.D. This monastery is remarkable for its noble architecture, its ancient wealth, its 
 library and archives, and in modern times for the learning of its monks, who have 
 a printing-press, from which several important works have issued. The beautiful 
 situation of the abbey, and the reputation of the monks as masters of the healing art, 
 formerly made Monte-Casino a favorite resort of pilgrims. Luigi Tosti, the librarian of 
 the abbey, has given an account of its literary treasures in his Storia della Badia di Monte- 
 '(7«s^7^6> (1841-43), and a most valuable catalogue (1st vol., 1874; 2d, 1876) is in preparation. 
 
 CA'SOLI, a t. of Italy, in the province of Chieti, situated on a hill 17 m. s. of the city 
 of Chieti. Pop. between 5,000 and 6,000. 
 
 CASO'BIA, a t. of Italy, 5 m. n.n.e. from Naples. Silk is produced in the district. 
 Pop. 8,000. 
 
 CASPE, a t. of Spain, in the province of Saragossa, 57 m. s.s.e. of the city of that 
 name. It is situated near the Ebro, has manufactures of oil and soap, and a trade in 
 the agricultural produce of the district. Pop. 7,500. 
 
 CASPIAN SEA, an inland sea or great salt lake, the largest in the world, on the 
 boundary between Europe and Asia, extending from lat. 36° 40' to 47° 20' n., and 
 long. 46° 50' to 55° 10' east. Its length from n. to s. is about 700 m., and its 
 average breadth about 200 miles. Its total area is estimated at 180,000 sq. miles. The 
 coast-line is irregular, and on the e. side especially there are several bays and indenta- 
 tions of coast, the principal being those of Mertvoi, Mangushlak, Kenderlinsk, Kara- 
 bugos, and Balkan. From the w., the naphtha-impregnated peninsula of Apsheron 
 stretches into the C. opposite the Balkan gulf; Mt. Caucasus also rises on its w. side. 
 On the s. rises the lofty range of the Elburz mountains, between which, however, 
 and the coast, on this side almost unbroken, extends a low flat plain of from 15 to 20 
 m., in breadth. On the n., it is bordered by great steppes, and the country eastward is 
 a vast plain. It is probable that at one time its waters, which are said to be still dimin- 
 ishing, covered great part of the adjacent steppes. Some singular changes appear to 
 take place in the level of the Caspian. Various measurements have made its depth 
 and elevation different. One Russian measurement made it 348 ft. below the level of 
 the Black sea, another only 84 feet. The latter is confirmed by maj. Wood {The Shores 
 •of Lake Aral, 1876). It has no tides, but its navigation is dangerous because of violent 
 storms, especially from the s.e., by which its waters are sometimes driven for many 
 miles over the adjacent plains. The depth near the southern end, is about 600 ft., and 
 in some places near the center it attains a depth of nearly 3,000 ft. ; but near the coast 
 it is very shallow, seldom reaching a depth of more than 3 ft. at 100 yards from the 
 shore, and in many places a depth of 12 ft. is not reached within several miles of 
 the beach. On the n.e. and e. it is especially shallow. It receives the waters of a num- 
 ber of large rivers, of which the greatest is the Volga. The Ural, the Terek, the Kur, 
 and the Atrek also fall into it. The water of the C. S. is salt, but much less so than that 
 •of the ocean. Its northern parts are covered with ice during winter. It abounds in fish, 
 and very valuable fisheries are carried on, especially for sturgeon and salmon. By 
 a canal uniting the head- waters of the Volga with the rivers Tvertza and Schlina, the 
 
Casque. 
 
 Cassation. 
 
 516 
 
 C. is united with the Baltic sea. The sea is now surrounded on three sides by Russian' 
 territory, the southern shore still remaining Persian. The Russians have a fleet 
 stationed upon it, and the most of its commerce is in their hands. Steam packets haver 
 been established on it. The chief Russian town upon its shores is Astrakhan; less 
 important are Derbend, Guriev, Baku, and Krosnoi-yar. Balfrush, Reshd, and Astrabad 
 are Persian towns. The practicability of making the Amu-Daria (see Oxus), now run- 
 ning into the sea of Aral, again an affluent of the C. S., has recently been much debated. 
 
 The C. S. was known to the Greeks and Romans. According to Strabo, it derived 
 its name from the Caspii, a tribe inhabiting its western shores. The name Caspian was 
 afterwards limited to the western portion of the lake — the eastern being designated the 
 Hyrcanian sea. 
 
 CASQUE'. See Helmet. 
 
 CASS, a CO. in n.e. Dakota, organized since the census of 1870, on the Red river of 
 the north. The surface is of river valleys and undulating prairie; and the soil is gen- 
 erally fertile. Co. seat, Fargo. Pop. ’80, 8998 — 42. 
 
 CASS, a CO. in w. Illinois, on the Illinois river, intersected by three railroads; 350 
 sq.m. ; pop. ’80, 14,494. The surface is level prairie and woodland; and the soil is very 
 fertile, producing corn, wheat, oats, etc. There are also a number of manufactories of 
 flour, lumber, paper, and carriages, Co. seat, Beardstown. 
 
 CASS, a CO. in n.w. Indiana, on Wabash and Eel rivers, traversed by the Wabash 
 and Erie canal and two or three railroads; 420 sq.m. ; pop. ’80, 27,610. With the excep- 
 tion of bluffs near the rivers, the surface is mostly level prairie and forest, producing 
 cereals, butter, wool, etc. Co. seat, Logansport. 
 
 CASS, a CO. in s.w. Iowa, on the tributaries of Nodaway river, and intersected by 
 the Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific railroad; 576 sq.m. ; pop. ’80, 16,943. It is in an 
 agricultural region. Co. seat, Lewis. 
 
 CASS, a CO. in s.w. Michigan, on the Indiana border, traversed by the Lake Shore and. 
 Michigan Southern, the Peninsular, and the Michigan Central railroads; 528 sq.m.; 
 pop. ’80, 22,008. The surface is level prairie, with oak openings, and dense forests. 
 Iron and limestone are found. Other productions are mainly agricultural, and there is 
 considerable manufacturing business. Co. seat, Cassopolis. 
 
 CASS, a large co. inn. central Minnesota, nearly surrounded by the Mississippi river; 
 4,750 sq.m. ; pop. ’80, 486. There are numerous streams and a great number of large 
 and small lakes, one of which (Itasca) is the source of the Mississippi. The Northern 
 Pacific railroad will probably pass through the s. part of the county. 
 
 CASS, a CO. in w. Missouri, on a branch of Osage river, and in part crossed by the 
 Pacific railroad of Missouri; 1000 sq.m.; pop. ’80, 22,431 — 750 colored. Surface mostly 
 prairie; productions agricultural. Co. seat, Harrisonville. 
 
 CASS, a CO. in s.e. Nebraska, on the Platte and Missouri rivers, intersected by the 
 Burlington and Missouri River railroad; 570 sq.m.; pop. ’80,16,684. The surface is 
 chiefly prairie, well watered and fertile; productions agricultural. Co. seat, Platts- 
 mouth. 
 
 CASS, a CO. (formerly Davis) in n.e. Texas, on the Arkansas and Louisiana border, 
 bounded n. by Sulphur fork, a tributary of Red river; 927 sq.m.; pop. ’80, 16,723 — 6451 
 colored. It has a heavily wooded and fertile soil, producing cotton, rice, corn, etc. Co. 
 seat. Linden. 
 
 CASS, Lewis, an American statesman, b. at Exeter, N. H., in 1782. He was edu- 
 cated for the law, but quitting that profession, he entered the army in 1812, and rose 
 rapidly to the rank of gen., though his merit was not very conspicuous. In 1813, he 
 was elected governor of Michigan, in which state he settled. During his governorship, 
 he kept himself apart from party politics, yet all his measures had a decidedly demo- 
 cratic tendency. In 1831, C. was made minister at war under gen. Jackson, and in 
 1836 he was sent as plenipotentiary to Paris. In this capacity he made himself popu- 
 lar by his replies, in Oalignani's Messenger, to the attacks of the English press on the 
 claims of the union with regard to its n.e. boundaries, and by his protest against the 
 measures of Guizot; but the treaty concluded by Daniel Webster with lord Ashburton 
 was so much opposed to the views maintained by C. , that he resigned his post, and in 
 1843 returned to America, where he was received with marks of popular favor. He now 
 aimed at the presidency, and in 1844 was put in nomination, but was defeated, as also 
 in 1848, when he made another effort te obtain the supreme power. In 1857 he was 
 appointed secretary of state, resigning office in 1860. Though active and energetic, he 
 had no claim whatever to anything like comprehensive statesmanship. In regard to 
 slavery, his ideas were ludicrously inconsistent, determined solely, as it would seem, by 
 a view to what would be popular with those whose favor he was seeking to secure at. 
 the moment. Latterly, he went wholly along with the slave-holding party, advocating 
 an extension of territory with a view to extend the ramifications of slavery. But he was 
 chiefly remarkable on account of his bitter hostility to Britain, against which he was 
 ever ready to inflame the minds of his countrymen on the slightest and silliest pretext. 
 He is author of the Histcry, Tradition, Languages, etc., of Indians in the United 
 
Ca«qn«. 
 Cassation* 
 
 States; of Prance — its King, Court, and Oovernment; and other works. He died in June, 
 1866. 
 
 CASSA'BA, or Casaba, a o. in Asia Minor, 63 m. e. of Smyrna, with which it la 
 connected by a railroad. C. has a flourishing trade with the surrounding district. 
 Cotton is one of the chief articles of trade, and silk-worms are raised for export. 
 Another valuable industry is the raising of melons for the Constantinople market. In 
 1865, a large portion of the town was destroyed by fire, and in the same year there were 
 many deaths from cholera. Pop. about 15,000, two thirds of whom are Turks. 
 
 CASSAGNAC. See Granier de Cassagnac, ante. 
 
 CASSAN'BER, king of Macedonia, and son of Antipater, was b. about 354 b.c. When 
 young, he is said to have been ill used by Alexander the great, and to have consequently 
 conceived a mortal hatred to that monarch’s family. On the death of his father, he 
 expected to succeed to the regency; but Polysperchon received the honor instead, 
 which so dissatisfied him, that he resolved to contest the sovereignty with his opponent. 
 He was completely successful ; but while pursuing his career of conquest in the s. 
 of Greece, he learned that Olympias, mother of Alexander, was committing havoc 
 in the north, and consequently hurried back to Macedonia. In less than a year Olym- 
 pias was taken prisoner, and put to death. Only Roxana, wife of Alexander, and her 
 son .^gus, now stood between him and the throne of Macedon ; but he did not find it 
 convenient to “make away” with these two until several years had passed. Mean- 
 while, he married Thessalonica, half-sister to Alexander, in whose honor he founded, 
 about 316 B.C., the town which bears her name. In the following year he caused 
 Thebes, which Alexander had destroyed, to be rebuilt. He next became involved in a 
 war with Antigonus, king of Asia, which, with an intervening peace of one year, lasted 
 from 315 to 301 b. c., in the last of which years Antigonus was defeated and slain at the 
 battle of Ipsus. Along with his auxiliaries, Seleucus, Ptolemy, and Lysimachus, he seized 
 and shared the dominions of the vanquished. The rest of his life was spent in intrigue 
 and military enterprise. He died 297 or 296 b.c. 
 
 CASSAN'DER, George, 1515-66; a native of Zeeland; professor of classics at 
 Bruges and Ghent ; spent most of his life in trying to effect a union between the Roman 
 Catholic and Protestant churches; to which end he published several works, which had 
 the distinction of being both fiercely attacked by Calvin and pointedly denounced by 
 the council of Trent. 
 
 CASSANDRA, according to Homeric legend, was the fairest daughter of Priam and 
 Hecuba, and the twin-sister of Helenus. The children playing in the court of the tem- 
 ple of the Thymbraean Apollo, not far from Ilium, till it was too late for them to return 
 home, a bed of laurel twigs was made for them in the temple; and there, in the morn- 
 ing, two snakes were found licking their ears, from which resulted such an acuteness of 
 hearing, that they could hear the voice of the gods. C. afterwards attracted the love of 
 Apollo by her beauty, and he taught her the secrets of prophecy; but displeased by her 
 rejection of his suit, laid upon her the curse that her vaticinations should never be 
 believed. Accordingly, she prophesied in vain of the treachery of the Grecian horse 
 and the destruction of Troy. On the capture of the city, she fled to the temple of 
 Minerva, but was torn from the altar by the Locrian Ajax, and ravished in the temple. 
 She afterwards, in the distribution of the prey, fell to the share of Agamennon, to 
 whom she bore twin sons, but was murdered by Clytemnestra. 
 
 CASSANDRA, a peninsula in the province of Roumelia, European Turkey, situated 
 between the gulfs of Salonica and Cassandra, in lat. 40° n., long 23° 30' e. The ancient 
 name of this headland was Pallene. Grain of superior quality is raised here; wool, 
 honey, and wax are produced; and silk-worms are extensively reared. The gulf of 
 Cassandra (ancient Toronaicus Sinus) has a length of 33 m. from s.e. to n.w., and a 
 breadth of 10 miles. 
 
 CASSA'NO, a t. of Italy, in the province of Cosenza, 34 m. n. of the town of that 
 name. It is situated in a valley in the midst of the most beautiful scenery, has a cathe- 
 dral, an old castle built on an imposing mass of rock in the midst of the city, and 
 manufactures of linen, leather, silk, cotton, and macaroni. Pop. 8,000. 
 
 CASSA'NO, a t. of northern Italy, 17 m. e.n.e. of Milan. It is situated on the right 
 bank of the Adda, here crossed by a bridge on the railway to Brescia, and has extensive 
 silk-mills. C. was the scene of two sanguinary battles — one in 1705, between the French 
 under the duke de Vendome, and the imperialists under prince Eugene, in which the 
 latter were defeated; the other in 1799, when the Russians and Austrians under Suwa- 
 row defeated the French under Moreau. Pop. 4,500. 
 
 CASSATION, Court op. In the law of France, the act of annulling the decision of a 
 court or judicial tribunal is called cassation, from the verb casser, to break or annul (Lat. 
 quatere; Eng. quash ) ; and the function of cassation, as regards the judgments of all the 
 other courts, is assigned to a special tribunal called the court of C., which may thus be 
 regarded, in a certain sense, as the last and highest court of appeal for the wnole coun- 
 try. But as everything is excluded beyond the question whether or not the view taken 
 of the law, and of the proper method of administering it by the inferior tribunal, has 
 
Cassava. 
 
 Cassianoa* 
 
 518 
 
 been the right one, the idea attached to this institution is less that of a court in the ordi- 
 nary sense, than of a department of government to which the duty of inspecting the 
 administration of justice is assigned. By the 65th article of the constitution of the year 
 VIII., it was enacted that there shall be “for the whole of France a tribunal of cassa- 
 tion, which shall pronounce on demands for cassation against judgments in the last 
 resort pronounced by the tribunals;” and the following article of the same constitution 
 bears that this supreme tribunal shall pronounce no judgment on the foundation or 
 merits of the cause, but that, in case of its breaking the judgment pronounced, it shall 
 remit to the tribunal appealed from to pronounce another. The title of tribunal was 
 afterwards changed for that of court, by a senatus consultum of the year XII. ; but sub- 
 stantially the institution has retained its original character, notwithstanding all the 
 changes of government which have occurred in France. The demand for cassation can 
 be made only by the parties to the suit, or by the 'procureur-general of the court of C. for 
 the public interest. Criminal as well as civil judgment may be reviewed by the court 
 of C., the only exceptions being the judgments of justices of the peace and of courts- 
 martial, military and naval. The delay allowed for bringing a civil case before the 
 court of C. is three months for persons domiciled in France, six months for those in 
 Corsica, a year for American colonists, and two for all persons resident beyond the cape 
 of Good Hope. In criminal matters, the procedure is greatly more prompt, three full 
 days only being allowed to the person condemned to bring his action of C., and the same 
 space being given to the procureur-general. In all criminal and police cases, the court 
 of C. may pronounce judgment immediately after the expiry of these days, and must 
 do so within a month. The court of C. is divided into three sections, one of which is 
 devoted to criminal matters. Its staff consists of a president, who has the title of first 
 president, and three vice-presidents, who are called presidents; 45 counselors or ordinary 
 judges; a procureur-general, or public prosecutor; 6 substitutes, who have the title of 
 advocates-general; and several inferior otScers. The presidents and counselors are named 
 by the sovereign for life, the other officers being removable at pleasure. No judgment 
 can be pronounced unless 11 judges are present, the decision being determined by the 
 majority. Where the numbers are equally divided, 5 judges are called in; and cases of 
 peculiar difficulty may be judged of by the three sections united. The whole court, when 
 presided over by the minister of justice, possesses also the right of discipline and censure 
 over all judges for grave offenses, not specially provided for by the law. When thus 
 constituted, the court of C. may suspend the judges of the imperial courts from the 
 exercise of their functions, and call them to its bar. The procureur-general of the 
 court of C. likewise possesses a surveillance over the procureurs-generaux of the imperial 
 courts. 
 
 The members of this august tribunal wear a red gown with a violet toque, or cap 
 of velvet ; the robes of the presidents and of the procureur-general being doubled with 
 white fur. 
 
 CASS'AVA, aWest Indian name of the plant also called Manioc (q.v.), and of the starch 
 produced from it, which is otherwise called Brazilian arrow-root, and is popularly known 
 in Britain as Tapioca (q.v.). 
 
 CASSAY', or Manipur', a mountainous country in farther India, to the s.e. of Upper 
 Assam, stretching from 23° 49' to 25° 41' n. lat., and from 93° 5' to 94° 32' e. long., and 
 having an area of 7,584 sq. miles. It contains a pop. estimated at 126,000. It is impor- 
 tant to England merely from its being on the Burmese frontier. Accordingly, before 
 the war of 1825 began, it was occupied by the British; and, being permanently ceded at 
 the close of the contest, it was handed over, free from tribute, to the native rajah. The 
 inhabitants are more generally Brahmanists than Buddhists. The productions are tea, 
 rice, tobacco, indigo, cotton, sugar, opium, and mustard ; and the manufactures are mus- 
 lins, silks, and a few iron wares. The chief town is Manipur, which sometimes gives 
 name to the principality. 
 
 CASSEL, the capital of the former electorate of Hesse-Cassel, now a portion of Prus- 
 sia, pleasantly situated on both sides of the Fulda, here a navigable river, 120 m. by rail, 
 n.n.e. of Frankfort-on-the-Main. It contains (1875) 53,043 inhabitants, including military 
 and servants and laborers connected with them. The oldest part of the town consists of 
 a few very narrow, crooked streets, close on the banks of the Fulda; the more modern 
 parts are on hills, which rise gently from the river. C. is partially walled. In Fried- 
 richs-Platz, the largest square in any German town, stands the elector’s palace, a com- 
 paratively mean structure ; a little below is the first story of a magnificent palace com- 
 menced in 1820, and stopped in the following year by the death of the elector who 
 projected it. Amongst the other public buildings and institutions, one of the most 
 important is the Museum Fvedericianum, which has a library of 90,000 volumes and 
 some valuable MSS. The picture-gallery contains about 1400 paintings, including some 
 excellent specimens of the best masters" In the cabinet of curiosities, there are exam- 
 ples showing the gradual development and improvement of watch-making from the ear- 
 liest invention at Nuremberg to the present time. C. contains an observatory, and is the 
 seat of a number of learned and scientific associations. From 1807 to 1813 it was the 
 capital of the kingdom of Westphalia. The gardens of Wilheimshohe— which was 
 assigned by the present emperor of Germany to the late emperor Napoleon as a resi- 
 
519 
 
 Cassara. ' 
 Cassianxub 
 
 dence after his fall at Sedan, in Sept., 1870 — with their splendid fountains and cascades, 
 and the colossal statue of Hercules, within the hollow of whose club eight persons can 
 stand at one time, are only 3 m. from Cassel. There are manufactures of cotton, woolen, 
 and silk fabrics, lace, and carpets. Under the name of Ghassala, the town appear to 
 have existed as early as the 10th century. 
 
 CASSEL, a t. of France, in the department of the Nord, 27 m. n.w. of Lille, It is 
 pleasantly situated on a hill, overlooking a country on all sides so flat, that the view, 
 although the elevation is only 800 ft., is said to be one of the widest in Europe, extend- 
 ing over the broad fertile plains of Flanders, and to the chalk cliffs of England, and tak- 
 ing in 32 towns and 100 villages. During the great trigonometrical survey undertaken 
 in the reign of the first Napoleon, Mont Cassel was one of the chief signal-stations. C. 
 has manufactures of lace, linen, thread, hosiery, etc. Pop. ’76, 3,224. It was known 
 to the Romans, who had a station here, as Castellum. 
 
 CAS'SEL, Paulus Stephanus Selig, b. 1827; a German author of Jewish descent; 
 educated both in Roman Catholic and Protestant schools; finished his studies under 
 Ranke in Berlin, and became a journalist. He was in the Prussian chamber of depu- 
 ties, 1866-67, and declined re-election, preferring to become minister of Christ church, 
 Berlin. He has published articles and books on the Jews, and on religion and politics; 
 and is well known as a lecturer on papal history, the German war, etc. 
 
 CASSIA, a name given by the ancients to a kind of medicinal bark, but their descriptions 
 are so imperfect that it is impossible to determine what bark it is. The name is employed 
 in the English translation of the Old Testament in Exodus xxx. 24, and in Psa. xlv. 8, its 
 use in these places being derived from the Septuagint; and it is not improbably sup- 
 posed that the substance intended is the same now known in our shops as C. bark, or G. 
 lignea. — 2. G. is now the botanical name of a genus of plants of the natural order leg- 
 uminom, sub-order ccesalpinem, containing many species — more than 200 having been 
 described — trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants, natives of Africa and of the warm 
 parts of Asia and America. They have abruptly pinnate leaves, and flowers with deci- 
 duous calyx of five somewhat unequal sepals, corolla of five petals, of which the lower 
 ones are the larger, ten free stamens, of which three are long, four short, and three 
 abortive, and anthers opening by two holes at the top. The leaves and pods of many 
 species have a peculiar sweetish but nauseous smell, and a nauseous bitter taste accom- 
 panied with a loathsome sliminess. They seem all to contain the purgative principle 
 called cathartine (q.v.), and the leaves of some of the Asiatic and African species are 
 highly valued, and much used as a medicine, under the name of Senna (q.v.). The 
 leaves of G. Marylandica possess similar properties, and are now used to some extent 
 in the United States of America. — G. fistula {cathartocarpus) yields the C. of the pharma- 
 copoeias, the G. pods, pipe G., or purging G. of the shops. It is a large tree, a native of 
 Egypt and other parts of Africa, perhaps also of the East Indies, in which, at all events, 
 it is now widely diffused and cultivated, as well as in the West Indies and warm parts 
 of America. Its leaves have 4 to 6 pair of ovate smooth leaflets, its flowers are yellow 
 and in loose racemes ; its pods, which have obtained for it the name of pudding-pipe tree, 
 are sometimes 2 ft. in length, cylindrical, black, consisting of thin brittle woody valves, 
 within which is a cavity divided by numerous thin transverse partitions, each cell con- 
 taining a single seed imbedded in a soft black pulp. It is this pulp that is the part 
 used in medicine ; it has a sweetish mucilaginous taste, and in small doses is a mild lax- 
 ative. It is sometimes removed from the pods when fresh ; or an extract is obtained, 
 after they are dried, by boiling and evaporating. It is said to contain 61 to 69 per cent 
 of sugar. The C. pods of the West Indies contain much more pulp, and are therefore 
 more valuable than those imported from the East. — 3. G. bark, or G. lignea, sometimes 
 called Ghina cinnamon, is a bark very similar to cinnamon both in appearance and 
 properties; but in thicker pieces, and less closely quilled, of a less sweet and delicate 
 flavor, but more pungent. It is the produce of the cinnamomum G., or aromaticum, a 
 tree of the same genus with the cinnamon -tree, a native of China, and extensively culti- 
 vated there. It is highly esteemed by the Chinese, and is now largely imported into 
 Europe. As it contains a greater proportion of essential oil, and is also much cheaper 
 than true cinnamon, it is much more generally used. The oil which it contains is called 
 oil of G. , and is very similar to oil of cinnamon. Coarse cinnamon is sometimes sold 
 as cassia. C. buds are believed to be the dried flower-buds of the same tree which 
 yields C. bark. They are now imported into Britain in large quantities, and are much 
 used in confectionery. In flavor and other qualities they resemble C. bark; in appear- 
 ance they are very similar to cloves, 
 
 CASSIA'NUS, Joannes, or Joannes Massiliensis, or Joannes Eremita, a Christian 
 teacher of the ancient church, who flourished in the early part of the 5th c., and dis- 
 tinguished himself as the promoter of monachism in Southern Gaul, and as the oppo- 
 nent of the extreme dogmas of St, Augustine respecting grace and free-will. Shortly 
 before 415 a.d,, he went to Massilia (Marseille), where he founded two monasteries 
 according to the rules laid down in his Be Institutis Goenobiorum. One of these mon- 
 asteries was for nuns, the other was the famous abbey of St. Victor, which under C. is 
 said to have possessed not less than 5,000 inmates, and which served as a model to a 
 multitude of monastic institutions in Gaul and Spain. His Gollationes Patrum Sceti- 
 
Csssioan. 
 
 Cassiopeia* 
 
 520 
 
 corum, is a work in 24 chapters, each of which gives a “ spiritual colloquy between 
 monks in the desert of Sketis,” regarding the monastic life, and tlie vexed questions of 
 theology. C.’s Grecian erudition, his dislike of dogmatic subtleties, and his zeal for 
 monastic habits, led him to oppose the doctrine of St. Augustine on works and grace, 
 and to set up a doctrine which was knov>^n by the schoolmen as “semi-pelagianism.” 
 See Pelagianism. As C.’s doctrine gained support from the Massilian monks, St. 
 Augustine, having been informed of it by his friend Prosper of Aquitaine, wrote 
 strongly against it, especially in his treatise Be Oratia et Lihero ArUtrio, contra Collar 
 torem. It is not known when C. died; but it must have been subsequent to 433 a.d. 
 The first collected edition of the various works attributed to him was published at 
 Basel in 1559; the best at Frankfurt, in 1722. The best account of his life and writings 
 is by Wiggers, Be Johanni C. (Rostock, 1824-25). 
 
 CASSICAN, Cassicus, a genus of birds allied to starlings, having an exactly conical 
 bill, thick at the base, and extremely sharp pointed, the commissure forming an angu- 
 lated line, the bill ascending on the forehead, and encroaching circularly on the plum- 
 age. They are all American birds of gregarious habits, feeding both on fruits and 
 insects, and “ exhibiting such surprising skill and ingenuity in the structure of their 
 nests, that an old lady once gravely asked an American ornithologist whether he did 
 not think they might be taught to darn stockings!” The crested C., or crested oriole 
 {C. cristatus), is a native of Brazil, Guiana, and Paraguay. It is about 20 in. long, is 
 sometimes seen in flocks of 50 or 100, and constructs its nest by knitting together shreds 
 of a thin bark, tillandsia^, etc. The nest is about 36 in. long, and resembles a purse or 
 pouch, the lower end hemispherical, and 10 in. wide, and is suspended from the 
 extremity of a branch of a tall smooth-stemmed tree on the outskirt of a forest, appar- 
 ently to insure safety from monkeys and serpents. Several of these nests are often to 
 be seen hanging from the branches of the same tree. 
 
 CASSIDA'RIA, a genus of mollusks — gasteropoda {q.Y.), order pectinihrancMata — 
 w,ith univalve shells, generally regarded as belonging to the family huccinidm or whelks 
 (q.v.), but is forming a connecting link with the family muricidee (see Murex). The shell 
 is ventricose, with a moderately elevated spire, the aperture elongated, and the canal 
 recurved, but not very abruptly — much less so than in the nearly allied genus cassis 
 (see Helmet Shell). — the columellar lip covered with a plate, and the outer lip 
 similarly margined within. The recent species, which are not numerous, belong to trop- 
 ical and subtropical seas. Fifty fossil species have been described. The genus first 
 appears in the upper cretaceous measures, where a single species occurs. In the eocene 
 11 have been found, and about 40 in the pliocene. It has its fullest development as a 
 recent shell, no less than 70 species being known. 
 
 The name cassidarm is sometimes given to a family of coleopterous insects, of which 
 the type is the genus cassida. See Tortoise Beetle. 
 
 CASSIN, John, 1813-69; b. Penn.; except a few years in business, he devoted 
 most of his life to ornithology, and published many works thereon, among which are 
 Birds of Califoi'nia; American Ornithology; Mammalogy and Ornithology of the TJ. S. 
 Exploring Expedition; Ornithology of the Japan Exploring Expedition; Ornithology of 
 Oilliss’s Astronomical Expedition to Chili; a portion of the Ornithology of the Pacific 
 Railroad Explorations and Surveys; and the ornithology of the Iconographic Encyclopaedia. 
 He was grand-nephew of commodore John Cassin, and nephew of commodore Stephen 
 Cassin, both of the U. S. navy. 
 
 CASSI'NI, the name of a family distinguished by their services in astronomy and 
 geography. 
 
 Cassini, Giovanni Domenico, was b. at Perinaldo, near Nice, on the 8th of June, 
 1625, and studied at the college of Jesuits, Genoa. In 1650 he was appointed to the 
 astronomical chair in the university of Bologna. His first work related to the comet of 
 1652. He subsequently devoted himself to the determination of astronomical refraction, 
 and of the sun’s parallax, etc. In 1664^65 he determined the period of Jupiter’s rotation. 
 Subsequently, he determined the periods of the planets Mars and Venus, as also of the 
 apparent rotation of the sun. He it was who discovered the third and fifth satellites of 
 Saturn, and afterwards the first and second, as well as the dual character of that 
 planet’s ring. He was also the first who carefully observed the zodiacal light; he 
 demonstrated that the axis of the moon was not (as had been believed) at a right angle 
 to the ecliptic, and explained the cause of the phenomenon known under the name of 
 lunar libration. One of his finest observations was the coincidence of the nodes of the 
 moon’s equator and orbit. C. died Sept. 14, 1712, at Paris, whither he had gone in 
 1669, at the invitation of Colbert, to take charge of the observatory erected by that 
 minister. 
 
 Cassini, Jacques, son of the preceding was b. at Paris, Feb. 18, 1677, In 1694 he 
 was elected a member of the academy of sciences. He traveled in Italy, Holland, and 
 England, where he formed the acquaintance of Newton, Halley, Flamsteed, etc,, and 
 was elected a member of the royal society of London. On the death of his father, he 
 succeeded to the charge of the observatory at Paris, and died April 16, 1756. C. wrote 
 jeveral treatises on electricity, the barometer, etc. In his treatise. Be la Grandeur et d4 
 b Figure de la lei're (Par. 1720), he attempted to show that the earth must be a spheroid 
 
521 
 
 Cassican. ' 
 Cassiopaia* 
 
 elongated at the poles. The Newtonians denied this, inasmuch as it was opposed to the 
 ascertained facts of gravitation and rotation, which necessitated the earth’s being a 
 spheroid flattened at the poles. As an observer, C. was eminently successful. He 
 determined the periods of rotation of all the satellites of Saturn then known, the incli- 
 nation of the planetary orbits, the obliquity of the ecliptic very nearly, and the length 
 of the year, etc. — His son, C.<esar Cassini, was also engaged in scientific pursuits. 
 
 Cassini, Jean Dominique, Comte de, the son of Csesar Cassini, was b. at Paris, 
 June 30, 1748. He succeeded to the charge of the observatory, and completed in 1789 
 the great topographical map of France, begun by his father. But it having been decreed 
 in 1793 that the observatory should no longer be in the hands of one person, three 
 others were in consequence elected to the superintendence of it along with C., whose 
 conduct on learning this fact showed that he had a greater regard for his own dignity 
 than for the whole stellar universe. He refused to have anything more to do with 
 astronomical science, and obstinately kept his purpose through a life that lasted nearly 
 a century, and which was apparently so prolonged to test the durability of a French- 
 man’s disdain. In his 95th year he published a small volume of poems! He died Oct. 
 18, 1845. 
 
 CASSI'NO, a game at cards played by two or more persons. Four cards are 
 dealt, one at a time, to each player, and four are turned face up on the table. After 
 the hands are played the greatest number of cards counts the holder three, the greatest 
 number of spades one, big C. (the ten of diamonds) two, little C. (the deuce of 
 spades) one, and each ace one, so that nine can be possibly counted by one person; 
 the whole game is 21. The play is to take from the table as many cards as possible, 
 preferring spades, or aces, or big or little Cassino. The cards are taken by the num- 
 ber of their spots ; thus a ten will take a ten, or a nine and an ace, or four aces and a 
 six, or any combination of spots that make just ten. Another part of the game is 
 “building;” for example, a player puts a four on a six to make up ten, meaning to 
 take both when it again comes his turn; but any one having a ten may take them 
 before him; or if he builds a six, the next player may make it a nine, and the next 
 still may put on an ace and call it ten ; but in building, the one who makes any par- 
 ticular number must hold the card that will take it. Some persons make a progressive 
 build; that is, if one has a nine and cannot at the time make a nine, he puts a four on 
 a two and calls it six, having of course a three to make nine when it is next his turn to 
 play. But this kind of building is generally ruled out as irregular. A modern varia- 
 tion of the game is now common, in which the knave counts eleven, the queen twelve, 
 the king thirteen, the ace one or fourteen as the players may choose, and the “joker ” 
 fifteen. This plan greatly enlarges the number of combinations, and makes the game more 
 intricate ; as, for instance, an ace may possibly take three other aces, four deuces, and 
 a tray, making fourteen spots; or the ace may take the big and little C. and two 
 aces, which would make six points in the game. 
 
 CASSIODORTJS, or (according to several MSS.) CASSIODO'RUS, Magnus Aurelius, a 
 Latin writer, who distinguished himself by his erudition in an age of barbarism, was 
 b. at Scylaceum (now Squillace), in Calabria, about 468 a.d. He was a member of a 
 noble Roman family, and soon attracted the attention of Odoacer by his superior abili- 
 ties and accomplishments. Under this monarch he held various offices, but after the 
 defeat and murder of Odoacer by Thedoric the Ostrogoth, he passed into the service of 
 the latter. The highest honors now fell upon him; and for years he administered the 
 Ostrogothic power with remarkable prudence and success. In his 70th year, however, 
 he withdrew to Calabria, where he founded the monastery of Viviers, and employed 
 himself and the other monks in the invaluable work of copying classical MSS.; his 
 great desire being to improve the education of the clergy. C. was about 100 years old 
 when he died. Besides his grammatical and rhetorical manuals, which were used as 
 text-books during the middle ages, he wrote a very important work, entiled Variarum 
 Epistolarum Lihri XII. This is a collection of state-papers, and is, in fact the most 
 extensive as well as the most reliable source of information which we possess in regard 
 to everything connected with the Ostrogothic rule in Italy. The style, however, is 
 very peculiar, and shows the influence which the political career of C. had exercised on 
 his language and modes of thought. The editio princeps of the Vanarum was printed 
 at Augsburg in 1533. 
 
 CASSIOPEIA, the lady in her chair, a constellation in the northern hemisphere, near 
 Cepheus, and not far from the n. pole. It is marked by five stars of the third magni- 
 tude, forming a figure like an M. A line from Capella to the bright star in Cygnus 
 passes nearly through the middle of this M. C., according to Flamsteed, contains 55 
 stars, all of small magnitude. The figure is that of a woman siting in a chair with a 
 branch in her hand. In the year 1572, there all at once appeared in C. a new star. It 
 was first noticed by Tycho Brahe on the 11th Nov., when its luster exceeded that of all 
 the fixed stars, and nearly equaled that of Venus. The star gradually diminished m 
 luster, from the time of its being observed until, in Mar., 1574, it disappeared. It is 
 said to have alarmed all the astronomers of the age. Tycho Brahe wrote a treatise on 
 it, and supposed — without good reasons — that it had previously appeared in 945 and 
 
Cassiquiare. 
 
 Castauos. 
 
 522 
 
 1264. Sir John Herschel suggested the possibility of its reappearance in 1872, but his 
 suggestion was not verified. 
 
 CASSIQUIA'RE, or Cassiquiari, a river of Venezuela, South America, forming the a. 
 bifurcation of the Orinoco, which it leaves in lat. 3° 10' n., long. 66° 20' w., and after a 
 rapid s.w. course of about 130 m., joins the Rio Negro in lat. 2° 5' n., long. 67° 40' west. 
 About 100 yards in breadth when it issues from the Orinoco, it gradually increases until 
 at its union with the Rio Negro it attains a width of 600 yards. By means of this singu- 
 lar river, water-communication is established, through the Amazon, Orinoco, and their 
 affluents, between the interior of Brazil and the Caraccas in Venezuela. 
 
 CAS SIS (Fr., the black currant-tree), a French liqueur prepared from black currants; 
 the manufacture has recently become of great importance. See Currant. 
 
 CASSIS. See Helmet Shell, ante. 
 
 CASSITE'RIDES. See Scilly Isles. 
 
 CAS'SITERITE, the common ore of tin, the only source of the metal; found in 
 Banca (an island in the Malay archipelago), in Cornwall (England), Spain, Sweden, 
 France, California, and Chili. It consists of 78.38 tin, and 21.62 oxygen; it is found in 
 mass, in fibres, in rolled flakes, and in grains. 
 
 CAS SIUS, Longi'nus Caius, one of Caesar’s assassins. At the breaking out of the 
 civil war, though a tribune of the plebs, he sided with Pompey and the aristocratic fac- 
 tion against Caesar. He was taken prisoner by the latter, who pardoned him, and even 
 made him one of his legates. In 44 b.c., through the influence of Caesar, he was made 
 prcBior peregrinus, and was promised the governorship of Syria in the following year. 
 But his mean and jealous spirit could not endure the burden of gratitude imposed upon 
 him by the generosity of the dictator, and he resolved to be released by the murder of 
 his benefactor. Having attached to himself the mutinous spirits among the subjugated 
 aristocracy, and also won over M. Brutus, the pseudo-patriotic conspiracy was soon 
 matured, and on the 15th of Mar., 44 b.c., Caesar fell by the daggers of assassins. The 
 result of this bloody deed was not what C. had expected. The popular feeling — as wit- 
 nessed by the riots that broke out at Caesar’s funeral — was strongly against the murder- 
 ers ; and the military power fell into the hands of Mark Antony. C. therefore fled to 
 the east, and made himself master of Syria. Afterwards he united his forces with those 
 of Brutus, and having greedily plundered Asia Minor, they crossed the Hellespont in 
 the beginning of 42 b.c., marched through Thrace, and took up a superior position near 
 Philippi, in Macedonia. Here they were attacked by Antony and Octavian. The divi- 
 sion commanded by C. was totally routed, although, on the other hand, Brutus succeeded 
 in repulsing the troops of Octavian. C., supposing that all was lost, compelled his 
 freedman, Pindarus, to put him to death. C.’swife, a half-sister of Brutus, survived 
 him upwards of 60 years. She died in the reign of Tiberius, 22 a.d. 
 
 CASSIUS, Purple op, is a coloring substance of very ancient use, which is prepared 
 by adding a mixed solution of protochloride and bichloride of tin gradually to a solution 
 of chloride of gold, when a more or less abundant precipitate of the double stannate of 
 gold and tin (Au0,Sn02-|-Sn0,Sn02) is thrown down. The purple of C. is soluble in 
 ammonia, yielding a very pretty purple solution, from which it can again be obtained, 
 with solid form unchanged, by evaporating the ammonia. Mixed with borax, or some 
 fusible glass, purple of C. is employed by the potter to communicate a rich purple or rose 
 tint to the better kinds of china, and it also imparts the red color to the kind of glass 
 known as Bohemian glass. 
 
 CASSIUS PARMENSIS, or Caius Cassius Severus, one of the conspirators against 
 the life of Julius Csesar. He was an adherent of his namesake Cassius, and fought on 
 his side until their defeat at Philippi. Afterwards he adhered to Pompey, and finally 
 supported Anthony until the defeat at Actium. He went to Athens, but was arrested 
 and executed by order of Augustus. He made some pretensions to poetry, but he was 
 not the Cassius alluded to by Horace as noted for the abundance and the poverty of his 
 compositions. 
 
 CASSIVELAU'NUS, a British chief, who fought against Caesar during his second 
 invasion of the island, 54 b.c. He ruled the country n. of the Thames, and had a great 
 reputation as a warrior, but his capital was taken by the Romans, and he himself com- 
 pelled to flee. He afterwards sued for peace, which he obtained, on condition of paying 
 tribute and giving hostages. 
 
 CASSOCK, a long loose coat, formerly in common wear, but now usually worn only 
 by the clergy. As worn by the clergy of the church of England it is a long coat with 
 a single upright collar. Black is the common color for all orders of the clergy, but on 
 state occasions bishops frequently wear purple cassocks. In the Roman Catholic church 
 cassocks vary in color according to the dignity of the wearer — priests wearing black, 
 bishops purple, cardinals scarlet, and the pope white. 
 
 CAS SOWARY, GasuaHus, a genus of birds nearly allied to the ostrich (see Brevi- 
 PENNES and Ostrich), but distinctively characterized by still greater shortness of wing, 
 by a laterally compressed bill, by a bony crest, by pendent wattles on the naked neck, 
 and by three toes on each foot, all furnished with claws, the inner toe short, and armed 
 
523 
 
 Cassiquiar«« 
 
 Castanos. 
 
 ■with a very long and sharp claw. There are also very important anatomical differ- 
 ences in its digestive organs, which are not adapted to the same coarse diet, for the C. 
 
 ‘ ‘ has short intestines and small coeca, wants the intermediate stomach between the crop 
 and gizzard, and its cloaca does not proportionally exceed that of other birds.” Only 
 one species is known, casuarius galeatus, sometimes called emu by the older naturalists, 
 before that name was appropriated to the Australian bird which now alone receives it. 
 The C. is a native of the Moluccas, New Guinea, and other Asiatic islands, chiefly 
 inhabiting deep forests. In general appearance, it is not unlike the ostrich, but has a 
 much shorter neck. It is the largest known bird except the ostrich, and its height, when 
 erect, is about 5 feet. It feeds on fruit, eggs, and succulent herbage. When attacked, 
 it defends itself by kicking obliquely backwards with its feet, and by striking with its 
 short wings, the rigid barbless shafts of which, although useless even to aid it in running, 
 are not without value as weapons. There are only about five of them in each wing, 
 somewhat resembling the quills of a porcupine; and at the end of the last joint of the 
 wing there is a spur. The color of the C. is brownish black; the feathers are loosely 
 webbed, and hang down, so that, at a little distance, the bird seems clothed with hair. 
 Those of the rump are 14 in. long, hanging down in place of a tail. The head and 
 upper part of the neck are naked and of a bluish color, and there are two pendent wat- 
 tles, partly red and partly blue, on the front of the neck. On the breast is a callous 
 bare part, on which the bird rests its body on the ground. The bony crest or helmet 
 reaches from the base of the bill to the middle of the crown, and is about 3 in. high, 
 exhibiting the most intense blue, purple, ard scarlet blended together. The C. lays a 
 few eggs, which it leaves to be hatched by the heat of the sun ; and which are greenish, 
 and have a much thinner shell than those of the ostrich. Its flesh is black, tough, and 
 juiceless. The C. is not unfrequently to be seen in menageries in Europe, but is becom- 
 ing more rare in its native regions, in which it is sometimes kept tame. 
 
 CAST, an impression produced by pouring a ductile substance, such as plaster of 
 Paris, into a mold. This method was employed by the ancients in multiplying not 
 only objects of art, such as the small household statues of the gods, but articles of direct 
 utility. Thes so-called Celts, or chisels of bronze, which, with the molds for casting 
 them, are found in England, Ireland, and France, testify to the fact that the art of 
 casting from a mold is one of the earliest acquired by semi-civilized nations. Casts are 
 of incalculable value in familiarizing the eyes of those who can never look on the 
 originals with the grand and beautiful forms of antique art. The best to be had in this 
 country are those executed, and sold on application, at the British Museum. Casting, 
 when applied to metals, is called founding (q.v.). 
 
 CASTAGN'O, Andkea del, 1390-1457; a painter of the Florentine school, who 
 imitated the naturalists of the time in boldness of attitude, but was deficient in grace 
 and coloring. For several centuries, C. rested under the imputation of having mur- 
 dered his colleague, Domenico Venezaino, in order to monopolize the then recent secret 
 of oil painting as practiced in Flanders by the Van Eycks; but the charge has been 
 proved untrue, as Domenico outlived C. by four years. One of C. ’s extant works is an 
 equestrian figure in the Florentine cathedral. 
 
 CASTA'LIA, a fountain on the slope of Parnassus, a little above Delphi, in Phocis, * 
 sacred to Apollo and the Muses. It was the ‘ ‘ holy- water” of the Delphian temple ; and 
 all who came to consult the oracle, or visited the place with any religious purpose what- 
 ever, were wont to bathe their hair rore puro Castalice (in the pure dew of C.), but those 
 who wished to be purified from murder bathed their whole body. The Roman poets 
 feigned that its waters filled the mind of those who drank of it with poetic inspiration. 
 
 It was imagined to have some connection with the river Cephisus, and to flow from the 
 subterranean Styx. The fountain, whose waters are still pure and delightful as in the 
 days of classical antiquity, now bears the name of St. John, from a small chapel of that 
 name close by. 
 
 CAS'TANETS, a musical instrument of percussion in the form of two hollow nut-shells, 
 which are bound together by a band fastened on the thumb, and struck by the fingers 
 to produce a trilling sound in keeping with the rhythm of the music. The krotalon of 
 the ancients was somewhat similar. The C. were introduced into Spain by the Moors, 
 where they retain the name of castanulas, from their resemblance to the form of the 
 chestnut. The 0. are now much used in the ballet and in the opera. 
 
 CASTA'NEA. See Chestnut, ante. 
 
 CASTA'NOS, Don Francisco Xavier de, Duke of Baylen, a celebrated Spanish gen- 
 eral, was b. at Madrid in 1756, and studied in Germany the military tactics of Frederick 
 the ^eat. For some time after his return to Spain, he had no opportunity of acquiring 
 distinction; but when Napoleon I. invaded that country, C. received the command of a 
 division of the Spanish army, and on the 22d of July, 1808, compelled 20,000 French, 
 under gen. Dupont, to surrender at Baylen. It is asserted, however, that the merit of 
 this prodigious success belonged more to Aloys Reding, a Swiss by birth, and the second 
 in command. In Nov. of the same year, C. was in turn defeated by the French at 
 Tudela. The arrival of Wellington necessarily reduced him to a subordinate position, 
 but he took part in the important battles of Albuera, Salamanca, and Vittoria. In 1811, 
 
Cast. 
 
 Caste. 
 
 524 
 
 he was appointed general of the 4th Spanish carps d'armee, and commandant of several 
 provinces. In 1815, he was placed at the head of 80,000 troops, destined to invade 
 France, some of which had already crossed the frontier when the news came of the 
 battle of Waterloo. Although no great favorite with the court politicians, his talents 
 could not be overlooked. In 1825, he was called to the state council, where he 
 became a decided opponent of the Carlist party. He died 24th Sept., 1852, at the 
 advanced age of 96. 
 
 CAST — CASTING-LINE. The casting-line, in angling, is a gut-line on which the arti- 
 ficial flies are fastened. It is made up of several lengths of gut, knotted together, and, 
 usually from 2 to 4 yards long. The flies are attached at intervals of about 2 ft., and 
 the line with its flies is called a cast. The term cast is also applied to a part of a stream 
 where certain fish may be taken, as a trout-cast, a salmon-cast. 
 
 CASTE, a term applied chiefly to distinct classes or sections of society in India, and, 
 in a modifled sense, to social distinctions of an exclusive nature among the nations of the 
 west. When, at the end of the 15th c., the Portuguese began to penetrate to India by 
 the cape of Good Hope, and to trade with the Deccan or southern portion of the Indian 
 peninsula, they found arbitrary social laws, full of intricate regulations which con- 
 stantly interfered with their intercourse with the natives, especially in matters involving 
 the subdivision of labor. They found certain pursuits invariably followed by a certain 
 class, and any attempt to induce a man to perform offices not appointed for the class of 
 which he was a member, met with violent opposition, though such offices might, accord- 
 ing to European notions, be more honorable than many he was content to fulfill. They 
 observed, also, that these different classes often varied in appearance, the result, in some 
 cases, of their addiction for many generations to the same pursuits; in others, of their 
 having actually arisen from a different stock. Hence they applied to these various divi- 
 sions of society the term casta — a Portuguese and Spanish word, meaning a breed. As 
 applied to these classes of Hindu society, the word has passed into most European lan- 
 guages. From its frequent use in India, it has sometimes been erroneously considered 
 of Hindu origin.* Of late, it has been spelled caste, but by old authors cast; and it is 
 even a question whether the word may not be as genuine English, as casta is Spanish. 
 
 In the s. of India, the Portuguese became acquainted with what is considered the 
 most exaggerated evil of caste. There are found there large numbers of a class called 
 pariahs, or, in other districts of India, chandalas. They are probably the relics of some 
 early conquered race, who have been degraded by uninterrupted ages of oppression, as 
 is represented to have been the case with the Helots of Sparta, and people in a similar 
 condition. These pariahs were always identified with outcasts — i.e., persons who had 
 forfeited the privileges of their original order. No one of any C. would have any com- 
 munication with them. If one of them even touched a Nayr, or warrior of high C., he 
 might with impunity kill him. Some sorts of food were defiled by even their shadow 
 passing over them; and the name of Pariah or Chandala conveyed to the Hindu the idea 
 of the utmost vileness and disgust. All who violated the institutions of their class were 
 held to sink into this class — a condition which involved the loss of all human respecta- 
 bility and comfort. These regulations were, moreover, referred to religion. 
 
 As India was at this time the land of the marvelous, and its inhabitants, though as 
 various as the different nations of Europe, viewed as one homogeneous people, what 
 was only true of one portion of the peninsula, was considered as prevailing everywhere, 
 and as identical with the divisions of the Indians into seven tribes or castes, mentioned 
 in olden times by Strabo, by Diodorus Siculus, and by Arrian. Nor was it forgotten 
 that the Egyptians, whose early civilization was as undoubted as that of India, were 
 also divided, according to Herodotus, into seven classes of priests, warriors, herdsmen, 
 swineherds, tradesmen, interpreters, and pilots, to each of which w^ere assigned particu- 
 lar districts. 
 
 About the middle of the 16th c., however, Abraham Roger, chaplain of the Dutch 
 factory at Pulicat, gained the confidence of a Brahman, acquainted with the Sanscrit 
 language, and by this means learned pretty exactly the account of the origin of C. given 
 in the Laws of Menu, a work inferred to have been written not later than 900 b.c., which 
 was long known only by name in Europe, until about the end of the last century, when 
 a copy was obtained, and translated by sir William Jones. The whole of the Hindus 
 are represented by Menu as divided into four classes: 
 
 1. The Brahmans, or sacerdotal class, who are said, at the moment of creation, to 
 have issued from the mouth of Brahma. Their business is reading and teaching the 
 Vedas, and the performance of sacrifice for themselves and others. They are to be the 
 chief of all created beings; the rest of mortals enjoy^ life through them. By their 
 imprecations, they can destroy kings, with all their troops, and elephants, and pomps. 
 Indra, wnen cursed by one of them, was hurled from his own heaven, and compelled 
 to animate a cat. Hence, the Brahman is to be treated with the most profound respect, 
 even by kings. His life and person are protected by the severest laws in this world, 
 and the most tremendous denunciations for the next. His own offenses are treated 
 with singular lenity; all offenses against him, with terrible severity. He is forbidden 
 
 * In Sanscrit, castes are called vamas, i.e., “ colors;” color being, no doubt, the chief distinction ai 
 first 
 
525 
 
 Cast. 
 
 Caste. 
 
 to live by service, but on alms; and it is incumbent upon virtuous men and kings to 
 support him with liberality ; and all ceremonies of religion involve feasts and presents 
 to him. The first part of his life is to be devoted to an unremitting study of the Vedas 
 — books, be it observed, older than the code of Menu, and yet, except, perhaps, one of 
 the later hymns, containing no mention of C. as a religious ordinance. He is to per- 
 form servile offices for his preceptor, and beg from door to door. In the second quar- 
 ter, he lives with his wife, reads and teaches the Vedas, assists at sacrifices, and, “clean 
 ;and decent, his hair and beard clipped, his passions subdued, his mantle white, his body 
 pure, with a staff and a copy of the Vedas in his hand, and bright golden rings in his 
 ears,” he leads a studious and decorous life. The third quarter of his life he must 
 spend in the woods, as an anchorite, clad in bark, without fire, wholly silent, and feed- 
 ing on roots and fruits. The last period he is released from external forms and morti- 
 fications, and is to spend his time meditating on the divinity, until at length he quits 
 the body, “as a bird leaves the branch of a tree, at pleasure.” 
 
 2. The Ksliatrya, or Ghuttree, or military class, sprang from the arm of Bramha, and 
 bear something of a sacred character. It is stated that the sacerdotal order cannot 
 prosper without the military, or the military without the sacerdotal ; and the prosperity 
 •of both, as well in this world as in the next, is made to depend on their cordial union. 
 The Kshatrya are to give alms, to sacrifice, to read the Vedas, and defend the people. 
 Though Brahmans are to draw up and interpret laws, they are carefully excluded from 
 administering them. The executive government is vested in the Kshatryas alone. 
 
 3. The Vaisya, or Bais, or mercantile class, sprang from the thigh of Brahma. Their 
 ^and duties are to keep cattle, carry on trade, lend on interest, cultivate the soil, and 
 turn their attention to every description of practical knowledge. They are to be perfect 
 men of business. 
 
 The Sudras, or Sooders, or servile class, came from the foot of Brahma. They are to 
 serve the three superior classes, more especially the Brahmans. Their condition is 
 never to be improved; they are not to accumulate property, and are unable by any 
 means to approach the dignity of the higher classes. Utter and entire submissiveness 
 to the Brahmans is the spirit of all the Sudra’s duties, and this is to be enforced by 
 penalties as severe as they are ridiculous. Yet, withal, the Sudras were not to be slaves, 
 ■either public or private, and to occupy a position much higher than the Chandalas. 
 
 Mixture of castes, though not absolutely forbidden, entails disadvantages on the 
 ehildren, and the offspring of a Brahmanical woman and a Sudra becomes a Chandala, 
 ■or outcast. 
 
 Such — omitting the minute and childish laws and penalties, many hundreds in num- 
 ber, by which it is proposed to carry the principle of C. into the pettiest affairs of life — 
 is a brief outline of it, as gathered from the code of Menu. There is no historical evi- 
 dence that it ever existed in this form, and, from the nature of the case, we may con- 
 •clude that it never did. In the Toy-cart, the oldest Hindu drama, no extravagant vene- 
 ration for Brahmans anywhere appears. In fact, one of them is condemned to death; 
 and the arrangements of society appear to have been the same as at present. The laws 
 of C. form, it is true, a part of what is reputed to be Hindu law, but they have remained 
 in all the states of India, Hindu as well as Mohammedan, to a great extent a dead-letter. 
 There is nothing to show that the code of Menu was drawn up for the regulation of any 
 particular state. Some have even conjectured that it may have been the work of some 
 learned man, designed to set forth his idea of a perfect commonwealth under Hindu 
 institutions, just as Plato in The Republic gives us his idea of a model government under 
 <3-reek institutions. 
 
 Be this as it may, the C. which at present exists throughout the greater part of 
 India is very different from that described in the code of Menu, though to this it owes, 
 no doubt, much of its stability and its importance in the eyes of Europeans. With the 
 -exception of the Brahmans, the pure castes have disappeared, and out of the intermix- 
 ture of the others have sprung innumerable classes, many of them unauthorized except 
 by the people themselves. So ingrained in the whole community is this tendency to 
 -class distinctions, that Mussulmans, Jews, Parsees, and Christians fall, in some degree, 
 into it; and even excommunicated or outcast Pariahs form castes among themselves. 
 Most of the existing castes partake of the nature of associations for mutual support or 
 familiar intercourse, and are dependent upon a man’s trade, occupation, or profession. 
 Many of them have been described by Mr. Colebrook in the Asiatic Transactions, vol. v. 
 Many have had their origin in guilds, in schism from other castes, in the possession of 
 a particular sort of property (as, for instance, landlords are spoken of as the C. of 
 ssmindars), and similar accidental circumstances. Their names are often due to the 
 district in which the C. took its rise, to their founder, to their peculiar creed, or any 
 random circumstance. In the Bengal presidency, there are many hundreds of such 
 castes, almost every district containing some unknown in those adjacent. Among the 
 lowest classes, and especially among the servants of the English at Calcutta, it has 
 degenerated into a fastidious tenacity of the rights and privileges of station. For 
 example, the man who sweeps your room will not take an empty cup from your hand; 
 your groom will not mow a little grass; a coolie will carry any load, however offensive, 
 upon his head, but even in a matter of life and death, would refuse to carry a man, for 
 that is the business of another caste. Such and many other regulations are described in 
 
Cast«gg:io. 
 
 Castellan. 
 
 526 
 
 every work on C., but are as unworthy of serious regard as are the assertions of self- 
 importance found among little people all the world over. When an English servant 
 pleads that such a thing “ is not his place,” his excuse is analogous to that of the Hindu 
 servant when he pleads his caste. When an Englishman of birth or profession, which 
 is held to confer gentility, refuses to associate with a tradesman or mechanic — or when 
 members of a secret order exclude all others from their meetings — or when any other 
 similar social distinction arises, it would present itself to the mind of the Hindu as a. 
 regulation of caste. 
 
 Nor does C., at the present day, tie a man down to follow Ms father's business, except,, 
 perhaps, in the case of the more sacred functions of the Brahmans. For the rest. Brah- 
 mans serve as soldiers, and even as cooks. Men of all castes have risen to power, just 
 as in England our statesman have sprung from every class of society. Nor, again, is. 
 loss of C. anything so terrible as has been represented; in most cases, it may be recov- 
 ered by a frugal repast given to the members of the C. ; or the outcast joins another C.,. 
 among whom he will commonly be received with the heartiness due to a new convert.. 
 The question of the restoration of a Christian convert wishing to rejoin the Brahmanical 
 C., has been differently decided by his fellow caste-men in different places. 
 
 As in the west, so in the east, C. enters into all the most ordinary relations of life, pro- 
 ducing laws often most tyrannical and too anomalous to admit of generalization. In 
 the west, however, whilst good sense and Christianity have ever tended to ameliorate 
 social differences, the feeble mind of the Hindu and the records of his religion have had 
 a contrary effect. 
 
 These modified views of C., which have begun to prevail in recent years, will be 
 found more fully developed in Shore On Indian Affairs, Irving’s Theory and Practice of 
 Caste. Full accounts of the petty regulations of C., as laid down in the code of Menu, 
 may be seen in sir William Jones’s Translation of the Code of Menu, Robertson’s Disqui- 
 sition on India, Richard’s India, Elphinstone’s History of India, Dubois’s India, Cole- 
 brooke’s Asiatic Transactions, vol. v., and in various articles in the Calcutta Review. 
 The most authoritative account of the subject of caste is to be found in the first volume 
 of Dr. John Muir’s Original Sanscrit lexts on the Origin and Progress of the Religion and 
 Institutions on India; collected, translated into English, and illustrated by Notes (5 vols.. 
 Bond. 1867-71 ; vols. 1 to 4, new ed.), a work of the utmost value. 
 
 The question how C. is to be dealt with in converts to Christianity, has now been 
 determined by common consent of missionaries in India ; and it receives no recognition 
 within the Christian church. An opposite policy, in former times, founded on the 
 opinion that C. might be regarded as merely a civil or social institution, and not as a 
 part of the religion of the Hindus, is now believed to have been among the principal 
 causes of the comparative decay of the churches or congregations founded during the 
 18th c. in the s. of India. 
 
 CASTEG'GIO, or Montebello, a t. of Piedmont, northern Italy, 5 m. e.n.e. of Vog- 
 hera. In the campaign of 1859, C. was occupied by Austrians prior to the battle of 
 Montebello, in which they were defeated by the French and Sardinians. C. was also 
 valorously but unsuccessfully defended by the Austrians in the great battle of Monte- 
 bello between them and the army of Napoleon I. in 1800. As Castidium, C. was an 
 important military position as early as the times of the Gallic and Punic wars. Some 
 Roman antiquities still remain, and numerous curious inscriptions and coins have been 
 found. Pop. 3,206. 
 
 CASTEL' (from the Latin Castellum) is a name prefixed to various places in Italy, 
 France, Spain, Portugal, etc., of which the most important are: 
 
 1. Castel-Arquato, a t. of Parma, n. Italy, 19 m. s.e. of Piacenza, picturesquely 
 situated amid forests and vineyards, with a fine Gothic church and a noble old castle, 
 from which the town derives its name. It has manufactures of silk, and a pop. of 4,400, 
 
 2. Castel-Bolognese, a t. of n. Italy, about 22 m. w.s.w. from Ravenna. It 
 derives its name from a strong fortress built here by the Bolognese in the 14th c. ; and 
 is historically famous as the scene of a decisive battle between the Milanese and Flor- 
 entines in 1434, in which the latter were completely vanquished. 
 
 3. Castel-Buono, a t. of Sicily, in the province of Palermo, 8 m. s.e. of Cefalu. 
 It is noted for its mineral springs, and has a trade in manna. Pop. 5,288. 
 
 4. Castel-Franco, a t. of central Italy, 8 m. e. of Modena, with the old walls and 
 ramparts of a castle built by Urban VIIL, and near the site of the battle between the 
 consuls Hirtius and Pansa and Mark Antony. — Also the name of a town of Italy, in the 
 government of Venice, about 25 m. n.w. from the city of that name, with linen and 
 woolen manufactures, and a pop. of 4,220. 
 
 5. Castel-Gandolfo, a village of the former Papal states, 11 m. s.e. of Rome, near 
 the w. shore of lake Albano. Its situation is extremely picturesque, and it commands 
 extensive views of some of the most beautiful scenery m Italy. The pope has his sum- 
 mer residence here. In early times, the noble family of the Savelli had a stronghold at 
 C. , by means of which, for a period of nearly 400 years, they bade defiance to popes, 
 barons, and bourgeoisie. Pop. 1144. 
 
 6. Castel-Sardo (formerly C. Aragonese), a fortified t. and seaport, the strongest 
 
527 
 
 Castegrgio. 
 
 Castellan. 
 
 on the island of Sardinia, is situated on a steep rock on the n. coast, 16 m. n.e. of Sas- 
 •sari. The environs produce wine. Pop. 1946. 
 
 7. Castel-Sakiiasin, a t. of France, in the department of Tarn et Garonne, on the 
 Songuine, 12 m. w. from Montauban. It has the remains of an old castle said to be of 
 Saracenic origin, a pop. in 1876 of 3,547, manufactures of serge and worsted stockings, 
 and a trade in the agricultural produce of the district. 
 
 8. Castel-Termini (ancient CamicianoB Aqud), a t. of Sicily, in the province of Gir- 
 genti, and 16 m. n. from the city of that name. It has extensive mines of rock-salt and 
 sulphur, and a pop. of 8,200. 
 
 9. Castel-Vetrano, a t. of Sicily, in the province of Trapani, 20 m. s.e. of the town 
 of that name. It is an interesting place, with an old castle, several convents, manufac- 
 tures of articles of coral and alabaster, and a pop. in 1872 of 20,420. Some of the most 
 -esteemed white wine of Sicily is produced in the vicinity. 
 
 CASTELAR', Emilio, b. 1832; an author, statesman, and president of the Spanish 
 Tepublic. He was the son of a broker, and at the death of his father was left in poverty, 
 but managed to secure a good education. He came before the public as a writer of 
 novels, more prominently as an advanced liberal in politics. In 1856, he obtained the 
 professorship of history in the university of Madrid, but lost the place in 1864, in con- 
 sequence of joining Carrasen in the establishment of La Bemocrada, a radical journal. 
 The paper was suppressed in 1866, and C. was sentenced to death for participation in 
 the disturbance of June in that year; but he escaped to Switzerland, and subsequently 
 went to France. At the beginning of the revolution in 1868 he went back to Spain and 
 resumed his professorship, and in 1869 was one of the few republicans returned to the 
 cortes. In that body he advocated republicanism and vigorously opposed the prospect 
 of a regency. In the government chosen by the cortes after the abdication of Amadeo, 
 ■C. was made minister of foreign affairs. In Aug., 1873, he was elected president of the 
 cortes, but vacated the post when. Sept. 6, he was nominated for president of the exec- 
 utive power. His first act was to prorogue the cortes and assume complete authority. 
 He made energetic but ineffectual efforts to suppress the Carlists, and sent the minister 
 of war to Cuba, in person to protect Spanish interests in that island. When the cortes 
 re-assembled, Jan. 2, 1874, a vote of confidence in president C. was defeated, and he at 
 once resigned. Thereupon, Pavia, as capt.gen. of Madrid, forcibly dissolved the cortes 
 Rnd appointed a provisional government with marshal Serrano at its head. Soon after 
 the pronunciamento in favor of Alphonso XII., Dec. 13, 1874, C. went to Switzerland, 
 whence in Mar., 1875, he sent back his resignation of the chair of history in the univer- 
 sity of Madrid. Among his writings are novels, poems, works on politics, slavery, 
 the war in Africa, Old Borne and New Italy (translated into English), parliamentary dis- 
 courses, etc. His oratory is vigorous and elegant. 
 
 CAS'TELL, Edmund, 1606-85; an English orientalist who spent 18 years in compil- 
 ing a lexicon of Hebrew, Chaldee, Syrian, Samaritan, Ethiopic, Arabic, and Persian. 
 He spent from 16 to 18 hours a day on the work, and had 14 assistants. The outlay 
 was $60,000, which reduced him to poverty, but his losses were in part compensated by 
 a number of preferments, among them that of prebend of Canterbury. C. assisted Dr. 
 Walter in the preparation of the polyglot Bible. 
 
 CASTELLAMA'BE, a fortified city and seaport of s. Italy, about 17 m. s.e. of the city 
 of Naples. It is built on the lower slopes of Monte d’Auro, and along a sheltered beach 
 on the s.e. side of the gulf of Naples, over which it commands a magnificent view. It 
 is on or near the site of the ancient Stabice, which was desolated by Sylla during the 
 social war, and where the elder Pliny afterwards lost his wife when the city was over- 
 whelmed with lava from Vesuvius. Some ancient remains have been found here. The 
 town was sacked in the 15th c. by pope Pius II., and again in the 17th c. by the due de 
 Guise. It has a royal palace, a cathedral, several convents, among which that founded 
 by Gonsalvo do Cordova, in the 16th c., is famous for the possession of an image of the 
 Madonna found in a well in the 11th c., which is greatly venerated by the peasantry, 
 who make an annual pilgrimage to the church. The old castle, which gave name to the 
 town, was built in the 12th century. C. has a royal dockyard, affording employment to 
 many of the inhabitants, and manufactures of linen, silk, cotton, leather, and sail-cloth. 
 Pop. 20,488. — Castellamare is also the name of a town in Sicily, situated at the head 
 of a gulf of the same name, and 20 m. e. from Trapani. It has a population of 11,280, 
 and exports of cotton, wine, fruit, and manna. — C., Gulf of, is an extensive bay on the 
 n. coast of Sicily. Its width from e. to w., between point Uomo Morto and cape St. 
 Vito, is about 15 m.; and its depth about 14 miles. It has deep water and good anchor- 
 age, but is much exposed to n. winds. 
 
 CASTELLAMON'TE, a t. of n. Italy, in the province of Turin, 10 m. s.w. of Ivrea. 
 It has an old castle, manufactures of earthenware, and a trade in the agricultural prod- 
 uce of the district. Pop. 5,641. 
 
 CASTELLAN, or Chatelaln, the keeper of a castle or hurg in the middle ages. The 
 office and the rank of the C. were various in various countries. In Prance and Flanders, 
 the title C. belonged to the holders of certain demesnes, and was next in order of rank 
 to that of a bailiff. In Germany, the C. had the jurisdiction of a burg-graf during the 
 
Castellana. 
 
 Castigflione. 
 
 528 
 
 ages of chivalry. In Poland, the title of C., with its appendages, remained in later 
 times, and, after the 16th c., the castellans, with the waiwodes and bishops, formed the 
 senate or superior legislative chamber. 
 
 CASTELLA'NA, a t. of s. Italy, in the province of Bari, and 26 m. s.e. of the city of 
 that name. Its trade is confined to the produce of the district. Pop. 9,691. 
 
 CASTELLANETA, a t. of s. Italy, in the province of Lecce, 20 m. n.w. of Taranto. 
 It has a cathedral and several convents. Cotton is grown in the district. Pop. 8,358. 
 
 CASTELLAZ'ZO, a t. of n. Italy, about 5 m. s.w. of Alessandria. Pop. 5,749. 
 
 CASTELLEO'NE,a t. of Lombardy, n. Italy, situated near the Oglio, about 12 m. n.n.w. 
 of Cremona. It is surrounded by old walls, has a fine church, and a population of 5,700. 
 
 CASTELLIO, or GASTALIO, Sebastianus, a theologian, b. in Dauphine in 1515. Hi» 
 proper name was Ghdteillon, which he Latinized, according to the usage of his time. 
 About 1540, he was invited to Geneva, by Calvin, and appointed humanity professor; 
 but having the misfortune, afterwards, to differ from the reformer in religious opinion, 
 he was banished from the city, and went to Basel, where he spent the rest of his life in- 
 great poverty. He died in 1563. See Calvin. 
 
 Among his various writings may be mentioned De HoRreticis, etc. —a treatise which, 
 argues against the right of the magistrate to punish heretical opinions, and which pro- 
 duced a rebly from.Beza; a Latin version of the Old and New Testaments, published in 
 1551, and dedicated to Edward VI. of England; and a posthumous work, in dialogue, 
 on predestination, election, free-will, and faith, first published bv Faustus Socinus in 
 1578. 
 
 CASTEL'LO, Giovanni Battista, 1500-69 ; an Italian historical painter of the Geno 
 ese school. His best known works are the “ Martyrdom of St. Sebastian,” and “Our 
 Savior as Judge of the World.” He was also an architect and sculptor. 
 
 CASTEL'LO, Valerio, 1625-59; a son of Giovanni Battista, who excelled his father 
 in painting, especially in cattle scenes. He decorated the cupola of the church of the 
 Annunciation, in Genoa, and painted the “ Rape of the Sabines,” in the Brignole palace 
 in that city. 
 
 CASTELLON', a province in e. Spain, on the Mediterranean, 2,447 sq.m. ; pop. ’70, 
 296,222. It is a rough and mountainous region, containing many mines, and mineral 
 Bprings. A railroad runs through the province parallel with, and not far from, the sea. 
 The chief town is Castellon de la Plana, near the Mediterranean, 40 m. n.n.e. of Valen- 
 cia, with which there is railroad connection; pop. 20,123. 
 
 CASTELLON DE LA PLANA, a t. of Spain, capital of the province of the same name, 
 is situated in the midst of a fruitful plain, about 4 m. from the Mediterranean, and 40 
 m. n.n.e. of Valencia. A magnificent aqueduct supplies the means of irrigation. C. is 
 surrounded by walls, and is for the most part well built. It has some handsome old 
 churches, and a singular bell-tower, 260 ft. high. Ribalta, the celebrated Spanish 
 painter, was a native of Castellon de la Plana. It has manufactures of linen, woolen, 
 sail-cloth, paper, earthenware, and fire-arms; also brandy distilleries, and an active 
 trade. Pop. 20,000. 
 
 CASTELNAU', Michel de, Sieur de la Mauvissiere, 1520-92; a French soldier 
 and ambassador to the court of queen Elizabeth. He was thoroughly educated, traveled 
 much, and served in the French army in active service in Italy, where his courage 
 and ability secured for him the friendship of the cardinal of Lorraine, who took him 
 into his service. In 1557, he was given a command in the navy, but soon rejoined the 
 French army in Picardy. He executed several delicate diplomatic commissions so satis- 
 factorily to the constable de Montmorency that he was sent by the king to Henry II. of 
 Scotland with dispatches for Mary Stuart, who was then betrothed to the dauphin 
 (afterwards Francis II). He went also to England and treated with Elizabeth respect- 
 ing her claims in Calais, a settlement of which was made at the congress of Cambray. 
 Afterwards he was sent to Margaret of Parma, governess of the Netherlands, and later 
 still to Rome to ascertain the views of the pope with regard to France. Returning to 
 France he again entered the navy and had the fortune to discover the earliest symptoms 
 of the conspiracy of Amboise. After the death of Francis II. he accompanied the queen 
 (Mary Stuart) to Scotland, remaining a year, during which time he made several 
 journeys to England and attempted to bring about a reconciliation between Mary 
 and Elizabeth, but his wise and temperate counsels were disregarded. In 1562, he 
 retired to France in consequence of the civil war, and was employed against the Protest- 
 ants of Brittany, by whom he was taken prisoner, but was soon afterwards exchanged. 
 He served at the siege of Rouen and at the battle of Dreux, took possession of Tanker- 
 ville, and contributed in 1563 to the recapture of Havre from the English. Within the 
 next ten years he was employed in a number of important missions; first to queen Eliza- 
 beth to negotiate a peace ; next to the duke of Alva, the new governor of the Nether- 
 lands, on which occasion he discovered the project formed by Conde and Coligny to 
 seize and carry off the royal family (1567). After the battle of St. Denis he was again 
 sent to Germany to solicit aid against the Protestants, and on his return was made gov- 
 ernor of St. Dizier. In 1572, he was sent to England by Charles IX. to allay the excite- 
 
529 
 
 CaHtellaaa. 
 
 CaHtiglione. 
 
 ment caused by the massacre of St. Bartholomew, and in the same year was sent to 
 Germany and Switzerland. Two years later he was sent by Henry III. as ambassador 
 to queen Elizabeth’s court, w'here he remained ten years. While on this duty, with a 
 view of strengthening and maintaining the alliance between the two countries he used 
 his influence to procure the marriage of Elizabeth with the duke of Alengon; but Eliza- 
 beth made so many promises, only to break them, that C. at last refused to trans- 
 mit them to his government. On returning to France he was out of favor with the 
 league, lost his governorship of St. Dizier, and was reduced to extreme destitution; 
 but on the accession of Henry IV. he was, though a Roman Catholic, intrusted with 
 many important missions. The memoirs of C. are valuable for their accuracy and 
 impartiality. 
 
 CASTELNATJDAEY, a t. in the department of Aude, France, situated on a declivity, 
 skirted at the base by the canal du Midi, 22 m. from Carcassone. Pop. ’76, 7,628. It 
 has manufactures of woolen and silk fabrics, and earthenware, and carries on a lively 
 trade in agricultural produce. The canal at this point expands into a large basin, which 
 serves as a haven. It suffered dreadfully in the crusade against the Albigenses, and 
 was, in 1212, the scene of a battle between Simon de Montfort and Raymond, count of 
 Toulouse. In 1355, it was captured by the black prince. In 1632, marshal Schomberg 
 here gained a victory over the party of the duke of Orleans, when the brave duke of 
 Montmorency was taken prisoner, and afterwards executed at Toulouse. 
 
 CASTELNUO'VO, a seaport t. of Dalmatia, Austria, situated near the w. entrance of 
 the gulf of Cattaro. It is surrounded by walls, and defended by two forts and a cita- 
 del. It has manufactures of brass, and a trade in the produce of the district, which is 
 fertile. It was captured by the British in 1814. Pop., including commune (’69), 6,105. 
 
 CAS'TI, Giovanni Battista, 1721-1803; an Italian poet of humble origin, who rose 
 to the dignity of a canon in the church, but preferred, to further preferment, a life of 
 travel to the gay cities of Europe. In 1782, on the death of Metastasio, he was appointed 
 poet-laureate of Austria, in which position he devoted himself to comic operas. His 
 best known work is Gli Annimali Parlanti, freely used in W. S. Rose’s Court and Par- 
 liament of Beasts. On the whole, his poems are harmonious and pure in style, lively 
 and sarcastic, but without originality of plot, and often grossly licentious. 
 
 CASTIGLIO'NE, a t. of Sicily, province of Catania, on the n. slope of Mt. Etna, 
 on the right bank of the Cantara, 35 m. s.w. of Messina. The town stands on a square 
 rock rising abruptly from the valley, and having a double crest, on which stand a domed 
 church and the ruins of a feudal castle. Here, in 1297, in the war of the Vespers, 
 admiral Roger Toria raised the standard of rebellion against his sovereign, Frederick of 
 Aragon. In the district are several large nut-plantations, which produce the best Sicilian 
 hazel-nuts. Pop. 8,000. 
 
 CASTIGLIO'NE, a village on the site of the old city of Gabii, in Italy, 10 m. e. of 
 Rome. The place is noted for ruins of a temple to Juno, a theater, the ancient walls, 
 and other relics of the past. 
 
 CASTIGLIO'NE, Lake of, a lagoon of central Italy, in the province of Siena. It lies 
 n. of Grosseto, and has a length of about 10 m., with a breadth of from 1 to 3 miles. 
 Receiving the waters of the Bruna and other rivers, it discharges its waters, by a short 
 canal, into the Mediterranean. 
 
 CASTIGLIO'NE, Baldasak're, Count, one of the most elegant of the old Italian 
 writers, was b., 1478, at Casatico, in the duchy of Mantua, and studied at Milan. His 
 shining talents, knowledge, and pleasing manners made him a favorite of Guidobaldo 
 di Montefeltro, duke of Urbino, a great patron of literature, at whose court he was 
 honorably entertained, along with other men of eminence in letters. He was employed 
 by the duke as envoy to Henry VIII. of England, who made him a knight; and was 
 afterwards sent in the same capacity to Louis XII. of France, under Guidobaldo’s suc- 
 cessor, in several important ambassadorial missions. He died at Toledo in 1529. His 
 chief work is the book Del Cortegiano, a manual for courtiers, remarkable for its elegant 
 style. His Italian and Latin poems are also models of elegance, and his Letters (2 vols., 
 Padua, 1769-71) contain interesting contributions to the political and literary history of 
 his time, Tasso devoted a sonnet to the death of C., and Giulio Romano raised to his 
 memory a monument in Padua. 
 
 ^ CASTIGLIO'NE, Carlo Ottavio, Count, an eminent Italian philologist, was b. at 
 Milan in 1795. At an early period, he displayed a predilection for antiquarian studies, 
 more particularly numismatics. When only 24 years of age, he published a descrip- 
 tion of the Kufic coins in the cabinet of Brera, at Milan, under the title, Monete Gufiche 
 del Museo di Milano (Milan, 1819), which showed a great knowledge of oriental languages 
 and history, C.’s principal work in the sphere of oriental literature is his Memoire geo- 
 graphique et numismatique sur la Partie orientale de la Barharie appelee AfHkiah par les 
 Arabes, suivi de Recherches sur les Berhbres Atlantiques (Milan, 1826), in which he seeks 
 to ascertain the origin and the history of the towns in Barbary whose names are found 
 on Arabic coins. Out of Italy, C. is perhaps best known by his edition of some frag- 
 ments of the Moeso-Gothic translation of the Bible by Ulphilas (q.v.), which had been 
 discovered, in 1817, by cardinal Mai among the palimpsests of the Ambrosian library. At 
 U. K. III.-34 
 
Castig^lione. 
 
 Casting-net. 
 
 530 
 
 first, he published some specimens in conjunction with Mai, but in 1829, 1834, 1835, and 
 1839, appeared a variety of fra^ents of the Pauline epistles, edited by himself, and 
 enriched with valuable disquisitions, commentaries, and glossaries. He died at Genoa 
 April 10, 1849. 
 
 CASTIGLIO'NE, Giovanni Benedetto, 1616-70 ; a Genoese painter whjo studied 
 for some time under Vandyke. He excelled in depicting fairs, markets, and rural 
 scenes, and painted portraits and historical pieces. He also made many etchings which 
 were remarkable for light and shade. Among the most famous of his paintings was 
 “ The Nativity of Jessus,” in the church of San Luca at Genoa. His brother Salvatore, 
 and his son Francesco, excelled in similar subjects, 
 
 CASTIGLIO'NE, Giuseppe, 1698-1768; an Italian Jesuit missionary who labored 
 njany years in Pekin and other parts of China. He was also an artist of ability, and it 
 is said that the emperor Kien-Long erected several palaces from his designs. 
 
 CASTIGLIO'NE DEL'LE STIVIE'RE, a t. of n. Italy, 22 m. n.w. of Mantua. It 
 is walled and defended by an ancient castle; but is chiefly celebrated on account of the 
 victory obtained here by the French over the Austrians in 1796, and which gave the title 
 of due de Castiglione to marshal Augereau. Pop. 3,716. 
 
 CASTILE' (Spanish, Castil'la) forms, in a geographical and political point of view, 
 the central district of the Spanish peninsula, being the middle and most strongly marked 
 plateau of Spain, as well as the central seat of the monarchy. Both geographically and 
 politically it is divided into Old and New Castile — Castilla la Vieja and Castilla la Nuem. 
 The former district, situated in 40° 5' to 43° 32' n. lat., and 1° 40' to 5° 35' w. long., rises, 
 in the form of an elevated plateau, to the height of 2,500 to 3,000 feet. It is walled in 
 on all sides: on the n., by the highest masses of the Cantabrian mountains, which sepa- 
 rate it from the Basque provinces and Asturias; on the s., by the high ridge forming the 
 water-shed between the Douro and the Tagus; while the Sierras de Oca, de Urbion, and 
 Moncayo, and the heights of Leon and Tras-os-Montes bound it on the e. and west. The 
 high plateau of Old C. is but scantily watered, and its natural characteristics far from 
 inviting. In many parts, nothing is presented to the eye but a wide, unwooded, almost 
 treeless waste of land, unrefreshed % streams, in some parts monotonously covered 
 with stunted grasses, and in others almost destitute of vegetation. The traveler may 
 walk many miles without finding a village, or even a solitary farm-house. All Old C., 
 however, is not a dusty desert. There are rich tracts in it producing some of the finest 
 wheat in the world. Madder and grasses are also produced abundantly in some parts; 
 and even the olive flourishes where it is protected from the frost and snow of winter, 
 and from the cold winds prevailing in Oct. and the following months. Iron and other 
 minerals exist in plenty, but are not worked to any great extent. Sheep, cattle, pigs, 
 and mules form the chief wealth of the inhabitants. Manufactures consist of coarse 
 woolens, cotton, linen, leather, and glass. 
 
 The plateau of New Castile — which is situated between lat. 38° 23' and 41° 15' n., 
 and long. 1° and 5° 25' w. — like Old C., is also inclosed by mountains. Though lying 
 1800 ft. lower than Old C., New C. presents many similar characteristics of soil and 
 scenery. It is mostly sterile, and scantily irrigated; little rain falls, and the nightly 
 dews are insutficient to refresh the plains, which are entirely destitute of trees, and, in 
 summer, appear quite burned up. Olives, corn, pulse, and saffron are cultivated in 
 some neighborhoods; but flocks of sheep constitute the chief wealth of extensive tracts 
 of land. The commerce, carried on by means of long trains of mules, reminds the tour- 
 ist of the caravan traflQc over eastern deserts. Industry is almost entirely restricted to 
 manufactures of coarse w^oolen goods. The yield of the salt-mines in the s. is consid- 
 erable; and quicksilver, especially at Almaden (q.v.), and iron (manufactured at Toledo) 
 are plentiful. The Castilians have even more than the general haughtiness of the Span- 
 ish character. Their language prevails’ throughout the educated classes, as in the litera- 
 ture of Spain, and their rulers have extended their sway over the whole nation. 
 
 In the present administrative division of Spain into forty-nine provinces, the division 
 of Old and New C., though it will long be remembered by the people, is one belonging 
 to past history. Old C. is now divided into the eight provinces of Burgos, Logrono, 
 Santander, Soria, Segovia, Avila, Palencia, and Valladolid. The population, distributed 
 over an area of 22,797 sq.m., amounted, in 1870, to 1,689,864. New C. includes the five 
 provinces — Madrid, Guadalaxara, Guen 9 a, Toledo, and Ciudad Real, and on an area of 
 80,882 sq.m, has 1,541,772 inhabitants. Besides these provinces, the kingdom of Leon, 
 Galicia, the principality of Asturias, and the districts of Estremadura, Andalusia, 
 Granada, and Murcia, belonged to the crown of Castile. 
 
 C. first became an independent country in 762, and remained so until 1028, when it 
 passed to Sancho III., king of Navarre. His son, Ferdinand I. (great), founded the 
 kingdom of C. , and among other acquisitions annexed to it the kingdom of Leon. This 
 union, however, was not permanent, Leon being made a separate kingdom for Ferdinand 
 II. The two kingdoms, however, were afterwards reunited in the 13th c. in the person 
 of Ferdinand III. , and remained ever after under one scepter. Among the successors 
 of Ferdinand III., the most distinguished was Alfonso X., by whose direction the 
 Alfonsine (astronomical) tables were drawn up. By the marriage of Isabella, sister and 
 successor of Henry IV., with Ferdinand, king of Aragon (1469), the two crowns of C- 
 
531 
 
 Castig:lione* 
 
 Castin£^-net* 
 
 and Aragon became united (1479), and from these sprang the kingdom of Spain, which, 
 however, was not fully established before the death of Ferdinand, in 1516, when 
 Charles I. of Spain (Charles V. of Germany) inherited both crowns. 
 
 CASTIL'LA, Don Ramon, 1797-1867; a Peruvian who entered the Spanish army in 
 1816, but soon after 1830 joined the revolt against Spanish rule. In 1830, Gamarra 
 made him chief of staff of the whole army, and the provisional president appointed 
 him brig. gen. After the treaty with the president of Bolivia, Castilla went to 
 Chili, and in 1837 joined the Peruvians who marched against Santa Cruz, the president 
 of Bolivia. When the revolutionists proclaimed Gamarra president, Castilla was made 
 minister of war. In 1841, he was one of the leaders of the Peruvian force that invaded 
 Bolivia, and in 1845 he was elected president of Peru. His successor, Echenique, 
 became unpopular, and Castilla started a revolution, overcame Echenique, and became 
 sole ruler of the country. One of his important reforms was the abolition of slavery. 
 In 1858, he was re-elected president, and in 1860, he proclaimed a new constitution 
 which granted universal suffrage and prohibited the exercise of any religion except tlio 
 Roman Catholic. His last political movement was in 1867, when he led an insurrectioii 
 against Prado, then president; and he was on his way to Arica when he died. 
 
 CASTILLE'JO, Christoval De, 1494-1556; a Spanish verse-writer of great fertility, 
 whose poems were about the last of the old Spanish school before the changes led by 
 Garcilaso de la Vega. Being strongly anti-clerical, Castillejo’s writings were usually 
 noted on the Index Expurgatorius, and were smuggled into Spain from foreign printing- 
 houses, while in a later period the agents of the church altered the verses to suit them- 
 selves. The works of Castillejo are in three books, one entitled Love, one Conversation 
 and Pastime, and the third comprising moral and religious verses. He died in a 
 monastery. 
 
 CASTILLON, a t. of France, in the department of Gironde, situated on the right bank 
 of the Dordogne, 26 m. e. of Bordeaux. It has manufactures of cotton and woolen 
 yarns, nails, and cordage. It is celebrated as the scene of the battle between the forces 
 of Henry VI. of England and Charles VII. of Fi-ance, July, 1453, in which the English 
 met with a signal defeat, their leader, the earl of Shrewsbury, and his son, being slain. 
 Of all their possessions in France, Calais alone remained to the English after this battle, 
 the incidents of which were seized on by Shakespeare for the sixth scene in his play of 
 King Henry VI., part i. Pop. ’76, 3,766. 
 
 CASTINE, a t. in Hancock co., Maine, on the Penobscot, 34 m. below Bangor; pop. 
 ’70, 1303. It was here that the baron de Castine settled in 1667 a French colony, which 
 was soon abandoned in consequence of Indian and English wars. In 1760, it was re- 
 occupied by the English, who made a harbor that was always accessible for the largest 
 ships. Castine is now a port of entry, and ship-building and fishing are the employ- 
 ments of the greater portion of the people. 
 
 CASTING, in angling, is the term applied to the act of throwing a fly or a fish-bait. 
 In casting a fly with a single-handed rod, the beginner should let out about as much 
 line as the length of the rod; grasp the rod just above the reel; then wave it back over 
 the right or left shoulder, with a slightly circular sweep, so as to extend the line behind; 
 and then bring it forward with a steady cutting kind of action, urging the point of the 
 rod towards the spot where the fly is to fall, taking care not to carry the point of the 
 rod too far forward, or too low, or the line will not fall straight and evenly on the water. 
 The object of the circular sweep behind is to prevent the fly from cracking off. By 
 slightly raising the point of the rod just as the fly is delivered, the line is straightened ; 
 and the fly, checked in mid career, falls like thistle-down upon the water. Always allow 
 time for the line to go straight out behind, for if returned too quickly, the fly cracks off. 
 In casting with the double-handed rod, the one hand grasps the rod above the reel, and 
 the other below it, the lower hand acting as a pivot upon which the rod turns. 
 
 In casting a bait, either for spinning, trolling, or live-baiting, the bait is suffered to 
 hang from the point of the rod about a yard. Taking the rod in both hands, the line 
 clasped to the rod in his right, the angler waves the bait gently back ; and having first 
 drawn as much line as he requires off the reel, and laid it loosely at his feet, he senda 
 the bait forward with a swing towards the point he desires to reach. 
 
 CASTING. See Founding, ante. 
 
 CASTING-NET, a species of net very widely distributed, having been found in use 
 amongst various savage tribes in different parts of the world, some of whom, from long 
 and constant practice, use it with a dexterity and address unknown in England. The 
 nets used in England are usually from 13 to 20 ft. in circumference when spread out. 
 They are netted in the shape of a kind of long loose bag or cone ; and so much is the 
 number of meshes increased as the net progresses, that it is capable of being spread out 
 in a perfectly flat and circular form, the apex of the cone forming the center of the 
 circle. To this apex is attached a rope of some yards in length; when casting, this rope 
 is fastened round the left wrist of the caster. The bottom of the net, which forms, 
 when it is held up by the apex, the base of the cone, or, when spread, the circumference 
 of the circle, is hung around with perforated leads or bullets. These have not only the 
 effect of carrying the net to the bottom of the water, but also, when it is cast, of causing 
 
Casting-Tote. 
 
 Castle. 
 
 532 
 
 • the net to spread open. The bottom of the net is turned up some 6 in. or more in depth, 
 and hung up on the inside about every 10 in. or so, to an upper portion of the net, bj 
 «tout strings, so as to form a kind of purse; this is called the “ tuck.” When the net is 
 required to be cast, the caster, having fastened the rope to his wrist, and coiled it loosely 
 in his left hand, hangs a portion of the net over his left shoulder; and then gathering ^ 
 much of the outer edge of the net as he can collect in his right hand, and holding it up 
 so as to open the net as much as possible, makes a semicircular sweep of the body and 
 the right hand — rather difficult to accomplish without practice — and whirls the net away 
 off the shoulder. The centrifugal motion thus communicated to the leads, etc., on the 
 bottom of the net, causes it to open like a circle on the surface of the water, the leads 
 carry it to the bottom, and the net thus covers all that comes within its circle. The 
 rope is then pulled gradually, and worked from side to side, in order to narrow the 
 circle, to bring it once more into a cone ; and, in their efforts to escape, the fish that 
 may have been covered are gradually driven into the tuck or purse of the net. When 
 the leads are all close together, the net is lifted from the water, and the fish in the tuck 
 are taken out. The cost of a cast-net is regulated by the circumference and the size of 
 the mesh. They may be had from 12s. to 80s. or more. 
 
 CASTING-VOTE, the vote by which the chairman or president of a meeting is generally 
 empowered to cast the balance on the one side or the other, where the other votes are 
 equally divided. In the house of commons, the speaker does not vote at all unless this 
 occurrence takes place. As his position in this respect is felt to be a delicate one for a 
 person whose duty it is to withdraw himself from the contentions of party, it is usual 
 for the speaker to vote in such a way as to give the house an opportunity of reconsidering 
 its decision. The same rule prevails in select committees. Following a similar rule, 
 the chairman at corporation and general meetings usually gives his casting-vote either in 
 a way that will lead to a reconsideration of the subject, or for what seems the popular 
 view of the case, although that may be at variance with liis convictions. 
 
 CAST-IRON, or Pig-Iron. This is the crudest form of iron, and the method of its 
 production is described under the head Iron. There are two leading kinds of it, namely, 
 white pig-iron and gray pig-iron ; the former is also called forge-iron, from the fact of 
 its being chiefl^r used for conversion into malleable iron and steel; and the latter is often 
 called foundry-iron, on account of its suitability for castings. Of each of these, again, 
 there are many varieties; and much light has of late years been thrown on what consti- 
 tutes their different qualities, by experiments in the manufacture of steel. White cast- 
 iron, when smelted from the argillaceous ores of the coal-measures, is of inferior value 
 to the gray; much of it, indeed, being produced against the will of the iron-master, 
 when the blast-furnace is working badly. But when obtained from pure ores and fuel 
 it is the most valuable kind, because it contains fewer impurities, and has its carbon 
 nearly all in the combined state, in which case it is best suited for the manufacture of 
 wrought-iron and steel. Gray pig-iron contains carbon both in the combined and the 
 uncombined (graphitic) state. In the grayest kind, uncombined carbon greatly prevails, 
 and the fracture of the iron is more distinctly granular or scaly-crystalline than is the 
 case with other varieties. Such cast-iron is usually called No. 1. It is much softer, but 
 fuses at a higher temperature than white pig-iron. It also becomes thinly liquid when 
 melted, and expands slightly just before cooling — properties which render it extremely 
 valuable for castings. As the grayness and graphite-like brightness diminish, the iron 
 is known as No. 2, No. 3, and so on for several numbers, till we come to the close tex- 
 ture and light color of white pig-iron ; No. 2 being but slightly different from No. 1, 
 and No. 5 from white-iron, in quality. No. 3 is intermediate between the extremes. 
 When cast-iron is partly gray and partly white, it is called mottled iron. Cast-iron con- 
 tains from 2 to 5 per cent of carbon, the maximum amount in steel being 2; but steel is 
 practically free from silicon, sulphur, and phosphorus, while cast-iron is not. 
 
 CASTLE (Sax. castel; Lat. castellum, dimin. from castrum), a building constructed 
 for the purpose of repelling attack. The root of the word is the same as that of casa, 
 a little house or hut, and probably means a driving off or repelling; and it is worthy of 
 notice, in confirmation of this view, that in Welsh the radical syllable cas signifies a G., 
 separated, and also hatred, malice, etc. The castella, left by the Romans in Britain and 
 elsewhere, were constructed on the general model of their stationary encampments 
 {astra stativa), (see Camp and Encampment); and though they may have suggested the 
 castles of the middle ages, they differed from them in being designed for military pur- 
 poses only, and not also as places of permanent residence. Even Burgh castle, in Suf- 
 folk, the ancient Garamonium, and Richborough castle, in Kent, the ancient Rutupiae, 
 were encampments or fortresses, rather than castles. 
 
 Besides these monuments of the military occupation of the Island by the Romans, 
 traces are found in various parts of the country of encampments or castles, which are 
 ascribed to its aboriginal or early inhabitants. These are generally situated on the tops 
 of hills; as, for example, the Herefordshire beacon, on the Malvern hills; Moel Arthur, 
 in Flintshire; Chem castle, in Cornwall; the Maiden castle, in Dorsetshire; the Cater- 
 thuns, near Brechin, in Forfarshire; the Barmkin of Echt, in Aberdeenshire. It is 
 probable that the Saxons adapted the Roman castles to a certain extent to their modes 
 of defense, and traces of Saxon and even Norman workmanship are found in struc- 
 
533 
 
 Casting-vote. 
 
 Castle. 
 
 tures which are believed to have been originally Roman. One very frequent change 
 consisted in raising a mound of earth on one side of the walls on which the keep or 
 citadel was- erected. The Decuman and Praetorian gates were also, as at Portchester, 
 converted into the fortified entrances peculiar to the castellated structures of the middle 
 ages. But of castles designed for residence as well as defense, there are few or none 
 which are of higher antiquity than the conquest. They were part of the organization 
 of the feudal system — castle-guard being one of the duties which the tenants were taken 
 bound to pay in return for their lands; and till that system was developed by the Nor- 
 mans, the residences of persons of importance were probably guarded only by their 
 domestic retainers, or, in extraordinary circumstances, perhaps by the national militia. 
 The absence of strongholds is said to have been a reason why William the conqueror so 
 easily became master of the kingdom; and it was as a protection against the resentment 
 which the conquest occasioned, that most of the great Norman castles of England were 
 built. As these castles grew in strength by the additions and improvements of each gen- 
 eration, they afforded their possessors the means not only of security from their fellow- 
 subjects, but of independence as regarded the central government. The lord of every 
 C. became a petty tyrant ; and no small portion of the history of England, and, indeed, 
 of Europe altogether, during the feudal period, consists of an account of the attempts 
 which were made by the monarch to extirpate what Matthew Paris has emphatically 
 designated as “ these nests of devils and dens of thieves.” Of castles of this descrip- 
 tion, it is said that in England, in the reign of Stephen (1135-54), no fewer than 1115 
 were built. 
 
 The Norman C., which was the most complete structure of the kind, was generally 
 surrounded by a moat or ditch ; and in order that the ditch might be readily filled with 
 water, the site chosen was usually either on the banks of a river, or on a peninsula running 
 into a lake. In the latter case, the ditch was of course merely a deep cut made through 
 the neck of land, by means of which the C. and its surroundings were converted into an 
 island. On the inner side of the ditch, mounds were constructed, which were sur- 
 mounted with walls and towers, both of which, but particularly the latter, were supplied 
 with battlements and bastions. The entrance-gates were also protected by towers, 
 which were usually of great strength. The communication was by a bridge, sometimes 
 of stone, but usually of wood, which was made to draw up and down ; and the entrance, 
 in addition to thick folding-doors, was protected by a portcullis (q.v.), which was dropped 
 down through grooves in the masonry at the sides. The gateway, in castles of the 
 larger sort, was further defended by a barbican (q.v.). On passing the external wall, 
 you entered the bailey (q.v.), which sometimes consisted of several courts, and contained 
 the barracks, magazines, well, a chapel, and sometimes even a monastery. The only 
 portion of the C. which was always spoken of as distinguished from the bailey, was the 
 keep (q.v.) or citadel, which corresponded to the prsetorium of the Roman fortification. 
 The keep was a species of internal 0., more strongly defended than any other portion 
 of the fortress, and placed in the most advantageous position, so as to afford a last 
 chance to the garrison when driven from the external works. As the keep had 
 the same design as the C. itself, it contained most of its appliances, even to a chapel, 
 when large and complete. The keep was also called the dungeon or donjon (q.v.). 
 An excellent example of a keep is seen at Rochester castle. The best known is proba- 
 bly that at Windsor, which forms so prominent an object in the surrounding land- 
 scape. The protection which the walls of his C. afforded to the retainers of a baron 
 in a state of society in which life and property were extremely insecure, naturally 
 led to the construction of houses around the moat, and to this custom a very large 
 , number of the towns, both in England and on the continent of Europe, owe their 
 origin. Along the banks of the Rhine, this process of town-formation may be seen 
 in all its earlier stages; from the few peasants’ houses and the village church nestling 
 under the ivy -covered ruin on the cliff, to the large and prosperous city of Coblenz. 
 Strange as it may seem, the existence of these castles may be regarded not only as a 
 cause, but as an effect of a certain feeling of security on the part of the surrounding pop- 
 ulation ; for where a country was thoroughly insecure, the risk of the castles falling into 
 the hands of the enemy, and thus proving a source not of protection but of oppression, 
 was so great as to prevent their erection. It is on this ground that sir Walter Scott 
 explains the slight character of the fortresses on the Scottish border, notwithstanding 
 centuries of warfare. “ It was early discovered that the English surpassed their neigh- 
 bors in the arts of assaulting and defending fortified places. The policy of the Scotch, 
 therefore, deterred them from erecting upon the borders buildings of such extent and 
 strength, as being once taken by the foe, would have been capable of receiving a per- 
 manent garrison. To themselves, the woods and hills of their country were pointed out 
 by the great Bruce as their safest bulwarks; and the maxim of the Douglases, that ‘it 
 was better to hear the lark sing than the mouse cheep,’ was adopted by every border 
 chief.” For these reasons, “we do not find, on the Scottish borders, the splendid and 
 extensive castles which graced and defended the opposite frontier. The Gothic grandeur 
 of Alnwick, of Raby, and of Naworth, marks the wealthier and more secure state of the 
 English nobles.” The residence of the Scottish chieftain, “ was commonly a large 
 square battlemented tower, called a yfceep ov peel, placed on a precipice, or on the banks 
 of a torrent, and, if the ground would permit, surrounded by a moat. In short, the sit- 
 
Castlebar. 
 
 Castor. 
 
 534 
 
 uation of a border-house, encompassed by woods, and rendered almost inaccessible by- 
 torrents, by rocks and morasses, sufficiently indicated the pursuits and apprehensions of 
 its inhabitants .” — Minstrelsy of the Sottish Border, Introduction. 
 
 CASTLEBAR', the capital of the co. of Mayo, Ireland, 159 m. w.n.w. of Dublin. It 
 is situated on the Castlebar river, near the head of a valley at the n.w. end of the great 
 limestone plain which includes the greater part of the counties of Roscommon, Sligo, 
 Galway, and Mayo. The two main streets cross each other, and the chief buildings are 
 in a square near the w. end. The suburbs, as in most of the w. Irish towns, consist of 
 the wretched hovels of agricultural laborers. Pop. ’71, 3,571. C. has some coarse linen 
 manufactures. Here the Irish, in the rebellion of 1641, massacred the English parlia- 
 mentary army, and in 1786 was executed the famous “fighting Fitzgerald.” In 1798, 
 the French gen. Humbert, held the town for a fortnight. In 1846 and 1847, C. suf- 
 fered extremely from the famine. 
 
 CASTLEMAINE, a t. in the province of Victoria, Australia, 65 m. n.w. of Mel- 
 bourne; pop. ’71, 7,308. It was a place of much importance when gold mining began,, 
 the diggings near by being among the earliest opened. The Victoria railroad passes 
 through the town. 
 
 CASTLE PEAK, a peak of the Sierra Nevada in California, about 38° 10' n. ; height 
 estimated at 13,000 feet. 
 
 CASTLEREAGH', Lord. See Londonderry, Marquis op. 
 
 CASTLES, in heraldry, are often given as charges in the shields of persons who have 
 reduced them, or been the first to mount their walls in an assault. The practice of 
 heralds, in this as in other respects, has not been very consistent, as we learn that in 
 1602, a castle was granted by William Cambden, Clarencieux king of arms, to William 
 Frear, doctor of physic ! 
 
 CASTLETON, a t. in Richmond co.. New York, forming the n. portion of Staten 
 island, and occupied in part by the summer residences of business men of the city, 
 pop. ’75, 10,957; in ’80, 12,679. New Brighton is the only considerable village. There 
 are ferries from several points in the township to New York, and one to New Jersey; 
 and a railroad connects with the southern part of the island. Among the institutions is 
 “ Sailor’s Snug Harbor,” a home for old and indigent seamen, established about the 
 beginning of the century by capt. Randall. The surface of the township is hilly, and 
 there are many charming sites occupied by handsome modern villas, from some of 
 which wide views may be had over the city of New York, and large portions of New 
 Jersey, Long Island, and the ocean. 
 
 CASTLETON, a village in Rutland co., Vt., 12 m. s. of Rutland, reached by the 
 Rensselaer and Saratoga, and the Rutland and Washington railroads; pop. ’80, 2605. 
 The slate quarries in the neighborhood are valuable. In the village is the state normal 
 school. 
 
 CASTLETOWN, the capital town and seat of government of the Isle of Man, called in 
 Manx Bailey Cashtal, or the Town of the Castle. C. is situated on the margin of Castle- 
 town bay, near the southern extremity of the island, and surrounds Castle Rushen, a 
 Danish fortress of prodigious strength, having walls from 12 to 18 ft. in thickness, 
 built of the limestone found on the spot, which is of so imperishable a nature that the 
 sharp angles of the keep retain the marks of the builder’s chisel, though completed in 
 the 10th century. The castle was founded by Guthred II. of the Orrys kings of Man, 
 md having been added to from time to time, it now consists of a pile of building of a 
 most imposing appearance. It underwent a six months’ siege by Robert Bruce in 1313. 
 The keep is used as the public jail of the island, and the other portion of the castle con- 
 sists of public offices, officer’s apartments, and accommodation for the chancery and 
 other superior courts. 
 
 Being in the neighborhood of the bold coast-scenery of the Calf of Man, Spanish 
 head, etc. , C. is a desirable resort for the numerous tourists who frequent the Isle of 
 Man. Ship-building has of late made considerable progress in Castletown. Pop. ’71, 
 2,820. 
 
 CASTOR, Antonius, an eminent botanist of Rome in the first century after Christ; 
 several times quoted and mentioned by Pliny. He had a botanical garden, probably the 
 earliest on record. He lived more than 100 years in perfect health, it is reported, both 
 of body and mind. 
 
 CASTOREUM, a substance secreted in two glandular sacs, closely connected with, 
 but quite distinct from, the organs of reproduction in the beaver (q.v.), and at one time 
 held in the highest repute in medicine, although now regarded as almost inert, and 
 chiefly used by perfumers. The C. sacs are pear-shaped, and it appears in commerce in 
 these sacs themselves, connected in pairs as they are taken from the animal. C. is pro- 
 duced both by the male and by the female beaver. In Hudson’s bay commerce, ten 
 pair of them are equal in value to one beaver skin. Russian C. is of much higher value 
 than American. C. was well known to the ancients. From the time of Hippocrates, 
 it was regarded as having a specific influence over the uterus, and is still in use in th® 
 
535 
 
 Castlebar. 
 
 Castor. 
 
 of Europe, It was at one time also esteemed a most Yaluable medicine in hysteria, 
 catalepsy, and other spasmodic diseases. 
 
 CASTOEID.S:, a famly of mammalia, of the or dier rodentia, of which the beaver {castor) 
 is the type, and in which, besides the beaver, the coypu {myopotamus), and the mus- 
 quash, some naturalists include other genera more commonly regarded as belonging to 
 the mouse and rat family {muridm), as the lemmings and voles. 
 
 CASTOB OIL, a fixed oil obtained from the seeds of the C. O. plant. In extracting 
 the oil, the seeds are first bruised between heavy rollers, and then pressed in hempen 
 bags under a hydraulic or screw press. The best variety of oil is thus obtained by press- 
 ure in the cold, and is known as cold-drawn C. O. ; but if the bruised and pressed 
 seeds be afterwards steamed or heated, and again pressed, a second quality of oil is 
 obtained, which is apt to become partially solid or frozen in cold weather. In either 
 case the crude oil is heated with water to 212°, which coagulates, and separates the 
 albumen and other impurities. Exposure to the sun’s light bleaches the oil, and this 
 process is resorted to on the large scale. When pure and cold-drawn, C. O. is of a light 
 yellow color; but when of an inferior quality, it has a greenish, and occasionally a 
 brownish tinge. It is somewhat thick and viscid. Its specific gravity is high for an 
 oil, being about 960 (water being taken as 1000). It is miscible with alcohol or spirits 
 of wine and ether. Reduced to a temperature of 0° F., it does not become solid; but 
 exposed to the air, it very slowly becomes rancid, then dry and hard, and serves as a 
 connecting link between the drying and non-drying oils. It has a nauseous smell, and 
 an acrid, disagreeable, and sickening taste, which may be overcome by the addition of 
 a little magnesia. The principal acid present in it is ricinolicdLcid. (HO,C 3 eH 33 06), which 
 is allied to oleic acid. 
 
 C. O. is one of the most convenient and mildest of purgative medicines. Given in 
 doses of one or two tea-spoonfuls, with a little peppermint-water, it forms a gentle laxa- 
 tive for habits easily acted on by medicine ; while a dose of a table-spoonful, or a little 
 more, will almost alw^s succeed if it remains on the stomach. The only serious 
 objections to the use of C. O., are its disagreeable flavor, and the sickness often produced 
 by it ; some persons get over this difficulty by floating the oil in hot coffee, which is 
 said to remove its nauseous quality. 
 
 The adulteration of C. O. may be various. Several of the fixed oils, including lard, 
 may be employed. The best test of its purity is its complete solubility in its own vol- 
 ume of absolute alcohol, which other fixed oils are not. Croton oil is occasionally 
 added to increase the purgative powers of the oil. 
 
 The Castor Oil Plant {ricinus communis) is a native of the s. of Asia, but now 
 naturalized in the s. of Europe, and in other warm regions of the globe. The genus 
 ricinus belongs to the natural order euphorbiacem. It has panicled flowers, with 3 to 5- 
 partite perianth; the fruit a tricoccous capsule, with one seed in each cell, the outside of 
 the capsule generally covered with soft spines. The C. O. plant is often cultivated in 
 gardens in the middle and even in the northern parts of Europe, where it is only an 
 annual, attaining a height of 3 to 10 feet, but highly ornamented by its stately growth, 
 its large, broad, palmato-peltate, 7 to 9-fid leaves, f to 2 ft. in diameter, and its gener- 
 ally purplish hue. Its flowers are produced in long glaucous racemes. In warmer 
 climates, it is perennial, and its stem becomes arborescent, attaining even 30 ft. in 
 height, with a corresponding thickness, so that ladders are used for climbing it. Dif- 
 ferent species which<have been described, are probably mere varieties. It was known 
 to the ancients, and appears to have been valued by them. Its seeds have been found 
 in Egyptian sarcophagi. From the resemblance of its seeds to an insect called ricinus, 
 it received that name from the Romans. The seeds are oval, and about four lines 
 long. They are chiefly valued for the oil which they yield, on account of which the 
 plant is cultivated in the Levant, Spain, Provence, the West Indies, Brazil, the United 
 States of America, as far n. as New Jersey, and in other tropical and warm temperate 
 countries. — Although C. O. is chiefly used in medicine, it is not unfit for lamps and for 
 oiling the wheels of machinery. The streets of Lima are lighted and the machines 
 used in the works of the sugar plantations of Peru are oiled with it. The appearance 
 of the C. O. plant obtained for it the name of palma christi, by which it is still some- 
 times called. Its seeds were formerly known as semina cataputim majoris. 
 
 CASTOR AND POLLUX, twin gods of Greece and Rome; known under the name 
 of Dioscuri (from Dios or Jupiter, %nd Kouroi, children); children of Jupiter by Leda, 
 who met the divinity in his form of a swan. The Dioscuri were specially reverenced 
 among people of the Dorian race, and were said to have reigned at Sparta. They pre- 
 sided over public games. Castor being the god of equestrian exercises, and Pollux the 
 god of boxing; but both were usually represented on fiery steeds, with spears, and egg- 
 shaped helmets crowned with stars. They were the patrons of hospitality, and their 
 aid was especially sought by travelers, to whom they were always gracious. Among 
 their exploits were the invasion of Attica to rescue their sister Helen from Theseus; their 
 part in the Calydonian hunt; their participation in the Argonautic expedition, during 
 which they married the daughters of Leucippus; and lastly their battle with the sons 
 of Aphareus, in which Castor (the mortal brother) was slain by Idas. On finding him 
 dead, Pollux, who was immortal, implored Jupiter to permit him also to die; but 
 
Castor. 
 
 Castro. 
 
 536 
 
 Homer says the dead one was permitted to live again on condition that both should, oa 
 alternate days, descend to Hades, or that they should live orjly on alternate days 
 Another story is that they were placed among the stars, and now, as the Twins, forn? 
 one of the 13 zodiacal signs. They were greatly venerated at Rome, where it was 
 believed that at the battle of lake Kegillus they fought at the head of the legions of 
 the commonwealth, and afterwards with incredible speed carried to the city the news 
 of the victory. Where they alighted near a well in the forum, a temple was built, and 
 a great festival was held in their honor during the ides of Quintilis, the supposed anni- 
 versary of the battle, where sacrifices were offered at the public charge, A part of the 
 ceremonies was a grand muster of the equestrian body, when all the knights, clad m 
 purple and crowned with olive, assembled at the temple of Mars, out of the city, and 
 rode in state to the forum where stood the temple of the twins. For centuries this 
 pageant was one of the most splendid sights in Rome. In the days of Dionysius the 
 cavalcade consisted of 5,000 horsemen, all persons of wealth and honorable repute. 
 
 CASTOR AND POLLUX, the two principal stars in the constellation Gemini (q.v.), 
 were so called from Castor and Pollux, sons of Leda and Tyndareus, king of Lacede- 
 mon. Their sister was the famous Helen of Troy. On account of their mutual attach- 
 ment, Zeus placed them among the stars. 
 
 CASTOR AND POLLUX, the name given to a meteor, seen at sea, and which, under 
 the form of twin balls of fire, attaches itself to the masts of ships. Sailors predict fair 
 weather from its appearance. Sometimes, however, only one ball of fire is seen; the 
 meteor is then called Helena, and it is regarded as foreboding a storm. Shakespeare 
 makes mention of this superstition in the Tempest (act i. scene 2). 
 
 CASTRAMETATION is the art of encamping; and a camp is the result of that art. 
 See Camp, Encampment. 
 
 CASTRATION, taking away, or destroying the natural powers, or the essential 
 organs of generation in animals ; in males the removal of the testicles, and in females 
 a mutilation or removal of the ovaries, commonly called “spaying.” The general 
 purpose is to make domestic animals more docile and useful, and more valuable for 
 meat, as well as to restrict unlimited reproduction. 
 
 CASTREN, Matthias Alexander, the greatest authority in regard to the Finnish 
 people and language, was b. in 1813, not far from the Lappish boundaries of Finland. 
 He received his earliest instruction in the town of Tornea, and afterwards studied at 
 Helsingfors. About the year 1838, he undertook a pedestrian excursion through Fin- 
 nish Lapland, in order to extend his knowledge of the language and literature; and, in 
 1840, another through Carelia, to collect ballads, legends, etc., illustrative of Finnish 
 mythology. On his return, he published in Swedish a translation of the famous Finnish 
 poem, Kalevala, the meter and style of which have been imitated by Longfellow in his 
 poem of Hiawatha. Aided by the government of his native province, he commenced 
 his researches among the Finnish, Norwegian, and Russian Laplanders, as also among 
 the European and Siberian Samoyeds. Appointedi linguist and ethnographer to the St. 
 Petersburg academy, C., between the years 1845 and 1849, prosecuted his laborious 
 investigations as far e. as China, and as far n. as the Arctic ocean. On his return, he 
 was appointed first professor of the Finnish language and literature at the university of 
 Helsingfors. He employed himself in preparing for publication the vast materials 
 which he had collected, but died 7th May, 1852, from exhaustion — a martyr to science. 
 Before his death, appeared Versuch einer ostjdkischen Sprachlehre nehst kurzen Worter- 
 aerzeichniss (Petersburg, 1849), as the first installment of his Northern Travels and Be- 
 tearches. He also wrote Elementa Grammatics Syrjaence (Helsingfors, 1844), and Elementa 
 Grammatics Tscheremisss (1845) ; On the Influence of the Accent in the Lappish Language 
 (Petersburg, 1845); De Aflixis Personalibus Linguarum Altaicarum (Helsingfors, 1850), 
 etc. 
 
 CASTR^1N', Matthias Alexander, 1813-53; a native of Finland, and the first 
 eminent philologist and antiquarian of that country. He traveled extensively in all parts 
 of the country to become familiar with the language (having been educated in Swedish), 
 and with the antiquities and folk-lore of the people. He also traveled among the 
 Samoieds of Europe and Siberia to the provinces of China and the Arctic ocean. He 
 was the first professor of the Finnish language and_^ literature at the university of Hel- 
 singfors. All his works were published after his death, and a monument has been 
 dedicated to his memory at Helsingfors. 
 
 CASTRES, a t. of France, in the department of Tarn, is situated on both sides of the 
 river Agout, 46 m. e. of Toulouse. The two parts of the town are united by two stone 
 bridges. In the middle ages, C. was celebrated for its Benedictine abbey, the heads of 
 which exercised a temporal sway over the place. Later, it was one of the strongholds 
 of the reformed party, but it was forced to submit, and had its fortifications demolished 
 in the reign of Louis XIII. C. has beautiful promenades, shaded by fine alleys of trees, 
 and in the neighborhood is a remarkable rocking-stone, 11 ft. high, and weighing some 
 80 tons. It is of egg-shape, and rests upon its smaller end ; a strong push is sufficient 
 to cause its vibration. C. is a busy manufacturing place. Its fine wool-dyed goods are 
 
537 
 
 Castor. 
 
 Castro. 
 
 especially famous, and it has also manufactures of linen, leather, paper, soap, etc. 
 Pop. 76, 20,520. 
 
 CASTBI, or Kastri, a village of modern Greece, in the government of Phocis, sit- 
 uated on the s. declivity of Mt. Parnassus, and worthy of notice, as occupying a portion 
 of the site of the ancient Delphi (q.v.). The famous Castalian spring, now called the 
 fountain of St. John, is situated between 200 and 300 yards to the e. of the village. 
 Beside it grows a plane-tree, the only one in C., which is fabled to be that planted by 
 Agamemnon. 
 
 CASTRO (ancient Mitylene), a seaport t. of Asiatic Turkey, capital of the island of 
 Mitylene, situated on the e. coast, about 55 m. n.w. of Smyrna. It is surrounded with 
 walls, and defended by a castle, and its streets are narrow and dirty. Remains of the 
 ancient town are found to the west. Pop. 6,500. 
 
 CASTRO, Guillen de, 1569-1631 ; a Spanish dramatist who enjoyed the friendship 
 of Lope de Vega, whom he assisted in the famous festival of the canonization of San 
 Isidoro, where he won a prize in the literary tournament. Castro wrote about 40 plays, 
 the most celebrated of which was Las Mercedes del Cid, to which Corneille was greatly 
 indebted for the materials of his renowned tragedy. It is said that Castro died in 
 poverty and was buried by charitable friends. 
 
 CASTRO, Henry, 1786-1861 ; a native of France, an officer of the national guard of 
 Paris, who, after the downfall of Napoleon, emigrated to the United States, and in 1827, 
 was consul for Naples at Providence, R. I. He returned to Paris 11 years later, became a 
 partner in the counting-house of Lafitte, and was made consul-general for the new republic 
 of Texas. He engaged in the business of sending out emigrants, and within a few years 
 established at Castroville and other places settlements which, after the annexation, were 
 organized into Medina county. 
 
 CASTRO, Inez de, whose mournful fate is the subject of several tragedies and poems, 
 was the daughter of Pedro Fernandez de Castro, and sprang from a branch of the royal 
 family of Castile. She was appointed lady-in-waiting to the wife of Dom Pedro, son of 
 Alfonso IV. of Portugal. Her beauty captivated Dom Pedro, and, after the death of 
 hi^ wife, in 1345, he secretly married Inez. Their stolen interviews took place in the 
 convent of St. Clara, at Coimbra, until the secret was discovered and revealed to the 
 king, who was made to believe that this union might prove injurious to the young Fer- 
 dinand, son of Dom Pedro by his deceased wife. Questioned by his father, Dom Pedro 
 had not the courage to reveal the whole truth, while he refused to marry another. In 
 the king’s council, it was determined that Inez mu.st die. To see this sentence exe- 
 cuted, the king hastened to Coimbra, while his son, Dom Pedro, was engaged in hunting 
 (1355); but the sight of the beautiful Inez, who, with her children, cast herself at the 
 feet of the king, and prayed for mercy, diverted him for a few moments from his pur- 
 pose. His advisers, however, soon obtained from the king permission to execute the 
 sentence, and, in the course of an hour after the interview, Ihez fell pierced by the dag- 
 gers of assassins. Dom Pedro attempted a revolt against his father, but was pacified by 
 the queen and the archbishop of Braga, and promised not to seek revenge for the death 
 of Inez. Two years afterwards, the king died, having shortly before his death recom- 
 mended the murderers of Inez to leave Portugal, and seek shelter in Castile, where Peter 
 the cruel was then ruling. As several of Peter’s nobles had escaped into Portugal, to 
 avoid his oppression, he now proposed to Dom Pedro an exchange of fugitives, to which 
 the latter (now king of Portugal) consented. Two of the assassins accordingly were 
 delivered up, and were tortured and burned. Two years afterwards, the king, in an 
 assembly of the nobility, declared that he had been lawfully married, by papal sanc- 
 tion, and in the presence of the archbishop of Guarda, to Inez de Castro. When this 
 statement had been confirmed by several testimonies, the king gave orders that the corpse 
 of Inez should be removed from its grave, clothed in royal attire, with a crown on the 
 head, and seated on a throne, should receive homage as queen. This strange ceremony 
 was performed, the nobles of Portugal bowing before the enthroned dead, and kissing 
 the hem of the royal robe. The body was then removed to Alcoba 9 a followed by the 
 king, with the bishops and the nobility, all on foot. A splendid marble monument was 
 erected over the grave of Inez, surmounted by her statue, wearing a crown. 
 
 CASTRO, JoAODE, 1500-48; viceroy of the Portuguese Indies, son of the civil gover- 
 nor of Lisbon. He served in a military capacity in Tangier, Tunis, and elsewhere, and went 
 to the Indies with his uncle, Garcia de Noronha. On arriving at Goa he enlisted among 
 the “bravest of the brave” who were told off for the relief of Diu (a Portuguese settle- 
 ment on an island of the same name, in the present province of Guzerat). Returning to 
 Portugal he was made commander of a fleet to clear the European seas of pirates; and 
 in 1545 he was sent out as viceroy of the Indies to supplant Martin de Souza. The next 
 three years were full of struggle, suffering, and triumph. Valiantly seconded by his two 
 sons, one of whom was killed before Diu, he overthrew Mahmoud, king of Cambodia, 
 relieved the beleaguered town of Diu, and defeated the great army of Adhel Khan. He 
 subsequently completed the subjugation of Malacca, soon after which he was fully com- 
 missioned as viceroy, but did not live long to fill the place, dying the next year in the 
 arms of his friend, St. Francis Xavier. He was buried at Goa, but the body was after- 
 
Cantro. 
 
 «Jat. 
 
 538 
 
 wards remored to Portugal, to be interred under a splendid monument in the convent at 
 Bemtica. 
 
 CASTRO DEL RIO, a t, of Andalusia, Spain, situated on a slope on the right bank of 
 the Guadajocillo, 16 m. s.e. of Cordova. A portion of the old town is surrounded by 
 ruinous walls; the new town lying outside of these has some good streets. It has man- 
 ufactures of woolen and linen fabrics, earthenware, etc., and considerable trade in agri- 
 cultural produce. Pop. 9,100. 
 
 CASTRO-GIOVANNI, a t. of Sicily, in the province of Caltanisetta, is situated 13 m. n.e. 
 of the chief town of the province, on a remarkably fertile plateau, which rises precipitously 
 to a height of 4,000 ft. above the sea-level. Castro-Giovanni occupies the site of the 
 ancient Enna, of which Ceres was the presiding goddess, and her most famous temple 
 was here. The neighborhood was the scene of Proserpine’s abduction by Pluto. In 
 connection with the Punic and Servile wars, Enna has a conspicuous part in early 
 history. There are no remains of the old town. A castle and other buildings of Sara- 
 cenic origin are still standing. The district yields large quantities of sulphur. Pop. 
 14,633. 
 
 CASTRONUOVO, a t. of Sicily, in the province of Palermo, 25 m. n. of Girgenti. It 
 is situated on a hill, is fortified, and in its vicinity are quarries of fine marble. Pop. 
 4,029. 
 
 CASTROVILLA'RI, a t. of s. Italy, in the presence of Cosenza, 34 m. n. of Cosenza. 
 It is situated on an eminence surrounded by mountains, is partially fortified, and has an 
 old massive castle, and a trade in wine, manna, silk, etc. Pop. 7,931. 
 
 CASTRUC'CIO CASTRACA'NI, 1283-1328; a Ghibelline exiled at an early age 
 with his parents and others of that faction; orphaned at the age of 19;'iserved as a sol- 
 dier in England, France, and Lombardy, until in 1313 he returned to Italy and was 
 chosen chief of the Ghibellines, who had obtained mastery over the Guelphs. Thence- 
 forth he passed a stormy life, chiefiy in the support of the emperor Louis V. , whom he 
 accompanied to Rome, and who made him duke of Lucca, count of the Lateran palace, 
 and senator of the empire. Castruccio was excommunicated by a Guelphic legate, and 
 died soon afterwards, leaving several children, whose fortunes were wrecked in the 
 Guelphic triumph that followed his death. 
 
 CAST-STEEL. This term, until lately, was confined to steel made by melting blister- 
 steel (q.v.), obtained by the old cementation process. Through this simple operation of 
 melting it in crucibles, which was invented by an Englishman named Huntsman about the 
 middle of last century, steel was first readily made perfectly homogeneous, and fitted for 
 the production of the finer kinds of tools and cutting instruments. The crucibles are 
 made of fire-clay, mixed with a small proportion of the material of old ones and coke. 
 They are very carefully prepared and annealed, but notwithstanding this, the heat of 
 the furnace is so high that they can only be three times used. Each crucible contains 
 from 30 to 40 lbs. of steel, which is poured, when melted, into cast-iron ingot-molds 
 previously smoked. The name “cast-steel,” however, can no longer be confined to steel 
 so made, because Bessemer steel, although produced by a quite different process, is truly 
 a cast -steel. In Sheffield, the finer kinds of cast-steel are now sometimes called “ cruci- 
 ble steel ;” but since puddled steel, which, like the Bessemer, cannot be used for fine 
 cutlery, is also cast in crucibles, such a term is not sufficiently distinctive. 
 
 CASTTJE'RA, a t. of Estremadura, Spain, 68 m. e.s.e. of Badajos. It is situated near 
 the right bank of the Guadalefra, has several good streets, manufactures of brick, earth- 
 enware, etc., and a trade in agricultural produce; there is also some weaving carried on. 
 Pop. 5,600. 
 
 CASUAL POOR are persons temporarily relieved without being admitted to the roll of 
 permanent paupers. See Poor-Laws. 
 
 CASUALTIES OF SUPERIORITY, in the feudal law of Scotland, are such emoluments 
 arising as to the superior as depend on uncertain events. See Ward-holding. 
 
 CASUARI'NA, a genus of trees of the natural order amentacece, and of the sub-order 
 casuarinece, which is regarded by some as a distinct natural order. The trees of this 
 
 f enus are almost exclusively Australian ; one only, G. equisetifolia, being found in the 
 outh Sea islands, the Indian archipelago, the Malayan peninsula, and on the e. side of 
 the bay of Bengal, as far n. as Arracan. Some of them are large trees, producing tim- 
 ber of excellent quality, hard and heavy, the beef-wood of the Australian colonists, so 
 called from the resemblance in color to raw beef. C. equisetifolia is called in Australia 
 the Swamp Oak. It is a lofty tree, the toa or aitoa of the Society islands, where it grows 
 chieffy on the sides of hills, and where its wood was formerly used for clubs and other 
 implements of war. It has been introduced into India, and is there rnuch valued, as 
 its wood bears a great strain, and is not readily injured by submersion in water. The 
 hardness and durability of this wood led the earlier vo 3 ’agers to the South Sea islands to 
 designate it iron wood. G. quadrivalvis is the She Oak of New South Wales. Casso- 
 wary Tree is a popular generic name of the casuarinw. Some of the species are 
 scrubby bushes. All of them have a very peculiar appearance, their branches being 
 long, slender, wiry, drooping, green, jointed, with very small scale-like sheaths instead 
 
589 
 
 Castro. 
 
 Cat. 
 
 of leaves. They resemble arborescent equuetacem. The fruit consists of hardened 
 bracts, collected in a strobilus, or cone, and inclosing small winged nuts. The flowers 
 have neither calyx nor corolla; the stamens and pistils are in separate flowers, the 
 male flowers with only one stamen, the female flowers with a one-celled ovary, the 
 male flowers in spikes, the female flowers in dense heads. More than 20 species are 
 known. 
 
 CAS UISTRY, called by Kant the dialectics of conscience, is that branch of theology and 
 morals which professes to deal with very delicate moral questions — casus conscientice — 
 and which supplies rules and principles of reasoning for resolving the same; drawn 
 partly from natural reason and equity, and partly from the authority of Scripture, the 
 canon law, councils, fathers, etc. C. has been, and still is, studied chiefly by Roman 
 Catholic theologians; but at one period Protestant divines also paid some attention to 
 the perilous science. The rudiments of it, however, are to be sought for in antiquity. 
 Traces of it are found in the Stoic philosophers of ancient Greece. This is not to be 
 wondered at, for C. is not, in its essence, a device of the schoolmen, although the latter 
 elaborated it into a science, but a natural expression of the intellect and moral nature 
 of man, when he is placed in circumstances of great perplexity. The sound and healthy 
 reason of antiquity, however, could not enter into the morbid refinement, or rather the 
 insidious corruption of morals found in certain Jewish and Christian writers. The 
 Talmud (q.v.) contains an enormous accumulation of casuistical questions, while the 
 sphere of Christian ethics in the middle ages often became a mere arena for unprofit- 
 able and pernicious disputations of this nature, as is seen in such works as the Summa 
 Baymundiana, Summa Astesana, Summa Bartholina, which obtained their names from 
 their respective compilers. At a later period, the Jesuits Molina, Escobar, Sanchez, 
 Busenbaum, etc., became notorious for their abuse of ingenuity in the construction of 
 moral puzzles, and for the flagrant immorality of their solutions. Some of them still 
 “ suffer the vengeance” of Pascal’s immortal satire. It is nevertheless indubitable, that 
 in the life of every man — now as formerly — casus conscientice will at times arise, when 
 the higher laws of morality come into collision with subordinate conventional ones. 
 The dubiety as to what the path of duty is, what ought to be done, resulting from this 
 collision, naturally and legitimately leads to many nice considerations. If these are 
 carried on under the guidance of a pure conscience, no harm can ensue, but, on the 
 contrary, much good. Such, however, is nol th.Q permrted C. of the Jesuits, “the art of 
 quibbling with God,” as M. Le Feore, preceptor to Louis XIII., called it, in which a 
 man seeks to justify, by subtle quirks, his immoral actions. Mayer has published an 
 account of all the writers on cases of conscience, ranging them under three heads — 
 Lutheran, Calvinistic, and Romish. 
 
 CA'SUS BEL'LI, or a case of war, is the reason alleged by one power for going to 
 war with another. It is found impossible to reduce these causes or reasons to any 
 definite code, because an ambitious or aggressive power has no difficulty in making a 
 reason to declare to others, without acknowledging the real reason. 
 
 CASWALL, Henry, d.d., 1810-70; b. in England, and emigrated to the United 
 States at the age of 18, graduating at Kenyon college, Ohio. After some years of service 
 as minister and professor of theology, in 1842 he returned to England, and procured a 
 private act of parliament recognizing the validity of his ordination in the United States. 
 He was appointed vicar, became proctor, and prebendary of Salisbury cathedral. About 
 1868, he returned to the United States, and he died in Pennsylvania. He wTote America 
 and the American Church; Scotland and the Scottish Church; 1 he Western World Bevisited; 
 The Martyr of the Pongas; and two works on Mormonism. 
 
 CASWELL, a co. in n. North Carolina, on the Virginia border, watered by the tribu- 
 taries of the river Dan, and intersected by the Richmond, Danville and Piedmont rail- 
 road; 400 sq.m.; pop. ’SO, 17,825 — 10,657 colored. The chief productions are tobacco, 
 corn, oats, and wheat. Co. seat, Yancey ville. 
 
 CASWELL, Alexis, d.d., ll.d., 1799-1877; one of the corporators of the national 
 academy of sciences. He was professor of mathematics in Brown university from 
 1828 to 1850, and of mathematics and astronomy from 1850 to 1864, and president from 
 1868 to 1872. Author of a Memorial of John Barstow. 
 
 CASWELL, Richard, 1729-89; a revolutionary officer, native of Maryland, but an 
 early settler in North Carolina, where he was for many years a member of the colonial 
 assembly, speaker of the house, treasurer of the state, first governor, and thrice re- 
 elected. He was a delegate to the convention that framed the federal constitution, and 
 in 1787, was speaker of the state senate, and was presiding in that body when he was 
 stricken with fatal paralysis. He was a brig. gen. in the patriot armies, and shared in 
 the battle of Camden, and other conflicts. 
 
 CAT (Lat. catus), a name sometimes extended to the whole family of quadrupeds 
 designated by zoologists/eZi^ZcB (q.v.), the genus /eZfs of Linnseus; and sometimes more 
 restrictedly applied to a section of that family, containing a number of its smallest spe- 
 cies, the domestic C. and species most nearly allied to it. These form the subject of 
 the present article. They all pursue their prey on the branches of trees more than on 
 
Cat. 
 
 Catacombs. 
 
 540 
 
 the ground, and are most expert climbers, in which, however, they are rivaled by somo 
 of the oihev felidxB. 
 
 The origin of the domestic C. is by no means well ascertained; and by some natural- 
 ists it is described as a distinct species, under the name felis domestica, which perhaps- 
 may be regarded as at least a convenient provisional designation, until satisfactory rea- 
 sons can be adduced for referring it to some species existing in a wild state. By many, 
 indeed, the domestic C. has been confidently pronounced to be a mere domesticated 
 variety of the common wild C. {felis catus) of Euroue and the n. of Asia; but to this 
 there are many objections; the most important being that it is always of smaller size, 
 contrary to what is usually observed of the effects of domestication in animals; and that 
 in cats of the domesticated race which have run wild, and in their known progeny, there 
 is no appearance whatever of a tendency to return to the type of the true wild cat. — 
 Another opinion as to the origin of the domestic C. has obtained the assent of a consid- 
 erable number of naturalists; that it is derived from X\iq felis maniculata, or gloved C. of 
 n. Africa, a species discovered by the celebrated traveler Riippell. But Mr. Owen has 
 stated a perfectly conclusive reason against identifying the domestic C. with i\\Q felis 
 maniculata, that the first deciduous molar tooth in the latter has a relatively thicker crown, 
 and is supported by three roots, whilst the corresponding tooth both of the domestic C. 
 and of the wild C. of Europe has a thinner crown, and only two roots. 
 
 The certainty, however that the C. existed as a domestic animal in ancient Egypt, 
 makes it not improbable that we ought to look for its origin on the banks of the Nile, 
 or in some of the countries from which the ancient Egyptians might most readily have 
 obtained it. Of its rarity in Britain in former times, when the wild C. was common in 
 all the woods which covered so much of the island, a curious evidence is afforded by a 
 Welsh law quoted by Pennant — a law of the reign of Howel the good, who died in 93S 
 A.D. — fixing the prices of cats according to their age and qualities, beginning with a 
 price for a kitten before it could see, and enacting that if any one stole or killed the C. 
 that guarded the prince's granary, he was to forfeit a milk ewe, its fleece and lamb; or 
 as much wheat as when poured on the C. suspended by its tail, the head touching the 
 floor, would form a heap high enough to cover the tip of the tail. 
 
 It is needless to describe an animal so well known as the domestic C., or to do more 
 than allude to its purring, its mewing, and the other sounds which it makes, its aver- 
 sion to wet its feet or fur, its love of heat and comfort, its stealthy manners when in 
 quest of prey, its patient watchfulness, so often fatal to mice, and other points of its 
 natural history with which everybody is familiar. 
 
 The delight which a C. takes in tormenting a mouse before killing it, has sometimes 
 been mentioned as an apparent exception to the general character of goodness manifest 
 in the instincts of animals. It is an interesting circumstance, however, that when the 
 prey is a bird instead of a mouse, a C. immediately inflicts a mortal wound, as if aware 
 of its greater power of effecting its escape. 
 
 The eye of the C. is capable of much contraction and dilatation of its pupil, so that 
 the animal can see in a very feeble light, and is thus adapted for those nocturnal habits 
 to which, even in domestication, it shows so strong a natural tendency. 
 
 The fur of the C. is very free from any oily substance, so as to be readily injured by 
 water, and is capable of being rendered highly electric by friction, particularly in very 
 dry or frosty weather. An electric spark is readily obtained from the tip of the ear. 
 
 The strong statements of Buffon gave for a time great currency to the opinion, that 
 the C. is incapable of affection, and retains, even in a domesticated state, its savage 
 ferocity, merely restrained by selfishness, and disguised by cunning. The belief is very 
 prevalent that the C. forms an attachment to places only, and not to persons. There are, 
 however, well-authenticated stories which prove the C. to be capable of strong attach 
 ment to its master or mistress, although this quality is less frequently and remarkably 
 displayed than by the dog. The instances which have, on the other hand, been recorded 
 to show the attachment of the C. to places, are well worthy of attention in connection 
 with the subject of instinct in animals. Some of these instances of cast finding thei 
 way back from great distances to their former home, are very wonderful, ana indeeu 
 cannot be explained on any grounds or principles known. The same instinct and power, 
 however, are displayed by other animals. 
 
 The varieties of the domestic C. are neither numerous nor very different. The tor- 
 toise-shell G. differs from the most common variety chiefly in color, although it is also 
 particularly elegant and delicate in form. It is much more common in the s. of Europe 
 than in Britain. — The Angora G. is a beautiful variety, remarkable for its long silky 
 hair. — The Ghinese G. has a fine glossy fur, and is remarkable for its pendulous ears. — 
 The uhartreuse is of a bluish color. — It is supposed that the tahhy may have undergone 
 less change by domestication than any other variety. 
 
 The wild C. is still to be found in a few of the woods of the n. of England, in the 
 mountains of Wales, the Highlands of Scotland, and some parts of Ireland. It has 
 entirely disappeared from districts where it was once common. It is tlie only beast of 
 prey remaining in Britain the strength and fierceness of which make it at all dangerous to 
 man ; but an encounter with a wild C. is safe only to a man well armed. Fortunately, the 
 instances of its attacking when unmolested are rare, but such instances have occurred. 
 The wild C. is an inhabitant of deep thickets and recesses of woods, and of the rocky and 
 
541 
 
 Cat. 
 
 Catacombs. 
 
 bushy ravines of mountainous districts. Its fur is held inconsiderable estimation. The 
 fur is soft, long, and thick. The color of the face is yellowish-gray, with a band of 
 biack spots towards the muzzle; the forehead is brown; the head is gray, with two black 
 stripes passing from the eyes, over and behind the ears; the back, sides, and limbs are 
 gray, darker on the back, paler on the sides, with a blackish longitudinal stripe along- 
 the middle of the back, and numerous paler curved ones on the sides; the tail is 
 ringed with light-gray and black, the tip being black. The length of a medium-sized 
 male wild C. is almost 2 ft,, exclusive of the tail, but this length is sometimes ver}'- con- 
 siderably exceeded. — We know no record of any attempt to domesticate the wild cat. 
 
 The animal often called wild C. in America is the bay lynx. See Lynx. 
 
 Superstitions regarding Cats. — Cats have been objects of superstition from the earliest 
 ages. In Egypt, they were held in the highest reverence; temples were erected in their 
 honor; sacrifices and devotions were offered up to them; and it was customary for the 
 family in whose house a C. died to shave their eyebrows. In the middle ages, they were 
 regarded as the familiars of witches. The favorite shape of Satan was said to be that of 
 a black C. ; and the animal was an object of dread instead of veneration. There is or 
 was a belief among sailors, that the frolics of a C. at sea portended a storm. Many peo- 
 ple still prophesy rainy weather from a C. washing its face ; and a cat-call on the house- 
 top was formerly held to signify death. Their superstitious connection with witches, 
 and the foolish belief that a C. has nine lives, have led to the perpetration of great 
 cruelties upon this harmless and very useful domestic animal. See Brand’s Popular 
 Antiquities, Ellis’s revised edition. 
 
 CAT, on shipboard, is a name for many of the ropes or lines employed. A cat-fall is. 
 a rope for heaving up the anchor from the water’s level to the bow ; it works through 
 cat-blocks, and is connected with the cat-head. Cat-harpings are small ropes for tightening: 
 the shrouds. The cat-Jieads, just named, are two strong short timbers projecting from 
 the bow, on each side of the bowsprit. A cat-hook fastens the ring of the anchor to the 
 cat-block. 
 
 CAT, or Cat-Castle, in the military engineering of the middle ages, was a kind of 
 movable tower to cover the sappers as they advanced to a besieged place. The garri- 
 son sometimes poured down burning pitch and boiling oil from the walls upon the C.* 
 but occasionally this stratagem was disastrous, for the besiegers availed themselves of the: 
 blazing tower to burn the wooden gates of the town or fortress. 
 
 CATABBO'SA (Gr. catabrosis, a gnawing), a genus of grasses formerly included in airc^ 
 (see Hair-grass), but distinguished by the leathery paleoe, which are ribbed, truncated, 
 erose (as if gnawed at the points), awnless, and nearly equal. The glumes are much 
 shorter than the spikelets, membranaceous, and very obtuse. The general appearance 
 is different from that of the genus aira . — C. Aquatica is a pretty common British grass. 
 It is of very wide geographic and climatic range, being found throughout Europe, from 
 Lapland to the Mediterranean, and also in the torrid regions of South America. It 
 grows only in very moist situations, as the muddy margins of lakes and rivers, ditches, 
 etc., and is only cultivated in irrigated meadows, or on the banks of rivers subject to b& 
 overflowed by high tides, where the ground is always wet and muddy. It is one of the 
 most valuable grasses for such situations, its foliage being peculiarly sweet, and much 
 relished by cattle. Both its foliage and its seeds, also, afford much food to water -fowl, 
 and to some kinds of fish, particularly carp. Its leaves often float, and its stalks seldom 
 rise more than a foot or 15 in. above the surface of the water. It has a stiff branching: 
 panicle, with whorled spreading branches, and its seeds are small. When its artificial 
 propagation is attempted, it is more frequently by dropping freshly gathered stems into- 
 still waters, or scattering them on the mud, than by sowing the seeds. It is sometimes, 
 called Whorl Grass, and sometimes Sweet Water Grass. 
 
 CATACOMBS (Gr. kata, and kumbos, a hollow), subterraneous chambers and passages 
 formed generally in a rock, which is soft and easily excavated, such as tufa. C. are to 
 be found in almost every country in which such rocks exist, and, in most cases, proba- 
 bly originated in mere quarries, which afterwards came to be used either as places of 
 sepulture for the dead or as hiding-places for the living. The most celebrated cata- 
 combs in existence, and those which are generally understood when C. are spoken of, 
 are those on the Via Appia, at a short distance from Rome. To these dreary crypts 
 it is believed that the early Christians were in the habit of retiring, in order to celebrate 
 their new worship, in times of persecution, and in them were buried many of the saints 
 and martyrs of the primitive church. They consist of long narrow galleries, usually 
 about 8 ft. high and 5 wide, which twist and turn in all directions very much resembling^ 
 mines; and at irregular intervals, expand into wide and lofty vaulted chambers. The 
 graves were constructed by hollowing out a portion of the rock, at the side of the gallery, 
 large enough to contain the body. The entrance was then built up with stones, on 
 which usually the letters D. M. (Deo Maximo), or xp., the first two letters of the Greek 
 name of Christ, were inscribed. Other inscriptions and marks, such as the cross, are 
 also found. The original extent of the C. is uncertain, the guides maintaining- 
 that they have a length of 20 m., whereas about 6 only can now be ascertained to exist, 
 and of these, many portions have either fallen in or become dangerous. When Rome 
 was besieged by the Lombards in the 8th c., many of the C. were destroyed, and the 
 
Catafalco. 
 
 Catalpa. 
 
 542 
 
 popes afterwards caused the remains of many of the saints and martyrs to be removed 
 and buried in the churches. Art found its way into the C. at an early period, and 
 many remains of frescoes are still found in them. After being neglected for centuries 
 they were again brought to notice by father Bosio, who spent thirty years in their 
 exploration. His investigations were published in 1632, two years after his death; but 
 the most exhaustive treatise on the subject in all its aspects is the Roma Sotterranea of 
 De’ Rossi (1864-67), of which an abridgment is published in English by Dr. Northcote. 
 The C. at Naples, cut into the Capo di Monte, resemble those at Rome, and evidently 
 were used for the same purposes, being in many parts literally covered with Christian 
 symbols. In one of the large vaulted chambers there are paintings, which have retained 
 a freshness which is wonderful, considering the time and the dampness of the situation. 
 The palm-tree, as a memorial of Judea, is a prominent object in these pictures. At 
 Palermo and Syracuse there are similar C. , the latter being of considerable extent. They 
 are also found in Greece, in Asia Minor, in Syria, Persia, and Egypt. See Necropolis. 
 At Milo, one of the Cyclades, there is a hill which is honey-combed with a labyrinth of 
 tombs running in every direction. In these bassi-rilievi and figures in terra-cotta have 
 been found, which prove them to be long anterior to the Christian era. In Peru and 
 other parts of South America, C. have been discovered. The C. in Paris are a species 
 of charnel-houses, into which the contents of such burying-places as were found to be 
 pestilential, and the bodies of some of the victims of 1792, were cast. 
 
 CATAFALCO (Ital. a scaffold), or Catafalque, a temporary structure of carpentry, 
 intended to represent a tomb or cenotaph, and adorned with sculpture and painting. It . 
 was employed in funeral ceremonies. The most magnificent C. ever made, perhaps, 
 was that used at the interment of Michael Angelo, at Florence. 
 
 CATAHOU'LA, a parish in Louisiana, on the Tensas, Black, and Saline rivers; 1770 
 sq.m.; pop. ’80, 10,287 — 4558 colored. The soil is fertile, producing corn, cotton, etc. 
 Seat of justice, Harrisonburg. 
 
 CATALA'NI, Angelica, a highly celebrated Italian singer, b. at Sinigaglia, in cen- 
 tral Italy, some say in 1780, others in 1784, educated in the convent of St. Lucien, near 
 Rome, where, in her seventh year, she displayed such wonderful vocal powers that 
 strangers flocked from all quarters to hear her. She made her first public appearance 
 at Venice in her 16th year, and experienced a succession of triumphs in every country 
 in Europe for more than 30 years, amassing immense sums of money. The Italian opera 
 in Paris was twice under her direction; but her husband’s interference and extravagance 
 brought her into much trouble. Her large queenly person and fine countenance, the 
 immense volume, range, and flexibility of her voice, her power of sustaining her notes, 
 in constrast with the lightness and facility of her unerring execution, everywhere took 
 her audience by storm. Her expression, although fine, and her whole style, surprised 
 rather than touched the heart. In concert singing, her great triumphs were in Rhode’s 
 air with variations, and God Save the King — which she would call shave; and in ora- 
 torios, Luther’s hymn, her delivery of which, especially when her marvelous voice 
 alternated with the trumpet’s sound, was so sublimely awful, that the audience were 
 hushed and pale, and some were borne away fainting. The throat from which these 
 wondrous sounds proceeded was physically of such dimensions, that a physician, when 
 called to look into it, declared he could have passed down a penny-loaf! In 1830, 
 Madame C. purchased a villa near Florence, formerly belonging to the Medici family, 
 where she gave free instructions to girls who had a talent for singing, on condition of 
 their taking the name of Catalani. In the spring of 1849, when political disturbances 
 broke out in Tuscany, she repaired with her daughters to Paris, where she died of 
 cholera on the 13th of June. 
 
 CATALATJN'IAN PLAIN {Campi Catalaunici), the ancient name of the wide plain sur- 
 rounding Chalons-sur-Marne, in the old province of Champagne, France, celebrated as 
 the field of battle where the west Goths, and the forces under the Roman gen. A^tius, 
 gained a great victory over Attila in 451 a.d. A wild tradition (made the subject of a 
 striking picture by Kaulback, “Die Hunnenschlacht,” or “The Battle of the Huns”) 
 tells that three days after the great fight, the ghosts of the fallen myriads appeared on 
 the plain, and renewed the conflict. 
 
 CATAL'DO, San, a t. of Sicily, in the province of Caltanisetta, and 5 m. w. of the 
 town of that name. There are productive sulphur-mines in its vicinity. Pop. 12,800. 
 
 CATALEPSY (katalepsis, a taking possession of), a state of more or less complete 
 insensibility, with absence of the power of voluntary motion, and statue-like fixedness 
 of the body and limbs in the attitude immediately preceding the attack, a like position 
 being also retained, unless altered by force, until the return of consciousness. Such is 
 the abridged description of C., as commonly given in works of authority. The patient 
 is usually in good health at the time of seizure, or subject only to nervous affections, 
 such as hysteria (q.v.); sometimes the attack is preceded by disappointment, fear, violent 
 exciting or depressing passions, or even religious emotions, being in such cases only an 
 extreme form of what is otherwise called trance, reverie, or ecstasy (q.v.); on other occa- 
 sions, the apparent cause is more purely physical, as in some of the hysterical cases, 
 depending on suppressed menstruation. In all cases of cataleptic rigidity and insensi- 
 
543 
 
 Catafalco» 
 
 Catalpa. 
 
 bility, it may be presumed that the brain, as the organ of consciousness, is disturbed 
 but it does not appear that in any considerable proportion there is structural disease. 
 Patients rarely die during the attack, which may, however, be protracted for an indefi- 
 nite period, and may even endanger life indirectly by the debility consequent on imper- 
 fect nourishment. The circulation and respiration are, in most instances, little affected ; 
 caseg, however, have been recorded in which, in consequence of their failure, the patient 
 has been supposed to be dead. See Death. Many of the recorded cases of C. are little 
 worthy of credit, and it has even been doubted whether this curious disease can ever be 
 said to exist exempt from some degree of deception, or at least voluntary and conscioua 
 regulation of the muscles on the part of the person affected. The combination of C. with 
 hysteria, and its frequent association with what are called the higher phenomena of 
 mesmerism (see Animal Magnetism), are undoubtedly circumstances of great suspicion j 
 but it would certainly be wrong to suppose that all the cases described were fictitious, 
 and not less so to classify them all under the head of pure imposture. Epidemic C. has 
 been described, and in such cases it would appear plain that the principle of imitation, 
 so powerful in producing nervous disease, must have been at work. The remedies of 
 C. are the same as those of the states to which it is so nearly allied, and of which it may 
 be said to form a part. Moral means form a large part of the treatment, as in hysteria. 
 In some cases, it may become necessary to adminster food by means of the stomach- 
 pump, and this even for weeks or months. We have seen such a case end in complete 
 recovery. 
 
 CATALOGUE (Gr. a list). See Bibliogkaphy, British Museum, Library, Stars. 
 
 CATALO'NIA (Spanish, Catalwfla), an old province and principality of Spain, now 
 divided into the provinces of Barcelona, Tarragona, Lerida, and Gerona, the total area 
 being 12,180 m., and the pop. ’70, 1,768,408. C. occupies the north-eastern corner of 
 Spain, having Prance on the n., and the Mediterranean on the e. and s.e. It is watered 
 by the Llobregat and the Ter, and by some of the atfluents of the Ebro, the last-men- 
 tioned river having its embouchure in Catalonia. The coast is rugged, its boldest pro- 
 montories being capes Creus and San Sebastian, and its deepest indentations the bays of 
 Rosas and Tarragona. With the exception of a few low plains of limited extent, the 
 soil of C. is that of a wild mountainous region formed by numerous offsets or terraces 
 of the Pyrenees, one great ridge or series of ridges extending through the center of the 
 province. 
 
 The terraces, sloping abruptly down to the coast, or to the narrow coast plains, are 
 divided by the valley of Llobregat into the lower and the upper Catalonian mountains. 
 
 The climate of C.,*though fog and rain are frequent, and extreme and rapid changes 
 of temperature prevail, is on the whole healthy and favorable to vegetation, Kear Bar- 
 celona, oranges flourish in the open air; the fields in some parts are bounded by aloe- 
 hedges, and olives grow on Montserrat. Cork-trees grow on the mountains, and thickets 
 of thorn-apple, laurel, myrtle, pomegranate, box, rosemary, etc., extend where the cork 
 has its limits. Northern upper C. has a more severe winter than the s. ; but everywhere 
 vineyards and olive-gardens cover the slopes, and cornfields extend in the valleys. Among 
 the other products are hemp, flax, madder, barilla, and saffron. Hazel-nuts, a variety 
 called Barcelona nuts, are extensively grown. Meadow-lands and pastures are compara- 
 tively rare, and horned cattle are, therefore, mostly confined to the districts bordering 
 on the Pyrenees ; while few horses and mules are kept ; but sheep, goats, and swine are 
 bred in considerable numbers. Silk- worms and bees are also reared. The coasts abound 
 with fish, and game is plentiful. The minerals are coal, copper, manganese, zinc, 
 lead, cobalt, salt, sulphur, and many varieties of marble. 
 
 C. is the principal manufacturing province of the kingdom — is, in fact, “the Lanca- 
 shire of Spain. ” The inhabitants are neither French nor Spaniards, their language, cos- 
 tume, and habits being quite distinct from those of either; they have also local coins, 
 weights, and measures. In energy, industry, and intelligence, they greatly surpass the 
 rest of the Spaniards. 
 
 C., under the name of Hispania larmconenm, was one of the earliest, and remained 
 among the last of the Roman provinces. It was invaded and captured by the Alans, 
 who were followed by the Goths, hence its name Oothalania, changed into Gothalunia 
 or Catalonia. In the 8th c., the Arabs gained possession of the southern part. When 
 Charlemagne, in 788, subjugated Spain as far as the Ebro, C. formed the central portion 
 of the Spanish mark, governed by French counts, having Barcelona as their residence. 
 They soon made themselves independent of France. In 1137, earl Raymund Berengar, 
 by his marriage, united C. with Aragon; and the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella 
 (1469) united both with Castile, and so C. became a portion of the Spanish monarchy, 
 but never a very peaceable one. In modern times it has repeatedly taken a prominent 
 share in Carlist or other insurrections. 
 
 CATAL'PA, a genus of trees of the order Mgnoniacece. The catalpa synngifolia is a 
 native of the s. portion of the United States, and is cultivated there and in the cities 
 of the northern states as an ornamental shade-tree. It may be known by silver-gray 
 bark, wide-spreading but few branches, and the fine pale green of its large heart-shaped 
 leaves. The flowers are white, tinged with violet or purple, and dotted with the same 
 colors. The flowers are succeeded by long bean-like pods, that sometimes hang on the 
 
Catalysis. 
 
 Cataract. 
 
 544 
 
 otherwise hare limbs all winter. wood is light and of flne texture, and useful in 
 cabinet work. There is a catalpa in London said to have been planted by lord Bacon. 
 
 CATAL'YSIS (Gr. dissolution) is a term applied in chemical physics to a force sup- 
 posed to be exerted by one substance upon a second, whereby the latter is subjected to 
 change or decomposition, whilst the former, or acting substance, remains comparatively 
 unaltered, and does not combine with it. The force, indeed, has been ascribed to the 
 mere “action of contact.” Fermentation is an example of this force (see Beer), when 
 one part of yeast acting upon the sugar of the sweet worts, without entering into com- 
 bination with it, compels 100 parts of sugar to pass into alcohol and carbonic acid. 
 Germination, or the sprouting of grain when placed in the ground, is another example 
 where one part of diastase changes 1000 parts of starch into sugar. No plausible theory 
 has been brought forward to account for these changes, or to define what the force of 
 C. is. Liebig has suggested, as an explanation, “that a body in the act of combination 
 or decomposition enables another body with which it is in contact to enter into the 
 same state;” but this view does not explain C., as that force does not act in the majority 
 of cases where changes are proceeding, and, moreover, the acting substance, while 
 changing itself, never throws the body acted upon into the same state of change, but 
 causes it to assume a new series of changes different from those pursued by itself. 
 
 CATALYSOTYPE, a name given by its inventor. Dr. Wood, to a modification of the 
 calotype process, upon the assumption that light set up a catalytic action (see Cataly- 
 sis) among the ingredients employed. The paper is first washed with very dilute 
 hydrochloric acid, to prevent the formation of yellow patches of insensitiveness, and 
 then treated with sirup of iodide of iron containing a trace of free iodine; it is then 
 partially dried between folds of blotting-paper, and sensitized by brushing over it a 
 solution of nitrate of silver of ten grains to the ounce. Immediate exposure in the 
 camera follows; after which, though no picture be visible at first, if it be allowed to 
 remain in the dark for a period which varies with the length of time it was exposed, 
 and the amount of light, a negative picture of great perfection is gradually developed. 
 It is not necessary, however, for the explanation of this phenomenon, to assume, that 
 a catalytic action is set up, inasmuch as the ordinary chemical reactions are quite suffi- 
 cient to account for it. As soon as nitrate of silver comes in contact with the moist 
 iodide of iron viiiXi the paper is first imbued, an interchange of elements takes 
 
 place, iodide of silver is precipitated in the pores of the paper, and protonitrate of iron is 
 diffused over the surface; and this latter salt is even a more energetic developing agent 
 than the ordinary gallic acid, hence the seemingly spontaneous appearance of the pic- 
 ture. This process is so uncertain in its results, that it is seldom practiced. 
 
 CATAMAEAN' is a raft formed of three planks lashed together, the middle one serv- 
 ing as a keel, and the other two for the sides. The rower stands or kneels on the middle 
 plank, and works a paddle. These simple vessels are used by the natives of Madras, to 
 maintain communication between ships and the shore, ordinary boats being rendered 
 unsafe by the surf. By the adoption of a similar construction on a larger scale, some 
 of the catamarans are made large and strong enough to carry goods, and even artillery. 
 Catamarans used in Brazil consist simply of three logs of wood tapered at the end and 
 lashed together; they carry a sail. 
 
 CATAMAR'CA, a province in the Argentine republic, between 25® and 29° s., and 
 €6° and 69° w., lying at the foot of the Andes; 35,500 sq.m.; pop. ’69, 79,962; the 
 greater portion being of pure Indian blood. The province is intersected by several 
 mountain-chains; and by many small streams, most of them dry in the summer, but in 
 winter subject to destructive floods. Some of the plains are sandy deserts, while others 
 are periodically inundated; and when the water dries away, it leaves a coating of salt, 
 which is gathered for home use and for trade. Gold, silver, and copper are found, the 
 latter in abundance; and nearly all the fruits and grains of tropical and temperate 
 regions are grown. The cotton of C. is especially esteemed. Among the animals are 
 large herds of alpaca, llama, and vicuna, and also horned cattle, asses, and mules. The 
 main exports are wines, brandy, raisins, hides, leather, tobacco, cochineal, and copper 
 The people are occupied in agriculture, and in manufactures of earthenware, and 
 fabrics made from the wool of the alpaca and kindred animals. The chief town and 
 capital is the city of the same name. 
 
 CATAMAR'CA, the capital of the province of Catamarca, in the Argentine republic, 
 28° 20' s., 66° 25' west. It is a regular and moderately well-built town of about 6000 
 inhabitants. Of public buildings, there are a town-house, a Franciscan monastery, and 
 n convent. There is considerable import-trade of European goods, and the place is a 
 center of distribution for a flourishing district. Dried figs, wines, brandy, and cotton 
 are the principal articles of export. 
 
 CATAME'NIA. See Menstruation, ante. 
 
 CATAMOUNT. See Puma, ante. 
 
 CATA'NIA, or Catanea, a city and seaport of Sicily, situated on the e. coast, near 
 the foot of Mt. Etna, 31 m. n.n.w. of Syracuse. The fertile and well-cultivated neigh- 
 borhood of C., extending along the s.e. base of Mt. Etna, is styled “the granary of 
 Sicily,” and has given to C. the title, “La Bella Catania.” By eruptions of the great 
 
545 
 
 Catalysis. 
 
 Cataract. 
 
 ▼olcano and attendant earthquakes, the city has been several times almost entirely 
 destroyed, especially in the year 1693; but out of its ruins it has alwi^s risen witli 
 increased beauty, and it is now the finest city in Sicily, being built throughout on a 
 beautiful and consistent plan, from which no deviation is allowed. The harbor of C., 
 formerly good, was choked by a stream of lava in 1693, and the mole was partly ' 
 destroyed, so that now it has only a roadstead, which is guarded by a fort, and serves as 
 a landing-place. It has several squares, the finest of which, in front of the cathedral, 
 has a statue of an elephant sculptured in lava. Among its chief public buildings an 
 the Benedictine convent and church of San Nicolo, with one exception the grandest 
 structure of the kind in Europe, the town-hall; the cathedral, with its noble granite 
 columns; and the university, founded in 1445. It has besides many handsome churches 
 ana convents, and several educational and charitable institutions, and is the seat of one 
 of the three high courts in the island. The inhabitants, formerly much more numerous, 
 amounted in 1872 to 84,397, and are distinguished by their commercial spirit and 
 industry. C. has manufactures of silk and linen goods, and of articles in amber, lava, 
 wood, etc. Among the remains of ancient times, that earthquakes have spared, are 
 those of a theater, an odeium, a temple of Ceres, Roman baths, and an aqueduct. C., 
 anciently known by the name of Gatana, was founded by a Greek colony of Chalcidic 
 origin, in the latter part of the 8th c. b.c.; and as early as the beginning of the 5th c. b.c., 
 it was esteemed one of the most flourishing towns in Sicily. It was taken by the 
 Athenians under Nicias, and was desolated by Dionysius I. ; but again rose under the 
 Roman sway into its former importance. Augustus here founded a Roman colony. It 
 suffered at the hands of the Goths, but once more, under the Byzantine empire, became 
 one of the principal cities in the island. C. gives name to the province of which it is 
 the capital, and which is one of the richest in Sicily, with an area of 1743 sq. miles, and 
 a pop., in 1872, of 479,850. 
 
 CATA'NIA, Gulp op, an inlet of the Mediterranean, on the e. coast of Sicily^ 
 extends in the form of a semicircle from La Trezza bay to cape Santa Croce, a distance 
 of 18 miles. It is about 10 m. deep, and receives the river Giaretta. 
 
 CATANZA'BO, a city of s. Italy, in the province of the same name, is beautifully 
 situated on the declivity of a rocky hill, near the gulf of Squillace, and in the midst of a 
 very fertile district. On account of its agreeable climate, many wealthy families have 
 made it their residence. It has a cathedral, an old castle of the Norman period, a college, 
 one of the largest, as it is one of the best conducted in the country, and is the seat of one 
 of the four great civil courts of the kingdom. C. suffered very severely by an earth- 
 quake in 1783. It has manufactures of silk-velvet and woolen fabrics, and an active 
 trade in agricultural produce. Pop. ’71, 18,781. 
 
 CATAPLASM (a Greek term for a poultice), an application to diseased or painful parts, 
 for the purpose of promoting suppuration, relieving pain, and stimulating or soothing the 
 skin, according to circumstances. A C. may be composed of any moist pulpy substance of 
 sufficient consistence to retain the water without dripping or soaking through the thin 
 muslin covering in which it is generally wrapped. The making of a poultice well is a 
 matter of some nicety, and unless the proper consistence is given to the mass, the application 
 is apt to do more harm than good. The linseed-meal poultice is the most easily made, and 
 most satisfactory of all soothing applications. The meal is stirred gradually into a suffi- 
 cient quantity of boiling water, placed in the bottom of a small basin or teacup, until a 
 perfectly smooth pulp is formed of the proper consistence, and in quantity sufficient to 
 cover completely, to the thickness of three quarters of an inch, the whole pained part. 
 The pulp is then folded up in muslin or thin calico, and applied as soon as the heat will 
 permit it to be borne. The bread and milk, or even bread and water poultice, is also 
 very good; as is also the oatmeal-porridge poultice, to which a little butter may be added 
 with advantage. A spoonful or two of yeast may be added, if there are foul discharges, 
 or peat charcoal may be sprinkled on the surface of the poultice before it is applied. 
 Carrot poultices are in great favor with the people in some parts of the country. Hem 
 lock poultices, made of the fresh leaves, or of the dried leaves, with the aid of some 
 powder of the leaves, form a valuable sedative application in painful diseases; and poppy- 
 heads, or even opium, are sometimes infused in the water of which a poultice is made, 
 for the same purpose. A stimulating C. or poultice may be made by sprinkling oil of 
 turpentine, or chloroform, or mustard in moderate quantity on the surface of any 
 ordinary poultice. When considerable irritation of the skin in a short time is desira- 
 ble, a mustard C. or sinapism (sinapi, mustard) is used. 
 
 CATAPUL'TA, an engine of war used by the ancients, somewhat resembling the 
 crossbow. In the C., a string or rope, suddenly freed from great tension, gave a power 
 ful impulse to an arrow placed in a groove. There were great catapultas fixed upon a- 
 scaffold with wheels, which were used in sieges, and small ones, carried in the hand, 
 which were employed in the field. For a description of similar engines of ancient War- 
 fare, see articles Balista and Arbalest. 
 
 CATABACT, an opaque condition of the lens of the eye. It is readily distinguished 
 from opacities of the cornea, or clear front part of the eye, by its position just behind 
 the pupil — that round and varying aperture in the iris through which light is admitted 
 U. K. III.— 35 
 
Cataracts. 
 
 Catawbas. 
 
 546 
 
 into the back of the eye. C, may affect the lens alone (lenticular C.), or the front of 
 back of the capsule of the lens (capsular C.), or both lens and capsule (capsuk)-lenticular 
 cataract). Its whiteness varies from that of half-boiled white of egg to that of snow. 
 Heat will produce a like change on the lens out of the body, just as it changes white of 
 egg from transparent to opaque. The rounded lens of the tish is seen at table in thia 
 opaque condition. 
 
 C. is painless, and unaccompanied by inflammation. It occasions blindness simply 
 by obstructing the passage of the light; but C. alone does not produce so complete blina- 
 ness but that the patient can tell light from darkness. It may occur at any age, but is 
 most common in elderly persons, and is not unfrequent in cliildren, who may be even 
 born with it. The catoptric test, as it is called, is an ingenious method of distinguishing 
 incipient C. from certain other deep affections of the eye. When a lighted candle is 
 held before the eye of a person whose back is to the window, three candles are seen in 
 the healthy eye. Two are erect — the large front one caused by the convex cornea, the 
 smaller and fainter one behind by the convex front of the lens. The third, occasioned 
 by the concave back of the lens, is in the middle; is small, bright, and turned upside 
 down; and, when the candle is moved, goes in the opposite direction, while the two 
 erect images move with the candle. When the back of the lens becomes opaque, the 
 inverted image is obscured or disappears; and when the front of the lens is affected, 
 only the great front image, caused by the cornea, remains. This curious experiment 
 may be tried on a large scale, by holding a common bi-convex lens a little way behind a 
 watch-glass. Then, on greasing the back of the lens, to imitate C., the inverted image 
 disappears, and on turning the lens round, all but the image in the watch-glass disap- 
 pears. 
 
 No medical or other treatment has any influence in arresting the progress of C., nor 
 can it be cured but by a surgical operation. A clever imposture used to be practiced by 
 quacks. By applying belladonna to the eye — as the surgeon does when he wishes to dilate 
 the pupil for an examination or operation — some little light was temporarily admitted 
 through the less opaque edge of the lens. The patient beginning to see somewhat better, 
 after long and increasing dimness of vision, began to congratulate himself on a cure; 
 the quack, of course, hastened to get his mo'ney without waiting for the further result, 
 which was sure to be blank disappointment. So long as there is fair vision with one 
 eye, the operation on the other may be delayed. It is a mistake to delay the operation 
 in children on account of their tender age. The sooner it is done the better, both for 
 the eye and the education of the child. 
 
 Three methods of operation are practiced. 1. For aUorption or solution. This is 
 suitable for children, in whom the C., like the natural lens, is soft, and in all other cases 
 in which there is reason to suppose that the C. is soft. An appropriate needle is passed 
 through the cornea; made to open and lacerate the front of the capsule, the rags of 
 which curl out of the way behind the iris, so that their subsequent opacity does not 
 obstruct the light ; then the soft cataractous lens is punctured and picked so as more 
 effectually to admit the aqueous humor, which naturally fills the space between the lens 
 and the cornea, and which has the remarkable property of absorbing or dissolving the 
 lens or cataract when admitted within the capsule. This operation may require to be 
 repeated several times, at intervals of a few weeks, before the whole C. is dissolved. 
 2. Displacement. A needle is passed through the fore part of the white of the eye, until 
 it is seen through the upper part of the pupil, lying across the front of the upper 
 part of the lens. This is now pressed back, so as to make the lens sink down and back 
 into the vitreous humor, when it is either slowly absorbed, or may in part permanently 
 remain. The older method of displacement, termed couching, in which the lens w^as 
 pushed more directly downwards, is now abandoned, as more likely to press on the 
 retina, and cause subsequent evil to the eye. 3. Extraction. Half the cornea, through 
 nearly its whole breadth, is divided with Beer’s knife, an operation requiring great skid ; 
 the front of the capsule is opened, and disposed of with a needle; and the lens is gently 
 assisted out of its place, through the pupil, and out of the opening in the cornea, great 
 care being taken not to allow the vitreous humor to follow. Displacement and extrac- 
 tion are both applicable to hard cataracts, the form it generally takes in old age, as the 
 lens itself becomes naturally harder with age, as well as more flat and amber-tinted. 
 Displacement is more likely to be followed by bad consequences, some time after, from 
 the presence of the displaced lens, while the risk of extraction is greater at the opera- 
 tion. The surgeon must decide which is best for each case. Though not so simple and 
 successful as the operation for absorption through the cornea for soft C., displacement 
 and extraction are generally very successful in restoring vision. The place of the lens 
 is supplied by fluid humor, the refracting power of which is nearly equal to that of the 
 lens, and the restoration of vision may be perfect, All of these operations require minute 
 anatomical knowledge (see Eye), and great nicety and skill in the use of the instruments 
 
 CATARACTS and RAPIDS. See Waterfalls, ante. 
 
 CATARRH (Gr. katarreo, I flow down), a disease of great frequency in temperate lati. 
 tudes, especially in changeable moist climates in the winter season. From its well- 
 known connection with sudden falls of temperature, and other epidemic or atmospheric 
 causes (see Influenza), as also from the chill often experienced at the commencement 
 
547 
 
 Cataract*. 
 
 Catawba*. 
 
 of tljc ciseasc, it is popularly called a cold — a term, however, perhaps somewhat less 
 definite in its meaning than C., which word is usually restricted to the case of a cold 
 affecting the chest, and attended witli discharge of mucus by coughing. A “cold in 
 the head ” is termed, in strict scientific language, coryza; we shall, however, keep both 
 forms in view in the present article. C., or cold, commonly begins with a feeling of 
 chilliness, which may or may not be attributable to external causes. Sometimes this is 
 absent, there being only a sense of languor and indisposition; not unfrequently there is 
 no sensation of an unusual kind, until a stuffing is experienced in the nostrils, or severe 
 headache, or hoarseness with cough, or oppression of the breathing. The regular form 
 of a cold is to attack the nostrils first, and afterwards the air-passages leading to the 
 chest. When it habitually attacks the chest, without running through its ordinary 
 course as indicated above, there is often some special cause of delicacy in the lungs, or 
 some constitutional tendency towards consumption (q.v.). The discharge is in the 
 beginning watery, becoming afterwards more abundant, glairy, and of yellowish color j 
 the carly'stages of the disease are attended by considerable irritation of the surfaces 
 affected, and probably no one of the little miseries of life is more prostrating and dis- 
 couraging for the time than a bad cold in the head. The tendency of C. to attack the 
 chest, and thus to pass into bronchitis or pneumonia (q.v.), or to lay the foundation of 
 tubercular disease, constitutes almost its only danger. See Chest. 
 
 The treatment of a cold is commonly a simple matter, so far as the particular attack 
 is concerned. Confinement to the house, and, in severe cases, to bed, or to the sofa, for 
 a day or two; a warm hip or foot bath, to remove the chill; light farinaceous diet, and, 
 if the stomach and bowels are at all loaded, a dose or two of some gentle laxative, are 
 commonly sufficient to subdue the disease. Some persons cure their colds by entire 
 abstinence from food, and as much as possible from drink; others by a large opiate, or 
 by a succession of doses of Dover’s powder; others by spirit of mindererus and pare- 
 goric; some even profess to carry out the popular maxim, “stuff a cold, and starve a 
 fever,” and maintain that a good dinner, and a tumbler of whisky or brandy toddy, are 
 the best specifics. That colds get well under all these methods, needs not be denied; but 
 that any violently perturbative or specific practice assists the cure, or shortens the dis- 
 ease, has yet to be proved; and multiplied experience has shown, that “ stuffing a cold 
 is by no means to be commended. In the later stages, however, a more liberal diet 
 than at first, and in some cases even a moderate allowance of stimulants, affords consid- 
 erable relief from the feeling of depression that remains for a time on the subsidence of 
 a catarrh. The tendency to this disease, when habitual, and when not dependent on 
 any form of constitutional disbrder requiring special means for its cure, is best met by^ 
 the daily use of the cold bath, with frequent exercise in the open air, and proper venti- 
 lation of the sleeping-apartment ; also by friction of the skin, and by clothing, which, • 
 without being oppressive, is comfortably warm. Exposure to draughts or sudden chills, 
 when the surface is perspiring, is to be avoided; but a close confined air habitually 
 breathed in a workshop or bedroom, is a fruitful predisposing cause of the disease. 
 
 CATASAU'QUA, a t. in Lehigh co., Penn., on Lehigh river, 3 m. above Allentown; 
 pop. ’70, 2,853. The Lehigh Valley and the Lehigh and Susquehanna railroads unite 
 here. 
 
 CATAW'BA, a light sparkling wine, of rich muscadine flavor, produced in the neigh- 
 borhood of Cincinnati, Ohio, U. S. It is made from a grape called the Catawba grape, 
 “first found growing on the banks of the Catawba river, in Carolina.” This wine, which 
 is scarcely known in England, is now in extensive use in North America, where it is 
 gradually superseding the importation of the Rhenish and French sparkling wines, to 
 which, in general character, it bears a resemblance. The vineyards where the C. is pro- 
 duced are situated on the steep and beautiful slopes with a southern exposure on the 
 banks of the Ohio river, under the shelter of high hills on the north. The first great 
 grower of the C. was Mr. Longworth, an esteemed and wealthy proprietor in this quar- 
 ter, wdio, embarking in the pursuit less on business considerations than as an enthusiast, 
 succeeded, after much patient care and expense, in producing a wine that throughout 
 the states finds more favor, and commands a higher price, than the choicest wines im- 
 ported. Some of the finer kinds of C. rival the best champagne in delicacy and purity, 
 and are not to be confounded with inferior American imitations. 
 
 CATAW'BA, a co. in w. North Carolina, on the Catawba river, crossed by the West- 
 ern North Carolina railroad; 250 sq.m. ; pop. TO, 14,946 — ^2474 colored. It has a varied 
 surface and fertile soil, producing wheat, cc m, oats, etc. Iron ore is found in abun 
 dance. Co. seat, Newton. 
 
 CATAW'BA, or Great Catawba, a river rising in the Blue Ridge in n.w. North 
 Carolina, and flowing e. and s. through the gold region of that state into South Caro- 
 lina, where it takes the name of the Wateree and joins the Congaree, the two forming 
 the Santee. The C. is about 250 m. long. 
 
 CATAW'BAS, Indians of North Carolina, once a large tribe in the region of 
 Catawba river, but now a mere remnant. At the time of the early white settlements, 
 they could muster many thousands of wairiors, and as late as tlie revolution were able 
 to furnish a valuable contingent to the Carolina troops. They occupied several towna 
 
Catbalogan. 
 
 Catechism. 
 
 548 
 
 along the river that still bears their name; but at last leased the lands to the vvhites, and 
 removed into the territory of the Cherokees, with whom they had been at war. After 
 a short residence they returned to a reservation in their original district. Their lan- 
 guage is closely allied to that of the Waccoes and the Caroline tribe. Peter Harris, a 
 revolutionary soldier, was said to be the last full-blooded survivor of the Catawba tribe. 
 
 CATBALO'GAN, or Cadvalonga, a t. of the Philippines, capital of the island of 
 Samar, on a small bay on the w. coast. The houses are mostly constructed of nipapalm, 
 but there are some of stone. Pop. about 7,000. 
 
 CAT-BIRD, Turdus felivox, an American thrush, of the same group with the mock- 
 ing-bird, which it resembles in its vocal powers. It is a bird of passage, making its 
 way northward in spring through Georgia and Carolina as far as Massachusetts. It 
 feeds on fruit and berries of all kinds, worms, and insects; builds a large nest of dry 
 twigs, weeds, etc. , without any attempt at concealment, in a bush or tree, often in the 
 immediate vicinity of human habitations, and shows extraordinary boldness in the 
 defense of its young. It has its name from a mewing cry which it utters when annoyed 
 by an intruder approaching too near its nest. 
 
 CATCH, a species of musical composition peculiar to England, and in the canon style. 
 The words of the C. are generally humorous, and intended to be sung in social parties 
 over a glass. The music is generally for three voices, of which there exist hundreds of 
 specimens from the time of Purcell to the present day. As in the canon, each voice 
 takes up the subject at a certain distance after the first has begun. One of the best 
 specimens of a 0. is by Calcott, on Hawkins’ and Burney’s histories of music, where 
 the humor lies in one of the parts repeating “ Burney’s history” — sounding like “burn 
 his history” — while the others are advocating Hawkins. 
 
 CATCH-DRAINS, open drains, and sometimes covered drains, along a declivity to 
 intercept and carry off surface water. 
 
 CATCHFLY, the common English name of several plants of the natural order caryo- 
 phyllacece — as silene armeria, S. Anglica, lychnis viscaria, etc. — which being clammy, in 
 consequence of a peculiar exudation, on the calyx, on the joints of the stem, etc., often 
 prove fatal to insects settling upon them. See Lychnis and Silene. — Tlie name is 
 sometimes employed by botanists as a sort of popular equivalent to silene. — Diomm 
 muscipula is also sometimes called the Carolina catechism. See Dion^a. 
 
 CATCHPOLL, a sheriff’s officer, or bailiff, is so called in England, probably because 
 he was in use lO catch his victim by the poll, or head. 
 
 CATEAU, Le, or Cateau-Cambresis, a t. of France, in the department of Nord, 
 situated on the Selle, 14 m. e.s.e. of Cambrai. C. has manufactures of shawls, merinoes, 
 calicoes, and leather; it has also breweries and distilleries. Pop. 76, 9,444. It is cele- 
 brated as the place where, in 1559, the treaty known as that of Cateau-Cambresis was 
 concluded between Henri II. of France and Philip II. of Spain, by which the 
 former monarch ceded to the latter. Savoy, Corsica, and nearly 200 forts in Italy and 
 the low countries. 
 
 CATECHETICAL SCHOOLS, the name given to the ancient Christian schools of 
 theology, of which the chief were those of Antioch and Alexandria. Clement and 
 Origen were the most famous of the teachers. 
 
 CATECHISM, from a Greek word, kateched, which means to resound, or sound into 
 one’s ears; hence to instruct by word of mouth. Pesons undergoing instruction in the 
 principles of Christianity were hence called catechumens {katechoumenoi), and the teacher 
 appointed for this purpose was called a catechist. Hence an}’- system of teaching by 
 question and answer is called a catechism. 
 
 Catechisms have long formed one of the princij jl means employed for popular 
 instruction in the truths and duties of the Christian religion. The composition of the 
 first catechisms was, in all probability, suggested by the ordinary oral instruction of 
 catechumens, and was intended for the help both of teachers and pupils. It appears to 
 have been in the 8th and 9th centuries that the first regular catechisms were compiled, 
 of which that by Kero, a monk of St. Gall, and that ascribed to Otfried of Weissenburg, 
 are among the most noted. At later periods, the use of catechisms prevailed chiefly 
 among the opponents of the hierarchy, as among the Waldenses, the Albigenses, the 
 Wickliffites, and, above all, among the Bohemian brethren. The term C. appears to 
 have been first employed in its present sense among the latter. At an early period in the 
 history of the reformation, the reformers began to avail themselves of this method of popu- 
 , lar instruction, and their catechisms became important instruments in that great religious 
 movement. In 1520, Luther published his first short catechism. In 1525, Justus Jonas 
 and John Agricola were intrusted with the preparation of a catechism. In 1529, Luther 
 published his larger and smaller catechisms, which found a place among the symbolical 
 books or standards of the Lutheran churches. A number of catechisms were published 
 also by the Swiss reformers, and by those of England and other countries. The Geneva 
 catechisms, larger and smaller, were the work of Calvin. They were published in 1536. 
 were speedily translated into various languages, and became acknowledged standards of 
 the reformed churches, not only in Switzerland but in the low countries, in France, and 
 
549 
 
 Catbalog:an. 
 
 Catechinm. 
 
 in Iliingmy. The church of Geneva has set aside tlie authority of these catechisms. — 
 The Zurich C. is received as a standard in the church of Zurich. — The Heidelberg or 
 palatinate C. is of greater importance, however, than any other as a standard of the 
 Swiss reformed churches. It was compiled by the Heidelberg theologians, Caspar 
 Olevian and Zacharias Ursinus, at the request of the elector Frederic III. of the palati- 
 nate; it was published in 1563, was approved by several synods, and was subjected to a 
 revision by the synod of Dort. — In the church of Rome, the Romish or Tridentine C. is 
 of high authority. It was prepared in accordance with the decrees of the council of 
 Trent, by archbishop Leon. Marino, bishop ^gidius Foscorari, and the Portuguese 
 dominican, Francis Fureiro; revised by cardinals Borromeo, Siiiet, and Antonian, and 
 sanctioned by pope Pius V. It was published at Rome in 1566 — The C. of the Orthodox 
 Greek church was prepared by Peter Mogilas, metropolitan in Kiew, and published in 
 1642. It received authority as a standard or symbolical book from a synod at Jerusalem 
 in 1672. It is often called the larger Russian C., to distinguish it from the smaller C., 
 prepared by order of Peter the great. — Besides these catechisms, which have a historic 
 interest, or are of importance from their symbolical character, there have appeared at all 
 periods, ,unce the reformation, many others, both Protestant and Roman Catholic, some 
 doctrinal, some controversial, some devoted to particular subjects, as the sacraments, 
 or to particular purposes, as the preparation of candidates for admission to the Lord’s 
 supper, some adapted to the mental capacity of very young children, etc. The opinion, 
 however, has become prevalent, that doctrinal abstracts are not the best form in which 
 religion can be presented to the young, and the use of catechisms has accordingly been 
 in some measure relinquished in favor of other methods of instruction. 
 
 The C. of the church of England, with which we are most familiar, is the smaller 
 one published in the book of Common Prayer. It is in two parts; the first contains and 
 explains the baptismal covenant, the creed, the ten commandments, and the Lord’s 
 prayer; the second explains the two sacraments, baptism, and the Lord’s supper. It 
 is not known with absolute certainty who was the author of the first part; probably 
 Oranmer and Ridley had the principal hand in framing the questions and answers. 
 It was originally put forth with the 42 articles in the reign of Edward VI., and 
 condemned as heretical in the reign of Mary. It must not be confounded with Cran- 
 mer’s C., vhich was a larger work, differently arranged, and translated chiefly from the 
 German C. used in Nuremberg. This first part of the church C. is spoken of as the 
 shorter catechism. 
 
 There was a larger church C. compiled also in the reign of Edward VI., by Ponet, 
 as is supposed, and it corresponds in some degree with the smaller work above described. 
 It was afterwards revised and enlarged by Noel, dean of St. Paul’s, and published in 
 1570; and though never officially promulgated by the church, it has some authority 
 from having been approved by the lower house of convocation. At the Hampton court 
 conference, in the reign of James I., the shorter Q. was considered too short, and the 
 larger one of Noel’s too long; and accordingly, at the king’s suggestion, an addition was 
 made to the former of that explanation of the two sacraments which now forms the 
 second part of the church catechism. This was drawn up by Dr. Overall. The whole 
 is a work much esteemed by all sections of the church, as remarkable for its simplicity, 
 truth, and catholicity. It, however, states the baptismal theory in a way that is not 
 very acceptable to the extreme low church party. The rubrics in the Common Prayer 
 book enjoin the teaching of the C. in the church on Sum lays and holidays after the 2d 
 lesson at evening prayer; and the 59th canon contains a like injunction, imposing pen- 
 alties on the clergy wdio neglect this. The custom of catechizing in the church had 
 fallen into almost universal disuse, but in many parishes it has been revived with excel- 
 lent results. 
 
 The larger and shorter catechisms, which, with the Westminster confession of faith, 
 constitute the standards or symbolical books of the Presbyterian churches throughout 
 the British empire and the United States of America, were compiled by the assembly of 
 divines at Westminster (q.v.): the shorter C. “ to be a directory for catechizing such as 
 are of weaker capacity ;” the larger, ‘‘ for catechizing such as have made some profi- 
 ciency in the knowledge of the Christian religion.” The shorter C. was presented to 
 the English house of commons on 5th Nov., 1647; the larger on the 14th April, 1648; 
 and in July, 1648, both received the sanction of the general assembly of the church of 
 Scotland — the general assembly, in the act approving of the larger C., declaring it to be 
 a rich treasure for increasing knowledge among the people of God,” and that “ they 
 bless the Lord that so excellent a catechism has been prepared.” The shorter C. has, 
 however, been far more generally used for the purpose of instruction than the larger, 
 which has been generally felt to be too minute in its statements, and too burdensome to 
 the memory to be employed as a catechism. Even the shorter C. is regarded by many, 
 who substantially adhere to its doctrine, as carrying the statement of dogmatic theology 
 beyond what is proper for elementary instruction, whilst it has been long felt to be 
 unsuitable for the very young and the very ignorant, and its use is now almost always 
 preceded by that of catechisms more adapted to their capacity. Its influence, however, 
 has been very great in forming the religious opinions, and in exercising and training the 
 intellectual faculties, wherever Presbyterianism has prevailed ; for it has been, and still 
 
Catechu. 
 
 Catel. 
 
 550 
 
 is, in almost universal use among Presbyterians speaking the English language, and to » 
 considerable extent among Independents or Congregationalists both in Britain and 
 America. In Holland also, a translation of it has been much used. It is very generally 
 regarded, by those whose doctrinal views are in accordance with it, as an admirable 
 compend of Christian doctrine and duty. — The authorship of the Westminster assem- 
 bly’s catechisms has been the subject of much debate, or at least the authorship of 
 the first drafts of them; it being admitted that they were prepared with great care 
 by committees of the assembly. But the probability appears to be, that their author- 
 ship is to be ascribed entirely to these committees; and that, like the Westminster 
 confession of faith, they are thus the result of the joint labors of many. From dis-- 
 ooveries made by the late Dr. M‘Crie, it seems probable that at least the ']^an or 
 scheme of the shorter C. is to be ascribed to Mr. Palmer. 
 
 CAT'ECHTT, a substance employed bo'th as a coloring matter and medicinally as an 
 astringert. The C. of commerce is obtained chiefly from East Indian trees, such as 
 the C. cree {acacia catechu), betel-nut, etc. ; but the greater part of that which is 
 expor'.ed from India is made from the C. tree. It is known in India by the name 
 kutt; and C. is said to be a name compounded of two words signifying the juice of a tree 
 {ca*e, a tree, and chu, juice). Cutch is another form of one or other of these names, and 
 is a common commercial name. The heart-wood alone of the tree yields C., which 
 \ obtained by cutting it into small chips, and boiling it in water, straining the liquid 
 'rom time to time, and adding fresh supplies of chips, till the extract is of sutficient con- 
 iistence to be poured into clay molds, which are usually of a square shape; or when of 
 the thickness of tar, it is allowed to harden for two days, so that it will not run, and is 
 formed into balls about the size of oranges, which are placed on husks of rice or on 
 leaves, and appear in commerce enveloped in them. The C, manufacturers in Northern 
 India move to different parts of the country at different seasons, and erect tem- 
 porary huts in the jungles, where they carry on their operations. The C. tree abounds 
 chiefly in the Bombay and Bengal presidencies; it is a small, erect, thorny tree, with a 
 roundish head of (generally) prickly branches. Its sapwood is yellow, tne heart-wood 
 dark red. C. is brittle, and can readily be broken into fragments; is soluble in water, 
 and possesses an astringent taste, but no odor. It is a very permanent color, and is 
 employed in the dyeing of blacks, browns, fawns, drabs, and greens. It contains much 
 tannin, and an acid called catechuic acid, which can be isolated in white silky crystals. 
 It is often adulterated with earthy substances, but its ready solubility in water and alco- 
 hol, should at once show the presence of such, by leaving them behind in an insoluble 
 state. — The C. of the betel-nut is obtained by boiling first the nuts, and then the extract 
 to a proper consistency. A first boiling of the nuts for some hours is said to yield a 
 black kind of C., called kassu; and a second boiling, after the nuts are dried, a yellowish- 
 brown kind, called coury, which is considered the best, and is sold for the highest price. 
 The former appears in commerce under the name of Colombo C. or Ceylon C. (or cutch) 
 in the form of circular flat cakes, covered on one side with husks of rice. The latter 
 does not seem to reach Europe. — Gambir (q.v.) may be regarded as a kind of catechu. 
 Kino (q.v.) is sometimes confounded with catechu. Terra Japonica, or Japan earth, is 
 an old name for C., not quite disused, which was given to it on the supposition of its 
 being an earthy substance brought from Japan. 
 
 CATECHU'MENS (Gr. persons undergoing a course of instruction ; see Catechism), 
 the appellation given, in the early Christian church, to those converted Jews and 
 heathens who had not yet received baptism, but were undergoing a course of training 
 and instruction preparatory to it. They had a place assigned them in the congregation, 
 but were not permitted to be present at the dispensation of the Lord’s supper. In the 
 apostolic age, converts appear to have been at once admitted to the sacraments; but 
 afterwards this ceased to be the case, and a period of probation was required. The C. 
 were divided into different classes or grades, according to their proficiency — those of the 
 lowest grade were not permitted to be present during the prayers of the congregation; 
 and those only of the highest, and who had been declared fit to be baptized at the next 
 administration of the ordinance, were permitted to wdtness the dispensation of the 
 Lord’s supper. — The term C. was afterwards employed to designate young members of 
 the Christian church who were receiving instruction to prepare them for confirmation 
 or for the Lord’s supper, and it is still often used in this sense. 
 
 CATEGORIES. This designation has come down to us from Aristotle. One of the 
 books of his Organon or Logical System is so named. The C., or predicaments, as the 
 schoolmen called them, are to be understood as an attempt at a comprehensive classifica- 
 tion of all that exists, for the purposes of logical affirmation, proof, or disproof. The 
 entire universe may be classified in various ways — as into things celestial and terrestrial; 
 into matter and spirit; into organized and unorganized; into minerals, plants, animals, 
 etc. But the classification contemplated under the C. proceeds on the very general 
 properties or attributes that most extensively pervade all existing things, although in 
 unequal degrees. A good example is quantity, which pertains to every thing that we 
 know or can think of. We give the Aristotelian enumeration — the first column is thi» 
 
551 
 
 Catechu. 
 
 Catel. 
 
 original Greek ; the second, the Latin rendering of the schoolmen ; the third, the nearest 
 corresponding English words; 
 
 0v6ia, 
 
 Substantia, 
 
 Substance 
 
 Hodov, 
 
 Quantitas, 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Hoidv, 
 
 Qualitas, 
 
 Quality. 
 
 Hpoi Tt, 
 
 Relatio, 
 
 Relation. 
 
 HoiEiv, 
 
 Actio, 
 
 Action. 
 
 Hccdxetv, 
 
 Passio, 
 
 Passivity. 
 
 Hov, 
 
 Ubi, 
 
 Position in space 
 
 Hors, 
 
 Quando, 
 
 Position in time. 
 
 KeidOat, 
 
 Situs, 
 
 Situation. 
 
 Exeiv, 
 
 Habitus, 
 
 Possession. 
 
 Mr. J. S. Mill has the following remarks on the above scheme: “ The imperfections of 
 this classitication are too obvious to require, and its merits are not sufficient to reward, 
 a minute examination. It is a mere catalogue of the distinctions rudely marked out by 
 the language of familiar life, with little or no attempt to penetrate, by philosophical 
 analysis, to the rationale even of these common distinctions. Such an analysis, how- 
 ever superficially conducted, would have shown the enumeration to be both redundant 
 and defective. Some objects are admitted, and others repeated several times under 
 different heads. It is like a division of animals into men, quadrupeds, horses, asses, 
 and ponies. That, for instance, could not be a very comprehensive view of the nature 
 of Relation, which could exclude action, passivity, and local situation from that cate- 
 gory. The same observation applies to position in time and position in space; while the 
 distinction between the latter and situation is merely verbal.” — Logic, book i., chap. lii. 
 § 1. Some writers have endeavored to save the C. from these objections, by declaring 
 that the fourth. Relation, is to be looked upon as a general head, comprehending the 
 remaining six under it. But there is no evidence that Aristotle had this view in his 
 mind; on the contrary, it appears almost certain that his idea of Relation was too nar- 
 row and limited to admit of his giving it so great a comprehension. 
 
 Mr. Mill gives us the result of his own analysis, the following enumeration and 
 classification of existences or describable things: 
 
 1. Feelings, or states of consciousness; which are the most comprehensive experience 
 that the human mind can attain to, since even the external world is only known as con- 
 ceived by our minds. 
 
 2. The minds which experience those feelings. 
 
 3. The bodies, or external objects, which are supposed to excite all that class of 
 feelings that we denominate sensations. 
 
 4. The successions, and coexistences, the likenesses and unlikenesses, between feel- 
 ings or states of consciousness. Although the relations are considered by us to subsist 
 between the bodies, or things, external to our minds, we are driven in the last resort to 
 consider them as really subsisting between the states of each one’s own individual mind. 
 
 Mr. Mill shows that all possible propositions — and it is with the truth or falsehood of 
 propositions that the science of logic has chiefly to do — affirm or deny one or other of 
 the following properties or facts: Existence— the most general attribute of all — Co-ex- 
 istence, sequence or succession, causation — a peculiar case of succession — and resem- 
 blance. It is to arrive at this classification of propositions, for the purposes of logic, that 
 the foregoing analysis, corresponding to the Aristotelian C., was made. The properties 
 affirmed of any thing or things, or the things of which any properties are affirmed, come 
 under some one or other of the four heads above given. 
 
 The C. of Kant, which are sometimes brought into comparison with those of Aristo- 
 tle, are conceived under a totally different point of view. See sir W. Hamilton’s Dis- 
 missions on Philosophy, 2d edit., p. 26. They refer to certain forms supposed to be 
 inherent in the understanding itself, under which the mind embraces the objects of 
 actual experience. The Kantian philosophy supposes that human knowledge is partly 
 made up of the sensations of outward things — color, sound, touch, etc. — and partly of 
 intuitions existing in the mind prior to all experience of the actual world. This is the 
 point of difference between the school of Locke — who rejected all innate ideas, concep- 
 tions, or forms — and the school of Kant. No such question was raised under the Aris- 
 totelian categories. Kant’s enumeration of his innate forms is as follows: 1. Quantity, 
 including unity, multitude, totality; 2. Quality, including reality, negation, limitation; 
 3. Relation, including substance and accident, cause and effect, action and reaction; 4. 
 Modality, which includes possibility, existence, necessity. These indicate the elements 
 of our knowledge a priori; it being the opinion of the author, that such notions, as cau 
 sation, necessity, etc., cannot be obtained from the exercise of our senses and intelligence 
 upon the world of realities, but must have been somehow or other imprinted upon the 
 mind originally. 
 
 CA'TEL, Fkanz, 1778-1856; a German artist who first gained reputation by his illus- 
 trations of Goethe’s Hermann and Dorothea. He labored in Paris and Rome, and his 
 works found their way all over the continent. He left all his fortune for the benefit of 
 poor artists. 
 
Catenary. 
 
 Catharine. 
 
 552 
 
 CAT ENARY. The C. is the curve formed by a flexible homogeneous cord hanging 
 freely between two points of support, and acted on by no other force than gravity. If 
 the cord is not homogeneous, and the density varies in any regular way, the cord hangs in 
 a curve slightly different in shape from that of the ordinary catenary. The C. possesses 
 several remarkable properties, one of which is, that its center of gravity (q.v.) is lower 
 than that of any curve of equal perimeter, and with the same fixed points for its 
 extremities. Where the cord is such that the weight of any part of it is proportioned to 
 its horizontal projection, the curve is a parabola (q.v.). The latter curve and the ordi- 
 nary C. are of importance chiefiy in the theory of suspension bridges (q.v.). The 
 properties of the C. will be found fully analyzed in all the leading works on mechanics. 
 
 CATENIPORA, a genus of fossil lamelliferous corals peculiar to paleozoic strata, con- 
 fined in Britain to the Silurian measures. The genus is easily recognized. The cells 
 are terminal and oval, arranged like a loose net-work of chains, hence called “chain 
 coral.” Vertical anastomosing lamellae united the cells together, and formed a hemis- 
 pherical polypidom, sometimes of great size. 
 
 CATE’RINA, Santa, a t. of Sicily, in the province of Caltanisetta, and 7. m. n.n.w. 
 of the town of that name. It is situated on a hill near the river Salso, is fortified, has 
 manufactures of fine earthenware; and in the neighborhood are found jaspers and 
 agates of good quality. Pop. 5,800. 
 
 CATERPILLAR, the name given to the larvae of lepidopterous insects — butterflies, 
 moths, and hawk-moths. Caterpillars exhibit as great differences as subsist among the 
 perfect insects into which they change, and the family, genus, and species may be deter- 
 mined by the characters of the C., as well as of the perfect insect. Their body is gen- 
 erall}^ long, nearly cylindrical, soft, and consisting of 12 rings or segments besides the 
 head, with nine spiracles or small openings for respiration on each side. The head is 
 much harder than the rest of the body, of a sort of almost horny substance, and has S 
 small shining points on each side, which are regarded as simple or stemmatic eyes, and 
 is also furnished with two very short rudimentary antennae. The mouth is adapted for 
 tearing, cutting, and masticating the substances on which the C. is destined to feed, which 
 are very various in the different species, although in all extremely different from the 
 food of the perfect insect; it is provided with two strong mandibles, or upper jaws; tw*o 
 maxilla,, or lower jaws; a labium, or lower lip; and ioxxv palpi, or feelers. In the mouth 
 also is situated the spineret of those species which, when they change into the chrysalis 
 or pupa state, envelop themselves in silken cocoons. See Silk-worm. The first three 
 segments of the body are each furnished with a pair of feet, which are hard and scaly, 
 and represent the 6 feet of the perfect insect; some of the remaining segments are also 
 furnished with feet, varying in all from 4 to 10 in number, the last pair situated at the 
 posterior extremity of the body; but these feet are soft and membranous or fleshy, and 
 armed at their extremity with a sort of circlet of minute hooks. All the feet or legs are 
 very short. Those caterpillars in which the pro-legs, as they are sometimes called, or 
 supplementary soft feet, are pretty equally distributed along the body, move by a sort of 
 regular crawling motion; but those which have only four such feet situated near the 
 posterior extremity, move by alternately taking hold by what may be called their fore- 
 feet and their hind-feet, now stretching the body out to its full length, and now bending 
 it into an arch, whilst the hinder part is brought forward almost into contact with the 
 forepart. Caterpillars which move in this way are called geometers or loopers. Some cater- 
 pillars have the power of fixing themselves by the two hind feet to a twig, and stretching 
 themselves out as straight as a rod, so that being in color very like a twig of the tree on 
 the leaves of which they feed, they are not readily observed. The muscular power 
 required for this position of rest is very great, and Lyonnet found the number of mus- 
 cles in a C. to be more than 4,000. The skin of some caterpillars is naked, that of 
 others is covered with hairs, spines, or tubercles. Some make for themselves nests or 
 tents of silk, under w hich they dwell in societies, protected from the inclemency of the 
 weather. Many canstiuct cases or sheaths by agglutinating various substances together, 
 as the C. of the common clothes-moth. Some roll together leaves, and fix them by 
 threads,, so forming a dwelling for themselves; and a few burrow and excavate galleries 
 in the substance of leaves. Many feed on leaves; many being limited to a particular 
 kind of plant, or to a few nearly allied plants. Some feed on flowers, some on seeds, 
 some on roots, and some even on the woody portions of stems; some on wool, hides, 
 furs, and other animal substances; a few on lard, and other kinds of fat. Among the 
 admirable arrangements which make all nature harmonious, is the adjustment of the 
 time of each kind of C.’s appearance to that of the leaf or flower on which it is to feed. 
 
 CATERPILLAR FUNGUS, or Fungoid Parasites, a species of fungus that attacks 
 insects, particularly the larvae of moths and beetles, filling their bodies and sending 
 shoots beyond the skin so that the creature takes the appearance of a vegetable growth. 
 These growths vary in length from a slight projection to nearly a foot, and in diameter 
 from a hair to a quarter of an inch. The fungi attacking insects also infest all organic 
 and decaying matter. 
 
 CATES'BY, Mark, 1680-1749; an English naturalist who was seven years in the 
 American colonies, returning to England in 1719 with a fine collection of plants. He 
 
553 
 
 Catenary. 
 
 Catharine. 
 
 made another journey in 1723, exploring South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, and the 
 Bahamas. He published Natural History of Carolina, Florida, and the Bahama Islands, 
 in which the figures were etched by himself from his own paintings. He also wrote 
 Hortus Europece Americanus and a paper on Birds of Passage. 
 
 CAT-FISH, a name given to several species of the family Silundoe, dwelling in 
 American rivers and lakes. The common cat-fish, or horned pout, of the Atlantic slope, 
 is preferred above most river fish for food. They are from 7 to 9 in. long, dusky brown 
 in color on the back and sides, and white underneath. The upper jaw is the longest; 
 the tail is rounded; skin without scales and commonly covered with a slimy secretion. 
 It has two fleshy barbels (long beard like spines) on the top of the nose, and others at 
 the angles of the jaws. Its mouth is very large. Immense cat-fish are found in the 
 great lakes and western rivers, more than 4 ft. long and weighing 60 to 150 lbs. 
 
 CATGUT is employed in the fabrication of the strings of violins, harps, guitars, and 
 other musical instruments; as also in the cords used by clockmakers, in the bows of 
 archers, and in whip cord. It is generally prepared from the intestines of the sheep, 
 rarely from those of the horse, ass, or mule, and not those of the cat. The first stage in 
 the operation is the thorough cleansing of the intestines from adherent feculent and 
 fatty matters; after which they are steeped in water for several days, so as to loosen the 
 external membrane, which can then be removed by scraping with a bluut knife. The 
 material which is thus scraped off is employed for the cords of battle-doors and rackets, 
 -and also as thread in sewing the ends of intestines together. The scraped intestines are 
 then steeped in water, and scraped again, when the large intestines are cut and placed 
 in tubs with salt, to preserve them for the sausage-maker; and the smaller intestines are 
 steeped in water, thereafter treated with a dilute solution of alkali (4 oz. potash, 4 oz. 
 carbonate of potash, and 3 to 4 gallons of water, with occasionally a little alum), and 
 are lastly drawn through a perforated brass thimble, and assorted into their respective 
 sizes. In order to destroy any adherent animal matter, which would lead to putrefac- 
 tion and the consequent development of offensive odors, it is customary to subject the 
 €. t© the fumes of burning sulphur — sulphurous acid, which acts as an antiseptic (q.v.), 
 and arrests decomposition. The best strings are used for musical instruments; and 
 those which come from Italy, and are known as Boman strings, are the strongest. They 
 are remarkable for their clearness and transparency. Cord for clockmakers is made 
 from the smallest of the intestines, and occasionally from larger ones, which have been 
 aplit longitudinally into several lengths. Whip-cord is fabricated from C. which has been 
 twisted in a manner somewhat similar to single-corded ropes. The C. obtained from 
 the intestines of horses, asses, and mules is principally made in France, and is employed 
 instead of leather-belts for driving machinery. 
 
 CA'THA, a genus of the natural order celastracece. The fruit is a three-cornered cap- 
 sule. — G. edulis, sometimes called Arabian Tea, the Khat of the Arabians, is a shrub 
 with erect smooth branches, elliptical obtusely serrated leaves, and small flowers in 
 axillary cymes. It is a native of Arabia, and the Arabs ascribe to its leaves, even carried 
 about the'person, extraordinary virtues as a preventive of plague, with probably about 
 as much reason as our forefathers had for esteeming the rowan tree formidable to 
 witches. When fresh, they are stimulant, narcotic, and intoxicating, and are eaten with 
 greediness by the Arabs. They are very antisoporific, so that a man, after using them, 
 may keep v/atch for a whole night without drowsiness. 
 
 CATHABI, or Catharists (Gr. pure), a name very generally given to various sects 
 which appeared in the church during the middle ages. It appears to have been some- 
 times assumed in profession of a purity of doctrine and morals superior to that which 
 generally prevailed in the church, sometimes bestowed ironically in ridicule of such a 
 profession, and perhaps was first used as a designation of the Paulicians (q.v.). It 
 became a common appellation of sects which appeared in Lombardy in the beginning of 
 the 11th c., and afterwards in France and the w. of Germany. Having- some connec- 
 tion with the Bulgarian Paulicians, they were sometimes called Bulgarians; sometimes 
 also Patarenes or Patarines, Publicans or Popelitans, and in the Low Countries, 
 
 Pvphles. The names Albigenses and C. are often used as equivalent to one another; but 
 we are under the disadvantage of having to depend entirely on the writings of very 
 bigoted adversaries for our knowledge of their doctrines and practices, and considerable 
 obscurity rests on all this interesting part of ecclesiastical history. Manicheism, (Gnos- 
 ticism, and Montanism are ascribed to the C. ; but there is much reason to think that 
 the errors of a few were often indiscriminately charged upon all, and that such charges 
 indeed sometimes rested on ignorant or willful misconstruction. It appears quite certain, 
 that the C. differed considerably in their doctrines and in the degree of their opposition 
 to the dominant church. Some of them advocated and practiced a rigid asceticism. 
 There is no good evidence that any of them nearly approached to the doctrines of the 
 reforniation ; although in their rejection of tradition, of the authority of Rome, of the 
 worship of saints and images, etc., there are notable points of agreement with the views 
 •of the reformers. 
 
 CATHARINE is the name of several saints of the Roman Catholic church. The simple 
 designation of Saint G., however, is given to a virgin, said to have been of royal descent 
 
Ctitharine. 
 
 554 
 
 in Alexandria, who, publicly confessing the gospel at a sacrificial feast appointed by th» 
 emperor Maximiuus, was put to death in307 A.D., after being tortured on awheel. 
 Hence the name of “ St. Catharine’s wheel.” Very extraordinary legends exist as ta 
 her converting 50 philosophers sent by the emperor to convert her in prison, besides a 
 multitude of other persons; the conveyance of lier head by the angels to Mt. Sinai, 
 etc. She is regarded as the patroness of girls’ schools. — Saint G. of Siena, one of the 
 most famous saints of Italy, was the daughter of a dyer in Siena, and was born tliere in 
 1347 A.r. ; practiced extraordinary mortifications; and was said to be favored with 
 extraordinaiy tokens of favor by Christ, whose wounds were impressed upon her body, 
 etc. She became a Dominican, and therefore afterwards a patron saint of the 
 Dominicans. She wrote devotional pieces, letters, and poems, which have been more 
 than once printed : the best edition appeared at Siena and Lucca, in 1707-13, in 4 vols. 
 4to, under the title of Opere della serafica Santa Catarina. — St. G. of Bologna and St. (7, 
 of Sweden are of less note. 
 
 CATHARINE I., Empress of Russia, was originally by name Martha Rabe, and was 
 the posthumous daughter of John Rabe, a Swedish quarter-master in Livonia. Her 
 mother died in 1685, when she w;is but three years old. Left hopeless and destitute, a 
 parish-clerk took compassion on her, and supported her, and a Lutheran clergyman in 
 Marienburg, afterwards received her into his house as an attendant on his children. In 
 1701, she married a Swedish dragoon, who next year was called to active service; and 
 Marienburg being taken b)’’ the Russians, she became for some time the mistress of gen. 
 Bauer; and afterwards entering the service of the princess Menschikoff, she attracted the 
 notice of Peter the great. In 1703, she went over to the Greek church, and took the 
 name of Catharina Alexiewna. After being for some years the emperor’s mistress, she 
 was privately married to him in 1711; the marriage was publicly avowed in 1712; she 
 was proclaimed empress in 1718, and was crowned at Moscow in 1724. She bore eight 
 children to the emperor, all of whom died in childhood, except two daughters, Anne and 
 Elizabeth, the latter of whom was afterwards empress of Russia, and the former married 
 the duke of Holstein, and was the mother of the emperor Peter HI. When Peter the 
 great and his army seemed entirely in the power of the Turkish army on the Pruth in 
 1717, C., who was with him, sought an interview with the grand vizier, and, by employ- 
 ing her jewels to bribe his attendants, succeeded in procuring the deliverance of the 
 Russians. Her conduct on this occasion excited so much admiration and gratitude in 
 the emperor, that he resolved to appoint her his successor. Yet. in the end of the year 
 1724, she became the object of his displeasure and suspicion, on account of an alleged 
 intimacy with a chamberlain, whom he caused to be beheaded. Menschikoff, who had 
 always been attached to her interests, was at this time in disgrace. But she had con- 
 trived in a great measure to recover her position, when, on 28th Jan., 1725, Peter the great 
 died. His death was kept secret as long as possible, that everything might be arranged 
 for her taking possession of the throne; and the archbishop of Pleskow came forward 
 and declared before the troops and people, that the emperor, on his death-bed, had 
 declared her alone worthy to be his successor. The hostility and hesitation of the nobles 
 were at once overcome, and C. was acknowledged as empress and sole ruler of all the 
 Russias. Under Menschikoff’s directions, the affairs of government went on well 
 enough for a time; but the empre.ss ere long began to yield to the influence of a number 
 of favorites, addicted herself to drunkenness, and lived such a life as could not fail to 
 hurry her to the grave. She died, however, unexpectedly, 17th May, 1727. 
 
 CATHARINE II., empress of Russia, was b. at Stettin on 25th April, 1729. Her 
 father, the prince of Anhalt-Zerbst, was a Prussian field-marshal, and governor of Stet- 
 tin. She received the name of Sophia Augusta; but the empress Elizabeth of Russia 
 having selected her for the wife of her nephew and intended successor, Peter, she 
 passed from the Lutheran to the Greek church, and took the name of Catharina Alex- 
 iewna. In 1745, her marriage took place. She soon quarreled with her husband, and each 
 of them lived a life of unrestrained vice. Among his attendants was a count Soltikow, 
 with whom her intimacy soon became scandalous; and Soltikow was sent on an 
 embassy abroad. But the young Polish count, Stanislaus Poniatowski, almost imme- 
 diately supplied his place. After the death of the empress Elizabeth in 1761. Peter III. 
 ascended the Russian throne; but the conjugal difference became continually wider. 
 C. was banished to a separate abode; and the emperor seemed to entertain the design 
 of divorcing her, declaring her only son, Paul, illegitimate, and marrying his mistress, 
 Elizabeth Woronzow. The popular dislike to Peter, however, rapidly increased ; and 
 at length, he being dethroned by a conspiracy, C. was made empress. A few days 
 afterwards Peter was murdered (July, 1762). What participation his wife had in his 
 murder, has never been well ascertained. 
 
 , C. now exerted herself to please the people, and among other things, made a ^eat 
 show of regard for the outward forms of the Greek church, although her principles 
 were, in reality, those of the infidelity then prevalent among the French philosophers. 
 The government of the country was carried on with great energy; and her reign was 
 remarkable for the rapid increase of the extent and power of Russia. Not long after her 
 accession to the throne, her influence secured the election of her former favorite, Stanislaus 
 Poniatowski, to the throne of Poland. In her own empire, however, discontentment 
 
555 
 
 Catliarine*' 
 
 was seriously manifested, the hopes of the disaffected being centered in the young 
 prince Ivan, who was forthwith murdered in the castle of Schlusselburg. From that 
 time, the internal politics of Russia long consisted in great part of intrigues for 
 the humiliation of one favorite and the exaltation of another. The first partition of 
 Poland in 1772, and the Turkish war, which terminated in the peace of Kainardji in 
 1774, vastly increased the empire. The Turkish war which terminated in the peace 
 of Jassy in 1792, had similar results, and also the war with Sweden, which terminated 
 in 1790. The second and third partitions of Poland, and the incorporation of Cour- 
 land with Russia, completed the triumphs of C.’s reign. She began a war with Persia, 
 however, and cherished a scheme for the overthrow of the British power in India; but 
 a stroke of apoplexy cut her off on Nov. 9, 1796. She was a woman of great ability; 
 but, utterly devoid of principle, she shrunk from no crime; and sensuality and ambition 
 governed all her actions. She was shameless in vice; and always had a paromour, who 
 dwelt in her palace, and might be regarded as filling an acknowledged office of state, 
 with large revenues and determinate privileges. Yet distinguished authors flattered her; 
 and she invited to her court some of the literati and philosophers of France. She was 
 ever ready to commence great undertakings, but most of them were left unfinished; 
 and little was really accomplished in her reign for the improvement of the country, or 
 the progress of civilization. On a visit to the southern provinces of the empire in 
 1787, she was gratified by a perpetual display of fictitious wealth and prosperity along 
 the whole route. This imperial progress was also a triumphal procession of her vile 
 favorite Potemkin (q.v.). 
 
 CATHABINE of ARAGON, Queen of England, the first wife of Henry VIII. , and 
 fourth daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, king and queen of Castile and Aragon, was 
 b. Dec., 1485. She occupies a prominent place in English history, not for what she 
 herself was, but for what she was the occasion of — the reformation. Married when 
 scarcely 16, to Arthur, prince of Wales, son of Henry VII., she was left a widow 
 within a year; and in the course of a few months more a second marriage was pro- 
 jected for her by her father-in-law, with his second son Henry, as yet a boy of only 
 12 years old. The pope’s dispensation enabling such near relatives to marry was 
 obtained in 1503, and the marriage took place in June, 1509, immediately after Henry’s 
 accession to the crown as Henry VIII. Although Henry was very far from being a model 
 husband, he appears to have treated queen C., who had borne him several children, with 
 all due respect, until about 1527, when he conceived a passion for Anne Boleyn (q.v.). 
 He now expressed doubts as to the legality of his marriage, and set about obtaining a 
 divorce. Pope Clement VII. would readily have annulled the marriage permitted by 
 his predecessor, had he not feared queen C.’s powerful nephew, the emperor Charles V. 
 He, however, granted a commission to Compeggio and Wolsey, to inquire into the 
 validity of the marriage ; but before these prelates queen C. refused to ‘plead, adn 
 appealed to the pope. The king craved judgment. The legates cited the queen, and 
 declaring her contumacious when she appeared not, went on with the cause ; but the 
 wily Campeggio, anxious only for time for his master when the king expected an answer, 
 prorogued the court until a future day. The king consulted the universities of Europe, 
 many of which declared the marriage invalid. The pope now summoned the king to 
 Rome, but Henry haughtily refused to appear either himself, or by deputy, which he 
 maintained would be to sacrifice the prerogatives of his crown; and setting the pope 
 at defiance, married Anne Boleyn. Cranmer, shortly afterwards (1533), declared the first 
 marriage void, and pope Clement annulled Cranmer’s sentence, making the separation 
 from Rome complete. Queen C. did not quit the kingdom, but took up her residence first 
 at Ampthill, in Bedfordshire, and aftewards at Kimbolton castle, Huntingdonshire, 
 where she led an austere religious life until her decease in Jan., 1536. Queen C.’s per- 
 sonal character was unimpeachable, and her disposition sweet and gentle. 
 
 CATHARINE DE’ MEDICI, the queen of Henri II. of France, was the daughter of 
 Lorenzo de’ Medici, duke of Urbino, and was b. at Florence in 1519. In her 14th year 
 she was brought to France, and married to Henri, the second son of Francis I. The 
 marriage was a part of the political schemes of her uncle, pope Clement VII., but as 
 he died soon after, she found herself friendless and neglected at the French court. In 
 these circumstances, she conducted herself with a submission which seemed even to 
 indicate a want of proper spirit, but which gained her the favor of the old king, and in 
 some measure also of her husband. It was not till the accession of her eldest son, 
 Francis II., in 1559, that her love of power began to display itself. The Guises at this 
 time possessed a power which seemed dangerous to that of the throne, and C. entered 
 into a secret alliance with the Huguenots to oppose them. On the death of Francis II. 
 in 1560, and accession of Charles IX., the government fell entirely into her hands. 
 Caring little for religion in itself, although she was very prone to superstition, she dis- 
 liked the Protestants, chiefly because their principles were opposed to the absolute 
 despotism which she desired to maintain. Yet she sought to rally the Protestant 
 leaders around the throne, in order to remove the Guises. This attempt having failed, 
 and the civil war which ensued having ended in the peace of Amboise, highly favorable 
 to the Protestants, she became alarmed at the increase of their power, and entered into 
 a secret treaty with Spain for the extirpation of heretics; and subsequently into a plot 
 
Catharine. 
 
 Cathedral. 
 
 556 
 
 with the Guises, in which at first only the murder of the Protestant leaders was coo 
 templated, but which resulted in the fearful massacre of St. Bartholomew’s day. Thia 
 ‘jvent brought the whole power of the state into the hands of the queen-mother, who 
 boasted of llie deed to Roman Catholic governments, and excused it to Protestant ones, 
 for she now managed all the correspondence of the court. About this time she suc- 
 ceeded, by gold and intrigues, in getting her third vSon, afterwards Henri III., elected, 
 to the Polish throne. But her arbitrary and tyrannical administration roused the oppo- 
 sition of a Roman Catholic party, at the head of whom was her own fourth son, the 
 duke of Alenyon, who allied themselves with the Protestants. It was very generally 
 believed that she was privy to the machinations that led to his death. When, after the 
 death of Charles IX., Henri HI. returned from Poland to be king of France, his mother 
 still ruled the court, and had the principal share in all the intrigues, treacheries, and political 
 transactions of that woful period. Having betrayed all who trusted them, she and her 
 son found themselves at last forsaken and abhorred by all. The league and the Guises had 
 no more confidence in them, than had the Protestants and Henri of Navarre. Vexation 
 on this account prayed on the proud heart of the queen-mother in her last days; and, 
 amidst the confusion and strife of parties, she died at Blois, on 5th Jan., 1589, unheeded 
 and unlamented. Her ruling passion was ambition, and to this she was ready to sacri- 
 fice everything. Her unprincipled policy had almost subverted the French monarchy; 
 her extravagance and luxury exhausted the finances of the country. Her influence was 
 powerful in increasing the demoralization of the court and of society. She unscrupu- 
 lously employed beauties of her train to corrupt men from whose power she apprehended 
 danger. 
 
 CATHAltINE FABB, the sixth wife of Henry VIII., was the daughter of sir Thomas 
 Parr, and was b. in 1513. Married first to lord Burgh, and afterwards to lord Latimer, 
 she, in July 12, 1543, became queen of England by marriage with Henry VIII. She 
 was distinguished for her learning and her knowledge of religious subjects, her discus- 
 sion of which with the king had well-nigh brought her to the block, like so many of her 
 predecessors. Her tact, however, saved her, and brought rebuke on her enemies; for 
 she made it appear to the king’s vanity, that she had only engaged him in discourse 
 about the reformation, in order to derive profit from his majesty’s speech. She per- 
 suaded Henry to restore the right of succession to his daughters, and interested herself 
 on behalf of the universities. After Henry’s death, she married, 1547, sir Thomas 
 Seymour, and died the following year, not without suspicion of poison. 
 
 CATHABINE’S, ST., COLLEGE, or Hall, Cambridge, was founded by Robert Wode- 
 larke, provost of King’s college, 1473, for a master and three or more fellows. The 
 visitors sent down to the university % Edward VI. ordered that there should be then 
 six fellows, and in future a greater or less number as the revenues permitted. The 
 statutes confirmed in May, 1860, provide that there shall be a master and nine fellows. 
 There are twenty-five scholars. Edwyn Sandys, archbishop of York, bishop Overall, 
 and bishop Sherlock, were of this college. 
 
 CATHAR'TES AURA, a vulture known as the turkey-buzzard, from its resemblance 
 to the domestic turkey. Its home is in the southern Atlantie and gulf states, though it 
 is sometimes found in the West Indies. The full-grown bird is 30 in. long, with a spread 
 of wings of 6 ft., and the color black and brown. This greedy bird acts as the scavenger 
 for southern cities, devouring refuse matter that might otherwise be injurious to the 
 public health. For this purpose they are deemed so valuable that in some places their 
 destruction is forbidden. There is a small species known locally as the carrion-crow. 
 
 CATHABTICS (Gr. kathaird, I purify), a name originally for all medicines supposed 
 to purify the system from the matter of disease {materies morbi), which was generally 
 presumed by the ancients to exist in all cases of fever and acute disease (see Crisis), and 
 to require to be separated or thrown off by the different excretions of the body. Ulti- 
 mately, the term C. became limited in its signification to remedies acting on the bowels, 
 which are popularly called purgatives — a mere translation of the Greek word. The prin- 
 cipal C. are aloes, gamboge, colocynth, rhubarb, scammony, jalap, senna, Epsom, and 
 other salts, and castor oil. Sulphur and cream of tartar forms a well-known mild laxa- 
 tive; magnesia is also useful in many cases of indigestion with acidity. Croton oil and 
 elaterium belong to a more dangerous class of C., as also does the favorite remedy of 
 the ancients — tlie black hellebore. The doses and use of the more ordinary remedies 
 of this class are explained in all works on medicine. See Constipation. 
 
 CATHABTINE, or Bitter op Senna, is the essential principle in senna which pos- 
 sesses laxative or purgative properties. It can be isolated as a yellowish-red uncrystal- 
 lizable solid, whieh is deliquescent, soluble in water and alcohol, insoluble in ether, 
 has a very bitter nauseous taste, a characteristic odor, and possesses great purging pow- 
 ers, accompanied by nausea and griping. Three grains of C. are a full dose. 
 
 CATHAY. See China, ante. 
 
 CATHCABT, Sir George, son of William, Earl Cathcart, was b. in London, 1794. 
 Educated at Eton and Edinburgh, he, in 1810, joined the 2d life guards, and fought 
 with the grand army in the campaigns of 1812 and 1813; and as aid-de-camp to the duke 
 of Wellington, was present at Quartre Bras and Waterloo. In 1828, he was made lieut. 
 
Catharine. 
 
 Cathedral. 
 
 557 
 
 col., and served in British America and the West Indies for about 8 years; and in 1837 
 he proved himself an energetic and efficient officer in quelling the outbreak in Canada, 
 where he remained for more than 6 years. In 1852, having held the appointment of dep- 
 uty lieut. of the tower for some years, lie was made governor of the cape of Good Hope, 
 with command of the forces, and in this capacity succeeded in bringing to a successful 
 end the harassing Kaffer war. He returned to England in time to be sent out to the 
 Crimea as general of division. His bravery here was conspicuous, especially in the 
 battle of Inkermann, where the odds were so terribly against the British forees, and 
 where he was slain. He was buried on the spot where he fell, and which, in his honor, 
 was named Cathcart’s hill. C. was the author of a very valuable work, entitled Com- 
 mentaries on the War in Russia and Germany in 1812 and 1813 (Lond. 1850). . 
 
 CATHCAET, William Shaw, Earl, a British gen. and diplomatist, son of baron 
 Cathcart of Cathcart, co. of Renfrew, was b. Sept. 17, 1755. Having studied at Glas- 
 gow, he entered the army, took a prominent part in the American war, and fought with 
 distinction in Flanders and n. Germany. In 1801, he was made lieut. gen., and in 1803, 
 commander-in-chief for Ireland. In 1805, he was engaged on a diplomatic mission to 
 the czar Alexander. In July, 1807, he received the command of the land forces 
 employed to co-operate with the fleet in the attack on Copenhagen, and, for his services 
 in this capacity, was made a British peer, with the title of viscount, and received a vote 
 of thanks from both houses of parliament, Jan. 28, 1808. In 1812, he was sent as 
 ambassador to St. Petersburg, accompanied the czar Alexander in the campaigns of 
 1813 and 1814, and was present at the congresses of Chatillon and Vienna, He was 
 raised to the rank of earl, June 18, 1814. The latter years of his life were chiefly spent 
 at his country residence, Cartside, near Glasgow, where he died June 17, 1843. — His 
 eldest son, Charles Murray, Earl Cathcart (formerly known as lord Greenock), 
 was born 1783; served in Spain and at Waterloo under Wellington; afterwards acted 
 in Canada; and was made a general and colonel of the 1st dragoon guards. He died 
 July, 1859. • 
 
 CATHE'DBAL, from a Greek word cathedra, signifying a seat. Thus, “ to speak ex 
 cathedra," is to speak as from a seat of authority. The C. city is the seat of the bishop 
 of the diocese, and his throne is placed in the C. church, which is the parish church of 
 the whole diocese. The diocese was, in fact, anciently called parochia, until the appli- 
 cation of this name to the smaller portions into which it was derived. A C. town has 
 generally been understood to be entitled to the honors of a city, even although the town 
 be not a borough incorporate; but in the case of Manchester, the claim was disallowed 
 by a court of law. The distinction between C. and collegiate churches consists princi- 
 pally in the see of the bishop being at the former. The governing body of a C. is called 
 the dean and chapter — i.e., the dean and canons who meet for corporate purposes in the 
 chapter-house of the cathedral. The property of the C. vests in this body. They elect 
 the bishop of the diocese on the issue of a conge d'elire from the crown, but as the person 
 to be elected is always named, and they may be compelled by a mandamus to elect that 
 person and no other, the election is merely a form. 
 
 The bishop is “ visitor” of the dean and chapter. In England, by the act of 1840, 
 all members of cathedrals, except the dean, are styled canons. Their seat in the C. is 
 called their stall. They are no longer called prebends. Canons must reside 3 months 
 in each year. The act allows to the canons of Durham, Manchester, St. Paul’s, and 
 Westminster,, an income of £1000 per annum; to those of every other G. in England, 
 £500. The bishop was always considered of common right to have the patronage of 
 canonries, but formerly there were exceptions. Now, the appointment to all canonries 
 is vested either in the bishop, or in the crown. Where the bishop is patron, he “col- 
 lates,” and the dean and chapter “ induct,” by placing the new canon in a stall in the 
 church. The crown appoints by letters-patent, and the canon is installed without colla- 
 tion. Honorary canons have no emoluments, but rank after the canons. Minor canons, 
 of whom there are from 2 to 6 in each C. , perform the daily choral services. The C. 
 service is the usual church of England service intoned, with an anthem and the Psalms 
 chanted. For the general plan of C. buildings, see Church. The more remarkable 
 cathedrals will be noticed under the names of the towns in which they are situated. 
 In England, the number of cathedrals is 29. 
 
 CATHEDRAL (sinte). As Christianity was at first established chiefly in cities, the 
 churches that grew up adjacent to them were, either originally or eventually, included 
 in the diocese of the city bishop. Throughout the Roman empire the ecclesiastical 
 divisions were the same as the civil, and the bishop’s seat was placed in the same city 
 with the governor’s chair of state. From this point the transition was easy to the formal 
 decree requiring that a C. as the seat of a bishop should be established in cities 
 only. In Britain, however, where in the early days of Christianity cities were few and 
 small, this rule could not be enforced. The bishop was over a district or tribe rather than 
 a city, and naturally placed his seat where he found it most convenient and safe. Often 
 he was compelled to remove it from one place to another. As the country became more 
 settled this necessity ceased to exist, and at the close of the 11th century a law was passed 
 requiring that the sees of bishops should be removed from villages to walled cities. In 
 fhe early missionary work, especially of Britain, instead of beginning with a bishop. 
 
C.ithelineau. 
 
 Catheter. 
 
 558 
 
 companies of priests were organized, with the church as their center of work and the 
 monastery as their home. After sulficient progress had been made, a bishop was 
 appointed over them, and tlie church became a catliedral. The revival of missionary 
 work by the churcli of England, at the beginning of the present century, led to a renewal 
 of this system. The bishop followed the missionaries, and placed his seat in a church not 
 originally designed for the honor. In colonial and foreign missionary work, Muthin the 
 last 25 years, there has been a return to the earlier plan. In the dioceses of Africa, New 
 Zealand, and elsewhere, the bishop takes the lead in the date of his appointment as well 
 as in rank, and his cathedral church is at once erected and manned. In this way the 
 original design of such an establishment as described by bishop Stillingfleet is accom- 
 plished. “Every 0., in its first institution, was as a temple to the whole diocese, where 
 the worship was to be performed in the most decent and constant manner; for which 
 end it was necessary to have such a number of ecclesiastical persons there attending as 
 might still be ready to do all the offices which did belong to the Christian church — 
 such as constant offering of prayer, singing, preaching, and administering sacraments — 
 which were to be kept up in such a church as the daily sacrifice was in the temple.” 
 The bishop in his church was surrounded by his college of presbyters, of which he was 
 the head, and the design of which was: 1. To strengthen him by wise counsel. 2. To 
 maintain public worship with reverence and dignity. 3. To go forth at his command, 
 as evangelists, whithersoever he might send them. In this way the chapter of the C. was 
 established, originally in closest connection with the bishop, and having no corporate 
 existence separate from him. It sometimes consisted of “secular clergy,” who were not 
 •bound by monastic vows, and had separate homes of their own; and sometimes of 
 “regulars,” who were under monastic rule and lived in buildings common to all. Of 
 both kinds of chapters the bishop was the head: of the latter, as the abbot of the mon- 
 astery to which his cathedral church belonged; and of the former, as having sole authority 
 over it. In early times, there was an arch-presbyter, who had chief authority among 
 the cathedral clergy, always in strict subordination to the bishop. He was gradually 
 supplanted by the archdeacon, who was followed in the 8th and 9th centuries by the 
 “ praepositus” or provost. The “ dean,” the present head of all English cathedral chap- 
 ters, first appears in the 10th or 11th century. Gradually, as the bishop’s diocesan 
 duties increased and important political functions also were assigned him, he was obliged 
 to leave the affairs of his C. to the head of the chapter, who consequently, in time, became 
 the actual chief; and when the chapter was organized as an independent corporation, the 
 bishop, seldom present, sank into a mere “ visitor, ” called in occasionally to correct 
 abuses or settle disputes. This is the explanation of the strange anomaly, witnessed in 
 modern times, that in his own cathedral church, of which he is the titular head, and which 
 is dignified by the presence of his seat, the bishop has less authority than in any other 
 church of his diocese. Under the bishop as its nominal head, the chapter of a fully 
 organized C., formed of secular priests, consisted of four chief dignitaries and a body of 
 canons. I. The four high officers were: 1, the “dean,” as the general head of the 
 Chapter charged with its internal discipline; 2, the precentor, presiding over the choir 
 and musical arrangements; 3, the chancellor, who superintended the religious and liter- 
 ary instruction of the younger members, took care of the library, and wrote the letters; 
 4, the treasurer, to whom were intrusted, not the money of the church (as might appear 
 from the modern use of the word), but its sacred vessels, altar-furniture, reliquaries, and 
 similar treasures. II. In addition to these dignitaries, a cathedral chapter consisted of a 
 board of officers called canons, because they were inrolled on the list and perhaps because 
 they were subjected to the rules; some of them who enjoyed a separate estate (praebenda) 
 an addition to their share of the corporate funds, were called prebendaries. A preben- 
 dary was always a canon, but a canon was not always a prebendary. Each canon had 
 his own house and personal establishment. In the middle ages an attempt was made to 
 impose on them, in part, monastic rules with dining-hall and lodging-rooms in common; 
 but the restriction was never acceptable, and was gradually given up. Monastic cathe- 
 drals closely resembled other monasteries, except that in the almost constant absence of 
 the bishop — their nominal abbot — they were governed by a prior. At the reformation 
 the distinction between secular and monastic cathedrals was maintained under the titles 
 of cathedrals of the old and new foundations. And when the monasteries were sup- 
 pressed, the cathedrals connected with them were furnished with new chapters of secular 
 canons, presided over by a dean. In the early part of queen Victoria’s reign all the 
 cathedrals in England and Wales were reduced to a uniform constitution. 
 
 In the Protestant Episcopal church in the United States, there is in recent years an 
 evident movement in some dioceses toward the establishment of the cathedral system 
 of England, with such modifications as the circumstances may require. For the diocese 
 of Long island, noble structures are now in process of erection at Garden Cit}% including 
 schools of various grades, and institutions of beneficence, grouped around a magnificent 
 cathedral church. The funds for this great work are from the estate of the late Alex- 
 ander T. Stewart, of New York. 
 
 CATHELINEATJ, Jacques, general of the army in La Vendee, in the w. of France, 
 w^as b. Jan. 5, 1759, in very humble life, at Pin-en-Mauges, in lower Anjou. Horrified 
 at the atrocities and despotic acts of the (‘onvention, he placed himself in opposition to 
 
• 559 
 
 Cathelineaa. 
 
 Catheter. 
 
 It, and soon collected arouna him a body of loyal peasantry, whom he led against and 
 defeated the republicans in several conflicts. After the victory of Sauraur (q.v.), the 
 council of generals appointed him. as having the greatest influence over his countrymen, 
 commander-in-chief. He immediately determined to make an attack upon Nantes, and 
 managed to penetrate into the town, where he was wounded by a musket-ball, and his 
 troops immediately dispersed. He was carried to St. Florent, where he died July 11, 
 1793. He was a man of great simplicity and honesty of character, and his piety was 
 such, that he was called the saint of Anjou. 
 
 CATHERINE of BRAGANZA, 1638-1705; queen of Charles II. of England, daughter 
 of John, duke of Braganza, the rightful heir to the throne of Portugal, then under Span- 
 ish rule. John headed the revolt of 1640, and after years of fighting succeeded in reaching 
 his throne. The mother of Catherine was a woman of ability, and governed Portugal 
 for several years after the death of her husband. She foresaw the coming restoration 
 in England, and proposed the marriage of Catherine with Charles mainly to gain a 
 powerful ally against Spain. The latter power vainly tried to prevent the marriage, 
 and when it was agreed upon, Portugal promised a dowry of £500,000, and the towns 
 of Tangier and Bombay (the latter being the first of the now enormous English posses- 
 sions in the east), besides many privileges of trade. On the marriage at Plymouth, 
 May 13, 1663, Charles appeared to be well pleased with his bride ; but the union proved 
 unhappy. Catherine had been brought up in a convent, and had none of the manners 
 required by the most fashionable and profligate court of Europe. The chief trouble, 
 however, was the heartless and shameless profligacy of her husband, who brought his 
 mistresses into the court, and, when the queen expressed her indignation at the insult, 
 lectured her upon the duty of submission. After repeated humiliations of this kind, the 
 queen’s spirit was broken, and alienation naturally followed. As she was a Roman 
 Catholic, she was an object of suspicion outside of the court, and her name was subjected 
 to calumny. The only satisfaction she could experience in her unfortunate conneo- 
 tion was the great aid rendered by England against Spain in the struggle of her native 
 power with that kingdom. After a life of entire seclusion during the reign of James II. 
 and the first years of William III., she returned to Portugal in 1692, where, for a time 
 before her death, she acted in capacity of regent to her brother, Don Pedro. She had 
 no children. 
 
 CATHERINE FIESCHI ADORNO, Saint, 1447-1510; a daughter of the viceroy 
 of Naples, who, at the age of 13, devoted herself to a religious life, but three years later, 
 in obedience to parental desire, married Julian Adorno, a gay young nobleman of Genoa 
 — a reckless fellow, who spent her fortune and gave her a life of misery for many years. 
 After his death she became mother-superior in the hospital, and extended her care to the 
 sick throughout the city. She wrote several works, two of which, Purgatoi'y, and Dia- 
 logue Between the Soul and the Body, are evidently records of her own experience. She 
 was canonized in 1737. In her, a piety contemplative, mystical, and almost ecstatic, had 
 an accompaniment not always found of active beneficence. 
 
 CATHERINE OF VALOIS, or of France, 1401-37; Queen of Henry V. of Eng- 
 land. She was unfortunate in her childhood, her father, Charles VI. of France, being 
 subject to prolonged fits of insanity, while her mother — who was one of the most aban- 
 doned women of the time — neglected her children to such an extent that they were often 
 without suitable food or clothing. She was at last taken away from her mother and 
 educated in a convent. When she was only 12 years old, Henry asked her hand in mar- 
 riage, coupling the proposal with a demand for a large dowry in money, and the restitu- 
 tion to England of the French provinces once held by the English crown. The proposi- 
 tion was indignantly rejected, and Henry soon afterwards invaded France and asserted 
 his claims in a manner that was not to be resisted. All his claims were admitted, and 
 when he married Catherine at Troyes in 1420 he received immediate possession of the 
 provinces claimed, the regency of France during the life of the father-in-law, and the 
 reversion of the sovereignty after the death of Charles. In 1421, Catherine was crowned 
 at London, and in Dec. of that year she became the mother of Henry VI. The next 
 year she was in France, where her husband died, and she returned to London with the 
 funeral cortege; but after the funeral little is heard of her history, the only notable event 
 being her secret marr/age to Owen Tudor, the heir of a princely house in Wales, who had 
 distinguished himself for bravery at Agincourt. His position in England, however, was 
 low, and the marriage was long kept secret — a necessity that caused Catherine much vex- 
 ation and probably hastened her death. Her son by Tudor was made earl of Richmond, 
 and married Margaret Beaufort, heiress of the house of Somerset, and junior representa- 
 tive of the branch of John of (4aunt, and she became the mother of Henry VII., and 
 consequently the ancestress of the Tudor line of English kings. 
 
 CATHERINE-WHEEL (see Catharine, St.) is frequently used as a charge in coats of 
 arms, when it is represented with teeth. 
 
 CATHETER (Gr. kathiemi, to thrust into), was a name applied indifferently to all 
 instruments used for passing along mucous canals. In modern times, however, it has gem 
 crally been reserved for tubular rods through which fluids or air may pass, and which may 
 glTo free exit to the accumulated contents of such organs as the urinary bladder. Thi 
 
Cathode. 
 
 Catholic. 
 
 560 
 
 C. for the latter purpose is a very old surgical instrument. The ancients made theirs of 
 copper, which accumulated verdigris. In the 9th c. silver was substituted by the Arabian 
 surgeons as a cleanlier metal, and is still used by all who are not obliged, for economical 
 reasons, to have their catheters made of German silver or pewter. The urinary C. for 
 the male varies in length from 10 to 11 in, ; the female C. need not be more than 4 or 5 
 inches. The form is a matter of indifference, but most surgeons prefer an instrument 
 straight to within the last few inches of its length; the latter should be curved into the 
 segment of a small circle. Others, however, use a double curve, and, indeed, nearly 
 every surgeon has a peculiar fancy in this respect. 
 
 * Flexible catheters are made of gum elastic, which may be used either alone or sup- 
 ported on a wire. Many other materials have been proposed. Of late years, gutta- 
 percha has been used, but owing to some awkward accidents — such as portions often 
 breaking off in the bladder — it has not been generally adopted by surgeons. 
 
 CATHODE. See Anode. 
 
 CATHOLIC APOSTOLIC CHURCH. See Irvingites, ante. 
 
 CATHOLIC CHUECH. The term catholic literally signifies universal. The phrase 
 C. C, is therefore equivalent to “universal church,” and cannot properly be applied to 
 any particular sect or body, such as the Roman, Anglican, Genevan, Reformed Lutheran, 
 or Presbyterian, all of wdiich form merely portions more or less pure of the “church 
 universal.” It was first employed to distinguish the Christian church from the Jewish; 
 the latter being restricted to a single nation, whereas the former was intended for the 
 world in general. Afterwards, it served to mark the difference between the orthodox 
 Christian church and the various sects which sprang from it, such as the Cerinthians, 
 Uasilidians, Arians, Macedonians, etc. The name has been retained by the church of 
 Rome, which was the visible successor of the primitive one; and although Protestant 
 divines have been careful to deny its applicability to a church which they consider buried 
 under the corrupt accretions of centuries, yet the term catholic is still used by the popu- 
 lace of almost every Protestant country as synonymous wuth Roman Catholic, so that 
 from their minds all conception of the literal meaning of the wmrd has vanished. For 
 an account of the church of Rome, see art. Roman Catholic Church. 
 
 CATHOLIC, or United, COPTS, a body of about 10,000 native Egyptians who 
 acknowledge the authority of the pope of Rome. In 1855, one of their priests was 
 appointed vicar apostolic and bishop in partibus. 
 
 CATHOLIC CREDITOR, in the law of Scotland, is one whose debt is secured over 
 several or the whole subjects belonging to the debtor — e.g., over two or more heritable 
 estates for the same debt. The C. C. is bound so to exercise his right as not unneces- 
 sarily to injure the securities of the other creditors. Thus, if he draw his whole debt 
 from one of the subjects, he must assign his security over the others to the postponed 
 creditors. 
 
 CATHOLIC (Roman) EMANCIPATION ACT (10 Geo. IV. c. 1). To render this famous 
 measure intelligible, and still more to convey a conception of its importance to younger 
 readers, it is necessary that w’e should preface our account of it by a slight sketch of the 
 positirm of our Roman Catholic fellow-subjects before it was passed. From first to last, 
 the sufferings of the Roman Catholics were the fruit of political tyranny quite as much 
 as of religious rancour or fanaticism, and their release was effected by a change in the 
 political rather than in the religious views or feelings of the dominant part}^. The first 
 occasion on which even a promise of a different line of policy from that wdiich had been 
 originally adopted was held out to the Roman Catholics of Ireland, was on the termina- 
 tion of the revolutionary war in 1691; and had king William been able to carry out the 
 views which his personal enlightenment and liberality dictated, it is probable that Catho- 
 lic emancipation would have been hastened by more than a century. But the English 
 parliament, which was intensely anti-Roman Catholic, enacted, on the 22d of Oct. 1691, 
 that Irish members of both houses should take the oaths of supremacy; and three years 
 later, a set of acts were passed, which placed the Roman Catholics in a worse position 
 than at any previous period of their history. The whole population was disarmed, and 
 the priests banished from the country. But what must have been still more intol- 
 erable, was the interference with the private arrangements of their families. All Roman 
 Catholics were prohibited from acting as guardians not only to Protestant but to Catho- 
 lic children. At a somewhat later date (1704), it w^as enacted that if a son chose to turn 
 Protestant, he should be entitled to dispossess his father, and at once to take possession 
 of the family estate. Though Catholics were not directly declared incapable of holding 
 land, they were deprived of the right of acquiring it by purchase, or even by long lease; 
 and if a Catholic chanced to occupy a place in a line of entail, he w'as passed over in favor 
 of the next Protestant heir. No office of trust, civil or military, was now open to a Cath- 
 olic; he was forbidden to vote at elections, to intermarry with a Protestant, or even to 
 dwell in Limerick or Galway, except under certain conditions. But perhaps the most 
 demoralizing provision of all, was that which empowered the son of a Catholic to bring 
 his father into chancery, to force him to declare on oath the value of his property, and 
 to settle such an allowance on him as the court should determine, not only for the 
 father’s life, but the son’s. 
 
561 
 
 Cathode. 
 
 Catholic. 
 
 Amongst the other burdens of this heavy time, may be mentioned the exclusion Of 
 Catholics from the profession of the law, and the regulation that if a Protestant lawyer 
 married a Catholic, he should be held to have gone over to her faith: the prohibition 
 against Catholics acting as schoolmasters, under the penalty of being prosecuted as con- 
 victs, by which the whole body was virtually excluded from the benefits of education: 
 and the still more summary enactment, that if apriest celebrated marriage between a Prot- 
 estant and a Catholic, he should be hanged. But as years passed away, the nieinory of the 
 foul deeds of the inquisition and the confessional, and of the other enormities of which 
 Roman Catholics had been guilty in their days of power, waxed fainter; milder feelings 
 began to prevail; and when Grattan appeared as the champion of their rights, the field 
 was already in some degree prepared for his labors. Favoied by such influences, of 
 which no one knew better how to avail himself, he succeeded, in 1780, in carrying, in 
 the Irish parliament, the famous resolution, “that the king’s most excellent majesty, 
 and the lords and commons of Ireland, are the only competent pow'er to make laws to 
 bind Ireland.” Many of the disqualifying statutes were now repealed, and the claim 
 for complete equality with Englishmen and Protestants, or complete separation from 
 the sister-country, was now formally urged. From this period to the final liberation 
 was achieved, there was no rest. The Irish rebellion of 1798 brought home to the Eng- 
 lish nation the dangers to which it would constantly be exposed till the question was 
 finally adjusted. The act of union of 1800 was the immediate consequence of that out- 
 break ; and to this act the Irish were induced to consent by a virtual pledge entered into 
 by Mr. Pitt, to the effect that the Catholic disabilities should be at once removed. But, 
 like William of Orange, Pitt had pledged himself to more than he was able to accomp- 
 lish. The king was seized with scruples regarding the obligations imposed upon him 
 by his coronation oath, and made a vigorous stand against the proposals of his minister. 
 
 At a subsequent period, efforts were made in the direction of emancipation by Mr. 
 Canning and lord Castlereagh. About 1824, the press began to take up the question 
 warmly; a Catholic association was formed, to prepare petitions to parliament; the 
 Irish priests stimulated their flocks to subscribe for the purposes of agitation; O’Connell 
 rapidly became a power; and as early as March, 1825, the importance of the question 
 was so deeply felt, that sir F. Burdett ventured to introduce a relief bill, which passed 
 the commons by a majority of 268 to 241, but was rejected by the lords. A slight tem- 
 porary reaction now took place, the superstitious fears of ignorant Protestants being 
 excited by a “ no-popery” cry, and in consequence, a new relief bill, introduced in 1827, 
 though supported by the last effort of Canning’s eloquence, was lost in the commons by 
 a majority of 4. But the liberal view of the Roman Catholic claims was essentially the 
 popular one — at least among the enlightened classes; and as a proof of this, under the 
 hostile administration of the duke of Wellington, the very same resolution which had 
 lost in 1827 by a minority of 4, was carried in 1828 by a majority of 6. The duke him- 
 self now began to waver in opinion, so that the beginning of the end w’as manifestly 
 near. During O’ConneU’s famous canvass for the county of Clare, the duke declared in 
 the house of lords, “ if the public mind were now suffered to be tranquil, if the agitators 
 of Ireland would only leave the public mind at rest, the people would become more 
 satisfied, and I certainly think it would then be possible to do something.” O’Connell’s 
 return for Clare, notwithstanding the existence of the oaths which precluded him from 
 taking his seat in the house, and the events which now foil ) wed in quick succession, 
 made it clear that the “something” of which the duke had spoken must be the passing 
 of the emancipation bill in the ensuing session. The king’s speech, which w’as read on 
 ihe 5th Feb. of the following year, accordingly contained a recommendation to parlia- 
 ment, to consider whether the civil disabilities of the Catholics could not be removed, 
 “consistently with the full and permanent security of our establishments in church and 
 state.” 
 
 On the 5th Mar., Mr. Peel brought forward the great measure. The majority on the 
 motion in the commons for going into committee was 188, in a house of 508 members; 
 the debate on the second reading issued in a majority of 180; and the final majority, 
 after the bill had passed through committee, in which not one of the many amendments 
 proposed was carried, was 178 in a house of 462. In the lords, the debate lasted three 
 nights, the majority being 106 in favor of the second reading of a bill which, nine 
 months before, the same house had refused, by a majority of 45, even to entertain — so 
 rapid and threatening had been the progress of the agitation. On. the 13tli April, 1829, 
 this famous measure became the law of the land. It now only remains that, by men- 
 tioning the provisions of the act, we sum up the results of one of the most important 
 controversies that ever agitated the inhabitants of this country. For the oath of supre- 
 macy, another oath was substituted, by which all Catholic members of parliament 
 bound themselves to support the existing institutions of the state, and not to injure 
 those of the church (see Abjuration). Catholics were admitted to all corporate offices, 
 and to an equal enjoyment of all municipal rights. The army and navy had already 
 been opened to them. On the other hand, they were excluded from the offices of regent, 
 of chancellor of England or Ireland, and of viceroy of Ireland ; from all offices con- 
 nected with the church, its universities and schools, and from all disposal of church 
 patronage. The most important security related to the franchise, in which a £10 was 
 substituted for a 40.s. qualification in Ireland. The clergy of the R. C. chui’ch were left 
 U. K. III.— 36 
 
Catholic. 
 
 Cato. 
 
 562 
 
 in the position of other dissenters, the government having declined either to endow 
 them, or to introduce any machinery for prying into their relations to tlie pope. But 
 the public use of their insignia of office, and of episcopal titles and names, was denied 
 them; the extension of monachism was prohibited; and it was enacted that the number 
 of Jesuits should not be increased, and that they should henceforth be subject to regis- 
 tration. For further information, see Miss Martineau’s History of England during the 
 Peace from 1815 to 1846. W. & R. Chambers, 1858. 
 
 CATHOLIC EPISTLES, the name given, according to Clemens Alexandrinus and Ori 
 gen, to certain epistles, addressed not to particular churches or individuals, but either 
 to the church universal or to a large and indefinite circle of readers. Originally, the 
 C. E. comprised only the first epistle of John and the first of Peter, but, at least as early 
 as the 4th c. (as evinced by the testimony of Eusebius), the term was applied to all the 
 apostolic writings used as “lessons’' in the orthodox Christian churches. But this 
 included the epistle of James, of Jude, the 2d of Peter, and the 2d and 3d of John. 
 These seven thus constituted the C. E., although the genuineness and authenticity of 
 the last-mentioned five were not universally acknowledged; but this very incorporation 
 with epistles whose canonicity w^as not questioned, naturally had the effect of confirm- 
 ing their authority, so that in a short time the entire seven came to be considered a por- 
 tion of the canon. 
 
 CATHOL'ICOS, the title of the patriarchs or chief ecclesiastics in the hierarchy of the 
 Armenian church, and of the Christians of Georgia and Mingrelia. 
 
 CATILI'NA, Lucius Sergius, descended from a patrician but impoverished family, 
 was b. about the year 108 b.c. During his youth, he attached himself to the party of 
 Sulla. His bodily constitution, which was capable of enduring any amount of labor, 
 fatigue, and hardship, allied to a mind which could stoop to every baseness and feared 
 no crime, fitted him to take the lead in the conspiracy which has made his name infa- 
 mous to all ages. In the year 68 b.c., he was elected praetor; in 67 b.c., governor of Africa; 
 and in 66 b.c., he desired to stand for the consulship, but was disqualified on account 
 of the accusations brought against him of maladministration in his province. Disap- 
 pointed thus in his ambition, and burdened with many and heavy debts, he saw no hope 
 for himself but in the chances of apolitical revolution, and therefore entered into a con- 
 spiracy, including many other young Roman nobles, in morals and circumstances greatly 
 like himself. The plot, however, was revealed to Cicero by Fulvia, mistress of one of 
 the conspirators. Operations were to commence with the assassination of Cicero in 
 the Campus Martins, but the latter was kept aware of every step of the conspiracy, and 
 contrived to frustrate the whole design. In the night of Nov. 6 (63 b.c.), Catiline assembled 
 his confederates, and explained to them a new plan for assassinating Cicero; for bring- 
 ing up the Tuscan army (which he had seduced from its allegiance), under Manlius, 
 from the encampment at Faesulae ; for setting fire to Rome, and putting to death the hostile 
 senators and citizens. In the course of a few hours, everything was made known to Cicero. 
 Accordingly, when the chosen assassins came to the house of the consul, on pretense of a 
 visit, they were immediately repulsed. On the 8th of Nov. , Catiline audaciously appeared 
 in the senate, when Cicero — who had received intelligence that the insurrection had already 
 broken out in Etruria — commenced the celebrated invective beginning: Quomqm tandem 
 ahutere, Catilina, patientia nostra f etc. (“ How long now, Catiline, will you abuse our 
 patience?”) The scoundrel was abashed, not by the keenness of Cicero’s attack, but by 
 the minute knowledge he displayed of the conspiracy. His attempt at a reply was mis- 
 erable, and was drowned in cries of execration. With curses on his lips, he abruptly 
 left the senate, and escaped from Rome during the night. Catiline and Manlius were now 
 denounced as traitors, and an army under the consul, Antonius, was sent against them. 
 The conspirators who remained in Rome, the chief of whom was Lentulus, were 
 arrested, tried, condemned, and executed, Dec. 5. The insurrections in several parts of 
 Italy were meanwhile suppressed; many who had resorted to Catiline’s camp in Etruria, 
 deserted when they heard what had taken place in Rome, and his intention to proceed 
 into Gaul was frustrated. In the beginning of Jan. (62), he returned by Pistoria (now 
 Pistoja) into Etruria, where he encountered the forces under Antonius, and, after a des- 
 perate battle, in which he displayed almost superhuman courage and enthusiasm, was 
 defeated and slain. The appearance of Catiline was in harmony with his character. He 
 had a daring and reckless look; his face was haggard with a sense of crime: his eyes 
 were wild and bloodshot, and his step unsteady, from nightly debauchery. The history 
 of the Catiline conspiracy is given by Sallust in a remarkably concise and nervous 
 style. 
 
 CATI'NEAU-LAROCHE, Pierre Marie Sbbastien, 1772-1828; a French philolo- 
 gist who emigrated to San Domingo, where his antislavery sentiments were so obnoxious 
 that he was prosecuted and saved from death only by the interference of the home 
 
 f overnment. He went to Cape Haytien, where in the great massacre he alone of 17 
 'renchmen was saved. He returned to Paris by way of the United States, set up a 
 printing-office, and produced several dictionaries. In 1819, he was sent by the govern- 
 ment to study the climate of French Guiana, and three years later his notes were pub- 
 lished. 
 
563 
 
 Catholic. 
 
 Cato. 
 
 CA TION. See Anode. 
 
 CATKIN, Amentum, in botany, a spike of numerous, small, unisexual flowers, destitute 
 of calyx and corolla, and furnished with scale-like bractese instead, the whole inflor- 
 escence finally falling off by an articulation in a single piece. Examples are found in 
 the willow, hazel, oak, birch, alder, and other trees and shrubs, forming the natural 
 order amentaceae (q.v.). In some, as in the oak and hazel, the male flowers only are 
 in catkins. 
 
 GATLIN, George, 1796-1872; b. Penn. ; an artist celebrated for his travels, waitings, 
 and portraits of American Indians. He was bred to the law and practiced for a year or 
 two in Philadelphia, but having a taste for art he established himself in New York as a 
 portrait-painter. About 1832, he became impressed with the fact, that the most 
 remarkable American Indians were fast disappearing, and resolved to rescue at least 
 the portraits of some of them from oblivion. In pursuit of this object he traveled and 
 dwelt among the aboriginal tribes in North and South America, acquiring their languages, 
 and thoroughly studying their manners and customs, traditions, history, and modes of 
 life. After collecting many portraits, and many sketches of life and scenery, he pub- 
 lished in London, in 1841, a large work on the Manners, Customs, and Condition of the 
 North American Indians, with 300 illustrations. In 1844, followed the Noi'th American 
 Portfolio of Hunting Scenes; in 1848, Eight Tears' Travels and Residence in Europe, in which 
 he gives the stories of several Indians whom he had introduced to various European 
 courts. In 1864, he published a little monograph which created much interest among 
 medical men, entitled The Breath of Life, in v-hich he argued the importance of keeping 
 one’s mouth closed when sleeping — an idea doubtless suggested by the fact that the 
 Indians use special care in this respect. His last work was Last Rambles among the 
 Indians of the Rocky Mountains and the Andes. 
 
 CATMANDOO. See Khatmandu, ante. 
 
 CATMINT, Nepeta cataria, a plant of the natural order laUatan, pretty common in 
 England, in chal% and gravelly soils, but rare in Scotland and Ireland, widely diffused 
 throughout Europe and the middle latitudes of Asia, and of North America; remark- 
 able for the fondness which cats display for it. It appears to act upon them in a similar 
 way to valerian root; and when its leaves are bruised so as to be highly odoriferous, 
 they are at once attracted to it, rub themselves on it, tear at it, and chew it. Its odor 
 has been described as intermediate between that of mint and that of pennyroyal. It has 
 erect stems, 2 to 3 ft. high, dense whorls of many whitish flowers, tinged and spotted with 
 rose-color, and stalked heart shaped leaves of a velvety softness, whitish and downy 
 beneath. — Other species are numerous in the s. of Europe, and middle latitudes of Asia. 
 
 CATNIP. See Catmint, ante. 
 
 CA'TO, Dionysius, is the name prefixed to a little volume of moral precepts in verse, 
 which was a great favorite during the middle ages. Whether or not such a person ever 
 existed, is a point of the greatest uncertainty. The title which the book itself com- 
 monly bears, is Bionysii Catonis Disticha de Moribus ad Filium. Its contents have been 
 differently estimated: some scholars have considered the precepts admirable; others, 
 weak and vapid: some have found indications of a superior scriptural knowledge; 
 others, of a deep-rooted paganism. The style has been pronounced the purest Latin 
 and the most corrupt jargon. The truth would seem to be, that on a ground-work of 
 excellent Latin of the silver age, the illiterate monks of a later period have, as it were, 
 inwoven a multitude of their own barbaric errors, which preclude us from determining 
 precisely the period when the volume was composed. It begins with a preface 
 addressed by the supposed author to his son, after which come 56 injunctions of rather a 
 simple character, such as parentem ama. This is followed by the substance and main 
 portion of the book — viz., 144 moral precepts, each of which is expressed in two dactylic 
 hexameters. During the middle ages, the Disticha \f2iS used as a text-book for young 
 scholars. In the 15th c., more than 30 editions were printed. The best edition, how- 
 ever, is that published at Amsterdam in 1754 by Otto Arntzenius. Caxton translated 
 it into English. ' 
 
 CA'TO, Marcus Porcius, surnamed Censorius and Sapiens (“the wise”), afterwards 
 known as Cato Prtscus or Cato Major — to distinguish him from Cato of Utica — was 
 b. at Tusculum in 234 b.c. He inherited from his plebeian father a small farm in the 
 country of the Sabines, where he busied himself in agricultural operations, and learned 
 to love the simple and severe manners of his Roman forefathers, which still lingered 
 round his rural home. Induced by Lucius Valerius Flaccus to remove to Rome when 
 that city was in a transition epoch, from the old-fashioned strictness and severe frugalit}^ 
 of social habits, to the luxury and licentiousness of Grecian manners, C. appeared to 
 protest against this, to denounce the degeneracy of the Philo-hellenic party, and to set 
 a pattern of sterner and purer character. He soon distinguished himself as a pleader 
 at the bar of justice, and after passing through minor offices, was elected consul. In 
 his province of Nearer Spain, where an insurrection had broken out after the departure 
 of the elder Scipio (206 b.c.), C. was so successful in quelling disturbances and restoring 
 order, that in the following year he was honored by a triumph. C. exhibited extraor- 
 dinary military genius in Spain; his stratagems were brilliant, his plans of battle were 
 
Cato. 
 
 Catoptrics. 
 
 564 
 
 marked by great skill, and his general movements were ,apid, bold, and unexpected. 
 In 187 B.c.,.a fine opportunity occurred for the display of “ antique Roman” notions. 
 M. Fiilvius Nobilior had just returned from .^Etolia victorious, and sought the honor 
 of a triumph. C. objected. Fulvius was indulgent to his soldiers, a man of literary 
 taste, etc., and C. charges him, among other enormities, with “keeping poets in his 
 camp.” These rude prejudices of C. were not acceptable to the senate, and C.’s opposi- 
 tion was fruitless. In 184 b.c., C. was elected censor, and discharged so rigorously the 
 duties of his office, that the epithet Censorius, formerly applied to all persons in the same 
 station, was made his permanent surname. Many of his acts were highly commendable. 
 He repaired the water-courses, paved the reservoirs, cleansed the drains, raised the 
 rents paid by the publicans for the farming of the taxes, and diminished the contract 
 prices paid by the state to the undertakers of public works. More questionable reforms 
 were those in regard to the price of slaves, dress, furniture, equipage, etc. His despotism 
 in enforcing his oion idea of decency may be illustrated from the fact, that he degraded 
 Mauilius, a man of praetorian rank, for having kissed his wife in his daughter’s presence 
 in open day. C. was a thoroughly dogmatic moralist, intolerant, stoical, but great, 
 because he manfully contended with rapidly swelling evils; yet not wise, because he 
 opposed the bad and the good in the innovations of his age with equal animosity. 
 
 In the year 175 b.c., C. was sent to Carthage to negotiate on the differences between 
 the Carthaginians and the Numidian king Masinissa; but having been offended by the 
 Carthaginians, he returned to Rome, where, ever afterwards, he described Carthage as 
 the most formidable rival of the empire, and concluded all his addresses in the senate- 
 house — whatever the immediate subject might be — with the well-known words : “ Ceterum 
 censeo, Garthagimm esse delendam" (“For the rest, I vote that Carthage must be 
 destroyed ”). 
 
 Though C. was acquainted with the Greek language and its literature, his severe 
 principles led him to denounce the latter as injurious to national morals. He died 149 
 
 B. C., at the age of 85. C. was twice married. In his eightieth year, his second wife, 
 Salonia, bore him a son, the grandfather of Cato of Utica. C. treated his slaves with 
 shocking harshness and cruelty. In his old age, he became greedy of gain, yet never 
 once aliowed his avarice to interfere with his honesty as a state-functionary. He also 
 composed various literary works, such as De Re Rustica (a treatise on agriculture) — much 
 corrupted, however. The best editions are by Gesner and Schneider in their Scriptores 
 Rei Rustiem. His greatest historical work, Origines, has, unfortunately, perished; but 
 some few fragments are given in Krause’s Historicorum, Romanorum Fragrnenta (Berlin, 
 1833). Fragments of C.’s orations — of which as many as 150 were read by Cicero — are 
 given in Meyer’s Oratovum Romanorum Fi’agmenta (Zurich, 1842). 
 
 CA TO, Marcus Porcius, named Cato the Younger, or Cato ITticensis (from the 
 place of his death), was born 95 b.c. Having lost, during childhood, both parents, ho 
 was educated in the house of his uncle, M. Livius Drusus, and, even in his boyhood, 
 gave proofs of his decision and strength of character. In the year 72 b.c., he served 
 with distinction in the campaign against Spartacus, but without finding satisfaction in 
 military life, though he proved himself a good soldier. From Macedonia, where he was 
 military tribune in 67, he went to Pergamus in search of the Stoic philosopher, Athen- 
 odorus, whom he brought back to his camp, and whom he induced to proceed with him 
 to Rome, where he spent the time partly in philosophical studies, and pai tly in forensic 
 discussions. Desirous of honestly qualifying himself for the quaestorship, he" commenced 
 to study all the financial questions connected with it. Immediately after his election, 
 he introduced, in spite of violent opposition from those interested, a rigorous reform 
 into the treasury offices. He quitted the quaestorship at the appointed time amid gen- 
 eral applause. In 63 b.c., he was elected tribune, and also delivered his famous speech 
 on the Catiline conspiracy, in which he denounced Caesar as an accomplice of that 
 political desperado, and determined the sentence of the senate. Strongly dreading the 
 influence of unbridled greatness, and not discerning that an imperial genius — like that 
 of Caesar — was the only thing that could remedy the evils of that overgrown monster, the 
 Roman republic, he commenced a career of wiiat seems to us blind pragmatical opposi- 
 tion to the three most powerful men in Rome — Crassus, Pompey, and Caesar. C. was a 
 noble but strait-laced theorist, who lacked the intuition into circumstances which 
 belongs to men like Caesar and Cromwell. His first opposition to Pompey was success- 
 ful; but his opposition to Caesar’s consulate for the year 59 not only failed, but even 
 served to hasten the formation of the first triumvirate between Caesar, Pompey, and 
 Crassus. He was afterwards forced to side with Pompey, who had resiled from his 
 connection with Caesar, and become reconciled to the aristocracy. After the battle of 
 Pharsalia (48 b.c.), C. intended to join Pompey, but hearing the news of his death, 
 escaped into Africa, where he was elected commander by the partisans for Pompey, but 
 resigned the post in favor of Metellus Scipio, and undertook the defense of Utica. Here, 
 when he had tidings of C{Esar’s decisive victory over Scipio at Thapsus (April 6, 46 b.c.), 
 
 C. , finding that his troops were wholly intimidated, advised the Roman senators and 
 knights to escape from Utica, and make terms with the victor, but prohibited all inter- 
 cessions in his own favor. He resolved to die rather than surrender, and, after spending 
 the night in reading Plato’s Pheedo, committed suicide by stabbing himself in the breasC 
 
565 
 
 Cato. 
 
 Catoptrios. 
 
 
 CAT'ODON and Catodon'tid^. See Cacholot. 
 
 CAT-O’-NINE-TAILS. See Flogging. 
 
 CATOO SA, a co. in n.w, Georgia, watered by affluents of tne Tennessee river, and 
 crossed by the Western and Atlantic railroad; 175 sq.m.; pop. 70, 4,409 — 616 colored. 
 The region is hilly, with much woodland. The productions are chiefly agricultural. 
 Co. seat, llinggold. 
 
 CATOP'TRICS. The divisions of the science of optics are laid out and explained in 
 the article Optics (q.v.). C. is that subdivision of geometrical optics which treats of 
 the phenomena of light incident upon the surfaces of bodies, and reflected therefrom. 
 All bodies reflect more or less light, even those through which it is most readily trans- 
 missible; light falling on such media, for instance, at a certain angle, is totally reflected. 
 Rough surfaces scatter or disperse (see Dispersion op Light) a large portion of what 
 falls on them, through which it is that their peculiarities of flgure, color, etc., are seen 
 by eyes in a variety of positions; they are not said to reflect light, but there is no doubt 
 they do, though in such a way, owing to their inequalities, as never to present the 
 phenomena of reflection. The surfaces with which C., accordingly, deals, are the 
 smooth and polished. It tracks the course of rays and pencils of light after reflection 
 from such surfaces, and determines the positions, and traces the forms, of images of 
 objects as seen in mirrors of different kinds. 
 
 A ray of light is the smallest conceivable portion of a stream of light, and is repre- 
 sented by the line of its path, which is always a straight line. A pencil of light is an 
 assemblage of rays constituting either a cylindrical or conical stream. A stream of light 
 is called a converging pencil when the rays converge to the vertex of the cone, called a 
 focus; and a diverging pencil, when they diverge from the vertex. The axis of the 
 cone in each case is called the axis of the pencil. When the stream consists of parallel 
 rays, the pencil is called cylindrical, and the axis of the cylinder is the axis of the pen- 
 cil. In nature, all pencils of light are primarily diverging — every point of a luminous 
 body throwing olf light in a conical stream ; converging rays, however, are continually 
 produced in optical instruments, and when light diverges from a very distant body, such 
 as a fixed star, the rays from it falling on any small body, such as a reflector in a tele- 
 scope, may, wu'thout error, be regarded as forming a cylindrical pencil. When a ray falls 
 upon any surface, the angle which it makes with the normal to the surface at the point 
 of incidence is called the angle of incidence; and that which the reflected ray makes with 
 the norm-al, is called the angle of reflection. 
 
 Two facts of observation form the ground-work of catoptrics. They are expressed 
 in what are called the laws of reflection of light: 1. In the reflection of light, the inci- 
 dent ray, the normal to the surface at the point of incidence, and the reflected ray, 
 lie all in one plane. 2. The angle of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence. 
 These laws are simple facts of observation and experiment, and they are easily verified 
 experimentally. Rays of all colors and qualities follow these laws, so that white light, 
 after reflection, remains undecomposed. The laws, too, hold, whatever be the nature, 
 geometrically, of the surface. If the surface be a plane, the normal is the perpendic 
 ular to the plane at the point of incidence; if it be curved, then the normal is the 
 perpendicular to the tangent plane at that point. From these laws and geometrical 
 considerations may be deduced all the propositions of catoptrics. In the present 
 work, only those can be noticed whose truth can in a manner be exhibited to the eye 
 without any rigid mathematical proof. They are arranged under the heads plane sur- 
 faces and curve surfaces. 
 
 Plane Surfaces . — 1. When a pencil of parallel rays falls upon a plane mirror, the 
 reflected pencil consists of parallel rays. A glance at the annexed figure (fig. 1), 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 where PA and QB are two of the incident rays, and are reflected in the directions AR 
 and BS respectively, will make the truth of this pretty clear to the eye. The propo- 
 sition, however, may be rigidly demonstrated by aid of Euclid, book xi., with which, 
 however, we shall not presume the reader to be acquainted. The reader may satisfy 
 himself of its truth practically by taking a number of rods parallel to one another and 
 inclined to the floor, and then turning them over till they shall again be equally inclined 
 to the floor, when lie will again find them all parallel. — 2. If a diverging or converg- 
 ing pencil is incident on a plane mirror, the focus of the reflected pencil is situated 
 ©n the opposite side of the mirror to that of the incident pencil, and at an equal 
 distance from it. Suppose the pencil to be diverging from the focus Q (fig. 2), on the 
 
Catoptrics. 
 
 566 
 
 mirror of the surface of which CB is a section. Draw QNg perpendicular to CB and 
 make g'N=QN, the nq is the focus of the reflected rays. For let QA, QB, QC be any of 
 the incident rays in the plane of the figure; draw the line AM perpendicular to CB, and 
 draw AR. making the angle MAR equal to the angle of incidence, MAQ. Then AR is 
 the reflected ray. Join qh.. Now it can be proved geometrically, and indeed is appar- 
 ent at a glance, that qh. and AR are in the same straight line; in other words, the 
 reflected ray AR proceeds as if from q. In the same way, it may be shown that the 
 direction of any other reflected ray, as BS, is as if it proceeded from q; in other words, q 
 is the focus of reflected rays; it is, however, only their virtual focus. See art. Focus. 
 If a pencil of rays converged to q, it is evident that they would be reflected to Q as their 
 real focus, so that a separate proof for the case of a converging pencil is unnecessary. 
 The reader who has followed the above will have no difficulty in understanding how the 
 position and form of the image of an object placed before a plane mirror — as in fig. 3, 
 where the object is the arrow AB, in the plane of tlie paper, to which the plane of 
 the mirror is perpendicular — should be of the same form and magnitude as the object 
 (as ah in the fig.), and at an equal distance from the mirror, on the opposite side of it, 
 but with its different parts inverted with regard to a given direction. The highest 
 a, for instance, in the image, corresponds with the lowest point. A, in the object. He 
 will also understand how, in the ordinary use of a looking-glass, the right hand of the 
 image corresponds to the left hand of the object. 
 
 When two plane mirrors are placed with their reflecting surfaces towards each other, 
 and paiallel, they form the experiment called the endless gallery. Let (in fig. 4) the 
 arrow, Q, be placed vertically between the parallel mirrors, CD, BA, with their sil- 
 vered faces turned to one another, Q will produce in the mirror CD the image gk 
 This image will act as a new object to produce with the mirror BA the image q"^, 
 which, again, will produce with the mirror CD another image, and so on. Another 
 series of images, such as q', q\ etc., will similarly be produced at the same time, the 
 
 first of the series being q', the image of Q in the mirror BA. By an eye placed between 
 the mirrors, the succession of images will be seen as described; and if the mirrors 
 were perfectly plane and parallel, and reflected all the light incident on them, the num- 
 ber of the images of both series would be infinite. If, instead of being parallel, the 
 mirrors are inclined at an angle, the form and position of the image of an object may 
 be found in precisely the same way as in the former case, the image formed with the 
 first mirror being regarded as a new (virtual) object, whose image, with regard to the 
 second, has to be determined. For a curious application of two plane mirrors meeting 
 and inclined at an angle an aliquot part of 180°, see art. Kaleidoscope. — 3. The two 
 propositions already established are of extensive application, as has partly been showm. 
 They include the explanation of all phenomena of light related to plane mirrors. The 
 third proposition is one also of considerable utility, though not fundamental. It is: 
 When a ray of light has been reflected at each of two mirrors inclined at a given 
 angle to each other, in a plane perpendicular to their intersection, the reflected ray 
 will deviate from its original course by an angle double the angle of inclination of 
 the mirrors. Let A and B (fig. 5) be sections of the mirrors in a plane perpendicular 
 to their intersection, and let their directions be produced till they meet in C. Let SA, 
 in the plane of A and B, be the ray incident on the first mirror at A, and let AB be 
 the line in which it is thence reflected to B. After reflection at B, it will pass in the 
 line BD, meeting SA, its original path, produced in D. The angle ADB evidently 
 measures its deviation from its original course, and this angle is readily shown to be 
 double of the angle at C, which is that of the inclination of the mirrors. It is on this 
 proposition that the important mathematical instruments called the quadrant and sex- 
 tant (q.v.) depend 
 
 Curved Surfaces . — As when a pencil of light is reflected by a curved mirror, each 
 ray follows the ordinary law of reflection, in every case in which we can draw the 
 normals for the different points of the surface, we can determine the direction in 
 which the various rays of the pencil are reflected, as in the case of plane mirrors. It so 
 happens that normals can be easily drawn only in the case of the sphere, and of a few 
 
 C 
 
 A 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 
 Fig. 5 
 
567 
 
 Catoptrics. 
 
 “surfaces of revolution,” as they are called. These are the paraboloid, the ellipsoid, 
 and the hyperboloid of revolution. The paraboloid of revolution is of importance in 
 optics, as it is used in some specula for telescopes. See arts. Speculum and Tele- 
 scope. The tliree surfaces last named are, however, all of them interesting, as being 
 for pencils of light incident in certain ways what are called surfaces of accurate reflec- 
 tion — i.e., they reflect all the rays of the incident pencil to a single point or focus. We 
 shall explain to what this property is owing in the case of the parabolic reflector, and 
 state generally the facts regarding the other two. 
 
 1. The concave parabolic reflector is a surface of accurate reflection for pencils of 
 rays parallel to the axis or central line of figure of the paraboloid. This results from 
 the property of the surface, that the normal at any point of it passes through the axis, 
 and bisects the angle between a line through that point, parallel to the axis, and a 
 line joining the point to the focus of the generating parabola. Referring to fig. 6, 
 suppose a ray incident on the surface at P, in the line SP, parallel to the axis AFG. 
 Then if F be the focus of the generating parabola, join PF. PF is the direction of 
 the reflected ray. For PG, the normal at P, by the property of the surface, bisects the 
 angle FPS, and thereforo Z (angle) FPG= ZGPS. But SPG is the angle of incidence, 
 and SP, PG, and FP are in one plane, and, therefore, by the laws of reflection, FP is 
 the reflected ray. In the same way, all rays whatever, parallel to the axis, must pass 
 through F after reflection. If F were a luminous point, the rays from it, after reflec- 
 tion on the mirror, would all proceed in a cylindrical pencil parallel to the axis. 
 This reflector, with a bright light in its focus, is accordingly of common use in light- 
 houses. 
 
 2. In the concave ellipsoid mirror there are two points — viz., the foci of the gener- 
 ating ellipse, such that rays diverging from either will be accurately reflected to the 
 other. This results from the property of the figure, that the normal at any point bisects 
 the angle included between lines drawn to that point from the foci. 
 
 3. Owing to a property of the surface similar to that of the ellipsoid, a pencil of rays 
 converging to the exterior focus of a hyperbolic reflector, will be accurately reflected to 
 the focus of the generating hyperbola. 
 
 The converse of the above three propositions holds in the case of the mirrors being 
 convex. 
 
 Though the sphere is' not a surface of accurate reflection, except for rays diverging 
 from the center, and which on reflection are returned thereto, the spherical reflector is 
 of great practical importance, because it can be made with greater facility and at less 
 expense than the parabolic reflector. See art. Telescope. It is necessary, then, to 
 investigate the phenomena of iight reflected from it. 
 
 4. Spherical Mirrors , — It is usual to treat of two cases, the one the more frequent in 
 practice, the other the more general and comprehensive in theory. First, then, to find 
 the focus of reflected rays when a small pencil of parallel rays is incident directly on 
 a concave spherical mirror. Let BAB' (fig. 7) be a section of the mirror, O its center 
 of curvature, and A the center of its aperture. AO is the axis of the mirror, and there- 
 foiv,.* of the incident pencil, because it is incident directly on the mirror; a pencil being 
 
 called oblique when its axis is at an angle to the axis of the mirror. As the ray inci- 
 dent in the line O A will be reflected back in the same line — OA being the normal at A — 
 the focus of reflected rays must be in OA. Let SP be one of the rays; it will be reflected 
 so that Z gPO= Z SPO. But Z POg'= Z OPS by parallel lines. Therefore, Z gPO= 
 Z ^OP, and Pg' and O^- are equal. If, now, the incident pencil be very small — i.e,, if P 
 be very near xV— then the line P^ will very nearly coincide with the line OA, and P^and 
 Oq will each of them become very nearly the half of OA. Let F be the middle point of 
 OA — the point, namely, to which q tends as the pencil diminishes. The F is called the 
 principal focus of the mirror, and AF the principal focal length, which is thus = ^ 
 radius of the mirror. It will be observed that when AP is not small, q lies between A. 
 and F, F$^ is called the aberration of the ray. When AP is large, the reflected rays 
 will continually intersect, and forma luminous curve with a cusp at F. This curve is 
 called the caustic (q. v.). We shall now proceed to the more general case of a small pen- 
 cil of diverging rays, incident directly on a concave spherical mirror. Let PAP' (fig. 
 8) be a section of the mirror, A the center of its aperture, O of its curvature, and let F 
 be its principal focus. Then, if Q be the focus of incident rays (as if proceeding from 
 
Catoptromancy. 
 
 Cattermole. 
 
 568 
 
 a candle there situated), q, the focus of the reflected rays, lies on QOA, since the pencil 
 is incident directly, and the ray QOA, being incident in the line of the normal OA, is 
 reflected back in the same line. Let PQ be any other ray of the pencil. It will be 
 
 reflected in P^, so that Z gPO= ZOPQ; and on the supposition that PA is very small, 
 
 so that QP becomes nearly equal to QA, and gP to gA, it can be shown, by Euclid, vi. 3, 
 
 that very nearly. From this equation is deduced the formula gA 
 
 which enables us to find gA, when QA and AF are known. Thus, let the radius of cur- 
 vature be 12 in., and the distance of the source of the. rays, or QA, 30 in., the focal 
 
 1 A 30 X 6 
 
 length gA = r 
 
 30—6 
 
 = 7^ inches. If the rays had diverged upon g, it is clear they 
 
 would have been reflected to Q. The points Q and g, accord- 
 ing^, are called conjugate foci. 
 
 If the mirror be convex, as in fig. 9, instead of concave, 
 and a pencil of diverging rays be incident directly on it from 
 Q, we should find, proceeding in exactly the same way as in 
 
 the former case, the equation Ag = y taking the 
 
 same numbers as before ; gA = 
 
 QA + AF 
 30 X 6 
 
 = 5 inches. 
 
 30 -f 6 
 
 For information regarding the formation of images by 
 spherical mirrors, the reader may consult Potter’s Elements of 
 Optics. See also the arts. Mirrors and Images. 
 
 By considering fig. 8, it is easy to see how the relative positions of the two con- 
 jugate foci, as they are called, Q and g, vary as the distance, AQ, of the origin of 
 the rays is changed. As Q is advanced towards O, g also approaches O, since the angles 
 QPO and gPO always remain equal; and when the source of the light is in the center, 
 <), of the sphere, the reflected rays are all returned upon the source. As Q, again, 
 recedes from O, g moves towards F, which it does not quite reach until the distance of 
 Q is infinite, so that the incident rays may be considered as parallel, as in fig. 7. If Q 
 is placed between O and F, then g will be to the right of O; and when Q coincides with 
 F, the reflected rays will have no focus, but will be parallel, -If Q is between F and A, 
 the reflected rays will diverge, and will have their virtual focus to the left of A. The 
 correctness of these deductions may easily be verified. The positions of the conjugates 
 are traced in precisely the same way for the convex mirror, and the reader who is inter- 
 ested will find no difficulty in tracing them for himself. 
 
 CATOP TROMANCY, divination by the mirror or looking-glass. At Patras, in Greece, 
 the sick foretold their death or recovery by means of a mirror let down with a thread 
 until its base touched the water in a fountain before the temple of Ceres. The face of 
 the sick person appearing healthy in the mirror, betokened recovery; if it looked ghastly, 
 then death was sure to ensue. More modern superstitions attach ill-luck to the breaking 
 of a looking-glass, and to seeing one’s face in a glass by candle-light. 
 
 CATS, Jacob, a Dutch statesman and poet, was b. at Brouwershaven, in Zeeland, in 
 1577, and after studying law, finally settled at Middelburg. He rose to high offices in 
 the state, and was twice sent as ambassador to England, first in 1627, and again in 1652, 
 while Cromwell was at the head of affairs. He died 1660. As a poet, he enjoyed the 
 highest popularity. His poems are characterized by simplicity, rich fancjr, clearness, 
 and purity of style, and excellent moral tendency. The most highly prized of his 
 productions were the Huwelyk, Trouwringh (a series of romantic stories relating to 
 remarkable marriages), and the Spiegel van den Ouden in Nieuwen Tyd. The best edition 
 of his works appeared at Amsterdam, in 19 vols., 1790-1800. 
 
 CAT’S-EYE, a beautiful mineral, a variety of quartz receiving its name from the 
 resemblance which the reflection of light from it, especially when cut en cabochon, or in 
 a convex form, is supposed to exhibit to the light which seems to emanate from the 
 interior of the eye of a cat. It has a sort of pearly appearance, and is chatoyant or 
 characterized by a fine play of light, which results from the parallel arrangement of the 
 minute fibers of the stone itself, or from an intimate mixture of some foreign substance, 
 such as amianthus. It has been supposed that cat’s-eye is silicified wood. It is of various 
 colors, and is obtained chiefly from Malabar and Ceylon. The Singhalese are especially 
 proud of it, believing it, although erroneously, to be only found in their island. It is 
 often brought from that island, cut to resemble a monkey’s face, from the idolatrous 
 regard entertained for the monkey. A chatoyant variety of feldspar has been sometimes 
 confounded with cat’s-eye, and is also found in Ceylon. 
 
 CATSKILL, a village on the Hudson river, in e. New York, the capital of Greene co., 
 34 m. s. of Albany; pop. ’75, 6,679. C. is one of the landing places for the thousands of 
 visitors who go annually to the Catskill mountains, a few miles westward.^ A ferry 
 across the river connects with the Hudson River railroad. There are several important 
 manufactories in the village. 
 
 CATSKILL GROUP, in geology, the name of rocks of the Devonian system seen in 
 the northern counties of Pennsylvania. Thev are chiefly red sandstone and shale, nrd 
 
569 
 
 Catoptromancjr. 
 
 Cattermole. 
 
 contain fossil scales of the earliest fishes. The Catskill mountains were formerly sup- 
 posed to beloni; in this group, whence the name, now known to be inappropriate. 
 
 CATSKILL MOUNTAINS, a group of the Alleghany chain, in its largest sense, situated 
 near the right bank at once of tlie Hudson and of the'Mohawk, in the state of New York. 
 The loftiest points. Round Top and High Peak, are respectively 3,800 ft. and 3,720 above 
 tide-water; and, on a third eminence, a terrace of 2,500 ft. above the same level presents 
 Catskill Mountain house, a favorite retreat in summer. The group is drained chiefly by 
 Catskill creek, Avhich, at a village of its own name, enters the Hudson 111 m. above its 
 mouth, and 34 below the confluence of the Mohawk. 
 
 CATSKILL MOUNTAINS {ante), a part of the Appalachian system w. of the Hud- 
 son, river in Greene co., N. Y. The group, about 12 m. long, nearly parallel with the 
 river about, 8 m. distant, turns westward in spurs extending many miles. Besides the 
 Ulster and Delaware railroad, beginning at Kingston and leading w, into the moun- 
 tains, there is a good wagon road from Catskill village to the “ Mountain House,” 12 m, 
 w,, which is a favorite summering place. The house stands on a terrace 2,231 ft. above 
 the river, and almost at the edge of a perpendicular cliff several hundred ft. high. 
 There is another public house on Overlook mountain, a few miles to the s., w'hich is 
 estimated to be 3,800 ft. above tide. The views from these houses and from the neigh- 
 boring peaks are wonderfully varied and beautiful, reaching from the Green mountains 
 in Vermont to the highlands at West Point, and taking in nearly 100 m. of the Hudson 
 I river and valley- with numerous cities and villages, and a vast expanse of highly culti- 
 vated farming country. An immense number of summer boarders are accommodated 
 through all this region, not only in hotels, but also in countless farm-houses and village 
 homes. One of the highest points is the top of Overlook, 3,800 feet. The other prom- 
 inent elevations are Hunter mountain. High peak, and Round Top. One of the sights 
 of the region is “The Clove,” or ravine, and the falls therein. The ravine is about 5 m. 
 long. At its head two rivulets unite and flow rapidly to a point where the mountain 
 divides and forms a deep hollow into which the brook rushes over a cascade of 180 ft. ; 
 and further down are other falls, one of 80 and another of 40 feet. The ice formation 
 in winter around the highest fall is particularly grand and beautiful. There are other 
 ravines and water-falls in the region, but none equally important. The mountains are 
 for the most part covered with thick forests of oak, hickory, ash, maple, beech, pine, 
 etc. 
 
 CAT’S-TAIL. See Typha. 
 
 CAT’S-TAIL GRASS. See Timothy Grass. 
 
 CATTACK. See Cuttack, ante. 
 
 CATTARAUGUS, a co. in w. New York, on the Pennsylvania border, watered by 
 the Allegheny and other rivers, and intersected by the New York and Erie and the 
 Atlantic and Great Western railroads, and the Genesee Valley canal; 1250 sq.m.; pop. 
 ’80, 55,808. The surface is undulating and the soil fruitful. The chief products are 
 wheat, corn, oats, potatoes, hay, cheese, butter, wool, hops, and maple sugar. Iron, 
 manganese, marl, peat, and sulphur are found. Co. seat. Little Valley. 
 
 CAT'TARO, a t. of Austria, in the crown-land of Dalmatia, is situated at the head of 
 the gulf of C'attaro, about 36 m. s.e. of Ragusa. It isstronglj^ fortified, and surrounded 
 on all sides by mountains. The castle, a massive and almost inaccessible building, 
 stands on a precipitous rock immediately behind the town. C. has a cathedral several 
 churches and hospitals, and a population of 3,000. C., which was at one time the 
 
 capital of a small republic, was in 1807 annexed to the kingdom of Italy, but was handed 
 over to Austria in 1814 by the treaty of Vienna. — Cattaro, Gulp op, or Bocca di 
 Cattaro, an inlet of the Adriatic, near the s. extremity of the Dalmatian coast. It 
 consists of three basins or lakes, connected by straits of about half a mile in breadth. 
 The outer entrance is only a mile and a half wide, and the total length of the gulf is 
 about 30 miles. Mountains protect it from all winds, and it has a depth of from 15 to 
 20 fathoms. 
 
 CAT'TEGAT, or Kattegat (Sinus Codanus), the bay or arm of the sea situated 
 between the e. coast of Jutland and the w. coast of Sweden, to the n. of the Danish 
 islands. It is connected with the Baltic sea by the Great and Little Belt (q.v.), and by 
 the sound. The Skager Rack (q.v.) connects it with the North sea. The length of the 
 C. is about 150 m , and its greatest breadth 85 miles. It is of unequal depth, and has 
 dangerous sand-banks. The principal islands are Lasoe, Samsbe, and Anhalt. The 
 Danish shores of the C. are low, but the Swedish shore is very steep and rocky. 
 
 CATTERMOLE, George, one of the most distinguished of English painters in water- 
 colors, was born at Dickleburgh, Norfolk, in 1800. His pictures, which embrace a 
 wide range of subjects, are remarkable for their striking originality of conception, 
 vigorous execution, and fine color and tone. One of his best known and greatest pic- 
 tures is “Luther at the Diet of Spires,” containing 33 portraits of the principal charac- 
 ters, copied from^ the authentic originals by the old masters. He also designed the 
 engravings for his brother’s History of the Civil Wars, and illustrated many scenes in 
 Scott’s novels and in Shakespeare. His later works are chiefly oil-paintings. He d. July 
 
Cattl. 
 
 Cattle. 
 
 570 
 
 CATTI, or Chatti, a Germv.a people, included by Csesar under the name Suevi (q.v.), 
 who inhabited a country pretty nearly corresponding to the present Hesse. The south- 
 western part of their territory, around Mattiacum, was conquered by the Homans under 
 Drusus. The C. took part in the general rising of the Germans under Hermann. 
 Tacitus praises them as excellent foot-soldiers. During the reign of Marcus Aurelius, 
 in the end of the 2d c., they made incursions into Roman Germany and Rhaetia. Cara- 
 calla failed in an expedition against them and the Alemanni in the 3d century. About 
 the middle of that century, their name began to give place to that of the Franks (q.v.), 
 and is last mentioned by Claudian in the latter part of the 4th century. 
 
 CATTLE. See Ox. 
 
 CATTLE, in English law. See Chattel. 
 
 CATTLE-PLAGTJE, Rinderpest (Ger.), or Steppe Murrain, is a contagious eruptive 
 fever, or exanthema, of the bovine species; sheep, goats, deer, and other allied species 
 occasionally, however, catch it from cattle. It occurs indigenously on the plains of 
 western Russia, whence it has at various times overspread most parts of the old world. 
 The specific virus from diseased or infected animals is the only source of cattle-plague; 
 no filth, overcrowding, or other health-depressing cause has hitherto produced it. As in 
 small-pox, scarlatina, and other eruptive fevers, an incubative stage, varying between 
 tw'o and twenty days, intervenes between the introduction of the virus into the system, 
 either by inoculation or contagion, and the development of the characteristic symptoms. 
 These consist essentially of congestion of the mucous and cutaneous surfaces, with a 
 sort of aphthous eruption, and thickening, softening, and desquamation of the super- 
 ficial investing membrane. The disease runs a tolerably fixed and definite course, 
 which is not materially altered by any known remedial measures. It seldom attacks 
 the same individual a second time. 
 
 History . — The cattle-plague has been recognized for upwards of a thousand years. 
 It appears to have destroyed the herds of the warlike tribes who overran the Roman 
 empire during the 4th and 5th sentiiries. About 810, it traveled with the armies of 
 Charlemagne into France, and about the same period is also supposed to have visited 
 England. Several times throughout the course of every century it spread from the 
 plains of Russia over the western countries of Europe, and is stated to have again visited 
 England about 1225. Althougli occasioning, every few years, great lo.sses on the con- 
 tinent of Europe, the plague does not appear to have again shown itself in England 
 until 1714, when it appeared at Islington about the middle of July, was very destruc- 
 tive for about three months, but was again got rid of towards Christmas. In 1744, 
 it was in Holland, de.stroying there, in two years, 200,000 cattle; in Denmark, from 
 1745-49, it killed 280,000; in some provinces of Sweden it spared only 2 per cent of 
 the horned cattle. It made terrible havoc throughout Italy, destroying 400,000 beasts 
 in Piedmont alone. In April, 1745, the plague was again imported into England, 
 probably by some white calves from Holland, where, as already stated, it had for some 
 time prevailed. It continued its devastations for twelve years, but it is now impossible 
 accurately to discover the losses it occasioned. In the third and fourth years of its 
 ravages, 80,000 cattle were slaughtered, and double that number are supposed to have 
 died. In 1747, 40,000 cattle died in Nottingham and Lancashire alone; whilst, so late 
 as 1757, 30,000 perished in Cheshire in six months. In March, 1770, the disease was 
 brought with some hay from Holland to Portsoy, in the Moray firth; several cattle 
 died, and others, to the value of £799, 12s. 2d., being destroyed, the further spread 
 of the pest was prevented. By the wars which wasted Europe towards the close of 
 the last and first eighteen years of the present century, cattle-plague was spread widely 
 over the continent, and occasioned, wherever it occurred, terrible losses. Since then, 
 at short intervals, it has spread — always being traceable to its source on the Russian 
 plains — over Poland, Hungary, Austria, Prussia, portions of Germany and Italy, and 
 has extended to Egypt, It has also reached China and Japan. 
 
 The British outbreak of 1865-67, like its predecessors, undoubtedly came from 
 Russia, The steamer Tonning, from Revel, brought 331 cattle and 330 sheep into Hull 
 on 29th May, 1865. A portion of the cattle had come from the interior of Russia, 
 where the plague then was, or recently had been; the cargo was rapidly landed, and 
 very hurriedly inspected. Nearly half of the cattle were distributed in various lots to 
 butchers in Leeds, Derby, and Manchester, but, curiously, these do not appear to have 
 left any contagion in their trail. One hundred and seventy-five came to London, 
 remained from the Monday evening until Thursday’s market in lairs at York road, 
 adjoining the cattle-market. It was stated, in a leader in the Times of 15th Au^., that 
 rinderpest was seen in the metropolitan market as early as 12th June. Certain it is 
 that more than one lot purchased on 19th June carried the disease to several dairies in 
 and about London. The first cases were mistaken for cases of poisoning, the cows they 
 had stood beside were sent into market, and thus the subtle disorder in a few weeks 
 spread into many dairies both in town and country. Twenty-three Dutch cattle, having 
 stood over for several markets, were sent back to Holland on 2d July, carried with them 
 the contagion, were placed in a field near Schiedam, but soon sickened and died, thus 
 spreading the disease in Holland. During the next six months, plague was repeatedly 
 reimported thence into England. Until 11th Aug., 1865, no restrictions whatever were 
 
571 
 
 Cattl. 
 
 Cattle. 
 
 put upon the removal of cattle; diseased and infected animals were freely taken to fairs 
 and markets, were openly traveled byroad and rail; whilst the metropolitan market 
 continued every week to send forth infected cases, not only to the neighboring counties, 
 but to Southampton, Birmingham, Hereford, Liverpool, Edinburgh, and even to Aber- 
 deenshire. As early as 18th July, the pest was brought from London to Huntly by 
 four calves; subsequent outbreaks occurred in the same way. The stamping-out system 
 was, however, early and rigidly enforced in Aberdeenshire, and eight distinct outbreaks 
 were promptly got rid of. 
 
 In Edinburgh, it appeared probably about 9th Aug., was brought from London by 
 some low-priced foreign cows; in six weeks, about 800, or one half the dairy cows in 
 Edinburgh, had died — 200 having been buried in one trench. By the end of Jan., four 
 fifths of the dairy cows Jiad perished, but Edinburgh was reported clear. In Glasgow, 
 the first case occurred on 19th Aug., in a cow sent from Edinburgh. By 30th Sept., 
 432 cases were reported, and it continued to spread. By the middle of Oct., it was in 
 Mr. Harvey’s valuable stock of 800, of which 25 died in one night, and to save further 
 loss, 50 healthy animals were in one day disposed of to the butcher. From Falkirk 
 Trysts, as from Barnet, Norwich Hill, and other large English fairs, the disease was 
 transmitted into fresh localities. From the autumn trysts, it was carried into Perthshire, 
 Forfarshire, and Fifeshire. Diseased cattle passing along in railway trucks, appear to 
 have spread the contagion over the fields adjoining the line at Thornton, Fifeshire. 
 Into West Lothian it was conveyed in early Sept, by lambs from the Edinburgh market. 
 
 The rapid spread of the insidious disorder may be gathered from the fact that, 
 whilst, during the week ending 24th June, 1865, there was only one outbreak at Mrs. 
 Nicholl’s dairy at Islington, and 30 animals affected, by 30th Sept, there were 1702 
 farms, sheds, or other places in which the pest had appeared, and 13,263 animals had 
 been attacked. Three months later, 8252 separate places had been visited, and 62.743 
 animals attacked. During six months, the aggregate of cattle attacked was 76,002. 
 During the three months to 30th Mar., 13,443 farms and other premises had been 
 infected, and 147,275 cattle attacked. In Dec., 1865, the fresh cases each week reached 
 9000; but in spite of remedial and preventive measures, of orders in council, and 
 restrictions on the movement of stock, the number of weekly cases steadily increased to 
 15,706 in the third week of Feb. “ The cattle diseases prevention act” passed 20th 
 Feb., 1866, and the advantages flowing from the restrictions thus tardily imposed on 
 the trade in cattle, and the slaughter of diseased and infected animals, were speedily 
 apparent. In four weeks, the number of cases was reduced by one half. During the 
 three months ending 30th June, 28,276 cases were reported; during the next three 
 months to 30th Sept., the numbers fell to 2108; whilst, to 29th Dec., the three months’ 
 cases were but 149; to 30th Mar., 1867, 89 new cases were noted. Throughout April 
 and May the number of cases continued steadily to decline; but during the week ending 
 25th May a fresh outbreak occurred in the Finsbury district of the metropolis, and 81 
 animals died, or were slaughtered to prevent the further spread of the pest. With the 
 exception of an isolated outbreak in Essex, which was promptly stayed by slaughter of 
 the ailing and suspected animals, the country was free of plague daring August. The 
 following are the records of its destructive career during 1865-67 ; 
 
 Attacked. Killed. Died. Recovered. 
 
 England 223,672 102,740 90,450 21,589 
 
 Wales 8,388 1,180 5,794 1,117 
 
 Scotland 46,863 6,263 28,088 10,707 
 
 Total 278,923 110,18S 124,332 33,413 
 
 To this sad total must be added 11,000 cases known to have been attacked and unac- 
 counted for, and upward^ of 60,000 healthy cattle slaughtered to prevent the spread of 
 the disease. Plague was again imported into Hull in Aug., 1872; it was brought with 
 cattle from Cronstadt; it spread into several districts of the East Riding, attacked 72 
 animals, 51 of which were killed, and 21 died. In 1877, an outbreak took place in 
 Germany, but by energetic measures was speedily suppressed without extensive losses. 
 
 Causes . — The development of cattle-plague by filth, overcrowding, miasmata, hot 
 weather, or other such causes, is untenable. Faulty hygiene, by lowering vitality, prob- 
 ably renders the animal more prone to the attack, and less able to bear up against it, but 
 it cannot originate plague. Like hydrophobia, small-pox*, or syphilis, it is developed only 
 by the special virus, which appears to have its habitat on the Russian steppes. This virus 
 occurs abundantly in the blood of every plague-stricken beast, j a the discharges from its 
 nostrils, mouth, or eyes, in the off-scourings from the bowels, probably even in the 
 breath. It may be transferred to healthy beasts by inoculation. A little of the blood 
 or nasal or other mucous discharges of a plague case, if introduced underneath the skin 
 of a healthy cow, develops the disease within a few days. The transference of the virus 
 or contagion from the sick to the sound animal, is not always so direct and evident. As 
 with other catching diseases, the virus may be carried considerable distances in the air; 
 its particles are minute, but they have powerful vitality; it may adhere to the food that 
 has lain before infected beasts; to the litter from the stalls, or even after it has been 
 heaped for weeks; to the clothes of attendants; to the floors, walls, or stalling of build- 
 
Cattle. 
 
 572 
 
 ings; to imperfectly cleansed cattle-trucks. So subtile and potent is the plague poison, 
 and 80 endowed with the power of self-multiplication and growth, that a veiy minute 
 portion of it finding access to the blood of a healthy animal of the bovine race increases 
 so rapidly, that to use the words of the commissioners’ report, No. III. p. 4, “the whole 
 mass of the blood, weighing many pounds, is infected; and every small particle of that 
 blood contains enough poison to give the disease to another animal.” It may gain access 
 to the blood probably through the air-passages, perhaps also by absorption through the 
 mucous surface of the bowels, or even through the skin. 
 
 Symptoms <. — In from three to six days after an animal has been exposed to the virus 
 of cattle-plague, or about 36 to 48 hours after being purposely inoculated, the tempera- 
 ture of the body is raised by several degrees. A delicate thermometer introduced into 
 the vagina or rectum, instead of marking about 102° F., indicates 104° to 106°. As yet 
 the appetite, secretion of milk, breathing, and pulse are scarcely if at all affected, and 
 but for the elevation of temperature, accompanied sometimes by dullness, the animal 
 might be supposed to be in the best of health. Two or three days later, or usually 
 within six or eight days after the beast has taken in the subtile virus, the mucous mem- 
 brane of the mouth is generally observed to be slightly reddened, and soon a granular 
 yellowish-white eruption, consisting of thickened epithelium cells and granules, appears 
 on the gums round the incisor teeth, and by and by on the lips and dental pad. Some 
 hours later, the same eruption extends to the cheeks, tongue, and hard palate. Within 
 48 hours, or about the sixth day of attack, a crust of epithelium covers the gums, lips, 
 and mouth, and when wiped away, or accidentally rubbed off, leaves the abraded mem- 
 brane red and vascular, and exhibiting patches of erosion. The membrane lining the 
 vagina indicates very similar appearances; it is reddened and vascular, dotted with 
 grayish translucent elevations about the size of rape-seeds, covered with a whitish-yel- 
 low, usually sticky discharge, and occasionally marked with patches of excoriation. 
 The skin, like the mucous surfaces, is congested; there is hence a perverted develop- 
 ment of scarf skin, and of the oleaginous secretion of the irritated sebaceous glands. The 
 skin is thus invested with a furfuraceous desquamation ; whilst on its thinner portions 
 about the lips, between the thighs, and on the udder, there are papular eruptions orele- 
 vations. About two, or even three days after the temperature has been increased, and 
 usually one, or even two days after the appearance of the characteristic eruption on the 
 gums„the constitutional symptoms present themselves. The animal is dull, hangs its 
 head, arches its back, the eyes are leaden and watery, and from both eyes and nose there 
 latterly comes a dirty slimy discharge. Appetite and rumination are irregular, and in 
 dairy cows, the secretion of milk rapidly abates. The breathing, especially towards the 
 sixth day, is oppressed, expiration is prolonged, and accompanied by a peculiar grunt. 
 The pulse is small and thready, and quickened as death approaches. The bowxls. usually 
 at first confined, become, towards the sixth or seventh day, much relaxed; the discharges 
 passed, often with pain and straining, are profuse and liquid, offensive, acrid, pale col- 
 ored, and occasionally mixed with blood. The patient loses w'eight and strength, totters 
 if it attempt to walk, and prefers to lie rather than to stand. Death usually occurs 
 about the seventh day, and is preceded by muscular twitchings, a peculiar sickly, often 
 offensive smell, a cold clammy state of body, moaning, grinding of the teeth, and rapidly 
 increasing prostration. 
 
 Pi'ognosis . — Cases usually terminate unfavorably when about the fifth or sixth day 
 the animal temperature falls rapidly; the pulse becomes small, quick, and weak; the 
 breathing more difficult, distressed, and moaning; the diarrhea increased; and the 
 depression more notable. A more favorable termination may be anticipated when, after 
 the fifth day, the heightened temperature, so notable even from the earliest stages, abates 
 gradually; the breathing becomes easier; the pulse firmer; the visible mucous mem 
 branes appear healthier; and patches of extravasation or erosion speedily disappear. 
 
 Sheep do not take rinderpest spontaneously, and even when kept with diseased cattle, 
 or inoculated with cattle-plague virus, they do not catch the disease so certainly as cattle 
 do. When diseased, they exhibit, however, very similar symptoms, but professor Roll, 
 and other observers, record that upwards of 40 per cent recover. Goats, deer, ante- 
 lopes gazelles, yaks, and indeed all animals taking rinderpest, exhibit with tolerable 
 uniformity the same characteristic symptoms. 
 
 Post-mortem Appearances . — The mucous membranes are generally deeper colored 
 than natural, are congested, softened, marked in places with the same granular patches 
 discoverable during life within the mouth and the vagina, and in bad cases exhibit 
 oedema, haemorrhage, and sloughing. The first three stomachs sometimes contain a 
 good deal of food, but show less declension from health than the fourth stomach, of 
 which the mucous membrane is dotted with spots of congestion and extravasation. The 
 coats of the bowels are thinned and easily torn. The mucous coat, especially towards 
 the middle of the small intestines, the opening into the caecum, and posterior half of 
 rectum, is much congested, bared of epithelium, and sometimes ecchymo»ed, but never 
 ulcerated. Peyer’s glands, so generally infiamed in the somewhat analogous typhoid 
 fever of man, are perfectly healthy. The liver, spleen, and pancreas seldom present 
 any special appearances. The respiratory mucous membrane, like the digestive, is 
 vascular, and marked with submucous hemorrhage; the lungs are generally emphysem- 
 atous, the heart often marked with petechial ^ots. The urino-genital, like the other 
 
573 
 
 
 mucous membranes, is congested in females, especially towards the lower part of the 
 Tagina and vulva; the kidneys are sometimes rather softened, the serous naembranes 
 and nervous centers are perfectly unchanged. Dr. Beale, by his microscopical obser- 
 vations, discovers in the capillaries a great increase of nuclear or germinal matter, and 
 white blood-corpuscles, which he believes may account for the local congestion. The 
 blood itself is dark in color; in the later stages it contains less water, probably owing to 
 the draining diarrhea, and about double its usual proportion of fibrine. The muscular 
 tissues are softened, easily broken down, and contain an abnormal amount of soluble 
 albumen. The urine is little altered in quantity, but from the first rise in the animal 
 temperature, it contains an increase of urea varying from 5 to 15 per cent. The chief 
 change in the milk is its rapid diminution in quantity, and the increase of its fatty 
 matters. The bile is watery, offensive, and prone to decomposition. 
 
 Treatment.— CMQ-^\ 2 igMQ is proved to be an eruptive fever. When the specific 
 poison, on which such disorders depend, has entered the body of a susceptible subject, 
 no remedy has yet been discovered which can destroy it, or even materially shorten or 
 mitigate its effects. Until such an antidote is found, there can be no hope of certain 
 cure. The cattle-plague commissioners have collected information regarding the four 
 following methods of treatment— namely, the antiphlogistic, the tonic and stimulant, 
 the antiseptic, and the special. Diverse as are these systems, the percentages of recov- 
 eries. varying from 25.83 to 27.45, were so nearly alike, that it is fair to conclude that 
 no one of the systems tried exercised any notable influence in checking the mortality. 
 Partly, perhaps, from the varying virulence of the plague, partly from differences in 
 the nursing and care bestowed on the animals, the proportion of recoveries has varied 
 greatly in different localities. Up to the end of 1865, in Huntingdon they were only 
 4.668 per cent; in Norfolk they were 12.102; in Flint, 15.909; in Scotland, 19.889; whilst 
 in Fifeshire they reached 24.552; and in Yorkshire, 29.731 per cent. 
 
 Like small-pox, measles, and other eruptive fevers in man, rinderpest runs a definite 
 course which cannot safely be interfered with. Rational treatment is therefore limited 
 to warding off untoward symptoms, to careful nursing, and husbanding the failing 
 strength. It must, however, be remembered that throughout the progress of the disease 
 there is constantly given off from the sick body minute particles, which are capable of 
 developing the disorder in healthy cattle. Hence plague-subjects, by the orders in 
 council, are very properly desired to be immediately destroyed. Except, therefore, for 
 purely scientific purposes, and with careful precautions to prevent the spread hi the 
 poison, it is unwise to attempt remedial treatment. Where, however, a beast is to 
 have a chance of recovery, so soon as the elevated temperature indicates the accession 
 of the disease, solid indigestible food should be withheld, and the patient restricted to 
 mashes, gruel, boiled linseed, malt, and other food, which can be digested without the 
 necessity for rumination. The paramount importance of such a dietary is clearly 
 demonstrated in the returns of the Edinburgh cattle-plague committee to the govern- 
 ment commissioners. The recoveries amongst 310 cattle “fed with dry food, and 
 treated medicinally .with drugs,” were 13.6. Amongst 303 cattle treated with mixed 
 food and hay, 22.2 recovered. Where mashes were given during sickness, but dry food 
 supplied during convalescence, the recoveries reached 51.5; whilst in 95 cottagers’ cows, 
 whose chief ordinary dietary consisted of mashed food, and which were fed in the same 
 manner throughout both sickness and convalescence, and were besides carefully nursed 
 but not doctored, the recoveries reached 73.7. Where the bowels at the outset are 
 •costive, a dose of oil, or a very small quantity of some saline purgative, may be required.' 
 Cold water, gruel, mashes, or stale bread soaked either in water or beer, should be 
 offered at^ short intervals throughout the attack. The animal, kept in an atmosphere of 
 about 60°, should be comfortably clothed, and have its legs bandaged. The hot-air 
 bath and wet-packing has been repeatedly tried, but although probably useful in the 
 earlier stages, appear, when the disease is fully established, to harass and weaken the 
 patient. Small and repeated doses of sulphite of soda have in some cases proved useful, 
 and may be conjoined with carefully regulated moderate doses of such stimulants as ale, 
 whisky and water, sweet spirit of niter, spirit of ammonia, or strong coffee. It is 
 most important, however, that these and other such medicines should be drunk by the 
 animal of its own accord in its gruel, water, or mashes, as the forcible horning over of 
 drenches always disturbs the patient. The inhalation of chloroform, although tem- 
 porarily relieving the distressed breathing, does not appear to exert any permanent 
 benefit. 
 
 Prevention . — Froni what has been stated regarding the nature of cattle-plague, it 
 must be evident that its prevention can only be effected by the destruction of the specific 
 virus, or by removing beyond its influence all animals on which it might fasten. Sparks 
 fall harmless where no inflammable materials lie within reach, and there are many such 
 materials. Neither should sheep, fresh hides, hay, nor any other fodder and litter from 
 countries where this ruinous plague exists, or has recently visited, be allowed to enter 
 British ports. This very obvious precaution took strong hold of the public mind, and 
 the practical result is, that importations of cattle-plague are guarded against by the pro- 
 visions of the contagious diseases (animals) acts, 1869 and 1878. Neither cattle, sheep, 
 -uor pigs, fodder, litter, or hides, can be landed from countries where the plague exists, or 
 from places in direct communication with such infected countries. All foreign stock is 
 
Cattolica. 
 
 Caucasus. 
 
 574 
 
 inspected at the ports of debarkation, and inspectors hare orders for the immediate 
 slaughter and disinfection of cattle-plague subjects, and of any animals with which 
 they have been in contact. But even with such precautions, foreign cattle frequently 
 bring with them catching disorders, notably foot-and-mouth disease. Since they con- 
 stitute, however, less than 5 per cent of the total cattle stock of the country, such risks 
 should be removed by converting the foreign cattle traffic into a dead-meat trade. 
 
 Rinderpest being found to resemble smallpox in men and sheep, it was thought that 
 its propagation and virulence might be abated by vaccination with cowpox lymph; but 
 cattle, even when effectually vaccinated, which is often a difficult task, readily take 
 rinderpest, often in its most mortal forms. Inoculation with the discharges from mild 
 cases and from young calves has been tried as a palliative; but the disease, thus artifi- 
 cially developed, loses nothing either of its severity or of its dangerous contagious 
 character. Cattle in Oxfordshire receiving for several weeks daily doses of sulphite of 
 soda are stated to have had the plague in a mild form. 
 
 Where an outbreak occurs, the diseased animals must be promptly destroyed, and 
 all cattle in immediate contact with them should likewise be slaughtered. This “stamp- 
 ing-out system ” prevents the multiplication and diffusion of the virus, and hence saves 
 still further losses. It is rigidly and successfully carried out in many continental coun- 
 tries. By stamping out and strict isolation, eight or ten outbreaks in Aberdeenshire 
 were got rid of without serious loss. A French outbreak on the Belgian frontier in 
 Sept., 18G5, was stamped out with the sacrifice of forty-three animals. The disease was 
 imported to Paris in Nov. by two gazelles purchased in London by the French Accli- 
 matization society. Before it was stayed by slaughter and segregation, thirty-four ani- 
 mals, including yaks, antelopes, deer, gazelles, goats, and peccari, died or were destroyed. 
 The determined slaughter of diseased and infected animals, and the restrictions on the 
 movement of all stock, were the only means that reduced the number of attacks dur- 
 ing the British outbreak of 1865-66. As is officially recorded in the commissioners' 
 report. No. IV., p. 6, “where the percentage of killed is high, the ratio of increase of 
 the disease is low, and ‘loice versa. This has generally been noticed under each county 
 and district.” 
 
 When plague is in the neighborhood, it is desirable daily to sprinkle the walls, wood- 
 work, and floor of the sheds and hovellings with carbolic acid solution, and to keep up 
 throujghout the premises a continual pdor of this useful antiseptic, and with a diluted 
 solution of the acid, or with M’Dougall’s disinfecting soap, to w^ash over the cattle 
 daily. The animals should be carefully fed on digestible soft food; receive daily about 
 an ounce of sulphite of soda in a mash; and, in order to note the first access of the 
 disease, should have their temperature examined by the thermometer every night and 
 morning. 
 
 The recommendations of the cattle-plague commissioners for the purifying of infected 
 sheds, litter, and manure must receive careful attention. In whatever premises infected 
 beasts have stood, the walls should be lime-washed, a pint of carbolic acid being added 
 to each pailful of the whitewash. The floors and wood-work, after being washed and 
 scrubbed with boiling water, should be sprinkled with a strong solution of carbolic 
 acid. The sheds being emptied of their living inhabitants, and the doors and windows 
 closed, sulphur should be burned, and the vapors allowed to float about for a couple of 
 hours before the sheds are again thrown open to the purifying influences of abundance 
 of fresh air. A pound of sulphur placed on a shovel of burning coals suffices for a 
 * twelve-stalled shed or byre. Where cattle plague has raged, this cleaning and fumigation 
 should be repeated, and, if possible, several weeks allowed to elapse before the premises 
 are again occupied by sound animals. All shovels, forks, buckets, or brooms, that have 
 either directly or indirectly come in contact with diseased or infected animals, should 
 be washed with carbolic acid solution. The clothes and boots of attendants, inspectors, 
 and others coming in contact with plague-stricken animals must be similarly cleansed. 
 The manure should be sprinkled with carbolic acid at intervals of a few days, and then 
 covered over with a foot of earth, freely mixed with soil, or carted away and plowed 
 in. It IS safer thus to put the manure on the arable land than to use it as a top-dressing 
 for the pastures. 
 
 Authorities . — Official reports of commissioners. Nos. I., II., III., and IV.; The Cat- 
 tle Plague, by prof. Gamgee; Die Rinderpest, by Roloff (2d ed., 1877); and numerous 
 monographs by German authorities. 
 
 CATTO'LICA, a t. of Sicily, in the province of Girgenti, and 14 m. n.w. of the city 
 of that name. It has extensive sulphur-works, and a pop. of 7,200. 
 
 CATTY (Malayan, kati\ Japanese, kin), the unit of weight used throughout 
 Chinese and Malayan Asia, and by the Chinese all over the world. American scales 
 exported to Asia are graduated into catties. A catty is 1^ pounds avoirdupois. 
 
 CATTY WAR. See Kattywar, ante. 
 
 CATUL'LTTS, Vale'rius, a celebrated Roman l\Tist, was b. at Verona, 87 b.C. His 
 father was an intimate friend of Julius Caesar, and the young poet must have frequently 
 met the great warrior at the paternal residence, when the latter was on his w'ay to Gaul. 
 In early life, he went to Rome, where his career was that of an Epicurean, and the 
 expense of this kind of living soon involved him in pecuniary difficulties. To release 
 
575 
 
 Cattolioa. 
 
 Caucasus. 
 
 himself from these, he followed the praetor Memmius to Eithynia, with the intention, 
 like his superior, of wringing a fortune out of the provincials. This fashionable but 
 felonious method of acquiring money did not succeed in C.’s case, mainly, however, 
 through the more dexterous cupidity of Memmius. After his return, C. appears to hav« 
 lived mostly in Rome, and in very straitened circumstances. When he died is unknown. 
 His poems, 116 in number, chiefly consisting of lyrics and epigrams — first brought to 
 light by Benvenuto Campesani of Verona in the beginning of the 14th c. — have always 
 been justly admired for their exquisite grace and beauty of style; but are, in many 
 places, grossly indecent. In higher styles of writing, C. was equally successful, 
 'especially in his odes, of which, unfortunately, only four have been preserved. His 
 heroic or narrative poem on the marriage of Peleus and Thetis — consisting of more than 
 400 hexameter lines — and the wild enthusiastic poem entitled Atys, are especially worthy 
 of notice. Most of the earlier editions of C. include the works of Tilmllus and Proper- 
 tius. The best modern editions are by Sillig (1823), Lachmann (1829), and Ellis (1867 
 and 1878). There are English translations by Lamb (1821), Martin (1861), Cranstoun 
 (1867), etc. See Munro’s Oriticisms (1878). 
 
 CAT'ULUS, Quintus Lutatius, d. 87b.c. ; consul of Rome with Caius Marius. 
 Catulus was beaten by the invading Cimbri and driven across the Po, but Marius came 
 to his aid, and the barbarians were defeated at Vercellse in July, 101 b.c. In the civil 
 war Catulus supported Sulla and was proscribed. Preferring death to capture, he 
 suffocated himself over burning charcoal. 
 
 CAT'ULUS, Quintus Lutatius, son of tire consul; made consul in 78, and censor in 
 65, B.c. He put down a rebellion incited by Lepidus after the death of Sulla, and 
 assisted Cicero in the suppression of Catiline’s conspiracy. 
 
 CAUB, a t. of Nassau, n. Germany, on the right bank of the Rhine, 21 m. w.n.w, of 
 Wiesbaden. It is noteworthy as the place where Blticher crossed the Rhine with his 
 army, Jan. 1, 1814; and also as the place where, till 1866, toll was levied by the duke of 
 Nassau — the only ruler who kept up this feudal privilege — from vessels navigating the 
 Rhine. C. has underground slate-quarries; and opposite, on an island in the river, 
 where Louis le Debonnaire died, 840, is a castle called the Pfalz, built in 1326, and 
 which is said to have been resorted to for safety by the countesses Palatine during their 
 confinement, C. is threatened with destruction by the disintegration of the mountains 
 behind, and in Mar,, 1876, a destructive landslip took place. Pop. ’71, 2,098. 
 
 CAU'CA, a river of the United States of Colombia, in South America, which, after 
 flowing 500 m. to the n.e., joins the Magdalena on the w., 150 m. from the Caribbean 
 sea. It gives name to a department of 260,000 sq.m., and (1870) 445,000 inhabitants. 
 
 CAU'CA, one of the United States of Colombia, occupying the wliole w. coast of 
 the Caribbean sea to Ecuador, including the chain of the Andes and the valley of the 
 RioCauca; 257,462 sq.m, (more than half of the republic); pop. ’71, 435,078. The region 
 is well cultivated, producing cereals, sugar, tobacco, coffee, cocoa, cotton, etc., and vast 
 herds of horned cattle and mules. The capital is Popayan. 
 
 CAUCAS'IAN VARIETY OF MANKIND, an ethnological division adopted by Blumen- 
 bach, which included all the inhabitants, ancient and modern, of Europe (except the 
 Pinns); in Asia, the Hindus (of high class at least), Persians, Assyrians, Arabians, Jews, 
 Phoenicians, inhabitants of Asia Mi..or .and of the Caucasus, etc, ; and in Africa, the 
 Egyptians, Abyssinians, and Moors. What Blumenbach had called Caucasians, Dr. 
 Prichard, who may be said to have laid the real foundation of ethnology, makes to con- 
 sist of two independent groups or varieties, grounding on a radical difference of lan- 
 
 f uage. One of these is the Syro- Arabian or Semitic (q.v.) race, and the other the Indo- 
 luropean or Aryan (q.v.) race. The inhabitants of the Caucasus, so long held to be 
 types of the European variety, are now by some excluded from it altogether, and classed 
 with the sallow flat-faced Mongols, to which it is considered the nature of their language 
 and other facts ally them more closely than the symmetry of their shape and complexion 
 do to the European variety. The narrow basis upon which the theory of the Caucasian 
 type was first formed is thus stated by Dr. Latham: “Blumenbach had a solitary 
 Georgian skull; and that skull was the finest in his collection — that of a Greek being the 
 next. Hence it was taken as the type of the skull of the more organized divisions of 
 our species. More than this, it gave its name to the type, and introduced the term Cau- 
 casian. Never has a single head done more harm to science than was done in the way 
 -of posthumous mischief by the head of this well-shaped female from Georgia.” See 
 Ethnology 
 
 CATJ'CASUS, a mountain range of great geographical and ethnographical importance, 
 occupying the isthmus between the Black sea and the Caspian, its general direction being 
 from w.n.w. to e.s.e. — from the peninsula of Taman on the Black sea, in lat. 45°10'n., 
 long. 36° 45' e., to the peninsula of Apsheron on the Caspian, in lat. 40° 20' n., long. 50° 
 20' e. — a length of about 750 miles. The breadth, including the secondary ranges and 
 «purs, may be stated at about 150 m., but the breadth of the higher C. is much less, not 
 much exceeding 60 or 70 miles. This range, formerly belonging entirely to Asia, now 
 forms part of the boundary-line between Europe and Asia. The higher and central part 
 4>f the range is formed of parallel chains, not separated by deep and wide valleys, but 
 
Caucasus. 
 
 Caul. 
 
 576 
 
 remarkably connected by elevated plateaus, which are traversed by narrow fissures of 
 extreme depth. The highest peaks are in the most central ridge or chain — Mt. Elburz, 
 attaining an elevation of 18,000 ft. above the sea, while Mt. Kasbeck reaches a height 
 of more than 16,000 ft., and several others rise above the line of perpetual snow, here 
 between 10,000 and 11,000 ft. high; but the whole amount of perpetual snow is not 
 great, nor are the glaciers very large or numerous. This central chain is formed of tra- 
 chyte. The secondary parallel chains are, on the inner side, mostly formed of argilla- 
 ceous slate and plulonic rocks; on the outer side of limestone. The spurs and outlying 
 mountains or hills are of less extent and importance than those of almost any other 
 mountain-range of similar magnitude, subsiding as they do until they are only about 
 200 ft. high along the shores of the Black sea. Some parts are entirely destitute of 
 wood, but other parts are very densely wooded, and the secondary ranges, near the 
 Black sea, exhibit most magnificent forests of oak, beech, ash, maple, and walnut; grain 
 is cultivated in some parts to a height of 8,000 ft., while, in the lower valleys, rice, 
 tobacco, cotton, indigo, etc., are produced. As might be expected from the geograph- 
 ical situation of the C. , the climate, though it is generally healthy, is very different on 
 the northern and southern sides, the vine growing wild in great abundance on the s., 
 which is not the case on the north. The s. declivity of the mountains, towards Georgia,, 
 presents much exceedingly beautiful and romantic scenery. 
 
 There are no active volcanoes in Mt. C., but every evidence of volcanic action. There 
 are mud-volcanoes at each end of the range, and there are also famous naphtha springs 
 in the peninsula of Apsheron. See Baku. Mineral springs also occur in many places. 
 The bison, or aurochs, is found in the mountains; in the forests are many fur-bearing 
 animals; and game abounds. Bears, wolves, and jackals are among the carnivorous ani- 
 mals. Lead, iron, sulphur, coal, and copper are found. 
 
 The waters of the C. flow into four principal rivers — the Kuban, and the Rion or Faa 
 (the Phasis of the ancients), which flow into the Black sea; and the Kur and the Terek, 
 which flow into the Caspian. The Russians have carried a military load, with great 
 labor and danger, through a valley somewhat wider than most of the Caucasian valleys, 
 between the sources of the Kuban and the Terek. This road passes over a height of 
 about 8,000 ft., and is protected by many forts, but is exposed to other dangers besides 
 those which arise from the hostility of the mountain tribes. The only other road is by 
 the pass of Derbend, near the Caspian sea. 
 
 The resistance which the Caucasian tribes, for more than half a century, offered to 
 the arms of Russia, attracted to them the attention of the world. But with the capture 
 (1859) of the prophet-chief of the Lesghians — Schamyl, the most active and determined 
 of the foes of Russia, who for a quarter of a century withstood and harassed the armies 
 sent against him — the power of the Caucasians was greatly shattered; and after his death 
 in 1871 the Russians regarded the territory as virtually subjugated. A large number of 
 the Circassians elected to migrate to Turkish territory, where they were welcomed. The 
 general name Circassians (q.v.) is often, but not very correctly, applied to the tribes 
 which inhabit the Caucasus, and whose whole number is not above 1,300,000 or 1,500,- 
 000. From the situation of Mount C., there have gathered together in it tribes belong- 
 ing to a greater number of distinct races than can perhaps be found within the same 
 space anywhere upon the earth. There are more than 100 different languages or dialects 
 spoken; the Turkish-Tartar language, however, serving for a general medium of com- 
 munication. The different tribes inhabiting the C., long believed to be the purest type 
 of the Indo-Europi m family, are now considered not to belong to it at all, but to have 
 more affinity with the Mongolian races. See Caucasian Variety op Mankind. The 
 principal tribes are the Tsherkesses or Circassians, Ossetes, Lesghians, Abchasians, 
 Georgians, Suans, and Tchetches. The Georgians and Ossetes are at least nominally 
 Christians; the Lesghians are fanatical Mohammedans. The Byzantine emperors and 
 kings of Georgia planted Christian churches throughout this region, and many ruins of 
 them remain, some of which are very beautiful. But the present Christianity of the 
 nominally Christian tribes is more akin to heathenism than to true Christianity. In 
 character, they are distinguished by their valor and love of freedom, but also by cruelty 
 and treachery. They carry on a little agriculture, but live more by the care of theiV 
 flocks, and by hunting. — The Russian lieutenancy of the C., lying on both sides of the 
 mountain range, has an area of 172,170 sq.m., and a pop. (1871) of 4,893,332. 
 
 CAUCASUS, INDIAN. See Hindu-Kush, ante. 
 
 CAUCHON', Joseph, b. 1820; a Canadian journalist and legislator, who has been in 
 the colonial or Dominion parliament since 1844. From 1867 to 1872 he was speaker of 
 the senate. He established the Quebec Journal in 1842, and has conducted it ever since. 
 
 CAUCHY, Augustin Louis, 1789-1857; a French mathematician ; a member of the 
 academy in 1816, and professor of mathematics in the polytechnic school. His repu- 
 tation rests chiefly upon his residuary and imaginary calculus. In politics he was a 
 firm legitimist, steadily refusing to take the oaths of allegiance from time to time 
 proffered, and on that account resigning his chair of mathematics in the new univer- 
 sity of Paris in 1852. He published several valuable works on the calculus, on analysis, 
 and other mathematical themes 
 
577 
 
 Caucasus. 
 
 Caul. 
 
 CAUCUS, a meeting, private or public, of citizens to select candidates for office; or 
 of members of a legislative body for a similar purpose. Recently the meaning of the 
 term has been extended to almost any conference previous to final action. Thus the 
 people may hold a C. to ask or instruct their representative to support one or another 
 measure; or the members of a party in congress, legislature, common council, or town- 
 meeting may hold a C. to determine their course upon any subject. Legitimately, 
 therefore, the term C. means a preliminary or preparatory meeting to arrange methods 
 for some designated end. Much effort and ingenuity have been spent in trying to 
 settle the origin of the term, but the most probable theory is that it came from Boston 
 about the middle of the last century, and originally meant “the calkers’ meeting,” that 
 is, the private gathering of the ship-calkers. The term was applied almost indiscrimi- 
 nately to meetings in the period preceding the revolution, and when the federal government 
 was instituted it w^as accepted as the official term for what are now called ‘ ‘ nominating con- 
 ventions.” Candidates for president of the United States were uniformly selected by a 
 C. of the members of congress of the several parties, from 1789 to 1823. In the election 
 of 1824, the regular democratic C. candidate, William H. Crawford, ran behind both 
 Jackson and Adams, and but for some jugglery in New York would have run even 
 behind Clay and come out the lowest of the four. This result ended the congressional 
 C. system of presidential elections, and since that time candidates have been nomi- 
 nated by national conventions or political parties. Soon afterwards state conventions 
 supplanted the legislative C. for the nomination of state officers, and now the C. is prac- 
 tically confined to the meetings of partisans in legislative bodies to decide upon a policy, 
 or to select candidates for presiding and other officers of the particular body, or (by 
 joint C. of senators and members of assembly) to settle upon nominees for U. S, 
 senators. Outside of these special functions partisan work is now usually managed by 
 conventions of the party at large, or by smaller conventions of delegates chosen by the 
 voters of the party, or by committees appointed by such conventions. 
 
 CAUCUS. See Americanisms. 
 
 CAUDEBEC-LES-ELBEUF, a t. of France, in the department of Seine-Inferieure, 12 m.. 
 s. of Rouen. It has manufactures of cloth, and a pop. of (1876) 11,338. — Caudebec is also 
 the name of a t. in the same department, situated on the right bank of the Seine, 26 
 m. e. of Havre. It is one of the prettiest and most picturesque little towns on the Seine, 
 with its old wooden houses and elm-shaded quays. It has a fine Gothic church of tho 
 15th c., and manufactures of cotton, sail-cloth, leather, and soap. Formerly the capital 
 of the Pays de Caux, C. was strongly fortified ; and in 1419, so obstinate was its resist- 
 ance, that it took the great English gen., Talbot, 6 months to capture it. Pop. ’76, 1951.. 
 
 CAUDE'TE, a t. of Murcia, Spain, 50 m. e.s.e. of Albacete. The inhabitants, 5,506 
 in number, are chiefly engaged in agricultural pursuits. C. is also the name of a small 
 place in New Castile, a few miles from Teruel, where there are some of the largest bone- 
 deposits, fossilized and unfossilized, in Europe. 
 
 CAU'DINE FOBKS {Furculm Caudince), two high, narrow, and wooded mountaia 
 gorges near the town of Caiidium, in ancient Samnium, on the boundary towards Cam- 
 pania. These gorges are celebrated on account of the defeat here suffered by the Romans 
 in the second Samnite war (321 b.c.). Four Roman legions commanded by the two con- 
 suls Titus Veturius and Spurius Postumius, after marching through a narrow pass, 
 found themselves locked in a spacious valley, surrounded on all sides by lofty moun- 
 tains, with no way out save that by which they entered, and another pass on the; 
 opposite side. Attempting to defile through the latter, they found it blocked up with 
 trees and stones, and commanded by the Samnites, who had also in the mean time made: 
 themselves masters of the other pass. Consequently, the four legions were compelled ta 
 encamp in the valley. After some days, famine compelled them to surrender uncondi- 
 tionally. The Samnite gen., Caius Pontius, according to old custom, compelled the 
 Romans to pass under the yoke, and then permitted them to march back. This submis^ 
 sion was regarded as too ignominious for Rome, and consequently the two consuls aaodi 
 the other commanders were delivered again into the hands of the Samnites, who, how- 
 ever, refused to have them. 
 
 CAUGHNAWA'GA a village in Canada, 9 m. w. of Montreal, on the s. bank®f Ifhe 
 St. Lawrence, at the head of the Lachine rapids. It is inhabited exclusively by Indians,, 
 remnants of the once powerful Iroquois. They are about 500 in number. 
 
 CAUL is a thin membrane encompassing the heads of some children when bom,, andl 
 is mentioned here on account of the extraordinary superstitions connected with it froirt. 
 very early ages down to the present day. It was the popular belief that children so bom 
 would turn out very fortunate, and that the C. brought fortune to those purchasing it„ 
 This superstition was so common in the primitive church, that St. Chrysostom felt it his. 
 duty to inveigh against it in many of his homilies. In later times, midwifes sold the 
 C. to advocates at enormous prices, “as an especial means of making them eloquent,’” 
 and to seamen, as an infallible preservative against drowning. It was also supposed 
 that the health of the person born with it could be told by the C., which, if firm and 
 U. K. III.-37 
 
Caulaincourt. 
 
 Cause. 
 
 578 
 
 crisp, betokened health, but if relaxed and flaccid, sickness or death. During last century, 
 it was common to find advertisements in the newspapers of cauls to be sold — from £10 
 to £30 being the prices asked for them. So recently as 8th May, 1848, there was an 
 advertisement in the Times of a C. to be sold, which “ was afloat with its late owner 
 thirty years in all the perils of a seaman’s life, and the owner died at last at the place of 
 his birth.” The price asked was six guineas. Sir John Offley, of Madeley manor, 
 Staffordshire, by his will, proved at Doctors’ Commons 1658, devised a C. set in jewels, 
 which had covered him when he was born, to his daughter, thereafter to her son, and 
 then to his own heirs-male. The C. was not to be concealed or sold out of the family. 
 See Brand’s Popular Antiquities, vol. iii. ; Notes and (Queries, 1st series, vol. vii. 
 
 CAULAINCOURT, Armand Augustin Louis de, duke of Vicenza, a statesman of the 
 French empire, was b. at Caulaincourt, a village in the department of Somme, Dec. 9, 
 1772. He entered the army at the age of fifteen, rapidly attained promotion, and, as 
 col. of a regiment of carbineers, distinguished himself in the campaign of 1800. He 
 was made a gen. of division in 1805, and shortly after created duke of Vicenza. In 
 1807, he was appointed ambassador at St. Petersburg, where he soon gained the confi- 
 dence of the czar, who often made use of his advice. Disputes having arisen between 
 Alexander and Napoleon, C. endeavored to restore amity and prevent war; but his pro- 
 posals being rejected, he, in 1811, asked permission to resign his post, and received an 
 appointment in the army of Spain. During the events of 1813, he was frequently 
 employed as plenipotentiary in diplomatic affairs. In Nov. of 1813, he was made 
 minister for foreign affairs, and in this capacity attended the congress at Chatillon, 
 Jan., 1814. When Napoleon abdicated, C. endeavored to make use of his influence 
 with Alexander to obtain the most favorable conditions for the fallen emperor, and, 
 chiefly through his intervention, the island of Elba was ceded to Napoleon. During the 
 hundred days, C. resumed office as minister of foreign affairs, and was made a peer. 
 On the second restoration, he retired into private life. He died in Paris, Feb. 19, 1827. 
 — His brother, August Jean Gabriel, count of Caulaincourt, b. 1777, served with dis- 
 tinction in all the campaigns from 1792 to 1812, when he fell in battle. 
 
 CAULIER, Madeleine, a peasant girl of France who aspired to the military fame 
 of the maid of Orleans. At the siege of Lille, in Sept., 1708, she conveyed into the city 
 an important order to the officer in 'command, for which the duke of Burgundy offered 
 her a large reward. This she declined, but received permission to raise a company of 
 dragoons. She was killed in the battle of Denain, July 24, 1712, when marshal Villiers 
 defeated the imperialists. 
 
 CAULIFLOWER, a variety of the common kale or cabbage, affording one of the most 
 esteemed delicacies of the table. It was cultivated as a culinary vegetable by the Greeks 
 and Romans. Its culture was, however, little attended to in England till the end of 
 the 17th c. ; but after that time it rapidly increased, and prior to the French revolution, 
 C. formed an article of export from England to Holland, whilst English C. seed is still 
 preferred on the continent. The C. is entirely the product of cultivation. The leaves 
 are not in this, as in other varieties of the same species generally, the part used, nor are 
 they so delicate and fit for use as those of most of the others, but the flower-buds and 
 their stalks, or, properly speaking, the inflorescence of the plant deformed by cultiva- 
 tion, and forming a head or compact mass generally of a white color. There are many 
 subvarieties, but all of them are rather more tender than the ordinary forms of the 
 species, and in Britain generally require more or less protection during winter, whilst 
 the seed is sown on hotbeds, that the plants may be ready for planting out in spring. 
 Later sowings are made in the open ground. The C. requires a moist rich loamy soil, 
 with abundance of manure, and above all, very careful cultivation, which is directed to 
 the object of having the heads not merely large, but as compact of possible. Great care 
 is bestowed on the selection of proper plants for seed. In Scotland, C. plants almost 
 always require the protection of the frame during winter. C. may be preserved for some 
 time fit for use by pulling the plant up by the roots, and hanging it in a cold and dry 
 place. — Broccoli (q.v.) may be regarded as another kind of cauliflower. 
 
 CAULKING is the operation of driving oakum or untwisted rope into the seams of a 
 ship, to render them water-tight. The quantity thus driven in depends on the thickness 
 of the planking; it varies from 1 to 13 double threads of oakum, with ! or 2 single 
 threads of spun-yarn. The caulker first raims or reems the seam — that is, drives a caulking 
 iron into it, to widen the seam as much as possible, and close any rents or fissures_ in 
 the wood; he then drives in a little spun-yarn or white oakum with a mallet and a kind 
 of chisel, and afterwards a much larger quantity of black or coarse oakum. The fibers 
 are driven in until they form a densely hard mass, which not only keeps out water, but 
 strengthens the planking. The seam is finally coated with hot pitch or resin. 
 
 CAULO'NIA, an ancient Greek city in Italy near the gulf of Syllacium. It was a 
 town of importance five centuries before Christ. In 389 b.c. it was captured by Diony- 
 sius the elder who removed its people to Syracuse. Porphyry asserts that Pythagoras 
 sought refuge in Caulonia after his expulsion from Crotena. 
 
579 
 
 Caulaincourt. 
 
 Cause. 
 
 CAXJLOP'TERIS, a generic name for the stems of fossil tree-ferns found in the carb(> 
 niferous and triassic measures. They are hollow, aud covered with the markings simi- 
 lar to the leaf-scars on recent tree-ferns. Twelve species have been described. 
 
 CAUS, or CAULX, Salomon de, 1576-1630; a French engineer and physicist who 
 resided in England and in Heidelberg, and later in Paris. Little was known of him 
 until Arago exhumed his works, from which he considered him to have been the real 
 inventor of the steam engine, for in one of these works he gave the plan of an apparatus 
 for raising water by the power of steam. Some critics believe that it was from Caus 
 that the marquis of Worcester got the idea, printed in his Century of Inventions in 1633, 
 of the “ exact and true deposition of the most stupendous water-commanding engine, 
 invented by the right honorable Edward Somerset, lord marquis of Worcester.” 
 
 CAUSE. The words “ Cause,” “ Causality,” and “ Causation,” although familiar and 
 intelligible in ordinary speech, have given rise to some of the most subtle questions in 
 philosophy and theology. We shall here advert briefly to the chief meanings of these 
 terms, and in so doing, we shall indicate the disputes that have arisen in connection with 
 them. 
 
 In common language, we are accustomed to describe as the C. of an event, the one 
 event immediately preceding it, and but for which it would not have happened. A man 
 slips his foot on a ladder, falls, and is killed : we give the slipping of the foot as the C. 
 of the fatality. A legislative assembly decides a question of great moment by the casting 
 vote of the president, who is then not unfrequently spoken of as the C. of all the good 
 or evil that followed on the decision. Now, a slight examination shows that this mode 
 of speaking is defective, as not expressing the whole fact, or, in other words, presumes 
 a great deal that is not stated. In the supposed death from a fall, there are many con- 
 ditions necessary to the result besides the slipping of the foot: the weight of the body, 
 the height of the position, the hardness of the ground, the fragility of the human frame, 
 all enter into the C. strictly represented ; but for practical purposes, we leave out of 
 account all those elements that are not at the moment under our control, and allude to 
 the one that is so. And when we speak of the decision of an assembly being the effect 
 of the president’s vote, we mean that his share in the responsibility is peculiarly great, 
 or that, in order to turn the vote in one way, all that is necessary is to secure his indi- 
 vidual opinion. If we do not enumerate all the conditions of the event, it is because 
 some of them will, in most cases, be understood without being expressed, or because, 
 for the purpose in view, they may without detriment be overlooked. 
 
 When, however, we aim at strict accuracy, as in the investigations of science, we 
 must not be content with singling out the one turning event, but must enumerate every- 
 thing that is necessary to the result. A scientific G. is the full assemblage of conditions, 
 failing any one of which, the effect would not happen. In a full explanation of the 
 phenomenon of the tides, we must enumerate all the circumstances connected with their 
 production — the attraction of the sun and moon, the motions of the earth and the moon 
 in their orbits, the globular form and rotation of the earth, the liquidity of the sea, the 
 mode of distribution of the sea over the earth — every one of which facts is an essential 
 in the full causation. The effect cannot be adequately accounted for without adverting 
 to every one of those conditions, and it is therefore the sum-total of them that is rightly 
 described as the C. of the tides. Taking this complete view of causation, it is found 
 that every event that happens is the sequel to some previous event, in whose absence it 
 would not have been, but which being present it is sure to occur. Between the phe- 
 nomena existing at any instant, and th^e phenomena existing at the succeeding instant, 
 there is an invariable order of succession ; to certain facts, certain facts always do, and, 
 as we believe, will continue to succeed. The invariable antecedent is termed the C. ; 
 the invariable consequent, the effect. What is termed the law of universal causation, 
 consists in this, “ that every consequent is connected in the manner now described with 
 some particular antecedent, or set of antecedents. — Mill’s Logic, book iii. chap. 5. 
 
 The physical philosopher — the chemist or physiologist — trusts to the uniformity with 
 which the same C. yields the same effect; and if he can find out the true succession in 
 one instance, he is satisfied that the same succession will always hold. In the physical 
 sciences, therefore, there is no dispute as to the law of causation itself ; the controver- 
 sies on that head occur only in metaphysics. It is made a serious problem by mental 
 philosophers, and also by theologians, to determine how we come by the irresistible 
 belief that we are said to possess, that every event has and must have a cause. There 
 are many answers to this question: eight are enumerated by sir William Hamilton {Dis- 
 cussions on Philosophy, p. 611, 2d edit.). It is only necessary, however, to advert to the 
 two radically opposite points of view from which the subject is now surveyed. 
 
 The one view is, that we have an instinct or intuition of the mind by which we are 
 compelled to recognize this law, so that to us it is a necessary truth, which we cannot 
 escape from if we would. Our experience of the outer world, doubtless, shows us that 
 things follow one another in an orderly and uniform manner, that the stone that sinks 
 in water to-day does not float to-morrow, but no experience could give us the sense of 
 commanding necessity that we have of the law of C. and effect. “Causation is not 
 the mere invariable association of antecedent and consequent; Mve feel that it implies 
 
Caustic. 
 
 580 
 
 something more than this.” The philosophers who maintain this side give forth two 
 different aflBrmations; the one, that we actually possess an intuitive belief of necessary 
 causation; the other, that our possession of the belief is a sufficient proof that the law 
 actually pervades the universe. Experience operates to confirm us in those instinctive 
 tendencies, but no amount of experience would have been able to create them. 
 
 The latest modification of the theory that ascribes our belief in causation to an intui- 
 tion of the mind, is the doctrine promulgated by sir W. Hamilton, to the effect that “ we 
 are unable to think that the quantity of existence, of which the universe is the con- 
 ceived sum, can be either amplified or diminished. We are able to conceive, indeed, 
 the creation of a world; this, in fact, as easily as the creation of an atom. But what 
 is our thought of creation? It is not a thought of the mere springing of nothing into 
 something. On the contrary, creation is conceived, and is by us conceivable, only as 
 the evolution of existence from possibility into actuality, by the fiat of the Deity. And 
 what is true of our concept of creation, holds of our concept of annihilation. We can 
 think no real annihilation — no absolute sinking of something into nothing.” — Discus- 
 sions, p. 619. Thus, every effect must have a C., and every C. must have its effect, 
 because, if it were not so, there would be either a pure creation or a pure annihilation, 
 neither of which, according to sir W. Hamilton, is thinkable or conceivable by the 
 human mind. This doctrine, however, has not found acceptance even by those who, if 
 not actual disciples of the author, are most disposed to receive his philosophy generally, 
 as may be seen by referring to prof. Fraser’s Essays in Philosophy, p. 170; M‘Cosh On 
 the Divine Government, p. 529, 4th edition; and Mansel, art. metaphysics, Encyclopmdia 
 Britannica. So far from the creation or annihilation of matter or force being incon- 
 ceivable, it may be said with truth that until the end of last century it was not known 
 as a fact that the materials of the globe are absolutely indestructible. The effects of 
 combustion and evaporation could hardly suggest anything else than the annihilation 
 of a certain portion of material. Combustion merely transformed the material con- 
 sumed into other shapes, nothing being absolutely lost. So much for ponderable matter. 
 As regards force, or moving power, the demonstration that this is never absolutely lost, 
 even on the many occasions when it is so to all appearance, is a still later result of labo- 
 rious scientific inquiries, being, in fact, one of the conclusions arrived at within the last 
 few years. See Force. To represent, therefore, one of the latest achievements of 
 experimental science as a primitive intuition of the human mind, is to violate, in the 
 strongest manner, our sense of propriety and consistency. 
 
 As opposed to the intuitional doctrine of causation, we have a variety of views by 
 Hume, I)r. Thomas Brown, and others, which need not be specified in detail. One may 
 be given as an example. It has been seen that there are two affirmations in the theory 
 just discussed ; that the mind possesses an intuitive belief of causation, and that the 
 possession of this belief is evidence of the existence of the law. Now, one or both of 
 these affirmations may be denied; and the denial of either, by even a small minority of 
 the human race, is held to be fatal to the theory, because unanimity is essential to the 
 establishment of a universal instinct. Now, many men may possess an instinctive belief 
 in the necessity of a cause to all effects, and of an effect to all causes; some, it is 
 affirmed, do not; it cannot, therefore, be a universal or essential part of human nature. 
 
 In like manner, the second affirmation — namely, that the possession of an instinctive 
 belief is a proof of the truth of the thing believed — is denied, on the ground that our 
 instincts often dispose us to believe things that experience shows to be untrue. We hare 
 a strong natural tendency to believe in the universality and continuance of the exact 
 order of things that we are ourselves born into, and are only put right by seeing the 
 contrary. “A mere disposition to believe, even if supposed instinctive, is no guarantee 
 for the truth of the thing believed. If, indeed, the belief ever amounted to an irresistible 
 necessity, there would b^e then no use in appealing from it, because there would be no 
 possibility of altering it. But even then the trutli of the belief would not follow: it 
 would only follow that mankind were under a permanent necessity of believing what 
 might possibly not be true-; just as they were under a temporary necessity— quite as 
 irresistible while it lasted — of believing that the heavens moved, and the earth stood still. 
 But, in fact, there is no such permanent necessity. Many of the propositions of which 
 this is most confidently stated, great numbers of human beings have disbelieved. The 
 things which it has been supposed that nobody could possibly help believing, are innumer- 
 able; but no two generations would make out the same catalogue of them.” — Mill’s Logic, 
 book iii. chap. 21. Mr. Mill and others hold that the proof of the law of causation rests 
 exclusively on the uniform and growing experience of the human race. This, however, 
 is not inconsistent with our possessing the natural instinct above alluded to, by which 
 we are led to suppose that what is will continue, and what has been will be repeated; an 
 instinct that coincides, to a certain extent, with the law of C. and effect, and is therefore 
 a predisposition on our part to accept what experience teaches on this head. It is only 
 maintained that the instinct is of itself no proof, although useful in so far as it prepares 
 us for what there is real evidence for believing. By yielding to the instinct in its crudest 
 fihape, the inhabitant of the tropics scouts the idea that water can ever be solid ; the Afri- 
 can would deny the existence of white men; and even an intelligent European could not 
 be persuaded that any metal would float. Experience must correct the instinctive tend 
 
581 
 
 Caastie. 
 
 encies, otherwise no reliance can ever be placed upon them; by which we acknowledge 
 it as the sole test of truth, while intuitive dispositions are no test whatever 
 
 Even those who maintain the instinctive necessity of the conviction we are discuss- 
 ing, admit two great exceptions — viz., the existence of a first C., itself uncaused, and 
 the liberty of the will, or the exemption of human actions from the rule that applies so 
 strictly to physical nature. 
 
 It is further contested between the two opposite schools of philosophy, whether or 
 not MIND be the sole ultimate C. of all phenomena, as it is the C. most familiar to us — 
 namely, the source of our voluntary exertions. On one side, it is affirmed to be “ incon- 
 •ceivable that dead force could continue unsupported for a moment beyond its creation. 
 We cannot even conceive of change or phenomena without the energy of a mind.” 
 “The word action has no real significance, except when applied to the doings of an 
 intelligent agent.” “ Phenomena may have the semblance of being produced by physi- 
 cal causes, but they are in reality produced by the immediate agency of a mind; if they 
 do not proceed from the human, they are the result of the divine will.” To this it is 
 replied, that we are here taking for granted that every kind of power is analogous to 
 that which we happen to be first acquainted with; but it is a pure assumption without 
 proof or relevance, to suppose that all modes of energy must conform to this one type. 
 Mill, book iii. chap. 5. It is further pointed out that even in ourselves, pure mind, or 
 mind acting by itself, is not known to be an efficient C. ; it must be mind together with 
 body. The laborer cannot sustain a day’s toil merely because of his wish to do so ; he 
 must be fed, and rested, and have all his bodily organs in good condition, in order to do 
 his work. The human system, when employed as a prime mover, can no more dispense 
 with the material conditions, than a steam-engine can work without coal, or when out 
 of repair. — Bain On the Emotions and the Will, p. 472. 
 
 The subject of causation was very particularly studied by Aristotle. He enumerated 
 four different kinds of causes, which have ever since had a place in philosophy. These 
 are the material, the formal, the efficient, and the final. The first, or material, is what 
 anything is made of ; brass or marble is the material C. of a statue. The formal is the 
 form, type, or pattern according to which anything is made; the drawings of the archi- 
 tect would be the formal C. of a house. The efficient is the power acting to produce the 
 work, the manual energy and skill of the workmen, or the mechanical prime mover, 
 whether that be human or any other. The final C. is the end or motive on whose 
 account the work is produced, the subsistence, profit, or pleasure of the workman. 
 Aristot^ mentions the case of a physician curing himself, as exemplifying all the causes 
 in one and the same subject. It is obvious that these are what we should now term the 
 aggregate of conditions necessary to the production of any work of man ; it being essen- 
 tial that there should be a motive for the work (final), a material to operate upon (mate- 
 rial), a plan to proceed by (formal), and an exertion of energy to do what is wanted 
 {efficient). When nature is viewed as the result of a creative mind, these causes are 
 considered as inhering in the Divine contriver. 
 
 In popular language, C. is held as identical with explanation. In other words, when 
 a phenomenon which we are puzzled to account for is explained to our satisfaction, we 
 say that we know its cause, but we often seek for, and are satisfied with, explanations 
 that have no value jn the view of science ; and on the other hand, refuse to rest content 
 with such as are scientifically valid. People occasionally insist on knowing the C. of 
 gravity itself, something deeper than the discovery of Newton, and whatever explana 
 tion satisfies the mind, would be accepted as the cause. Sometimes a theological 
 explanation is offered, and at other times, a metaphysical necessity is put forth. 
 
 CAUSTIC (Gr. burning), in medicine and m chemistry, is the term applied to such 
 substances as exert a corroding or disintegrating action on the skin and fiesh. Lunar 
 C. is nitrate of silver, and common G. is potash. When used as a C. in medicine, the 
 substance is fused and cast into molds, which yield the C. in small sticks the thickness 
 of an ordinary lead pencil, or rather less. — C. is also used in chemistry in an adjective 
 sense — thus C. lime, or pure lime (CaO), as distinguished from mild lime, or the carbon 
 Rte of lime (CaO.COij), C. magnesia (MgO), and mild magnesia (Mg0,C02), etc. 
 
 CAUSTIC, Catacaustic, and Diacaustic. In optics, C. is the name given to the 
 curved line formed by the ultimate intersections of a system of rays reflected or ref racted 
 from a reflecting or refracting surface, when the reflection or refraction is inaccurate. 
 When the C. curve is formed by reflection, it is called the catacaustic — sometimes simpl}" 
 the C. ; when formed by refraction, it is called the diacaustic curve. In mathematical 
 language, a curve formed by the ultimate intersections of a system of lines drawn 
 according to a given law is called the envelope, and is such that the lines are all tangents 
 to it. As in a system of rays reflected or refracted by the same surface all follow the 
 same law, it follows that the C. is the envelope of reflected or refracted rays. 
 
 An example of the catacaustic is given in the annexed figure for the case of rays 
 falling directly on a concave spherical mirror, BAB', from a point so distant as to be 
 practically parallel The curve may be said to be made up of an infinite number of 
 points, such as C, where twm very near rays, such as P, Q, intersect after reflection 
 This catacaustic is an epicycloid. The curve varies, of course, with the nature of the 
 
Cauterets. 
 
 Cavaignac. 
 
 582 
 
 reflecting surface. In the case represented in the figure, the cusp point is at F, the 
 principal focus. No such simple example can be given of the diacaustic curve as thaf 
 
 above given of the catacaustic. It is only in the sim- 
 plest cases that the curve takes a recognizable form. 
 In the case of refraction at a plane "surface, it is- 
 shown that the diacaustic curve is the evolute either 
 of the hyperbola or ellipse, according as the refractive 
 index of the medium is greater or less than unity. 
 
 The reader may see a catacaustic on the surface of 
 tea in a tea-cup about half full, by holding the circu- 
 lar rim to the sun’s light. The space within the 
 caustic curve is all brighter than that without, as it 
 clearly should be, as all the light reflected affects 
 that space, while no point without the curve is affected 
 by more than the light reflected from half of the surface. 
 ^ CAUTERETS', a watering place in Hautes-Pyrenees, France, 26 m. from Tarbes. 
 It is in a basin 3,254 ft. above tide, and is noted for its many hot sulphur springs rang- 
 ing from 102° to 140° F. Pop. 1300. 
 
 CAUTERY. See Bleeding, and Moxa, ante. 
 
 CAUTION, in the law of Scotland, like guaranty (q.v.) in England, is an obligation, 
 undertaken by a second party, whereby he binds himself, failing the primary obligant, 
 to fulfill his obligation, whether it be of a pecuniary nature or otherwise. Cautionary 
 obligations, like engagements of guaranty, are thus essentially of a secondary nature;, 
 and, previous to the passing of the mercantile law amendment act (19 and 20 Viet. c. 
 60), it was customary in Scotland to distinguish between what was called cautionary- 
 proper, where the cautioner was bound avowedly as such, and improper cautionary, 
 where both cautioner and principal were bound as principals. Since this period (1856), 
 however, cautionary proper has ceased to exist otherwise than as the result of positive 
 stipulation, under the saving clause attached to the eighth section of the statute referred 
 to, which enacts that “ nothing herein contained shall prevent any cautioner from stipu- 
 lating, in the instrument of C., that the creditor shall be bound, before proceeding 
 against him, to discuss and do diligence against the principal debtor.” Cautionary 
 obligations are generally gratuitous, b^eing, for the most part, undertaken from motives 
 of friendship; but it is by no means uncommon for them to be entered into in consider- 
 ation of a premium paid by the person guaranteed, or by those interested in his fortunes. 
 The existence of such a consideration has always been optional in Scotland, and this 
 rule has recently been adopted in England (19 and 20 Viet. c. 97, § 3). Where a premium 
 is paid, the transaction becomes a mere insurance of solvency, honesty, or efficiency; 
 and associations of great public utility (see Guarantee Association) have been formed, 
 both in England and Scotland, for the purpose of undertaking, as a speculation, to 
 guarantee the good conduct of persons employed either in public or private offices of 
 trust. The tendency of judicial decisions, both in England and Scotland, for many 
 years past, has been to require greater strictness than formerly in the constitution of 
 cautionary obligations; and latterly, the legislature itself has stepped in with the same 
 object in view. By the statute which we have already quoted, it is enacted that all 
 such engagements shall be in writing, subscribed by the person undertaking or making 
 them, or by some person duly authorized by him, otherwise they shall have no effect. 
 If a cautionary obligation is dependent on a condition, it will, of course, be ineffectual 
 unless the condition be complied with. The cautioner may, in general, plead every 
 defence which was competent to the principal debtor, and the extinction of the primary 
 obligation extinguishes the secondary one. The discharge of one cautioner, moreover, 
 unless consented to by the rest, is a discharge to all. Cautioners bound subsequent to 
 the passing of the act mentioned, have, in consequence of the eighth section already 
 referred to, no right to what in Scotland was called discussion (q.v.); but those bound 
 prior to that act are entitled, as formerly, to require that the creditor shall first call on 
 the principal debtor, and compel him to pay in so far as he is able, or m law language, 
 discuss him. The cautioner is entitled, on payment of the obligation, to an assignation 
 of the debt and diligence, by which means he comes, in all respects, into the creditor’s 
 place; and, moreover, if the solvency or other conditions of the principal debtor should 
 seem precarious, he may adopt legal measures for his relief. Co-cautioners, or persons 
 bound together, whether their obligations be embodied in one or several deeds, are 
 entitled to mutual relief. But, where a co-cautioner obtains relief from the others, he 
 must communicate to them the benefit of any deduction or ease which may have been 
 allowed him in paying the debt. 
 
 Cautionary obligations are often undertaken in behalf of persons in situations iu 
 which the engagements and liabilities are prospective. In order that such obligations- 
 may be binding, the nature and extent of the liability must be fairly and fully disclosed 
 to the cautioner. But while the cautioner must not be exposed to the danger arising 
 from any transaction not in his view in entering into the contract, he is not entitled to 
 withdraw without due notice and a reasonable time being given for entering into a new 
 arrangement. The question whether the effects of a bond are prospective, or retrospec. 
 
583 
 
 Caateretfl. 
 
 Cavaignac. 
 
 tive merely, will depend on its terms; the presumption, where these are in any way 
 doubtful, being always in favor of the latter alternative. The creditor is bound to exer- 
 cise a certain degree of vigilance over the conduct and circumstances of the person 
 guaranteed, and not to permit any very gross departure from the terms of the contract, 
 to the prejudice of the cautioner. Should this obligation be neglected, the cautioner 
 will be freed from his obligation. 
 
 CAUTION, for a cash credit. See Cash Account. 
 
 CAUTION, Judicial, in the law of Scotland, is of two kinds — for appearance, and 
 for payment. If a creditor makes oath before a magistrate, that he believes his debtor 
 to be meditating flight {in meditatione fugce), he may obtain a warrant for his apprehen- 
 sion ; and should he succeed in proving the alleged intention to flee, he may compel him 
 to find C. to abide the judgment of a court {judicio sisti). The second kind of judicial 
 C. is by bond of presentation, which is granted when the creditor is about to execute per- 
 sonal diligence, or has done so, and the cautioner, on condition of an indulgence to the 
 debtor, binds himself that the debtor shall be forthcoming at the appointed time, other- 
 wise he himself will pay the debt. The object of this form of C. is simply to protect 
 the debtor from imprisonment, and allow him time. 
 
 CAUTION, Juratory. See Poor’s Roll, and 13 and 14 Viet. c. 36, § 34. 
 
 CAUVERIPU RAM, a t., of the district of Coimbatoor, in the presidency of Madras, on 
 the right bank of the Cauvery, in lat. 11° 54' n., and long. 77° 48' east. It takes its name 
 from the neighboring gorge of 30 m. in length through the eastern Ghauts, along which 
 the Cauvery finds a passage. Pop. of C. (or Kaveripuram) in 1871, 6,533. 
 
 CAU VERY, or Kaveri, a river in the s. of Hindustan, rising in Curg, and flowing 
 through Mysore and Madras, with a course of 473 m., into the bay of Bengal by various 
 mouths. Its delta, with a coast of 80 m., and a depth of 70, lies almost wholly in the dis- 
 trict of Tanjore. The C. is peculiarly available for irrigation; and for improving it in 
 this respect, a grant of £50,000 was sanctioned in 1841. During the rainy season, the 
 stream is navigable for small-craft. 
 
 CA'VA, La, a t, of Italy, in the province of Salerno, 3^ m. n.w. of the town of 
 Salerno. It is a flourishing place, with manufactures of silk, cotton, linen, and pottery. 
 Pop. 6,397. About a mile from C. is the celebrated Benedictine monastery of the Trinity, 
 with its magnificent archives, containing 60,000 MSS. and 40,000 parchment rolls. Its 
 library, at one time also rich in MSS. and rare printed books, has been dispersed. In 
 the monastery church are the tombs of queen Sibilla and of various anti-popes. 
 
 CAVAIGNAC, Eleonorb Louis Godefroy, 1801-45; a journalist of Paris, son of 
 Jean Baptiste. He was an opponent of Louis Philippe and one of the prominent found- 
 urs of the “ Societe des Amis du Peuple,” and of the “ Societe des Droits de THomme.” 
 He was often arrested and sometimes imprisoned, but escaped in 1835 and went to Bel- 
 gium. In 1841, he returned to Paris and became one of the editors of the Beforme, the 
 ablest of the opposition newspapers. 
 
 CAVAIGNAC, Louis Eugene, was b. in Paris, 1803, and was educated in the Polytech- 
 nic school, and the Ecole d' Application at Metz. He first served in the Morea, and after- 
 wards in Africa (whither he was sent in 1833 into a kind of honorable exile, in conse- 
 quence of a too free expression of opinion in favor of republican institutions), where he 
 acquired great distinction by his energy, coolness, and intrepidity. He was made chef 
 de bataillon in 1837, and rose to the rank of brigade-gen. in 1844. In 1848, he was 
 appointed governor-general of Algeria, but in view of the impending revolutionary dan- 
 gers, was called to Paris, he having also been elected as a delegate to the national 
 assembly by the two departments of Lot and Seine. In the insurrection of June which 
 followed, C., as minister of war, had a most difficult task to play, and he displayed, 
 during the four days and nights of the contest, remarkable presence of mind, firmness, 
 and activity. His plan of action appeared strange and almost traitorous at the time. In 
 opposition to the wishes of the national assembly, who desired that the troops should be 
 dispersed over Paris, he divided his men into three separate bodies, which had to clear 
 their several routes from obstacles in order to effect a reunion, streets and even quarters 
 of the city being left for some time without military protection. Regarding the out- 
 break more as the beginning of a civil war than a mere insurrection, he, in fact, met the 
 Insurgents in true order of battle. His operations were successful, and his clemency 
 was as remarkable as his generalship. When he had the power of assuming the dicta- 
 torship, he resigned it into the hands of the national assembly, which appointed him 
 president of the council. As a candidate for the presidency of the republic, when Louis 
 Napoleon was elected, he received about a million and a half of votes. On the coup 
 dietat of De«., 1851, C. was arrested, but released after a short detention; and though 
 he consistently refused to give in his adhesion to the empire, he was permitted to reside 
 in France without molestation. He died very suddenly of heart disease in Oct., 1857, at 
 his country-house near Tours, and was buried in the cemetery of Montmartre, Paris, in 
 presence of many thousand spectators, including several republican leaders. In debates, 
 C, was remarkably unlike his countrymen, being not voluble and declamatory, but sober, 
 ulear, and moderate. 
 
Cavaillon. 
 
 Cavalry. 
 
 584 
 
 CAVAILLON, a t. and important railway junction in Vaucluse, France, 13 m. s.e. 
 of Avignon. It is a poorly built and dirty place, but has a fine town-house, an oldi 
 church of the 12th c., and the remains of a triumphal arch of about the time of Constan- 
 tine ; other relics of the Roman period are found in the neighborhood. There is consid- 
 erable trade in dried fruits, madder, and the agricultural productions of the fertile region, 
 around. Pop. 72, 3,906. 
 
 CAVALCANTI, Guido, d. about 1300; an Italian poet and philosopher, the son of 
 the philosopher whom Dante pictured in torment among the Epicureans and Atheists — 
 but himself a friend of the great poet. By marriage C. became the head of the Ghibel- 
 lines, and, after some years, was banished with the other leaders, and died in exile. His. 
 poems are chiefly in honor of a French lady by him called Mandetta. He also wrote on 
 philosophy and oratory. 
 
 CAVALIER, in fortification, is a defense-work constructed on the terre-plein or level 
 ground of a bastion. It rises to a height varying from 8 to 12 ft. above the rampart, 
 and has a parapet about 6 ft. high. Its uses are to command any rising ground held by 
 the enemy, within cannon-shot; and to guard the curtain, or plain wall between two- 
 bastions, from being enfiladed. For these purposes, it mounts heavy ordnance. It may 
 be either curved, or bounded by straight sides. 
 
 CAVALIER (Fr. chevalier; Ital. cavaliere; ^x>^n..cdballero, probably from the Latin 
 cdballus, a horse), originally meant any horse-soldier, but in English history is the 
 name given to the party which adhered to king Charles I., in opposition to the round- 
 heads (q. V.) or friends of the parliament. 
 
 CAVALIER', Jean, 1680-1740; a native of lower Languedoc, in southern France;: 
 the famous chief of the Camisards (who in some particulars seem to have been the pre- 
 cursors of the English and American shakers). He was a peasant’s son, and was 
 employed in sheep-keeping, afterwards as apprentice to a baker, and within that period 
 trained by a pious Protestant mother. He was driven from his native place by the piti - 
 less persecution of Protestants that followed upon the revocation of the edict of Nantes, 
 and took refuge in Geneva. The murderous dragonnadesof Louis XIV. drove the Prot- 
 estants of the Cevennes at last to revolt, and C., inspired with the hope of being their 
 deliverer, returned in 1702 to his own country, where he became one of the chosen lead- 
 ers of the insurrection, which broke out in July of that year. It was Roland who was- 
 put in chief command, but C. soon rose to be his equal, and, though untrained in arms, 
 he displayed not only fiery courage, but extraordinary military skill. Although these 
 “ children of God,” as the insurgents were called, numbered at the most not more than 
 3,000 men-at-arms, they coped successfully again and again with the far greater forces of 
 the king, and were never entirely conquered. After several conflicts, C. changed the seat, 
 of the war to the Vivarais; and^Feb. 10, 1703, defeated the royal troops at Ardeche; but 
 only a few days later he was completely defeated on the same ground, and was sup- 
 posed to have fallen. He reappeared, however; was again defeated at Tour-de-Bellot; 
 and again recovered himself, recruits gladly flocking to his standard to take the places of 
 the slain. By a long series of successes he raised his reputation to the highest pitch, and 
 gained the full confidence of the people. The harshest measures were tried in vain against 
 the Camisards; their mountain retreat was invaded by the Roman Catholics, and their 
 houses sacked and burned; but C. retaliated in kind, invaded the region of the plains, 
 and even threatened the city of Nismes. April 16, 1704, he encountered marshal Mon- 
 trevel at the bridge of Nages with 1000 men against 5,000, and, although defeated, rnan- 
 aged to retreat with two thirds of his forces. Marshal Villiers was next sent against 
 him, but proposed to negotiate instead of fighting. Roland refused to listen, but C. 
 agreed to treat, and did so, the result being that C. received for himself a commission 
 and a pension of 1200 livres, and for his brother a captain’s commission. C. was 
 authorized to raise a regiment of Camisards to be sent to Spain, and liberty was given 
 to his father and other Protestant prisoners. This treaty, which did not include any 
 provision for general liberty of conscience, excited great indignation among the com 
 panions of C., who called him coward and traitor, and deserted him. He was greatly 
 disheartened at this treatment, and soon afterward visited the king in Paris, by whom 
 he was coldly received. These disappointments and rebuffs, together with stories cur- 
 rent of probable attempts upon his life, impelled him to leave France. He went to 
 Switzerland, and then to Holland, where he married a daughter of Mme. Dionoyer, a lady 
 of Nismes, who had once been sought in marriage by Voltaire. C. then went to Eng- 
 land to recruit his regiment of Camisards, and had an interview with queen Anne, who 
 sent him with his regiment to Spain under the earl of Peterborough and sir Cloudsley 
 Shovel, in May, 1705. At the battle of Almanza his Camisards encountered a French 
 regiment which they had met in the Cevennes, and, without firing, both bodies rushed, 
 upon each other in a fierce hand to hand fight, and made a fearful slaughter, C. being, 
 severely wounded, but saved from death by an English officer. Long after his return 
 to England he was made a maj.gen., and governor of Jersey; and finally governor of the- 
 Isle of Wight. He died at Chelsea, where he was buried. 
 
 CAVALLER-MAGGIO RE, a t. of n. Italy, in the province of Cuneo, 24 na. n.e. of Coni. 
 It was formerly fortified and defended by two castles, but of these there is now hardly 
 a vestige remaining. It is a busy place, with a pop. of 5,300. 
 
585 
 
 Cavaillon, 
 
 Cavalry. 
 
 CAVALLI'NI, Pietro, 1259-1344; a Roman artist taught hy Giotto, whom it is 
 believed he assisted in the mosaic of the ship of St. Peter, in the porch of St. Peter’s 
 •church. He was also an adept at painting, and his grand fresco of the crucifixion at 
 Assisi is still in tolerable preservation. 
 
 CAVALRY is a general name for horse-soldiers or troopers. The subdivisions are 
 very numerous; such as guards, dragoons, lancers, hussars, cuirassiers, mounted rifles, 
 -etc. The C. force of the British army is usually divided into household and line. The 
 numbers voted for 1876-77 were: 
 
 Officers 
 
 Non-commissioned officers 
 
 Rank and file 
 
 Household 
 
 cavalry. 
 
 81 
 
 192 
 
 1,029 
 
 Line cavalry, 
 home service. 
 558 
 1,178 
 9,907 
 
 Line cavalry 
 in India. 
 
 234 
 
 424 
 
 3,672 
 
 
 1,202 
 
 11,643 
 
 4,330 
 
 The difference between the household C. and the line is this: The former belong to the 
 guards, a specially favored body of troops; while the latter comprise all who are not 
 guards. The regiments are 31 altogether. During more than half a century, the num- 
 ber was 26; but in 1858, two new regiments were created — to restore the 5th and 18th 
 dragoons, which had been struck out of the army list in 1799 for disloyalty in the Irish 
 rebellion ; and in 1862, 3 regiments were taken over from the abolished local European 
 -army of India. The list comprises 2 regiments of life guards (red), 1 of horse guards 
 (blue), 7 of dragoon guards, and 21 of dragoons. Of these last-named 21 regiments, the 
 1st, 2d, and 6th are simply called dragoons; the 5th, 9th, 12th, 16th, and 17th, lancers; 
 the 3d, 4th, 7th, 8th, 10th, 11th, 13th, 14th, 15th, 18th, 19th, 20th, and 21st, hussars. A 
 'distinction is often made between heavy and light C. ; and, in continental armies, this 
 •distinction is very marked; but in England, the men and horses are not selected with 
 much reference to this matter; the heavy being often too light, and the light too heavy, 
 to correspond with their designations. In so far as the distinction holds in the British 
 army, the dragoon guards, horse guards, and life guards are classed and equipped as 
 heavy C., the dragoons medium, and the lancers and hussars as light C., for scouring a 
 •country. It was in the capacity of light C. that the Prussian Uhlans played so import- 
 ant a part in the late war between Prussia and France, acting as wide-stretching feelers 
 to the main bodies to which they were attached. 
 
 The line C. regiments in the British service have generally 8 troops of 55 rank and 
 file each, with 88 commissioned and non-commissioned officers to the regiment. The 
 officers fora full C. regiment comprise 1 col. (as general officer), 1 lieut.col., 1 maj., 8 
 capts., 18 subalterns and other commissioned officers, and 59 non-commissioned offi- 
 cers. A lieut.col. in the guards C. takes rank with a full col. in the line C. ; and 
 a maj. in the former with a lieut.col. in the latter — an arrangement that gives rise 
 to some favoritism and jealousy; for the guards are in no sense more meritorious sol- 
 diers than the line. 
 
 Nine months of drilling is the least time requisite to make a recruit fit to mount on 
 duty, during which period he is drilled for eight hours a day. Londoners and agri- 
 cultural laborers are mostly sought for; provincial mechanics are not found so available. 
 The purchase of C. horses is an important matter. The veterinary surgeon of the regi- 
 ment is sent out to buy; but no horse is paid for till approved by the commanding officer. 
 The usual maximum of price fixed is £33 for a horse 3 to 5 years old ; but the horse 
 -costs the nation £50 or £60 pounds by the time it is thoroughly fit for service. See 
 Dragoons, Guards, Lancers, etc. 
 
 CAVALRY {ante). The earliest records of C. as a distinct military organization 
 date far back in the history of Egypt. Diodorus of Sicily states that Osymandias, 
 who lived long before the Trojan war, led 20,000 mounted men against the rebels in 
 Bactriana. Josephus states that the host of Israelites which escaped from Egypt 
 included 50,000 horsemen and 600 chariots of war. Herodotus often alludes to C. ; 
 and Xenophon relates that in the first Messenian war, 743 b.c., Lycurgus formed his 
 C. in divisions. In the year 371 b.c., Epaminondas had a C. force of 5,000 men, 
 and we know that C. contributed greatly to the victories of Philip and Alexander 
 of Macedon. It had an important part in the battle of the Granicus, 334 b.c.; 
 and at the battle of Arbela, 331 b.c., Alexander, who led the Macedonian C. of 
 7,000 men, dashed into a gap of the Persian army, and by this brilliant feat utterly 
 routed the enemy. After the death of Alexander, the C. of Greece and Macedon 
 greatly degenerated. The Roman cavalry was very inferior to that of Hamilcar and 
 Hannibal, and most of the victories of these two generals were won by cavalry over 
 the splendid infantry of the Romans. Publius Scipio’s defeat at the Ticinus, 218 b.c., 
 was due to the superiority of the Carthaginian horse ; and the bitter experience at the 
 Trebia and the battle of Cannae, 216 b.c., taught the Romans the value of cavalry 
 by which Scipio finally defeated Hannibal at Zama, 202 b.c. Yegetius states that the 
 Roman C. was organized into ten tit)ops or squadrons, forming a regiment of 726 
 horses, generally attached to some special legion. It is a singular fact that saddles were 
 not in use until the time of Constantine, and stirrups were introduced by the Franks 
 
Caval^. 
 
 Cavatina. 
 
 586 
 
 in the 5th century. During the middle ages C. may be said to have constituted 
 almost the only efficient arm of battle. This was owing to the unwillingness of th§- 
 nobility in all countries of western Europe to intrust any military power to the serfs; the 
 upper classes went into battle mounted, and both riders and horses had heavy defensive 
 armor. The feudal cavalry consisted of mail-clad knights with their men-at-arms. Their 
 weapons were lances, battle-axes, and swords. The infantry was looked down upon 
 during the middle ages, being composed principally of serfs and such as had not the 
 means to keep a horse; but with the invention of gunpowder, the introduction of mus- 
 kets, and the use of field artillery, a complete change took place; the infantry gradually 
 rose in reputation, and the number of this class of troops was augmented. It seems, 
 that light C. did Jiot exist as a distinct body, with general officers and a staff, before 
 the time of Louis XII. Montluc, however, mentions a general of 12,000 light horse in 
 the time of that monarch; and we hear of Henry II., in 1552, taking a troop of 3,000’ 
 cavalry in his expedition to Germany. In 1554, marshal De Brissac formed a corps of 
 mounted infantry, called dragoons, trained to fight either on horseback or on foot. 
 Maurice of Nassau, who saw the importance of giving more mobility to this arm, was 
 the first to organize cavalry regiments, each regiment being composed of four squadrons, 
 formed in five ranks, and numbering about 1000 horses. Gustavus Adolphus was a great 
 C. general, and used his cuirassiers and dragoons to good advantage. His tactics were 
 much admired, and were adopted by many European nations. The French, especially, 
 distinguished themselves after his death in the employment of C. Turenne, Conde, 
 Montecuculi, and Marlborough were considered excellent C. leaders in the wars of 
 Louis XIII. and Louis XIV. Cromwell was indebted to his abilities as a C. officer 
 for the victories of Marston Moor and Naseby. Defensive armor for C. had been 
 abolished in his time, and the C. troops were taught to use the carbine. Charges of 
 cavalry were seldom made in battle except by the French ; though Charles XII. always 
 made use of cavalry charges at full speed with great effect. Marshal Saxe made many 
 improvements in this arm, and used guns in connection with cavalry at the battle of 
 Fontenoy, although regular horse artillery was not introduced till 1762. It was not 
 until the wars of Frederick the great, however, that the full importance of cavalry was 
 developed ; he saw the necessity of training these troops to use swords instead of fire- 
 arms, and endeavored to make them perfect riders. No firing whatever was allowed in 
 the battle during the first charge; he claimed that the only two things required to beat 
 the enemy were to charge him with the greatest possible speed and force, and then to 
 outfiank him. The brilliant victories he obtained from the adoption of these tactics, 
 under the able leadership of Seydlitz have probably never been excelled. At the battle 
 of Hohenfriedberg the Prussian cavalry of 10 squadrons broke 21 battalions, routed the 
 entire left wing of the Austrian infantry, and captured 66 standards, 5 guns, and 4,00ff 
 prisoners. At the battle of Zorndorf, after the Russians had compelled the Prussian 
 infantry to retreat, Seydlitz with 36 squadrons rode down the Russian cavalry, and then, 
 completely routed their infantry. Frederick had learned to appreciate the true princi- 
 ples of mounted warfare through long experience and the occasional disasters which he 
 had met in the first and second Silesian wars ; and it was due to the efficient reforms: 
 which he instituted in the Prussian cavalry that he was able to win the battles of Ross- 
 bach, Striegan, Kesselsdorf, Leutheu, and others. One of the first improvements made 
 in the French army by Napoleon was the reorganization of the cavalry. He increased 
 the cuirassiers from one regiment to twelve, and reintroduced the use of the lance and 
 defensive armor. Some of his splendid victories were due to this force, especially at 
 Marengo and Austerlitz; and it was owing to the loss of the French cavalry in the 
 Russian campaign of 1812 that some of his finest achievements in 1813 proved useless: 
 he was well aware of this, and made the statement that had he possessed cavalry at the 
 battles of Lutzen and Bautzen the war would then have been brought to an end. In 
 modern warfare it may be mentioned that cavalry was conspicuous at the battle of Sol- 
 ferino; but in 1866, the first great European war since Waterloo, neither the Austrian 
 nor the Prussian cavalry won great distinction, although the manner in which the Aus- 
 trian cavalry covered the retreat of their army at the battle of Koniggratz was a noble 
 example of courage and devotion. In the Franco-German war of 1870, however, the- 
 excellency of the Prussian cavalry was the chief means of Von Moltke’s ability to carry 
 out his strategic plans. The French cavalry were more remarkable for bravery than effi- 
 ciency, Great progress was made in the C. of the United States during the war of 
 the rebellion ; a large number of men of both armies were good riders, and understood 
 the management of horses. They were at first, however, quite ignorant of military tac- 
 tics, and were used as scouts, as orderlies, and for outpost service. Gen. Sheridan, act- 
 ing under instructions from gen. Grant, made the first successful organization of C,, 
 which was called the cavalry corps of the army of the Potomac, comprising three 
 divisions of 5,000 mounted men each. Their weapons were repeating carbines and 
 sabers. It was with this force that gen. Sheridan defeated the confederate C. at Yellow 
 Tavern, near Richmond; and it contributed largely to the defeat of Early at the battle 
 of the Opequan, near Winchester; and later, at the battles near Petersburg and at Five- 
 Forks, the C. took an important part, Gen. Wilson, whom gen. Sherman put in com- 
 mand of a force called the C. corps of the militar}'- division of the IMississippi, did good 
 work in the way of organization towards the close of the war; he had 12,000 mounted 
 
KO>7 Cavalry. 
 
 Cavatina. 
 
 O. and 3,000 who fought on foot at the battle of Nashville, not including a detachment 
 of 3,000 men in Kentucky. 
 
 Our C. system is similar to that of European countries ; a regiment consists of 10 
 •companies of 64 men each; 2 companies form a squadron; they are armed with sabers, 
 pistols, and carbines. According to the army regulations, the C. in battle should be dis- 
 tributed in echelon on the wings and at the center, on favorable grounds; it should be 
 instructed not to take the gallop until within charging distance; never to receive a 
 •charge at a halt, but to meet it; or, if not strong enough, to retire maneuvering; and in 
 ■order to be ready for the pursuit, and prepared against a reverse, or the attacks of the 
 reserve, not to engage all its squadrops at once, but to reserve one third, in column or 
 in echelon, abreast of or in the rear of one of the wings ; this arrangement is better 
 than a second line with intervals. When the regular army, pursuant to the act of con- 
 
 g ress of Aug. 15, 1876, was reduced to a maximum of 25,000 men, the United States 
 consisting of 10 regiments, with 439 officers and 7,911 enlisted men, was left intact. 
 
 CAVALRY TACTICS. Authorities differ concerning the proportion that ought to be 
 observed between cavalry and infantry in an army. In France and Austria, the ratio is 
 about 1 to 5; in Prussia and Bavaria, 1 to 4; in Kussia, 1 to 6; in England, 1 to 8. 
 
 So far as concerns actual duties, heavy cavalry charge the enemy’s cavalry and 
 infantry, attack the guns, and cover a retreat; while the light cavalry make reconnais- 
 sances, carry dispatches and messages, maintain outposts, supply pickets, scour the 
 country for forage, aic the commissariat, pursue the enemy, and strive to screen the 
 movements of the infantry by their rapid maneuvers on the front and flanks of their 
 army. At the battle of Balaklava, the heavy cavalry charge was within the reasonable 
 duties of the troops, but that of the light cavalry was not; the former succeeded, the 
 latter failed. A cavalry horse will walk 4 m. in an hour on general service, trot 8 m. in 
 maneuvering, and gallop 11 m. in making a charge. The cavalry usually attack in line 
 ^igainst cavalry, en echelon against artillery, and in column against infantry. When an 
 attack is about to be made,'"the cavalry usually group into three bodies — the attacking, 
 the supporting, and the reserve. Close combat and hand-to-hand struggle are the province 
 of cavalry; infantry and artillery may fight at a distance, but cavalry cannot. It is rare 
 that two bodies of cavalry stand to fight each other; the weaker of the two, or the less 
 resolute, usually turns and gallops off. The work to be done by the horse is to pursue, 
 to overwhelm, to cut down. They cannot wait to receive an attack like infantry; they 
 must either pursue or retreat; and on this account it has been said, “rest is incompatible 
 with cavalry.” The infantry and artillery more frequently win the victory; but the 
 oavalry prepare the way for doing this, capture prisoners and trophies, pursue the 
 flying enemy, rapidly succor a menaced point, and cover the retreat of infantry and 
 artillery, if retreat be necessary. Cavalry is necessary to finish off work mainly done 
 by others; and, without its aid, signal success is seldom obtained on the field. Many 
 of the brilliant achievements of the British in 1857 and the following year, in India, 
 were rendered almost nugatory by the paucity of cavalry, while, as a contrast, the 
 <4erman victories of 1870 were enhanced by the splendid services of their uhlans and 
 other light cavalry. 
 
 CAVAN, an inland co. in the s. of Ulster, Ireland. It lies in the narrowest part of 
 Ireland, 18 m. from the Atlantic, and 20 from the Irish sea. Area, 746 sq.m. About 
 three fourths is arable. Bogs and hills, with many small lakes, are found in the n.w. 
 The chief rivers are the Erne, the Woodford, and the Annalee. The e. half of C. rests 
 on clay-slate and grauwacke ; the mountain-district in the w. is carboniferous formation. 
 Of minerals, C. affords coal, iron, lead, and copper, with many mineral springs. The 
 olimate is cold and damp; and the soil is poor, wet, and clayey, except along the streams. 
 In 1878, of 466,261 acres, 153,114 were in crop, the chief crops being oats, potatoes, 
 turnips, and flax. The farms are small. The population, which had fallen to 153,906 
 in 1861, was in 1871 only 140,735, of whom 113,174 are Homan Catholics, 21,223 
 Episcopalians, and the rest of other denominations. Agriculture forms the chief in- 
 dustry, but linen is manufactured to a considerable extent. Chief towns — Cavan, Bailie- 
 borough, and Belturbet. C. returns two members to parliament. The number of chil- 
 dren attending school in the year ending March 31, 1876, was 31,368. 
 
 CAV'AN, the capital of Cavan co. , Ireland, is situated on a branch of the Annalee, 70 
 m. n.w. of Dublin, with which it is connected by the Irish N. W. railway. The suburbs 
 are chiefly wretched cabins. The principal buildings are in the w. outskirts. The 
 public garden was bequeathed by a late lady Farnham, and the beautiful demesne of 
 lord Farnham lies between C. and Lough Oughter, which is about 5 m. west. Pop. ’71, 
 3,389. Agriculture forms the chief industry of the people. 
 
 CAVARZE'RE, a t. of Northern Italy, province of Venice, 22 m. s.s.w. of Venice city. 
 Pop. 12,400. It is situated on the Adige, which divides it into two parts called C. destro 
 and C. sinistro. Its soil is fertile, and its inhabitants carry on an active trade in cattle, 
 silk, and wood for fuel. 
 
 CAVATI'NA, a short form of operatic air, of a soft character, differing from the ordi- 
 nary aria in consisting only of one part, and that spun out more in the form of a song. 
 Modern composers have, however, disregarded this difference. Kossini mixes both 
 
Cave. 
 
 Caves. 
 
 588 
 
 Weber, in his operas, adds an introduction or a recitative. The most perfect specimen 
 of the C. is that in Meyerbeer’s opera of Bobert the Devil. 
 
 CAVE, Edward, deserves mention as the founder of the Oentleman's Magazine, the 
 first literary journal of the kind ever established. He was b. at Newton, in Warwick- 
 shire, in 1691 ; obtained a good education at Rugby ; and, after many vicissitudes, 
 became apprentice to a printer. Obtaining money enough to set up a small printing- 
 office, he projected the Oentleman's Magazine, which has now existed more than a cen- 
 tury and a quarter. He was the friend and early patron of Samuel Johnson. C. died 
 Jan., 1754. 
 
 CAVE, William, an English divine and scholar of distinction, was b. at Pickwell, 
 Leicestershire, Dec., 1637. He studied at Cambridge; was appointed to the vicarage of 
 Islington in 1662; afterwards to the rectory of Allhallows the Great, London; and in 
 1690 to the vicarage of Isleworth, Middlesex. He d. at Windsor, Aug. 4, 1713. He was 
 the author of many works of a religious character, the most important of which are the 
 Lives of the Apostles; Lives of the Fathers; and Primitive Ghristianity , which were once 
 standard works. 
 
 CAVEAT (Lat. caveo, to beware), a judicial warning or caution. Caveats, in Eng- 
 land, are used to stop the enrollment of decrees in chancery, the issuing of lunacy com- 
 missions, etc. It consists in an intimation by the party interested to the proper officer, 
 to prevent him from taking any step without such intimation being made to the said, 
 party as shall enable him to appear and object. 
 
 CAVEAT EMPTOR, notice to a purchaser of property to beware or be watchful of 
 his rights. In a sale of real estate the rights of the purchaser depend entirely upon the 
 covenants of title which he receives; but personal property the purchaser takes at 
 his own risk, unless the seller gives an express warranty, or the law should imply such 
 warranty from the circumstance of the case and the nature of the thing sold, or unless 
 the seller should be guilty of fraudulent misrepresentation or concealment in respect to- 
 a material inducement to the sale. 
 
 CAVEAU, a convivial and literary association in Paris, so called from meeting in a. 
 cavern known as “the cave.” It was started in 1729, and continued about ten years. 
 Dinners were given on the first Sunday in each month, which were attended by Helve- 
 tius, Crebillon, and other celebrities. The Caveau Moderne was started in 1806, and 
 had dinner on the 20th of each month at the Rocher de Cancale. The association 
 declined, but was reorganized in 1834, and in 1866 Jules Janin was received as a mem- 
 ber. The meetings are now more formal and academical than convivial. 
 
 CAVEDO'NE, Jacopo, 1577-1660; an Italian painter, educated in the school of 
 Caracci, and workman under them in the churches of Bologna. His chief productions, 
 are “ The Adoration of the Magi;” “ The Four Doctors;” “The Last Supper;” and espe- 
 cially “The Virgin and Child in Glory,” now in the Bolognese academy. He was at 
 one time an assistant to Guido, in Rome. In his declining years he was broken down by 
 the loss of a favorite son, and finally died in extreme poverty in a stable at Bologna. 
 
 CAVELIER', Pierre Jules, b. 1814; a French sculptor, who studied under David 
 d’ Angers and Delaroche. He first gained celebrity about 1849 by a statue of “ Penelope,” 
 for which he received the medal of honor and three years’ pension. A few years later 
 he became a member of the institute. Among his other works are “Truth,” in the 
 Louvre, a statue of Abelard, and busts of Napoleon, Ary Schaffer, and Horace Vernet. 
 
 CAVENDISH, Henry, a distinguished philosopher of the 18th c. , son of lo'rd Charles 
 Cavendish, and nephew of the third duke of Devonshire, was born at Nice, Oct. 10, 
 1731. He studied at Cambridge, and devoted his whole life to scientific investigations. 
 The large fortune which was bequeathed to him by an uncle, enabled him to follow 
 uninterruptedly his favorite pursuits. He almost secluded himself from the world, and 
 was so averse to meet with strangers, that he had his library — a magnificent one — built 
 at a distance from his house, so that he might not encounter persons coming to consult 
 it; and his female domestic servants had orders to keep out of his sight, on pain of dis- 
 missal. His dinner he ordered daily by a note placed on the hall-table. He died, unmar- 
 ried, Feb., 1810, leaving considerably more than a million sterling to his relatives. As a 
 philosopher, C. is entitled to the highest rank. To him it may almost be said we owe 
 the foundation of pneumatic chemistry, for prior to his time it had hardly an existence. 
 In 1760, he discovered the extreme levity of inflammable air, now known as hydrogen 
 gas — a discovery which led to balloon experiments, and projects for aerial navigation;, 
 and later, he ascertained that water resulted from the union of two gases — a discovery, 
 however, to which Watt (q.v.) is supposed to have an equal claim. The accuracy and 
 completeness of C.’s processes are remarkable. So high an authority as sir Humphry 
 Davy declared, that they “were all of a finished nature, and though many of them were 
 performed in the very infancy of chemical science, yet their accuracy and their beauty 
 have remained unimpired amidst the progress of discovery.” C. also wrote papers on 
 electricity, astronomical instruments, etc. 
 
 CAVENDISH, Margaret, Duchess of Newcastle, second wife of William, b. about 
 the end of the reign of James I., is perhaps one of the most remarkable instances on 
 
589 
 
 Care» 
 
 Caves* 
 
 record of a person afflicted with the cacoUlies scribendi, who had no capacity whatever 
 for writing. She produced no less than 13 folio volumes, 10 of which were printed, 
 treating, indifferently, on all subjects in prose and poetry, and careless in all, both as to 
 grammar and style. Her mania for scribbling kept up her maids at night, so that, if 
 she chanced to wake with anything on her mind, they might be ready to note it down 
 at once. The duchess was relieved, but a dead-weight fell upon the field of literature. 
 She died in 1673. 
 
 CAVENDISH, Thomas, 1560-92; the third circumnavigator of the globe. He studied 
 for a brief period at Cambridge, but left without a degree, followed the court, and soon 
 squandered his inheritance, to repair which he turned to maritime adventure, and fitted 
 out a ship that accompanied sir Richard Grenville’s expedition to Virginia in 1585. In 
 July, 1586, he sailed from Plymouth with three vessels on a predatory expedition, passed 
 through the straits of Magellan, cruised along the west coast of South America and Mexico, 
 and burned or sunk 19 vessels, among which was the Santa Anna, belonging to the king 
 of Spain, and having an immensely valuable cargo, which he seized off California. He 
 returned to Plymouth Sept. 9, 1588, with his plunder, having gone around the globe in 
 2 years and 50 days. When he came home it was said that his seamen were clothed in 
 silk, his sails were of damask, and his topmast was covered with cloth of gold. Within 
 three years he wasted his wealth, and was under the necessity of making another voy- 
 age, which was disastrous, his crew rebelling after leaving the straits of Magellan and 
 compelling him to return to England. This so dispirited him that he died on the voyage. 
 
 CAVENDISH, Sir William, 1505-57; brought up in the family of cardinal Wolsey, 
 whom he served as gentleman-usher of the chamber. He was present at the death of 
 the cardinal, and delayed his attendance at court to see the remains of his patron properly 
 cared for. The act so pleased Henry VIII. that he made Cavendish a member of his 
 household, treasurer of his chamber, and a privy councilor, subsequently adding the dig- 
 nity of knighthood. He filled other offices, and obtained grants of valuable lordships in 
 Hertfordshire. His great property became the foundation of the immense estates of the 
 dukes of Devonshire. He seems to have retained favor through the reigns of Edward 
 VI. and Mary. He was the author of The Life and Death of Cardinal Wolsey. 
 
 CAVENDISH, William, duke of Newcastle, a distinguished loyalist of the 17th e., 
 son of sir Charles Cavendish, younger brother of the first earl of Devonshire, was b. 
 1592. His learning and winning address made him a favorite at the court of James I., 
 who, in 1610, made him a knight of the Bath. Other honors rapidly succeeded. In 
 1620, he was made a peer of the realm. Charles I., about 1628, gave him the title of 
 earl of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, and in 1638 intrusted him with th^e tuition of his son, 
 afterwards Charles II. His support of the king during the contest with the parliament- 
 ary forces was munificent. He contributed £10,000 to the treasury, and raised a troop 
 of 200 knights and gentlemen, who served at their own cost. As general of all the forces 
 raised n. of the Trent, he had power to issue declarations, confer knighthood, coin 
 money, and raise men; and the last part of his commission he executed with great zeal. 
 The banquets C. gave to the king when he went n. were magnificent enough to find 
 record in history; one of them cost no less than £15,000, even in those days when money 
 was more valuable than it now is. After the battle of Marston Moor, C. retired to the 
 continent, where he resided, at times in great poverty, until the Restoration. On his 
 return, he was created duke of Newcastle. He died Dec. 25, 1676. On the continent, 
 he devoted himself to literature, and wrote a book on the management of horses, and 
 several plays, not of a character to increase any man’s reputation for intelligence. 
 
 CAVENDISH’S EXPERIMENT. See Earth, ante. 
 
 CA'VERY, or Cau'very, a river in India, rising about 12° 25' n., and 75° 34' e., 
 and fiowing s.e. to the bay of Bengal. It is about 470 m. long, but navigable only for 
 small boats. 
 
 CAVES, or Caverns (Lat. earns, hollow), are hollow places in the earth. They are 
 either natural or artificial. Natural C. have been produced by the fracture and disloca- 
 tion consequent on the upheaval of the strata, by water, or by both causes combined. 
 The denuding or eroding power of water, which has produced the materials of stratified 
 rocks, has formed caverns in the courses of rivers and on the coast-line of the sea. The 
 moving waters, carrying with them gravel and sand, enter natural cracks and crevices, 
 and, by abrading their walls, increase their size, so as to form C. ; or they attack less 
 indurated portions of the solid strata, and form cavities bounded by the harder rock. 
 Such caverns are of frequent occurrence round the shores of Britain, and indicate, 
 where they occur, an ancient sea-margin of the island. In limestone rocks, the destroy- 
 ing power of water is increased when it contains chemical agents which have the power 
 of dissolving the substance of the rock, and so causing it to be carrried off in solution 
 by the water. 
 
 C. most frequently occur in limestone rocks. They especially abound in the oolitic 
 limestone, which on this account was called by the earlier continental geologists “cav- 
 ern limestone.” The celebrated C. of Franconia in Germany, of Kentucky (q.v.) in 
 America, that of Kirkdale in Yorkshire, and many others, occur in this formation. 
 Next to limestone, the triassic measures, containing rock-salt, a material easily removed 
 
Caviana. 
 
 Cavy. 
 
 590 
 
 by water, most abound in caverns. They are also frequently met with in igneous rocks 
 — the picturesque cave of Fingal, in Stalfa, is formed in basalt; and in South America 
 and Iceland the modern lava contains large caverns. 
 
 Many caverns have a calcareous incrustation lining their interior, giving them a gor- 
 geous appearance. Sometimes this deposit is pure white, and has, when the cave is 
 lighted up, a richness and transparency that cannot be imagined. It is, however, more 
 generally colored by the impurities which the water has taken up from the superincum- 
 bent strata. To the incrustations which are suspended from the roof, like icicles, the 
 name stalactite is given, while those rising from the floor are designated stalagmites. 
 Sometimes the pendent stalactite is produced so as to meet the ascending stalagmite, 
 and form pillars, as if to support the roof, as in the “organ” in the Blue John Mine, 
 Derbyshire. The source and origin of this deposit has been satisfactorily explained by 
 Liebig as follows: The mold of the superficial soil, being acted upon by moisture and 
 air, evolves carbonic acid, which is dissolved by rain. The rain-water thus impregnated, 
 "permeating the calcareous strata, has the power of taking up a portion of the lime, which 
 it retains in a liquid condition, until from evaporation the excess of carbonic acid is 
 parted with, when the lime again returns to its solid state, and forms the incrustation. 
 
 C. have an additional interest to the geologist, from the occurrence in many of osseous 
 remains under the calcareous incrustations of the floor. The bones are imbedded in 
 mud, and frequently concreted into a firm calcareous breccia. They belong to the pleie- 
 tocene period, when the C. in Europe were inhabited by large hyenas and bears. Por- 
 tions of other animals inhabiting the neighborhood were dragged by them into their 
 dens, to serve as food. In this way the bones of herbivorous and other animals are found 
 mixed with those of the beasts of prey; they have a broken and gnawed appearance, 
 similar to what is produced on recent bones by the teeth of a hyena. No less than 33 
 species of mammals and 5 species of birds have been discovered in the C. of the British 
 islands, of which about the half still survive in Europe, while the remainder are extinct. 
 The mammals are species of ox, deer, horse, wolf, dog, hare, fox, wehsel, water-rat, 
 mole, bat, hippopotamus, and rhinoceros, besides the hyena and bear; and the birds are 
 species of lark, partridge, pigeon, goose, and crow. 
 
 The most productive ossiferous cavern in Britain is that of Kirkdale, 25 m. from 
 York, in which the remains of about 300 hyenas have been detected, besides innumer 
 able gnawed bones of those animals on which they preyed. The carboniferous limestonei* 
 of Glamorganshire abound in caves, which have been explored by Buckland, and more 
 recently and thoroughly by Dr. Falconer. At the meeting of the geological society in 
 June, 1860, Dr. Falconer thus describes the contents of one of them, called Bacon 
 hole. On the limestone floor of the cave are — (l.) a few^ inches of marine sand, abound- 
 ing with Utorina rudis, L. litoralis, and clausilia nigricans, with bones of an arvicola and 
 birds; (2.) a thin layer of stalagmite; (3.) two feet of blackish sand, containing a mass 
 of bones of elephas antiquus, with remains of meles taxus and putorins ; (4.) two feet of 
 ochreous earth, limestone breccia, and sandy layers, with remains of eleplias antiquus, 
 rhinoceros hemitocchus, hycena, canis lupus, ursiis spelceus, bos, and cervus; (5.) irregular 
 stalagmite; (6.) two feet of limestone breccia and stalagmite, with bone-, of ursus a.ud 
 bos; (7.) a foot or so of irregular stalagmite, with ursus; and (8.) dark-col ored superficial 
 earth, kept sloppy by abundant drip, with bones of bos, cervus, canis oulpes, horns of 
 reindeer and roebuck, together with shells of patella, mytilus, purj ira, and Utorina 
 (probably brought into the cavern as food by birds), and also pieces A ancient British 
 pottery. After a review of the fauna of the bone caves of this couLcry and of Europe, 
 Dr. Falconer concludes that the caves of Glamorganshire have probably been filled up 
 with their mammalian remains since the deposition of the bouldor-clay, and that there 
 exist no mammalian remains in the ossiferous caves of Englanc^ and Wales referable to 
 a fauna of a more ancient geological date. See Kent’s Cavei >. 
 
 Ossiferous C. occur in all parts of the globe. The fossils or those in Australia show 
 that the fauna of the pleistocene period had a remarkable resemblance to that of the 
 present day. The remains consist chiefly of kangaroos and Allied genera of marsupials. 
 
 CAVIA'NA, an island of Brazil, in the mouth of the river Amazon, about 35 m. long 
 by 20 wide; fertile and well-stocked with cattle. The little town of Robadello, on the 
 s.e. coast of the island, is almost exactly under the equator. 
 
 CAV'IAEE, the salted roes of the common sturgeon {accipenser sturio) and other fishes 
 of the same genus. See Sturgeon. It is chiefly prepared in Russia, where it is greatly 
 esteemed as an article of food. It is also used to a considerable extent in Italy and 
 France. The species of sturgeon from the roe of which it is chiefly prepared, inhabit 
 the Caspian and Black seas and their tributary rivers. Among them are the bielaga. 
 or great sturgeon {accipenser huso), the osseter {A. guldenstadtii), the scherg or sevruga 
 {A. stellatus), and the sterlet {A. ruthenus). The C. made from the roe of_ the last, 
 named species is esteemed particularly delicious, and is reserved for the Russian court. 
 Astrakhan is a principal seat of the preparation of caviare. More than 400,000 lbs. of 
 C. have been prepared in the Caspian fishery in a single year. 
 
 CAVITE, a t. of considerable importance on the island of Luzon, one of the Philip- 
 pines. It is situated on the bay of Manila, 10 m. s.s.w. of the city of that name, of which 
 
591 
 
 CaTiana. 
 
 Cavy. 
 
 it forms the quarantine station. It has a large cigar manufactory, is the chief naval 
 depot of the Spanish possessions in the east, and gives name to a province -with a pop. 
 of 57,000. The population of the town itself is some 6,000 or 7,000. 
 
 CAVOR, or Cavour', a t. of n. Italy, situated at the foot of the Alps, 7 m. s.s.e. of 
 Pinerolo. It has manufactures of silk-twist, linens, leather, etc., and marble and slate 
 quarries. Pop. 6,000 or 7,000. 
 
 CAV0‘RILIE'V0 (Ital.). In this peculiar kind of rilievo, which was extensively em- 
 ployed by Egyptian artists, the highest surface of the object represented is only on a 
 level with the plane of the original stone, the rounded sides being cut into it. The 
 effect resembles that of a concave seal. It is correctly described as intaglio riliemto. A 
 wood-cut is given in Fairholt’s Dictionary of Terms in Art of the Egyptian king Amu- 
 noph III. in hieroglyphics. 
 
 CAVOTIR, Count Camilla Benso di, a distinguished Italian statesman of the 19th 
 c., the descendant of a noble and wealthy family of Piedmont, was b. at Turin, Aug. 
 10, 1810. He was educated for a military career, but his liberal tendencies being likely 
 to prove an insuperable barrier to his promotion, he retired during the stirring events 
 of 1830-31, and devoted himself to agriculture, in which he introduced great improve- 
 ments. He was the first to use guano in Piedmont; and, at his instigation, a national 
 agricultural society was formed. During a residence in England, he made himself inti- 
 mately acquainted with the political organization of the country, and also with its indus- 
 trial institutions ; knowledge of which he made good use on his return to his own coun- 
 try in 1842. In conjunction with Count Cesare Balbo, he in 1847 established a political 
 daily journal, in which he advocated the interests of the middle classes — a representa- 
 tive system, somewhat after the pattern of the English constitution, as opposed alike to 
 absolutism on the one hand, and mob rule on the other. On his suggestion, the king 
 was petitioned for a constitution, which was granted in Feb., 1848. As a member of 
 the chamber of deputies, during the stormy period which succeeded Charles Albert’s 
 declaration of war against Austria in Mar., C. strenuously opposed the ultra-democrats, 
 and counseled an alliance with England as the surest guarantee for the success of the 
 Italian arms. In the marquis d’Azeglio’s ministry, formed soon after the fatal battle of 
 Novara, C. was successively minister of agriculture and commerce, minister of marine, 
 and minister of finance; and in 1852 he was appointed to succeed d’Azeglio as premier. 
 From this time until his resignation in 1859, in consequence of the conclusion of the 
 peace of Villafranca, C. was the originator as well as the director of the Sardinian pol- 
 icy. Taking upon himself at different times, in addition to the premiership, the duties 
 of the ministers of finance, commerce, and agriculture, and latterly of home and foreign 
 affairs, he greatly improved the financial condition of the country, introduced free- 
 trade, consolidated constitutionalism, weakened clerical influence, and made Sardinia a 
 power of some account in Europe, by bringing her into alliance with England and 
 France against Russia. The dispatches which C. penned in reply to those of Austria, 
 prior to the outbreak of the Italian war, are on all hands acknowledged as master- 
 pieces of astute diplomacy. In Jan., 1860, C. was again called upon to preside over 
 the Sardinian government, the duties of foreign minister likewise devolving upon him, 
 and temporarily those of the minister of the interior also. He continued to direct the 
 Sardinian policy until his death, June, 1861. 
 
 CA'VY {cavia), a genus of quadrupeds of the order rodentia, regarded as the type of a 
 family, camdm, differing from the hare family {leporidce), in the complete want of clav- 
 icles, in the want of growing roots to the molar teeth, and in having the incisors situated 
 as in other quadrupeds generally, and not in the peculiar manner so characteristic of the 
 hares. There are four molar teeth in each jaw, and in the genus C. these are compound; 
 and the genus is further characterized by four toes on each of the fore-feet, and three on 
 each of the hind-feet, by the feet not being webbed, by the females having only two 
 teats, and by the want of a tail. One species, cama cobaya, has been long well known 
 as a domesticated animal, and has been a common pet and plaything of children in 
 Europe, almost from the time of the discovery of America. It is sometimes called the 
 Common C. or Restless C., but much more frequently receives the name of Guinea- 
 pig, although it is neither nearly related to pigs, nor a native of Guinea. Perhaps Guinea, 
 in this name, may be a corruption of Guiana, the cavies, and indeed the whole family 
 of the, cavidcB, being exclusively South American. The colors which the domesticated 
 C. exhibits have never been seen in any of the wild cavies of South America; and as it 
 is known to have exhibited the same variations of color from about the time of its intro- 
 duction into Europe, it is supposed to have been long domesticated by some of the South 
 American tribes. The Guinea-pig multiplies with a rapidity exceeding that of any other 
 known quadruped, producing young ones when only two months old, and afterwards at 
 intervals of two months, and from four to twelve in a litter. This extraordinary fecun- 
 dity is probably not so much the result of domestication, as a provision for the preserva- 
 tion of the race in a wild state, the little animal being very defenseless and destitute of 
 means of escape, the ready prey of every carnivorous beast and bird.— The other species 
 of C. much resemble the Guinea-pig. Some of them are very numerous in some parts 
 of South America, and are sought for food, although no such use is made of the domes- 
 ticated cavy. The agouti (q.v.) and the capybara (q.v.) are ranked among the cavidoe. 
 
Cawdor. 
 
 Cayuga. 
 
 592 
 
 CAWDOR, or Calder, a parish in co. Nairn, Scotland, noted as the site of Cawdor 
 castle in which Shakespeare places the murder of Duncan by Macbeth. But the murder 
 took place 400 years before the castle was built — which may prove that Shakespeare was 
 “not fora day but for all time.” During the rebellion of 1745, lord Lovat was for a 
 time concealed in this castle. 
 
 CAWK, a popular name for a massive variety of the mineral called heavy spar or 
 sulphate of baryta. See Baryta. 
 
 CAWNPORE', a city of the Doab, on the right bank of the Ganges, about 140 m. above 
 Allahabad, at the junction of the Jumna, being separated by the river from Oude, whose 
 capital, Lucknow, lies 53 m. to the n.e. The lat. is 26° 29' n., and the long. 80° 25' east. 
 The stream in front, varying, according to the season, from 500 yards in width to more 
 than a mile, presents a large and motley assemblage of steam-vessels and native craft. 
 C., at least as a place of note, is of recent origin, being indebted for its growth, besides 
 its commercial facilities, partly to military and political considerations. In 1777, being 
 then an appendage of Oude, it was assigned by the nawab as the station of a subsidiary 
 force; and in 1801 it became, in name as well as in fact, British property. Its canton- 
 ments, having accommodation for 7,000 troops, have gradually accumulated about 
 
 50.000 native inhabitants; while the city itself contains a somewhat larger population of 
 similar origin. During the mutiny of 1857, C. was the scene of Nana Sahib’s massacre 
 of his English captives. Though C. is only 379 ft. above the sea, yet, during winter, 
 considerable quantities of ice are made for preservation, through the exposing|of water by 
 night in shallow vessels. Pop. ’72 of C. (spelt also Khanpur), 122,770. 
 
 CAWNPORE, the district of the above-described city, in the lieutenant-governorship 
 of the n.w. provinces. Occupying the entire breadth of the Doab, it touches at once 
 the Jumna and the Ganges; while to the eastward it has Futtehpore, and, to the west- 
 ward, Etawah and Furruckabad. With a pop. in ’71 of 1,155,439, it has an area of 
 2,353 sq.m., stretching in lat. from 25° 55' to 27° n., and in long, from 79° 34' to 80° 37' 
 east. It is an alluvial plain of great fertility. The vine is cultivated, and indigo grows 
 wild. Besides its two mighty rivers and their navigable tributaries, the Ganges canal 
 traverses the country for about 60 miles. 
 
 CAXAMAR'CA, or Cajamarca, a province in the n.w. of Peru, with a capital of its 
 own name. It is on the e. side of the Andes, forming part of the basin of the Maranon. 
 The province has 273,000 inhabitants, and the city about 20,000. 
 
 CAXAMAR'CA, or Cajamarca, a Peruvian city, the capital of the province of the 
 same name, on the e. side of the Andes, in a fertile valley at an elevation of more than 
 
 9.000 ft. above tide, 7° 7' s. and 78° 31' w. ; 72 m. n.n.e. of Truxillo. The streets are regu- 
 lar, but most of the houses are of clay. There are two or three fine churches, a 
 monastery, a nunnery, and the remains of the palace of Atahualpa, the last of the Incas 
 of Peru, who was murdered there by the Spaniards in 1533. Near the city are the 
 sulphur springs of Pultamarca, called “the Inca’s baths,” which have a temperature of 
 156° and are much frequented. There are manufactures of wool, linen, steel, silver, etc., 
 and a good trade with Truxillo. A railway connects C. with the port of Pacasmayo. 
 Pop. 12,000. 
 
 CAXAMARQUIL'LA, a t. of n. Peru, in the province of Libertad, 100 m. e.n.e. of 
 Truxillo. Pop. about 8,000. 
 
 CAXATAM'BO, or Cajatambo, a t. of n. Peru, in the province of Ancachs, 120 m. 
 n.n.e. of Lima, with a pop. of about 6,000. There are silver-mines in the neighborhood. 
 
 CAXI'AS, a t. in Brazil on the river Itapicuru, about 300 m. s.e. of Maranhao. It is 
 a place of large trade in rice, cotton, cattle, etc. 
 
 CAXTON, William, who introduced printing into England, was b. in the Weald of 
 Kent, about 1422. The particulars of the life of this great benefactor of his country are 
 scanty. He was apprenticed in 1439 to Robert Large, a w^ealthy London mercer. At 
 the death of the latter in 1441, he went to Bruges, where in 1462 or 1463 he seems to have 
 been governor of a chartered association of English adventurers trading to foreign parts. 
 In 1471, C. entered the service of Margaret, the duchess of Burgundy, formerly an 
 English princess; and apparently towards the end of 1476 he set up his wooden printing- 
 press at the sign of the red pale in the almonry at Westminster. The art of printing he 
 had acquired during his sojourn in Bruges, doubtless from Colard Mansion, a well- 
 known printer of that city; and in 1474 he put through the press the first book printed 
 in the English tongue, the Recuyell of the Historyes <?/ Troye, a translation of Raoul le 
 Fevre’s work. The Game and Playe of the Chesse was another of C. ’s earliest publica- 
 tions; but the Dictes and Notable Wise Sayings of the Philosophers, published in 1477, is 
 the first book which can with certainty be maintained to have been printed in England. 
 All the eight founts of type from which C. printed may be called black letter. Of the 
 99 known distinct productions of C.’s press, no less than 38 survive in single copies or in 
 fragments only. C., who was an accomplished linguist, and translated many of the 
 works that issued from his press, was diligent in the exercise of his craft or in transla- 
 tion till within a few hours of his death, which seems to have happened about the close 
 of the year 1491. In 1877, the printer and his work were fittingly commemorated by a 
 
593 
 
 Cawdor, 
 
 Cayuga. 
 
 typographical exhibition in London. See The Old Printer and the New Press, by Charles 
 Knight (1854); Life and Typography of William G. (1861-63), byW. Blades; and the 
 Biography and Typography cf C. (1877), by the same author. 
 
 CA.YAM'BE, or Cayambe-Urctj, a peak of the Andes, 45 m. n.e. of Quito, in Ecuador. 
 It is of regular conical shape, 19,540 ft. high, and always capped with snow. It is espe- 
 cially notable for being situated almost exactly under the equator. 
 
 CAYCOS, or Caicos, or The Keys, four of the Bahama islands, in the Atlantic, 
 between 21° and 27° n., and about 72° west. Great Key is 30 m. long. Little and North 
 Keys and Providence island are smaller. 
 
 CAYENNE, a fortified seaport, capital of French Guiana, on the west point of an 
 island of the same name at the inouth of the river Oyak. The roadstead is excellent, 
 and the port commodious but shallow. C., though it is the entrepOt of all the 
 trade of the colony, is chiefly known as a great French penal settlement. The 
 island, 32 miles in circumference, is separated from the mainland by ' narrow channel; 
 its soil is fertile, but the climate is extremely unwholesome for Europeans, large num- 
 bers of the convicts having been carried off by various malignant fevers. C. became a 
 French colony about 1635; deportation hither began during the first French revolution 
 Pop. about 8,000. 
 
 CAYENNE CHER'RY. See Eugenia. 
 
 CAYENNE PEPPER consists of the powder of the dried pods, and more especially of 
 the dried seeds of different species of Capsicum (q.v.), particularly of G. frutescens. 
 
 CAYLEY, Sir George, 1733-1857; an English physicist and inventor, whose 
 experiments on the steam engine resulted in the invention of the air engine. Among 
 his other inventions was an arrangement for applying the power of electricity to 
 machinery. He was one of the originators of the London polytechnic institution, and 
 late in life was a member of parliament for Scarborough. 
 
 CAYLUS, Anne Claude Philippe de Tubieres, Count de. Marquis d’Esternay, 
 Baron de Bransac, 1692-1765. When young he served with distinction in the French 
 army, but after the peace of Rastadt (1714) he traveled extensively in Europe and the 
 «ast," studying and collecting antiquities, on which he published several works. He 
 rediscovered the method of encaustic painting with wax, mentioned by Pliny. He was 
 .also an engraver, and copied many of the famous pictures of the old masters. But he is 
 best known as the author of several romances, humorous pieces, and fairy tales. 
 
 CAYLUS, Marthe Marguerite de Villettb de Murcay, Marquise de, 
 1673-1729; a descendant of the family of D’Aubigne, but converted by Mme. Main- 
 tenon to the Roman Catholic faith. She acquired celebrity as one of the leaders of 
 uourt society. Racine so admired her abilities that he wrote the prologue to his tragedy 
 of Esther as a compliment to her. Her first husband, the marquis de Caylus, was 
 worthless and dissipated. After his death, she became. the mistress of the duke of 
 Villeroi, for which she was sent away from the court; but after the death of Mme. 
 Maintenon she was restored to favor. Voltaire edited her Souvenirs. 
 
 CAYMAN, a name somewhat variously used, either as the distinctive appellation of 
 some, or as a common name for all the crocodilidee of South America. See Alligator, 
 The genus alligator is by some naturalists of the present day divided into three genera, 
 to one of which the name C, {caiman) is appropriated, and of which the type is the 
 species called the eye-browed C. {alligator padpehrosus), to which the name C. is dis- 
 tinctively applied in Surinam and (4uiana, a species very abundant there, but not one 
 of the largest or more dangerous of its tribe. It is remarkable for the three bony plates, 
 separated by sutures only, which form each eyebrow or eyelid, projecting as large 
 knobs like a man’s fist; and this, and the scarcely webbed-feet, constitute the most 
 important characters of the genus or subgenus cayman. To this subgenus belong also 
 A. trigonatus, regarded by Cuvier as a mere variety of the same species, and A. gibhiceps. 
 
 CAYMANS — in English, alligators — three low islets of the Caribbean sea, which 
 form a dependency of Jamaica, being 130 m. to the n.w. of it. Discovered by Col- 
 umbus, they were by him called Tortugas, from the abundance of turtle — still the 
 staple production of the group. On an area of about 2,000 acres, the population does not 
 exceed 1500 or 1600. The soil yields corn and vegetables ; and the people rear hogs and 
 poultry. 
 
 CAYUGA, a co. in w. central New York, extending from lake Ontario half way 
 across the state, intersected by the New York Central and several other railroads; 752 
 sq.m,; pop. ’80, 65,084, It is a fine agricultural section, with undulating surface. 
 Gypsum, salt, and limestone are among the minerals. Near the center of the co. lies 
 Owasco lake, about 10 m. long, and on the w. border is Cayuga lake. The chief pro- 
 ductions are wheat, corn, oats, barley, potatoes, hay, butter, wool, and tobacco. Co. 
 seat, the city of Auburn. 
 
 CAYUGA LAKE, a fine navigable sheet of water in w. central New York, 38 m. 
 long, and from 1 to 3| m. wide. At the n. end it is shallow, but in some places it is 
 very deep. It is 377 ft. above tide water, and 146 ft. higher than lake Ontaiio, into 
 U. K. III. -38 
 
Cayugas. 
 
 Cecil. 
 
 594 
 
 which it empties through Seneca river. The lake is much frequented by tourists and 
 pleasure seekers. 
 
 CAYUGAS, one of the Indian tribes forming the Six Nations in New York. They 
 built the villages around Cayuga lake in central New York, and, when first known by 
 the French explorers from Canada, were able to muster several hundred warriors. The- 
 C. were, with the other Iroquois, against the French in the wars of the 17th century. A 
 few of their chiefs became Christians; and one who was taken in war and sent to th& 
 galleys in France, on his return to Canada became a friend of the white man. In the- 
 American revolution they were on the English side. After peace, they ceded nearly all 
 their lands to the state except a small reservation, and that they abandoned about 1800 
 when some of them went to the Senecas, some to Canada, and others to the IndiarL 
 country. Scarcely 200 of the tribe now remain. 
 
 GAZAL'LA DE LA SIEE'EA, a t. of Spain, in the province of Seville, 39 m. n.e. of 
 the city of that name. It is situated on a declivity of the Sierra Morena; the district 
 around is mountainous and well wooded, and abounds in minerals of various kinds, 
 including iron, silver, copper, sulphur, and marble. The inhabitants, numbering 
 between 7,000 and 8,000, are chiefly employed in smelting metals, manufacturing 
 cannon, machinery, and agricultural implements. Some tanning, weaving, etc., are 
 also carried on. 
 
 CAZEMBE, or Kazembe, an important country of Africa, the limits of which have 
 not been clearly determined, but its center has been fixed at about lat. 12° s., and long. 
 31° east. The king’s rule extends over a great portion of the established route across the 
 continent of Africa, from the Congo, up the valley of Luliia, and down the valley of 
 Luapula. Vegetation is generally luxuriant. Its chief products are manioc, maize, salt, 
 copper, iron, and ivory. The people are called Balonda or Baloi. 
 
 CAZEM'BE {ante), the hereditary name of an African chief, whose territory is s. of 
 lake Moero, and n. of Bangweolo, between 11° and 9° s. ; 120,000 sq.m.; pop. 500,000. 
 The country forms a hollowed plain, and is watered by numerous rivers, among the^ 
 most important of which is the Luapula, which is supposed to be one of the head 
 streams of the Congo. The population consists of two races, the Messiras and the- 
 Campololas, of whom the former are natives subjugated, and the latter intruders and 
 rulers; they alone being eligible to office, and theirs being the language of the court. 
 Some attention is paid to agriculture, and millet, maize, manioc, sugar-cane, yams, 
 gourds, and bananas are grown. The horse and the ass are unknown animals; sheep- 
 are scarce, but cattle are abundant. Salt is an important article of trade, and coarse 
 cotton cloth, earthenware, and iron goods are the chief manufactures. The exports are 
 slaves, ivory and copper-ore. The chief, or cazembe, has despotic power, and uses it 
 barbarously. He has 600 wives, and the great nobles take as many as they can afford to 
 keep. The capital is moved whenever a new ruler is put in power. The country of the- 
 Cazembe was first visited by white men in 1796. It has not yet been explored to any 
 considerable extent. 
 
 CAZENO'VIA, a village and township in Madison co., N. Y.; pop. ’75, 4,240. The- 
 village is on Cazenovia lake, and is reached by the Cazenovia and Canastota railroad. 
 There is a Methodist seminary in the place. 
 
 CAZOE'LA, a t. of Andalusia, Spain, 40 m. e.n.e. of Jaen. C., which is a place of 
 considerable antiquity, is pleasantly situated on a declivity, and is well watered by the- 
 Vega; has two old castles — one an Arab structure — manufactures of leather, earthen- 
 ware, soap, and bricks, and a trade in agricultural produce. Pop. 7,500. 
 
 CAZOTTE, Jacques, 1720-92; a French author, educated by the Jesuits. He pro- 
 duced at first a mock romance and a coarse song which became so popular that hc- 
 undertook something more respectable and brought out his Roman d' Olivier. This was 
 followed with Le Diable Amoureux, and another sportive creation. He also continued 
 Voltaire’s Givil War in Geneva with such close similarity that no one doubted the work 
 to be that of Voltaire. Cazotte next took a wide departure, embraced the views of the 
 Illuminati, and declared that he possessed the power of prophecy. He adhered to the 
 royal cause, in consequence of which he was arrested by the revolutionary tribunal and 
 executed. 
 
 CEANO'THUS. See Red Root. 
 
 # CEARA, a province of Brazil, on the n. coast, situated in lat. 2° 40' to 7° 25' s., long. 
 37° 40' to 41° 30' west. It has an area of 42,600 sq.m., with, ’72, 700,000 inhabitants. 
 It abounds in balsams, gums, resins, and fruits; and among its minerals are gold, iron, 
 copper, and salt. The port of C. had a trade with Great Britain in 1874 amounting to- 
 £969,584. 
 
 CEBADIL'LA. See Sabadilla. 
 
 CEBES, a Greek philosopher, disciple of Socrates, mentioned by Plato and by Xeno- 
 phon as distinguished for virtue and love of truth. 'The work Tabula CebeRs attributed 
 to him professes to be an explanation of an allegorical picture, and begins with the 
 Platonic doctrine that men enter the earth from a pre-existent state, in which they were 
 taught how to guide their course in this world; but the draught of oblivion, which all 
 
595 
 
 Cayugas. 
 
 Cecil. 
 
 must drink, though not in equal quantities, causes them to forget the instructions. Many 
 allurements entice them to vice, but by patience and endurance they may attain to vir- 
 tue and happiness. Sciences are declared not to be the true discipline, but yet to be 
 useful, especially as restraint for the young. 
 
 CEBU, a city on the island of Cebu, one of the Philippines, 400 m. s.e. of Manila. 
 Oebu is the oldest provincial town in the archipelago, and still ranks as one of the best 
 built, while its position makes it the chief commercial center for the southern Philip- 
 pines. It is the residence of a military governor, and an alcalde, as well as the governor- 
 general of the Vissagas. There are exports of sugar, hemp, tobacco, Japan-wood, etc. 
 The grave of Magellan, the navigator, is on the island of Matan, opposite the town. Pop., 
 inclusive of the suburb of St. Nicholas, about 34,000. 
 
 CEBU, or Zebu, one of the Philippine islands, between 9° 35' and 11° n., and 123° 
 and 123° 50' e. ; about 1200 sq.m. The surface is rough, and the soil not suited to 
 agriculture, though there are fertile valleys producing cotton, sugar, rice, tobacco, and 
 •cocoa. The climate, though very hot, is salubrious. 
 
 CE'BTJS (Gr. an ape or monkey), a genus of American monkeys, characterized by a 
 round head and short muzzle, a facial angle of about 60°, long thumbs, and a long pre- 
 hensile tail entirely covered with hair. The species are numerous, all of very lively dis- 
 position and gregarious habits, living in trees. They feed chiefly on fruits, but also on 
 insects, worms, and mollusks. They are included under the popular designation Sapa- 
 jou in its wider sense, and some of them are the monkeys to which this name is some- 
 times more strictly appropriated. The names Sajou and Sai are also given to some of 
 them, and some are called Capuchin (q.v.) monkeys. One of the most common species 
 in Guiana is the Weeper Monkey, or Weeper Sapajou ((7. apella ). — The name capuchin 
 is perhaps most frequently given to G. capuchinus, a brownish species, with head, feet, 
 and hands generally black, and front, shoulders, and cheeks whitish. Some of the 
 species of C. are adorned with beards. — The name cebidm is sometimes given to the 
 American monkeys collectively, as a family or tribe. See Monkey. 
 
 CEC'CO D’ASCOLI, 1257-1327; the popular name of Francesco degli Stabili, a 
 mediaeval poet and encyclopaedist. He studied mathematics and astrology, and was 
 professor of the latter science in the university of Bologna. Having published a com- 
 mentary on the sphere of John de Sacrobosco, in which he propounded bold theories 
 concerning the employment and agency of demons, the clerical party caused him to be 
 •condemned to certain fasts, prayers, and fines; but he eluded punishment by going to 
 Florence. His free-thinking and plain-speaking, however, raised up many enemies; he 
 liad attacked Dante’s Commedia and his fate was sealed ; an old accusation of impiety 
 vras renewed, and he was tried, sentenced, and burnt at the stake in Florence, in the 
 70th year of his age. 
 
 CECIDOMY'IA (Gr. kekidion, a gall-nut; and myia, a fly or gnat), a genus of dipterous 
 <(two-winged) insects of the family tipularice — the gnat and mosquito family ; having 
 ■downy wings, which have three nervures, and are horizontal when at rest ; antennae as 
 long as the body, with bead-like joints and whirls of hairs at the joints; long legs, and 
 the first joint of the tarsi very short. The species are numerous ; nearly thirty are Brit- 
 ish. All are of small size, but some of them are very important on account of the rav- 
 ages which their maggots effect in grain-erops. C. cerealis, sometimes called the barley 
 midge, a brownish-red fly with silvery wings, of which the maggot is vermilion-colored, 
 is often very destructive to crops of barley and spelt in Germany. The little maggots 
 live in families between the stalk and the sheath of the leaf, abstracting the juice of the 
 plant. — The Wheat-fly (q.v. and the Hessian Fly (q.v.) belong to this genus. — Some 
 of the species of C. deposit their eggs on the young buds of trees, which the larvae 
 transform into galls. 
 
 CECIL, a CO. in n.e. Maryland, on the Delaware and Pennsylvania border, inter- 
 sected by three railroads; 300 sq.m. ; pop. ’80, 27,108 — 4466 colored. It has an uneven 
 surface and fertile soil, its products are wheat, corn, oats, potatoes, hay, butter, and 
 wool. Of stone and minerals there are granite, gneiss, slate, iron, chrome, and sulph- 
 ate of magnesia. There are flouring mills, and several other manufactories. Co. seat 
 Elkton. 
 
 CECIL, Richard, 1748-1810; a minister of the church of England, celebrated as a 
 pulpit orator. His works have been published in England and in New York. They 
 are prized for deep spiritual fervor. 
 
 CECIL, Robert, Earl of Salisbury, son of William, was b. about 1550. On the 
 death of his father, having previously held important state offices, he succeeded to what 
 would now be called the premiership. On the accession of James I., C., who had car- 
 ried on a private correspondence with that monarch before Elizabeth’s death, was con- 
 firmed in his office and received many high honors, culminating in that of earl of Salis- 
 bury, In 1608, he was made lord high treasurer, and the exchequer was greatly improved 
 in his hands. C. was a man of immense energy and far-reaching sagacity, undoubtedly 
 the best minister the country had in his time; but he was cold, selfish, and unscrupu- 
 lous as to the means he took to gain his ends, and get rid of his rivals. His connection 
 with the disgrace of Essex and Raleigh laid him open to great and deserved odium, in 
 
Cecil. 
 
 Cedar. 
 
 596 
 
 tlie latter case especially. Like his father, however, he was free from the meanness and? 
 dishonesty of enriching himself out of the public money. He died May 24, 1612. 
 
 CECIL, William, Lord Burleigh, one of England’s greatest statesmen, was b. at 
 Bourne, Lincolnshire, Sept. 15, 1520. Educated at the grammar-schools of Grantham 
 and Stamford, he thence passed to St. John’s college, Cambridge, where he was remark- 
 able alike for his diligence and aptitude in learning. Entering Gray’s inn at the age of 
 21, he devoted himself assiduously to the study of law. History, genealogy, and the- 
 ology also formed part of his studies at this time; and his knowledge of the last recom- 
 mended him to the notice of Henry VIII., who presented him with the reversion of the 
 custos brevium, an office of value in the common pleas. An alliance with the daughter 
 of sir Anthony Cook procured him the friendship of the protector Somerset, who, in 
 1547, appointed him master of requests; and in the following year his great talents pro- 
 cured for him the office of secretary of state. He shared in the disgrace of Somerset, 
 even to imprisonment for three mouths ; but in less than two years after his release, his- 
 pre-eminent abilities secured for him a reappointment to the siate secretaryship by the 
 duke of Northumberland, his former patron’s sworn enemy. During his second secre- 
 taryship, C. effected most important and beneficial changes in the commercial policy of 
 the country. With a sagacity far beyond the spirit of his age, he endeavored to throw 
 trade open, and did succeed in abolishing some monopolies; but others proved too 
 strong for him, standing as he did alone, at a time when exclusive privileges were con- 
 sidered the only sureties of a profitable trade. When queen Mary ascended the throne, 
 C., being a Protestant, resigned his official employment, because he could not conscien- 
 tiously serve a Roman Catholic court; but as a private gentleman he maintained good 
 relations with the Roman Catholic party, and was one of the few eminent Protestants 
 who escaped in purse and person during that short but infamous reign. His freedom 
 from persecution has given rise to the charge, that he was a “ trimmer” — ^^a very unjust 
 accusation, indeed. C. was naturally cautious and politic, and averse to extremes in 
 religion ; but though he took no part in bitter sectarian discussions, he never belied his 
 conscience, and to him is mainly owing the rejection of the bill which the Roman Cath- 
 olics had introduced into parliament, with the view to a wholesale confiscation of the 
 estates of Protestants. Prior to Mary’s death, C., foreseeing her end, had entered into 
 correspondence with Elizabeth, who, on her accession to the throne (Nov. 16, 1558), at 
 once recognizing C.’s capacity for government, appointed him secretary of state. A 
 biography of C. from this time until his death would be a forty years’ history of Eng- 
 land, for he was alike the originator and director of that policy which, hitherto, ha& 
 made Elizabeth’s reign memorable above that of any other English sovereign; for 
 although Elizabeth occasionally, in her caprice, favored other courtiers, C. was th& 
 statesman whose judgment she relied on in all matters of consequence. His policy at 
 home and abroad was at once shrewd and cautious, and also liberal and comprehensive, 
 while he displayed a power of decision, ready and stern, when necessity demanded. As 
 a statesman, C. was above animosities and favoritism; his enemies never suffered, and 
 his friends profited nothing, by his power. Capacity, truth, and honor were what he- 
 sought in public men. Had he been less just, history might have been more generous, 
 to his memory. The queen created him baron Burleigh in 1571, and conferred on him 
 the order of the garter in the succeeding year, when he was also made lord high treas- 
 urer, an office he held until his death, Aug. 15, 1598. 
 
 CECILIA, St., the patroness of music, is said to have suffered martyrdom in 230 a.d. 
 Her heathen parents, as we are told, belonged to a noble Roman family, and betrothed 
 their daughter, who had been converted to Christianity, to a heathen youth named 
 Valerian. This youth and his brother Tiberius became Christian converts, and suffered 
 martyrdom. C., when commanded to sacrifice to idols, firmly refused, and was con- 
 demned to death. Her persecutors, it is said, first threw her into a boiling bath, but 
 on the following day they found her unhurt. The executioner next attempted to cut 
 off her head, but found it impossible. Three days later, she died — rather a lame con- 
 clusion to such miraculous interference! As early as the 5th c., there is mention of a 
 church dedicated to her at Rome; and in 821, by order of pope Paschal, her bones were 
 deposited there. St. C. is regarded as the inventor of the organ, and in the Roman 
 Catholic church her festival-day, Nov. 22, is celebrated with splendid music. Chaucer, 
 Drvden, and Pope have celebrated St. C., and the painters Raphael, Domenichino, 
 Dolce, and others have represented her in fine pictures. — Another St. C. was born in 
 Africa, and suffered martyrdom by starvation under Diocletian. The Roman Catholic 
 church celebrates her festival on the 11th of Feb. 
 
 CECRO'PIA, a genus of trees of the natural order artocarpacm. C. peltata, a native 
 of the West Indies and of South America, sometimes called trumpet-wood and snake- 
 wood, is remarkable for its hollow stem and branches, exhibiting merely membranous 
 partitions at the nodes. The small branches, these partitions being removed, are made 
 into wind-instruments. The wood is very light, readily takes fire by friction against a 
 harder piece of wood, and is much used by the Indians for procuring fire in this way. 
 The fruit is agreeable, and resembles a raspberry. Both the trunk and branches yield 
 a large quantity of saline matter, which is employed by the French planters in the 
 
597 
 
 Cecil, 
 
 Cedar, 
 
 purification of sugar. The bark is strong and fibrous, and is much used for cordage. 
 It is also astringent, and is applied in diarrhea and other diseases' 
 
 CECRO'PIA MOTH, Platysamia cecropia, the largest moth of the United States; 
 belonging to the family bembycidae, it is akin to the silk-worm. Its larva grows to be 
 between 3 and 4 in. long, and is a most beautiful object; its color is a tender green, 
 shading into blue upon its sides; on its head it wears an amber-colored knob raised 
 upon a short stem, and armed with short black points; rows of smaller knobs adorn the 
 back and sides, those along the sides being turquoise blue ; the foremost four on the 
 back are amber-colored. The larva feeds upon nearly all kinds of fruit trees, the 
 maple, willow, and some other trees. It spins a large cocoon, sometimes attached to 
 the under-side of a twig, when it is closely woven and tapers to a point at each end; 
 sometimes in the space between forking limbs, when it is loosely made, and is often as 
 large as a goose-egg. The outer and inner surfaces of the cocoon are somewhat con- 
 densed, so that there appear to be two cocoons or coverings. In the earlier stages of 
 the spinning, the insect often thrusts the silk in loops through the openings between the 
 threads, and these loops make it difficult to reel the silk; by dissolving in an alkali the 
 gum which the insect exudes to harden the cocoon, and by using great care, it is possi- 
 ble to reel the silk, but it is dark and coarse, and would be fit for only coarse and strong 
 fabrics. It has been carded and spun. The larva does not thrive in confinement, but 
 might be cultivated in the open air with a little pains. The moth appears in June; its 
 wings expand from 5 to 7 in. ; its general colcfl is dark brown thickly powdered with 
 gray; the borders of the wings are clay- colored, and each wing bears a light gray kid- 
 ney-shaped spot, bordered with lines of red and black. The antennae of the males aro 
 particularly large and fine, the main stem being feathered on each side with long 
 branches in pairs. Like other lepidopterous larvae, the cecropia is preyed upon by 
 various parasites, two species of ichneumon fiies being notable. 
 
 CE'CROPS, the first king of Attica, figures in Greek mythology as an autochthou 
 (q. V.), half-man and half-dragon. Belonging, as he does, to the prehistoric ages of Greece, 
 his real character can only be guessed at. Tradition declared him to be the founder of 
 marriage, the author of the political division of Attica into twelve states, and the intro- 
 ducer of agriculture, of navigation, and commerce. He is also said to have civilized the 
 religious rites of the people. The name C. is given to various towns in Greece, and the 
 legends in general seem to indicate a Pelasgic origin for the hero. The later accounts, 
 that he came from Sais in Egypt, have no historic basis. 
 
 CEDAR, a co. in e. Iowa, watered by Cedar and Wapsipinicon rivers, and intersected 
 by the Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific, and the Chicago and Northwestern railroads; 
 576 sq.m. ; pop. ’80, 18,937. The surface is divided between woodland and prairie; the 
 productions are mostly agricultural. Co. seat, Tipton. 
 
 CEDAR, a co. in s.w. Missouri, on Sac river; 435 sq.m.; pop. ’80, 10,757 — 146 col- 
 ored. The surface is uneven, but the soil is productive. Agriculture is the chief busi- 
 ness. Co. seat, Stockton. 
 
 CEDAR, a co. in n.e. Nebraska, on the Missouri river, watered chiefly by Bow creek ; 
 650 sq.m. ; pop. ’80, 2899. It is an agricultural region, but as yet not much cultivated. 
 Co. seat, St. James. 
 
 CEDAR, Barbadoes, Gedrela odorata, a tree of the natural order cedrelacem (q.v.), and 
 of the same genus with the toon of India, a native of the West Indies and warm parts 
 of America. It is simply called C. in the West Indies. It is often upwards of 80 ft. 
 high, with a trunk remarkable for thickness. It has panicles of flowers resembling those 
 of the hyacinth. The fruit, bark, and leaves have the smell of asafoetida, but the wood 
 has an agreeable fragrance. Being soft and light, it is used for canoes, and for shingles. 
 Havana cigar-boxes are very generally made of it. In France, it is used in making 
 black-lead pencils. 
 
 CEDAR, or Cedar or Leb'anon, a tree much celebrated from the most ancient times 
 for its beauty, its magnificence, and its longevity, as well as for the excellence and dura- 
 bility of its timber. It is often mentioned in Scripture ; it supplied the wood-work of Solo- 
 mon’s temple ; and in the poetry of the Old Testament it is a frequent emblem of pros- 
 perity, strength, and stability. It belongs to the natural order conifer ce, and is ihepinus 
 cedrus of the older botanists; but is now ranked in the genus (see Fir), in the genus 
 larix (see Larch), by those who make larix a distinct genus from abies, or is made the 
 type of a genus, cedrus, distinguished from larix by evergreen leaves and carpels sepa- 
 rating from the axis, and receives the name of G. lihani. 
 
 Of the celebrated Cedars op Lebanon, only a few now remain. They consist of a 
 grove of some 400 trees, about three quarters of a mile in circumference, partly old trees 
 and partly young ones. Learned travelers think that most of the trees in the grove may be 
 200 ;^ears old, and several between the ages of 400 and 800 years. There are 12 trees whose 
 age is incalculable — seven standing very near each other; three more a little further 
 on, nearly in a line with them ; and two, not observed by any recent traveler except lord 
 Lindsay, on the northern edge of the grove. The largest of these two is 63 ft. in circum- 
 ference — following the sinuosities of the bark ; one of the others measures 49 feet.. 
 
 These trees are more remarkable for girth than stature, their height hardly exceeding 
 
Cedar. 
 
 Ceiling. 
 
 598 
 
 50 feet. Their age is variously estimated ; the rules by which botanists determine the 
 age of trees are not applicable to them, for their stems have ceased to grow in regulal 
 concentric rings; they owe their prolonged existence to the superior vitality of a portion 
 of their bark, which has survived the decay of the rest, liusseger is inclined to admit 
 that these trees may possibly number some 2,000 years. 
 
 The Arabs, of all creeds, have a traditional veneration for these trees; they believe 
 that an evil fate would surely overtake any one who shall dare to lay sacrilegious hands 
 on the saints, as they fondly call them. Every year, at the feast of the transfiguration, 
 the Maronites, Greeks, and Armenians mount to the cedars, and celebrate mass on a 
 homely altar of stone at their feet. 
 
 The C. has been planted in parks in many parts of Europe ; it w^as introduced into 
 England in the latter part of the 17th c., and a tree at Sion house, London, is now 8 ft. 
 in diameter at 3 ft. above the ground. Even in Inverness-shire it succeeds so w'ell, that 
 trees at Beaufort castle, the seat of lord Lovat, planted in 1783, are now 3 or 4 ft. in 
 diameter. On its native mountains, the C. is found at the base of the highest peaks, at 
 an altitude of about 8, 000 ft. above the sea. It seems to delight in a dry open soil, 
 where, however, its roots can have access to abundance of water. Although in foliage 
 and some other particulars the C. considerably resembles the common larch, it differs 
 in form and habit very widely both from the larch and from the pines in general. Its 
 stem bears almost down to the ground irregularly placed branches, often of prodigious 
 size and expanse, which divide irregularly^ into branchlets. The leaves are dark green, 
 10 to 15 lines long, pointed, united in clusters of 20 to 30; on the young shoots they are 
 very numerous, and not in clusters; the small branchlets also are crowd^ed together and 
 pensile. The cones are erect, oval, broadly rounded at both ends, about 4 in. long, and 
 3 in. in diameter; their scales closely crowded, large, and broad. The cones take two 
 years to come to maturity, and hang on the tree for years before their scales come off 
 and their seeds are set free. The wood of the trunk is reddish, and full of a fragrant 
 resin. The ancients kept their writings in cabinets or boxes of cedar-wood. Extraor- 
 dinary indestructibility and other virtues were ascribed to it. It is not nearly so much 
 prized at the present day, because it is soft and light, and apt to crack in drying. This 
 inferiority is, however, not improbably owing to the inferior age of the trees from which 
 the timber is now procured. A resinous substance, called c^ar resin, or cedria, flows 
 spontaneously from the trunk of the C. , or from incisions ; it resembles mastic, and was 
 anciently used, along with other resins, in the embalming of the dead. It was also used 
 as a medicine. In very ancient times, C. Oil, a kind of turpentine, was prepared from 
 the wood, and was spread on books in order to their better preservation. At the present 
 day, the oil and the resin are scarcely known. The branches of the C., like those of 
 the larch in warm countries, exude a sweet substance, which is known by the name of 
 C. Manna. — The Deodar or Himalayan C. {cedrus deodara), a tree held in great 
 veneration by the Hindus, and of which the name is said to be properly devadara, and 
 to signify god-tree, is common in the Himalaya mountains, at elevations of 7,000 to 
 12,000 ft., forming magnificent forests, and attaining a great size, a height sometimes of 
 150 ft., with a trunk 30 ft. or more in circumference, an ample head, and spreading 
 branches. It is described as having cones somewhat larger than those of the C. of 
 Lebanon, the scales of the cones falling off as soon as the seed is ripe, and as differing 
 from the C. of Lebanon also in more pensile branches and longer leaves; but Dr. Hooker 
 expresses a strong opinion that they will prove to be really the same species, as well as 
 the C. of Algiers {G. Atlantica or Africana), which is found in the mountainous regions 
 of the n. of Africa. The wood of the deodar is resinous, fragrant, compact, and very 
 durable. It is susceptible of a high polish, and in its polished state has been compared 
 to brown agate. Owing to the abundance of resin, laths of it burn like candles. Its 
 turpentine is very fluid, and although coarse, is much used in India for medical pur- 
 poses ; and tar and pitch are obtained from the trunk. The deodar has now become 
 very common as an ornamental tree in Britain, although few specimens have yet attained 
 a very considerable size. On account of its extreme gracefulness when young, it is 
 often planted in situations to which large trees are unsuitable, and is to be seen in many 
 suburban parterres. — The name C. is often given to other coniferous trees besides the 
 true cedars. Thus, the Siberian stone pine, or Cembra pine, is called the Siberian C. 
 (see Pine), and a species of fir {abies religiosa) is the Red C. of California (see Fir). A 
 species of cypress (q.v.) is known as White C., and another as the C. of Goa. Several 
 of the trees which bear the name C. are species of juniper (q.v.), among which are the 
 Virginian C., or Red C. of North America, and the Bermuda C. — which yield the 
 cedar- wood used for pencils — the Spanish C. of the s. of Europe, etc. The name C. is 
 even given to trees which have no resemblance to the true cedars, except in the resinous 
 quality of the wood ; thus the cedar- wood of Guiana is produced by icica altissima, a 
 tree of the natural order amyridacecB (q.v.); the C. of the West Indies (see next article) 
 belongs to the natural order cedrelacem; and the name Bastard C. is given in India to 
 a tree of the natural order byttneriacece (q.v.). 
 
 CEDAR BIRD. See Waxwing 
 
 CEDAR CREEK, a stream in Shenandoah co., Va., falling into the Shenandoah 
 river. On this creek, Oct. 19, 1864, the confederates, under gen. Early, surprised Sherr 
 
599 
 
 Cedar. 
 
 Ceiling^. 
 
 dan’s (union) camp, during that officer’s absence. The unionists were compelled to> 
 retreat. Gen. Sheridan, who was at Winchester when he heard of the disaster, hastened 
 to the front, and, rallying his forces, in turn surprised the confederates who had stopped 
 to plunder the union camp, recovered nearly all that had been lost, took 2,000 prisoners, 
 and 50 pieces of artillery, and the next day cleared the valley of the Shenandoah of con- 
 federate troops. This brilliant achievement was the theme of T. Buchanan Read’s stir- 
 ring poem, Sheridan's Bide. 
 
 CEDAR FALLS, a city in Black Hawk co., Iowa, on Cedar river and the Iowa 
 division of the Illinois Central, at the intersection of the Burlington, Cedar Rapids and 
 Minnesota railroads, 98 m. from Dubuque. It is a manufacturing place of importance. 
 Pop. ’80, 3,035. 
 
 CEDAR MOUNTAIN, a hill in Culpepper co., Va., near which, Oct. 9, 1862, there 
 was an engagement between the federal forces under gen. Banks and the confederates 
 led by gen. Jackson. The confederates had the advantage and held the field, but two 
 days later fell back towards Gordonville to join gen. Lee. The reported losses were- 
 On the union side, 1400 killed and wounded, and 400 prisoners ; of the confederates, 1283' 
 killed and wounded, and 31 missing. 
 
 CEDAR MOUNTAINS, a range of the Cape colony, parallel with the Atlantic, and 
 nearly half way between it and the dividing ridge of the country. They form the height 
 of land between the Oliphant on the w., and the Great Thorn, its principal tributary, on 
 the e., varying in altitude from 1600 P '..o 5,000. They lie about lat. 32° s., and long 19° 
 e., in the division of Clanwilliam, and supply the village of that name with cedar planks. 
 
 CEDAR RAPIDS, a city in Linn co., la., on Red Cedar river, and the Burlington, 
 Cedar Rapids, and Minnesota railroad, at the intersection of the Iowa division of the 
 Chicago and Western railroad, and the junction of the Dubuque and Northwestern rail- 
 road. There are many important manufactories in and near the place. Pop. 5,940. 
 
 CEDAR, or Red Cedar, RIVER, rises in s.e. Minnesota, and flows s. and s e. through; 
 more than three quarters of the breadth of Iowa, falling into the Iowa river about 20 m. 
 e. of the Mississippi. The entire length is about 350 miles. ^ 
 
 CEDAR SPRINGS, a village in Spartanburg co., S. C., formerly a popular watering- 
 place. It is now the seat of a deaf and dumb asylum. The village is on the Spartan- 
 burg and Union railroad. 
 
 CE'DBATE. See Citron. 
 
 CEDRELA'CEJE, a natural order of exogenous plants, very nearly allied to meliaeecB 
 (q.v.), and chiefly distinguished by the winged seeds, numerous in each cell of the fruit, 
 which is a capsule. The known species are few, all tropical or sub-tropical trees or 
 shrubs, with pinnate leaves, most of them trees valuable for their timber. To this order 
 belong mahogany, satin-wood, toon, Barbadoes cedar, the yellow-wood of New South 
 Wales, etc. The barks of some species are febrifugal. That of soumida fehrifuga, the- 
 Rohuna or East Indian mahogany, has been imported into Britain as a medicine. 
 
 CEDRON, an extract of a bitter nature from a small tree growing in Central and 
 South America. In those countries the bitter is thought to be a remedy for the bite of 
 serpents, and a prophylactic against hydrophobia. In medical practice it is used as a 
 simple bitter principle. 
 
 CEFALU', a t. of Sicily, on the n. coast, 47 m. e.s.e. of Palermo. It is situated at the 
 foot of a rock, and is surrounded by old walls. It has a cathedral, and the ruins of a 
 Saracenic castle occupy a neighboring hill. As a seaport, it has little traffic. The- 
 inhabitants, numbering some 10,000, are chiefly engaged in fishing. 
 
 CEFALU', a seaport in n. Sicily, 39 m. e.s.e. of Palermo; pop. 10,200. The new 
 town, founded in 1131 by Roger I. of Sicily, is at the base of a steep promontory which 
 overlooks the magnificent bay of Cefalu. The houses are well built, and the cathedral, 
 begun in 1132, is distinguished for the beauty of its fa 9 ade, with antique pillars and 
 mosaics. There is a small but good harbor, and some trade in manna, oil, and sardines*,, 
 but most of the people are engaged in the sea-fishery. 
 
 CEG'LIE, a t. in southern Italy, province of Lecce, 18 m. n.e. of Taranto. Pop. about 
 12,580. It produces much grain, and has fine pastures. 
 
 CEHEGIN', a t. of Spain, in the province of Murcia, 37 m. w.n.w. of the city of that 
 name. It has some spacious streets, with handsome buildings, and manufactures of 
 paper, cloth, and pottery. Pop. about 10,000. 
 
 CEILING (Fr. del; Lat. ccelum, heaven). This term seems to have been suggested by 
 the use of arched coverings for churches, and even for rooms, which prevailed in the 
 middle ages, and was not unknown to the Romans. Whether the term was further sug- 
 gested by the habit of tinting ceilings of a blue color, and decorating them with stars, or 
 whether that usage arose from the use of the term already introduced, is more doubtful. 
 Arched ceilings among the Romans were known by the name camera or camera, the 
 Greek origin of which seems to furnish an argument in favor of the view that the arch 
 was known to the latter people. The camera was formed by semicircular beams of 
 wood, at small distances from each other, over which was placed a coating of lath and 
 
Celandine. 
 
 Celery. 
 
 600 
 
 plaster. In later times, tlie camerae were frequently lined with plates of glass; whence 
 they were termed rntrece. But the ceilings most commonly in use amongst the Romans 
 were flat, the beams, as in modern times, having been at first visible, and afterwards 
 covered with planks and plaster. Sometimes hollow spaces were left between the 
 planks, which were frequently covered with gold and ivory, or paintings. The oldest 
 flat C. in existence is believed to be that of Peterborough cathedral. Like that at 
 St. Alban’s abbey, it is made of wood, and plastered over like a modern ceiling. Ceil- 
 ings of churches, in the middle ages, were generally painted and gilded in the most 
 brilliant manner; and many existing ceilings still exhibit the traces of early decoration 
 of this kind. The older ceilings generally follow the line of the timbers of the roof, 
 which, in the early English and decorated, are often arranged so as to give the shape of 
 a barrel vault. In ceilings of this description there are seldom many ribs, often only a 
 single one along the top. In the perpendicular style, the C. often consists of a series of 
 flat surfaces or cants, formed on the timbers of the roof. Though sometimes altogether 
 destitute of ornament, they are more frequently enriched with ribs, dividing them into 
 square panels, with bosses (q.v.) or flowers at "the intersections. Wooden ceilings are 
 sometimes formed in imitation of stone-groining, with ribs and bosses, examples of 
 which will be found at York, Winchester, and Lincoln. In the Elizabethan age, ceil- 
 ings were generally of plaster, but they were ornamented with ribs having bosses or 
 small pendants at the intersections. It is not unusual for the C. immediately over the 
 altar, or the roodloft, to be richly ornamented, whilst the rest is plain. 
 
 CELANDINE, Ghelidonium, a genus of plants of the natural order papaveracem (the 
 poppy family), having a corolla of four petals, and a podlike capsule. The common 
 C. ((7. majus) is a perennial, with pinnate leaves, lobed leaflets, and yellow flowers in 
 simple umbels, frequent under hedges, in waste places, etc., in Britain and most parts 
 of Europe. It flowers from May to Sept. The root, stem, and leaves, when fresh, 
 have a disagreeable smell, and are full of a yellow juice, which is very acrid, causing 
 inflammation when applied to the skin. C. is sometimes used in medicine: it is a drastic 
 purgative, and in large doses an active poison; in small doses it is said to act beneficially 
 on the lymphatic system and on the organs of secretion, and to be useful in scrofulous 
 diseases, disease of the mesenteric glands, etc. The fresh juice, applied externally to 
 warts, corns, etc. , removes them by stimulating them beyond what their languid vital 
 powers can bear. Mixed with milk, it is applied to the eye for the cure of opacities 
 of the cornea, but is a remedy that requires great caution in its use. 
 
 CELA'NO, Lake of. See Fucino, Lake of. 
 
 €ELASTEA'CE.ffi, See Spindle-tree. 
 
 CEL EBES, a large island in the Eastern archipelago, e. of Borneo, between 5® 45' s. 
 lat., 1° 45' n. lat., and 118°, 126° e. longitude. Area, 37,485 sq. miles. It is irregular 
 in shape, and four peninsulas springing from a common root form the large bays of Go- 
 routalo and Tolo, and the gulf of Boni. C. is covered with mountains and valleys: a 
 chain running throughout it sends spurs into the peninsulas. Some are active volcanoes, 
 and earthquakes are frequent. The peak of Bonthaim is 9,788 ft. high. The island 
 has a rich soil and extensive pastures. The vegetable kingdom gives sago, cocoa-nuts, 
 bread-fruit, coffee, tamarinds, bananas, oranges, pine-apples, maize, rice, tobacco, sugar- 
 cane, indigo, sandal-, sapan-, and ebony-wood. The animals include excellent horses, 
 buffalo, cattle, wild swine, elands, goats, sheep, parrots, lories, birds of paradise, beautiful 
 butterflies, wild bees, etc. The minerals are gold, iron, coal, and salt. The people spin 
 and weave cottons. Pop., of various races, is reckoned at 3,000,000, of whom (1874) 
 568,338, including 2,000 Europeans, are under Dutch rule. 'The chief t. is Macassar, 
 which names the strait between C. and Borneo. In Nov., 1874, a fire destroyed 774 
 houses of the town. 
 
 CEL'EBES {ante), was first discovered by the Portuguese in the early part of the 16th 
 c., the exact date being given by some authors as 1512. At that time the Macassars 
 were the most powerful people in the island, having successfully defended themselves 
 Rgainst the king of the Moluccas and the sultan of Ternate. In 1609, the English endea- 
 vored to gain a foothold. The Dutch arrived near the end of the 16th or the beginning of 
 the 17th century. In 1611, the Dutch East India company obtained a monopoly of the 
 trade on the island of Buton, and in 1618, an insurrection in Macassar gave them an 
 opportunity of obtaining a definite settlement in Celebes. In 1660, the nadve kingdom 
 was forcibly subjugated by the Dutch, with 33 ships, and 2,700 men. Six years later, 
 the war began again, but was ended in 1667, and a treaty was signed by which the Dutch 
 were recognized as protectors and mediators of the different states who were parties to 
 the treaty. In 1683, the n.e. part of the island was conquered and put under the command 
 of the governor of the Moluccas; and in 1824, the kingdom of Boni was reduced. Since 
 that time there has been no important militaiy event except the speedily suppressed 
 insurrection in Boni in 1859. The island is very irregular in outline, and has been com- 
 pared to a star-fish with its limbs torn away from the w. side. There are few rivers, and 
 none are navigable for any considerable distance; but the lakes are numerous, and some 
 of them large. The most important of these is the Tamp-arang-Labaya, or Tempe, in 
 the s.e. section of the peninsula. It has a depth of 30 ft., and is richly stocked with fish. 
 
601 
 
 Celandine. 
 
 Celery, 
 
 The scenery throughout the island is varied and picturesque. There are wonderful 
 gorges, chasms, and precipices, many of the latter 600 ft. high, and yet covered with a 
 tapestry of vegetation. Much of the country is still covered with the primeval forest, 
 which is traversed here and there by scarcely perceptible paths, or broken by occasional 
 clearings or villages. The fauna of Celebes exhibits some specimens peculiar to the 
 island. Of 200 species of birds, 80 are not elsewhere found. There are only 14 species 
 of mammalia, and of these 11 are almost entirely confined to the area. The most 
 remarkable of these are an ape found in but one other country, a small ox-like quad- 
 ruped that inhabits the mountainous districts, and the pig-deer of the Malays, Neither 
 the elephant, the tapir, the rhinoceros, nor any large beast of prey is represented. Not 
 much attention has been given to agriculture, except where the Dutch influence and 
 example are strong; and manufactures are few and crude. The women weave a toler- 
 able cotton cloth. The houses are of wood and bamboo, and are usually very frail. The 
 whole of Celebes is practically in the hands of the Dutch government, though but a 
 comparatively small portion is under their direct administration, and many of the petty 
 princes are permitted to manage their internal affairs much as they please. For admin- 
 istrative purposes there are three “residences,” Celebes, Manado, and Ternate, the former 
 two belonging solely to the island, while the third includes a large part of the Moluccas, 
 The most important and interesting people in the island are those in the department of 
 Macassar. They consist mainly of Macassars and Malays proper, of Endinese from the 
 island of Flores, and immigrants from the neighboring kingdom of Wad jo. The foreign 
 colonies are each under the management of a separate captain, and the Malays are under 
 the care of a head priest. The Macassars belong to the Malay race ; they are well built 
 and muscular; with dark brown complexion, a broad and expansive face, black and 
 sparkling eyes, high forehead, nose rather flat, large mouth, and black soft hair which 
 they let fall over their shoulders. The women are sprightly, clever and amiable, and 
 formerly brought large prices as slaves. The men are brave, ambitious, jealous, and 
 revengeful, but not treacherous. Drunkenness is rare, but gambling and cock-fighting 
 are passionately engaged in. Running “amok” was once so common that the Dutch 
 dismissed the Macassar soldiers from their service to break up the evil. They take 
 great pleasure in all bodily exercise. In religion they call themselves Mohammedans, 
 but their worship is full of pagan superstitions; they worship animals and a divinity 
 called Kareng Love, who has power over their fortune and health. Their language, 
 which belongs to the Malayo- Javanese group, is spoken by about 300,000; but it has a 
 much smaller area than Buginese, which is the language of Boni. Their literature is. 
 poor, and consists mainly of romantic stories from the Malay, and religious treatises 
 from the Arabic. Of their few original works the most important are the early histories 
 of Goa, and some other states of the Celebes, and a collection of laws and maxims of the 
 old princes and sages. In no part of their possessions, however, have the Dutch made 
 more important transformations than in Minahassa, or the confederation of Manado. 
 At the beginning of the century the people were still savages, and in almost continual 
 warfare among themselves. About 1822, it was discovered that the soil of the mountain 
 sides was very favorable for growing coffee ; the cultivation was introduced, and a sys- 
 tem established by which the native chiefs undertook the management of the plantation. 
 The result has been not only to make one of the best coffee districts in the archipelago, 
 but wonderfully to advance the civilization of the inhabitants. Missions and education 
 have been successful ; villages of handsome houses have gi-own up ; the country is tra- 
 versed by roads shaded by trees, and rivers have been bridged. The trade of the dis- 
 trict is in a flourishing condition, and promises to become still more important. The 
 coffee plant produces a fine kernel of transparent greenish-blue color, and brings a much 
 higher price than that from Java. Besides other large district divisions, for the most 
 part physically similar to those described, there is the district or state of Toradja, lying 
 entirely inland, which is in possession of a wild pagan race who shun intercourse with 
 other races, and are generally regarded as the aborigines of the island. 
 
 CEL'ERES, a body-guard of 300 young men of the best Roman families, organized, 
 according to tradition, by Romulus. Next to the king, their leader was the highest 
 oflicer of the state. This position was held by Brutus when he expelled the Tarquins. 
 
 CELERY, Apium, a genus of plants of the natural order umhelUferce, distinguished by 
 a mere rudimentary calyx, roundish entire petals, very short styles, and roundish fruit. 
 The common C. {A. graveolens) is found wild in Britain and most parts of Europe, in 
 ditches, brooks, etc., especially near the sea and in saline soils. Its leaves are dark 
 green and smooth, its petals involute at the tip. The wild plant, also called Smallage, 
 has a stem about 2 ft. high, a tapering slender root, a penetrating offensive odor, a 
 bitterish acrid taste, and almost poisonous qualities. By cultivation, it is so much 
 changed that its taste becomes agreeably sweetish and aromatic, whilst either the leaf- 
 stalks much increase in thickness, or the root swells in a turnip-like manner. These 
 parts, blanched, are much used as a salad, or to impart flavor to soups, etc, , and some- 
 times as a boiled vegetable. They contain sugar, mucilage, starch, and a substance 
 resembling manna-sugar, wtiich acts as a stimulant, particularly on the urino-genital 
 organs, so that a very free and frequent indulgence in the use of C. cannot, in ordinary 
 circumstances, be altogether favorable to health. Two principal varieties of C, are cul- 
 
Celeste. 
 
 Celibacy. 
 
 602 
 
 tivated. that most common in Britain having long thick leaf-stalks, which are more or 
 less tubular, sometimes almost solid, and, after blanching, either white or more or less 
 tinged with red; whilst the other, called Turnip-rooted C., or Celeriac, is chiefly 
 remarkable for its swollen turnip-like root, and is in most general cultivation on the 
 continent of Europe. The “red” varieties of 0. are esteemed rather more hardy than 
 the “white,” The blanching of the leaf-stalks is generally accomplished by drawing 
 up earth to the plants, which are transplanted from the seed-bed into richly manured 
 trenches; and as they grow, the trenches are filled up, and the earth finally raised into 
 ridges, above which little more than the tops of the leaves appear. C. is thus obtained 
 for use throughout the winter. In the northern parts of Britain, the seed is generally 
 sown on a hot-bed. C. seed is often used for flavoring, when the leaf-stalks cannot be 
 obtained. — Another species of C. {apiu7n australe) grows abundantly in wet places on the 
 shore about cape Horn and in Staten island. It is a large, hardy, and luxuriant plant, 
 and is described as wholesome and very palatable, nearly equal in its wild state to our 
 garden-celery. It seems well worthy of the attention of horticulturists. 
 
 C^ILESTE, Madame, b. 1814; a dancer and melodramatic actress of French descent, 
 ;and a pupil of the Paris conservatory. She came to the United States about 1829, and 
 not long after married a man named Elliot. After his death she went to England, and 
 in 1830 began a career of remarkable success in the sensational drama of The French Spy. 
 She made two other American tours, 1851 and in 1865. In 1866, she returned to Eng- 
 land and retired from the stage. 
 
 CEL'ESTINE, a mineral bearing the same relation to strontia (q.v.) that heavy spar 
 bears to baryta. It is essentially sulphate of strontia StOSOs), with occasional admix- 
 ture of sulphate of baryta, carbonate of lime, oxide of iron, etc., in small proportions. 
 It much resembles heavy spar, but is not quite equal to it in specific gravity; is usually 
 blue, often of a very beautiful indigo-blue; sometimes colorless, more rarely reddish or 
 yellowish. Its crystallization is rhombic, like that of heavy spar. Most beautiful speci- 
 mens of crystallized C. are found in Sicily. C. derives its name from its color. It is 
 used as a source of strontia. 
 
 CEL'ESTINE, the name of five popes. 1. Saint Celestine, d. 432, is supposed to 
 have been a near relative of the emperor Valentinian. He held the council of Ephesus 
 in 431, at which the Nestorians were condemned; actively persecuted the Pelagians; 
 struggled for Roman orthodoxy; sent Palladius to Scotland, and Patricius (St. Patrick) 
 to Ireland; raged against the Novatians in Rome, imprisoning their bishop, and forbid 
 cing their worship, and was intolerant of the least innovation of the constitutions of his 
 predecessors. His papacy lasted nearly 8| years. 2. Guido di Gastello, chosen in 
 1143; d. 1144, after a reign of 5 months and 13 days. He gave absolution to Louis VII. 
 -of France, on the king’s humble subjection, and removed the papal interdict from that 
 country. 3. Giacinto Bobone Orsini, elected Mar. 30, 1191; d. 1198, after ruling 
 nearly 9 years, and was buried in the Lateran ; supposed to have been 90 years old when 
 chosen. He crowned the emperor Henry VI. of Germany, and subsequently excommu- 
 nicated him for keeping Richard I. of England in prison. In 1192, he confirmed the 
 statutes of the Teutonic order of knights. 4. Goffredo Castiglione of Milan, a 
 nephew of Urban HI. He was elected pope by only seven cardinals. Sept. 22, 1241, 
 and occupied the chair only 17 days, dying Oct. 8, before he was consecrated. He w^as 
 the author of a history of Scotland, in which country he was once a monk. 5. Pietro 
 daMorone, the son of a peasant of Naples; became a Benedictine monk, and lived 
 many years in caves after the manner of John the Baptist. Terrible stories are told of 
 the severity of his penitential discipline. During his hermit life he founded the order 
 that bears his name (see Celestines, ante). After the death of Nicholas IV. he was 
 elected pope, but refused to accept until persuaded by a deputation of cardinals rein- 
 forced by the kings of Naples and Hungary. He was chosen July 7, 1294, w^as crowned 
 Aug. 29. He issued two decrees; one confirming that of Gregory X. ordering the shut- 
 ting up of the cardinals when in conclave, and one declaring the right of any pope to 
 abdicate at pleasure — a right which, after ruling 5 months and 8 days, he exercised. 
 Dec. 13, 1294. In his document of renunciation he assigned as the moving causes “ the 
 desire for humility, for a purer life, for a stainless conscience; the deficiencies ai his 
 own physical strength ; his ignorance, the perverseness of the people, and his longing 
 for the tranquillity of his former life.” Having divested himself of every outward sym 
 bol of dignity, he returned to his old solitude; but he was not permitted to remain; his 
 successor, Boniface VIII., sent for him, and, despite his efforts to escape, imprisoned 
 him in a castle, wdiere, after languishing ten months in the infected atmosphere, he died, 
 May 19, 1296. He, like the first of the name, is recognized as a saint by the Roman 
 church. 
 
 CEL'ESTINES, an order of hermits of St. Damianus, founded by Peter de Morrone 
 about 1264, and confirmed as a monkish order by Urban IV. in 1264 and 1274. They 
 called themselves C. when their founder ascended the papal chair under the name of 
 Celestine V. They are regarded as a branch of the great order of St. Benedict, whose 
 rule they follow; they wear a white garment with black hood and scapulary, and live a 
 purely contemplative life. In the 13th and 14th centuries, the order rapidly spread 
 -through France, Italy, and Germany, but subsequently decayed. The French C. were 
 
603 
 
 Celeste. 
 
 Celibacy. 
 
 secularized by order of pope Pius VI. in 1776-78; so also were the Neapolitan Celestines. 
 In the present day, the order is almost extinct. 
 
 CELIBACY, from Lat. codehs, unmarried. Notwithstanding the divine commendation 
 of marriage given in the Jewish Scriptures (Gen. i. 28), the opinion had become prevalent, 
 even before the time of Christ, that C. was favorable to an intimate union with God. 
 This notion took its origin in the wide-spread philosophy of a good and an evil princi- 
 ple. The body, consisting of matter, the seat of e^dl, was looked upon as the prison of 
 the pure soul, which was thought to be defiled by bodily enjoyments. Among the Jew- 
 ish sect of theEssenes, accordingly, a life of C. was held to be the chief road to sanctity. 
 These ascetic views naturally led, in the first place, to the disapproval of second mar- 
 riages. While, therefore, in the first Christian churches, every one was left at libertjr 
 to marry or not as he thought fit, the objection to those who married a second time had 
 become so generally spread, that the apostle Paul saw occasion to counsel such Christian 
 converts as were in widowhood to remain so. 
 
 By the 2d c., however, the unmarried life generally had begun to be extolled, and to 
 be held necessary for a life of sanctity, although several, at least, of the apostles them- 
 selves had been married. Two passages of Scripture (1 Cor. vii. and Rev. xiv. 4) were 
 specially cited as proving that C. was the genuine condition of a Christian; and with the 
 platonizing fathers of the 2d and 3d centuries, the unmarried of both sexes were held as 
 standing higher than the married. Accordingly, although there was no express law 
 against the marriage of the clerg5^ many, especially of the bishops, remained unmarried; 
 a second marriage was, in their case, already strictly prohibited. 
 
 As the bishops of Rome rose in consideration, and gradually developed a firmer 
 church government, they called upon all who belonged to the clerical order to live for 
 the church alone, and not marry. This requirement met with constant resistance; still, 
 it became more and more the custom, in the 4th c., for the higher clergy to refrain from 
 marriage, and from them it went over to the lower orders and to the monks. Provincial 
 synods now began expressly to interdict the clergy from marrying. The council of Tour& 
 (566) suspended for a year all secular priests and deacons who were found with their 
 wives; and the emperor Justinian b}’’ an edict declared all children born to a clergyman, 
 after ordination, to be illegitimate, and incapable of inheritance. There were still, how- 
 ever, many married priests who resisted the law, and found encouragement in the oppo- 
 sition which the Greek church made to that of Rome in this matter of celibacy. The 
 council held at Constantinople in 692, declared, in opposition to the church of Rome, 
 that priests and deacons might live with their wives as the laity do, according to the 
 ancient custom and ordinance of the apostles. The orthodox Greek church has continued 
 to adhere to this decision. Priests and deacons in that church may marry before ordina- 
 tion, and live in marriage after it ; but they are not allowed to marry a second time. 
 However, only a priest living in C. can be chosen as bishop or patriarch. 
 
 The Church of Rome continued its endeavors to enforce the law of C. ; though, for 
 several centuries they were attended with only partial success. There still continued to 
 be numbers of priests with wives, although the councils were always issuing new orders, 
 against them. Popes Leo IX. (1048-54) and Nicolas II. (1058-61) interdicted all priests 
 that had wives or concubines from the exercise of any spiritual function, on pain of 
 excommunication. Alexander II. (1061-73) decreed excommunication against all who 
 should attend a mass celebrated by a priest having a wife or concubine. This decision 
 was renewed by Gregory VII. in a council held at Rome in 1074, and a decretal was 
 issued that every layman who should receive the communion from the hands of a mar- 
 ried priest should be excommunicated, and that every priest who married or lived in 
 concubinage, should be deposed. The decree met with the most violent opposition in 
 all countries; but Gregory succeeded in carrying it out with the greatest rigor; and 
 though individual instances of married priests were still to be found in the 12th and 13th 
 centuries, the C. of the Roman Catholic clergy was established, and has since continued 
 both in theory and practice. 
 
 The violence thus done to human nature did not fail to avenge itself in those rude 
 times. The licentiousness and corruption of the priests and monks became in many 
 cases boundless, and it was in vain that strict individuals, as well as councils, strove 
 against it. The immorality and debasement of the clergy became a reproach and by- 
 word in the mouth of the people, and gave a powerful impulse to the religious movement 
 that began in the 16th century. The leading reformers declared against the C. of the 
 clergy as unfounded in Scripture, and contrary to the natural ordinance of God, and 
 Luther set the example of marrying. This was not without effect on the Roman Catholic 
 clergy, and the question of the abolition of C. was raised at the council of Trent (1563). But 
 the majority of voices decided that God would not withhold the gift of chastity from those 
 that rightly prayed for it, and the rule of C. was thus finally and for ever imposed on 
 the ministers of the Roman Catholic church. Those, who have only received the lower 
 kinds of consecration may marry on resigning their office. For all grades above a sub- 
 deacon, a papal dispensation is necessary. A priest that marries incurs excommunica- 
 tion, and is incapable of any spiritual function. If a married man wishes to become a 
 priest, he receives consecration only on condition that he separate from his wife, and 
 that she of her free will consent to the separation and enter a religious order, or take th© 
 
-Cell. 
 
 Cells. 
 
 604 
 
 TOW of chastity. The priests of the united Graeco-Catholic congregations in Rome have 
 received permission from the popes to continue in marriage, if entered into before con- 
 secration, but on condition of always living apart from their wives three days before 
 they celebrate mass. 
 
 Notwithstanding these decisions, the contest against clerical C. has again and 
 ■again been resumed, in recent times, both within and without the Roman Catholic 
 church. In fact, all attempts at innovation within the bosom of Catholicism, connect 
 themselves with the attack on C., the abolition of which would deeply affect the con- 
 stitution and position of that church. So far back as 1817, the Catholic faculty of 
 Tubingen expressed the opinion that compulsory C. was one of the chief causes of the 
 ■want of Catholic ministers. In 1826, the Catholic clergy of Silesia put in petitions to 
 the bishop for the abolition of C. ; and unions were afterwards formed in Baden, Wilr- 
 temberg, Bavaria, Silesia, and Rhenish Prussia, which, along with alterations in the 
 doctrines and ritual of the Romish church, combined attacks on the prohibition of mar- 
 riage to the clergy. A work was also published, entitled The Introduction of Compul- 
 sory Celibucy among the Christian Priesthood, and its Consequences (Altenb. 1828, new ed. 
 1845), which excited great attention. At last the abolition of the law came to be dis- 
 cussed in the legislatures of Baden, Saxony, and other countries. The church claimed 
 this subject as belonging exclusively to her jurisdiction, and not to that of the state; and 
 in Wiirtemberg the clergy induced the government to suppress the anti-celibacy society; 
 but this only made their opponents in the press the more zealous. In France, also, the 
 question, about 1829, was eagerly discussed. And in Spain, the academy of ecclesiasti- 
 cal science took the subject into consideration in a meeting held in 1842; while the Por- 
 tuguese chambers had previously, in 1835, discussed it, though without result. The 
 «ame took place in Brazil, about 1827. 
 
 During the commotions of 1848, the subject was again brought into prominence in 
 'Germany. The German Catholics (q.v.) had already abolished C. ; and a general meas- 
 ure was called for in the Frankfort parliament, in the Prussian assembly, and in the 
 press. In Austria, also, voices were raised against it; but here the state took the side 
 of the pope, who, in a bull of 1847, had added fresh stringency to the rule of C., and 
 condemned its infringement. See Bachelor. 
 
 CELL (Lat. cella, from celo, to conceal). The Latin word had nearly all the signifi- 
 cations which we attach to the English one, and a good many besides which we have 
 not borrowed. For example, the whole space between the walls of an ancient temple 
 was called the cella. But the interior was frequently divided into several cellse, in which 
 case each C. took the name of the deity whose statue it contained, and was called the 
 C. of Jupiter, Juno, Minerva, and the like. In these cases, the word approached to its 
 general meaning, which, with the Romans as with us, was that of a store room, or small 
 .apartment where objects of any kind were stowed away. In modern architecture, the 
 term vaulting C. signifies the hollow space between the principal ribs of a vaulted roof. 
 
 CEL'LARER, a person under the Roman emperors who supervised the domestic 
 affairs of the household and examined accounts. The same title was given in later 
 times to the purveyors for monasteries or priests. As an officer of a monastery the C. 
 regulated every matter affecting provisions. 
 
 CEL'LE, or Zell, a t. of Hanover, on the left bank of the Aller, which at this point 
 becomes navigable, 23 m. n.e. of the city of Hanover. It is situated in the midst of a 
 sandy plain, well built, and has a palace with a garden, in which Matilda, sister of 
 George HI., is buried. Pop. ’75, 18,163. The inhabitants are very industrious. The 
 chief manufactures are linen, hosiery, tobacco, wafers, soap, etc. An active commerce 
 is also carried on by the Aller, and by railway. 
 
 CELLI'NI, Ben'venu'to, a celebrated Italian gold-worker, sculptor, founder, and 
 medailleur, remarkable not only for his skill as an artist, but also for his checkered life, 
 was b. at Florence in the year 1500, and first displayed skill as a chaser and gold- 
 worker. His autobiography is a remarkably curious and interesting work, presenting 
 us with a complete picture of the author’s life and character; his activity, his extraordi- 
 nary weaknesses, the impetuosity of his passions, the perilous circumstances in which 
 his quarrelsome disposition placed him (for C. thought nothing of committing man- 
 slaughter in a moment of rage), and the ludicrous vanity and credulity which are never 
 absent from him. The book is also of great value in a historico-social point of view, 
 but does not impress us favorably in regard either to the personal or social morals of 
 the time. 
 
 At an early period, having been banished from Florence in consequence of an 
 “affray,” C. went to Rome, where he was employed by many distinguished patrons of 
 art, but afterwards was allow^ed to return to Florence. Another “ affray” compelled 
 him to fiee to Rome a second time, where he secured the favor of Clement VII. . C., by 
 his own account, was as great in arms as in art; he declares that it was himself who 
 killed the constable Bourbon and the prince of Orange at the siege of Rome. His reck- 
 less conduct for some years compelled his constant shifting between Rome and Florence. 
 Mantua, and Naples. In 1537, he went to the court of France, where he was very hon- 
 orably received. Illness, however, induced him to return yet once more to Rome, where 
 lie had the misfortune to be imprisoned on a charge of plundering the treasures in the 
 
605 
 
 Cell. 
 
 Cells. 
 
 castle of St. Angelo during the siege of Rome. At length he wan liberated, through the 
 ititeice.asioii of the cardinal of Ferrara, for whom he executed, out of gratitude, a fine 
 cup, and various other works. He now accompanied his deliverer to France, and 
 entered the service of Francis I. ; but having incurred the displeasure of the ruling 
 favorite, Mme. d’Estampes, he returned to Florence — not, however, until, as usual, 
 he had settled some matters with his “ sword” — where, under the patronage of Cosmo 
 de’ Medici, he executed several fine works in metal and marble — among them, the cele- 
 brated bronze group of “Perseus with the Head of Medusa,” now in the market-place 
 in Florence. Among other preserved works of C., the splendid shield in Windsor castle 
 may be noticed. In his 58th year he began to write his autobiography, and died in 
 1570 or 1572. In 1876, a number of C. ’s original papers were found. 
 
 CELLS, in Physiology. — I. Animal Cells. — On examining, under a high magnifying 
 power, any of the constituents of the animal body, we perceive that the smallest parts 
 which appear to the naked eye as fibers, tubes, etc., are not ultimate elements in respect to 
 form (morphotic elements), but that they contain and are built up of certain 'extremely 
 minute particles, which differ in different organs, but always have a similar appearance 
 in the same organs. By far the most important of these microscopic forms, which are 
 known by histologists as “simple elementary parts,” are the C., which not only form 
 the starting-point of every animal and vegetable organism (the ovum in either kingdom 
 of nature being simply a cell), but also — either as C., or after having undergone certain 
 modifications which will be presently described — make up the tissues and organs of the 
 perfect animal. Indeed, some of the lowest plants (red snow, gory dew), and of the 
 simplest forms of animal life (GregorinsB, etc., q.v.), appear to consist of a single cell. 
 
 While in plants the elementary parts generally unite directly with one another, in 
 animals they are usually combined by an interstitial substance, which may be either 
 solid or fluid, and is always derived from the blood or general nutrient fluid. If this 
 interstitial substance take a part in the formation of the C., it is called a cytoblastema 
 or a blastema, from kutos, a cell or vesicle, and blastema, germ substance ; if it has noth- 
 ing to do with their maintenance, it is called the matrix. The cytoblastema is usually 
 fluid, as in the blood, chyle, etc. ; while the matrix is solid, as in cartilage, bone, etc. 
 
 In every cell, we can distinguish, if we use sufficiently high magnifying powers, a 
 membranous envelope, known as the cell-wall or membrane, and certain contents. The 
 latter are fluid or gelatinous, and besides containing particles or granules, usually 
 exhibit a peculiar rounded body, the nucleus; which, again, contains in its interior a 
 fluid and a still smaller corpuscle, the nucleolus. 
 
 The fundamental form of the cell is spherical or lenticular; it is such in all young C., 
 and is persistent in those which occur in fluids, as, for example, the blood-corpuscles. 
 Amongst other well-known forms may be mentioned : the polygonal, as in pavement 
 epithelium, or the pigment of the eye; the conical or pyramidal, as in ciliated epi- 
 thelium; the cylindrical, as in cylinder epithelium; the fusiform, or spindle-shaped, as 
 in contractile fiber-cells; the squamous, as epidermic scales; and the caudate, polar, or 
 stellate, as the C. in the gray nervous tissue. 
 
 With regard to size, the largest animal C. — excepting the unicellular organisms — 
 are the yolk-cells of the ova of birds and amphibia, while the blood-cells of certain ani- 
 mals may be taken as representing the smallest cells. Average C. range from 0.005 to 
 0.01 of a line in diameter. 
 
 The cell-membrane is usually transparent and colorless, mostly smooth, and so thin 
 as to exhibit only a single contour, rarely of any measurable thickness. No traces of 
 structure can be detected in it. The granular appearance which the membrane occa- 
 sionally presents, is due to projections depending on granules lying on the inside; and 
 it vanishes on the addition of water, which causes th^e cell to be distended by endos- 
 mosis. See Osmotic Action. 
 
 C. which contain only fluid are rare (fat-cell, blood-cell) ; generally, besides fluid, 
 they contain elementary granules and vesicles, and sometimes crystals. As a general rule, 
 the number of these morphotic elements increases with the age of the cell ; sometimes, 
 however, this is not apparent, in consequence of their being grouped in a single mass 
 around the nucleus. 
 
 The nucleus is usually spherical or lenticular, transparent and either colorless or 
 yellowish, and ranges from 0.002 to 0.004 of a line in diameter. All nuclei are vesicles, 
 as was originally maintained, in 1841, by Schwann {Microscopical Researches into the 
 Accordamce in the Structure and Growth of Animals and Plants, Sydenham society’s 
 translation, 1847, p. 173), who must be regarded as the founder of the cell-theory in its 
 relation to animal tissues, and as has since been confirmed by Kolliker and other later 
 observers. The contents of the nucleus usually consist, with the exception of the 
 nucleolus, of a limpid or slightly yellowish fluid, from which water and acetic acid pre- 
 cipitate granular matter. In general, only one nucleus exists in each cell, except when 
 it is multiplying (a process which we shall presently explain) ; occasionally, however, 
 we meet with several nuclei — four, ten, or even twenty. 
 
 The nucleolus is round, sharply defined, and often so small as to be almost immeas- 
 urable. Nucleoli are found in most nuclei so long as the latter are still young, and in 
 many during their whole existence. As, however, nuclei exist in which no nucleolus 
 
Cells. 
 
 606 
 
 can be detected, we cannot regard the nucleolus as so essential an element of the cell a» 
 the nucleus. Most commonly a nucleus contains only one nucleolus; two are not unfre- 
 quently seen ; more are rare. 
 
 Our knowledge of the chemical composition of C. is very imperfect. That the cell- 
 membrane is a protein substance (q.v.) — at all events in young C. — is obvious from its. 
 solubility in acetic acid and in dilute caustic alkalies; and the membrane of the necleus 
 seems to have a similar composition; while there are chemical reasons for believing that 
 the nucleolus is composed of fat. In the contents of most C. we usually find such sub- 
 stances as occur in solution in the cytoblastema — viz., water, albumen, fat, extractive 
 matters, and salts; and in the C. of secreting organs, as for instance, the liver and kid- 
 neys, we find the special secretions of those glands; in the blood-cells, we find hema- 
 tocrystalline, etc. 
 
 There are two perfectly distinct ways in which C. can be generated: they may be 
 developed independently of other C. in a plastic fluid (the cytoblastema) ; or they may 
 be developed from pre-existing C. by cell-multiplication, the existing C. either produc- 
 ing secondary C. within themselves, or multiplying by division. In both these latter 
 kinds of cell-development, the nucleus seems to be the center of development of the 
 young cells. 
 
 In order that free or independent cell-development shall take place, we must have 
 a cytoblastema containing protein substances (probably fibrin), fat, and certain salts 
 (especially phosphates) in solution; and very possibly the presence of the particles of 
 pre-existing C. may also be necessary, in which case free cell-development ceases to. 
 exist. The chyle and lymph corpuscles may be mentioned as examples of this mode of 
 cell-formation. The steps of the process are not very clearly made out, but we know 
 that the nuclei are first formed, and that the cell-membranes are developed around them. 
 Free cell-development is far less common in man and the higher animals than cell-mul- 
 tiplication, and, we believe, never occurs in the vegetable kingdom. All pathological 
 cell-formations — the C. in pus (q.v.), and in other morbid exudations — come, however,, 
 under this head. 
 
 The development of C. within other C. is of very common occurrence. An original 
 or parent cell produces two or more secondary or daughter C. , and the process of forma- 
 tion is said to be endogenous. Cartilage-cells afford a good example of this process. 
 The nucleus and the contents of each parent cell undergo division into two parts, so 
 that the number of C, is successively doubled. The mode in which the multiplication 
 of the nucleus takes place cannot be definitely made out in all cases, but when clear 
 observation is possible, the nucleoli first divide into two, and then separate. 
 
 A multiplication of C. by division has been proved to take place in the red blood-cells 
 of the embryos of birds and mammals, and in the first colorless blood-cell of the tad- 
 pole, and very probably occurs extensively in many embryonic and adult tissues, in 
 which a self-multiplication of C. is certain, but where no parent C. with secondary C. 
 can be detected. In this and similar cases we have an elongation of the cell, and the 
 single nucleus becomes divided into two; the cell then suffers constriction in the mid- 
 dle, which proceeds till it finally separates into two parts, each of which contains a 
 nucleus. This variety of cell-formation affords a good illustration of the doubt and 
 difficulty connected with this class of investigations. It was altogether unknown to. 
 Schwann when he published his great work in 1839, and was first noticed and described 
 by Remak in 1841, who, however, subsequently retracted his published view, and 
 did not again advocate it till Kblliker confirmed his observation, and declared it to be 
 correct. 
 
 No satisfactory theory has been propounded with the view of explaining the develop- 
 ment of cells. Schwann compares the formation of C. with that of crystals, but it must 
 be recollected that the molecular attraction concerned in the formation of C. is so far 
 peculiar, that — 1. It never produces geometrical solids, but even in the nucleus and 
 nucleolus determines a globular form; 2. That it aggregates not homogeneous, but 
 chemically different substances; and 3. That the final result of its action — namely, the 
 cell — is extremely limited in size, while a crystal may be of a comparatively indefinite 
 magnitude. 
 
 The growth of C. requires some notice. Growth probably occurs in all C., although 
 not in all to the same extent. It is most obvious in those which are formed directly 
 round a nucleus, since in these the membranes which at first closely invest the nucleus, 
 in time become distended and enlarged, and merely remain in contact with the nucleus 
 at one point. Growth may take place either in surface or in thickness. The former is 
 most commonly general — viz., in all those cases where C. increase without altering their 
 form ; but is sometimes partial — viz. , in those cases in which the gell deviates consider- 
 ably h’om the primary globular form. The latter occurs to a certain degree in all C. , 
 but in some kinds to a far greater extent than in others. The nuclei and nucleoli also 
 take part to a certain extent in the growth of the cells. Schwann gives the following 
 general explanation of the process of growth. He considers that the molecules of the 
 cell-membrane exert an attractive influence on the fluid which surrounds them, and 
 deposit its newly formed particles amongst themselves. If the deposition take place 
 between the molecules already present in the substance of the membrane, the cell 
 
Cells. 
 
 becomes distended; if it take place only in one or more definite directions, the mem- 
 brane becomes thickened. 
 
 Having now traced the cell to the period of its full growth, we are prepared to con- 
 sider the processes which occur in the anterior of this minute organic structure, or, in 
 other words, the physiology of cells. To enter satisfactorily into this subject, we ought 
 to have an exact knowledge of the chemical composition of the contents of different 
 cells. All that we know of the contents of C. generally is, as we have already stated, 
 that they usually consist of a moderately concentrated solution of protein matters, with 
 alkaline and earthly salts, and dissolved or suspended fat- particles; and that besides 
 these ingredients rdany C. contain either a great preponderance of one of these constitu- 
 ents, to the almost entire exclusion of others, or are found to contain altogether new 
 substances. Thus, there are C. with much protein matters, as the nerve-cells, and with 
 much fat, like the fat-cells; while there are other cells which specially contain haematine 
 <the red coloring matter of the blood), pigment, biliary and urinary constituents, mucus, 
 milk, sugar, etc. 
 
 The main cell-processes occurring in these variously constituted C. are absorption, 
 secretion, and excretion. These depend principally, if not entirely, upon chemical and 
 physical laws, and are to a great extent amenable to micro-chemical observation. 
 
 Absorption, or the appropriation of matters from without, is most manifest to those 
 C. which at first have little or no contents save the nucleus. Although endosmose must 
 be taken into account as a condition of absorption, C. must not be regarded merely as 
 vesicles provided with indifferent porous membranes; for the filling of C. does not take 
 place by their admitting every kind of matter indiscriminately; but they have the 
 power of taking up one constituent, and rejecting another, and thus exhibit a selective 
 faculty. 
 
 The cell having thus become filled from without, we have next to inquire into the chan- 
 ges which take place in the membrane and in the contents. As regards the former, the 
 membranes of most C. not only become denser and more solid with age, but they undergo 
 changes in their chemical constitution. Thus, in the horny tissues, the young C. are 
 easily soluble in alkalies and acids, while older C. of the same nature are scarcely 
 affected by these re-agents; again, in cartilage C., the membrane not only becomes 
 firmer with age, and thickens as ossification proceeds, but is changed into a tissue 
 yielding gelatine or glue on boiling, which subsequently becomes impregnated with salts 
 of lime (phosphate and carbonate). See Bone. 
 
 The function of secretion is mainly carried on by changes in the contents of the C. 
 Thus, mucous is formed in the epithelial C. of the mucous membranes, pepsin in those 
 of the gastric glands, bile in the C. of the liver, and sepia in the C. of the ink-bag of the 
 cuttle-fish. In these cases, the C. do not separate mucus, pepsin, etc. , from the blood, 
 but merely the materials from which they elaborate these substances. In other cases, as, 
 for instance, in the C. of the kidney, the function of these minute organisms is not to 
 manufacture new products, but merely to separate certain substances (urea, uric acid, 
 etc.) from the blood, which, if not immediately removed from the general circulation, 
 would speedily accumulate, and act as a deadly poison. That these C. merely separate 
 the urea from the blood, and do not form it in their interior, is proved by the fact that, 
 if the kidneys of an animal are extirpated, the urea and other urinary constituents may 
 «peedily be found in large quantity in the blood. 
 
 Excretion takes place by the bursting or solution of the distended secreting cell, 
 usually into the duct of a secreting gland. The reader who desires further information 
 on the functions of the C. in relation to secretion and excretion, is especially referred to 
 an admirable memoir by prof. Goodsir, “On Secreting Structures,” published in John 
 and Harry D. S. Goodsir’s Anatomical and Pathologic(d Researches, 1845. 
 
 In conclusion, we must notice the metamorphoses of C. The ovum itself is, as we 
 have already mentioned, merely a nucleated cell; after impregnation, a number of sec- 
 ondary C. are formed within it, by a process of cleavage or segmentation. See articles 
 Generation c.nd Ovum. Some of the C. which occur in the ovum in its early stages 
 soon coalesce with others to form the higher elementary parts, which we shall shortly 
 enumerate; others, without entering into combinations, more or less change their previ- 
 ous nature, as the horny plates of the epidermis and nails; while others, again, undergo 
 no change of form throughout the period of their existence. 
 
 The permanent C. are arranged by Kolliker {Manual of Human Histology, translated 
 by Busk and Huxley, 1853, vol. i. p. 47) under the following heads: 
 
 1. True Cells, which have in no essential respect altered their cellular character. These 
 occur in the epidermis and the epithelium; in the blood, chyle, and lymph; in the 
 glandular secretions, in the fatty tissue, in the gray nervous substance, in the glands 
 (liver, spleen, etc.), and the cartilages. Their varieties of form and contents have been 
 already noticed. Regarding their modes of occurrence, some are either isolated in fiuida 
 or in solid tissues; others are united by apposition, without any intervening structure, 
 into a cellular parenchyma; while others, again, are conjoined by an intercellular sub- 
 stance of some kind. 
 
 2. Metamorphosed Cells. To these belong — the horny scales: fiattened, polygonal, or 
 fusiform ; their membrane being fused into one mass with their contents. They occur 
 in the epidermis, the laminated pavement epithelium, and the hair and nails. The con- 
 
Oellulares. 
 
 Celluloid. 
 
 608 
 
 tractile fiber C.: fusiform, slightly flattened, considerably elongated C., whose membrane, 
 with its soft, solid contents, is changed into a contractile substance. They occur in the 
 smooth or involuntary muscles. I'lie tubules of the crystalline lens of the eye: very elon- 
 gated C. , with viscid, albuminous contents. 2' he prisms of the enamel of the teeth: greatly 
 elongated, prismatic, and strongly calcified cells. T he bone C.: thickened C. (with 
 
 canaliculi, or minute branching canals) which have coalesced with the matrix of the 
 bones. The transversely striated muscular G.: large polygonal C. whose contents have 
 become metamorphosed into a transversely striated or striped tissue, such as is found ia 
 voluntary muscular fiber. From these C. are formed all the different fibers, net-works, 
 membranes, tubes, etc. ; in short, all the higher elementary parts of which the animal 
 body is composed. 
 
 For further information on C. and cell-development, the reader is referred, in addi- 
 tion to the works quoted in this article, to Leydig, Lehrbuch der Histologic des Menschen 
 und der Thiere, 1857; and to Frey, Histologic und Histocheme des Menschen^ 1859 (trans- 
 lated by Barker, 1874). He will find full details on morbid cell-development (the growth 
 of C. in tubercle, cancer, and other morbid deposits) in Vogel’s Pathological Anatomy of 
 the Human Body, translated by Day, 1847; and in Wedl’s Pathological Histology, trans- 
 lated (for the Sydenham society) by Busk, 1855. 
 
 II. Vegetable Cells. — In the vegetable, as in the animal kingdom, the primary 
 form of the cell is that of a sphere. There are, however, interfering influences, which 
 usually alter or modify the primary form, of which the most important are, (1.) Special 
 directions assumed in the development, in obedience to a law regulating the structure 
 of the tissue in which the cell occurs; and (2.) Obstructions to the expansion of the cell 
 in certain directions from the pressure of surrounding cells. 
 
 The most common forms referrable to the law of development are, (1.) The spherical 
 or fundamental form; (2.) The cylindrical, in which there is a tendency to elongation m 
 the direction of a vertical axis; and (3.) The tubular, in which there is an excess of 
 development in the direction of the two transverse axes. 
 
 The secondary modifications of these forms are numerous. Thus, in lax tissues, the 
 spherical form may become an irregular spheroid, running out into lobed, and even stel- 
 late forms, as may be seen in the pith of rushes and the stems of various aquatic plants. 
 Again, in seeds, the hard part of fruits, etc., the mutual pressure of the C. converts the 
 spherical into polyhedral forms, of which the dodecahedron — giving a hexagonal section, 
 and arising from equal pressure in all directions — is the most common, although cubic 
 and many other forms occasionally occur. 
 
 The magnitude of the vegetable C. is very varied. In flax, the liber-cells have been 
 found i, or even f of an inch in length, and the cylindrical C. of some of the confervse 
 are more than an inch long — although their transverse diameter is very minute — whilst, 
 ®n the other hand, the spores of fungi are C. of a diameter of inch. The 
 
 average diameter of the C. in the parenchymatous tissues is about of an inch. 
 
 Both the cell-wall and the contents differ from the corresponding parts in animal 
 cells. In all young C. the wall is membranous, freely permeable by water, elastic, and 
 flexible. In many cases it retains these properties, -whilst in others it becomes much 
 modified, as the cell grows older. It consists mainly of cellulose (q.v.). As the vital and 
 chemical phenomena exhibited by plants depend primarily upon operations in the inte- 
 rior of the cell, the careful study of the cell contents is of the highest importance. Of 
 these contents, the most important are the primordial utricle, with the protoplasm, th« 
 nucleus, chlorophyll corpuscles, and starch granules. 
 
 The primordial utricle is a layer of substance of mucilaginous consistence (colored 
 yellow by iodine), lining the entire wall of the young cell, but often disappearing at a 
 comparatively early period. The protoplasm is a tough mucilaginous and frequently 
 granular fluid, which fills up the space in the interior of the cell not occupied by the 
 nucleus. The nucleus or cytoblast is a globular or lenticular body, identical in its char- 
 acter with the substance of the primordial utricle, and occurring in the protoplasm of 
 most young cells. Little is known with certainty regarding the chlorophyll corpuscles, 
 except that, under the influence of solar light, green coloring matter is developed from 
 them. Of the starch granules, which are very commonly found in the cell contents, we 
 need not speak, as they are sufficiently described in the article Starch. 
 
 In addition to the above organized structures, we must mention as frequent constit- 
 uents of the cell-contents, fluid coloring matters, essential and fixed oils, resins, sugar, 
 dextrine, gum, alkaloids, and mineral or organic salts, which are not unfrequently found 
 in a crystalline form, when they are termed raphides. 
 
 There are two modes of cell-development in the vegetable kingdom — viz., (1) Cell- 
 division, where two or more new cells fill the cavity of the parent cell, and adhere to its 
 membranes, appearing to divide it into compartments; and (2) Free cell formation — not to 
 be confounded with a process of the same name which is supposed to occur m the animal 
 kingdom — in which the whole or part of the cell-contents become detached from the 
 cell-wall and resolved into new loose C., which ultimately escape from the parent cell. 
 The former mode universally occurs in the formation of the C. by which growth is 
 effected; the latter occurs only in the production of C. connected with reproduction. 
 For further information, we must refer the reader to Von Mohl’s Pnnciples of the An«Lt- 
 omy and Physiology of the Vegetable Cell, translated by Henfrey, London, 1852. 
 
609 
 
 Cellularest 
 
 Celluloid. 
 
 CELLULA'RES, in botany, a designation applied to those plants which consist entirely 
 cellular tissue (q.v.), without proper vessels of any kind. C., thus defined, are a sub- 
 class of acotyledonous plants, containing the orders of lichens, fungi, and algm. In the 
 system of De Candolle, however, the name C. was given to the second grand division of 
 plants, the first being called vasculares, and the distinction between them being the 
 presence or absence of vessels, the C. including all acotyledonous or cryptogamous 
 plants. But ferns and mosses are not destitute of vessels; so that this system is not 
 strictly accurate with regard to them; whilst, as all vessels are now known to be 
 formed by the elongation and union of cells, the distinction between vascular and cel- 
 lular tissue is not generally regarded as affording a good basis for primary divisions in 
 the classification of plants. 
 
 CEL'LXrLAR TIS SUE. This is the old term for a widely diffused animal texture, 
 which has also received the names of areolar, reticular, filamentous, and connective 
 tissue. If we make a cut through the skin, and proceed to raise it, we see that it is 
 loosely connected with the subjacent parts by a soft, filamentous, elastic substance, 
 ivhich, when free from fat, has a white fleecy aspect. This is the tissue in question. 
 It is also found underneath the serous and mucous membranes which are spread over 
 internal surfaces, and serves to attach these membranes to the parts which they line. 
 We likewise find it lying between the muscles, the blood-vessels, nerves, etc., occupy- 
 ing the interspaces between the different organs, and often investing each of them with 
 a special sheath. While it thus connects and insulates entire organs, it at the same 
 time performs a similar function in regard to the minute parts of which each organ is 
 made up. Thus, for instance, in muscular tissue, it enters between the fibers of the 
 muscle, uniting them into bundles; and similarly, it enters into glands, etc. This is 
 termed penetrating or parenchymal cellular tissue. 
 
 It is not only one of the most general and most entensively distributed of the tissues, 
 but it is continuous through the whole organism", and may be traced without inter- 
 ruption from any one region of the body to any other. It is in consequence of this 
 continuity that dropsical fluids, air, etc., effused into the C. T., tnay spread far from 
 the spot where they were first introduced. 
 
 On examining a fragment of this tissue, when stretched out, we see with the naked 
 eye that it presents the appearance of a multitude of fine, soft, colorless, elastic threads, 
 like spun glass; intermixed with these are delicate films or laminae, crossing one another 
 in all directions, and leaving open spaces, or areolae ; hence the name of areolar tissue. 
 
 A small quantity of colorless transparent fluid is always present in this tissue; when 
 abnormally increased, it gives rise to the form of general dropsy known as anasarca. 
 The microscopic characters of C. T. are briefly noticed in the article Tissues, Animal. 
 
 CELLULAR TISSUE, in botany, is any vegetable tissue formed of cohering cells alone, 
 and in which there are no vessels. It is often called parenchyma (Gr. something spread 
 out), although an attempt has been made to restrict that term to one kind of it, with 
 cells of a particular form, and terms of Greek derivation have been multiplied for other 
 kinds. The cells of C. T. vary much, both in form and size (see Cells) ; but partic- 
 ular forms and sizes are characteristic of particular kinds or particular parts of plants. 
 The products of the vital activity of plants are formed in the interior of cells, or by 
 secretion from the inner side of their walls. Vessels being formed from cells, it is not 
 easy to fix the limits between C. T. and vascular tissue (q.v.). Some kinds of plants, 
 however, are entirely composed of C. T. (see next article); all consist of it in the earliest 
 stages of their growth; none are at any time destitute of it. Fluids are transmitted from 
 cell to cell, through the mass of C. T., passing through the walls of the cells where there 
 are no openings that can be detected by the microscope. The soft and succulent parts 
 of plants, which it is the care of the gardener to cherish and increase, consist chiefly 
 of cellular tissue. 
 
 CEL'LULOID, a remarkable modern invention, apparently capable of wide useful- 
 ness, wherever India-rubber and various kinds of cloth are now employed. Celluloid 
 is produced by mixing gum camphor with a pulp of gun-cotton, and subjecting the com- 
 bination to a high degree of pressure and heat. The result is a hard product of extra- 
 ordinary toughness and elasticity. It can be made plastic again and molded into any 
 required form. Any color can be given to it by the use of coloring matter during the 
 process of manufacture. It is extensively used as a substitute for ivory, which it 
 resembles so closely that it is sometimes difficult to detect the difference. It is said to 
 ■equal ivory in strength and elasticity, and not to warp or discolor with time. It has 
 proved a good material for piano and organ keys, billiard-balls, backs of brushes, look- 
 ing-glass frames, handles for knives, forks, umbrellas, and many other articles. It is 
 much cheaper than ivory, and is claimed to be better for decorative purposes. It 
 is also used with much success to imitate tortoise-shell, malachite, amber, pink coral, 
 and other costly materials. In imitation of tortoise-shell, it is made into combs, nap- 
 kin-rings, match-boxes, card-cases, etc. Imitations of pink coral jewelry are made and 
 sold at prices much below those of the genuine. The same is true of imitations of mala- 
 chite and amber. Mouth-pieces for pipes, cigar-holders, etc., are common. It is also 
 used as a substitute for porcelain in making dolls’ heads. The frames of eye-glasses, 
 Dpera-glasses, and spectacles are made of it. More recently it has come into use in 
 U. K. 111.^39 
 
Cellulose. 
 
 Celtic. 
 
 610 
 
 combination with linen, cotton, or paper, for shirt bosoms, cuffs, and collars. The 
 material has a hard glistening surface, like that of newly laundered linen ; is elastic and> 
 impervious to moisture, and when soiled can be renovated with a moistened sponge. 
 There seems to be some danger in the manufacture of C. Though there have been 
 explosions and several persons killed in one of the manufactories, it is said that with 
 due care, and avoidance of unwarrantable experiments, the manufacture is not unsafe. 
 
 CELLULOSE' is the term applied to the carbohydrate, CiaHioOio, which forms the 
 mass of the cell-membranes of all plants. It is one of a class of compounds intimately 
 connected in their chemical constitution, but presenting remarkable physical differences. 
 Without entering into chemical details, we may mention the following points of differ- 
 ence between it and the chemically allied substances — sugar, dextrine, and starch. 
 Sugar and dextrine are soluble in cold water, and occur in the cell sap in solution; 
 starch is insoluble in cold water, but softens into a mucilage in boiling- water, and i» 
 found in granules in the cell-contents; while C. is insoluble in cold or boiling water,, 
 and, as far as is at present known, is very slightly soluble in the strong mineral acids, 
 its only perfect solvent being a solution of oxide of copper in ammonia. 
 
 The occurrence of C. in an organism was formerly regarded as a certain proof that 
 the latter belonged to the vegetable kingdom. It has, however, been shown to be a 
 constituent of the lower animals. 
 
 Although C. forms a large proportion of the food of herbivorous animals, it is sup- 
 posed to pass through the intestinal canal unchanged, and not to contribute directly to- 
 nutrition. 
 
 CELSIUS, Anders, 1701-44; a Swedish astronomer, b. at Upsala. He traveled iu 
 Germany, France, Italy, and took part in the expedition of 1736 led by Maupertius and 
 others to measure a degree of latitude in Lapland. C. was a member of the academies 
 at Stockholm and Berlin, of the British royal society, and secretary of the royal society 
 of Upsala. Among his works are Observations on the Measurement of the Earth, and A 
 New Method of Measuring the Distance of the Sun from the Earth, in which he endeavored 
 to show that the waters of the ocean are decreasing in volume. 
 
 CELSUS, an Epicurean philosopher, but tinged with Platonism, lived in the 2d c. 
 after Christ, and wrote, after 150 a.d., under the title Logos Alethes (the True Word) the 
 first considerable polemic against Christianity. The book itself has perished ; but con- 
 siderable fragments have been preserved as quotations given by Origen in his answer. 
 Contra Celsum, in eight books. In the fragments — which are very interesting, as show- 
 ing the views of a heathen philosopher in regard to Christianity — C., with wit and 
 acuteness, but without depth or earnestness of thought, prefers against the new religion 
 charges of unphilos.ophicalness and blind credulity; and especially endeavors to con- 
 vict Christians of self-contradiction in their spiritual doctrine contrasted with their 
 anthropomorphic representations of Deity; in their religious arrogance contrasted 
 with their confession of sinfulness; and in their views of the necessity of redemp- 
 tion. He also reproaches Christians with their party divisions and ever-varying 
 opinion. With regard to his own positive doctrines, he speaks of evil as necessary and 
 eternal, as an essential property of the material world {hyle)\ sin as something that can 
 never be entirely removed, and least of all through a vicarious sacrifice. He charges- 
 Christians with having willfully altered their sacred writings. 
 
 CELSUS, Aulus Cornelius, a Latin physician and writer, who flourished probably 
 in the reign of Augustus. He was called the Roman Hippocrates, because he generally 
 follow'ed the great “father of medicine,” and introduced the Hippocratic system 
 among the Romans. C. wrote not only on medicine, but also on rhetoric, history, 
 philosophy, the art of war, and agriculture. His style is succinct and clear, but full of 
 Graecisms. The only great work of his which survives, is the De Medicind, w^hich is 
 divided into eight books. The portions relating to surgery are exceedingly interesting 
 and valuable, because C. has there given an account of the opinions and observations of 
 the Alexandrian school of medicine. The first edition of the De Medicind appeared at 
 Florence in 1478. C.’s works have been translated into several modern languages. A 
 translation into English was made by Dr. Grieve, London, 1756. Among the best 
 editions are those of Krause (Leip. 1766), Dr. Milligan’s 2d edition (Edin. 1831), and one 
 at Cologne. 1835. 
 
 CELT (Lat. celtis, a chisel), the name hy which certain weapons or implements of the 
 early inhabitants of western Europe are known among archaeologists. Celts are either 
 of stone or of bronze. 
 
 Stone celts vary in length from about 1 in. to 22 in. ; but the most common size 
 is from 6 to 8 in. in length, and from 2 to 3^ in. in breadth. They are made of 
 almost every kind of stone, and show considerable diversity of shape, almost all, 
 however, having more or less resemblance to the muscle-shell. The ruder celts are 
 generally of slate, shale, schist, or grit; the finer, of flint, porphyry, greenstone, syenite, 
 or agate. Many of the finer celts are beautifully shaped and highly polished. A 
 remarkable example of this class, the property of sir Coutts Lindsay, found near St. 
 Andrews, in Scotland, is described by sir David Brew’ster in the Philosophical Journal 
 fcH* 1823. Recently, a class of celts found in the later geological strata have excited 
 
611 
 
 Cellulose. 
 
 Celtic. 
 
 much interest as well among archaeologists as among geologists. They are obviously of 
 the same type with the more common celts, but of ruder construction, as if fashioned by 
 a more barbarous people. The stone C. was fastened into a handle of horn, bone, or 
 wood. A C, of -serpentine, with a handle of deerhorn, was found in one of the Swiss lakes 
 in July, 1859, and a stone C. with a wooden handle, in the county of Tyrone, in Ireland, 
 
 Bronze celts vary in length from about 1 in. to 8 or 10 in., the most common 
 length being about 0 inches. They are sometimes ornamented with rudely incised lines 
 or circles, and have occasionally been found wrapped up in linen, or inclosed in bronze 
 cases or sheaths. They show much greater diversity of shape than the stone celt. As 
 many as four classes have been distinguished by archaeologists — 1st, The simple wedge- 
 shaped C., most nearly resembling the common form of the stone celt. 2d, The wedge- 
 shaped C., with sides more or less overlapping, and a stop ridge or elevation between the 
 blade and the part which received the handle. 3d, The wedge-shaped C., with sides 
 greatly overlapping, with or without the stop-ridge, but with a loop or ear upon, and 
 parallel to, its lower surface. 4th, The socketed C., or the C. with a hollow to receive 
 the handle, and generally with a loop or ear upon its lower surface. 
 
 Both stone and bronze celts were probably used for several purposes, serving for 
 chisels, adzes, and axes, as well as for weapons of war, like the stone hatchets of the 
 South Sea islanders and other savage or barbarous tribes. Examples of stone and 
 bronze celts of all classes (together with the molds in which bronze celts were cast) 
 may be seen in the British museum at London, in the national museum of the anti- 
 quaries of Scotland at Edinburgh, and in the museum of the Royal Irish academy at 
 Dublin. The last collection has more than 500 examples of stone celts, about one half 
 of which were found in deepening the bed of the Shannon or its tributaries, between the 
 years 1843 and 1848. A bushel of bronze celts has more than once been discovered at 
 one spot. 
 
 CELTIBE'RI, a powerful people of ancient Spain, supposed to have sprung from a 
 blending of the Iberians or Spanish aborigines with Celtic invaders from Gaul. The C. 
 inhabited a large inland district of the peninsula, corresponding to the s.w. half of 
 Aragon, nearly the whole of Cuen9a and Soria, and a great part of Burgos, but the 
 name Celtiberia had often a wider, signification, including the country as far s. as 
 the sources of the Guadalquivir. The C. were divided into four tribes, and were 
 unquestionably one of the bravest and noblest peoples in the peninsula. Their cavalry 
 and infantry were equally excellent. For many years, they withstood the efforts of the 
 Romans to subdue them, and it was not till after the campaigns of Sertorius that they 
 began to adopt the Roman language, dress, and manners. 
 
 CELTIC NATIONS, one of the groups of the great Aryan (q.v.) family. 
 
 Languages. — In addition to the English, and retreating before it, there are at present 
 four languages spoken in the British isles — the Irish, the Highland Scotch (or Gaelic), 
 the Manx, in the isle of Man — all three nearly related to one another, and constituting 
 the northern (Erse, Gadhelic) branch of the Celtic languages; whilst the fourth language, 
 the Welsh, constitutes, together with the Cornish of Cornwall (extinct since 1778) and 
 the Bas Breton of Brittany, the southern (Briton, Cymric, Cambric) branch. The 
 remains of the language of the Gauls or Celts, the ancient inhabitants of France, closely 
 resemble the British and Gadhelic idioms; hence the name Celtic languages has been 
 applied to the whole of them. The Celtic idioms belong to the Indo-German (Aryan) 
 family, as their numerals show. Compare 
 
 Old Irish. 
 
 1. oin 
 
 2. da 
 
 3. tri 
 
 4. cethir (c=k) 
 
 5. coic 
 
 6. se 
 
 7. secht(n) 
 
 8. oct(n) 
 
 9. noi(n) 
 
 10. deich 
 20. fichet 
 
 100. cet 
 
 The Gaulish was nearer to the Cymric branch, its numerals 4 and 5 having been petor, 
 pempe. There are a few Gaulish inscriptions which show a declension with full inflec- 
 tions; in old Irish, five cases still exist, but the terminations are very much mutilated; 
 in Welsh, they have disappeared. Thus, the Gaulish name Segomaros is declined: gen. 
 -rf, dat. -ru, acc. -von; the old Irish, fer, a man, has the gen. jir, dat. Jiur, acc. fer, voc. 
 jvr; whilst the correspondent Welsh gwr is inflexible. Hence it follows that the pseudo- 
 simplicity of the Welsh is the result of grammatical decay, common in all Aryan 
 languages, and does not at all warrant Latham’s theory, that the Celts branched off from 
 the primitive Indo-German nation before the development of case inflections. 
 
 Eutory. — Of the separation of the Celts from the other Aryans or Indo-Germans, and 
 
 Old Welsh. 
 
 Sanscrit. 
 
 un 
 
 gka 
 
 dou 
 
 dvSu 
 
 tri 
 
 trayas 
 
 pedwar 
 
 chatvSras 
 
 pimp 
 
 pan chan 
 
 chwech 
 
 shash 
 
 seith 
 
 saptan 
 
 wyth 
 
 ashtan 
 
 nau 
 
 navan 
 
 dec 
 
 da^an 
 
 ugeint 
 
 vin9ati 
 
 cant 
 
 9 ata 
 
Celtic. 
 
 612 
 
 their early migrations to western Europe, no record has come down, the stories about 
 Milesian colonies in Ireland, and migrations from Troy into Wales, being simply monk- 
 ish fictions. At the dawn of history, we find the Gauls (Galli, Celtte, Gaiatai) occupying 
 France (Gallia), which was divided into Aquitania, between the Pyrenees and Garonne ; 
 Gallia Celtica proper, between Garonne and Seine; and Belgica, from the Seine to the 
 Rhine. The land about the Rhone being more early conquered by the Romans than the 
 rest, was set apart by them under the name of Gallia Narbonensis, or Gallia Lugdunensis 
 (from the towns Narbo and Lugdunum, Narbonne and Lyon). The whole of the four 
 was called Gaul beyond the Alps {Gallia Transalpina). A great many tribes of Gauls had 
 settled in Lombardy, where they founded Mediolanum (Milan), and which therefore 
 took the name Gallia Gisalpina (d-aul this side the Alps). Other Gauls had penetrated 
 into Spain, where they became mixed with the native Iberians, and thus gave rise to the 
 Geliiberians about the river Iberus (Ebro). Numerous hosts migrated across the Rhine, 
 occupied southern Germany and Bohemia, and, following the course of the Danube, 
 some invaded Thrace and Greece (278 b c.); but being repelled, the main body of them 
 settled in Asia Minor, in the province called after them Galatia. The Romans found 
 the Gauls at first very formidable enemies; Rome itself was burned by them (389 b.c.), 
 but gradually the Romans conquered first Gallia Cisalpina (223), then Gallia Narbonensis 
 (112), and lastly, Csesar subjected all France (53 b.c.), after which the Gauls soon became 
 Romanized. The Gauls of Asia Minor, for a long time the terror of all the neighbor- 
 hood, were defeated by the Romans (187), and their land finally made a province of the 
 empire (35 b.c.). — The Britons (Britanni; Welsh, Brython) were little known before 
 Cajsar’s two unsuccessful expeditions into Britannia; the country was conquered by the 
 Roman gen. Agricola (78-84 a. d.), who secured the new province against the inroads 
 of the Caledonians of Scotland by a fortification across the Scotch lowlands, between, 
 the Forth and the Clyde, afterwards removed by the emperor Hadrian further south- 
 ward, to between Solway firth and the mouth of the Tyne. The Britons were so much 
 influenced by Roman civilization — they were also early converted to Christianity — that 
 the heathen Angles and Saxons, who conquered them in the 5th and 6th centuries, 
 called them Welsh; a name which, with the other Teutons, applies to all nations speak- 
 ing languages of Latin descent. A few of the Britons maintained their independence in 
 Cornwall, Cumberland, and in the mountains of Wales. On the last, the name Welsh 
 was ultimately fixed by the English; they themselves, however, called their nation 
 Gymro, pi. Gymry (a compound of cyn, with, in common, and bro, land = having a 
 common country, ^countrymen, in contradistinction to the foreign invader), a name 
 which has nothing'to do with Cimbri and Cimmerii. The Welsh remained independent 
 under different petty princes till 1382, when Edward I. conquered them. A part of the 
 Britons went over in the 4th c. to France, where they took possession of Brittany, 
 which maintained a doubtful independence under dukes of its own till about 1500. — 
 Whether the Galedonians, the oldest inhabitants of Scotland, were Celts of the Cymric or 
 Erse branch, is unknown. After the 3d c. , their name disappears, and we hear, instead, of 
 the Scoti and Picti. As to the latter, the same doubt prevails; but the Scoti were emi- 
 grants from Ireland, both Se<?tas and Gadhelus being common national names of the old 
 Irish. From Gadhel,^ the modern Gael, Gaelic is derived, w^hich has nothing to do with 
 the name of the Galli . — Ireland (Hibernia, whence the modern Eirinn is derived), enters 
 into the light of history with its conversion to Christianity by St. Patrick (460). The 
 four centuries following on this event are the brightest period in its history. Ireland 
 was then the seat of piety and learning, and sent forth numerous missionaries, by whom 
 many monasteries, centers of civilization, were founded — as Iona, in Scotland, by 
 Columba (563); St. Gall, by Gallus (615); Wurzburg, by Kilian (687). In the 7th c., we 
 find Irish bishops at Ratisbon; and Yirgilius (Feargal), (died 784), bishop of Salzburg, 
 played no small part in the ecclesiastical history of Germany. But Ireland remained 
 politically divided among many princes, and so became an easy prey of those “black 
 heathens” the Scandinavians, whose invasions began 795, and who founded Norse 
 kingdoms at Dublin, Waterford, Limerick, etc. In the fierce battles between the two 
 nations, the prosperity of Ireland rapidly declined, and the English conquest (1171) only 
 completed the ruin. — The isle of Man, inhabited by a branch of the Irish, after having 
 been subject to Welsh, Scotch, Norse princes in turn, acknowledged England’s sover- 
 eignty in 1344. 
 
 Religion and Mythology . — A few notices in the classics and the Latin inscriptions of 
 Gaul are our rather meager sources of information on the Celtic paganism. As the three 
 chief gods, or three of the chief gods, Lucan mentions Teutates, Hesus, and Taranis, all 
 of them worshiped with human sacrifices. Taranis reappears as Jupiter laranucnus on 
 an inscription; and from this identification with Jupiter, as well as from the fact that hi 
 Welsh taran means thunder, we may infer that he was the god of the thunderstorm. 
 Other gods frequently occurring on inscriptions are Apollo Grannus, Apollo Belenus, 
 Mars Gamulus, Minena Belisama, etc., all of them, however, empty names to us. A 
 remarkable feature in Gaulish religion was the worship of certain Mother Goddesses (called 
 on the inscriptions Junones, Matronge, Deae Matres, Campestres, Nymphae). They are 
 frequently connected witli special localities, as in the inscriptions dedicated to Matronis 
 Lanehiabus, M. Hamavehis, M. Rumanehabus, and on the one in Gaulish: Matrebo- 
 Namaucicabo, “to the Mothers of Nimes.” To this class apparently belongs the Dea 
 
613 
 
 Celtio# 
 
 J^ehalennia, once represented on a relief with a basket of fruit, and a dog for companion. 
 Mela, the geographer, speaks of an island in the Atlantic, near Gaul, where there was an 
 oracle superintended by nine maidens, who could cause storms, take the form of any 
 animal, could cure what otherwise was incurable, and predicted the future. These god- 
 desses, at once motherly and maidenly, residing in field and wood (campestres, nympliae), 
 givers of plenty and prophets of the future, are the heathen prototypes of ih^fees (fairies, 
 as distinguished from “elfs”) of the middle ages. The “little folk” were known to the 
 Gauls under the name of Diisii. They believed in the existence of individual tutelary 
 genii, as a stone of Lausanne shows, being erected by three Gauls Suljis suis (hence our 
 sylph?). The belief in the transmigration of souls was common amongst the Gauls, or 
 at least their priests the Druids, so called from their performing sacred rites in oak-woods 
 (Welsh, derw, an oak; derwydd, a Druid). These Druids were also the depositaries of 
 knowledge and tradition, and constituted, in Gaul at least, a powerful hierarchy, with a 
 supreme pontiff. Druids are found both in Ireland and in Wales, and the fees abound 
 in Welsh tradition; but it is very doubtful whether the superhuman beings appearing in 
 the Welsh poems of the 12th and 13th centuries — such as Hu Gadarn, the reputed founder 
 of Bardic institutions (see beneath) — are genuine relics of the British religion. The belief 
 in transmigration lasted very long, as the mediaeval Welsh tale of Icdiesin speaks dis- 
 tinctly of Taliesin’s successive existences. Though not properly mythological, we may 
 mention here the romantic stories of the Britons ab^out king Arthur and his knights. He 
 is first mentioned by Nennius in the 9th c. ; but his fable was further developed in the 
 next centuries both in Wales and Brittany, then embodied in Geoffrey of Monmouth’s 
 Historia Britonum, which served as the groundwork of the French Roman de Brut of 
 Wace. Through these works, and partly, also, through the direct influence of the oral 
 traditions of Brittany, it passed into French literature, and thence spread over all 
 Europe. 
 
 Literature. — The Gauls learned writing from the Greeks; later, they employed the 
 Roman alphabet, as do the Welsh and Irish, the now used Irish character being nothing 
 but the common Anglo-Saxon form of the Latin alphabet. Besides, however, tlie Irish 
 claim an old character of their own, the Ogham, in which the letters are represented by 
 a number of vertical strokes put in a right angle to a horizontal line, or else by horizontal 
 strokes to a vertical line. Some of the Ogham inscriptions are said to be older than 
 Christianity. Even more doubtful is the antiquity of a Welsh so-called Bardic alphabet, 
 in which there seem to be no inscriptions extant, and which is, at any rate, an alteration 
 of the Roman character. A feature common to all Celts is the existence of a kind of 
 literary order, the Bards (q.v.), poets and guardians of tradition — in Gaul, nearly related 
 to or part of the priesthood; in Wales and Ireland, in immediate connection wdth the 
 kings. — A Gaulish literature there certainly was, as Caesar informs us that, in the schools 
 of the Druids, the young men used to learn by heart a great number of verses on theolog- 
 ical and historical subjects. But these poems were never written down. It is highly 
 probable that rhyme, first used by St. Ambrosius (397) in his hymns, is of Gaulish origin, 
 this being the common form even of the oldest Irish and Welsh poems. — The Irish liter- 
 ature began with the conversion, but our existing manuscripts are not older than the 9th 
 or 8th century. Interlinear versions of biblical and other theological, or of grammatical 
 writings are about the oldest manuscripts, many of which, in consequence of the missionary 
 zeal of the nation, are to be found at St. Gall, Milan, and other continental places. 
 Then there are ecclesiastic hymns, one of the oldest ascribed to Patrick. A renowned 
 author of poems, in the 10th c., was Eochad O’Flin. Secular poetry of ancient times 
 there has come down to us none, but we have testimonies as old as the 12th c. of the 
 existence of such, ascribed in a general way to the old pagan hero Oisin, son of Mac- 
 Cumhal. The existing specimens, mostly warlike — except some dialogues between Oisin 
 and St. Patrick — are recent. Those Gaels that went over to Scotland, took, of course, 
 similar traditions with them. With a partial knowledge of these, Macpherson composed 
 (1765) the w^ork which he declared (rather loosely) to be an English translation of the 
 songs of the old Scotch poet Ossian, son of Fingal (the true Oisin was an Irishman). 
 The would-be Gaelic original of Macpherson’s work, edited in 1807, is either a compila- 
 tion or retranslation. Of Irish prose, the annals are the most important part: first, those 
 of Tighernach (1088), then the Annales Inisfalienses, A. Ultonienses; lastly, the Annals 
 of the Four Masters, being a compilation made (1634) from older sources chiefly by four 
 Franciscans, beginning with 242 after the deluge, and ending with 1616 a.d. — The oldest 
 remains of Welsh literature are the songs, so far as they are genuine, of the bards of the 
 6th c. — Liwarch Hen, Aneurin, Taliesin — having chiefly the life and deeds of contempo- 
 rary princes for their subject, but few in number. In the 10th c., we have the col- 
 lection of laws by Howel Dda. The historians Gildas and Nennius, of the 9th c., wrote 
 in Latin. 
 
 The great age of Welsh literature is the 12th and succeeding centuries, when the 
 energies of the nation were roused in the struggle with England. In this contest, the 
 bards played a conspicuous part as agitators. After a long interval, we hear again of a 
 great bard, Meylyr (1100); many follow, amongst whom Kynddelw (1200) deserves 
 special mention, both as a poet (we have 49 pieces of his) and a patriot. Welsh poetry 
 consists in — 1. Political lyrics, war-songs, songs in praise of chieftains, elegies on the 
 same. 2. Religious hymns. 3. Pseudonymous poems, ascribed to Merddin (Merlin), the 
 
Celtis. 
 
 C«ments< 
 
 614 
 
 mythical enchanter, and Taliesen, the old bard, having generally the form of prophesiej 
 on the struggle between the Saxons and Welsh, and the ultimate triumph of the latter. 
 Thus, in the Avalennau (or apple trees), attributed to Merlin, the Welsh nation is enig^ 
 matically represented under the image of “seven score and seven sweet apple trees, 
 whose fruits, princes (viz., the English) wish in vain to despoil. 4. The Triads, short 
 memorial (?) verses in which three remarkable events, subjects, or persons are respec- 
 tively mentioned (hence the name), embracing history, theology, jurisprudence. 5. 
 Dialogues of dramatic character. There were— apparently now lost — also miracle plays 
 actually represented. 
 
 The only remarkable remnant of Cornish literature comes under this head, being three 
 ecclesiastical plays of the 14t.h c. — the Creation, the Passion, and the Resurrection. — In 
 Welsh prose, we have first the chronicles. Geoffrey’s chronicle, though Latin, is 
 thoroughly national ; then there is that of Caradoc, who begins where Geoffrey leaves 
 off; and the Liber Landarenm, a history of the bishops of Llandaff down to 1132. 
 Further, we have the Mabinogion (Children’s Tales), romantic stories. The most inter- 
 esting of these refer to Arthur and his champions; the lady of the fountain, Peredur, 
 Geraint (now revived by Tennyson), Arthur’s boar-hunt. Amongst the non-Arthurian 
 tales, special mention is deserved by the Mabinogi of Taliesin, interspersed with verses, 
 relating the adventures, transformations into animal shape, and transmigrations of that 
 bard. There are besides some scientific writings, a treatise on medicine, another on 
 geometry, and one on Welsh prosody by Edeyrn (1260). This last, a grammatical essay 
 in and on a vernacular tongue, is paralleled in the middle ages only by Icelandic litera- 
 ture, to which, upon the whole, the Welsh, although not quite so high, bears a marked 
 resemblance. 
 
 Concluding Remarks. — Altogether, the Celts are a very important branch of our Indo- 
 German family. The incessant warfares of the Gauls bespeak at least activity of mind 
 and body; the Irish missions have done a great deal for European civilization; whilst 
 the traditions of the Britons have deeply influenced mediaeval literature. The one great 
 defect of the Celts is incapacity for political organization. Their very enthusiasm, lively 
 feeling, and vivid imagination, have ever prevented them from taking coolly and delib- 
 erately those measures which lead to national unity; hence it is that they gave way 
 before the more practical Roman and Teuton. But while they lost their independence, 
 and oftentimes their very language, in the contest with the foreigner, whose strong hand 
 molded them into national unity, yet they reacted on him in their turn. They are fast 
 disappearing by merging into the English; but if the quiet resolution, the sturdy common 
 sense, the talent for public life, state organization, and political dominion, that charac- 
 terize the modern British nation, are altogether Teutonic — on the other hand, their 
 genuine refinement of manner and feeling, and their high poetical susceptibilities, are 
 to no small extent due to the admixture of Celtic blood 
 
 CELTIS. See Nettle-tree. 
 
 CEMBRA NUT and CEMBRA PINE. See Pine. 
 
 CEMENTA'TION OF STEEL is the process followed in the production of blistered sted 
 (q.v.), or steel of cementation. 
 
 CEMENTS. A cement is a substance used to make the surfaces of solid bodies adhere 
 to one another; it is applied in a liquid or viscous state, and hardens after the surfaces 
 are brought together. When fused metals or alloys are used in this manner, they are 
 called solders. There is a great variety of C. derived from animal, vegetable, and 
 mineral substances. The animal C. are chiefly composed of gelatine and albumen as 
 their bases.’ Joiners’ glue is an example. See Glue. The binding materials of vege- 
 table C. are gums, resins, and wax. The mineral C. are chiefly of lime and its com- 
 pounds. In many C., animal, vegetable, and mineral substances are combined. The 
 simplest of the mineral C. is plaster of Paris, which is used for uniting slabs of marble, 
 alabaster, and many similar purposes. It is mixed with water to the consistence of thick 
 cream, and then applied. This hardens rapidly, but is not very strong. Its hardening 
 depends upon the true chemical combination of the water with anhydrous sulphate of 
 lime, of which plaster of Paris is composed, and the formation thereby of a solid hydrate. 
 The plaster of Paris may be mixed with thin glue, with diluted white of egg, or a solu- 
 tion of size or gum, instead of water, and is strengthened thereby. 
 
 Keene’s marble cement is prepared by steeping plaster of Paris in a concentrated 
 solution of alum, then recalcining and powdering. This powder is mixed with water 
 in the same manner as plaster of Paris. It is used as a stucco for internal decorations, 
 takes a high polish, and when colored, forms beautiful imitations of mosaic, marbles, 
 scagliola, etc. 
 
 A mixture of paper pulp, size, and plaster of Paris in equal proportions, forms a 
 useful cement, and is also used as a sort of papier-mache for casting into architectural 
 ornaments, etc. 
 
 Common mortar is one of the most important of the lime cements. It is composed 
 of slaked lime, or a mixture of this with sand; its hardening depends upon the slow 
 formation of carbonate of lime by the absorption of carbonic acid from the atmosphere, 
 and a partial combination with the silica of the sand. Cow-hair is sometimes mixed 
 with it, to bind it when laid in masses. In order to obtain a fine smooth paste, which. 
 
615 
 
 Celtls. 
 
 Cementa« 
 
 is required for good mortar, the lime should be slaked rapidly by adding about three 
 parts of water to one of lime; if the quantity of water is too small, a coarser or semi- 
 crystalline hydrate of lime is produced by the slaking. For the mode of applying 
 mortar, see Brickwork. 
 
 Ordinary mortar, when exposed to the continuous action of water, softens and dis- 
 integrates, and some of the lime dissolves away. Lime which contains 20 or 30 per cent 
 of clay, or finely divided silica, produces a mortar which is not liable to this softening, 
 but possesses the property of hardening under water; such lime is called hydraulic, and 
 the mortar made from it, hydraulic cement or mortar. 
 
 Puzzolana, a porous lava found at Puzzuoli, near Naples, has been long celebrated 
 for its property of forming a hydraulic cement, when mixed with ordinary lime. It is 
 mainly composed of silicates of alumina, lime, and soda. Portland cement, so named 
 from its resemblance to Portland stone when dry, is made from clay found in the vall^ 
 of the Medway, which is intimatelymixed with the neighboring chalk, and then burned. 
 Roman cement is similar to the Portland, but of a darker color; it contains a larger pro- 
 portion of clay, and solidifies more rapidly. These C. should be mixed with a sufficient 
 quantity of water to form a moderately thick paste; the surfaces to which they are applied 
 should be well wetted, and the cement kept slightly moist until it hardens. The solidifica- 
 tion of hydraulic C. depends upon the combination of the lime with the silica and alu- 
 mina forming, first a hydrated compound, and finally a true silicate. They expand 
 slightly in solidifying. 
 
 The following receipts include some of the most useful and reliable C. applicable 
 to the purposes specified : for water-tight joints, such as slate cisterns, aquaria, etc. , and 
 for uniting broken pieces of stone, and filling up metallic joints — take equal parts of red 
 and white lead, and work them into a stiff paste with boiled linseed oil. When used 
 for metal joints, it should be made rather thin, and both pieces of metal, as well as the 
 washer, well smeared with it. This cement hardens slowly, but becomes ultimately of 
 almost flinty hardness. We have before us an aquarium, holding fifteen gallons of water, 
 made of plate-glass, cemented at the angles to mahogany columns with this composition. 
 It has stood without leaking for above three years, in spite of much rough handling and 
 moving about; and the cement is now so hard, that it is difficult to scratch it with a 
 knife. 
 
 Cement composed of ox-blood thickened with finely powdered quicklime, is used by 
 coppersmiths, for securing the edges of rivets of copper boilers, and for steam-joints. 
 Another cement for steam-joints is made with borings or turnings of cast-iron mixed with 
 a little sal ammoniac and flowers of sulphur. It should be stirred up with a small quantity 
 of water, just sufficient to moisten it, then rammed into the joint, which should be 
 bolted up as tightly as possible ; 5 lbs. of iron borings to 2 oz. of sal ammoniac, and 1 
 oz. of sulphur, are the proportions recommended. A cement of this kind may be made of 
 4 lbs. iron borings, 2 lbs. pipe-clay, and 1 lb. of powdered earthenware fragments made 
 into a paste with salt and water; or 2 parts litharge in fine powder, 1 part very fine 
 sand, and 1 of quicklime that has slaked spontaneously in a damp place. These should 
 be mixed, and kept from the air, and made into a paste with boiled linseed oil when about 
 to be used. This is a valuable cement for steam, joints, for mending cracks in boilers, 
 ovens, etc. Beale’s patent fireproof cement, for similar purposes, is composed of chalk, 12 
 parts; lime and salt, each 4 parts; Barnsey sand, 2 parts; iron filings or dust, 1 part; 
 and blue or red clay, 1 part. These are ground and calcined together. 
 
 Electrical Cement — so called from its use in uniting the cylinders of electrical machines 
 to their axes, and for a variety of similar purposes — is composed of 5 lbs. rosin, 1 lb. 
 each of bees’-wax and red ochre, and 4 oz. of plaster of Paris. This is Singer’s form- 
 ula. A cheaper cement of this kind may be made from 14 parts rosin, 2 red ochre, and 1 
 plaster of Paris. These should be melted together till the frothing ceases, and the com- 
 position runs smoothly. This is applicable to a variety of purposes, where a cheap and 
 tolerably adhesive cement is required. It will serve as bottle-wax for sealing the tops of 
 corks; but this is usually prepared from 4 parts rosin with one of tallow or suet, and red 
 ochre or other coloring matter added. 
 
 Formending earthenware and china, etc., a variety of C. are recommended. For 
 ornamental glass or china, which is not subjected to heat or rough usage, Canada balsam 
 that has evaporated until rather hard, is a very useful cement; from its transparency, it 
 makes an almost invisible joint. The surfaces should be slightly warmed, and the bal- 
 sam brushed over them, after which they should be kept pressed together for a short 
 time. Thick copal or mastic varnish may be used in the same manner. Gum shellac, 
 dissolved in spirits of wine in sufficient quantity to form a treacly liquid, forms a 
 stronger cement than the above, but its color is objectionable for some puposes. The 
 shellac may be di.ssolved in naphtha, but is not equal to that in spirits of wine. The 
 liquid glue so\^ in the shops is usually prepared in this manner; another kind is made of a 
 mixture of the solutions of shellac and India rubber. The cement sold in sticks at fairs 
 and in the streets of London by loquacious itinerants, is shellac or gum mastic fused 
 and molded into a convenient form, and is one of the most useful C. when properly 
 applied, by heating the surfaces to be joined just sufficiently to fuse the shellac and 
 then smearing them thinly with it, and pressing them together. If shellac is heated 
 much above its fusing-point, it becomes carbonized and rotten, and therefore great care 
 
Cemetery. 
 
 616 
 
 must be used in fusing any composition of which it is an ingredient. The marine glue^ 
 a mixture of shellac and India rubber, is a remarkable cement, and when applied, as the 
 last, with the precautions just alluded to, is so strong, that glass or china cemented with 
 it, and then dashed on the ground, or otherwise broken again, will give way in any part 
 rather than that cemented. This cement may be purchased ready made. For the mode 
 of preparing it, see Glue. • 
 
 Universal Cement, used for the above and many other purposes, is prepared as follows: 
 Curdle skim-milk with rennet or vinegar, press out the whey, and dry the curd at a very 
 gentle heat, but as quickly as possible. When it has become quite dry, grind it in a 
 coffee or pepper mill, and next triturate it in a mortar until reduced to a very fine pow- 
 der. Mix this powder with of its weight of new dry quicklime, also in very fine 
 powder, and to every ounce of the mixture add 5 or 6 grains of powdered camphor; 
 triturate the whole well together, and keep it in small wide-mouthed phials well corked. 
 When required, make it into a paste with a little water, and apply it immediately. 
 
 Cheese Cement is similar in composition and uses. Take two parts of grated cheese 
 and one of quicklime in fine powder; beat these together with white of egg to form a 
 paste, and use immediately. 
 
 The following is the reputed formula for preparing the Armenian or diarmnd cement^ 
 used by the Armenian jewelers for attaching diamonds, etc., without any metallic set- 
 ting: “Dissolve 5 or 6 bits of gum-mastic, each the size of a large pea, in as much rectified 
 spirit of wine as will suffice to render it liquid; and in another vessel dissolve as much 
 isinglass, previously a little softened in water — though none of the water must be used 
 — in French brandy, or good rum, as will make a 2-ounce phial of very strong glue, 
 adding two very small bits of gum galbanum or ammoniacum, which must be rubbed or 
 ground till they are dissolved. Then mix the whole with a suflBcient heat. Keep the 
 glue in a phial closely stopped, and when it is to be used, set the phial in boiling water.” 
 This cement has a great reputation, but our experience does not confirm it. We have 
 tried the above, and several other receipts, with very little success. We doubt whether 
 the true method of preparing it is known in this country, and suspect that it still remains 
 one of the oriental trade-secrets. White of egg, thickened with finely powdered quick- 
 lime, forms a useful cement, especially if the cemented article is warmed for a short 
 time in a slow oven. 
 
 Cutlers' Cement, used for fixing knives and forks in handles, is made of equal weights 
 of rosin and brick-dust melted together; or, for a superior quality, 4 parts of rosin, 1 of 
 bees-wax, and 1 of brick-dust. 
 
 Mahogany Cement, used for stopping cracks and holes in mahogany, may be prepared 
 by melting 4 parts of bees-wax with 1 of Indian red, and as much yellow ocher as is 
 found requisite to give the color. If shellac be substituted for the bees-wax, and less 
 red used, a much harder cement is made. 
 
 For French Cement, rice glue, and other light C. for joining paper articles and arti- 
 ficial fiowers, see Glue and Paste. 
 
 CEMETERY, from the Greek, may mean any grave-yard, or other place of deposit 
 for the dead ; but it has lately acquired a special meaning, applicable to those extensive 
 ornamental burial-grounds which have recently come into use in this and other European 
 countries, as the practice of burying within and around churches was gradually aban- 
 doned (see Burial). The fine burial-grounds of the Turks, extending over large tracts 
 adorned by cedars and other trees, may have suggested the plan to Europeans. It was 
 first exemplified on a great scale in Paris, in w^hich, as the largest walled town in 
 Europe, the disposal of the dead was long a matter of extreme anxiety and ditficulty. 
 There are few considerable towns in Britain near which there is not at least one C., and 
 the legislation mentioned under the head of Burial has rendered their establishment, 
 to a certain extent, a legal necessity. There was at first a natural feeling of regret at 
 the prospect of deserting places of deposit for the dead so hallowed by ancient use and 
 recent associations as the church and the churchyard. In many instances, however, the 
 places thus professedly hallowed were in reality surrounded by degrading and disgusting 
 circumstances. On the other hand, the new places of interment began to develop 
 humanizing and elevating influences, in beautiful trees and flowers, natural scenery, and 
 works of monumental art. The new cemeteries are in many instances cheerful open 
 places of recreation, and in them the place of rest for the dead has rather tended to 
 improve than to undermine the health of the living. One of the oldest established and 
 most celebrated of the European cemeteries, is that of P^re la Chaise (q.v.), near Paris, 
 the arrangements of which have been generally followed in the cemeteries of London 
 and other English cities; with, however, this distinct difference, that the English ceme- 
 teries are divided into two portions — one consecrated for the burials of members of the 
 established church, over whose remains the funeral service is read, and one unconse- 
 crated for the burials of dissenters. In the Scottish such distinctions are not required, 
 though the Episcopal church has some consecrated burying-places. In the United 
 States, as at Philadelphia and New York, there are cemeteries equal in point of arrange- 
 ment to any in Europe. 
 
 CEMETERY {ante). The famous Pere la Chaise, in Paris, is the most celebrated of 
 modern cemeteries, although by no means the largest. It was laid out in 1804, and com- 
 
617 
 
 Cemetery. 
 
 prises about 200 acres, and more than 16,000 monuments erected to the memory ol 
 nearly all the great men of France of the present century. Twice . this C. and the 
 neighboring heights have been the scene of desperate fighting. In 1814, during the 
 attack on Paris by the allies, it was stormed by a Russian column ; and in 1871 the com- 
 munists made their last stand among these tombs, where 900 of them were killed, 200 
 being buried in quicklime in one huge grave, and 700 in another. Paris has also the 
 cemeteries of Mont Parnasse and Montmartre, besides many smaller burial-grounds. In 
 1874, a very large C. was laid out 16 m. n. of Paris, covering nearly 1300 acres. In 
 France, every city and town is required by law to provide a burial-ground beyond its 
 barriers, properly laid out and planted, and each interment must take place in a "separate 
 grave. This law does not apply to Paris, however. There the dead are buried 40 or 50 
 at a time in tlie/<?sses communes, the poor being interred gratuitously, and a charge of 
 20 francs being made in all other cases. The fosse when full is left undisturbed for 5 
 years; then all the crosses and other memorials are removed, the level of the ground is 
 raised 4 or 5 ft. by fresh earth, and interments begin again. For 50 francs a grave can 
 be leased for 10 years; but when permanent monuments are desired the ground must be 
 purchased in fee. 
 
 In English cities, about 1840, the people began to discuss the dangers to public health 
 arising from the condition of the grave-yards surrounding, and the vaults within and 
 underneath, the great churches. In London, these receptacles were literally crammed 
 with coflSns, and the surrounding air was infected to a dangerous degree. Coffins were 
 piled upon each other until they came within a few inches of the surface of the ground, 
 and then the ground was raised from time to time until its level came nearly up to the 
 lower windows of the church. To make room for new burials, old bones were thrown 
 out, and this led to systematic robbing of graves for the sake of the coffin plates and the 
 pretty ornaments sometimes buried with the bodies. The result of this action and dis- 
 cussion was an entire change in the system. Burials within the limits of cities and vil- 
 lages were prohibited, and as a necessit}’’ rural cemeteries were founded. The chief 
 cemeteries of London at present are : Kensal Green, on the Harrow road, 2^ m. from 
 Paddington; Highgate, on a slope of Highgate hill; Abney Park; the Norwood and 
 Nunhead cemeteries, on the s. ; the west London C., at Brompton; Ilford and Leystone 
 cemeteries in Essex; the Victoria and Tower Hamlets cemeteries in e. London; while 
 farther from the city were the cemeteries of Woking and Colney Hatch. 
 
 The dead-houses (Leichenhauser) of Frankfort and Munich form a remarkable feature 
 of the burial customs of those cities. The objects of the founders were to obviate the 
 remotest danger of premature interment, and to provide a respectable place for the recep- 
 tion of the dead, in order to remove the bodies from the often confined dwellings of the 
 friends. At Frankfort, the dead-house is at the entrance to the cemetery. It consists 
 of a warder’s room, where an attendant is always on duty ; on each side are five rooms, 
 well ventilated, and kept at even temperature, and each one is furnished with a bier, on 
 which a corpse can be laid. On one of the fingers of a corpse is placed a ring, to which 
 is attached a light cord, connecting with a bell which hangs outside of the attendant’s 
 room. Bodies deposited here are inspected at regular intervals by a medical officer, and 
 the warden is always on the watch for the ringing of the bell. The importance of this 
 care was once proved at Frankfort by the revival of a child. The attendants are required 
 to receive and treat the dead with all respect, and no interment is permitted until signs of 
 decomposition appear. The relations are then notified, and a funeral is held. Similar 
 mortuaries have been established in many English towns. 
 
 Of the cemeteries still in use in southern Europe, the catacombs of Sicily are the most 
 remarkable. In one of these, near Palermo, under an old Capuchin monastery, there 
 are four subterranean corridors, in which more than 2,000 corpses are ranged in niches 
 in the wall, many of them shrunk into the most grotesque attitudes, or hanging with 
 pendent heads or limbs from their receptacles. As a preparation for its niche, the body 
 IS desiccated in an oven, and then dressed as if in life and put in its place in the wall. 
 At one end of this C. there is . an altar, strangely ornamented with a mosaic of human 
 skulls and bones. 
 
 Among nations in the east cemeteries have been in use from the earliest times. In 
 China the high grounds near Macao and Canton are crowded with tombs, many of them 
 in the form of small tumuli with a low encircling wall, like the ringed barrows of west- 
 ern Europe. But the most picturesque of all cemeteries are those of the Turks. From 
 them it was, perhaps, that the first idea of the modern C., with its ornamental planta- 
 tions, was derived. Around Constantinople the cemeteries form vast tracts of cypress 
 woods, under whose branches stand thousands of tombstones. A grave is never reopened ; 
 a new resting-place is given to every one, and so the dead now occupy a wider territory 
 than that which is covered by the homes of the living. The Turks believe that until the 
 body is buried the soul is in a state of discomfort, and the funeral, therefore, takes place 
 as soon as possible after death. No coffin is used ; the body is laid in the grave, a few 
 boards are placed around it, and then the earth is shoveled in, care being taken to leave 
 a small opening extending from the head of the corpse to the surface of the ground, an 
 opening not unfrequenlly enlarged by dogs and other beasts which plunder the graves. A 
 tombstone of white marble is then erected, surmounted by a carved turban, in case of a 
 man, and ornamented by a palm branch in low relief, if the grave be that of a woman. 
 
Cenci. 
 
 Censors. 
 
 618 
 
 The turban by its varying form indicates not only the rank of the sleeper below, but also 
 the period of his death, for the fashion of the Turkish head-dress is always changing. 
 A cypress is usually planted beside the grave, its odor being supposed to neutralize any 
 noxious exhalations from the ground, and thus, every C. is a forest, where by day 
 hundreds of turtle-doves are on the wing or perching on the trees, and where bats 
 and owls swarm undisturbed at night. These cemeteries are a favorite resort for Turk- 
 ish women, some of whom are always to be seen praying beside the narrow openings 
 that lead down into a parent’s, a husband’s, or a brother’s grave. The cemeteries of the 
 Armenians abound in bas-reliefs, which show the manner of the death of the person 
 beneath, and on these singular tombstones are frequent representations of men being 
 decapitated or hanging on a gibbet. / 
 
 America closely followed England in the sanitary reform of burial-places, and many 
 years ago burial within certain limits of cities was prohibited except in special cases, 
 such as the use of private vaults in church-yards. The earliest of the great cemeteries 
 in the United States was Mount Auburn, near Boston, covering 125 acres, lovely by 
 nature, and most elaborately adorned. 
 
 Laurel Hill C., in Philadelphia, was opened in 1836. It is on the Schuylkill river, 
 about 4 m. n. of the center of the city, and is part of a region of romantic 
 beauty, abounding in gentle declivities, picturesque lawns, rugged ascents, rocky 
 ravines, and flowery dells. A carriage drive, along the river front, connects Fairmount 
 park and the Wissahickon ; thus bringing the ever- varying activity of the living into 
 association with the tranquil resting-places of the dead. Since the first purchase of 
 ground, several larger tracts have been added to it; while, under the management of 
 various associations, other portions of the beautiful vicinity have been, in a similar 
 manner, consecrated and adorned. This was followed by Greenwood C., the first and 
 one of the greatest popular burial-places for New York and Brooklyn. The company 
 was chartered in 1838. The grounds, which comprise 450 acres, occupy the hills and 
 valleys on the e. side of the bay of New York, about 3 m. s. of the city hall in Brook- 
 lyn. The situation is one of the finest in all the region. From the higher points of the 
 C. the eye takes in the two cities of New York and Brooklyn, the bay, half a dozen 
 cities in New Jersey, the far-off Palisades, the broad lower bay, the highlands near 
 Sandy Hook, Coney island, the rich garden lands of Kings county, and a grand view 
 of the Atlantic ocean. This C. has five entrances; nearly 20 m. of stone-bedded 
 avenues, and 17 m. of concrete paths. Water for drinking and irrigation is supplied 
 from the city works to nearly 40 hydrants. There a^'e eight akes of varying dimensions, 
 and four ornamental fountains. * The grounds are drained by 17 m. of subterranean 
 sewer pipes, with 1140 receiving basins. There have been 23,000 lots sold, and over 
 200,000 interments made, the first one on the 5th of Sept., 1840. Among the edifices 
 and monuments of note are: the entrance buildings, the receiving tomb, the shelter 
 house, and the following monuments and statues: to Horace Greeley, statue of a printer 
 setting type; to John Matthews, a sarcophagus with marble effigy; of the Brown brothers, 
 representing the loss of the steamship Arctic and the loss of five members of the 
 family; on Highwood hill, a tribute to Samuel B. Morse, inventor of the telegraph ; the 
 Firemen’s monument, a fireman rescuing a child; monument to Henry Howard, ex-chief 
 of the New York fire department; chapel monument to Mary M. Danser, noted for 
 charitable bequests ; marble temple of A. S. Scribner, of fine Italian marble, containing 
 a figure of Hope, under a marble canopy, supported on eight pillars, and on the sides, in 
 bas-relief, illustrations from the life of Christ, from birth to ascension ; monument to 
 Thomas J. Read, a granite figure of Faith Clasping the Cross; statue of John Correja, a 
 sea-captain taking an observation with the sextant (put up by himself many years before 
 his death); the monument to Charlotte Canda, who was killed on her 17th birthday by 
 falling from her carriage. (This is an elaborate Gothic temple, and was for many years 
 the great attraction of the place; more people have visited this structure, probably, than 
 any other of the points of interest.) The Soldiers’ monument, in honor of those w’ho 
 fell in the union cause during the rebellion, with four life-size statues representing the 
 different branches of the service; the Pilots’ monument, to Thomas Freeborn, who lost 
 his life in trying to save the &\\vp John Minturn, in 1846; the statuary group of James 
 Gordon Bennett, founder of the New York Herald, of the finest Carrara marble, repre- 
 senting a life-sized female figure, kneeling on a cushion, in an attitude of prayer, com- 
 mending to the Almighty Giver her child held in suspense by an angelic figure; 
 the colossal bronze statue of De Witt Clinton; monument to Louis Bonard, who was 
 one of the founders of the society for the prevention of cruelty to animals. This C. 
 is not a stock corporation, but a public trust, managed by trustees chosen by the lot 
 owners. 
 
 CENCI, Beatrice, called “the beautiful parricide,” was the daughter of Francesco 
 Cenci, a wealthy Roman nobleman. According to Muratori (AnnaZes, lib. x.), Francesco 
 was twice married, Beatrice being his daughter by the first wife. After his second mar- 
 riage, he treated the children of his first wife in a revolting manner, and was even 
 accused of hiring bandits to murder two of his sons on their return from Spain. The 
 beauty of Beatrice inspired him with the horrible and incestuous desire to possess her 
 person ; with mingled lust and hate, he persecuted her from day to day, until circunk- 
 
619 
 
 Cenci. 
 
 Censors. 
 
 stances enabled him to consummate his brutality. The unfortunate girl besought the 
 help of her relatives, and of pope Clement VII. (Aldobrandini), but did not receive it; 
 whereupon, in company with her step-mother, and her brother, Giacomo, she planned 
 and executed the murder of her unnatural parent. The crime was discovered, and both 
 she and Giacomo were put to the torture ; Giacomo confessed, but Beatrice persisted in 
 the delaration that she was innocent. All, however, were condemned, and put to death, 
 August, 1599, in spite of efforts made in their behalf. Such is Muratori’s narrative. 
 Others allege that Beatrice was the innocent victim of an infernal plot. The results of 
 Bertolotti’s investigations {Francesco Cenci e la sua Famiglia, 1877), based on original 
 documents and contemporary notices, go far to deprive the story of the Cenci tragedy of 
 the romantic elements on which Shelley’s powerful tragedy mainly turns. Francesco, 
 it would appear, was profligate, but no monster; Beatrice at the time she murdered her 
 father, was not 16 but 21 years of age, was far from beautiful, and probably had already 
 a tarnished moral reputation. And Bertolotti is further convinced that the sweet and 
 mournful countenance which forms one of the treasures of the Barberini palace in 
 Rome, is not only not the portrait of Beatrice, but was not ‘even painted by Guido, to 
 whom it has long been unhesitatingly attributed. 
 
 CENEDA, now officially called Vittorio, a city of northern Italy, province of Treviso, 
 86 m. n. of Venice. Pop. 10,530. It is an episcopal see, has a very handsome modern 
 cathedral and a flne monolithic fountain. Under the republic of Venice it was rich, and 
 famed for its manufactures of woolen cloth, silk, and paper. C. is very ancient, dating 
 from the time of the Romans, but now it is a decayed city. 
 
 CENIS, Mont, or Monte Cenisio, a mountain-pass of the Alps, between Savoy and 
 Piedmont, forming part of the water-shed between the valleys of the Doire and the 
 Arc. The culminating point of the pass reaches an elevation of 6,775 ft. above the sea. 
 Schist, limestone, and gypsum, in altenate beds, compose the strata of the mountain, 
 the vegetation of which is rich in the rarer kinds of Alpine plants. Over the pass a 
 road was constructed (1803-10) by the chevalier Fabbroni, under Napoleon’s orders, at 
 an expense of £300,000. This is the safest, and most frequented road across the Alps. 
 Near the pass, a railway tunnel, 7^ m. long, was finished in 1870. For detail see 
 Tunnel. 
 
 CENIS, Mont {ante), the site of some remarkable railroad building within the last 
 15 years. In 1865, an English engineer obtained permission from the Italian and French 
 governments to lay a railway on the line of Napoleon’s carriage road over the mountains. 
 The road was built in the ordinary way with the addition of a third rail midway between 
 the outer ones, and raised nearly a foot higher. This third rail was strongly gripped by 
 the driving wheels, by which means the trains could safely traverse very sharp curves 
 and descend grades as steep as 1 ft. in 12. On the French side the rise to the summit in 
 6f m. of road was 4,460 feet. Then there was a stretch of 5 m. nearly level, and after 
 that the descent to Susa on the Italian side, a distance of 20 m. over curves so numerous 
 and so sharp that the view changed almost every minute, trains descended by the 
 momentum of weight, the speed being regulated by brakes. This road was superseded 
 by the one now in use, which runs through the great tunnel. (See Tunnel, ante.) 
 
 CEN'OBITES. See Monachism. 
 
 CENO'MYCE. See Reindeer Moss. 
 
 CENO'TAPH (Gr. kenotafion, from kenos, empty, and tafos, a tomb), a monument 
 which does not contain the remains of the deceased. They were originally erected for 
 those whose bones could not be found, e.g., for those who had perished at sea. Lat- 
 terly, the name was applied to tombs built by a man during his lifetime, for himself and 
 the members of his family. 
 
 CENSER (Fr. encensoir, from Lat. incendo, to burn), a vase, or other sacred vessel, 
 used for burning perfumes. See Incense. Censers were much used in the Hebrew 
 service of the ternple, but their form is not accurately ascertained, and it is probable that 
 they varied in this respect, according to the occasions on which they were used. The 
 C., called also a thurible (Lat. thuribulum, from thus, frankincense), is used in the 
 Roman Catholic church at mass, vespers and other offices. It is suspended by chains, 
 which are held in the hand, and is tossed in the air, so as to throw the smoke of the 
 incense in all directions. It varies very much in form. 
 
 CENSORI'NUS, a chronologist and grammarian of the 3d c., known by a work 
 called De Die Natali, in which he treated of man’s generations, his natal hour, and the 
 influence that the stars and genii exercise over his fate. It was by some work of his 
 on chronology that certain important dates have been ascertained. 
 
 CENSORS, the name of two Roman officers of state. The office was established by 
 Servius Tullius, the fifth king of Rome. After the expulsion of the kings, it vras held 
 by the consuls, special magistrates not being appointed till 443 b.c. It continued to be 
 filled by patricians till 351 b.c., when C. Marcius Rutilus, a plebeian, was elected. 
 Twelve years later, it was enacted that one of the C. (there were always two) must be a 
 plebeian. In 131 b.c., both C. for the first time were plebeians. Th« C. were 
 
Censorship. 
 
 Census. 
 
 620 
 
 elected in the comitia eenturiata, presided over by a consul. The term of office at 
 first lasted five years, but was shortly afterwards limited to 18 months. The censor- 
 ship was regarded as the highest dignity in the state, except the dictatorship. It was 
 a sacred and irresponsible magistracy, whose powers were vast and undefined, and 
 whose decisions were received with solemn reverence. The duties of the C. were 
 threefold. 1. The taking of the census, or register of the citizens and of their property. 
 2. The regimen Trwrum (regulation of morals). 3. The administration of the finances of 
 the state. The taking of the census (Lat. censeo, to value, to take an account of) was 
 originally their sole function (hence their name), and was held in the campus martius, 
 in a building called villa puhlica. The regimen morum was the most dreaded and abso- 
 lute of their powers. It grew naturally out of the exercise of the previous duty, which 
 compelled them to exclud^e unworthy persons from the lists of citizens. Gradually, the 
 superintendence of the C. extended from the public to the private life of citizens. They 
 could inflict disgrace {ignominia) on any one whose conduct did not square with their 
 notions of rectitude or duty. For instance, if a man neglected the cultivation of his 
 fields, or carried on a disreputable trade, or refused to marry, or treated his family either 
 too kindly or too harshly, or was extravagant, or guilty of bribery, cowardice, etc., 
 he might be degraded, according to his rank, or otherwise punished, llie adminis- 
 tration of the finances of the state included the regulation of the trihutum, or property- 
 tax; of the vectigalia, such as the tithes paid for the public lands, salt-works, mines, cus- 
 toms, etc., which were usually leased out to speculators for five years; the preparation 
 of the state budget, etc. — See Rovers, De Censorum apud Romanos Auctoritate et Existi- 
 matioiie (Utrecht, 1825). 
 
 CEN'SORSHIP OP THE PRESS, the term generally applied to the arrangements for 
 regulating what may be printed, in countries where the press is not free. The simplest 
 form of C. is when a public officer — the censor, or licenser, as he is sometimes called — 
 reads over the MS. to be printed, and, after striking out any objectionable passages, 
 certifies that the work may be printed. Thence it is common in old books to see the 
 word imprimatur — let it be printed — followed by one or more signatures. Though it has 
 its name from an analogy with the functions of the Roman censor, the C. did not come 
 into operation until the invention of printing. It w^as common to all European coun- 
 tries, Great Britain included. The C. was established by act of parliament in 1662, 
 13 Char. II. c. 33 : “An act for preventing the frequent abuses in printing seditious, 
 treasonable, and unlicensed books and pamphlets, and for regulating of printing and 
 printing-presses.” This was a temporary act, renewed from time to time; and its 
 renewal was refused in 1693, owing to a quarrel between the house of commons and 
 the licenser. Since that time there has been, generally speaking, no restriction in this 
 country on what any man may publish; and he is merely responsible to the law, if in 
 his publication he should commit any public or private wrong. See Libel, Law op; 
 see also Press, Freedom op the ; Book-Trade ; and Copyright. 
 
 CENSUS means, in this country, the periodical counting of the people. It is a Latin 
 word applied by the Romans to one of the functions of their censors (q. v.). They had 
 to enumerate the people, but only for immediate purposes of taxation, so that no 
 accounts of the results of such enumerations has been preserved. The idea of ascertain- 
 ing the numbers of the people, and the proportions in which they are divided according 
 to sex, age, profession, rank, and the like, as statistical information, is of late origin. 
 The first C. of Britain was taken in the first year of the present c. — 1801. From that 
 time it has been taken at each period of ten years. An attempt, but a rather unsuccess- 
 ful one, was made to take the statistics of Ireland in 1811. Ten years after, the attempt 
 was repeated, but the accuracy of the bare enumeration it furnished was doubtful. 
 That of 1831, which was an improvement, was corrected three years after, in order that 
 it might form the basis of a new system of education. The four subsequent enumera- 
 tions have been very trustworthy, and have furnished besides valuable statistics regard- 
 ing the agricultural condition of the country. The system of registration under a regis 
 trar-general, established in England in 1836, has given considerable assistance by sup 
 plying a staff for carrying out the enumeration, and also by affording the means of 
 checking the census. A similar registration system was extended to Scotland in 1854, of 
 which the C. of 1861 and 1871 have had the advantage. A C. must be taken for the 
 whole empire simultaneously, otherwise it cannot be accurate. The practice is for the 
 enumerating officer in each petty district to leave a schedule at each house, which he 
 receives filled up, aiding, when necessary, in the filling up. The C. of 1851 "was taken 
 for the night of the 31st March. This C. supplied important, but not altogether satis- 
 factory information, as to the educational and ecclesiastical condition of the country, 
 elements of which the latter has been left out in 1861 and 1871. The C. of 1861 was 
 taken for the night of Sunday, 7th April; that of 1871 for the night of Sunday, 2d 
 April, a schedule being left in each house on the Saturday, and called for on Monday. 
 The schedule of 1871 contained compartments for “particulars of the name, sex, age, 
 rank, profession or occupation, condition, relation to head of family, and birthplace of 
 every living person” who passed the night of Sunday in the house; wdiether any was 
 blind, deaf, dumb, imbecile, or lunatic; and how many betw^een the ages of 6 and 13 
 were receiving education. Most civilized nations take a C. at regular intervals — France, 
 
621 
 
 Censorship. 
 
 Census. 
 
 ..every five years, the last in 1872; Belgium, every ten years, the last in 1866, with calcu- 
 lated estimate in 1873; Austria, every ten years, the last in 1869; the United States, the 
 same, the last in 1870; in Germany, the last two censuses were taken in 1871 and 1875. 
 The first C. for India was taken between 1867 and 1872. 
 
 CENSUS {ante). The tenth C. of the United States was taken in June, 1880. Up to 
 1860 our decennial progress in population and material wealth had been uniformly rapid 
 and wonderful. The war of the rebellion then interfered, and both directly and indi- 
 rectly tended to arrest that progress — directly in the destruction, through war and dis- 
 ease, of more than three quarters of a million of men in the beginning of life, when, in 
 the natural course of events, they would have largely increased the population; and in- 
 directly in checking the fiood of immigration, a flood that had been bringing us half a 
 million inhabitants in a single year. The regularity of progress from 1790 to 1860 is 
 very remarkable. The percentage of increase in each decade is here shown : 
 
 Decade. Per Cent. 
 
 1790 to 1800 35.02 
 
 1800 to 1810 36.45 
 
 1810 to 1820 33.13 
 
 1820 to 1830 33.49 
 
 Decade. Per Cent. 
 
 1830 to 1840 32.67 
 
 1840 to 1850 35.87 
 
 1850 to 1860 35.58 
 
 1860 to 1870 22.22 
 
 So, for the 70 years up to 1860 the population grew at an average rate of 3| per cent per 
 annum, dividing the whole period into periods of ten years each. Without the war 
 the population of the United States in 1870 would have been 42,600,000; in 1880, by the 
 same ratio, it would have been upward of 57,000,000. 
 
 The numbering of the people, though on one special occasion forbidden by the 
 highest power, is an ancient custom. Moses numbered the Israelites in the wilderness, 
 and, in later times, Joshua and David followed his example. The Chinese tell of a C. 
 of their people taken 2,042 years before the birth of Christ. In Japan an enumeration 
 was made about 1,900 years ago. Solon ordered the C. of Athens to be taken, especially 
 with reference to classes of the people and taxable property. Servius Tullius, sixth 
 king of Rome, ordered a C., when every citizen had to appear on the field of Mars and 
 declare on oath his name and residence, the number and names of his children, and the 
 value of his property. Failing to do this, his property might be confiscated and him- 
 self scourged and sold for a slave. Augustus enlarged the scope and improved the 
 manner of taking the census. In the 16th c. the church began to record births, mar- 
 riages, and deaths, and from this practice gradually grew up the modern C., though 
 there does not appear to have been any exact popular C. made until after the beginning 
 of the 18th century. 
 
 Russia, then almost a barbarous country, appears to have led other nations in C. 
 taking. Partial enumerations were made in 1700, 1704-5, and 1710. In 1719, Peter 
 the great sent a commission into all the provinces to make a general census. This 
 commission took account of the number of peasants, mechanics, domestics, and men 
 unemployed. Women were not taken into account at all at the commencement, but 
 they were recognized before the work closed, and in some districts were partially 
 enumerated. In 1722, the C. distinguished the insane and infirm without means of 
 subsistence, and the czar ordered that a C. should be taken every twentieth year. 
 In 1802, a central bureau of statistics was organized, reorganized in 1852, and again in 
 1858. This bureau is charged with the taking of the C., which now includes much 
 the same information as that obtained in the United States. Prussian enumerations 
 were begun under Frederick William I., and improved by his successor. From 1748 
 to 1800, the C. was taken annually, except when prevented by war. In 1805, the 
 central bureau of statistics was established. In 1834, a triennial C. was ordered. 
 The schedules for questioning were very full, and the enumeration was to be made some one 
 day in December. The first C. of the German empire was taken on the 1st of Dec., 
 1871. Austria first took a C. in 1754, and kept it up triennially until 1857, when it 
 was enacted that the enumeration should be made every sixth year. In Sweden, as early 
 ^s 1686, there was a law requiring the clergy to record marriages, legitimate and illegiti- 
 mate births, deaths, persons removed from or settled in parishes, and all the population, 
 arranged by place of habitation and households. Such information was first published 
 in 1746. A statistical bureau was established in 1857, to collate and publish C. and 
 other statistical information. Norway has kept up a decennial C. since 1815, and 
 the work is usually thoroughly done. In Spain, enumerations were made in 1787, 1798, 
 1857, and 1860, and, by calculation, in 1867. The work is done by government officials 
 in one night. Denmark had a C. once in five years, from 1840 to 1860; now it is 
 decennial, the last enumeration being on the 1st of Feb., 1870. The first and only 
 C. of Portugal was made Jan. 1, 1864, and extended only to the number of the 
 population. Switzerland began enumerations about 1750. Her C. is now decen- 
 nial. Belgium doubtless leads all nations in the fullness and accuracy of her statistics, 
 although h^er C. is taken but once in ten years. The last was in 1876. The Nether- 
 lands C. is decennial. The last was taken Dec. 1, 1870. Italy has an enumeration 
 once in ten years, the last Dec. 31, 1871. Greece counts up irregularly. From 1836 to 
 1845, a C. was made every year; then in 1848, 1853, 1856, 1861, 1868, and 1870. 
 Turkey has never taken a C. except for conscription or taxation. The first C. 
 
Centaurea. 
 
 Centaurs. 
 
 622 
 
 on record in France was taken in 1700 and published in 1720. There was a general 
 C. taken in 1800, and a decree of the national convention ordered that it should be 
 continued every fifth year. Since about 1820, the C. has been taken very regularly. 
 Brazil began in 1872, the Argentine Republic in 1869, Colombia in 1870, and Egypt in 
 1862. 
 
 The first real effort to record the population of Great Britain was made in 1801, and 
 then it did not extend to Ireland, which had just become a part of the empire by the 
 celebrated union. This C. was crude and unsatisfactory, and the returns were im- 
 possible of classification. The chief value of the C. of 1801 was in calling attention 
 to the importance of such statistics and evoking better methods for getting and classify- 
 ing them. Much better work was done in 1841 and 1851, when advantage v^as taken of 
 the elaborate records of births, marriages, and deaths, which were begun the 1st of July, 
 1837. The first attempt at a general C. in Ireland was made in 1811, but it was a. 
 failure. Some improvements were made in 1821 and 1831, since which satisfactory 
 enumerations have been made by the constabulary. We lack space to go over the enu- 
 merations in Great Britain and Ireland in 1841, 1851, and 1861, and must come directly 
 to the first imperial C. — 1871. This first attempted complete enumeration of the popu- 
 lation of the empire was, so far as Great Britain and Ireland were a part, made in 
 one day, April 3, 1871. The returns for the whole empire showed a population of 234,- 
 762,593, living upon 7,769,449 sq.m, of territory, viz.: — England and Wales, 22,856,164 
 population; Scotland, 3,392,259; Ireland, 5,449,186; islands in British seas, 147,470; 
 colonies and possessions, 202,917,214. The annual rate of increase from 1861 was: — In 
 England and Wales, 1.23 per cent; Scotland, 0.92; Ireland (decrease), 0.71. The work 
 of this C. was in charge of the registrar-general, assisted by Dr. W. Farr and J. T. 
 Hammick. The main work was done by 32,543 enumerators, employed under 2,195 
 registrars and 626 superintendent registrars. All the enumerators were required to be 
 intelligent, trustworthy, and -active; to write well, and to have some knowledge of 
 arithmetic. They were to be not under eighteen nor over sixty-five, and to be in good 
 health and of unexceptionable character. The whole country was divided into minute 
 districts, and so great was the care taken, that every unnumbered house or dwelling had 
 a fixed number put upon it before the schedules were sent out. Every means was taken 
 through the press and by means of special publications to apprise the people of what 
 was wanted, and instructing them how to facilitate the work. The householders’ sched- 
 ules were delivered in person by the enumerators who were to take them up. Every 
 separate occupier received a schedule arranged so as to record the name, day, age, rank, 
 profession or occupation, conjugal relation, relation to the head of the family and birth- 
 place of every person who abode in any house on the night of Sunday, 2d of April, 
 1871. There were special blanks for blind, deaf and dumb, etc. There were 6,500,006 
 of these schedules, weighing 41 tons. In addition to schedules and enumeration books, 
 there were sent from the central office 115 different printed forms of instructions and 
 circulars. The houseless population were enumerated by the police, the navy by the 
 admiralty, the merchant seamen by the customs bureau, and the army through the field- 
 marshal’s office. The tenacity of the Welsh tongue was shown by the return of 17,275 
 schedules filled out in that language. The care exercised in taking this enumeration may 
 be inferred from the fact that the enumerators were instructed to consider a house as com- 
 prising all the space within the external and party walls of a building, whether occupied 
 by one or several families ; they were also instructed to make an exact record of each 
 house and the number of schedules left. With the help of the police they were to return 
 all persons not on that night dwelling in houses, but sleeping in barns, sheds, caravans 
 or tents, or in the open air. Special schedules were printed for the enumeration of 
 persons in public institutions, on board vessels, or in charge of boats and barges em- 
 ployed in inland navigation. Persons traveling during the night of Sunday, April 2, 
 were to be included in the schedules of the hotel, or the house at which they arrived on 
 the morning of Monday. Persons engaged in work away from home during the night 
 of Sunday were to be included in the schedule left at the house where they usually 
 resided. The causes why an unusual number of persons were present or absent at any 
 given places were to be reported. The expedition with which the enormous mass of 
 information was assorted and compiled may be known from the fact that the abstract 
 showing the population of Great Britain was laid before parliament in print on the 20th 
 of June, only eleven weeks from the day for collecting the schedules. The C. of 
 Ireland at the same time was taken by 4,536 members of the royal constabulary, aided 
 in cities by the local police. In Scotland there were 1016 local registrars, and 8,342 
 enumerators. The cost of this imperial C. was, in England, £5 5s. 7|d for each 1000 
 of population ; in Scotland, £8 Is. 4d ; in Ireland, £7 2s. Id. 
 
 Census work began in the United States with the beginning of the government. In 
 order to secure a proper apportionment of representatives in the lower house of congress 
 a C. is taken every tenth year. At first it was nothing more than an enumeration of 
 the people, classifying slave and free. Additions and improvements were made until 
 the schedules of 1870 comprised questions as to name, age, sex, color, conjugal condi- 
 tion, place of birth and place of birth of father and mother. To these were added par- 
 ticulars as to schools, libraries, newspapers, churches, disease and mortality, pauperism 
 and crime, school, military and citizenship ages ; areas of farms, families and dwellings ; 
 
623 
 
 Centaurea. 
 
 Centaurs. 
 
 tlie blind, deaf and dumb, insane and idiotic, occupations of the people, wealth, taxa- 
 tion, and public indebtedness, and the amount and value of the products of agriculture 
 and manufactures. The questions were certainly comprehensive enough, but the mode 
 of taking the C. was slow, cumbrous, and unsatisfactory. It was two years and six 
 months after the beginning of the work when the compilation known as the Compendium 
 was sent to congress. In the introduction to this compendium gen. Walker, superin- 
 tendent of the ninth C., says: “There is no reason, however, why, with such mod- 
 ifications of existing laws as would insure that the material should come originally to 
 the census office in proper shape for tabulation, the entire compilation should not be 
 concluded within a year from the date of the first receipt of returns. It is not possible 
 for one who has had such painful occasion as the present superintendent to observe the 
 workings of the census law of 1850, to characterize it otherwise than as clumsy, anti- 
 quated and barbarous. The machinery it provides is as unfit for use in the C. of 
 the United States, in this day of advanced statistical science, as the smooth-bore muzzle- 
 loading queen’s arm of the revolution would be for service against the repeating rifle of 
 the present time. It ought not to be possible that another 0. should be taken under 
 this law ; such a thing ought not to be seriously proposed. The country has suffered 
 more than enough already of discredit and of loss on account of the wretched insufld- 
 eiency and inappropriateness of the provisions of this ill-constructed and outgrown 
 statute.” 
 
 In 1850 Mr. Joseph C. G. Kennedy, who superintended the C. of that decade, 
 ventured to prophesy our future population, basing his estimates upon the progress 
 already achieved. Of course, he did not make allowances for the war, then undreamed 
 of. He reckoned that in 1870 we should have a population of 42,328,432, and in 1880 
 it would rise to 56,450,241. His estimates were high, but without the war we should 
 probably have come well up to them. Taking the whole country, we lost through 
 battle and diseases consequent upon military service more than a million of men ; and 
 these were men in the prime of life — just the period for natural increase of families. 
 Three times as many, who did not lose their lives, were away from their homes one, 
 two, or three years, and this, too, greatly reduced natural increase. 
 
 CENT {ante), a coin of the United States valued at the hundredth part of a dollar. 
 The first one authorized by act of congress, April 2, 1792, was copper, and weighed 264 
 grains. The next year the weight Was reduced to 208 grains, and in 1796 to 168 grains. 
 Half cents were also coined, but not to great extent. Collectors of coins should remem- 
 ber that no coins other than gold or silver were issued from the United States mint in 
 the year 1815 or 1832. By the act of Feb. 21, 1857 the issue of half cents was discontinued, 
 and the copper C. was made of .88 copper and 12 zinc, and to weigh 72 grains. April 
 22, 1864, the bronze C. was introduced, consisting of ,95 copper and .5 tin and zinc, 
 and weighing 48 grains. Ten of the present cents weigh just a troy ounce, and 120 
 cents weigh a troy pound. They cannot be conveniently used for avoirdupois or com- 
 mon weight. Cents are legal tender to the amount of 25 cents. 
 
 CENTATT'REA, a genus of plants of the natural order compositce, sub-order cynaracea, 
 containing many species of annual and perennial herbaceous plants, chiefly natives of 
 the temperate and cold regions of the eastern hemisphere. Six or seven species are 
 natives of Britain, some of them common weeds, whilst some species appear among the 
 frequent ornaments of flower-gardens. — The Blue-bottle, or Corn Blue-bottle (C. 
 cyanus), is common in cornfields in Britain and other parts of Europe, and has now 
 become frequent also in similar situations in America, and indeed over the greater part 
 of the world. It is an annual, growing to the height of about 2 ft., and producing its 
 flowers in July and August. The florets of the disk are small and purple; those of the 
 ray are few, comparatively large, and of a bright blue. Its flowers have long been 
 much used in wreaths and garlands. It is common in gardens, with flowers variously 
 modified by cultivation. Water distilled from the flowers of the blue-bottle was at one 
 time in high repute as a remedy for weak eyes. The juice of the florets of the disk, 
 with a little alum, dyes a beautiful and permanent blue. — The large , blue-bottle {G. 
 montana), a native of central Europe, is still more frequently cultivated in flower-gar- 
 . dens. Its flowers are considerably larger, and it is a perennial. — Sweet Sultan {G. 
 moschaia),^ a native of the Levant, with fragrant flowers, is also common in flower-gar- 
 dens. It is an annual or biennial. — Several species, having the involucre spiny, bear 
 the name of Star-thistle. The common Star-thistle {C. calcitrapa) is a native of 
 the southern parts of Britain and of Europe. — The common or black Knapweed, called 
 in Scotland horse knot {G. nigra), is abundant in the meadows and pastures of most parts 
 of Britain, and is a troublesome perennial weed, difficult of extirpation. G. jacea, also 
 called Knapweed, more rare in Britain, is very common in some parts of Europe, and 
 its bitter astringent root, and indeed the whole plant, were formerly used in medicine. 
 It affords a beautiful bright yellow dye, almost as good as saw-wort. — The name C. has 
 its origin in an ancient legend concerning the cure of a centaur by one of the species. 
 
 CENTAURS (“ bull-killers”), a wild race of men who inhabited, in early times, the 
 forests and mountains of Thessaly, and whose chief occupation was bull-hunting. 
 Homer, the first who mentions them, describes them merely as savage, gigantic, and 
 covered with hair. They do not appear as monsters, half -man and half-horse, until the 
 
Centaurus. 
 
 Center. 
 
 624 
 
 age of Pindar. The C. are celebrated in Greek mythology on account of their war with 
 th^e Lapithm (q.v.), and their contest with Hercules. The fact lying at the bottom of 
 Pindar’s myth may refer to the impression which the old bull-hunters of Thessaly, who 
 spent almost their whole life, it is said, on horseback, first made on some of the neigh- 
 boring tribes — viz. , that the man and the horse were one creature, which, at least, we- 
 know was the opinion entertained by the Mexicans of the Spanish cavalry. On account 
 of their resemblance to the Satyrs, the C. were at a later period introduced into the 
 artistic representation of the Bacchic worship. 
 
 CENTATJ'IITJS, the Centaur, one of the constellations in the southern hemisphere, 
 represented on the celestial globe by a form half-man and half -horse. The stars in this 
 constellation are, according to Ptolemy’s catalogue, 37 in number; according to the 
 Britannic catalogue, 35. It contains the stars a Centauri and (5 Centauri, both of the 
 first magnitude. 
 
 CEN'TATJRY, Erythrma, a genus of plants of the natural order gentianece, having a 
 funnel-shaped regular 5-partite corolla. The species are pretty little annuals, natives 
 chiefly of the temperate parts of Europe and Asia, with pink or rose-colored flowers. 
 They possess the tonic and other medicinal virtues of gentian, and although not fre- 
 quently administered by physicians, are an important domestic medicine ; and the tops 
 are collected, when the plant is in flower, by the country people both in England and on 
 the continent of Europe, to be employed in cases of dyspepsia, in intermittent fevers, 
 and as a vermifuge. They contain a substance called centaurine, the hydrochlorate of 
 which is said to be an excellent febrifuge.— The common C. {E. centaurium) is the spe- 
 cies most frequent in Britain; a plant of 8 in. to a foot in height, with flow^ers collected 
 in loose heads, growing in dry pastures. Two or three other species are found on 
 sandy sea-shores. Nearly allied to these is the American C. {sabbatia angularis), an 
 annual plant with an erect quadrangular stem, extensively distributed throughout the 
 United States and Canada, and much used in the domestic practice of America, as a 
 prophylactic against autumnal fevers in strong infusions and large and repeated doses. 
 The name C. owes its origin to the same legend with the name centaurea, although 
 appropriated to plants so different. 
 
 CENT and CENTIME' (Lat. centum, a hundred), names of coins. The Dutch cent 
 is a copper coin =Y^^th of the guilder, which is equal to 1«. 8d. sterling. In the U. S. 
 of America, the cent is a copper coin =Y 07 rth part of the dollar, or nearly one half- 
 penny English. The centime is the 100th of the French franc (q.v.), and is of the value 
 of j^ijth of an English penny. 
 
 CENTE'NES. See Tenrec. 
 
 CENTENNIAL EXHIBITION, in the United States, held at Philadelphia in 1876, a 
 hundred years after the declaration of independence. It was opened in Fairmount park, 
 May 10, 1876. An area of 236 acres was used, and the cost of the five main buildings 
 was $4,500,000. Before the close there were more than 200 separate buildings within 
 the inclosure. Some idea of the magnitude of the preparations may be obtained from, 
 the apportionment of space in the main building, designed for the exhibition of the manu- 
 factured products and products of mines and metallurgy, as well as the condition of 
 science and education in all nations. This building covered 20 acres, and was 1880 ft. 
 long and 464 wide, with projecting wings in the center of the sides 416 ft. long, and in 
 the center of the ends 216 ft. long. The exhibition space was on one floor. The 
 roof of the main portion was 70 ft. high. In the center was an elevated square, with 
 sides of 184 ft., having towers 120 ft. high and 48 ft. square at the corners. At the 
 four corners of the building were towers 75 ft. high. The roof was supported by wrought- 
 iron roof-trusses resting upon 672 wrought-iron columns. The sides were closed with 
 glazed sash, above a substructure of brick 7 ft. high, resting on a foundation of massive 
 masonry. Space was apportioned as follows, in square feet; Argentine Republic, 2,861; 
 Austria-Hungary, 24,727; Belgium, 15,598; Brazil, 6,899; Canada, 24,118; Chili, 3,244; 
 China, 6,628; France, 45,460; Germany, 29,629; Great Britain and Ireland, 54,155; 
 India and British colonies, 24,193; Hawaiian islands, 1575; Italy, 8,943; Japan, 17,831; 
 Luxemburg, 247; Mexico, 6,567; Netherlands, 15,948; Norway, 6,959; Orange Free 
 State, 1058; Peru, 1462; Spain and colonies, 11,253; Sweden, 17,799; Switzerland, 6,693; 
 Tunis, 2,015; Turkey, 3,347; United States, 136,684. Within this vast space the nations 
 vied with each other in showing proofs of their industry, wealth, and greatness. A most 
 interesting part of the exhibition was that devoted to the progress of modern education. 
 Another building was the women’s pavilion, covering an acre of ground, designed to 
 receive the products of woman’s ingenuity and progress. Besides the United States 
 more than a dozen other nations were here represented. This was the first collect- 
 ive display of women’s work ever attempted. The art building was called Memorial 
 hall, and remains as a permanent monument of the exhibition. It is a splendid structure, 
 in the renaissance style. On a central tower 150 ft. high stands a colossal statue of 
 America; at the base are four figures of smaller proportions, representing the four quar- 
 ters of the globe. The building is 365 ft. long by 210 wide, and 59 high; it is of granite, 
 glass, and iron. Machinery hall, next in size to the main building, was 1402 ft. long by 360 
 wide, its area, including that of its annex, being nearly 13 acres. Steam, water-power, and 
 
625 
 
 Centanroa 
 
 Center. 
 
 shafting were provided by the commissioners. The United States building was 504 by 30^ 
 feet. In it were exhibited, as fully as possible, all the operations of government service^ 
 Horticultural hall, in the Moorish style of the 12th c., was built by the city of Philadelphia, 
 and was intended to be permanent. It is of iron and glass, 383 by 193 ft., and 72 in 
 height. Agricultural hall covered a rectangular space 820 ft. long and 540 wide. Great 
 Britain erected three buildings for the use and entertainment of her commissioners; 
 and Germany, Brazil, and Portugal each had a pavilion. The English buildings were 
 fine specimens of the later Tudor architecture. Sweden exhibited a national school- 
 house with educational appliances and furniture complete. France had a building 
 containing charts, drawings, and models of public works. Canada displayed her woods 
 and lumber in log and frame houses. Spain had a soldiers’ barracks, and Cuba had 
 an acclimatization garden. Turkey showed in a special building her sponge fisheries. 
 Japan had a model dwelling. Morocco had a Moorish villa for the display and sale of 
 her productions. Chili had a building containing models of amalgamating machines. 
 There were also a number of special edifices belonging to private exhibitors. There 
 was a Turkish cafe of true oriental type, where Mocha, mastic, Syrian tobacco, and 
 Samian wine were dispensed. There were a Tunisian bazar, and an Algerine pavilion; 
 Japanese booths, houses, and gardens; a New England farmer’s home with the old style 
 of kitchen, and other peculiar structures. There were 26 buildings for the headquar- 
 ters of as many states, some of them containing large exhibitions of state products; 
 several were made of the stone or wood of the state represented. Thirty or more build- 
 ings w^ere erected by private companies or individuals. Among them were the tele- 
 graph building, the transportation building, the bankers’ building, the American kin- 
 dergarten, the Bible building, and others showing the manufacture of innumerable 
 articles; finally, the ingenuity of man was supplemented by bees making honey in the 
 midst of all the crowd and turmoil. The exhibition was opened to visitors every day 
 except Sunday for six months, closing on the 10th of November. The number of admis- 
 sions was 9,910,966, of which number 7,250,620 paid the regular fee of 50cts.,aud 
 753,654 the special rate of 25 cts. ; 1,906,692 admissions were free, representing exhibit- 
 ors, officers, employes, the press, and complimentary passes. 
 
 CENTER, a co. in middle Pennsylvania, traversed by the Allegheny and other 
 mountain ridges. Bald Eagle creek, and two or three branches of the Pennsylvania 
 railroad; 1000 sq.m.; pop. ’80,37,921. The chief business is agriculture. Coal, iron, 
 and limestone are abundant. Co. seat, Bellefonte. 
 
 CENTER OF GRAVITY is that point in a body or system of bodies rigidly connected, 
 upon which the body or system acted upon only by the force of gravity, will balance 
 4 itself in all positions. Though the action of gravity enters this definition, many of the 
 properties of the point are independent of that force, and might be enunciated and 
 proved without conceiving it to exist. By some, accordingly, th^e point has been called 
 the center of magnitude, and by others, the center of parallel forces. Such a point exists 
 in every body and system, and only one such point. Every body may be supposed to 
 be made up of a multitude of minute particles connected by cohesion, and so far as its 
 balance under gravity is concerned, each of these may be supposed to be removed, and 
 its place occupied by a force proportioned to its weight. . Instead of the body, on these 
 suppositions, we should then have a system of parallel forces, the lines from the various 
 particles to the earth’s center being regarded as parallel. But a system of parallel forces 
 (see Parallel Forces) has a single resultant acting through a fixed point, whose 
 position is independent of the position in space of the points of application of the com- 
 ponent forces, provided their relative positions in the system continue unchanged. This 
 
 c 
 
 point is the C. of G. ; and if it be supported, it is clear that the body will balance itself 
 upon it in all positions. The same reasoning obviously applies to any system of bodies 
 rigidly connected. It is usual to demonstrate this and the general rule for finding the 
 C. of G. by proving it first in the case of two heavy particles forming a body or system, 
 and then extending the proof to the case of any number of particles. Let P and Q (see 
 fig. 1) be two heavy particles. Join P and Q, and divide the line PQ in C, so that 
 weight of P ; weight of Q : : CQ : CP. Then C will be the C. of G. of P and Q. Draw 
 ACB horizontal, and PM, QN vertical, meeting AB in M and N. Then if P and Q 
 represent the weights of P and Q, we have P : Q : : CQ : CP. But CQ : CP : : CN : CM 
 by similar triangles. Therefore P : Q : : CN : CM, and P.CM = Q.CN. P and Q, 
 therefore are balanced about C. See Balance and Lever. This is true in all positions 
 of P and Q, for no assumption was made as to their positions. C, therefore, is their 
 center of gravity, Also, we may conceive P and Q to be removed (see Parallel 
 Forces), and in their stead a particle at C equal to them taken together in weight. If 
 U. K. III.— 40 
 
Center. 
 
 626 
 
 now, the system contained three, it is clear how we should proceed to find its center of 
 ;gravity; having found the C. of G. of two, we should consider the system as formed of 
 two — viz., the equivalent of the first two at their C. of G., and the third, when the case 
 would fall under that already treated; and so on, extending the rule to a system con- 
 taining any number of particles. Apart from this rule, however, it is possible, in the 
 case of most regular homogeneous bodies, to fix upon their centers of gravity from gen- 
 eral considerations. The C. of G. of a straight line, for instance, must clearly be in its 
 middle point. So the C. of G. of a uniform homogeneous cylinder must be in the mid- 
 dle point of its axis. It must be in the axis, for the cylinder clearly is equally balanced 
 about its axis. It must also be somewhere in its middle circular section, for it will bal- 
 ance itself on a knife-edge under that section. It must, therefore, be in the point where 
 that section cuts the axis, or in the middle of the axis. The C. of G. of a uniform 
 material plane triangle may be found from similar considerations. The triangle ABC 
 <see fig. 2) may be supposed to be made up of uniform material lines parallel to its base 
 AB; each of these will balance upon its middle point. The whole triangle, therefore, 
 will balance upon the line CD, which bisects the base AB and all lines parallel to it. In 
 the same wa}", the triangle will balance upon the line AE, bisecting BC. But if a figure 
 balances itself upon a line, its C. of G. must lie in that line. The C. of G. of the trian- 
 gle is therefore in CD, and also in CB. It must therefore be at g where these lines inter- 
 sect, g being the only point they have in common. Now, by geometry, we know that 
 g divides CD, so that Qg = \ CD. Hence the rule for finding the C. of G. of a triangle: 
 Draw a line from the vertex, bisecting the base, and measure off Qg, two thirds of the 
 line, g is the center of gravity. By a similar method, the C. of G. of a great number 
 of figures may be determined. 
 
 The above method applies only where the figure of the body is regular, and its mass 
 homogeneous. But many bodies, besides being irregular, are formed by the agglomeration 
 of particles of different specific gravities. Of these, the C. of G. can be found only by 
 experiment, though not always satisfactorily. Let the body be suspended by a string, 
 and allowed to find its position of equilibrium. The equilibrium being due to the ten- 
 sion of the string counterbalancing gravity, it follows that the tension is in the same 
 line with that on which gravity acts on the body. But the tension acts on the line of the 
 string, which therefore passes through the center of gravity. Mark its direction through 
 the body. Suspending it then by another point, we should ascertain a second line in 
 which lies the center of gravity. The C. of G., then, must be where these lines inter- 
 sect. — For the effect on the stability of bodies of the position of the C. of G., see Sta- 
 bility. 
 
 CENTEE OF GYRA'TION is the point at which, if the whole mass of a body rotating • 
 round an axis or point of suspension were collected, a given force applied would pro- 
 duce the same angular velocity as it would if applied at the same point to the body 
 itself. The 0. of G. bears a strong analogy to the center of oscillation. The cases 
 differ only in this, that in the latter the operating forces are supposed to act at every 
 point of the moving body, while in the former there is only one force acting upon 
 one point. The C. of G. is found by the following rule: Divide the moment of inertia 
 of the rotating mass by the mass of the body, and extract the square root of the quo- 
 tient. The result is the distance of the point from the axis of rotation. The moment 
 of inertia, it may be stated, is the sum of the products of the weight of each point of 
 the mass by the square of the perpendicular distance of that point from the axis. 
 
 CENTERING, the frame-work upon which an arch or vault of stone, brick, or iron is 
 supported during its construction. The simplest form of C. is that used by masons and 
 bricklayers for the arches of common windows and doors. This is merely a deal-board 
 of the required shape, upon the curved edge of which the bricks or stones of the arch 
 are supported until they are keyed in. In building bridges or other structures where 
 arches of great span are to be constructed, the C. is usually made of framed timbers, or 
 timbers and iron combined. The arrangement of the timbers should be such, that the 
 strain upon each shall be mainly a thrust in the direction of its length, for if the strain 
 were transverse, a comparatively slight force would snap it, and if a longitudinal pull, 
 the whole structure would be no stronger than the joints holding the pieces of timber 
 together. In arches of great span, such as that of Waterloo bridge, London, a lonrf- 
 tudinal pulling strain is almost inevitable in some parts, as a beamof great length would 
 bend to some extent under a thrusting strain. In such cases great skill and care are 
 demanded in the designing and construction of the joints. As an arch is built from the 
 piers towards the keystone, the weight upon the haunches during construction tends to 
 push the crown upwards, and therefore the problem of designing a framed C. involves 
 the resistance of this tendency, as well as the supporting of the weight of the materials. 
 
 The C. of Waterloo bridge, designed by Rennie, presents a fine example of the 
 fulfillment of these requirements. The weight is resisted by direct thrust upon beams 
 passing obliquely downwards from various parts; one of each pair of these oblique beams 
 thrusts outwards, and is directly supported by the abutments; the other thrusts inwards 
 towards a support equidistant from the abutments, the yielding of which is prevented 
 by the longitudinal pull of lower and longer oblique beams. In this, and other modern 
 structures, cast-iron shoes have been successfully used for the tying joints subject to the 
 
G27 
 
 center. 
 
 longitudinal pulling strain. The flexible C., so called from its yielding at the joints, 
 and varying its form with the load put upon it, is now abandoned. It was chiefly used 
 by French engineers. That of Perronet for the bridge of Neuilly is a celebrated 
 example. 
 
 Occasionally, when a very great span is required, and the navigation will permit, 
 piers are built, or piles are driven, to support the C., and the design is much simplified 
 thereby. 
 
 Cupolas like the pantheon and St. Peter’s at Rome, St. Paul’s in London, or the flat 
 domes of the Turkish mosques, require very effective centerings. 
 
 CENTEB OP MAGNITUDE or Figure (see Center of Gravity). C. of M. is the 
 point on which plane figures and curved surfaces would balance themselves, supposing 
 their areas to have weight. Thus, the center of a circle is its center of magnitude. 
 Otherwise, C. of M. or F. is a point so situated that all straight lines passing through 
 it, and terminated by the circumference or superficies of the figure or surface, are 
 bisected in it. 
 
 CENTEB OF OSCILLA'TION. Referring to the article Pendulum, the reader will see 
 that the time of a pendulum’s vibration increases with its length, being always propor- 
 tioned to the square root of its length. This is strictly true only of the simple pen- 
 dulum, in which the pendulous body is supposed to have no determinate magnitude, 
 and to be connected with the point of suspension by an inflexible wire without weight. 
 If, however, the vibrating body have a determinate magnitude, then the time of vibra- 
 tion will vary, not with the square root of its length, but with the square root of the 
 distance from the axis of suspension of a point in the body called itscenter of oscillation. 
 
 If each part of the vibrating body were separately connected with the axis of sus- 
 pension by a fine thread, and entirely disconnected from the rest of the body, it would 
 form an independent simple pendulum, and oscillate as such — the time of each vibra- 
 tion being as the square root of the length of its thread. It follows that those particles 
 of the body which are nearest to the axis of suspension would, as simple pendulums, 
 vibrate more rapidly than those more remote. Being connected, however, as parts of 
 the solid body, they vibrate all in the same time. But this connection does not affect 
 their tendencies to vibrate as simple pendulums, and the motion of the body which they 
 compose is a compromise of these tendencies of its particles. Those nearest the 
 axis are retarded by the more remote, while the more remote are urged on by the 
 nearer. Among these particles there is always one to be found in which the 
 accelerating and retarding effects of the rest are mutually neutralized, and which 
 ^vibrates in the same time as it would if it w’ere unconnected with the other parts 
 of the body, and simply connected by a fine thread to the axis of suspension. The 
 point in the body occupied by this particle is its center of oscillation. By this 
 C. of O. the calculations respecting the vibration of a solid body are rendered as 
 simple as those of a molecule of inconsiderable magnitude. All the properties which 
 belong to a simple pendulum may be transferred to a vibrating body of any magnitude 
 and figure, by considering it as equivalent to a single particle of matter vibrating at 
 its centre of oscillation. 
 
 The determination of the position of the C. of O. of a body usually requires the aid 
 of the calculus. It is always further from the axis of suspension than the center of 
 gravity is, and always in the line joining the center of gravity and the point of sus- 
 pension, when the body is suspended from a point. The rule for finding it in such a 
 
 ^ ijnd}) 
 
 or it is the 
 
 case is: If S be the point of suspension, and 0 the C. of 0., SO— 
 
 quotient obtained by dividing the moment of inertia of the body by the product of its 
 mass into the distance of its center of gravity from the point of suspension. 
 
 CEN'TEB OF PEBCUS'SION. The C. of P. of a body or a system of bodies revolving 
 about a point or axis, is that point in it, which striking an immovable object, the whole 
 mass shall not incline to either side, but rest, as it were, in equilibrio, without acting on 
 the center or axis of suspension. If the body be moving freely, then the C. of P. is that 
 • point in it at which its whole impetus is supposed to be concentrated. In this case, if 
 the body struck with its C. of P. an immovable obstacle, and if it were perfectly rigid 
 and inelastic, it would come to perfect repose; whereas, if it struck the obstacle with 
 - any other point, a rotatory motion would be produced in it. When the body is moving 
 freely, and there is no rotatory motion, the C. of P. coincides with the center of gravity. 
 If the body be moving round a point or axis of suspension, the C. of P. coincides with 
 the center of oscillation. The more complicated case of a body rotating round an axis 
 within it, would require, for its explanation, analytical formulae which cannot con- 
 veniently be translated into ordinary language. There are many positions which the 
 axis may have in which there will be no C. of P. — i.e., there will be no direction in 
 which an impulse could be applied without producing a shock upon the axis. One 
 case of this sort is that of the axis being a principal axis through the center of gravity. 
 
 CEN'TEB OF FBES'SUBE. The C. of P. of any surface immersed in a fluid is the 
 point in which the resultant of the pressures of the fluid on the several points meets the 
 surface. When the bottom of a vessel containing fluid, or when a plane immersed in 
 
Centig^rade. 
 
 Central. 
 
 628 
 
 fluid, is horizontal, a pressure on every point of it is the same, being that due to the 
 weight of the column of fluid standing above the bottom or plane. In either case, the 
 pressures at the different points obviously form a system of equal parallel forces, whose 
 center will be the center of gravity of the bottom or plane, their resultant passing through 
 this point being the sum of all their forces. But when the plane is inclined at any angle 
 to the surface of the fluid, the pressure is not the same at all points, but is obviously 
 greater at the lower than at the upper points, for the lower have to support taller 
 columns of the fluid. -The resultant of these forces, then, will not pass through the 
 center of gravity of the surface, but through a point below it. This point is the C. 
 of P., and evidently will lie below the center of gravity for all fluids in which the 
 pressure increases with the depth. If the surface pressed upon form part of the con- 
 taining vessel, and be supposed movable, it will be kept at rest by a pressure equal to 
 the sum of the fluid pressures applied at the C. of P. , and acting in the opposite direc- 
 tion. In the case of a vessel with a parallelogram for one side, the C. of P. is at the 
 distance of one third of the height from the bottom. In the case of a triangular vessel 
 whose base is at the bottom, it is one fourth of the height only. 
 
 CENTIGRADE. See Thermometer. 
 
 CENTIPEDE, Scohpendra, a genus of myriapoda (q.v.), having a long slender depressed 
 body, protected by coriaceous plates, 21 pair of legs, distinct eyes, four on each side, 
 and antennse with 17 joints. The name is, however, popularly extended to species of 
 nearly allied genera. Centipedes run nimbly, feed on insects, and pursue them into 
 their lurking-places. They have not only a pair of horny jaws, like those of vnsects, 
 but also another pair of organs closely connected with the mouth, and which are 
 regarded as transformed legs, dilated and united at the base, terminated by a strong 
 hook, and pierced beneath the extremity for the emission of a venomous fluid, which 
 makes their bite quickly fatal to insects, and in the case of the larger species, very 
 painful and even dangerous to the larger animals and to man. The common C. of 
 tropical America {8. morsitans) is often 9 in. or a foot in length. A species found in 
 the s. of Europe {8. cingulata) is nearly as large, but its bite does not seem to be equally 
 venomous. It may seem strange that creatures of such aspect as centipedes should ever 
 have been thought, of as human food, but Humboldt, in his personal narrative, tells us 
 that he has seen Indian children of the tribe of the Chuymas draw large centipedes out 
 of the earth and eat them. — The most common British C. is not a true scolopendra, as 
 that genus is now restricted, but is very nearly allied to it. It is known to naturalists 
 as Uthobius forjicatus. It is very plentiful under stones, etc., in summer. Another allied 
 genus, geophilus, of more numerous joints and slender form, contains some species 
 which are occasionally phosphorescent, one of which, O. longicornis, yellow, with a rust- 
 colored head, is very abundant at the roots of turnips, etc. It is supposed, however, 
 to be rather useful than injurious, preying on the destructive larvse of insects. 
 
 CENTLIVRE, Susanna, an English dramatic authoress, was the daughter of a Lin- 
 colnshire gentleman, named Freeman, b. (most probably) in Ireland, about 1670. Her 
 early history is obscure; but such were her wit and beauty, that on her arrival in Lon- 
 don, though a destitute orphan, and only 16 years of age, she won the heart of a 
 nephew of sir Stephen Fox, who, however, died shortly after their marriage. Her 
 second husband, an officer named Carrol, lost his life in a duel. Left in extreme 
 poverty, his widow endeavored to support herself by writing for the stage, and after 
 producing a tragedy called The Perjured Husband (performed first in 1700), made her 
 appearance on the stage. She afterwards married (1706) Joseph Centlivre, principal 
 cook to queen Anne, with whom she lived happily until the time of her death, Dec. 1, 
 1723. Her plays — Ihe Busybody (of which the leading character, “ Marplot,” is highly 
 amusing); A Bold 8troke for a Wife (1717); and The Wonder (1714) — though not dis- 
 tinguished by purity of style or truthfulness of portraiture, are lively in their plots, and 
 have kept their place on the stage. 
 
 CENTO (from Gr. kentrbn, patchwork), a name applied to literary trivialities in the 
 form of poems manufactured by putting together distinct verses or passages of one 
 author, or of several authors, so as to make a new meaning. After the decay of genuine 
 poetry among the Greeks, this worthless verse-manufacture came into vogue, as is 
 proved by the Homer o-centones, a patchwork of lines taken from Homer (edited by 
 Teucher at Leipsic, 1793); but it was much more common among the Romans in the 
 later times of the empire, when Virgil was frequently abused in this fashion, as in the 
 C. Nuptialis of Ausonius (who gives rules for the composition of the C.), and especially 
 in the C. Virgilianus, constructed in the 4th c. by Proba Falcoffia, wife of the proconsul 
 Adclfius, and giving, in Virgil’s misplaced words, an epitome of sacred history! The 
 C. was a favorite recreation in the middle ages. In the 12th c., a monk named Metellus 
 contrived to make a C. of spiritual hymns out of Horace and Virgil. — See Litierature du 
 Centon, by M. Delepierre (1875). 
 
 CENTO, a t. of central Italy, 16 m. n.w. of Bologna, is pleasantly situated on a 
 fertile plain near the Reno. It is celebrated as the birth-place of the famous painter, 
 Guercino, whose house, adorned with paintings, is still preserved; and in the church of 
 C. are many of his works. Pop. about 5,000. 
 
629 
 
 Centigrrade. 
 
 Central. 
 
 CENTRAL AMERICA, in geography that portion of North America included be- 
 tween the isthmus of Tehuantepec and the isthmus of Darien; politically including the 
 states or republics of Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and British Hon- 
 duras, or Belize. The geographical limits would take in on the n. from Mexico the 
 states of Tehuantepec, Chiapa, Campeche, and Yucatan; and on the s. from the repub- 
 lic of Colombia the greater portion of the state of Panama. Further details will be 
 found under the titles of the respective countries. Also, see America, ante. 
 
 CENTRAL CITY, in Gilpin co., Col., about 40 m. w. of Denver; the center of sup- 
 ply for a rich mining district. Pop. ’80, 2626. 
 
 CENTRAL FORCES are those which cause a moving body to tend towards some point 
 or center, called the center of force or motion. The doctrine of C. F. has for its 
 starting-point the first law of motion — viz. , that a body not acted on by any external 
 force will remain at rest, or move uniformly in a straight line. It follows from this law 
 that if a body in motion either changes its velocity or direction, some external force is 
 acting upon it. The doctrine of C. F. considers the paths which bodies will describe 
 round centers of force, and the varying velocity with which they will pass along in 
 these paths. It investigates the law of the force round which a body describes a known 
 curve, and solves the inverse problem, and many others, the general statement of which 
 could convey no clear idea to the unmathematical reader. As gravity is a force which 
 acts on all bodies from the earth’s center, it affords the simplest general illustration of 
 the action of a central force. If a stone be slung from a string, gravity defiects it from 
 the linear path which it would otherwise pursue, and makes it describe a curved line 
 which we know would, in vacuo, be a parabola. Again, the moon is held in her orbit 
 round the earth by the action of gravity, which is constantly preventing her from going 
 off in the line of the tangent to her path at any instant, which she would do, according 
 to the first law of motion, if not deflected therefrom by any external force. To that 
 property of matter by which it maintains its state of rest or motion, unless acted upon 
 by other matter, has been given the name inertia. 
 
 We will now explain how, through the action of a central force, a body is made to 
 describe a curved path. Suppose it to have moved for a finite time, and conceive 
 the time divided into very small equal parts; and instead of the central force acting 
 constantly, conceive a series of sudden impulses to be given to the body in the direction 
 of the center, at the end of each of the equal intervals, and then observe what, on these 
 suppositions, will happen. Let S (see Fig. 1) be the center, and let the original motion 
 be from A, on the line AB, which does not pass through S. In the first interval, the 
 body will move with a uniform velocity, say from A to B. In the second, if acted on 
 by no force, it would move on in AB pro- 
 duced to c. Be being = AB. But when it 
 arrives at B, it receives the first sudden im- 
 pulse towards S. By the composition of 
 velocities (q.v.), it will move now with a new 
 but still uniform velocity in BC instead of 
 Be, BC being the diagonal of the parallelo- 
 gram of which the sides represent its im- 
 pressed and original velocity. Having 
 reached C at the end of the second interval, 
 it receives the second impulse towards S. 
 
 It will now move in CD instead of in BC 
 produced. If, then, we suppose the periods 
 of time to be indefinitely diminished in 
 length, and increased in number, the broken line ABCD will become ultimately a 
 continuous curve and the series of impulses a continuous force. This completes the 
 explanation. 
 
 Going back, however, on our suppositions, we may here establish Newton’s leading 
 law of central forces. That the body must always move in the same plane, results from 
 the absence of any force to remove it from the plane in which at any time it may be 
 moving. The triangles ASB and BSC are clearly in the same plane, as the latter is on 
 that in which lie the lines Be and BS. Also, since the triangles ASB, BSc are equal, 
 being on equal bases, AB, Be, and triangle BSC = triangle BSc, as they are between 
 the same parallels, cC and BS, it follows (by Euclid I. 37) that ASB = BSC. So 
 BSC = CSD ; and so on. In other words, the areas, described in equal times by the 
 line (called the radius vector) joining the center of force and the body, are equal. As 
 this is true in the limit, we arrive, by the composition of the small equal areas, at the 
 law: that the areas described by the lines drawn from the moving body to the fixed cen- 
 ter of force, are all in one plane, and proportional to the times of describing them. 
 Very few of the laws of C. F. are capable of being proved like the preceding, without 
 drawing largely on Newton’s lemmas, with which we shall not suppose the reader to be 
 acquainted. 
 
 Centrifugal and Centripetal Force.— We have shown that a body continually drawq 
 to a center, if it has an original motion in a line that does not pass through the center, 
 will describe a curve. At each point in the curve, it tends, through its inertia, to 
 
Central. 
 
 Centumviri. 
 
 630 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 recede from the curve, and proceed in the tangent to it at that point. It always tends to 
 move in a straight line in the direction in which it may at any time be moving, and 
 that line, by the definitions of a tangent and of curvature, iff 
 the tangent to the curve at the point. At the point A (see fig. 2), 
 it will endeavor to proceed in AD: if nothing hindered it, it 
 would actually proceed in that line, so as, in the time in which it 
 describes the arc of the curve AE, to reach the point D, and 
 thus recede the length DE from the curve ; but being continually 
 drawn out of its direction into a curve by a force to a center, 
 it falls below the point D by the distance DE. The force which 
 draws it through this distance is called the centripetal force, 
 and that which would make it recede in the same time through 
 the distance DE from the curve is called the centrifugal force. It may be remarked 
 that the centrifugal force is not, like the centripetal, an impressed or external force act- 
 ing on the body. It is simply the assertion of the body’s inertia under the circumstances 
 produced by the centripetal force. 
 
 Many familiar illustrations will occur to the reader of the action of what is called the 
 centrifugal force. A ball fastened to the end of a string, and whirled round, will, if 
 the motion is made sufficiently rapid, at last break the string, and fly off. A glass of 
 water may be whirled so rapidly that, even when the mouth is pressed downwards, the 
 water will still be retained in it, by the centrifugal force pressing it up against the bot- 
 tom of the glass. The centrifugal action will be found to increase with the velocity. 
 In all cases of a body moving in a circle, the force, it can be proved, varies as the square 
 of the velocity of the body at the moment, and in the inverse ratio of the radius. As 
 in this case the velocity varies as the radius inversely, it follows that the force is as the 
 inverse cube of the radius. As in the case of circular motion the body always is at 
 the same distance from the center, it follows that the centrifugal and centripetal forces 
 are equal at all points of a circular orbit. The general law for all orbits is, that the 
 centrifugal force varies as the inverse cube of the distance from the center. As the 
 attractive force of gravitation varies as the inverse square of the distance, it may hence 
 be shown that the centrifugal force gives perfect security, notwithstanding the con- 
 stant attraction of the sun, that the planets, so far as that attraction is concerned, will 
 never fall into the sun. 
 
 The doctrine of C. F. owes more to Kepler and sir Isaac Newton, of whose philos- 
 ophy it makes a considerable branch, than to all the rest of the philosophers, though 
 almost all the leading mathematicians have contributed to it. The doctrine of centrif- 
 ugal forces was first mentioned by Huygens, at the end of Horologium Oscillatorium, 
 published in 1673; but Newton was the first who fully handled the doctrine, at least ao 
 far as regards the conic sections. 
 
 CENTRAL HEAT involves the theory that the temperature of the earth increases 
 from its surface towards its center. Observations in mines and in boring artesian 
 wells seem to justify such a conclusion, and the inference therefore is that the solid 
 earth is a mere crust, at most but a few miles thick, within which all matter must be in 
 a state of fusion. Observers have estimated the increase of heat at 1° F. for 50 to 60 ft. 
 of depth. Eminent philosophers, however, reject the theory, and attribute the phe- 
 nomena to local heat. They argue that if such a mass of fire existed in the interior the 
 crust would soon be melted. Some contend that if the earth ever cooled from a state 
 of fire to its solid form, the cooling must have commenced in the center. The most 
 that can be said is that it is still an open question, while experiments and indications 
 seem to favor the theory of a fiery and fluid interior. 
 
 CENTRALIA, a city in Marion co.. 111., on the Illinois Central railroad, at a junc- 
 tion of the Chicago branch with the main line, 112 m. n. of Cairo. There are repair 
 shops of the Illinois Central railroad, which give employment to many persons. Pop. 
 3,190. 
 
 CENTRAL INDIA POLITICAL AGENCY, the official name for a group of feud- 
 atory states in the middle of India, the principal of which are Gwaliar (Scindiah), Indor 
 (Holkar), Rewah, and Bhopal. The total number, great and small, comprised in the 
 C. I. P. A. is 71; covering about 90,000 sq.m., and having a pop. of 8,000,000. These 
 states have nothing in common except a diplomatic connection with the British gov- 
 ernment through the agent to the governor-general. 
 
 CENTRALIZATION, a term which has lately come into general use for expressing a 
 tendency to administer, by the sovereign or the central government, matters which had 
 been previously under local management. We cannot properly use the term towards an 
 established despotism, for there everything is already directed from the center. The 
 legitimate application is to a state of change from local to central management — a 
 change in the opposite direction would, on the same principle, be called localization. 
 Of this latter change, however, it can scarcely be said that we have any recent example, 
 unless it may be found in the systems of self-government lately communicated to some 
 of the British colonies. Ever since the existing European states began to grow out of 
 
631 
 
 Central. 
 
 CentumvlrL 
 
 the chaos of the fall of the Roman empire, there has been a continued progress in cen- 
 tralization. That empire itself was, however, the greatest instance of C. which the world 
 has yet seen. In it the numerous municipalities and other local organizations originally 
 existing in Italy, and communicated to the colonies, were entirely centralized. The 
 -empire, such as it had been in the days of Constantine, was the type after which the 
 European monarchs, such of them especially as became more powerful than their neigh- 
 bors, were ever striving ; and a few of them, such as Charlemagne, and, long afterwards, 
 Charles V. , seemed to have almost restored it. In this country, we trace C. from the 
 time when there were about a dozen kings in Britain, and perhaps as many in Ireland, 
 till the united kingdom came under the rule of one monarch. A subsidiary C. at the 
 same time made silent progress, absorbing the feudal pow6r of the aristocracy and the 
 municipal privileges of the corporations. In other countries — as, for instance, in 
 France, notwithstanding her desperate struggles for freedom, this process of C. has 
 tended to a pure irresponsible despotism. With so sad a result before their eyes, a 
 distrust of C. has not unnaturally been felt by some inhabitants of Great Britain. But 
 the British constitution possesses a grand remedy, which turns the process to good use 
 instead of mischief. While administrative authority has been centralizing in the crown, 
 the controlling power of parliament has been increasing at a more rapid ratio, so that 
 the vesting of a function in the crown or central government, means the putting it under 
 the control of parliament, and especially of the people’s representatives in the house of 
 commons. There is nothing done in any of the offices under the government for which 
 a secretary of state, or some other member of the ministry, may not at any time be 
 called to account in parliament. The efficiency of this control was in a manner proved 
 by one or two instances in which offices with central powers were created, without 
 being connected with any of the great state departments. There were, for instance, the 
 English poor-law board, and the board of health. Both created much discontent and out- 
 ■cry about C., and it was found necessary to transfer their functions to the great govern- 
 ment departments, the heads of which are immediately responsible to parliament. It is 
 not the policy of this country in any case to abolish local management, but rather to aid 
 nnd direct it from the central authority. The constituents of local bodies are often dis- 
 inclined to W’atch or control them, and the business falls into the hands of incapable or 
 designing men, or is otherwise mismanaged. A very little central help — especially 
 from a quarter where the proceedings of other bodies of the same kind are known — 
 remedies such defects. One of the methods in which the government has of late been 
 in use to exercise its central power, has been been by the appointment of inspectors, 
 who make reports which are laid before parliament. This is, in reality, nothing more 
 than a method of concentrating public opinion on the proceedings inspected and 
 reported on, and as such it is very efficacious. 
 
 CENTRAL PARK. See New York City. 
 
 CENTRAL PROVINCES, a chief commissionership of British India, between 17" 
 50' and 24° 30' n., and 76° and 85° e. ; 80,078 sq.m.; pop. ’72, 8,201,519. The chief- 
 ■commissionership was constituted in 1861, when the territories previously known as the 
 Nagpur province and the Sagar and Nerbudda territories were united under the name 
 of the Cemtral provinces. This tract comprising almost every variety of soil and 
 physical aspect, inhabited by races of very diverse origin, is bounded n. by the feudatory 
 state of Rewah, the small native states of Bundelkhand, and by the district of Latatpur 
 in the Northwest Provinces; on the n. and e. by the Chhota Nagpur division, the Oressa 
 tributary states, and the n. districts of Madras; on the s. by the Godavari district; and 
 on the s.w. and n.w. by the states comprising the Central India Political Agency. The 
 Central Provinces are separated into four divisions, or commissionerships : Nagpur, 
 Jabalpur, Nerbudda, and Chhatisgarh, comprising 19 British districts. The country is 
 intersected b^ the Great Indian Peninsular and the East Indian railroads. The pop. 
 is made up in each thousand, of 717 Hindus, 28 Mohammedans, 4 Buddhists, 2 
 Christians, and 249 “others,” who consist of descendants of Gonds and original in- 
 habitants. 
 
 CENTRIFUCrAL and CENTRIPETAL are terms used in botany to designate two 
 different kinds of inflorescence, or modes of flowering of plants. When the flower-bud 
 which terminates the floral axis, and is central in the inflorescence, is the flrst to expand 
 ^in which case the others are developed in succession from the center outwards — the 
 inflorescence is said to be centrifugal. When the outermost flowers expand flrst, the 
 inflorescence is centrvpetal, as is the case in catkins, spikes, and racemes, in which the 
 flowers nearest the base are the flrst to expand, and those nearest the apex the last. 
 These modes of inflorescence are very characteristtic of different plants, of genera, and 
 of orders. 
 
 CENTRIFUGAL FORCE. See Central Forces. 
 
 CENTRIPETAL FORCE. See Central Forces. 
 
 CENTUM'VIRI, .judges among the Romans appointed to decide common causes 
 among the people. Three were chosen in each tribe. The extent of their jurisdiction is 
 not clearly understood, but it was probably confined to unimportant causes. 
 
centurion. 
 
 Ctrphalopoda. 
 
 632 
 
 CENTURION, a Roman infantry officer who originally commanded a hundred men,, 
 but afterwards an indefinite number. They were of two grades, and were chosen by 
 the tribunes. Their duties were to drill the soldiers and appoint them tasks; and they 
 had power to punish for minor offenses. 
 
 CENTURY PLANT. See Agave, ante. 
 
 CEPHAE'LIS. See Ipecacuanha. 
 
 CEPHALAS'PIS, a genus of fossil ganoid fishes, of which six species have been de- 
 scribed, two belonging to the upper Silurian and four to the Devonian measures. The 
 head was protected by a large ganoid plate, sculptured externally with circular radiating 
 markings. Agassiz gave the name C. (buckler-headed) from this extraordinary covering, 
 which has very much the appearance of, and was formerly supposed to be, the cephalic 
 shield of an asaphus. The body was covered with rhomboidal enameled scales, and 
 furnished with dorsal and pectoral fins: it terminated in a large heterocercal tail. In a. 
 graphic description of this fossil in his Old Red Sandstone, Miller thus sketches the 
 general appearance of the animal : ‘ ‘ Has the reader ever seen a saddler’s cutting-knife — 
 a tool with a crescent-shaped blade, and the handle fixed transversely in the center of 
 its concave side? I.n general outline, the C. resembled this tool, the crescent-shaped 
 blade representing the head, the transverse handle the body. ” The endo-skeleton was 
 cartilaginous, retaining the notochord through life. The flexible body, assisted by the 
 large tail and the fins, would give the C. the power of moving rapidly through the water. 
 Being a predaceous fish, it must have been a formidable enemy to its associates in the 
 palaeozoic seas, for, besides its power of rapid motion, the sharp margin of its shield 
 probably did the work of a vigorously hurled javelin, as in the sword-fish. This genus 
 was originally named asterolepis (star-scale), from the circular marking on its cephalic 
 shield. 
 
 CEPHALIZA'TION, a word used to indicate the degree in which the head, or, more 
 accurately, the brain, dominates over the remainder of the animal structure. The dis- 
 tinction between a higher and a lower cephalization may be indicated thus : 
 
 Superior Cephalization. 
 
 More of the anterior appendages serve the 
 head, in supplying food, etc. 
 
 The structure of the head is compacted, 
 and its form abbreviated. 
 
 The posterior part of the body is abbre- 
 viated and compacted. 
 
 The anterior extremity tends upward; 
 finds its limit in man, and is erect. 
 
 Inferior Cephalization. 
 
 Fewer of the anterior appendages serve 
 the head. 
 
 The structure of the head is loose and im- 
 perfect; the form is elongated and enlarged. 
 
 Great length of tail shows inferiority of 
 grade. 
 
 The anterior extremity tends downward, 
 finds its limit and is horizontal in the fish. 
 
 Degradation often extends to the absence of essential parts, as teeth, limbs, senses, 
 and is often indicated by gross enlargement of mass, accompanied by stupidity and 
 slu^ishness. 
 
 Degrees of cephalization may be illustrated by the subdivisions of the mammalia, 
 beginning with the lowest: 1. The mutilates, in which the limbs are wanting, or are 
 degraded to fins; as whales, dolphins, etc.: 2. Herbivores, or plant-eaters ; as the ele- 
 phant, horse, deer, hog, etc. : 3. Carnivores, or flesh-eaters; as the lion, bear, dog, wolf, 
 etc.: 4. Quadrumanes, including monkeys: 5. Bimanes, including mankind. Follow- 
 ing this arrangement, as we ascend step by step, we find constant degrees of develop- 
 ment corresponding to higher cephalic character, and showing itself in every phase of 
 organized structure. In locomotion, for example, we find the limbs of (1) the mutilates 
 fit only for paddling the body about in the element which gives it support; those of (2) 
 the herbivores carry them from place to place; those of (3) the carnivores cany them 
 about, and serve to grasp and tear their prey; those of (4) the quadrumanes serve for 
 locomotion, for grasping prey, for carrying food to the mouth, and for carrying and 
 defending their young; while in (5) man the fore limbs are relieved from service of loco- 
 motion, and are fitted not merely for feeding, for carrying, for defense, but aleo for 
 an infinity of purposes, to which they are guided by the acuter sensibility of the bram. 
 Similar steps of gradation may be found in other respects, as in the tail, the teeth, the 
 form of the skull, etc. The principle may be further illustrated by the gradations of 
 the lower orders, as in the articulates, going from the worms through the crustaceans to 
 the insects; or in insects, from myriapods through spiders to the true insects; as in the 
 varieties of man, in which the lower races have projecting jaws, retreating foreheads, 
 and enlarged basal brains. With increased brain-force we find diminished jaw, less 
 facial angle, elevated and enlarged forehead, the head generally shortened froin front 
 to rear, a larger cavity for the brain, and a greater weight thereof. Finding this con 
 stant progression from lower to higher developments, whose exponent is larger and 
 more efficient brain, with nicer adaptation of mechanism for all the functions of life; 
 finding also evidence of a similar gradation in sensation, sensibility, intelligence — every- 
 where the material more and more subordinated to the immaterial, the body conformed 
 to the spirit, and ruled by it — it is not strange that men should look for a law of devel- 
 opment, pervading and controlling all animated nature, or that they should expect to 
 find in this law a formula of the relation between though^ and matter, as a function of 
 
633 
 
 Centurion. 
 
 Cephalopoda. 
 
 the brain. But, while there may be abundant reason for supposing that such a law of 
 relationship might exist, and that if demonstrated it might account logically for a vast 
 and rapidly growing mass of observed facts, it is evident that no such law has yet been 
 proved. N”or, indeed, does it now seem that such a law can be demonstrated without 
 the admission of axioms and postulates, which involve as great strains upon the philo- 
 sophic imagination as the very principles which such demonstrated law would antago- 
 nize and overthrow. 
 
 CEPHALO'NIA, or Cepalonia, the largest of the seven Ionian islands (q.v.), is 
 situated at the entrance of the gulf of Lepanto or Corinth, in lat. 38° 3' to 38° 30' n., and 
 long. 20° 21' to 20° 49' east. It is irregular in shape. Its greatest length is about 30 m. , and 
 its total area 348 sq. miles. Its surface is mountainous, the soil, for the most part thin, 
 and water very scarce. The inhabitants, however, are industrious and enterprising, and 
 have planted vineyards wherever the grape will grow, and currants and olive-oil are also 
 produced for export. The climate is warm and agreeable. The population in 1870 
 amounted to 77,382. The numbers who are brought up to the medical profession are 
 remarkable ; it is said that there is hardly a town in the Levant which has not a prac- 
 titioner from Cephalonia. The inhabitants are also much more disposed to engage in 
 foreign trade than those of Corfu or Zante, and own more vessels. In 1874, the exports 
 amounted to £189,309, and the imports to £240,410. The island is subject to frequent, 
 but slight earthquakes. There was formerly a small English garrison at Cephalonia. 
 Steamers ply between it and Malta, Patras, and Triest. The language spoken is a Greek 
 dialect. The chief towns are Argostoli (q.v.) and Lixuri. 
 
 C. is called by Homer Same or Samos, and during the heroic ages was subject to 
 Ulysses, whose residence was in the neighboring isle of Ithaca (q.v.). Later, C. appears 
 under the name of Cephallenia. It successively fell into the hands of the Athenians, 
 Komans, Byzantines, and Venetians, from the last of whom it was several times wrested 
 by the Turks. On the ruin of the Venetian republic in 1797, it was seized by the 
 Erench, who were in their turn dislodged by the Russians. In 1809, it came into the 
 possession of England. It was ceded to Greece in 1864. 
 
 CEPHALOP'ODA (Gr. head-footed), a class of mollusks, the highest in organization of 
 that division of the animal kingdom. To this class belong the nautili, spirulae, argo- 
 nauts, poulpes, squids or calamaries, cuttle-fish, etc., of the present time, and the 
 ammonites, belemnites, etc., of former geological periods. The C. are all marine, and 
 only a few of them are capable of leaving the water, and moving about in search of food 
 on shore. 
 
 The C. receive their name from having organs of prehension and locomotion attached to 
 the head, an arrangement towards which a gradual approach may be traced in the highest 
 gasteropod (q.v.) mollusks. These organs have been variously designated arms, feet, and 
 tentacula. They “ have no true homology” with the limbs of vertebrate animals, but are 
 only analogous to them in respect of the purposes which they serve. — The body of the 
 C. is a bag, formed of the mantle (see Mollusca), open only at the end to which the 
 head is attached. In some, this bag is almost spherical, and locomotion is accomplished 
 only by the appendages of the head; in others, the body is elongated, and furnished with 
 two fin-like expansions, which are the principal instruments of locomotion. In locomo- 
 tion by the fins, a cephalopod swims like a fish, with the head first, and often very 
 rapidly; in locomotion by the arms, it draws itself along, laying hold of any object 
 within reach by means of suckers, with which the arms are furnished. Some C. are 
 capable also of moving backwards through the water by alternate contractions and 
 expansions of a muscular web which unites the bases of the arms; some appear to 
 depend for a similar power of swimming backwards upon the forcible ejection of water 
 from the ‘ funnel” below the eye. * 
 
 The head of a cephalopod is roundish, generally furnished with two large and 
 prominent eyes, very similar in structure to those of vertebrate animals. There are also 
 ears, but they consist merely of little cavities, one on each side of the brain, in each of 
 which is suspended a membranous sac containing a small stone. The organs of smell 
 are not very certainly known, but it appears that the C. possess this sense, as well as that 
 of taste, of which the character of the tongue is much more indicative than in many 
 vertebrate animals. — The brain forms a ring around the gullet. The whole nervous 
 system is more complex than in the lower mollusks. — The mouth opens in the midst of 
 the circle of arras. It is furnished with a strong horny beak of two mandibles, moving 
 vertically, not unlike the bill of a parrot, but the upper mandible the shorter of the two. 
 — The digestive apparatus is very complicated. The gullet swells out into a crop, and 
 there is a gizzard as muscular as that of a bird. The intestine, after a few convolutions, 
 terminates in the cavity which contains the gills, at the base of the funnel by which the 
 water is ejected after having supplied air for respiration. This cavity is situated within 
 the mantle or bag, and separated from the other viscera by a membranous partition. 
 Into it the water is freely admitted by means of a slit or valvular opening, being drawn 
 in by muscular action, and again expelled with considerable force through the funnel, 
 which opens at the neck, and with its current all secretions, eggs, and excrements are 
 carried forth. There are only two gills in the greater number of existing C., the only 
 exceptions being the two or three known species of nautilus, which have four gills; and 
 
Cephaloptera. 
 
 Cerberus. 
 
 634 
 
 two-gilled C. — the order dibrancMata^ 2 iXQ in many respects of higher organization than 
 the four-gilled — the order tetrabranchiata — which, although containing so few recent, con- 
 tains a vast number of fossil species. Each gill consists of many membranous plates, 
 fixed to two sides of a stalk. — The heart in the tetrabranchiata consists of a single 
 ventricle only ; but besides this systemic heart, the dibranchiata have two branchial or 
 respiratory hearts, contractile reservoirs, one for each gill, by which the blood is forced 
 into these organs. 
 
 The ‘ ‘ arms” or ‘ ‘ feet” are very numerous in the tetrabranchiata, not provided with 
 suckers, but hollow, and with long retractile tentacula; in the dibranchiata they are only 
 eight or ten in number, furnished with suckers {acetabula)\ two of them, when they are 
 ten in number, being much longer than the rest, and differing from them in form. The 
 suckers are very admirably constructed — an adhesive disk of muscular membrane, often 
 having a cartilaginous circlet, capable of most exact application to any object, with an 
 aperture in the center leading into a cavity, the bottom of which can be retracted like a 
 piston so as to form a vacuum, and render the adhesion of the sucker close and firm, 
 whilst on the muscular action being interrupted or reversed, it immediately lets go its 
 hold. The poulpe has each of its eight flexible arms crowded with 120 pairs of such 
 suckers, and as an animal of this kind exists on some tropical shores, with arms about 
 2 ft. long, it is not wonderful that it is reckoned dangerous. Still more formidable, 
 however, are the hook-squids of the South seas, the two long arms of which have suck- 
 ers furnished in the center with a hook to enter into the flesh of any creature of which 
 they may lay hold, and so more effectually to secure their prey. 
 
 The sexes are distinct in all the cephalopoda. The eggs have a horny covering, and 
 after their extrusion from the parent, become agglutinated into masses of various 
 forms. The young, from the first, very much resemble the mature animals, except in 
 size. 
 
 All the dibranchiata are provided with a peculiar organ of defense, called an “ink- 
 bag,” which is wanting in the tetrabranchiata. This ink-bag is filled with a peculiar 
 secretion, capable of being expelled at will to darken the water, and facilitate the escape 
 of the cephalopod. 
 
 The tetrabranchiate C. have a chambered shell. See Nautilus. The dibranchiate 
 C. have no external shell — the shell of the female argonaut (q.v.) being scarcely an 
 exception — but they have an internal shell (cuttle-fish bone, etc.), sometimes merely 
 rudimentary, included between two folds of the mantle, and apparently intended to give 
 support to the soft body of the animal. 
 
 The 0. are all very voracious, feeding on fish, mollusks, crustaceans, etc. Even a 
 powerful crab is not safe from the attacks of a dibranchiate C. little bigger than itself; 
 the arms, so abundantly provided with suckers, seize it, and trammel every movement,, 
 whilst the parrot-like beak is strong enough to break the hard shell. Cuttle-fish and 
 squids are often very troublesome to fishermen, following shoals of fish, and devouring 
 great numbers of them after they are entangled in the net. 
 
 Fossil C. exist in all the strata which form the earth’s crust. The order tetrabran- 
 chiata is almost exclusively a fossil order, being represented by not more than four 
 recent species. With the exception of two genera, nautilus and aturia, this order is 
 confined to primary and secondary rocks. The two poups into which it is divided are 
 also characteristic of geological epochs. The nautilidce, with simple or gently undu- 
 lating septa, and siphuncle central or in the inner margin, belong, with th^e exception 
 of the two genera just referred to, to the paleozoic rocks. Including a small group 
 which, while it has the siphon on the external margin, has yet simple septa, the nautili- 
 dce are represented by 145 Silurian, 158 Devonian, and 91 carboniferous species. The 
 ammonitidce have the siphuncle always on the outer margin of the shell, and the septa 
 with corrugated or lobed margins. This group, with the exception of goniatites,^, pale- 
 ozoic genus, is peculiar to, and co-extensive with, the secondary strata. Of the 939 
 species that have been described, more than the half belong to the genus ammonites (q.v.). 
 
 The order dibranchiata is found first in the lias, and extends through the more recent 
 strata, receiving its full development in our present seas. Scarcely 90 fossil species have 
 been described, while more than double that number are known as recent animals. 
 See Ammonites, Argonaut, Belemnites, Calamary, Ceratites, Cuttle-Fish, 
 Goniatites, Hook-squid, Nautilus, Octopoda, Orthoceras, Poulpe, etc. 
 
 CEPHALOP'TERA (Gr. head-wing), a genus of cartilaginous fishes of the ray family, 
 the type of a sub-family, cephalopteridce. The pectoral fins are very much elongated, so 
 as to give great breadth to the fish. The tail is slender and without fin, but armed near 
 its origin with a great spine. The head is terminated in front by a straight line, and on 
 each side of it there projects a membrane {precephalic fin) rolled upon itself, and resem 
 bling in shape a pointed horn. The name Horned Ray has therefore sometimes been 
 given to these creatures, of which only one species, C. giorna, has ever been found on 
 the British coasts. It is not uncommon in the Mediterranean, and there acquires a great 
 size; one is mentioned as having been taken off Messina, which weighed 1250 lbs. — 
 more than half a ton. But this is small in comparison with the size of some of the 
 cephalopteridce which occur in tropical seas : one taken at Barbadoes required seven yoke 
 of oxen to draw it. They are very dangerous to swimmers and bathers. 
 
635 
 
 Cephalopterm. 
 
 Cerberus. 
 
 CEPH'EUS, a constellation of the northern hemisphere, containing, according to the 
 Britannic catalogue, 85 stars. Its principal star is Alderamin, of the third magnitude. 
 
 CEPO'LA. See Bandfish. 
 
 CERAC'CHI, Gtuseppe, 1760-1801; a native of Corsica who was active in estab- 
 lishing a republic in that island in 1798. He took refuge in France, and with others 
 undertook the assassination of Napoleon. The deed was to have been done while the 
 consul was at the opera, Oct. 10, 1800, but there was a traitor among the conspirators, 
 and C. and three others were seized, tried, and executed. C. was a sculptor of some 
 note. 
 
 CERAM', an island in the Moluccas archipelago, lies n.e. of Amboyna, between 2° 44' 
 80" and 3° 30' 30" s. lat.,and 129° 30' and 130° 53' e. long., and is divided into Great and Little 
 Ceram by the isthmus of Tariino. Area, 7,140 sq. miles. Pop. 195,000. Malays inhabit 
 the coasts; Papuans the interior. A mountain chain runs through C., reaching in Nusa 
 Keli 9,250 feet. The soil is very fertile. The vegetable products include timber-trees, 
 rice, sago, maize, sugar-cane, bananas, and edible roots. The Malays fish. Exports 
 are Ceram clothing, textiles, iron, copper-wire, earthenware, birds of paradise, trepang, 
 sago, dried fish, edible nests, etc. C. belongs to the Netherlands. 
 
 CERAM'BYX, a Linnaean genus of coleopterous insects, included among those which, 
 on account of the length of their antennae, are usually known as Long-horned Bee- 
 tles, and now generally regarded as the type of a tribe or family. To this tribe 
 belongs the musk beetle of England {callichroma moschata), remarkable for its strong 
 and agreeable odor, which, however, is rather that of roses than of musk. Some for- 
 eign species have the odor of musk in great perfection. G. heros, one of the largest 
 European beetles, extremely rare in Britain, deposits its eggs in a hole which it exca- 
 vates for that purpose in the wood of the oak ; and the grub feeds upon the wood, 
 excavating long passages through it. 
 
 CERAMIA'CE.®, a sub-order of algce, (q.v.), also called Floride^, and consisting of 
 sea-weeds of a rose or purplish color, with fronds formed of cells arranged in rows, 
 sometimes in a single row ; the sporocarps containing cells or spores, often in fours {tetra- 
 spores), with a transparent and inclosed in receptacles of very various form 
 
 and structure. They are most abundant in the seas of the northern temperate zone. 
 Many of them are very delicate and beautiful. A considerable number furnish agreeable 
 articles of food of a gelatinous nature, as dulse (q.v.), carrageen (q.v.) or Irish moss, 
 and certain species of plocaria (q.v.), which are much used on the sea-coasts of the 
 East Indies. The edible swallows’ nests of the east are supposed to be formed of a sea- 
 weed of this sub-order, a species of gelidium. 
 
 CERAM'IG (Gr. keramos, potter’s clay, from kaio, to burn, and era, earth), a term 
 used to designate the department of plastic art which comprises all objects made of 
 clay, such as vases, cups, bassi-rilievi, cornices, and the like. 
 
 CERAMI'CUS, a public ground, or potter’s field, outside of the walls of Athens, 
 where citizens killed in war were buried at the expense of the state. 
 
 CERAS'TES, or Horned Viper, a genus of serpents of the family mperidm, distin- 
 guished by a broad depressed heart-shaped head, the scales of which are similar to those 
 of the back, and particularly remarkable for the development of one of the scales of 
 each eyelid into a spine or horn, often of considerable length. The tail is very distinct 
 from the body. This genus is exclusively African, and very venomous. The b6*t 
 known species, C. rulgaris, the horned viper of the n. of Africa, was called C. by the 
 ancients, the name being derived from the Greek keras, a horn. It was correctly 
 described by the traveler Bruce, but his description was for some time regarded with 
 incredulity. Other species of the same genus are C. nasicornis of the western coast of 
 Africa, and C. caudalis of the cape of Good Hope. 
 
 CE'BATE (Lat. cera, wax), a compound of wax with other oily and medicinal sub- 
 stances in such proportions as to have the consistence of an ointment (q.v.). Simple C. 
 is made by melting together equal parts of white wax and olive-oil ; they are to be 
 heated together, and carefully stirred into a uniform substance, while cooling. 
 
 GE'RATITES, a^ genus of ammonitidae, peculiar to, and characteristic of, the trias. 
 They are distinguished from the other members of the family by having the lobes of 
 the sutures serrated, while the intervening curves, directed towards the aperture, are 
 simple. Twenty-six species have been described. 
 
 CERAUNIAN MOUNTAINS, a name given by the Greeks to two mountain chains, 
 the first being probably the e. extremity of Caucasus; according to Strabo that portion 
 of the Caucasus which looks dawn upon the Caspian sea, where he locates the land of 
 the Amazons. The second, called also “ Acroceraunian,” extended along the coast of 
 the Ionian sea. These mountains were often mentioned in ancient poetry. The chain 
 is now called Khimara, Chimara, or Chinari. 
 
 GERBERTJS (Gr. kerberos), in Greek mythology, was the name of the many-headed 
 dog — the offspring (according to Hesiod) of Typhon and Echidna — who guarded the 
 portal of the infernal regions. Later writers describe C. as only three-headed, with the 
 tail and mane composed of serpents, though the poets sometimes encumber him with 
 
Ceroaria* 
 
 Cerebrum 
 
 636 
 
 100 heads. — A northern constellation, near the hand of Hercules, was named C. by 
 Hevelius. 
 
 CERCA'EIA, a name formerly given to a supposed genus of entozoa, at first, from 
 their minute size, mistaken for infusoria, but now known to be the young of trematode 
 worms. In the form to which the name C. was given, these creatures consist of an oval 
 body with a thread-like tail; and swim about with great activity in water, but exhibit a 
 strong instinctive propensity to penetrate into the soft bodies of insect larvae, which they 
 do by means of a spine-like weapon projecting from their head. The tail, as no longer 
 needed, is now left behind, the closing of the wound through which the C. enters appar- 
 ently nipping it off. Within the body which it enters, the C. loses also its spine, becomes 
 encysted, and awaits its passive migration into an animal of higher kind, there to become 
 a trematode worm. When it does not succeed in finding, in due time, a larva into 
 which to enter, the C. gathers itself up into a ball; emits a mucous secretion, which 
 soon hardens; and incessantly turning round within this mucous mass, becomes invested 
 with a sort of shell, in which form it is not unlikely to be swallowed by some vertebrate 
 animal. The C. is not the immediate offspring of a parent like itself. It is generated 
 in a curious little animated sac, which is to be found buried among the organs of fresh- 
 water mullusks, and within which this development of young takes place by gemma- 
 tion. See Generations, Alternation op. 
 
 CERCELEE, or Recercelbe, in heraldry, is a cross circling, or curling at the ends, 
 like a ram’s horn. 
 
 CER'CIS. See Judas’^ Tree. 
 
 CERGOCE'EUS (Gr. tail-ape), a genus of monkeys, natives of Asia and Africa, included 
 by some naturalists in the large genus cercopithecus. These monkeys have large cheek- 
 pouches, large callosities, and long tails. The species commonly called Mangabeys, or 
 White Eyelid Monkeys, are commonly referred to this genus, besides the Callithrix, 
 or Green Monkey, and the Malbrouk, or Dog-tailed Baboon. 
 
 CERCOPITHE'CUS (Gr. tail-ape), a genus of monkeys, containing a large number of 
 species, natives of Asia and Africa, but chiefly of Africa. They are called guenons by 
 French naturalists, but they have no common English name more distinctive than 
 monkey. They have cheek-pouches and callosities, and a long but not prehensile tail. 
 A Mona, or Varied Monkey (6’. mona) — an African species — in the Parisian menagerie, 
 was remarkable not only for the cunning and adroitness with which it searched and 
 rifled the pockets of visitors, but also for the readiness with which it applied a key to 
 the opening of a lock, untied knots, undid the rings of a chain, and performed other 
 similar feats. 
 
 CERDO'CYON (Gr. cunning-dog), a genus of canidoe, apparently intermediate between 
 true dogs and foxes, natives of South America. They are sometimes called Aguara 
 foxes. Their aspect is thoroughly vulpine, as are also their manners. Some of them 
 add to the dispositions of ordinary foxes g. singular propensity to steal and secrete bril- 
 liant or gaudy objects. A Brazilian species has been known to carry pocket-handker- 
 chiefs into the woods. Some are natives of the coldest parts of South America, and 
 have a rich fur. 
 
 CERDONIANS, a sect of Gnostics, founded by Cerdo, a Syrian, who came to Rome 
 about 140 A.D. They held that there were two primal causes — the perfectly good, and 
 the perfectly evil. The good created the world, is the God of the Jews, and the author 
 of the Old Testament. Jesus Christ is the son of the good Deity : he was sent into the 
 world to oppose evil ; but his incarnation, and consequently his sufferings, were mere 
 appearance. Deeming the human body the work of the evil deity, the Cerdonians pro- 
 hibited marriage, wine, and flesh -eating, and advocated fasting and other, austerities. 
 Cerdo rejected the Old Testament, and all of the New, except a part of Luke’s gospel 
 and Paul’s epistles. 
 
 CERE. See Bill. 
 
 CERE'A, at. of n. Italy, about 19 m. s.s.e. of Verona. It is a straggling place, 
 with the remains of an old castle. Pop. 5,930. The Austrians defeated the French 
 here in 1798. 
 
 CEREA'LIA, or Ce'real Grasses, so named from Ceres (q.v.), are the plants which 
 produce grain or corn ; in other words, all the species of grass {gramineee) cultivated for 
 the sake of their seed as an article of food. They are also called corn-plants or bread- 
 plants. They do not belong to any particular tribes of the great order of grasses, but 
 differ from each other botanically, perhaps as much as any plants within the limits of 
 that order. The seeds of the grasses in general being indeed farinaceous and whole- 
 some, the employment of particular species as bread-plants seems to have been deter- 
 mined chiefly by the superior size of the seed, or by the facility of procuring it in suffi- 
 cient quantity, and of freeing it from its unedible envelopes. Some of the grains, as 
 wheat and barley, are produced in ears or close-set spikes; some, as a few of those called 
 millet, in spike-like panicles; others, as oats and rice, in very loose panicles. The form 
 and size of the grains vary not a little, some being roundish, and some elongated; maize 
 hi the largest ; many of the millets are very small. The plants themselves vary in size 
 
637 
 
 Carcai'ia. 
 
 Cerebrum. 
 
 ftlraost as much as their seeds, the millets being the smallest, and maize the largest of 
 ordinary corn-plants. — Buckwheat and spurry are sometimes ranked with the C., but 
 incorrectly, if the term is regarded as having any botanical limits, for they are not 
 grasses; but their seeds are used in the same way. The quinoa of South America, and 
 the kiery {amarantlius) of India, with other plants of different orders, might be added 
 to the list on the same account; even the lotus of the Nile, the Victoria regia, and other 
 species of water-lilies might thus be reckoned as cereal plants. The most extensively 
 cultivated grains are wheat {triticum), barley {hoi'deum), rye (secale), oats {arena), rice 
 {oryza), maize or Indian corn {zea), different kinds of millet {setaria, panicum, paspalum, 
 pennisetum, and penicUlaria), and durra or Guinea corn {sorghum or andropogon). These 
 have all been cultivated from time immemorial, and there is great uncertainty as to the 
 number of species to which the many existing varieties belong; their original forms and 
 native countries cannot confidently be determined. Barley, oats, and rye are the grains 
 of the coldest regions, the cultivation of the two former extending even within the arctic 
 circle. Wheat is next to these, and in the warmer regions of the temperate zone its 
 cultivation is associated with that of maize and rice, which are extensively cultivated 
 within the tropics. The millets belong to warm climates, and durra is tropical or sub- 
 tropical. Rice is the food of a greater number of the human race than any other kind 
 of grain. Maize has the greatest range of temperature. — Besides these, other grasses are 
 cultivated to some extent, in different parts of the world, for the grain they yield: a 
 species of eleudne (mand) in India, and another (tocusso) in Abyssinia; a species of poa 
 (teff) in Abyssinia, and a species of coix (Job’s tears) in India. Canary grass {phalaris} 
 may also be named. Canadian rice {zizania) is used as a grain, but is scarcely cultivated, 
 and the same remark applies to the manna grass {glyceria) of the n. of Europe, to some 
 species of bamboo (bambusa), and to the sea lyme grass {elymus), which affords an 
 esteemed article of food, in small quantity, to the inhabitants of Iceland. 
 
 Of all the C., wheat is by common consent admitted to be that of which the grain is 
 best fitted for the making of bread, although others are to some extent employed for 
 this purpose. But some, as rice and maize, are scarcely suited for it, and other methods 
 are chiefly employed of preparing them for food. All the grains are also used to pro- 
 duce some kind of fermented liquor or beer, and spirituous liquors are obtained from 
 them by distillation. 
 
 CEEEBELLUM. See Cerebrum. 
 
 CEREBRINE, or Cerebric Acid, is an organic acid of very complex composition,, 
 found in the liver, blood, and nerves, but especially the brain of animals. 
 
 CEREBRO-SPI'NAL ELTJID. There is an interval, termed the sub-arachnoid space, 
 lying between the two innermost of the membranes of the brain and spinal cord — viz., 
 the arachnoid and the pia mater. This space, which is narrow on the surface of the 
 cerebral hemispheres, but is comparatively wide at the base of the brain between the 
 two middle lobes of the cerebrum, and, posteriorly, between the hemispheres of the- 
 cerebellum and the medulla oblongata, is occupied by the cerebro-spinal fluid, which 
 fills up the interval between the arachnoid and pia mater, and keeps the opposed 
 surfaces of the former membrane (which is a closed serous sac) in contact. The 
 cerebro-spinal fluid is a clear, limpid, slightly albuminous fluid, having a saltish taste, 
 and a faintly alkaline reaction, and not containing more than 1.5 per cent of solid 
 matters. It varies in ^quantity from 2 to 10 ozs., and is said to be most abundant in 
 aged persons. Its chief use is to afford mechanical protection to the nervous centers, 
 and to prevent the effects of external shocks or concussions. 
 
 CER'EBRO-SPINAL MENINGITIS. See Meningitis, anU. 
 
 CEREBRUM-CEREBELLUM. Cerebrum (Lat. the brain) is sometimes applied to the 
 whole contents of the cranium or skull; but more usually it denotes the upper portion, 
 while the under and posterior portion is called the Cerebellum, or little brain. In 
 this article we shall briefly notice the chief results which have as yet been obtained 
 regarding the uses of the various parts of the mass, referring to the article Brain for 
 the necessary anatomical details. 
 
 The crura cerebri appear as the principal conductors of impressions to and from the 
 cerebrum. When one is divided, the animal moves round and round, from the injured 
 towards the sound side, as if from a partial paralysis of the latter side. The effect may 
 be referred to the interruption of the voluntary impulses from the C., for although the 
 cerebellum seems to have the office of combining the muscles, whose co-operation is 
 necessary for each action, the effort of the will must proceed from the cerebrum. 
 
 The corpora quadrigemina are, as stated in the article Brain, “analogues of the optic 
 ganglia of the lower animals.” Their removal wholly destroys the power of seeing, and 
 diseases by which they are seriously affected are usually accompanied with blindness. 
 Disease or destruction of one corpus quad, produces blindness of the opposite eye. Prob- 
 ably their connection with vision is not their only function. 
 
 The optic thalami probably participate slightly in the visual function of the corpora 
 quadrigemina; but we have no definite evidence on this point. They are intimately 
 connected with the power of movement. Destruction of one of them causes rotation of 
 the animal, similarly to division of one of the crura cerebri. Longet has shown, that 
 
Ceremony. 
 
 Ceres. 
 
 638 
 
 after removing all the cerebral hemispheres and the corpora striata, the animal can still 
 stand and walk, but that on removing one of the optic thalami, it falls down paraljzed 
 on the opposite side, or commences rotatory motion. 
 
 The function of the corpora striata is very uncertain; they have probably some con- 
 nection with sensation and volition, the precise nature of which is at present unknown. 
 
 The parts hitherto considered — including the cerebellum — appear to comprise the 
 apparatus (1.) For the direction and government of all the unfelt and involuntary move- 
 ments of the parts which they supply; (2.) For the perception of sensations; and (3.) 
 For the direction of such instinctive and habitual movements as do not require the 
 exercise of any reasoning or intellectual act. They cannot be regarded as organs of the 
 higher faculties of the mind. 
 
 The functions of the cerebral hemispheres are, in the words of Dr. Kirkes {Handbook 
 of Physiology), those of organs by which the mind, 1st, perceives those clear and more 
 impressive sensations which it can retain and judge according to ; 2d, performs those 
 acts of will, each of which requires a deliberate, however quick, determination ; 3d, 
 retains impressions of sensible things, and reproduces them in subjective sensations and 
 ideas; Ath, manifests itself in its higher and peculiarly human emotions and feelings, 
 and in its faculties of judgment, understanding, memory, reflection, induction, and 
 imagination, and others of the like class. 
 
 ‘ ‘ The evidences that the cerebral hemispheres are, in the sense and degree indicated 
 above, the organs of the mind, are chiefly these: 1. That any severe injury of them, 
 such as a general concussion, of sudden pressure by apoplexy, may instantly deprive a 
 man of all power of manifesting externally any mental faculty ; 2. That in the same 
 general proportion as the higher mental faculties are developed in the vertebrate animals, 
 and in man at different ages, the more is the size of the cerebral hemispheres developed 
 in comparison with the rest of the cerebro-spinal system; 3. That no other part of the 
 nervous system bears a corresponding proportion to the development of the mental 
 faculties ; 4. That congenital and other morbid defects of the cerebral hemispheres are, 
 in general, accompanied with corresponding deficiency in the range or power of the 
 intellectual faculties and the higher instincts.” See Mind, the Human. 
 
 Cerebellum. — The functions of this organ have been made the subject of much dis- 
 cussion and investigation. It is itself insensible to irritation, and has been cut away in 
 various animals (by Longet and other French physiologists), without eliciting signs of 
 pain ; moreover its removal or disorganization by disease is generally unaccompanied 
 with loss or disorder of sensibility, animals from whom it has been removed being appar- 
 ently able to smell, see, hear, and feel, as perfectly as before. Flourens seems by his 
 vivisections to have arrived at the correct view regarding the functions of this organ, 
 and his results have been fully confirmed by Longet and others. He extirpated the C. 
 in birds by successive layers. Feebleness and want of harmony of the movements 
 resulted from the removal of the superficial layers; when he reached the middle layers, 
 the animals became restless; their movements were violent and irregular; but they were 
 not convulsed, and their sight and hearing were perfect. By the time that the organ 
 was entirely removed, the animals had completely lost the power of flying, walking, 
 standing, and preserving their equilibrium. When a pigeon in this state was laid upon 
 its back, it could not recover its former position ; but fluttered its wings, and saw and 
 tried to avoid a threatened blow. Hence volition, sensation, and memory were not 
 lost, but merely the faculty of combining the actions of the muscles. From a large 
 series of experiments of this kind, subsequently made on all classes of animals, Flourens 
 infers that the C. belongs neither to the sensitive nor to the intellectual apparatus ; and 
 that it is not the source of voluntary movements, although it belongs to the motor 
 apparatus; but that it is the organ for the co-ordination of the voluntary movements, or 
 for the excitement of the combined and harmonious action of the muscles. 
 
 This view is confirmed by the phenomena observed in certain cases of disease, and to 
 a certain extent by comparative anatomy, for to each of the four classes of vertebrata — 
 if we reckon amphibians and reptiles as a single class — the species whose natural move- 
 ments require the most rapid and exact combinations of muscular actions are those in 
 which the C. is most developed in proportion to the spinal cord ; and if we compare 
 different species of the same class, we usually find the development of the C. to corre- 
 spond very closely with the perfection and variety of the muscular movements. For 
 example, in the frog the movements are exceedingly simple in character, consisting of 
 little else than flexion and extension of the posterior limbs; and the C. of this animal is 
 extremely small compared with the rest of the brain, being merely a thin narrow band 
 of nervous matter. In the common sea-turtles, the movements of the body are of a 
 more varied character, and the motions of the head and neck are more extensive; and 
 here we have a much more highly developed cerebullum. In the alligator, again, a 
 reptile whose motions closely resemble those of quadrepeds, the C. is still more fully 
 developed. 
 
 The influence of each half of the C. is directed to the muscles of the opposite side of 
 the body, and for the right ordering of the movements, the actions of its two halves 
 must be" mutually balanced and adjusted; for if the nervous structures uniting one of 
 the halves of the C. with the medulla oblongata and spinal cord be divided, strangely 
 disordered movements occur, the animal falling down on the side opposite to that which 
 
639 
 
 Ceremony, 
 
 Ceres. 
 
 iiEis been injured, and continually rotating round the long axis of its body, sometimes 
 +or several days, at the rate of fifty or sixty times in a minute. Similar movements 
 iiave been observed in men in vv^hom one of the crura of the C. has been diseased. 
 
 Phrenologists are of opinion, in accordance with the view originally propounded by 
 Gall, that the C. is the seat of the sexual impulse and instincts; but this view has been 
 long abandoned by almost all physiologists, for the reason that it has not been found ta 
 be sufficiently supported by anatomical and experimental facts, many of which ar» 
 indeed directly opposed to it. 
 
 Our limited space .compels us to leave altogether untouched many most interesting 
 topics in cerebral physiology, as, for instance, the quality of the brain, the plurality of 
 the cerebral organ.s, etc. The reader who wishes for further information, is referred to 
 Kirkes’s Physiology (from which we have freely quoted), Carpenter’s Human Physiology, 
 Noble On the Brain, Holland’s Chapters on Mental Physiology, and Brodie’s Psychological 
 Inquiries. 
 
 CEREMONY (Fr. ceremonie; Lat, ccerimonia, a sacred rite). Almost any act, wffien 
 performed in a regular, orderly, and formal manner, and when viewed, not with refer- 
 ence to its object, but the mode of its performance, becomes a C. ; and the more entirely 
 the attention of the performers is withdrawn from the object of the act, and fixed upon 
 the manner of its performance, the more ceremonious does it become. The purely 
 formal character of C. is thus illustrated by Hooker: “ The name ceremony,” he says, 
 “we do not use in so large a meaning as to bring sacraments within the compass and 
 reach thereof, although things belonging to the outward form and seemly administration 
 of them are contained in that name.” The remark is applicable to the most trivial 
 ceremonies of social life and of state pageantry, as well as to the most sacred rites of 
 religion, for a C. which is its own object would scarcely be entitled to be regarded even 
 as a ceremony. The most empty display has always the ulterior object of imposing on 
 somebody. 
 
 Ceremonies may be divided into four classes: 1. Religious ceremonies; 2. Social 
 ceremonies; 3. State ceremonies; 4. International ceremonies. 
 
 Religious and state ceremonies will be treated of respectively under their various- 
 denominations; see, for the first. Rites, Litukgy, Mass, Processions, etc., and for 
 the second. Coronation; Court; Court, Presentation at; Parliament; etc. Social 
 C. will in a great measure fall under the heads. Etiquette, Precedency, Courtesy, 
 Forms of Address, etc. ; and international C. under Diplomacy, Consul, Ambassa- 
 dor, etc. 
 
 CEREOP'SIS (Gr. wax-face), a genus of birds of the family anatidce, to which the New 
 Holland goose ((7, Novoe Hollandioe) belongs. This bird has been known since the 
 southern shores of that country were first visited by navigators. There, and on the 
 adjacent islands, it is found in great abundance; and the earlier navigators easily sup- 
 plied themselves with fresh provisions by knocking them down with sticks, so little 
 were they acquainted with the danger to be apprehended from man. The cere is remark- 
 ably large, whence the name. 
 
 CE'R,ES, among the Greeks named Demeter, daughter of Ghronos (Saturn), by Phea 
 (Ops), sister of Jupiter, Neptune, Juno, etc. She had the misfortune, along with her 
 other brothers and sister, to be devoured by her father, who, however, vomited her forth 
 again after taking the emetic wffiich Metis gave him. By her brother Jupiter she became 
 the mother of Persephone or Proserpina (q.v.). The chief myth relating to C. tells how 
 her daughter Proserpina v/as stolen by Pluto, and how the mother wandered far ia 
 quest of the maiden. After traveling in human form nine days, and everywhere dis- 
 tributing her gifts to mankind, she excited the pity of Jupifer, by whom Mercury was- 
 dispatched to bring back Proserpina from the infernal world, but on the condition that 
 she must spend there a third part (or, as others say, one half) of every year. The myth 
 of C, was symbolical of the growth of grain ; some consider that this is intimated in tho 
 name Demeter, which is thought to be equivalent to ge meter, “Mother Earth.” Tho 
 relations of the worship of C. with agriculture, social order, etc., were expressed in her 
 two great festivals — the Eleusinia (q.v.) and Thesmophoria (q.v.), C, was especially 
 worshiped in Crete, Delos, Sicily, Asia Minor, Arcadia, Argolis, and Attica. Bulls, 
 cows, pigs, honey-cakes, and fruits were offered to her. Among the Romans, her fes- 
 tivals were styled Cerealia; and of these, the most interesting was the feast celebrated 
 by the rural population shortly before harvest, when the country people, dressed in 
 white, and crowned with oak -leaves, danced and sang harvest songs in honor of the 
 goddess. The feast in April lasted several days, and was celebrated by games of the 
 circus. C. was represented, most commonly, in a chariot drawn by dragons, having her 
 head crowned with a garland of corn-ears, and holding a torch, a basket, or a poppy in 
 her hand. 
 
 CERES, one of the planetoids (q.v.), and the first of them that was discovered. It 
 was first seen by Piazzi at Palermo, Jan. 1, 1801. He continued to observe its motion 
 till the 13th of Feb., when illness obliged him to discontinue his observations, which, 
 however, sufficed to enable astronomers approximately to calculate its orbid. It waa 
 nearly a year after before it again became visible, owing to its approach to the sun.^ 
 
Cereus. 
 
 Certification. 
 
 640 
 
 C.’s magnitude is less than that of the moon; and it looks like a star between th« 
 seventh and eighth magnitudes. 
 
 CEEEUS, a genus of plants of the natural order cacteoR (q.v.), containing about 100 
 known species, among which are some of the most splendid flowers of that order. One 
 of these is C. speciosiasimus, now one of the most common greenhouse plants in Britain, 
 and sometimes cultivated even in windows. Its large flowers are of a fine scarlet color, 
 the inner petals with a violet tinge ; they spring singly from the younger branches. The 
 fruit, when well ripened, is of a delicious flavor. The plant is a native of Mexico. 
 
 CEEIGNOLA, a t. of Italy, in the province of Foggia, 23 m. s.e. of Foggia. It i» 
 divided into two parts — the old and new town, in the former of which a portion of the 
 ancient walls still remain — and is celebrated for the decisive victory obtained over the 
 French by the Spaniards in 1503, and which established the supremacy of Spain in 
 Naples. C. has manufactures of linen, and a trade in cotton and fruits. Pop, ’71, 
 25,131. 
 
 CEEIG0,one of the smaller of the seven Ionian islands, was anciently called Cythera; 
 is situated in the Mediterranean, and is separated from the coast of Morea by a narrow 
 strait; lat. 36° 28' n., long. 23° e. It has an area of 107 sq.m., with a pop., in 1870, of 
 10,637. With the exception of a few tracts of land, it is a very barren, dry, and moun- 
 tainous island. In some parts, however, corn, wine, and olive-oil are raised. There 
 are two great caverns in the island — one in the sea-cliff at the termination of the wild 
 glen of Milopotamos; the other known by the name of the cavern of St. Sophia, from a 
 small chapel at its mouth dedicated to this saint, is situated at about one and a half 
 hour’s ride from Capsali (q.v.), the capital of the island. The former cavern is said to 
 be 3 m. in length, and so low that it is necessary to creep, in many places, on hands 
 and knees to explore it. The latter — that of St. Sophia — is a very remarkable one, and pos- 
 sesses singular beauty; it abounds in enormous stalactites of various shapes and great 
 beauty. In ancient times, C. was sacred to Venus, being, according to the old mythology, 
 the island that received this goddess when she arose from the sea. 
 
 CEEIN'THUS (abusively named Merinthus, i.e., a halter), a heretic who lived at the 
 close of the apostolic age, but of whom we have nothing better than uncertain and con- 
 fused accounts. It is said that he was a Jew by birth, and studied philosophy in Alex- 
 andria. From Egypt he passed into Asia Minor, and lived in Ephesus contemporane- 
 ously (according to the belief of the church) with the aged apostle John. Tradition 
 tells us that John held the heretic in such detestation, that, on a certain occasion, when 
 he encountered C. in the baths of Ephesus, he immediately left the place, saying to 
 those about him: “ Let us flee home, lest the bath should fall while Cerinthus is with- 
 in.” It was believed in the ancient church, that the gospel of St. John was written in 
 opposition to the tenets of C. ; and the Roman presbyter Caius (about she close of the 
 2d c.) supposed that C. had revenged himself by falsely ascribing the authorship of the 
 Apocalypse to St. John — it being in reality his own work! The fathers contradict one 
 another in their accounts of Cerinthus. Some describe him as a complete Gnostic, in 
 which case he would be the earliest recorded teacher of that sect; others say that 
 he held coarse and sensual millenarian views, making the millennium (q.v.), with 
 the licentious fancy of an Arab, consist chiefly in “nuptial delights;” and that he 
 believed the Jewish ceremonial law to be in part binding upon Christians. There can 
 be no doubt that C. made use of the Jewish law at least as a symbol for his Gnostic 
 doctrines, and also employed millenarian terms in a symbolical manner; a very natural 
 thing for him to do, on the hypothesis which Neander and others have suggested — that 
 Gnosticism originated, not among the minds which had received a true Hellenic cul- 
 ture, but among the Judaizing sects, whose theosophy was a jumble of the spiritual and 
 the material. C. being the oldest teacher of Judaico-Gnostic principles, there would 
 naturally be a greater incongruity and want of harmony in his language and ideas than 
 characterized Gnosticism at a later period of its development; and subsequent ecclesi- 
 astical writers, destitute as all of them were of precise historical knowledge and sound 
 principles of criticism, could hardly avoid misunderstanding a system which is not con- 
 sistent throughout, but bears evident marks of being formed in a transition epoch. — 
 Paulus Historia Gerintlii (Jena, 1799); Neander, Kirchcngeschichte, vol. i., part 2. 
 
 CE'EITE, or O'citroite, is the silicate of cerium. It is found as a mineral in gneiss, 
 at Westmanland, Redderhyttan, and Bastniis. It contains in 100 parts — silica, 16; 
 peroxide of cerium, 26.55; oxide of lanthanum, 33.38; carbonie acid, 4.62; alumina, 
 1.68; peroxide of iron, 3.53; lime, 3.56; oxide of manganese, 0.27; and water, 9.1. It 
 occurs in granular pieces of a clove-brown, cherry-red, or gray color, with a white 
 streak, a splintery fracture, an adamantine luster, and is translucent at the edges. 
 
 CEEI'THIUM, a genus and the type of a family, cerithiadm, of gasteropodous mol- 
 lusca of the order pectinihranchiata of Cuvier. The shell is spiral, elongated, and 
 man^- whirled, with an oval oblique aperture, which has a short canal in front. The 
 species of this family are numerous, most of them marine, but many inhabiting estuaries 
 and brackish rather than salt w’ater; some are found in lakes and rivers. A few belong 
 to temperate climates, but most of them are tropical, and in mangrove swamps they par- 
 
641 
 
 Cereus. 
 
 Certification. 
 
 ticularly abound. The fossil species are very numerous, almost all limited to the tertiary 
 formations. See Bagshot Beds. 
 
 CE'RIIJM is a rare metal found native in cerite (q.v.) and a few other minerals. It is 
 a white metal, has not been obtained in any quantity, is not therefore employed in any 
 manufacture, and forms two oxides and a numerous class of salts. 
 
 CEROFLAS'TIC (Lat. cera, wax), the art of modeling in wax. See Wax-wokk. 
 
 CEBOSTBO'TXJM, or Cestro'tum, (Lat.), a species of encaustic painting upon horn or 
 ivory, the lines of the design being burned in with the cestrum or burning needle, and 
 wax introduced in the furrows thus made. 
 
 CEROX'YLON. See Wax Palm. 
 
 CERR'ETO, a t. of South Italy, in the province of Benevento, situated on a slope of 
 the Apennines, about 22 m. n.e. of Capua. It is a well-built town, with a cathedral, and 
 manufactures of coarse cloth. The district produces good wine. fop. 6,469, 
 
 CERRO DE PASCO, or Pasco. See Cerro Gordo, ante. 
 
 CER'RO GOR DO, the name of several localities of Spanish America. — 1. A plateau in 
 Mexico, the most easterly on the route from Yera Cruz to the capital. Here, on the 18th 
 April, 1847, the Americans totally defeated the Mexicans. — 2. A city of Peru, the capi- 
 tal of the province of Pasco, in the department of Junin. It is in the vicinity of the 
 richest silver mines in the republic; and standing at an elevation of 14,100 ft., it has, all 
 the year round, the temperature of an English winter. The estimates of the population 
 range from 7,000 to 16,000. C. G. is 140 m. to the n.e. of Lima. 
 
 CERRO GORDO. See Cerro Gordo, ante, a mountain pass on the national road 
 from Vera Cruz to the city of Mexico. April 18, 1847, gen. Scott with a United States 
 force of 8,500 defeated Santa Anna, the Mexican leader, with 12,000 men, at this .place. 
 The Mexican loss was from 1,000 to 1,200 killed and wounded and 3,000 prisoners; that 
 of the other side, 63 killed and 368 wounded. 
 
 CERRO GORDO, a co. in n. Iowa, intersected both e. and w., and n. and s. by rail- 
 roads, and watered by Shell Rock river. Lime creek, and the headwaters of Beaver Dam 
 river; 652.sq.m. ; pop. '80, 11,461. It is an agricultural region. Co. seat, Mason City. 
 
 CERRO GORDO DE POTOSI', a mountain in Bolivia, directly s.w. of Potosi, con- 
 taining very rich silver mines. The summit is 16,150 ft. above sea level. 
 
 GERTALDO, a market t. of central Italy, is picturesquely situated on the Elsa, about 
 18 m. s.w. of Florence. It is noteworthy as the residence of Boccaccio, as well as the 
 scene of his death. His house, surmounted with a tower, is still standing, and contains 
 the articles of furniture belonging to the poet’s time, and a fresco painting of him by 
 Benvenuto Cellini. Pop. 8,562. 
 
 CERTHI'AD.S:, a family of birds, generally placed in the great ordier insessores or pas- 
 serinee, and tribe tenuirostres, although some naturalists have ranked them in the order 
 scansores. They mostly live on the trunks and branches of trees, feeding on insects 
 which they find in the crevices of the bark; and many of them aia themselves by their 
 stiff tail-feathers in retaining their position as they search for their food on the perpendicu- 
 lar stem. Their claws are long and sharp ; the hind-toe is also elongated, so that they can 
 take firm hold of the bark or of a small branch; and many of them can pass round a 
 horizontal branch, clinging to its under-surface with their backs to the ground. The bill of 
 many is slender and curved ; others, however, have a comparatively short and straight 
 bill. The tongue is cartilaginous at the extremity, and so fitted to aid in seizing insect 
 prey. The plumage is usually dull and uniform; but the birds are lively and active in 
 their habits. The species are numerous and widely diffused ; they are divided into a 
 number of genera. All of them are small birds. The creepers (q.v.), forming the genus 
 certhia, are regarded as exhibiting the type of the family. Wrens and nut-hatches, 
 although referred to it, depart very considerably from this type. Many small tropical 
 and subtropical birds, which live by sucking honey from flowers, formerly referred to 
 this family, are now separated from it. 
 
 CERTIFICATE, a written testimony to the truth of a certain fact or facts. The law 
 of England recognizes certificates for various purposes. 1. Annual C. of attorneys. See 
 Attorney. 2. C. of appointment of the creditors’ assignees to a bankrupt’s estate 
 and effects. 3. C. of conformity of a bankrupt. 4. C. of counsel, to enable a pauper to 
 litigate in forma pauperis. 5. C. of the judges of the superior common-law courts at 
 Westminster, which are of various kinds and for various purposes. 6. C. of registry of 
 a ship ; which is a copy of what is entered in the registry of the ship in the books of the 
 custom-house. This C. is granted by the collector, comptroller, or principal oflBcer of 
 the customs at the port of registry, and delivered to the captain as a voucher of the char- 
 acter and privileges of the vessel as a British ship. 
 
 CERTIFICA'TION, in the law of Scotland, signifies the judicial assurance given to a 
 party of the course to be followed by the judge in case he disobeys the will of a sum- 
 mons, or other writ or order of the court. Reiterated contumacy on the part of the 
 defender was at one time punished with confiscation of his property (1449, c. 29), but 
 now C. amounts to nothing beyond an intimation that if he fails to appear in the usual 
 U. K III.-41 
 
Certified. 
 
 Cervetere. 
 
 642 
 
 manner, the judge will decern, or pronounce judgment against him. The most impor- 
 tant C. is in the process of reduction-improbation (q.v.). In this action, two terms are 
 allowed for the production of the deed called for, and sought to be reduced. There- 
 after, an additional ten days are given; but should production not be satisfied on their 
 expiry, decree of C. will be pronounced, and this decree has the effect of declaring the 
 deed to be forged and fabricated. Such a decree, even though pronounced in absence, 
 can hardly be recalled. In simple reduction (see Reduction), the C. is only to the effect 
 that the deed shall be void and null, till produced. 
 
 CERTIFIED COPY. See Evidence. 
 
 CERTIORA'RI (Lat. to be certiorated, or more fully and accurately informed of), in 
 English law, is an original writ issuing, in civil cases, out of the chancery division of 
 the high court of justice, and in criminal from the queen’s bench division of the same 
 court. This writ, which runs in the queen’s name, is addressed to judges or officers of 
 an inferior court, copimanding them to certify or to return the records of a cause 
 depending before them, in order that the party may obtain more sure and speedy jus- 
 tice, from such justices as shall be assigned to determine the cause. A writ of may 
 be granted at the instance either of the prosecutor or defender;, but to prevent its being 
 used as an instrument of oppression by the one party against the other, it is provided (5 
 and 6 Will. IV. c. 33, and 16 and 17 Viet. c. 30) that either party, before applying for it, 
 must obtain the leave of the court, and enter into recognizances. 
 
 The writ passes on a hill of G., which states the proceedings in the inferior court, so 
 far as they have gone; sets forth the alleged ground of incompetency, by suggesting that 
 the cause is beyond the jurisdiction of the court, that the defendant or witnesses live 
 beyond it, or the like reason why substantial justice cannot be done. The writ is now 
 cluefly used in the queen’s bench division, and is the usual mode of correcting excesses 
 of justices of the peace in miscellaneous matters. 
 
 CERTIORA'RI {ante), a writ by a superior to an inferior court of record, requiring 
 the latter to send to the former some proceeding pending, or the record of some cause 
 terminated in cases where the proceedings were not in accordance with the course of 
 common law. The writ is granted or refused at the discretion of the superior court, 
 and the usual result is that the proceedings below are either quashed or afiBrmed. 
 
 CERTO'SA DI PA'VIA, La, one of the most celebrated monasteries in the world, is 
 situated in the neighborhood of Pavia, and was founded, 1396, by Giovanni Galeazzo 
 Visconti, first duke of Milan, to appease his conscience for the murder of his uncle. The 
 church is a splendid structure in the form of a Latin cross, the ground-plan being 249 
 ft. long by 173 ft. broad. It has altogether 12 chapels, 7 in the whole length of the 
 church, and 5 in the transept, some of which are decorated with fine frescoes and paint- 
 ings. The richly sculptured fa 9 ade, designed by Ambrogio da Fossano, named Borgog- 
 none, was commenced in 1473. The building is made up of various styles, but the 
 pointed prevails in the interior, which is decorated with frescoes, paintings, etc., by Dan 
 Crespi, Andrea Solari, Campi, and Ambrogio Fossano, and contains a gorgeous high- 
 altar, the mausoleum of the founder, and several monuments. 
 
 CERU'MEN. This term is applied to yellow waxy matter which is secreted by certain 
 glands lying in the external auditory canal, or the passage that leads from the external 
 opening of the ear to the membrane of the tympanum. Its main use, doubtless, is to 
 lubricate this passage. It possesses a peculiarly bitter taste, and some phy siologists have 
 believed that in consequence of this property it prevents insects from entering the audi- 
 tory canal. It is popularly known as ear-wax. 
 
 CERUSE, or White-lead, the basis of white oil-paint, is a carbonate of lead. It has 
 several other names — krems, Nottingham white, flake-white, etc. Like all other prepa- 
 rations of lead, C. is liable to be acted upon by exhalations from sewers, or by any- 
 thing which contains sulphuretted hydrogen, in which case it is changed to a dull and 
 leaden hue. Neither will it bear to "be mixed with any pigment containing sulphur, 
 such as vermilion. It is supposed that the white oxide of zinc might be substituted for 
 0. as a white pigment with advantage. 
 
 CERUT'TI, Giuseppe Antoine Joachim, 1738-92; a Jesuit and professor in the col- 
 lege of that order in Lyons. Among his works are an Apology for the Institute of the 
 Jesuits; a Memoir of the People of France; a poem entitled The Garden of Bietz. He also 
 edited a weekly journal, and was once elected to the legislative assembly. 
 
 CERVAN TES SAAVE DRA, Miguel de, one of the greatest imaginative writers of 
 Spain, was b. of an old Galician family, at Alcala de Henares, Oct. 9, 1547. He studied 
 at Salamanca, and afterwards at Madrid, where he was placed under the care of a 
 hiarned theologian, Juan Lopez de Hoyos, who was then professor of belles-lettres in the 
 university. But his natural love of poetry led him to spend most of his time in writing 
 elegies, ballads, sonnets, and a pastoral romance entitled Filena. When 22 years old, 
 C. served for some time as valet de-chambre to cardinal Giulio Aquaviva of Rome. In 
 1570, he served as a volunteer under the command of the papal admiral, Marco Antonio 
 Oolonna, and fought gallantly against the Turks. At the battle of Lepanto, he was 
 maimed for life by a gunshot wound in the left hand. He afterwards took part in vari- 
 ous campaigns. Captured by an Algerine squadron, he was made a slave, but was ran- 
 
643 
 
 Certified. 
 
 Cervetere, 
 
 somed in 1580, after a four years' captivity. On his return to Spain, he rejoined his regi- 
 ment in the army sent by Philip II. to support his claims in Portugal, and distinguished 
 himself in the expedition to the Azores. In 1584, he returned to Spain, and retired 
 into private life, to devote his attention to literature. Soon after his publication of the 
 pastoral romance, Galatea (1584), he married, commenced writing for the stage, and 
 produced, in the course of a few years, as many as 30 dramatic pieces, of which the 
 tragedy Numancia is the most remarkable. During the years 1588-99, he lived in strait- 
 ened circumstances in Seville. In 1605, he once more appeared as an author, and now 
 in a sphere exactly suited to his genius. In his immortal work, Don (Quixote, C. intended 
 to put an end to that taste for extravagant romances of chivalry which had so long pre- 
 vailed. The first part of this great satirical work appeared in Madrid, and was received 
 at first coolly, but soon afterwards with loud applause, which, at a later period, was 
 echoed from all parts of educated Europe. Don Quixote, though written wdth a satirical 
 purpose, is throughout pervaded by the true spirit of poetry. With that universality 
 which belongs to the highest genius, C. connected a universal human interest with 
 descriptions of local and temporary characteristics. He did not intend by his Don 
 Quixote to burlesque the old Spanish knight-eiTantry, for, as Mr. Ford remarks (see 
 Handbook of Spain, part i., p. 238), “ the thing had expired a century before his birth;” 
 but to put an end to the absurd and affected romances which it w^as then the fashion to 
 read, and which were believed to be true pictures of chivalry. He had also, it is quite 
 clear, another object in view — viz., to show that the deeper and truer and more guile- 
 less a nature is, the more will it become the jest and butt of real life; but he likewise 
 teaches us that the pure heart and the high soul obtain a triumph which misfortunes 
 and blunders cannot tarnish; for the knight always “disinterested, generous* elevated, 
 and beneficent,” though “the sweet bells of his intellect are jangled and out of tune,” 
 maintains throughout a firm hold on our affections and esteem. Charles Lamb has truly 
 said, that readers who see nothing more than a burlesque in Don Quixote, have but a 
 shallow appreciation of the work. 
 
 Though received with enthusiasm, Don Quixote brought no pecuniary reward to the 
 author. He was left in the obscurity and poverty in which he had passed so many 
 years, and vainly endeavored to improve his circumstances. After silence during sev- 
 eral years, C. published his twelve Novelas Examplares (Exemplary Tales), 1613; his 
 Viage al Parnaso (Journey to Parnassus), 1614 — his next best production ioDon Quixote; 
 and in the following year he produced eight new dramas, but these were indifferently- 
 received. In 1614, a certain Alonso Fernandez de Avellaneda published at Tarragona 
 a so-called continuation of Don Quixote, which was made a vehicle of abuse lav- 
 ished on Cervantes. It appears that C. suffered considerably under these despicable 
 attacks; but he revenged himself in noble style by publishing (1615) the true continua- 
 tion of Don Quixote. Near the close of his career, C. found a patron in the count of 
 Lemos, who relieved his poverty. During the last few years of his life, he resided in 
 Madrid, where he died, April 23, 1616. No stone marks the spot where his remains 
 were interred. His novel. The Sorrows of Persiles and Sigismunda, was posthumously 
 Dublished. In 1835, when the house in which the poet had lived in Madrid was rebuilt, 
 a bust of C., by the sculptor Don Antonio Sola, was placed in the front. 
 
 Among the several editions of Don Quixote, we may mention the splendid one in 4 
 vols. (Madrid, 1780); that by Pellicer (5 vols., Madrid, 1798); the fourth published by 
 the Madrid academy, with an admirable life of C. by Navarette (5 vols., Madrid, 1819); 
 Diego Clemencin’s edition, with the most complete commentary (6 vols. , Madrid, 1833-39) ; 
 and a good pocket-edition, published at Leipsic (6 vols., 1800-7). Of the collected works 
 of C., an edition, not containing the comedies, appeared at Madrid (16 vols., 1803-5); 
 and another, without the Journey to Parnassus, was published in the same city (11 
 vols., 1829). Don Aug. Garcia de Arrieta published a selection from the works of C. 
 (10 vols., Paris, 1826-32); and a reprint of the collected works is included in Baudry’s 
 Geleccion de los Mejores Autores Espafioles (Paris, 1840-41). England has been fertile in 
 translations of C. ’s immortal work. The first is that of Thomas Skelton (1612-20), in 
 addition to which may be mentioned those of Philips, Motteux, Smollett, Durfey, Jar- 
 vis, Wilmot, and Clark. The best are those of Skelton, Jarvis, and Clark. 
 
 CEEVE'BA, a t. of Spain, in the province of Barcelona, 28 m. e. of the city of Lerida. 
 It is situated on an eminence, is surrounded by old walls pierced with nine gates, and the 
 west approach is commanded by a castle, which is now in a ruinous condition. The 
 university of Lerida was removed here by Philip V., but it was afterwards transferred 
 to Barcelona. The university building, a massive but unsightly edifice, is still standing. 
 C. has manufactures of linen, woolen, and cotton fabrics. Pop. 5,300. 
 
 CERVE'TERE, or Cerye'tri (ancient Caere or Agylla), a t. of central Italy, 27 m. w. 
 of Rome. Though now a place of some 700 or 800 inhabitants, it was formerly one of 
 the most important cities of Etruria, possessing, it is said, a famous collection of paint- 
 ings before even Rome was founded. Many Etruscan remains of value have been 
 found here. 
 
 CERVET'ER^:, or Cervet'ri {ante), a village on the site of the ancient Caere, in s. 
 Etruria, near the Tyrrhenian sea, in the district of Civita Vecchia, 32 m. from Rome. 
 It afforded refuge to the Tarquins after their expulsion from Rome, and was by the 
 
Cervia. 
 
 Cestoid. 
 
 644 
 
 Romans chosen as the safest hiding-place of their treasures during the occupation of 
 the capital by the Gauls. The old city thenceforward declined, and in 1250 was 
 deserted by a large portion of its inhabitants, who removed to the present village of 
 Ceri. From the fact that the old inhabitants were admitted to Roman citizenship 
 ■without the right of suffrage, the “ Caerite franchise” came to be a proverbial expression 
 denoting disfranchisement. Many interesting Etruscan remains have been found in the 
 tombs of the city. One of the sepulchres belonged to the Tarquin family. 
 
 CER'VIA, a t. of central Italy, situated on the Adriatic, 13 m. s.s.e. of Ravenna. It 
 is regularly built, has a cathedral and several convents ; and from a marsh in the neigh- 
 borhood about 50,000 tons of salt are annually obtained, the salt-works employing a 
 considerable number of the population, which is about 6,000. 
 
 CERVIBJE AND CEE'VTJS. See Deer. 
 
 GEBVIN, Mont (Ger. Matterhorn; Ital. Monte Silvio), a mountain of the Pennine 
 Alps, about 40 m. e.n.e. of Mont Blanc, and between the Valais in Switzerland and the 
 Val d’ Aosta in Piedmont. Above an unbroken glacier line of 11,000 ft. high, it rises in 
 an inaccessible obelisk of rock, more than 3000 ft. higher, and is described by the late 
 prof. Forbes as the most striking natural object he had ever seen. The total elevation 
 of the mountain is 14,836 feet. The Col of Mont C., used as a passage for horses and 
 mules in summer, has an elevation of 10,938 feet. 
 
 CERVINA'RA, a t. of Italy, in the province of Avellino, 12 m. n.w. of Avellino. It 
 has a convent and several churches, and a trade in the produce of the district. Pop. 
 2,328. 
 
 CE'SAEI, Giuseppe (sometimes called Giuseppino, or il Cavaliere d’Arpino), an 
 Italian painter, was b. at Rome, 1570, and d. there in 1640 (or 1642). He was greatly 
 honored by no less than five popes, and his paintings were always highly popular. His 
 works — in fresco and oil — display lively imagination, gay coloring, and great tact in 
 execution; but are deficient in natural simplicity, correctness of design, symmetry of 
 arrangement, and dignity of style. As he was the most brilliant of the mannerists, he 
 was the chief object of the attacks made by the artistic reformers, Caravaggio, the 
 Caracci, and their followers — who constituted the naturalisti — on the convention^ or 
 pseudo-idealistic style of painting. 
 
 CESAEOT'TI, Melchiore, an excellent Italian poet, was b. at Padua, 15th May, 
 1730, and d. 3d Nov., 1808. He gained a reputation by the vigor and originality of 
 his style, especially in his translation of Macpherson’s Ossian{2 vols., Padua, 1763). The 
 versification of this work, like that of C.’s free translation of the Iliad, under the title of 
 La Morte di Ettore, was admired by Alfieri. C. unquestionably threw fresh life into 
 Italian literature, but few in this country will consider his enthusiasm very rational, 
 when it could induce him to think poor Macpherson a better poet than Homer. C.’s best 
 work was his Saggio sulla Filosofia delle Lingue (Padua, 1785), written in opposition to 
 the academical pedantry of La Crusca. His prose style is vigorous, but full of innova- 
 tions, especially Gallicisms. 
 
 GESE'NA, a t. of central Italy, about 12 m. s.e. of Forli, on the Emilian Way. It is 
 pleasantly situated on a hill-slope, washed by the Savio. Its principal buildings are the 
 Palazzo Puhblico, the Capuchin church, and the library founded by Domenico Malatesta 
 Novello, in 1452, with a rich collection of MSS. There are many monasteries and nun- 
 neries, as befits a place that gave birth to two popes — Pius VI. and VII. It has some 
 silk factories, with a trade in wine and silk; and in the vicinity are productive sulphur- 
 mines. Pop. ’72, 35,870. 
 
 CESNO'LA, Luigi Palma di, ll.d., Count, b. in Turin, Italy, 1832. When but 15 
 years old he enlisted in the war against Austria. In 1850, he graduated from the Turin 
 royal military academy, receiving a commission which he surrendered in 1854. In the 
 Crimean war he was a staff officer. He emigrated to New York in 1860, and began 
 teaching languages. The next year he married one of his pupils, a daughter of com- 
 modore Reid, of the U. S. navy. In the war of the rebellion, he was col. of cavalry 
 and participated in many engagements until June, 1863, when he was wounded and 
 made prisoner. He was exchanged not long after, and left the service at the close 
 of the war, with the rank of brig. gen.; at once became an American citizen, and 
 was appointed consul at Cyprus. There he soon interested himself deeply in archae- 
 ological researches, and brought to light some of the most valuable remains of ancient 
 Greek art thus far recovered (see Archeology). Gen. Cesnola has devoted the greater 
 portion of his time to Cyprian or Grecian exploration for the past 15 years. In 1878, he 
 gave lectures in New York and elsewhere, and in 1879, was made a director of the 
 metropolitan museum of art, in which his great collection is deposited. (See New 
 York City.) 
 
 Cl)SPEDES, Carlos Manuel de, b. in Cuba, 1819; educated in the university at 
 Havana, and admitted to the bar. He traveled in Europe and learned several languages. 
 At Madrid he was concerned with Prim in a conspiracy to overthrow the govern- 
 ment, and was compelled to fly. He returned to Cuba and began the practice of law. 
 When Lopez made his revolutionary experiment, C. S 3 ’^mpathized with the acts and was 
 
645 
 
 Cervia. 
 
 Cestoid. 
 
 imprisoned: When the revolt of 1868 began he was the leader, and one of his first acts 
 
 was to liberate the slaves on his sugar estate. On the 10th of Oct., .1868, he proclaimed 
 the. independence of Cuba on the field of Yara, and when the republic was formally 
 organized, April 10, 1869, he was elected president. The attempt at revolution was 
 kept up at intervals until 1878. On the 21st of Feb., in that year, the rebellion was olfi- 
 cially declared at an end. 
 
 CllSPE'DES, Pablo de, 1538-1608; a Spanish theologian, linguist, poet, painter, 
 architect, and sculptor; b. at Cordova, and educated at Alcala de Henares, and in art 
 at Rome. He was a bold and correct draughtsman, a skillful anatomist, and a master 
 of color and composition. His best picture is “The Last Supper,” at Cordova. But 
 little of his poetry has been preserved, the most important being fragments of The Art 
 of Painting. C. held the office of prebend of the cathedral of Cordova. 
 
 CESS, probably a corruption for assess, from the Ital. assessare, to impose a tax. It 
 has long been used in England as synonymous with the more modern noun assessment. 
 Camden, in the time of Elizabeth, speaks of every man being “cessed by the pole, man 
 by man, according to the valuation of their goods and lands.” See Land-tax. 
 
 CESSIO BONO'RTTM (Lat. cession or surrender of goods), a process which the law of 
 Scotland has borrowed from that of Rome, and which, like many others, is common to 
 it with most of the continental systems. A C. B. may be defined to be an equitable 
 relief from the severity of the earlier laws of imprisonment for debt, granted to a debtor 
 in consideration of a cession of his goods to his creditors. The jurisdiction in cessios 
 formerly belonged exclusively to the court of session, but by 6 and 7 Will. IV. c. 56, it 
 was extended to sheriffs. The principal regulations, with reference to this process, at 
 present in force, are the following: Any debtor in prison, or who has been in prison, or 
 even against whom a warrant of imprisonment has been issued, may apply for a cessio 
 bohorum. In his petition, he sets forth his inability to pay his debts, and his willing- 
 ness to surrender his estates, and prays for interim protection. This petition must be 
 intimated in the Gazette. The bankrupt then lodges with the sheriff-clerk a state of his 
 affairs, subscribed by himself, with all the relative books and papers. On a day 
 appointed for the purpose, he is examined before the sheriff on oath ; and if his creditors 
 object to the petition, they are heard, and a proof, if necessary, allowed them. What- 
 ever order the sheriff may pronounce is subject to review by the court of session, or a 
 lord ordinary in vacation. Cessios originating in the court of session are sued out in the 
 form of a summons, by which all the creditors are called as defenders to the action. 
 Any one or more of them may appear; and the pursuer will not be allowed the benefit 
 of the process, till he has satisfied the court that his insolvency has arisen from misfor- 
 tune, and that his disclosure of the state of his affairs is full and honest The burden of 
 proving objections to his statements, and to the evidence which he may produce, will be 
 laid on the creditors. If the debtor can find caution (q.v.) to attend all diets when called 
 on, the sheriff or the court of session may grant him liberation or protection whilst the 
 process is pending. A decree of C. B. operates as an assignation of the debtor’s mova- 
 ble estate in favor of a trustee for behoof of the creditors. These trustees, like those in 
 sequestrations, are now placed under the supervision of the accountant in bankruptcy. 
 A C. B. differs from a sequestration (q.v.) in this, that it confers no power on the bank- 
 rupt to insist on his discharge, and affords no protection against the attachment of his 
 subsequent acquisitions by his creditors. The debtor has the privilege of retaining his 
 working tools; but nothing beyond what is necessary for mere aliment will be allowed, 
 ■even to half-pay officers and clergymen. 
 
 CESTITJS, Pyramid of, a Roman monument of the Augustan age, situated close to 
 the Porto San Paolo, partly without and partly within the walls of Aurelian. It is 
 known to every English traveler, being in the immediate vicinity of the cemetery where 
 Protestants dying in Rome are buried. The exterior form is perfectly preserved ; but 
 of the paintings which formerly decorated the internal walls, only a few traces remain. 
 Several copies of these paintings have been made, of which we may mention those edited 
 by Falconieri, 1661. The pyramid is 125 ft. high, 100 ft. in width at the base; the walls 
 25 ft. thick. It is built of brick and tufa, faced with slabs of Carrara marble, now per- 
 fectly black with age, and rests on a base of travertine 3 ft. high. The interior contains 
 burial chambers of considerable extent. The inner walls are covered with hard stucco, 
 and the roof is vaulted. Both the walls and the roof were covered with paintings of 
 fernale figures. The memory of the Caius Cestius for whom this pyramid was built has 
 perished, but it has been supposed that he was the Cestius whom Cicero — in the orar 
 tion pro Flacco — mentions as a rich man of business, who, having no children, left a 
 large sum of money for the erection of a monument to himself. Two fluted columns of 
 white marble, now standing before the pyramid of C., with their bases and two other 
 bases, were discovered in the excavations of 1663, at the foot of the pyramid. In the 
 cemetery, the remains of several celebrated men have their resting-place, among whom 
 are the poets Keats and Shelley, Wyatt the sculptor, and Bell the anatomist. 
 
 CESTOID WORMS (Lat. cestus, a band or throng), a family of entozoa, or intestinal 
 worms, of the order Codelmintha (q.v,), consisting of tape-worms and other creatures 
 which resemble them in structure and habits. Tlk* number of different kinds of C. W. 
 
Cestracion. 
 
 Cestus. 
 
 646 
 
 is great. Their natural history is important in reference to the health of human beingff 
 and of the most valuable domesticated animals; and although the subject is not in all 
 respects an agreeable one, it presents much that is interesting and wonderful. Recent 
 discoveries have given it an entirely new character. 
 
 C. W., in their most perfect state, when alone they possess the form from which 
 their name is derived, are in reality compound animals, like many zoophytes and asci- 
 dians. They do not, however, like these, subsist by food entering the system through 
 mouths with which the individuals composing it are furnished; for the joints of a cestoid 
 worm, the individuals composing the system or “colony,” have no mouth; nor is there 
 any mouth in what is, on various accounts, quite properly regarded as the head, but 
 nutriment is obtained froni the surrounding medium hy endosmose nourishing 
 
 juices entering everywhere through the skin, as in the spongioles of the roots of plants, 
 into the cellular tissue or parencliyma of which the whole body consists. The head of 
 a cestoid worm is furnished with organs — different in different kinds — by which it 
 affixes itself to the inner surface of the intestine of a vertebrate animal. When first it 
 gets into this situation, the body is very short, and has no joints; but they soon begin 
 to appear as transverse striae, and gradually increasing in size, become in most of the 
 kinds very distinct, and at last separate from the system in which they were produced, 
 and are carried away out of the intestines of the animal which contained them. This 
 does not take place, however, till they have not only become mature in the development 
 of the sexual organs — the principal organs to be observed in them — but until they are 
 full of what are called eggs, which, indeed, are rather young ones ready for a separate 
 existence, and each enveloped in a sort of protective shell. Each joint of a cestoid worm 
 is androgjmous. Whilst the most matured joints are thrown off from the posterior end,* 
 new joints are continually formed, as at first, in the part nearest to the head. The 
 number of joints thus formed from a single individual is very great, as will appear 
 when it is considered that tape worms have been found 20 feet long or upwards, and 
 that these have probably been throwing off joints in large numbers before opportunity 
 has been obtained of measuring them. 
 
 As the C. W. have no mouth, so they have no alimentary canal. Some of them, as 
 the true tape-worms, have been supposed to imbibe nourishment by the sucking disks of 
 the head ; but these are more probably mere organs of attachment, and the canals which 
 are seen to arise behind them, apparently belong, not to the digestive, but to the vascular 
 system, and are united by transverse vessels or vascular rings in the head and in each 
 of the segments. The only trace of a nervous system hitherto observed is a single gan- 
 glion in the head, which in some is seen to send off nerves to the suckers. 
 
 The division into segments remains imperfect in some cestoid worms. Those of the 
 genus ligula — chiefly found in birds and fishes — resemble a long flat ribbon, not even 
 notched along the edge, and containing a mere series of hermaphrodite brood-places. 
 When segmentation is perfect, the segments {proglottides), on separating from the parent 
 system {strobila), possess life and a little power of independent motion, creeping away 
 on moist ground, plants, etc. Their period of separate existence, however, is brief ; they 
 burst or decay, and the numerous minute embryos which they conti^in are ready to 
 commence their career, if in any w^ay transferred into the stomach of an animal of 
 proper kind, which is generally different from that whose intestine their parent inhabited. 
 This may happen by their being swallowed — or even the proglottis itself — along with 
 water, grass, etc. Some of the C. W. in this embryo state find their appropriate place 
 in the stomachs of vertebrate, and others in those of invertebrate animals. 
 
 The shell being broken or digested, the young cestoid worm is set free. It is 
 extremely unlike the proglottis by which it was generated. It presents the appearance of 
 a vesicle furnished with a few microscopic hooks. It possesses, however, a power of 
 active migration by means of these hooks, and is able to perforate the stomach of the 
 animal which contains it. To this its instinct seems immediately to prompt it, and it is 
 so minute that it passes through the stomach without any serious inconvenience to the 
 animal. It now probably gets into the blood, and is lodged in some of the capillaries, 
 from which it makes its way again by perforation, until it finds a suitable place in 
 some of the tissues or of the serous cavities, in the flesh, or in such organs as the liver 
 or the brain ; and here relinquishing all active migration, it rapidly increases in size, at 
 the same time developing a head, which is in fact that of a cestoid worm, and generally 
 either encysts itself or is encysted — inclosed in a cyst (q.v.) — according to circumstances, 
 or according to its species. Great numbers of such parasites are sometimes present in a 
 single animal, causing disease and even death. Until recently, they were regarded by 
 naturalists as constituting species and genera quite distinct from the C. W’.. of which 
 they are really the young; and the name scolex, formerly given to one of these supposed 
 genera, has now become a common name for the young of all C. W. in this stage, as 
 larva is the common name for the young of insects in their first stage after being hatched 
 from the egg. Those scolices which inhabit vertebrate animals very generally become 
 distended with a watery fluid, and in this state were formerly regarded as liydatids 
 (q.v.); little else, indeed, appearing without very careful examination, but a small bag 
 filled with fluid, the scolex liead being formed within the bag, although capable of being 
 everted from it, as the finger of a glove which has been drawn in at the end is turned 
 out. Such is the young of the common tape-worm {toenia solium), formerly known to 
 
647 
 
 Cestracion. 
 
 Cestus. 
 
 naturalists as cysticercus celluhsm, and found in the flesh of the pig and of some other 
 animals, and sometimes of man. It is this scolex, existing in great numbers, which 
 produces in the pig the diseased state commonly known as measly; and it is very unsafe 
 €ven to handle measly pork in a raw state, because a scolex accidentally getting into the 
 mouth, and thence into the stomach, is likely to become a formidable inmate of the intes- 
 tinal canal. It does not appear that this particular species has the power of multi- 
 plying in its scolex state, or the circumstances in which it exists in the flesh of the pig 
 may be unfavorable to its so 'doing, and the prodigious numbers sometimes existing in a 
 single animal have probably all entered by the mouth in the way already described, the 
 contents of a single proglottis or joint of a tape-worm being perhaps sufflcient to account 
 for them; but some scolices, as that called coenurus cerehralis, found in the brain of 
 sheep, and the cause of the disease called staggers — now known to be the scolex of a 
 tmnia of the dog — are proliferous by a sort of pullulation, so that clusters of scolices 
 ■cover the same parental vesicle. Until, however, the scolex reaches the intestine of an 
 animal suited to it, its propagation is entirely unsexual, and no organs of sex exist; but 
 no sooner is it there, than it begins to develop itself into a cestoid worm, and to produce 
 androgynous joints, fertile of new embryos, as already described. Thus we have in 
 these creatures an instance, in its relations the most important known, of the recently 
 discovered alternation of generations. See Generations, Alternation op. The 
 transference of the scolex from its place of growth to that in which it becomes a cestoid 
 worm, usually if not always takes place by the animal which contains it being eaten by 
 that whose intestine is suitable to its perfect development. Each kind of cestoid worm 
 is limited to certain kinds of vertebrate animals, and it has been proved by experiment 
 that if introduced into the stomach of other kinds, the scolices soon die. The only C. 
 W. which infest the human species are bothriocephalus (q.v.) lutus, and tape- worms (q.v.). 
 See Von Siebold’s interesting work on tape and cystic worms, printed for the Sydenham 
 society (London, 1857). 
 
 CESTRA'CION, a genus of sharks, regarded as constituting a distinct family, cestraci- 
 <ontidcB, although not more than two species are known as now existing. It is charac- 
 terized by having two dorsal fins and one anal, the first dorsal situated over the space 
 between the pectorals and ventrals; a spine forming the front of each dorsal; a short, 
 wide tail, with its upper lobe strongly notched beneath; the mouth at the fore-end of 
 the snout; spout-holes distinctly visible, rather behind the eyes; eyes destitute of nicti- 
 tating membrane; small gill-openings; and the front of the mouth armed with sharp 
 angular teeth, whilst the margins and inner surface of the jaws are covered with pave- 
 ment-like teeth, presenting a general continuity of surface, as in skates, and disposed in 
 rounded oblique scrolls — the former evidently adapted to the seizing of food, the latter 
 to the crushing and bruising of it. The Port Jackson shark or “nurse ” {0. Philippi) of 
 the Australian seas, and the cat shark of Japan and China {C. zebra), seems to differ 
 chiefly in the patterns of color. The cestraciontidce are particularly interesting to geolo- 
 gists; for the ol|jlest fossil sharks belong in great part to this family, of which “remains 
 are found even in the paleozoic strata; they become more numerous in the carbonifer- 
 ous series; they are very numerous in the lias and chalk formations; but there they cease 
 almost entirely, the strata of the tertiary series scarcely containing any of them ;” whilst 
 now the species are reduced, as we have seen, to one or two, and other types of shark 
 have become more prevalent. 
 
 CESTRUM, the style or spatula used by the ancients in encaustic painting in wax and 
 ivory. See Encaustic. 
 
 CESTUI QUE TRUST, a person who possesses the equitable right to deal with prop- 
 erty, the legal estate in which is vested in a trustee. There is such a confidence between 
 the cestui que trust and his trustee, that no action at law will lie between them, but 
 they must settle their differences and arrange their disputes in a court of equity. “The 
 phrase cestui que trust is a barbarous Norman law French phrase, and is so ungainly 
 and ill adapted to the English idiom, that it is surprising that the good sense of the 
 English legal profession has not long banished it, and substituted some phrase in the 
 English idiom, furnishing an analogous meaning.” — Wharton’s Laio Lexicon. 
 
 CESTUI QUE VIE, a person whose life is the measure of the duration of an estate. 
 If A. grants to B. an estate to be B.’s own so long as another person named C. lives, 
 then C. is the cestui que vie. 
 
 CESTUS (Gr. kestos, embroidered), a girdle worn by Greek and Roman women close 
 under the breasts, and so distinguished from the zone, worn round the loins. The C. of 
 Venus was covered with alluring representations, so that Juno borrowed it when she 
 "desired to win the love of Jupiter. — Cestus — or, more correctly, CiESTUs, from the Lat. 
 ccsdere, to slay — is also the name of the covering for the hands worn by Roman pugilists. 
 It was at first nothing more than a leathern thong or bandage to strengthen the fist; but 
 afterwards it was covered with knots and nails, and loaded with lead and iron, etc., to 
 increase the force of the blow. It was not uncommon for a pugilist armed with the C. 
 to dash out the brains or break the limbs of his antagonist. The Roman pugilist 
 icoestuarius) was often represented in sculpture. 
 
Cetacea. 
 
 Cevennes. 
 
 648 
 
 CETA'CEA (Gr, Icetos, a whale), an order of mammalia (q.v.) greatly ditfering in gen- 
 eral form and habits from the rest of that class, so as indeed to be popularly reckoned 
 among fishes. The C. have a fish-like form, terminating in a fish-like tail or tail-fin, 
 which, however, is not vertical, as in fishes, but horizontal, and is the great instrument 
 of progression; being moved by very powerful muscles, commonly with an oblique 
 downward and lateral movement, like that by which a boat is propelled in sculling, but 
 sometimes by direct upward and downward strokes, when greater velocity is requisite. 
 There are no hinder limbs, and even the pelvis is represented only by two small rudi- 
 mentary bones, suspended in the soft parts, so that the body tapers gradually and unin- 
 terruptedly towards the tail. The fore-limbs are exclusively, or almost exclusively, 
 adapted for swimming; their bones, however, appearing in the skeleton as those of a 
 hand, placed at the extremity of an arm, of which the bones are much abbreviated and 
 consolidated, with little power of motion except at the shoulder-joint, and are entirely 
 concealed in the soft parts of the animal. The head is connected with the body with- 
 out any apparent neck, and the vertebrae of the neck are partly ankylosed or soldered 
 together. The skin is naked, having no general covering of hair, although some of the 
 species possess conspicuous whiskers. The C. agree with quadrupeds, notwithstanding 
 the great differences already indicated, in the most important parts of their organiza- 
 tion. They are viviparous, and suckle their young, for which they exhibit great affec- 
 tion; they are also warm-blooded, breathe by lungs, and not by gills, and come to the 
 surface of the water for the purpose of inhaling air. An approach to their fish-like 
 form is to be seen in seals (q.v.) and other phocidm (q.v.); in which, however, the hinder 
 limbs are largely, although peculiarly developed, whilst the fish-like tail-fin is wanting; 
 the skin has a covering of hair; and the head and fore-limbs more resemble those of 
 ordinary quadrupeds. 
 
 The C. are usually divided into two sections— the herbivorous and the ordinary C. ; 
 but the former, constituting the family of manatidm (q.v.), have recently, by some 
 systematic naturalists, been rejected from this order altogether, and associated with the 
 pachydermata. They differ very widely from the ordinary or true C., not only in their 
 adaptation for the use of vegetable instead of animal food, which appears both in their 
 dentition and in their digestive apparatus, but also in their pectoral instead of abdomi- 
 nal teats, and in their want of blow-holes and of any provision for retiring to great 
 depths of the ocean, and remaining there for a considerable time, without returning to 
 the surface to breathe. 
 
 The ordinary or true C. are divided into the families of delphinidoe (dolphin, por- 
 poise, beluga, bottlenose, narwhal, etc.), physeteridce or catodontidoe (cacholot, or sperma^- 
 ceti, whale, etc.), and baloenidce (Greenland whale, rorqual, etc.), the distinguishing 
 characters of which are given under separate heads. They all feed on animal food, 
 some of them pursuing and devouring fishes; others, and these the largest, subsisting 
 chiefly on smaller prey, mollusks, small crustaceans, and even zoophytes, which they 
 strain out of the water by a peculiar apparatus in their mouths. None of the true C. 
 have molar teeth or grinders like the manatidm; all the teeth which any of them have 
 are conical ; but some of the largest are entirely destitute of teeth. # The females of 
 all of them have the teats situated far back on the abdomen. The fore-limbs of the 
 true C. are mere fins, the slight power of grasping with them, which the manatidm pos- 
 sess, having entirely disappeared. The resemblance to fishes is increased in many of them 
 by the presence of a dorsal fin. There is a wonderful provision to enable them to spend 
 some time under water, before returning again to the surface to breathe — an arterial 
 plexus or prodigious intertwining of branches of arteries, under the pleura and between 
 the ribs, on each side of the spine. This being filled with oxygenated blood, after 
 the animal has spent some time at the surface breathing, the wants of the system are 
 supplied from it, whilst breathing is suspended, so that some whales can remain below 
 even for an hour. The position of the nostrils is remarkable, almost on the very top 
 of the head, so that the animal can breathe as soon as the head comes to the surface of 
 the water; and the nostrils are furnished with a valve of singular but very perfect con- 
 struction, a sort of conical stopper of fibrous substance, preventing the ingress of water 
 even under the pressure of the greatest depths. The nostrils appear to be little used for 
 the purpose of smelling, the sense of smell being one which these animals either do not 
 possess at all, or in a very imperfect degree; but they are much used, not only for 
 breathing, but also for spouting, or the ejection of water from the mouth, for which 
 reason they are generally called blow-holes — the water being forced through them by the 
 compression of two large pouches or reservoirs which are situated beneath them. This 
 compression is accomplished by an action similar to that of swallowing; the throat, 
 however, not being open, but closed. The height to which the water is thrown into th« 
 air is extraordinary, and the spouting of the whale is one of those wonders of the ocean 
 never to be forgotten by those who have seen it. 
 
 A peculiarity in the skin of the true C. adapts them for their manner of life. The 
 skin is extremely thick, the inner part of it consisting of elastic fibers interlacing each, 
 other in every direction, the interstices of which are filled with oil, forming the sub- 
 stance usually called blubber. The oil deposited in this unusual situation, not only 
 serves the ordinary purposes of fat, but that also of keeping the body warm, which to a 
 warm-blooded animal, continually surrounded with water, is of great importance; 
 
649 
 
 Cetaee*. 
 
 Cevennes. 
 
 whilst the elasticity of this extraordinary skin affords protection in the great depths to 
 which some of the whales descend, and in which the pressure must sometimes amount 
 to a ton on every square inch. 
 
 The number of known species of C. is not great, but their natural history has as yet 
 been very imperfectly studied. All of them are large animals, some of them by far the 
 largest that now exist. Almost all of them — both herbivorous and ordinary — are 
 marine, but some of the smaller species ascend large rivers to a great distance from the 
 sea; and one, of the family delphinidm, belongs exclusively to fresh waters, being found 
 only in the upper tributaries of the Amazon and the elevated lakes of Peru. 
 
 Fossil cetacea have been hitherto discovered only in the tertiary formation. Their 
 remains represent species not only belonging to each of the recent families of true C., 
 but have supplied materials for forming a new family intermediate between the true 
 whales and the herbivorous cetacea. These fossils were originally described as reptiles; 
 but they have been satisfactorily shown to be carnivorous C. by Owen, who, from their 
 remarkable conjugate teeth, has given the typical genus the name of zeuglodon (q.v.), 
 and the family that of zeuglodontidce. In all, six or seven species have been described 
 belonging to this family, from the eocene and miocene beds of Europe and America. 
 The ^Iphinidm appears first in the miocene strata, and continue through the newer 
 beds. The remains of a narwhal, which cannot be distinguished from the living 
 species, have been found in several places in England. Of physeteridoe, three species 
 have been noticed in pleiocene and pleistocene strata, belonging to the recent genus 
 physeter. Fossil haloenidm occur in the miocene and newer beds. Only four species 
 have been described, if we exclude cetotolites (q.v.), a name given to teeth and ear- 
 bones, belonging to animals of this family, which occur in great numbers in the Suffolk 
 Crag. 
 
 CETOTOLITES, a name given by Owen to fossil cetacean teeth and ear-bones, which 
 occur in great abundance in the Red Crag of Suffolk, a member of the pleiocene period. 
 They are rubbed and water-worn, and have evidently been washed out of some earlier 
 strata, which remain yet unrecognized. The extent of these earlier strata must have 
 been very great, seeing that the remains now extend over a large district in Essex and 
 Suffolk, and attain a thickness, in some places, of not less than 40 ft. Prof. Henslow, 
 in 1843, drew the attention of agricultural chemists to this deposit, as a source of 
 materials for manure, and since then superphosphate manures have been manufactured 
 from it to the value of many thousand pounds annually ; a striking example of the valua- 
 ble practical results which frequently flow from a purely scientific discovery. 
 
 CETBA'BO, a t. of s. Italy, in the province of Cosenza, situated on the Mediterranean, 
 24 m. n.w. of Cosenza. It has anchovy fisheries, and a population of 2,619. 
 
 CETTE, a seaport t. of France, in the department of H6rault, is built on a neck of 
 land between the lagoon of Thau and the Mediterranean, in lat. 43° 24' n., long. 3° 42' 
 east. The town^ which is entered by a causeway raised above the Thau lagoon, and a 
 bridge of 52 arches, is fortified, and the harbor is defended by a citadel and forts. The 
 space inclosed by the piers and breakwater forming the harbor is about 30 acres, and 
 has a depth of from 16 to 19 feet. A broad deep canal, lined with excellent quays, con- 
 nects the port with the lake of Thau, and so with the Canal du Midi and the Rhone, 
 thus giving to C. an extensive inland traffic ; it has likewise an active foreign commerce. 
 The principal trade is in wine, brandy, salt, dyestuffs, perfumery, and verdigris. C. 
 has ship-building yards, and fisheries of oysters and anchovies. Pop. ’76, 28,152. 
 
 CETTIGNE, or CETINXS. See Montenegro. 
 
 CETUS, or The Whale, the largest of all the constellations. It reaches from 0° to 
 25° s. declination, and from 0 to 2h. 30m. right ascention. Mira, a variable star, is the 
 most conspicuous feature. 
 
 CETJ'TA, a t. belonging to Spain, situated in the kingdom of Fez, on the n. coast of 
 Africa, and opposite to Gibraltar, in lat. 35° 54' n., and^ong. 5° 16' west. It is strongly 
 fortified, and defended by a citadel and forts erected on mount Hacho, the ancient 
 Abyla, or south pillar of Hercules. It is the most important of the four Spanish presi- 
 dios, or convict establishments, on this coast. The harbor is small and not very safe; 
 and the population, which amounts to 8,200, is composed of Spaniards, Moors, Negroes, 
 Mulattoes, and Jews, mostly very poor, and employed in trade and fisheries. Many of 
 the Spaniards living here are state-prisoners, and even the garrison is partly manned by 
 convicts. C., formerly called Septa or Septum, was taken from the Vandals in 534 by 
 Justinian, who fortified the place anew. In 618, it fell into the hands of the western 
 Goths; afterwards it was taken by the Moors, who held it until 1415, when it was cap- 
 tured by the Portuguese. It was annexed, with Portugal, to the crown of Spain in 
 1580, and was the only place on the African coast retained by Spain when Portugal was 
 restored to its independence in 1640. 
 
 CEVADIL'LA. See Sabadilla. 
 
 CEVENNES (ancient Gehenna), the chief mountain range in the s. of France. With 
 its continuations and offsets, it forms the water-shed between the river systems of the 
 Rhone and the Garonne. Its general direction is from n.e. to s.w., commencing at 
 the southern extremity of the Lyonnais mountains, and extending under different 
 
Ceylanite. 
 
 Ceylon. 
 
 650 
 
 local names as far as the canal du Midi, which divides it from the northern slopes of 
 the Pyrenees. The central mass of the C. lies in the departments Lozere and ArdSche, 
 Mont Lozere reaching an elevation of 4,884 ft., and Mont Mezen (the culminating point 
 of the chain) an elevation of 5,794 feet. The average height is from 3000 to 4000 feet. 
 The masses consist chiefly of amphibolic rocks, grauwacke, and limestone, covered with 
 tertiary formations, which in many places are interrupted by volcanic rocks. 
 
 The C. has been celebrated as the arena of religious warfare. As early as the 12th 
 c., the several sects known by the names, the “ Poor of Lyon,” i\\e AlUgenses (q.v.), and 
 the Waldenses (q.v.), were known and persecuted in this district. After the revocation 
 of the edict of Nantes by Louis XIV. in 1685, a series of cruel persecutions of the 
 Protestants in the C. began, especially in 1697, after the peace of Ryswick. ‘’Dragon- 
 nades” (q.v.) were employed to enforce the doctrines of the monks sent as missionaries 
 into the heretical district. All persons suspected of Protestantism met with the most 
 harsh and cruel treatment. Some of the inhabitants emigrated, others fled into the 
 fastnesses of the mountains. Driven to desperation, the persecuted people at length 
 rose to arms, and the murder of the abbe du (Jhaila, who was at the head of the dragon- 
 nades, gave the signal of a general insurrection in 1702. The insurgent peasants were 
 styled camisards — possibly from camise, a smock worn by the peasantry. Headed by 
 bold leaders, the most famous of whom were Cavalier and Roland, they defeated the 
 troops sent against them by Louis again and again, until that king thought the insurrec- 
 tion of suflicient importance to require the presence of the distinguished general, mar- 
 shal Villars; but he was recalled before the revolt had been put down, and it was left to 
 the duke of Berwick to extinguish it in blood; the contest terminating in an entire des- 
 olation of the province, and the destruction or banishment of a great portion of the 
 inhabitants. The embers of religious hatred still remained glimmering through the fol- 
 lowing century, and, after the restoration of the Bourbons in 1815, burst out into flames 
 in the terrible*^ persecution of the Protestants in Nimes (q.v.) and other places in the s. 
 of France. See Histoire des Troubles des Cevennes by Court de Gebelin (1760); Schulz’s 
 OescMchte der Camisarden (1790); Bray’s Revolt of the Protestants of the G. (1870). 
 
 CEYLANITE. See Spinel. 
 
 CEYLON' (the taprohane of the Greeks and Romans, and the serendib of the Arabian 
 Nights), a valuable island and British colony in the Indian ocean, to the s.e. of the 
 peninsula of Hindustan, from which it is separated by the gulf of Manaar and Palk’s 
 strait. Recent observations have shown its true place to be between 5° 55' and 9° 51' n. 
 lat., and 79° 42' and 81° 55' e. long. Extreme length from n. to s., from Point Palmyra 
 to Dondera Head, 271^ m. ; greatest width, from Colombo to Sangemankande, 137^ 
 miles. Area, including dependent islands, 24,454 sq.miles. 
 
 Physical Features. — In natural scenery, C. can vie with any part of the world; and as 
 it rises from the ocean, clothed with the rich luxuriance of a tropical vegetation, it 
 seems to the voyager like some enchanted island of eastern story. Its hills, “draped 
 with forests of perennial green,” tower grandly from height to height, till they are lost 
 in clouds and mist. Near at hand, a sea of sapphire blue dashes against the battle- 
 mented rocks that occur at isolated points, and the yellow strands are shaded by groves 
 of noble palms. In shape, C. resembles a pear, but its inhabitants more poetically com- 
 pare it to one of their elongated pearls. Undulating plains cover about four parts of 
 the island, and the fifth is occupied by the mountain-zone of the central s., which has 
 an elevation of from 6,000 to 8,000 ft. above the sea-level. Pedro tallagal la, the highest 
 mountain in the range, attains the height of 8,280 ft. ; the celebrated mountain of Adam’s 
 peak, 7,420 ft. ; and the table-land of Neuera Elba, 6,210 feet. 
 
 Geology. — The mountain system is mainly composed of metamorphic rocks, chiefly 
 gneiss, frequently broken up by intruded granite. With the exception of some local 
 beds of dolomitic limestone, the gniess is everywhere the surface rock, and the soil is 
 composed of its disintegrated materials. No fossils, as was to be expected, have been 
 noticed in C., if we except the semi-fossil remains of mollusca, Crustacea, and corals, 
 belonging to living species, whicn occur in the rude breccias of the n. in the neighbor- 
 hood of the sea. The northern part of the island is rising, and there also the land is 
 making encroachments on the sea from another agency. The immense masses of corals 
 continually increasing, retain the debris brought from the Indian continent by the cur- 
 rents of the sea, and thus form a flat, ever-increasing madrepore plain. 
 
 Of metals and minerals^ iron, in the form of a carbonate, can be obtained in great 
 quantities, and of such purity as to resemble silver. Tin is found in the alluvium at 
 the base of the mountains, and on the heights the rare metal tellurium has been discov- 
 ered. Nickel and cobalt are scarce. Anthracite and rich veins of plumbago exist on 
 the southern range of hills. The gems of C. have been celebrated from time imme- 
 morial, and they are most plentiful in the alluvial plains at the foot of the hills of Saf- 
 fragam. Sapphires, rubies, the oriental topaz, garnets, amethysts, cinnamon stone, and 
 cat’s-eye, are the principal gems and precious stones of the island. The most valuable 
 is the sapphire; and one of these, found in the year 1853, was worth more than £4,000. 
 The value of the precious stones annually found in the island is estimated at £10,000 
 The pearl fisheries of C. have long been famous, and since the beginning of the century 
 are conducted directly for behoof of the government. But sometimes fishing operations 
 
651 
 
 CeylanitO* 
 
 Ceylon. 
 
 have to be suspended for a considerable period ; thus there was no fishery from 1863, 
 when tne value obtained was £46,000, till 1874, when pearls worth £9,500, were secured. 
 
 Ri'tt&i's. — The most important river in C. is the Mahawelli-ganga. It has its source 
 in the vicinity of Adam’s peak, and after draining more than 4,000 sq.m., it separates 
 into several branches, and enters the ocean near Trincomalee. The s. side of the island 
 is watered by 10 rivers of considerable size, which flow into the sea between Point de 
 Galle and Manaar. On the e. coast, the rivers are smaller, but still more numerous, and 
 many others traverse the northern and eastern provinces. 
 
 Harbors. — Point de Galle (q.v.) and Trincomalee (q.v.) are the two harbors of Ceylon. 
 The former is small and dangerous, but the latter is unsurpassed as a safe and com- 
 modious port. The variation of the tides is very trifling; the rise and fall not generally 
 exceeding 18 to 24 in., with a third of increase at spring-tides. 
 
 In climate, C. has a great advantage over the mainland of India, and as an island, 
 enjoys a more equable temperature. The average for the year in Colombo (q.v.) is 80“ 
 in ordinary seasons. April is the hottest month; and in May the s.w. monsoon com- 
 mences amid a deluge of rain, and continues the prevailing wind till Oct., when the n.a 
 monsoon sets in: 80 in. is the average annual fall of rain, though in an exceptional year, 
 120 in. have been registered. The beautiful table-land of Neuera Ellia was first visited by 
 Europeans in 1826, and is now used as a sanatorium. Here the thermometer in the 
 shade never rises above 70°, while the average is 62° ; the nights are cool and refreshing. 
 The n. of the island, including the peninsula of Jaffna, the plains of Neuera Kalawa, 
 and the Wanny, may be reckoned as a third climatic division. Here the annual fall of 
 rain does not exceed 30 in., and irrigation is largely employed in agriculture. 
 
 Flora. — The general botanical features of C., especially of the lowlands, are nearly 
 identical with those of southern India and the Deccan, although it possesses a few 
 genera of plants not to be found in those regions. Its phaenogamic plants are limited to 
 about 3,000. The beautiful ixoras, erythrinas, buteas, Jonesias, and other flowering 
 shrubs bloom in the forests. At an elevation of 6,500 ft., the acanthaceoB cover large 
 tracts of ground, and the tree-fern reaches the height of 20 feet. On the highest ground, 
 rhododendron attain the size of timber-trees. The coral-tree {eurythrina Indica), the 
 murutu {lagerstrcBmia regince), and the Jonesia asoca are amongst the most magnificent of 
 the flowering trees. The fig tribe are planted in the vicinity of the temples. In the 
 forests, climbing-plants and epiphytes of prodigious size and striking appearance cover 
 the trees with a mass of parasitical foliage of extraordinary growth. The palmaceae 
 are very conspicuous in the vegetation of C., although not more than 10 or 12 species 
 are indigenous : the cocoa-palm — of which it is estimated there are not less than 20 
 millions of trees — the taliput, the palmyra — which forms extensive forests in the n. of 
 the island — and the jaggary palmare the most noteworthy. Of timber-trees, 416 varieties 
 are known, and amongst these the satin-wood holds the first rank. The flora of the 
 highlands, above 2,000 ft., and up to 6,000 or 7,000, though much resembling that of the 
 Neilgherries, has a marked affinity to the vegetation of the highlands of Malacca and 
 Java, especially the latter. 
 
 Fauna. — A knowledge of the fauna of C. has been greatly advanced by the labors of 
 Drs. Templeton and Kelaart and Mr. Edgar Layard. Quadrumanous animals are repre- 
 sented by the loris gracilis, and five species of monkeys. Sixteen species of the cheirop- 
 tera or bat tribe, exist in C., and what is very remarkable, many of these rival the birds 
 in the brilliancy of their colors. The pteropus Edwardsii (the flying-fox of Europeans) 
 measures from 4 to 5 ft. from tip to tip of its extended wings. Of the larger carnivora, 
 the bear and the leopard, and of the smaller, the palm-cat and the glossy genette (the 
 civet of Europeans) may be mentioned. The dreaded tiger of India, the cheeta, the 
 wolf, and the hyena are happily not met with in Ceylon. Deer, buffaloes, and the 
 humped ox of India are amongst the ruminantia; the little musk-deer {moschus meminna) 
 is less than 2 ft. in length. The pachydermata are represented by the elephant and the 
 wild boar; the former, wffiich is for the most part tuskless, is emphatically -lord of the 
 forests of Ceylon. The most remarkable of the cetacea is the dugong. Whales are 
 captured off the coast; 320 species of birds have been ascertained by Drs. Templeton 
 and Kelaart and Mr. Layard. The song of the robin and long-tailed thrush, and the 
 flute-like voice of the oriole, are heard over the whole mountain zone, and far down into 
 'the neighboring plains. Eagles, the beautiful peregrine falcon, owls, swallows, king- 
 fishers, sun-birds, bulbuls, crows, paroquets, pigeons, pea-fowl, jungle-fowl, and many 
 others of the feathered tribe might be mentioned did space permit. Myriads of aquatic 
 birds and waders, amongst which the flamingo is conspicuous, cover the lakes and 
 lagoons. The crocodile is the largest reptile in the island; tortoises and lizards are also 
 found. There are a few species of venomous snakes, and of these the ticpolonga and 
 the cobra da capello are the most deadly. 
 
 Inhabitants. — The Singhalese, the most numerous of the natives of C., are the 
 descendants of those colonists from the valley of the Ganges who first settled on the 
 island 543 b.c. In their customs, costume, and general appearance, they have remained 
 unchanged since the days of Ptolem3^ The dress of the men, who have delicate 
 features and slender limbs, is singularly effeminate, and consists of a comboy or waist- 
 cloth, very much resembling a petticoat; their long hair, turned back from the forehead, 
 is confined with combs, and ear-rings are worn by way of ornament. The women. 
 
Ceylon. 
 
 652 
 
 in addition to the comboy, cover the upper part of the figure with a White muslin 
 jacket, and adorn themselves with necklaces, bangles, rings, and jewelry. 1 he Singhalese 
 are false and cowardly, but manifest a strong affection for their relatives, and a reverence 
 for old age. Polyandry still lingers in the interior of C., and was formerly universal; 
 it is now, however, chiefly confined to the wealthier classes, amongst whom one woman 
 has often three or four husbands. The Kandyans, or Highlanders, are a more sturdy race, 
 and maintained their independence for three centuries after the conquest of the low 
 country by European settlers. The Malabars, or Tamils, have sprung from those early 
 invaders of C., who from time to time swept across from southern Hindustan, and con- 
 tended with the Singhalese kings for the sovereignty of the island. They have formed, 
 the chief population of Jaffna for full 2,000 years, and constitutionally excel the Sin- 
 ghalese and Kandyans. The Moormen, who are the most energetic and intelligent of the 
 native communities, are met with in every province as enterprising traders. They are 
 a very distinct race from the Singhalese, but have no tradition of their origin. Euro- 
 peans generally believe them to be of Arab descent, but Tennent is of opinion that 
 “they may be a remnant of the Persians, by whom the island was frequented in the 4th 
 and 5th centuries. 
 
 The ‘ ‘ burghers” of C. are a people of European descent, who have become natural- 
 ized. Those of Portuguese extraction hold the low’est place, and are mostly tradesmen 
 and artisans; but the Dutch burghers frequently fill responsible posts, and are employed 
 in the government offices. 
 
 Besides the races already alluded to, there is a remarkable tribe of outcasts — theYed- 
 dahs — hardly removed from the wild animals of the forest, and believed to be descended 
 from the Yakkhos, the aboriginal inhabitants of the country. They occupy a district 
 in the eastern part of the island, and have there preserved their ancient customs and 
 manner of living unaltered for more than 2,000 years. They appear to be without the 
 instinct of worship, and have no knowledge of a God. The tribe is divided into the 
 Bock Veddahs and the Village Veddahs. The former hide themselves in the jungle, live 
 by the chase, and sleep in trees or caves. They use fire to cook their meat, and their 
 greatest gastronomic treats are the iguana lizard and roasted monkey. Their language 
 — if the few words they make use of can be called by that name — is a dialect of the 
 Singhalese. The Village Veddahs locate themselves in the vicinity of the European set- 
 tlements, on the eastern coast, living in rude huts of mud and bark, and are hardly 
 more civilized than their brethren of the jungles. The exertions of government to 
 reclaim this harmless but degraded people have in some degree succeeded, and a prom- 
 ising colony has been formed. 
 
 Population . — Sir J. E. Tennent is of opinion that C., when in the height of its pros- 
 perity, must have been ten times as densely peopled as at the present day. In the 
 official returns for the year 1870, the area and population of the six provinces of Cey- 
 lon are given as follows (total pop. in 1871, 2,405,287): 
 
 Provinces. 
 
 Area in 
 sq. miles. 
 
 Total 
 
 population. 
 
 Pop. per 
 sq. mile. 
 
 Western 
 
 3,345 
 
 662,658 
 
 198.11 
 
 North-western 
 
 2,805 
 
 214,699 
 
 76.54 
 
 Southern 
 
 1,927 
 
 353,989 
 
 183.69 
 
 Eastern 
 
 4,545 
 
 96,601 
 
 21.25 
 
 Northern 
 
 6,062 
 
 426,597 
 
 70.36 
 
 Central 
 
 5,770 
 
 371,466 
 
 64.37 
 
 Total 
 
 24,454 
 
 2,126,037 
 
 86.94 
 
 Military 
 
 
 2,847 
 
 .11 
 
 Total (including military) 2,128,884* 87.05 
 
 Religion . — The Singhalese are devoted to Buddhism (q.v.), which is the prevailing 
 religion of the island. It does not exist, however, in that state of purity in which it is 
 still found in the Indo-Chinese peninsula. Its sacred books are identical with those of 
 Burma!) and Siam, and both record the doctrines of Gautama in the Pali language; the 
 deviations are in matters of practice. The Malabar kings adulterated Buddliism lo a 
 considerable extent with Brahmanism, introducing the worship of Hindu deities into 
 the Buddhist temples, and this continues more or less to be the c^se. More than once 
 have the Buddhists of C. sought to restore the purity of their faith — at one time send- 
 ing deputies to Siam, at another to Burmah, wdth this object in view. The Burmah or 
 Amarapura sect have long been the reformers of Singhalese Buddhism, and maintain no 
 very friendly relations with the party, who, supported by the priests of Siam, acknowl- 
 edge the civil powder in matters of religion, sanction the worship of Hindu deities and 
 the employment of the priesthood in secular occupations, uphold caste, and restrict the 
 gacred books. Caste was acknowledged by the Singhalese prior to the introduction of 
 Buddhism, which in principle is opposed to it; but so firmly was it rooted, that it still 
 endures, though more as a social than a sacred institution. Gautama Buddha is said to 
 
 ♦ Including 4,732 British and 14,201 whites of European descent. 
 
658 
 
 Ceylon^ 
 
 have visited C. three different times to preach his doctrine, and his SH-pada, or 
 sacred footstep, on the summit of Adam’s Peak (q.v.), still commands the homage of 
 the faithful. Buddhism was not, however, permanently introduced into C. till 307 b.c,, 
 when Mahindo, obtaining the support of the king, established it as the national faith. 
 The influence of the priests gradually increased, and, by the piety of the Singhalese 
 kings, monasteries were richly endowed; for though the Buddhist monk is individually 
 forWdden to possess goods, a community may own property to any extent; and it is a 
 remarkable fact that, at the present day, no less than one third of the cultivated land of 
 the island is computed to belong to the priesthood, and is exempt from taxation. Tho 
 priests of C. are divided into two orders — the 8amanaros, and those who, after a time 
 of probation, receive the higher grade of Upasampada. The fraternity are not raised 
 by education above their countrymen, and the respect paid them is directed more to 
 the dress than to the person of the individual. Any member is at liberty to lay aside his 
 ascetic character, and return to a secular life. The most celebrated Buddhistic relic in 
 C. is the Dalada, or sacred tooth of Gautama, at Kandy, which is guarded with jealous 
 care, and preserved in an elegant shrine; but it is well known that the original relic was 
 destroyed by the Portuguese, and the present substitute is a piece of discolored ivory, 
 bearing no resemblance to a human tooth. In all Buddhist countries, the sacred 
 buildings present, with certain modiflcations, the same general character (see articles 
 Buddhism, Buhman, etc.); and in C. we And the three classes represented by the 
 dagoba, or relic-shrine {datu, a relic, and gabhhan, a shrine), the temple proper, and the 
 vihara or monastery. The labor bestowed on these ediflces in the early ages of the 
 Singhalese monarchy is truly astonishing. In the n. of the island, ruined cities — 
 buried for ages in the depths of the forest — have been discovered, revealing monuments 
 that in dimensions may almost compare with the pyramids of Egypt. The most 
 remarkable of these vestiges of an early civilization is Pollanarrua, the ancient capital 
 of C. ; and here is the celebrated Gal-wihara, a rock hewn temple, supposed to be 
 “the only example in Ceylon of an attempt to fashion an architectural design out of 
 the rock, after the manner of the cave-temples of Ajunta and Ellora.” The reclin- 
 ing flgure of Gautama is 45 ft. in length, the upright one measures 23 ft. , 
 and the sitting image on the left is 16 ft. from the altar to the top of the head. Tlie 
 cave-temple of Dambool was built 100 b.c., and is the most celebrated in the island. 
 The bell-shaped tapering dagobas of C., as relic-shrines, answer to the pagodas of 
 Burmah — which they very much resemble — and the topes of Afghanistan. The ruins 
 of the Jaytawanarama dagoba still reach the height of 249 ft. ; its diameter is 360 ft. ; 
 and from base to pinnacle it is covered with trees of the largest size. This enormous 
 structure contains 20 millions of cubical ft. ; and sir J. E. Tennent concludes that 
 to erect such a mass of masonry, even in the present day, “would occupy 500 brick- 
 layers from six to seven years,” at the cost of a million sterling. The Ambustella of 
 Mihintala is another remarkable dagoba. A very famous object in connection with 
 Buddhism in C. is the sacred Bo-tree of Anarajapoora ij>eepul, ficus religiosa), which 
 was planted there 288 years b.c., and is by far the oldest tree in the world of which 
 an authentic history exists. See Bo-tbee. Amongst the antiquities of C. must be 
 mentioned those wonderful monuments of the former greatness of the Singhalese 
 people — the ruined tanks; with which almost nothing of a similar kind, whether ancient 
 or modern, can be compared; 30 colossal reservoirs, and about 700 smaller tanks, 
 still exist, though for the most part in ruins. The restoration of these magniflcent 
 works of irrigation has recently been begun. Brahmanism or Hinduism (q.v.) i? the 
 faith of the Tamils or Malabars, but the Moormen are Mohammedans. After the expul- 
 sion of the Dutch Christians, Protestant missions to the natives of C. were com- 
 menced by the Baptists in 1813. The Wesleyan Methodists followed in 1814, the 
 Americans in 1816, the church of England in 1818, and Christian instruction has 
 made some progress amongst the native populations. Of these the peasantry of the 
 Kandyan hills have proved the least accessible to its influence. Schools, collegiate 
 institutions, and female seminaries, under the direction of the missionaries, are in suc- 
 cessful operation. 
 
 Government . — The administration of C. is vested in a governor, who is assisted by 
 an executive council of flve members, and a legislative council of fifteen members. The 
 governor’s salary is £7,000 per annum. In 1876 the revenue was £1,375,888, and the 
 expenditure £1,276,930. The chief items of revenue are the customs, averaging 
 £286,000; licenses, £150,000; sales and rents of put*nc rands, £230,000. The colony 
 made very great progress under the able admmj' tracion of sir H. Ward. The civil 
 and judicial establishments of the colony cost nearly £300,000. 
 
 The following are the trade returns for the five years 1870 to 1874: 
 
 Exports from Cey- Imports of British 
 
 Years. Imports. Exports. Ion to the United Home Produce 
 
 . Kingdom. into Ceylon. 
 
 1870.. £4,634,297 £3,803,730 £3,450,974 £908,415 
 
 1871 4,797,592 3,634,853 3,167,673 928,807 
 
 1872 5,169,524 3,139,060 3,163,153 1,017,753 
 
 1873 5,574,358 5,439,591 4,331,006 1,052,072 
 
 1874 5,691,860 4,687,388 3,600,492 1,158,283 
 
Ceylon. 
 
 Oliadwick. 
 
 654 
 
 The value of the staple coffee exported from Ceylon to the United Kingdon: was, in 
 1867, £2,814,060; in 1869, £2,867,724; in 1871, £2,623,263; in 1872, £2,341,601 ; in 1873, 
 £3,692,333; and in 1876, £2,550,688. In 1876, cocoa-nut oil valued at £236,856, and 
 cinnamon at £119,700, were exported to the United Kingdom. To the ancient world, C. 
 was famous as a place of traffic, Egyptians, Greeks, Romans, Persians, and Arabians 
 traded to its ports; and many particulars, such as geographical position and natural pro- 
 ductions, seem to identify Point de Galle with the Tarshish of the Hebrew historians. 
 
 The history of C., of which the limits of this article will only allow the briefest pos- 
 sible outline, may be conveniently divided into ancient and modern, and the latter into 
 the Portuguese, Dutch, and British periods. 
 
 The records of its early history came to light in 1826, and Mr. Tumour, devoting 
 lumself to their study, composed an Epitome of the History of (7., from the year 543 b.c. 
 to 1798 A.D. ; and he records the reigns of 165 kings, who reigned during ibis space of 
 2,341 years. The most famous of the Singhalese books is the Mahaioanso, a metrical 
 chronicle, in the Pali language, which gives an account of the island during the above 
 23 centuries. The story begins with the invasion of Wijayo (543 b.c.), son of a petty 
 Indian sovereign in the country watered by the Ganges. He subdued the Yakkhos, 
 the aboriginal inhabitants; married a daughter of one of the native chiefs, whom he 
 subsequently repudiated for an Indian princess; and founded a dynasty that held undi- 
 vided sovereignty in C. for nearly eight centuries. He bestowed on his kingdom his 
 patrimonial name of Siliala (whence Singhalese, Ceylon), and promoted the settlement 
 of colonists from the mainland. In the reign of king Devenipiatissa (307 b.c.). Bud- 
 dhism was established as the national religion, and his reign was further remarkable by 
 the planting of the sacred bo-tree, 288 b.c.; and now commenced the erection of those 
 stupendous buildings already noticed. The next important epoch in Singhale.se history is 
 the usurpation of the Malabars (237 b.c.), foreign mercenaries from the Coromandel 
 coast, to whom the native sovereigns had intrusted the defense of the island. Several 
 Malabar invasions are chronicled in the history of C., and these foreigners long con- 
 tended with the native princes for supreme authority. Passing on to 1071 a.d., a native 
 dynasty was then re established in the person of Wijayo Bahu, which, for 100 years, 
 delivered the country from the dominion of the Malabars. Prakrama Bahu commenced 
 a reign, in 1153, the most renowned in the records of Ceylon. He devoted himself to 
 religion and agriculture, and besides many notable religious edifices, he caused no less 
 tlian 1470 tanks to be constructed, subsequently known as the “seas of Prakrama.” 
 Thirty years after the death of this monarch, the Malabars landed with a large army, 
 and speedily conquered the whole island. In 1235, a native dynasty recovered a part 
 of the kingdom. During the reign of Dharma Prakrama IX. the Portuguese first visited 
 C., 1505; but it was in 1517 that they first formed a permanent settlement at Colombo 
 for trading purposes. Their encroachments soon raised the patriotic Kandyans, and it 
 is a remarkable fact, that though at the first visit of the Portuguese in 1505 they were 
 even ignorant of the use of gunpowder, they, after a while, excelled their enemies as 
 musketeers, and were finally able to bring 20,000 stand of arms to bear against them. 
 “ Amity, commerce, and religion,” was the Portuguese motto; but their rule in C. is a 
 sad story of rapacity, bigotry, and cruelty. They were at last driven from the island by 
 the Dutch in 1658, after a contest of 20 years, when, as sir J. E. Tennent remarks, “ the 
 fanatical zeal of the Roman Catholic sovereign for the propagation of the faith, was 
 replaced by the earnest toil of the Dutch traders to intrench their trading monopolies; 
 and the almost chivalrous energy with which the soldiers of Portugal resisted the attacks 
 of the native princes, was exchanged for the subdued humbleness with which the mer- 
 chants of Holland endured the insults and outrages perpetrated by the tyrants of Kandy 
 upon their envoys and officers. ” But the purely military tenure of the Dutch was des- 
 tined to give place to the colonization of the British. It was during the great European 
 war succeeding the French revolution, that the English gained possession of the island. 
 On the 1st Aug. 1795, an expedition under col. James Stuart landed at Trincomalee, 
 which was speedily captured, and finally the garrison of Colombo surrendered on the 16th 
 Feb. 1796. By this capitulation all the Dutch settlements and strongholds in C. were 
 ceded to the English; though the island was not formally annexed to the British crown 
 till the peace of Amiens, 27th Mar. 1802. The native sovereigns, however, continued in 
 the possession of their mountain territory; but at length the Kandyan king, Wikrama 
 Raja Singha, after perpetrating the most frightful atrocities on his own people, seized 
 and murdered certain native merchants, British subjects, trading to Kandy. War fol- 
 lowed, Jan. 1815; Kandy was taken, and the tyrant sent a captive to the fortress of Vel 
 lore. On the 2d Mar. 1815, a treaty was concluded with the native chiefs, by which the 
 king was formally deposed, and his territories annexed to tlip. British crown. 
 
 Since then, the island has made rapid strides in material prosperity. The mountain- 
 forests have been replaced by plantations of coffee, of which there are now about 500 
 under cultivation, of 150,000 acres, giving an average crop of 950,000 cwts. per annum. 
 Many important public works have been completed, and others are still in progress. 
 Several good roads have been constructed, including a magnificent mountain-road 
 between Colombo and Kand}% and there is a railway 92 m. in length. In 1874, there 
 were 243 government schools, with 11.719 pupils; 882 mission schools, with 44,449 
 pupils; and 329 private schools, with 9,929 pupils. 
 
655 
 
 Ceylon. 
 
 Chadwick* 
 
 See Ceylon, Physical, Historical, and Topographical, etc., by sir James Emerson Ten - 
 nent (Lond. 1859); Christianity in Ceylon, by the same author (Lond. 1850); The States- 
 man's Year-hook for the current year; and Ceylon, a General Description of the Island, by 
 an officer, late of the Ceylon rifles (1876). 
 
 CEYLON, ante. The Cinghalese, or Singhalese language is spoken in the interior 
 and on the s. coast of the island of Ceylon. It is a modification of the aboriginal Ebu 
 by the Sanskrit, with a tinge of Malay. The Cinghalese has so far degenerated that 
 there is now a material difference between the vernacular and the written language. 
 The former is copious and has a regular grammar. There are 50 letters, 8 vowels, 8 diph- 
 thongs, and 34 consonants, but all representing only 30 sounds, 7 vowels and 23 conso- 
 nants. In literature the language has several original poems of some merit, and an 
 extensive and interesting series of native chronicles, but the most valuable literature is 
 written in Pali. This Pali is one of the Prakrits of ancient India, “which was spoken 
 in the 6th c. before Christ, and has been a dead language for upwards of 2,000 years.” 
 
 CEYX. See Kingfisher. 
 
 CEZIM'BRA, a coast t. of Portugal, in the province of Estremadura, about 18 m. s. of 
 Lisbon. C. has active fisheries, and a pop. of 5,000. 
 
 CHABAS, FRAN901S Joseph, b. 1817. He has devoted himself especially to Egypt- 
 ian archaeology, in which he is considered among the highest authorities. His principal 
 works are Le Papyrus Magique Harris; Voyage in Egypt and Syria; Les Pasteurs en 
 Egypte, and Studies in Ancient History. 
 
 CHABLAIS, an old division of the province of Annecy in Savoy, now the arrondisse- 
 ment of Thonon, France; 356 sq.m.; pop. 60,193. It once formed a part of the king- 
 dom of Burgundy. Under the French empire it was a part of the department of Leman; 
 in 1814, its possessions went to Sardinia, and in 1860, with all of Savoy, it was given 
 over to France. 
 
 CHABLIS, a village in France, dep. of Yonne, which gives name to a much esteemed 
 white Burgundy (q.v.) wine 
 
 CHABOT, Philippe de, d. 1543; a French general, brought up with Francis I. He 
 defended Marseilles in 1524, but the next year was made prisoner at Pavia. He was 
 subsequently made admiral, and in 1535 commander in chief. He was said to have been 
 the first to suggest the colonization of Canada. There is a monument to him in the 
 Louvre. 
 
 CHA'BRIAS, an Athenian gen. who assumed command about 392 b. c. He defeated 
 the Spartans at ..^gina in 388, and again at Naxos in 376. He commanded with Iplii- 
 crates and Callistratus at Corcyra, and repulsed Epaminondas before the walls of Corinth. 
 In 366, he was accused of treachery in advising the surrender of Oropus to the Thebans, 
 and was defended by Plato. At the commencement of the social war, in 357, he joined 
 Charos in the command of the Athenian fleet. At the siege of Chios his ship was dis- 
 abled, but he refused to retire, and was killed while fighting. C. was famous for invent- 
 ing a new style of receiving a charge, which was on the left knee, the shield resting on 
 the ground, and the spears pointed at the enemy. 
 
 CHACHAPOY'AS, or San Juan de laFrontera, a t. in the department of Amazo- 
 nas, Peru, 410 m. w. of Lima; pop. 6,000. It is on a tributary of the Maranon, in a rich 
 agricultural region. 
 
 CHAC'MA. See Baboon. 
 
 ^ CHACO, EL GRAN, a large and little explored country in South America, about the 
 middle of the continent. The n. portion is well watered and densely wooded, with 
 intervals of grassy plains and marshes, and capable of producing nearly all tropical 
 vegetation. The s. portion is for the most part a desert and can be cultivated only after 
 irrigation. The n. portion belongs to Bolivia, while the s. is occupied almost entirely 
 by Indians. 
 
 CHAD, Saint, bishop of York, in the 7th century. He was educated under Aidan 
 at Lindisfarne. At his death he held the see of Litchfield. His day is Mar. 2. 
 
 CHADBOURNE, Paul Ansel, d.d., ll.d., b. Me., 1823; professor of natural history 
 and chemistry in Williams college and in Bowdoin college, and in 1867, chosen presi- 
 dent of the university of Wisconsin, at the same time becoming professor of metaphysics. 
 In 1872, he was elected president of Williams college, and resigned in 1880. He has 
 published Natural Theology, and Instinct in Animals and Men. 
 
 CHAD'DA. See Benuwe. 
 
 CHADWICK, Edwin, c.b., a distinguished social and sanitary reformer of the present 
 day, born in the vicinity of Manchester, 24th Jan., 1801. He studied law, but early 
 devoting his attention to questions of social, sanitary, and political science, he attracted 
 the notice of lord Grey’s government, by whom he was appointed an assistant-commis- 
 sioner to inquire into the operation of the poor-laws in England and Wales. His report, 
 published with others in 1833, commanded most attention, being remarkable alike for 
 the wide and searching character of its investigations, the happiness of its illustrations, 
 and the convincing proofs it furnished as to the necessity of reform in the system of 
 
Chaeroneia. 
 
 Clxalaza. 
 
 656 
 
 (administration. Its merit was recognized by those who had the power to reward him; 
 iud on the organization of the new poor-law board, C. was appointed secretary. In con- 
 nection with this board, and the general board of health, C. for twenty years was ener- 
 getic in the origination and administration of I'emedial measures relative to the distribu- 
 tion of poor-law funds, and to the sanitary condition of the country. He has also given 
 much attention to the constitution of the constabulary force, with a view to the better 
 prevention of offenses and the readier detection of criminals. On a change being made in 
 the board of health, in 1854, C. retired with a pension. He has since taken great interest 
 in promoting competitive examinations for government offices, and indeed in almost all 
 questions of social economy. He has been an active member of the association for the 
 promotion of social science. In 1859-60, he collected evidence for the education com- 
 mission. 
 
 CHIEBONEI'A, a city of Boeotia, in ancient Greece, near the Cephissus, on the bor- 
 ders of Phocis. It is celebrated on account of several important battles fought in the 
 neighborhood. In 447 b.c., the Boeotians here obtained a victory over the Athenians; 
 and in 338 b.c., Philip of Macedon signally defeated the united forces of the Athenians 
 and Boeotians, and so crushed the liberties of Greece. A mound of earth, about a mile 
 from the modern village of Kapurna, which occupies the site of the old city, still marks 
 the place where the Thebans who fell in the battle were buried ; and a magnificent lion, 
 which col. Mure pronounced to be “ the most interesting sepulchral monument in Greece,’' 
 was excavated from this tumulus some years ago. At C., also, 86 b.c., Sulla defeated 
 the generals of Mithridates. Plutarch was a native of this town. A few ancient remains 
 yet exist. 
 
 CHJET0D0N'TID.S, a family of acanthopterous fishes, nearly corresponding to the 
 genus chsetodon (Gr. hair-tooth) of Linnaeus; and also named Squamipennes (Lat. 
 scaly-finned), because of the most distinctive character of the family, the incrustation 
 of the soft portions of the dorsal and anal fins, and often of the spinous parts also, with 
 scales, the tins appearing to taper gradually out of the thickness of the body, which is 
 in general remarkably compressed, so that, without dissection, it is impossible to tell 
 where they begin. The scales are strongly ctenoid (q.v.). The typical genus clmtodon, 
 and those most nearly allied to it, have hair-like teeth, so that their jaws resemble 
 brushes; some fishes of the family, however, have trenchant teeth on the jaws, and 
 some, as brama (q.v.), have card-like teeth both on the jaws and palate. Most of the 
 0. are tropical; only one species, B^ama raii, is ever found in the British seas. They 
 generally frequent rocky shores. Their colors are often extremely gay, and usually 
 disposed rather in stripes or bands than in spots. “ The eye of man receives the greater 
 pleasure from their contemplation, in that, being of moderate or small size, and haunt- 
 ing habitually the coral basins of the transparent tropical seas, they disport themselves 
 in the beams of a vertical sun, as if desirous of exhibiting their splendid liveries to the 
 greatest advantage in the blaze of day.” Many singularities of form occur in this 
 family, as the long slender snout of the clielmons, the whip-thong-like prolongation of 
 5ome of the rays of the dorsal fins in heniochus and zanclns, the wing-like dorsal and 
 anal fins of platax, the sharp recurved horns of the buffalo-fish {taurichtJiys), etc. To this 
 family belong the archer-fishes (q.v.), whose singular habits have been already noticed. 
 The flesh of most of the C. is of very fine flavor. 
 
 CHAF'EK, a common name of those beetles or coleopterous insects, which either in 
 the perfect or larva state, are destructive to plants ; particularly those w'hich devour the 
 wood, bark, or roots of trees. From these, however, it is sometimes extended to some 
 coleopterous insects which have no such habit. The word C. is seldom used alone, but 
 generally as part of a name, with some prefix ; thus, we have cock-chafer, rose-chafer, 
 bark-chafer, etc. 
 
 CHAFF-CUTTER, a name commonly given to an implement now much used by farm- 
 ers for cutting hay and straw into half-inch lengths. The advantage of this consists 
 not so much in facilitating mastication or digestion, as in preventing animals from 
 wasting their food. No small amount of mechanical ingenuity has been applied to the 
 construction of chaff-cutters, the simplest and oldest kinds of which are mere hand 
 rrachines with a single large knife, the hay or straw being pushed forward in a trough 
 or box, whilst others are driven by horse, steam, or water power, and are not a little 
 complicated 
 
 CHAF FINCH, Fringilla ccelebs, one of the most common British birds, a species of 
 finch (q.v.), and probably that to which the name finch, now so extended in its signifi- 
 cation, originally belonged; fink, the German form of the name, and pink and twink, 
 English provincial forms still appropriated to the C., having some resemblance of sound 
 to its common call-note.. The whole length of the C. is about 6 inches. The tail U 
 very slightly forked. The male, in summer, has the top of the head and nape of the 
 iieck bluish-gray; the back, chestnut; the wings almost black, with two conspicuous 
 wdiite bars; the tail, nearly black. The colors of the female are much duller than those 
 of the male. The C. is a very widely distributed species, being found in almost all 
 parts of Europe, in some parts of Asia, in the n. of Africa, and as far w. as the Azores. 
 In the colder northern countries, it is migratory; in more southern regions, ;t is station 
 
657 
 
 Clueronela* 
 
 Clialaza. 
 
 «ry. Linnajiis gave il the specific name cedebs, from observing that the flocks congre- 
 gated in winter in Sweden consisted chiefly of males, the females having, as he sup- 
 posed, sought a milder climate. A partial separation of the sexes is observed also in 
 the great winter-flocks in Britain, but it is only partial; and Yarrell thinks that the 
 young males of the previous season, which resemble the females in plumage, are asso- 
 ciated with them, and have been mistaken for them. The flocks seen in Britain in 
 winter are believed to be augmented by migration from Scandinavia, The eggs are 
 usually 4 or 5 in nnmber, of pale purplish buff color, sparingly streaked and spotted 
 with reddish brown. The C. feeds chiefly on insects, and does much service in sum- 
 mer by destroying aphides and caterpillars; but eats also seeds, and is sometimes perse- 
 cuted, because in spring it pulls up and eats young turnips and radishes when in the 
 seed-leaf. Great numbers of chaffinches are killed for the table in Italy. In Germany, 
 this bird is in the highest esteem as a song-bird. Its notes are very clear and loud, but 
 some individuals greatly excel the ordinary multitude of their species ; and their supe- 
 rior notes, if heard on the Thuringian hills, speedily attract bird-catchers. Bechstein 
 jBays that, in Thuringia, a cow has been given for a 0. with a fine voice; and the Ger- 
 mans have taken the trouble to classify the different strains of chaffinches, giving them 
 distinct names, and regarding those birds as particularly valuable by which certain of 
 these strains are produced. — The common Scotch name of the C. is shiJfa. 
 
 CHAGRES, a river entering the gulf of Darien on the n, side of the isthmus of Pan- 
 ama, near lat. 9° 18' north. Though, towards its mouth, it varies in depth from 16 to 
 30 ft. , it is yet, by reason at once of its rapidity and its falls, but little available for 
 navigation. At its entrance is a port of its own name. Both the town, however, and 
 the stream have recently lost nearly all the advantages of their position, through the 
 establishment of an inter-oceanic railway, which, on the Atlantic side, commences at 
 Aspinwall, about 8 m. to the north. 
 
 CHAILLU, Paul B. DU. See Du Chaillu. 
 
 CHAIN, in surveying (called Gunter’s chain, from its inventor), is a measure of 22 
 yards long, composed of 100 iron links, each of which is thus 7.92 in. long. As an acre 
 contains 4,840 sq. yards, 10 sq. chains (22x22x10=4,840 sq. yards), or 100,000 sq. links, 
 make an acre. 
 
 CHAIN-BRIDGE. See Suspension Bridges. 
 
 CHAIN-CABLE. See Cable. 
 
 CHAIN-MAIL, or Chain- Armor, much used in the 12th and 13th centuries, consisted 
 of hammered iron links, connected one to another into the form of a garment. Such 
 armor was much more flexible and convenient to the wearer than that which was formed 
 •f steel or brass plates, but was less fitted to bear the thrust of a lance. 
 
 CHAINS, on shipboard, are strong iron links or plates, bolted at the lower end to the 
 ship-timbers, and having a block or dead-eye at the upper end. Their purpose is to fas- 
 ten down the shrouds tightly. They are brought out laterally at the top by resting in 
 the middle against the channels, which are broad thick planks, very strongly fixed, and 
 projecting horizontally from the side of the ship, one pair for each mast. 
 
 CHAINS, Hanging in. In atrocious cases, it was usual for courts of justice, in for- 
 mer times, to direct the bodies of malefactors, after execution, to be hung in C. upon a 
 gibbet near the spot where the crime was committed; but this, says Blackstone, “was 
 no part of the legal judgment.” The reasons commonly assigned for the practice are 
 two: first, that it might strike terror into other offenders; and second, that it might 
 afford “a comfortable sight to the relations and friends of the deceased.” This barbar- 
 ous adjunct to capital punishment was not finally abolished till a very recent period, and 
 it may surprise our readers to learn that, two years after the passing of the reform bill, 
 it was still in accordance with the law, if not with the custom of England. The act “ to 
 abolish the practice of hanging the bodies of criminals in chains” (4 and 5 Will. IV. c. 
 26), was passed on 25th July, 1834. The last case of hanging m C. mentioned as having 
 occurred in Scotland, is that of Andrew Wilson, who poisoned his wife in 1755 (Hume, 
 vol. ii. p. 482). See Punishments and Dissection. 
 
 CHAIN-SHOT, a nearly obsolete kind of ammunition, chiefly used in naval warfare, 
 consisting of two balls connected by a short chain. The object of the chain is to destroy 
 the rigging, etc., which otherwise might escape. As grape-shot has been found to serve 
 the same end, the making of chain-shot has been discontinued. 
 
 CHAIN SNAKE, or King Snake, an American serpent, haunting moist or shady 
 places, and feeding upon mice, moles, small birds, and reptiles. It is remarkable for 
 the beauty of its colors, the ground work on the upper part of the body being a lustrous 
 black, while the scales are marked with white spots. The head is very small. 
 
 CHAJUG, or CHIUG, Jehuda ben-Dayid, b. about 1030; regarded by Jewish crit- 
 ics as the first of Hebrew grammarians. He made some very remarkable and valuable 
 discoveries in philology, 
 
 CHALA'ZA, in botany, a membrane which unites the nucleus and integuments at the 
 base of an ovule. It is traversed by vessels which supply nourishment to the ovule. It 
 is often of a different color from the rest of the integuments, and is conspicuous in the 
 U. K. III.-42 
 
Chaloedon. 
 
 Chalk. 
 
 658 
 
 ripened seed ; but it is sometimes difficult to distinguish it, particularly in orthotrop<d 
 seeds, when it is in contact with the hilum, the foramen or micropyle being at the oppo- 
 site extremity of the seed. See Ovule and Seed. 
 
 The cords which bind the yolk-bag of an egg to the lining membrane at the two ends- 
 of the shell, and keep it near the middle as it floats in the albumen, are also called 
 cfialazoe. They appear to be formed of a peculiarly viscid albumen. 
 
 CHALCE'DON, a city of ancient Bithynia, at the entrance of the Euxine, opposite to 
 Byzantium. It was founded 684 b.c. by a colony from Megara, and soon became a place 
 of considerable trade and importance. It contained several temples, one of which, ded- 
 icated to Apollo, had an oracle. C. was taken by the Persians, suffered the vicissitudes 
 of war during the strife for Grecian supremacy between the Athenians and Lacedemo- 
 nians, and Anally merged into the Roman empire. During the Mithridatic war, it was 
 the scene of a bold exploit of the Pontic sovereign. Having invaded Bithynia, all the 
 wealthy Romans in the district fled for refuge to C., whereupon he broke the chains that 
 protected the port, burned four ships, and towed away the remaining sixty. Under the 
 empire it was made a free city, and was the scene of a general council, held 451 a.d. 
 Chosroes the Persian captured it 616 a.d., after which it declined, until it was finally 
 demolished by the Turks, who used its ruins to build mosques and other edifices at Con- 
 stantinople. C. was the birthplace of the philosopher Xenocrates. 
 
 The council of C., to which allusion has been made, was the fourth universal council, 
 and was assembled by the emperor Marcian for the purpose of drawing up a form of 
 doctrine in regard to the nature of Christ, which should equally avoid the errors of the 
 Nestorians (q.v.) and Monophysites (q.v.). Six hundred bishops, almost all of the east- 
 ern or Greek church, were present. The doctrine declared to be orthodox was, that in 
 Christ there were two natures, which could not be intermixed (this clause was directed 
 against the Monophysites), and which also were not in entire separation (this was directed 
 against the Nestorians), but which were so conjoined, that their union destroyed neither 
 th^e peculiarity of each nature, nor the oneness of Christ’s person. 
 
 CHALCE'DONT (often misspelled calcedony), a beautiful mineral of the quartz family, 
 or rather a variety of quartz, from which it does not differ in chemical composition or 
 in any essential character. It derives its name from Chalcedon in Bithynia, near which 
 it is found in considerable abundance, and has been known by the same name from 
 ancient times. It occurs in different kinds of lock, but most frequently in old lavas and 
 trap-rocks, and is found in almost all parts of the world where these exist, or where there 
 are boulders derived from them. It is common in Scotland, and specimens of great beauty 
 are brought from Iceland and the Faroe islands. It never occurs in crystals. It consti- 
 tutes the whole or the principal part of many agates. It is generally translucent, some- 
 times semi-transparent, has not much luster, and is in color generally white or bluish 
 white, sometimes reddish white, sometimes milk-white, less frequently gray, blue, 
 green, yellow, brown, or even black. Its fracture is even, or very slightly conchoidal. 
 •— C. is much used in jewelry, for brooches, necklaces, and ornaments of all sorts, the 
 largest pieces being sometimes made into little boxes, cups, etc. It was much used by 
 the ancients, and many beautiful engraved specimens appear in antiquarian collections. 
 Chalcedonies with disseminated spots of brown and red, were once very highly prized, 
 and were called stigmites or 8t. Stephen' s-stones. Petrified plants are sometimes found in 
 C., in which they appear to have been encased whilst it was in course of formation. 
 Specimens of C. are sometimes found enclosing a little water in the interior, which gives 
 them a very beautiful appearance ; but the water easily escapes, to prevent which, rings 
 or other ornaments made of such stones are kept in distilled water, when not worn. 
 The ancients set a very high value on these enhydrites (Gr. en, in, and hydor, water). 
 The Vincentin was celebrated for producing them. 
 
 CHALCED'ONYX (or, erroneously, calcedonyx), a name given to agates formed of 
 cacholong, or a white opaque chalcedony, alternating with a grayish translucent chalce- 
 dony. 
 
 CHALCHIHUITL, a stone held in great repute by the ancient Mexicans, and still 
 by the Indians of that country, who fashion it into ornaments and occasionally use it in 
 te’ade. It is a turquoise found in the mountains not far from Santa Fe. The mines 
 were exhausted before the coming of the Spaniards. The stone was valued by the 
 Mexicans more highly than gold. 
 
 CHAL'CIS, a genus of Saurian reptiles, the type of a family called chalddm, some of 
 which are popularly termed snake-lizards, because of the resemblance to snakes in the 
 elongated form of the body, the limbs being also remarkably small, so that this family 
 forms one of the transition links between the Saurian and the Ophidian reptiles. The scales 
 are rectangular, and arranged in transverse bands, without being imbricated or dis- 
 posed like tiles. The chc^idm are natives of warm climates, both in the old and new 
 worlds. 
 
 The name C. has also been bestowed on a genus of the order hipnxnoptera, allied to 
 *he ichneumons, which has become the type of a tribe or family, containing a vast number 
 of species — 1500 being supposed to exist in Britain — all of them of small size, many very 
 minute, many of them very brilliant in their colors, and the larvae of afi of them parasitic 
 
659 
 
 Chalcedon. 
 
 Chalk. 
 
 in the larvoe or piipee, some even in the eggs, of other insects. The ckiysalis of a but- 
 terfly or moth often nourishes a great number of these parasites; and they become useful 
 in preventing the excessive multiplication of species which destroy valuable plants. 
 
 CHAL'CIS, the capital t. of the island and government of Euboea, Greece, situated on 
 the Euiipus, a strait separating the island from Boeotia, and which at this point is only 
 120 ft. wide. The Euripus is divided into two channels, of unequal breadth and depth, 
 by a rock, which is surmounted by a castle, partly of Venetian and partly of Turkish 
 construction, A stone bridge, of some 70 ft. in length, connects the rock with the Boeo- 
 tian shore, while a w^ooden and movable bridge, of about 35 ft., unites it with Chalcis 
 C. is a place of very great antiquity, having been founded, as tradition asserts, 
 before the Trojan war, by an Ionian colony from Athens. Its rise was rapid. It 
 sent out numerous colonies, and was the center of the trade of the western Mediter 
 ranean. Governed at first by an aristocracy, it fell into the hands of the Athenians 
 who in 506 b.c. divided the lands of C. amongst some of thei.r own number. It 
 subsequently fell under the power of the Macedonians and Romans, and was at thh 
 time a place of great military importance, nearly 9 m. in circumference, and had 
 many fine temples, theaters, and other public buildings. Aristotle died at Chalcis. 
 In the middle ages, it was prosperous under the Venetians, who held it for nearly 
 three centuries, until its conquest by the Turks in 1470. The lion of St, Mark is, 
 or was until within recent years, still to be seen over the gateway between the 
 bridge and the citadel. Not many ancient remains now exist at Chalcis. The 
 streets are narrow, but the houses, many of W'hich owe their origin to the Venetians, 
 are substantial and spacious. Pop. ’70, 6,447. 
 
 CHALCOG'BAPHY, a pedantic term used to signify engraving on copper, com- 
 pounded of the Greek words cTialkos, brass or copper, and graplio, I write. The 
 term is inaccurate when applied, as it often is, to engraving on other metals, such 
 as steel and zinc. For zinc-engraving the still more objectionable word zincography 
 has been invented. 
 
 CHAIiB-Sl'A. See Babylon, Babylonia. 
 
 CHALD^'AN CHRISTIANS, a branch of Nestorians who acknowledge the pope 
 of Rome. They use the eastern rite, and are under the patriarch of Babylon. They 
 are supposed to number about 70,000. 
 
 CHAL DEE. See Aram^ea. 
 
 CHALDEE, an old Scotch dry measure, containing 16 bolls. See Boll. 
 
 .CHALDEON (Lat. caldarium, a vessel for warm water), an old dry measure used in 
 selling coal, and containing 36 heaped bushels. Coal is now sold by weight. 
 
 CHALETJE BAY, an inlet of the gulf of St. Lawrence, between Gaspe, a district of 
 Lower Canada, and New Brunswick, having a depth of 90 m. from e. to w., and a width 
 varying from 12 to 20. The Restigouche, which enters the gulf from New Brunswick 
 at its very head, marks, at its mouth, the interprovincial boundary. 
 
 CHALEURS, BAY OF, a westward extension of the gulf of St. Lawrence, separating 
 New Brunswick from Quebec. It is nearly 100 m. long, and varies in width from 10 to 
 22 miles. It is navigable in all parts, and is much resorted to for its mackerel fisheries. 
 
 CHALICE (Lat. calix, a cup). This ancient name for an ordinary drinking-cup has 
 been retained for the vessels used for the wine in the holy sacrament. Chalices are 
 commonly made of silver, but it w^^as not unusual for them to be of gold, or gilt and 
 jeweled. Chalices were also made of glass, crystal, and agate; but these substances 
 have been abandoned, in consequence of their fragile nature. The C. is the attribute of 
 St. John the evangelist. 
 
 CHALK, a soft earthy variety of limestone or carbonate of lime, forming great strata, 
 and claiming the attention of the geologist even more than of the mineralogist. It is 
 generally of a yellowish-white color, but sometimes snow-white. It is easily broken, 
 and has an earthy fracture, is rough and very meager to the touch, and adheres slightly 
 to the tongue. It generally contains a little silica, alumina, or magnesia, sometimes all 
 of these. Although often very soft and earthy, it is sometimes so compact that it can 
 be used as a building-stone ; and it is used for this purpose either in a rough state, or 
 sawn into blocks of proper shape and size. It is burned into quicklime, and nearly all 
 the houses in London are cemented with mortar so procured. The siliceous particles 
 being separated by pounding and diffusing in water, it becomes whiting, of which the 
 domestic uses are familiar to everyone. Carpenters and others use it for making marks, 
 which are easily effaced: the blackboard and piece of C. are now common equally in the 
 lecture-rooms of universities and in the humblest village-schools. C., perfectly purified, 
 is mixed with vegetable coloring matters, such as turmeric, litmus, saffron, and sap 
 ^reen, to form pastil colors; but vegetable colors which contain an acid are changed by 
 it. See Crayon. The Vienna white of artists is simply purified chalk. In a perfectly 
 purified state, it is administered as a medicine, to correct acidity in the stomach. C. is 
 also extensively used as a manure. See Lime, as a manure. 
 
 CHALK, Black, is a mineral quite different from common chalk, and apparently 
 receives its name from resembling it in meagerness to the touch, in soiling the fingers, 
 
Chalk. 
 
 Chalmera. 
 
 660 
 
 and in being used for drawing, writing, etc. It is also called Drawing-slate. It is of 
 a slaty structure, of a bluish or grayish-black color, easily cut and broken, and makes a 
 perfectly black mark on paper. It is used for drawing, and as a black color in painting. 
 It becomes red by exposure to heat. It is essentially a kind of clay (q.v.), and derives 
 its color from carbon, which it contains. It is found in primitive mountains, in Spain, 
 France, Italy, etc., also in the coal formation in Scotland. — Brian(JON Chalk and 
 French Chalk are popular names for soapstone (q.v.). — R ed Chalk is ochery red clay- 
 iron-ore, consisting of clay and much peroxide of iron. It is of a brownish-red color, 
 and a somewhat slaty structure, the cross fracture earthy. The coarser varieties are 
 used chiefly by carpenters for making marks on wood ; the finer, by painters. It occurs 
 in thin beds in clay-slate and grauwacke-slate in some parts of Germany. 
 
 CHALK-BEDS. See Cretaceous Group. 
 
 CHALKING THE DOOR, a mode of warning tenants to remove from burghal tene- 
 ments, long known and still in use in Scotland. The practice is thus described by Mr. 
 Hunter in his valuable work on Landlord and Tenant: “A burgh-officer, in presence of 
 witnesses, chalks the most patent door forty days before Whitsunday, which is held to 
 be a legal warning. There is no execution at the parish church, but the officer makes 
 out an execution of ‘chalking,’ in which his name must be inserted, and which must be 
 subscribed by himself and two witnesses. This ceremony now proceeds simply on the 
 verbal order of the proprietor, but anciently the interposition of a judge was requisite. 
 In such a case, authority was given by one of the magistrates to the burgh-officer.” 
 That judicial authority is still assumed to lie at the root of the proceeding, is apparent 
 from the fact that the execution bears that the w^arning has been executed in her 
 majesty’s name and authority, and that of the magistrates of the burgh. The officer 
 ought to notify to the tenant the object of his visit, though it is not perhaps indispen- 
 sable that he should do so. The execution of chalking is a warrant under which decree 
 of removal will be pronounced by the burgh-court, in virtue of which the tenant may be 
 ejected on the expiration of a charge of six days. See Ejectment. 
 
 CHALKLEY, Thomas, 1675-1741; a Quaker preacher, native of London. He came 
 to America in 1698, and traveled in Virginia, Maryland, and the New England colonies. 
 Returning to England, he married, and soon afterwards came back and settled in Phila- 
 delphia. Again he crossed the sea and traveled in Holland and Germany; thence he 
 went to the West Indies, where he died while engaged in missionary work: In his 
 will he founded the library of the four monthly meetings of Friends in Philadelphia. The 
 journal of his life and labors has been published. 
 
 CHALKY ISLAND, in New Zealand, near the s.w. extremity of Middle Island, about 
 lat. 46° s., and Ion. 166° 20' east. It takes its name from being composed of a mass of 
 white limestone, and imparts the same to the adjacent bay of 16 m. in length, and alsa 
 to one of the harbors of the inlet. 
 
 CHALLENGE. See Duel. 
 
 CHALLENGE. See Jury. 
 
 CHALLONER, Richard, 1691-1781 ; the son of an English dissenter, but brought 
 up. among Roman Catholics, whose religion he embraced. He was ordained a priest at 
 Douay, and made professor in the faculty. In 1730, he held the English mission in 
 London, where he published several religious works. In 1758, he became vicar aposto- 
 lic, residing generally in London; but during the “ No Popery” riots of 1780, he retired 
 into the country. He was the author of numerous controversial and devotional works, 
 the most popular one being The Garden of the Soul, which has been frequently reprinted, 
 and translated into various languages. He revised the Douay Bible (in English); and 
 as an antidote to Foxe’s well-known Martyrology, he wrote Memoirs of Missionary Jh'iests 
 and Other Catholics of both Sexes, who suffered Death or Imprisonment in England on- 
 Account of their Beligion. 
 
 CHALMERS, Alexander, 1759-1834; a Scotchman educated for a physician who 
 gave up that calling for literature, writing for periodicals generally, and being for some 
 time editor of the Morning Herald. Besides revised editions of standard authors, he 
 published a General Biographical Dictionary, in 32 vols. ; a Glossary to Shakespeare; and 
 British Essayists from the Tatler to the Guardian, both inclusive. 
 
 CHAL'MERS, George, an eminent historical antiquary, was b. at Fochabers, Moray- 
 shire, Scotland, in 1742. Having attended King’s college, Aberdeen, and afterwards 
 studied law at Edinburgh, he went in 1763 to North America, where he practiced as a 
 lawyer till the breaking out of the war of independence. Being a keen loyalist, he 
 returned to Britain, where he was appointed clerk to the board of trade in 1786. The 
 duties of this office he continued to discharge with diligence and ability till liis death in 
 1825. Before his appointment, he had distinguished himself by various publications in 
 political economy ; and for some time after he devoted himself chiefly to editing the 
 works of various authors and writing biographies. His great work is his Caledonia; an 
 Account, Historical and Topographical, of North Britain; a production displaying pro- 
 found research into the liistory of Scotland, and abounding in varied erudition. It 
 was intended to be completed in 4 vols. 4to. The first volume, containing the historical 
 
661 
 
 Chalk. 
 
 Chalmers* 
 
 part, appeared in 1807 •, of the other three, which were destined to give an account of 
 the several counties, the second, embracing Roxburghshire, Berwickshire, Hadding- 
 tonshire, Edinburghshire, Linlithgowshire, Peeblesshire, and Selkirkshire, appeared in 
 1810; the third, containing the counties of Dumfries, Kirkcudbright, Wigton, Ayr, 
 Lanark, Renfrew, and Dumbarton, appeared in 1824. A fourth volume is understood 
 to have been left at his death, ready for the press. 
 
 Among his other publications are; Political Annals of the United Colonies (Lond. 
 1780) ; On the Comparative Strerigth of Great Britain, during the present and the four 
 preceding Reigns (Lond. 1782, 1786, 1794, 1802, 1812); A Collection of Treaties between 
 Great Britain and other Powers (2 vols, Lond. 1790); Life of Daniel Defoe (Lond. 1786); 
 Life of Thomas Ruddiman (1794); Life of Mary Queen of Scots (Lond. 1818); editions of 
 the works of Allan Ramsay (1800), and of sir David Lindsay (1806), with memoirs; also 
 various pamphlets apologizing for those, himself included, who had believed in the 
 authenticity of the Shakespeare manuscripts forged by Mr. Ireland. 
 
 CHALMERS, Thomas, d.d., ll.d., was b. at Anstruther, in Fifeshire, 17th Mar., 
 1780, educated at the university of St. Andrews, and in his 19th year licensed to preach 
 the gospel. In 1803, he was ordained minister of the parish of Kilmany, in Fifeshire, 
 about 9 m. from St. Andrews. At this period his attention was entirely absorbed by 
 mathematics and natural philosophy, to the neglect of the studies appertaining to his 
 profession. To gratify his love of scientific pursuits, he eveu formed mathematical and 
 chemistry classes in St. Andrews during the winter of 1803-04, and by his wonderful 
 enthusiasm and lucidity of exposition excited intense interest, and obtained for 
 himself a great reputation. In 1808, he published an Inquiry into the Extent and Stabil- 
 ity of National Resources, which proved his capacity for dealing with questions of politi- 
 cal economy. Shortly after this, certain domestic calamities, and a severe illness of his 
 own, opened up the fountains of his soul, and rendered him keenly susceptible to relig- 
 ious impressions. Having to prepare an article on Christianity for Brewster’s Edinburgh 
 Encyclopedia, he commenced an extensive study of the evidences, and rose from his 
 investigations convinced that Christianity was 2 ^ fact, and the Bible the veritable “word 
 of God.” Then the great genius of the man broke forth like sunshine. He grew ear- 
 nest, eloquent, devout, and faithful to his pastoral duties. In July, 1815, he was trans- 
 lated to the Tron church and parish, Glasgow, where his magnificent oratory took the 
 city by storm. His Astronomical Discourses were probably the most sublimely intellec- 
 tual and imaginative that had ever been preached in a Scottish pulpit. They were pub- 
 lished in 1817, and had a prodigious popularity. During the same year he visited Lon- 
 don, where his preaching excited as great a sensation as at home. But C.’s energies 
 could not be exhausted by mere oratory. Discovering that his parish was in a state of 
 peat ignorance and immorality, he began to devise a scheme for overtaking and check- 
 ing the alarming evil. It seemed to him that the only means by which this could be 
 accomplished was by “revivifying, remodeling, and extending the old parochial econ- 
 omy of Scotland,” which had proved so fruitful of good in the rural parishes. In order 
 to wrestle more closely with the ignorance and vice of Glasgow, C., in 1819, became 
 minister of St, John’s parish, “the population of which was made up principally of 
 weavers, laborers, factory-workers, and other operatives.” “Of its 2,000 families,” 
 says Dr. Hanna, “more than 800 had no connection with any Christian church, while 
 the number of its uneducated children was countless.” We have not space to narrate 
 at length how vast and successful were the labors of Chalmers. It is sufficient to say, 
 that in pursuance of his favorite plan, he broke up his parish into 25 districts, each of 
 which he placed under separate management, and established two week-day schools, 
 and between 40 and 50 local Sabbath-schools, for the instruction of the children of the 
 “poorer and neglected classes,” more than 1000 of whom attended. In a multitude of 
 other ways he sought to elevate and purify the lives of his parishioners. While in 
 Glasgow, C. had matured his opinions relative to the best method of providing for the 
 poor. He disliked the English system of a “ compulsory assessment, ” and preferred 
 the old Scotch method of voluntary contributions at the church-door, administered by 
 elders. The management of the poor in the parish of St. John’s was intrusted to his 
 care by the authorities, as an experiment, and in four years he reduced the pauper 
 expenditures from £1400 to £280 per annum. 
 
 But such herculean toils began to undermine his constitution, and in 1823 he accepted 
 the ofl^er of the moral philosophy chair in St. Andrews, where he wrote his treatise on 
 the Use and Abuse of Literary and Ecclesiastical Endowments (1827). In the following 
 year he was transferred to the chair of theology in Edinburgh, and in 1832 published a 
 work on political economy. In 1833 appeared his Bridgewater treatise. On the Adapta- 
 tion of External Nature to the Moral and Intellectual Constitution of Man. It was received 
 with great favor, and obtained for the author many literary honors; the royal society of 
 Edinburgh electing him a fellow, and the French institute a corresponding member, 
 while the university of Oxford conferred on him the degree of d.c.l. In 1834, he was 
 appointed convener of the church-extension committee ; and after seven years of enthu- 
 siastic labor, announced that upwards of £300,000 had been collected from the nation, 
 and 220 new churches built. Meanwhile, however, troubles were springing up in the 
 bosom of the church itself. The evangelical party had become predominant in the gen- 
 
Chalon-sur-saone. 
 
 Chamber. 
 
 662 
 
 eral assembly, and came forward as the vindicators of popular rights; the struggles in 
 regard to patronage between them and the “moderate” or “ Erastian” party became 
 keener and more frequent, until the decision of the civil courts in the famous “ Auch- 
 terarder and Strathbogie” cases brought matters to a crisis; and on the 18th of May, 
 1843, C., followed by 470 clergymen, left the church of his fathers, rather than sacrifice 
 those principles which he believed essential to the purity, honor, and independence of 
 the church. See articles Disruption and Free Church. The rapid formation and 
 organization of the Free church were greatly owing to his indefatigable exertions, in 
 consequence of which he was elected principal of the Free church college, and spent 
 the close of his life in the zealous performance of his learned duties, and in perfecting 
 his Institutes of Theology. He died suddenly at Morningside, Edinburgh, May 30, 1847. 
 
 This is not the place for a criticism on the works of C. , which extend to more than 
 30 volumes. It is sufficient to say, that they contain valuable and, in some cases, origi- 
 nal contributions to the sciences of natural theology, Christian apologetics, and political 
 economy; while on minor topics, such as the church-establishment question, they exhibit 
 both novelty and ingenuity of argument. As an orator, C. was unique and unrivaled. 
 We read of men, in the history of the Christian church, whom we can believe to have 
 been as eloquent, impassioned, and earnest, but nowhere do we encounter a man in 
 whom intellect, feeling, and imagination were so harmoniously combined — a nature so 
 “nobly planned, to warn, to comfort, and command.” Scotland never produced a 
 greater or more lovable soul, one more gentle, guileless, genial-hearted, or yet more 
 fervid, from the strength of a resolute and irresistible will, before whose impetus diffi- 
 culties were dashed aside as by a torrent. There have been some loftier and more purely 
 original minds in Scotland than C.’s, but there has never been a truer one, nor a heart 
 whose Christian faith and piety were more intense, sincere, and humane. 
 
 CHALON-SUB-SAONE, a t. of France, in the department of Saone-et-Loire, about 33 
 m. n. of Macon. It is situated on the right bank of the Saone, at the point where that 
 river is joined by the Canal-du-Centre, which unites the Saone with the Loire, and 
 secures C. an extensive traffic with the central districts of France, as well as with the 
 Mediterranean and Atlantic. The town is generally well built, good quays line the 
 river, along which also the finest houses extend. Vineyards, wood, meadows, and 
 cultivated fields surround and add variety and beauty to the situation. Its manu- 
 factures include hats, hosiery, vinegar, oil, pottery, jewelry, and imitation pearls ; and 
 it has a large trade in the agricultural and other produce of the district. Steamboats 
 navigate the Saone from C. downwards. Pop. ’76, 20,571. C. occupies the site of the 
 ancient Cabillonum or Caballinum. 
 
 CHALONS-SUR-MAENE, a t. of France, in the department of Marne, 107 m. e. of 
 Paris by railway. It stands on the right bank of the river Marne, which is here crossed 
 by a handsome stone bridge. C. is old ; and the houses consist chiefly of timber, lath, 
 and plaster. The situation, however, is agreeable, and the town contains some fine 
 public buildings, the principal of which is the cathedral, in the sanctuary of which 
 there is one of the finest grand altars in France. On the east side of the town there is 
 the splendid Promenade du Jard, or park, which covers 19 acres. C. has manufactures 
 of woolens, cotton, leather, etc., and a considerable trade in grain, hemp, rape-seed oil, 
 and Champagne wine. Pop. ’76, 20,215. Previous to the union of Champagne with 
 France in 1284, the population numbered about 60,000. In 1856, Napoleon III. formed 
 the celebrated camp of C. to the n.e. of the town, which was occupied during the 
 Franco-Prussian war by Canrobert, and afterwards by MacMahon. On the night of 
 Aug. 21, 1870, MacMahon withdrew his troops ; and next day the town was occupied 
 by the Germans. 
 
 CHALOTAIS, La, Louis Rene De Caradeuc, 1701-85 ; procureur-general of the 
 parliament of Brittany, where he was a decided opponent of Jesuits. Grimm asserts 
 that Chalotais’s reports led to the suppression of the Jesuits in France. Voltaire gave 
 C. high praise for his essay on national education. Later in life he was subjected 
 to long political persecution, but was finally found free of blame, and resumed his 
 place in the parliament at Rennes. 
 
 CHALYB.ffi'US, a genus of birds very closely allied to the baritahs (q.v.), but having 
 a rather thicker bill, and the nostrils pierced in a broad membranous space. The 
 species are natives of New Guinea, and are birds of the most beautiful plumage, remark- 
 able for the brilliancy of their metallic tints, and particularly for the resemblance to 
 burnished steel, to which they owe their name (Gr. chalyps, ybos, steel). On this 
 account, they are sometimes included under the name of birds of paradise ; and the 
 skin of C. paradisceus, deprived of its feet, is sold as that of a bird of paradise. 
 
 CHALYBJETJS, Heinrich Moritz, a German philosopher, was b. 3d July, 1796, at 
 Pfaffroda, in Saxony, and educated at Leipsic. After spending some years in teaching, 
 he was appointed in 1839 professor of philosoph}-^ in the university of Kiel, where he 
 remained till his death in 1862. His chief works are the Historische Entwickelung der 
 speculativen Philosophie von Kant bis Hegd (1836 — English translations by Edersheim 
 and Tulk); System der speculativen Ethik (1850): Philosophie und Christenthum (1853); 
 and Fundamental Philosophie (1861). 
 
663 
 
 Chalon-sur-saone. 
 
 Chamber. 
 
 CHALYB'EATE WATERS are those which contain a considerable portion of iron in 
 solution. They are of two kinds, carbonated and sulphated. The carbonated G. W. 
 contain carbonate of iron (Fe 0 ,C 02 ) dissolved in excess of carbonic acid, and may be 
 recognized by forming an ochry deposit of red oxide of iron (FejOs) on the surface of 
 the stones near the mouths of the springs, owing to the escape of the carbonic acid on 
 exposure to the air. Islington Spa near London, Tunbridge Wells, and Oddy’s Saline 
 C. W. at Harrogate, are examples of this class. Where an excess of carbonic acid is 
 present, communicating a sparkling aspect to the water and an acidulous taste, as at 
 Pyrmont and other places, the term acidulo-chalybeate or acidulo-ferruginous is applied. 
 The sulphated G. W. contain sulphate of iron (Fe 0 ,S 03 ) dissolved in them, and 
 examples of this class are afforded at the Isle of Wight (the Sand Rock spring). Vicars 
 bridge, Moffat, etc. C. W. are characterized by a more or less inky or styptic taste ; 
 by becoming of a purplish black tint when infusion of galls or tea, and some varieties 
 of wine, are added ; and by giving a pale blue color on the addition of a few drops of 
 ferrocyanide of potassium (yellow prussiate of potash). C. W. are of great service in 
 cases of debility, and the acidulo- carbonated kind being lighter on the stomach, is gen- 
 erally preferred ; but all C. W. are to be avoided in plethoric, febrile, and inflammatory 
 conditions of the system. 
 
 CHAM, or Amedee De Noe, 1819-79; b. Paris; the son of a former peer of France; 
 he was intended for the polytechnic school, but preferring painting he studied with Paul 
 Delaroche, and afterwards with M. Charlet, where he developed a talent for the gro- 
 tesque. Beginning in 1842, he contributed, chiefly to Gharimri (the Punch of Prance), 
 an immense number of caricatures, and some sketches, under the signature of “ Cham.” 
 His political cartoons are singularly sharp and effective. He has also written many 
 vaudevilles. 
 
 CHA'MA, a genus of lamellibranchiate mollusks. The shell consists of two unequal 
 valves, having two hinge-teeth in the one valve, and one in the other. * The general form 
 of the shell approaches to orbicular. The shell is generally thick, and is foliated with 
 leaf-like projections, which arise in a somewhat regular manner from its surface; these 
 and the colors of some of the species combining to make them very beautiful. The 
 shells of the chamce are often called clams or clamp shells, a name which they share with 
 some of the pectens, spondyli, etc. They are found only in the seas of warm climates, 
 none further n. than the Mediterranean. The Linnsean genus C. contained many speciea 
 now removed to other families, but the restricted genus C. is the type of a family chamidoe. 
 Thirty fossil species have been referred to C., 4 from the cretaceous period, and 26 from 
 the tertiary. 
 
 CHAMADE'. See Parley. 
 
 CHAM.S:'ROFS, a genus of palms, with fan-shaped leaves, less exclusively tropical than 
 palms are in general, and of which one species, G. humilis, is the only palm truly indige- 
 nous to Europe. It extends as far n. as to the neighborhood of Nice. It is sometimes 
 called the Palmetto. The flowers are in spathes about 6 to 8 in. long; the fruit is a 
 triple blackish spongy drupe, which is eaten, as are also the young shoots. This palm 
 is so tolerant of a cold climate, that a specimen has lived in the open air in the botanic 
 garden of Edinburgh for more than 50 years, with the protection of matting in very 
 severe winters. In its native regions, the leaves are much used for thatching, and for 
 making brooms, hats, chair-bottoms, etc. They abound in an excellent fiber, which the 
 Arabs mix with camel’s hair, and make' into tent covers: cordage, and sometimes sail- 
 cloth, are made of it in Spain; it is imported into Prance, and used for making carpets, 
 under the name of African hair. The French in Algeria make paper and pasteboard of 
 it; and it is supposed that it may prove a valuable commercial commodity, as a mgtterial 
 for paper-making. — Other species of the genus abundant in India, China, etc., serve 
 similar purposes, and deserve attention in connection with paper. — To this genus belongs 
 also the West Indian palm, which yields the material for chip hats (see Brazilian Grass) ; 
 and the palmetto (q.v.) of North America is by some botanists referred to it. 
 
 CHAMALA'RI, a peak of the Himalaya between Thibet and Botan, in lat. 28° 4' n., 
 and long. 90° e., said to have an elevation of 27,200 ft., or more than 5 m. and a furlong. 
 
 CHAMBA, a feudatory state of n. India, subordinate to the Punjab government, 
 between 32° and 33° 9' n., and 75° 54' and 76° 30' east. A range of mountains separate 
 C. from Kashmir. C. is about 65 by 50 m. in length and breadth; pop. 140,000. The 
 agricultural products are wheat and millet, and among other productions are timber, 
 nuts, wax, honey, lime, and slate. 
 
 CHAMBER, of a piece of artillery, or small arm, is a contracted part of the bore, at 
 the breech end. The C. contains the charge of powder, but is too small to contain the 
 shot or shell. Some of these cavities are spherical, some cylindrical, some conical with 
 a hemispherical termination, and some pear-shaped. Carronades and shell guns are 
 usually chambered. The charge just fits the C., and the ball or shell comes in contact 
 with it. Chambered guns are more slow to load and fire than those which are not cham- 
 bered; and therefore the adoption of this form depends very much on the kind of ser- 
 vice in which the weapon is to be employed. Its primary use is in kinds of ordnance 
 in which the charge is small compared with the caliber, and in which, consequently. 
 
Chamber. 
 
 Chamberlain. 
 
 664 
 
 there would be great loss of* power unless the charge were confined within a compara- 
 tively limited space at the time of the explosion. 
 
 CHAMBER OF COMMERCE, a body of merchants and traders, associated for the pur- 
 pose of promoting the interests of its own members, of the town or district to which the 
 society belongs, and of the community generally, in so far as these have reference to 
 trade and merchandise. Of the means by which these objects are sought to be accom- 
 plished, the following may be mentioned as the most prominent: 1. By representing and 
 urging on the legislature the viws of their members in mercantile affairs; 2. By aiding 
 in the preparation of legislative measures having reference to trade, such, for example, 
 as the bankrupt acts; 3. By collecting statistics bearing upon the staple trade of the 
 district; 4. In some places, by acting as a sort of court of arbitration in mercantile 
 questions; 5. By attaining by combination advantages in trade which might be beyond 
 the reach of individual enterprise. 
 
 These institutions are of continental origin, and, like so many others which England 
 has borrowed from that source, were first introduced into Scotland. The oldest C. of C. 
 in France is that of Marseille, which dates from the end of the 14th or commencement 
 ♦f the 15th century. This chamber was invested with very remarkable powers. It 
 shared in the municipal jurisdiction, and in the administration of justice in mercantile 
 questions. It was several times suppressed and re-established, and it was not till 1650 
 that its powers were fixed, and that it received its ultimate organization. The second 
 chamber in France was that of Dunkerque, which was established in 1700. The same 
 year a council-general of commerce was instituted at Paris, which, in addition to six 
 councilors of state, consisted of twelve merchants or traders, delegated by the principal 
 commercial towns of the kingdom, an arrangement which led within the next few years 
 to the formation of chambers of commerce everywhere in France. We thus find that the 
 chamber at Lyon was instituted in 1702, those of Rouen and Toulouse in 1703, of Mont- 
 pellier in 1704, of Bordeaux in 1705, etc. By an order of council of Aug. 30, 1702, a 
 direct relation was established between these various chambers and the central council 
 of commerce. These chambers were all suppressed by a decree of the national assem- 
 bly in 1791, but they were re-established by a consular edict in 1802, which fixed the 
 population of the towns in which they might be established, and the number of their 
 members, who were to be chosen from amongst the merchants who had carried on trade 
 in person for a period of not less than ten years. Sixty of the best known merchants, 
 presided over by the prefect or the maire, were charged to elect the members of these 
 new chambers. They then presented to the government two candidates for the office of 
 member of the general council of commerce, instituted at Paris under the minister of the 
 interior. This organization was again modified in 1832, and still later by the ordon- 
 nances of Sept., 1851, and Aug., 1852, by which these bodies are now regulated. In 
 accordance with that decree, the members of these bodies are now elected by the chief 
 merchants of each town chosen for that purpose by the prefect. Their number cannot 
 be less than 9, nor more than 21. They hold office for six years, one third of their num- 
 ber being renewed every two years, but the members resigning being re-eligible. The 
 functions now assigned to these chambers in France are — to give to the government 
 advice and information on industrial and commercial subjects; to suggest the means of 
 increasing the industry and commerce of their respective districts, or of improving com- 
 mercial legislation and taxation; to suggest the execution of works requisite for the 
 public service, or which may tend to the increase of trade or commerce, such as the 
 construction of harbors, the deepening of rivers, the formation of railways, and the like. 
 On these and similar subjects, the advice of the chambers, when not volunteered, is 
 demanded by the government. In most of the other countries of continental Europe 
 there are similar institutions for the purpose of conveying information and advice to the 
 central government, and making it acquainted with local feelings and interests in com- 
 mercial matters. 
 
 The oldest C. of C. in Great Britain is believed to be that of Glasgow, which was 
 instituted 1st Jan., 1783, and obtained a royal charter, which was registered at Edin- 
 burgh on the 31st of the same month. That of Edinburgh was instituted in 1785, and 
 incorporated by royal charter in 1786. The Edinburgh C. of C. was the first public 
 body which petitioned for the abolition of the corn laws, and the adoption of free-trade 
 principles; and stood almost alone in the United Kingdom in advocating the Suez canal 
 project. It also originated the movement that government should undertake the 
 telegraph service in connection with the post-office. Six hundred of the bankers, mer- 
 chants, and ship-owners of Edinburgh and Leith constitute the chamber. The 
 Manchester chamber, since so famous for its exertions in the cause of free-trade, was 
 not established till 1820, and for many years it continued to be the only institution of 
 the kind in England. Its members number about 400. In Hull there has been a C. of 
 C. since 1837, but those of Liverpool, Leeds, and Bradford, notwithstanding the great 
 trading and manufacturing interests of these towns, were not established till 1850, in 
 which year, strangely enough, a similar institution was established in s. Australia. 
 The Liverpool C. of C. numbers nearly 600. The annual income of the Manchester 
 chamber is upwards of £600, that of Liverpool about £800, contributed entirely by 
 the subscriptions of members, amounting generally to £1 Is. a year. There are now 
 
665 
 
 Chamber. 
 
 Chamberlain. 
 
 chambers of commerce in all the ^eat mercantile towns of Great Britain and Ireland, 
 and in 1860 there was established an “ Association of Chambers of Commerce of the 
 United Kingdom.” In Canada, there is a Dominion board of trade, which consists of 
 the chambers of commerce, or boards of trade, as they are indifferently called, of a 
 dozen of the most important cities of the Dominion. 
 
 CHAMBER OP COMMERCE, ante. The Chamber of Commerce of New York city 
 Is the oldest existing institution of the kind in America, organized in 1768, and incorpo- 
 rated by royal charter Mar. 13, 1770, under the name of The Corporation of the Chamber 
 of Commerce of the City of New Toi'k in America. When the state government was 
 established the charter was renewed by the legislature. It was composed at first of 24 
 of the most prominent merchants of the city, who established an exchange which has 
 been ever since kept up, though not recently under control of the body. The objects 
 of the Chamber of Commerce are to encourage and promote commerce, support industry, 
 adjust disputes relative to trade, and procure such laws and regulations as may b« 
 found necessary for the benefit of trade in general. The membership is about 800, 
 including nearly all the leading merchants, financiers, and business men of the city. 
 Several years ago a court of arbitration was established, by which differences between 
 members are adjusted, and much litigation in courts avoided. Meetings are held once 
 a month. In the rooms of the chamber is a vast collection of commercial and other 
 statistics. Similar bodies exist in other large American cities. 
 
 CHAMBEB-COUNSEL, a barrister or advocate who gives opinions in his own chambers, 
 but does not, or rarely does, plead in court. 
 
 CHAMBERLAIN, Lord, or King’s C., as he was formerly called, has been one of the 
 principal officers of state from very early times, and for centuries he was an influential 
 member of the government. He has the function of indorsing the king’s answer on 
 petitions presented to him, and very often of communicating his majesty’s pleasure to 
 parliament and to the council. He was always a member of the council himself , ex officio. 
 Though he has long ceased to have any share in the responsibilities of government, 
 the C. is still an officer of very high standing in the royal household. He has control 
 over all the officers and servants of the royel chambers, except those of the bedchamber, 
 over the establishment attached to the chapel royal, the physicians, surgeons, and 
 apothecaries of the household. The C. has further the oversight of the queen’s musicians, 
 comedians, trumpeters, messengers, etc. ; and all tradesmen and artificers in her service 
 are appointed by him. When the office of keeper of the great wardrobe was abolished 
 in 1782, the duties of providing the state-robes of the royal family, the household, and 
 officers of state, devolved on the lord chamberlain. All theaters in towns in which a 
 royal palace is situated, require to be licensed by the Lord C., and no new play can be 
 performed anywhere without his license. All persons desiring to be presented at levees 
 or drawing-rooms, require to send their cards to the Lord C., and it is his duty to see 
 that the persons thus applying are entitled by station and character to be presented to 
 the queen. The C. also issues her majesty’s invitations to balls, parties, etc. In 
 accordance with ancient custom, the Lord C. is still a member of the privy council. 
 His salary is £2,000 a year, but his tenure of office depends on that of the political party 
 to which he belongs. 
 
 The Vice-chamberlain is the deputy and assistant of the Lord C., and in his absence 
 exercises the full authority which belongs to his principal. His office existed in the 
 time of Richard II. He is also dependent on the administration, and is usually a member 
 of the privy council. His salary is £924 per annum. 
 
 CHAMBERLAIN, The Lord Great, is a hereditary officer of great antiquity, and 
 formerly of great importance. He has the government of the palace at Westminster, 
 and, upon solemn occasions, the keys of Westminster hall and of the court of requests 
 are delivered to him. At these times, the gentleman usher of the black rod, the 
 yeoman usher, and the doorkeepers, are under his orders. At coronations, state-trials, 
 banquets, and the like, the fitting-up of the hall devolves on him. When the queen 
 goes to parliament, he delivers the sword of state to any member of the administration 
 whom he chooses, to be borne before her majesty, he himself walking on her right hand. 
 During the sitting of parliament, he has charge of the house of lords, and issues tickets 
 of admission on the opening or prorogation of parliament. Some fees and perquisites 
 belong to him. This office, conferred by Henry I. on Alberic de Vere, was inherited by 
 female succession from the De Veres, earls of Oxford, by the Berties, and is now held 
 conjointly by lady Willoughby de Eresby and the marquis of Cholmondeley, in right of 
 their mothers, sisters and co-heirs of Robert, fourth duke of Ancaster. They discharge 
 the duties alternately in each succeeding reign, a lady acting by deputy. Lord Aveland 
 is at present deputy great chamberlain. 
 
 CHAMBERLAIN, Joshua L., lii.d., b. Me., 1828; a graduate of Bowdoin college. 
 During the civil war he served with distinction, was six times wounded, and left the 
 service with the rank of maj.gen. From 1866 to 1870, he was governor of Maine, and 
 in 1871 was chosen president of Bowdoin college. When the democrats and fusionists 
 under the lead of gov. Garcelon, in 1879-80 undertook to get possession of the state 
 government, and there was some dariger of civil war, C. was general-in-chief of the 
 
(Thambers. 
 
 Chambord. 
 
 666 
 
 militia of the state. He adhered to the regularly elected legislature, as sustained by the 
 unanimous opinion of the supreme court, and by a quiet but firm hold of his lawful 
 power, without any display of military force, prevented the intended violence and 
 usurpation. 
 
 CHAMBERS, Practice before a Judge or Vice-chancellor at. It is to appli- 
 cations to the court in banc alone that the name of motions is properly given. But 
 there are certain matters of subordinate importance, regarding which applications are 
 made to a single judge at chambers, who decides in a summary way on the pleadings. 
 
 CHAMBERS, a co. in e. Alabama, on the Georgia border, intersected by the Atlantic 
 and West Point railroad. Before a division was made to form Lee co., the area was 
 775 sq.m.; pop. ’80, 23,440 — 12,078 colored. It is partly bounded by the Chattahooche 
 river, and is intersected by the Tallapoosa. Productions, cotton, corn, wheat, and sweet 
 potatoes. Co. seat, Lafayette. 
 
 CHAMBERS, a co. in s.e. Texas, on the gulf of Mexico, bounded on the w. by Gal- 
 veston bay, and intersected by Trinity river; 900 sq.m.; pop. ’80, 2187 — 693 colored. 
 The surface is mainly prairie; productions, corn, cotton, and sweet potatoes. Co. seat, 
 Wallisville. 
 
 CHAMBERS, Ephraim, the compiler of the first English encyclopaedia. He was b. 
 at Kendal in the latter part of the 17th c., and began life as an apprentice to a globe- 
 maker in London, where he conceived the idea of his encyclopaedia. The first edition 
 of the work, in 2 vols. folio, appeared in 1728; ten years later, the 2d appeared; and in 
 the year following, the 3d. The 4th was issued in 1741, a year after the editor’s death. 
 A 5th appeared in 1746, and a 6th, with new matter, in 1750. This work forms the 
 basis of Dr. Rees’s Cyclopaedia in 45 quarto vols., and may be considered as the 
 forerunner of the now countless publications of an encyclopaedic character (see 
 Encyclopedia). 
 
 CHAMBERS, George, 1803-40; an English painter. When a boy he followed the 
 sea, where he made sketches of vessels, which so pleased his master that he canceled the 
 boy’s indentures. C. then apprenticed himself to an old woman who kept a i)aint-shop, 
 and began house-painting. Finally he got employment as assistant in painting the 
 panorama of London for the Colosseum, and then became scene-painter in a theater. 
 His best works are naval battles, such as “ The Bombardment of Algiers,” and “ The 
 Capture of Porto Bello,” both in the Greenwich hospital. 
 
 CHAMBERS, William and Robert, the editors and publishers of this Encyclopmdia 
 and other works; b. at Peebles, W. in 1800, R. in 1802. Bearing up against the diffi- 
 culties of his early life, W. C. began business as a bookseller in Edinburgh, 1819; 
 afterwards adding printing to his business. Between 1825 and 1830, he wrote the 
 Gazetteer of Scotland, 1 vol. ; and the Book of Scotland, 1 vol. R. C. also began business as 
 a bookseller in Edinburgh, and from 1823 to 1830 wrote successively the Traditions of 
 Edinburgh, 2 vols. ; Popular Rhymes of Scotland, 1 vol. ; Picture of Scotland, 2 vols. ; and 
 Histories of Rebellions in Scotland, and Life of James L, 5 vols. Next, he edited Scottish 
 Ballads and Songs, 3 vols. ; and Biography of Distinguished Scotchmen, 4 vols. His 2'ra- 
 ditions of Edinburgh procured him the friendship of sir Walter Scott, w’ho contributed 
 various memoranda for the work. W. C. projected Chambers's Edinburgh Journal, and 
 that periodical was commenced on the 4th of Feb., 1832, about six weeks in advance of 
 the Penny Magazine, and may be considered the pioneer of that class of cheap and 
 popular periodicals of a wholesome kind now so generally diffused. The success of the 
 Journal was materially promoted by the essays, moral and humorous, of R. C., who 
 from the first was an able collaborateur. United from this period in the peculiar pro- 
 fession of writing, editing, printing, and publishing, W. and R. C. issued a series of 
 works designed for popular instruction, including the Journal (now amounting, in its 
 different series, to 65 vols.). Among these works are Chambers's Information for the 
 People, 2 vols. ; Chambers's Educational Course, 150 vols. ; Cyclopoedia of English Literature, 
 2 vols. ; Miscellany of Useful and Entertaining Tracts, 20 vols. ; Papers for the People, 12 
 vols. ; and the present Encyclopcedia, 10 vols. In conducting these laborious under- 
 takings, they necessarily depended on a number of accomplished literary assistants. 
 In 1849, W. C. acquired the estate of Glenormiston in Peeblesshire, and a few years 
 afterwards he founded and endowed an Institution in his native town for purposes of 
 social improvement (see Peeblesshire). His later productions are — Things as they are 
 in America, 1 vol. (the result of a visit to the United States in 1853); the Youth's Com- 
 panion, and Counselor, 1 vol.; History of Peeblesshire, 1 vol. 8vo (1864); pamphlets on 
 Improved Dwellings and Co-operation among the Working Classes; Winteririg at Mentone, 
 written from personal knowledge of the place during two successive visits; France: its 
 History and Revolutions, 1 vol (1871); Memoir of Robert chambers, with Autobiographic 
 Reminiscences: and Ailie Gilroy, a story. More lately. Stories of Remarkable Persons, 
 Stories of Old Families, and the Story of St. Giles' (1879). Twice elected lord provost of 
 Edinburgh, W. C. occupied that office for four years (1865-69), during which hepremoted 
 several important public acts, including one for the improvement of the older part of the 
 city. R. C. latterly wrote a work on Ancient Sea Margins; after which appeared his 
 Domestic Annals of Scotland, 3 vols. He also edited the Life and Works of Robert Burns, 4 
 
667 
 
 Chambers. 
 
 Chambord. 
 
 Tols. A collection of his historical and miscellaneous papers was issued under the title 
 of Select Wntings of Robert Chambers, 7 vols. His latest production was the Booh of Days, 
 a most elaborate and exhaustive work in two large volumes, the preparation of which 
 so injured his health, that he relinquished all further literary exertion. In 1863, he 
 received from the university of St. Andrews tlio honorary distinction of ll.d. R. C. 
 died at St. Andrews, 17th Mar., 1871, leaving a high character for literary application, 
 integrity, and geniality of disposition. In 1872, W. C. received the honorary distinction 
 of LL.D. from the university of Edinburgh. Engaged in miscellaneous literary labor, 
 he remains head of the firm of W. and R. C., which owns an extensive printing and 
 publishing establishment in Edinburgh, and a publishing establishment in London. 
 The whole of the works issued by W. and R. C. aim at popular instruction, free of all 
 political or sectarian bias. Perhaps their greatest effort in these respects has been the 
 present Encydopcedia. 
 
 CIIAMBERSBURQ, the seat of justice of Franklin co., Penn., on the Cumberland 
 valley railroad, 52 m. s.w. of Harrisburg; pop. ’70, 6,308. C. is in the midst 
 of a populous and well-cultivated region, and has manufactories of cotton, wool, 
 iron, paper, etc. The village is w'ell built. A great part of it was burned July 30, 1864, 
 by the confederates under gen. Early. C. is the seat of Wilson college for young 
 women. 
 
 CHAMBERTHST, a vineyard in the department of Cote d’Or, France, 6 m. s.s.w. of 
 Dijon. It covers about 60 acres, and produces a red wine notable for excellence. 
 
 CHAMBERY, a t. of Savoy, of which it is the capital, beautifully situated in a rich 
 vine-clad valley, between two ridges of hills, about 45 m. w.s.w. of Geneva. Though 
 situated at an elevation of nearly 1000 ft. above the sea, the climate of C. is mild ; the 
 scenery around, with the river Leysse flowing through the valley, is exceedingly fine. 
 The town itself, however, is dull and uninteresting. Some towers and other fragments 
 of the old castle of the dukes of Savoy, which dates from the 13th c., still remain. C. 
 has manufactures of silk-gauze, soap, leather, hats, lace, and a trade in silk, wine, etc. 
 Pop. ’76, 16,486. From the middle of the 16th c. to the peace of Utrecht, 1713, C. was 
 under the dominion of France; and again from the revolution to the congress of Vienna, 
 1815, when it was restored to the house of Savoy; but in 1860, by the cession of Savoy, 
 it has again come under the rule of France. 
 
 CHAMBLY, a s.w. co. in the province of Quebec, Canada, on the St. Lawrence, 
 opposite Montreal; 190 sq.m.; pop. ’71, 10,498. It is intersected by the Montreal and 
 Richelieu rivers, and by the Grand Trunk and the Champlain and Montreal railroads, 
 and the Chambly canal. Chief town, Chambly. 
 
 CHAMBORB, a celebrated jpyal castle of France, in the department of Loir-et-Cher, 
 situated in the midst of a vast walled park 21 m. in circumference, about 12 ra. e. of 
 Blois. Its foundation was laid in 1526, by Francis I., who employed 1800 men con- 
 stantly in its erection until his death. The work was continued with less zeal by his 
 successors, Henri II., Henri III., Charles IX.; and Louis XIY. and Louis XV. also 
 made some additions to it. The building, which marks the transition between the 
 fortified castle and Italian palace, is surmounted by a vast number of turrets, minarets, 
 and cones; its most prominent features, however, being six enormous round towers, 
 each 60 ft. in diameter. The double spiral staircase in the central tower is of great 
 architectural interest, being so contrived that parties pass up and down without meeting 
 each other. The castle has no less than 440 chambers. C. was the scene of the gallant- 
 ries of Francis I. Here Henri II., Louis XIII., and Louis XIV. resided; and at one of 
 the brilliant f6tes given at the castle by the latter, Moliere performed, for the first time, 
 his play of the Bourgeois Oentilhomme. Among the other occupants of C. were marshal 
 Saxe, Stanislaus, king of Poland, and marshal Berthier, upon whom it was bestowed 
 by Napoleon I. It was bought from Berthier’s widow by a number of legitimists, and 
 presented to the due de Bordeaux, who is hence called comte de C. (q.v.). 
 
 CHAMBORB (Henri Charles Ferdinand Marie Dieudonne d’Artois, dug de 
 Bordeaux), Comte de, the representative of the elder branch of the house of Bourbon, 
 and of its claims to the French throne, was b. in Paris, Sept. 29, 1820. He is the 
 grandson of Charles X., and the son of the duke of Berri who was murdered by Louvel, 
 Feb. 14, 1820. The duke of Angoul6me, Charles X.’s eldest son, being childless, the duke 
 of Berri was heir-presumptive; and as, at his death, he left only a daughter, the joy was 
 great when, seven months after, his widow gave birth to a prince, who received the 
 title of duke of Bordeaux — that of comte de C., by which he has latterly been known, 
 being derived from the castle of C. (q.v.), presented to him at his baptism. He was 
 baptized, amid circumstances of great pomp, with water brought by M. de Chateaubri- 
 and from the river Jordan, and received the appellation of V enfant du miracle C‘ t\ie 
 miraculous child ”). When Charles X. abdicated the crown at the revolution in 1830, 
 he did so in favor of his grandson, the duke of Bordeaux. The people, however, insisted 
 on the “citizen king,” and the elder Bourbons were banished. On the death of Charles 
 X., the duke of Angoul6me assumed the title of Louis XIX, and another party pro- 
 claimed the duke of Bordeaux king; but at last a reconciliation was brought about by 
 prince Metternich. In 1839, the prince visited Italy, accompanied by his mother, and 
 
Chambord. 
 
 Chamfort. 
 
 668 
 
 was received by the petty courts with great distinction. After the death of the duke 
 -of Angoul§me, in 1844, the heads of the different fractions of legitimists met to pay their 
 united homage, and the duke of Bordeaux made a “pilgrimage to Belgrave square” to 
 receive it. In 1846, he married the eldest daughter of the duke of Modena, who had 
 never acknowledged the monarchy of July. After the revolution of 1848, many legiti- 
 mists were returned to the national assembly. In 1850, the duke of Bordeaux, or count 
 of C., as he styles himself, appeared at Wiesbaden, where a congress of his adherents 
 assembled to consult as to their future policy. As the count of C. is without heirs, a 
 union, or “fusion,” as it is called, of the partisans of the elder Bourbons with the 
 Orleanists was effected, but no attempt made to carry out the arrangement. After the 
 capitulation of Paris in 1871, the count of C. returned to France, and, under the title of 
 Henry V., issued a proclamation, in which he promised, if placed by the nation at the 
 head of its affairs, to maintain the temporal power of the pope. Neither this nor subse- 
 quent manifestoes have induced the French people to accept of him as their king. 
 
 CHAMBORD, Marie Therese Beatrice Gaetane, Countess de. Archduchess of 
 Austria; b, July 14, 1817; wife of the Bourbon who calls himself Henry V of France, 
 and eldest daughter of Francis IV., duke of Modeua. Her sister was the wife of Don 
 Juan de Bourbon, and mother of Don Carlos, duke of Madrid. She won great reputa 
 tion and respect for her care of sick and w'ounded French soldiers during the German 
 war. 
 
 CHAMBRE ARDENTE (“ the fiery chamber”), a name given at different times in 
 France to an extraordinary court of justice, probably on account of the severity of the 
 punishments wdiich it awarded, the most common being that of death by fire. In the 
 year 1535, Francis I. established an inquisitorial tribunal, and a chambre ardente. Both 
 were intended for the extirpation of heresy. The former, of wiiich the pope was a corres- 
 ponding member, searched out, by means of spies, cases of heresy, and instructed the 
 processes; while the latter both pronounced and executed the final judgment. Under 
 Henri II., the activity of the C. A. received a new impulse, the entrance of that mon- 
 arch into Paris on the 4th July, 1549, being signalized hy the burning of several heretics. 
 But Francis himself, gallant and gay, as courtly history represents him, also seemed to 
 relish a spectacle of this kind, for on various occasions he and his mistress presided at 
 a burning. By and by, the C. A. relaxed in its penalties, and a cry was got up among 
 the more bigoted Roman Catholics that it was conniving at heresy. This seems to have 
 roused the “ lurking devil ” in its members, and, in order to wipe away the reproach, 
 they commenced a series of unheard-of cruelties, which, along with other events, con- 
 tributed to originate the religious war of 1560. In 1679, Louis XIV. employed it for a 
 new and more praiseworthy purpose — viz., to investigate the numerous reports of 
 poisoning cases which the trial of the marchioness Brinvilliers (q.v.) caused to be cir- 
 culated. Many persons of the first rank, such as the marechal de Luxembourg, and the 
 princess Louise of Savoy, were examined on suspicion, but no one was executed except 
 the pretended sorcerer, Voisin (1680), after whose time the C .A. ended its activity. 
 
 CHAMBRE INTROXJVABLE (Fr. unfindable chamber; i.e., the chamber the like of 
 which is not to be found again) was the name sarcastically given to that chamber of 
 deputies in France which met after the second return of Louis XVHI. (July, 1815), and 
 which, by its fanatical royalty, began to throw the country and society anew into com 
 motion. The former chamber, which had shown much moderation, had been dissolved 
 under the influence of the court party; and the ministry, led by Talleyrand, had done 
 everything to procure for the ruling party at least a manageable chamber adapted for 
 business. The number of the deputies was arbitrarily raised from 259 to 392; and to 
 secure the victory of a complete restoration, all rushed forward who saw in the consti 
 tutional charter an encroachment on their privileges and pretensions. When it is con- 
 sidered, in addition, that the elections, at least in the departments of the south, took place 
 under terror and the sanguinary outrages of a populace in a state of political and relig- 
 ious excitement, that the press was stifled, and the people deprived of all freedom of 
 expression by the foreign armies, ultra-royalism could not fail to be completely triumph 
 ant. When the ministers saw this startling result, they did not venture to open the 
 session ; they resigned, and gave place to the Richelieu ministry Then broke out the 
 most frightful excesses in the southern provinces. At the elections in Nimes (22d A»g.), 
 more than 100 persons were killed by the royalist bands. At last, on 7th Oct., the king 
 opened the chamber, on which he enjoined quietness and moderation; and it appeared 
 as if it did take this advice to heart for an instant. But when, in one of the first sit- 
 tings, Boyer d’Argenson asked for the intervention of the chamber in behalf of the Prot- 
 estants, who were being slaughtered in the south by the ultra-royalist bands, the speaker 
 was called to order, and the chamber from that time ceased to observe any bounds or 
 moderation. The fanatical legislation of this chamber inspired the ministers, the king, 
 and especially the emperor Alexander, with so much aversion and apprehension, and 
 also met so decidedly with the disapprobation of all peaceful and sincere friends of the 
 throne, that the news of its dissolution, on 5th April, 1816, was received with universal 
 rejoicing. The electoral law of 5th Feb., 1817, prevented the return of a similar cham- 
 ber; and it was not till by the modified electoral law of 1820 that ultra-royalism 
 regained a predominating influence in parliament. It is said that Louis XVIII. first 
 
669 
 
 Chambord* 
 
 Cbamfort. 
 
 (used the epithet chcmJbre introwooMe in an ironical sense, and that the majority of the 
 chamber took it seriously as a compliment. 
 
 CHAMBURE, Auguste Lepelletier de, 1789-1832; a French soldier, whose 
 daring at Dantzic in 1813, and in other places during Napoleon’s wars, earned for him 
 the name of “ the devil.” He was a prisoner for a time, but was released, and restored 
 to military command in France. After Louis Philippe came to the throne, C. became 
 one of the staff of Soult, minister of war. 
 
 CHAME'LEON, a southern constellation within the antarctic polar circle, and con- 
 taining nine stars. 
 
 CHAMELEON, GJiamadeo, a genus of saurian reptiles, constituting a distinct family, 
 of very peculiar form and structure, and on various accounts highly interesting. The 
 body is much compressed; the dorsal line sharp, in some of the species rising into an 
 elevated crest ; the back of the head is also elevated into a sort of cone. The neck is 
 very short, and does not admit of the head being turned, for which, however, compen- 
 fiation is found in the remarkable powers of motion possessed by the large prominent 
 eyes, which move independently of one another, and are covered with a membrane 
 pierced only with a small hole for the pupil to look through. There are no external 
 •ears. The skin is not covered with scales, but, like shagreen, rough with granules. 
 The legs raise the body rather higher than in most of the saurians ; the toes, both of the 
 fore and hind feet, are divided into two sets, one directed forward, and the other back- 
 ward, so that each foot has the power of grasping like a hand. The tail is long and 
 prehensile. The lungs are very large, and are connected with air-cells that lie among 
 the muscles and beneath the skin, so that the animal has a remarkable power of inflating 
 itself with air. The tongue is remarkably extensile, and is the organ by which the 
 animal seizes the insects which constitute its food, being darted at them with unerring 
 aim, whilst a viscous saliva causes them to adhere to it, and they are carried with it 
 into the mouth. Chameleons are slow in their movements, except those of the eyes 
 and tongue, and remain long fixed in one spot, awaiting the approach of insects, which 
 they seize on their coming within reach. They all live among the branches of trees. 
 Their power of fasting is great, and along with their gulping of air in respiration, 
 and their habit of inflating themselves with air, gave rise to the fable, current among 
 the ancients and until recent times, of their living on air. Their celebrated power of 
 changing color is not equally fabulous, and perhaps it would be rash in the present state 
 of knowledge on the subject to assert how far it has been exaggerated. It is probably 
 in part under the control of volition, and may be used, as has been asserted, to render 
 the animal less easy of observation, by assimilating it to the color of surrounding 
 objects; it may depend in part on the action of light; it is certainly connected with the 
 fear and other passions of the creature. Milne Edwards has discovered that it depends 
 upon the presence of two differently colored layers of pigment in the skin. 
 
 Chameleons are natives of the warm parts of the old world, but are most abundant 
 in Africa. One species is found in some parts of the s. of Europe, as near Cadiz. The 
 whole number of known species is small. — When brought, as they frequently are, to 
 O-reat Britain, they soon die, apparently from the coldness of the climate. 
 
 The fables which, in former times, were current regarding the C. were extremely 
 numerous and ridiculous. It supplied not a few of those medicines to which absurd 
 credulity ascribed the most marvelous powers. 
 
 CHAM’PERING. In architecture, an angle which is slightly pared off, is said to be 
 chamfered. The chamfer is sometimes made slightly concave, in which case it is called 
 R hollow chamfer. Chamfers, in Gothic architecture, have frequently ornamental ter- 
 minations of various kinds. The term C. is applied to wood-work as well as stone. 
 
 CHAMFORT, Sebastien Roch-Nicolas, 1741-94; one of the most remarkable 
 and among the first of French Bohemians, or brilliant but thriftless authors, or wits. 
 He was the illegitimate son of a strolling actress, and never knew his father. Starting 
 in life with only the name “Nicolas,” he found his way to Paris, got into the college 
 des Grassins, worked hard, and won nine prizes out of ten in two years. Much dis- 
 gusted with the Latin hexameters that crowned his college reputation, he considered the 
 time wasted which he had spent over them, summarizing his opinion in the contemptu- 
 ous epigram, “What I know I do not know ; what I do not know I guess.” He assumed 
 the name of C., and began writing for the press for bread and renown. Being repelled 
 alike by booksellers and editors, he took to writing sermons at a louis each for lazy or 
 incompetent priests. Having successfully competed for one of the academy prizes, the 
 salons of the upper world were opened to him, and he became fashionable. He w^ent 
 on with alternate success and failure, always poor, and living for the most part upon 
 eleemosynary dinners and suppers, repaying countenance and sustenance with his always 
 brilliant but cynical and sarcastic conversation. He was entertained at Sevres for 
 som« years by Mme. Helvetius, and Chabanon gave him his pension of 1200 livres in 
 the Mercure de France. C. also took two more academy prizes, won a hundred livres 
 from Necker, and obtained an enormous reputation. He wrote little and talked much; 
 his reputation increased, and finally, under the protection of the duchesse de Grammont, 
 he went to court, where the prince de Conde made him his secretary. He was now 
 
Chamier. 
 
 Chamond. 
 
 070 
 
 about 40 years old, ana last Rowing misanthropic. He resigned his secretaryship and 
 retired into solitude at Auteuil, where he fell in love and married a lady attached to the 
 household of the duchesse de Maine. She was a clever, amusing woman of the world; 
 but in six months she left C. a widower. Then he traveled in Holland, where he lived 
 awhile with M. de Narbonne. Then, returning to Paris, he received the chair in the 
 academy left vacant by the death of Sainte Pelaye in 1781. He haunted the court and 
 made himself loved in spite of his withering and uncontrollable irony ; but in conse- 
 quence of an unfortunate love affair he left the court and was received into the house 
 of M. de Vaudreuil; about which time he made the acquaintance of Mirabeau, whom 
 he assisted with orations, and whom he followed heart and soul into the storm and 
 tumult of the revolution. He forgot his old friends; he frequented the clubs, and was 
 for a time secretary of that of the Jacobins; he became a street orator; was among the 
 first of the storming party to enter the Bastile; and worked fora royalist journal in 
 which he depreciated kingships. With the fall of the Girondins his political life came 
 to an end; but he could not restrain the tongue that had made him famous: he no more 
 spared the convention than he had spared the court. This rashness was the cause of his 
 arrest, and he was threatened with a second arrest, whereupon he attempted suicide 
 with pistol and poignard; and, shockingly hacked and shattered, dictated to those who 
 came to arrest him the well-known declaration: “I, Sebastien Roch-Nicolas Chamfort, 
 declare that I would sooner suffer death as a free man than be conducted as a slave to 
 prison.” He did not die immediately, but lingered awhile in charge of a gendarme. To 
 the abbe Sieyes he had given fortune in the title of a pamphlet. What is tlie Third 
 Estate? Everything. What has it? Nothing. And to Sieyes also he spoke the famous sar- 
 casm: “At last I am about to leave the world, where the heart must be broken or be 
 changed to brass,” As a writer, 0. left little of value. It was as a conversationist, and 
 especially for his epigrammatic wit and cynicism, that he won a world-wide fame. 
 
 CHAMIEB, Frederic, an English novelist, was b. in London, 1796. He entered the 
 navy as a midshipman in 1809, and distinguished himself in the American war. He left 
 the service in 1833. The success of Marryat in depicting sea-life led C. to try the same 
 field, in which he was not without success, though in invention and humor he falls short 
 of his model. His best romances are — Life of a Sailor (3 vols., Lond. 1834); Ben Brace 
 (3 vols., Lond. 1835); The Arethusa (3 vols., Lond. 1836); Trevor Hastings (3 vols., 1841); 
 Passion and Pi'inciple (3 vols., 1843); Tom Bowline (3 vols., 1839); Jack Adams (3 vols., 
 1888), etc. All his novels have been translated into German. C. wrote a Review of the 
 French Revolution of 1848 (Lond. 1849), in which he gives a rather prejudiced view of 
 some of the prominent actors. He died on the 1st of Nov., 1870. 
 
 CHAMISSO, Adelbert von, one of the most celebrated of German lyric poets, was 
 b. in 1781, at the castle of Boncourt, in Champagne, His parents settling in Prussia in 
 1790, he became a page of the queen, and entered upon a military career. But when 
 the campaign of 1806 broke out, he returned to France, for though no admirer of Napo- 
 leon, he was unwilling to fight against his native land. At this time, he was thrown 
 into the circle of Madame de StaSl at Coppet, and there began that study of natural 
 philosophy which he afterwards pursued at Berlin. In 1814, count Rumjanzow, chan- 
 cellor of the Russian empire, prepared an exploring expedition round the world at his own 
 expense ; C. accompanied it as naturalist. He embarked at Cronstadt under capt. Otto 
 von Kotzebue, chief of the expedition, which, however, failed in its main object — that of 
 discovering a north-east passage. Subsequently, he obtained a situation in the botanical gar- 
 den of Berlin, was made a member of the academy of science; and after a happy domestic 
 life, died there in 1838, universally loved and honored. He wrote several works on natural 
 history, but his fame rests chiefly on his poetical productions. As early as 1804-1806, 
 he, together with Varnhagen von Ense, published a Musen Almanach. In 1813, he wrote 
 his original and amusing fiction called Peter Schlemihl, the story of the man who loses 
 his shadow, which has been translated into almost all the languages of Europe. The 
 character of his poetry is wild and gloomy, and he is fond of rugged and horrible sub- 
 jects. In his political songs, he succeeds well in humor and irony; nor is he deficient 
 in deep and genuine feeling. Indeed, several of his ballads and romances are master- 
 pieces in their way. We may instance one of his longest poems, Salas y Gomez, written 
 in terza rima, as a proof how peculiarly German the cast of C.’s mind was, despite his 
 French origin. His collected works, in six volumes, appeared at Leipsic in 183^39. 
 
 CHAMOIS, Antilope rupicapra, Ger. gemse, a species of antelope (q.v.) inhabiting the 
 Alps and other high mountains of central and southern Europe, as the Pyrenees, the 
 Carpathians, and the mountains of Greece; also those of some of the Mediterranean 
 islands, Caucasus, Taurus, and other mountains of the w, of Asia. It is one of the ante- 
 lopes sometimes designated capi'iform or goatlike, because of their departure from the 
 typical or true antelope form, and approach to that of the goats. The C. is about the 
 size of a large goat, but the neck is longer in proportion, and the body shorter; the horns 
 seldom more tliaff 6 or 7 in. long, black, rising nearly straight up from the forehead, 
 and so bent back at the tip as to form a hook. The color is brown, deeper in winter 
 than in summer; the tail is black; the head is of a pale-yellow color, with a dark-brown 
 band along each cheek. 
 
 The usual summer resort of the C. is in the higher regions of the mountains which it 
 
671 
 
 Chamier. 
 
 Chamoud. 
 
 inhabits, not far from the snow-line, and it is often to be seen lying on the snow. In 
 winter it descends to the higher forests. The aromatic and bitter plants of the moun- 
 tain-pastures are its favorite food. It is — like the ruminants generally — very fond of 
 €alt; “ and many stones are met with in the Alps, hollowed out by the continual licking 
 of the C., on account of the saltpeter with which they abound.” It is gregarious : flocks 
 of 100 are sometimes seen; but in the Swiss Alps, where the numbers have been much 
 reduced by hunting, the flocks are generally very small, and often consist only of a few 
 individuals. Old males often live solitarily. The C. produces one or two young at a 
 birth, in the month of Mar. or April. 
 
 It is an animal of extraordinary agility, and flocks may often be observed sporting 
 in a remarkable manner among the rocky heights. It can leap over ravines of 16 to 18 
 ft. wide; a wall of 14 ft. high presents no obstacle to it; and it passes readily up or down 
 precipices which almost no other quadruped could attempt. It is said to descend 
 obliquely almost perpendicular precipices of more than 20 ft., striking its feet once or 
 twice against the rock, as if to stajjr and guide its descent, and alighting securely, often 
 on a very narrow ridge of rock, with its hind feet first, and bringing the forefeet almost 
 into contact with them. 
 
 The hunting of the C. is an occupation attended with great hardships and much 
 danger, but of which, nevertheless, some of the Swiss peasants become passionately 
 fond. The hunter sometimes goes out on the adventurous chase alone ; but more fre- 
 quently several go out together, dividing into parties; and whilst the flock of C. flee 
 from those whose approach they first descry, an opportunity of using the rifle is obtained 
 by their comrades. The scent of the 0. is extremely keen; and when by this sense it is 
 apprised of the approach of the hunter, it becomes alarmed and restless until it sees him, 
 upon which it rushes hastily in an opposite direction, and so falls into the ambuscade. 
 When a flock of C. is feeding, one is always on the watch, and by a sort of whistle, 
 announces apprehended danger. — The flesh of the C. is highly esteemed. Its skin is 
 made into leather, and from it the original shammoy, or shammy leather, so much prized 
 for softness and warmth, was obtained, although the name has now become common 
 also to leather prepared from the skins of other animals. See Leather. — When taken 
 young, the C. is easily tamed. — The C. of the Persian mountains is smaller and of a 
 paler color than the European variety, and its horns bend from the base. 
 
 CHAM'OMILE, or Camomile, Anthemis, a genus of plants of the natural order compos- 
 itm, sub-order corymUfercs, distinguished by imbricated bracts, a scaly conical receptacle, 
 a ray of one row of female florets, those of the disk hermaphrodite, the achaenia obscurely 
 four-cornered, and destitute of pappus. The species are annual and perennial herba- 
 ceous plants, chiefly natives of Europe and other temperate parts of the world. Several 
 are found in Britain, amongst which is the Common C. {A. noMUs), the most important 
 species of the genus, well known for its medicinal virtues, a perennial plant with a stem 
 about a foot long, procumbent and much branched, each branch terminated by a flower 
 (head of flowers) more than an inch broad, with yellow disk and white ray, the whole 
 plant intensely bitter and highly aromatic. Its medicinal virtues are ascribed to the 
 essential oil which it contains, oil of chamomile, which abounds most of all in the invo- 
 lucre. This oil is of a greenish-yellow color, and is used in the preparation of some 
 medicines. The dried flowers are often administered in the form of an infusion, as a 
 stimulant of the nerves of the abdomen, an alterative and antispasmodic ; or are applied 
 to the skin as an anodyne, and on account of their power of promoting absorption and 
 suppuration. The infusion also acts as an emetic, and is often used to assist the action 
 of other emetics. C. flowers find a place in the pharmacopoeia, and are also amongst 
 the most esteemed of domestic medicines, the plant being extensively cultivated for their 
 sake, and very generally finding a place even in cottage-gardens. Yet they ought to be 
 used with caution, as they have been known to produce congestion in the brain, and are 
 very apt to aggravate any malady of this kind already existing. A double-flowering 
 variety of C. is more generally cultivated than the single, to supply the C. flowers of the 
 shops, the flowers being whiter and more bulky, but it is otherwise rather inferior. C. 
 is easily propagated by parting the roots. It delights in a dry and rather poor soil. — Th« 
 name Wild C. is given to a very similar plant, also a native of Britain {matricaria cham' 
 fomilla), an annual belonging to a genus closely allied to anthemis. It may readily be 
 distinguished by the want of scales on the receptacle. Its medicinal virtues resemble 
 those of common C., and although now disused in Britain, it is in some parts of Europe 
 preferred for internal use, because it is less bitter, less nauseous, and generally milder 
 and more agreeable in its operation. — No small quantity of common C. is illegally used 
 in the manufacture of beer in England, and is imported from Germany for this purpose. 
 Yet this plant is so abundant in some parts of the s. of England as to form a principal 
 part of the pasture in sheep-walks, and to fill the whole air with its scent. The other 
 British species of C. {anthemis) are mere weeds; one of them, called stinking C- {A. 
 €otula), is so acrid as to blister the fingers, if much handled. But the flowers of the 
 Ox-eye C., or Dyer’s C. {A. tinctoria), a native of many parts of the continent of Europe, 
 yield a beautiful yellow dye, on account of which the plant is often cultivated. 
 
 CHAUOND, St., a t. of France, in the department of Loire, situated at the confluence 
 of the Gier and the Ban, about 7 m. n.e. of St. Etienne, on the railway between that 
 
Chamoreril. 
 
 Champarty. 
 
 672 
 
 place and Lyon. It is a flourishing well-built town, with extensive manufactures of 
 ribbons and stay-laces. C. has also several silk-mills and numerous iron furnaces and 
 foundries; and extensive coal-mines exist in the vicinity. Pop. 76, 14,420. 
 
 CHAMOBEBIL, a lake of Ladakh or Middle Thibet, in lat. 32° 55' n,, and long. 78° 
 15' e. It lies at a height of 15,000 ft. above the sea, on the plateau between the upper 
 waters of the Sutlej and of the Indus, girt by mountains which rise, at some points, 
 5,000 ft. above its own level. Though it is beyond the recognized limits of perpetual 
 congelation, yet it freezes only in winter, and is hence supposed to be of great depth. 
 Necessarily receiving much water from the surrounding mountains, it is without any 
 visible outlet — evaporation alone, even at this elevation, appearing to maintain one uni- 
 form surface on a length of 15 m. , and a width of 2^. 
 
 CHAMOTJNI, or Chamonix (Lat. Campus munitus), is the name of a wild and roman- 
 tic valley and village among the Alps in Savoy. It lies at a distance from all the high- 
 roads, at an elevation of about 3,400 ft. above the level of the sea, and more than 2,000 
 ft. above that of the lake of Geneva. The valley is about 13 m. long, and about 2 broad, 
 and is traversed by the Arve. It is bounded at the e. end by the Col de Balme, over 
 which there is a mule-path to Martigny, in the upper valley of the Rhone, and from tho 
 other end issues the road to Geneva, which lies at a distance of 53| m. from Chamouni, 
 On the n. side lies mont Breven and the chain of the Aiguilles Rouges, and on the s., 
 the giant group of mont Blanc, from which enormous glaciers or rivers of ice slide 
 down, even in summer, almost to the bottom of the valley. The chief of these glaciers 
 are the Glacier des Bossons, des Bois, d’Argenti^re, and du Tour. By ascending to a point 
 called Montanvert, we come upon the upper course of a glacier, where it expands into 
 a great mountain-lake of ice called the Mer de Glace, in which there is a solitary rock or 
 oasis called Le Jardin, about seven acres in extent, and covered with the most beautiful 
 herbage. The excursion to the Jardin is one of the most striking excursions within the 
 range of Chamouni. Until 1741, the valley was almost unknown; the region was con- 
 sidered a wilderness, and knowm by the name of Les Montagnes Maudites, or “ accursed 
 mountains.” In the above year, it was visited by two Englishmen, Pocock and Wynd- 
 ham, who ascended as far as Montanvert; and a granite block there still bears the 
 name of the Englishmen’s stone. It was only, however, in 1775, that the attention of 
 travelers was effectually called to it by Saussure and Bourrit. The valley is rich in pecu- 
 liar plants, and furnishes an aromatic and perfectly white honey. The village of C. owes 
 its origin to the Benedictine convent founded between 1088 and 1099. The pop. of the 
 village is about 2,400, who depend partly upon the strangers who visit the valley, and 
 partly upon the pastures and upon hunting. There are several good hotels, and the best 
 guides are to be found here for the neighboring Alps. It is from C. that mont Blanc is 
 usually ascended. 
 
 CHAMP AC, Michelia champaca, an Indian tree, possessing great beauty both of 
 foliage and flowers, and much venerated both by Brahmanists and Buddhists. Images 
 of Buddha are made of its wood. Its flowers have a pale-yellow tint, and a sweet 
 oppressive perfume, much celebrated in the poetry of the Hindus. 
 
 CHAMPAGNE, formerly a province of France, now forming the departments of 
 Seine-et-Marne, Aube, Yonne, Haute-Saone, and Ardennes. The province was about 
 180 m. long by 150 broad, its surface presenting extensive plains with ranges of hills, 
 especially in the north and east. Upon these hills is grown the famous Champagne 
 wine. 
 
 In ancient times, C. was known as a part of Gallia, was subjugated by Caesar, and 
 afterwards was annexed to the kingdom established by the Franks. After the 11th c., 
 it had its own dukes, who were vassals of the French kings. By the marriage of 
 Philippe IV. with Joanna, heiress to the kingdom of Navarre, Champagne, and Brie» 
 C., in 1284, came to the French crown, and was incorporated by Philippe VI., in 1328. 
 During the campaign of 1792, the eastern part, and, in the campaign of 1814, th« 
 western part, of C. was the chief arena of warfare. 
 
 CHAMPAGNE, or CHAMPAIGNE, Philippe de, 1602-74; a painter of Brussels, 
 born of a poor family. He was a pupil of Fouquier, and in 1621 was employed with 
 Nicholas Poussin to paint in the Luxemburg palace. His best work is in Vincennes, 
 and in the Carmelite church in Paris, where may be seen his celebrated crucifix. He 
 became first painter to the queen of France, and rector of the Paris academy. 
 
 CHAMPAGNE WINE is the produce of vineyards in the above-mentioned province of 
 Champagne. There are white and red champagnes; the white is either sparkling or 
 still. Sparkling or effervescent {mousseux) C. is the result of a peculiar treatment dur- 
 ing fermentation. In Dec., the wine is racked off, and fined with isinglass, and in 
 Mar. it is bottled and tightly corked. The fermentation being incomplete when the 
 wine is bottled, the carbonic acid gas generated in a confined space dissolves in the wine, 
 and communicates the sparkling property to champagne. To clear the wine of sedi- 
 ment, the bottles are first placed in a sloping position with the necks downward, so 
 that the sediment may be deposited in the necks of the bottles. When this sediment 
 has been poured off, some portion of a liqueur (a solution of sugar-candy in cognac) is 
 added to the wine, and every bottle is filled up with bright clarified wine, and securely 
 
673 
 
 Chamorerll. 
 
 Cliampartj. 
 
 jc-corked. The effervescence of the wine thus prepared bursts many bottles, in some 
 cases 10 per cent; and in seasons of early and sudden heat, as many as 20 and 25 per 
 cent have been burst. Wine-buyers estimate the value of wine according to the break- 
 age, that which breaks most bottles being considered best. Still or non-effervcscent C. 
 is first racked off in the Mar. after the vintage. Creaming or slightly effervescent C. 
 {demi-mouaseux) has more alcohol, but less carbonic acid gas than sparkling champagne. 
 
 The best varieties of this wine are produced at Rheims and Epernay, and generally 
 on a chalky soil. Among white Champagnes of the first class, the best are those of Sillery, 
 which are of a fine amber hue, di y spirituous, and possessing a superior bouquet; those of 
 Ay and Mareuil are less spirituous, but are sparkling, with a pleasant bouquet. Other 
 white wines of first class are those of Hautvilliers, Dizy, Epernay, and Pierry. 
 
 In the first class of red C., or Montagne, we have the varieties of Verzy, Verzenay, 
 Mailly, St. Basle, Bouzy, and Thierry; all having fine color, clearness, good body, suffi- 
 cient spirit, and a pleasant bouquet. The trade in Champagne wines is chiefly carried on 
 in Rheims, Avise, Epernay, and Chalons-sur-Marne. The cellars in which the vintages 
 are stored are cut out of the calcareous rock. The fact that the sale of C. is very exten- 
 sive and lucrative, has naturally given rise to adulterations. Sugar, and the juices of 
 pears or gooseberries, or birch- juice, etc., have been used for making spurious Cham- 
 pagne. It may fairly be reckoned that not even a third part of the wine sold for C. in 
 Paris is genuine. The greater part of it is readily manufactured by simply charging 
 other light wines with carbonic acid gas. Recently, the German purveyors have suc- 
 ceeded in preparing light wines — such as Rhenish, Main, Neckar, Meissner, and Naum- 
 burg— so much like genuine C., as to deceive even the connoisseur. Altogether, it is 
 estimated that the district produces 1,100,000 hectolitres (24,200,000 gallons) of genuine 
 C., of which, however, the finest growths make but a small part. 
 
 CHAMPAIGN, a co. in e. Illinois, intersected by the Toledo, Wabash and Western, 
 the Chicago branch of the Illinois Central, and the Illinois, Bloomington and Western 
 railroads; 880 sq.m.; pop. ’80, 40,870. The surface is level, and the chief productions 
 are corn, broom-corn, oats potatoes, wheat, hay, cheese, butter, wool, and so;|;ghum 
 molasses. Co. seat, Urbana. 
 
 CHAMPAIGN, a co. in w. Ohio, intersected by Mad river, and by the Cincinnati, 
 Sandusky and Cleveland, the Pittsburg, Cincinnati and St. Louis, and the Atlantic and 
 Great Western railroads; 390 sq.m.; pop. ’80,27,817. The chief productions are corn, 
 wheat, oats, potatoes, hay, butter, and wool. There are also a number of important 
 manufactories. Co. seat, Urbana. 
 
 CHAMPAIGN, a city in Champaign co., 111., on the Illinois Central and the Indian- 
 apolis, Bloomington and Western railroads, 128 m. s.s.w. of Chicago. It is the seat of the 
 Illinois Industrial university. Champaign is a handsome and growing place, 2 m. from 
 Urbana, the county seat, with which it is connected by horse railroad. Pop. ’70, 4,625. 
 
 CHAMPARAN, a district in India, in the Behar province, under the jurisdiction of 
 the lieutenant-governor of Bengal ; 26° and 28° n. and 84° and 86° east. The district is a 
 wast level except in the n. and n.w., where it is undulating and rugged as it nears the 
 mountains of Nepaul. The s. and w\ portions are well cultivated, and have a dense 
 population. The whole population in 1872 was 1,440,815, of whom 86 in a hundred 
 were Hindus, 14 Mohammedans, 7 unspecified, and one in a hundred Christians. There 
 are only twm towns of consequence: Bettiah, pop. 19,708; and Motihari, the headquar- 
 ters of the district, pop. 8,266. The principal crops are rice, corn, barley, sugar-cane, 
 opium, and indigo; and the mineral products, gold, copper, and limestone. Indigo, 
 saltpeter, and rope are the only manufactures. 
 
 CHAM'PARTY, or Champerty (Fr. , from Lat. campi partitio, a division of lands), an 
 offense known to the law of England, which consists in a bargain between the plaintiff 
 or defendant in a suit, and a third party, generally a lawyer, that the latter shall have 
 part of the land, debt, or other thing sued for, in the event of success, and that in the 
 meantime he shall carry on the suit at his own expense. This practice has been strictly 
 forbidden by statute in England from very early times (3 Edward I. c. 25; 13 Edward 
 I. c. 49 ; etc. ) ; and in Scotland the rule of the civil law by which the pactum de quotd 
 litis (q.v.) was held to be 2^ pactum illicitum (q.v.), and as such void, has all along been 
 part of the common law. Such practices were also forbidden by statute to members 
 of the college of justice (1594, c. 216). There is this difference between the laws of the 
 two countries, however, that whereas in England the offense has always been punished 
 criminally, in Scotland the only penalty which it entails beyond nullity of the bargain, 
 is deprivation of office. In former times, the evil chiefly apprehended from C. prob- 
 ably was, that the honesty of judges might be tampered with by advocates who were 
 generally their friends, and not unfrequently their very near relatives, if permitted to 
 be personally interested in the issue of the causes in which they were professionally 
 cinployed. In our own day, the chief danger consists in the encouragement which 
 might thus be given to dishonest and oppressive litigation, and the facilities which 
 would be afforded for nefarious transactions between the agents on the opposite sides. 
 ‘That practices closely analogous to C., though unnamed, are not unknown in the lower 
 strata of the legal profession in all countries, is but too probable. The necessities of 
 U. K. 111.-43 
 
Champ de Mars. 
 Champollion. 
 
 674 
 
 trade have further introduced considerable equitable modifications into the law of C,.. 
 which will be explained under Chose in Action. 
 
 CHAMP DE MARS, originally Champ de Mai, the title given to annual meetingsr 
 of the Franks of Gaul in the 5th c. and later. They were national assemblies in which 
 the chief men gathered to pay obeisance to their chief ; or were special meetings called 
 by the king, to deliberate upon important matters; or military reviews. One of the 
 Carlovingians changed the time of regular meeting from Mar. to May, whence the 
 name. The Romans called them plactia. 
 
 CHAMP DE MARS, a great parallelogram in the environs of Paris, between the 
 Seine and the Ecole Militaire, used especially for military purposes and drills. It is 
 1093 yards long and 537 wide, with four rows of trees on either side, flanked by 
 ditches, and entered by five gates. It has been the site of many remarkable political 
 and other demonstrations, from that against the legislative assembly in 1791, to the- 
 more peaceful universal expositions of 1867 and 1878. 
 
 CHAMPE, John, 1752-98; a soldier in the revolutionary army, who was sent as a. 
 spy to New York with a view to carry off Arnold, who, after the discovery of his 
 treason, had taken refuge in the British lines. C. discovered that Arnold was in 
 the habit of walking in his garden at a late hour every night, and arranged to seize and 
 hurry him to a boat and across the Hudson; but on the appointed night Arnold 
 had changed his head-quarters and failed to appear. C. immediately escaped and 
 rejoined the patriot army, but he was at once honorably discharged from service, lest if 
 taken prisoner he should lie summarily hanged as a spy. 
 
 CHAMPFLEURY (real name Jules Fluery), b. 1821, Beginning as a clerk with a 
 Parisian book-publisher, he speedily acquired reputation by such books as Confessions of 
 Sylvius; Adventures of Mariette; Stories of Winter, Spring, and Autumn; and a number of 
 pantomines. He is one of the founders of UEvenement newspaper; and an author 
 of Les Oies du Noel for Proudhon’s Voice of the People. A satire on country life, Le» 
 Bourgeois de Molinchart, added to his fame. His works have been published with illus- 
 trations, including the History of Ancient and Modern Caricature. 
 
 CHAMPION (from a Gothic root signifying to contend, fight; Ang.-Sax. camp„ 
 fight). In the judicial combats of the middle ages, it was allowed to women, children, 
 and aged persons, except in cases of high treason or of parricide, to appear in the lists 
 by a representative. Such a hired combatant was called a champion. Those who fol- 
 lowed this profession were generally of the lowest class, and were held disreputable ; 
 for besides the perils of the combat, they were liable to be executed as well as their 
 clients. They were obliged to wear a peculiar dress of leather, and peculiar armor, 
 which was also held disreputable. They were not allowed to fight on horseback, and 
 appeared in the lists with their hair and nails cut short. Champions are mentioned as 
 early as in the time of Charlemagne ; and Otto I. employed them in deciding the suc- 
 cession to the empire. At a later period, in the age of chivalry, the word C. came to 
 have a more dignified acceptation, and signified a knight who entered the lists on 
 behalf of an injured lady, of a child, or of any one incapable of self-defense. In Eng- 
 land, the crown even had its C., who, mounted on horseback and armed to the teeth, 
 challenged, at every coronation at Westminster, all who should deny the king to be the- 
 lawful sovereign of the three realms. This practice is understood to have been first 
 introduced under Richard II., and it continues to make a part of the ceremonial of 
 an English coronation to this day. The name of C. was also given to the knight who, 
 during a tournament, had charge to see that no injury or insult should be offered to the 
 assembled ladies. 
 
 CHAMPION HILLS, in Hinds co., Miss., where. May 16, 1863, a confederate force 
 under gen. Pemberton had a short fight with gen. Grant’s forces, then marching upon 
 Vicksburg. The confederates were beaten and forced to retreat to Big Black river. 
 
 CHAMPLAIN, Lake, separating the states of New York and Vermont, and penetrat 
 ing, at its n. end, about 6 m. into Lower Canada. It empties itself into the St. Law- 
 rence, about 45 m. below Montreal, by the Sorel or Richelieu. It is navigable through- 
 out for vessels of about 100 tons, having its communications improved by one canal oiy 
 its own river, and by another to the Hudson. It stretches in lat. from 43° 30' to 45° 6' 
 n., and in long, from 73° to 73° 30' w. ; its extreme breadth, however, never exceeding 
 15 miles. Its principal towns are Whitehall at the s., Plattsburg on the w., and Bur- 
 lington on the east. Both lake C., and its tributary, lake George, have been prominent 
 in the history of the country — during the rivalry of France and England before the 
 conquest of 1759-60; during the revolutionary struggle of 1775-82; and lastly, during 
 the war of 1812-14, between Great Britain and the United States. 
 
 CHAMPLAIN, Lake {ante), discovered by Samuel Champlain in 1609, the year in 
 which Henry Hudson discovered New York bay and the North river. The possession 
 of this lake was a matter of importance in the war between the United States and. 
 Great Britain in 1812-15. In Aug., 1814, an English army of 12,000, led by sir George 
 Prevost, passed up the w. side of the lake to Plattsburg, accompanied by a squadron 
 of 16 vessels, 95 guns, and 1,000 men. The Americans had a hastily constructed fleet 
 in Plattsburg, comprising 14 vessels, 86 guns, and 850 men. A fierce engagement took. 
 
675 
 
 Champ de Mars. 
 Champolllon 
 
 place Sept. 11, in the beginning of which the English had the advantage, but the vic- 
 tory was with the Americans. The British land forces abandoned the design of invasion, 
 and under cover of darkness and a storm hastily retraced their steps toward Canada, 
 abandoning their sick and wounded, and a part of their baggage. There are in the 
 lake about 50 islands, the largest of which are North and South Hero, and Isle La 
 Motte. The lake is noted for its magnificent scenery, and is a favorite resort for summer 
 tourists. 
 
 CHAMPLAIN, a co. in the province of Quebec, Canada, bordering on the n.w. bank 
 of the St. Lawrence, about midway between Montreal and Quebec; 229 sq.m. ; pop. ’71, 
 S,167. It is intersected by the St. Maurice and other rivers. The soil is fertile, and 
 there is abundance of good timber. Besides ordinary agricultural crops, tobacco and 
 maple sugar are raised. Chief town, Batiscan. 
 
 CHAMPLAIN, a township in Clinton co., N. Y., on the Canada border, forming 
 the extreme n.e. point of the state. It has a village of the same name; pop. of township, 
 ’75, 5,306. The village is on the Ogdensburg and Lake Champlain railroad, 114 m. e. of 
 Ogdensburg. 
 
 CHAMPLAIN, Samuel DE, 1567-1635; the son of a sea captain, and when young 
 in the army of Henry IV. of France. He accompanied the Spanish fleet to the West 
 Indies, and on his return wrote an account of the voyage. In 1603, he was sent to Can- 
 ada by De Chaste, on whom the king had bestowed some of the new territory. From 
 1604 to 1607, he was engaged in exploring the coasts and seeking a desirable place for a 
 settlement. The next year he made a third voyage, and began a settlement at Quebec. 
 After many misfortunes and struggles the settlement became prosperous. In 1629, it 
 was captured by some English adventurers, and C. was taken to London, but was set at 
 liberty in 1632. The next year he returned to Canada, and died there. C. was in fact 
 the governor of the settlement from its commencement until his death. 
 
 CHAMPLIN, James Tift, d.d., b. Conn., 1811; a graduate of Brown university, 
 :and tutor therein; from 1838-41 pastor of a Baptist church in Portland, Me.; 1841-57, 
 professor of ancient languages in Waterville college, and from 1857-72, president of 
 of the same institution, now known as Colby university. He has published a number 
 of college text-books. 
 
 CHAMPNEY, Benjamin, b. N. H., 1817; an artist noted for landscape painting of 
 Alpine and White mountain scenery. In early life he was a lithographer in Boston. 
 
 CHAMPNEY, James Wells, b. Mass., 1843; learned the business of wood 
 ■engraving, taught drawing, and studied painting in Europe. He served as a volunteer 
 in the civil war. 
 
 CHAHPOLIION, Jean FRANqois, an illustrious name in modern Egyptian archasol- 
 ogy, was b. Dec. 23, 1790, at Figeac, in the department of Lot, France. In 1801, he 
 was introduced to Baron Fourier, secretary to the Institut d'Egypte, who initiated him 
 into the science of Egyptian antiquities. In 1807, C. went to Paris, in order to pursue, 
 with more advantage, his oriental studies; and, in 1809, was appointed professor of his- 
 tory in the lyceum of Grenoble. In 1811, he published his work, VEgypte sous les Pha- 
 raons, intended as the forerunner of a more elaborate work on Egypt, of which only the 
 geographical section appeared, in 1814. In his endeavor to decipher the Rosetta stone, 
 C. labored under the error of supposing that in this inscription the hieroglyphics were 
 wholly ideographic, and the demotic and hieratic characters wholly phonetic. After- 
 wards, he was led to believe that the hieratic characters were of the same nature as the 
 hieroglyphic, and this conviction he expressed in a communication made to the Acade- 
 mie des Imcriptioris, in Aug., 1821. In the same year he published his essay, Sur VEcri- 
 ture Hieratique des Anciens Egyptiens (Grenoble), a work which is now scarce. In this 
 essay he continued to assert the common ideographic nature of both hieroglyphic and 
 hieratic characters. Meanwhile C. had been made acquainted with the conclusions of 
 the acqte mathematician. Dr. Thomas Young (q.v.), respecting the phonetic use of hier- 
 oglyphic signs. Without doubt, it was this important discovery, of which Dr. Young, 
 however, made no great use, that set C. on tho right track of investigation, and led to 
 those brilliant results which were regarded by Niebuhr as constituting the greatest dis- 
 •covery of the century. By a comparison of the name of Ptolemy on the Rosetta stone 
 with that of Cleopatra on the Philensian obelisk, he was enabled to lay the foundation 
 of an alphabet, which he continued to elaborate until it now forms the basis of modern 
 Egyptian archaeology. His first decisive discoveries were made known in his celebrated 
 Lettre d Mons. Bader (Par. 1822), which was followed by the Freds du Systeme Hiero- 
 ^lypTiique (Paris, 1824; second ed. 1828); but his principal work, the Orammaire Egyp- 
 tienne, was posthumously published in 1836. 
 
 In 1824, appeared his Pantheon Egyptien; and, in 1825, his celebrated letters to the 
 due de Blacas. in which he explains the names and titles of many of the Pharaohs, writ- 
 ten on the monuments in Drovetti’s Egyptian collection at Turin, and attempts to class 
 them into dynasties. His theory of interpretation was much controverted at first, but its 
 importance was recognized by such distinguished scholars as Rosellini, Bunsen, sir 
 William Gell, and others. 
 
 In 1828, he was appointed b}’^ Charles X. to accompany a scientific expedition to 
 
Champollion-Figeao. 
 
 Chancellor. 
 
 676 
 
 Egypt, of which the results were given by Rosellini in the Monumens de VEgypte etdela 
 Ii/ubie (Par. 1835-45). On his return to Paris, 1830, C. was made a member of the Acad- 
 eirde des Inscriptions, etc.; and, in the following year, was appointed to the new chair of 
 Egyptian antiquities in the college of France; but soon after the commencement of his 
 intended course of lectures, in May, 1831, befell ill, and died. Mar. 4, 1832. According 
 to Silvestre de Sacy, “few men, since the birth of letters, have rendered to erudition 
 services equal to those which have consecrated to immortality the name of Champollion.” 
 
 CHAMPOLLION-FIGEAC, Jean Jacques, a distinguished French archaeologist, wash. 
 1778, at Figeac, in the department of Lot. After holding in Grenoble the offices of 
 librarian and professor of Greek literature, he was appointed, in 1828, conservator of 
 MSS. in the imperial library in Paris; but, after the Feb. revolution, was deposed 
 from office by Carnot. In 1849, he was appointed, by Louis Napoleon, librarian of the 
 palace of Fontainebleau. Besides the Antiquites de Grenoble (1807), his chief works 
 include the Annales des Lagides and Egypte Ancienne (forming a part of L' Unirers Pit- 
 toresque)\ Les Tournois du Boi Rene, a splendid work, with lithographs by Motte, and 
 several publications of old French documents. After the death of his younger and more 
 celebrated brother, C. was employed in editing the MSS. left by that distinguished 
 scholar, and has given an account of them in the Notice sur les Manuscrits Autographes 
 de Champollion le Jeune (Par. 1842). He died May, 1867. 
 
 His son, Aimb Champollion-Figeac, follows the same path of historical antiqua- 
 rianism, and has published several interesting and useful works. 
 
 CHANAK'-KALESSI' (Turkish, “Pot Castle”), a t. of Anatolia, deriving its name 
 from its manufactures of crockery, is situated on the Dardanelles, about 28 m. s.w. of 
 Gallipoli. Its castle is the most important on the Dardanelles, which name is sometimes 
 given to the town itself. Pop. some 3,000 or 4,000. 
 
 CHANCE, in its original and strict meaning, may be defined as that which determines- 
 the course of events, in the absence of law, ordinary causation, or providence. Strictly 
 speaking, it is an idea which few would now be disposed to admit as corresponding to 
 anything which really exists; the religious mind excluding it as inconsistent with the 
 belief in the divine government, and the philosophical mind rejecting it as inconsistent 
 with a recognition of universal laws of causation. As a word, however, it has always 
 been, and always will be popularly accepted ; and its use is correct so far as we over- 
 look, or choose for the moment to throw out of view, the more universal connection of 
 events, and regard them as their emergence, on a superficial view, appears to be deter- 
 mined. The idea of C., as referring to some apparently capricious or at least inexpli- 
 cable cause of an event, distinguishes it from the word probability, or the degree with 
 which the expectation of an event approves itself to a particular mind, the first express- 
 ing what metaphysicians would call an objective, and the second a subjective idea. It 
 is clear that C., being only legitimate as an expression in popular parlance — or if admit- 
 ted as a term in philosophy, one that would at once lead into the most inextricable pro- 
 blems — is a term which is much too indefinite to admit of any kind of measurement; 
 while what we call probability, or the degree with which an expectation approves itself, 
 owing to certain data presented to the mind, does, as we shall hereafter see, admit of a 
 kind of measurement which leads to very important consequences. For these reasons, 
 the consideration of what is sometimes called the doctrine of chances, but what is more 
 properly the theory of probabilities, will be found under the head of Probability. 
 
 CHANCEL (Lat. cancellus, a screen). The C., choir, or eastern part of a church, was- 
 often separated from the nave by a screen of lattice-work, so as to prevent general access 
 thereto, though not to interrupt either sight or sound. As it was in this part of the C. 
 that the service was always performed previous to the reformation, the clergy were held 
 to have a special right to it, in return for which its repairs in general still fall on the 
 impropriator, rector, or vicar, and not on the parish. The chief pew in the C. belongs- 
 to the rector or impropriator, but the disposal of the seats in the church, with this 
 exception, belongs to the ordinary, or, practically, to the churchwardens, to whom the 
 authority of the ordinary is delegated. No monument, moreover, can be set up with- 
 out the ordinary’s consent. The term C. is usually confined to parish churches which 
 have no aisles around the choir, or chapels behind it or around it; and in this case the 
 C. and the choir have the same signification. But in larger churches there are some- 
 times chancels at the ends of the side aisles, and this whether the choir has the char- 
 acter of a choir in the larger sense, or of a chancel. See Church. 
 
 CHANCELLOR (Lat. cancellarius). It is said that the chief notary or scribe of the 
 Roman emperor was called C., either because he was intrusted with the power of obliter- 
 ating, cancelling, or crossing out {cancellare, to make lattice-work) such expressions in the 
 edicts of the prince as seemed to him to be at variance with the laws, or otherwise 
 erroneous; or because he sat intra cancellos, within the lattice- work or railings {cancelUy 
 which were erected to protect the emperor from the crow’ding of the people when he 
 sat in judgment. Neither the title nor the office of C. is at all peculiar to England. 
 The C. of France (chancelier de France), from a very early time, was an officer of state 
 of great power and dignity, under Avhom several other officers, bearing also the titles 
 of C., were employed in the administration of justice and in the defense of the public 
 
677 
 
 Champollion-Figeac* 
 
 Chancellor. 
 
 order, llie C. of France was the constitutional interpreter of the will of the sovereign; 
 his functions being, on the whole, analogous to those exercised by the C. of England. 
 As an instance in the change of the value of money, not more remarkable than many 
 which could be cited in our own country, it may be mentioned that, in 1290, the 
 salary of this high official was six sous a day, with the privilege, to him and his, of 
 eating at the court. When he was at Paris, and ate at his own lodgings, he had 20 
 sous a day. The office was abolished at the revolution ; and though it was restored by 
 ttie Bourbons, and even under the first Napoleon the higher-sounding title of archi- 
 chancelier was revived, many of the functions of the old C. were transferred to the 
 minister of justice, and have ever since been held by him. 
 
 In most of the other countries of Europe there are officers of state who bear this, or 
 analogous titles, though their powers and duties are very various. The chief function- 
 ary in the Austrian empire has often been termed C. ; and on the reconstitution of the 
 German empire, prince Bismarck was made “ C. of the empire” {Reichskanzler). Besides 
 these state-chaucellors, there were offieers in many other capacities to whom the title 
 was given. Every bishop has his 'C. in the church of Rome, and there are still law 
 chancellors of cathedrals, dioceses, universities, etc. 
 
 CHANCELLOR {ante). The constitutions of some of the United States create this 
 officer and define his power by legislative statute. In New York, the officer was recog- 
 nized with others of colonial (English) appointment in the first and second constitutions, 
 but in the constitution of 1846 the court of chancery was abolished, and the C. 
 passed out of office. The tendency of late years is to merge the courts of chancery 
 into the superior law courts. Separate chancery or equity courts exist in only a few 
 states; in others the courts of law sit also as courts of equity; in some equity relief is 
 administered under the forms of the common law; and in others still the distinction 
 between law and equity has been formally abolished. The federal courts exercise 
 equity jurisdiction whether the state courts in the district are courts of equity or not. 
 
 CHANCELLOR, Lord. It is usually said that the existence of the office in England, 
 as in the other states of Europe, is to be ascribed to the influence which the con- 
 stitution of the Roman empire had on the constitutions of the modern nations. 
 This influence was exercised in no small measure through the medium of the church, 
 the profession of the law being generally exercised by ecclesiastics; and it is for 
 this reason, probably, that the bishop and the king are furnished with officers bearing 
 the same title, and exercising analogous functions. The C. is always the confidential 
 adviser of the sovereign in state affairs. It is for this reason that he has been called 
 the keeper of his conscience, and that in England it is to him that the duty was intrusted 
 of presiding over a court which acted on what were called — by way of contradistinc- 
 tion — equitable considerations. It is in this latter prerogative that the chief distinction 
 exists between the C, and all other judges; for, whilst they are held by the letter of the 
 law, he was at one time supposed to act rather juxla honum et cequum. In certain more 
 special points of view, there is a similarity between the functions of the chancellors in 
 different states. “In all of them he seems to have had the supervision of all charters, 
 letters, and such other public instruments of the crown as were authenticated in the 
 most solemn manner; and therefore, when seals came into use, he had always the cus- 
 tody of the sovereign’s great seal.” — Stephen’s Commentaries, vol. iii. p. 398. It is from 
 this last-mentioned circumstance that the office of C., or keeper (q.v.), which, by 5 Eliz- 
 abeth, c. 18, is declared to be exactly the same, is created without writ or patent, by the 
 mere delivery of the great seal, and that the C., if a baron, takes precedency of 
 every temporal lord not a member of the royal famil}’’, and of all bishops except the 
 archbishop of Canterbury, The C. is a privy-councillor by his office, a member of the 
 cabinet, and prolocutor, or speaker of the house of lords, by prescription. Though the 
 form in which his tenure of office is terminated, is by the resumption of the great seal 
 by the sovereign, the C. practically resigns office with the party to which he is attached. 
 He has the appointment of all justices of the peace throughout the kingdom, but this 
 privilege he exercises generally on the recommendation of the lord-lieutenants. But 
 the most important, and, as it now seems, somewhat anomalous branch of his patron- 
 age, arises out of his having been originally an ecclesiastic. Though the last bishop 
 who held the office was John Williams, archbishop of York, who was lord keeper from 
 July 10, 1621, to Nov. 1, 1625, the C. still continues to be patron of all the crown livings 
 of the value of £20 per annum, or under (though in 1863 about 300 were sold to aug- 
 ment the incomes of those sold and those retained), and visitor of all hospitals and col- 
 leges of the king’s foundation. As representing the paternal character of the sovereign, 
 again, the C. is the general guardian of all infants, idiots, and lunatics, and has the 
 supervision of all charitable uses in the kingdom. As regards his judicial patronage, 
 the arrangement is, that the C. appoints in general all the judges of the superior courts, 
 except the two chief-justices, who are nominated by the prime-minister of the day. Of 
 inferior appointments, the latter also has reserved to him the commissioners of bank- 
 ruptcy and the judges of the county courts. All these functions the C. performs in 
 addition to his extensive duties as the supreme judge of the court of chancery, both as 
 an ordinary court of common law and of record, and as an extraordinary court of 
 equity. Much inconvenience had arisen from the accumulation of duties in the single 
 
Chancellor. 
 
 Chancery. 
 
 678 
 
 person of this high dignitary, and various expedients had been devised for lessening the 
 evil. Vice-chancellors had been appointed, and the duties of the master of the rolls had 
 been extended. In 1875, a considerable change was made by consolidating all the vice- 
 chancellors’ courts into one division, called the chancery division of the high court. 
 And the C.’s duties in the house of lords as the highest appeal court were lightened in 
 1876. The proposal of a minister of justice has, however, not yet found favor. The 
 salary of the C. is £10,000 a year, and he has an annuity of £5,000 on his retirement 
 from office. The style of the C., since the union with Scotland, has been lord high 
 chancellor of Great Britain ; but he has scarcely any jurisdiction in Scotland, and in 
 Ireland there is a separate C. , having powers in most respects the same as those of the 
 C. of Great Britain. To slay the C. is treason under 25 Edward III. c. 2. 
 
 CHANCELLOR OF A CATHEDRAL is an officer who superintends the arrangements 
 for the celebration of the religious services. His office is quite distinct from that of the 
 
 CHANCELLOR op a DIOCESE, who, as vicar-general to the bishop, is an ecclesiasti- 
 cal judge, appointed to assist the bishop in questions of ecclesiastical law, and hold his 
 courts for him. By 37 Henry VIII. c. 17, it is provided that the C. of a diocese may 
 be a layman, whether married or single, provided he be doctor of the civil law, law- 
 fully create and made in some university. By the canons of 1603, he must be a bache- 
 lor of law, at the least, or a master of arts. There are certain cases, however, in which 
 the bishop must sit in person. In case of complaint against a clerk in holy orders, for 
 any ecclesiastical offense against the church discipline act (3 and 4 Viet. c. 86), the 
 bishop is to hear the cause, assisted by three assessors ; of whom the dean of his cathe- 
 dral, or one of his archdeacons, or his chancellor, must be one; and a serjeant-at-law, 
 or advocate who has practiced 5 years in the court of the archbishop of the province, or 
 barrister of 7 years’ standing, another. 
 
 CHANCELLOR OF THF EXCHEQUER. See Exchfqufr. 
 
 CHANCELLOR op SCOTLAND. Previous to the union of the two kingdoms in 1707, 
 when the office was abolished, the C. of S. performed functions in many respects analo- 
 gous to those which belong to the lord high chancellor of Great Britain. He presided 
 in parliament, and was the head of all the courts of judicature; he was the chief coun- 
 selor of the king, and keeper of the great seal. From the fact of the distinction 
 between law and equity in the English sense never having been recognized in Scotland, 
 the C. had no judicial functions separate from those of the ordinary courts of law, but 
 he had the principal direction of the chancery, the constitution of which is described 
 below. In early times, the C. of S., as of England, was very frequently an ecclesiastic; 
 but the first, Constantine, earl of Fife, in the reign of Alexander I., and the last, the 
 earl of Seafield, who held the office at the union, were both laymen ; and many other 
 nobles, earls of Argyle, Angus, Huntly, etc., appear in the lists given in Crawford’s 
 Officers of State, and Chalmers’s Caledonia. On the abolition of the office, a keeper of 
 the great seal was appointed, who acts merely ministerially in affixing it to the writs 
 which pass under it. See Great Seal. 
 
 CHANCELLORSVILLE, Battle op, in Spottsylvania co., Va., between the union 
 army under Gen. Hooker and the confederate forces under Gen. Lee, May 2, 1863. 
 Hooker had succeeded Burnside in command of the army of the Potomac, and after 
 nearly three months’ work brought it into a state of efficiency. He had 132,000 men, 
 13,000 of whom were cavalry. This army, in seven corps, lay on the Rappahannock 
 opposite to Fredericksburg. On the heights on the other (right) bank the confederate 
 army was strongly intrenched; it numbered 62,000 men, of whom about 3,000 were cav- 
 alry. Hooker resolved to turn the confederate left flank, first sending nearly all his 
 cavalry to destroy communication with Richmond. April 27th, Hooker sent 36,000 
 men up the left bank of the river beyond the confederate line, and they crossed safely. 
 The objective point was C. a solitary brick dwelling-house in a wide and bar- 
 ren region. Before sunset, on the 30th, 48,000 union soldiers had reached the place. 
 Another considerable union force had crossed the Rappahannock below Fredericksburg, 
 and were making demonstrations in the confederate front. Lee appears to have been 
 unaware of these movements until the evening of the 30th. At midnight his men were 
 in motion, and before noon of May 1st he was in line of battle in Hooker’s front. At 
 daybreak “ Stonewall” Jackson, with 30,000 confederates, moved behind the shelter of 
 a dense forest (the “ Wilderness”), and at 3 p.m., after a march of 15 m., fell upon the 
 union army while the men were preparing their dinner, with arms stacked and their 
 intrenchments unguarded. The union forces fled without making a stand, and pushed 
 towards C. There they were with difficulty brought to a stand. Jackson, 
 who had pursued them closely, rode out to reconnoiter, when he was fired on by 
 his own men who mistook his escort for a union company. He died the next day. 
 Thus far the greatest damage suffered by the federals was the temporary disorganization 
 of Howard’s corps, which was the weakest corps in the field ; and this was more than 
 supplied by the arrival during the night of a large corps from Washington. On the 
 morning of May 3d (Sunday), Hooker was still on the defensive. The confederates 
 began the attack, and it was hotly continued until 10 o’clock, both sides suffering 
 severely. While Sickles was bearing the brunt of Stuart’s attack, the ammunition 
 
679 
 
 Chancellor. 
 
 Chancery. 
 
 failed, and Sickles sent for aid. At the moment the message came to Hooker, he was 
 struck by a spent ball and fell insensible to the ground; so there was no one to send aid 
 to Sickles, and he was obliged to fall back. The weight of some half-dozen assaults 
 fell upon his division, until he was overpowered and his lines destroyed. The day 
 passed in desultory fighting and strategic movements, in which, on the union side, there 
 was much indecision and loss of opportunity. During Monday night Hooker resolved 
 to abandon his position, and threw up intrenchments to cover his bridges. A storm 
 came on Tuesday afternoon, but during the night the union forces crossed the river, and 
 the battle was over. The losses, as set forth in ofllcial reports, were : on the union side, 
 17,000, of whom 12,000 were killed and wounded and 500 missing; on the side of the 
 confederates about 13,000, of whom 10,300 were killed and wounded and 2,700 missing. 
 
 CHANCELLOR OF A UNIVERSITY. The highest honorary office connected with a 
 university is generally that of chancellor. See University. 
 
 CHANCE-MEDLEY, AND Chaud-Medley, or Melle (Fr. chaud, hot; and mMee, a 
 fray), as it is called in Scotland, are French expressions borrowed by our law. Though 
 often spoken of as synonymous, they are, in reality, distinct in meaning— the one 
 signifying a casual affray; the other, an affray in the heat of blood or passion. Both 
 are in this country, and in mbst others, recognized as pleas in mitigation of the offense 
 of homicide (q.v.). See also Sanctuary. 
 
 CHANCERY (Lat. cancellaria). As the Roman emperors, and after them the various 
 sovereigns who divided the vast inheritance of the empire, had each a chancellor (q.v.), 
 so in every European kingdom there was an establishment called a G., where these 
 officers performed their functions. If we imagine a large chamber divided by lattice- 
 work {cancelli), the outer half devoted to the people, the inner occupied by the chancellor 
 and his subordinates, engaged in framing edicts, letters of nobility, and the like, and 
 engrossing them on parchment, and sealing them with the king’s own seal in proof of 
 their authenticity, and then handing them through the railings to the people without, 
 we shall have a pretty good conception of the C. in its earliest form. 
 
 In France, as there were subordinate chancellors attached to the parliaments of the 
 respective provinces, so there were subordinate chanceries; but the grand C. of France, 
 which followed the person of the king, was alone, in strictness, entitled to the name. 
 
 The apostolic C. at Rome, in which, in addition to the documents pertaining to his 
 temporal sovereignty, the bulls and briefs of the pope are authenticated, is presided over 
 by a cardinal, with the title of vice-chancellor. 
 
 CHANCERY, or Chancellary, of Scotland, is a public office in the general register 
 house at Edinburgh, managed by the director of C. and his deputes, in which all char- 
 ters, patents of dignities, gifts of offices, remissions, legitimations, presentations, com- 
 missions, brieves, retours, and other writs appointed to pass the great and quarter seals 
 are recorded. See Great Seal. 
 
 CHANCERY, Court of, in England. Besides the functions pertaining to the chan- 
 cellor in other countries, the chancellor of England had early assigned to him the office 
 of a judge; and the English C. consequently became a court of law, the peculiar charac- 
 ter of which will be rendered intelligible by the following considerations: In assigning 
 judicial functions to the chancellor’s department, it was not intended that it should inter 
 fere with that other department of government which has everywhere been distinguished 
 both from the legislative and the executive — viz., the judicial. But in all departments, 
 according to the imperial theory from which the idea of the C. at least was derived, the 
 sovereign was supreme, and to his will, or to his sense of justice, there was consequently 
 an appeal in judicial, as in other matters. His chancellor, however, was his adviser in 
 all matters whatsoever; and thus, though not a judge in the stricter sense, it is manifest 
 that his counsel, in judicial matters of the highest importance, would constantly be 
 called in. But further, the king governed by laws, even before he was governed by 
 them; and for the sake of order and his own convenience, he would naturally add 
 to or supplement the law which he had established, only where it could be shown to him 
 that it did not meet the substantial justice of the particular case. He would con- 
 sequently be a judge, not of the interpretation or application of the law, which he 
 would leave to his ordinary judges, but of its adequacy to circumstances which had 
 changed, or had not been anticipated; and when he interfered, it would be to some 
 extent in the character of a legislator, as well as of a judge. The king would thus be 
 a judge in equity, in the popular and intelligible sense of that word; and acting in this 
 capacity himself, it would be in this capacity that he would call in the aid of his chan- 
 cellor. It is not mysterious, then, how in early times the court of C. came to be a 
 court of equity; and the chief difficulty regarding its origin seems to attach to the 
 other of the two great departments into which it is divided, and in which it exercises 
 jurisdiction as a court of common law. But as the free constitution of England 
 developed itself, it soon became apparent that equity, in the old despotic or patriarchal 
 sense — in which it was not so much the administration as the making or modifying of 
 law — was consistent with its principles, whether it proceeded from a judge or from the 
 monarch himself. The popular sense of equity was consequently abandoned; and a 
 technical sense, unknown to the jurisprudence of every other nation, was given to it. 
 
Chancre. 
 
 Chandler. 
 
 6$0 
 
 The proceedings of the court of C. “ on its equity side,” which had hitherto been a mere 
 supplement to law, came now to be hedged in by rules and precedents as closely as those 
 of any court of common law. What henceforth continued to be the distinction in prin- 
 ciple between law and equity, or between the functions of the courts of common law and 
 the court of C., or even of the two great departments of this court itself, it is perhaps 
 impossible to state. The arbitrary line which has been drawn between the class of 
 cases assigned to the one set of courts and to the other, will be considered under 
 Equity. 
 
 The judicial duties of the chancellor have long been shared by the master of the 
 rolls, an officer of high rank, who was originally appointed only for the superintendence 
 of the writs and records appertaining to the common law departments of the court, but 
 who was accustomed also to sit as a separate though subordinate judge on the equity 
 side. The disputes which had arisen regarding his powers were set at rest by 3 Geo. II. 
 c. 30, which declares that all orders made by him, except such as by the course of the 
 court are appropriated to the great seal alone, shall be valid, subject nevertheless to be 
 discharged or altered by the lord chancellor, and so as that they shall not be enrolled 
 till they are signed by his lordship. By 3 and 4 Will. IV. c. 94, the master’s powers are 
 further increased, and he may now hear motions, pleas, and demurrers, as well as causes 
 generally. The salary of the master of the rolls (q.v.) is £6,000 a year. The vast 
 increase of business, and the still greater increase of arrears, during the previous half- 
 century, rendered it necessary, in 1813 (53 Geo. III. c.24), to appoint another assistant 
 to the chancellor, under the title of the vice-chancellor of England; and in 1841, when 
 the equity business of the exchequer was transferred to the C., two more vice-chancel- 
 lors were added. Each of these judges sits separately from the lord chancellor, and 
 their functions extend to both departments of the court. Their salaries are £5,000 a 
 year. Another important addition (14 and 15 Viet. c. 83) was that of the lords justices 
 of the court of appeal for all courts. This court consisted of the lord chancellor, together 
 with these judges; but the lords justices, when sitting without the chancellor, possess 
 the same jurisdiction which belongs to him, and their existence does not prejudice his 
 right to sit alone. The lords justices possess the same authority in matters of lunacy 
 as the chancellor; and they, sitting together, constitute, without the chancellor, the 
 court of appeal in bankruptcy. An appeal, which may also be entertained by the lord 
 chancellor sitting alone, lies to this court from all the separate courts of the chancery 
 division ; and from this appellate jurisdiction there is an appeal in turn to the house 
 of lords. The lords justices may also take up original causes, though these, in prac- 
 tice, are mainly confined to the divisional courts of the high court. Till recently, cer- 
 tain parts of the equitable jurisdiction of the court of C. were confided to the masters 
 in ordinary (see Masters in Chancery) and the accountant general. The office of the 
 masters has been abolished, but that of the accountant continues to be one of the most 
 important connected with the court. Besides these more important officers, the court 
 of C. has always had a large body of subordinates, registrars, taxing-masters, and a 
 staff of record and writ clerks attached to it. 
 
 The subdivision of courts into those of equity and common law had long been found 
 mischievous, inasmuch as it in some cases doubled the expense to the suitor, by sending 
 him from one court to another for instalments of the justice which he sought. For 
 many years this anomalous arrangement had been given upas indefensible; and bills 
 from time to time were introduced into parliament, in order to rearrange the courts, so 
 as to administer entire justice in every case. Great changes were necessary in this 
 department of the law, and the only question was at last reduced to the best mode of 
 settling the details of the high court of justice, which was to supersede the previously 
 existing courts. For the changes ultimately carried through under the judicature acts 
 of 1873-76, and the constitution of the new high court of justice, see Common Laws. 
 The C. court is now the chancery division of the reconstituted high court. 
 
 In various colonies of the British empire, local courts have been established in imita- 
 tion of the high court of C., an institution which, from its cumbrous, anomalous, and 
 unscientific character, scarcely merited imitation ; but in America, though the distinction 
 between law and equity was at first adopted and long adhered to with the tenacity with 
 which Englishmen cling to their native customs, it has been abolished in the state of 
 Kew York, and law and equity there, as elsewhere in the world, now constitute one sys- 
 tem, administered in one series of tribunals of original and appellate jurisdiction. On 
 the continent, the English court of C. has always been a subject of ridicule; and a recent 
 French writer, in speaking of it, says; “Nothing ever comes to an end in it; and the 
 unhappy man who has a process there, can be sure of but one thing — viz., that whether 
 he gains it or loses it, his ruin is certain.” The acts by which evils which were insep- 
 arable from the constitution of the court of C. — and which spring from the distinction 
 between law and equity, on which its very existence depended — had been mitigated, 
 were the following: 15 and 16 Viet. oc. 80, 86, and 87, 21 and 22 Viet. c. 27, 23 and 24 
 Viet. cc. 38, 128, 25 and 26 Viet. c. 2. 
 
 CHANCERY, Court of {ante), in this country exists only in a few of the states; 
 some never established the court at all, and a number which inherited it from English 
 colonial times or established it in their first constitutions have abolished it and given 
 the equity duties to the courts of law. According to latest authority, the court of chan- 
 
681 
 
 Chancre. 
 
 Chandler. 
 
 eery exists in Alabama, Delaware, Florida, Mississippi, New Jersey, Tennessee, and 
 Vermont; but in most of these states the court of chancery is held by a justice of the 
 supreme court. 
 
 CHAN CRE. See Syphilis. 
 
 CHANDAH, a t. of India, on the s.w. frontier of the territory of Nagpore, on the left 
 bank of the river Eraee, near its junction with the Wurda, 90 m. s. of the town of Nag- 
 pore. Its walls, built of cut stone, and surrounded by a high parapet, are 6 m. round, 
 from 15 to 20 ft. high, and flanked with round towers large enough for the heaviest 
 guns. Within the place, and almost equidistant from the n. and s. faces, is a citadel; 
 the rest of the interior consists of straggling streets, detached houses, and plantations. 
 It is well supplied with water. In 1818, C. was taken by the British. Pop. 16,233. C. 
 is capital of a British administrative district having an area of 9,700 sq.m., and a pop. of 
 534,431. 
 
 CHANDAL'A, the lowest of the impure classes in Hindu caste. Besides the four 
 pure classes there are various mixed and more or less impure classes, some of which, 
 the C. for instance, are so vile that their shadow is pollution, and no true Hindu will 
 take shelter under the same roof or tree with them. 
 
 CHANDELEUR ISLANDS, in the gulf of Mexico, between the mainland of Missis- 
 sippi and the mouth of the river. There is a light on the n. end of the most northerly 
 island, in 30° 8' n., and 88° 52' west. 
 
 CHANDERNAGORE', a French city, with a scanty territory of about 2000 acres, on 
 the right or w. bank of the Hoogly, 21 m. above Calcutta by railway, on the opposite 
 shore, in lat. 22° 50' n., and long. 88° 23' east. The population, estimated at about 30,- 
 000, consists of a few Europeans and Eurasians, the great bulk being natives of unmixed 
 blood. Independently of political considerations, the place has, through the gradual 
 silting up of the river, lost some of its commercial advantages. Within 100 years back, 
 ships of the line ascended to C. ; now, however, vessels even of far inferior burden sel- 
 dom get above Diamond Harbor, which is nearly 50 m. further down. C. was estab- 
 lished in 1676, and for awhile rivaled Calcutta. It was captured by Clive in 1757, 
 but finally restored to the French in 1816. 
 
 CHANDHAIREE', or Chanderi, a t. of Gwalior, India, in a hilly and jungly dis- 
 trict, near a tributary of the Jumna. It is at present much decayed, on account of 
 Mahratta oppression, the scourge of war, and the decay of its manufactures, which are 
 undersold by the cheaper fabrics of Britain; but the extent and architectural excel- 
 lence of its ruins indicate its splendor and importance in former times, when it is said to 
 have contained 14,000 stone houses, 384 markets, 360 caravanserais, and 12,000 mosques. 
 The fort of C., formerly deemed impregnable, consists of a strong rampart of sand- 
 stone, flanked by circular towers, and is situated on a high hill. Among other 
 remains of former greatness, is a pass cut through a solid rock 100 ft. high. Dur- 
 ing the native wars, being a place of importance, C. was frequently besieged. Under 
 Mahratta sway, it became a haunt of freebooters, very troublesome to the native dis- 
 tricts under British rule or protection ; and on the conclusion of the treaty of 1844, it 
 was, among other lands, assigned for the maintenance of the increased Gwalior contin- 
 gent, commanded by British officers. 
 
 CHANDLER, Charles Frederick, ph.d., ll.d., b. Mass., 1836; educated at Har- 
 vard, Berlin, and Gottingen. In 1857, he had charge of the chemical department of 
 Union college, and in 1864, was made professor of chemistry in the school of mines of 
 Columbia college. In 1858, he held the chair of chemistry in the New York college of 
 pharmacy. He is a member of the chemical societies of Berlin, Paris, and London. In 
 1870, with his brother he established The American Chemist. Recently he has been the 
 chief officer of the board of health of New York city, and has paid much attention to 
 sanitary reforms. He is the author of many important scientific papers, the greater 
 number of which can be found in his magazine. 
 
 CHANDLER, Dr. Richard, a scholar and antiquary of considerable eminence of the 
 last century, was b. at Elson, in Hampshire, in 1738, and educated at Oxford. He first 
 became known as the editor of the magnificent work, Marmora Oxoniensia, published by 
 the Oxford university in 1763. He afterwards traveled through Greece and Asia Minor, 
 with Reyett, an architect, and Pars, a painter, at the instance of the then flourishing 
 Dilettanti society, with a view to collect information regarding the former state of these 
 countries, and to^ procure exact descriptions of the ruins. The result of their united 
 labors appeared in 1769, in 2 vols., entitled Ionian Antiquities. C. also published a val 
 uable account of the ancient inscriptions of Asia Minor and Greece; and his account of 
 his travels in these countries, issued in 1765-76, is still a standard work. He also pub- 
 lished a History of Troy. He died in Feb., 1810. 
 
 CHANDLER, Samuel, d.d., 1698-1766; a dissenting minister of Berkshire, England, 
 the son of an eminent non-conformist divine. He studied at Gloucester and Leyden, and 
 held life-long friendship with bishop Butler and archbishop Seeker. He was a fellow of 
 the royal and antiquarian societies, and received offers of high preferment in the estab- 
 lished church, but these he positively refused and remained until his death a Presby- 
 
Chandler. 
 
 Channing^. 
 
 682 
 
 terian minister. He was forty years pastor of the meeting house in the Old Jewry. He 
 left many sermons, commentaries, and other works pertaining to religious and church 
 matters. 
 
 CHANDLER, Zachariah, b. N. H., 1813; d. Chicago, 1879. He was educated in a 
 common school and seminary. At the age of 22, he went to Michigan and settled in 
 Detroit, where he became a wealthy and prosperous merchant. He was an early and 
 active member of the whig party, and in 1851 was elected mayor of the city. The 
 next year he was nominated for governor, but was defeated. When the republican 
 party was organized, he took an active part, and was by it chosen U. S. senator 
 in 1856. In the senate he was a firm opponent of all schemes for the extension of 
 slavery, and stood side by side with Benjamin Wade of Ohio, and others who resisted 
 the arrogant tone of the extreme pro-slavery senators. When the civil war broke out. 
 Chandler was one of the foremost in favor of a vigorous prosecution, and had little 
 respect for those whom he denounced as traitors. In 1875, he was defeated for senator, 
 but was at once appointed secretary of the interior, where his business talent soon 
 became manifest in the improved administration of the department. In 1868, and 
 again in 1876, he was chairman of the republican national committee, having the gen- 
 eral management of the party canvass. The day before he died he made a powerful 
 speech to a great mass-meeting. * 
 
 CHANDLER SCIENTIFIC DEPARTMENT. See Dartmouth College. 
 
 CHANBORE', a t. and fort in the district of Nassick (q.v.), presidency of Bombay, its 
 lat. and long, being 20° 20' n. and 74° 14' east. C. is a flourishing place, with a pop. 
 of (1872) 5,662. The fort, which commands an important pass on the route between 
 Candeish and Bombay, is situated on the summit of a hill naturally inaccessible every- 
 where but at the gateway. It surrendered to the British in 1804; and being subse- 
 quently restored to Holkar, was finally ceded by him in 1818. 
 
 CHANBOS CLAUSE. During the discussion of the clauses of the reform bill (q.v.) in 
 1831, the marquis of Chandos (tory), afterwards duke of Buckingham, proposed the 
 insertion of a clause giving the county franchise to tenants at will occupying lands for 
 which they paid an annual rent of £50. This was opposed by the ministers on the 
 ground that the class proposed to be enfranchised would be subject to the coercion of 
 the landowners, who would thus virtually determine the elections. The amendment, 
 however, was supported by many of the radicals, who at that time regarded any exten- 
 tion of the suffrage as a boon, and was carried by a majority of 84. The clause was 
 incorporated in the bill of the following year, and was finally carried by a majority of 
 272 to 32. The result proved a material accession to the conservative element in 
 CQunties. Under the reform act of 1867, occupants of lands of a rateable value of £12 
 are entitled to the county franchise. 
 
 CHANBPOOR', a t. of British India, in the n.w. provinces, district of Bijnour, about 
 930 miles n.w. of Calcutta, and 80 n.e. of Delhi. It is of considerable size, and has a 
 p. (1872) of 12,033. 
 
 CHANFRON. See Charger. 
 
 CHANGARNIER, Nicolas Anne Theodule, a French general, was born at Autun 
 in 1873 — and received his education at the military school of Saint-Cyr. In 1830, he 
 went as lieut. to Algeria, where he distinguished himself, and rose to the rank of gen. 
 of division. After the proclamation of the republic in 1848, he was appointed gover- 
 nor-general of Algeria, in the room of Cavaignac; but being chosen a member of the 
 national assembly, he returned to Paris, when he was appointed commander-in-chief of 
 the garrisons of Paris and of the national guard. He held this double office till the 
 middle of May, 1849, and again for some time after the insurrectionary movement of 
 June of that year. C. was a member of the legislative assembly, where he held a sort 
 of neutral position between the orleanists and legitimists and opposed to the bona- 
 partists. At the coup d'etat in December, 1851, after being imprisoned in Ham, he went 
 into exile till the Franco-Prussian war, when he offered his services to Napoleon III. 
 He was in Metz with Bazaine; and, on its capitulation, retired to Brussels. He returned 
 to France in 1871, entered the assembly, and assisted M. Thiers in reorganizing the army. 
 He died in February 1877. 
 
 CHANG-CHOW-FOO, a city of China, and capital of a department of the same name, 
 in the province of Fuh-keen, in 24° 31' n. lat., and 1° 24' long. e. of Pekin. 
 
 CHANG-CHOW-FOO, or Chaou-chow, a city of China, and capital of a department 
 of the same name, in the province of Keang-"su, in 31° 50' n. lat., and 3° 24' long. e. of 
 Pekin. 
 
 CHANGELING. It was at one time a common superstition, that infants were taken 
 from their cradles by fairies, who left instead their own weakly and starveling elves. 
 The children so left were called changelings, and were known by their peevishness, and 
 their backwardness in walking and speaking. As it was supposed that the fairies had 
 no power to change children that had been christened, infants were carefully watched 
 imtil such time as that ceremony had been performed. This superstition is aUuded to 
 
683 
 
 Chandler. 
 
 Channing. 
 
 by Shakespeare, Spenser, and other poets; and it has not yet quite died out of some of 
 the rural districts in Britain. 
 
 CHANG-SHA-FOO, a city of China, capital of the province of Hoo-nan, in 28° 20' n. 
 lat, 
 
 CHANK-SHELL, the popular name of the shell of several species of turbinella, a genus 
 of gasteropodous mollusks of the group siphonostomata (q.v.), natives of the East Indian 
 seas. These shells are obtained chiefly on the coasts of the s. of India and Ceylon, and 
 form a considerable article of trade to Calcutta. They are much used as ornaments by 
 Hindu women, the arms and legs being encircled with them ; and many of them are 
 buried with the bodies of opulent persons. Those which are thrown up on the beach, 
 after the death of the mollusk, and have become whitened, are little valued, but fresh 
 shells readily find purchasers. The commercial returns show an exportation of chank- 
 shells from Madras amounting to 2,460,727 in one year, 1853-54, the value of which 
 was about £10,000. The quantity ordinarily exported is smaller. A chank-shell open- 
 ing to the right is rare, and is highly prized in Calcutta, so that a price of £50, or even 
 £100, is sometimes paid for one. 
 
 CHANNEL, English — the mare Britannicum of the ancients — is that arm of the 
 Atlantic ocean which divides England from France, gradually narrowing to the strait 
 of Dover. It is often called simply the channel ; and the fleet stationed in it for the 
 protection of the English coast, the channel fleet. The greatest river which falls into 
 it is the Seine. It forms bays both on the English and on the French coast; but the 
 larger ones are those on the French coast, whilst the best harbors are on the English. 
 
 CHANNEL ISLANDS, a group of islands belonging to Great Britain, lying off then.w. 
 coast of France, between Normandy and Brittany. 'They are about 120 m. s.w. of South- 
 ampton, and the nearest distance from the French coast is about 10 miles. The C. I. are 
 the only parts of the dukedom of Normandy now belonging to the English crown, to 
 which they have been attached since the conquest. King John, about the year 1200, 
 lost all Normandy, except these isles. The chief islands of the group are Jersey, 
 Guernsey, Alderney, and Sark. The area of the whole is 112 sq.m., and the pop. in 
 1871 was 90,596. They are more particularly described under Jersey. 
 
 CHANNING, Edward Tyrrel, ll.d., 1790-1856; brother of William Ellery Chan- 
 ning, D.D. ; a lawyer of Boston who devoted his attention chiefly to literature. In 
 1817 to 19, he edited the North American Review, and was a regular contributor to it 
 through a large part of his life. He was professor of rhetoric and oratory in Harvard 
 college until 1851. A volume of his lectures has been published. 
 
 CHANNING, Walter, 1786-1876; a physician, native of Rhode Island, brother of 
 William Ellery Channing, d.d. He studied medicine in Boston and Philadelphia, and 
 in Edinburgh and London. In 1815, he was professor of obstetrics and medical juris- 
 prudence in Harvard, resigning in 1854. He was also for 20 years physician of the 
 Massachusetts general hospital. Among his writings are Etherization in Ghildhirth; A 
 Physician's Vacation, or a Summer in Europe; Professional Reminiscences of Foreign 
 Travel; Old and New; Reformation of Medical Science; and a volume of poems. 
 
 CHANNING, William Ellery, d.d., a celebrated Unitarian preacher and author, 
 was b. 7th April, 1780, at Newport, R. I., in the United States, entered Harvard 
 university at the age of 14, and took his degree in 1798. In 1803, he was ordained min- 
 ister of a church in Boston. During the earlier years of his ministry, his theological 
 peculiarities had little prominence in his discourses, and in consequence he stood upon 
 friendly terms with his brethren in more orthodox churches. In 1819, however, he 
 preached a sermon at the ordination of the Rev. Jared Sparks, in which he advocated 
 the Unitarian doctrine with so much zeal and ability, that he was termed the “apostle 
 of Unitarianism.” This involved him in controversy, a thing which he naturally loathed. 
 Nevertheless, to the end of his life, he preserved a devoutly Christian heart, shrinking 
 with the delicate instinct of a pious nature from everything cold, one-sided, and dog- 
 matic, whether Unitarian or Trinitarian. As late as 1841, he wrote . “ I am little of a 
 Unitarian, have little sympathy with the system of Priestley and Belsham, and stand 
 aloof from all but those who strive and pray for clearer light.” It 1821, he received the 
 title of D.D. from Harvard university, on account of the high talent he had exhibited m 
 his tractate on the Evidences of Christianity, his Address on War, and his Sermons In 
 1822, he visited Europe, and made the acquaintance of several great English authors, 
 such as Wordsworth and Coleridge, both of whom were strongly impressed in his 
 favor. Coleridge said of him: “He has the love of wisdom and the wisdom of love.” 
 In 1823, he published an Essay^ on National Literature; in 1826, Remarks on the Character 
 and Writings of John Milton; in 1829, the Character and Writings of Fenelon; m 1835, a 
 work in opposition to Negro Slavery; and in 1838, an essay on ^If- Culture. Besides 
 these, he wrote a variety of other essays and treatises, all characterized by vigor, 
 eloquence, pure taste, and a lofty tone of moral earnestness. He died Oct, 2, 1842, at 
 Bennington, Vt. An interesting memoir of him has been published by his nephew. 
 William Henry Channing (3 vols. , London, 1848). 
 
 CHANNING, William Ellery, b. Mass,, 1818; a son of Dr. Walter Channing 
 He studied in Harvard, but did not graduate. In 1839, he went to Illinois, and 
 
Channing. 
 
 Chap. 
 
 684 
 
 in 1840 to Cincinnati, where he was for a time connected with the Gazette. In 18 44 - 4 5, 
 he was one of the editorial corps of the New York Tribune; visited Europe soon after- 
 ward, and in 1855 became one of the editors of the Mercury of New Bedford. He has 
 published three volumes of verse, and, in prose. Conversations in Rome and Thoreau, 
 the Poet-Naturalist. 
 
 CHANNING, William Henry, b. Mass., 1810; nephew of William Ellery Chan- 
 ning, D.D. He graduated at Harvard in 1829, at Cambridge divinity school in 1833, 
 and w-as ordained in charge of a Unitarian church at Cincinnati in 1835. After 
 filling several pastorates in this country he succeeded James Martineau as minister of 
 the Hope street Unitarian chapel, Liverpool, England. On the commencement of the 
 rebellion he returned and took charge of the Unitarian church in Washington. He was 
 one of the early supporters of the socialistic movement in this country, was editor of The 
 Present and The Harbinger, and in 1848 presided over a socialistic association in Boston. 
 He has been a prolific writer, contributing to the North American Review, The Dial, The 
 Christian Examiner, and other serials. Among his larger works are a translation of 
 Jouffroy’s Ethics; Memoir of William Ellery Ghanning; Memoirs of the Rev. James H. 
 Perkins; Memoirs of Margaret Fuller Ossoli; and a work on The Christian Church and 
 Social Reform. 
 
 CHANT (see Ambrosian Chant, and Gregorian Chant, ante), a modification 
 between singing and recitative especially used for litanies and psalms in the Roman 
 Catholic and Protestant Episcopal service. The chant is the ancient style of church- 
 song, certainly as old as Christianity, which seems to have inherited it from the Jewish 
 church. St. Paul exhorts believers to sing (to chant) psalms and hymns and spiritual 
 songs; and Pliny the younger mentions the early morning assembling of Christians to 
 chant hymns to Christ. As rhymed and metrical hymns, now so common, were the 
 product of a later art, so the tunes accompanying them are modern as compared with 
 chants. 
 
 CH ANTAL, Jeanne Fran^oise Frbmiot, 1572-1641 ; a daughter of the president of 
 the parliament of Dijon. Her husband was killed in hunting, whereupon she took the 
 vows of celibacy, and devoted herself to the education of her children and the care of 
 the sick and poor. She was, under the direction of St. Fran 9 ois de Sales, the founder 
 of the order of the visitation at Annecy. She was canonized in 1767. One of her sons 
 was the father of Madame de Sevigne. 
 
 CHANTILLY, an estate in Fairfax co., Va., 20 m. w. of Washington, where. Sept. 
 1, 1862, a battle occurred between the right of the union army under Pope and the con- 
 federates under Jackson. The battle continued, in spite of a severe thunder-storm, until 
 dpk, but without important results. The unionists suffered the loss of two generals 
 killed, Philip Kearny and Isaac I. Stevens. 
 
 CHANTILLY, a t. of France, in the department of Oise, about 23 m. n.n.e.’ of Paris. 
 Being one of the most beautiful places in the vicinity of the metropolis, it attracts thence 
 immense numbers of visitors. Apart from its natural beauty, it is interesting as the 
 place where the great Conde spent the latter years of his life in the society of such men 
 as Boileau, Racine, and Bossuet. The magnificent chateau in which he resided was 
 pulled down at the revolution of 1793; but a lesser chateau, one of the finest specimens 
 of the renaissance in France, still remains. The park and grounds are very charming. 
 C. is also noted for its extensive manufacture of the blonde lace. Pop. (1876) 3,476. 
 
 CHANTREY, Sir Francis, an eminent English sculptor, was b. at Jordanthorpe, in 
 Derbyshire, on 7th April, 1781, not 1782, as has been generally said. His father, who 
 was a carpenter, and rented a small farm, died when C. was only 12 years of age, leav- 
 ing his mother in narrow circumstances. It is said that she gave him “as liberal an 
 education as her limited means would admit;” but much cannot be meant by the phrase, 
 if it be true, as asserted by Holland in his Memorials, that his attendance at the little 
 lane-school was very irregular, and that “for a while he certainly drove an ass daily, 
 with milk-barrels, between Norton and Sheffield.” C.’s mother married a second time, 
 and the boy was, in 1797, apprenticed for 7 years to a carver and gilder in Sheffield 
 called Ramsay. It was in this humble department that C. acquired the rudiments of 
 his future art. It was during this period that his first attempts at modeling in clay 
 were made, and that by the help of casts taken from the faces of his fellow-apprentices 
 and his own, he began the work of portraiture, in which his great eminence ultimately 
 consisted. C.’s apprenticeship was canceled two years before its expiry; but his sub- 
 sequent career is not very accurately known. It is certain that he visited both London 
 and Dublin in 1802, probably in the capacity of a journeyman carver and gilder; and in 
 that year he seems to have received instruction as a pupil of the royal academy. It was 
 probably then that he commenced seriously to prepare himself for the work of his future 
 life. In the earlier part of his career as an artist, C. is said to have been under great 
 obligations to Nollekens, who had the shrewdness to see, and the generosity to see with- 
 out envy, his great promise in the branch in which he himself was eminent. In 1816, C. 
 was elected an associate, and in 1818 a member of the royal academy; and in 1819 he 
 visited Italy for the first time. Like the lives of many other eminent men, that of C. 
 presents few claims on our interest after his early struggles were ended. As an ideal 
 
685 
 
 Channin|f4 
 
 Chap. 
 
 artist, he never attained a high rank, and, in comparison with Flaxman, he possessed 
 little reputation in this country and none abroad. But he executed, with much truth to 
 nature, as it presented itself to his eye, an endless variety and almost countless number 
 of works of individual portraiture, so that there is scarcely any town of importance in 
 Great Britain which cannot show specimens of his skill. As a result of his diligence 
 in this department of art, C. accumulated a very considerable fortune, the greater part 
 of which, after providing for his widow, he bequeathed for artistic purposes. In this 
 respect, he formed a remarkable contrast to Flaxman, w^hose modest savings were 
 sworn under £4,000; whilst Nollekens, whose name is almost forgotten, realized the 
 enormous sum of £150,000, it is even said £200,000. C. died childless on the 25th 
 Nov., 1841, and was buried in a tomb prepared by himself at Norton. Lady C. died in 
 Jan., 1875, and the interest of her husband’s gift to the royal academy, amounting to 
 about £3,000 a year, is now at the disposal of the council, for the “promotion of 
 British art.” 
 
 CHANTRY (Fr. chantererie, from chanter, to sing). The term C. is applied alike to 
 endowments or benefices, to provide for the chanting of masses, and to the chapels in 
 which the chanting takes place. These endowments were commonly made in the form 
 of testamentary bequests, the object being to insure the erection of a chapel near or 
 over the spot where the testator was buried, and to remunerate the priests for saying 
 masses in it for the benefit of his soul, or of the souls of others named in his will. Many 
 such chantry chapels are still to be seen in English parish churches; but they were more 
 common in abbeys and monastic establishments, in which it was considered a privilege 
 to be buried, and where some such offering to the brotherhood was, in a measure, the 
 price of sepulture. These chapels, which have generally the tomb of the founder in the 
 middle of them, are separated from the aisles or nave of the church by open screen- 
 work, a circumstance which has sometimes led to their being called chancels (q.v.). 
 Sometimes, again, they are separate erections, projecting from the church externally; 
 but in cathedrals and the hirger churches they are generally constructed within the 
 church, often between the piers. Many chantries are lavishly enriched with sculpture 
 and tracery of all descriptions, and some of them are adorned with gilding and painting. 
 
 CHANZY, Antoine Eug^jne Alfred, b. 1823; a French gen. who first served as 
 an apprentice in the navy. In 1843, he graduated from the Paris military school as 
 sub-lieut. of zouaves. He served in Algeria, Italy, and Syria, and again in Algeria. 
 In 1868, he became gen. of brigade, and early in the Franco-Prussian war he rose to 
 commander-in-chief of the second army of the Loire. During the supremacy of the ' 
 commune, he narrowly escaped death. In 1872, he was elected to the national assembly, 
 where he acted vuth the left-center party. In Dec., 1875, he was chosen senator for life, 
 and in 1878 received the grand cross of the legion of honor. 
 
 CHA'OS signified, in the ancient cosmogonies, that vacant infinite space out of which 
 sprang all things that exist. Some poets make it the single original source of all; others 
 mention along with it Gaea, Tartaros, and Eros. By some also only the rough outlines 
 of heaven and earth were supposed to have proceeded from C., while the organization 
 and perfecting of all things was the work of Eros. Still later cosmogonists, such as 
 Ovid, represent it as that confused, shapeless mass out of which the universe was 
 formed into a kosmos, or harmonious order. Hesiod makes C. the mother of Erebus and 
 Nox. 
 
 CHAOS or BIRD ISLANDS, is the name given to several rocky islets situated at the 
 entrance of Algoa bay. South Africa, about 35 m. e. of Port Elizabeth. It was on one 
 of these islands that Bartholomew Diaz, the navigator, died in 1500. 
 
 CHAOU-CHOW-FOO, a city of China, and capital of a department of the same name, 
 in the province of Kwang-tung, in 23° 36' 6” n. lat., and 0° 46' 40” long. w. of Pekin. 
 
 CHAOU-KING-FOO, a city and capital of a department of the same name, in the 
 province of Kwang-tung, 50 m. w. of Canton, in 23° 4' 48” n. lat., and 4° 24' 30” long, 
 w. of Pekin. 
 
 CHAFA'LA, the largest lake in Mexico, containing about 1300 sq.miles. It is about 
 lat. 20° 20' n., and ranges in w. long, from 102° to 103° 25'. It is merely an expansion 
 of the Rio Grande de Lerma, which enters the Pacific at San Blax. C. lies on the 
 table-land of Anahuac, and has many islands. 
 
 CHAP BOOKS, the name given to a variety of old and scarce tracts of a homely kind, 
 which at one time formed the only popular literature. In the trade of the bookseller, 
 they are distinguishable from the ordinary products of the press by their inferior paper 
 nnd typography, and are reputed to have been sold by chapmen (see Chapman) or 
 peddlers; hence their designation. The older C. B. issued in the early part of the 17th 
 are printed in black letter, and are in the form of small volumes. Those of a later 
 date are in the type now in use, but are equally plain in appearance. Of either variety, 
 they were mostly printed in London; many being without dates. They were of a mis- 
 cellaneous kind, including theological tracts, lives of heroes, martyrs, and wonderful 
 personages, interpretations of dreams, fortune-telling, prognostications of the weather, 
 stories of giants, ghosts, hobgoblins, and witches, histories in verse, and songs and bal- 
 lads. See Notices of Fugitim Tracts and Chap Books, also Descriptive Notices of Popula/r 
 
Chapel. 
 
 Chapman. 
 
 686 
 
 English Histones; both by J. O. Halliwell, printed for the Percy society. An inferior 
 class of tracts succeeded these books for the common people, and are best known as 
 Penny Chap Books. For the most part they consisted of a single sheet, duodecimo, or 
 24 pages. Besides the title, the first page usually contained a coarse wood-cut embel 
 lishment. The paper was of the coarsest kind adapted for printing, and the price, as 
 the name imports, was a penny each. The subjects besides being of a similar nature 
 to the above, included stories of roguery and broad humor. These penny C B. were 
 issued by an obscure class of publishers in London and several English prpvincial towns, 
 of which we might particularize Newcastle-on-Tyne. They were also issued from the 
 presses of Edinburgh, Glasgow, Falkirk, and Paisley. It is a curious fact, that nearly 
 ail ihe penny C. B. of this very homely kind which were latterly popular, were written 
 by Dougald Graham, who, previous to his death in 1779, filled the ofifice of bellman or 
 town -crier of Glasgow. The most reputable production of this humble genius was a 
 History of the Rebellion in a Hudibrastic meter, which was a great favorite with sir Wal- 
 ter Scott, and is now scarce; see Chambers’s Journal, first series, vol. x. p. 84; also 
 the Paisley Magazine (1829), an extinct publication of great rarity, in which is given a 
 biographic sketch of Dougald Graham, with a list of his productions. In some parts of 
 Scotland and the n. of England, Graham’s penny C. B. are still seen on stalls at mar 
 kets; but the general advances in taste, along with the diffusion of an improved litera 
 ture, have displaced them in almost all other quarters. Collections of the older C. B 
 are now found only in the libraries of bibliomaniacs, by whom they have been picked 
 up at extravagant prices from dealers in second-hand books. In various continental 
 countries, there are numerous varieties of C. B. at exceedingly small prices. The 
 French government being desirous to substitute a wholesome class of tracts of this kind 
 for what are generally objectionable on the scoae of taste and morality, have latterly,, 
 through commissioners, taken some steps on the subject. See Histoire des Livres Popu- 
 laires, on de la Litterature du Colportage, by M. Nizard. w. c. 
 
 CHAPEL (Fr. chapelle), a word derived from ca/pa, which originally signified a case, 
 or chest in which were contained the relics of a saint, and afterwards the place where 
 the chest was kept. The term now signifies a building erected for the purposes of pub- 
 lic worship, but not possessing the full privileges and characteristics of a church. In 
 this sense, all places of worship erected by dissenters are now called chapels in England, 
 and the term is also applied to supplementary places of worship, even though in connec- 
 tion with the established church — such as parochial chapels, chapels of ease, free chap- 
 els, and the like. In former times, it was applied either to a domestic oratory, or to a 
 place of worship erected by a private individual, or a body corporate. In the latter 
 sense we speak of chapels in universities and colleges. But its earliest signification was 
 that of a separate erection, either within or attached to a large church or cathedral, sepa 
 rately dedicated, and devoted to special services. See Chantry. Chapels had no bury- 
 ing-ground attached to them, and the sacrament of baptism was not usually administered 
 in them. 
 
 CHAPEL HILL, a village in Orange co., N. C., 28 m. n.w. of Raleigh; pop. '80, 3124. 
 It is the seat of the university of North Carolina. 
 
 CHAFELiiE, LA, the name of several places in France, the most important of which 
 forms a northern suburb of Paris. Chemicals, salt, starch, liquors, etc., are manufac- 
 tured. 
 
 CHAPELLE DE FEE. See Helmet. 
 
 CHAFEEON, a hood or cap worn by knights of the garter. Such a hood was at one 
 time in general use, but was lately appropriated to doctors and licentiates in colleges. 
 A person who acts as a guide and protector to a lady at public places, is called a C., 
 probably from this particular piece of dress having been used on such occasions. The 
 name was also applied to devices which were placed on the heads of horses at pompous 
 funerals. 
 
 CHAPIN, Aaron Lucius, d.d., b. Conn., 1817; a graduate of Yale, and Union 
 (N. Y.) theological seminary. In 1838, he was a professor in the New York institution 
 for the deaf and dumb. In 1844, he became pastor of the First Presbyterian church in 
 Milwaukee, Wis. ; and in 1850, was chosen first president of Beloit college, an oflfice 
 which he still holds. He was for some years one of the editors of the Congregational 
 Review. 
 
 CHAPIN, Edwin Hubbell, d.d., 1814-1880, b. Washington co., N. Y. ; educated at a 
 seminary in Bennington, Vt., and commenced preaching in Richmond, Va., to a congre 
 gation of Unitarians and Universalists. In 1846, he went to Massachusetts, and in 1848, 
 to New York, where he became minister of the Fourth Universalist church. He has 
 ever since remained over this congregation, which, from a small beginning in the lower 
 part of the city, has grown to rank among the largest, occupying a prominent church 
 edifice in Fifth avenue, known as the Church of the Divine Paternity. Besides his reg- 
 ular sermons he has delivered a great number of lectures, and has published several 
 volumes, among which are Duties of Young Men; Duties of Young Women; Characters 
 in the Gospels; Communion Hours; Discourses on the Loi'd’s Prayer; Crown of Thorns; 
 
Chapel. 
 Chapman. 
 
 The Beatitudes; Moral Aspects of City Life; True Manliness; and Discourses on the Book 
 •of Proverbs; besides sermons. 
 
 CHAPLAIN was originally the title of the ecclesiastic who accompanied an army, and 
 carried the relics of the patron saint. See Chapel. It has now come to signify a clergy- 
 man not having charge of a parish, but employed to officiate at court, in the household 
 of a nobleman, or in an army, garrison, ship, etc. Such officials began early to be 
 ^appointed in the palace of the Byzantine emperors. The practice afterwards extended 
 to the western empire, and to the courts of petty princes and even of knights, and con- 
 tinued to subsist after the reformation. Forty-eight clergymen of the church of Eng- 
 land hold office as chaplains of the queen in England, four of whom are in attendance 
 each month. Six clergymen of the church of Scotland have a similar title in Scotland; 
 but their only duty is to conduct prayer at the elections of Scottish representative peers. 
 A statute of Henry VIII. limits the right of nominating private chaplains in England: 
 thus, an archbishop may have eight, a duke six, a baron three ; and chaplains so appoint<»d 
 have certain privileges, and may hold two benefices with cure of souls. 
 
 An Army Chaplain is a clergyman whose services are retained especially by the 
 government for the soldiery of the army. There have been such chaplains for many 
 generations, and the office was at one time regarded as a salable perquisite ; but the 
 system was reorganized and improved in 1796. In recent years, Roman Catholic and 
 Presbyterian chaplains have also been appointed, a practice which indicates the progress 
 of toleration. The chaplains belong, not to regiments, but to the staff of the army, so as 
 to be generally available. At home, they are attached to the military stations; but in 
 the field they are located at headquarters, at the hospitals, and with the divisions. The 
 officers at the stations usually arrange for the men to attend divine service at the nearest 
 parish church ; but this still leaves the chaplains many duties to fulfill. Where, as some- 
 times happens, there is no regular church or chapel near at hand, the C. reads and 
 preaches to as many men as can conveniently group themselves around him at one time, 
 and thus serves many different congregations at different times of the Sunday. He visits 
 the sick at the hospitals, and examines and encourages the regimental schools. Among 
 the wooden huts at Aldershott camp, a church has been built, which is .rendered avail- 
 able for chaplains of different religious denominations in succession. 
 
 When the system of army-chaplains was remodeled in 1796, a chaplain- general was 
 appointed; this office was abolished by the duke of Wellington soon after the termina- 
 tion of the great war, but revived by Mr. Sidney Herbert in 1846. The C.-gen., who 
 receives £1000 per annum, has duties partaking somewhat of those of an archdeacon. 
 He assists the war office in selecting chaplains, and in regulating the religious matters 
 of the army, so far as church of England matters are concerned. His office forms one 
 of the 8 departments under the new organization of the war office. There are 78 chap- 
 lains on the staff, besides officiating clergymen (not belonging to the army), and chapel- 
 clerks. The commissioned chaplains receive from 10s. to 22s. Qd. per day, besides 
 allowances; and there are always some on half-pay; while the officiating clergymen 
 receive head-money for the troops attending their ministrations. The whole expendi- 
 ture for chaplains, and other charges connected with divine service, figures in the army 
 estimates at near £50,000 annually. 
 
 Navy Chaplain. Every ship in commission, down to, and including fifth-rates, 
 has a chaplain. The navy estimates provide for above 80 commissioned chaplains, at 
 stipends varying from £219 to £401 per annum. The chaplains perform divine service 
 at stated times on shipboard, visit the sick sailors, and assist in maintaining moral 
 discipline among the crews. 
 
 CHAPLAIN {ante), in the United States officially known only as the chaplain of the 
 senate and of the house of representatives, and in the army and the navy. In some of 
 the states there are chaplains for one or both of the legislative bodies. In the army 
 there are both post and regimental chaplains; and there is usually a chaplain in every 
 regiment of militia, though they are not always ordained clergymen. In the navy there 
 are a certain number of chaplains, according to the number of vessels in commission. 
 It is usual, also, to appoint chaplains to state prisons, to reformatory institutions, and 
 to asylums. Where there are radical differences of religious belief to any considerable 
 extent, as in the institutions of New York city, chaplains of Protestant, Roman Catho- 
 lic, and Jewish faith are employed or permitted to officiate. 
 
 CHAPLET, a garland or head-band of leaves and flowers. In heraldry, a C. is always 
 composed of four roses, the other parts being leaves. 
 
 CHAPLIN, Jeremiah, d.d., 1776-1841; a native of Massachusetts, graduated at 
 Brown university, and for some years a tutor there. He was for 16 years pastor of a 
 Baptist church in Danvers, Mass., and from 1820-32 president of Waterville college. 
 
 CHAPMAN, a trader, but popularly applied in a more limited sense to a dealer in small 
 articles, who travels as a peddler or attends markets. C. is from chap, equivalent to 
 tdieap, a word which in its origin signified a market or place for trading; hence Cheap- 
 »ide, Eastcheap. See Chap Books. ' 
 
 CHAPMAN, George, dramatist and translator, was b. in 1557, educated at Cam- 
 bridge and Oxford, and was the cotemporary and friend of Spenser, Jonson, and Shake- 
 
 687 
 
Chapman. 
 
 Character* 
 
 688 
 
 speare. His first play, entitled The Blind Beggar of Alexandria, was printed in 159S 
 Up to 1620, he supplied the theater with tragedies and comedies, and some of these, 
 after the fashion of the time, were written in conjunction with other dramatists. As a 
 writer for the stage, C. does not rank high. Despite many nervous passages, his plays 
 want the irradiation of a constant genius, and his characters are unnatural. His trans- 
 lation of Homer is the most vigorous that has yet been executed in England, and in 
 reading it, many have felt with Keats — 
 
 Like some watcher of the skies 
 When a new planet swims into his ken. 
 
 C. seems to have led a long, temperate, and happy life, unblasted by poetic fire. He 
 died in 1634. Swinburne, the poet, published an edition of C.’s works, with a critical 
 introduction, in 1875. 
 
 CHAPMAN, James, a.m., d.d., b. N. H., 1830; graduated at Waterville college, and 
 in 1855 became a Methodist minister. He has occupied pulpits in several New England 
 towns, in Boston, and in Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 CHAPMAN, John Gadsby, b. Va., early in this century. He studied art in 
 Rome, and returned to New York, wdiere he had a studio, but not long afterwards went 
 back to Rome, where he now resides. Among his paintings are “The Baptism of 
 Pocahontas” (for the capitol in Washington); “An Etruscan Girl;” “The Israelites 
 Spoiling the Egyptians;” “The First Italian Milestone;” “A Donkey’s Head;” and 
 “ The Last Arrow.” 
 
 CHAPPE, Claude, 1763-1805; an engineer, and the inventor of the first working 
 telegraph of any importance. His invention consisted of an upright post, on the top of 
 which was fixed a transverse bar, and at the ends of the bar two smaller arms movable 
 on pivots. The position of the bars represented letters or words; and by means of such 
 machines placed at remote but easily visible points, messages were conveyed fifty leagues 
 in a quarter of an hour. Until almost the period of electric telegraphy, the machine 
 was used especially for noting the arrival of ships. C. was so much annoyed by charges 
 that he had copied his invention from others, that he committed suicide. 
 
 CHAPPED HANDS AND CHILBLAINS, a lesser and a greater form of disease of the 
 skin, produced by undue exposure to extremes of cold and heat, and affecting chiefly 
 the most exposed joints, the skin over which swells and cracks, with itching, pain, and 
 heat; in the most severe cases there is ulceration, which is difficult to heal in proportion 
 to the length of time the disease has been neglected. Chilblains may generally be 
 avoided if the hands are washed always with tepid water, and not habitually exposed ta 
 great cold, or when cold, to the heat of a fire. When formed, they may be treated with 
 oxide of zinc ointment; or with a dilute solution of borax in glycerine and water; or 
 with glycerine alone, slightly diluted with water; the hands being in any case habitually 
 covered with woolen gloves in cold weather. 
 
 CHAPSAL, Charles Pierre, 1787-1858; a French grammarian, joint author (with 
 Francois Joseph Noel) of the Nouvelle Orammaire Franqaise, avec Exerciees, one of 
 the most widely adopted of all grammars of that language. The proceeds of the book 
 gave him a fortune, much of which was given to charities, among which was one 
 bequest of 80,000 francs to the teachers in the environs of Paris. 
 
 CHAPTAL, Jean Antoine, 1756-1882, count of Chanteloup, a French chemist and 
 statesman. He was professor of chemistry at Montpellier, where he taught the doctrines 
 of Lavoisier instead of those of Stahl. By the death of an uncle, C. acquired capital, 
 which he employed in manufacturing mineral acids, alum, white lead, soda, and other 
 chemical wares. After the revolution of Nov. 9, 1799, he was made a councilor of state 
 by Napoleon, and succeeded Lucien Bonaparte as minister of the interior, in which 
 capacity he established a school of arts, and a society of industries. He also reorganized 
 the hospitals, introduced the metrical system of weights and measures, and otherwise 
 greatly encouraged arts and sciences. On Napoleon’s return from Elba, C. was made 
 director-general of commerce and manufactures, and minister of state. The downfall 
 of the empire sent C. to private life, but he kept his interest in science, and in 1816 was 
 named member of the academy. 
 
 CHAPTER-HOUSE (Fr. chapitre), the building in which the monks and canons of monaa- . 
 tic establishments, and the dean and prebendaries of cathedral and collegiate churches, 
 meet for the management of the affairs of their order or society. See Cathedral. 
 Chapter-houses frequently exhibit the most elaborate architectural adornment, as, for 
 example, those at York, Southwell, and Wells. The original stained-glass windows 
 remain at York, and are of exquisite beauty. On the walls of that at Westminster, the 
 original painting has been discovered. Chapter-houses are of various forms: those at 
 York and Westminster are octagonal; those at Oxford, Exeter, Canterbury, Gloucester, 
 etc,, are parallelograms; Lichfield is an oblong octagon; Lincoln, a decagon; and 
 Worcester, a circle. They are always contiguous to the church, and are generally placed 
 to the west of the transepts. They generally either open into the church, or are entered 
 by a passage. Chapter-houses were often used as places of sepulture, and have some 
 times crypts under them, as at Wells and Westminster. 
 
689 
 
 Cbapman. 
 
 Character. 
 
 CHAPU, a maritime t. in the province of Che-keang, China, 50 m. n.w. of Chinhai, 
 in one of the richest districts in the country. It is the port of Hang-Chow, with which 
 it has canal communication, and it was formerly the only Chinese port trading with 
 Japan. It is about 5 m. in circuit, exclusive of the suburbs. It was attacked and 
 much injured by the British, who captured it in 1842, but it was immediately abandoned 
 by them. 
 
 CHAPUL'TEPEC, a fortress on a mound of rock about 200 ft. high, 2 m. s.w. of the 
 city of Mexico. In the war with the United States this fortress, one of the chief 
 defenses of the city of Mexico, was taken (Sept. 12, 1847) by gen. Scott, and the city 
 itself was captured the next day. 
 
 CHABA'CEA:, aquatic plants, forming, according to some botanists, a distinct natural 
 order of acotyledonous plants; according to others, a sub-order of algce. Their stems are 
 tubular, consisting either of a single tube, or of parallel tubes, a central one with smaller 
 ones applied to its surface; they are either pellucid or incrusted with carbonate of lime, 
 which is not to be regarded as a mere accidental incrustation, but belongs to their 
 proper structure ; and they have whorls of symmetrical tubular branches. They grow 
 in stagnant waters, both fresh and salt, are always submersed, and often completely 
 conceal muddy bottoms. A number of species are natives of Britain, all belonging to 
 the genus chara. The organs of reproduction are of two kinds — lateral globules, and 
 nucules. These organs have caused no little difficulty to botanists; the nature 
 and use of the globules in particular being by no means well understood. The simple 
 cellular structure of the C., apart from all consideration of their reproductive organs, 
 associates them with the lower algje, rather than with phanerogamous plants. None of 
 them is of any known use. It was in the C. that the beautiful phenomena of cyclosis 
 (q.v.) were first observed. Sir David Brewster discovered that each of the minute 
 calcareous particles incrusting the C. possesses double refraction, and has regular neutral 
 and depolarizing axes. 
 
 Fossil Characece. — The calcareous incrustation which covers the organs of repro- 
 duction, as well as the stems of some C., has, from its power of resisting decomposition, 
 caused the abundant preservation of this order in the tertiary fresh-water strata. The 
 nucules originally described under the name of gyrogonites, and supposed to be foram- 
 iniferous shells, have been noticed by E. Forbes in strata as old as the middle Purbeck 
 beds. No remains of these have been observed in newer deposits, until we find them 
 in the tertiaries. The nucules, associated with lymnoea and planorbis, are very abun- 
 dant in the eocene Bembridge beds (q.v.). 
 
 CHABAGIN'IDiE. See Salmonid^. 
 
 CHABACTEB (Gr. charasso or charatto, which signifies to scrape, cut, or engrave) 
 means what is engraven on an object, either physically by the action of another exter- 
 nal object or objects, or morally by the passions, the affections, by good or evil fortune, 
 and b)T what we designate generally as “ circumstances.” In art, the expression of C., 
 either in animate or inanimate objects, is, after correct delineation, the most important 
 matter to be attended to. Though, properly speaking, all distinguishing marks are 
 included under it, it is more generally used to designate those which mark individual 
 from individual, than species from species, or genus from genus. 
 
 CHABACTEBISTIC. See Logarithms. 
 
 CHABACTEB TO SEBVANT. The master is under no legal obligation, either in Eng- 
 land or in Scotland, to give a character to his servant, however long, faithfully, or effi- 
 ciently he may have served him ; the duty of bearing testimony in his favor being one 
 which, however binding in morality, it has not been found convenient to enforce by 
 positive law; but, if given, the character must be strictly true, or, at all events, in 
 accordance with the master’s belief, otherwise he may be exposed to an action of dam- 
 ages, either by the servant whom he has calumniated, or by a subsequent employer 
 whom he has deceived. If true, however, the fact of its being prejudicial will expose 
 the master to no risk. In order to justify the giving of a bad character, however, it 
 must, in general, be asked for by the servant, as the master is not entitled needlessly to 
 publish the servant’s defects. In that case, it will lie with the servant to prove its 
 falsehood, not with the master to prove its truth. The case of the servant being known 
 by the master to have committed a felony while in his service, is, however, an exception to 
 this rule, as, in a case so extreme, the master is at liberty to warn others against taking 
 him into their employment. Even though strictly true, the character, if prejudicial, 
 must not be more so than the circumstances render necessary. Acts of petty dishonesty, 
 such as are too common amongst servants, will not warrant the master in branding 
 him as a thief. The safe course, in such a case, is to state the offense, and not to 
 describe it by a general epithet, which may convey an erroneous impression of its mag- 
 nitude. 
 
 It is probable that, partly from thoughtless good-nature, and partly from a selfish 
 desire to get rid of a bad servant in the most comfortable manner, false characters are 
 given in favor of servants very much more frequently than to their prejudice. It is 
 desirable that masters and mistresses should have in view that they may render them- 
 selves liable in reparation of any damage which can be shown to be the direct result of 
 U. K. III. -44 
 
Charade. 
 
 Charge. 
 
 690 
 
 thus inflicting on a stranger a wrong which is unquestionably within the reach of the 
 law. 
 
 By 32 George III. c. 56, personating a master, and thus giving a false character to a 
 servant, or asserting in writing that a servant has been hired for a period of time, or in 
 a station, etc., contrary to truth; and any person offering himself as a servant, pretend- 
 ing to have served where he has not served, or producing a false certificate, or alter- 
 ing a certificate, or pretending not to have been in any former service, etc., are offenses 
 at common law, punishable on conviction before two justices with a fine of £20. This 
 statute does not extend to Scotland. 
 
 CHABADE, or “ syllable-puzzle” as the Germans call it, is an amusement which con- 
 sists in dividing a word of one or more syllables into its component syllables, or into ils 
 component letters, predicating something of each ; and then, having reunited the whole, 
 and predicated something of that also, the reader or listener is asked to guess the word. 
 As a specimen of the C. depending upon syllables, we adduce the following: 
 
 “ My first is plowed for various reasons, and grain is frequently buried in it to little purpose. My 
 3econai^ neither riches nor honors, yet the former would generally be given for it, and the latter are 
 often tasteless without it. My whole applies equally lo spring, summer, autumn, and winter; and 
 both fish and flesh, praise and censure, mirth and melancholy , are the better for being in it. Ana . 
 Season.'’' 
 
 As a specimen of the second class of charades, we take the following happy example 
 from the French: 
 
 “ Quatre membres font tout mon bien, 
 
 Mon dernier vaut mon tout, et mon tout ne vaut rien.” 
 
 The word is zero. It is composed of four letters, of which the last — viz., o, is equal to 
 zero; the whole, zero itself, being equal to nothing. 
 
 But besides charades of this nature, there is another kind rather popular at evening- 
 parties — the acted C. : the character of which is entirely dramatic. Half a dozen or so 
 of the company retire to a private apartment, and there agree to select a certain word, 
 as the subject of the C. ; let us suppose Innkeepek. - The next thing done is to take 
 the first syllable. Inn, and arrange a little scene and dialogue, each member taking a 
 certain part. This being accomplished, the amateur actors return to the drawing-room, 
 and commence their performance, the rest of the company constituting the spectators. 
 Care is taken to mention conspicuously, and yet not obtrusively, in the course of the 
 dialogue, the word Inn, which is the subject of the scene. On its conclusion, they again 
 retire, and devise a new series of incidents for the word Keeper, generally something in 
 connection with a menagerie or a madhouse. This being also represented, they retire 
 for a third time, to contrive the final scene, into which both words, or rather the whole 
 word, Innkeeper, must be dexterously introduced at an odd moment when the spec- 
 tators are thought to be off the scent. The company are then asked to guess the word. 
 In order to the effective performance of a C. of this sort, the actors must possess a good 
 share of inventiveness, self-possession, and ready talk, as the greater portion of the dia- 
 logue has to be extemporized. 
 
 CHABADBI'ADA:, a large family of birds, of the order grallatores, and tribe pressirostres, 
 chiefly abounding in the temperate parts of the old world, and generally frequenting 
 sandy unsheltered shores and open moors and downs. They have a short bill, generally 
 soft at the base, hard and often a little inflated towards the tip ; long and powerful 
 wings; long legs; and short toes, generally only three in number, and all directed for- 
 ward, but sometimes they have also a very small hinder toe. They run with great 
 swiftness; they generally congregate in flocks, at least during certain parts of the year; 
 many of them are nocturnal in their habits; many are migratory. The plovers {cTiaar- 
 drius) have given their name to the family, which includes also lapwings, pratincoles, 
 oyster-catchers, turnstones, sanderlings, etc. 
 
 CHARBAR, or Choubar Bay, a harbor in the Indian ocean on the coast of 
 Beloochistan ; 25° 16' n., 60° 35' east. The town of Charbar at the entrance is garrisoned 
 by the sultan of Oman. Near by are the ruins of the early Portuguese settlement of 
 Tees. 
 
 CHARBON ROUGE, or Red Charcoal, is a variety of charcoal obtained by subject- 
 ing wood to the action of heated air from furnaces, or of steam, which has been raised 
 to a temperature of 572° F. Air-dried wood, by the ordinary process of charring, yields 
 at the best 21 to 26 per cent of black charcoal ; but when acted on by heated air or 
 steam, as mentioned above, 36 or 42 per cent of C. R. is obtained. It is now prepared 
 largely in France and Belgium, and is used in stoves for heating, and in the preparation 
 of gunpowder. It has a dark-red color, and consists of about 75 per cent pure carbon, 
 and 25 per cent hydrogen and oxygen. 
 
 CHARCAS. See Chuquisaca, ante. 
 
 CHARCOAL is a popular term applied to charred wood, or coal produced by charring 
 wood. There are several other varieties of C., however, for which see Carbon, ANiMAi 
 Charcoal, Wood Charcoal, Coke, Black-lead, etc. 
 
 CHARCOAL BLACKS are made both from animal and vegetable substances — e.g., 
 burnt ivory, bones, vine-twigs, peach-stones, nut and other shells, the smoke of rosin 
 
691 
 
 Charade 
 
 Charge. 
 
 condensed, etc. Those which are derived from vegetable substances, when mixed with 
 white, are usually of a blue tint. See Lamp-black. 
 
 CHARDIN, Sir John, 1643-1713; a native of Paris, the son of a jeweler, and bred 
 to the same business; but preferring adventure he traveled in Persia and India in 1665-69. 
 Two years later he made a second and more extended journey of four years. In 1681, he 
 settled in London, and was knighted by Charles II. In 1686, he published a portion of the 
 Travels of Sir John Chardin into Persia and the East Indies, etc. The complete account 
 of his travels, however, did not appear until 1711. 
 
 CHABENTE, a considerable river in the w. of France, rises in the department of 
 Haute-Vienne, about 14 m. n.w. of Chains. It first flows n.w. to Civray, where it 
 turns southward into the department of Charente to Angoul^me, thence it flows west- 
 ward past Chateauneuf, Jarnac, and Cognac, and entering Charente-Inferieure, it runs 
 n.w. past Saintes, and falls into the Atlantic below Rochefort, and opposite the islands 
 Oleron and Aix. This river gives its name to two departments, both remarkable for 
 the productiveness of their vineyards; but the wines are mostly used in the preparation 
 of brandy and liquors. 
 
 CHARENTE, a department of France, formed chiefly out of the old province of 
 Angoumois, and situated in lat. 45° 10' to 46° 8' n., and long. 0° 50' e. to 0° 30' west. 
 Area, about 2,200 sq. miles. Pop. ’76, 373,950. It is generally hilly, and is watered 
 by the river Charente, above noticed, and its tributaries, the Tardouere and the Bandiat, 
 with the rivers Vienne and Dronne. The highest chain of hills in the n. of C. is a con- 
 tinuation of the heights of Limousin, forming the watershed towards the Loire. 
 Remains of marine productions show that the basin of the C. was once filled by the 
 ocean. The soil is mostly limestone, here and there interrupted by banks of clay and 
 gravel. Only a portion of the arrondissement Confolens has a rich vegetable clay- 
 mold. The clay-soil is cool and moist, while the limestone district is d^ry and hot. 
 The hills are in many places clad with chestnut forests. The climate is generally mild 
 and healthy. The wines grown are spirituous and fiery in flavor, and are chiefly used 
 in the manufacture of Cognac, which forms the most important of the exposts. Truffles 
 grow abundantly in several parts. Industry is in rather a backward condition. C. is 
 divided into the five arrondissements of Angoul6me, Cognac, Ruffec, Barbezieux, and 
 Confolens. 
 
 CHARENTE-INFERIEURE, a maritime department of France, which includes the 
 former province of Angoumois, with the greater part of Saintonge, and a small portion 
 of Poitou. It lies in lat. 45° 5' to 46° 19' n. and long. 0° 7' e, to 1° 13' west. The bay of 
 Biscay washes its western boundary — the coast-line, which is very broken, measuring 
 about 100 miles. Area, 2,740 sq. miles. Pop. ’76, 465,628. It is watered on its 
 boundaries by the S^vre-Niortaise and the Gironde, and in the center by the navigable 
 Charente and the coast-stream Sendre. The surface is level; and the soil — near the 
 coast, intersected by ridges of rock and sand-banks, and protected from the sea by dikes — 
 is mostly chalky and sandy, but very fertile, producing hemp, flax, saffron, and wine in 
 great quantities. The commerce, facilitated by the structure of the coast, and by canals 
 in the interior, is considerable, consisting chiefly of brandy and sea-salt, which is found 
 in the department in great abundance. The oyster and pilchard fisheries are important. 
 The chief harbors are those of Rochefort and La Rochelle, the latter of which is the 
 chief town. C. is divided into the six arrondissements of La Rochelle, Rochefort, Mar- 
 ennes, Saintes, Jonzac, and St. Jean-d’Angely. 
 
 CHARENTON-LE-FONT, a t. of France, in the department of Seine, situated on the 
 right bank of the Marne, 5 m. s.e. of Paris. The bridge over the river, which is impor- 
 tant from a military point of view, being considered one of the keys of the capital, and 
 which has frequently been the scene of conflicts, is defended by two forts, forming a 
 part of the fortifications of Paris. At the other side of the river is the national lunatic 
 asylum, formerly called Charenton St. Maurice, and now St. Maurice simply. Pop. ’76, 
 8,744. 
 
 CHA'RES, 4th c. b.c., an Athenian general who relieved the Philasians from the 
 siege of the Argives and Arcadians; fought against Oropus; lost the island of Corcyra 
 to Athens; commanded jointly with Chalnas in the social war, and made a successful 
 attack upon Chios, in which Chalnas was killed ; led an expedition against and captured 
 Sestos; commanded in Thrace, where his main business was private plundering; and 
 in 338 was one of the Athenian commanders in the battle of Chseronea. 
 
 CHA'RES, a Grecian artist in bronze, a native on Lindus, and the designer of the 
 colossus of Rhodes, lived in the 3d c. b.c. He was a pupil of Lysippus. 
 
 CHARGE. In the law of Scotland, a C. is a command to perform an act, conveyed 
 in the letters of the sovereign. The same term is applied to a messenger’s copy for 
 service, requiring the person to obey the order contained in the letters — e.g., a C. on 
 letters of horning, or a C. qgainst a superior. 
 
 CHARGE, in heraldry. The figures represented on a shield are called charges, and a 
 shield with figures upon it is said to be charged (Fr. charge). The charges in a shield 
 ought to be few in number, and strongly marked, both as regards their character and 
 
Charge. 
 
 Charlatan. 
 
 692 
 
 the mode of their representation. The family shield, belonging to the head of the 
 house, almost always is simpler, i.e., has fewer charges, than the shields of collaterals, 
 or even of junior members. 
 
 CHARG-E, in military warfare, is a sudden and impetuous attack on the enemy, by 
 horse or foot, or both. Its object usually is to drive the enemy from a particular 
 position; but if made with a much stronger force, it may result in his actual destruc- 
 tion. 
 
 CHARGE, in military pyrotechny, is sufficient combustible material for one firing or 
 discharge. It is applicable to all kinds of firings, fireworks, and explosions; but the 
 name is generally given to the quantity of gunpowder requisite for firing off a gun, etc. 
 In cannon, this varies greatly, from | to of the weight of the shot; some of the rifled 
 ordnance now coming into use are remarkable for the smalloess of the C. with which 
 they are fired. The quota of C. will be mentioned in connection with the various kinds 
 of fire-arms described in the Encydopc&dia. In breaching a wall, a greater C. is necessary 
 than in attacking a ship or a column of troops, even with the same kind of gun and 
 projectile. 
 
 CHARGER is a name sometimes given to a war-horse, accustomed to the din of battles, 
 and reliable under circumstances of confusion and danger. In the middle ages, when 
 armor was used, and gunpowder unknown, the military horses were barbed or barded 
 when ridden by men-at-arms — that is, they were nearly covered with armor. The face, 
 the head, and the e.ars were covered with a mask called a chanfron, to prevent fright 
 when charging the enemy; and an iron spike projected from the middle of the forehead. 
 The neck was defended by small plates called crinieres; the breast by a poitrinal; and 
 the buttocks and hauuches by croupieres. These various pieces of armor were mostly 
 made of metal, but sometimes of tough leather. The horse was occasionally covered 
 with chain-mail; and in other instances with a of stuffed and quilted cloth. 
 
 The man-at-arms generally rode another horse when not charging, to relieve the C, from 
 his great burden. The barbed or barde horse received its name from an old French word 
 implying covered, clothed, or armed. A war-horse is still called a C., though not armed 
 as in ancient times. 
 
 CHARGES D’AFFAIRES are fourth-class diplomatic agents, accredited, not to the 
 sovereign, but to the department for foreign affairs; they also hold their credentials 
 only from the minister, and are sometimes only empowered by an ambassador to act in 
 his absence. 
 
 CHARIOT, in ancient times, was a kind of carriage used either for pleasure or in 
 war. According to the Greeks, it was invented by Minerva; while Virgil ascribes the 
 honor to Erichthonius, a mythical king of Athens, who is said to have appeared at the 
 Panathenaic festival founded by him, in a car drawn by four horses. The ancient C. 
 had only two wheels, which revolved upon the axle, as in modern carriages. The pole 
 was fixed at its lower extremity to the axle, and at the other end was attached to the 
 yoke, either by a pin or by ropes. The Greeks and Romans seem never to have used 
 more than one pole, but the Lydians had carriages with two or three. In general, the 
 C. was drawn by two horses. Such was the Roman biga (q.v.), but we also read 
 of a triga, or three-horse C., and a quadriga, or four-horse one. The last was that in 
 which the Roman generals rode during their triumphal entrance into the city, and was 
 often adorned with splendid art. The war-chariot held two persons — the soldier himself 
 and the driver, the latter of whom usually occupied the front; but the chariots used by 
 the Romans in their public games held only the charioteer. 
 
 The oldest war-chariots of which we read are those of Pharaoh (Exodus xiv. 7). All 
 the eastern nations used them, while we learn from Caesar {Be Bell. Gall., v. 19) that the 
 Britons also were familiar with their use. 
 
 CHARIS'TICARIES, officers (in Greek ecclesiastical history) who had full power 
 over the revenues of hospitals and monasteries. 
 
 CHARITABLE USES and Law of Charities. The law of England has always 
 anxiously, though too often ineffectually, sought to provide for the preservation and 
 proper application of the public and private endowments in that country for charitable 
 purposes. The preceding efforts of the legislature in this direction may now be said to 
 have been superseded by the charitable trusts acts (16 and 17 Viet. c. 137, 18 and 19 
 Viet. c. 124, 23 and 24 Viet. c. 136, and 32 and 33 Viet. c. 110). See Charity Com 
 M issiONERS. As these statutes now contain a species of code of charity-law, it will here 
 only be necessary to mention certain general principles which govern the law of Eng- 
 land in its relation to charities. The courts of equity are those which in general take 
 cognizance of all charitable uses, or trusts of a public description. Under the authority 
 of these tribunals — or in cases in which the annual income does not exceed £50, in 
 accordance with the act just quoted, under that of the county courts of the district — 
 trustees may be called to account for the funds committed to their charge, or new trus- 
 tees may be appointed, improvident alienations may be rescinded, schemes for carrying 
 the donor’s object into effect may be judieially considered and adopted, and every 
 species of relief afforded which such institutions require. Where the management of 
 l^e charity has been confided by the donor to governors and other functionaries, the law 
 
693 
 
 Cliarge. 
 
 Charlatan. 
 
 Avill not interfere with their proceedings unless they can he shown to be squandering 
 the revenues or otherwise abusing the trust. Where the crown is founder, the lord 
 •chancellor is visitor, but in his personal character only, and not as judge of the court 
 of chancery. As regards the nature of the trusts to which the equitable jurisdiction of 
 the chancery extends, it is necessary to remark that the word charitable here includes 
 institutions for the advancement of learning, science, and art, and, indeed, for all useful 
 public purposes, as well as for the support of the poor. It also comprises all donations 
 for pious and religious objects, under which are included all those which tend to the 
 benefit of the church of England, or of any body of dissenters sanctioned by law. 
 Roman Catholics were admitted into this category by 2 and 3 Will. c. 115, and Jews by 
 9 and 10 Viet, c, 59, s. 2. The charity or other benevolent purpose, however, must be 
 public; “for if a sum of money be bequeathed, with direction to apply it to such pur- 
 poses of benevolence and liberality as the executor shall approve,” or even “ in private 
 •charity,” the law will take no notice of such a trust. 
 
 Legacies to pious or charitable uses are not by the law of England entitled to a pref- 
 erence, though such was the doctrine of the civilians; but where a deficiency of assets 
 arises, they are abated in proportion with the others. 
 
 CHARTTON, a co. in n. central Missouri, lying n. and e. of the Missouri and w. of 
 Grand river, and intersected by the North Missouri railroad; 740 sq.m.; pop. '80, 
 25,224—3958 colored. The surface is rolling prairie and forest, with fertile soil. 
 Coal and limestone are found. Chief productions, wheat, oats, corn, hay, tobacco, and 
 butter. Co. seat, Keytesville. 
 
 CHARTTON, or Grand Chariton, a river rising in s. central Iowa, and flowing s.e. 
 into Missouri, thence s. joining the Missouri river in Chariton co. ; 250 m. long, and 
 navigable about 50 miles. 
 
 CHAEITY, Sisters op. See Sisters op Charity. 
 
 CHARITY COMMIS'SIONERS. A body of commissioners was created in 1853, by the 
 •charitable trusts act, 16 and 17 Viet. c. 137 (see Charitable Uses), with power to 
 inquire into all charities in England and Wales, with reference to their nature, objects, 
 and administration, and the amount and condition of the property belonging to them. 
 The commissioners have power to call for the production of accounts and documents 
 from trustees, and to appoint inspectors to visit and report on their management. The 
 statute does not extend to Scotland or Ireland, to the English universities, or to the city 
 cf London. An annual report of their proceedings must be laid before parliament by 
 the commissioners. 
 
 CHARIVARI is a French term used to designate a wild tumult and uproar, produced 
 by the beating of pans, kettles, and dishes, mingled with whistling, bawling, groans, 
 and hisses, and got up for the purpose of expressing a general dislike to the person 
 against whom it is directed. The etymology of C. is obscure; the Germans translate it 
 by Katzenmusik, the English of which is caterwauling. In France, during the middle 
 ages, a C. was generally raised against persons contracting second nuptials, in which 
 case the widow was specially assailed. On these occasions, the participators in it, who 
 were masked, accompanied their hubbub by the singing of satirical and indecent verses, 
 and would not cease till the wedding' couple had purchased their peace by ransom. C. 
 answers to the English concert upon “ marrow-bones and cleavers,” with which it was 
 customary to attack a married couple who lived in notorious discord. It was also got up 
 against an unequal match, such as where there was great disparity in age between the 
 bride and bridegroom. 
 
 Similar customs seem to have existed under different names in all parts of Europe, 
 and sometimes they were of such a licentious and violent character as to require mili- 
 tary interference to put them down. Even as early as the 14th c., the church found 
 itself forced to threaten punishment, and even excommunication, against those who 
 participated in them. In more recent times, the C. has taken a purely political coloring; 
 as, for example, during the restoVation in France, at which time, however, the popular 
 voice began to seek vent by casting its satirical darts against public men through the 
 press. The papers published for this purpose were called C., the most famous among 
 which is the Charivari, which was established in Paris, Dec. 2, 1832, corresponding te 
 the English publication. Punch (q.v.). 
 
 CHARKOV'. See Kharkov. 
 
 CHARLATAN, a mountebank, quack-doctor, or empiric, and hence any one who 
 makes loud pretensions to knowledge or skill that he does not possess. The word seems 
 to be derived from the Ital. ciarlare, to babble or talk, the chief art of the C. consist- 
 ing in talk. Charlatanism abounds in all departments of life, and manifests itself in 
 various ways according to the subject and character of the person. It changes also in 
 form with the spirit of the time. The medical C. no longer appears on a stage in the 
 guise of Dr. Ironbeard, but as a fine-dressed gentleman, receiving grateful acknowledg- 
 ments through the newspapers, and publishing popular medical books, with the address 
 of the author, and recommendations to apply to him. It has not unfrequently hap- 
 pened, however, that extraordinary men who were so far before their age as not to be 
 understood by it, such as Paracelsus, have passed for charlatans until more justly esti- 
 
Charlemagne. 
 
 Charles. 
 
 694 
 
 mated by later times. Several books have been written on the charlatanism of scholars, 
 J. B. Mencke’s satire, De Gharlaianeria Eruditorum (Leip. 1715), is a classical work, 
 which has been continued by Bilschel in his book, Ueber die Gharlatanerie der Gelehrten- 
 seit MencJce. 
 
 CHABLEUAGNE, i.e., Charles the great, king of the Franks (768-814 a.d.), and 
 Roman emperor (800-814 a.d.), was b. on 2d April, 742, probably at Aix-la-Chapelle, 
 and was the son of Pepin the short, the first Carlo vingian (q.v.) king of the Franks, and 
 grandson of Charles Martel (q.v.). On Pepin’s death in 768, he and his brother Carlo- 
 man jointly succeeded to the throne. By Carloman’s death, and the exclusion of both 
 his sons from the throne, C. became sole king. In 772, it was resolved in the diet at 
 Worms to make war against the Saxons, for the security of the frontiers, which they 
 continually threatened, and for the extension of the Christian religion. C. advanced 
 as far as the Weser in 772, securing his conquests by castles and garrisons. Pope Adrian 
 I. now called him to his aid against Desiderius, king of the Lombards. C. had mar- 
 ried the daughter of Desiderius, and had sent her back to her father because she bore 
 him no children, and married Hildegarde, daughter of the Swabian duke, Godfrey. 
 Desiderius had sought revenge by urging the pope to crown the sons of Carloman, and 
 on the pope’s refusal, had laid waste the papal territory. C. crossed the Alps from 
 Geneva, with two armies, by the great St. Bernard and mont Cenis, in 773, and over- 
 threw the kingdom of the Lombards in 774. The Lombard dukes acknowledged him 
 as their king, and he secured the pope’s favor by confirming the gift which Pepin had 
 made to the papal see, of the exarchate of Ravenna. In 775, he was again employed 
 in the most northerly part of his dominions, reducing the Saxons to subjection ; in 776, 
 he suppressed an insurrection in Italy; in 777, he so completed his victory over the 
 Saxons, that their nobles generally acknowledged him as their sovereign in an assembly 
 at Paderborn^ Being now invited to interpose in the wars of the Arabs and Moors in 
 Spain, he hastened to that country in 778, and added to his dominions the regions 
 between the Pyrenees and the Ebro. From Spain he was summoned in haste by a new 
 insurrection of part of the Saxons, who had advanced almost to Cologne, but whom he 
 drove back to the Elbe. In 781, he went to Italy, where the pope crowned his second 
 son, Pepin, king of Italy, and his third son, Louis, an infant of three years old, king of 
 Aquitaine. The Saxons once more rising in arms, defeated and destroyed a Frankish 
 army on the Siintel in 782, which C., after a new victory, fearfully revenged by causing 
 no fewer than 4,500 prisoners to be executed as rebels in one day. A more general 
 rising of the Saxons followed, but in 783-85, the Frankish monarch succeeded iu 
 reducing them completely to subjection, and in persuading their principal chiefs to sub- 
 mit to baptism, and to become his faithful vassals. Subsequent insurrections and wars 
 in Germany, between this year and 800, resulted in victories over the Bulgarians and 
 Huns, and in the further consolidation and extension of his empire, the eastern boundary 
 of which now reached to the Raab. 
 
 In 800, C. undertook an Italian campaign, which was attended with the most impor- 
 tant consequences. Its immediate purpose was to support pope Leo III. against the 
 rebellious Romans. When C. , on Christmas day, 800, was worshiping in St. Peter’s 
 church, the pope unexpectedly, as it appeared, set a crown upon his head, and, amidst 
 the acclamations of the people, saluted him as Carolus Augustus, emperor of the Romans. 
 Although this added nothing directly to his power, yet it greatly confirmed and 
 increased the respect entertained for him, such was still the luster of a title with which 
 were associated recollections of all the greatness of the Roman empire. A scheme for 
 the union of the newly revived western empire with the empire of the east, by C.’s 
 marriage with Irene (q.v.), the Byzantine empress, failed by reason of Irene’s overthrow. 
 After this, C. still extended and confirmed his conquests both in Spain and in Germany. 
 He labored to bring the Saxons to a general reception of Christianity, and founded 
 bishoprics for this purpose. To the end of his reign, he was incessantly engaged in 
 wars, and insurrections were always apt to break out in the frontier parts of his domin- 
 ions; which he endeavored to secure, however, not only by military power and arrange- 
 ments, but by improvements in political and social institutions. His views were liberal 
 and enlightened to a degree rare for many subsequent ages. Whilst he made the power 
 of the central government to be felt to the utmost extremities of his empire, he recog- 
 nized in his subjects civil rights, and a limitation of monarchic power by their assem- 
 blies. He zealously endeavored to promote education, agriculture, arts, manufactures, 
 and commerce. He projected great national works, one of which was a canal to con- 
 nect the Rhine and the Danube; but he deemed nothing beneath his attention which 
 concerned the interests of his empire or of his subjects. He required his subjects to 
 plant certain kinds of fruit-trees, the cultivation of which was thus extended northward 
 in Europe. His own domains were an example of superior cultivation. He had a 
 school in his palace for the sons of his servants. He built sumptuous palaces, particu- 
 larly at his favorite residences, Aix-la-Chapelle and Ingelheim — for he had no fixed 
 capital — and many churches. Learned men were encouraged to come to his court. He 
 himself possessed an amount of learning unusual in his age ; he could speak Latin and 
 read Greek. He attempted to draw up a grammar of his own language. C. was of 
 more than ordinary stature, and of a noble and commanding appearance. He was fond 
 
695 
 
 Charlemagrne. 
 
 Charles. 
 
 of manly exercises, particularly of hunting. He was too amorous, but in eating and 
 drinking he was very moderate. His fame spread to all parts of the world ; in 768, 
 Harun-al-Raschid sent ambassadors to salute him. He enjoyed good health till shortly 
 before his death, 28th Jan., 814. He was buried at Aix-la-Chapelle (q.v.), in a church 
 which he had built there. He was succeeded by his son Louis, styled Louis le Debon- 
 naire, the only one of his sons who survived him; but the greatness of his dynasty ter- 
 minated with his own life. C. is styled Charles I. in the enumeration both of the 
 French kings and of the German or Roman emperors. Besides his capitularies (q.v.), 
 there are extant letters and Latin poems ascribed to him. His life was written by his 
 secretary, Eginhard. 
 
 CHARLEMONT. See Givet, ante. 
 
 CHABLEBOI, a Belgian t. and fortress in the province of Hainaut, stands on the 
 Sambre, between Mons and Namur, on the line of the Brussels and Namur railway. 
 The pop. is (1873) 12,150, who carry on considerable manufactures in hardware, glass, 
 woolen-yarn, etc. The district is rich in coal, and the number of smelting-furnaces and 
 nail-factories in the neighborhood is very great. The ironworks of Couillet, which yield 
 ^ third of all the cast-iron produced in Belgium, lie within a mile or two of the town, 
 G. possesses considerable historical and political interest as a fortress. The fortifica- 
 tions were begun by the Spaniards in 1666, but falling into the hands of the French next 
 year, they were completed by Vauban. After six exchanges of masters between the 
 French and Spaniards, the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, 1748, left C. in the possession of 
 Austria. In 1794, after a protracted and desperate resistance, it was surrendered to the 
 French by capitulation, when the fortifications were demolished. The importance of 
 the place in a strategic point of view having become apparent during the campaign of 
 1815, the fortifications have been since restored. 
 
 CHARLES, a co. in s.w. Maryland, between the Potomac and Pawtucket rivers; 
 450 sq.m. ; pop. ’80, 18,548 — 10,852 colored. Surface uneven, with forests of locust, oak, 
 .ash, chestnut, and cedar. Tobacco is the main production. Co. seat. Port Tobacco. 
 
 CHABLES I., King of England, Scotland, and Ireland (1625-49), was b. at Dunferm- 
 line, 19th Nov., 1600, and was the second son of James I. of England (VI. of Scotland). 
 On the death of his elder brother, Henry, in 1612, he became prince of Wales, and heir- 
 apparent to his father s throne; to which he succeeded in 1625, but found both in Eng- 
 land and Scotland a contest in progress between king and people. He had inherited 
 from his father the most extreme notions of kingly prerogative, and he mistook the 
 general movement in the public mind for an agitation amongst a few disaffected persons. 
 He had deeply imbibed his father’s notion, that an Episcopal church was the most con- 
 sistent with the proper authority of kings; and he adopted severe and persecuting 
 measures against the Puritans in England and the Presbyterians in Scotland. He mar- 
 ried a Roman Catholic, Maria Henrietta of France, a marriage most displeasing to the 
 nation; and even so far despised public opinion as to make his father’s favorite, the 
 duke of Buckingham, his prime minister and chief adviser. The English parliament, 
 which he assembled in 1625, was resolved upon the vindication of the national liberties, 
 and was therefore very sparing in its grants of subsidies, while that of 1626, instead of 
 freely granting supplies, resolved upon the impeachment of Buckingham; whereupon 
 the king threw into prison two of the boldest members, Elliot and Digges; dissolved 
 parliament; and, to procure money, had recourse to the arbitrary measures of forced 
 loans, and a tax upon the seaports {ship-money), imposed by the mere exercise of royal 
 authority. By all this, public feeling was more and more embittered. In 1628, C. 
 found it necessary again to summon a parliament; and the parliament, very resolute to 
 maintain the liberties of the nation, presented the petition known in history as the Peti- 
 tion of Bight (q.v). C. temporized, conceded, and finally, although the assassination of 
 Buckingham had removed one cause of strife, assumed a threatening tone, and dissolved 
 the parliament, 10th Mar. , 1629. He even caused some of the leading members of the house 
 of commons to be imprisoned. He now governed for 11 years without a parliament, hav- 
 ing Laud (q.v.) and Strafford (q.v.) for his chief advisers, and obtaining for his edicts 
 the semblance of a legal sanction by means of the star chamber (q.v.). All this while, 
 the storm was gathering, the love of liberty increased, and republican principles were 
 developed and extended. The policy which C. adopted was that of more severe repres- 
 sion. At length, in 1638, Scotland assumed an attitude of determined resistance to the 
 imposition of a liturgy and of Episcopal church-government. The national covenant 
 (q.v.) was subscribed, Presbyterianism was completely restored; and in 1639, the king 
 having assembled an army for the purpose of reducing Scotland to subjection, the Scot- 
 tish covenanters also took up arms, and advanced to the English border, many of the 
 English regarding their approach with joy. Civil war was, however, prevented for 
 the time, by concessions on the part of the king. Unable to do without supplies any 
 longer, C. summoned an English parliament in 1640, which, instead of listening to his 
 demands, began to draw up a statement of public grievances. C. soon dissolved the par- 
 liament, and assembled an army to resist the Scots, who had again taken up arms and 
 entered England; but his army was defeated by them at Newburn-upon-Tyne, and they 
 advanced southward, with the sympathy and good wishes of no small part of the king’s 
 English subjects. Much against his will, C. was now compelled again to call a parlia- 
 
Charles. 
 
 696 
 
 ment, whose memorable sittings began on 3d Nov., 1640. Both houses were resolute in 
 their opposition to his despotism. They began by the impeachment of the ministers and 
 high officers of state, and declared the decrees of the star chamber and court of high 
 commission to be null and void. They passed a bill in favor of triennial parliaments; 
 and the king, in trepidation, gave it his assent. He also consented, although against hia 
 own convictions, to the execution of Strafford; and even gave his assent to an act which 
 provided that the present parliament should not be dissolved, prorogued, or adjourned, 
 without its own consent. Hoping to win the favor of the Scots, he now visited Scot- 
 land; but whilst he was there, a rebellion broke out in Ireland, accompanied with a 
 fearful massacre of Protestants. The prospect of a peaceful accommodation was now 
 almost destroyed; the English parliament enlarged its demands; the king, after seeming 
 to yield, took the extraordinary step of suddenly, on 4lh Jan., 1642, appearing in the 
 house of commons, accusing five members — Pym, Hampden, Hollis, Hazelrig, and 
 Stroud — of high treason, and demanding that they should be delivered up to him. Both 
 houses of parliament espoused their cause, and the city of London showed a determina- 
 tion to defend them by arms. C. left London with his family, and the parliament 
 declared the kingdom in danger. Civil war began; the royalists had at first the advan- 
 tage, but the national feeling was with the parliament. Negotiations were from time to 
 time opened or renewed, but always in vain. After the battle of Naseby, on 15th 
 June, 1645, in which his army was almost annihilated by the parliamentary troops under 
 Fairfax and Cromwell, C. was compelled to seek refuge in the Scottish camp. Nego- 
 tiations still proving fruitless, he was delivered up to the English parliamentary army. 
 Negotiations were still attempted with C. in his captivity; but resulted in nothing. 
 Finally, C. fled, was taken, refused the ultimatum of the army, and so enraged Crom- 
 well and the Independents, that parliament was obliged to pass an act declaring all 
 negotiation with the king to be treason. The Presbyterians of England and the Scots, 
 who were always haunted by the idea that there was something sacred and inviolable in 
 monarchy, thought to rescue the king from the hands of the Independents, but were 
 defeated, and all the Presbyterians were forcibly expelled from the English house of 
 commons, which now consisting only of about 60 members — the Rump parliament — 
 appointed a court composed of persons from the army, the house of commons, and the 
 city of London, to try the king. The court was opened with great solemnity in West- 
 minster hall on 20th Jan., 1649. About 70 members took part in its proceedings. 
 On the 27th of Jan., C. was condemned to death as a tyrant, murderer, and enemy of the 
 nation. The Scots protested, the royal family entreated, and the court of France and 
 states-general of the Netherlands interceded, but in vain. On 30th Jan., 1649, he 
 was beheaded in front of the palace of Whitehall. In his last hours he showed great 
 calmness and presence of mind. In his private character, C. was a man of cultivated 
 mind, kind, and of irreproachable life; but in political affairs he was unscrupulous, and 
 had recourse to dissimulation and falsehood for the accomplishment of his purposes. 
 In the estimation of many who do not condemn it on moral grounds, his execution was 
 a great political blunder. From the restoration of Charles II., the 30th of Jan. was 
 observed in the church of England with special religious services, as the day of king 
 Charles the martyr. This commemoration, offensive to great part of the community, 
 and of the members of the established church itself, was abolished by act of parlia- 
 ment in 1859. 
 
 CHARLES II., King of England, Scotland, and Ireland (1649-85), the eldest son of 
 Charles I., was b. 29th May, 1630, and went with his mother to France during the civil 
 war. He was at the Hague at the time of his father’s execution, and immediately 
 assumed the title of king. He meditated an expedition to Ireland for the assertion of 
 his claims, when the Scots offered him their crown in 1650, and proceeding to Scotland, 
 he was crowned at Scone in the beginning of 1651. The limitations, however, under 
 which he received the crown, were disagreeable to him, and he hated the restraint put 
 upon his inclinations by the Presbyterian clerg 3 ^ After the defeat of the Scots at Dun- 
 bar, he put himself at the head of their army, in hope of rousing the royalists of Eng- 
 land to his support; but was completely defeated by Cromwell, at Worcester, on 3d 
 Sept., 1651. He made his escape, amidst many dangers, to France, where his situation 
 was by no means agreeable, and from which he went to Cologne, and afterwards to the 
 Netherlands. After Cromwell’s death, the desire of the English for a settled govern- 
 ment leading to the restoration of the house of Stuart, he landed at Dover, on 26th May, 
 1660, was received with acclamation by the people, and ascended the throne almost 
 untrammeled by a single condition. He was surrounded by men of extreme party -feeling, 
 among whom the most influential was the chancellor. Clarendon (q.v.). The persons 
 immediately concerned in the death of Charles I. were brought to the scaffold; Episco- 
 pacy was restored; and the Presb^derians and other non-conformists, both in England 
 and Scotland, were subjected to great hardship and persecution. The king was extrava- 
 gant, and soon found himself in want of money; he married the princess Catharine of 
 Portugal, for the sake of her large dowry; he shamefully sold Dunkirk and Mardyke 
 to the French; and for a pecuniary consideration, agreed to make war against the 
 united provinces, although such a war was contrary to all the feelings of the English 
 people and the interests of English commerce. The Dutch fleet, under De Ruyter, 
 
697 
 
 Charles. 
 
 entered the Thames, and C. was compelled to make an ignominious peace. After 
 the fall of Clarendon, the ministry known as the Cabal (q.v.) ministry came into 
 power — a ministry hateful to the country, composed of unprincipled men, and bent 
 upon the restoration of popery and absolute monarchy. C. sought to conciliate the 
 people by the triple alliance, in May, 1668, with Sweden and the states-general; but the 
 French court soon found means to persuade him again to make war against the united 
 provinces. He basely accepted pecuniary gifts and a pension from the French govern- 
 ment; and, as even this, with all that he could get from his parliament, was insufficient 
 for his expenses, he had recourse to illegal means of raising money. The story of the 
 popish plot (q.v.) against the life of the king caused prodigious excitement amongst the 
 people, and lord Stafford and many other persons were most unjustly brought to the 
 scaffold. The parliament of 1679, very much against the will of the court, enacted 
 the celebrated habeas corpus act (q.v.): and a bill was under consideration for the exclu- 
 sion of the king’s brother, the duke of York, from the throne, on account of his avowal 
 of the Roman Catholic religion. The king, at this period of his reign, had, however, 
 completely crushed the Presbyterians of Scotland, and was more absolute than any of 
 his predecessors had been on 'either of the British thrones. Most arbitrary measures 
 were adopted. The city of London was deprived of its privileges, because of the elec- 
 tion of a sheriff disagreeable to the court. The B,y e-house plot (q.v.), a widely-extended 
 conspiracy, and in which the king’s natural son, the duke of Monmouth (q.v.), was con- 
 cerned, was discovered in 1683, and cost the lives of a number of persons, amongst 
 whom were lord Russell and Algernon Sidney. C., however, appears to have recog- 
 nized the necessity of a more liberal policy, when he was unexpectedly carried off by 
 death, on 6th Feb., 1685. In his dying hours, he called in the assistance of a Roman 
 Catholic priest, although he had not previously avowed his attachment to that religion. 
 His reign was full of events dishonorable to his country, and of which he himself was 
 generally the cause. His life was most dissolute; his adulteries, and the profligacy of 
 his court, scarcely paralleled in British history. He had an affability, however, which 
 won for him a certain sort of popularity. 
 
 CHARLES I., THE Bald, 823-77; King of France and emperor of the Romans, son 
 of Louis le Debonnaire by his second wife, Judith. The father, in order to furnish 
 C. a kingdom, took away portions of the territory of the other sons, and war among 
 them followed, which ended in leaving C. in possession of a large kingdom in the 
 w. part of the empire. When Louis died, C. undertook to succeed him as the 
 emperor, and made an alliance with his brother Louis, the German. In 841, C. 
 defeated his rival and eldest brother, Lothaire. In 843, the treaty of Verdun confirmed 
 C. in possession of the kingdom, which comprised all France west of the Meuse, 
 Saone, and Rhone, and Spain from the Ebro to the Pyrenees. But the government of 
 C. was weak; the Norsemen pillaged the country almost without resistance; and. 
 finally the people, in despair of relief, called in the aid of his brother Louis, who drove 
 C. from the country for a time. But C. had the church on his side, being entirely 
 under control of the bishops, and in 875 he was crowned emperor by the pope. Louis 
 was too strong for him, however, and he never to any great extent recovered his power. 
 He died in 877, near mont Cenis, while on his M-ay against the Saracens at the request of 
 the pope. 
 
 CHARLES II., THE Fat, 832-88; King of the Franks and emperor of the Romans, 
 third sou of Louis the German. From his father, C. inherited Swabia; in 880, the 
 death of his brother Carlonian of Bavaria made him king of Italy; in 881, he was 
 crowned emperor; the death of Louis of Saxony in 882, also a brother, brought him 
 all Germany; and that of Carloman, the French king, in 885, left him all France; and 
 so by no effort of his own, but by natural causes solely, C. became sovereign of all the 
 dominions of Charlemagne. But he was a weak, gluttonous creature, more intent upon 
 the pleasures of the table than upon matters of state. The Norsemen sailed up the 
 Seine and laid siege to Paris, and C., instead of making even an attempt at resistance, 
 bought them off with 700 pounds of silver and a free passage to the upper Seine and 
 Burgundy, where they might ravage at will. In 887, C. wasTleposed by his people, and 
 died the next year in a cloister. 
 
 CHARLES III., THE Simple, 879-929; King of France; posthumous son of Louis 
 the stammerer. By the death of his rival, Charles the fat, in 887, he obtained possession 
 of the whole kingdom. The most conspicuous act of his reign was the cession to the 
 harassing Norsemen of the territory afterwards known as Normandy, on condition that 
 the heathen should be baptized, that Rollo (Hrolf Ganger, or Ralph the walker, a Danish 
 pirate chief, and the ancestor of William the conqueror, of England) should marry 
 Charles’s sister, and become a duke and vassal of the crown. In 922, the barons rebelled 
 against Charles, and elected Robert, brother of the previous king, in his place; but 
 Robert was killed by Charles’s own hand in the battle of Soissons, though that did not 
 secure to him the victory. The barons then chose for king Raoul, duke of Burgundy. 
 After many failures, misfortunes, and a long imprisonment, Charles died at Peronne. 
 
 CHARLES IV., THE Fair, 1294-1328; King of France and Navarre; third son of 
 Philip the fair, succeeded his brother Philip V., in 1322. The chief purposes of his 
 policy were to free the country from the Lombards, and from the exactions of the barons 
 
Charles. 
 
 698 
 
 and the judges. He also did something towards improving the condition of the Jews» 
 and assisted his sister Isabella in her contest with her husband, Edward II. of England. 
 In 1325, being supported by the pope, Charles made an unsuccessful effort to attain the 
 imperial crown. 
 
 CHARLES V., surnamed the Wise, King of France (1364^80), was the son of king 
 John, and was b. on 21st Jan., 1337. His father being made prisoner by the English at the 
 battle of Poiptiers, on 19th Sept,, 1356, he assumed the regency. The most signifi- 
 cant events which occurred under his rule, were the vigorous efforts of the bourgeoisie 
 to deliver themselves from the tyranny of the nobles and the court, and the peasant war 
 called the Jacquerie (q.v.). His father dying, 8th April, 1364, C. ascended the throne, 
 and by his cautious policy rescued the kingdom from some of its troubles, and re-estab- 
 lished the power of the crown, which had been much shaken. War with England raged 
 for a number of years, but with results highly favorable to C., who stripped his enemies 
 of all their conquests in France, except a few fortified places. He died 16th Sept., 1380. 
 C. was fond of books and the company of learned men, but was not above the natural 
 weakness of kings for outward pomp and magnificence. 
 
 CHARLES VI,, King of France (1380-1422), b. at Paris, 3d Dec,, 1368, was the son and 
 successor of Charles V. He was only 13 years of age when his father died. For sev- 
 eral years, his uncle, the duke of Anjou, acted as regent. In 1388, C. took the reins of 
 government into his own hand, but during his life-time was so often afflicted with 
 insanity, that party strife raged without much check. The two great families whose 
 infiuence divided the nation, were those of Orleans and Burgundy. It was the Orleans 
 party which called in the assistance of the English, and brought about the battle of 
 Agincourt, so disastrous to the French nation. Subsequently the Burgundians allied 
 themselves to the English, who laid waste the whole of northern France. In the midst 
 of these calamities, C. died, 21st Oct., 1422. 
 
 CHARLES VII., King of France (1422-61), the son and successor of Charles VI., was 
 b. on 22d Feb., 1403. On his father’s death he ^ras at the head of an army, with which 
 he held possession of the southern provinces of the kingdom ; Paris and the north being 
 in the hands of the English, who proclaimed Henry VI. of England king of France, and 
 appointed the duke of Bedford regent. For some time the events of war were unfavor- 
 able to C., who was compelled, in 1424, to evacuate Champagne, and, in 1425, Maine. 
 In 1426, the count Dunois gained the first victory over the English at Montargis; but in 
 the year following they besieged Orleans, a place of great importance to C., as securing 
 a connection with the north, and he was roused to fresh energy. At this time, also, Joan 
 of Arc (q.v.), the maid of Orleans, by her wonderful courage and confidence of a 
 heavenly mission, roused the fervor both of nobles and people. The siege of Orleans 
 was raised in May, 1429; the English retired disheartened, and gradually lost their acquisi- 
 tions in France. A treaty between the French king and the duke of Burgundy greatly 
 advanced the French cause. In 1436, C. entered Paris; and during the further progress 
 of the war, the English lost all their strongholds except Calais. In 1452, they were 
 finally defeated at Castillon. After he was established on his throne, C. devoted him- 
 self to the reorganization of the government, in which everything had fallen into con- 
 fusion, but showed a strong anxiety to frame it according to a scheme of perfect 
 despotism, and for this purpose to provide himself with a pow'erful and well-disciplined 
 standing army, which caused some discontentment among the nobles of his kingdom. 
 His government, however, was mild, and under it France recovered in some measure from 
 the effects of the terrible calamities which it had endured. His last years w^ere embit- 
 tered by the conduct of his son, the dauphin, afterwards Louis XI. ; and his apprehen- 
 sion that his son would poison him was so strong, that his consequent abstinence from 
 food is supposed to have hastened his death, which took place at Melun on 22d July, 
 1461. 
 
 CHARLES VIII., King of France (1483-98), was b. at Amboise on 30th June, 1470. 
 and succeeded to the throne on the death of his father, Louis XI. For soine time the 
 government was carried on under the regency of his sister, Anne of Beaujeu. When 
 C. attained his 21st year, he took the royal power into his own hand, and soon devel- 
 oped a bold and ambitious spirit. The most important incident of his career was liis 
 conquest of Naples in 1495, to the throne of which he believed he had a claim. The 
 Italian princes and other European potentates were alarmed by his success. A league 
 was hastily formed between the pope, the emperor of Germany, Ferdinand of Spain, the 
 republic of Venice, and Sforza, duke of Milan, to oppose his return to France. C., 
 however, gallantly broke through the allied forces near Piacenza, and effected a retreat 
 to his own country. It was with difficulty he was hindered by his councilors from 
 resuming his warlike designs on Italy. C. is also said to have meditated the expulsion 
 of the Turks from Europe, and making himself emperor of Constantinople; having 
 received from Andreas Palaeologus, the grandson of the last Grecian emperor, a trans- 
 ference of his claims to the Byzantine throne. He died 7th April, 1498. 
 
 CHARLES IX., King of France (1560-74), the second son of Henry II. and of Catha- 
 rine de’ Medici (q.v.), was b. at St. Germain-en-Laye on 27th June, 1550, and on 5th 
 Dec., 1560, succeeded to the throne on the death of his brother, Francis II. His char- 
 
699 
 
 Charles. 
 
 acter was a compound of passion, acuteness, heartlessness, and cunning. Although 
 only 24 years of age when he died, so well had his detestable mother trained him to a 
 love of perfidy and cruelty, that he found time, with her assistance and that of the 
 Guises, to perpetrate an act so hideously diabolical, that all civilized Europe still shud- 
 ders at the recollection. The massacre of St. Bartholomew’s (q.v.), 24th Aug., 1572, 
 was the culmination of a series of treacheries towards the Huguenots, which disgraced 
 his reign. The result was, that civil war broke out anew, and assumed a very threat- 
 ening character, as political malcontents associated themselves with the Protestants. 
 C. died May 30, 1574. 
 
 CHARLES X., King of France (1824-30), third son of the dauphin Louis, and grand- 
 son of Louis XV., was b. at Versailles, 9th Oct., 1757. He received the title of count 
 d’Artois, and in 1773 married Maria Theresa of Savoy. After the events of 14th July, 
 1789, he and the prince of Conde took the lead of the emigration. In 1796, he sailed 
 from England with a squadron under commodore Warren, on an expedition to the 
 western coasts of France, whereupon twenty departments rose in insurrection; but he 
 had not courage to land and place himself at the head of the insurgents, whom he basely 
 left to the vengeance of the republicans. Detested now by the royalists of France, and 
 despised by the British, he lived in obscurity until the allies entered Paris in 1814, when 
 he appeared in France as lieutenant-general of the kingdom, and issued a proclamation 
 announcing the end of despotism, of conscriptions, and of oppressive taxes. After the 
 second restoration, he took little open part in politics, but lived surrounded with priests, 
 Jesuits, and nobles of the old school; and in this circle originated the tyrannical and 
 unconstitutional measures to which even Louis XVIII. made considerable opposition, 
 but which at this time disgraced the government of France. The d^^ath of Louis, on 
 16th Sept., 1824, brought C. to the throne. He took the oath of adherence to the char- 
 ter, but soon displayed his intention of restoring as much as possible the absolutism of 
 the old French monarchy. Popular discontent rapidly increased. A royal speech, 
 of a threatening character, on 2d Mar., 1830, was followed by an address of remonstrance, 
 signed by 221 deputies, upon which the king dissolved the chambers. The deputies 
 who signed the address were all re-elected, but the court taking fresh courage from the 
 success of the expedition to Algiers, the celebrated ordinances of 25th July were signed 
 by the king, putting an end to the freedom of the press, already largely curtailed, 
 appointing a new mode of election, and dissolving the recently elected chamber. The 
 capital took up arms, the guards refused to act, and the king soon found himself com- 
 pelled to fiee. As a last resource, he abdicated the throne, on 2d Aug., 1830, in favor 
 of his grandson, Henry, duke of Bordeaux, the dauphin also consenting to this act. 
 But it was too late; the revolution was accomplished, and Louis Philippe, duke of 
 Orleans, was chosen king of the French. C. made his escape to England, resided for 
 some time at Holyrood, and afterwards at Prague, He took no part in the political 
 intrigues and attempts of the duchess de Berri. He died of cholera at Gorz, on 6th Nov., 
 1836. His only surviving descendant, in the male line, is his grandson, the count of 
 Chambord (q.v.). 
 
 CHARLES IV., German emperor (1346-78), was b. at Prague in 1316, and was the 
 son of king John of Bohemia, of the house of Luxembourg, who fell in the battle of 
 Crecy. At the instigation of pope Clement VI. , to whom he had previously taken an 
 oath of humiliating submission at Avignon, he was elected emperor by a portion of 
 the electors on 11th July, 1346, although Louis IV. then actually filled the imperial 
 throne. But even after the death of Louis, it was not without difficulty that he 
 obtained secure possession of it. He was crowned king of Italy at Milan in 1354, 
 and emperor at Rome in 1355. In 1356, he issued the golden bull (q.v.), the funda- 
 mental law concerning the' election of German emperors; in defiance of the very letter of 
 which he afterwards, by large bribes, secured for his own son, Wenceslaus, the succes- 
 sion to the empire. He died at Prague, 29th Nov., 1378. C. was an artful politician, 
 but destitute of true greatness. He sought the support of the clergy by undue con- 
 cessions, sold rights and privileges in Italy and other parts of the empire for money, 
 and cared chiefly for the prosperity of his hereditary kingdom of Bohemia. 
 
 CHARLES V., German emperor, was b. at Ghent on 24th Feb., 1500. He was the 
 eldest son of Philip, archduke of Austria, and of Joanna, the daughter of Ferdinand 
 and Isabella of Spain. Philip’s parents were the emperor Maximilian and Maria, daugh- 
 ter and heiress of Charles the bold, duke of Burgundy. On the death of his grand- 
 father, Ferdinand, in 1516, C. took possession of the throne of Spain by the title of 
 Charles I., his mother Joanna being of disordered intellect and incapable of reigning. 
 He was not, however, very favorably received by the Spanish nobles, who were doubt- 
 ful of his right, and jealous of the followers whom he brought from the Low Coun- 
 tries, where he had been educated. All the abilities of his famous minister Ximenes 
 (q.v.) were requisite to prevent an open revolt. On the death of Maximilian in 1519, 
 C. was elected German emperor from amongst a number of competitors, chiefly through 
 the influence of the elector Frederic of Saxony. In his earlier years he had been 
 frivolous and dissolute, but he now became mindYul of the duties and dignity of his 
 high position. On 22d Oct., 1520, he was crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle, and received 
 from the pope the title of Roman emperor. He ascended the imperial throne at a 
 
Charles. 
 
 700 
 
 time when Germany was in a state of unprecedented agitation concerning the doctrines 
 proclaimed by Luther. To restore tranquillity, a great diet was held at Worms in 1521, 
 Luther’s declaration of his principles before which forms a well-known and important 
 passage in the history of the reformation. In 1522, he reduced to subjection the towns 
 of Castile, which had leagued themselves together for the maintenance of their ancient 
 liberties. He was likewise successful in his war against the Turks under Solyman the 
 great. C. was involved also in a struggle of long duration with France, in which, after 
 many alternations of fortune, his armies at last drove the French from the greater part 
 of their conquests in Italy; and Francis I. of France fell into his hands as a prisoner, 
 after a battle by which the siege of Pavia was raised on 24th Feb., 1525. 
 
 The pope, however, began to grow alarmed at his victories, and therefore allied him- 
 self with France and the principal Italian states, and released the king of France from 
 the obligations under which he had come by his treaty with Charles. It was the pope’s 
 object to exclude C. from all dominion in Italy; but the emperor’s forces under Charles 
 of Bourbon, the former constable of France, took Rome itself by storm, plundered it, 
 and made the pope prisoner. C. pretended great regret for this, went into mourning 
 with all his court, and caused prayers to be said for the pope’s liberation, whilst by 
 his own directions the pope was kept for seven months a captive. Peace was con- 
 cluded in 1529, on terms most favorable for the emperor. He now thought to put an 
 end to the religious differences in Germany, and to repel the Turks, who had overrun 
 Hungary and laid siege to Vienna. But the diet at Augsburg in 1530, proved how vain 
 was the hope of restoring the former state of things in Germany; and the emperor 
 refusing to recognize the confession of the Protestants, they refused to help him against 
 the Turks. In 1531, the Protestant princes formed the league of Smalcald (q.v.), and 
 allied themselves with France and England for their own protection. This, and the 
 continued assaults of the Turks, compelled the emperor to yield in some measure to 
 the demands of the Protestants. In 1535, C. undertook an expedition from Spain 
 against the pirate Barbarossa, who had established himself in Tunis, and whose vessels 
 did prodigious injury to the commerce of Spain and Italy. In this expedition he was 
 completely successful, and set free no fewer than 22,000 Christians, who had been held 
 as slaves. War again broke out with France; an armistice for ten years was con- 
 cluded in 1538; and C. even visited Paris, where he was magnificently entertained. 
 But the war broke out afresh in 1542, and terminated in favor of the emperor; who 
 also triumphed in the battle of Muhlberg, 25th April, 1547, over the Protestant princes 
 of Germany, and deprived the elector John Frederic of Saxony of his territories. But 
 he showed so plainly his intention of converting the German empire into a hereditary 
 possession of his family, that new opposition arose, and C. was compelled to flee before 
 the arms of duke Maurice of Saxony and the Protestants, and in 1552 to promise them 
 the peaceful exercise of their religion, which was confirmed by the diet at Augsburg 
 in 1555. Henry II. of France also took from C. some parts of Lorraine. His health 
 failing, C. now declared, in an assembly of the states of Louvaine, his resolution to 
 seek repose, and devote the remainder of his days to God. He resigned the govern- 
 ment of his dominions to his son, for whom, however, he vainly sought to secure the 
 imperial throne; and having relinquished to him the crown of Spain on 15th Jan., 
 1556, he retired to the monastery of Yuste, in Estremadura, where he spent two years 
 partly in mechanical amusements, partly in religious exercises, which are said to have 
 assumed a character of the most gloomy a.sceticism, and died on 21st Sept., 1558. By 
 his wife Isabella, daughter of king Emmanuel of Portugal, he had one son, his succes- 
 sor, Philip II. of Spain, and two daughters. His brother Ferdinand succeeded him in 
 the empire. 
 
 CHARLES VI., German emperor, 1711^0, the last of the proper male line of the 
 house of Hapsburg, was the second son of the emperor Leopold I., and b. 1685. His 
 father intended for him the crown of Spain; but Charles II. of Spain, yielding to 
 French intrigues, assigned it by testament to Philip of Anjou, whereupon arose the 
 great war of the Spanish succession — Britain and Holland taking part with the emperor 
 against France, for the maintenance of the balance of power in Europe. C. was 
 acknowledged liy the allies as Charles III. of Spain, but had not succeeded in obtaining 
 permanent possession of the kingdom, when the death of his brother, the emperor 
 Joseph I., recalled him to Germany in 1711; and as he now became emperor of Ger- 
 many, Britain and Holland concluded the peace of Utrecht with France in 1713. C. 
 continued the war for some time longer; but was at last obliged to give up his claim 
 to Spain, being confirmed, however, in possession of the Spanish Netherlands and of 
 the Spanish possessions in Italy. Success attended his arms in a war against the Turks, 
 and in a war with Spain, which arose out of the project, of the Spanish minister Albe- 
 roni, and in which ihe. quadruple alliance was formed — France, Britain, and Holland join- 
 ing the emperor against Spain. But C., having lost his only son, and being very anxious 
 to" secure the throne to his own descendants, named his daughter, Maria Theresa (q.v.), 
 as his heiress, by a pragmatic sanction (q.v.), to wliich he had much difficulty in obtain- 
 ing the consent of some of the German states and some foreign powers; and to accom- 
 plish this object he gave up Tuscany, Parma, and Piacenza, and afterwards Naples, 
 Sicily, Lorraine, and some parts of Milan. Meanwhile, he was unsuccessful in wars 
 
701 
 
 Charles^ 
 
 with France and Spain, and with the Turks, who compelled him, in 1739, to resign his 
 former conquests. He died 20tli Oct., 1740. He was of a mild and benevolent dispo- 
 sition, but full of superstition and of prejudices in favor of feudalism and ecclesiastical 
 domination. 
 
 CHARLES VII., German emperor (1742-45), was b. at Brussels in 1697, and was tho 
 son of Maximilian Emmanuel, elector of Bavaria, and for some time governor of the 
 Spanish Netherlands. After the conquest of the Bavarian territories, and the pro- 
 nunciation of the ban of the empire against his father by the emperor Joseph I., he 
 was for some time the emperor’s prisoner; but after the decease of Joseph, he married 
 his youngest daughter; and having, in 1726, succeeded his father as elector of Bavaria, 
 refused his consent to the pragmatic sanction (see preceding article); and on the death 
 of Charles VI. in 1740, advanced a claim to the Austrian dominions in right of his- 
 wife, and upon the further ground of a testament of Ferdinand I. Success at first 
 attended his arms; he was acknowledged as archduke of Austria, and then as king of 
 Bohemia, upon which he was also, in 1742, elected emperor. But the tide of fortune now 
 turned against him. The Hungarians rose in favor of Maria Theresa, and he was 
 driven from Austria and from Bohemia, and for a time even from his Bavarian capital, 
 Munich. Disease and calamities combined to cause his death, 20th Jan., 1745, shortly 
 before which he said, “ Misfortune will never leave me till I leave it.” 
 
 CHARLES, Count of Anjou and Provence, King of Naples and Sicily, about 
 1220-85. He was the ninth son of Louis VIII. of France, and wedded Beatrice, heiress 
 of Provence, after scattering his rivals by the aid of an army furnished by his brother, 
 Louis IX. His next adventure was on a crusade to the Holy Land in company with his 
 brother, when both w^ere taken prisoners. Returning to Provence, Charles resumed his 
 authority, and began to cherish high ambitions. He first assisted Margaret of Flanders, 
 in a plan to set aside the children of her husband by a former wife, for the aggrand 
 izement of her own offspring, for which Charles was to receive the province of Haim 
 ault; but Louis interfered and Charles was compelled to relinquish Hainault for a 
 sum of money. About this time the pope. Urban IV., requested Charles to assume the 
 crown of the Two Sicilies, to assist in the overthrow of the bastard Manfred, the 
 Ghibelline king; and in 1265, Charles was crowned at Rome; a crusade was preached 
 against Manfred, who was taken and killed; Conradin, the legitimate heir, was also- 
 betrayed, captured, and murdered; a like fate was dealt out to many Italian nobles; 
 estates were confiscated to reward the French mercenaries; and they established over 
 Sicily an arbitrary and brutal rule. Charles aimed at becoming the head of the eastern 
 empire. With this intent he accompanied his brother on another crusade; but the ven- 
 ture failed in consequence of a great storm and the breaking out of the plague. 
 Charles also incurred the enmity of the pope, Nicholas II. , by refusing to accept the 
 hand of his niece for Charles’s grandson; so Nicholas went over to the Ghibellines, 
 and took from Charles his titles. But Nicholas died in 1280, and Charles procured the 
 election of a Frenchman, Martin IV., to the chair of St. Peter, in return for which 
 Charles was made senator of Rome, and his rival, the emperor Michael Palseologus, 
 was excommunicated. Another expedition was ready for the east, when news was- 
 brought of the rebellion, afterwards known as the Sicilian Vespers (see ante) \ the people 
 of Sicily had risen against their conquerors, and on Easter Monday, 1282, nearly exter- 
 minated the French in all Sicily. Charles at once sent his fleet against IVlessina, refus- 
 ing all offers of capitulation; but the city held out until assistance came from Don Pedra 
 of Aragon, and (Charles’s fleet was burned. Despairing of other means of success, 
 Charles challenged Don Pedro to single combat; the latter accepted, but only Charles 
 appeared in the list. Soon afterwards Charles’s son was defeated and taken prisoner; and 
 in 1285, Charles himself fell ill and died at Poggia. 
 
 CHARLES III., OP Dukazzo, 1345-87; King of Naples and Hungary. His father, 
 who had rebelled against the queen, Joanna I. of Naples, died in prison; and the 
 queen adopted the son, but afterwards displaced him in favor of Louis of Anjou, the 
 father of Charles V. of Prance. Charles made an alliance with the king of Hungary, 
 and set out to invade Naples. At Rome he was crowned king by the pope; thence he 
 went to Naples, captured the queen, and had her assassinated. Three years later he 
 was invited to accept the crown of Hungary by the nobles, who were dissatisfied with 
 the rule of queen Elizabeth, and was crowned on the last day of the year 1386. Five 
 weeks afterwards Elizabeth caused him to be murdered in her own presence. As he 
 and his kingdom of Naples were under papal interdict, his body remained unburied for 
 five years. 
 
 CHARLES I., b. 1839; Prince of Roumania, second son of prince Charles Anthony 
 of Hohenzollern. In 1866, Charles was elected president of Roumania by an almost 
 unanimous vote. He found the country in a wretched condition, the treasury empty, 
 education unprovided for, and the people divided into warring political factions. By 
 energy and good statesmanship he greatly improved matters, and when the Russo-Turk- 
 ish war began he seized the occasion to proclaim Roumania’s entire independence of 
 Turkey, and such a declaration was officially made by the chambers. In 1869, Charles 
 married princess Elizabeth of Wied. 
 
CTharles. 
 
 702 
 
 CHARLES II., 1661-1700; King of Spain; son of Philip IV. He was but four 
 years old when his father died, the regency being in the hands of the queen, Anna 
 Maria of Austria. During her rule, Spain was much weakened by an unsuccessful war 
 with France and by the loss of Sicily. In 1675, Charles assumed the government, 
 taking for his chief adviser Don John, an illegitimate son of the late king. By mar- 
 rying Louise of Orleans, a niece of Louis XIV., Charles maintained harmony with 
 France for several years. After her death, Charles married a sister of the emperor, 
 Leopold I., and in 1694 he joined Leopold in a war against France. The war was speedily 
 concluded by the peace of Ryswick, 1697, and as Charles was childless there was a long 
 negotiation concerning the succession, ended through the influence of the pope, who 
 secured the crown for the grandson of Louis XIV. , Philip Bourbon, who ruled Spain 
 as Philip V. 
 
 CHARLES III., 1716-88; King of Spain, second son of Philip V., and great-grand- 
 son of Louis XIV. of France. Parma, Piacenza, and Tuscany having fallen to Spain, 
 Charles, at the age of 15, was furnished with an army and given rule over those coun- 
 tries. At 18 he conquered the Two Sicilies, and the emperor was obliged to acknowledge 
 him as king. On the death of his brother, Charles succeeded to the Spanish throne, in 
 1759. He was a man of ability and liberal ideas, and made many reforms, especially in 
 financial administration. The Jesuits were banished, and an unsuccessful effort was 
 made to bring the inquisition under the control of the civil power. He endeavored to 
 put a stop to brigandage and to Algerine piracy ; and interested himself in the develop- 
 ment of commerce, and arts and sciences. In 1763, he ceded Florida to England in 
 exchange for Cuba, and some years later he joined France in sending assistance to the 
 American colonies, then engaged in the war for independence. At the close of the war, 
 Florida was again given to Spain. He made an unsuccessful attempt to rescue Gibraltar 
 from the English. Charles died in Madrid after a reign of 29 years. 
 
 CHARLES IV., 1748-1819; King of Spain, son and successor of Charles III. When very 
 young, Charles married his cousin, Maria Louise of Parma, who soon acquired great influ- 
 ence over him. The government was conducted chiefly by Manuel Godoy, a handsome 
 guardsman who gained the friendship of both the queen and her husband, and was made 
 duke of Alcudia, and minister of foreign affairs. Godoy concluded peace with the 
 French republic in 1795, after an unsuccessful attempt on the part of the king to assist 
 his relative, Louis XVI. Soon after this peace an offensive and defensive alliance was 
 made with France, and Spain speedily became involved in war with Portugal and also 
 with England, the main event of which was the destruction of the Spanish fleet by Nel- 
 son at Trafalgar in 1805. In 1807, Charles made with Napoleon a secret treaty according 
 to which Portugal was to be seized by the French and Spanish, and the greater part to 
 be divided between Godoy and the queen of Etruria, and Charles was to assume the title 
 of emperor of Amercia; at the same time, 16,000 Spanish troops were to be sent to the 
 assistance of the French in Denmark. While this was going on, Napoleon was intriguing 
 with Don Ferdinand, the heir to the throne, who was soon after discovered in a plot to 
 assassinate his father. Though pardoned, Ferdinand continued to do all that he could 
 to arouse ill feeling against the court, and in 1808, Charles was so alarmed at disturbances 
 in Madrid, that he abdicated in Ferdinand’s favor. Charles declared immediately that 
 this act was not voluntary; but the matter was decided by a meeting with Napoleon at 
 Bayonne, urged by Godoy, who was moved by fear of Ferdinand, and also by the queen. 
 Charles surrendered the crown to Napoleon (who gave him a pension of six millions of 
 francs, and the castle and grounds of Chambord), refusing again to assume authority, 
 although he might have done so, his son being very unpopular. 
 
 CHARLES IX., 1550-1611; King of Sweden, the fourth son of Gustavus Vasa. The 
 Swedish crown belonged to Charles’s nephew, Sigismund, king of Poland; but as he 
 was a Roman Catholic, Charles was appointed to direct the government till Sigismund 
 signed a decree establishing the Lutheran religion in Sweden. After many attempts at 
 accommodation, Sigismund was formally deposed in 1604, and Charles was elected 
 king. He had wars with Poland, Russia, and Denmark, and when 60 years old he 
 challenged the king of Denmark to single combat, but the Dane did not respond. 
 Charles founded the university of Gothenburg, and made a new code of laws. He 
 wrote a rhymed chronicle of the war with Poland. 
 
 CHARLES X., or Chakles-Gustavus, king of Sweden, was b. at Nykoping, 8th 
 Nov., 1622. After studying at the university of Upsala, he traveled through France, 
 Germany, and Switzerland, joined the army of Torstensohn (q.v.) in 1642, fought at the 
 battles of Yankovitz and Leipzig; and at the close of the war was the representative of 
 queen Christina at the conferences which were held for giving effect to the treaty of 
 Westphalia. On the abdication of Christina, Charles-Gustavus, who was the son of 
 Gustavus Adolphus’ eldest sister Catharine and John Casimir, the palatine of Zwey- 
 bruck in Clerburg, succeeded as next heir, 17th June, 1654, to the throne of a kingdom 
 which, after his accession, he discovered to be in an almost bankrupt condition. There 
 was a debt of 10,000,000, while the revenue did not amount fco 800,000 crowns, out of 
 which one fourth was granted as a pension to the ex-queen, whose carelessness and 
 extravagance had brought about this deplorable state of matters, and who, in the words 
 of the aged chancellor Oxeustierna, “ had cost Sweden dearer than ever an enemy did.” 
 
703 
 
 Charles. 
 
 She had taken away everything belonging to the royal residences which was portable : 
 and C. was forced at first to borrow even a set of kitchen utensils. C. was the second 
 of the three great warrior-monarchs of Sweden, but unlike his uncle, who could plead 
 religious grounds, and his grandson, who was at first forced to fight for self-preserva- 
 tion, C. seemed to make war principally for war’s sake. First, he attacked Poland in 
 July, 1655, because the Polish monarchs had not resigned their claim to the Swedish 
 throne; captured in the same year Warsaw, Cracow, Thorn, Elbing, Posen, and Kaliez; 
 and drove the king to take shelter in Silesia; he then assailed the Danes, who had 
 declared war against him, crossed the belts on the ice, and speedily made himself mas- 
 ter of all the continental possessions of Denmark. Next marching from isle to isle over 
 the frozen sea, he ultimately, by menacing Copenhagen, compelled the treaty of Ros- 
 kild (7th Mar., 1658), which gave to Sweden, Holland, Scania, Bleckingen, Bornholm, 
 and the other Danish possessions beyond the sound, and emancipated Sweden from the 
 sound dues. Charles, however, still cherished enmity against the Danes; and after 
 fruitlessly proposing to the Dutch and English, a partition of Denmark, he invaded 
 Zeeland, and attacked Copenhagen in 1659. The capital, however, defended itself vali- 
 antly, aided by succor from the Prussians and Dutch; and the Swedish monarch waa 
 compelled to abandon the siege. Soon after, while laboring to effect a complete recon- 
 ciliation with Poland in order to be free to attack the Danes in Norway, he died 
 suddenly at Gothenburg, Feb. 23, 1660. 
 
 CHARLES XI., one of the ablest kings of Sweden, was the son of king Charles (X.> 
 Gustavus, and was b. Nov. 24, 1655. While he was little more than four years old at 
 his father’s death, the government was committed to his mother Hedwig as regent, and 
 a council. The peace of Oliva (May 3, 1660) with Poland, by which Sweden obtained 
 Esthonia, part of Livonia, and Oesel, and the Polish monarch renounced all pretensions 
 to the Swedish crown ; and that of Copenhagen (June 6, 1660), generally confirmatory 
 of the treaty of Roskild with Denmark, were the first important acts of the government. 
 A treaty with Russia on the basis of the status quo followed in 1661 ; and from this 
 period till 1672, the kingdom was free from foreign wars. In Dec., 1672, C. (whose 
 education had been so ill attended to that he had reached manhood before he could 
 read) took the reins of government, and by the allurements of France, was induced to 
 make war on Brandenburg. This unprovoked attack was disastrous to the Swedes, for 
 they suffered a severe defeat from the elector at Fehrbellin (1675); and though C. 
 revenged himself by defeating the Danes (who were allied with Prussia) at Halmstadt, 
 Lemd, and Landskrona, his fleet was defeated by the Dutch near Oeland, and again by 
 the Danes at Bleking and Kioge; and many of Sweden’s recent acquisitions were wrested 
 from her. These, however, were restored by the peace of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (17th 
 Sept., 1679), which closed this needless and unfortunate contest. In 1680, a struggle 
 commenced between the crown, supported by the burghers and peasants, on one hand, 
 and the nobles on the other; and a considerable diminution of the power of the nobles 
 was the consequence. The resumption of all the crown lands which had been alienated 
 since 1609, was a fatal blow to the preponderating power of the nobles; and by a volun- 
 tary declaration of the states, Dec. 9, 1682, the king was invested with absolute authority. 
 This voluntary erection of a despotism by the people, a thing of rare occurrence in the 
 world’s history, is yet more extraordinary at the close of the 17th c. ; and it speaks 
 highly for C. that he never employed his unlimited authority otherwise than for the 
 best interests of his kingdom. By a judicious administration of the revenues, he was 
 enabled to extinguish the public debt (1686), reorganize the fleet and army, and by 1693 
 to dispense with the calling up of extraordinary subsidies. Though absolute, he never 
 imposed a tax but with consent of the states; and he every year published a detailed 
 account of revenue and expenditure. In 1693, he was formally declared absolute by an 
 act of the diet. The foreign policy of the country was also conducted in a manner 
 equally satisfactory and effective. Deux-Ponts fell to him as heir to his cousin Fried- 
 rich-Ludwig, the last palatine, in 1681 ; the attempts of the Danes upon Holstein were 
 rigorously repressed, and many small outlying territories were brought under his sway. 
 His anxiety for his subjects’ welfare was particularly shown by commercial and mari- 
 time regulations superior to any that then existed in Europe ; and by his numerous 
 journeys to all parts of his dominions to examine for himself into the remote details of 
 the administration. A codification of the laws was commenced but was unfinished at 
 his death, which took place at Stockholm, 15th April, 1697. 
 
 CHARLES XII., King of Sweden (1697-1718), was the son of Charles XI., and was 
 b. at Stockholm on the 27th June, 1682. On the death of his father in 1697, he ascended 
 the throne, and notwithstanding his youth, the states declared him of age to assume the 
 reins of government. The neighboring powers thought this^a favorable time to humble 
 Sweden, then the great power of the n. ; and Frederick IV. of Denmark, Augustus II. 
 of Poland, and the czar Peter I. concluded a league for this object. The Danes began 
 by invading the territory of the duke of Holstein Gottorp, who had married C.’s eldest 
 sister, and who applied to him for assistance. The young king immediately resolved on 
 the most active measures, and approached Copenhagen with such a force as presently 
 compelled the Danes to make peace. C. now hastened to meet the Russians; and 
 although they lay in an intrenched camp beneath the walls of Narva, 50,000 strong, he 
 
Charles. 
 
 704 
 
 stormed their camp on 30th Nov., 1700, with 8,000 Swedes, and defeated them with 
 great slaughter. He next dethroned Augustus II., and procured the election of Stanis- 
 laus Leszczynski as king of Poland. Augustus supposed himself safe at least in Saxony, 
 his hereditary dominion, but was followed thither, and humbling terms of peace were 
 dictated at Altranstadt in 1706. C. obtained from the emperor liberty of conscience for 
 the Protestants of Silesia. Leaving Saxony with an army of 43,000 men in Sept., 1707, 
 he proposed to advance direct upon Moscow; but at Smolensk he was induced, by the 
 representations of the Cossack hetman, Mazeppa, to change his plan and proceed to the 
 Ukraine, in hope of being joined by the Cossacks. In this hope, however, he was disap- 
 pointed, and after enduring many hardships, he was defeated by the Russians at Pul- 
 towa, on the 27tli June, 1709, and fled to Bender in the Turkish dominions. 
 
 Augustus II. now revoked the treaty of Altranstadt, and the czar and the king of 
 Denmark assailed the Swedish territories. But the regency in Stockholm adopted 
 measures of effective and successful resistance, and C. prevailed with the porte to 
 declare war against Russia, in which Peter seemed at first likely to have suffered a severe 
 defeat. But Russian agents succeeded in inspiring the Turks with suspicions concern- 
 ing the ultimate designs of C., who was conveyed to Adrianople, but after some time 
 escaped, and made his way through Hungary and Germany, pressing on by day and 
 night with extraordinary speed till he reached Stralsund, where he was received with 
 great joy, on 11th (22d) Nov., 1714. He was soon, however, deprived of Stralsund by 
 the allied Danes, Saxons, Prussians, and Russians. After he had adopted measures for 
 the security of the Swedish coasts, his passion for war led him to attack Norway. Suc- 
 cess appeared again to attend his arms, when, in the siege of Friedrichshald, on 30th 
 Nov., 1718, he was killed by a musket-bullet. On his death, Sweden— exhausted by his 
 wars — ceased to be numbered among the great powers. He was a man capable of com- 
 prehensive designs, and of great energy in prosecuting them. His abilities apppeared 
 not merely in military affairs, but in his schemes for the promotion of trade and manu- 
 factures. His self-willed obstinacy, however, amounted almost to insanity; in fact, he 
 has been termed “ a brilliant madman.” His habits were exceedingly simple: in eating 
 and drinking, he was abstemious; and in the camp, he sought no luxuries beyond the 
 fare of the common soldier. 
 
 CHARLES XIII., King of Sweden (1809-1818), b. Oct. 7, 1748, was the second son of 
 king Adolphus Frederick, and of the sister of Frederick the great of Prussia. He was 
 trained for naval command, and was long the high admiral of Sweden, in which capacity 
 he distinguished himself by a great victory over the Russians in the gulf of Finland in 
 1788, and b}^ bringing back his fleet safe to Carlscrona in the most perilous season of 
 the year. He was on several very important occasions called to an active part in politi- 
 cal affairs — in the revolution of 1772, when he was made governor-general of Stockholm 
 and duke of Sodermanland; after the assassination of his brother Gustavus III. in 1792, 
 when he was placed at the head of the regency; and after the revolution of 1809, when 
 he became administrator of the kingdom, and subsequently king. The Swedish mon- 
 archy now became limited instead of despotic. Having no child, C. concurred with 
 the states of the kingdom in choosing as his successor the French general, Bernadotte, 
 who became crown-prince of Sweden, and ascended the throne on the death of C., Feb. 
 5, 1818. The prudence of the king and crown-prince secured the union of Norway with 
 Sweden in 1814, as a compensation for Finland. 
 
 CHARLES XIV., King of Sweden and Norway (1818-1844), originally Jean Baptiste 
 Jules Bernadotts, was b. at Pau, in the s. of France, Jan. 26, 1764. He w^as the son 
 of a lawyer. He entered the French army as a common soldier; became an ardent par- 
 tisan of the revolution; greatly distinguished himself in the wars of Napoleon, and soon 
 attained the highest military rank. But he was distrusted by Bonaparte, whose ambi- 
 tious schemes he took no part in promoting; and Napoleon having taken offense at his 
 •conduct after the battle of W agram, Bernadotte left the army in disgust, and returned 
 to Paris, He was afterwards sent by the ministerial council to oppose the British, who 
 had landed at Walcheren, but the breach between the emperor and him grew wider. In 
 1810, he was elected crown-prince, and heir to the throne of Sweden, Almost the only 
 condition imposed on him was that of joining the Protestant church. He changed his 
 name to Charles John; and the health of the Swedish king, Charles XIII,, failing in the 
 following year, the reins of government came almost entirely into his hands. He refused 
 to comply with the demands of Napoleon, which were opposed to the interests of 
 Sweden, particularly as to trade with Britain, and was soon involved in war with him. 
 He commanded the army of the allies in the n. of Germany, and defeated Oudinot at 
 Grossbeeren, and Ney at Dennewitz. He showed great reluctance, however, to join in 
 the invasion of France, an^ was tardy in his progress southward. — He became king of 
 Sweden on the death of Charles XIII., Feb. 5, 1818. He won for himself the character 
 of a wise and good king. Education, agriculture, manufactures, commerce, and great 
 public works, as well as the military strength of the kingdom, were promoted by his 
 care. He died Mar. 8, 1844, and was succeeded by his son Oscar. 
 
 CHARLES XV., 1826-72; King of Sweden and Norway, succeeding his father, 
 Oscar I. , who was a son of Charles XIV. The rule of C. was liberal and popular. The 
 most important event was the change (in 1866) in the constitution of the parliament. 
 
705 
 
 Charles. 
 
 which from that time has consisted not of four, but of two chambers, one elected by 
 the provincial representatives and the other by the people. Charles’s kindly nature was 
 shown in his firm refusal to sanction capital punishment. He had a taste for literature 
 and art, and published a volume of poems. In 1850, he married Louisa, daugliter of 
 the king of the Netherlands, by whom he had one daughter, who became the wife of 
 prince Frederick of Denmark. 
 
 CHARLES, Archduke of Austria, third son of the emperor Leopold II., was b. at 
 Florence, 5th Sept., 1771. Whilst yet a youth, he pursued military studies with much, 
 ardor; and after having greatly distinguished himself as a gen. in inferior commands, 
 he was intrusted, in 1796, with the chief command of the Austrian army on the liliiue. 
 He fought with great success against Moreau at Rastadt, defeated Jourdan in several 
 battles, drove the French over the Rhine, and concluded his victories by taking Kehl in 
 the winter. In 1799, he was again at the head of the army on the Rhine, v;as several 
 times victorious over Jourdan, protected Suabia, and successfully opposed Massena. In 
 1800, bad health compelled him to retire from active service; but being appointed gov, 
 gen. of Bohemia, he formed a new army there. After the battle of Hohenlinden, he 
 was again called to the chief command, and succeeded in staying the rapid progress of 
 Moreau, but almost immediately entered into an armistice with him, which was followed 
 by the peace of Luneville. In 1805, he commanded the army opposed to Massena in 
 Italy, and fought the hard battle of Caldiero ; but upon bad tidings from Germany, 
 retreated from the left bank of the Adige to Croatia. This retreat was one of his great- 
 est military achievements. In 1809, he won the great battle of Aspern, wLich first 
 showed to Europe that Napoleon was not invincible; but he did not promptly enough 
 follow up his victory, and Napoleon, who hastened to reinforce his army, retrieved hia 
 fortunes at Wagram, and the archduke was now compelled to give way before the 
 enemy, till he reached Znaim, where an armistice was concluded on 12th July. In the 
 campaigns of 1813 and 1814 he had no part; and lived in retirement till his death, 30th 
 April, i847. 
 
 CHARLES, Elizabeth Rundle, b. about 1826; the wife of Andrew P. Charles, of 
 London. She has written Chronicles of the Schonberg- Cotta Family; Diary of Mrs. Kitty 
 Trevylyan; and other popular works of fiction. 
 
 CHARLES, Jacques Alexandre Cesar, 1746-1823; a French physicist, noted for 
 skill in experiments and public demonstrations. He made the first balloon to hold hydro- 
 gen gas, with which a successful ascent was made. He was the inventor of a number 
 of optical instruments. 
 
 CHARLES ALBERT, King of Sardinia (1831-49), b, 2d Oct., 1798, was the son of the 
 prince Charles Emmanuel of Savoy-Carignan, and in 1800, succeeded to his father’s title 
 and estates in France and Piedmont. In 1817, he married Maria Theresa, daughter of 
 the archduke Ferdinand of Tuscany. When the revolutionary movement took place in 
 Piedmont in 1821, he was made regent, upon the abdication of Victor Emmanuel, until 
 Charles Felix, the brother of the late king, should arrive to assume the sovereignty. 
 He displeased both the liberal party and their opponents, and Charles Felix disallowed 
 all his acts, and for some time forbade his appearance at court. In 1829, he was 
 appointed viceroy of Sardinia. On the death of Charles Felix, 27th April, 1831, he as- 
 cended the throne. The liberals had great expectations from him, but were for a long time 
 disappointed; his government much resembled the other Jesuitic and despotic Italian gov- 
 ernments, except that he sought to promote the interests of the country, and to restrict 
 the influence of the clergy in political affairs. It was not till after the elevation of 
 Pius IX. to the popedom, when a new impulse was given to the cause of reform, that 
 the Sardinian government adopted the constitutional and liberal policy to which it has 
 since adhered. C. A. entered warmly into the project of Italian unity, and evidently 
 expected to place himself at the head of the whole movement and of the new kingdom 
 of Italy. When the Lombards and Venetians rose against the Austrian government, he 
 declared war against Austria, 23d Mar., 1848, and at first was exceedingly successful, 
 but was insufficiently supported by the Lombards, and finally defeated by the Austrians; 
 so that after the fatal battle of Novara, 23d Mar., 1849, he was obliged, for the preser- 
 vation of the integrity of his kingdom, to resign the crown in favor of his son, Victor 
 Emmanuel. He afterwards retired to Portugal, and died at Oporto on 28th July of the 
 same year. 
 
 CHARLES AUGUSTUS, 1757-1828, Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar. He assumed 
 the government in his eighteenth .year, and the next year entered the Prussian army, in 
 which he remained until the defeat at Jena in 1806, when he became a member of the 
 Rhenish confederacy and furnished aid to the French. In 1813, he joined in the coali- 
 tion against Napoleon, and took command of an army of Saxons, Hessians, and Rus- 
 sians. He fought among the allies in 1815, and the congress of Vienna rewarded his 
 services b}’’ enlarging his principality and making it a grand duchy. Charles was an 
 intimate friend of Goethe, Wieland, and other men of letters. 
 
 CHARLES THE BOLD, Duke of Burgundy (1467-77), son of Philip the good, of the house 
 of Valois, and of Isabella of Portugal, was b. at Dijon onlOth Nov., 1435, and bore, during 
 his father’s life, the title of count of Charolais. He was of a fiery, ambitious, and violent 
 U. K. m.— 45 
 
Charles. 
 
 Charleston* 
 
 706 
 
 disposition. From an early period to the end of his life he was a declared enemy of 
 Louis XI. of France, the nominal feudal superior of Burgundy. Louis having caused 
 Philip to deliver up some towns on the Somme, C. left his father’s court and formed an 
 alliance with the duke of Bretagne and some of the great nobles of France for the main- 
 tenance of feudal rights against the crown. Their forces ravaged Picardy and Isle-de- 
 France, they threatened Paris, and defeated the king at Moutlhery. The result was 
 a treaty by which the count of Charolais obtained the towns on the Somme and the 
 counties of Bologne, Guiiies, and Pouthieu for himself. In 1467, he succeeded his 
 father as duke of Burguudy. Richer and more powerful than any prince of that time, 
 he conceived the design of restoring the old kingdom of Burgundy, and for this purpose of 
 conquering Lorraine, Provence, Dauphiny, and Switzerland. Whilst he was making 
 preparations for war, Louis invited him to a conference; he hesitated, and Louis by his 
 agents stirred up the citizens of Liege to revolt. Meanwhile C. consented to the con- 
 ference, and the news coming of what had taken place at Liege, he seized the king, and 
 if he had not been withheld by his councilor Comines, would have put him to death. 
 He compelled Louis, however, to accompany him to Liege, and apparently to sanction 
 the cruelties which he inflicted on the citizens. War raged between them afterwards 
 with but little intermission till 1475. In Sept, of that year, C. found himself at leisure 
 to attempt the prosecution of his favorite scheme of conquest, and soon made himself 
 master of Lorraine. In the following year he invaded Switzerland, stormed Grandson, 
 and hanged and drowned the garrison; but was soon after terribly defeated by the 
 Swiss near that place, and lost his baggage and much treasure. Three months after, he 
 appeared again in Switzerland with a new army of 60,000 men, and laid siege to Morat, 
 where he sustained, on June 22, 1476, another and more terrible defeat. After this he 
 sank into despondency, and let his nails and beard grow. But the news that the young 
 duke Rene of Lorraine was attempting to recover his territories, roused him, and he laid 
 siege to Nancy. His army was small; Italian auxiliaries, whom he had hired, went 
 over to the enemy; and in the battle which he too rashly fought, he lost his life, Jan. 5, 
 1477. His daughter and heiress, Maria, married the emperor Maximilian I. With his 
 life ended the long successful resistance of the great French vassals to the central power 
 of the monarchy. 
 
 CHARLES CITY, a co. in s.e. Virginia, on the James and Chickahominy rivers; 
 184 sq.m. ; pop. ’80, 5512 — B752 colored. Productions, corn, wheat, oats, etc. Co. 
 seat, Charles City Court House. 
 
 CHARLES EMMA'NUEL I., duke of Savoy (1580-1630), called the great, was b. at the 
 castle of Rivoli, 12th Jan., 1562, and succeeded his father Emmanuel Philibert in 1580. 
 He married a daughter of Philip II. of Spain, and at first allied himself politically with 
 Spain, and made war against France for the marquisate of Saluzzo (or Saluces), which 
 he obtained in 1601, upon the cession of some other territories to France. But he after- 
 wards joined France and Venice to oppose the preponderant power of Spain in Italy; 
 then allied himself with the house of Hapsburg, and set up a claim to Montferrat, but 
 suffered, in consequence, the direst calamities, great part of his dominions being con- 
 quered by the French, and in their hands when he died, 26th July, 1630. He was a 
 prince of vast ambition, and for whom no enterprise was too bold. 
 
 CHARLES, surnamed MARTEL — i.e., the hammer — was the son of Pepin of Heristal, 
 mayor of the palace under the last Merovingian kings, and was b. about 690 a.d. After 
 his father’s death in 714, he was proclaimed mayor of the palace by the Austrasian party. 
 King Chilperic and he now quarreled, and a civil war arose which ended in C. 
 becoming undisputed mayor of the palace and ruler of the Franks. During the latter 
 years of his life, he indeed allowed the nominal throne to remain occupied — the 
 titular kings being mere puppets in his hands. He was much engaged in wars against 
 the revolted Alemanni and Bavarians, the Saxons, etc., but his importance as a his- 
 toric personage is chiefly due to his wars against the Saracens, who, having conquered 
 Septimania from the western Goths in 720, advanced thence into Aquitaine, conquered 
 Bordeaux, defeated the duke of Aquitaine, crossed the Garonne, advanced to the 
 Loire, and threatened Tours. C. defeated them between Tours and Poitiers in 732 in a 
 great battle, in which their leader, Abd-ur-Rahm^n, fell, and a stop was put to their 
 progress in Europe, which had filled all Christendom with alarm. He defeated them 
 again in 738, when they had advanced in the Burgundian territories as far as Lyon; 
 deprived them of Languedoc, which he added to the kingdom of the Franks; and left 
 them nothing of their possessions n. of the Pyrenees beyond the river Aude. He died 
 on the 22d Oct., 741, at Quiercy on the Oise, in the midst of his victories, his projects, 
 and his greatness, leaving the government of the kingdom to be divided between his two 
 sons — Carloman, and Pepin the short. 
 
 CHARLES MIX, a co. in s.e. Dakota, on the Missouri river; pop. ’70, 153, of whom 
 117 were Indians. Co. scat, Greenwood. 
 
 CHARLES RIVER, a stream rising in central Massachusetts, and flowing easterly 
 to Boston harbor. It affords valuable water-power in many places, and in its lower 
 course its banks are lined with large and small manufacturing villages. 
 
 CHARLES’S WAIN, a common name for the constellation of Ursa Major (q.v.). 
 
707 
 
 Charles. 
 
 Cliarleston^ 
 
 CHARLESTON, a co. in e. South Carolina, on the ocean, and including several 
 islands; 1906 sq.m.; pop. ’80, 102,825 — 71,890 colored. The Santee river is the n.e. 
 border, and the Ashley, Edisto, and Cooper rivers intersect the county. I'he surface is low 
 and level, and much of the soil is very rich, producing sea-island and short staple cotton, 
 rice, corn, sweet potatoes, etc. The South Carolina, the Savannah and Charleston, and 
 the North-eastern railroads intersect. Co. seat. Charleston. 
 
 CHARLESTON, a village in Coles co., 111., on the St. Louis and Indianapolis rail-, 
 road, 85 m. w. of Terre Haute, Ind. It is the county seat, and has a medical college, 
 some manufactures, and the trade of a productive agricultural district. Pop. ’70, 2,849. 
 
 CHARLESTON, the chief city of a district of its own name in South Carolina, and the 
 commercial capital of the state, is situated in lat. 32° 46' n., and long. 79° 57' west. 
 With straight and regular streets, it occupies the fork of the Cooper and the Ashley, 
 which, as deep tideways of the respective widths of 1400 and 2,100 yards, here unite 
 with their common estuary of 7 m. in length to form Charleston harbor. Tliis haven is 
 beset to seaward by a sand-bar, which has its uses, however, as a breakwater and a 
 bulwark. The more practicable of its two passages — showing 16 ft. at ebb and 22 at 
 flood — is commanded % fort Moultrie and fort Sumter. The city is built upon ground 
 raised but a few feet above the water. In 1860, the pop. of C. was 40,522; (1870) 48,956; 
 (1875) 56,540. The exports, which are always of much greater value than the imports, 
 amounted in 1858 to $16,924,436; in the year ending Mar. 31, 1875, $19,532,393. Cotton 
 and rice are the chief exports. In 1878, the taxable property of C. was worth $26,591,- 
 778. The public debt was $4,716,754. There are about 40 churches, the state medical 
 college, a large orphan asylum, etc. C. was founded in 1672, receiving from France, 
 about 1685, a considerable influx of Protestant refugees. It was prominent for zeal and 
 gallantry in the revolutionary war. Up to the time of the civil war, the city was 
 remarkable for its suburban character and verdant surroundings, and its inhabitants 
 were mainly opulent planters, distinguished for hospitality and refinement. It was in 
 C., however, that the first open movement was made in favor of secession; and the city 
 and its inhabitants have changed since then. In 1860 and 1861, the harbor was the 
 scene of several conflicts; and in 1863, fort Sumter was reduced to ruins. The harbor 
 was blockaded in 1861, and several dismantled hulks of vessels were filled with stones 
 and sunk, in order to prevent passage. In spite of these precautions, however, more 
 British blockade-runners entered this than any other southern port. In Aug., 1863, the 
 city was bombarded, and in Feb., 1865, was occupied by the United States troops. 
 
 CHARLESTON {ante), the chief city of South Carolina and capital of Charleston 
 co., stands upon a peninsula formed by the confluence of the Ashley and Cooper rivers, 
 in lat. 32° 45' n., long. 79° 57' w., 7 m. from the Atlantic ocean. The harbor, formed by 
 the junction of the two rivers, and land-locked on three sides, wdth a depth of water 
 of from 40 to 50 ft., is one of the best on the coast. It is defended at the mouth by 
 four fortresses, fort Moultrie, fort Sumter, castle Pinckney, and fort Ripley. The 
 entrance to the harbor, on account of shifting sand-bars and the uncertain depth of 
 the water, would sometimes be ditficult were it not for the floating lights and bell-boats 
 provided by the government. The water on the bar is only 18 ft. deep, but the channel 
 is being deepened by the government. The city covers an area of more than 5 sq, m., 
 has nearly 10 m. of water front, and more than 50 m. of streets. The latter intersect 
 each other mostly at right angles, and some of them are spacious. The houses, instead 
 of being built in blocks, are generally separated from each other by gardens, shade trees, 
 and shrubbery, giving the city a peculiarly picturesque appearance, while greatly 
 increasing its area. Charleston was founded in 1680 by an English colony. Its growth 
 at first was slow, but with the development of the cotton traffic its commercial impor- 
 tance was greatly increased. The pop. ’60 was 48,409, of which nearly one-half were 
 colored. The war of the rebellion, which begun here in the spring of 1861 in the com- 
 pulsory evacuation of Fort Sumter by the U. S. garrison under command of gen. 
 Robert Anderson, and a great fire which occurred a few months later, paralyzed the 
 business and greatly diminished the population of the city. Commerce indeed, between 
 1860 and 1865, was utterly destroyed. The wharves decayed, the docks were filled up, 
 and the railroads leading into the interior were torn up. It was not until more than a 
 year after the peace that the city was again made a port of entry; but from that time 
 industry and commerce revived and have since steadily increased. The census of 
 1870 showed a very slight increase of population in comparison with that of 1860, the 
 proportion of colored persons to white being about the same, 22 to 26. The population 
 by the census of 1880 was 49,999; 24,005 being white, and 25,994 being colored. A 
 large w’holesale trade is carried on with the interior, an extensive region of country 
 drawing its supplies of merchandise from this source. The overland trade with St. 
 Louis, Chicago, and other cities of the north-west in fiour, bacon, grain, etc., is rapidly 
 increasing. Rice, cotton, lumber, naval stores, and phosphate rock are the principal 
 exports. In the extent of the cotton trade. Charleston ranks next to New York and 
 New Orleans. The manufacture of fertilizers from marl and phosphate rock has been 
 developed since 1868 and is very extensive. Early vegetables, grown in the suburbs, are 
 exported in large quantities to New York, Boston, and oilier northern cities. The 
 whole amount of coastwise imports is very large and constantly increasing. Manu 
 
Cliarleston. 
 
 Cliarlotte. 
 
 708 
 
 factures of iron, wood, and phosphate, employ much capital, and afford occupation for 
 upwards of 3,000 people. There are several large mills for removing the husk from 
 rice and preparing it for market. A large portion of the rice raised in South Carolina 
 and Georgia is cleaned at these mills. The valuation of property by the census of 1870 
 was over $50,000,000. The state assessment for 1872 was less than this by $10,000,000; 
 the city assessment for 1873 was less by more than $20,000,000. In 1870 the number of 
 dwellings was 6,861; the number of families, 9,098; the number of persons engaged in 
 mechanical occupations, 18,705. There are seven banks of discount, with a capital of 
 more than $3,000,000, and five savings banks, with deposits amounting to more than 
 $1,000,000. The public squares are few and small, the battery near the water’s edge, 
 being the principal public resort. There are 3 daily and 5 weekly newspapers, and 
 about 40 churches, of which 11 are Episcopal, 8 Presbyterian, 5 Roman Catholic, 5 
 Methodist, 4 Baptist, 3 Lutheran, and 1 Unitarian. The most noted church edifice is 
 St. Michael’s (Episcopal), built in 1752. It has a fine chime of bells, and its tower can 
 be seen far out at sea. St. Philip’s is the oldest church organization, but its house of 
 worship is not so old as that of St. Michael’s. In the graveyard adjoining St. Philip’s 
 lie the remains of many noted persons, including Gadsden, Rutledge, Pinckney, and 
 Calhoun. Magnolia cemetery, near the northern boundary of the city, contains many 
 fine monuments. The principal benevolent institutions are the orphan house, with an 
 endowment of $190,000, and over 300 inmates; the Roman Catholic orphan asylum, 
 with more than 100 inmates; the almshouse; the asylum for the aged and infirm; the 
 city hospital ; and an asylum for colored orphans, supported by the state. The principal 
 public buildings are the U. S. arsenal and citadel, the market, city hall, court-house, 
 orphan house, academy of music, custom-house, post-office. Charleston hotel, and Mills 
 house. Three steam railroads have their center here, and there are horse railroads con- 
 necting the different parts of the city with each other. The streets are lighted with 
 gas, and many of them are well paved. The schools of the city are under the control 
 of commissioners elected by the people and a r^uperintendent appointed by the commis- 
 sioners. In 1872, there were 8 public schools (5 grammar and 3 primary); number of 
 children of school age, 12,727, of whom 5,068 were enrolled; number of teachers 68, all 
 but four of them males; total school expenditures over $40,000 annually. There are 
 also a considerable number of private schools. Charleston college, founded in 1775. 
 in 1872 had 5 instructors, 50 students, and a library of 8,000 volumes. The state med- 
 ical college, at the same date had 9 professors. The Charleston library, founded in 
 1748, has 14,000 volumes, and the apprentices’ library is a valuable collection. Charles- 
 ton was among the first of the principal places in the south to enlist in the revolutionary 
 struggle of 1776. It was captured May 12, 1780, after a siege of six weeks, by 12,000 
 British regulars under sir Henry Clinton, and evacuated Dec. 14, 1782. It was the 
 center of the nullification movement of 1830, which was put down by Andrew Jackson; 
 and the war of the rebellion had its beginning here in the bombardment of Fort Sumter, 
 which aroused the northern people to a stern resistance. The city remained in the pos- 
 session of the confederates until the surrender of Columbia, the state capital, to Sher- 
 man, when it was evacuated by the confederate forces, and all the public buildings, 
 stores, cotton warehouses, shipping, etc., were fired by order of gen. Hardee, the con- 
 federate commander. When the union forces took possession, Feb. 18, 1865, they did all 
 that they could to rescue the city from destruction. During the war many buildings 
 were destroyed, and the towers and steeples of the churches riddled with shot and shell. 
 
 CHARLESTON (Post office, Kanawha Court-house), the capital of West Virginia, 
 on the Chesapeake and Ohio railroad and the Kanawha river, at the junction of Elk 
 river; 130 m. s.w. of Wheeling; pop. ’70, 3,162. The Kanawha is navigable to the 
 Ohio. Charleston is in a region productive of timber, coal, iron, and salt, and is an 
 important shipping point. The salt springs are just above the city on both sides of the 
 river, and more salt is made here than in any other place in the country except Syracuse, 
 N. Y. The State-house is the most conspicuous building. There are a Roman Catholic 
 seminary, and several high schools. The seat of the state government was fixed here 
 April 30,1870. 
 
 CHARLESTOWN, a seaport of Massachusetts, in lat 42° 2' n., and long. 71° 3' w. It 
 occupies a peninsula about 2 m. long, immediately to the n. of Boston, the capital of 
 the state ; of which, connected as the two are by bridges, it is virtually a suburb. 
 Pop. in 1850, 17,126; in 1860, 25,063; in 1870, 28,323. In common with the rest of the 
 neighborhood, the peninsula displays an unevenness of surface which renders the 
 streets, otherwise handsome, somewhat irregular. Its most prominent height is Bunker’s 
 hill, celebrated as the first battle-field in the revolutionary war, and surmounted, in 
 1825-43, by a granite monument of 220 ft. in height. Besides a state-prison on a large 
 scale, the city possesses one of the principal navy-yards of the general government. 
 This establishment, covering 60 acres, contains a magnificent ropewalk 1300 ft. long, 
 and a dry-dock of chiseled granite measuring 80 ft. in breath by 30 in depth. C. 
 was incorporated with Boston in 1874. 
 
 CHARLESTOWN {ante), now part of Boston, formerly a city of Middlesex co., 
 Mass. It is situated on the northern bank of the Charles river, and is connected with 
 Boston by two free bridges. The Mystic river, which unites with the Charles at this 
 
709 
 
 Charleston* 
 
 Charlotte. 
 
 point, forms the boundary on the e. and north. The pop. in 1873, when the city 
 •was annexed to Boston, was 28,373. From the territory of Charlestown, originally ver^ 
 large, several towns have been taken on its northern side. The surface of the 
 remaining portion is very uneven, two eminences. Bunker and Breed’s hills, rising near 
 the center, and affording many fine building sites. On Bunker hill was fought a 
 celebrated battle of the revolution, June 17, 1775, commemorated by a granite shail 
 erected on the summit and rising to the height of U20 feet. The corner-stone of this 
 monument was laid in 1825 by gen. Lafayette, and the work was finished in 1843. 
 The attempt of the Massachusetts committee of safety to fortify this eminence was 
 the immediate occasion of the battle, in the course of which the town was burned 1 ) 3 ^ 
 the British, being set on fire by shells from Copp’s hill in Boston, and by men who 
 were sent across the Charles for that purpose. C. is well built, having some fine 
 streets and residences. It has an abundant supply of water from Mystic lake, excellent 
 schools, 15 churches of various denominations, a public library of 15,000 volumes, a 
 fund of $23,000 for the benefit of the poor, and a home for aged and indigent women. 
 The state prison was located here from 1805 to a very recent period, and the buildings 
 used for that purpose are still standing, A navy -yard of the United States, covering 
 more than 70 acres of ground and having all the appointments required for such an 
 establishment, has existed here since 1798. C. is also a place of considerable business. 
 It has manufactories of steam engines, boilers and machinery, of stone and brass-ware, 
 gas fixtures, mechanics’ tools, leather, draw-pipes, sugar, soap, etc. 
 
 CHARLESTOWN, the seat of justice of Jefferson co., W. Va., on a branch of the 
 Baltimore and Ohio railroad, 10 m. s.w. from Harper’s Ferry; pop. ’70, 1593. It is in a 
 fine agricultural district. It was in this village that John Brown was tried, condemned, 
 :and hanged Dec. 2, 1859. 
 
 CHARLET, Nicolas Toussaint, a French painter and engraver, b. in Paris, 1792, 
 was for some years employed as a clerk in a government office, but lost his place at the 
 restoration, 1815, on account of his Bonapartism, and in consequence betook himself to 
 art. After studying awhile under Gros, he gradually formed for himself a style in 
 which he had no rival. C. is the Beranger of caricature, but without the political bit- 
 terness and sarcasm sometimes found in the poet. His genial sketches of French life 
 and manners were studied with equal admiration in the salons of the aristocracy and in 
 the ateliers, barracks, taverns, etc., of the lower classes. C. was especially successful 
 in his sketches of soldiers and children. His designs are free from exaggeration, while 
 full of spirit, interest, and naivete; and his titles or mottoes were often so witty and 
 suggestive, that dramatic writers have founded pieces upon them. His sketches and, 
 lithographs are very numerous, and are widely distributed. Among his paintings, the 
 most remarkable are — “An Episode in the Russian Campaign” (in the museum at 
 Yersailles); “Moreau’s Crossing of the Rhine” (at Lyons); and a “Procession of the 
 Wounded” (at Bordeaux). C. died in 1845. 
 
 CHARLEVILLE, a t. of France, in the department of Ardennes, about a mile from 
 Mezieres, with which it communicates by a suspension bridge over the Meuse. It is a 
 thriving place, well built, with clean spacious streets. It has manufactures of hard- 
 ware, leather, and beer, and the Meuse affords facilities for considerable trade in coal, 
 iron, slate, wine, and nails. Pop. ’76, 12,881. 
 
 CHARLEVOIX, a co. in n.w. Michigan, on lake Michigan and Green viver; 500 
 «q.m. ; pop. ’80, 5114. Grand Traverse bay bounds the county on the w., and Little 
 Traverse bay on the north. The chief business is agriculture. Co. seat, Charlevoix. 
 
 CHARLEY OIX, a co. in the province of Quebec, Canada, forming a triangle, one side 
 of which runs 80 or 90 m. along the n.w. bank of the St. Lawrence, reaching nearly to 
 the Saguenay river; 5,224 sq.m.; pop. ’71, 15,611, of whom all but nine were Roman 
 Catholics. The surface is mountainous, and not well adapted to agriculture. It is inter- 
 sected by five or six rivers that fall into the St. Lawrence, and one that joins the Sague- 
 nay. Chief town, Baie St. Paul. 
 
 CHARLEVOIX, Pierke Francois Xavier de, 1682-1761; a French Jesuit who 
 was sent as a teacher to Quebec in 1705. After about five years he returned to France, 
 and became professor of belles-lettres. He returned to Canada in 1720, and journeyed 
 up the St. Lawrence and the lakes and down the Illinois and Mississippi to New Orleans, 
 and thence went to Paris. His principal work is a valuable History of New France (or 
 Canada), which was not published in English until 1865. He also wrote a history of 
 Christianity in Japan, and a history of Paraguay. 
 
 CHARLOCK. See Mustard. 
 
 CHARIOTS, a village of the Netherlands, situated on the Maas, about 2 m. s.s.w. of 
 Rotterdam. It is memorable on account of a terrible accident which occurred here in 
 1512, when a religious procession crossing the ice in defiance of magisterial prohibition, 
 8,000 of them were precipitated into the Maas. Pop. 2,000. 
 
 CHARLOTTE, a co. in s. Virginia, on Staunton river; intersected by the Atlantic, 
 Mississippi and Ohio, and Richmond. Danville and Piedmont railroads; 550 sq.m.; 
 pop. ’80, 16,653 — 10,908 colored. Surface hilly; productions, wheat, corn, oats, and 
 
 iobacco. Co. seat, Mar^^sville. 
 
Charlotte. 
 
 Charriere. 
 
 710 
 
 CHARLOTTE, a co. in s.w. New Brunswick, on the Maine border and the bay of 
 Fundy ; 1323 sq.m. ; pop. ’71, 25,882. The county is traversed by the New Brunswick and 
 Canada, and the Nortli American and European railroads. Sliip-building and sea-fishing 
 are the occupations of the greater portion of the inhabitants. Chief town, St. Andrews, 
 at the mouth of St. Croix river. 
 
 CHARLOTTE, the seat of justice and an incorporated city of Eaton co., Mich., 20 
 jm. s.w. of Lan.sing, on Grand River Valley division of the Michigan Central, at the 
 [grossing of the Peninsular railroad; pop. about 3,000. Lumber and agricultural prod- 
 |‘ucts furnish the greater part of its trade. 
 
 i CHARLOTTE, a city of North Carolina, the sert of justice of Mecklenburg co , on 
 Sugar creek, and the Wilmington. Charlotte and Rutherford railroad, at the terminus of 
 the North Carolina division of the Richmond and Danville, and the Charlotte, Columbia 
 and Augusta railroads. The city is in the North Carolina gold region, and a mint was 
 established in 1838, but closed in 1861 on account of the rebellion. Up to that date more 
 than $5,000,000 in gold had been deposited in the mint. There are several manufactories 
 in the city. It w’as here that the “Mecklenburg Declaration of Independence” was 
 adopted. May 31, 1775. 
 
 CHARLOTTE AMALIE, chief, or rather only, town of St. Thomas, one of the Virgin 
 group of the Antilles, in lat. 18“ 20' n., long. 64“ 55' west. It contains 11,400 inhabi- 
 tants, nearly three fourths of the entire population of the colony. It has a spacious 
 harbor, which, besides being largely visited by European ships in general, is a principal 
 station for the mail-packets between Southampton and the W est Indies. 
 
 CHARLOTTE AUGUSTA, 1796-1817; daughter of George IV. and queen Caroline 
 of England. She was well educated under the care of the bishop of Exeter and Lady 
 Clifford. It was desired that she should wed the prince of Orange, but she loved and 
 married prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, who, long after her death, became king of Bel- 
 gium. She was married May 2, 1816; was delivered of a stiil-born child early in Nov. 
 of the next year, and died, in consequence of malpractice, as was believed. Her offici- 
 ating physician committed suicide. Her domestic life was most wretched, as her pub- 
 lished letters show. 
 
 CHARLOTTE HARBOR, or Boca Grande, an inlet in the gulf coast of Florida, 
 25 m. long, and 8 to 10 m. wide, with an entrance three fourths of a mile wide, and 30 
 to 40 ft. deep. There is a good harbor, sheltered from the sea by a number of islands. 
 Wild fowl, fish, and oysters are plentiful. 
 
 CHARLOT'TENBURG, a t. of Prussia, in the province of Brandenburg, is situated on 
 the Spree, 3 m. w. of Berlin, with which it is connected by a road leading through the 
 Thiergarten, and affording a favorite promenade to the Berliners. C. contains a royal 
 palace, with a fine garden and splendid orangery, and an interesting collection of anti- 
 quities and works of art. In a beautiful part of the park a mausoleum, designed by 
 Schinkel, contains the remains of Frederick William III. and his wife, the queen Luise, 
 with their statues by Rauch. C. has manufactures of cotton and hosiery. Pop. ’71, 
 19,518; ’75, 25,900. 
 
 CHARLOTTESVILLE, a village in Albemarle co., Va., 65 m. n.w. of Richmond, 
 on the Orange, Alexandria and Manassas, and the Chesapeake and Ohio railroads. The 
 place is the seat of the university of Virginia, founded by Thomas Jefferson; and Mon- 
 ticello, Jefferson’s home, is but 3 m. distant. Pop. ’70, 2,838. 
 
 CHARLOTTE TOWN, the capital of Prince Edward island, in the gulf of St. Lawrence, 
 in lat. 46“ 15' n., and long. 63“ 7' west. The census of May, ’71, states the pop. at 8,807. 
 The port is the best in a colony which, in proportion to its size, is remarkat’-e for its 
 navigable facilities. The town stands on the s.e. coast at the bottom of Hillsborough 
 bay, and at the confluence of three rivers, which each admit the largest vessels tor sev- 
 eral miles, so as to secure them from all weather. The harbor is rendered stiK more 
 commodious through the strength of the tides, which enable ships to work out and in 
 against the wind. C. T. has an iron foundry and a woolen factory, and is largely engaged 
 in ship-building. 
 
 CHARLTON, a co. in s.e. Georgia, on the Florida border, including a portion of the 
 great Okefenoke swamp; 1000 sq.m.; pop. ’80, 2161 — 361 colored. Productions, rice, 
 cotton, tar, and turpentine. Surface level and soil sandy. Co. seat. Trader’s Hill. 
 
 CHARM (Lat. carmen, a song), properly, a form of words, generally in verse, supposed 
 to possess some occult power of a hurtful, a healing, or a protective kind. Charms 
 exert their influence either by being recited, or by being written and worn on the per- 
 son; and, in this latter case, they may be classed with amulets (q.v.). The nature of 
 this superstition will be more fully considered under Incantation; fiee also Magic. 
 
 CHARNEL-HOUSE (Fr. charnier; Lat. caro, flesh), a chamber situated in a churchyard 
 or other burying-place, in which the bones of the dead wdiich were thrown up by the 
 grave-diggers were reverently deposited. The C. was generally vaulted in the roof, and 
 was often a building complete in itself, having a chapel or chantry attached to it. In 
 such cases, the charnel- vault was commonly a crypt under the chapel, and even in 
 
^11 Cliarlotte. 
 
 * Charriere. 
 
 churches, »t was not uncommon for the vault or crypt to be employed as a charnel- 
 house. 
 
 CHARNOCK, Stephen, d.d., 1628-80; an English non-conformist minister, educated 
 at Cambridge. He began to preach in London, and went thence to Dublin, where he 
 was successful. In 1660, he was silenced by the act of uniformity, and returned to Lon- 
 don; he continued 15 years in and near that city, preaching, but without a settled con- 
 gregation. Many of his sermons have been published, and his work on the Attributes 
 of God is still highly valued. He was a vigorous and original, as well as judicious thinker ; 
 and as a writer he was vivid and clear. 
 
 CHARON, in classical mythology, the son of Erebus and Nox, is first mentioned by 
 the later writers of Greece. His duty was to ferry the shades of the buried dead across 
 the rivers of the under- v/orld. For this service, he exacted an obolus from each, and in 
 consequence, a coin of this kind was placed in the mouth of the dead. If this rite was 
 neglected, C. refused to convey the unhappy shade across, and it was doomed to wan- 
 der restlessly along the shores of Acheron. C. is generally represented as a gloomy old 
 man, with a rough beard and wretched clothes. In the Etruscan monuments, he holds 
 a hammer. 
 
 CHARON'DAS, a lawgiver of ancient Greece, by some supposed to have been a dis- 
 ciple of Pythagoras. It is related that he fell a sacrifice to one of his own laws, by which 
 it was made a capital offense to appear armed in a public assembly. On returning from 
 a military expedition he hastened to quell a tumult, having his sword at his side. . Being 
 reminded by a citizen of his law, he replied, “Then I will seal it with my blood,” and 
 immediately plunged his sword into his breast. 
 
 CHAROST, Armand Joseph de Bethune, Due de, 1810-65; a descendant of Sully, 
 the famous marshal. C. took part in the revolution of 1830 as a republican, and in 1833 
 was made a lieut. Afterwards he served in Algeria, and after the revolution of 1848 he 
 was appointed under secretary of state. He was one of the zealous republicans in the 
 national assembly, and one of the victims of Dec. 2, 1851, being imprisoned at Ham, and 
 afterwards exiled to Belgium. In 1854, Napoleon III. expelled him from France, and 
 he went to Holland and afterwards to Switzerland. He wrote a history of the campaign 
 of 1815, in which he severely criticised Napoleon’s generalship, and a history of the war 
 in Germany in 1813. 
 
 GHARR, Salmo umhla, a fish of the same genus with the salmon, occurring in the 
 Jakes of Britain and of the continent of Europe. It is abundant in the lakes of Cum- 
 berland and Westmoreland, and in some of those of Ireland, of the n. of Scotland, and 
 of Orkney, but in the greater number of the Scottish lakes it is not found. It is the 
 celebrated ombre cheva,lier of the lake of Geneva. It is sometimes found weighing more 
 than 2 lbs., but is generally under 1 lb. in weight. It has only the anterior part of the 
 Domer (the middle line of the palate) furnished vrith the teeth, agreeing in this with the 
 salmon and bull-trout, and differing from the common trout, salmon-trout, etc. The 
 form is elongated, the greatest depth of the fish about one fifth of the entire length; the 
 fins are rather smill; the tail deeply forked; the color of the back dark olive, the sides 
 lighter and spotted with either red or white, according to the condition in which the fish 
 is at the time, the belly also being sometimes deep orange, and sometimes of a pale 
 color; these, and other accidental variations, causing the fish to receive different names, 
 such as c(i<^e G., red G., gilt G., silver G., and having led some naturalists to believe in the 
 existence of different species. It is not yet quite certain whether the torgoch or red-belly 
 of Yf-dXQS {salmo salvelinas of some authors) ought to be regarded as distinct or as a mere 
 accid'^ntal variety. Whilst it is the most delicious perhaps of the snlmonidce, the C. is 
 also the most beautiful: its rich purple, rosy, and crimson tints and white spots render- 
 ing it indeed a brilliant, and striking object. During summer, the C. haunts chiefly deep 
 cool water, and is seldom seen at the surface till late in autumn. It feeds on insects 
 and minute crustaceans. In the end of autumn or beginning of winter, it ascends rivers 
 to spawn, always choosing those which have a rocky bottom. Whether in lake or 
 stream, it is only to be found in clear waters. Unfortunately, the C. of the English lakes 
 is taken in great numbers, by nets, at the mouths of streams, when about to ascend them 
 in order to spawn, and when not in the best condition for the table. 
 
 On some lakes, vast quantities are then caught for the table, particularly for the pur- 
 pose of potting. A 0. is now and then taken with fly when the angler may be whipping 
 a lake, which perhaps abounds with them, for trout; but this occurs but seldom. The 
 C. will, too, occasionally take a minnow, if sunk deep and trailed slowly; but the sport 
 it affords is of the most precarious nature, C. are fast diminishing in those of our 
 English lakes which they still inhabit, owing to the wholesale and indiscriminate 
 slaughter which occurs at the spawning season. A large kind of C , sometimes reach- 
 ing 4 lbs. in weight, is found in some of the more northern Swedish lakes. 
 
 CHARRIERE, or CHARRIERES, Isabelle Agnete de Saint-Hyacinthe de, 
 1740-1805; a native of Holland, daughter of a Dutch baron, and married to a Swiss, 
 who had been her brother’s teacher. In 1786, appeared her most important book, 
 CaUste, or Letters Written in Lausanne. She traveled in France and England, and was 
 
Charron. 
 
 Charter. 
 
 712 
 
 an intimate friend of Benjamin Constant. She was a brilliant and beautiful woman, 
 but, owing to loss of her estate, the latter years of her life were spent in strict seclu- 
 sion. 
 
 CHARRON, Pierre, 1541-1603; a French philosopher, one of the 25 children of a 
 bookseller of Paris. He studied law at Bruges, and began practice in Paris, but not 
 having immediate success, he went into the church, and rose to eminence as a preachei. 
 At Bordeaux he formed a short but famous and important friendship with Montaigne, 
 who, on his death in 1592, requested C. to bear the arms of the Montaigne family. 
 In 1394, C. published Le Trois Verites, in which he seeks to prove that there is a 
 God and a true religion, and that the true religion is the Roman Catholic. This was 
 followed by a book of sermons, and in 1601 came his most remarkable work, De Id 
 Sagesse, a complete popular system of moral philosophy. This work brought upon its 
 author the most violent attacks, but a second edition w’as soon called for. This, after 
 much opposition, began to appear in 1603, but only a few sheets had been printed when 
 C. died suddenly in the street. 
 
 CHART, a marine or hydrographical map, exhibiting a portion of a sea or other 
 water, with the islands, coasts of cotinguous land, soundings, currents, etc. See Map. 
 In the English service, when coasts have been surveyed by the admiralty, charts are 
 engraved, and are sold at various prices, from 3s. down to Qd. each. This price is 
 below their cost, the object being to encourage their general use as much as possible. 
 Men-of-war are supplied with copies of every available C. published, relating to the 
 regions likely to be visited. There is a printed list for every station. At Gibraltar and 
 the cape of Good Hope, there are depots of charts to supply ships whose destination 
 undergoes a change. All the charts are brought home again, and none are reissued until 
 revised and corrected. The navigating charts, showing the dangers of coasts, with 
 sufficient clearness to enable mariners to avoid them, are generally on the scale of half an 
 inch to a mile; those of larger size show all the intricacies of the coast. The merchant- 
 service is supplied with charts by agents, who receive a stock from the admiralty, and 
 keep them on sale. The preparation of charts is part of the duty of the hydrographical 
 department of the admiralty. In the financial year 1879-1880, a sum of no less than 
 £11,000 was provided for this branch, quite irrespective of the surveying that preceded 
 the engraving of the charts, which always costs a much larger sum. In the five years 
 ending with 1875, the admiralty sold 495,445 charts, besides supplying the queen’s 
 ships. 
 
 CHARTA, Magna. See Magna Charta. 
 
 CHARTE (Fr. a charter; Lat. charta, paper). In the sense in which we have adopted 
 this word from the French, and in which it may be now said to form part of our lan- 
 guage, it signifies a system of constitutional law, embodied in a single document. 
 Whether any system of positive public law existed in ancient France is, in that country, 
 a subject of keen dispute amongst constitutional antiquaries. If any such there was, 
 there seems little doubt that it was the mere embodiment of traditions, and not the 
 result of any single act of the national will. Whilst France was divided into provinces 
 and communes, local liberties and privileges unquestionably existed ; but where the 
 nation constituted no single body, a constitutional charter was impossible. The 
 first traces of such a C. appear in the 14th c. ; and it is known in the history of the pub- 
 lic law of France as the grand charter, or the charter of king John. Up to this time, the 
 kings had called together only partial assemblies, but in 1355 deputies from the whole 
 kingdom were assembled in the hall of *the parliament of Paris. The nobility and clergy, 
 secular and regular, were represented by 400 deputies, the commons or third estate by a 
 like number. This body assumed to itself the initiative, and prepared a species of con- 
 stitution, which was accepted by the king. The chief triumph of the third estate on 
 this occasion consisted in carrying through the doctrine, that the decision of any two 
 estates should be invalid without the concurrence of the third. The three orders, who 
 seem to have composed but one assembly, then proceeded to impose a series of restric- 
 tions on the power of the monarch, which, confirmed by the dauphin two years later, 
 formed the foundation for the liberties subsequently asserted at the revolution. 
 
 But the constitution to which the term C. is most frequently applied by the French 
 and by us, is that in which Louis XVIII. solemnly acknowledged the rights of the nation 
 on his restoration in 1814, This C. has ever since been considered the fundamental law 
 of constitutional monarchy when that form of government has existed in France. In 
 some of its provisions, however, and still more in the mode of its acceptance by the 
 monarch, as “ a voluntary and free act of our royal authority,” and as a “ concession 
 made to,” not a contract entered into with, his subjects, it was open to the misconstruc- 
 tions which eventually led to the revolution of 1830. The “ charte” sworn to on the 
 29th Aug. of that year by king Louis Philippe modified this and some of the other pro- 
 visions of that of 1814. On that occasion, the king explicitly recognized the sovereignty 
 of the people. This document, which, with some modifications, remained in force till 
 the revolution of 1848, is of so much importance, not only from its bearing on the past 
 history, and possibly on the future destiny of France, but from the analogies which it 
 presents to our own constitution, that we shall endeavor to present a condensed view of 
 its leading provisions. 
 
713 
 
 Charron. 
 
 Charter. 
 
 It consisted of 67 articles, divided into 7 heads. Of these, the 1st head, containing 11 
 articles, treated of the public rights of the French people. It provided for the equality 
 of all Frenchmen — a doctrine which it inherited from the revolution, and which it unfor- 
 tunately left to be understood in a sense inconsistent with monarchy, and indeed with 
 any other form of government than pure democracy (see Equality) — for their equal 
 admissibility to all employments, civil and military, and for their freedom from arrest, 
 otherwise than by legal process. It guaranteed the enjoyment of religious liberty, and 
 the payment of the ministers of all Christian denominations — a privilege which in 1831 
 was extended even to Jews. The liberty of printing and publishing was insured, the 
 censorship of the press and conscription were abolished, an amnesty for all political 
 otfenses was proclaimed, and the security of property guaranteed, except when its sac- 
 rifice should be requisite for the public good, in which case it was declared that the 
 owner must be indemnified. The 2d headset forth the nature and limitations of the 
 kingly power in 8 articles. The supreme executive power, the command of the army 
 and navy, and the right of making war, and treaties of peace, alliance, and commerce, 
 were reserved to the monarch. To him, also, it belonged to nominate to all offices of 
 public administration, to make all necessary regulations for the execution of the laws, 
 but in no case to suspend them or dispense with them. The high duties of legislation 
 were shared between the king, the chamber of peers, and the chamber of deputies; it 
 being provided that every law should be agreed to by a majority of each chamber, and 
 sanctioned by the king. Any one of the three branches of the legislature might origi- 
 nate any bill, except a money-bill, which was reserved for the chamber of deputies, as 
 for the house of commons in England. The 3d head contained ten articles regarding 
 the chamber of peers, the nomination of whom was vested in the king (the princes of 
 the blood being peers by right of birth). No limit was set to their number; but by the 
 law of 9th Dec., 1831, incorporated in the C., it was declared that their dignity should 
 be for life only. The chancellor of France was president. The chamber of peers 
 assembled simultaneously with that of the deputies, and its sittings were public. The 
 personal privileges of the peerage, as they exist in England, were introduced. The 4th 
 head concerning the chamber of deputies contains 16 articles. It provides for the elec- 
 tion of the deputies and the sittings of the chamber. The electoral qualification is 
 declared to be the payment of 200 francs of direct taxes, whilst that of a deputy is the 
 payment of 500. The voting is by ballot, both at elections and in the chambers. The 
 number of deputies, which at first was 430, was afterwards raised to 459. Each deputy 
 was elected for 5 years, and one half of those for each department were required to have 
 their political domicile within it. The C. became a nullity by the revolution of Feb., 
 ,1848; and by the new constitution promulgated on the 4th of Nov. of that year, the mon- 
 archy of France "was converted into a democracy. By chapter 4 of that document, the 
 legislative power was vested in a single assembly of 950 members, including the repre 
 sentatives of Algeria and the other colonies. The property electoral qualification was 
 abolished, and the age reduced for electors to 21, and for delegates to 25. The period 
 of three years was fixed for the continuance of the national assembly. By chapter 5, 
 the executive power was intrusted to a citizen, who was to bear the title of president. 
 He was not to be less than 30 years of age, his tenure of office was to be 4 years, and he 
 was not to be re-eligible until after an interval of 4 years. For an account of the subse- 
 quent changes by which these and the other arrangements adopted at the revolution of 
 1848 have since been superseded, see Fkance. 
 
 CHARTER (Lat. charta; Gr. chartes, paper, or anything written upon, from charasso, 
 to scratch or write). In its most general signification, C. is nearly synonymous with 
 deed and instrument, and is applied to almost an}’^ formal writing, in evidence of a grant, 
 contract, or other transaction between man and man. In private law, its most impor- 
 tant use is in the alienation of real estates, the writing given to the new proprietor by the 
 old, in proof of the transference title, being usually called a charter. In public law, the 
 name is given to those formal deeds by which sovereigns guarantee the rights and priv- 
 ileges of their subjects, or by which a sovereign state guarantees those of a colony or 
 other dependency. See Charte, Magna Charta. There is another sense of the term, 
 in which it is in a measure intermediate between the two we have mentioned — viz., 
 where we speak of the C. of a bank or other company or association. In this latter sense 
 it signifies an instrument by which powers and privileges are conferred by the state on 
 a select body of persons for a special object. See Bank, Corporation, Joint-stock 
 Company, etc. The requisites of a C., when used in the first of these significations, 
 according to the law of England, will be pointed out under Deed. 
 
 Royal Charters, generally written in Latin, are of two kinds: I. Grants of lands, 
 houses, honors, or liberties to persons who did not previously possess them ; II. Char 
 ters confirming grants previously made, and therefore called “charters of confirma- 
 tion.” Confirmation charters are of three kinds: 1. Charters confirming previous grants, 
 without reciting them; 2. Charters of simple confirmation, without addition of any- 
 thing new; 3. Charters reciting previous charters and confirming them, with addition of 
 something mew. These last two classes of charters are called charters of “ inspeximus,” 
 or “vidimus,” from the word used by the granter in saying that he has seen the C. 
 which he confirms. Royal charters generally contain seven clauses: 1. The “ premises, ’ 
 
Charter 
 
 Chartism. 
 
 714 
 
 i.e., the name and style of the granter, the persons to whom the C. is addressed, the 
 name and style of the grantee, the reason why the grant is made, and the description of 
 the thing granted, 2. The “ tenendum and habendum,” i.e., the way in which the 
 thing granted -was to be held and had; 3, The “reddendo,” the return of rent or 
 service which was to be made to the granter by the grantee; 4. The “quare voluinus,” 
 or order that the grantee should have the thing granted, under certain penalties; 5. 
 The “sealing” or “signature” clause, setting forth the seal, signature, or subscription 
 by which tiie U. was authenticated; 6. The “ hiis testibus,”or testing-clause, enumerat- 
 ing the persons who were present as witnesses when the C. was granted; 7. The “date,” 
 setting forth the time when, and the place where, the C. was granted. 
 
 Ch.vrteh, in the law of Scotland, is the written evidence of a grant of heritable 
 property, under the conditions imposed by the feudal law — viz., that the grantee, or 
 person obtaining, shall pay at stated periods a sum of money, or perfoini certain 
 services to the granter, or person conferring the property. A C. must be in the form of 
 a written deed. The granter of a C., in virtue of the power which he thus retains over 
 the property and its proprietor, is called the superior; and the grantee, in consequence 
 of the services which he undertakes to render, the vassal; whilst the stipulated sum to 
 be paid or service to be rendered, is called the duty. 
 
 Charters are either blench or feu, from the nature of the service stipulated — a me or 
 de me, from the kind of holding or relation between the granter and grantee; and 
 original or by progress, from being first, or renewed, grants of the subjects in question. 
 
 Bleach aad Fea Charters . — The duty which the superior required of his vassal in 
 former times was almost always military service, and the vassal was then technically 
 said “ to hold ward” — to hojd on condition of warding or defending his superior. But 
 subsequent to the rebellion of 1745, in w hich the dangerous tendencies of the feudal 
 relation were experienced, this holding was abolished (20 Geo. 111. c. 50), and the only 
 duties which it has since been lawful to insert in C. are blench and feu duties. The former 
 is a merely nominal payment — a penny Scots, a red rose, or the like, sipetatur tantum 
 (should it be asked); the latter is a consideration of some real value. Original blench 
 C. having lost all object, and having no other effect but that of subjecting superiors to 
 considerable expense in keeping up their titles, have become rare in modern practice. The 
 forms of charters varying according to the circumstances in which they are granted, 
 and the relations established between the granter and grantee, are of too technical a nature 
 to admit of explanation in this work. They will be found very clearly and shortly 
 stated in Bell’s Laio Dictionary, voce “Charter.” 
 
 CHARTER-HOTISE (a corruption of Chartreuse, i.e., Carthusian) is a hospital, 
 chapel, and school-house, in London, instituted in 1611 by sir Thomas of Sutton, Camps 
 castle, in the co. of Cambridge. It had originally been a Carthusian monastery (founded 
 in 1371 by a sir Walter Mauny and the bishop of Sudbury), but on the dissolution of 
 monastic establishments by Henry VIII., it wms made a place of deposit for his nets 
 and pavilions. After undergoing many alterations, and passing into the possession of 
 various distinguished persons, it was finally purchased from lord Suffolk, for £13,000, 
 by sir Thomas Sutton, who endowed it with the revenues of upwards of 20 manors* 
 lordships, and other estates, in various parts of England. This “masterpiece of Prot- 
 estant English charity,” as old Fuller calls it, serves three uses — it is an asylum for poor 
 brethren, an educational and a religious institution; hence Bacon terms it a “triple 
 good.” The poor brethren are 80 in number. None are admitted under 50 years of age, 
 and only those who have been housekeepers are eligible. Each brother has a separate 
 apartment, a share of attendance from domestics, an ample, though plain diet, and an 
 allowance of about £26 a year for clothes and other matters, and four weeks’ holiday 
 every autumn. The brethren must be bachelors and members of the church of England. 
 Among the poor brethren in by -gone years were Elkanah Settle, the antagonist of Dryden ; 
 John Bagford, the antiquary; Isaac de Groot, a descendant of Grotius; and Alexander 
 Macbean, who assisted Johnson in the preparation of his dictionary. The scholars are 44 
 in number, admissible between the ages of 10 and 14. They are understood to be “the 
 sons of poor gentlemen to whom the charge of education is too onerous;” as in the case 
 of XhQpoor brethren, it is not always the proper parties who are chosen. There are exhi- 
 bitions, scholarships, and medals competed for at certain limes by the scholars. In addition 
 to the scholars properly so called, i.e., such as receive a free board and education, a large 
 number of youths are sent to the charter-house school because of its reputation. These 
 either board with the masters, or simply attend during the day. The number of extra 
 boarders is nearly double that of the scholars. The institution is under the direction of 
 the queen, 15 governors, selected from great officers of the state, and master himself, 
 whose salary from the foundation is £800 per annum. Among the eminent individuals 
 educated in this establishment, are Dr. Barrow, Judge Blackstone, Addison, Steele, 
 John Wesley, bishop Thirl wall, George Grote, W. M. Thackeray, and sir Charles East- 
 lake. 
 
 The charter-house, which is situated at the upper end of Aldersgate street, is a 
 quaint old building, interesting, though not very beautiful. The chapel contains Sut- 
 ton’s tomb, which was opened in 1842, wdieu the body of the founder was discovered 
 m a coffin of lead adapted to the shape of the body, like an Egyptian mummy-case. 
 
715 
 
 Charter. 
 
 Chartism* 
 
 CHARTER OAK, a famous tree that stood in Hartford, Conn., until blown down 
 by a storm, in Aug., 1856. Its name was given because when sir Edmund Andros, gov- 
 ernor of New England and New York, came to Hartford in 1687, by the order of James II., 
 to demand the colonial charter, that document was hidden in a hollow of the tree by 
 capt. James Wadsworth, and thus preserved. Though some writers have cast doubt on 
 this interesting tradition, it is generally accepted by historians. 
 
 CHAKTER-PARTY (Fr. chartre-partie, so called from such documents being at one 
 lime divided — in Yv. parti — and one half given to each party concerned), the title given 
 to a contract in which the owner, or master of a ship, with consent of the owner, lets the 
 vessel, or a portion of her, to a second party, for the conveyance of goods from one port 
 to another port ; hence the vessel is said to be chartered. The document must be stamped. 
 It must specify the voyage to be performed, and the terms on which the cargo is to be 
 carried. On the part of the ship, it is covenanted that she shall be seaworthy; well- 
 found in rigging, furniture, and provisions; and that the crew be suitable in number 
 and competency; that she shall be ready to receive the cargo on a given day, wait its 
 complete delivery for a certain period ; and sail for the stipulated port when laden, if 
 the weather for the time permits. The freighter’s portion of the contract obliges him 
 to load and unload at suitable periods, under specified penalties, and to pay the freight 
 as agreed on. The master must not take on board any contraband goods, or otherwise 
 render the vessel liable to seizure. The owner is not responsible for losses caused by 
 w^ar, fire, or shipwreck, unless arising from negligence of the master or crew. 
 
 CII ARTIER, Alain, the most distinguished man of letters in France in the 15th c., 
 supposed to have been born about 1380. After studying at the university of Paris, he is 
 supposed to have entered the service of Charles VI., and after that to have followed the 
 fortunes of Charles the dauphin, afterwards Charles VII. The lot of C. was cast in 
 troubled times; he felt the agony of Agincourt, and saw the rise of the maid of Orleans. 
 The story of the famous kiss bestowed by Margaret of Scotland, wife of that Louis the 
 dauphin who was afterwards to be known as Louis XL, “on that precious mouth from 
 which has issued so many witticisms and virtuous sentences,” is interesting if only as a 
 proof of the high degree of estimation in which the ugliest man of his day was held. 
 His best works are said to be LeLivredes Quartre Dames, which was called forth by the 
 battle of Agincourt, and Le Quadriloque-Invectif, a patriotic dialogue. 
 
 CHARTISM, a movement in Great Britain for the extension of political power to the 
 great body of the people, arising in a great measure out of wide-spread national distress 
 and popular disappointment at the results of the reform bill. Prior to 1831, the middle 
 classes had sought popular aid towards obtaining their owm enfranchisement. The 
 assistance was given, the people expecting to receive help in their turn. After the pass- 
 ing of the reform bill, agitation ceased for a time, and the members returned to parlia- 
 ment w^ere indifferent, or opposed, to any further change in the political arrangements 
 of the country. The middle classes were satisfied witli their own success, and generally 
 looked with small favor on projects for the further extension of political influence among 
 the masses. A season of commercial depression set in about 1835, and failing harvests 
 for several years terribly increased the sufferings of the people. Food became dear, 
 wages fell, manufactories w’ere closed, work became scarce. The people associated their 
 sufferings with their want of direct influence upon the government, and agitation for an 
 extended franchise began. In 1838, a committee of 6 members of parliament and 6 
 working-men prepared a bill, embodying their views as to what were just demands on 
 the part of the people. This was the “people’s charter.” It claimed — 1. The exten- 
 sion of the right of voting to every (male) native of the United Kingdom, and every nat- 
 uralized foreigner resident in the kingdom for more than two years, who should be 21 
 years of age, of sound mind, and unconvicted of crime; 2. Equal electoral districts; 3. 
 Vote by ballot; 4. Annual parliaments; 5. No property qualification for members; and 
 6. Payment of members of parliament for their services. This programme was received 
 with enthusiasm. Immense meetings were held all over the country, many of them 
 being attended by two or three hundred thousand people. Fiery orators fanned the 
 popular excitement, and under the guidance of the extreme party among their leaders, 
 physical force was soon spoken of as the only means of obtaining justice. The more 
 moderate and thoughtful of the chartists were overruled by the fanatical and turbulent 
 spirits, and the people, already aroused by suffering, were easily wrought into frenzy 
 by those who assumed the direction of their movements. In the autumn of 1838, torch- 
 light meetings began to be held. The danger of these meetings was obvious, and they 
 were at once proclaimed illegal. Some of the more prominent leaders were arrested, 
 amid intense popular excitement, and subjected to various terms of imprisonment. A 
 body calling itself the national convention, elected by the chartists throughout the 
 kingdom, commenced sitting in Birmingham in May, 1839. It proposed to the people 
 varous means of coercing the legislature into submission, recommending, among other 
 things, a run on the savings-banks for gold, abstinence from excisable articles, exclusive 
 dealing, and in the last resort, universal cessation from labor. During its sittings, a 
 collision took place with the military in Birmingham. Public meetings were forbidden, 
 and alarming excesses were committed by the irritated mob. In June, 1839, a petition 
 in favor of the charter was presented to the house of commons, signed by 1,280,000 per- 
 
Chartres. 
 
 Chase. 
 
 716 
 
 sons. The house refused to name a day for its consid^ation and the national conven- 
 tion retaliated by advising the people to cease from work throughout the country. For- 
 tunately, this advice was not followed, but the disturbance in the public mind increased, 
 and in Nov,, an outbreak at Newport took place, which resulted in the death of 10 
 persons and the wounding of great numbers. For taking part in this wild insurrection, 
 three of its leaders were sentenced to death, but their punishment was afterwards com- 
 muted to transportation. In 1842, great riots took place in the northern and midland 
 districts, not directly caused by the chartists, but encouraged and aided by them after 
 the disturbances began. In the same year, an attempt was made by Joseph Sturge to 
 unite all friends of popular enfranchisement in a complete suffrage union, but he only 
 succeeded in dividing their ranks. In 1848, the turmoil in France created great excite- 
 ment in England, and much anxiety was felt lest an armed attempt should be made to 
 subvert the institutions of the country. Two hundred thousand special constable swere 
 enrolled in London alone. There were several local outbreaks, and much real danger, 
 but the attempts at disorder were efficiently met, and, as usual, the only result was the 
 punishment of the more prominent men, and the postponement of the desired reforms. 
 
 Since 1848, C. has gradually died out. Its principles were not new. The duke of 
 Richmond, in 1780, introduced a bill into the house of lords to give universal suffrage 
 and annual parliaments. In the same j'ear, Charles James Fox declared himself in favor 
 of the identical six points which were afterwards included in the charter. And nearer 
 our own time, earl Grey, Mr. Erskine, sir James Mackintosh, and many others, formed 
 a “society of friends of the people,” which aimed at obtaining a very large extension 
 of the suffrage. 
 
 The great body of chartists were, however, not so much actuated by the w^eight of 
 precedent or argument, as impelled by the pressure of actual want, and an indefinite- 
 feeling that the laws were somehow to blame for not providing them with the means of 
 comfortable subsistence. But there were many among them who had studied the prin- 
 ciples involved in their demands, and maintained them from an intelligent conviction of 
 their truth. These men declared that all persons had an equal natural right to share in 
 determining the laws under which they lived ; and further, that as they were required 
 to contribute to the taxation of the country, they were justly entitled to be heard as to 
 the application of the public funds. Taxation and obedience being universal, represen- 
 tation ought to be so. This view being conceded, all the other points of the charter 
 naturally followed, they being merely arrangements for securing the free action of the 
 right contended for. Some of the chartist advocates went far beyond this. There were 
 those among them whose aims included little less than the reorganization of society. One 
 of the ablest advocates of the cause wrote in favor of nationalizing the land, and remod- 
 eling the currency; he also proposed a system of state loans for the assistance of laborers 
 who desired to become capitalists, and national marts for the exchange of wealth on 
 terms of equity and justice. Pressed a little further, these views w^ould have developed 
 into communism; but so far as we are aware, most chartists held so strongly the doc- 
 trine of individual rights, that they were not likely to subordinate man to society. See- 
 Communism, Socialism. The object aimed at by the majority was merely the extension 
 of the franchise to the masses, in the belief that they would use it wisely and honestly, 
 and put an end to what they considered the selfish and interested rule of classes who 
 had long monopolized the control of the state. The opponents of C. answered, that if 
 the question was argued as one of right, it would go far beyond the conclusions which 
 the chartists had reached. The right appertained to women as well as to men, and 
 there was no just reason why sane persons under 21 should be deprived of it. It would 
 also, they maintained, give all power to the most ignorant classes of the community, 
 and thus subject intelligence to brute force. Government existed for the benefit of 
 society, and ought, as far as possible, to depend on the wisdom, and not on the mere 
 number of the people. Then if representation depended upon taxation, it should vary 
 in proportion to the taxes paid. Finally, they denied that men as such had a right to 
 vote; their right was to be well governed, and universal suffrage was more likely to 
 destroy society tnan to confer happiness or insure justice. 
 
 The cause which put an end to C. as an organization was undoubtedly the improve- 
 ment in the circumstances of the people which followed the repeal of the corn laws. 
 Since then, the chief points of the charter have actually become law. A property quali- 
 fication is no longer necessary in a representative; the reform acts of 1867-68 have vir- 
 tually established manhood suffrage; and the act of 1872 gave vote by ballot. The efforts 
 of the majority of those who live by manual labor are now directed towards securing, 
 by trades-unions and other means, a larger share than formerly in the profits of industry. 
 
 CHAETBES, a city of France, in the department of Eure-et-Loir, 47 m. s.w. of Paris, 
 is built partly at the base and partly on the declivity of a hill overlooking the river Eure, 
 which is here divided into two channels, one flowing within, and the other without the 
 ramparts, which are converted into agreeable promenades. C. consists of an upper and 
 lower town, connected by streets almost inaccessible to carriages. The upper town has 
 some good streets, but the lower is ill built. The houses are old, and many of them 
 composed of wood, with their gables to the street. The cathedral, one of the largest and 
 most imposing ecclesiastical structures in Europe, with its lofty spires, one of them tow- 
 
7-17 
 
 Chartres. 
 
 Chase. 
 
 ering to a height of more than 400 ft,, crowns the top of the hill. It has no less than 
 130 painted-glass windows, the workmanship of which is unsurpassed, if indeed equaled 
 elsewhere in France. The church of St. Pierre, and the obelisk to the memory of gen. 
 Marceau, are also objects of interest. The weekly corn-market of C. is one of the largest 
 in France, and is remarkable as being under a corporation of women, who contrive to 
 get through all the business most satisfactorily in less than an hour. It has manufac- 
 tures of woolen, hosiery, and leather. Pop, ’76, 20,067. 
 
 C, is a very ancient city. Under the Roman rule it was called Autricum, and remains 
 of Roman antiquity are still found, 
 
 CHARTRES, Robert Philippe Louis Eugene Ferdinand d’Orleans, Due de, b. 
 1840; the youngest son of the late duke of Orleans, and grandson of Louis Philippe. 
 His father died when he was but two years old, and when he was eight the revolution 
 drove him into exile. He was cared for at Eisenach, in Germany, but soon afterwards 
 joined his family, who were in England. In 1860, he traveled in the east, and in 1861 
 came to the United States with his elder brother, the count of Paris. Both of them 
 served for a time in the war of the rebellion on gen. McClellan’s staff; but they went to 
 England in the summer of 1862. In June, 1863, Robert married his cousin Fran 9 ois 
 Marie Amelie d’Orleans, by whom he has five children. After the revolution of Sept., 
 1870, he returned incognito to France, and served in gen. Chanzy’s army; and in 1871, 
 after the repeal of the act banishing the Orleans family, he was appointed a maj. in the 
 army and served in Algeria. He has published his travels, and his father’s posthumous 
 work on the campaigns of the French army in Africa in 1835 and 1839. 
 
 CHARTREUSE, La Grande, a celebrated monastery in France, in the department of 
 Is^re, situated 13 m. n.n.e. of Grenoble, in the wild and romantic valley of the Guiers, 
 nearly 4,000 ft. above the sea. It is surrounded by the mountain-forests of the Alps; 
 and the route to it, through a mountain-gorge, down which a rapid river dasher far 
 below the traveler, while above him rise precipitous and foliage-lined rocks, some hun- 
 dreds of feet in height, is one of the most picturesque. The convent is a huge ungainly 
 structure, dating mostly from the 17th c., earlier buildings having been destroyed sev- 
 eral times by fire. The convent owes its origin to St. Bruno, who settled a little higher 
 up the mountain in 1084, giving the name of the place, C., to his order. The monks 
 had at one time considerable property, but they were despoiled at the revolution of 1789. 
 
 CHARTULARY (Lat. chartularia, cJiartologia) is, as its name implies, a collection of 
 charters. So soon as any body, ecclesiastical or secular, came to be possessed of a con 
 siderable number of charters, obvious considerations of convenience and safety would 
 suggest the advantage of having them classified and copied into a book or roll. Such 
 book or roll has generally received the name of a chartulary. Mabillon traces char- 
 tularies in France as far back as the 10th c,, and some antiquaries think that chartu- 
 laries were compiled even still earlier. But it was not until the 12th and 13th centuries 
 that chartularies became common. They -were kept not only by all kinds of religious 
 and civil corporations, but even by private families. Many of them have been printed, 
 and their contents generally are of the greatest value in all historical, archaeological, and 
 genealogical inquiries. 
 
 CHARYBDIS. See Scylla and^Charybdis. 
 
 CHASCHISH. See Hemp, Indian. 
 
 CHASE. When one vessel is pursuing another at sea, the pursued vessel is often 
 called the chase^ and the pursuer the chaser. The maneuver also gives name to certain 
 guns on board ship: bow-chaser being a gun pointing ahead, and a stern-chaser pointing 
 
 astern. 
 
 CHASE, in a gun, is the name given to the greater portion of the length between the 
 muzzle and the trunnions. 
 
 CHASE, a CO. in e. central Kansas, on the Neosho river and its affluents, inter- 
 ‘^ected by the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe railroad; 757 sq.m. ; pop. '80, 6081. It is 
 an agricultural region. Co. seat. Cottonwood Falls. 
 
 CHASE, Irah, d.d. ; 1793-1864; educated at Middlebury college and Andover theo- 
 logical seniinary, and ordained in 1817. He labored for a^time as a Baptist missionary 
 in West Virginia, and in 1818 became professor in a theological school in Philadelphia. 
 The school was transferred to Washington, and he remained in his professorship seven 
 years. In 1825, he aided in establishing a theological school at Newton Center, Mass., 
 m which he was a professor for nearly 20 years. In 1830, he assisted in founding the 
 Baptist mission in Prance. Among his works are The Life of John Banyan; The Design 
 of Baptism; The Work Claiming to be the Constitution of the Holy Apostles, reused from the 
 Greek; Infant Baptism an Invention of Man; and many sermons and essays. 
 
 CHASE, Philander, D.D., 1775-1852; graduated at Dartmouth in 1795, and ordained 
 to the ministry of the Episcopal church in 1798. He labored as a missionary in western 
 New York, and in 1811 became rector of Christ church in Hartford, Conn. In 1817, he 
 went to Ohio, where, two years afterward, he was chosen bishop. A few years later he 
 laid the foundation of Kenyon college and Gambler theological seminary. In 1835, he 
 became bishop of Illinois, where he was instrumental in founding Jubilee college, at 
 
Chase. 
 
 Chassepot. 
 
 718 
 
 Robin’s Nest, where he died. Among his works are A Pleafoi' the West; 2 he Star in the 
 West, or Kenyon College-, Reminiscences, etc. 
 
 CHASE, Salmon Portland, 1808-73; b. N. H. He was the son of a farmer, 
 and a nephew of bishop Chase, who supervised his earlier education. Graduating 
 from Dartmouth college in 1826, he opened a school for boys at the national capi- 
 tal, and in 1830 was admitted to the bar, where almost his earliest work was the 
 preparation of an edition of the statutes of Ohio with annotations, and a sketch of the 
 history of the state. This assisted him in gaining practice, and in 1834 he was appointed 
 solicitor in Cincinnati for the bank of the United states. His first effort in a cause touch- 
 ing slavery was in defense of a colored woman claimed as a fugitive. He maintained 
 that the fugitive slave law of 1793 was void, because unwarranted by the federal consti- 
 tution. In the same year he defended James G. Birney (subsequently the candidate of 
 the abolitionists for president), who had been prosecuted under the state law for harbor- 
 ing a slave. In this case he argued that slavery was a local institution, and that as the 
 slave had been brought into a free state by his master, he was in fact free. In 
 1846, in the Van Zandt case before the U. S. supreme court, he took the ground that 
 under the ordinance of 1787 no fugitive from service could be reclaimed from Ohio 
 unless he had escaped from one of the original states; that it was the understanding of 
 the makers of the constitution that slavery was to be left to the disposal of the several 
 states,, without sanction or support from the federal government; and that the clause in 
 the constitution relating to persons held to service was a compact between the states, 
 conferring no power of legislation on congress, and was never intended to confer such 
 power. In 1841, he was prominent in the organization of the liberty party of Ohio, 
 which nominated him for governor. In the national liberty convention at Buffalo in 
 1843, and in subsequent conventions until the nomination (in 1848) of Martin Van 
 Buren for president, C. was a leading member, and in most cases directed the proceed- 
 ings. In Feb., 1849, he was chosen U. S. senator from Ohio, his vote coming from all 
 the democrats and a few freesoil members. He acted generally with the democrats 
 until the nomination (in 1852) of Pierce on a strongly pro-slavery platform, when he 
 withdrew and undertook the formation of an independent democratic party. The debate 
 on the Nebraska bill gave him an opportunity to oppose the famous compromise, to 
 which he moved an amendment looking to the exclusion of slavery from all the territories; 
 but it was not adopted. Through all the contest for the repeal of the Missouri compromise 
 and the Kansas debate, he was foremost in opposition to slavery extension. In the mean 
 time, he was heard on other important subjects. He favored internal improvements 
 by the general government, and supported the free homestead movement, and cheap 
 postage. In 1855, he was elected governor of Ohio by the votes of the opponents of the 
 Nebraska bill, and he was re-elected in 1857. His name was before the first national 
 convention of the republican party (1856) for president, but w^as withdrawn at his own 
 request. He was named, also, in the convention that nominated Lincoln, but was not 
 pressed. In 1861, he was appointed secretary of the treasury, and held the office until 
 July 30, 1864, when he resigned. In this position the arduous duties of sustaining the 
 national credit in the struggle with the rebellion devolved in a great degree upon him; 
 and he proved equal to the occasion. The death of Roger B. Taney in Oct., 1864, 
 made a vacancy in the chair of the chief justice of the U. S. supreme court, 
 which was immediately filled by the appointment of C., in which capacity he presided 
 at the trial on the impeachment of Andrew Johnson in Mar., 1868. About this time, 
 liis dissatisfaction with the course of the republican party became so decided as to throw 
 his influence on the side of the democrats, at whose national convention, July, 1868, he 
 was prominently, though unsuccessfully, urged as a presidential candidate. In 1870, he 
 was stricken with paralysis, the effects of which lasted until his death. 
 
 CHASE, Samuel, 1741-1811; one of the signers of the declaration of American inde- 
 pendence; son of an Episcopal clergyman, and a lawyer in Annapolis, Md. He was one of 
 the earliest and strongest friends of colonial liberty; was a member of the continental 
 congress for four years, and in 1776 went with Charles Carroll and others on the fruit- 
 less errand to induce the Canadians to join in the rebellion against English rule. He 
 filled several judicial offices in Maryland, and in 1796 was appointed associate justice of 
 the U. S. supreme court. In 1804, John Randolph brought about his impeachment for 
 misdemeanor in the conduct of political trials, but he was found not guilty on trial by 
 the U. S. senate. He remained on the supreme court bench until his death. 
 
 CHASIDIM (“ Pietists”). This name anciently denoted a whole class of Jewish sects. 
 After the Babylonish captivity, the Jews, with regard to their observance of the law of 
 Moses, were divided into two classes — Chasidim and Zadikim. When the so-called 
 great synagogue was commissioned by the Persian government to draw up a code of 
 civil and religious laws for the emigrant Jews returning to settle in their native land, 
 several innovations were made on the Mosaic law. Those who accepted these innovations 
 were styled the C. ; while those who rejected them were styled, or styled themselves, the 
 Zadikim, or “upright,” because they adhered strictly to the law given by Moses, with- 
 out observing any of the additions made to it. The C. branched forth into several sects, 
 all holding traditions in connection with the written law, which they believed to possess 
 a divine sanction equally with that law. The Pharisees, so often mentioned in the New 
 
719 
 
 Chase. 
 
 Cliassepot. 
 
 Testament, formed an early sect among the C., while from the Zadikim sprang forth the 
 Hellenistic Samaritans, Essenes, Sadducees, etc. Afterwards, the C., or l^harisees, 
 split into Talmudists, Rabbinists, and Cabalists, some of whom underwent still 
 further subdivision. — The modern C. are not, like tho.se in the times of the Maccabees, 
 marked by any peculiar spiritualistic tendency in religion, but rather by a strict observ- 
 ance of certain traditional forms, and a blind subservience to their teachers. Their 
 doctrine was promulgated in the middle of the 18th c. by Israel of Podolia, called Baal- 
 Shem (“lord of the name," so called because he professed to perform miracles by using 
 the great cabalistic name of the supreme being). Though condemned by the orthodox 
 rabbis, this new teacher had great success in Galicia, and when he died (1760) left 
 40,000 converts. They are now broken into several petty sects; their religion is utterly 
 formal, and its ceremonies are coarse and noisy. 
 
 CHASING, the art of working raised or half-raised figures in gold, silver, bronze, or 
 other metal. It was called cedatura by the Romans; and the term is expressly limited 
 by Quintilian to working in metal. The same art when exercised on wood, ivory, 
 marble, precious stones, or glass, was called sculptura. See Carving. Iron was some- 
 times, though rarely used, silver having been always the favorite metal for this purpose. 
 Closely connected with, but still distinguished from C., is the art of stamping with the 
 punch, which the Romans designated by excudere. The Greek ioreutike is u.sually sup- 
 posed to correspond to C., but the point is by no means free from dispute. The art was 
 known at a very early period, as may be inferred from the shield of Achilles, the ark of 
 (3ypselus, and other productions of the kind. Such portions of the colossal statues 
 made by Phidias and Polycletus, as were not of ivory, were produced by the toreutic 
 art. The statue of Minerva was richly adorned in this manner. Besides Phidias and 
 Polycletus, Myron, Mys, and Mentor were celebrated toreutic artists in antiquity, and 
 amongst many moderns the most famous is Benvenuto Cellini (q.v.). 
 
 CHASLES, Michel, b. 1793; a French mathematician, educated at the Paris poly- 
 technic school. In 1841, he was appointed professor of geometry in that institution. 
 Among numerous essays and books of his productions are ; Historical Views of the Origin 
 and Development of Methods in Geometry; History of Arithmetic; and Treatise on Superior 
 Geometry. In 1851, he became a member of the academy, and in 1867, he reported to 
 that body that he was in possession of 27,000 letters and documents of great antiquity 
 and value, among them letters and papers believed to have been written by Dante, 
 Petrarch, Rabelais, Julius Caesar, Shakespeare, and other persons of renown. Only 
 about 100 of these were genuine, though they completely imposed upon C. and other 
 good judges. The forger, Irene Lucas, was imprisoned two years for forgery and 
 fraud. 
 
 CHASLES, Victor Euphemion PniLARkTE, 1798-1873; a French writer who 
 traveled in the United States about 1820-23. In 1837, he was director of the Mazarin 
 library, and in 1841, professor of German language and literature in the college of 
 France. He published in 20 vols. Comparative Studies of Literature; wrote tales and 
 books of travel; and prepared editions of classic authors. 
 
 CHASSE, music composed in imitation of the chase, and performed chiefly by horns, 
 occasionally combined with other wind instruments. Its movement is in | time. The 
 best specimens of this kind of music are an overture by Mehul, and a C. for the piano- 
 forte by Kreutzer. 
 
 CHASSE, David Hendrik, Baron, was b. in Tiei, Mar. 18, 1765, began his military 
 career when but ten years of age, became a lieut. in 1781, and capt. in 1787. After 
 the revolution of that year, C., as siding with the humbled Dutch patriots, took 
 French service; was appointed lieut.col. in 1793; and, two years later, found himself 
 marching towards the Netherlands under the command of Pichegru. He afterwards 
 fought with the French in Germany and Spain, gaining great distinction and the appel- 
 lation of General Bayonnette. As lieut.gen. of the Dutch forces in 1815, C. added to 
 his laurels on the field of Waterloo. After the peace he was made governor of Antwerp 
 in 1830, and bravely defended it against the united Belgians and French from Nov. 29 
 till Dec. 23, 1832, when he was forced to surrender. He died in May, 1849. 
 
 CHASSELOUP-LAUBAT, Francois de, Marquis, 1754-1833; a French military 
 engineer who conducted the works at Maestricht in 1794, at Mentz in 1795, and in the 
 Italian campaigns up to 1812 ; when he w,as appointed senator. Louis XVIII. made him 
 a marquis. 
 
 CHASSELOUP-LAUBAT. Justin Napoleon Samuel Prosper de. Marquis, 1805- 
 73; in 1837, a member of the French chamber of deputies and afterwards councilor of 
 state. In 1849, he was again a member, and then and afterwards a supporter of Louis 
 Napoleon, who made him minister of marine. He was for some years the president of 
 the colonial board of Algeria. In 1869, he presided over the council of state until the 
 accession of Ollivier’s administration 
 
 CHASSEPOT, a breech-loading rifle invented by Antoine Alphonse Chassepot, b. 
 Mar, 4, 1833; he was attached, in 1858, to the government workshops of St. Thomas at 
 Paris, of which he was made director in 1864; and was afterwards officially attached to 
 the national manufactory of arms at Chatellerault, near Poitiers. He took out patents 
 
C/hasseurs. 
 
 Chateaubriand. 
 
 720 
 
 for his invention, and the royalty has brought him a large income. He was decorated 
 with the cross of the legion of honor in 1866. The first model of the C. was exhibited 
 in 1863; but it was not introduced in the French army till after the Prussians had proved 
 the etficiency of the needle-gun in the war of 1866 against Austria; it was used success- 
 fully in the Franco-German war of 1870. The C. is an improved needle-gun; the ful- 
 minate is in a paper wad which forms the rear of the cartridge envelope; the gas check 
 is a cylindrical ring of vulcanized India rubber, which is pressed against the surface of 
 the chamber when the explosion takes place; the cartridge envelope is of silk or linen, 
 with a caliber of .433 inch. The gun has 4 grooves, and can be fired 12 times a minute 
 at a range of 1200 yards. An improved form of the C. has been recently introduced in 
 France, in which the metallic cartridge can be used. 
 
 CHASSEURS (Fr., hunters) is a name used for two important forces in the French 
 army. The mounted C. (chasseui's-d-cheval) are a body of light cavalry, designed for service 
 in advance or on the flanks of the army, and correspond most nearly to the light horse of 
 the British service. The name is first used in this sense in 1741, and has been retained 
 while the force it denotes has undergone many alterations in organization and equip- 
 ment. In 1831, a body of cavalry was raised for service in Africa, mounted on Arab 
 horses, and with a distinct uniform. These have since become famous as the C. 
 ct’Afrique. After the reorganization of the French army in 1873, the effective army con- 
 tained 14 regiments (subsequently increased to 20) of chasseur-^-cheval, besides 4 regi- 
 nientsof C.d’Afrique. — The infantry C.{chasseurs-d-pied)are a light infantry force in many 
 respects corresponding with the cavalry C., and like them intended for detached service 
 (like the rifle corps in the English army). The French are believed to have adopted the 
 idea of such a force of sharpshooters from the Jdger (the German word corresponding 
 to C. or hunters) in the German armies. First used in the thirty years’ war, the Jager 
 derived their name from the fact that they were chiefly drafted from amongst moun- 
 taineers and inhabitants of forest regions. They have always been regarded as a 
 valuable contingent in the Prussian and Austrian armies, or even constitute the entire 
 force of light infantry. In the German army, there are 26 battalions (near 15,000 
 men) of this force; in the Austrian service; upwards of 20,000 officers and men. In 
 France, the equipment of the C. differed little from that of the other infantry; it was 
 not until the formation, in 1838, of the G. de Vincennes, that the experiment of a 
 specially armed force of sharpshooters was fairly tried. The fame of the C. de Vin- 
 cennes for rapidity and precision of movement, as well as for the accuracy of their 
 fire, soon vindicated the importance of this branch of the infantry; and at present 
 there are 30 battalions of chasseurs-a-pied in the French army. 
 
 CHASTELAIN, Georges, 1403-75; in the service of Philip the good of Burgundy, 
 at whose request he compiled the Grande Chronique, or history. Of their work, which 
 was to have filled six volume.'s, only two fragments of importance are known to exist — 
 the first extending from 1419 to 1422; the second, with large breaks in the text, from 
 1461 to 1474. 
 
 CHASTELARD, Pierre Boscobel de, 1540-63; a French poet, a scion of the house 
 of Bayard. The name of Chastelard is romantically connected with that of Mary queen 
 of Scots. He was a page in the house of marshal Danville, whom he accompanied in 
 his journey to Scotland as escort of Mary in 1561. C. returned to Paris in the 
 marshal’s tram, but left almost immediately for Scotland bearing letters of recommenda- 
 tion to Mary from Montmorency, and also the “regrets” addressed to the queen by 
 Pierre Ronsard. C.’s master in the art of song. The enthusiastic page fell in love with 
 the queen, who is said to have encouraged his passion. Copies of verses passed between 
 them, and she lost no occasion of showing herself partial to his person and conversa- 
 tion. The young man hid under her bed, where he was found by the maids of honor; 
 but Mary pardoned the offense, and the old familiarity between them was resumed. 
 Again C. was so rash as to violate her privacy; but he was discovered, seized, sen- 
 tenced, and hanged the next morning. He met his fate consistently, reading, on his 
 way to the scaffold, Ronsard’s “ Hymn to Death;” and turning at the moment of doom 
 towards Holy rood, addressing to his unseen mistress the famous farewell; “Adieu! 
 thou so fair and so cruel; thou killest me, and yet I cannot cease to love thee!”‘ 
 Another story is that he simply ejaculated “ Cruel queen!” emphasizing the words by a 
 threatening gesture. 
 
 CHASTELER, Jeax Gabriel Joseph Albert, Marquis de, 1763-1825. He was 
 in the Austrian service as a general officer, and “served in the war of the Bavarian suc- 
 cession, and in the war against the Turks. He defended Namur against the French, 
 participated in the third partition of Poland, and was sent to Russia to engage the 
 emperor Paul in a coalition against France. In 1799, he was in the Russo-Austrian 
 army, and was seriously wounded before Tolona, Italy. He fought in the Tyrol against 
 Napoleon, but w'as beaten by Lefebre, May 13, 1809, and was compelled to fly to 
 Hungary. When the Lombardo-Venetian kingdom was established, he was made gov- 
 ernor of Venice. 
 
 CHASTELLUX, Francois Jean, Marquis de. 1734-88; a French soldier and author, 
 distinguished in the seven years' war in Germany, and in the army of Rochambeau in 
 
721 
 
 Chasseurs. 
 
 Chateaubriand. 
 
 the American revolution, where he held the rank of maj.gen. His chief works are Be 
 la FUicite Publique; Voyages in North America; and a Discourse on the Advantages EesulU 
 ing to Europe from the Discovery of America. 
 
 CHASTE-TREE. See Vitex. 
 
 CHASUBLE (Lat. casula, casuhula, and cassibula), the uppermost garment "worn by 
 priests in the Roman Catholic church, when robed for the celebration of the mass. It 
 was called also “ the vestment,” and under that name seems occasionally to have been 
 used in the English church after the reformation. Originally it covered the priest from 
 head to foot, like a little house, whence some writers think it had its name of casula. 
 In more recent times, at least, it was made of velvet. It was of an elliptical shape, like 
 a vesica piscis, with a hole in the middle for the head; it had no sleeves. When put on, 
 it showed two peaks, one hanging down before; another, on which a cross was 
 embroidered, hanging down behind. According to Hildebert, the C. signified good 
 works; according to Alcuin, charity; according to another writer, the unity of the faith. 
 Durand makes one peak the symbol of love to God, the other peak the symbol of love 
 to our neighbor. In France, the press or wardrobe in which chasubles were kept was 
 called the chasublier. 
 
 CHAT, Saxi'cola, a genus of small birds of the very numerous family sylviadcc (q. v.), 
 distinguished by a bill slightly depressed, and widened at the base. They have rather 
 longer legs than most of the family. They are lively birds, flitting about with incessant 
 and rapid motion in pursuit of the insects on which they chiefly feed. They are found 
 in Europe, Asia, Africa, and New Holland. Three species are British — the stonechat, 
 whinchat, and wheatear. — The yellow-breasted C. of the United States {icteria polyglotta) 
 is a larger bird, and belongs to the family turdidm or merulidee. 
 
 CHATEAU, Chatel, or Castel, from the Lat. castellum, a fort, enters as a component 
 part into many names of places in France. 
 
 CHATEAUBRIAND, Francois Auguste, Viscomte de, one of the most distinguished 
 of French authors, was b. Sept. 4, 1769, at St. Malo, in Bretagne, and received his early 
 education in the college at Rennes. While traveling in North America in 1790, he 
 accidentally read in an English newspaper the account of the flight and arrest of Louis 
 XVI. He immediately returned to France, intending to fight against the republic; but 
 being seriously wounded at the siege of Thionville, in Sept., 1792, he escaped to Eng- 
 land, where he lived in such poverty that he was compelled to make translations for the 
 book-sellers, and to give lessons in French. In 1797, he published his first political 
 essay, Sur Ics Revolutions Anciennes et ModerneSy considerees dans leurs Rapports avec la 
 Revolution Fi'anqaise (2 vols., London), a republican and sceptical work, the outcome of 
 hardship, poverty, and sorrow. His skepticism soon vanished, but republican impulses 
 continued to flash out at intervals during the whole of his strangely-checkered, inexpli- 
 cable, and inconsistent career. In 1800, C. returned to Paris, and wrote for the 
 Mercure de France. In this journal, he first printed his tale of Atala (1801), with a 
 preface lauding the first consul, Bonaparte. Its success was remarkable, but nothing 
 to the miraculous enthusiasm excited by his Genie du Christianisme (1802), a work 
 exactly suited to the jaded skepticism of the age, and also in accordance with the policy 
 of the first consul, who was then concluding the concordat with the pope, and wished to 
 make the Roman Catholic priesthood subservient to his measures. Bonaparte, there- 
 fore, appointed C. secretary to the embassy in Rome, and, in 1803, sent him as ambas- 
 sador to the little republic of Valais. On the execution of the duke d’Enghien, Mar. 21, 
 1804, C. resigned in disgust. In 1806, he commenced his pilgrimage to the Holy Land, 
 visited Greece, Palestine, Alexandria, and Carthage, and returned through Spain to 
 France in May, 1807. From this period to the fall of Napoleon, he lived privately, pub- 
 lishing only two works of any value — Les Martyrs and the Itineraire de Paris d Jeru- 
 salem. In 1814, his eloquent brochure, De Bonaparte et des Bourbons, excited suck 
 attention, that Louis XVIII. declared it was worth an army of 100,000 men in favor of 
 legitimacy. 
 
 After the battle of Waterloo, C. returned to Paris, where he was made peer and 
 minister of state. Gradually his monarchical zeal subsided, and, in his address, De la 
 Monarchie selon la Charte, delivered in the chamber of peers, he gave expression to such 
 liberal tendencies as offended the king, who erased his name from the list of his coun- 
 selors. Soon, however, he appeared again as an ultraroyalist; and at the baptism of 
 the infant duke de Bordeaux, C. presented to the duchess of Berry a flask filled with 
 water from the Jordan. In 1822, he was appointed ambassador-extraordinary to the 
 British court, but was rather rudely dismissed from office in 1824. 
 
 In 1826, C. prepared the first edition of his collected works, for the copyright of 
 which the publisher gave the large sum of 600,000 francs, of which C. returned 100,000. 
 During the days of July, 1830, he was staying with his friend Mme. Recamier at 
 Dieppe; but as soon as he heard tidings of the revolution, he hastened to Paris. He 
 refused to take the oath of fealty to Louis Philippe. This political crotchetiness, which 
 always rendered it impossible to know beforehand what course of conduct C. would 
 adopt, is perhaps best explained by the following passage from his De la Restauration 
 etdela Monarchie Elective (Paris, 1831): “ I am a Bourbonist in honor, a monarchist on 
 TJ. K. III.— 46 
 
Chateaadan. 
 
 Chatham. 
 
 722 
 
 grounds of rational conviction ; but in natural character and disposHion, I am still a 
 republican.” In 1832, lie revised a new edition of his works, and, after visiting the 
 court of the expelled Bourbons, devoted his attention to the preparation of his memoirs, 
 intended to be published posthumously {Memoires d' outre Tombe), though considerable 
 extracts were printed during his lifetime. He also found leisure to write several 
 other works. He died July 4, 1848. 
 
 C. wrote with warmth, energy, and a rich supply of imagery. Many of his descrip- 
 tive passages are excellent, but his ideas want depth and coherency. — Marin, Histoire de 
 la Vie et des Oavrages de M. de Chateaubriand (2 vols., Paris, 1832). 
 
 CHATEATJDTJN, a t. of France, in the department of Eure-et-Loir, is situated on the 
 Loir, a tributary of the Loire, about 26 m. s.s.w. of Chartres. The streets are straight 
 and well built, and an old castle, with an enormous tower, overlooks the town. C. has. 
 manufactures of blankets and leather. Pop. ’76, 6,061. 
 
 CH ATE AUG AY, a s.w. co. in the province of Quebec, Canada, on the St. Law- 
 rence, drained by the Chateaugay, the Noire, and other rivers; 250 sq.m.; pop. ’71, 
 16,166. It is generally level, and the soil is fertile. Chief town, St. Marline. 
 
 CHATEAXT-GONTIER, a t. of France, in the department of Mayenne, situated on 
 the river of that name, here crossed by a stone bridge, 18 m. s.s.e. of Laval. C. 
 has some good houses, but the streets are not well laid out. It has linen and 
 woolen manufactures. Pop. ’76, 7,218. 
 
 CHATEAUGUAY, Sieur de. See Le Moyne. 
 
 CHATEAUNEUF DE RANDON, a village of France, in the department of Loz^re, 
 12 m. n.e. of Mende. A pretty historical incident connected with the place, which was. 
 formerly fortified, makes it interesting. In 1380, the fortress, then held by the English, 
 was besieged by the troops of Charles V., under the command of the gallant Du 
 Guesclin. The English governor, sore pressed, promised to yield in fifteen days if 
 no succor arrived. In the meantime, Du Guesclin died, and nis successor was appointed, 
 who, at the expiry of the fifteen days, summoned the governor to surrender. He refused 
 to yield up the keys to any but Du Guesclin; and when informed of his death, marched 
 out, and on bended knee laid the keys and his sword on the dead hero’s bier. Pop. ’72, 
 393. 
 
 CHATEAUROIJX, a t. of France in the department of Indre, situated on a rising 
 ground in the midst of an extensive plain, on the left bank of the river Indre, 166 m. s. 
 of Paris by railway. The town, which was formerly dirty and ill built, has been greatly 
 improved within the last quarter of a century. C. does not possess much interest for 
 the traveler. It is a busy place, with extensive woolen factories, besides manufactures 
 of cotton, hosiery, yarn, hats, paper, parchment, hardware, leather, etc. Some of the 
 best iron in France is found in the vicinity. The town owes its origin to a castle built 
 here in the 10th century. Pop. ’76, 16,980. 
 
 CHATEAU-THIERRY, a t. in the department of Aisne, France, on the right bank 
 of the Marne; pop. ’72, 5,347. It has a commercial college, a public library, and manu- 
 factories of linen, cotton, leather, and earthenware. There is a marble statue of La 
 Fontaine, the fabulist. The town takes its name from a castle .said to have been built 
 by Charles Martel for Thierry IV., the ruins of which are on an adjacent hill. The 
 position of Chateaa-Thierry has subjected it to many disasters. It was captured by the 
 English in 1421, by Charles V. in 1545, by the Spanish in 1591; pillaged in the Fronde 
 tvars in 1652, and suffered severely in the Napoleonic campaign of 1814. 
 
 CHATEL, Ferdinand Toussaint Francois, Abbe, 1795-1857; ordained as a priest 
 in 1818, serving as vicar to several French towns, and as chaplain in the army. In 
 1831, he founded a new sect in whose doctrines Christ was to be venerated only as a 
 perfectly good man, and the confessional, fasting, and vows of chastity and celibacy 
 were to be ('mitted. The authorities interfered in 1842 and closed his place of worship, 
 but in 1848 he appeared again as an especial champion of women’s rights. His public 
 meetings were suppressed in 1850, and he passed his later years in the duties of a metro- 
 politan postmaster. 
 
 CHATELET. the name of two old fortresses of Paris, believed by some to have 
 been built in the time of Julius Caesar. The grand C. was restored by Louis IX. 
 and remodeled by other kings. It was demolished in 1802. It was the residence of 
 counts of Paris, and became an important seat of the judiciar5^ as well as a prison. This 
 fortress stood on the right bank of the Seine where is now the w. part of the place de 
 Chatelet. The petit C. was on the other bank near the present place du Petit Pont. It 
 was demolislied in 1782. In earlier times it was one of the gates of the city. 
 
 CHATELET-LOMONT, Gabrielle Emilie, Marquise du, a very learned French 
 woman, notorious for her intimacy with Voltaire, was born at Paris, 17th Dec., 1706 
 At an early period .she displayed a great aptitude for the acquisition of knowledge. She 
 studied Latin and Italian with her father, the baron de Breteuil. and subsequently betook 
 herself with zeal to mathematics and the physical sciences. Distinguished alike for her 
 beauty and talent, she .soon found a host of suitors for her hand. Her choice fell on the 
 marquis du Chalclet-Lomont, but her maiTiage did not hinder her from forming a 
 
723 
 
 Chateaudan* 
 
 Chatham* 
 
 for Voltaire, who came to reside with her at Cirey, a chjxteau on the borders of Cham- 
 pagne and Lorraine, belonging to her husband. Here they studied, loved, quarreled, 
 and loved again, for several years. In 1747, however, poor Madame C. became “not 
 insensible to the brilliant qualities” of a certain M. Saint-Lambert, a capt. of the 
 Lorraine guards; and the result was, that the philosopher had to make room for the sol- 
 dier, and content himself for the future with being the “devoted and indulgent friend” 
 of his former mistress. This new intimacy became fatal to Madame Chdtelet. She died 
 at Luneville, lOtli Sept., 1749, a few days after having given birth to a child. Her first 
 writing was a treatise on the philosophy of Leibnitz. She also translated the Pmidj)ia 
 of Newton into French, accompanying it with algebraic elucidations. It did not, how- 
 ever, appear till 1756, some years after her death. Her correspondence with Voltaire is 
 interesting; but the fact that a woman so highly gifted as Madame C., and possessing so 
 many amiable qualities, should never have dreamed that there was anything wrong in 
 her liaisons, proves with terrible conclusiveness how corrupt was that philosophic 
 society which, in the 18th c., professed to explode superstition and enlighten France and 
 the world. 
 
 CHATELLERATJLT, a t. of France, in the department of Vienne, situated on the river 
 •of that name, 18 m. n.n.e. of Poitiers. A handsome stone bridge, with a massive 
 castellated gatew’a3^ built by Sully, at one end, connects it with a suburo on the other 
 side of the river. C., which is an ill-built, mean -looking town, is one of the chief seats 
 of the manufacture of cutlery in France, and since 1820 has had a national manufactory 
 of swords and bayonets. Its river-port makes it the entrepot fcr the produce of an 
 extensive district. The duke of Hamilton derives his title of duke of Chatelherault from 
 this place. Pop. ’76, 15,244. 
 
 In a military point of view, the lines of detached forts connected with C. constitute 
 a fortification of greath strength; and the whole is regarded as a flank defense for 
 London in the event of an invader seeking to march on the capital from the s. coast. 
 The place is also defended by some strong forts on the Medway. In and near C. are 
 fort Pitt, a military hospital and strong fort; barracks for infantry, marines, artillery, 
 and engineers; a park of artillery; and magazines, store-houses, and depots on a large 
 scale. 
 
 In a naval sense, C. is one of the principal royal ship-building establishments in the 
 kingdom, and a visit to it never fails to impress the stranger with a sense of the naval 
 power of England. The dock-yard is nearly 2 m. in length, containing several building- 
 slips, and wet docks sufficiently capacious for the largest ships; and the whole is tra- 
 versed in every direction by a tramway for locomotives, with a gauge of 18 inches. 
 One peculiar establishment in this dock-yard is a metal mill, which supplies all the 
 royal dock-yards with copper sheets, copper bolts, and other articles in copper and 
 mixed metal. The saw-mills at C. are so extensive that it is said that, if fully employed, 
 they could cup up timber enough for all the dock-yards. A duplicate of Brunei’s 
 block-making machinery is kept at C., ready to supplement the operations of that at 
 Portsmouth. The dock-yard is under the control of a captain-superintendent and other 
 officers, whose annual salaries vary from £700 to £200 each. Under them are clerks 
 receiving from £450 to £80 each. The actual workmen, artisans, and laborers, vary in 
 number according to the amount of ship-building and repairing going on. In the navy 
 estimates provision is made for about 3,500 shipwrights, calkers, joiners, sawyers, 
 millwrights, smiths, blockmakers, Sailmakers, ropemakers, riggers, laborers, etc. The 
 total outlay on the C. establishment in 1879-80 was £685,253. 
 
 CHATHAM, a co. in s.e. Georgia, on the ocean and the South Carolina border; 
 358 sq.m. ; pop. ’80,44,995 — 27,535 colored. It is level and swampy, with fertile soil 
 near the rivers. Rice, sweet potatoes, corn, and cotton are the chief productions. The 
 Savannah, Alabama, and Gulf railroad intersects it. Co. seat. Savannah. 
 
 CHATHAM, a co. in central North Carolina, reached by the Chatham railroad, and 
 drained by the Rocky, New Hope, Deep, and Haw rivers; 700 sq.m.; pop. ’80, 23,456 — 
 7955 colored. Chief productions, wheat, corn, oats, tobacco, butter, and coal. Co. 
 seat, Pittsboro. 
 
 CHATHAM, a t. in Barnstable co., Mass., on the s.e. extremity of cape Cod, near 
 the Cape Cod railroad; pop. ’80, 2252. Fishing is the business 'of the greater portion 
 of the inhabitants. There are three important lighthouses in the township. 
 
 CHATHAM (Saxon, Ceteham or Gcettham, understood to signify the “village of cot- 
 tages”), a parliamentary borough, river-port, fortified town, and naval arsenal, in the 
 CO. of Kent, situated on the right bank of the Medway, at the upper part of its estuaiy. 
 30 m. e.s.e. of London. Much of C. is ill built and irregular. The High street is It 
 m. long, parallel to the river, and swarms with soldiers and Jews. The refuse timber 
 of the dock-yard is much used in building the house-walls. C. owes its importance to 
 its naval and military establishments situated at Brompton village (on a height half a 
 mile n. of C.), and on the Medway estuary. The C. fortified lines are the frequent 
 scenes of field-operations, imitation battles, and grand reviews. Pop. ’71, 45,792. The 
 borough, which sends one member to parliament, is governed by a head-constable under 
 the magistrates of Rochester. The Romans seem to have once had a cemetery here 
 
Chatbam. 
 
 Cbatre. 
 
 V24 
 
 Traces of Roman villas have been found, with Roman bricks, tiles, coins, and weapons. 
 The dock-}^ard was founded by Elizabeth before the threatened invasion of the Spanish 
 Armada. In 1662, it was removed to its present site. In 1667, the Dutch, under 
 De Ruy ter, sailed up the estuary of the Medway, and, in spite of the fire from the castle, 
 destroyed much shipping and stores. 
 
 CHATHAM, a t. in Northumberland co., N. B., on the Miramichi river, near its 
 entrance into Miramichi bay; pop. ’71, 4,303. It has a Roman Catholic cathedral, a 
 college, and a temperance hall. It is a port of entry, and has a large export trade in 
 fish, lumber, etc. 
 
 CHATHAM, a t. in Kent co., Ontario province, Canada, on the Thomas river, 47 
 m. e. of Detroit, Mich.; reached by the Great Western railroad, and by steamboats from 
 the lakes. It is in a rich agricultural district, and has a large trade in grain and lumber. 
 Pop. ’71, 5,873. 
 
 CHATHAM, William Pitt, Earl of, sometimes styled Pitt the Elder, one of the 
 greatest English orators and statesmen of the 18th c., was the son of a country gentle- 
 man, Robert Pitt of Boconnoc, in Cornwall; and wash. Nov. 15, 1708. After an educa- 
 tion at Eton and Oxford, he traveled on the continent, and on his return obtained a 
 cornetcy in the blues. In 1735, he entered parliament for Old Sarum — that synonym 
 for electoral corruption — a borough then belonging to his family. He espoused the side 
 of Frederick prince of Wales, then at deadly feud with the king, and offered a deter- 
 mined opposition to Walpole, who was at the head of affairs. He was deprived of his 
 commission in consequence — an insult and injury which only increased the vehemence 
 of his denunciations of the court and the government. His influence, both in and out 
 of the house of commons, increased rapidly; and Walpole, being driven from power, 
 the king, notwithstanding his hatred of Pitt, found it necessary to allow of his admis- 
 sion to a subordinate place in the broad bottom administration; subsequently he waa 
 appointed to the lucrative office of paymaster-general. The duchess of Marlborough,, 
 pleased with his patriotism and powers of oratory, left him £10,000; and later, sir Wil- 
 liam Pynsent, struck with similar admiration, left him his whole property. In 1755, 
 when Henry Fox (afterwards lord Holland) was made secretary of state, finding himself 
 opposed to the foreign policy of the new minister, Pitt resigned office as paymaster. 
 In the following year, when the king, unwillingly acceding to popular demands, had to 
 dismiss Fox, Pitt became nominally secretary of state, but was virtually premier. He 
 immediately began to put into execution his own plan of carrying on the war with 
 France. He raised the militia, and strengthened the naval power; but the king’s old 
 enmity, and German predilections, led him to oppose Pitt’s policy, who thereupon 
 resigned office in April, 1757, but was recalled in June, in obedience to the loud demands, 
 of the people. 
 
 Now firmly established in power, Pitt’s war policy was characterized by unusual 
 vigor and sagacity. Success returned to the British arms. French armies were beaten 
 everywhere by Britain and her allies — in India, in Africa, in Canada, on the Rhine — 
 and British fleets drove the few French ships they did not capture or destroy from 
 almost every sea. But the prime mover of all these brilliant victories found himself com- 
 pelled to resign (1761), when, on the accession of George III., and owing to the influence 
 of lord Bute, it was attempted to introduce a vacillating policy into the government ; hiA 
 immediate cause of resignation being the refusal of the majority of the cabinet to declare 
 war with Spain, which Pitt, foreseeing as imminent, wished to commence before the^ 
 Spaniards were thoroughly prepared. As some recompense for his important services, 
 Pitt received a pension of £3,000 a year; and his wife, sister of George Grenville, was 
 created baroness Chatham. IJntil 1766, Pitt remained out of office, not offering a fac- 
 tious opposition to government, but employing all his eloquence to defeat some of its 
 most obnoxious measures. In that year he received the royal commands to form a 
 ministry. He undertook the task, choosing for himself — to* the astonishment of the 
 public, and the sacrifice, to a considerable extent, of his popularity — the almost sinecure 
 office of privy seal, with a seat in the house of lords as viscount Pitt and earl of Chatham. 
 Ill-health prevented C. from taking any active part in this ministry, of which he wao 
 nominally the head, and which was weak and embarrassed throughout, and he resigned 
 in 1768, to hold office no more. He did not, however, cease to take an interest in public 
 affairs. He spoke strongly against the arbitrary and harsh policy of government towards 
 the American colonies, and warmly urged an amicable settlement of the differences. 
 But when, America having entered into treaty with France, it was proposed by the 
 duke of Richmond to remove the ministers, and make peace on any terms, C., though 
 much debilitated„came down to the house of lords, and in a powerful address protested 
 against the implied prostration of Britain before the throne of the Bourbons, and 
 declared war, with whatever issue, preferable to the proposed terms of peace. This 
 address secured a majority against the motion, and the war was continued. But it was^ 
 the orator’s last effort; for, exhausted by speaking, on rising again to reply to a query 
 addressed to him by the duke of Richmond, his physical powers suddenly failed, he fell 
 back into the arms of his friends, and was carried from the house. He died May 11. 
 1778. He was honored with a public funeral in Westminster abbey, where a statue was- 
 also erected to his memory at the public expense ; and, in addition, government voted. 
 
725 
 
 Chatham. 
 
 Chatre. 
 
 £20,000 to pay his debts, and conferred a pension of £4,000 a year on his descendants. 
 C.’s personal appearance was dignified and imposing, and added greatly to the attrac- 
 tions of his oratory, which was of the most powerful kind. His upright and irreproach 
 able character demanded the admiration of his enemies; but his aftectedness and haugh- 
 tiness not unfrequently disgusted his friends, and pride rather than principle seems to 
 have actuated his course at some important conjunctures of his life. He had, however, 
 an intense love of country; the grand object of his ambition being to make his native 
 land safe against all contingencies, and powerful among nations. 
 
 CHATHAM ISLANDS, a small group in the Pacific, lying about 400 m. due e. of the 
 Canterbury settlement, on the Middle island of New Zealand, in lat. 43° 38' to 44° 40' s., 
 long. 177° to 179' w., being thus almost precisely the antipodes of Toulouse, in France. 
 They were discovered in 1791 by lieut. Broughton, both the cluster and its chief member 
 taking the name of his ship. Chatham island is computed to contain 600,000 acres; a 
 salt or brackish lake, however, of 20 m. in length, occupying the interior. 'The soil and 
 climate of the archipelago, in general, are said to be good. Wheat yields abundantly; 
 and the horses, cattie, and pigs which have been introduced thrive well. Timber of 
 any size is unknown, so that the native canoe, instead of being cut out of a single tree, 
 is merely wicker-work bound together by cordage of indigenous flax. The aborigines 
 have two missions among them — one from Germany, and the other from New Zealand. 
 
 CHATI, a cdX, felis mitis, smaller than the ocelot, and something like the leopard, a 
 native of South America. It greatly annoys farmers by destroying fowls, birds, and 
 smaller animals. Like all of the cat kind, it hunts mostly in the dark. 
 
 CHATILLON, a t. of France in the department of Cote d’Or, on the Seine, about 45 
 m. n.n.w. of Dijon. Pop. ’76, 4,894. C. is chiefly famous on account of the congress 
 of allied sovereigns held here in 1814, from Feb. 5 to Mar. 19, for the purpose of negoti- 
 ation with Napoleon respecting conditions of peace. Several of the conditions proposed 
 by the allies Napoleon could not bring himself to submit to, and the negotiations broke 
 up, Mar. 19. On the 25th, when their armies were, in fact, marching on Paris, the 
 allies from Vitry issued their declaration justifying a continuation of the war. 
 
 CHAT MOSS, a bog in Lancashire, the largest in England, about 7,000 acres in extent, 
 and celebrated as having been the scene of the first great and successful efforts for the 
 reclaiming of bogs, by Mr. Kpscoe of Liverpool, in the end of the 18th and beginning 
 of the 19tii c., and of one of the great engineering triumphs of George Stephenson in 
 the construction of the Liverpool and Manchester railway. It is situated between 
 Liverpool and Manchester, at no great elevation above the sea. It is from 20 to 30 ft. 
 in depth, and of such consistence that when an attempt was first made to survey it for 
 the Liverpool and Manch^ter railway, the attempt was relinquished because of the 
 impossibility of obtaining a, sufficiently solid stand for the theodolite. Drains are filled 
 up almost as fast as they are cut, by a pulpy stuff flowing into them, and affect only a 
 few feet on either side. Great danger is experienced by any person stepping unwarily 
 on the surface of the bog; and when he begins to sink, his struggles to extricate himself 
 only cause him to sink faster and deeper. Mr. Poscoe’s agricultural improvements 
 were effected by numerous parallel drains in the parts on which he operated. The use 
 of pattens by his workmen, and the adaptation of them to the feet of the horses employed, 
 have been mentioned in the article Bog. The enlargement of the circle upon which a 
 horse’s foot rests from 5 in. diameter to 7, nearly doubles it, and consequently dimin- 
 ishes nearly by one half the pressure on each unit of surface. Mr. Stephenson, when 
 he could find no one to countenance him in his views, calculated with confidence on the 
 application of this principle to the railway, so that even the ponderous locomotive and 
 train might be supported by a sufficient extension of the bearing surface; and this he 
 accomplished by spreading branches of trees and hedge-cuttings, and in the softest 
 places rude hurdles interwoven with heather, on the natural surface of the ground, con- 
 taining interwined roots of heather and long grass; a thin layer of gravel being spread 
 above all, on which the sleepers, chairs, and rails were laid in the usual manner. Drains- 
 were at the same time cut on both sides of the line, and in the central part of the moss a 
 conduit was formed beneath the line of railway, of old tar-barrels placed end to end. 
 Notwithstanding difficulties which every one but himself deemed insuperable, Mr, 
 Stephenson constructed the portion of the line through C. M. at a smaller expense than 
 any other part of the railway. There still is “ a sort of springiness in the road over the 
 moss, such as is felt when passing along a suspension-bridge;” and “those who looked 
 along the moss as a train passed over it, said they could observe a waviness, such as 
 precedes and follows a skater upon ice.” 
 
 The complete reclaiming of C. M. for agricultural purposes can- be only a question 
 of time and expense. It seems capable of becoming one of the most productive tracts 
 of land in England. 
 
 CHATOYANT, a term to denote the changeable internal light seen in some minerals, 
 such as “ cat’s eye.” (See Cat’s Eye, ante.) 
 
 CHATBE, La., a t. in the department of Indre, France, on the river Indre, 20 m, 
 s.e. of Chateauroux; pop. ’66, 5,167. There is a ruined castle, one of the towers of 
 which is still used as a prison. 
 
47hatsk. 
 
 Chatterton. 
 
 726 
 
 CHATSK, or Schazk, a t. of European Russia, government of Tambov, 175 m. s.e. 
 of Moscow, on a small river of the same name. It is situated in the midst of a vast 
 fertile plain, contains a number of churches, and has a trade in hardware, grain, and 
 cattle. Pop. ’67, 6,783. 
 
 CHATSWORTH, the magnificent mansion of the duke of Devonshire, and one of the 
 most splendid private seats in England, is situated in Derbyshire on the Derwent, 12 m. 
 n. by w. of Matlock. William the conqueror gave the domain to his natural son 
 William Peveril. It was purchased by sir W. Cavendish in queen Elizabeth’s time. 
 Sir W., in 1570, began the old mansion, which was finished by his widow, afterwards 
 countess of Shrewsbury. In this building Mary Queen of Scots was imprisoned for 13 
 years. The present edifice, called a palace from its grandeur, includes the old Ionic 
 pile, 183 by 172 ft. built 1687-1706, by the first duke of Devonshire, after designs by 
 Talman and Wren. The great stables were built about 1706, and the n. wing since 
 1720. The faQade is 720 ft. long, or with the terraces, 1200 feet. The building is nearly 
 a square, with an interior court. C. is famed for its pictures, sculptures, hangings, 
 carvings, and bass-reliefs. There are some exquisite sculptures by Canova, Thorwaldsen, 
 Chantrey. etc. The grounds around are 9 m. in circuit, including hill and dale, and 
 fine prospects. They were laid out by Loudon and Paxton, and are celebrated for their 
 trees, shrubs, rock- work, deer, and water-works — only surpassed by those at Versailles. 
 The conservatory, unrivaled in Europe, covers nearly an acre, measures 300 by 145 ft., 
 and 65 ft. high, has 70,000 sq.ft, of glass, and a carriage-road through it, Kobbes, the 
 philosopher, lived long at Chatsworth. 
 
 GHAT TAHOO GHEE, a river of the United States, rises on the eastern declivity of the 
 Blue Ridge of the Alleglianies, in the n. of Georgia; traverses that state in a s.w. direc- 
 tion; becomes the boundary between it and Alabama; and finally, after receiving the 
 Flint from the left, crosses Florida, under the name of Appalachicola, into the gidf of 
 Mexico. With an entire course of 550 m., it is navigable upwards as far as Columbus, 
 at a distance of 350 m. from the sea. It forms the principal outlet for the cotton crops 
 of its basin. 
 
 CH A.TTAHOO'CHEE, a co. in s.w. Georgia, on the Alabama border; 250 sq.m.; 
 pop. ’80, 5670 — 3546 colored. Agriculture is the chief business. Co. seat, Cusseta. 
 
 CHATTANOOGA, a city in Hamilton co., Tenn., on the Tennessee river, near the 
 Alabama boundary; pop. ’70, 6,093—2,221 colored. The river is navigable for steam- 
 boats about eight months in the year, and by light-draught boats at all times. Four 
 railroads center at Chattanooga, and afford easy communication in all directions. The 
 city is one of the most important shipping points in that section of the country. The 
 region is rich in coal and iron, and there is abundance of water-power. At this point, 
 in Oct., 1863, occurred one of the most important conflicts of the war of the rebellion. 
 After the retreat of Rosecrans from the field of Chickamauga, in Sept., the confed- 
 erates under Bragg sent a cavalry force across the Tennessee above Chattanooga, and 
 seized several points on the railroad in order to cut off his supplies. Shortly after- 
 wards, Grant relieved Rosecrans and assumed command of the department of the 
 Tennessee, Cumberland, and Ohio. Thomas was appointed commander of the depart- 
 ment of the Cumberland, Sherman was assigned to the department of the Tennessee, 
 and Hooker, with the 11th and 12th corps, which had been transferred from the army 
 of the Potomac, was sent across the river to make a flank movement against Bragg, 
 while a force under William F. Smith was thrown across the river at Brown’s ferry, 
 i)elow Chattanooga, to seize the points of Lookout mountain that commanded the 
 passage of the river. These measures, which were executed Oct. 27, 28, and 29, were 
 successful in restoring the connection between the union army at Chattanooga and its 
 depot of supplies. Sherman’s army having arrived, the movement against the confed- 
 erates was begun Nov. 23. Thomas’s troops attacked and carried the enemy’s first line 
 of rifle-pits at 2 p.m., and held it during the night. The next day the attack was renewed 
 along the whole line. Thomas strengthened himself in his advanced position, repelling 
 every effort of the enemy to recover the lost ground. Sherman succeeded in carrying 
 Missionary ridge, and Hooker, after partially carrying Lookout mountain, intrenched 
 himself in a strong position, compelling the abandonment of the mountain by the enemy 
 during the night. On the 25th the battle raged from dawn till dark. Missionary ridge. 
 Lookout mountain-top, and all the rifle-pits in the valley, were carried by desperate 
 fighting. The confederate army was routed, and pursued by Sherman and Hooker 
 back to Georgia. The union loss was between 6,000 and 7,000 in killed, wounded, and 
 missing. The confederate loss in killed and wounded is estimated at 2,500; in prisoners, 
 6,000. The effect of this battle was to cut off Bragg from communication with Long- 
 street, and to force the latter to abandon the siege of Knoxville and retreat into 
 Virginia. 
 
 GHATTEL (Fr. chatel, old Fr. chapiel, from Lat. capitale, corrupted into captale and 
 cataUum, meaning the capital or principal sum in a loan ; hence goods in general, espe- 
 cially cattle, as distinguished from land), in the law of England, is a term used to desig- 
 nate any kind of property which, with reference either to the nature of the subject or 
 'he. character of the interest possessed in it, is not freehold. Regarded from a positive 
 
727 
 
 Chatsk. 
 
 Chatterton. 
 
 point of view, C. included not only all movable property, but all property which, though 
 immovable, was not held on a feudal tenure. Aoy estate, then, or interest in lauds and 
 tenements not amounting to freehold, is a chattel. But as between property thus 
 “savoring of reality ” and mere personal movables — money, plate, cattle, and the like 
 — there was a manifest distinction, chattels were, consequently, distinguished into chat- 
 tels-real and chattels-personal. Both descriptions of C., in the eye of the ancient law of 
 England, were regarded as inferior to freehold, and formed a subordinate class of prop- 
 erty. As distinguished from estates of inheritance, or for life in things immovable, 
 such estate is called personal, the others being real estate. Till the passing of 8 and 9 
 Viet. c. 106, livery of seizin was required to pass an estate of inheritance, or for life in 
 corporal hereditaments of feu tenure, but such was no more required for the transfer of 
 a C. real than of a C. personal. A C. real is also transmitted on the owner’s death to 
 his executor or administrator, like a C. personal, and does not descend to his heir like a 
 freehold of inheritance. There is an exception to this rule, however, in the case of 
 chattels which, owing to their intimate connection with property of a freehold nature, 
 cannot be separated from it without injury. Such, for instance, are the muniments of 
 title to an esiate, growing grass, deer in a park, and actual fixtures, all of which go to 
 the heir, and not the executor. The tenant of a C. real, like the tenant of a C. personal, 
 is, moreover, said not to be seized, like the tenant of a freehold, but to be possessed. 
 Lastly, there can be no estate tail in a C. real more than in a C. personal, except in the 
 case in which either of them can be regarded as an heir-loom. Formerly, C. might be 
 disposed of by will at an earlier age than real estates, but this was altered by 1 Viet, 
 c. 26. 
 
 CHATTEBEB, a significant popular name, often applied to the birds of the family 
 ampelidoB, a family of the order insessores and tribe dentirostres, having a depressed bill 
 like that of the fly-catchers {muscicapidee), but somewhat shorter and broader in propor- 
 tion, and slightly arched. To this family belong the cotingas, wax-wungs, piauhaus, 
 caterpillar-hunters, etc. They are found chiefly in the warmer parts of the old world, 
 although America also produces some. They inhabit low grounds or forests, feeding 
 chiefly on insects and their larvae. Some of them possess powers of song almost equal 
 to those of the nightingale. Many of them are birds of gorgeous plumage. — Only one 
 species is British, sometimes called simply the C., sometimes the Bohemian C., or wax- 
 wing (q.v.). 
 
 CHATTERTON, Thomas, an English poet, whose youth, genius, and tragical death 
 have made him one of the wonders of English literature, was b. at Bristol, Nov. 20, 
 1752. His father, who had once been a chanter in the Bristol cathedral, and also mas- 
 ter of a kind of free-school, died two or three months before the poet’s birth. C. was 
 educated at a parish-school, was considered a dull child, but, making acquaintance with 
 a black-letter Bible which his mother often used, the dormant spirit flashed up. From 
 early years he was fond of all kinds of antiquities; he clung around old walls like the 
 ivy, and haunted twilight ruins like the bat. At the age of 14 he was apprenticed to 
 Mr. Lambert, an attorney. His situation here was uncomfortable ; he took his meals in 
 the kitchen with the footboy, and, when refractory, was chastised with a ruler. In 
 Oct., 1768, the new bridge at Bristol was opened, and C. sent to a newspaper an account, 
 in antique phraseology and spelling, of the ceremonies attending the opening of the old 
 one several centuries before — the whole purporting to be taken from an ancient MS. 
 To a certain Bristol pewterer, Burgum by name, he presented himself, and astonished 
 the craftsman by the sight of a parchment, in which his pedigree was traced back to the 
 Norman conquest, adorned by many a splendid marriage, and many a knightly name. 
 He also exhibited to his friends copies of old poems, which, he said, w^ere composed by 
 one Thomas Bowley, a monk of the 15th century. These matters made some stir in his 
 native city, but not enough to satisfy C., who resolved to fly at higher game. Accord- 
 ingly, Horace Walpole, at that time collecting additional materials for his Anecdotes of 
 Painting in England, received from C. several pages of antique writing, accompanied 
 by a short note. The pretended MS. gave biographical sketches of celebrated painters 
 who had flourished in England several centuries ago, and of whose existence Walpole 
 had never dreamed. Walpole, put off his guard, answered his unknown correspondent 
 at once; expressed his delight at receiving the MS.; and desired, as a personal favor, 
 that all the other antique writings, poems included, mentioned in the note, should be 
 forwarded. C., highly elnted, immediately sent accounts of a great many more pain- 
 ters and poets, and also gave some slight sketch of his personal history. On receipt of 
 this second communication, Walpole suspected a trick. The poems he showed to 
 Mason and Gray, who at once pronounced them forgeries; he then wrote C., expressing 
 his suspicions as to the genuineness of the MS., and administering at the same time a 
 great deal of excellent advice. C. replied, desiring that the MS. should be returned at 
 once; but. by the time the letter reached London, Walpole was about to start for Paris, 
 and it was allowed to remain unanswered. On Walpole’s return some six weeks there- 
 after, a fieice note from C. awaited him, the contents of which must have brought the 
 blood to his polished and urbane brow; indignant, he bundled up the MS., and returned 
 it without a word of explanation. 
 
 From his earliest youth, C. had a ghastly familiarity with the idea of suicide. Among 
 
Chattooga. 
 
 Chauliac. 
 
 728 
 
 his papers preserved in the British museum, is a last will and testament, “executed in 
 the presence of Omniscience, the 14th of April, 1770,” full of the wildest wit and pro- 
 fanity. Another document of similar purport, falling into the hands of his friends, led 
 to his dismissal from Mr. Lambert’s office. Released from what he considered the 
 slavery of law, C.’s eyes turned to London, and in that city he arrived, carrying with 
 him all his Rowley MS. and several modern poems, on Tuesday, the 24th April, 1770, 
 and took up his abode with one Walmsley, a plasterer, in Shoreditch. No sooner had 
 he settled there, than he began to work as with a hundred hands. During the last few 
 months of his life, he poured forth squibs, satiric poems, political essays, burlettas, letters 
 in the style of Junius, and meditated writing a history of England, to appear in parts. 
 For a time, his prospects seemed golden enough. He obtained an introduction to lord 
 mayor Beckford; he sent glowing letters home, accompanied by presents to his mother 
 and sisters. Ultimately, he left the plasterer’s in Shoreditch, and took lodgings in 
 Brooke street, adjoining Holborn. Unhappily for C., editors of opposition papers were 
 willing enough to insert and praise his articles, but were disinclined or unable to render 
 an equivalent in cash. Possibly they conceived that a patriotism so ardent must be its 
 own reward. The means of life were now fast failing. In desperation, he attempted 
 to procure an appointment of surgeon’s mate in a vessel going to Africa, but failed. This 
 was the last drop that made the cup overflow. On Saturday, the 25th Aug. , his land- 
 lady, alarmed that her lodger did not make his appearance, had the door of his room 
 broken open; saw the floor littered with small pieces of paper, and C. “lying on the 
 bed with his legs hanging over, quite dead.” Just at this time, Dr. Fry of Oxford, who 
 had seen or heard something of the Rowley poems, was on the eve of starting for Bristol 
 to make inquiry into the matter. Sad enough to think on now : a little promptitude on 
 the one hand, a little patience on the other, and the catastrophe might have been 
 averted. 
 
 C. died before he reached his 18th year, and takes his place as the greatest prodigy 
 in literature. Indeed, in our judgment of him, age cannot be taken into account. He 
 never seems to have been young. His intellect was born fully matured. He was equally 
 precocious in other respects. In his letters, he speaks of the relation of the sexes in the 
 tone of a sated roue. He never seems to have felt the delicious shame and ingenuous- 
 ness of youth; over his heart never was outspread “the bloom of young de"sire and 
 purple light of love.” The Kew Gardens is written in the style of Churchill, and it 
 possesses all that master’s vigor, and every now and then we come on a couplet turned 
 with the felicity of Pope. His genius, however, is in its greatest perfection in the 
 ancient poems. No poet, before or since, has written a tenderer strain than the lament 
 in or conceived a bolder image than the personification of freedom in the ode to 
 
 liberty in his Tragedy of Godwin. C.’s life has been written by many hands, but the 
 best and most sympathetic sketch of it is that given by prof. D. Masson of Edinburgh 
 university in his collected essays. — See The Poetical Works of Thomas Ghatterton, by the 
 Rev. Walter Skeat, m.a. (1875). 
 
 CHATTOO'GA, a co. in n.w. Georgia, on the Alabama border, intersected by the C. 
 river; 360 sq.m. ; pop. ’80, 10,021 — 2040 colored. The surface is somewhat mountainous. 
 Limestone, marble, lead, and iron are found; and wheat, corn, oats, and cotton are 
 raised. Co. seat, Summerville. 
 
 CHAXJCEB, Geoffrey, the father of English poetry, was b. most probably about 
 1340, though the traditional date is 1328. Recent researches have made it clear that C. 
 was the son of John Chaucer, a London vintner. It has been said that he studied at 
 Cambridge, and afterwards removed to Oxford. While at the university, he wrote The 
 Court of Love, and The Book of Troilus and Gresseide. At one period he seems to have 
 turned his attention to law, and to have become a member of the Inner Temple. About 
 these matters his biographers, knowing little, have conjectured much. The only partic- 
 ular of C.’s youth of which an anxious posterity can be certified is, that he one day 
 thrashed a Franciscan friar in Fleet street, and was fined two shillings for the exploit on 
 the next. History has preserved this for us, but has forgotten all the rest of his early 
 life, and the chronology of all his poems. 
 
 In 1359, C. assures us, on his own authority, that he served under Edward III. in 
 his French campaign, and was therein made prisoner. The date of his return from 
 captivity, and of his subsequent marriage, cannot now be ascertained. He espoused 
 Philippa, youngest daughter of sir Payne Roet, whose estates lay in Hainuult. His 
 wife’s sister, Katherine, ultimately became the wife of John of Gaunt, duke of Lancas- 
 ter; and it may be presumed that the high connection thus established aided, in no incon- 
 siderable degree, the poet’s advancement in life. After his marriage, he began to mix 
 in public affairs. He was sent on an embassy to Genoa in 1372, and, on that occasion, 
 has been supposed by some to have had an interview with Petrarch, then residing at 
 Padua, and to have heard from his lips the story of Griselda. On his return, he was 
 appointed controller of the customs for wools, and in the same year the king panted 
 him a pitcher of wine daily for life. In 1377, C. proceeded to Flanders in the retinue of 
 sir Thomas Percy, afterwards earl of Worcester; and for several years thereafter he was 
 employed assiduously in embassies and other business connected with the public service. 
 In 1386, a commission was issued to inquire into alleged abuses in the department of 
 
729 
 
 Cliattoog^a. 
 
 Chauliac. 
 
 the customs, and C. was dismissed from his controllership in the Dec. of that year. 
 On meeting this fact, one cannot help remembering that Edward made the writing out 
 of the accounts in C.’s own hand the condition of his holding office. Had the great 
 poet neglected his duties? It has been conjectured by some, that after his disgrace C. 
 became embarrassed in circumstances, and apparently with reason, for about this time 
 he canceled both his pensions, and consigned them to one John Seal by, “to whom they 
 were probably sold under pressure of distress,” says his latest biographer. In 1387, C. 
 lost his wife. Where he spent his closing years, cannot now be ascertained. Godwin 
 surmises that in his distress he retired to Woodstock, and composed there The Canter- 
 hui'y Tales. It seems, however, to be tolerably certain that during the last years of his 
 life he was resident in London. There he died on the 25th Oct., 1400, aged 74, and was 
 buried in Westminster abbey, the first of the long line of poets whose ashes make that 
 pile so venerable. 
 
 C. was a worthy representative of the splendid 14th century. He was a master of 
 the science, the theology, and the literature of his time. He had seen many men and 
 cities, and had formed no inconsiderable unit in imposing ceremonies of state. His 
 poems are numerous, and exhibit every variety of poetical excellence. His earlier per- 
 formances, such as The Flower and the Leaf, Ihe Romaunt of the Rose, are, after the 
 French fashion then prevalent, gorgeous allegories full of queens and kings, bowers, 
 bevies of beautiful ladies, brave knights, and pious nightingales that sing the praises of 
 God. They appeal potentl}^ enough to the eye, but they do not in the slightest degree 
 touch the heart, or relate themselves to human concerns. Quite different The Canterbury 
 Tales, so full of humor, pathos, and shrew’d observation. In these tales, English life, 
 as it then existed, is wonderfully reflected — when the king tilted in tournament, when 
 the knight and the lady rode over the down with falcon on wrist, w’hen pilgrimages 
 bound for the tomb of St. Thomas passed on from village to village, when friars sitting 
 in tavern over wine sang songs that formed a remarkable contrast with the services they 
 so piously and sw^eetly intoned. All that stirring and gayly appareled time — so different 
 from our own — is seen in C.’s work, as in some magic mirror; and in his case, as in 
 every other, when the superficial tumults and noises that so stun the contemporary ear 
 have faded away, leaving behind that which is elemental and eternal, the poet is found 
 to be the truest historian. Among C.’s other writings maybe mentioned. The Book of 
 the Duchess; The House of Fame; and The Legend of Good Women. The genuineness of 
 The Court of Love and of The Flower and the Leaf is denied by Mr. Furnivall, and by 
 Mr. Skeat in his new edition of C. (4 vols., 1878). 
 
 CHAUCI, an important tribe of ancient Germany, who dwelt between the Elbe and 
 the Ems. Tacitus records that they were conspicuous for their love of peace and jus- 
 tice, being powerful but not ambitious, ready to resist aggression, but never provoking 
 war. They finally merged into the wider designation of Saxons. 
 
 CHAUDES-AIGTIES, a t. of France, in the department of Cantal, about 12 m. s.s.w. 
 of St. Flour. It is celebrated on account of its hot mineral springs, which have the 
 property of discharging grease from sheep’s wool, and vast numbers of fleeces are sent 
 hither annually to be washed. The waters are also taken for rheumatism and cutaneous 
 diseases. Pop. ’72, 1100. 
 
 CHAUDET. Antoine Denis, 1763-1810; a French artist, whose statue of (Edipus, 
 finished in 1801, established for him a high reputation. He also excelled in designing 
 and penciling; and illustrated the works of Racine for Didot. Among his statuary are 
 “Paul and Virginia,” “Sensibility.” “ Surprise,” a silver statue of “Peace,” and the 
 “Napoleon” that crowned the Vendome column. His wife, Jeanne Elizabeth Gabion, 
 was his pupil in painting, and produced many fine pictures. 
 
 ^ CHAUDFONTAINE, a village charmingly situated in the valley of the Vesdre, a few 
 miles from Liege, in Belgium, and celebrated for a hot spring which supplies water for 
 hot-baths. There are hotels and lodging-houses for the accommodation of visitors. 
 The place is a favorite resort of the Liegois. There is here a station on the railway from 
 Liege to Aix-la-Chapelle. Pop. ’73, 1393. 
 
 CHATJDIERE, the name of a river and of a lake of Canada. The river joins the St. 
 Lawrence from the s., about 7 m. above Quebec, forming the celebrated falls of its own 
 name, about 2^ m. from its mouth. The lake — merely one of the many expansions of 
 the Ottawa — has on its right the city of that name, the metropolis of the united 
 colony. 
 
 CHAUFFEURS, or Garkotteurs, outlaws during the French reign of terror w'ho 
 roamed over the country in organized bands, under the lead of Johann Buckler, or 
 Schinderhannes. They garroted men and women, and roasted their feet to compel 
 them to disclose treasure. In 1803, vigorous measures w’ere taken which resulted in 
 their suppression. 
 
 CHAULIAC, or CHAULIEU, Gui de, a surgeon of France, of the 14th c., who was 
 physician to three of the popes of Avignon. In his profession he was far in advance of 
 the time, and his works are still regarded as important. He is credited with laying the 
 foundation of the modern principles and practice of surgery. One of his "works describes 
 the plague or black death of 1348. 
 
diaumette. 
 
 Cbeadle. 
 
 V30 
 
 CHAUMETTE, Pierre Gaspard, one of the most extravagant characters of the 
 French revolution, was b., 1763, at Nevers, and made his first public appearance at the 
 Cordeliers’ club, where he was introduced by Camille Desmoulins. His “ saMs-cuIottism” 
 
 f ained for him such popularity, that he was appointed procurator of the conmiunity of 
 *aris, in the place of Manuel. C. was very enlhusiaslic in favor of the “ worship of 
 reason.” In his zeal, he rejected his own Christian name, Pierre, as having been sullied 
 by saintly associations, and styled himself “ Anaxagoras.” The institution of tlie tribu- 
 nal of the revolution, the decree for a revolutionary army, and the law against suspected 
 aristocrats, were carried into effect by C. along with others. He also proposed that the 
 whole French nation should be made to wear wooden shoes, and to subsist on potatoes; 
 but this was too much even for the chimerical enthusiasm of his compatriots. His antics, 
 however, in connection with the “worship of reason” excited the disgust of Robespierre, 
 who devised measures for bringing the whole company of actors under Hebert to the 
 scaffold C. w'as arrested and imprisoned on a charge of having been implicated in a 
 plot against the convention, and was executed, April 13, 1794. 
 
 CHAUMONOT, Pierre Marie Joseph, 1611-93; a French Jesuit missionary among 
 the North American Indians. His work w^as chiefly among the Hurons of Canada, 
 among whom he established missions and schools. He left a grammar of the Huron 
 tongue. In 165o, he visited the Onondagas. 
 
 CHATJMONT, a t. of France, in the department of Ilaute-Marne, on an elevation 
 between the rivers Marne and Suize, about 140 m. s.e. of Paris. It is generally well 
 built, with clean, spacious streets, and fine promenades round the upper part of the 
 town. There are considerable manufactures, including hosiery, cotton, 5 'arn, gloves, 
 etc. On the 1st of Mar., 1814, the allied powers here bound themselves by treaty 
 against Napoleon, in the event of the negotiations at Chatillon ending unsatisfuctorih . 
 Pop. ’76, 8,791. 
 
 CHAUNCEY, Charles, ll.d., 1777-1849; son of the Connecticut attorney-general; 
 became a member of the Philadelphia bar, w^here he won high rank. 
 
 CHAUNCEY, or CHAUNCY, Charles, ll.d., 1747-1823; a native of Massachusetts, 
 admitted to the bar in 1768, and settled in New Haven. He was attorney -general of the 
 state, and in 1789, judge of the superior court. 
 
 CHAUNCEY, or CHAUNCY, Isaac, 1772-1840; a capt. in the U. S. navy. He 
 began sea-faring life in the mercantile service, in which he was conspicuous for enter- 
 prise and energy. In 1799, he entered the navy as a lieut., and in 1802 was made 
 acting capt. commanding the Ghesapeake, of 38 guns, the flag-ship of the squadron sent 
 against Tripoli, serving with distinction in that brief war. In 1806, be was made capt., 
 and in the war of 1812 had command on the great lakes. In 1813, he participated in 
 the capture of York, now Toronto, and of fort George, driving the enemy from the 
 Ahole of Niagara region. On one occasion he captured five British vessels, and a 
 regiment of troops. In Aug., 1814, he blockaded a British fleet in Kingston harbor 
 until the close of navigation. Before the lake opened again, peace was concluded. In 
 later years he was in command of the navy-yard at Brooklyn, and of the squadron that 
 conveyed an officer to make the treaty of peace with Algiers. At the time of his death 
 he was president of the board of navy commissioners. 
 
 CHAUNCY, Charles, 1705-87; great-grandson of the president of Harvard, a 
 
 E aduate of that institution, and pastor of the First church in Boston in 1727. He pub- 
 hed many works, among which were Complete View of the Episcopacy ; Seasonable 
 Thoughts on the State of Religion in New England; Mystery Hid from Ages, or the Salva- 
 tion of all Men; and The Benevolence of the Deity. He officiated 60 years in one parish. 
 
 CHAUNCY, or CHAUNCEY, Charles, 1592-1672; a native of England, educated 
 at Cambridge, where he became professor first of Greek and afterwards of Hebrew. 
 His Puritanism involved him in difficulties w'ith the ecclesiastical authorities, and he 
 was fined and imprisoned. In 1638, he emigrated to New England, and was for three 
 years pastor at Plymouth, Mass., and afterwards at Scituate. There having been t. 
 change in ecclesiastical policy in England, he was about to return to his vicarage in 
 Ware, when Henry Dunster, the first president of Harvard colle?e, resigned, and the 
 place was offered to Chauncy. He at once accepted (1654), and remained in office all his 
 life. He left six sons, all of whom graduated at Harvard, and all became preachers. 
 
 CHATJNY, a t. of France in the department of Aisne, about 18 m. w.n.w. of Laon. 
 It is built partly on the right bank of, and partly on an island in, the river Oise, which 
 is here navigable. It is an old, rather uninteresting place, with manufactures of sack- 
 ing, hosiery, chemicals, and leather, and an active trade. Pop. ’76, 8,982. 
 
 CHAUSSES, in the armor of the middle ages, were defense-pieces for the legs. Some 
 were made of padded and quilted cloth, with metal studs; some of chain-mail; some of 
 riveted plates; and some of banded mail. It was not unusual to fasten them by lacing 
 behind the leg. 
 
 CHAUTAU'QUA, a co. in w. N, Y., having lake Erie on the n. and Pennsylvania 
 on the s. and w. ; drained by Conewango creek, and traversed by the Erie, the Lake 
 Shore, the Atlantic and Great Western, and other railroads; 1000 sq.m.; pop. ’80, 
 
731 
 
 Chaumette. 
 
 Clieadle. 
 
 65,340. Among mineral productions are iron and marble; also there are sulphur springs, 
 and natural gas, which has been successfully used in lighting houses. The surface is 
 mostly level, and the soil fertile, producing wheat, oats, corn, barley, potatoes, hay, 
 cheese, butter, wool, and maple sugar. Co. seat, Mayville. See Jamestown. 
 
 CHAUTAU'QUA LAKE, in Chautauqua co., N. Y., 730 ft. above the level of lake 
 Erie and 1290 ft. above the ocean. It is 18 m. long and 1 to 3 wide, with a navigable 
 outlet to Alleghany river. 
 
 CHAUVEAU, Pierre J. O., b. Quebec, 1820. In 1844, he w^as chosen to the pro- 
 vincial legislature, became solicitor-general in 1851, and provincial secretary in 1853. In 
 1855, he was appointed superintendent of education for Lower Canada. On the organi- 
 zation of the confederation, he became first minister of the government of Quebec, and 
 in 1873 was chosen speaker of the Canadian senate. He is the author of Charles Guerin, 
 the first Canadian-French novel ever published. , 
 
 CHAUVEKET, William, ll.d., 1819-70; b. Penn.; a graduate of Yale, and long 
 connected with Alexander D. Bache in magnetic and meteorological observations at 
 Girard college. In 1841, he was appointed professor of mathematics in the navy, and 
 assisted in the establishment of the naval academy at Annapolis and of its observatory, 
 of which he was made director. He was for a time professor of mathematics and astron- 
 omy in Washington university at St. Louis, Mo. Among his works are Manual of 
 Spherical and Practical Astronomy; The Binomial Theorem of Exponents and of Loga- 
 rithms ; and Plane and Spherical Trigonometry. 
 
 CHAUVIN, Etienne, 1640-1725; a minister of the reformed religion, b. at Nimes. 
 At the revocation of the edict of Nantes, he went to Rotterdam, and in 1695, he was made 
 professor of philosophy at Berlin. His principal work is a Lexicon Rationale, sire The- 
 saurus Philosophicus. He also wrote Theses de Cognitione Dei, and started the Eoureau 
 Journal des Savants. 
 
 CHATTVINISME. “Chauvin” was the name of the principal character in a French 
 comedy, which was played with immense success at the time of the restoration. He 
 represented a bragging veteran of the empire, who was continually talking of nis 
 achievements at Austerlitz and Jena, and his determination to take a brilliart revenge 
 for Waterloo. Since then, a chauviniste has come to mean a man who has extravagant 
 and narrow-minded notions of patriotism, and corresponding enmity towards foreign 
 peoples. 
 
 , CHATTX DE FONDS, a t. of Switzerland, in the canton of Neuchatel. 9 m. n.w. of the 
 city of that name. It is situated in a bleak valley, at an elevation of 3,070 ft. above the 
 sea, and is scattered over a large area, almost every cottage being surrounded by a gar- 
 den or croft. It is one of the chief seats of the manufacture of clocks and watches in 
 the canton. The mechanists work chiefly at home, each devoting himself to a par- 
 ticular portion of machinery. This industry employs 12,000 hands. Pop. ’71, 19,930- 
 
 CHA'VES, a t. in Portugal, near the frontier, on a plain near the right branch of 
 the Tamega, which is here crossed by an old Roman bridge of 18 arches; pop. 4,870, 
 but formerly as many as 20,000. Its hot saline springs were known to the ancients. In 
 one of its churches is the tomb of Alpbonso I. 
 
 CHAYENPTJR', a fortified t. of Nepaul, in the n. of India, about 120 m. to the e. of 
 Khatmandu, the capital of the state, being in lat. 27° 20' n., and long. 87° 3' east. It is 
 the chief town of a district which yields rice, wheat, cotton, ghee or butter, timber, 
 spices, sugar, tobacco, and pearls. 
 
 CHAY ROOT, Choya, or Sayan {oldenlandia umhellata), a perennial herbaceous plant 
 of the natural order cinchonacem, said to be a native both of India and of Mexico. It is 
 cultivated on the coast of Coromandel for the sake of its long, orange-colored roots, the 
 bark of which affords a beautiful red dye. The quality of the bark is said to be improved 
 by keeping it for some years. It is the coloring matter obtained from C. R. which is 
 used to paint the red figures on chintz. C. R. is the Indian madder, and in it some 
 tribes in Ceylon formerly paid their tribute. 
 
 CHAZELLES, Jean Mathieu de, 1657-1710; a mathematician and engineer; b. at 
 Lyons. He was for some time employed by Cassini in measuring an arc of the meri- 
 dian, and finally became hydrographic professor for the galleys at Marseilles. In 1689, 
 he set sail from Rochefort with 15 galleys, cruised as far as Torbay, in England, and 
 took part in the descent upon Teignmouth. C. published many maps and charts 
 in the Neptune Frangais, and traveled to Egypt, where he measured the pyramids. He 
 was made a member of the academy in 1695. 
 
 CHAZY, a village and township in Clinton co., N. Y., on the w. shore of lake Cham- 
 plain; the village on the Plattsburg and Montreal railroad; pop. of town, ’75^ 3,068. 
 One of the mineral products of the township is the C. limestone, of the lower Silurian 
 formation. 
 
 CHEA'DLE, a small but neat market-t. of England, in the moorland district of the 
 n. part of the co. of Stafford, 14 m. n.n.e. of the town of Stafford, 3 m. from the Frog- 
 hall station on the Churnet valley branch of the North Staffordshire railway, and 4 rn. 
 from the Blyth bridge station on the main line from Derby to Crewe. The town is; 
 
Cheatham. 
 
 Cheese. 
 
 732 
 
 seated in a pleasant vale, surrounded by hills mostly planted with fir and other trees. 
 The parish church (St. Giles) was a very ancient structure, but was rebuilt in 1837-38. 
 A magnificent Roman Catholic church, erected at the sole expense of John, earl of 
 Shrewsbury, was opened in 1846. There are several dissenting chapels, various schools, 
 a rnechanics’ institute, a large tape manufactory, and also one for silk. There are 
 copper and brass works a short distance from the town, and coal and limestone 
 abound in the vicinity. Pop. ’71, 2,929. 
 
 CHEATHAM, a co. in n.w. Tennessee, on Cumberland river; 350 sq.m.; pop. ’80, 
 \79o5 — 1661 colored. Chief productions, corn, oats, and tobacco. Co. seat, Ashland 
 City. 
 
 CHEATING. In the technical language of the English law, C. means the offense of 
 fraudulently obtaining the property of another by any deceitful or illegal practice short 
 of felony, but in such a way as that the public interest may possibly be affected. In 
 order to constitute C., the fraud must be of such a kind as that it could not be 
 guarded against by common prudence. C., in this sense, is an offense at common law, 
 and indictable, which is not the case with imposition in a private transaction. The 
 law of Scotland has no such distinction. See Weights and Measures, False Pre- 
 tences, Character to Servant. 
 
 CHEATING {ante), defined in American law as “deceitful practices in defrauding 
 or endeavoring to defraud another of his known right, by some willful device contrary 
 to the plain rules of common honesty.” Bouvier says: “In order to constitute a 
 cheat or indictable fraud, there must be a prejudice received, or such injury must 
 affect the public welfare, or have a tendency to do so.” Courts have held that it is 
 not indictable for a person to obtain goods by false verbal representations of his credit 
 in society, and of his ability to pay for them; or to violate his contract, however 
 fraudulently it may be broken; or fraudulently to deliver a less quantity than was 
 contracted for and represented. To cheat one of his money or goods by false weights 
 or measures has always been an indictable offense. The word “cheat” is not actionable 
 unless spoken of a plaintiff in relation to his profession or business. 
 
 CHEAT RIVER, a stream in West Virginia, formed by brooks rising in the Alle- 
 ghany mountains, flowing through a region rich in iron and coal, and joining the 
 Monongaliela in Fayette co. It furnishes abundant water-power, and is in some parts 
 navigable for steam-boats. 
 
 CHEBOY'GAN, a co. in n. Michigan, forming, with Emmett co., the extreme north- 
 ern portion of the peninsula; 500 sq.m. ; pop. ’80, 6524. It contains a number of small 
 lakes. Agriculture is the main business. Co. seat, Duncan. 
 
 CHECK, a variegated cloth, the pattern of which consists of rectangular spaces like 
 a chess-board (Fr. echec, chess), in black and white, or of various colors. 
 
 CHECK is a money order on a banker or other party having funds of the drawer. It 
 must bear a penny stamp, and is payable to bearer on demand. If not presented 
 within a reasonable time the holder shall not claim against the drawer should the banker 
 fail. The banker bears the risk of forgery, unless facilitated by carelessness in draw- 
 ing. A. C. is held as payment of a debt until dishonored on presentation; it is not 
 payable after the drawer’s death. 
 
 Crossed Check is an ordinary C. with two transverse lines drawn across it, which 
 has the effect of making it payable only through a banker. When a particular 
 banker’s name is written between the lines the C. is said to be specially crossed, and 
 is only payable by the banker whose name it bears. Wanting a particular name, it is 
 said to be generally crossed, and is payable through any banker. An ordinary C. may 
 be crossed either generally or specially by the holder. Obliteration of the crossing or 
 any alteration of a C. , except as provided for by the crossed checks act (1876), is felony. 
 
 CHECKERBERRY. See Gaultheria, ante. 
 
 CHECKERS. See Draughts, ante. 
 
 CHECKY (Fr. echiquete). In heraldry, when the field or any charge is composed of 
 small squares of different tinctures, generally metal and color, it is said to be cheeky. 
 
 CHEDDAR, a village in Somersetshire, on the s. side of the Mendip hills, 2 m. s.e. of 
 Axbridge, with a level country to the south. It lies at the entrance of a deep rocky 
 gorge, nearly 1 m. long, overhung by stupendous mural limestone precipices, contain- 
 ing caverns — one being 300 ft. long — filled with fantastic stalactites and stalagmites. 
 The celebrated C. cheeses are produced on the rich grass-farms around. The church is 
 supposed to have been built about 1400, and has a sculptured stone pulpit. Pop. of 
 parish ’71, 2,200. 
 
 CH^lDOTEL. the pilot of the expedition sent from France in 1598 to the coasts of 
 Nova Scotia, under command of the marquis de la Roche. Arriving at Au Sable island 
 (90 m. s.e. of Nova Scotia, au uninhabited island 25 m. long by 1 to li wide), 50 men 
 were landed, and the ships departed for the mainland But weather prevented a land- 
 ing at the island on returning, and the men were left there seven years. In 1605, they 
 were sent for, and 12 only were found alive. 
 
733 
 
 Cheatham. 
 
 Cheese. 
 
 CHEDTI'BA, an island off Aracan, in the bay of Bengal, stretching from lat. 18° 40' to 
 J8° 56' n,, and from long, 93° 31' to 93° 50' e. Its area is about 250 sq.m., and its pop. 
 6,000. Along with the adjacent mainland, it was ceded to the British at the close of the 
 first Burmese war. The soil is fertile, yielding rice, tobacco, sugar, indigo, cotton, 
 hemp, and large quantities of a vegetable oil, equally fitted for burning and for varnish- 
 ing. The principal mineral is petroleum. The coast presents earthy cones, which emit 
 mud and gas, and about 100 years ago a severe earthquake is believed to have extended 
 the limits of the island. 
 
 CHEESE is the common form in which the caseine (q.v.) of milk is used in a separate 
 state as an article of food. In new milk, the C. is present in a condition soluble in 
 water, and is generally separated therefrom in a coagulated or clotted form, on the 
 addition of a little rennet (q.v.). In the preparation of C., the milk is gently heated to a 
 temperature of 110° to 112° F., and placed in a large wooden tub, where the rennet is 
 added, and the operation of earning goes ou. In about half an hour, the curd is suffi- 
 ciently formed. The liquid whey being pressed out, the curd is chopped into small 
 pieces of the size of a walnut with a knife, called a curd-cutter, salt is added, and the 
 fragments of curd introduced into a cloth placed in a cheese- vat or chessart, which is a 
 wooden tub of varying size and shape, perforated at the sides and bottom. The whole 
 is then put under a cheese-press (q.v.), and subjected to great pressure, which consoli- 
 dates the curd or caseine, and at the same time squeezes out the remaining portions of 
 the whey. After two or three hours, the half-formed C. is turned and re-turned, each 
 time being subjected to renewed pressure, till in about two days it is sufficiently com- 
 pacted. It is then removed from the cheese-vat, and placed on a shelf in a dry, airy 
 room, where, being repeatedly turned, it gradually dries, and gets aged or seasoned 
 sufficiently for market in about six months. 
 
 There are many varieties of C., which partly owe their difference to the food of the 
 •cows, but in greater part to differences in the mode of treating the milk. 8kimmed-milk 
 C. is prepared from milk from which the cream has been removed, and a rich color is 
 communicated by adding a little arnotto (q.v.) to the milk before coagulation. Sweet-milk 
 C. is procured in a similar manner from the whole milk, and contains much of the but- 
 ter along with the caseine. Stilton G. is made in Leicestershire, by adding the cream 
 of the evening’s milk to the new milk of next morning; and as there is always more 
 trouble in expelling the whey from curd containing butter, there is a difficulty in prepar- 
 ing this variety of C., from its liability to fermentation and bursting, Cheddar C. is 
 made in Somersetshire, from the whole milk, and the whey is several times skimmed 
 cff, heated, and added to the curd to scald it. {yheshire and Double Gloucester are made 
 from the whole milk; Single Gloucester, from half new milk and half skimmed milk. 
 Gouda G. is prepared in Holland from skimmed milk curdled by muriatic acid instead 
 of rennet, and for this reason it is not infested with mites. Holland exports annually 
 about thirty millions of pounds of C., the greater portion coming to England. Sufolk 
 C. is made from skimmed milk. Parmesan (7. , obtained from Parma, in Italy, is also 
 made from skimmed milk, and owes its fine rich flavor to the superior herbage on the 
 banks of the river Po. The cows are kept in the house nearly all the year round, and 
 fed in summer with cut grass. Some of the cheeses are so large as to contain 180 lbs. ; 
 and the milk of 100 cows is required to produce one of this size. Siciss G. is flavored 
 with herbs, and especially that of GruySre, which is very pleasant to the taste. Gruy^re 
 cheeses weigh from 40 to 60 lbs. each, and are exported in large quantities. 
 
 Cream G. is prepared from cream curd which has been placed in a cloth, and allowed 
 to drain without the assistance of pressure. Bath and York supply 0. of this descrip- 
 tion. In the fabrication of C., minium or red-lead has occasionally been employed as a 
 cheap coloring substance, and cases of poisoning have resulted therefrom. "Carrots, 
 saffron, and marigold flowers have also been used for imparting color as well as 
 flavor. 
 
 Dunlop G., though nowhere so well made as in the parish at Ayrshire, from which 
 it derives its name, is now manufactured in the dairy districts of Scotland generally. 
 The cheeses are made of various sizes — from a quarter to half a hundredweight. Some- 
 times the entire milk is used, but generally the cream is removed from the evening’s 
 milking. Of late years, great improvement has taken place in the manufacture of C. 
 in the Scottish dairy districts, Ayrshire, Lanarkshire, Wigton, and Kirkcudbright. 
 Much of what is sold as Cheddar (q.v.) C. is really made in Scotland. The annual Kil- 
 marnock “cheese show ” is one of the largest in the world, the value of the C. exhibited 
 being often more than £20,000. 
 
 When sufficiently dry for use, C. still retains from 35 to 44 per cent water, and, 
 besides the caseine, contains a greater or less proportion of oil or fat and saline matter 
 — the latter mainly consisting of common salt, originally present in the milk, and added 
 during the manufacture of the cheese. As an article of diet, C. is highly nutritious; 
 but from its costive properties, it is mainly used as a condiment in small quantity after 
 an ordinary meal, and is then serviceable in giving an impetus to the process of diges- 
 tion. To serve the purpose of a digester, C. must be old and partially decayed, or moldy. 
 It then acts as leaven, and causes chemical changes gradually to commence among the 
 particles of food which has previously been eaten, and thus facilitates the dissolution 
 ^hich necessarily precedes digestion. 
 
Cheese. 
 
 Cheiromancy* 
 
 734 
 
 Cheese Press. — The old method of compressing curd and expelling the whey from 
 it is still employed in many places, the mere piling of weights on the cheese-vat. Some- 
 times the action of a screw is employed. Among improved dairy implements are now 
 reckoned, however, many ingenious and elegant forms of C. press, generally depending 
 on the action of a lever. They are much more convenient than the clumsy contrivance 
 which they have superseded. Factories for the manufacture of C. have been estab- 
 lished in the United States and Canada, by which C. is produced in immense quantities, 
 and a factory on a similar principle has been lately established in Derbyshire. The C. 
 made in the United States and Canada is now imported into Great Britain in immense 
 quantities, and is steadily increasing in favor. 
 
 CHEESE {ante), manufactured in immense quantity in the eastern and northern 
 United States, particularly in New York, Ohio, Illinois, Vermont, Massachusetts, Penn- 
 sylvania, Wisconsin, and Michigan. Of 163,000,000 lbs. returned as made in the census 
 year of 1870, 101,000,000 lbs. were made in N. Y. State. Within recent years nearly all 
 descriptions of foreign cheese are imitated in this country, and the most of the imitations 
 are equal to the imported article. Many farmers have ceased to manufacture C. in their 
 own dairies. The milk is taken to large factories, where it is weighed and emptied into 
 a common receptacle. The processes following are directed by trained superintendents, 
 and the average product is greatly improved. The farmers receive either payment for 
 the milk as brought, or a share in the proceeds of the manufacture. 
 
 CHEESE-HOFFEB, the larva of piophila casei or tyrophaga casei, a small dipterous (two- 
 winged) fly, of the large family muscides, the same to which the house-fly, blow-fly, etc., 
 belong. The perfect insect is about a line and a half in length, mostly of a shining black 
 color; antennae, forehead, and some parts of the legs rufous. It is a pest of dairies and 
 store closets, laying its eggs in cracks or crevices of cheese, the destined food of its larvae. 
 To preserve cheeses from this pest, it is of advantage to brush or rub them frequently, 
 and to remove all cracked or injured cheeses from large stores, besides keeping them dry 
 and in a well-aired place. The same rules are applicable to their preservation from the 
 other insect larvae by which they are sometimes infested, of which the most notable are 
 those of the bacon beetle (see Dermestes), and of another species of dipterous fly, musca 
 corvina. 
 
 CHEESHAHTEAUMUCK, Caleb, an Indian, b. 1646; the only aboriginal graduate 
 of Harvard college. 
 
 CHEE TAH, Chit'tah, or Hunting Leopard, Felisjulata or Cynailurus juhatus, an 
 animal of the feline family, but differing from all the rest of that family in its longer 
 and narrower feet and less retractile claws, which are also more blunt and less curved. 
 With these peculiarities are associated a greater length of limbs than is usual in feline 
 animals, adapting it to take its prey by running rather than by leaping, and an intelli- 
 gent and tractable disposition, constituting an additional point of resemblance to dogs; 
 with which, however, the form oi the head and the internal anatomy have nothing in 
 common, but are entirely feline. The C. is in size about equal to a leopard, but the 
 body and limbs are longer. It is very widely distributed, being found in Senegal, 
 s. Africa, Persia, India, Sumatra, etc. Its geographic range extends as far n. as the 
 Caspian sea, and the steppes of the Kirghiz Tartars. The Asiatic species described as 
 fells renatica appears to have been fully identified with F. jubata; and differences in 
 the quantity of mane, and other unimportant particulars, may probably sometimes have 
 resulted from domestication; for this animal has been long domesticated and employed 
 in the chase, both in Persia, where it is called youze, and in India. Deer and antelopes 
 are the game principally hunted with the C., and packs are kept by Indian princes. 
 The head of the C. is kept covered with a leather hood till the game is di.scovered, when 
 the hunting party, advancing cautiou.sly to within 200 yards of it, the hood is taken off, 
 and the C. steathily creeps towards the herd, taking advantage of every bush and 
 inequality for concealment, till, on their showing alarm, he is amongst them at a few 
 bounds, and striking down his victim with a blow of his paw, instantly tears open its 
 throat, and begins to suck the blood. It is then somewhat difficult to withdraw him 
 from his prey, which is generally done by offering him meat. If unsuccessful, the C. 
 does not attempt to follow the herd by running — nor does this animal seem to possess the 
 power of maintaining speed through a lengthened chase— but slowly, and as if ashamed, 
 creeps back to the hunters. The C, is not unfrequently to be seen in menageries in 
 Britain. In a domesticated state, it is extremely fond of attention, and seems to repay 
 kindness with affection. The skin is frequently imported from Africa. 
 
 CHEEVER, Ezekiel, 1615-1708; b. in England; came to New England in 1637, and 
 assisted in founding New Haven colony, in which he became prominent as a deacon, a 
 minister, and especially as a teacher. He also taught in Ipswich, Charlestown, and 
 Boston, being at the head of the famous Latin school in Boston for 38 years. He pre- 
 pared tlie Accidence, a short Introduction to the Latin Tongue, and wrote Scripture Freyphe- 
 cies Explained, in three short Essays. 
 
 CHEEVER, George Barrell, d.d., b. Me., 1807; a graduate of Bowdoin college 
 and Andover tlieological seminary, and in 1832 ordained pastor of a Congregational 
 church in Salem, Mass, He began at an early age to write for the press, contributing 
 
735 
 
 Cheese. 
 
 Cheiromancj* 
 
 prose and verse to tlie current magazines and quarterlies. The Unitarian controversy 
 attracted his attention, and he wrote a defense of the orthodox system of Cudworth. 
 Temperance also became a leading idea, and in 1835 he published in a Salem newspaper 
 Deacon Giles's Distillery, a bitterly satirical allegory which had a wonderful popularity. 
 The author was prosecuted, and sent to prison for a month. After some time passed in 
 European travel he took charge of the Allen street Presbyterian church in New York 
 city, and soon afterwards gave a series of lectures on the “Pilgrim’s Progress” and on 
 “Hierarchal Despotism.” After another trip across the sea he became the leading 
 editor of the Evangelist, a weekly religious journal in New York, for which he had been 
 a correspondent. In 1846, he became pastor of the Church of the Puritans (Congrega- 
 tional) in New York city, retaining that office until 1868, when the church, whose ground- 
 lease had expired and which was weakened by dissensions, disbanded. His ministry 
 there was amid the fierce debate which preceded the war of the rebellion. Since that 
 time he has not been in the active ministry, and has resided at Englewood, N. J. He 
 has written many essays and books, among which are, Studies in Poetry; Lectures on the 
 Pilgrim's Progress; Wanderings of a Pilgrim; Windings of the River of the Water of Life; 
 Voices of Nature; Powers of the World to Come; God against Slavery; and The Guilt of 
 Slavery and Grime of Slave-holding. 
 
 CHEEVER, Henry TriEODORB, b. Me., 1814; brother of George B. ; a graduate of 
 Bowdoin, and correspondent abroad of the Evangelist of New York. He was a Congre- 
 gational minister in New York, New Jersey, and Connecticut, and secretary and agent 
 of the church anti-slavery society from its beginning. He published several books of 
 travel, memoirs, etc. 
 
 CHE-FOO, or Yen-tai, a seaport t. of n. China, on the s. coast of the gulf of Pih' 
 chih-ti, in the province of Shantung, 30 m. e. of Tang-chow-foo. It was a place of 
 small consequence until, under the treaty of 1858, it was opened to foreign trade as the 
 port of Tang-chow. There is now a custom-house, a British consulate, and a considerable 
 foreign settlement. The imports are chiefly woolen and cotton goods, iron, and opium; 
 the exports bean-cake, bean-oil, peas, raw silk, straw braid, dried fruit, etc. There is 
 some trade with the Russians in Mantchuria. 
 
 CHEHA'LIS, a co. in Washington territory, on the Pacific; 1600 sq.m.; pop. ’80, 
 921. Gray’s harbor, one of the few places of refuge from the ocean, is in this county. 
 Co. seat, Montesano. 
 
 CHEILOANGIOS'COPY, a method of observing the circulation of the blood. 
 Heretofore, with the exception of a single experiment the evidence of circulation in the 
 human subject has been entirely circumstantial, derived from the facts of structure of 
 the circulatory organs, and from the manner in which the blood flows from several 
 arteries and veins. But by means of a simple arrangement, invented by Dr. C. Hliter, 
 a German, it is now possible for one to witness the actual flow of blood in the blood- 
 vessels of another person, and that with sufficient accuracy to detect any abnormality in 
 the circulation, and so to obtain invaluable assistance in the diagnosis of disease. In 
 Dr. Hiiter’s arrangement the patient’s head is fixed in a frame, something like that used 
 by photographers, on which is a contrivance for supporting a microscope and lamp. 
 The lower lip is drawn out, and fixed, by means of clips, on the stage of the microscope, 
 with its inner surface upward; a strong light is thrown on this surface by a condenser, 
 and the microscope, provided with a low-power objective, is brought to bear upon the 
 delicate net-work of vessels, which can be seen in the position indicated, even with the 
 naked eye. The appearance presented is, at first, as if the vessels were filled with red 
 injection. But by focussing a small superficial vessel, the observer is soon able to dis- 
 tinguish the movement of the blood-stream, rendered evident by the speck-like red 
 corpuscles, the flow of which, in the corkscrew-like capillaries, is said by Hliter to be 
 especially beautiful. The colorless corpuscles are distinguishable as minute white 
 specks, occurring now and again in the course of the red stream. Beside the phenomena 
 of the circulation, the cells of pavement-epithelium lining the lip, and their nuclei, can 
 readily be distinguished, as well as the apertures of the mucous glands. Beside the 
 normal circulation, various pathological conditions can be observed. By a pressure 
 quite insufficient to cause pain, the phenomena of blood stagnation — the stoppaiie of the 
 flow, and the gradual change in the color of the blood from bright red to purple — are 
 seen. A momentary stoppage is also produced by touching the lip with ice, a more 
 enduring stasis by certain reagents, such as glycerine or ammonia. 
 
 CHEIRAN'THUS. See Wallflower. 
 
 CHEIROL'EFIS, a genus of fossil ganoid fish, peculiar to the Devonian measures, in 
 which eight species have been found. They had large heads, the spine continued in a 
 rudimentary condition, and the body was completely covered with small lozenge-shaped 
 ganoid scales. The first ray of each fin was converted into a strong spine, whose base 
 was loosely imbedded in the flesh. The pectorals and ventrals were largely developed, 
 while the dorsal was small, and situated behind the anal fin. The generic name, mean- 
 ing “scaly-hand,” was given in allusion to the large scaly pectorals. 
 
 CHEIB'OMANCT (Gr. cheir, the hand; manteia, prophecy), or Palmistry, a form of 
 divination that professes to read the destiny of an individual by the lineaments of the 
 
Cheiromys. 
 
 Chelsea. 
 
 736 
 
 hand. In the middle ages, C. occupied the attention of Cardan, Paracelsus, and other 
 eminent men, who elaborated it into a system. It is now, however, the exclusive prop- 
 erty of the gypsies, who still find among maid-servants suflBcient credulity to make its 
 practice profitable. 
 
 CHEIR OMYS. See Aye-aye. 
 
 CHEIRONEC'TES, a genus of marsupial quadrupeds, differing from the opossums 
 chiefly in having webbed-feet and aquatic habits. G. palmatus or G. Yapock, sometimes 
 called the Yapock opossum, or simply the Yapock, from the South American river of 
 that name, is common in many rivers of Brazil and Guiana. It has a soft woolly fur., 
 the color of the upper parts of the body is gray, with large transverse patches of black, 
 connected with a dorsal black line, the breast and belly white; the tail is long, very 
 thick at the base, tapering to the tip, and, except at the base, covered with scales. The 
 cheek-pouches are very large. Crustaceans are said to form the chief food of this 
 animal, which is interesting as a sort of marsupial representative of the otter. 
 
 CHEIROP TERA. See Bat. 
 
 CHEIROTHE'RITJM, the name given by Dr. Kaup to the animal which produced the 
 peculiar hand-like impressions (hence the name, “ hand-beast ”) on the triassic rocks of 
 this country and Germany. The remains of the animal having been found, and its 
 structure made out, this name has given place to the more characteristic one of 
 labyrinthodon (q.v,). 
 
 CHEKE, Sir John, who deserves to be remembered as one of the revivers of classical 
 literature in England during the 16th c., was born at Cambridge, June 16, 1514. Enter- 
 ing the university of Cambridge, he devoted himself assiduously to the study of Latin 
 and Greek, particularly the latter language, then much neglected in England. He 
 labored earnestly to advance the study of the Greek language and literature; and when 
 the first professorship of Greek was founded in Cambridge by king Henry VIII. , about 
 1540, C. was appointed professor. A new mode of pronouncing Greek which he intro- 
 duced was assailed by bishop Gardiner, the chancellor of the university ; but notwith- 
 standing, C.’s system prevailed. C. was for a time preceptor of the prince, afterwards 
 Edward VI., whose elevation to the throne secured him rank, wealth, and honor. But 
 being a Protestant, he was stripped of everything when Mary came to the throne, 
 although other lands were given to him on his returning to the Iloman Catholic church, 
 which he did to escape burning, the only alternative offered him by cardinal Pole. His 
 recantation preyed on his mind so much, that he died in the course of the following 
 year, Sept., 1557. He left several works in Latin, and a pamphlet in English; and among 
 his MSS. was a translation of the gospel by Matthew, exemplifying a plan for reform- 
 ing the English language by eradicating all words save those derived from Saxon roots. 
 
 CHE-KEANCr, one of the eastern and maritime provinces of China, the smallest of the 
 eighteen. Situated in the southern portion of the great plain, it is possessed of great 
 fertility, and produces silk, tea, and rice in abundance. Its capital, Hangchow (q.v.), 
 an important and populous city, is the metropolis of the silk districts. “ Above is Par- 
 adise,” say the Chinese; “below are Soo-chow and Hangchow.” Both these places 
 were taken by the Taeping rebels in 1860. Ning-po (q.v.) is the principal port of the 
 province. Pop., according to the Chinese census of 1812, 26,256,784. Area, 39,150 sq. 
 miles. 
 
 CHELIG'ER.S:, or antennal claws, modified antennae, which, in some of the crusta- 
 ceans, and in most of the arachnida, serve a purpose corresponding with that of the 
 mandibles of insects in the cutting, tearing, or bruising of food. They move, however, 
 up and down, in a direction contrary to that of the mandibles of insects. 
 
 CHELTFER, a genus of arachnida (q.v.) of the order trachearia, and of the family 
 to which, from their resemblance to scorpions without tails, the name pseudo-scorpions, 
 or false scoripons, has been given, the true scorpions belonging to the order pulmonai'ia. 
 The genus C. consists of minute species in which this resemblance is very strong. The 
 palpi are elongated and armed with pincers. The species live under the loose bark of 
 trees, in chinks of old furniture, etc. One species, G. cancroides, about a line and a half 
 in length, is frequently to be seen in old books, herbaria, etc., and is called the hook 
 scorpion ; it is said to be useful as feeding on the insects which are most destructive to 
 books and collections in natural history. 
 
 CHELM, or Cholm, a t. of Russian Poland, in the government of the same name, 
 126 m. s.e. of Warsaw. It is the seat of a united Greek bishop, and has a theological 
 seminary. The Poles were defeated here by the Russians, June 4, 1794. Pop., ’67, 
 4,483. 
 
 CHELMSFORD, the co. t. of Essex, near the center of the co., at the confluence of the 
 Chelmer and the Gann, 29 m. n.e. of London. The industry of C. is chiefly agricultu- 
 ral. The town is the seat of assizes and local courts, and has a grammar-school founded by 
 Edward VI. Pop. ’71, 9,318. On a small island called Mesopotamia, in the Chelmer, 
 there has long been a ludicrous mock-election of a member of parliament during the 
 county elections. 
 
737 
 
 Cheiromys*. 
 
 Chelsea. 
 
 CHELMSFORD, Frederick Thesiger, Baron, b. London, 1794; a lawyer and 
 judge; solicitor-general in 1844; and next year attorney-general, and again in the same 
 office in 1852. In 1858, he was made lord chancellor, and received the title of lord C. 
 He filled the same office in 1866. 
 
 CHELO'NIA (Or. cJieldne, a tortoise), an order of reptiles, corresponding in extent 
 with the genus testudo of Linnaeus, and of which the most obvious distinguishing char- 
 acter is the inclosure of the whole body in a protective covering connected with the 
 skeleton, so that only the head, the tail, and the limbs are protruded; the limbs, four in 
 number, and all formed on the same plan, are used by some as feet for walking on dry 
 ground, by others as paddles for swimming. The bony covering consists of two princi 
 pal parts, called the carapace and the plastron; the carapace serving as a buckler for the 
 upper parts, and the plastron for the under parts of the body. The carapace is formed 
 from the ribs, of which there are eight pair, and from the annular parts of the dorsal 
 vertebrae, expanded into plates, which are joined to each other by dentilated sutures, so 
 that the whole acquires great firmness, and the dorsal vertebrae are rendered immovable. 
 The pl0,stron is formed of pieces which represent the sternum or breast-bone, and which 
 are ordinarily nine in number. So compact and strong is the case of some of the tor- 
 toises, that it will bear immense pressure without injury, the arched form of the cara- 
 pace adding to its strength ; whilst the creature, destitute of other means of defense, and 
 incapable of flight, finds safety, at least in its mature state, from all enemies but man, 
 by drawing its head, tail, and limbs within the protecting case, which in some, called 
 box-tortoises, has certain plates movable, so as more completely to inclose them. The 
 turtles and other aquatic chelonians cannot thus withdraw their head, tail, and limbs 
 from danger, but the greater activity of their movements compensates for this. 
 
 The firmly fixed ribs not admitting of the movements by which respiration ordinarily 
 takes place in other vertebrate animals, the C. gulp down air, which they inhale entirely 
 through the nostrils; first filling the cavity of the mouth by elevating the hyoid bone, 
 and then, by depressing it, forcing the air into the lungs, whilst the inner aperture of 
 the nostrils is closed by the tongue. In other respects, as to aeration and circulation of 
 blood, they resemble other reptiles. 
 
 The jaws are not furnished with teeth, but act in a manner more resembling that of 
 the mandibles of birds, being like them hard, sharp, and horny. The food of the C. is 
 various. Some of them, among which are all the land -tortoises, subsist exclusively on, 
 vegetable food ; some of the aquatic C. pursue and eat other aquatic animals. 
 
 All the C. are strictly oviparous. -Their eggs are hatched by the heat of the sun 
 alone; they lay a great number at a time, which are covered with a calcareous shell, like 
 those of birds. The eggs of fresh-water tortoises are in some places a lucrative article 
 of commerce, from the quantity of oil which is obtained from them. 
 
 The C. are found only in the warmer parts of the world,, but their numbers in some 
 places are astonishingly great. None of them can properly be reckoned British, although 
 stray turtles have, in a few instances, been found on the British shores. A few species 
 occur in the southern parts of Europe, and some are found in the temperate parts of 
 North America. 
 
 All the species are extremely tenacious of life; they are capable of extraordinary 
 abstinence, and of living long after having sustained injuries which would have been 
 immediately destructive to almost any other animal. They are also remarkable for their 
 longevity. 
 
 The flesh of some kinds of turtle is well known as an excellent article of food. The 
 eggs of some are equally an esteemed delicacy. Tortoise-shell (q.v.), and the oil already- 
 mentioned, are the only other valuable products of the order. 
 
 Further information concerning the 0. will be found in particular articles devoted to> 
 some of the different genera and species. See also Reptiles. 
 
 Fossil Ghelonia. — Foot-tracks on the triassic sandstone of Dumfriesshire were referred 
 by their discoverer. Dr. Duncan, to tortoises. Similar tracks have been noticed in De- 
 vonian and oolite strata. Their vagueness, however, does not indicate with any cer- 
 tainty the animals which produced them. The first indisputable evidence of chelo>- 
 nian life occurs in the upper oolite, where the remains of several pond-tortoises and two 
 or three turtles have been observed. In the newer deposits, they increase in number,. sc» 
 that between 70 and 80 species have been described from the tertiary strata. In the 
 eocene deposits of the London clay, at the mouth of the Thames, there occur the 
 remains of more species of true turtles than are now known to exist in the whole world 
 Some of these fossil C. were of a size proportioned to their colossal companions; as, for 
 instance, the gigantic land tortoise (colossochelys) of the Sewalik hills, whose carapace 
 was as much as 20 ft. in length. 
 
 CHELSEA, a city in Suffolk co., Mass, ; pop. ’80, 21,785, a suburb of Boston, with 
 which it is connected by ferry, and horse and steam railroads. C. is separated from 
 East Boston by C. creek, and from Charlestown by Mystic river, which is crossed by a 
 bridge 3,300 ft. long. The principal public buildings, besides churches, are the city 
 hall, the U. S. naval hospital, the marine hospital, odd fellows’ and masonic halls, and 
 Winnisimmet hall. C. is in the Boston customs district, and there are some manufac- 
 tories in the city ; but the business of many of the inhabitants is in Boston, It has the 
 U. K. Ili.-47 
 
Chelsea. 
 
 Chemical. 
 
 738 
 
 usual civic government of mayor, aldermen, and common council; with police, fire, and 
 w^ater departments, board of education, etc. C. was settled in 1630 under the name of 
 Winnisimmet, and was a part of Boston until 1738, when, with adjacent settlements, it 
 was organized as the town of C. It was incorporated as a city in 1857. 
 
 CHELSEA, a suburb of London, in Middlesex, on the left bank of the Thames, 
 41^ m. w.s.w. of St. Paul’s. The river is here crossed by a fine iron bridge. Pop. ’71, 
 258,050. Many of the nobility and gentry formerly resided at C., and some of its coffee- 
 houses were much resorted to by pleasure-parties in the 17th and 18th centuries. C. 
 has water-works to supply London, a chain-pier, and floor-cloth factories, besides a 
 training-college for male and another for female teachers, and the Cremorne house 
 gardens, now a place of public amusement. 
 
 CHELSEA HOSPITAL is an asylum for disabled or superannuated soldiers. The 
 building was commenced in 1609, as a Protestant theological seminary, by Dr. Matthew 
 Sutcliffe, dean of Exeter; and James I. gave it a charter in 1610, as King James's college. 
 When Sutcliffe died in 1639, the building was less than half finished, and the students 
 were only 15 in number. Shortly after this, the scheme was abandoned, and the build- 
 ing used for various purposes. It was then rebuilt, and made into an hospital for dis- 
 a,bled soldiers by Charles II. By a warrant issued in 1684, one day’s pay per year, and 
 two in leap-years, were deductea from soldiers’ pay, for supporting C. H. This deduc- 
 tion has long ceased; the hospital being maintained by parliamentary grant. The 
 hospital has accommodation for about 600 persons besides oflBcers. Attached to it are 
 about 40 acres of land, used as public gardens and exercise ground. It is governed by 
 a board of commissioners, comprising ex officio the lord president of the council, the 
 first lord of the treasury, and the secretaries of slate; but the more immediate manage- 
 ment is in the hands of about 130 persons, of whom 20 are military officers, 30 civil 
 officers, and the rest subordinates. 
 
 The establishment is maintained for the in-pensioners of the British army, who, in 
 the army estimates for 1876-77, arc set down at 538. These in-pensioners, besides 
 board, lodging, clothing, washing, medical aid, etc., receive a small sum in money, 
 varying from 5«. M. per week for a color-sergeant, down to Id. per week for a private 
 soldier. They are all dressed in uniform — red, with blue facings — and are treated as a 
 garrison, in respect to guards, sentinels, etc. There is a certain degree of choice open 
 to the men, as to whether they will be in or out pensioners. The out-pensioners, who 
 :are more than a hundredfold as numerous as the .others, receive sums of money varying 
 from l^d to 3«. \M. per day for life, as a reward for past services. Vacancies in the 
 hospital are filled up once a quarter; and every person admitted must give up his out- 
 pension before he can become an in-pensioner. The cost of the hospital for 1876-77 
 was estimated at £38,916. This is exclusive of ow^-pension charges. Doubts have fre- 
 quently been expressed as to the usefulness of this expenditure; it is exceptional in its 
 character, and the arrangement to which it refers is not in much favor among the 
 soldiery. 
 
 CHELTENHAM, a t., parliamentary borough, and fashionable watering-place, in the 
 CO. of Gloucester, 8 m. n.e. of Gloucester. It lies in a picturesque and healthy val- 
 ley on the Chelt, a small stream which rises in the adjacent hills, and fiows into the 
 Severn. It is sheltered on the e. and s.e. by a semicircle of the Cotswolds. It owes 
 its celebrity and rapid increase to its mineral springs, of which there are several 
 varieties. The chief street is upwards of a mile long, right and left of which are spa- 
 cious and elegant squares and crescents, and innumerable villas lately erected for the 
 accommodation of the numerous visitors. Attached to the spas are handsome pump- 
 rooms — with tasteful grounds, avenues, saloons — lodging-houses, and public prome- 
 nades among the finest in England, besides many fine mansions in and around the town. 
 It has 10 churches and a number of dissenting chapels. Of late years, C. has become 
 famous for its public schools, the oldest of which is its endowed grammar-school, capa- 
 ble of educating 300 scholars; but the largest, and now the most celebrated, is its pro- 
 prietary college, for the sons of gentlemen, a noble institution, educating, upon an aver- 
 age, 600 pupils. There are also a ladies’ college, a junior proprietary school, and a 
 number of private scholastic establishments. There are public assembly-rooms in the 
 town; which is also much resorted to in winter for its hunting. I thas two clubs, and 
 five or six weekly newspapers. Pop. ’71,44,519. C. returns one member to parliament. 
 Its affairs are managed by a board of elected commissioners. It has no manufactures of 
 any importance. C. was only a village in 1716, when the first spring was discovered. 
 It gradually increased till 1788, when the benefit received by George III. from its 
 waters suddenly made it a resort of fashion. 
 
 CHEM'IC, is the name given to Bleaching Powder by those engaged in chemical 
 works. 
 
 CHEMICAL NOMENCLA'TURE and NOTA’TION. (During the progress of the Ency- 
 clopmdia, the nomenclature and notation of chemistry were greatly changed. What fol- 
 lows here is allowed to stand, as the old names and notation are still found in books in 
 use, and are often used concurrently with the new.) In early times, chemical substances 
 W'ere named according to the fanciful theories of alchemy (q.v.) ^hus the nsime flowers 
 
739 
 
 Chelsea. 
 
 Chemical* 
 
 of sulphur was applied to the sublimed sulphur, which grew or sprang like a flower 
 from sulphur when heated ; spirit of salt, to hydrochloric acid, the corrosive acid or 
 spirit obtained from common salt; and a multitude of other names had a like fanciful 
 origin. In 1787, Lavoisier founded the system of nomenclature which is followed still 
 by chemists. At first, it was intended that the names of simple as well as compound 
 substances should be regulated by system. Hence, such terms as oxygen (from oxus, 
 ax 3 id, and gennao, to produce), the acid-producer, given from the notion then held that no 
 acid was without oxygen ; and hydrogen (from hydor, water, and gennao), the water-pro- 
 ducer, from the supposition that hydrogen had more to do with the formation of water 
 than any other element. The advance of chemistry, however, has so completely changed 
 the opinion of chemists regarding the simpler bodies, that such names are now found ta 
 mislead; and thereafter, though such as had been given on this system were retained, 
 their meaning has been discarded, and the systematized nomenclature restricted to com 
 pound substances. A remnant of the system, however, still subsists at the present time, 
 in making the scientific names of all the metals end in um. In the non-metallic ele- 
 ments, a close analogy exists between chlorine, bromine, iodine, and fluorine; and to 
 indicate this, the common termination ine has been given; and for a similar reason, car- 
 bon, silicon, and boron, end in on. As a general rule, however, the chemical name of 
 an elementary substance does not convey any scientific meaning, and must be regarded 
 as a simple mark or designation, analogous to the names of persons, which give no 
 notion regarding their moral character or physical development. The ancient and more 
 common metals retain their popular titles, such as gold, silver, and copper ; but the more, 
 recently discovered metals have names given which end in um. The symbol of an ele- 
 ment is obtained from the first letter of its Latin name, as O for oxygen ; PI for lead 
 (Lat. plumbum). When the names of two or more elements commence with the same 
 letter, a smaller letter or satellite is attached to one or more of these; such as S for sul- 
 phur, Se for selenium, and Si for silicon. For a complete table of the symbols of the 
 elementary substances, see Atomic Weights. 
 
 The name of a compound substance generally indicates the elements of which it 
 composed. Thus the name oxide of iron indicates that the red powder (rust) is made 
 up of oxygen and iron; the sulphuret of lead (galena), that it is composed of sulphur and 
 lead. In all similar combinations — 
 
 Oxygen forms oxides. 
 
 Chlorine ‘ ‘ chlorides. 
 
 Bromine “ bromides. 
 
 Iodine “ iodides. 
 
 Fluorine “ fluorides. 
 
 Nitrogen “ nitrides. 
 
 Carbon ‘ ‘ carbides or carburets. 
 
 Sulphur “ sulphides or sulphurets. 
 
 Selenium “ selenides or seleniurets. 
 
 Phosphorus forms phosphides or phosphurets. 
 
 When two elements combine with each other in more than one proportion or equiva- 
 lent (see Atomic Theory and Atomic Weights), the names of the compound bodies 
 are contrived so as to express this. The term protoxide, is applied to a compound of one 
 equivalent of oxygen with one equivalent of another element; deutoxide to a compound 
 containing a larger proportion of oxygen than the protoxide; and ^Wtoxide when the 
 oxygen is still further increased. The term imoxide is used when oxygen is present in 
 the proportion of two equivalents to one equivalent of the other element; and Peroxide 
 when the proportion is as three to one. A swdoxide contains less than one equivalent 
 of oxygen; and a, peroxide is the highest oxide not possessing acid properties. The same 
 prefixes are applied to the compounds of chlorine, sulphur, etc. 
 
 When one element combines with another to produce several compounds possessing^ 
 acid properties, various terminations are employed to distinguish the compounds. Thns^ 
 oxygen combines with a number of the elements to produce with each a series of acM 
 compounds, the more highly oxidized of which receive the termination ic, whilst 
 containing less oxygen end in ous. Thus, sulphuri^ acid contains three equivalents ©f 
 oxygen to one equivalent of sulphur; and sulphur<w« acid, two equivalents of oxygeni 
 with one equivalent of sulphur. These terminations are qualified by the use of the 
 prefixes hypo (under) and hyper (over). Thus, %j?<9sulphurfc acid is applied to a com- 
 pound containing less oxygen than the sulphunc acid, and %j}osulphuiws to one.withi 
 less oxygen than sulphurous acid. 
 
 When acids combine with bases or metallic oxides to form salts, they produce com- 
 pounds, the names of which are influenced by the terminations of the acids. Thusy 
 sulphurzic acid and soda form the sulphate of soda; sulphmws acid and soda, the sul- 
 phate of soda; and %;?osulphuroas acid and soda, the hypoa,\i\ph.ite of soda. In the same 
 manner, nitrte acid with potash forms the nitrate of potash, whilst nitroas acid and pot- 
 ash produce the nitr^■te of potash. 
 
 If a symbol be employed alone, it represents one equivalent of the element. Thus, O 
 signifies one equivalent, or eight parts by weight, of oxygen; C, one equivalent, or six 
 parts by weight, of carbon ; H, one equivalent, or one part by weight, of hydrogen. The 
 
Chemical. 
 
 Chemistry. 
 
 740 
 
 combination of two elements is represented by placing the symbols for those elements 
 side by side; thus, HO signifies one equivalent of hydrogen and one equivalent of oxy 
 gen in a state of chemical combination (viz., water); and NaCl is one equivalent of 
 sodium (Lat. natron) united with one equivalent of chlorine (viz. , common salt). 
 
 When two or more equivalents of one element unite with one or more equivalents ol 
 another element, the number of such equivalents is signified by a small figure being 
 placed immediately after the symbol of the element so multiplied. Thus, HO2 repre- 
 sents one equivalent of hydrogen in combination with two equivalents of oxygen (per 
 oxide of hydrogen); MnOa is one equivalent of manganese with two of oxygen (black 
 oxide of manganese); FeaOs is two equivalents of iron with three equivalents of oxygen 
 (rust); andPb304 is three equivalents of lead with four equivalents of oxygen (red lead). 
 
 In expressing the formula of a compound substance, the symbol of the metal or its 
 analogue is placed first in order, and is succeeded by the oxygen, chlorine, or similar 
 element. Thus, the symbol for the chloriae of mercury is always written HgCl, never 
 ClHg. The same order is carried out in the construction of the formula of more com- 
 fjlex substances; the metallic half is placed first. Thus, sulphate of iron — containing 
 sulphuric acid and the oxide of iron — is always expressed as FeO,SOs, never SOsFeO. 
 In other words, the symbols are written in the order in which the substances would be 
 named in Latin. 
 
 In the construction of the formulas of complex substances, the comma (,) and plus 
 sign ( 4 -) are often introduced; the former to separate the symbols of substances which 
 are closely united together, and the latter to form a line of demarcation where the com- 
 ponents are less intimately combined. Thus, Fe0,S03 -f- KO,SOs represents the com- 
 pound of the sulphate of iron with the sulphate of potash; KCl -j-PtCla is the double 
 chloride of potassium and platinum. 
 
 Large figures placed at the left hand of a formula multiply all the symbols till a 
 comma or plus sign appears. Thus, SSOs represents three equivalents of sulphuric acid ; 
 3 PbO,A is three equivalents of oxide of lead, and one equivalent of acetic acid; and 
 K0,S03 -|- Al203,3S03 -\- 24 HO (alum) is one equivalent of the sulphate of potash, with 
 one equivalent of the sulphate of alumina, and 24 equivalents of water. When a com- 
 pound substance requires to be multiplied, it is inclosed within parentheses, and a large 
 figure placed immediately before it; thus 3(K0,C203) + Fe203,3C203 + 6 HO represents 
 three equivalents of oxalate of potash, one equivalent of oxalate of iron, and six equiva 
 lents of water. 
 
 In expressing the formulas of organic compounds, the symbols are written in the 
 following order ; CHNO. Thus, turpentine is C6H4, alcohol is C4H6O2, and morphia is 
 C34H19NO6. 
 
 Arbitrary symbols are occasionally used to represent important complex substances. 
 Cyanogen is known as Cy; the organic acids are recognized by their initial letter with 
 the sign (— ) drawn above, as T for tartaric acid, C8H4O1,,; A for acetic acid, C4H3O3, 
 and O for oxalic acid, CaOa; while the alkaloids are represented by their initial letter or 
 
 letters with the sign (-|-) above; thus, Sr for strychnine, C 42 HaaNa 04 ; Mo for morphia, 
 
 + 
 
 C34H19NO6; and Q for quinine, C 4 oH 24 NaOa. 
 
 Occasionally, in treatises on mineralogical chemistry, arbitrary modes of expressing 
 the composition of minerals are resorted to, which it is not necesWy here to explain. 
 
 CHEMICAL TOYS, which in the course of recent years have been brought promi- 
 nently before the public, deserve a brief notice. “Pharaoh’s serpents," which are 
 described in the article Sulphocyanogen, are highly poisonous, and during combustion 
 evolve dangerous vapors. Larmes du Liable, or “crocodiles’ tears,” are formed of 
 metallic sodium, burn with extreme violence if thrown into water, or even if moist- 
 ened with water or heated, and scatter particles of caustic alkali, which may infiict 
 serious burns. “Sunshine in winter evenings,” “fiery swords,” etc., are formed of 
 magnesium, and, like the preceding, may cause serious burns. Pyroxylin, w'hich is 
 identical with gun-cotton, is the active agent in the various toys known as “ will o'-the 
 wisp paper,” “parlor lightning,” “ fireflies,” etc. The use of these toys in teaching 
 rudimentary chemistry to children and young persons is quite incommensurate with 
 their danger. 
 
 CHEMISTRY is that branch of natural science which takes cognizance of the changes 
 that bodies undergo when they are influenced by affinity (q v,). Changes that do not 
 alter the nature and properties of substances — such as the falling of a body by gravity, 
 or its expansion by heat — belongs to physics or natural philosophy. In chemical changes, 
 again, the properties of the substances are permanently altered. Thus, when a piece of 
 iron is left exposed to damp air, it is after a while converted into a reddish brittle sub- 
 stance (rust), owing to the union with it of the oxygen of the air. Chemistry", then, 
 may be most simply defined as that branch of natural science which considers ( 1 .) The 
 combination of two or more substances to form a third body, with properties unlike either 
 of its components; and ( 2 .) The separation from a compound substance of the more 
 simple bodies present in it: and considering that the steps of the combination and 
 d.ecomposition of substances can never be correctly understood without an intimate 
 
741 
 
 Chemical. 
 
 Chemistry. 
 
 ikaowiedge of the properties of substances, it follows that the science of C. must 
 likewise take into notice the description of all the simplest as well as the most complex 
 bodies. 
 
 When the science of C. is considered as a whole, including the properties of all the 
 elements or substances, and the combinations and changes which they can under all cir- 
 • cumstances undergo, it is distinguished by the title of pure, theoretical, or philosophical G. 
 Particular departments of C., where the science is confined to the examination of special 
 objects, receive distinctive names; as physical G., or chemical physics, which considers 
 phenomena bordering on natural philosophy and C. ; mineralogical G., which takes cog- 
 nizance of the composition of minerals; physiological G., which includes the changes 
 which food undergoes in its transit through the animal economy, and the transforma- 
 tions that take place in organic substances generally ; medical G. , which considers the 
 composition and compounding of medicines; agricultural G., which relates to the com- 
 position of soils and manures, the ingredients in plants, and the best modes of supplying 
 the food they require, etc. Inoi'ganic G. takes cognizance of dead matter, and the 
 ■ changes it undergoes, whilst oi'ganic G. considers the substances obtained from plants 
 and animals. 
 
 C. ranks as one of the arts as well as one of the sciences, and the division of practi- 
 cal G. comprehends the rules and processes which must be followed, and the mechani- 
 cal means which must be resorted to, for the successful prosecution of the art. Practi- 
 cal C. is subdivided into analytical G. (q.v.), which is occupied with the separation of 
 simple substances from more complex — as chlorine (Cl) and sodium (Na) from the chlo- 
 ride of sodium or common salt (NaCl) — and to the estimation of the quantities of the 
 several ingredients ; dMdi syntlietical G., which has for its object the union of simpler 
 bodies to form more complex — as hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) to form water (HO). 
 The art of assaying (q.v.) is a department of analytical chemistry. Applied G. includes 
 >the art of manufacturing the various substances employed in commerce and in domestic 
 .life, so far as chemical processes and application are required. It is subdivided into 
 technical G., which relates to everything connected with the arts and manufactures; 
 and pharmaceutical G. , which takes cognizance of the substances used in medicine. 
 
 History. — The Egyptians appear to have possessed the greatest amount of chemical 
 knowledge of all the nations of antiquity. They preserved dead bodies from decay 
 <see Mummy), fixed colors in silk by means of mordants, prepared many medicines and 
 pigments, as also soap, beer, vinegar, metals and metallic alloys, common salt, vitriol, 
 soda, sal-ammoniac, glass, enamel, tiles, and painted earthenware. The Chinese were 
 very early acquainted with the processes for dyeing, and the preparation of metallic 
 alloys, the fabrication of niter, sulphur, gunpowder, borax, alum, porcelain, verdigris, 
 paper, etc. Prom the Egyptians, the Greeks and Romans derived what chemical knowl- 
 edge they possessed ; but they added little or nothing; and when the migration of the 
 northern tribes, and overthrow of the Roman empire, took place, a stop was put for a 
 time to the advancement of all science in Europe. The prosecution of chemical knowl- 
 edge was taken up by the Arabs before the 8th c., and was carried on by them and by 
 their European scholars, the alchemists, with the results described under Alchemy. The 
 first germs of a real science of C. seem to appear about the end of the 17th and begin- 
 ning of the 18th c., in the speculations of Becher (q.v.) and the phlogistic theory of Stahl 
 (q.v.). After this, C. rapidly advanced. In 1718, Geoffrey brought out the first table of 
 ‘affinities; in 1733, Boerhaave published many original experiments on the chemical rela- 
 tions of heat and light; in 1734 Hales, and in 1756 Black, published researches on the 
 air and aeriform bodies, showing that the carbonic acid evolved during fermentation, 
 respiration, and by the action of acids on chalk, was different from atmospheric air. 
 In 175^59, Margraff added to the then known earths— lime and silica — two others, 
 alumnina and magnesia; he also extracted sugar from plants. In 1770, Priestley began to 
 announce his discoveries of oxygen, ammoniacal, hydrochloric, and sulphurous acid gases, 
 etc. In 1773-86, Scheele contributed chlorine, hydrofluoric, prussic, tartaric, and gallic 
 acids; also baryta, phosphoric acid from bones, etc., and gave the first hints regarding 
 . a new doctrine of combustion. About the same time Bergman and Cavendish enlarged 
 our knowledge of the gases. Lavoisier, between 1770 and 1794, reorganized much of 
 the then known C., and founded a system of C. which still remains as the skeleton of 
 the science. Berthollet, in 1787, contributed much to the doctrine of aflinity, and made 
 researches in chlorine, etc. Fourcroy and Vauquelin advanced organic C. ; Klaproth 
 gave many contributions to mineral C. Richter devoted himself to the doctrine of com- 
 bining proportion, which was afterwards perfected by Dalton, as noticed under atomic 
 theory (q.v.). The discovery of galvanic electricity by Galvani, and its advancement 
 by Volta, led sir Humphry Davy, and others, to important researches in the metals 
 and gases. Gay Lussac and Thenard advanced our knowledge regarding organic sub- 
 stances and the chemical relations of heat. Berzelius mad^e laborious researches in 
 mineral C., and gave an exactness to this department which is matter of astonishment 
 to the chemists of the present day. He was also the author of the electro-chemical 
 ’theory, which has been almost perfected by the labors of Faraday, De la Rive, Bec- 
 »querel, etc. Organic C. has latterly advanced most rapidly under the researches of 
 Liebig, Wohler, Mitscherlich, Mulder, Laurent, and other® See Atom, Atomic Theoky, 
 Atomic Volume, Atomic Weights, Affinity. 
 
Chemistry. 
 
 742 
 
 CHEMISTEY. It is impossible iu this article to do more than briefly describe bume' 
 of the most important of the numerous changes which have been introduced into the 
 science of chemistry within the last few years. 
 
 1. The system of measuring temperature, lengths, weights, and volumes has been 
 altered. The centigrade has completely superseded the Fahrenheit thermometric scale- 
 in all recent chemical works, and the French metric (which is a decimal) system has- 
 been adopted for all measurements and weights, inches and their fractions being replaced 
 by lOths or lOOths of a meter, and grains by grams. It has this advantage over all 
 the other systems, of possessing one fundamental linear unit, from which all the ramifi- 
 cations of linear, superficial, or solid dimensions, and of weight are derived. See 
 Meter, Liter, Gram, Franc. This unit is the 10-millionth part of a quadrant of 
 the meridian, or of the distance from the pole to the equator. It is only to measures 
 of weight and capacity or volume that we need here refer. ** Multiply,"' says Dr. Hof-^ 
 
 man in his energetic appeal in favor of the metric system, ‘ ‘ the cubic meter by one 
 million, and you have a fit measure in terms of which to express the mpacity of the 
 Atlantic, or cubical contents of brine; divide the cubic meter by one million, and you 
 arrive at the petty volume of the gambler’s ordinary die .” — Modern Chemistry, p. 124. 
 This last-named volume, the millionth of a cubic meter, taken as so much distilled- 
 water at a temperature of 4° C. (its point of greatest density), furnishes the metrical 
 unit of weight i\\e gram, yf\\\ch thus forms a link connecting weight with meas- 
 
 ure. Again, dividing the edge of meter cube, which is a linear meter, into 10 parts, 
 called decimeters, and cubing one of these parts, we obtain a unit of volume or capacity 
 , to which the term liter is applied. The various weights in use are all multiples or divi*- 
 sions by tens. Thus, 10 meters form a decameter, 100 a hectometer, and 1000 a kilo- 
 
743 
 
 Cbemistry. 
 
 •meter; while ^th of a meter is called a decimeter, x^^jth a centimeter, and » 
 
 millimeter, the Greek prefixes in all cases denoting multiplication, and the Latin divi- 
 sion. The reader will do well to recollect the following rough comparisons between the 
 chief French and English measures chiefly used in chemistry, as otherwise he can form 
 no conception of the length, size, or weight of the substances treated of ; A meter = 
 nearly 1.1 linear yard = 39.37 in. ; a millimeter = 0.039, or nearly ^^^th of an in. ; a centi- 
 meter = 0.39, or nearly fth of an in.; and a decimeter = 3.94, or “nearly 4 in. ; a gram 
 = 15.43 gr. ; and a liter = rather more than 61 cubic in., or a pint and three-quarters. 
 The accompanying figure represents a cubic decimeter. Two of the edges of the front 
 side are divided, as may be seen, into 10 linear centimeters; and the space occupied by 
 a cubic centimeter is shown on the upper right-hand corner of the tube. Now, a 
 cubic decimeter is employed as a unit for measures both of weight and of volume, 
 for in the former capacity it contains, at 4° C., 1 kilogram, or 1000 grams of dis- 
 tilled water, and in the latter it loses its name of kilogram and receives the appel- 
 lation of liter, which corresponds to 1000 cubic centimeters, or j^V^th of a cubic meter. 
 Chemists have long felt the want of an appropriate rolume, with its corresponding 
 weight, to serve as standard units of measurement, and prof. Hofman has selected 1 
 cubic decimeter = 1 liter, as the most appropriate unit of volume, and the weight of 
 this measure of pure hydrogen as the unit of weight, hydrogen being taken at 0° C. 
 temperature, and0™76* pressure. To this standard iceight-unit, which = 0.0896 of a 
 gram, he assigns the name of critli, from the Greek kritlie, a barley-corn, signifying 
 figuratively a small weight ; and the weight is now in universal acceptation amongst 
 modern British chemists. There is probaWy no figure in chemical science more impor- 
 tant than this one (0.0896 of a gram) to be remembered and kept readj for calcula- 
 tion; for it is the standard multiple or co-efiicient by means of which the weight of 1 
 liter of any other gas, simple or compound, is computed. “For example, the relative 
 volume-weight of chlorine being 35.5, that of oxygen 16, and that of nitrogen 14, the 
 actual weights of 1 liter of each of these elementary gases at 0° C. and 0^76 pres- 
 sure, may be called respectively 35.5 criths, 16 critlis, and 14 critlis. So again with 
 reference to the compound gases, the relative volume-weight of each is equal to half 
 the weight of its product- volume. Hydrochloric acid (HCl), for example, consists of 1 
 volume of hydrogen + 1 volume of chlorine. = 2 volumes, or by weight, 1 + 35.5 = 36.5 
 units; whence it follows that the relative value-weight of hydrochloric acid gas is 
 36 5 
 
 ~ — = 18.25 units; which last figure therefore expresses the number of criths which 1 
 
 liter of hydrochloric acid gas weighs at0° C. and 0“a76 pressure, 18.26 X 0.0896 = 1.6352 
 as the actual weight in grams of hydrochloric acid gas. Again, as the product-vol- 
 ume of water gas (HaO),! taken at the above temperature and pressure, contains 2 vol 
 umes of hydrogen 1 volume of oxygen, and therefore weighs 2 -f- 16 = 18 units, the 
 
 single volume of water-gas weighs — = 9 units, or substituting as before the concrete 
 
 for the abstract value, 1 liter of water-gas weighs 9 criths; that is to say, 9 X 0.0896 
 gram = 0.8064 gram.” — Op. cit. p. 131. In concluding this subject we will only- 
 further remark, that when a closely approximative result suffices, the crith may be esti- 
 mated at 0.09 gram. 
 
 2. Such terms as atomic weight, atom, and molecule are now employed in a stricter 
 sense than formerly. Every element has been held from the time of Dalton to have a 
 number called its atomic weight. This number, according to Dr. Frankland, one of our 
 most distinguished modern chemists, is made to represent, as far as possible: Is^, The 
 smallest proportion by weight in which the element enters into or is expelled from a 
 chemical compound — the smallest weight of hydrogen so entering or leaving a chemical 
 compound being taken as unity. 2d, The weight of the element in the solid condition 
 at any given temperature contains the same amount of heat as seven parts by weight of 
 solid lithium at the same temperature, dd, The weight of the element which, in the 
 form of gas or vapor, occupies, under like conditions of temperature and pressure, the 
 same volume as one part by weight of hydrogen.” — Lecture Notes for Chemical Stu- 
 dents, 1866, p. 2. Recent investigations have led chemists to assign to many of the 
 elements double the atomic weights that were previously assigned to them.f Thus, 
 taking as formerly the atomic weight of hydrogen as the unit, the atomic weight, or, 
 as it is now often styled, the atomic number of oxygen is changed from 8 to 16, that 
 of carbon from 6 to 12, that of sulphur from 16 to 32;, and this doubling is by the 
 latest writers extended to most of the elements except the halogens, nitrogen, phos- 
 phorus, boron, the metals of the alkalies, gold, and silver. The old atomic weights 
 are still recognized as combining or equivalent numbers. The reason why this doubling 
 of the number has been adopted will be presently given. The distinction between an 
 atom and a molecule must be clearly recognized. “We may define an atom of an ele- 
 mentary body to be the smallest proportional weight thereof which is capable of existing 
 
 * It is almost unnecessary to notice that 0m76 signifies 0.76 of a meter, or nearly 30 inches— the ordi- 
 joary atmospheric pressure at the level of the sea. and at lat. 51)4°. 
 
 T The reason why the formula H 2 O, instead of HO, for water is used, will be presently explained. 
 
 t The article “ Atomic Theory” in the body of the work has been rewritten in accordance with the 
 'new views. 
 
Chemistry. 
 
 744 
 
 in chemical comUnation; and we may define the molecule of an elementary body to be- 
 the smallest proportional weight thereof which is capable of existing in the free or 
 uncombined state." This, which is Hofman’s definition {Modern Chemistry, p. 157), is 
 now generally accepted. Thus a molecule (or elementary molecule, as it is often termed) 
 may consist either of an isolated atom, or of a group of atoms. 
 
 The bulk of a molecule, or the molecular volume of an element in the gaseous or 
 vaporous state, is the same as the molecular volume of hydrogen at the same temper- 
 ature and pressure, and in a large number of cases the molecutar weight of an element 
 is twice its atomic weight. Dr. Frankland gives the following list of the elements 
 whose molecular volumes have as yet been determined: The molecules of mercury, 
 cadmium, and zinc contain one atom, and are termed monatomic molecules; those of 
 hydrogen, oxygen, chlorine, bromine, iodine, fluorine, nitrogen, sulphur, and selenium 
 contain two atoms, and are termed diatomic Tnolecules; the molecules of oxygen, as ozone, 
 contain three atoms, or are triatomic; while those of phosphorus and arsenic are tetra- 
 tomic, and those of sulphur under certain conditions are hexatomic. Thus an element, 
 as in the cases of oxygen and sulphur, may, under different conditions, have two dis- 
 tinct molecular weights. 
 
 3. We shall now proceed to explain the reasons why many of the atomic weights 
 have been doubled. “It is obvious,” says Dr. Odling, in his elaborate article on 
 “Atomic Weights” in Watts’s Dictionary of Chemistry, vol. i. p. 456, “that the atomic 
 weights of an element and of its combinations should be selected so as to express the 
 entire series of combinations by the simplest series of formulae; so as best to accord 
 with the chemical properties and metamorphoses of the bodies; so as best to illustrate 
 their analogies with other bodies; and so as to be in relation with their physical prop- 
 erties, such as their specific volumes, specific heats, isomorphism, etc.” We shall 
 endeavor to show how he applies these views to prove that, in the case of oxygen, 16 
 parts of that element, or the quantity thereof which unites Avith 2 atoms of hydrogen, 
 is the smallest proportion of oxygen that can enter into a combination. “We find, 
 in the first place,” says Dr. Odling, “that the quantity of oxygen contained in the 
 great majority of definite oxidized compounds must necessarily be represented by 16, 
 or some multiple of 16 parts. Thus, the molecules of all hydrates, double oxides, 
 acids, oxisalts. aldehydes, ketones, alcohols, oxacid-ethers, and a great number and 
 Variety of other compounds, doubtless forming together 99 per cent of all known 
 compounds of oxygen, cannot be represented save with 16 parts, or some multiple of 
 16 parts of oxygen. For example, the molecules of hydrate of potassium,* benzoic 
 aldehyde, acetone, chloral, hypochlorite of sodium,* etc., each contain 16 parts of oxygen. 
 The molecules of spineUe, brown Immatite, camphor, benzile, acetate of sodium,* benzoic 
 acid, etc. , each contain twice 16 parts of oxygen. The molecules of nitric acid, gly- 
 cerin, chlorate of potassium,* salicylic acid, augite, etc., each contain three times 16 parts 
 of oxygen. We need not carry the quotation further, it being sufficient to remark that 
 Dr. Odling gives similar lists of substances whose molecules each contain 4, 5, 6, 7, 
 etc. , times 16 parts of oxygen. Hence it follows that when two bodies only differ in 
 composition by the different proportions of oxygen which they contain, that difference 
 amounts to 16 parts, or some multiple of 16 parts of oxygen. This is well shown in 
 the two following series of bodies given by Odling, in the former of which the symbols 
 are arranged according to modern views: 
 
 KCl, Chloride of potassium. 
 KCIO2, Hypochlorite of potash. 
 KCIO4, Chlorite of potash. 
 KClOe, Chlorate of potash. 
 KClOs, Perchlorate of potash. 
 
 C4H4, Ethylene. 
 C4H4O2, Aldehyde. 
 C4H4O4, Acetic acid. 
 C4H4O6, Glycolic acid. 
 C4H4O8, Glyoxylic acid. 
 
 It is obvious that in both these series each term differs from the preceding one 
 simply by O2, or 16 parts of oxygen. Again, the quantity of oxygen which can be lib- 
 erated by any reaction, and which, either alone or in the form of water, can be added 
 to or separated from a compound, must be 16, or some multiple of 16 parts. Thus, 
 each molecule of nitrate of soda (Na0,N06), when decomposed by heat, yields nitrate ■ 
 of soda (Na0,N03). and O2 (or 16 parts of oxygen); similarly, each molecule of per- 
 manganate of potash, when decomposed by sulphuric acid, yields manganese — alum, 
 and O4 (or twice 16 parts of oxygen); and each molecule of chlorate of potash 
 (KO.ClOs) is decomposed by heat into chloride of potassium (KCl) and 0$ (or three 
 times 16 parts of oxygen). Again, water (and consequently its main constituent, oxy- 
 gen) is always eliminated in double or some higher even atoms. Thus, formic 
 acid (C2H2O4) yields carbonic oxide (C2O2) and two atoms of water (H2O2); alcohol 
 (C4H6O2) yields olefiant gas (C4H4) and two atoms of water (H2O2); oxalate of ammo- 
 nia (NH3,C2H04) jdelds cyanogen (C2N) and four atoms of water (H4O4): and innu- 
 merable additional examples might be given. On these grounds (and many additional 
 ones might be adduced if space permitted) it becomes obvious that if the vast majority 
 of oxidized bodies Avere correctly formulated, they would be represented more simply 
 
 * In these cases, one of the new forms of nomenclature is introduced. 
 
745 
 
 Chemistry. 
 
 hy the formulae in which O = 16 than by the formulae in which 0 = 8. Reasons of a 
 similar nature have led to the duplication of the atomic weight of carbon, sulphur, and 
 many of the other elements. There must obviously be some means of distinguishing 
 when O indicates 8 or 16 parts of oxygen, C indicates 6 or 12 parts of carbon, etc. 
 Yarious modes of distinction have been adopted by different chemists. In Watts’s 
 Dictionary of Chemistry (published between 1863 and 1868), the new atomic weights are 
 represented by the same symbols which have hitherto been adopted for the old weights; 
 while the latter (when they are occasionally introduced) are printed in italic capitals; 
 thus water is represented by HaO in the new and by HO in the old system, acetic acid 
 by C2H4O2 in the new and by C^H^Oi in the old system, etc. A more common means 
 of indicating when the value of the symbol of an element is doubled in value is by 
 drawing a horizontal bar through it, a notation due to Berzelius; thus, 0,0, & repre- 
 sent respectively an atom of carbon, of oxygen, and of sulphur in the new system. 
 This system is useful in forming, as it were, a bridge to facilitate the passage from 
 the old to the new system, and will gradually disappear when all chemists recognize 
 the doubled atomic weights. Naquet, Miller (in the 3d edition of his Chemistry, 1864), 
 nnd others, adopt this barred system, and the latter frequently gives the formulae per- 
 taining to both systems; for example, Fe0,S03H03,6H0, or Fe-SrO-^ H2-9,6H2-0, repre- 
 4sents the composition of the crystallized sulphate of protoxide of iron often described 
 as protosulphate of iron. — Inorganic Chemistry, 3d ed., p. 6. Some writers, as Frank- 
 iand, in his Lecture Notes for Chemical Students, 1866, following the plan of Watts and the 
 <jontributors to his dictionary, unreservedly adopt the doubled atomic weights, and 
 represent them by the old formulae ; thus O, C, and S represent in these works precisely 
 ■double the weight of oxygen, carbon, and sulphur that these capitals represent in the 
 1st and 2d editions of Miller’s Chemistry, Fownes’s Manual of Chemistry, and other 
 standard works published a few years ago. It is now customary for the writers of 
 chemical papers who object to the barred symbols as being unseemly, to insert at the 
 commencement C = 6, O = 8, or C = 12, O = 16, in order that the reader may be able to 
 recognize which system is adopted. 
 
 Chemical Nomenclature is still in an unfinished state. The chemists of all countries 
 sxe, with one notable exception, agreed as to the names and symbols which should 
 represent the different elements. The French chemists persist in designating nitrogen 
 by the name of azote, and of using Az instead of N for its symbol; and in Italy the term 
 azoto is still employed, but as it is often coupled with the symbol N, it will probably soon 
 be exchanged for the more general term nitrogen. When the elementary bodies unite 
 together, they form a binary compound. The nomenclature of the binary compounds is 
 in a transitional state. The compounds of sulphur with metals used to form sulphurets, 
 latterly they have been termed sulphides, and now they are denominated after a third 
 fashion ; sulphuret of potassium (for example), after having been for some years sul- 
 phide of potassium, now being termed potassic sulphide. In order to obtain uniformity, 
 the following rule is adopted by the representatives of the modern school. The names 
 of binary compounds are formed from those of their constituents, the English or Latin 
 name of the positive constituent with the terminal ic preceding that of the negative 
 constituent, which is made to end in ide. Thus : potassium and sulphur form potassic 
 sulphide; sodium and oxygen form sodic oxide (formerly soda or oxide of sodium); 
 silver and chlorine form argentic chloride (formerly chloride of silver) ; lead and 
 iodide form plumbic iodide (formerly iodide of lead); calcium and chlorine form calcic 
 chloride (formerly chloride of calcium), etc. When the same elements form two com- 
 pounds, the one which contains the smallest proportion of the negative element is dis- 
 tinguished by changing the terminal syllable of the name of its positive constituent 
 into ous, while the terminal ic is retained for the compound containing the larger pro- 
 portion of the negative element. Thus, 1 atom of iron and 1 atom of oxygen form 
 ferrous oxide (the old protoxide of iron) ; 2 atoms of iron and 3 atoms of oxygen form 
 ferric oxide (the old peroxide of iron). Sometimes the same elements form more than 
 two compounds with one another, and then the prefixes hypo and per are employed. 
 When a binary compound contains oxygen, and becomes an acid when made to unite 
 with water, or becomes a salt when united to a base, it is termed an anhydride (q.v.) or 
 anhydrous acid. Thus 1 atom of carbon and 2 atoms of oxygen form carbonic anhydride, 
 formerly known as carbonic acid gas ; 1 atom of sulphur and 3 atoms of hydrogen form 
 sulphuric anhydride, etc. In a considerable number of cases, the trivial or common 
 name has not been displaced by the new systematic name; thus water, ammonia, hydro- 
 chloric acid, phosphureted hydrogen, sulphureted hydrogen, etc., are not as yet 
 replaced by hydric oxide, hydric nitride, hydric chloride, hydric phosphide, hydric 
 sulphide, etc. ; and soda and potash are still preferred by some chemists to sodic and 
 potassic hydrates. 
 
 The term acid was originally applied only to substances which, like vinegar, pos- 
 sessed an acid taste ; it is now made to include a large number of compounds which do 
 not possess this property. The most general definition of acids is that of Gerhardt, 
 which is adopted in Watts’ Dictionary of Chemistry — namely, that “acids are salts of 
 hydrogen.” A more intelligible definition to ordinary readers is that which is adopted 
 by Frankland, in which an acid is described “ as a compound containing one or more 
 atoms of hydrogen, which become displaced by a metal when the latter is presented to 
 
Chemistry* 
 
 746 
 
 the compound in the form of a hydrate. ” Thus, using the new nomenclature and atomicr 
 weights, nitric acid and sodic hydrate, yield sodic nitrate and water — 
 
 Nitric acid. Sodic hydrate. Sodic nitrate. Water, 
 
 or, NO3H 4- NaOH = NOgNa -f H3O. 
 
 in which reaction the hydrogen of the nitric acid is displaced by the sodium of the sodic 
 hydrate (or soda), and as only one atom of hydrogen is displaced, nitric acid is said ta 
 be monobasic. When an acid admits of the displacement of two atoms of hydrogen, it 
 is termed dibasic — as tartaric, oxalic, and, according to recent views, sulphuric acid ; 
 and when three atoms can be replaced — as in the case of common phosphoric acid, 
 H3P04, in which H3 may be displaced by K3 or Ags, the acid is termed tribasic. The 
 nomenclature of the compounds of acids with bases is, still unfixed. The names of the 
 alkali-metals (potassium, sodium, and lithium) and alkaline-earth metals (barium, cal- 
 cium, etc.) are now commonly substituted for those of their oxides in the nomenclature 
 of the corresponding oxygen salts — as, for example, carbonate of sodium and sulphate of 
 calcium for carbonate of soda and sulphate of lime. The names of these bodies are 
 thus brought into uniformity with those of the salts of iron, copper, etc. In Watts’ 
 Dictionary and Frankland’s Lecture Notes such compounds are denominated sodic car- 
 bonate, calcic sulphate, sodic nitrate, etc. , and these terms will doubtless soon be generally 
 adopted for the metallic salts of the oxygen-acids generally. The nomenclature of com- 
 plex inorganic bodies is founded, for the most part, on the theory of types, the names 
 of particular compounds being obtained from the name of the type by prefixing to it 
 adjectives which express the nature of the element by which the hydrogen of the type 
 is replaced and the number of atoms of it contained in one molecule of the compound 
 By way of illustration, we give a simple and a complicated example : 
 
 same 
 
 principles as that of inorganic bodies; but our limited space prevents our entering inte 
 this subject. 
 
 Chemical notation has been considerably altered by certain members of the recent 
 chemical school; but on the whole, the modifications, since the time when the system 
 of Berzelius was introduced into England in the third edition of Turner’s Elements of 
 Chemistry, are not numerous. The most important are the introduction of “ general 
 formulse” by Gerhardt, in which letters of variable value are used as coeflacients instead 
 of numbers, and Odling’s method of denoting the atomicity of polyatomic elements and 
 radicals by means of accents placed above the symbols, which are then called dashed 
 symbols. See Triads. Chemists are still at variance as to whether, when two or more 
 atoms are represented in a compound, the figure indicating the repetition should be 
 above or below the symbol ; whether, for example, water should be represented by H'^G 
 or H2O, and alcohol by C'^H®0 or CaHeO. The ordinary or dualistic system, according 
 to which the elements combine in couples to form compounds, which similarly unite bj- 
 twos, led to the division of salts into two classes — viz., into salts composed of an oxygen, 
 acid and an oxygen base, which were hence called oxygen salts, as Ka0,S03, and 
 KOjNOs, which in the old notation represent sulphate of soda and nitrate of potash; 
 and binary or haloid salts, of which chloride of sodium, NaCl, is the type, which are 
 formed by the union of the radical in hydrogen acids with some metal. Davy consid- 
 ered that the former class might be made similar to the latter by regarding them as com- 
 posed of a metal and a compound radical having the same electro-negative chemical 
 relations as the radicals in the hydrogen acids. According to this view, a radical, SO^, 
 not yet isolated, combines with hydrogen to form sulphuric acid, and with a metal to- 
 form sulphates, sulphuric acid being represented by H,S04, and sulphate of lime by 
 Ca,S04. In like manner, nitric acid and the nitrates were supposed to contain a radical,. 
 NOe. Against this view Gerhardt urges that we know nothing of the proximate con- 
 stitution, but are merely acquainted with the ultimate composition of compounds. 
 Hence we now no longer use a formula for sulphuric acid indicating its supposed con- 
 stitution (H0,S03), but regarding it as a dibasic acid, express it, either as Miller does, 
 
 by HaSGu, or by H2SO4 (where S = 32 and O = 16), or by j- O2, if we adopt the 
 
 type-notation ; and we must not omit that Frankland, who may be regarded as the lead- 
 ing representative of the English school of modern chemistry, represents it by the 
 formula SO2H02, when Ho is the abbreviated formula for HO, and represents a com- 
 pound radical, to which he gives the name of hydroxyle, and which is comnmnly 
 known as binoxide of hydrogen, being expressed, according to the old system, by HOa^ 
 The following examples may enable the reader to pass from one system to another: 
 
 ( Cl Hff \ 
 
 Bi I Q = bismuthic oxychloride, while jj ^ ^3 = tetramercuro-tetrahydric ^ 
 
 dichloro-dinitride. The nomenclature of organic compounds is founded on the 
 
 Sulphate of potassium, 
 
 Sulphate of zinc 
 
 Nitric acid 
 
 Nitrate of sodium 
 
 Did System. Barred System. New Atomic Weights. Frankland’s Notation 
 
 ^na§>3.7HO Jnfat.THaO Znlot.THsO S^ 0 HOsZno'^ 60 H 
 
 lO.NOs HN^3 HNO 3 
 
 ra 6 ,NOs NaN 0^3 NaNO, NOaNao. 
 
747 
 
 Chemistry. 
 
 The Ko, Zno", and Nao in Frankland’s notation represent compound radicals, to 
 ’which he has given the names potassoxyl, zincoxyl, and sodoxyl, and which are repre- 
 sented in the ordinary new notation by KO, ZnOa, and NaO. These new names will 
 probably soon get into general use in consequence of Frankland’s great influence as the 
 teacher of chemistry in the government school of mines, and at the royal institution.* 
 We must refer to the article Triads for a description of what is meant by atomicity, or, 
 as Hofmann terms it, quantivalence, and the reader -vdll do well to study lectures 10 and 
 11 of his Modern Ghemietry. In the article just mentioned, we have stated that the 
 degree of atomicity of an element is indicated by the number of dashes with which it 
 is furnished. In the so-called graphic notation, which, in the hands of Kekule, Crum 
 Brown, Naquet, Frankland, and others, has proved a most valuable aid in explanation 
 of the constitution of chemical compounds, the degree of atomicity of an atom is thus 
 •expressed • 
 
 H'by 0_,Zn"by -0-. B"' 
 
 (boron) by » Cb by -(c)- • N’ by t 
 S-by 
 
 '‘‘Ho element,” says Frankland, “either alone or in combination, can exist with 
 any of its bonds disconnected; hence the molecules of all elements with an odd 
 number of bonds are generally diatomic, and always polyatomic — i.e., they contain two 
 vr more atoms of the element united together. Thus : 
 
 Hydrogen, 
 
 BjmbollQi 
 
 HV 
 
 0 ^ 
 
 ddorlofiy 
 
 era 
 
 0-@ 
 
 mirogeo. 
 
 
 
 Phosphorus 
 
 
 
 An. element with an even number of bonds can exist as a monatomic molecule, its 
 own bonds satisfying each other. Thus : 
 
 Mercorj, 
 
 QrmMla 
 
 Har 
 
 C®) 
 
 Zinc, 
 
 Zn* 
 
 
 This graphic notation is most useful in fixing upon the mind the true meaning of 
 symbolic formulae, and in elucidating the internal arrangement of the very complex 
 molecules which often occur in both mineral and organic compounds. It also affords 
 an easy means of showing the causes of isomerism in organic bodies. The following 
 example will suffice to illustrate our meaning. The simplest of the alcohol family, 
 methylic alcohol, is derived from marsh-gas by the substitution of one atom of Frank- 
 land’s hydroxyl. Ho or HO (O = 16), for one of hydrogen. 
 
 CH4 CHsHo (or CHaO). 
 
 Uanh-giu, Methylic alcohol. 
 
 The classification of oi'ganic compounds has, during the last few years, been much 
 improved. Until a comparatively few years ago, organic compounds were arranged, 
 according to their most obvious properties, into acid^s, bases, fatty bodies, etc. How 
 
 ♦ Another peculiarity of Frankland’s notation is the introduction of thick letters (Egyptian capi- 
 tals). His formulae are so written as to denote that the element represented by the first symbol of a 
 formula, and printed in this type, is directly united by points of attachment or bonds with the other 
 elements or compound radicals following the first symbol. Thus, to use his own illustration and nota- 
 tion, the formula SO3H02 (sulphuric acid) signifies that the hexad atom of sulphur is combined with 
 the four bonds of the two atoms of oxygen, and also with the two bonds of the two atoms of hydroxyL 
 <By hexad we mean an atom with six boncis, one of which is subsequently figured in the text.) 
 
Chemistry. 
 
 748 
 
 the great majority of these compounds are arranged in series, of which each group dif- 
 fers from the preceding one by a fixed additional number of certain atoms. Thus (see 
 Armstrong’s Organic Chemistry, pp. 143, 144) twelve alcohols are represented by the gen- 
 eral formula CnH 2 n +20 (new notation), the first being represented by CH 40 ,and the others 
 differing from it by an additional number of multiples of CH 2 . Bodies of analogous prop- 
 erties thus united are termed homologous. Again, every compound in a homologous series- 
 yields other compounds differing in composition from that from which they are derived, 
 but yet bearing a different relation to it. Thus, alcohol yields ether, aldehyde, and 
 acetic acid, and these so-called heterologous bodies form collateral series. This mode of 
 classification is daily extending. It includes the organic radicals, such as methyl, ethyl, 
 allyl, phenyl, cyanogen, etc. ; the hydrides of the compound radicals, such as methylic 
 hydride or marsh-gas, benzol, cyanic hydride or hydrocyanic acid, etc. ; the alcohols, 
 which form one of the most important of the families of organic compounds, and which 
 are considered in a special article in this Encyclopaedia ; the aldehydes and ethers, both 
 of which are specially described ; the acids, of which the monobasic acids alone include 
 six series, amongst which are the acetic or fatty series, represented by the general for- 
 mula C^H2n02, and containing 19 or 20 distinct acids, the oleic series, the lactic series, 
 the benzoic or aromatic series, etc. — while the dibasic acids may be^ divided into four' 
 series, in which occur the succinic series, containing nine acids, most of which present 
 several modifications, and the tartaric series; the anhydrides (q.v.), of which those be- 
 longing to the acetic acid group may be arranged in series ; the ketones or acetones; the 
 compounds of nitrogen containing the amines, amides, hnides, etc. ; and, in short, except- 
 ing the natural alkaloids, the protein-compounds and their derivatives, the uric acid 
 group, pigments, etc., there are few organic compounds which will not soon find a 
 definite place in a series. 
 
 In this article we have strictly confined our remarks to the subjects bearing on gen- 
 eral, and for the most part on theoretical chemistry. We may, however, allude, in con- 
 clusion, to two subjects, which have undergone a great development during the last few 
 years — viz. , volumetric analysis and the synt/iesis of organic bodies, both of which are dis- 
 cussed in special articles. 
 
 The general tenor of this article shows that chemistry is at present in altogether a 
 transitional state. As prof. Anderson of Glasgow observes in his address to the chemi- 
 cal section of the British association in Sept., 1867, the atomic theory, which, at the- 
 commencement of the present century, sufficed to explain all the facts of chemistry 
 that were then known, is now quite inadequate to that end. At that time, chemists 
 were acquainted with comparatively few compounds, and in these, oxygen was of such 
 preponderating importance, that the science might have been almost termed “ the chem- 
 istry of oxygen.” Oxygen is now deposed from its high place, and is supplanted by 
 carbon to such a degree, that one of the first living chemists has actually proposed for 
 organic chemistry the name of “ the science of the carbon compounds.” Facts gradually 
 accumulated in the course of time which did not admit of explanation on the Daltonian 
 theory; and as their number increased, such terms as catalysis, allotropy, etc., were- 
 invented, under which such facts were grouped together as were supposed to depend on 
 similar causes. Such grouping may have certain temporary advantages, provided it is 
 understood that, to use prof. Anderson’s words, it is “the grouping of ignorance.” 
 
 It is indeed obvious that a true theory of chemistry must be a part of a general theory 
 of dynamics, and that until we obtain some more distinct idea of how the atoms are 
 grouped in the molecules of substances (see Atomic Theory) than we at present possess, 
 the link connecting theoretical chemistry and theoretical dynamics is wanting. The 
 doctrine of atomicity evidently points to some general truth ; it has been of great use in 
 grouping together numerous facts, and in leading to investigations wdiich have resulted 
 in the discovery of many new facts and new generalizations, but we now want an explana- 
 tion of this doctrine, and this chemistry does not appear to be able to give us. The want 
 of a theoretical explanation does not, however, render a generalization valueless, and 
 much progress has been made of late years in ascertaining the “ chemical structure ” of 
 substances — that is, in obtaining graphic formulae, which consistently represent^ all the- 
 reactions by which the substances are formed or transformed. Before discussing the 
 subject of chemical structure, it will be well to consider somewhat more fully than ha& 
 been done above, the reasons why certain numbers have been selected for the atomic 
 weights of the elements rather than any multiples or submultiples of them (see Atomic- 
 Weights). It was pointed out by Dulong and Petit that a close relation exists between 
 the specific heat of a solid elementary substance and its atomic w^eight. Thus, if we 
 take the old system of atomic weights (q.v.), and multiply the specific heat of each solid 
 element by its atomic weight, we find that the elements form three groups. In the first, 
 the product of specific heat into atomic weight, or atomic heat, varies from 6 to 6.6. In 
 the second it varies from 3 to 3.3. In the third group, containing the allied elements, 
 carbon, boron, and silicon, no regularity can be traced. By far the greater number of 
 solid elements belong to the first or second group. Now it is plain that the atomic heat 
 of a member of the first group is approximately double that of a member of the second 
 group. But as the atomic weights are to a certain extent arbitrary, we can make the 
 atomic heats of the two groups agree by doubling the atomic weights of the members of 
 the second group. This was first proposed by the eminent Italian chemist, Cannizzaro,. 
 
749 
 
 Chemistry. 
 
 and has now been accepted by most chemists. These new atomic weights not only 
 greatly simplify Dulong and Petit’s law, but are also in harmony with many other 
 facts, most of which were observed after the change had been made. Thus the formulae 
 of corrosive sublimate, bichloride of tin, and zinc methyl are, according to the old 
 system, HgCl; SnCla; and ZnCaHs and H = 1, According to the new system, they are 
 HgCla; SnCh; and ZnCaHe. 
 
 It will be at once observed that the second set of formulae represent just twice the 
 quantity represented by the first; now the second formulae express the molecular weights 
 of the substances according to Avogadro’s law (see Atomic Theory). Further, if we 
 adopt the old atomic weights, we see no reason why oxide of lead should readily form 
 basic salts, while oxide of silver does not. This peculiarity is to some extent explained 
 by the new atomic weights; thus we have nitrate of silver — old formula AgNOe, new 
 formula AgNOs; nitrate of lead — old formula PbNOe, new formula Pb(N 03 )a; basic 
 nitrate of lead — old formula Pb0,PbN06, new formula Pb 20 (N 0 s) 2 . The contrast will 
 be better seen if we put the new formulae into a graphic form. 
 
 Nitrate of Silver. 
 
 0 
 
 II 
 
 Ag— 0— N 
 
 1 
 
 Nitrate of Lead. 
 
 O O 
 
 II II 
 
 N— O— Pb— O— N 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 Basic Nitrate of Lead. 
 
 0 o 
 
 1 II 
 
 A— O— Pb— O— Pb— O— N 
 
 A 
 
 We at once see the connection between the dyad character of lead ( — Pb — ), and the 
 occurrence of basic salts. 
 
 Similarly we know that if we pass a current of chlorine gas into a cold solution of 
 caustic potash, we obtain a mixture of chloride of potassium and hypochlorite of potash 
 — Cla + 2KH0 = KCl + KClO-j-HaO. But that if, instead of caustic potash, we take 
 slaked lime, we obtain, not a mixture, but a single substance; ClaH- CaHaOa = CaOCla 
 + HaO. Putting the new symbols into a graphic form we have : 
 
 Cl H— O— K Cl— K 
 
 1 _L = 4 - H— O— H, and 
 
 Cl H— 0— K Cl— O— K 
 
 Cl H— O > Cl . 
 
 I + Ca = Ca 4 - H— O— H. 
 
 Cl H— O ' Cl— O ' 
 
 Where we see why we have a mixture in the first case, and a single substance in the 
 second, the reason being that calcium being a dyad, one atom of it represents two 
 atorps of potassium. Many other examples might be given, but these may suffice as 
 an indication of the reasons which have induced chemists to prefer the atomic weights 
 given in the second column in the table in the article Atomic Weights. 
 
 Assuming, then, these atomic weights, let us return to the subject of Chemical Struc- 
 ture. This may be defined in various ways, but most conveniently as the indication by a 
 graphic formula, or something equivalent to it, of all the chemical changes by which 
 the substance can be formed or decomposed. This will best be illustrated by means 
 of a few examples, and we shall select these from among organic compounds, that is, 
 compounds of carbon, because the structure of these compounds has been most fully 
 investigated. 
 
 Acetic acid has (on the new system, which will be exclusively used in the remainder 
 of this article) the formula C 2 H 4 O 2 . If it is treated with caustic potash, it yields 
 acetate of potash according to the equation C 2 H 4 O 2 + KHO = C 2 H 8 KO 2 + H 2 O. Here 
 one atom of hydrogen has been replaced by one atom of potassium, and we find that 
 further treatment with caustic potash does not cause any further replacement of hydro- 
 gen by potassium. We may therefore write the formula of acetic acid thus: H — (C 2 HSO 2 ), 
 and this formula indicates the replaceability of one atom of hydrogen by metal, and 
 explains (as far as such formulae can explain anything) the occurrence of such com- 
 pounds as acetate of lead (C 2 H 3 O 2 ) — Pb— (C 2 H 3 O 2 ), and all the other acetates. The 
 question now remains, what is the structure of the group (C-^HsOa), which is united in 
 acetic acid to hydrogen, and in the acetates to metal? 
 
 To answer it we must examine some other reactions of acetic acid. When treated 
 with pentachloride of phosphorus, it loses an atom of oxygen, the place of which is 
 taken by two atoms of chlorine — the pentachloride of phosphorus taking the oxygen in 
 exchange for the chlorine; but instead of obtaining a compound (C2H4OCI2), we find 
 that the result is expressed by the equation; C2H4O2 + PCI5 = C2H3OCI -j- HCl P 0 (^ 3 . 
 We thence conclude that in acetic acid the atom of dyad oxygen removed in the action 
 given above was united to an atom of hydrogen, and to the group (C2H3O), and repre- 
 sent the change thus: 
 
 (CaHaO)— O— H -f- PCU = (CaH30)--Cl + Cl— H 4 - POCI3 ; 
 
Cbemists. 
 
 750 
 
 the replacement of the dyad oxygen by two atoms of the monad chlorine necessitating 
 the falling asunder of the compound. The reactions of chloride of acetyl (CjHsOCl) 
 lead us to the further conclusion that the atom of hydrogen replaceable by metal is the 
 atom not present in chloride of acetyl, so that the formula (C2H3O) — O — H is a fuller 
 and more explanatory form of (C2H3O2) — H. Again, if we heat acetate of potash with 
 caustic potash, we have marsh gas (CH4) given off, and the residue consists of carbon- 
 ate of potash 
 
 H 
 
 (C,H, 0 )— 0— K + K— 0 -H = H— i— H + K— O— C— 0 — K; 
 
 i I) 
 
 and this decomposition can only be represented if we give acetic acid the formula 
 
 H— i— C— O— H; 
 
 u 
 
 : H : 
 
 when we have 
 
 O— K 4- K— O— H = H— di — 
 
 kh i 
 
 H + K— O— C— O— K; 
 
 k\ id 
 
 the dotted lines separating in the diagram the symbols of the parts of the molecules 
 which change places. 
 
 We have considered only a few of the reactions of acetic acid, but the formula just 
 given is equally consistent with all the others. It is therefore said to exhibit the struct- 
 ure of acetic acid. This word “structure” is perhaps a little misleading — we must 
 recollect the precise sense in which it is used, as a concise representation of man^ 
 reactions. It is conceivable that it may have some relation to the actual relative posi* 
 tion of the atoms in a molecule of acetic acid, but we have not as yet any means ol 
 ascertaining whether this is so or not. 
 
 We may illustrate the meaning of chemical structure further by a somewhat more 
 complex case. Asparagine, a colorless crystalline substance extracted from asparagus, 
 and also from the blanched shoots of other plants, has the composition expressed by the 
 formula C4H8N2O3. When treated with caustic potash it yields ammonia and a body 
 called aspartate of potash — the potash salt of aspartic acid. The change is obviously 
 H . 
 
 an exchange of K — O — and N — and may be thus indicated: 
 
 H ' 
 
 i : i \ r- 
 
 C4HeN03— N + H— O— K = C4HeN03— O— K -f H— N 
 : v__H : i : ^ 
 
 H 
 
 H 
 
 Aspartic acid is then (C4H6NO3) — 0 — H, and we have to study its decompositions in 
 order to discover the structure of the group (C4H4NO3). Now, aspartic acid is attacked 
 by nitrous acid, and the products are nitrogen gas, water, and malic acid, thus; 
 C4H7N04-j-HN02 = C4H6O5+N2 + H2O. Here we have the triad nitrogen of the 
 aspartic acid replaced by the dyad O, and the monad group — O — H of the nitrous acid, 
 
 H- 
 
 and this leads to the formula 
 
 H- 
 
 above thus becomes: 
 
 N — (C4H4O8)— O — H for aspartic acid. 
 
 The equation 
 
 N-^C 4 H 40 s)— O— H+H— O— N 
 
 0=N 
 
 N+ 
 
 i 
 
 : o+H— O— (C4H4OS— O— H. 
 : 
 
 Aspartic Acid. Nitrous Acid. * Nitrogen. Water. Malic Acid. 
 
 When malic acid is treated with hydrobromic acid, we obtain water and bromo-succinic 
 acid: 
 
 H— O— (C4H4O3)— O— H-f Br— H = H— O— H + Br-^C4H403)— O— H; 
 Malic Acid. Hydrobromic Acid. Water. Bromo-succinic Acid. 
 
 and we can prove that the group H — O — , here replaced by Br, is that one which in 
 
 aspartic acid is represented by N — . Bromo-succinic acid, when treated with nas- 
 
 H — ' 
 
751 
 
 ChemlstSr 
 
 cent hydrogen, has its bromine removed and hydrogen put in its place, thus yielding 
 succinic acid (C 4 H 6 O 4 ). We shall most easily arrive at the structure of succinic acid 
 by studying its synthesis. 
 
 Olefiant gas (C3H4) unites with bromine to form a liquid having the composition; 
 (CaH 4 Br 3 ), and (as can easily be proved by its relation to glycol and glycollic acid), a 
 structure represented thus: 
 
 H H 
 
 Br 
 
 -h-i 
 
 k k 
 
 Br. 
 
 This bromide of ethylene, as it is called, when treated with cyanide of potassium, gives 
 bromide of potassium, and a substance which may be called cyanide of ethylene — bro- 
 mine and cyanogen changing places •(C 2 H 4 Br 2 )-}- 2 KCN = C 2 H 4 (CN)a + 2 KBr. As 
 cyanide of potassium is K — C = N, it follows that cyanide of ethylene is 
 H H 
 
 N = C — C — (!) — C = N ; when this product is boiled with caustic potash and water, ammo- 
 
 kk 
 
 nia is given off, and succinate of potash remains in solution. Here we have nitrogen 
 uniting with hydrogen, while the place of the nitrogen is taken by that with which 
 the hydrogen was united — viz., the dyad O, and the monad — O — K. We thus obtain 
 the structural formula of succinic acid. 
 
 O H H 0 
 
 H 
 
 — 0 — i— i— c— o-H 
 
 kk 
 
 Here are obviously two hydrogen atoms having a different function from the rest — 
 those, namely, which are replaceable by metal, and which, in the above formula, are 
 represented as directly united to oxygen. That it is not one of these that is replaced by 
 bromine follows from the fact that bromo-succinic acid has also two atoms of hydrogen 
 replaceable by metals in exactly the same way as in succinic acid itself, and as the 
 other four atoms of hydrogen do not differ in position in the diagram from one 
 another, we have only one possible formula for bromo-succinic acid; and therefore, for 
 malic acid: 
 
 O H H O 
 
 and for aspartic acid; 
 
 H— O— C— I)— (i— O— H; 
 
 H-U 
 
 O H H O 
 
 H— O— 0— H. 
 H— li i 
 
 k 
 
 We have, however, two possible structural formulae for asparagine, as it is plain that the 
 two groups H — O — in aspartic acid are not similar to one another, and we have not as 
 yet any means of deciding between them. The reader will see that they are different, 
 and from the way in which structure has been proved, will also see that reactions may 
 be obtained which would decide between the two. 
 
 It is not necessary to give any further examples of chemical structure — the two we 
 have treated in some detail may suffice to show how the principle is applied, and what 
 is the nature of the evidence in favor of particular structural formulae. 
 
 CHEMISTS AND DRUGGISTS, Laws relating to. Under the head Apothecary 
 (q.v.) will be found the distinction between that profession and the kindred one of 
 pharmaceutical chemist. The pharmaceutical society of Great Britain, founded in 1841 
 for raising the standard of efficiency in the practice of dispensing and compounding 
 drugs, was incorporated by royal charter in 1843. An act was passed in 1853 defining 
 the qualifications of pharmaceutical chemists, and the society’s powers for examining 
 and granting qualifying certificates. The pharmacy act of 1868, referred to below, still 
 further defines its duties and privileges. As in the case of medical practitioners, there is 
 no penalty for mere practice; but the assumption of the specific title named in the act is 
 punishable by fine. The legislature presumes that certificates obtained by examination 
 are evidence of efficient education, but that the freedom of engaging in business ought 
 not to be interfered with; and that the right of the subject to consult whom he chooses, 
 or to buy drugs from whom he will, must be respected. This seems a sound view. 
 
Chemitype. 
 
 Chenier. 
 
 752 
 
 Serious mistakes, such as the substitution of one medicine for another, to the injury of 
 the purchaser, are punishable by law, both in the unqualified and in the case of those 
 qualified under the act. The public also derives ^reat and increasing security in this 
 and in all other departments of human enterprise, from the improving effect of free com- 
 petition. The operation of the act was simply that of indicating to the public, by a 
 name or title, a class of druggists possessing a higher education. In 1868 it was deemed 
 necessary, owing to the frequent evils arising from the facility of obtaining poisons, to 
 enact that no person should sell, or keep open shop for selling poisons, or assume or use 
 the title of chemist or druggist or pharmacist, unless he be registered under the act 31 
 and 32 Viet. c. 121, amended by 32 and 33 Viet. c. 117, and conform to the regulations 
 as to sale of poisons. All persons who in 1868 carried on the business of chemists and 
 druggists, and their apprentices and assistants, were entitled to be registered. The 
 register of chemists and druggists under this act now contains the names of all qualified 
 persons in Great Britain. 
 
 CHEMITYPE is the name given by its inventor, C. Pill, a Dane, to the art of pro 
 ducing on a metal plate, by a chemical process, an engraving in relief. The outline of 
 the process is this: On a polished plate of zinc an etching or an engraving is made in the 
 usual way. The depressions of this design are then filled up with a melted metal — the 
 nature of which is not revealed — and this superadded metal is then reduced to the exact 
 level of the zinc, so that the design now appears as if inlaid. An acid is next applied 
 to the surface, which attacks the zinc, without affecting the inlaid metal ; and thus 
 there results an exact copy in relief of the original intaglio engraving. In competition 
 with wood-cuts, relief-lithographs, and copperplates, C. does not seem as yet to evince 
 anj^ great superiority; it fails especially in that character of strength and softness 
 which wood-cuts, express so well. The prints produced by this art look more like 
 engravings than like wood-cuts. They have this advantage, however, that they give an 
 exact copy of the original design made by the artists on the metal ; whereas in wood-cutting 
 the drawing made on the block may be impaired in its effect by the engraver. C. is 
 particularly adapted for producing maps by the common printing-press. Ptil practiced 
 his invention at first on a small scale in Copenhagen, from 1843 to 1846, and then exten- 
 sively in Leipsic. In 1850, he went to Vienna, where he was employed in the imperial 
 printing establishment. 
 
 CHEMNITZ, a t. of Saxony, is situated at the base of the Erzgebirge, and at the con- 
 fluence of the river Chemnitz with three other rivers, in lat. 50° 50' n., and long. 17° 55' 
 east. It is the principal manufacturing town of Saxony — its industry consisting in 
 weaving cottons, woolens, and silks, and in printing calicoes, chiefly for German con- 
 sumption. Cotton stockings are a most extensive manufacture, and rival the British in 
 quality and cheapness. The American markets are chiefly supplied from this place. It 
 has several extensive machine factories, producing machinery for flax and wool spin- 
 ning, weaving, and mining industry. Amongst the numerous educational institutes 
 of C. are schools of weaving, mining, and tailoring. For four centuries C. was a free 
 imperial city. Traces of its antiquity are seen in many of the buildings. Pop. 75, 
 85,334. 
 
 CHEMNITZ, Martin, next to Luther and Melanchthon the most distinguished Ger- 
 man Protestant theologian of the 16th c., wash, at Treuenbrietzen, in Brandenburg, 9th 
 Nov., 1522; studied at Frankfurt and Wittenberg; and, in 1548, became rector of the 
 cathedral-school of Konigsberg. About 1550, he began to devote himself seriously to 
 theology, and in 1553 went back to Wittenberg, where he delivered prelections on 
 Melanchthon’s Loci Communes, from which sprang his own Loci Theologici, which, for 
 method and learning, excels all similar books of the same age. In 1554, he was made a 
 preacher in Brunswick, where he wrote his Itepetitio Sance Doctrinoe de Vera Presentia 
 Corporis et Sanguinis Domini in Ccena Sacra (Leip. 1561), in which he defended Luther’s 
 view of the Lord’s Supper against that of the Swiss reformers; the Tlieologm Jesuitorum 
 Prcecipua Capita (Leip. 1562); and the Examen Concilii TridentiniiV^^V- 1565), a w^ork in 
 which he has argued with remarkable acuteness and learning against the dogmas of the 
 church of Kome. His Caiyus Doctrince Prutenicce (1566), written in conjunction with 
 Mbrlin, became a standard work of divinity among the Prussian Protestants. But 
 his greatest ecclesiastical achievement was inducing the Saxon and Suabian churches 
 to adopt as their confession of faith the Concordienformel, and thus extending and con- 
 solidating the creed of Luther. He died at Brunswick, 8th April, 1586. 
 
 CHEMNITZIA, a genus of gasteropodous mollusca. It has a slender, elongated, many - 
 whorled shell ; the whorls striated; a simple semi-oval aperture; and a horny operculum. 
 There are many recent species scattered all over the world. The discriminating char 
 acters of the fossil species being taken from the form of the shell, it is more than prob- 
 able that the remains of very different animals are classed under this generic name. No 
 less than 180 species have been described, occurring throughout all the divisions of the 
 fossiliferous strata from the lower Silurian upwards. 
 
 CHEMOSH, the national deity of the Moabites and the Amorites. Solomon intro 
 duced the worship of C. into Jerusalem, but Josiah put a stop to it. Scholars are not 
 
753 
 
 Chemitype. * 
 Chenier. 
 
 figreed as to descriptions either of the deity or the worship. Jerome identifies C. with 
 Baal-Peor; others with Baal-Zebub; Genesius with Mars, or some god of war; some with 
 Saturn, as the star of ill-omen; C. having, according to Jewish legend, been worshiped 
 in the form of a black stone ; and Maimonides says his worshipers went bareheaded, and 
 used no garments sewn by the needle. Hackmann makes the name equivalent to “ royal 
 ■deity,” and, apparently, children were sacrificed to him. 
 
 CHEMUNG', a co. in s. New York, on the Pennsylvania border, intersected by 
 Tioga river, and traversed by the New York and Erie and the Northern Central railroads, 
 und the canal from Seneca lake to Elmira; 513 sq.m. ; pop. ’80, 43,065. The surface is 
 partly level and partly hilly; soil fertile. The chief productions are wheat, corn, oats, 
 buckwheat, potatoes, hay, butter, wool, honey, and tobacco. There are in the county 
 several carriage and wagon manufactories, flour-mills, saw-mills, tanneries, etc. Co. 
 seat, Elmira. 
 
 CHENAB', the largest, according io general opinion, of the five rivers which give 
 name to the Punjab. Like most of the principal streams of India, it rises to the n. of 
 the Himalayas, making its way through the Ritanki; pass at the height of 13.600 ft. above 
 the sea, and having its source about lat. 32° 48' n., and long. 77° 27 east. After a descent 
 of 300 m., the C. reaches the level country. At the close of a course of the same length, 
 it receives, on its right, the Jhelum in lat. 31° 12' n., and long. 72° 12' e. ; 50 m. further 
 down, it is joined, on its left, by the Ravee; and 110 m. lower, it absorbs, through the 
 Ohara, on its left, the mingled waters of the Beas and the Sutlej. Lastly, at a dis- 
 tance of 60 m., the accumulated floods, under the designation of Punjnud, lose them- 
 selves in the Indus in lat. 28° 55' n., and long. 70° 28' e. — being still 470 m. from the 
 ocean. 
 
 CHENAN'GO, a co. in s. New York, on a branch of the Susquehanna, and ’the Che- 
 nango and Unadilla rivers, intersected by the Chenango canal, and the Albany and Sus- 
 quehanna, the New York Midland, and a branch of the Delaware and Lackawanna 
 railroads; 624 sq.m.; pop. ’80, 3U,890. It has an elevated, hilly, and broken surface, with 
 fruitful soil, producing corn, wheat, oats, potatoes, hay, cheese, butter, wool, maple 
 sugar, and hops. There are in the county more than 40 cheese factories, and several 
 flour-mills, tanneries, furniture and carriage manufactories. Co. seat, Norwich. 
 
 CHENAN'GO RIVER, a stream in central New York, rising in Oneida co., and 
 flowing, with a length of about 90 m. , through Madison and Chenango counties to the 
 Susquehanna, near the Pennsylvania boundary. 
 
 CHENDAREE, or Chunderee. See Chandhairee, ante. 
 
 CHENEY, Charles Edward, d.d., b. 1836; a graduate of Hobart college and a 
 ■student in the Virginia theological seminary (Episcopal). He had pastoral charge in 
 Rochester and Havana, N. Y., and in Chicago, 111. In Dec., 1873, having left the 
 Protestant Episcopal church, he was chosen assistant bishop, and afterwards bishop, of 
 the Reformed Episcopal ehurch, then newly organized. He is a vigorous thinker and 
 an able organizer; he is still rector of Christ church, Chicago. 
 
 CHIiNIER, Andre-Marie de, 1762-94; a French poet, b. in Constantinople. He 
 undertook military life, but resigned his commission after six months’ trial, and returned 
 to Paris, where he. wrote idyllic poems, such as Le Mendicant; L'Aveugle; and Le Jeune 
 Malade. Overwork made a journey for health necessary, and he traveled in Switzerland, 
 Italy, and the Grecian islands. Returning to Paris in 1786, he recommenced study and 
 work, and produced the Elegies; Art d' Aimer; E Invention; Hermes; Susanne, and La 
 Liberte. From 1787 to 1790, he resided in Loudon as a secretary to the French embassy, 
 but neither the position nor the people were congenial, and he returned to France, plung- 
 ing at once into the revolution, then well under way, taking the moderate side. In 
 1791, he was defeated as a candidate for a seat in the national assembly, and the next 
 year an invective against the Jacobins involved him in a quarrel with his brother Joseph, 
 whom he was afterwards to defend against the attack of Burke. When the hopes of 
 the monarchy were gone, he returned to literature, but the trial of the king brought him 
 -once more forward, and he took part in preparing the defense, and also drew up an 
 appeal to the people. He was broken in health and spirits; Paris was dangerous; and 
 he went to Versailles, where he wrote poems to “ Fanny.” At Passy, Jan. 6, 1794, he 
 opposed the arrest of a lady in whose house he was living, an act which resulted in his 
 own seizure and incarceration in St. Lazare. Here he wrote La Jeune Captive for the 
 duchess of Fleury, and for the convention the furious iambics so often quoted. At the 
 tribunal he appeared with 44 others, and 38, including himself, were condemned to 
 execution. The next day, July 25, 1794, he, with the counts de Montalembert and de 
 Crequi, was led to death. As he descended the steps of the conciergerie, he said to 
 Roucher, “ Je n’ai rien fait pour la posterite. Pourtant” (striking his forehead), “ j’avais 
 quelque chose la.” Three days later, in the same place, Robespierre and his fellows 
 were executed, and the “reign of terror” was at an end. C.’s poems, with the excep- 
 tion of two, remained unedited for a quarter of a century. 
 
 CH^1NIER, Marie Joseph de, 1764-1811; poet and dramatist, younger brother of 
 Andre Chenier ; b. in Constantinople, and educated at the college de Navarre. He also 
 served a short time in the army, but left it for literary composition, producing, at the age 
 
Chenonceaux. 
 
 Cherbourg. 
 
 754 
 
 of 20, Azemire, a tragedy which was not very successful. His next work, however,. 
 Charles XII. , gave occasion for the commencement of Talma’s renown, and gained great 
 popularity. It still keeps the stage. Following these came Henry VIII. and Galas; 
 in 1792, Cains Gracchus, which was proscribed and burned because of the anti-anarchical 
 phrase “The law, and not blood;” and the drama Timoleon, proscribed in 1793. The 
 death of his brother on the scaffold took him away from play-writing, which he 
 attempted again only once (in 1804), w^hen he produced Cyrus, which was not a success. 
 He was long a prominent member of the Jacobin club; a member of the convention,, 
 and also of the council of five hundred, over both of which he presided; he had a seat in 
 the tribunate, and belonged to the committees of public instruction, of general securit}'’, 
 and of public safety. In 1806-7, he delivered a course of lectures, on the language and 
 literature of France from the earliest period; and in 1808, at Napoleon’s request, he 
 prepared his Tableau Historique de VEtat et du Progres de la Litterature Frangaise. He 
 was the author of many hymns, songs, and odes, among them the famous Chant du 
 Depart; odes on the death of Mirabeau, the oligarchy of Robespierre, etc.; tragedies 
 that never reached the stage, and translations from the Greek, Latin, and German 
 authors. As a satirist he was said to possess great merit. 
 
 CHENONCEAUX, Castle of. See Blere, ante. 
 
 CHEN0P0DIACE.E, or Salsola'cejs, a natural order of exogenous plants, consisting 
 of herbaceous and half-shrubby plants, with leaves entire or divided, and destitute of 
 stipules. The flowers are inconspicuous, hermaphrodite, or unisexual ; the perianth deeply 
 divided, persistent ; the stamens inserted into its base, opposite to its segments, and equal 
 to them m number, or fewer; the ovary single, free, or occasionally adhering to the tube 
 of the perianth, with a single ovule attached to the base of the cavity; the style generall.^ 
 with 2 to 4 divisions. The fruit is membranous, inclosed in the perianth, which some- 
 times becomes fleshy. The seed has a curved or spiral embryo. — There are about 360> 
 known species, most of which have a weed-like appearance, and grow in waste places. 
 They are widely diffused over the world, but are particularly abundant in the northern 
 parts of Europe and Asia. Beet and spinage are among the best known and most useful 
 plants of the order. Many are occasionally used as pot-herbs, as some species of 
 chenopodiuin and of orache. The fruit of strawberry blite (blitum capitatum and B. 
 virgatum), a common weed in the s. of Europe, has some resemblance in appearance to- 
 a strawberry, from the coherence of the fleshy perianths of a whole spike or head of 
 flowers, and a sweetish, insipid taste. The seed of quinoa (q.v.) is used for food as a 
 kind of grain. Some of the C. are aromatic (see Chenopodium). Some inhabit salt- 
 marshes, and abound in soda, as the saltworts (q.v.). 
 
 CHENOPO'DIUM, a genus of plants of the natural order chenopodiacem, of wdiichsome 
 of the native British species are well known by the name of Goosefoot, as weeds grow- 
 ing in gardens, on heaps of rubbish, and in waste places. The species are mostly annuals, 
 with entire or toothed leaves, which in some of them have a sort of mealy hoariness. 
 They are mostly natives of Europe, and of the temperate parts of Asia; but some are 
 natives of America, into which, however, some of the common European species have- 
 found their way, and are naturalized as weeds. The genus has hermaphrodite flowers, 
 with perianth of five small green scales, five stamens, and solitary flat seeds. The leaves 
 of many species are used as a substitute for spinage, particularly those of the GooD' 
 Henry, Wild Spinage, or English Mercury ((7. iTe/mcMs), a perennial plant, 
 native of Britain and other parts of Europe, often found growing by waysides, with 
 stem more than a foot high, powdered with minute transparent globules, and large, 
 alternate, triangular, arrow-shaped, entire leaves. It is cultivated in some places, par- 
 ticularly in Lincolnshire, chiefly for the leaves, but the young shoots are also used as-^ 
 asparagus. C. intermedium, C. album, etc., annuals, common in waste places, are also’ 
 excellent substitutes for spinage. C. olidum or rulraria (Stinking Goosefoot), an 
 annual with an extremely nauseous odor, growing in waste places in Britain, etc., 
 especially near the sea, is a popular medicine, in much repute as an antispasmodic and 
 emmenagogue. G. botrys, a native of the s. of Europe, with pinnatifid leaves resem- 
 bling those of the oak, and hence called Jerusalem Oak, is in use as an expectorant and 
 anthelmintic. It is not fetid like the species last named, but agreeably fragrant. C. 
 ambrosioides has a strong aromatic odor, is used in Mexico instead of tea, and is much 
 cultivated in France, an infusion of it being deemed useful in nervous disorders. C. 
 anthelminticum, the Wormseed of the United States, has a strong and somewhat, 
 aromatic odor, and a high reputation as a vermifuge. Its seeds are chiefly used, or the 
 essential oil extracted from them, called oil of wormseed. More important than any 
 of these species, as affording a principal article of food in the countries of which it is a 
 native, is quinoa (q.v.). 
 
 CHEOPS, according to Herodotus, an Egyptian king, called Chombes by Diodorus, 
 Souphis by Manetho, Saophis by Eratosthenes, and in Egyptian “Khufu.” He was the 
 second king of the fourth dynasty of Manetho, and the hiiilder of the great pyramid at 
 Ghizeh. His name was supposed to mean “wealthy,” or “having much hair.” He 
 spent enormous sums on the pyramid (see Pyramid, ante), and one improbable story is 
 that he was compelled through want of money to sacrifice the honor of his daughter to 
 insure its comnletion. He is also deoicted as impious towards the gods, closing the- 
 
765 
 
 Chenonceanz. 
 
 Cherbourg. 
 
 temples, and stopping the worship ; hut subsequently repenting, and writing a sacred 
 book much esteemed by the Egyptians, The monumental information about C. does 
 not confirm the Greek historians; on the contrary, it records the construction of temples 
 in honor of the gods, the repair of the shrine, and the gift of various figures to the temple 
 of Isis and Athor, close to his own pyramid, and his construction or repair of the temple 
 of the same goddess Adior, the Egyptian Venus, at Denderah, or Tentyris. C. carried 
 on war at the valley Magarah, in the peninsula of Sinai in Arabia; and a rock tablet 
 represents him as having conquered the hostile tribes in the presence of the god Thoth, 
 who had revealed to him the mines of the locality. His oppression had so afflicted 
 Egypt, that charges of impiety had attached to his name; but the tombs of his children 
 reveal no change in the established religion, and his pyramid differs from those of his 
 predecessors and immediate successor only by its larger size and greater beauty. The 
 date of C,, according to Lepsius, is 3,095 to 3,032 b.c. ; but great difference of opinion, 
 amounting to nearly 2,000 years, exists as to the time of Menes, from whom the lists 
 .separate him by an interval of 898 years. 
 
 CHEPHREN, in the hieroglyphs “ Khafra,” called also Cephren, Chabrias, Souphis 
 II., and Saophis II.; according to the legends, the son or brother of the Egyptian 
 king Cheops. * He built the second of the great pyramids at Ghizeh, near the sphynx 
 and the great pyramid, and was said to have been tyrannical and hated, like his brother, 
 so that his mummy was not buried in the sepulcher, but torn to pieces, and the sarcoph- 
 agus emptied of its contents; but there is no more reason for believing in his impiety 
 than in that of Cheops. His wife was a priestess of the god Thoth, and another prince 
 of the family was a priest at Hermopolis. He also built the small temple behind the 
 sphynx. It is probable that he lived 95 years, and his reign, according to Lepsius, 
 
 was 3,032 to 2,966 b.c. A statue of him is in the Boulaq museum. 
 
 CHEP'STOW, a river-port in the s.e. of Monmouthshire, on the right bank of the 
 Wye, 2| m. from its junction with the estuary of the Severn, and 14| m. e.n.e. of 
 Newport. It lies between bold cliffs, on a slope rising from the river, in the midst 
 
 of beautiful and grand scenery. There is a fine view from a rock called Wind- 
 
 cliff, 970 ft. high, 3 m. and a half up the river. The streets are broad. x.^ere occurs 
 the highest tide in Europe, rising suddenly, with a fierce current, often 50, and on 
 rare occasions even 70 feet. Large vessels reach the town. One of the wells of the 
 town ebbs and flows with the tide. Over the Wye is a railway bridge combining 
 the suspension and tubular principles of construction. C. has a magnificent castle, 
 built in the 11th c., and a fine Benedictine priory recently restored. It has few manu- 
 factures, but exports corn, cider, bark, iron, millstones, timber, and salmon. Pop. ’71, 
 ■3,347. In 1875, 1013 vessels, of 31,586 tons, entered and cleared the port. 
 
 CHEQUE. See Check, ante. 
 
 CHER, a tributary on the left side of the river Loire, rising near Crocq, in the 
 •department of Creuse; flows flrst n. by Auzances, Evaux, Montlu 9 , and St. Amand; 
 then n.w. through the department of C. by Vierzon; then westward by Selles, Mont- 
 richard, and Blere, to the Loire, which it joins below Tours. Its whole length is about 
 "200 m. ; and it is navigable for the last 47 of its course. — Cheb, the central department 
 of France, to which the above river gives its name, is situated in lat. 46° 25' to 47° 39' 
 n., and in long. 1° 55' to 3° 10' east. The surface is mostly level, traversed by well- 
 wooded elevations, and produces corn, fruits, wine, hemp, flax, etc. The climate is 
 mild and pleasant. Agriculture and pasturage of cattle are both capable of improve- 
 ment. Area, upwards of 2,700 sq. miles. Pop. ’76, 345,613. C. is divided into the 
 three arrondissements — Bourges, St. Amand, and Sancerre. Bourges is the chief town. 
 
 CHERAS'GO, a t. in the province of Cuneo, n. Italy, situated on the Tanaro, 30 m. 
 s.e. of Turin. It has manufactures of silk, and a pop. of (1871) 4,694. A peace was 
 ■concluded here between Louis XIII. of France, and the duke of Savoy in 1631. On 
 April 26, 1796, the place was taken by the French; and here, three days after, the 
 “Armistice of Cherasco” was concluded between the Sardinian commissioners and 
 Napoleon, by which the latter obtained the right of free passage for his troops through 
 the Sardinian states; and the treaty that followed gave to the French republic Savoy, 
 Nice, and the possessions of Piedmont to the westward of the Alps’ highest ridge. 
 
 CHERBOURG, a fortified seaport t. and arsenal of France in the department of 
 Manche, is situated at the head of a deep bay on the northern extremity of the penin- 
 sula of Cotentin, on the English channel, and opposite the w. coast of the isle of 
 Wight, in lat. 49° 40' n., and long. 1° 35' west. Napoleon I. began to build the great 
 defenses of this northern stronghold of France. His nephew, Napoleon III., developed 
 his plans, but not with the original view of an invasion of England. Occupying a 
 prominent position on the French coast, only some 60 m. removed from the s. shore 
 of England, the harbor- works have been extended, strengthened, fortified, and provi 
 sioned with cannon — the dock-yards improved, and facilities of embarkation afforded, 
 to a degree that, as it is unparalleled in ancient or modern times, not unnaturally excites 
 the lively apprehension of Englishmen. A description of the stupendous breakwater 
 of C., inclosing a space of nearly 2000 acres, will be found in the article Breakwater. 
 In connection with its fortifications, this breakwater assumes an importance that attaches 
 
Cherbuliez. 
 
 Cherry. 
 
 756 
 
 to no other work of the kind in existence. At the apex of the angle formed by the 
 meeting of the two branches of the breakwater or digue, there is a center fort or batler)^ 
 measuring 509 ft. on the inner line of the parapet, which forms a flat semi-ellipse. The 
 circular forts at the extremities of the breakwater are remarkably well placed for pur- 
 poses of defense. Behind the center battery there is to be an elliptical tower, measuring 
 225 ft. on the major, and 123 ft, on the minor axis. Altogether there are six large batter- 
 ies on the mole. The entrances to the harbor are round the ends of the mole ; and the 
 passages are further defended by the fortifications of the He Pelee, and by the batteries 
 of La Roche Chavaignac and fort Querqueville. A series of coast redoubts, and the 
 two large fortifications of Les Roches des Flamands and du Hornet, are situated behind 
 this outer zone of defense. “The arsenal,” says Mr. W. H. Russell, who visited C. dur- 
 ing the summer of 1860, “is inclosed by a continuous line of bastion and curtain of a 
 very elevated profile, defended by outworks, wet and dry ditches, and by profuse bat- 
 teries of the heaviest guns, either in casement or en barbette. Wherever you look, you 
 fancy that on the spot you occupy are specially pointed dozens of the dull black eyes 
 from their rigid lids of stone.” Altogether, besides the batteries on the mole, C. is- 
 defended by 24 regular forts and redoubts. The town itself is commanded by La Roule 
 (an exceedingly strong fort) and fort d’Octeville on the heights behind. The military 
 port of C. consists of an outer harbor of 776 ft. in length by 663 ft. wide, its minimum 
 depth being 58 ft., and the entrance to which is 206 ft. wide at its narrowest point. This 
 harbor communicates by means of a lock with a floating basin, 957 ft. long by 712 wide. 
 The outer harbor has four building-slips for 120-gun ships, besides some smaller slips, 
 and a fine graving-dock. In Aug., 1858, an inner floating-harbor was inaugurated by 
 the emperor of the French, in presence of the queen and many of the lords and com- 
 mons of Great Britain. This harbor, entirely cut out of the solid rock, has a length of 
 about 930 yards, and a breadth of 437 yards, and is surrounded by beautiful building- 
 slips and capacious graving-docks. It is calculated that the roads of C, cannot, on 
 account of the small depth of the greater portion, shelter more than 25 or 30 sail of the 
 line, and about as many frigates, at one time. C. has a commercial port quite distinct 
 from the other, situated on the s.e. ; but it displays little activity, the principal exports 
 being eggs, butter, and cattle. The town itself is insignificant, the streets being narrow 
 and dirty ; and there are no public buildings of note. There are some manufactures of 
 hosiery, chemicals, lace, and leather, and sugar and salt refineries ; but the industrial 
 energies of the great bulk of the population are absorbed in the arsenal and dock-yards. 
 C. is a very ancient place; in the 10th c. it was known under the name of Carusburg. 
 In 1758, C. was taken by the English, who destroyed the naval and military works, 
 and levied a contribution on the town. Pop., exclusive of naval and military forces 
 (1876), 36,338. 
 
 CHERBULIEZ, Antoine ^lLTSEE, 1797-1869; a native of Switzerland, professor of 
 political economy in Geneva and in the national polytechnic school in Zurich. He was 
 a contributor to cyclopaedias and periodicals, and author oi L’ Utilitaire, and Preces de la. 
 Science economique. 
 
 CHERBULIEZ, Victok, b. 1832; a Swiss author, the son of a Hebrew professor in 
 Geneva. He has written many novels for the Revue dies Deux Mondes (Paris), among them 
 Le Comte Kostia; Le Prince Vitale; Paule Mere; Le Roman d'une Jionnete Femme; and L& 
 Idee de Jean Tetetrol. 
 
 GHEB'IBON, or Sheribon, a seaport t. of Java, situated on the n. coast, 125 m. e.s.e. 
 of Batavia. It has a considerable trade in coffee, indigo, and teak- wood, and is the resi- 
 dence of a Dutch governor. Pop. 11,000. 
 
 GHEBIMOY'EE, or Chirimoya, Anona cherimolia, the most esteemed fruit of Brazil 
 and Peru, now common and even naturalized in some parts of the East Indies, and other 
 tropical countries of the old world. It is a fruit of most delicious flavor, is sometimes 
 described as the finest of all fruits, and sometimes as inferior only to the mangosteen. 
 It belongs to the same genus with the custard apple (q.v.). Both flowers and fruit emit 
 a pleasant fragrance, but when the tree is covered with blossom, the odor is so strong as 
 to be almost overpowering. The fruit varies from the size of an orange to 16 lbs. or 
 upwards in weight. It is roundish, or heart-shaped. Externally, it is greenish, covered 
 with small knobs and scales. The skin is rather thick and tough. Internally, the fruit 
 is snow-white and juicy, and contains a number of small brown seeds. The eatable part 
 is soft like a custard, and forms almost the entire mass of the fruit. The C. attains its 
 highest excellence only in particular soils and situations, and some varieties are much 
 finer than others. No tropical fruit seems better to deserve a higher degree of attention, 
 than it has yet received in our hot-houses. 
 
 GHERKASK'. See Tcherkask. 
 
 CHEROKEE, a co. in n.e. Alabama, on the Georgia border, on the Coosa and Chat- 
 tooga rivers, reached by the Selma, Rome, and Dalton railroad; 250 sq.m.; pop. ’80, 
 19,109 — 2691 colored. The surface is mountainous, and in large part covered with', 
 forests of pine and oak. Productions mainly agricultural. Co. seat. Centre. 
 
'757 
 
 Cherbuliez* 
 
 Cherry. 
 
 CHEROKEE, a co. in n. w. Georgia, on the Etowah river, which is navigable by 
 steamboats; 620 sq.m,; pop. ’80, 14, 325 — 1623 colored. It has a rolling surface and fer- 
 tile soil, yielding the usual agricultural crops. Co. seat. Canton. 
 
 CHEROKEE, a co. in n.w. Iowa, on Little Sioux and Maple rivers, traversed by the 
 Dubuque and Sioux City railroad; 600 sq.m.; pop. ’80, 8240. Agriculture is the chief 
 business. Co. seat, Cherokee. 
 
 CHEROKEE, a co. in s.e. Kansas, bordering on Missouri and the Indian territory; 
 604 sq.m.; pop. 80, 21,907. It is an agricultural region, and is intersected by the 
 Missouri, Fort Scott, and Gulf railroad. Co. seat, Columbus. 
 
 CHEROKEE, a co. in s.w. North Carolina, the extreme point of the state, adjoining 
 Georgia and Tennessee; 650 sq.m. ; pop. '80, 8182. It has a mountainous forest-covered 
 surface, and is little cultivated. Co. seat, Murphy. 
 
 CHEROKEE, a co. in e. Texas, between the Angelina and the Neches rivers, inter- 
 sected by the International and Great Northern railroad; 1144 sq.m.; pop. 80,16,724— 
 5710 colored. It is in an excellent agricultural region, consisting of alternating wood- 
 land and prairie. Co. seat. Rusk. 
 
 CHEROKEES, in their own tongue called Tsanaghee, a tribe of Indians of the 
 United States, now settled in the Indian territory, where they occupy 5,960 sq.m, in the 
 n.e., and 8,500 along the n. side. Their original home was in the country now forming 
 portions of Florida, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Tennessee. They were then in 
 two great divisions, the Ottare, or Otari, dwelling in the mountainous districts, and the 
 Airate, or Erati, occupying the lower lands; and they were further divided into seven 
 clans, each of which prohibited intermarriage between its own members. They adhered 
 to the English in early colonial times, formally recognized the king in 1730, and in 1755- 
 ceded territory and permitted the establishment of English forts. The tribe was con- 
 siderably advanced in civilization when the war of the revolution began. They clung 
 to the royalist side, and in consequence their country was laid waste by American forces. 
 They were subjugated after a few years of intermittent war, during which they lost 
 much territory, and, by the treaty of Hopewell, Nov. 28, 1785, they acknowledged the 
 sovereignty of the United States, and were confirmed in the possession of their hunting 
 grounds. Then began the ever-recurring story of white man’s encroachment and red 
 man’s resistance, with the ultimate advantage on the side of the intruders. By treaties 
 in 1791 and 1798, portions of their territory were surrendered, and many of their people 
 emigrated beyond the Mississippi. In 1817, the C. on the Arkansas numbered 3,000. 
 Those who remained in their old territory abandoned hunting, and the greater portion 
 of them lived by agriculture. But the white men of Georgia, who coveted their lands, 
 demanded the removal of the remaining C. notwithstanding the great services which 
 they had rendered (1812-15) in the war with England; and though the Indians were 
 entirely peaceable, generally industrious, and were fast becoming Christianized by the 
 efforts of Moravian missionaries and those of the American board, the clamor for their 
 removal prevailed, and in July, 1817, they were forced to exchange their eastern lands 
 for territory w. of the Mississippi. The end was not effected, however, without much 
 trouble and bloodshed. Georgia passed laws extending over the territory of the C. , by 
 which the Indians were practically outlawed, deprived of citizenship, and prohibited 
 from being witnesses. They appealed to the U. S. supreme court, and that body — 
 which long afterward decided that a negro had no rights that a white man was bound 
 to respect — refused the Indians the right to bring an action ; and finally the general 
 government confessed its inability to fulfill its own treaty obligations. But this inability 
 did not prevent the federal government (in 1835) from making a treaty with a small por- 
 tion of the tribe for the removal of the whole of them, and three years later an armed 
 force was sent into their country to compel the removal. At that time the whole number 
 of Indians in their old homes was about 27,000. The Indians were themselves divided; 
 one section, led by John Ross, at first opposed, but at last directed the removal. Within 
 a few years, after much difiiculty and not a few murders, their removal was effected. 
 Since their occupation of a share of the Indian territory, the C. have greatly advanced 
 in learning and in material prosperity. About 1821, a member of the tribe invented an 
 alphabet, and books and newspapers have been printed in their own language for half a 
 century. In the war of the rebellion, they at first favored the confederates, but the 
 majority soon came over to the union side. Between the two armies, their territory 
 suffered severely, and they were compelled to emancipate their slaves. The territory of 
 the C. now amounts to about 5,000,000 acres, and they have, in the keeping of the 
 United States, school and orphan funds to the amount of about $1,600,000. They are 
 governed by a national committee and council elected for two years, and a chief who is. 
 chosen for four years. In 1873, the C. numbered 17,217, and they had 63 schools with 
 1,884 pupils. They live in well-built villages, and are peaceable and industrious. 
 Tahlequah is their chief town. 
 
 CHERRY, Cerasus, a genus or sub-genus of plants, of which the best known yields 
 one of our most esteemed stone-fruits. This is usually regarded as a sub-genus of pru- 
 nus (see Plum), but is erected by some botanists into a distinct genus on very slender 
 grounds, the most obvious distinction between the species of cerasm and the true species 
 
Cherry. 
 
 Cherubini. 
 
 768 
 
 of prunus being that, in the former, the young leaves are conduplicate, or folded up, and 
 in the latter they are convolute, or rolled together. Two species are pretty generall3" 
 regarded as the parents of the garden cherries usually cultivated, pranus or cerasv/i 
 avium, and P. cei'asus or 0. vulgaris — the former having the underside of the leaves 
 hairy and a small austere fruit; the latter having smooth shining leaves and a more juicy 
 fruit. C. avium attains a height of 40 to 50 feet G. vulgaris is a smaller tree. Both 
 have white flowers in clusters or nearly sessile umbels, and both are generally regarded 
 as natives of Britain, and of the middle and s. of Europe. In a wild state, they are 
 usually called Gean {guigne), and G. avium is frequently planted — not only because it is 
 exceedingly ornamental when in flower, but also as a timber-tree, being of rapid growth, 
 with firm, strong, close-grained wood, suitable for the purposes of cabinet-makers, turn- 
 ers, and musical-instrument makers. But according to some botanists, there is only one 
 species, of which these are varieties ; and according to others, G. vulgaris is a native of Syria 
 and other parts of western Asia, and is only naturalized in Europe, having been first 
 brought to Italy by Lucullus, after his victory over Mithridates(74B.c.). from Kerasunt, 
 on the coast of the Black sea, from whence it derives its name. The cultivated varie- 
 ties of the C. are very numerous, and differ very considerably in size, color, and flavor. 
 The fruit of the C. supplies the inhabitants of some parts of France with a principal 
 article of food, especially the wood-cutters and charcoal-burners of the forests; and 
 among their modes of preparing it is that of making it a principal ingredient in soups. 
 It ripens in Norway and East Bothnia as far n. as lat. 63°. In some parts of Germany, 
 the public roads are lined for many miles together with avenues of C. trees. Besides its 
 use for the dessert and for preserves, the C. is extensively used for making liquors. See 
 Kirschwasser and Maraschino. Varieties of C. with double flowers, and with pen- 
 dulous branches, are frequently planted for ornament in shrubberies, and few trees or 
 shrubs are more beautiful. The all-saints G. produces flowers almost all summer, and 
 even in autumn. Its fruit is small and rather acid. — The other species of C. are numer- 
 ous. Some species are low,. or even prostrate shrubs, as G. or P. chamm-cerasus, the 
 Ground C. of the s. of Europe and of Siberia; and G. or P. pumila, the Sand C. of 
 North America. — The genus or sub-genus cerasus contains also the different kinds of 
 bird C. (q.v.) and choke C. (q.v.), including the American Wild C., famous for its med- 
 icinal bark; the Mahaleb {G. or P. mahaleb) of the s. of Europe, and the Capollim 
 {G. or P. capollim) of Mexico and Peru — the first famous for the fragrance of its flowers, 
 and the second for the fragrance of its fruit; and the Cherry-laurel (q.v.). 
 
 CHEEET-LAUEEL, or Laurel-Cherry, a name given to those species of prunus or 
 cerasus (see Cherry) which have evergreen leaves. They are also often called Laurel. 
 They have small flowers in long racemes, and small fruit; the fruit of a nauseous taste; 
 and most parts of the plant, but particularly the leaves and kernels, remarkably abound- 
 ing in hydrocyanic (prussic) acid, and theiefore very poisonous. — The Common Cherry- 
 laurel, sometimes called the Bay-laurel or Laurel-bay, very often spoken of simply as 
 the Laurel or Common Laurel {prunus or cerasus lauro-cerasus), is a shrub, sometimes 
 of very large size, with ovato-lanceolate, convex, smooth, remotely serrated, shining, yel- 
 lowish green leaves, and erect racemes of flowers. It is originally from Asia, but is now 
 naturalized throughout the s. of Europe, and is one of the most common ornamental 
 shrubs in Britain, where it suffers only from such severe frosts as are of rare occurrence. 
 It is propagated by seeds, layers, and cuttings. Its leaves resemble bitter almonds in 
 smell and taste, and contain in great abundance the same essential oil (see Almonds, 
 Volatile Oil of), rich in hydrocyanic acid. From these leaves, by maceration in 
 water for 24 hours, and subsequent distillation, is obtained the laurel-xcater (q.v.), or 
 cherry-laurel water, sometimes employed in medicine as a substitute for hydrocyanic 
 acid, and which formerly was so much used as a poison. The leaves are sometimes 
 employed also for flavoring puddings, sauces, etc., and are safer for such purposes than 
 oil of bitter almonds, but ought to be used with caution. — Another species, also very 
 common as an ornamental shrub in Britain, but not quite so hardy as the common 
 cherry-laurel, is the Portugal Laurel {pi'unus or cerasus Lusitanica), a native of Por- 
 tugal, a large shrub — sometimes a tree — with dark -green leaves and lateral racemes. It 
 does not grow so well under the shade of trees as the common cherry-laurel. From the 
 dissimilarity of form and color of their leaves, these species present a pleasant appearance 
 when mixed, as they usuallj’^ are, in the shrubbery. 
 
 CHERRY VALLEY, a village in Otsego co., N, Y., 68 m. w. of Albany, reached by 
 way of the Albany and Susquehanna railroad; pop. of township, ’75, 2,240. The village 
 was the scene of a massacre of Americans, Oct, 11, 1778, by Indians and tories under 
 direction of British officers ; 16 soldiers of the revolutionary army and 32 inhabitants, 
 nearly all women and children, were killed, and all others carried into captivity. Every 
 house in the settlement was burned, 
 
 CHER'SIPHRON, an architect of Crete, who, with his son Metagenes, built or began 
 to build the great temple of Artemis at Ephesus, commenced about 600 b.c. The col- 
 umns were erected about 40 years later. It was completed 220 years after its com- 
 mencement, and a few years afterwards was destroyed by fire on the night m which 
 Alexander the great was born. This temple was considered to be one of the seven 
 wonders of the world. 
 
759 
 
 Cherry. 
 
 Cherubinir 
 
 CHER'SO, an island of Illyria, belonging to Austria, in the Adriatic, 12 m. s.s.w. of 
 Fiume. A bridge unites it with the adjoining isle of Lossini. It has an area of about 
 105 sq.m., with a pop. of (1869) 14,000. Its surface is generally hilly and rugged, with 
 forests in the north. The chief town is Cherso, at the head of a bay on the w. side. 
 Pop. ’69, 7,590. 
 
 CHERSON'. See Kherson. 
 
 CHERSONE'SUS, the ancient name of several peninsulas and promontories in Europe, 
 the most important of which are the Crimea (q.v.), 0. Taurica; Gallipoli (q.v.), G. Thra- 
 cia; and Jutland (q.v.), G. Gimhrica. 
 
 CHERT, or Hornstone, a variety of quartz, always massive, and having a kind of 
 granular appearance and structure. It is common in the mountain limestone, oolite, 
 and greensand formations; sometimes forms rocks; and often contains petrifactions. 
 It passes into common quartz and chalcedony, also into flint and flinty slate. Its colors 
 are gray, white, red, yellow, green, or brown. The name C. is sometimes limited to 
 the finer varieties, and the coarser are called hornstone. — The name C. is very commonly 
 given to the silicious concretions which occur as nodules and layers in limestone rocks, 
 like flints in the chalk. When these materials exist to such an extent as to render the 
 limestone useless for economical purposes, it is said to be “cherty.” 
 
 CHERT 'SEY (Anglo-Saxon, Ceort’s Eye or Island), a t. in the co. of Surrey, on a low 
 strip of land between the right bank of the Thames, here crossed by a stone bridge, and 
 the brook from Virginia water, 20 m. w.s.w. of London. It is irregularly built, chiefly 
 consisting of two long cross- streets, and is surrounded by villas. The chief trade is in 
 malt and flour. Many vegetables are raised for the London market. Pop. ’71, 3,146. 
 C. arose in a monastery founded in 666, and rebuilt in 964 by Edgar and the Benedictine 
 monks. The South Saxon kings had a seat here during the heptarchy. Charles James 
 Fox lived on St. Anne’s hill, an abrupt elevation about a mile from the town. Cowley 
 the poet resided in Chertsey. 
 
 CHERUB, in the plural cherubim or cherubs, is the Hebrew name of a winged creature 
 with a human countenance, which in the Scriptures is almost always represented in 
 connection with Jehovah, and especially as drawing his chariot-throne. Cherubim are 
 first mentioned in the Old Testament as guards of paradise ; a C. with a flaming sword 
 hindered the return of the expelled human pair. In the Holy of Holies in the taberna- 
 cle, and afterwards in the temple, cherubim wrought in embossed metal were represented 
 above the mercy-seat, or covering of the ark of the covenant, so that they appeared to 
 rise out of it. Figures of cherubim were also w'rought into the hangings of the Holy of 
 Holies. The cherubim that appear in the visions of Ezekiel and the revelations of John 
 depart much from the early representations. In Ezekiel they have the body of a man, 
 whose head, besides a human countenance, has also that of a lion, an ox, and an eagle ; 
 they are provided with four wings, two of which support the chariot of Jehovah, and 
 serve to fly, while the other two cover the body; the hands are under the wings, and 
 the whole body is spangled with innumerable eyes. In the revelation, four cherubim, 
 covered with eyes, and having six wings, surround the throne of Jehovah; the first has. 
 the face of a lion, the second of an ox, the third of a man, and the fourth of an eagle. 
 This gave rise at a very early period to the symbolical figures of the four evangelists, 
 the human countenance being associated with Matthew, that of the lion with Mark, of 
 the ox with Luke, and of the eagle with John. Most Jewish writers and Christian 
 fathers conceived the cherubim as angels; and Dionysius the Areopagite, in his Gelestial 
 Hierarchy, makes them a separate class in the first hierarchy. Most theologians alsa 
 considered them as angels, until Michaelis showed them to be a poetical creation ; and 
 Herder, in his Spirit of Hebrew Poetry, compared them tothe griffins that watch treasures, 
 and other fabulous figures. In Christian art, they are generally represented as sexless 
 figures, with wings from the shoulders, the legs also being either covered by wings, or 
 having wings substituted for them. Very often they have also a glory round the 
 head. 
 
 CHERUBINI, Luigi-Carlo-Zenobio-Salvatore-Maria, an eminent musical com- 
 poser, was b. at Florence in 1760, and received his early musical training there under 
 the Felici (father and son), P. Bizzari, and C. Castrucci. He afterwards studied for a 
 year at Bologna under Sarti, to whom he owed his thorough knowledge of counterpoint 
 and fugue. He visited London in 1784, where he brought out two operas. La Finta 
 Principessa and Qiulio Sabino, and afterwards settled in Paris for the remainder of his 
 life, paying occasional visits to Italy. His Ifigenia in Aulide appeared in 1788; and in 
 1791, his Loddiska,^ which work first secured proper appreciation for his genius, and 
 effected a change in the whole character of the French school of composition. These 
 operas were followed in succession by Elisa, Medea, Les Deux Jqurnees (also known as 
 Die Wassertrdger), Anacreon, and HHotellerie PorUigaise. His latest opera, Ali Baba, was 
 produced, after a long interval, in 1833. Besides operas, C. wrote numerous masses, 
 motets, and other sacred compositions of so great merit, that Beethoven regarded him 
 as the greatest living master of sacred music; also quartets for the violin, viola, and 
 
Cherubini. 
 
 Chesney. 
 
 760 
 
 violoncello, and symphonies. His latest work, (Jours de Contrepoint et de Fugue, appeared 
 in 1835. C. died at Paris in 1843, and his Requiem, the last of his masses, was performed 
 at his funeral service. 
 
 CHEETJBI'NI, Maria Luigi Carlo Zenobi Salvador, one of the best Italian com- 
 posers, was b. Sept. 8, 1760, at Florence, and d. Mar. 15, 1843, in Paris, where he was 
 director of the conservatoire. In his thirteenth year, by his early compositions — a mass 
 and an intermezzo — he attracted the attention of Sarti, who received him as a pupil. In 
 the interval from 1780 to 1788, he composed eleven Italian operas, including IJigenia in 
 Aulide, the most successful of the series. In 1784, he visited London. After 1786, C. 
 resided chiefly in Paris, whence his fame rapidly extended over Europe. Besides the 
 IJigenia, his chief pieces are Bemoplwon (1788), Lodoiska (1791), Elisa (1794), MHee {11^1), 
 the Portuguese Inn (1798), Les Deux Journees, and Anacreon. C. also composed church 
 music, chamber music, etc. , with singular beauty and success. It is worthy of remark, 
 that the richness of his instrumental music, which was once made a ground of objec- 
 tion, now appears moderate as contrasted with the monstrous prodigalities of the modern 
 orchestra. See Cherubini: Memorials illustrating his Life, by Bellasis (Lond. 1874). 
 
 CHERUSCI, a German tribe first mentioned b}" Caesar. They first dwelt n. of the 
 Silva Bacencis, or Harz forest, but the exact boundaries of their territory cannot be 
 ascertained. They are chiefly memorable in connection with their great leader Arminius, 
 or Hermann, who, having formed an alliance with other German tribes, attacked and 
 annihilated the Roman legions under Varus, in the forest of Teutoburg, 9 a.d. After 
 the death of Arminius, internal strifes broke out among the C., and Tacitus says that 
 they were subjugated by the Chatti, a neighboring tribe. Notwithstanding this, they 
 again appear as the chief tribe in the military league of the Saxons about the end of the 
 3d century. In the beginning of the 4th c., they are included among the peoples who 
 had leagued against Constantine, and towards the close of the same are still mentioned 
 distinctively by Claudian. 
 
 CHERVIL, Anthriscus cerefolium, an umbelliferous plant, which has been long culti- 
 vated as a pot-herb, and used in soups and for a garnish, etc., in the same manner as 
 parsley. It is much more used in some parts of the continent of Europe than in Britain. 
 It is a native of Europe, naturalized in some parts of England. The leaves have a 
 peculiar, somewhat sweetish, pleasantly aromatic smell and taste, by which the plant 
 may be known from its congener anthriscus rulgaris or scandix anthriscus, a poisonous 
 weed, whose leaves have a disagreeable smell, and which is also distinguished by its 
 hispid fruit. There is a variety of C. with large roots, for the sake of wMch it is culti- 
 vated. — The umbelliferous plant called Venus’ Comb or Shepherd’s Needle {scandix 
 pecten or 8. pecten reneris), a native of Britain and of the continent of Europe, often 
 found in corn-fields, and remarkable for the appearance and large size of its fruit, 
 and another species {8. australis) which grows in the s. of Europe, have a taste and 
 smell resembling C., and are used in the same way on the continent. Sweet C. or 
 Sweet Cicely {myrrhis odorata; scandix odorata of the older botanists), a native of the 
 s. of Europe and of some parts of Asia, common in the neighborhood of houses in 
 Britain, although probably not a true native, is frequently cultivated in Germany under 
 the name of 8panish C. or anise chervil. In Scotland, the plant is commonly called 
 myrrh by the peasantry. Its smell is peculiarly attractive to bees; and the insides of 
 empty hives are sometimes rubbed with its leaves, to induce swarms to enter. — The 
 species of cheer ophy Hum, coarse weeds, are also called chervil. 
 
 CHESAPEAKE BAY, the largest inlet on the Atlantic coast of the United States, being 
 300 m. long, and from 4 to 40 broad. Its entrance, 13 m. wide, has, on the n., cape 
 Charles, in lat. 37° 3' n., and long. 76° 3' w. ; and on the s., cape Henry, in lat. 36° 56' n., 
 and long, 76° 4' w., both promontories being in Virginia, C. B. has numerous arms, 
 which receive many navigable rivers, such as the Susquehanna and the Patapsco on the 
 n., through Maryland; the James on the s.w., from Virginia; and the Potomac on the 
 w., between these two states. Unlike the shallow sounds towards the s. (see Carolinas), 
 this network of gulfs and estuaries, to say nothing of its noble feeders, affords depth 
 •of water for ships of any burden, virtually carrying the ocean up to the wharves of 
 Baltimore and the arsenals of Washington. 
 
 CHESEBRO’, Caroline, 1835-73; a native of New York, author of a number of 
 w'orks of fiction, mostly of a moral or religious nature; among them. Dreamland by 
 Daylight; The Little Gross-bearers; The Fisherman's Daughter; The Beautiful Gate; and 
 The Foe in the Household. She was for many years a teacher in the Packer institute, in 
 Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 CHE'SELDEN, William, an English surgeon and anatomist, was b. in 1688, at Bar- 
 row-on-the-llill, in Leicestershire. He commenced his medical studies at fifteen, at 
 twenty-three established himself as a lecturer on anatomy, and in the following year 
 was elected a fellow of the royal society. He was afterwards appointed surgeon to St. 
 Thomas’s, St. George’s, and Westminster hospitals, where he acquired great reputation 
 as an operator. In this respect, few surgeons, if any, ever surpassed him. He died at 
 
761 
 
 Cherubini. 
 
 Chesney. 
 
 Bath, 11th April, 1752, C.’s principal works oxe Anatomy of the Human Body (1713), 
 long a text-book on the subject in England; a Treatise on the Operation for the Stone 
 (1723); and Osteology, or Anatomy of the Bones (1733). He also contributed several 
 valuable papers to the philosophical transactions of the royal society. 
 
 CHESHIRE, a co. in s.w. New Hampshire, bordering on Vermont and Massachu- 
 setts, bounded on the w. by the Connecticut and drained by the Ashuelot river, and 
 traversed by the Ashuelot and Cheshire railroad; 770 sq.m.; pop, ’80,28,734. It has a 
 hilly surface, with some mountains, the highest being Grand Monadnock. There are 
 several small lakes and ponds in the county. The soil is fertile, particularly along the 
 rivers. The chief productions are grain, potatoes, hay, wool, butter, cheese, and maple 
 sugar; and there are also many manufactories. Co. seat, Keene. 
 
 CHESHIRE, a maritime co. in the w. of England, bounded n. by the river Mersey, and 
 partly also by the Irish sea, in lat. 52° 56' to 53° 54' n., long. 1° 47' to 3°^T1' west. Its 
 greatest length from n.e. to s.w. is 58 m. ; greatest breadth, 32; area, 1052 sq.m., of 
 which only is uncultivated; circuit, 200 m., of which 8 are coast. The surface forms 
 an extensive nearly level plain between the Derbyshire and Welsh mountains, well 
 wooded, and studded with small lakes or meres, and chiefly occupied by grazing and 
 dairy tracts, which are among the most important in England. This plain, comprising 
 four fifths of the surface, rests on new red sandstone, and is crossed, near the middle, 
 by % tract of high ground running s.w. from a promontory overlooking the Mersey, near 
 the mouth of the Weaver, to Beeston castle rock, 366 ft. high. On the e. border of the 
 CO. is a line of new red sandstone hills. In the n.e. is part of the Lancashire coal-field 
 In the e. are large tracts of peat, and much of the co. is wet and rushy. The n.w. pari- 
 of C. forms a hammer-headed peninsula called Wirral, about 8 m. broad, between the 
 estuaries of the Dee and Mersey. Coal-measures appear on the w. side of this peninsula, 
 as well as on the w. border of the main part of the county. The chief rivers are the 
 Dee, Mersey, and Weaver, which are navigable. The Dee skirts the co. on the w. 55 
 m., and the Mersey on the n. for 40 miles. ^The Weaver rises in the e. part of the co., 
 and runs 40 m. w.n.w. into the Mersey. The co. contains an almost unrivaled system 
 of canals, including the celebrated Bridgewater canal, and is traversed by the main line 
 of the London and Liverpool railway, and the Crewe, Chester, and Holjdiead railway. 
 The chief mineral products are rock-sait and coal. The rock-salt, discovered in 1670, 
 and mined by gunpowder, is found near the Weaver and its branches, especially near 
 Norwich, at the deph of 28 to 48 yards, in two beds, the upper one being 15 to 25 yards, 
 and the low^er one above 40 yards thick, under a stratum of hard rock, 25 to 35 yards 
 thick. The mines, one occupying 35 acres, when lighted up, resemble a fairy palace 
 sparkling with gems and crystal. Much salt is also made from brine-springs 20 to 40 
 yards deep. Coal is worked in the n.e. part of the county. There are also lead (with 
 cobalt) and copper-mines, and in almost every part of the co. freestone, limestone, 
 millstone, and marl are found. The climate is moist. The soil is mostly a clayey or 
 sandy loam, with marl and peat, and very fertile. The soil and climate are well fitted 
 for pasturing, dairy-farming, and cheese-making, which are the chief agricultural occu- 
 pations. Arout 160,000 cows are kept in C., and the quantity of cheese annually pro- 
 duced is estimated at from 15,000 to 30,000 tons — the best being made on the strongest 
 lands. The hedgerows abound in oaks. C. is a manufacturing as well as an agricultural 
 county. Pop. in 1871, 561,131. The chief town are Chester (the co. town), Mac- 
 clesfield, Stockport, Congleton, Knutsford, and Birkenhead, The co. of C. returns ^ 
 members to parliament. C. has some Roman roads, tumuli, barrows, remains' of 
 religious houses, and many old castles and halls. The 12th Roman legion occupied Ches- 
 ter till the 3d century. Egbert, in 828, added C. to the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Mercia. 
 William the conqueror erected C. into a co. palatine, under Hugh Lupus, with an 
 independent parliament and 8 barons. Henry VIII. subordinated it to the English crown ; 
 but C, did not send representatives to the English parliament till 1549, and the separate 
 jurisdiction ceased entirely only in 1831. 
 
 CHESNE, Andre Du. See Duchesne, ante. 
 
 CHESNEY, Charles Cornwallis, 1826-76; a brevet-col. in the Brit ish royal engi- 
 neers, who first attracted attention by A Military View of Recent Campaigns in Virginia 
 and Maryland, published in 1863, which was followed two years later by Campaigns in 
 Virginia and Maryland, both having reference to the war of the rebellion in the United 
 States. The work from which he received the greatest fame at home was Waterho Lec- 
 tures. He published, also. The Military Resources of Prussia and Prance; Recent Changes 
 in the Art of War; and Essays in Modern Military Biography. 
 
 CHESNEY, Francis Rawdon, 1789-1872, a British soldier who projected and led 
 the Euphrates expedition bj^ an overland route to India in 1835-6. He was a brig. gen. 
 in China in 1843, maj.geii. in 1855, and gen. in 1868. He wrote Expedition for the Survey 
 of Euphrates and Tigris; Ohserijations on the Past and Present States of Fire-arms; Russo- 
 Turkish Campaigns of 1828-29; and Narrative of the Phiphrates Expedition. 
 
Oliess. 
 
 762 
 
 CHESS (Fr. ^hec&, Ger. schacli). The origin of this, the most purely intellectual of 
 all games of skill, has been much disputed ; thus much may now be considered as cer- 
 tain, that, under the Sanscrit name of chaturanga, a game, essentially the same as mod- 
 ern C., was played in Hindustan nearly 5,000 years ago. In its gradual diffusion through 
 the world in succeeding ages, the game has undergone many alterations and modifica- 
 tions, both in nature and in name ; but marked traces of its early Asiatic origin and 
 descent are still discerned by the learned in its nomenclature and other characteristics. 
 From Hindustan, C. spread into Persia, and thence into Arabia. The Arabs, it would 
 appear, in the 8th c., introduced the game into Spain and the rest of western Europe; 
 and in England, chess-play seems to have been known prior to the Norman conquest. 
 Into Constantinople, and probably some other cities of eastern Europe, the game may 
 have been imported from Persia at a period earlier than its Moorish conveyance into Spain. 
 
 The original Hindu game was played on a board of sixty-four squares, as now, but 
 hy four persons, two being allied against two, as in whist. Hence the name chaturanga, 
 from chatur, “four,” and anga, “a member” or “ component part.” The name shatranj, 
 used by the Persians and Arabs, is a corruption of the Sanscrit. The English, French, and 
 other European names are derived from the Persian term shah, “king.” Check, the 
 warning when the king is in danger, is but another form of shah; in fact, “king” is 
 sometimes used for “check,” and in German schach is both the name of the game and 
 the term of warning. The term rook is from the Sans, roka, Pers. rukh, meaning a ship 
 or chariot ; pawn is said to be from peon, an attendant, or foot-soldier. 
 
 The books written upon C. “ would form a tolerably large library.” Of works on the 
 antiquities of the subject, we may mention Dr. D. Forbes’s History of Chess (Lond. 1860). 
 The best modern practical works on the art of chess-play are the Chessplayer's Hand- 
 book; C. Praxis; and Chess: Theory and Practice, by Staunton; Morphy’s Carnes at C., 
 edited by Lowenthal; Jaenisch’s Treatise on the Openings, translated by Walker; and 
 Horwitz and Kling’s Collection of End-games. The subject is also pretty fully treated in 
 Chambers’s Information for the People, “In-door Amusements.” 
 
 The game of C. is played upon a square board marked out into sixty-four square 
 divisions, which are colored alternately black and white, in order the more clearly to 
 determine and denote the respective movements of the several pieces. In placing the 
 board for play, each player must always have a white corner square at his right hand. 
 There are two sets of pieces, of opposite colors, of sixteen men each, and of various 
 powers according to their rank. These sets of men are arrayed opposite to each other, 
 and attack, defend, and capture, like hostile armies. The accompanying diagram will 
 best explain the name, form, and place of each man at the commencement of the game ; 
 
 Black. 
 
 Rook. Knight. Bishop. Queen. King. Bishop. Knight. Rook. 
 White. 
 
 The superior officers occupying the first row on each side are coWed pieces; the infe- 
 rior men, all alike, standing on the row immediately in front of the pieces, are called 
 pawns. Their moves and powers, along with the peculiar terms used in C. , may be 
 briefly described as follows; 
 
763 
 
 Chess. 
 
 Kpawn, at first move, may advance either ono or two squares, straightforward; 
 but after having once moved, he can only advance a single square at a time. In capturing* 
 an adverse piece, however, a pawn moves one square diagonally, either right or left; but 
 the pawn never moves backward. On arriving at an 8th square, or the extreme line of 
 the board, a pawn may be exchanged for any piece his owner chooses to call for, except 
 a king, so that a player may have several queens on the board at once. If, on moving 
 two squares, a pawn pass by an adverse pawn which has arrived at the 5th line, the 
 advanced adverse pawn may take the other in passing in exactly the same manner as if 
 the latter had moved but one square. 
 
 A bishop moves any number of squares diagonally, but diagonally only; therefore a 
 bishop can never change the color of his square. 
 
 A knight moves two squares, so as always to change color — that is, he moves one 
 square forward or backward, and one diagonally. On account of this crooked move- 
 ment, he can leap over or between any surrounding pieces; and therefore a knight’a 
 check — unless he can be taken — always compels the king to move. 
 
 The rook, or castle, moves any number of squares forward, backward, or sidewise, 
 but not diagonally. 
 
 The queen is by far the most powerful of the pieces, and moves over any number of 
 squares, either in straight lines or diagonals, forward, backward, or sidewise; so that 
 her action is a union of that of the rook and bishop. At starting, the queen always 
 stands on a square of her own color. 
 
 The king is the most important piece on the board, as the game depends upon his 
 safety. He moves only one square at once, in any direction, except when he castles — a 
 term to be explained presently. The king cannot be taken ; but when any other piece 
 attacks him, he is said to be in check, and must either move out of check or interpose 
 some one of his subjects, unless the checking piece can be captured. When there is 
 no means of rescuing the king from check, he is said to be checkmated, and the 
 game is over. Of course, the two kings can never meet, as they would be in check to 
 each other. Double-check is when a piece, by being moved, not only gives check itself, 
 but also discovers a previously masked attack from another. 
 
 Castling is a privilege allowed to the king once in a game. The move is performed 
 either with the king’s rook or queen’s rook — in the former case, the king is moved to the 
 king’s knight’s square, and the king’s rook is placed on the king’s bishop’s square; in 
 the latter case, the king is played to the queen’s bishop’s square, and the queen’s rook is 
 played to the queen’s square. But the king cannot castle after having once moved, nor 
 at a moment when he is actually in check, nor with a rook that has moved, nor when 
 he passes over a square attacked or checked by an adverse piece, nor when any piece 
 stands between him and the rook with which he would castle, nor when in the act of 
 castling either the king or rook would have to capture an adverse piece. 
 
 A drawn game results from neither pjayer being able to checkmate the other: thus, a 
 king left alone on each side must of course produce a draw, as do also a king with a 
 bishop, or a knight, against a king. 
 
 Stalemate, or the not being able to move either the king or any other piece, also con- 
 stitutes a drawn game. 
 
 Odds is a term applied to the advantage which a stronger player should give to a 
 weaker: thus, the removal of a rook or knight from the better player’s forces m^ be 
 fair odds; or if the players are more nearly matched, the one may give a pawn. When 
 the odds of a pawn are given, it is always understood to be the king’s bishop’s pawn. 
 
 Gambit is a technical word implying the sacrifice of a pawn early in the game, for 
 the purpose of taking up an attacking position with the pieces. 
 
 Supposing the worth of a pawn to be represented by unity, the following is a toler- 
 able average estimate of the comparative value of the pieces: Pawn 1, biship 3, knight 
 3, king 4, rook 5, queen 9. 
 
 The chess-men being placed, the players begin the engagement by moving alternately ; 
 each aiming to gain a numerical superiority by capturing his opponent’s men, as well as 
 such advantages of position as may conduce to victory. 
 
 The rows of squares running straight up and down the board are called files, those 
 running from side to side are called lin£s, and those running obliquely across are termed 
 diagonals. 
 
 The playing over the following short game will serve the learner as a little initiatory 
 practice : 
 
 WHITE. 
 
 1. King’s Pawn two. 
 
 2. King’s Bishop to Queen’s Bishop’s 4th. 
 
 3. Queen to King’s Kook’s 5th. 
 
 4. Queen takes King’s Bishop’s Pawn, giv- 
 
 ing Black checkmate. 
 
 BLACK. 
 
 1. King’s Pawn two. 
 
 2. King’s Bishop to Q Bp’s 4th. 
 
 3. King’s Knight to K Bp’s 3d. 
 
 the captor 
 
 * Taking is always performed by lifting the captured man from the board, and placing 
 on his square. The pawn is the only man whose mode of taking differs from his ordinary move. 
 
Chess. 
 
 Chest. 
 
 764 
 
 The foregoing brief mode of giving a checkmate is called the Scholar's mate, and is 
 often practiced upon young and unwary players. Any contractions used, such as “ K ” 
 for king, “ B ” for bishop, etc., will readily be understood by the use of the diagrams. 
 
 In the conduct of the game, and in the practice of C., the following rules, precepts, 
 and hints will be found very generally useful : 
 
 Play forth your minor pieces early, and castle your king in good time. You may 
 sometimes delay castling with advantage, but not often. 
 
 Do not expect to be able to establish an enduring attack with half your forces at 
 home. 
 
 Seek to let your style of play be attacking; and remember the gaining or losing of 
 time in your measures is the element of winning or losing the game. 
 
 Never touch a piece without moving it, nor suffer yourself or your opponent to 
 infringe any other of the laws of the game. 
 
 You will find, when first player, that the opening, springing from your playing 1st 
 king’s pawn two, and then your king’s knight to the bishop’s 3d, is one of the best 
 that you can adopt ; but do not adhere to any one opening only. 
 
 If you wish to adopt a purely defensive opening, you may play 1st king’s pawn 
 one, and follow up with Q P 2, and Q B P 2. 
 
 Next to playing with good players, nothing will conduce to improvement more than 
 looking on at two expert players whilst they play. Wanting these advantages, it is best 
 to play over openings, and actual games, from books or journals. 
 
 To prevent blunders and oversights, always endeavor to perceive the motive of your 
 adversary’s move before you play; and look often round the board to see that you are 
 not losing sight of any better move than the one you intended, or that you are not 
 suffering yourself to be tempted by a bait. 
 
 When an onlooker, never interfere. 
 
 Always endeavor to lose with good temper, and to bear your adversary’s faults with 
 a good grace. 
 
 The Laws op Chess. — T he laws of C. are at present in a somewhat unsettled, 
 unsatisfactory condition ; but the following are the principal prevailing regulations of 
 the game : 
 
 1. If any error have been committed in the placing of the board or men, either player 
 may claim that the game shall be finished as it stands, after four moves have been com- 
 pleted on each side, but not else. 
 
 2. A move once made, by your having moved a piece and left hold of it, cannot be 
 retracted. 
 
 3. If you touch a piece, you must play that piece ; but as long as you retain your 
 hold, you can play it where you like. If you touch a piece that cannot move, your 
 opponent may compel you to play your king, unless the king be unable to move. When 
 you touch your pieces for the mere purpose of adjusting them, you are bound to say so. 
 
 4. If you make a false move, your opponent may either cause you to retract it and 
 move your king, or he may claim that the false move shall stand, or that you shall make 
 a legal move with the same piece, at his pleasure. 
 
 5. If you touch one of your opponent’s men, he may compel you to take that man; 
 or if that be impossible, to move your king, provided he can move without going into 
 check. 
 
 6. If on the king being checked, due notice is not given, the player whose king is 
 attacked is not bound to notice it. 
 
 7. In every fresh game, except when one is drawn, the first move alternates. 
 
 8. Drawn games counting as no games at all, the player who had the first move in a 
 drawn game is also entitled to it in the next. (This absurd regulation is fast becoming 
 obsolete; and it is now a common agreement in playing a series of games, that the move 
 shall invariably alternate.) 
 
 9. A player who gives the odds of a piece, is entitled to the first move. 
 
 10. The time for consideration of a move is not limited; but a player leaving a game 
 unfinished without his opponent’s permission, loses such game. 
 
 11. When at the end of a game one player is left with just sufficient superiority of 
 force to win — such as a king and rook against king, king and two bishops, or king, 
 knight, and bishop against king — he who has the greater force must give checkmate 
 within fifty moves on each side, or else the game is adjudged to be drawn. This law is 
 framed to prevent unskillful players from wearying their opponents by persisting in the 
 .attempt to accomplish what they are too untutored to effect; and it is perfectly just, 
 since the allotted number of moves is amply large enough and to spare. 
 
 12. In case of any dispute about the laws, both players are to agree as to an umpire, 
 whose decision is to be considered final. 
 
 As there is no branch of chess-study better calculated to advance the skill of a learner 
 than the attentively playing over recorded games between first-rate players, we have 
 given an example of a game played blindfold, simultaneously with five other games, by 
 the celebrated American chess-player, Paul Morphy. This gentleman visited England 
 and the continent of Europe in 1858, and in his contests with the best players fairly 
 <'arried all before him, so that he soon ranked as the greatest chess-player living. 
 
765 
 
 Chess. 
 
 Chest. 
 
 White— Mr. Morphy. 
 
 1. P to K 4. 
 
 2. ICt to B 3. 
 
 3. K B to Q B 4. 
 
 4. P to Q Kt 4. 
 
 6. PtoQBS 
 
 6. P to Q 4. 
 
 7. Castles. 
 
 8. Q B to R 3. 
 
 9. Q to Q Kt 3. 
 
 10. Q Kt takes P. 
 
 11. Q takes B. 
 
 12. Q R to Q. 
 
 13. PtoKRS. 
 
 14. Kt takes Kt. 
 
 15. B to K 2. 
 
 16. P to K B 4. 
 
 17. KBtoB4, ch. 
 
 18. QBtoKt2. 
 
 19. QRtoK. 
 
 20. P takes P. 
 
 21. RtoK8. 
 
 22. Q takes R. 
 
 23. Q takes Kt P, ch. 
 
 24. P to K B 6. 
 
 25. K takes Q. 
 
 26. K takes B. 
 
 27. R to K Kt, and wins. 
 
 Black— Mr. C . 
 
 1. P to K 4. 
 
 2. Q Kt to B 3. 
 
 3. K B to Q B 4. 
 
 4. B takes Kt P. 
 
 5. B to Q R 4. 
 
 6. P takes P. 
 
 7. P takes P. 
 
 8. P to Q 3. 
 
 9. K Kt to R 3. 
 
 10. K B takes Kt. 
 
 11. Castles. 
 
 12. KttoKKt5. 
 
 13. K Kt to K 4. 
 
 14. Kt takes Kt. 
 
 15. P to K B 4. 
 
 16. Kt to Q B 3. 
 
 17. KtoR. 
 
 18. Q to K 2. 
 
 19. R to B 3. 
 
 20. Q to K B squ. 
 
 21. Q takes R. 
 
 22. Q to K 2. 
 
 23. Q takes Q. 
 
 24. Q takes Kt P, ch. 
 
 25. B takes P, ch. 
 
 26. PtoKR4. 
 
 CHESS, or Cheat, common names of the hromus secalinus, a plant of the order 
 graminacecB; a troublesome weed that frequently springs up in wheat-fields, the seed 
 mixing with the true wheat, from which it can be separated only with difficulty. It was 
 once generally believed among farmers that wheat itself was transmuted into chess. 
 
 CHEST, Militaky, is a technical name for the money and negotiable securities carried 
 with an army, and intended to defray the current expenses. In the English military 
 system, this department is managed by the commissariat. 
 
 CHEST, Naval. The name of C. has been given to certain funds, maintained for 
 the benefit of seamen belonging to the royal navy. A fund, called the Chest at Chatham, 
 was suggested so long ago as the days of Drake and Hawkins, for the relief of 
 wounded and superannuated seamen. * In 1590, all seafaring men in queen Elizabeth’s 
 service consented to a stoppage out of their pay of 2d to 6d per month, to support this 
 fund. The money was not in those days, as it would be now, put out to interest ; it 
 was kept in a C., and hence the name given to the fund itself. During the 18th c., the 
 system became organized in a better manner; but still the fund retained the name of C. ; 
 insomuch that when the office was removed from Chatham to Greenwich, in 1803, it 
 became the Chest at Greenwich. The C. is managed ex officio, and the accounts are 
 annually laid before parliament. Handsome gifts are occasionally made to the fund by 
 individuals. Disabled sailors receive a present sum of money, if not deprived of the 
 power of earning a living; but if their injuries are more permanent, they receive a 
 pension from the C., for one year, or for several years, or for life, paid half-yearly. 
 
 CHEST, or Tho'rax, in anatomy, is the part of the body which lies beneath the neck 
 and above the abdomen (q.v.), constituting the uppermost of the two divisions of the 
 trunk, or that which contains the heart and lungs, and is bounded externally by the 
 ribs. The C. is somewhat conical in form, the broad or lower end of the cone 
 being shut in by the diaphragm, a large muscular partition which projects upwards from 
 the lower ribs, being convex towards the C., and concave towards the abdomen. In 
 respiration (q.v.), the diaphragm descends by its own muscular contraction, whde at the 
 sarne time the ribs are drawn upwards and outwards by the intercostal muscles. The 
 ■cavity of the C. is thus enlarged, the lungs are expanded, and air is drawn into them 
 through the trachea or windpipe and bronchi. See Lungs. The combination of bone, 
 ■cartilage, muscle, and tendon entering into the composition of the C. is such as to per- 
 mit of expansion-movement to the extent required, and yet to guard against over-expan- 
 sion, which would be fatal to the delicate textures within. The bones of the C. are at 
 the same time a powerful protection against external injury. 
 
 The structures forming the walls of the C. are: 1. The backbone or spinal column, 
 divided into 24 vertebrae, 12 of which, called the dorsal vertebrae, form the thoracic 
 portion. 2. Twelve ribs, attached to the transverse processes or projecting portions of 
 the dorsal vertebrae, and ending in front in the costal cartilages, by which thecibs are 
 connected with. 3. The sternum or breast-bone, which occupies the middle line. 4. 
 The diaphragm (q.v.). See also Skeleton. 
 
 The contents of the C. are the heart, the great arteries and veins, the lungs, the 
 
Chester. 
 
 Chestnut. 
 
 766 
 
 trachea or windpipe, the bronchi or branches of the trachea, leading to the lungs, 
 the oesophagus or gullet, and the thoracic duct (q.v.), or general terminus of the 
 lymphatic system of vessels, by which the chyle and lymph are discharged into the 
 blood. The very great importance of these parts to life, and their great liability to 
 deranged action, renders the C. the seat of a large proportion of the diseases which 
 afflict humanity, and especially of those which (hid in death. Indeed, of the three 
 organs which the great physiologist, Bichat, called the “tripod of life” — viz., the brain, 
 heart, and lungs — the C. contains two; hence its condition in almost all diseases, and 
 especially in fatal diseases, is an object of the utmost solicitude to the physician. 
 
 The diseases of the C. depend in some cases on alterations in its form, as by 
 rickets (q v.) and other diseases affecting the bones in early childhood or in youth, as by 
 too tight lacing in girls. The lungs and air-tubes are subject to a great variety of 
 diseases, among which the principal are consumption or phthisis pulmonalis, pneumonia, 
 pleurisy, bronchitis or pulmonary catarrh. The heart is subject to pericarditis, 
 endocarditis, and chronic organic disease of the valves, as well as to enlargement 
 (hypertrophy), dilatation, and degenerations of its muscular texture. The aorta, or 
 great artery, is often affected with degeneration of its walls, and occasionally with 
 aneurism. The great veins are liable to over-distension, and to obstruction by tumors 
 or by coagulation of the contained blood. The thoracic duct is also sometimes obstructed 
 by external pressure; and the oesophagus has a number of diseases usually described in 
 connection with the alimentary canal. Most of the diseases here referred to are 
 described either under special articles, or under Lungs and Heart. 
 
 The examination of the C. by physicians is now conducted not only by an investiga- 
 tion of the symptoms or obvious characters of the disease, but by a minute and elaborate 
 examination into the physical condition of the contained organs by means of auscultation 
 (q.v.), percussion (q.v.), measurement, etc. The application of these methods is too 
 complicated and technical for explanation in detail, but their results will be shortly 
 alluded to incidentally in the articles above referred to on the diseases of the chest. 
 The name of Laennec (q.v.) will be long remembered in medicine as that of a great 
 original observer, who has contributed more than any other to the progress of knowl- 
 edge in this department. 
 
 CHESTER, a co. in s.e. Pennsylvania, on the Delaware and Maryland borders, 
 traversed by the Pennsylvania Central, Philadelphia and Baltimore, Philadelphia and 
 Reading, and other railroads; 738 sq.m. ; pop. SO, 83,480. The soil is rich and is thor- 
 oughly cultivated, producing wheat, corn, oats, potatoes, hay, butter, wool, etc. There 
 are deposits of chromate of iron, gneiss, porcelain clay, sandstone, copper, lead, iron, 
 and occasionally zinc, agate, amethyst, silver, titanium, zircon, sapphire, and beryl are 
 found. The historical Valley Forge is in the co., which also contains the birthplace of 
 Anthony Wayne. Co. seat. West Chester. 
 
 CHESTER, a co. in n. South Carolina, between the Catawba and Broad rivers, 
 traversed by the Charlotte, Columbia and Augusta, and the King’s Mountain railroads. 
 The surface is uneven, soil fertile; business mainly agricultural. Co. seat, Chesterville. 
 
 CHESTER, a city in Delaware co., Penn., on the Delaware river and the Philadel- 
 phia and Wilmington railroad; 10 m. s.w. of Philadelphia; pop. ’70, 9,485. C. is the 
 oldest town in the state, having been settled by Swedes in 1643. William Penn’s pro- 
 vincial assembly was held in Chester, and it was the co. seat of Chester co. until Dela- 
 ware CO. was set off in 1789. 
 
 CHESTER, an ancient and episcopal city, municipal and parliamentary borough, and 
 river-port, the capital of Cheshire, on the right bank of the Dee, 22 m. from the mouth 
 of its estuary, 16 m. s.e. of Liverpool. It stands on a rocky sandstone height, and is. 
 mostly inclosed in an oblong quadrangle of ancient walls, 7 or 8 ft. thick, nearly 2 m. 
 in circuit, and with 4 gates, and now forming a promenade with parapets, where two 
 persons can walk abreast. The two main streets cross each other at right angles, and 
 were cut out of the rock by the Romans 4 to 10 ft. below the level of the houses. ^ The 
 houses in these streets are curiously arranged; the front parts of their second stories, as 
 far back as 16 ft., form a continuous paved promenade or covered gallery, open in front 
 where there are pillars and steps up from the street below, with private houses above, 
 inferior shops and warehouses below, and the chief shops of the town within. This 
 arrangement, called the “rows,” together with the ancient walls, and the half-timbered 
 construction of many of the houses, with quaintly carved ornamented gables of the 16th 
 c., render C. perhaps the most picturesque city in England. C. cathedral is an irregular 
 massive structure of crumbling sandstone, 375 by 200 ft., with a tower of 127 feet. It 
 was formerly the church of the abbey of St. Werburgh. and for 650 years was one of 
 the richest in England. St. John’s church, now partially in ruins, is supposed to have 
 been founded by Ethelred in 698. The Dee is crossed by a superb stone arch of 200 ft. 
 span. Suburbs of villas have recently arisen outside the walls ; and a public park, pre- 
 sented by the marquis of Westminster, was opened in 1867. The C. railway station is 
 the centq^- of several important railways, and is one of the largest and finest in the king- 
 dom. C. has manufactures of lead, iron-foundries, chemical works, and an iron-ship- 
 building yard. The chief exports are cheese, copper, cast-iron, and coal. C. has many 
 charitable and religious institutions, and is the abode of many wealthy families. Pop. 
 
767 
 
 Chester. 
 
 Chestnut. 
 
 ’71, 35,257. The city is a county in itself, and returns two members to parliament. 
 In 1875, 3,550 vessels, of 218,368 tons, entered and cleared, but the silting up of the 
 mouth of the Dee is against the shipping trade, 
 
 C. was Devana' Castra, or Colouia Devana, an important Roman station, and has 
 yielded many Roman remains — as masonry, coins, inscriptions, fibulae, altars, a hypo- 
 caust, and a statue of Pallas. C. was only in 828 taken by the Saxons from the Britons. 
 Its strength made it a refuge against the descents of the Danes and Northmen, but 
 the Danes took it in 894. Ethelfrida retook it in 904, and rebuilt the walls. From the 
 Norman conquest to the time of Henry III. , the earls of C. had their own courts and 
 parliaments at C,, with 8 subfeudatories and the superiors of the great religious houses, 
 C. being then a county palatine. Henry III. made his eldest son earl of C., a title held 
 since by the prince of Wales. Llewelyn ravaged C. in 1255. The 25 famous C. mys- 
 teries or religious plays by Randle, a monk (1250-60), were acted in the church. After 
 a long siege, the parliamentary forces defeated those of Charles I. at C., and took the 
 city. Pearson and Porteus were bishops of Chester. Trinity church contains the 
 remains of Matthew Henry, the Biblical commentator. The commerce of C. has stead- 
 ily declined since the rise of Liverpool. 
 
 CHESTERFIELD, a co. in n.e. South Carolina, intersected by the Cheraw and Dar- 
 lington railroad ; 868 sq.m.; pop. 80,16,345 — 6846 colored. Productions chiefly agri- 
 cultural. Co. seat. Chesterfield Court House. 
 
 CHESTERFIELD, a co. in s.e. Virginia, between the Appomattox and the James 
 river, traversed by the Richmond and Petersburg, and the Richmond, Danville, and 
 Piedmont railroads; 300 sq.m. ; pop. '80, 23,773 — 10,538 colored. Coal is abundant, but 
 agriculture is the chief business, and corn and tobacco are the principal crops. Co. seat. 
 Chesterfield Court House. 
 
 CHESTEEFIELD, a municipal borough in Derbyshire, near the Hipper and Rother 
 rivulets, 24 m. n.n.e. of Derby by rail. There are manufactures of leather, silk, lace, 
 earthenware, and machinery ; and there are several blasting-furnaces in the neighbor- 
 hood. The manufactures are increasing rapidly, and the minerals in the neighborhood, 
 including coal, iron, potters’ and brick clay, slates, and lead, are being greatly developed. 
 The population was, in 1851, 7,100; in 1871, 11,427. Trade is facilitatea by a canal con- 
 necting C. with the Trent, and by the main line of the Midland railway. 
 
 CHESTERFIELD, Earl of (Philip Dobmer Stanhope), an English statesman and 
 author, eldest son of the third earl of C., was b. in London, Sept. 22, 1694, and 
 studied at Cambridge. In 1714, he made the tour of Europe, and the following year 
 was appointed a gentleman of the bedchamber to the prince of Wales. About the same 
 time, he was elected m.p. for St. Germains, in Cornwall. In 1726, on his father’s death, 
 he became earl of C., and in 1727 was sworn a privy-councillor. In 1728, he was 
 appointed ambassador extraordinary to Holland, and in 1730 was made a knight of the 
 garter and lord steward of the household, but soon resigned that oflSce. An eloquent 
 and frequent speaker, he took an active part in all the important business in the house 
 of lords, and was for several years the strenuous opponent of sir Robert Walpole, then 
 premier. In 1744, he connected himself with the administration, and in 1745 was 
 reappointed ambassador to the Hague, but was soon nominated lord-lieut. of Ireland, 
 where he rendered himself exceedingly popular. In Oct., 1746, he became one of the 
 principal secretaries of state, but, two years after, declining health caused him to resign 
 office, and in 1752 he was seized with deafness. Distinguished by brilliancy of wit, 
 polished grace of manners, and elegance of conversation, he lived in intimacy with 
 Pope, Swift, Bolingbroke, and other eminent men of the day. Dr. Johnson, whose 
 dictionary, on its appearance, he affected to recommend, called him “a wit among 
 lords, and a lord among wits.” He wrote several papers, on temporary subjects, in The 
 Craftsman, ±he World, periodicals of the time; but he is now best known by his Letters 
 to his Son, Philip Dormer, written for the improvement of his manners. These letters 
 have been often republished, and they afford a good idea of the mental and moral caliber 
 of the author. Lord C. died Mar. 24, 1773. 
 
 CHESTERFIELD INLET, a long and narrow gulf, penetrating to the westward from 
 the n.w. of Hudson’s bay. Its extreme dimensions are 250 and 25 m. ; and the lat, and 
 long, of its mouth are 63° 30' n., and 90° 40' west. C. I. is studded nearly throughout 
 with islands. 
 
 CHESTNUT, Gastanea, a genus of plants of the natural order cupuUferce, closely allied 
 to the beech (fagus), and distinguished from it by long male catkins, longitudinally set 
 with groups of flowers, a 5 to 8-celled ovary, and compressed rounded nuts. The name is 
 derived from the town of Castanum, near Magnesia, in Asia Minor. The Common C., 
 Spanish C., or Sweet C. {C. vulgaris), is said to have been first brought from Asia Minor 
 to Sardinia, and from thence to have gradually extended over the s. of Europe, where it 
 has long been naturalized, and forms extensive woods. It is an ornamental, stately, or, 
 in exposed situations, a very spreading tree, of great size and longevity ; the still surviv- 
 ing C. of Totworth in England was known as a boundary-mark in the reign of king 
 John. A celebrated C. tree on Mt. Etna measured 204 ft. in circumference of trunk. 
 The C. has oblongo-lanceolate, acuminate, serrated, smooth leaves. The timber is dura- 
 
Chesuncook. 
 
 Chevrons. 
 
 T68 
 
 ble and hard, and is used in house-building, for making furniture, and for many other 
 purposes. The timber of the C. so much resembles that of the oak, as in old buildings 
 to be distinguished with difficulty. The bark is used for tanning, but is worth only 
 about half the price of oak-bark. Young C. trees are much esteemed for hop and espa- 
 lier poles. The C. is therefore frequently grown in England as coppice- wood; but it 
 succeeds well as a timber-tree even in Scotland, although it does not generally ripen its 
 fruit. In Devonshire, however, and in some other parts of England, it is planted to a 
 considerable extent as a fruit-tree. It succeeds throughout all the middle latitudes 
 of Germany, but dislikes a damp foggy atmosphere. It prefers a dry light soil, and 
 succeeds only where there is a dry subsoil. The nuts are generally two in each husk. 
 They form a principal part of the food of the poor in the s. of Europe, being used either 
 roasted or boiled, and often ground into flour, and made into a kind of bread. 
 They contain 15 per cent of sugar, and by pressure yield a sugary juice, which readily 
 undergoes the vinous fermentation, and from which a crumb-like kind of sugar may be 
 obtained. The best kinds of chestnuts are called by the French marrons. When cultivated 
 as a fruit-tree, the C. is generally grafted, by which means the better varieties are secured. 
 — Other species of C. also bear eatable fruits: those of the Amrican C. ((7. Americana), a. 
 tree much resembling the commonC., and of the Dwarf C., or Chinquapin ((7. pumila), 
 a low tree, or more generally a shrub of 7 to 8 ft. high, are used in America. The fruit 
 of the dwarf C. is of the size of a common hazel-nut; the nut is convex on both sides. 
 The plant reaches its southern limit on the banks of the Delaware. — A number of spe- 
 cies are natives of the east. The inhabitants of the mountains of Java eat the fruit of 
 the Silvery C. ((7. argentea), and the Tungurrut ((7. tungurrut), boiled or roasted, like the 
 common chestnut. Both of these are laige trees, the tungurrut reaching a height of 150 
 ft. — The horse C. Cpuv.) is entirely different from the true chestnut. 
 
 CHESUlSr'COOK LAKE, an expansion of Penobscot river In Piscataquis co., Me.» 
 about 24 m. long by 2 to 4 m. wide. 
 
 CHEVALIER (Fr. cheval, a horse), in heraldry, a horseman armed at all points. In 
 its more general acceptation it signifles a knight (q.v.). See also Banneret and 
 Chivalry. 
 
 CHEVALIER, Michel, an eminent French economist, born at Limoges, Jan. 13, 1806, 
 was at the age of 18 admitted a pupil of the polytechnic school. Thence he went to- 
 the school of mines, and some days before the revolution of July, he was attached as 
 an engineer to the department du Nord. Led away by the theories of the St. Simonians, 
 he was for two years editor of the Olobe, the organ of that sect. Joining the schism of 
 M. Enfantin, he took an active part in the compilation of the Lirre Nouveau, the stand 
 ard of their doctrines, and in 1832 suffered six months’ imprisonment, on account of his 
 free s])eculations in regard to religious and social questions, being regarded as an out- 
 rage oil public morals. On his liberation, he at once retracted all that he had written in 
 the Globe contrary to Christianity, and against marriage, and obtained from M. Thiers 
 a special mission to the United States, to inquire into the systems of water and railway 
 communication there. The results were published in his Letters from North America 
 (1836, 2 vols. 8vo). After a visit to England, he issued a work, entitled Material Inter- 
 ests in Wrance : Public Works, Roads, Canals, Railways (1838, 8vo). He was named, suc- 
 cessively, chevalier of the legion of honor, councilor of state (1838), a member of the 
 superior council of commerce, and of the royal council of the university; and in 1840, 
 professor of political economy in the college of France. In 1840, he was re-established 
 in the corps of mines as engineer of the flrst-class; and in 1846, elected a member of the 
 chamber of deputies. Under the republic, he lost his various employments. He pub- 
 lished, in 1848, Letters on the Organization of Labor and the Question of the Laborers; 
 and after the coup d'Mat of Dec. 2 was restored to his professorship, and named coun- 
 cillor of state. In 1860, C. assisted Mr. Cobden in carrying into effect the commercial 
 treaty between France and England, and was created a senator. He became a grand 
 officer of the legion of honor, 1861. Besides the works mentioned, he has written Polit- 
 ical Economy {IMZ-bQi)-, Probable Fall of the Value of Gold (1859 — translated by Cobden); 
 Mexico, Ancient and Modern (1863) ; etc. 
 
 CHEVATJX-DE-FRISE, in fortiflcation, is a hastily constructed substitute for a regular 
 abattis, to stay the progress of an advancing enemy. It may be constructed in any way 
 of wood or iron, provided it presents an array of sharp or ragged points towards the 
 enemy. Sometimes it is made of barrels or centers of timber, with spears springing out 
 from all sides, in such a way as to constitute both a support and a defense. Among the 
 materiel of an army under the care of the engineers, are sometimes comprised chevaux 
 de-frise formed of cylindrical iron barrels, about 6 feet long, each having 12 holes to 
 receive as many spears; the spears can be packed away in the barrel, when not in use. 
 Each such piece constitutes a cheval; and many such, ranged end to end, form chevaux, 
 to be used in ditches around a fortification, on the berme beneath the parapet, behind 
 the glacis, across a breach in the rampart, or in any spot where a check to the storm- 
 ing- party is needed. At Badajoz, during the peninsular war, great service was ren- 
 dered by a chevaux-de-frise formed of sword-blades fixed into beams of wood. The 
 name is said to have been derived from “Friesland horse, ” and to have been first applied 
 by the French during the wars of the 17th century. 
 
769 
 
 Chesuncoolii 
 
 Chevrons. 
 
 CHEV'ERUS, Jean Louis Anne Madeleine Lepebvre de, d.d., 1768-1836 ; the 
 first Roman Catholic bishop in New England. He was raised to the priesthood in 1790, 
 and had a curacy at Mayence, in France ; but on refusing to take the oath required by 
 the assembly he went to England, and in 1795 came to America and joined the Roman 
 'Catholic mission in Boston, He spent some months in Maine as an Indian missionary. 
 During the prevalence of the yellow fever in Boston his faithful and efficient service, 
 without regard to sect or belief, made him remarkably popular, and when he started a 
 subscription for funds to build a church of his faith, John Adams, then president of 
 the United States, headed the list. In 1808, he was made bishop against his own protest. 
 In 1823, he v/as recalled to France, and made bishop of Montauban, and still later bishop 
 ■of Bordeaux and peer of France. He was appointed a cardinal Feb. 1, 1836. Six months 
 afterward he died suddenly from apoplexy. 
 
 CHEVES, Langdon, ll.d., 1776-1857; a native of South Carolina; elected to the 
 state assembly in 1808; and to congress in 1811, serving five years, for a part of the time 
 being speaker of the house, in which position he gave the casting vote that defeated the 
 rechartering of the U. S. bank; but in 1819 he became president of the same bank. 
 He was chief commissioner in settling some of the provisions of the treaty of Ghent. 
 In 1850, he was a delegate to the Nashville national convention, and in 1852, a mem- 
 ber of the South Carolina state convention, in which he opposed a separate state seces- 
 sion. 
 
 CHEVIOT HILLS, a mountain-range occupying contiguous parts of the counties of 
 Northumberland and Roxburgh, on the English and Scotch borders, and running 35 m. 
 from near the junction of the Till and Tweed, in the n.e., to the sources of the 
 Liddel, in the s.w. The highest points are C. hill, 2,684 ft., and Carter Fell, 2,020. 
 West of Carter Fell, these hills chiefly consist of carboniferous sandstone and limestone, 
 with protrusions of trap. The e. portion of the range is porphyritic, and includes 
 higher and more or less conical hills. In the C. H. are the sources of the Liddel, Tyne, 
 ■Coquet, and some of the branches of the Tweed. Grouse abound, and the golden eagle 
 is seen. These hills afford pasture for the Cheviots, a superior breed of sheep. They 
 have been the scene of many bloody contests between the English and Scotch. 
 
 CHEVRETTE'. See Gyn. 
 
 CHEVRETTL, Michel Eug^:ne, a distinguished French chemist, b. Aug. 31, 1786, at 
 A.ngers, in the department of Maine-et-Loire. In 1820, he was made an examiner in the 
 polytechnic school; and in 1824, director of the dyeing department in the manufactory 
 <of the Gobelins. This last' position led him to institute a series of accurate researches 
 ■^on colors, the results of which he made known in a series of Memoir es of the academy 
 of sciences. Previous to this, C. had made himself known in the scientific world by a 
 Tariety of researches and writings. In 1826, he was made a member of the academy; 
 and in 1830, professor of applied chemistry in the museum of natural history. Besides 
 a great number of articles in the Journal des Savants, beginning with 1820, the following 
 works of C. deserve mention: Legons de Ghimie appUquee a la Teinture (1828-31); De la 
 Jjoi du Contraste simultane des Gouleurs et de V Asscrriiment des Objets colories (1839); Iheorie 
 des Effets Optiques que prhentent les Etoffes de Soie (1846) ; De la Baqueite divinatoire, du 
 Pendule, et des Tables tournantes (1854); Des Gouleurs et de leur Application aux Arts 
 Industriels (1864); and a work on a new organic acid, EAcide Avique (1871). C. is a 
 lellow of the royal society of London, and a commander of the legion of honor. 
 
 CHEVREUSE, Marie de Rohan Montbazon, Duchesse de, 1600-79; a native of 
 France, married first to the due de Luynes, and next to Claude de Lorraine, due de 
 Chevreuse. Her friendship for Anne of Austria made Richelieu her enemy, and 
 he resolved to have her arrested ; but, learning of his purpose, she dressed in male attire, 
 ■swam across the Somme, and escaped to England. She was concerned in other political 
 intrigues, and was kept in banishment nearly all her life. 
 
 CHEV'RON, in heraldry, an ordinary representing the couples or rafters of a house, 
 and supposed to betoken the accomplishment of some memorable work, or the comple- 
 tion of some business of importance, generally the foundation of his own family by the 
 bearer. The C. is formed of two lines placed pyramidically, i.e., joined together at 
 the top, and descending to the extremities of the shield in the form of a pair of com- 
 passes. Ghevronel, a diminutive — half the size — of the chevron. Per chevron, or party 
 per chevron, is where the shield is divided by a line in the form of the chevron. 
 
 CHEVRON, in architecture, a molding in the form of a succession of chevrons, 
 otherwise called a zigzag molding. In general, it is characteristic of Norman archi- 
 tecture, but is also found with the pointed arch, during the transition period from Nor- 
 iman to early English. 
 
 CHEVRONS are braids or bands of lace, worn as distinguishing marks by the non- 
 commissioned officers of regiments. The corporals, and the various grades of sergeant, 
 have C. varying from one to four in number, either of white or of gold lace. In most 
 corps, they are worn on the right arm only ; but in the guards, the fusileers, the light 
 infantry, and the grenadier and light infantry companies of the ordinary regiments, on 
 both arms. 
 
 U. K. III.-49 
 
Chevy. 
 
 Chiavari. 
 
 770 
 
 CHEVY CHASE, the name of perhaps the most famous of British ballads. In its 
 present form, the piece does not seem to be older than about the beginning of the 
 17th century. But more ancient versions, doubtless, existed; and bishop Percy has 
 published a poem of the 16th c., which has obviously suggested passages in the more 
 recent composition. It is impossible to reconcile its incidents with history, but the 
 event which is meant to be commemorated appears to have been the battle of Otter- 
 burn, in Aug., 1388 — a fight which Froissart declares to have been the bravest and most 
 chivalrous which was fought in his day. According to the ballad, Percy vowed that 
 he would enter Scotland, and take his pleasure for three days in the woods of his rival, 
 and slay the deer therein at will. Douglas, when he heard the vaunt, exclaimed. 
 “ Tell him he wfill find one day more than enough,” Accordingly, at the time of the 
 hay-harvest, Percy, with stag-hounds and archers, passed into the domains of his foe, 
 and slew a “hundred fallow-deer and harts of grice.” When the English had hastily 
 cooked their game, and were about to retire, earl Douglas, clad in armor, and heading 
 his Scottish spears, came on the scene. Haughty challenge and defiance passed between 
 the potentates, and the battle joined. In the center of the fray the two leaders met: 
 “Yield thee, Percy !” cried Douglas. “ I will yield to no Scot that ever was born of 
 woman!” cried Percy. During this colloqu}^ an English arrow struck Douglas to the 
 heart. “Fight on, my merry men!” cried he, as he died. Percy, vuth all the chival- 
 rous feeling of his race, took the dead man by the hand, and vowed that he would, 
 have given all his lands to save him, for a braver knight never fell by such a chance. 
 Sir Hugh Montgomery, having seen the fall of Douglas, clapped spurs to his horse, 
 dashed on Percy, and struck his spear through his body a long cloth-yard and more. 
 Although the leaders on both sides had fallen, the battle, which had begun at break of 
 day, continued till the ringing of the curfew-bell. Scotsmen and Englishmen claim the 
 victory. When the battle ended, representatives of every noble family on either side 
 of the border lay on the bloody greensward. 
 
 CHEWINK, the popular name for the ground robin, or towhee bunting, pipilo’ 
 eryihrophthalma. It is of variegated colors, red, white, and brown, is about 7 or 8 in. 
 long, nests on the ground, and flies with a peculiar jerky motion. It lives in thickets, 
 and finds its sustenance in seeds and worms scratched up from leaves and grasses. 
 
 CHEYENNE, a co. in s.w. Nebraska, on the Colorado and Wyoming border, inter- 
 sected by the n. and s. forks of the Platte; 6,000 sq.m.; pop. ’80, 1558. The Union 
 Pacific railroid passes through the s. part. Co. seat, Sidney. 
 
 CHEYENNE, a city in Laramie co., Wyoming, the capital of the territory, on the 
 Union Pacific railroad, where it is joined by the Denver Pacific, 516 m. w. of Omaha 
 and 1400 m. e. of San Francisco; pop. about 5,000. The town is on a broad open 
 plain, 6,000 ft. above tide, and the streets are wide and regular. It is connected by rail 
 with Denver, 106 m. s. of Colorado. The main business is in receiving and distributing 
 supplies for Indian agencies and government forts. There are, however, several man- 
 ufactories, and a rapidly growing general business. The place was first settled in 1867, 
 when the Union Pacific railroad reached that point. In 1869, a large portion of the 
 city was destroyed by fire. 
 
 CHEYENNES, an Indian tribe of the Algonquin family, once residing on and near 
 the Cheyenne river, a tributary of the Red river of the North. Driven away by the 
 Sioux, they retired beyond the Missouri, and about the beginning of the century they 
 were further driven to the Black Hills -region. In 1825, the first treaty with them was 
 made by gen. Atkinson. Since then many treaties have been made, and almost all of 
 them immediately broken by the whites, and constant trouble has been the result. The 
 fearful and cold-blooded massacre of nearly a hundred men, women, and children of 
 this tribe, by col. Chivington, of Colorado, in Nov., 1864, led to war that cost the 
 U. S. government $40,000,000, and so embittered the Indians that a permanent peace 
 can hardl}'" be looked for. In 1867, gen. Hancock burned some of the villages, and 
 began or rather continued a state of war, in the course of which gen. Custer defeated 
 them at Washita, where Black Kettle, a chief, and two or three dozen squaws and pap- 
 pooses were killed. The revenge taken upon Custer a few years later will not soon be 
 forgotten. Almost while this article is being written, the government is in danger of 
 another general Indian war, growing out of unfair dealing on its own part with the 
 Cheyennes and other Indians with whom it has entered into solemn contracts. 
 
 CHEYNE, George, an eminent Scottish physician, b. in Aberdeenshire in 1671, was 
 at first intended for the church, but, preferring the medical profession, studied at Edin- 
 burgh, under the celebrated Dr. Pitcairn. In 1700, after taking the degree of m.d., he 
 repaired to London, where he practiced in winter, and in Bath in summer. From full 
 living he became enormously fat, as well as asthmatic, and resolved on strictly adhering 
 to a milk and vegetable diet, from which he derived so much benefit that he recom- 
 mended it in all his principal medical treatises. In 1702, he published A New Theory of 
 Fevers, and, in 1703, a work On Fluxions, which procured him admission into the royal 
 society. Among his other works are: Philosophical Principles of Natural Bdigion, 1705 » 
 Observations on Gout, 1722; Essay on Health and Long Life, 1725; The English Malady— 
 
m 
 
 Clievy. 
 
 ChiavarL 
 
 u Treatise on Nervous Disorders, 1733 ; Essay on Begimen, 1739; Account of Himself and 
 ff his various Cures, 1743. Dr. C. died at Bath, April 12, 1743. 
 
 CHHATISGARH, a division of British India under the jurisdiction of the commis- 
 sioner of the central provinces, comprising the districts of Raipur, Bilaspur, and Sam- 
 balpur, and seven small feudatory states, between 16° 50' and 23° 10' n., and 80° 30' and 
 83° 15' e. ; 36,467 sq.m.; pop. ’72, 3,289,043, of whom 2,054,874 were Hindus, 26,046 
 Mohammedans, 243 Buddhists, 451 Christians, and 1,207,429 aboriginal tribes of religion 
 not specified. Two large rivers, the Nerbuddha and the Son, rise in the n.e. corner of 
 the division, the former running nearly w. to the Bombay coast, and then falling into 
 the Ganges in lower Bengal. 
 
 CHHINDWARA. See Chindwaka, ante. 
 
 CHIABBERA, Gabriello, an Italian poet, b. at Savona, 8th June, 1552. He was edu- 
 cated at Rome under the care of his uncle, aRer whose death he entered the service of 
 cardinal Cornaro, but was obliged to leave it in consequence of the revenge he had taken 
 cn an Italian nobleman who had done him an injury. In his 50th year he married, and 
 remained independent for the rest of his life. He died 14th Oct., 1637. C.’s poetical 
 faculty developed itself late. Having commenced to read the Greek writers at home, 
 he conceived a great admiration of Pindar, and strove successfully to imitate him. He 
 was not less happy in catching the naive and pleasfint spirit of Anacreon ; his canzonetti 
 being distinguished for their ease and elegance, while his Lettere Famigliari was the first 
 attempt to introduce the poetical epistle into Italian literature. C. also wrote several 
 epics, bucolics, and dramatic poems. His Opere appeared at Venice, in 6 vols., 1768. 
 
 CHIA'NA (in ancient times, Glanis), a river in Tuscany, formed by several streams 
 from the Apennines, and falling into the Arno a few miles below Arezzo. Along with 
 another river of the same name, which, flowing in the opposite direction, enters the 
 Paglia at Orvieto, it waters the perfectly level Val di Chiana, which its overflow ren- 
 dered once the most pestilential district of Italy. Ferdinand III. and his minister, Fos- 
 sombroni, undertook extensive hydraulic works for improving the bed of the river, 
 which they led through the lakes of Montepulciano and Chiusi, and employed for the 
 artificial irrigation of the whole valley. The district has since become the most 
 fruitful, perhaps, of all Italy — a perfect garden, supporting a pop. of more than 100,000. 
 
 CHIA'FA, or Chiapas, a state in the s.e. of the Mexican confederation, lying to the 
 «.w. of Yucatan, and extending in lat. between 16° and 18° n., and in long, between 90° 
 SO' and 94° west. It contains about 19,000 sq.m., and 194,000 inhabitants, chiefly abo- 
 rigines. Near Palenque, one of the towns of C., are some of the most extensive and 
 magnificent ruins in Central America. 
 
 CHIAKAMON'T^, a t. of Sicily, about 32 m. w.s.w. of Syracuse. It is situated on a 
 hill, and has well-built, regular streets. Wine of good quality is produced in the dis- 
 trict. Pop. about 9,000. 
 
 CHIA'RI, a t. of Lombardy, 14 m. w. of Brescia, on the railway between that place 
 and Milan. It is an ancient place, many Roman remains being still found here; and at 
 one time it was strongly fortified, but its walls are now ruinous. Silk is the staple 
 manufacture. Pop. 10,000. 
 
 GHIAB-OSCU'RO (Ital.), an artistic term, composed of two Italian words, the one of 
 which signifies light, the other darkness or shadow. But C. signifies neither light nor 
 shadow ; neither is it adequately described by saying that it is the art of disposing of 
 both the lights and shadows in a picture, so long as either is regarded apart from the 
 other. It is rather the art of representing light in shadow, and shadow in light, so that 
 the parts represented in shadow shall still have the clearness and warmth of those in 
 light, and those in light the depth and softness of those in shadow. It is not the making 
 of the one die softly and gradually away into the other, but the preservation of both in 
 oombination, as we constantly see it in nature, when the light is not the mere glare of 
 the sun striking on a particular object, nor the shadow the entire absence of the influ- 
 ence of light. That the skillful treatment of C. is a matter of extreme difficulty, is 
 plain enough from the very small number of artists who ever attain to it. Still it is a 
 branch of art without the mastery of which no painting can be successful in any depart- 
 ment. It is as indispensable in portrait-painting as in the highest departments of ideal 
 art; and though a just and even a lofty conception of the subject may be distinctly indi- 
 cated by attention to form alone, it is impossible that its realization can ever be satis- 
 factorily accomplished by any one who has not mastered this most subtle mode of 
 handling colors. ^ The only mode by which a knowledge of C. can be attained, so as to 
 apply it to practice, is by studying it as exhibited by such painters as Titian, Rubens, 
 Rembrandt, and, above all, Correggio. 
 
 CHIAVA'RI, a maritime t. of Piedmont, situated on the gulf of Rapallo, at the mouth 
 of the Sturla, 21 m. e.s.e. of Genoa. The houses in general are well built, with open 
 arcades skirting the narrow streets. C. has several fine churches, the principal of which 
 is Madonna deV Orto. Numerous picturesque old towers, one of them of consider- 
 able size, are scattered over the town. Lace and silk are manufactured here; and the 
 place is also noted for its light, handsome, cheap furniture, made chiefly of cherry- 
 
Chiavenna. 
 
 Cbicago. 
 
 772 
 
 Wood. The anchovy fishery is important; and in the vicinity are extensive slate-quar^ 
 ries. Pop. 10,457. — The old province of C., of which the above town was the capital,, 
 had an area of 155 sq.m., with a pop. of 109,000. Its surface is generally mountainous, 
 but it has valleys of great fertility, yielding grain, grapes, olives, etc. Cattle, sheep,, 
 goats, and silk- worms are reared. 
 
 CHIAVEN'NA, a t. of Lombardy, beautifully situated in the midst of vineyards, at 
 the junction of the valley of St. Giacomo and Val Bregaglia, 38 m. n.n.w. of Bergamo, 
 It is overlooked by the Rhetian Alps; and its position on the Splugen road secures it 
 considerable traffic. Silk, cotton, and a coarse ware cut out of a soft stone found in the 
 neighborhood, are the chief manufactures. Pop. about 4,000. 
 
 CHICA, a red feculent substance, valuable as a dye-stuff, giving an orange-red color to 
 cotton. It is obtained by boiling the leaves of a species of hignonia {h. ^ica), a native 
 of the banks of the Cassiquiare and the Orinoco. The Indians use it for painting their 
 bodies. The C. plant is a climber, with abruptly bipinnate leaves, smooth heart-shaped 
 leaflets, and flowers in pendulous axillary panicles. See Bignoniace:®. 
 
 CHICA, PiTO, Poso, or Maize Beer, is a fermented liquor made from maize or 
 Indian corn. It is much used in some parts of South America, and is made in a 
 similar manner to ordinary beer ; but the Indians sometimes prepare it by chewing 
 instead of crushing the grain ; and that which is so prepared {chica mascada, or chewed 
 C.) is most highly esteemed by them. When they wish to make this liquor particularly 
 strong and well flavored, they have also a practice of pouring it into an earthen jar, 
 which contains some pounds of beef; and having made the jar perfectly air-tight, they 
 bury it several feet deep in the ground, where it is left for several years. On the birth 
 of a child, it is their custom thus to bury a jar of C., to be drunk at the same child’s, 
 marriage. C. has an agreeable flavor, and is very strong and intoxicating. A spirit- 
 uous liquor is obtained from it by distillation ; vinegar is also made from it. 
 
 CHICACOLE', a t. of the district of Gan jam, in the presidency of Madras, being in lat. 
 18° 18' n., and long. 83° 58' e., and lying 415 m. to the s.w. of Calcutta, and 435 to the 
 n.e. of Madras. It stands on the left or n. bank of Naglaudee, not far from the 
 bay of Bengal. It is a military station, and contains, besides its garrison (1871), 15,587 
 native inhabitants. The place has a reputation for its richly worked muslins. 
 
 CHICA'OO (pronounced She-lcaw-go), the principal city of Illinois, and seat of Cook 
 CO., is situated on the south-western shore of lake Michigan, at the mouth of the Chicaga 
 river, lat. 41° 50' 20" n., long. 87° 37' west. The name is of Indian origin, signifying “wild 
 onion,” and is first mentioned by Perrot, a Frenchman, by whom it was visited in 1671. 
 In 1803, a stockade fort was built near the mouth of the river, and named fort Dear- 
 born. When the war with Great Britain broke out in 1812, the government, apprehen- 
 sive that a post among the Indians so far from the frontiers could not be successfully 
 maintained, ordered the commander to abandon it. The Indians destroyed the fort, 
 which was rebuilt in 1816. C. was first settled in 1831, previous to which time it was 
 a mere frontier-post; in 1832, it contained about a dozen families, besides the officers 
 and soldiers in fort Dearborn. The town w'as organized by the election of a board of 
 trustees, Aug. 10, 1833. On Sept. 26, of the same year, a treaty was made for all 
 their lands with the Pottawatomies, 7,000 of the tribe being present, after which they 
 were removed w. of the Mississippi river. The first charter of the city was passed 
 by the legislature Mar. 4, 1837. The following table exhibits the rapid increase of 
 Chicago. The estimated number of the pop. in 1835 was 1000, and the exact number, 
 according to the census returns, was, in 
 
 1840 
 
 4,470 
 
 1852 
 
 38,733 
 
 1865 
 
 187,446 
 
 1845 
 
 12,080 
 
 1853 
 
 60,652 
 
 1870 
 
 
 1848 
 
 20,035 
 
 1855 
 
 83,509 
 
 1872 
 
 
 1850 
 
 28,260 
 
 1860 
 
 150,000 
 
 1875 
 
 410,000 
 
 C., perhaps the most remarkable city in the world for its rapid growth, is built upon a 
 plain sufficiently elevated to prevent inundaiton. Some years ago, the elevation of the 
 principal streets, also the buildings, were raised from 4 to 10 ft., the object of this 
 gigantic undertaking being to admit a thorough system of sewerage. The Chicago river 
 and its branches separate the city into three divisions, connected by large tunnels. The 
 main stream, flowing directly w., is about 100 yards wide, and forms one of the best 
 harbors on the lakes. Vessels ascend the river and its branches a distance of 4 m. from 
 its mouth, thus affording nearly 18 m. of wharfage. The water for the city is now sup- 
 plied by a tunnel from lake Michigan, which v^a^ opened in 1867, and supplies 57,000,- 
 000 gallons daily. There are also about 40 artesian wells. C. possesses a splendid 
 system of public parks, and numerous handsome buildings. More than 30 railways 
 meet here. 
 
 The Illinois and Michigan canal, completed in 1848, connects the Chicago and 
 Illinois rivers, thus affording communication between the lakes and Mississippi to the 
 coal-fields of Illinois, and to the vast quarries of so-called Athens marble, regarded as 
 the finest building-material in the country. It is found on the banks of the canal, about 
 W m. from C. ; and is easily worked when first quarried, like the Caen stone. 
 
 The 36 public schools of C. — some capable of holding 1000 children — afford the- 
 
773 
 
 Chiavenna. 
 
 Chicago 
 
 means of education, free of charge, to every child in the city. At the head of the 
 system is the high school. Here the sons and daughters of the poorest man may aspire 
 to the highest honors in the classics and modern languages. There are also numerous 
 private schools and seminaries, besides several universities, medical colleges, theological, 
 literary, and scientific institutions, located in Chicago. 
 
 Since 1853, pork-packing has been conducted on an enormous scale. In 1872, cattle 
 to the value of $41,000,000 were received, and 16,080 head were packed as beef. The 
 value of hogs received was $33,500,000, and 1,456,650 were packed as pork. Since 
 1854, C. has been the largest primary grain depot in the world. In 1872, 88,426,842 
 bushels of breadstuffs were received, and 83,364,224 shipped. C. is also the most 
 extensive lumber market in the world. There are 80 newspapers and periodicals. 
 
 In Oct., 1871, a terrible fire occurred, which burned 18,000 houses, extending over 
 more than 2,000 acres; 200 persons perished, and nearly 100,000 were rendered home- 
 less. The property burned was estimated at 200,000,000 dollars. This stupendous 
 calamity awakened the sympathy of the civilized world. Great Britain and other 
 countries subscribed money freely for the sufferers. The city was entirely rebuilt in a 
 style of great magnificence within two years. 
 
 CHICAGO (ccwfe). In 1831, when the first white settlement was made at the mouth 
 of the Chicago river, it seemed an unpromising site for a great city, and for years after- 
 wards there probably was not among its inhabitants one who expected that such a city 
 would grow up on that spot.. The river mouth was a sluggish bayou; its banks marshy, 
 muddy flats, suggestive of intermittent and congestive fevers. But harbors on the great 
 lakes were not turned out ready made by nature, but had to be constructed to a greater 
 or less extent by human enterprise and skill, and that of Chicago was no exception to 
 the general rule. There was need of a good harbor at that point, and the location was 
 not unfavorable, if the citizens and the government could be persuaded to spend money 
 enough in the effort. The channel could be dredged, the flats fllled, and the waves of 
 the lake beaten back by artiflcial structures of wood or stone. This work, begun upon 
 a small scale, has been rapidly extended to meet the growing wants of commerce, until 
 C. now has a harbor adequate to the demands of a great city. The shore of the lake at 
 this point presents an even line, extending very nearly due north and south. The river 
 extends back from the lake westerly flve eighths of a mile, at which point two branches 
 come in, one from the northward, the other from the southward; thus dividing the city 
 into three parts, known as the n. , s. , and w. divisions. The s. branch of the river is 
 connected by the Illinois and Michigan canal with the Illinois river at La Salle, thus 
 opening a direct water communication with the Mississippi. In the earlier period of 
 its history, C. suffered much from intermittent and bilious fevers, cholera and other 
 diseases, consequent upon its low, marshy situation; but at length the grade of a large 
 portion of the city was raised from 8 to 10 ft. ; block after block of heavy buildings, 
 including some of the largest hotels and stores, being raised to the required level by 
 jack-screws, worked by steam-power. It was one of the most stupendous engineering 
 experiments ever undertaken, but it was successfully accomplished. The Illinois and 
 Michigan canal was completed, 1848. It is 96 m. in length, and at its highest level was 
 originally 12 ft. above the lake; but in 1866-70 the city deepened it at a cost of $3,251,- 
 621. It is now 8| ft. below the ordinary level of the lake. The river channel was also 
 deepened, so that the lake no longer receives its waters, but itself furnishes a clear 
 stream flowing the other way, giving improved navigation and carrying off the sewerage 
 of the city towards the Illinois river at the rate of a mile an hour. The fruits of this 
 engineering enterprise are seen in the suppression of the foul odors so long endured by 
 the inhabitants, and the consequent improvement in the sanitary condition of the city. 
 The harbor at the mouth of the river is protected by magnificent lines of breakwater, so 
 arranged as to afford space for extensive ship channels and docks. One of the basins 
 thus provided comprises an area of nearly 300 acres, the entrance to which from the 
 lake is 600 ft. wide. The city extends along the lake side about 8 m., and westward 5 
 m., embracing an area of about 35 sq. miles. Its grade is 14 ft. above the lake on the 
 eastern side, and 28 ft. at the western extremity. The descent towards the lake from 
 the w. is sufficient for drainage. The city is regularly laid out, the principal avenues 
 running parallel with the lake shore. The streets are generally 80 ft. wide, and some of 
 them are from 3 to 7 m. in length. The scarcity of stone has led to the use of wood, 
 cinders, and gravel for pavements. The streets are lighted with gas, and amply supplied 
 with sewers. The n., s., and w. divisions are connected by numerous bridges across the 
 river and its branches, and by two stone tunnels under the river-bed, of which, one 
 passes under the s. branch, connecting the s. and w. divisions; the other, under the main 
 river, connecting the n. and s. divisions. These tunnels cost nearly $1,000,000. Horse 
 cars traverse the city in every direction. The business portion of the city is mainly in 
 the s. division, and here also are the chief public buildings, hotels, retail stores, etc. 
 The most important public buildings are the U. S. custom-house and post-office, 
 occupying an entire block 342 by 210 ft., and costing upwards of $5,000,000; the 
 chamber of commerce, a spacious and imposing structure, with elaborate interior deco- 
 rations; the new city hall and county court-house, occupying a whole block and costing 
 $5,000,000; and the exposition building, a vast edifice of iron and glass, 800 ft. long and 
 200 ft. wide, and surmounted by a dome 60 ft. in diameter and 160 ft. in height. Some 
 
Chiclien. 
 
 Chichester. 
 
 774 
 
 of the 300 churches of the city are fine specimens of various styles of ecclesiastical 
 architecture. C. has 6 public parks, with an aggregate area of nearly 2,000 acres, con- 
 nected by boulevards 250 ft. wide, extending around the three sides of'the city, with a 
 drive on the lake shore. These afford a continuous driveway of more than 30 miles. Lin- 
 coln park, in the n. division, contains 230 acres fronting upon the lake. A boulevard on 
 the n., 3| m. long, connects this with Humboldt park on the w. ; while that by another 
 boulevard is in turn connected with Central park, and that again by still another with 
 Douglas park. From the latter a boulevard runs a distance of 9 m. to a park in the s. 
 division. From the s. end of the northern park a broad avenue extends eastward to 
 another fronting upon the lake. The parks of the s. division are just outside of the 
 city limits. 
 
 The water communications of C, are of vast extent, embracing the whole chain of 
 northern lakes, with their 3,000 m. of coast-line. Steamboats and sailing vessels of the 
 largest class are employed in commerce with lake Superior, bringing down vast stores 
 of iron and copper ore from that region; while through the Welland canal (around 
 Niagara falls), connecting lake Erie with lake Ontario, vessels loaded at C. pass east- 
 ward to Montreal, where connection is made with steamships for Europe. The 
 Erie canal through New York is also a commercial highway for Chicago to the ports of 
 the Atlantic seaboard. The Illinois and Michigan canal, already mentioned, gives the 
 city communication with the Mississippi and its aflfuents during nine months of every 
 year. But, important as all these water channels are, they are not more so than the 
 network of railroads by which C. is put in rapid communication with a vast region of 
 country extending from the lakes of the north, eastward to New York, Philadelphia, 
 Boston, and Portland; southward to Louisiana and Florida; and westward to the Pacific 
 coast. There is not another such railroad center in the world. From 10,000 to 12,000 
 m. of railway are in a greater or less degree tributary to this great city, now about 50 
 years old. The different lines of road converging to the city, as represented on the 
 map, are bewildering alike to the eye and to the imagination. Nearly 400 trains enter 
 and leave daily upon these roads, making an aggregate of nearly 800 arrivals and depart- 
 ures. The accommodations for these roads are, upon the whole, excellent. The Union 
 depot, one of the largest and finest buildings of the kind in the country, is used by two 
 of the principal roads; the Central depot, by two others; and there are three or four 
 more for the use of others. Plans for uniting all the roads at a common center, or for 
 connecting them by a common track, have been proposed. 
 
 C. is supplied with an abundance of pure water from lake Michigan by a process 
 which is one of the wonders of modern engineering skill. Two cylindrical brick tunnels, 
 one 6 ft., the other 7 ft. in diameter, starting from the shore at different points, extend a 
 distance of 2 m. under the lake, and meet in an immense crib inclosing a grated cylin- 
 der, through which the water descends into them in a stream unfailing as the lake itself. 
 The smallest of these tunnels, extending from the shore of the n. division of the city, 
 was completed in 1866. The water as it is received at the shore end of the tunnel is 
 forced by steam-pumps through a stone tower to a height of 160 ft. into a reservoir, 
 whence it is distributed by pipes to different parts of the city. The top of the water- 
 tower, which is reached by a spiral staircase, affords a fine view of the city and the sur- 
 rounding country. On the crib, 2 m. out in the lake, stands a light-house, with a 
 dwelling for the keeper. The second and larger tunnel, which supplies the south-west- 
 ern section of the city, was completed in 1874. A tunnel 7 ft. in diameter, passing 
 under the central portion of the city, is to connect the old works with the new, and 
 afford an independent supply of water for extinguishing fires. The tunnels under the 
 lake cost $1,507,622. The water-works altogether, to Jan. 1, 1873, are estimated to 
 have cost more than $5,000,000. Besides the supply from the lake, the city has another 
 resource in some 40 artesian wells, two of which (694 and 911 ft. deep respectively) 
 yield about 1,200,000 gallons per day. The great stock-yards, the west-side parks, and 
 some of the manufacturing establishments, are supplied from these wells. 
 
 The educational facilities of C. are extensive, and of a high order of excellence. 
 The public schools, which give instruction to the children of citizens with no distinc- 
 tion of class, are well organized and eflicient. The number of these schools in 1872 
 was 32, occupying 45 buildings and employing 476 teachers — all but 31 women. The 
 school pop. of the city (between 6 and 21 years of age) was 88,219; the number of pupils 
 enrolled 38,035, of whom 512 were in the high school, and 63 in the normal school. 
 Of the teachers, 221 were graduates of the normal and high schools. Total expenditure 
 for these schools in 1872, $499,349, including about $360,000 for teachers’ salaries. The 
 school buildings with the land on which they stood were valued at over $2,265,000. 
 The Roman Catholics also have schools, and there are many private academies. The 
 university of Chicago, a Baptist institution, founded by the efforts of Stephen A. 
 Douglas, has connected with it a law school, and the Dearborn astronomical observa- 
 tory, both well equipped and efficient, and a library of 20,000 volumes. St. Ignatius’s 
 college, founded in 1870, also is a flourishing institution. Of the six medical colleges of 
 the city, one is open to women, one is homeopathic, and one eclectic. Of the four theo- 
 logical seminaries, one is Baptist, one Congregational, one Lutheran, and one Presby- 
 terian, There are also three commercial colleges, and four female colleges or seminaries 
 of high grade. The academy of sciences, established 1857, lost heavily by the g?*eat 
 
115 
 
 Chlchen. 
 
 Chichester. 
 
 fire of 1871, but is getting a new museum and library. The public library occupies the 
 old custom-house and post-office, whose walls outlasted the great fire: the number of 
 volumes is estimated at 100,000. According to the latest reports, there were more than 
 100 newspapers and periodicals published in the city. Of these 11 were daily, 5 tri- 
 weekly, 45 weekly, S semi-monthly, 1 bi-monthly, and 4 quarterly; 18 were religious, 
 16 political, 18 literary, 10 commercial, and 5 juvenile. Some of these papers have a 
 very large circulation, exerting a very wide influence in the north-western states. 
 
 The principal religious denominations, according to the number of their churches, 
 rank as follows: Roman Catholic, 27; Methodist, 22; Baptist, Presbyterian, and Epis- 
 copal, each 18; Congregational, 17; Swedenborgian, 4; Unitarian, 5; Universalist, 4. 
 Benevolent and charitable associations and institutions are numerous. Among them are 
 7 orphan asylums, 6 dispensaries, 2 asylums for the aged and indigent, 1 home for the 
 friendless, and a multitude of smaller eharities. The C. relief and aid society, from its 
 foundation, 1857, has had the management of a large portion of the voluntary charities 
 of the city for the benefit of the poor, infirm, and helpless. The same society disbursed 
 to the sufferers by the great fire of 1871 the sum of nearly $6,000,000, sent for their 
 relief from Europe and every part of the United States. The young men’s Christian 
 association was also very active at that time, as i Is was before and has been since, for the 
 relief of the poor and destitute. The population of C. in 1870 was 298,977; according 
 to the unofficial figures of the census of 1880, as reported by the Tribune of that city, it 
 is 503,298. [At the date of this writing the census has not been officially issued.] 
 
 As a commercial city C. ranks next to New York. It is the center of a vast trade in 
 breadstuffs, live-stock, pork, beef, provisions, lumber, wool, hides, groeeries, dry-goods, 
 boots and shoes, hardware, clothing, and tobacco. The statistics now accessible are 
 very inadequate as a means of showing the present extent of the trade and manufactures 
 of the city. Every year shows a startling augmentation of the volume of business of 
 almost every kind in this great western emporium, itself the wonderful growth of but 
 half a century. The aggregate wholesale trade of the city in 1872 was reported by the 
 board of trade at $500,000,000. The total receipts of wheat in 1873 were 16,626,923 
 bushels; to this add 88,426,842 bushels represented by the flour received in 1872 (less, 
 doubtless, than was received in 1873), and we have a total of 105,053,765 bushels for a 
 single year, The great yards which are the center of the live-stock trade were opened 
 in 1858. They cover an area of 345 acres, affording a capacity for 21,000 cattle, 75,000 
 hogs, 22,000 sheep, and 200 horses. They are thoroughly drained, supplied with water 
 from artesian wells, and furnished with every convenience for the reception, care, and 
 transfer of the animals. The total value of live-stock received in 1872 was estimated 
 by the board of trade at $75,475,000. The chief branches of manufactures in C. are 
 iron, flour, high-wines, agricultural implements, pork and meats, boots and shoes, 
 leather, cotton, and watches. It is supposed that at the present time not less than 60,000 
 people are employed in manufactures of one kind or another, and that nearly one third 
 of the commerce of the city is based upon what they produce. Ship-building also is 
 carried on to some extent. The flour manufacture was temporarily crippled by the 
 great fire, 6 of the 15 mills having been destroyed. The banking business of C. is very 
 large. In 1872, there w'ere 21 national banks, with a capital of over $11,000,000, and 
 more than $23,000,000 of deposits. There were also 18 savings-banks with over 
 $12,000,000 of deposits, and numerous private banks. The total valuation of real and 
 personal property for taxation in 1872 was $284,197,430; the actual value at the same 
 time was more than $620,000,000. 
 
 The great fire of Oct., 1871, raged two days and nights, destroying everything upon 
 an area of 2,100 acres, embracing nearly all the business portion of the city, and a very 
 large number of private residences, among which were the most costly in the place. 
 More than 17,000 buildings were destroyed, including the custom-house, court-house, 
 post-office, gas-works, the principal newspaper offices, 32 hotels, 3 railroad depots, 8 
 school-houses, 10 theaters and halls, 41 churches, 5 grain elevators, and all the national 
 banks but one. The loss on buildings was estimated at $50,000,000; on personal prop- 
 erty and merchandise, $140,000,000; total $190,000,000, of which a little over $40,000,- 
 000 was recovered on insurance. Many insurance companies were utterly ruined. Not 
 less than $7,000,000 were contributed in this country and in Europe to aid the sufferers. 
 Over 98,000 persons were rendered homeless, while 200 were killed. The recovery of 
 the city from this calamity was rapid, insomuch that after the lapse of three years 
 scarcely a trace of it could be seen, and almost its only evidence was in the immense 
 improvement of the buildings over all the ravaged district. 
 
 CHICKEN', a t. of Central America, in the n.e. of the peninsula of Yucatan, which 
 separates the gulf of Mexieo from the Caribbean sea, 18 m. to the s.w. of Valladolid. It 
 is one of the principal towns of the state, and is worthy of notice chiefly for the remains 
 of an ancient city, comprising a ruined temple 450 ft. long, a pyramid with a base of 
 550 ft. square, and a domed edifice ornamented with sculpture. 
 
 CHICH'ESTEE, a municipal and parliamentary borough and Episcopal city in Sussex, 
 17i m. e.n.e. of Portsmouth. It stands on a plain between an arm of the sea and the 
 South Downs, which rise gently on the north. It is well built, and has wide streets. 
 The two main streets cross at right angles, and meet in an elaborately-worked eight-sided 
 
Chickadee. 
 
 Chickasaws. 
 
 776 
 
 cross. Within the suburbs the city is surrounded by an ancient wall, m. in circuit, 
 with some semicircular bastions, and now a promenade under the shade of elms. Thh 
 cathedral, erected in the 12th and 13th centuries, on the site of a wooden one founded 
 1108, and burned 1114, measures 410 by 227 ft., with a spire 300 ft. high. The aisles 
 are double — a mode of construction to be seen nowhere else in Britain. The cathedral 
 has a rich choir, and portraits of the English sovereigns from the conquest to George I., 
 and of the bishops down to the reformation. The chief trade is in agricultural produce, 
 and live-stock. There are malting, brewing, and tanning establishments. Pop. 71, 
 9,054. C. returns one member to parliament. The harbor, 2 m. to the s.w. of the city, 
 is a deep inlet of the English channel, of about 8 sq.m. ; has several creeks and Thorny 
 isle ; and is connected with C. by a canal. C. was the Roman Regnum, and has afforded 
 Roman remains — as a mosaic pavement, coins, urns, and an inscription of the dedica- 
 tion of a temple to Neptune and Minerva. C. was taken and partly destroyed, in 491, 
 by the South Saxons. It was soon after rebuilt by Cissa, their king, and called Cissan- 
 caster, or Cissa’s camp. It was for some time the capital of the kingdom of Sussex. In 
 1642, the royalists of C. surrendered to the parliamentarians, after a siege of ten days. 
 
 CHICKADEE, Parus atricapillus, is distinct from the European blackcap. It is about 
 
 in. long, and 8 in. in spread of wings. Head and neck, and a patch on the throat, 
 black; other plumage, ash-gray and brown; tail edged with white, and a white bar on 
 the wings. Where it has not been driven away by the English sparrow, it destroys 
 great numbers of canker worms and other caterpillars. It is a very lively, sociable, and 
 useful bird. 
 
 CHICK AHOMTNY, a river in Virginia, rising n.w. of Richmond and running e. 
 between the James and the Pamunkey to the w. line of James City co., where it turns 
 abruptly s., and after a course of about 10 m., joins the James. The surrounding country 
 e. of Richmond is level, and in one section there is a large swamp. On and near the 
 C. in the early years of the civil war occurred many of the most important military 
 movements, skirmishes, and battles — here mentioned in the order of time. In 1862, the 
 peninsular campaign on the part of the union army began with the siege of Yorktown, 
 the objective point being Richmond, to reach which it was necessary tMt the C. should 
 be crossed. McClellan, on the union side, had 118,000 men when the siege was begun, 
 April 5. On the other side, the confederates had 15,000 men in Yorktown, and about 
 
 50.000 more scattered over n. Virginia, all under gen. Joseph E. Johnston. The 6th of 
 May was the day for opening fire upon Yorktown, but on the 4th Johnston left the 
 place, taking guns, baggage, etc., and retreated towards Richmond. On the 5th he was 
 assailed by Hooker ; and Longstreet, who commanded the rear of the confederates, turned 
 on the defensive just as he had passed Williamsburg. He was met by Hancock’s divis- 
 ion, and was compelled to abandon his works after a sharp fight; but Longstreet held 
 his position long enough to secure the confederate trains from pursuit. This was the 
 battle of Williamsburg. The union loss was 1856 killed and wounded, and 372 missing. 
 The confederate loss was about the same. On the 27th of May occurred the battle of 
 Hanover Court-House, in which the union loss was 53 killed and 344 wounded and 
 missing. The confederate loss must have been much greater, for McClellan’s report 
 says there were about 200 of their dead buried by our troops, and 730 prisoners were 
 sent to the rear. The confederates had now concentrated in and around Richmond, 
 where they had 67,000 men. The next fight on the C. was the battle of the Seven Pines, 
 or of Fair Oaks, which took place on the 31st of May, and resulted in a substantial 
 union victory. The confederate leader, gen, Johnston, was severely wounded, and their 
 losses were very heavy, but, as in most cases, no trustworthy report was made of the 
 numbers. The union army lost 890 killed, 3,627 wounded, and 1222 missing. It is well 
 known that the confederates felt this to be a disastrous defeat, and in common with the 
 people of the northern states, they expected that the next move would be the capture of 
 Richmond; but, for reasons concerning which it is to be said only that they were never 
 explained to the general satisfaction of the people in the northern states, McClellan 
 made no demonstration, and soon the almost defenseless city was powerfully fortified 
 under the direction of gen. Robert E, Lee, who had superseded Johnston in the confed- 
 erate command. The fourth of the contests of the C. was the battle of Mechanicsville, 
 June 26, and was not important in results. The confederates made several attacks upon 
 two union brigades, but finally abandoned the work after losing about 1500 men^ 
 federal loss, 300. A more important action which occurred June 27, is known as the 
 battle of Cold Harbor, or Gaines’ Mill; the confederates call it the battle of the Chicka- 
 hominy. Their loss was about 9,500; the union loss, 4,000 killed and wounded, and 
 
 2.000 prisoners. The sixth conflict in the neighborhood of the C. is known as the battle 
 of Savage’s Station, June 30, and was not an important affair. The losses were, union, 
 600; confederate reported at 400. The next was the battle of Frazier’s Farm, also June 
 30, in which there was some sharp fighting, resulting in a union loss of 300 killed and 
 1500 wounded; and on the other side, 325 killed and 1700 wounded. The battle of Mal- 
 vern Hill occurred July 1, and involved a union loss of 375 killed and 1800 wounded; 
 and of confederates, 900 killed and 3,500 wounded. All these engagements from June 
 26 to July 1 cost the federals 1582 killed and 7,709 wounded; and the confederates 3,150 
 killed and 15,255 wounded. Including prisoners and missing, the totals of loss were; 
 
777 
 
 Chickadee. 
 
 Chickasaws* 
 
 union, 15,429; confederate, 19,405. The object, on the part of the confederates, was to 
 relieve Richmond from the threatened siege and capture ; and they succeeded. Near the 
 end of the summer the union armies were withdrawn and combined to form the army 
 of the Potomac. But nearly two years later there occurred one more (the second) battle 
 of Cold Harbor, when Grant had command. The fight took place June 3, 1864, and 
 was substantially a check of the union advance. The federal losses were about 7,000 
 in all ; the losses on the other side were said to be only half as many. It was at this 
 time that Grant sent to Washington the historical dispatch: “ I propose to fight it out 
 on this line if it takes all summer.” 
 
 CHICKAMATJ'GA, Battle of, Sept. 19-20, 1863, between the union army of the 
 Cumberland, led by gen. Rosecranz, and the confederate forces led by gens. Bragg and 
 Longstreet. The forces on the union side numbered about 55,000, a quarter of whom 
 were not engaged; the losses were 1644 killed, 9,262 wounded, and 4,948 prisoners; 
 total, 15,854. The confederate reports embrace but two thirds of their army, and show 
 1394 killed, 8,974 wounded, and 882 missing; total, 11,250. A few days after the battle 
 gen. Rosecranz was relieved, and gen. Grant placed in command. The battle was 
 credited as a victory for the confederates, though no substantial advantage was gained 
 by them. 
 
 CHICKAREE, a popular name for the red squirrel, sciurus Hudsonius. It abounds 
 in the southern and middle Atlantic states, and is esteemed for the tenderness and flavor 
 of its flesh. It is not so gentle or so easily tamed as the gray squirrel. 
 
 CHICKASAW, a co. in n.e. Iowa, on the Wapsipinican river and its tributaries, 
 reached by the Mc(4regor and Missouri river and the Cedar Palls and Minnesota rail- 
 roads; 576 sq.m.; pop. ’80, 14,534. The surface is prairie and woodland, and the soil 
 fertile; agriculture is the chief business. Co. seat. New Hampton. 
 
 CHICKASAW, a co. in n.e. Mississippi, on the head waters and tributaries of the 
 Tombigbee river, and touched by the Mobile and Ohio railroad; 990 sq.m.; pop. ’80, 
 17,904 — 10,215 colored. The county is a part of the territory ceded by the Chickasaw 
 Indians. It has a level surface and fertile soil, producing corn, cotton, etc. Co. seat, 
 Houston. 
 
 CHICKASAW BLUFFS, Battle op, Dec. 29, 1862. The siege of Vicksburg being 
 in progress, gen. Sherman (union) was ordered to make an attack in the rear, and for 
 that purpose sent a force up Yazoo river to land above the city and approach it from 
 the north. In this march they came upon a bayou held by a confederate force strongly 
 intrenched. Several attempts were made to force a passage, but without success. The 
 union loss was 192 killed, and 982 wounded. That of the other side was very small. 
 
 CHICKASAWS, a nation of Indians occupying a section of the Indian territory, 
 embracing 6,840 sq.m, on the left bank of the Red river. According to their traditions 
 and the evidence of philology, they are closely connected with the Creeks and Choctaws; 
 and they believe that they emigrated with those tribes from the west, crossed the Missis- 
 sippi, and settled in the district now forming the n.e. part of the state of Mississippi. 
 Here De Soto visited them in 1540. From the first they were hostile to the French, and 
 were frequently a,t war with them; but with the English they were generally friendly. 
 In 1786, they made a treaty with the United States, and in 1793, they aided the whites 
 in the war against the Creek Indians. In the early years of the present century, part of 
 their territory was ceded for certain annuities, and a portion of the tribe migrated to 
 Arkansas; and in 1832-34, the remainder, about 3,600 in number, surrendered to the 
 federal government the 6,642,000 acres of which they were still the owners, and entered 
 into a treaty with the Choctaws for incorporation into that tribe. This union was after- 
 wards dissolved and by paying the Choctaws $150,000 they secured full possession of their 
 present territory. In the civil war they assisted the confederates, but their rights were 
 restored by the Union government in 1866. The next year they surrendered 7,000,000 
 acres of land at 4^ cents per acre, the money ($300,000) to go to their late slaves unless, 
 within two years, they adopted them as members of the tribe. In Jan., 1873, they con- 
 cluded to adopt the negroes. The nation has a printed constitution prefaced by a 
 declaration of rights, which asserts that all political power inheres in the people ; that 
 all men should be free to worship God according to the dictates of their conscience, and 
 not be compelled to attend, erect, or support any religious ministry against their con- 
 sent; that there should be freedom of speech; that there should be security from 
 unreasonable searches of property or person; that every person accused of crime should 
 have a speedy trial. All free males 19 years old or over who are Chickasaws by birth or 
 adoption, may vote, unless idiotic, insane, or convicted of infamous crime. There are a 
 senate and house of representatives, the latter of 18 members elected annually by the 
 voters of the counties or districts. A representative must be 21 years old. There are 
 12 senators elected for two years from the four districts of the state. A senator must be 
 80 years old, a Chickasaw by birth or adoption, and a resident of his district six months. 
 The governor must have all the qualifications of a senator; he is chosen for two years by 
 popular vote, and has about the same powers and functions as a governor of one of 
 the states. There is a supreme court consisting of a chief and two assistant justices 
 elected to the legislature for four years. There are also circuit and county courts. The 
 
Cliicken-pox. 
 
 Chidti. 
 
 778 
 
 nation has in the custody of the federal government $1,200,000 in bonds on which inter- 
 est is paid. In 1873, the number of Chickasaws was about 6,000. One newspaper is 
 published at Tanlequah. 
 
 CHI'CKEN-POX, a contagious febrile disease, chiefly of children, and bearing some 
 resemblance to a very mild form of small-pox (q.v.). C. is distinguished by an eruption 
 of vesicles or blebs, which rarely become pustular or yellow, and leave only a very 
 slight incrustation, which falls off in a few days, without any permanent mark or pit, 
 as in small-pox. From its vesicular character, it has been called the crystal pock. It 
 has been argued that C. is, in fact, only small-pox modified by previous vaccination; 
 but this opinion, though maintained on good authority, is not generally received by 
 medical men. It is a disease of little or no danger, the fever being often hardly percep- 
 tible, and never lasting long. 
 
 CHICKEN SNAKE, or Milk Snake, OpMholus Eximius, a harmless individual of 
 the serpent tribe, frequenting houses, stables, and dairies. It is sometimes 5 ft. long, 
 though usually much less; the color is milky white above, sometimes tinged with red, 
 wuth dusky spots along the vertebral line and smaller spots along the sides, the abdomen 
 silver white or yellowish. It feeds on insects, mice, toads, frogs, and small birds. 
 
 CHICKERING, Jonas, 1798-1853; a self-taught piano-maker of Boston, who suc- 
 ceeded in establishing the largest piano-manufactory in the country, at times producing 
 at the rate of 1,500 instruments in a year. 
 
 CHICK PEA {Gicer), a genus of plants of the natural order Leguminoscc, sub-order 
 PapilionacecB, having pinnate leaves; solitary, axillary, stalked flowers; and two-seeded 
 pods, inflated like bladders. The common C. P. {G. arietinum) grows wild in the corn- 
 fields of the countries around the Mediterranean sea, and in many parts of the east. It 
 is an annual, 1| to 2 ft. high, of a stiff upright habit, covered with glandular hairs. The 
 seeds abound in farina, and have a slightly bitterish taste. They are about the size of 
 common peas, curiously wrinkled, so that they have been thought to resemble a ram’s 
 (arietis) head. They are used as food, either boiled or roasted, and are the most 
 common parched pulse of the east. They are an important article of French cookery. 
 They have been in general use from the earliest times, and the plant is extensively cul- 
 tivated in Egypt, Syria, India, the s. of Europe, etc. Its cultivation extends as far 
 north as the southern part of Germany; but in the climate of Britain it is found too 
 tender to be a profitable crop. It is the Oram of India, and the Oarvance of the French, 
 whence the English name Garavances. The herbage affords a nutritious food for cattle, 
 and the seeds are one of the occasional substitutes for coffee. In great summer 
 heats, drops exude from this plant, which, on drying, leave crystals of almost pure 
 oxalic acid. 
 
 CHICKWEED, Stellaria media, one of the most common weeds of gardens and culti- 
 vated fields, is a species of stitch wort (q.v.). It is a native of most parts of Europe and 
 of Asia, appearing during the colder months even on the plains of India; an annual, 
 with a weak procumbent stem and ovate leaves, very variable; some of the smaller vari- 
 eties in dry sunny situations sometimes puzzling young botanists, from having only five 
 or three instead of ten stamens; but always characterized by having the stem curiously 
 marked with a line of hairs, which at each pair of leaves changes from one side to another, 
 and in four changes completes the circuit of the stem. The leaves of C. afford a fine 
 instance of the sleep of plants, closing up on the young shoots at night. C. is a good 
 substitute for spinach or greens, although generally little regarded except as a trouble- 
 some weed, or gathered only by the poor to make poultices, for which it is very useful, 
 or for feeding cage-birds, which are very fond both of its leaves and seeds. A number 
 of species of a nearly allied genus, cerastium, natives of Britain, also bear the name of 
 C., or Mouse-ear C., and the name is occasionally given to other plants, either botani- 
 cally allied, or of somewhat similar appearance. 
 
 CHICLANA, a t. of Andalusia, Spain, about 12 m. s.e. of Cadiz. It is pleasantly sit- 
 uated on a plain between two hills, and its houses being all built of white stone, present 
 a cheerful appearance. It has a splendid hospital. The manufactures are linen, earthen- 
 ware, and brandy. Its mineral baths are much frequented by the inhabitants of Cadiz. 
 Pop. variously estimated, but probably about 5,000. 
 
 CHICOPEE, formerly Cabotsville, and including Chicopee Falls, a manufacturing t. 
 of Massachusetts, U. S., on the left bank of Connecticut river, at the mouth of Chicopee 
 river, 5| m. n. of Springfield. Chicopee falls supplies water-power to numerous cotton 
 and woolen factories, paper-mills, brass cannon and bell foundries, and the Ames manu- 
 facturing company, which makes machinery, swords, bronze cannon, statues, etc. C. 
 has 10 churches and several newspapers. Pop. ’80, 11,325. 
 
 CHICORY, or Succory {cichorium), a genus of plants of the natural order compositcB, 
 sub-order Gichoracece, distinguished by bracts in tw^o unequal rows, the outer always 
 reflexed, the inner latterly becoming so, a nearly naked receptacle, obovate striated 
 achenia, and a pappus of two rows of minute scales. The species are few in number, 
 herbaceous plants, full of milky juice, natives chiefly of the warmer temperate regions 
 of the eastern hemisphere. The common C. or Succory {G. intybus) is a perennial 
 X'-lant, found wild in England and most parts of Europe, growing in waysides, borders 
 
V79 
 
 Chicken-pox. 
 
 Chieti. 
 
 of fields, etc. It has a long carrot-like root, externally of a dirty or brownish yellow 
 color, and white within. The stem rises to the height of 2 to 5ft., branching, the leaves 
 
 r uncinate, resembling those of the dandelion; the flowers sessile, axillary, in pairs, 
 rather large, beautiful, generally blue, more rarely pink or white. C. is pretty exten- 
 sively cultivated, both in England and on the continent of Europe, for its roots. It is 
 also cultivated for feeding cattle with its leaves. The blanched leaves are sometimes 
 used as a salad, and they are readily procured in winter by placing the roots in a box 
 wi,th a little earth in a cellar. — To this genus belongs also the endive (q.v.). 
 
 C. has been used as a substitute for coffee, or to mix with coffee, for at least a cen- 
 tury. The roots are pulled up, washed, cut into small pieces, and dried on a kiln, which 
 leaves a shriveled mass not more than one fourth the weight of the original root. It is 
 then roasted in heated iron cylinders, which are kept revolving as in coffee-roasting, 
 during which it loses about 25 to 30 per cent of its weight, and evolves at the same time 
 a disagreeable odor, resembling burned gingerbread. An improvement to the C. during 
 roasting is the addition of 2 lbs. of lard or butter for every cwt. of C,, which communi- 
 cates to it much of the luster and general appearance of coffee. It is then hand-picked, 
 to remove chips of wood, stones, etc., and is reduced to powder, and sold separately as 
 G. powder or G. coffee, or is added to ordinary ground-coffee, and is sold as a mixture. 
 C. contains a good deal of sugar, but otherwise does not serve to supply the animal 
 economy with any useful ingredient. It gives off a deep brown color to water, when 
 an infusion is made, and hence its main use in coffee. Some people dislike the taste of 
 C., and when largely used, it has a tendency to produce diarrhea; but many people pre- 
 fer to use coffee mixed with C. owing partly to the taste it communicates, but mainly to 
 the appearance of strength which it gives to the coffee. The C. is liable to adulteration; 
 and roasted beans, pease, carrots, parsnips, mangold-wurzel, acorns, horse-chestnuts, bis- 
 cuit, oak-bark tan, logwood and mahogany dust, and even the livers of horses and bul- 
 locks, are said to be employed in its adulteration. 
 
 CHI'COT, a CO. in s.e. Arkansas, on the Louisiana border and the Mississippi river, 
 intersected by Crooked and Mason’s bayous; 820 sq.m. ; pop. ’80, 10,117 — 8555 colored. 
 The surface is level, and in some parts is subjected to inundations; chief productions, 
 corn and cotton. Co. seat. Lake Village. 
 
 CHICOUTIMI, the n.e. section of the organized territory of the province of Quebec* 
 Canada; little settled except along the bank of the St. Lawrence and on the Saguenay 
 rivers; 23,753 sq.m.; pop. ’71, 17,493, all except about 100 being Roman Catholics, and 
 all except about 800 of French descent. The surface is mostly rugged, and there are 
 immense pine forests of great value. Chief town, Chicoutimi, on th^e Saguenay, 75 m. 
 from the mouth. 
 
 CHIEF, in heraldry, an ordinary formed by a horizontal line, and occupying the 
 upper part of the escutcheon. Like the other honorable ordinaries, the C. ought prop- 
 erly to take up a third part of the shield; but when the other charges are numerous, the 
 C. is frequently diminished in size. — Any object borne in the upper or chief part of the 
 shield is said to be in chief, though the C. be not divided off from the rest of the 
 field, as a separate portion . — On a chief: Is when the object is represented on the C., 
 divided off as above described. 
 
 CHIEF- JUSTICE, the presiding justice of the supreme court of the United States, 
 and of the courts of highest jurisdiction in most of the several states. The chief -justice 
 of the United States administers the oath on the occasion of the inauguration of the 
 president and vice-president ; he presides when an impeached president is tried, and has 
 the nomination of certain judicial officers. 
 
 CHIEF-JUSTICE. See Justice Courts. 
 
 CHIEM-SEE, a lake of Upper Bavaria, the largest in the country, lies about 42 m. s.e. 
 of Munich. It is situated at an elevation of more than 1600 fr. above the sea; its length 
 is 12 m., with a breadth of 9, and its greatest depth 500 feet. Its shape is irregular, and 
 its coast much indented. It has three islahds; the Achen and Prien flow into it, and its 
 surplus water is discharged by the Alz into the Inn. The C. is famous for its fish; and 
 a small steamer which plies on it, enables travelers to view its fine scenery. 
 
 CHIE'RI, a t. of Piedmont, northern Italy, situated on the slope of a hill 9 m. s.e. of 
 Turin. C. is an ancient place. By the later Romans it was called Carea. The church 
 of St. Dominico, built in 1260, has some good paintings ; and that of Santa Maria della 
 Scala, built in 1405, is one of the largest Gothic structures in Piedmont. C. is one of 
 oldest manufacturing towns in Europe, its manufacture of fustians and cotton stuffs 
 dating from 1422. Silk, cotton, and linen are still important manufactures. Pop. 9,000. 
 
 CHIETI (Province). See Abruzzo, ante. 
 
 CHIE'TI, an archiepiscopal city of Italy, capital of the province of the same name, 
 is situated on a hill near the Pescara, about 100 m. n. of Naples. It is a well-built and 
 flourishing place, with some imposing public edifices, including a cathedral, lyceum, 
 and theater; and its agreeable situation has made it the residence of numerous wealthy 
 families. The district around is fertile and well cultivated, and in the city, the cloth 
 and silk manufactures afford employment for a considerable number of people. Pop; 
 
ChifT-chair. 
 
 Chili. 
 
 78C 
 
 15,000. C. is a very old place, being built on the site of the ancient Teate of the Romans, 
 many of the remains of which are still visible. In the year 1524, St. Gaetano founded 
 here the order of the Theatines. 
 
 CHIFF-CHAFF, Sylvia Mppolais, a small species of warbler, very widely diffused, 
 being found both in England and in the neighborhood of Calcutta. It is common in 
 the s. of Europe, is in Britain a summer bird of passage, arriving, however, very- 
 early in spring, and does not extend northward into Scotland. Its general color is 
 brown ; the under parts lighter. It is a very sprightly little bird ; but its song consists 
 merely of a frequent repetition of two notes resembling the syllables chiff-chaff. It is 
 also called the lesser pettychaps. 
 
 CHIGNEC'TO BAY, the more westerly of the two inlets at the head or n. end of the 
 bay of Fundy, in British North America. It separates Nova Scotia from New Bruns- 
 wick, is 30 m. long and 8 broad, and has an isthmus of only 14 m. in width between it 
 and Northumberland strait, in the gulf of St. Lawrence. 
 
 CHIGOE, or Jig'ger, Ptdex, or Sarcopsylla penetrans, a species of flea (q.v.), rather 
 smaller than the common flea, and with less powerful limbs, found in the West Indies 
 and South America, where it is excessively troublesome, attacking any exposed part of 
 the human body, and affecting a lodgment between the skin and flesh, often under the 
 skin of the foot or the nails of the toes. At first, its presence is indicated only by a 
 slight itching or tingling; but an ulceration is likely soon to be the result, which is not 
 only very painful, but even dangerous, when the female C. is allowed to remain and 
 to deposit her numerous eggs. Before these are deposited, her abdomen becomes dis- 
 tended in an ex:traordinary manner, as a membranous bag, to the size of a pea. The 
 ulcer speedily contains a great colony of chigoes. The negresses of the West Indies are 
 very expert in extracting the C., which is also removed by washing with tobacco- 
 juice. Rubbing with tobacco-leaves is also employed as a preventative of its attacks. 
 
 CHIH-LE, or Pechih-le, one of the northern provinces of China, and the most 
 important of the 18, as being the center of government, and containing Pekin, the 
 imperial capital, the residence of the emperor and court. Pop. about 28,000,000; area, 
 58,949 sq. miles. 
 
 CHI- (or TSIN-CHI-) HOANG-TI, or Ching-Wang, Emperor of China from 246 to 
 210 B.c. He is said to have consolidated eight or more feudatory states in a single 
 kingdom, which covered nearly the territory now occupied. One of his monuments is 
 the great wall, built to keep out barbarians. 
 
 CHIHUA'HTJA, a city of the Mexican confederation, with 12,000 inhabitants, and a 
 considerable trade between Santa Fe, in New Mexico, and the United States. It is in 
 lat. 28° 40' n., and long. 105° 33' w., and has a cathedral, convents, and an aqueduct 3 
 m. long, besides appropriate buildings, as the capital of the state of its own name. The 
 territory in question, stretching in lat. from 27° to 32° n., and in long, from 104° to 108° 
 40' w., is divided from Texas, in the United States, by the Rio Bravo del Norte. It is a 
 table-land, more remarkable for mineral resources than for agricultural productions. 
 It abounds in niter and other salts, and is rich in mines of gold and silver. Pop. 180,000. 
 
 CHILBLAINS. See Chapped Hands. 
 
 CHILD, Sir Josiah, an eminent London merchant, and one of the ablest of the earliev 
 English writers on commerce and political economy, b. in 1630, was the second son of 
 Richard Child, a merchant of London. His principal work is entitled, Brief Observa- 
 tions concerning Trade and the Interest of Money (Lond. 1668, 4to) ; a 2d edition, much 
 enlarged, entitled A New Discourse of Trade, was published in 1690. In this work he 
 explains his plans for the relief and employment of the poor, including the substitu- 
 tion of districts or unions for parishes, and the compulsory transportation of paupers 
 to the colonies. He was one of the directors, and for some time chairman of the East 
 India company, and is said to have written several tracts in defense of the trade to the 
 East Indies, which were published anonymously. In 1678 he was created a baronet, and 
 died in 1699. 
 
 CHILD, Lydia Maria, b. Mass., 1802. When 22 years of age she published 
 Hohomok, an Indian Story, and a year afterwards The Rebels, a Tale of the Revolution, in 
 which she gave a speech by James Otis, and a sermon by Whitfield, both long believed 
 to have been made by the men themselves. For eight years she was the editor of The 
 Juvenile Miscellany, a monthly magazine for the young. Among her earlier works are : 
 The American Frugal Housewife; The Girl’s Own Book; and The Mother’s Book. She was 
 among the first of the New England anti-slavery writers, hegmnmgyvith. Appeal in behalf 
 of that Glass of Americans called Africans; and in 1841 she became one of the editors of 
 the National Anii- Slavery Standard, in which paper she published her popular Letters 
 from New York. Subsequently she published History of the Condition of Women in aU 
 Ages and Nations; Biographies of Good Wives; Life of Isaac T. Hopper; Progress of Relig- 
 ious Ideas; Autumnal Leaves; Looking towards Sunset; The Freedman’s Book; ARmnance 
 9f the Republic, etc. 
 
 CHILDBIRTH. See Midwifery, ante. 
 
781 
 
 ChifT-chaff. 
 
 Chili. 
 
 CHILDSRMAS, or Holy Innocents’ Day (28th Dec.), is observed by the church of 
 Home with masses for the children killed by Herod. It was considered unlucky to 
 marry or to begin any work on this day. From Fenn’s Letters (vol. i. p. 234) we learn 
 that the coronation of king Edward IV. was put off till the Monday, because the pre- 
 ■ceding Sunday was Childermas day. The learned Gregory says: “ It hath been a custom 
 •and yet is elsewhere, to whip up the children upon Innocents’ day morning, that the 
 memory of Herod’s murder might stick the closer, and in a moderate proportion to act 
 over the crueltie again in kinde.” C. is also a holiday of the church of England, 
 
 CHILD-KILLING. See Infanticide. 
 
 CHILDEEN, Legal Capacity op. See Infant, Minok, Pupil, Guardian, Tutor, 
 •Curator. 
 
 CHILDREN, John George, 1777-1852; an English scientist who traveled in the 
 United States, devoting his attention chiefly to electricity and galvanism. Among his 
 papers, are those discussing the conversion of iron into steel by union with diamond, 
 «,nd a method of extracting silver from the ore without amalgamation. He translated 
 Berzelius on the blow-pipe, and Thenard on chemical analysis. He was for some years 
 secretary of the royal society. 
 
 CHILDREN’S AID SOCIETIES, first established in New York city, chiefly by the 
 -exertions of Charles L. Brace, about the year 1853. The object of this and its many 
 imitative societies is to care for the poor and neglected children of large cities, to rescue 
 them from want and crime, afford rudimentary education, and provide homes for them, 
 usually among the farmers of the agricultural states. At the last annual meeting of the 
 New York society, the report showed that, during the 26 years of its operation, 55,717 
 persons had been sent to homes and places of work, and of these more than 45,000 
 were children. During the year 1879, no less than 3,713 persons were sent to homes, of 
 whom 1920 were boys, 1380 girls, 210 men, and 203 women. In the lodging-houses, 
 during 26 years, 200,000 different boys and girls have been sheltered and partly fed and 
 instructed. In the industrial schools over 50^,000 poor little girls have been taught. The 
 society brings forward the police statistics on crime to show that “vagrancy and crime 
 among young girls have been greatly diminished during the past 15 or 20 years; while 
 among boys, criminal offenses have not grown with the population, but have been held 
 decidedly in check.” Among 162, 153 boys who, during the past 25 years, have been in 
 the newsboys’ lodging-house, there has been no case of contagious disease, and only one 
 death. The other boys’ lodging-houses have been almost equally fortunate. Statistics 
 are given to show that since the establishment of the sick children’s mission and summer 
 home six years ago, 1000 lives annually have been saved under diarrheal diseases alone, 
 and that the general death-rate has been reduced from 33.76 to 24.93 per 1000. The 
 total expense of the 21 industrial schools in 1879 was $71,540.15, and the average attend- 
 ance 3,632, making the annual cost for each child $19.6^ The cost in 1878 for each 
 ehild in the public schools, not including rents, was $38.41 ; this expense not including 
 food or clothing. In the lodging-houses, 13,652 boys and girls were fed, sheltered, and 
 taught during the year, at a total expense of $47, 143. 66. Deducting the receipts, together 
 with the cost of construction ($26,916.17), the net cost was $20,227.49; dividing this by 
 the nightly average attendance, the average cost to the public of each child was $42.67. 
 The average cost per year of each prisoner in the Tombs is $107.75, and the Roman 
 Oatholic protectory draws from the city treasury over $100, annually, for each of its 
 inmates. The total number placed out by the society, mainly in western homes, during 
 last year, was 3,713; the total cost for railroad fares, clothing, food, salaries, etc., was 
 $29,679.48; the average cost to the public, accordingly, for each person was $8.04. Yet 
 any one of these children placed in an asylum or poor-house for a year would have cost 
 undoubtedly nearly $140. The number who enjoyed the benefit of the summer home 
 was 2,912; the total expense, deducting cost of construction, $1000.28, and rent of 1878, 
 $350, was $5,036.30; making the average cost for each child $1.89. 
 
 CHILDS, George Washington, b. Md., 1829; a journalist, for many years 
 and now proprietor of the Philadelphia Ledger, one of the earliest and most successful 
 cheap newspapers of the country. He is noted especially for liberal patronage of 
 men of letters, and for generosity towards deserving charities. 
 
 CHILD-STEALING. See Abduction. 
 
 CHILI, a republic of Spanish origin, in South America, is the most southerly state on 
 the w. side of that continent. It lies wholly between the water-shed of the Andes and 
 the shores of the Pacific, stretching coastwise from Bolivia to Patagonia, in lat. 25° 30' 
 to 43° 20' s., and in long. 69° to 74° w., having an extreme length of about 1240 m., and 
 an average breadth of fully 120. Within these limits, however, lies the virtually 
 independent Araucania (q.v.), comprising most of the mainland to the left of the Bio- 
 bio; while the southern portion is confined chiefly to Chiloe (q.v.) and its archipelago. 
 C. is divided into 16 provinces, of which the aggregate area is oflicially stated at nearly 
 130,000 sq.m. ; and the pop., in 1875, at 2,068,^7. This pop. and area exclude certain 
 regions in Patagonia, over which C. has a merely nominal sway. The capital is Santiago, 
 situated pretty nearly in the heart of the country, and connected with Valparaiso, the 
 principal port, by a railway of 115 m. in length, and also by telegraphic wires. The 
 
Chili. 
 
 Chilian. 
 
 782 
 
 Other towns are on or near the ocean ; and, to arrange them according to the relative 
 amounts of their trade, they are Valparaiso, Copiapo and Caldera, Coquimbo, Talca- 
 huano and Concepcion, Huasco, Constitucion, and Valdivia. In 1876, the total imports 
 of C. were valued at £7,058,220, and the exports at £7,554,208; in 1874, at £7,688,600 
 and £7,308,200 respectively. The foreign commerce of C. is carried on mainly with 
 Great Britain. The staple article of export to this country is copper, the value of 
 which, in 1874, was £2,812,013. The articles of export next in importance are, in order 
 of value, wheat, to the value of £1,180,278; silver ore, to the value, in the same year, of 
 £225,988; and wool, £160,637. The principal articles of British produce imported into 
 C. are cotton and woolen manufactures and iron. In 1874, the value of the total imports 
 of cotton fabrics was £1,923,753; that of woolens, £258,288; and that of iron, wrought 
 and unwrought, £465,596. Among the other imports were hardwares and cutlery, val- 
 ued at £128,550. The national income amounted in 1878 to £4,088,800, while the expcn 
 diture was £4,275,000. In 1879, the public debt was close on £11,000,000, of which 
 above £7,000,000 was held outside the country. The army, as mobilized and increased 
 on account of the war that had then broken out between C. and Peru allied with Bolivia, 
 comprised in 1879 as much as 20,000 men, besides a national guard raised to 30,006 
 men. The navy, which took an important part in the war, consisted in 1879 of 10 
 small steamers, and two large and powerful iron clads. 
 
 Roman Catholicism is the prevailing religion, but other beliefs are protected by a 
 law of 1875. In its political constitution, C. appears to be the least democratic republic 
 in the new world. The legislature is composed of two houses. The deputies sit for 
 three years; and the senators are chosen for nine, retiring in thirds at the end of every 
 third year. The voters for a deputy — to say nothing of t& still more select voters for a 
 senator — must possess either £100 in real property, or £200 in personal effects, or £20^ 
 of income; a pecuniary qualification which is exceptionally doubled for the wealthier 
 localities of Valparaiso and Santiago. In 1848, attempts were made, but in vain, to 
 abolish or modify these restrictions on the suffrage. Under this form of government, 
 C. has maintained a degree of peace and prosperity utterly unknown to the other trans- 
 atlantic commonwealths of kindred race. In this respect, however, the character of 
 the people has doubtless co-operated with the tendency of the institutions. As con- 
 trasted with Spanish America in general, C. contains an unusually large proportion of 
 European blood. 
 
 Immediately after the conquest of Peru, C. was seized by Almagro, a companion of 
 Pizarro, subsequently becoming the seat of a captain-generalship, which held sway as 
 far as cape Horn. In 1810, commenced the war of independence, which, at the close 
 of eight years, was decided against Spain by the victory of Maypo. 
 
 Geology . — The predominant rocks of C. are crystalline and metamorphic. They 
 form the range of the Andes, except in those districts in which active volcanoes exist, 
 where they are covered with recent volcanic rocks. They occupy also the whole of the 
 level ground between the mountain-range and the shores of the Pacific, with the excep- 
 tion of a narrow stretch of paloezoic fossiliferous strata which run along the coast s. 
 from Santiago for a distance of 300 miles. The coast-line of C. is being continually 
 altered from the elevation of the whole country to an extent of at least 1200 m. along 
 the Pacific shores, produced by volcanic agency. In 1822, the coast was raised 4 ft. at 
 Quintero, and 3 ft. at Valparaiso. Oysters and other mollusks w^ere left dry, and per- 
 ished, becoming offensive as they decomposed. The change of level was permanent, 
 over an area of 100,000 sq.m., nearly as large as the whole extent of Great Britain and 
 Ireland. A similar extensive elevation was noticed in 1835 by Capt. Fitzroy.^ 
 
 Physically, the continental portion of the republic — for its insular section will, in 
 this respect, be noticed under the head of Chiloe— presents many singularities. Of all 
 the maritime regions on the globe, it is perhaps the most isolated. On every side but 
 the sea — and that sea very remote from the main thoroughfares of commerce — it is 
 beset by difficulties of communication. With the lonely wilderness of Patagonia to the 
 s., and the dreary desert of Atacama on the n., it is bounded on the e. by a mountain 
 chain which, altogether impracticable in winter, can be crossed, even in summer, only 
 by a few passes ranging between 12,450 ft. and 14,370 in elevation. Moreover, this 
 strip between the Andes and the Pacific is broken into plateaus in the interior, 
 and valleys on the coast, by two longitudinal ranges, wdth numerous lateral spurs ; 
 while, throughout the length and breadth, the general level gradually descends, as well 
 to the s. as to the west. In point of mere temperature, so rugged a surface — covering 
 fully 15° of lat., and attaining an altitude of more than 4 m. within about 2° of long. — 
 must present nearly every possible variety. Through the reciprocal action of the Andes 
 (q.v.) and the prevailing winds, the rain-fall graduates itself, with something of mathe- 
 matical regularity, from the parching skies of the n. to the drenching clouds of the s.— 
 a graduation which, disturbed merely by the melting of the mountain-snows, is, in a 
 great measure, necessarily reflected in the condition and magnitude of the countless 
 water-courses. Hence the rivers to the n. of the Maypo, which enters the Pacific near 
 lat. 34°, are but inconsiderable streams; while, further to the s., the Maule, the Biobio, 
 and the Calacalla are all to some extent navigable. 
 
 From the cause last mentioned, different districts vary remarkably in their produc- 
 tions. To the n. of the Coquimbo, about lat. 30°, is chiefly an arid waste, redeemed, 
 
783 
 
 Chili. 
 
 Chilian. 
 
 -however, from being valueless by its mines; and to the s. of the Biobio, about lat. 37“, 
 timber and pasturage divide the soil between them. The intermediate center alone is 
 ^tted for agriculture, yielding, besides maize and hemp, European grains and fruits in 
 abundance. Notwithstanding all the varieties and vicissitudes of climate, the country 
 may claim to be, on the whole, extremely healthy. The manufactures are earthen- 
 wares, copper-wares, linens, cordage, soap, leather, and brandy; and, in addition to the 
 wheat and metals already specified, the exports, especially to the south, embrace tallow, 
 hides, jerked beef, and live-stock. C. had, in 1878, 1050 m. of railways. Santiago is 
 connected with Buenos Ayres by a line going over a pass of the Andes 6,000 ft high. 
 There are also common roads; but they are neither numerous nor good. In fact, the 
 want of highways and bridges is a serious obstacle to the progress of trade and cultiva- 
 tion. In the basin of the lower Biobio, coal is plentiful. 
 
 CHILI {ante), though less revolutionary than some of its sister republics, has been 
 subjected to several forcible attempts to change the government. The most formidable 
 of these was in 1851. At first the insurgents were victorious, but after 4,000 men had 
 fallen in battle and great damage had been done to business and commerce, the govern- 
 ment succeeded in effecting peace by money more than by arms. This was during the 
 presidency of Don Manuel Montt, a man of great ability. He restored peace and pros- 
 perity to the country, and it has since been free from internal strife. In 1864, C. 
 sympathized warmly with Peru against Spain, and in the following year its coast waa 
 blockaded by a Spanish fleet. March 31, Valparaiso was bombarded, notwithstanding 
 the protest of the foreign ministers and consuls. Thousands of shot and shell were 
 thrown into it, destroying many public and private buildings and involving a loss of 10 
 millions of dollars, the chief part of which fell on the foreign residents. The remonstrances 
 of the European governments soon compelled a cessation of hostilities and the raising 
 of the blockade. In 1871, a treaty of peace was negotiated through the mediation of the 
 United States government, and signed at Washington. During the past few years C. has 
 advanced greatly both in material and intellectual development. New mines are worked, 
 agricultural schools and societies are exerting a beneficial influence, and great improve- 
 ments in rivers, harbors, and streets are projected. In 1877, more than 1200 m. of rail- 
 road and nearly 5,000 m. of telegraph were in operation, and additional lines of both are 
 in progress. There are 500 efficient government schools, and an equal number established 
 by cities, churches, and private persons. Two normal schools, for male and female 
 teachers are in good condition. The government university at Santiago has a prepara- 
 tory department connected with its higher course. The conciliar seminary combines 
 collegiate and theological studies. There are also at the capital agricultural, naval, and 
 military schools. The national library, founded by the Jesuits, contains 25,000 vol- 
 umes, many of which are on theological subjects. In 1843, a dispute arose between C. 
 ^nd the Argentine Republic for the possession of Patagonia. Many unsuccessful attempts 
 to settle it were made, and war between the two countries often seemed imminent, but 
 in 1879 a treaty was signed by which the disputed territory was ceded to the Argentine 
 Republic. C. having transferred a portion of disputed territory to Bolivia on condition 
 that the Chilians residing in it should not be taxed, Bolivia did refrain from taxation 
 but confiscated some property owned by a Chilian company. Upon this C. sent troops 
 into Bolivia. Peru offered to mediate between the parties, but the offer having been 
 rejected an alliance followed between Bolivia and Peru, and, in April, 1879, w'ar against 
 C. was declared. Hostile operations have been carried on with great energy. In a naval 
 engagement the Chilians captured the powerful iron-clad steamer Huascar and turned it 
 against its former owners. Peru, with inferior vessels, has since accomplished several 
 daring exploits, and the war goes on with bitterness and varied success. Recently, how- 
 ever, C. has gained decided advantages, capturing Arica, and entering on the siege of 
 Lima. The victories in this war have been not without the accompaniment of indis- 
 iCriminate pillage and ravage. 
 
 CHILI, or Chilli. See Capsicum. 
 
 CHILTASTS. See Millennium, ante. 
 
 CHILI NETTLE. See Loasace^. 
 
 CHILI SALTPETER is a commercial name applied to the nitrate of soda. See Soda, 
 Nitrate. 
 
 CHILL AN, a t. in the province of Nuble, Chili; 120 m. n.e. of Concepcion, 35® 56' 
 s., and 71® 37' west. The houses have only a ground floor and are built around rec- 
 tangular courts; the streets are 60 to 70 ft. wide, having open drains in the center. C. is 
 in the center of a large agricultural district of great productiveness, and is an important 
 outlet for grain and cattle by railroad to Tome. The place is also celebrated for 
 mineral baths. The town was founded by Ruiz de Gamboa in 1594, but has since been 
 several times destroyed and reconstructed. In 1601, it was wasted by the Indians; in 
 1657, by an earthquake, and in 1797, by the overflow of the river Nuble. The people then 
 removed to La Horca, where in 1835 their town was again leveled by an earthquake. 
 The next year they began to rebuild on the present site, and now have a prosperous 
 town of about 20,000 population. 
 
Chillian walla* 
 Cliimboraco. 
 
 784 
 
 CHILLI ANW ALL A, a yillag© of Punjab, being 5 m. from the left or e. bank 
 of the Jhelum, the most westerly of the five rivers which give name to the countr3^ It 
 is in lat. 33° 40' n,, and long. 73° 39' e., being 85 m, to the n.w. of Lahore. C. claims 
 notice as the scene of lord Gough’s dearly won victory, over the Sikhs, of Jan., 1849, and 
 also as the site of an obelisk erected to the memory of those who fell in the two Sikh wars» 
 
 CHILLICO'THE, a city in Lexington co.. Mo., on the Hannibal and St. Joseph, the 
 Chillicothe and Des Moines, and a branch of the St. Louis, Kansas City and Northern 
 railroads, 76 m. e. of St. Joseph; pop. ’70, 3,978. It is the largest town in the Grand- 
 River valley. 
 
 CHILLICO'THE, or Chtlicothe, a city of Ohio, U. S., beautifully situated on the 
 right bank of the Scioto river, 45 m. from its confluence with the Ohio, and the same, 
 distance s. of Columbus, on the Cincinnati and Marietta railway and Ohio and Erie 
 canal; has 13 churches, 3 banks, court-house, foundries, steam-engine and agricultural 
 implement factories, etc. Founded in 1796, and former capital of the state. Pop. ’70,. 
 8,920. 
 
 CHILLINGWORTH, William, a famous theologian of the church of England, was 
 b. at Oxford in 1602, and educated at Trinity college in that university, where the 
 arguments of a Jesuit named Fisher induced him to become a Roman Catholic. He- 
 withdrew to Douay; but was induced by his godfather. Dr. Laud, then bishop of Lon- 
 don, to re-examine the whole controversy between Catholics and Protestants, and, in 
 1631, he returned to the bosom of the Anglican church. Four years later, he published 
 a work, entitled The Religion of Protestants a Safe Way to Salvation. It was exceed- 
 ingly keen, ingenious, and conclusive in point of argument. C. was perhaps the ablest 
 disputant of his age; and had there not been a certain fickleness and want of solidity 
 about his intellect, and a nervous suspicion that all human rea.soning might be vitiated 
 by undiscovered fallacies, he might have produced a really great work. The Religion 
 of Protestants acquired a wide popularity. C. was offered church preferment, which he 
 at first refused — having certain scruples in regard to the subscription of the 39 articles 
 — but afterwards accepted. He became chancellor of the church of Sarum, and preben- 
 dary of Brixworth, in Northamptonshire. He was a strong royalist, and, on the break- 
 ing out of the civil war, accompanied the king’s forces. He died Jan. , 1644. The best 
 edition of The Religion of Protestants appeared in 1742, with sermons, etc., and a life of 
 the author, by Dr. Birch. 
 
 CHILLON, a celebrated castle and fortress of Switzerland, in the canton of Vaud, 6 
 m. s.e. of Vevay. It is situated at the e. end of the lake of Geneva, on an isolated 
 rock, almost entirely surrounded by deep water, and is connected with the shore by a 
 wooden bridge. The castle is said to have been built in 1238, by Amadeus IV. of 
 Savoy, and it long served as a state prison. It is famous as the prison of Bonnivard,, 
 the prior of St. Victor, who having, by his efforts to free the Genevese, rendered him- 
 self obnoxious to the duke of Savoy, was carried off by emissaries of that potentate, and 
 confined here for six years, at the end of which time the castle had to surrender to the 
 Bernese and Genevese, when Bonnivard was liberated. C. has been immortalized by 
 Byron’s Prisoner of Chilton. The castle is now used as a magazine for military stores. 
 
 CHILMA'REE, or Chalamari, a t. in British India, in the presidency of Bengal, 
 35 m. s.e. of Rungpur, on the Brahmaputra. It is remarkable chiefly as the seat of a 
 great religious and commercial festival which brings together sometimes 100,000 people. 
 
 CHILOE', the insular province of Chili (q.v.), is an archipelago on the w. side of 
 South America, which takes its name from its principal island. It is separated from 
 the rest of the republic, or rather from Patagonia, by the gulf of Ancud, extending in 
 s. lat. from 41° 40' to 43° 20', and in w. long, from 73° to 74°. The province — which, in 
 1875, numbered 64,536 inhabitants — contains, in addition to C. proper, about 60 islets, 
 of which about 30 are uninhabited. In the archipelago are two towns, both of them 
 seaports of C. proper — Castro, the ancient capital, on the e. coast; and San Carlos, 
 the modern seat of government, towards the n.w. extremity. The atmosphere, like that 
 of the mainland opposite, is excessively moist ; the westeT-ly winds, more particularly in 
 winter, bringing almost constant rains. The climate, however, is on the whole healthy. 
 This fact is the more remarkable, inasmuch as C. proper is one natural forest, measur- 
 ing 100 m. by 40, with a partially cleared and cultivated margin on the sea. The chief 
 products are wheat, barley, potatoes, apples, and strawberries; and cattle, sheep, and 
 pigs are reared in consideralble numbers. Agriculture, however, is in a very primitive 
 state ; and the staple food of many consists of mussels and oysters. The population, 
 equally indolent and poor, differs from that of the rest of Chili in the great preponder- 
 ance of aboriginal blood. Schools are numerous; but, from the ignorance of the teach- 
 ers, education has not made satisfactory progress. The principal manufacture is a 
 coarse woolen cloth, dyed blue. This archipelago was discovered by the Spaniards as 
 late as 1558; and as it was the last integral portion of Spanish America to be colonized, 
 so also was it the last to throw off the mother-country’s yoke. 
 
 CHILOGNA'THA and CHILO'PODA. See Myriapoda. 
 
 CHILON, or Chilo, one of the seven sages of Greece, by birth a Lacedaemonian. 
 He appears to have lived about the 6th c. b.c. It is said that he died from joy, oa 
 
785 
 
 Chillianwalla* 
 
 Chimboraco. 
 
 learning that his son had gained a prize in the Olympian games. Many of his apoph- 
 thegms have been handed down to us. According to Chilon, the greatest virtue of man. 
 was prudence, or well-grounded judgment as to future events. 
 
 CHIL'TEEN HILLS, the s. part of the low chalk range which runs n.e., about 70 m., 
 from the n. bend of the Thames, in Oxfordshire, through Bucks and the borders of 
 Herts and Beds, and ends in Norfolk and Suffolk. In Oxford, Herts, and Beds, the 
 C. H. are 15 to 20 m. broad, and the highest points are Wendover, 905 ft. ; and White- 
 house, 893. 
 
 CHILTERN HUNDREDS. In former times, the beech-forests which covered the Chil- 
 tern Hills, in Buckinghamshire, were infested with robbers, and in order to restrain 
 them, and protect the peaceable inhabitants of the neighborhood from their inroads, it 
 was usual for the crown to appoint an officer, whawas called the steward of the Chiltern 
 Hundreds. The office, which has long ceased to serve its primary, now serves a second- 
 ary purpose. A member of the house of commons cannot resign his seat unless disquali- 
 fied either by the acceptance of a place of honor and profit under the crown, or by some 
 other cause. Now, the stewardship of the C. H. is held to be sueh a place, and it is 
 consequently applied for by, and granted, in the general case as a matter of course, to 
 any member who wishes to resign. As soon as it is obtained, it is again resigned, and 
 is thus generally vacant when required for the purpose in question. When the C. H. 
 are not vacant, however, the same purpose is served by the stewardship of the manors 
 of East Hendred, Northshead, and Hempholme. As to the offices which are held to 
 vacate seats, see Election. “The practice of granting the C. H. for the purpose 
 above described began only about the year 1750, and its strict legality has been doubted, 
 on the ground that the stewardship is not an office of the kind requisite to vacate a seat. 
 The gift of the C. H. lies with the chancellor of the exchequer, and there is at least one 
 instance of its being refused. In 1842, after very awkward disclosures had been made 
 before a committee of the house of commons, as to corrupt compromises, which had 
 been entered into for the purpose of avoiding investigation into gross bribery in the 
 election to certain boroughs, of which Reading was one, the member for Reading 
 applied for the stewardship of the C. H., and was refused — the chancellor of the 
 exchequer being of opinion that, by granting it, he would in some sort have made him- 
 self a party to transactions which he did not approve, and of which the house of com- 
 mons had implied its condemnation. ” — Standard Library of Political Knowledge, p. 500. 
 
 CHIMiS'RA, a genus of cartilaginous fishes, ranked by Cuvier with the sturgeons 
 {Sturionidm), but now generally regarded as the type of a distinct family, of which only 
 two or three species are known. The gills have a single wide opening, as in the stur- 
 geons; but the gill lid or opercutum is merely rudimental, and concealed in the skin, 
 whilst there is an approach to sharks in the structure of the gills. The only known 
 species of C. is G. monstrosa, occasionally found in the British seas, and more common 
 in more northern latitudes, it is sometimes called the king of the herrings. It pursues 
 the shoals of herrings, and is consequently sometimes taken in herring-nets. It is seldom 
 more than 3 ft. long. Its general color is silvery white, the upper parts mottled with 
 brown. It produces very large leathery eggs. 
 
 CHIM.3:RA, a mythical monster, described by Homer as having a lion’s head, a goafs 
 body, and the tail of a dragon. The rationalistic account of C. is, that it represented a 
 mountain in Lycia whose top was the resort of lions, its middle of goats, and the marshy 
 ground at the bottom of which abounded with serpents. In the same manner, Belle- 
 rophon’s (q.v.) victory over the C. is explained by saying, that he first made his residence 
 on this mountain. The myth seems, at all events, to have belonged to Asia Minor, as 
 gigantic carvings of the C. on rocks are there found. It is usually represented as a lion, 
 out of the back of which grows the head and neck of a goat. — C. is used figuratively to 
 denote any monstrous or impossible conception, the unnatural birth of the fancy, it is 
 frequently depicted on shields, as a heraldic charge. 
 
 CHIMAFH'ILA. See Winter-green. 
 
 CHIMA'RA, or Chimari. See Ceraunian Mountains. 
 
 CHIMAY, Jeanne Marie Ignace Therese, Princess of; 1775-1835; daughter of 
 count Cabarrus, minister of finance in Spain; early married to M. de Fontenay, soon 
 divorced, and next married to Tallien, the French revolutionist, whom she induced to 
 engage in a plot for the overthrow of Robespierre, and thus made herself the chief pro- 
 moter of the revolution of July, 1794. Her beauty and her free manners with her con- 
 sequent social triumphs gave her husband offense, and he left her, going with Napoleon 
 to Egypt. A mutual divorce followed on his return, and Jeanne then married count 
 Caraman, with whom she lived peaceably. While ranking first among the beauties of 
 the time, she was never admitted to court circles. She is represented as amiable, witty, 
 kind, and always ready to serve even her enemies. 
 
 CHIMBORA'CO, a conical peak of the Andes, in Quito, 21,510 ft. above the sea, but 
 only about 12,000 above the level of its own table-land. It is capped with perpetual 
 snow, and was long regarded as the loftiest mountain in the world. Latterly, how- 
 U. K. III.— 50 
 
Chi mere. 
 Chimuey. 
 
 786 
 
 €ver, it has been ascertained to be overtopped by some peaks, not merely of the Hima- 
 nyas, but even of the central division of its own chain. Its lat. and long, are 1° 20' s., 
 and 79° west. The summit was for the first time reached by Stiibel in 1872. Humboldt 
 ascended within 2,138 ft. of it, and Boussingault and Hall within 1729. 
 
 CHIME'RE, “ the upper robe worn by a bishop, to which the lawn-sleeves are now 
 generally attached.” Since the time of queen Elizabeth, it has been of black satin, but 
 previously it was of a scarlet color, like that worn by the bishops when assembled in 
 convocation, and when the sovereign attends parliament. 
 
 CHIMES, music performed on bells in a church tower, either by the hands of a per- 
 former or by mechanism. The most perfect C. are to be found in Holland and Belgium. 
 
 CHIMES {ante). This class of music is believed to have originated in some of the 
 German monasteries, and the first instrument for the production of C. to have been 
 made in 4487 at Alost, in the Netherlands. Among the celebrated chimes ’of Europe are 
 those of Copenhagen, Ghent, and Amsterdam. A number of bells is required for a 
 proper execution of this music. The carillons a clavier are played like a piano-forte; the 
 keys are handles connected with the bells by rods or cords, and the carillonneur employs 
 his hands and feet to play an air. The pedals communicate with the larger bells for the 
 bass. The keys on which the treble notes depend are struck with the hand, which is 
 protected by a leather covering. It is stated that Potthoff, a blind organist of Amster- 
 dam, was able to perform fugues on this instrument. The invention of carillon machin- 
 -ery is of modern origin; one person now is able by simply tdrning a barrel similar to 
 that of a music box to chime eight bells with little difficulty. C. have been largely intro- 
 duced into our American churches. In New York there are four churches that have large 
 chimes, St. Thomas, Grace, Trinity, and St. Ann’s. The C. of Christ church in Phila- 
 delphia, Christ church in Boston, and Trinity church in New York, are probably the 
 oldest in this country. Little is known of the Trinity church bells, except that five of 
 them were cast in London before the year 1845. The ten bells have an aggregate weight 
 of about 15,000 lbs.; the largest weighs 3,081 lbs., the smallest, 700 lbs. ; they are hung 
 in a frame-work of wood, and the machinery is somewhat primitive. St. Thomas 
 church has ten bells which were cast at Meneely’s in w. Troy, and put up in 1874; they 
 are very fine in tone and tune. Grace church has ten bells with an aggregate weight of 
 10,300 lbs., the largest, called the Rector’s bell, weighs 2,835 lbs. ; they are played on by 
 means of a carillon a clavier, like those in Holland. The C. of old Christ church in 
 Philadelphia are of historic interest. These bells were sent from England as a present 
 from queen Anne; they were taken down during the revolution, and sunk in the Dela- 
 ware river, as it was feared the British might capture them. At the close of the war 
 they were hung in the old belfry; and may now be heard on every holida}" through the 
 year. Christ church in Boston also has an ancient and notable chime. Full and partial 
 chimes, the latter called peals, can now be heard in all parts of the country. There are 
 three sets of chimes in Troy, N. Y. The church of the Good Shepherd, in Hartford; 
 St. James church in Birmingham, Conn. ; old St. John’s in Savannah, Ga. ; churches of 
 different denominations in Indianapolis, Petersburg, Va. ; Cleveland, O. ; Concord, N. H. ; 
 Rochester, N. Y. ; and many others, produce chime music. Worth mentioning are 
 those of St. Ann’s, in Brooklyn; St. John’s, in Newark; Grace church, and St. Patrick’s, 
 in Buffalo; the cathedral of the Immaculate Conception, in Albany; St. Paul’s, in Read- 
 ing, Pa. ; Pilgrim church, in St. Louis; in the bell-tower of Cornell universit)% at Ithaca, 
 N. Y. ; and in the college chapel at Amherst, Mass. The half C. and peals in the United 
 States are very numerous. (See Bell, ante}) 
 
 CHIMNEY (Fr. cheminee, Lat. caminus). There seems reason to believe that the C., 
 in its present sense of a funnel from the hearth or fire-place to the roof of the house, is a 
 modern invention. In Greek houses it is supposed that there were no chimneys, and 
 that the smoke escaped through a hole in the roof. What the arrangement was in 
 houses in which there was an upper story, is not known ; perhaps the smoke was con- 
 veyed by a short funnel through the side-wall of the house, which seems to have been 
 the first form of C. invented in the middle ages. The Roman caminus, again, was not 
 a C., but a sort of stove; and it has been a subject of much dispute, whether the Romans 
 had any artificial mode of carrying off the smoke, or whether it was allowed to escape 
 through the doors, windows, and openings in the roof. As the climate and the habits 
 of the people both led to the houses of the ancients being very much more open than ours 
 are, it is probable that the occasional fires which they had of wood or charcoal may have 
 given them no great inconvenience. It is known, besides, that the rooms in Roman 
 houses were frequently heated by means of hot air, which was brought in pipes from a 
 furnace below. In England, there is no evidence of the use of chimney-shafts earlier 
 than the 12th century. In Rochester castle {circa 1130), complete fire-places appear; but 
 the flues go only a few feet up in the thickness of the wall, and are then turned out 
 through the wall to the back of the fire-place, the openings being small oblong holes. 
 The earliest chimney-shafts are circular, and of considerable height. Afterwards, 
 chimneys are found in a great variety of forms. Previous to the 16th c., many of them 
 are short, and terminated by a spire or pinnacle, having apertures of various shapes. 
 
787 
 
 Chimere* 
 
 CMmney. 
 
 These apertures are sometimes in the pinnacle, sometimes under it, the smoke escaping 
 as from some modern manufacturing cliimuey-stalks which are built in the form of an 
 Egyptian obelisk. Clustered chimney-stalks do not appear until late in the 15th c,, 
 when they seem to have been introduced simultaneously with the use of brick for this 
 purpose. Each of the earlier clustered chimneys consists of two flues which adhere to 
 each other, and are not set separate, as afterwards was the practice. Long after they 
 were invented, and in use for other rooms, our ancestors did not generally introduce them 
 into their halls, which, till the end of the 15th, or beginning of the 16th c., continued as 
 formerly to be heated by a fire on an open hearth in the center of the hall, the smoke 
 escaping through an opening in the roof known by the name of louvre. In many of 
 the older halls in which chimneys exist, they have evidently been inserted about this 
 period. 
 
 The action of a C. depends upon the simple jjrinciple, that a column of heated air 
 is lighter than a cooler column of equal height ; when therefore a flue full of heated 
 air communicates freely by the lower part with the cooler air around it, the greater 
 weight of the latter pushes the warm air upwards, and thus an ascending current is pro- 
 duced. Other conditions being equal, the draught of a C. will thus be proportional to 
 its perpendicular height, and the difference between the temperature within and without 
 it. The straighter and more perpendicular the C., the stronger will be the draught, 
 because the friction of the ascending current will be less, and the cooling effect of a 
 long or tortuous course will be saved. The maximum efficiency of a given C. is attained 
 when all the air that passes up it enters by the bottom of the fire. In this case, its 
 temperature is raised to the uttermost by passing through the whole of the fire, and the 
 fire is at the same time urged to vivid combustion by the blast thus obtained. A power- 
 ful furnace may be constructed by connecting a suitable fire-place, capable of being 
 closed all round excepting at the bottom, with a tall C. ; and the amount of draught may 
 be regulated by increasing or diminishing the aperture through which the air is admitted 
 to the bottom of the fire-place, or by an adjustable opening above the fire-place, which 
 will diminish the effective draught as its size is increased, or by a combination of both 
 of these contrivances. 
 
 When the fireplace can be inclosed thus, there is little liability to descending cur- 
 rents or “ smoky chimneys,” as they are called, even when the C. is very short, or has a 
 tortuous course. It is chiefly with open fireplaces that this defect occurs, and the 
 means of prevention and cure is a subject of some interest and importance. As with 
 most other evils, the prevention is far easier than the cure; for by properly constructing 
 the C. in accordance with the principles above stated— by placing the opening of the C. 
 as nearly over the fire, and contracting the open space above the fire, as much as possi- 
 ble — downward smoking may in most cases be easily prevented. When a C. is in the 
 neighborhood of a wall or building nearly as high as itself, or — what is still worse — 
 higher, it is apt to smoke on account of the eddies and other complex currents in the 
 air, caused by the interference which such an obstacle presents to the regular movement 
 of the wind. In towns, such tortuous movements of the atmosphere are very common, 
 and the contrivance for preventing the wind from blowing down the chimneys are very 
 numerous, and often grotesque. Revolving cowls of various forms, but alike in having 
 a nearly horizontal outlet, which is so turned by the wind that the mouth shall always 
 point in thq direction opposite to that whence the wind is blowing, are the most com- 
 mon, and usually the most effectual. They are generally constructed of sheet-zinc, with 
 an arrow, a flattened pigeon, or other device, as a vane, to determine the rotation of 
 the cowl. The curing of smoky chimneys, in conjunction with the economizing of 
 fuel, was one of the favorite subjects of investigation of that very practical philosopher, 
 count Rumford. He says: “ Those who will take the trouble to consider the nature and 
 properties of elastic fluids — of air, smoke, and vapor — and to examine the laws of their 
 motions, and the necessary consequences of their being rarefied by heat, will perceive 
 that it would be as much a miracle if smoke should not rise in a chimney — all him 
 drances to its ascent being removed — as that water should refuse to run in a siphon, o^ 
 to descend a river. The whole mystery, therefore, of curing smoky chimneys is com 
 prised in this simple direction: find out and remove those local hindrances which forci 
 bly prevent the smoke from following its natural tendency to go up the chimney; oi 
 rather, to speak more accurately, which prevent its being forced up by the pressure of 
 the heavier air of the room.” * He then goes on to speak of above 500 smoking chim- 
 neys that he has had under his hands, and which were supposed incurable, and states 
 that he was never obliged, “ except in one single instance, to have recourse to any other 
 method of cure than merely reducing the fireplace and throat of the chimney, or that 
 part of it which lies immediately above the fireplace, to a proper form and just 
 dimensions.” 
 
 In this reduction, the section of the fireplace is changed in form and size, whence it 
 is better adapted for radiation into the room than the former square opening ; the fire 
 being brought further forward, has also more heating effect ; the space of the fireplace 
 being smaller, the air within it will, with a given sized fire, become hotter, and therefore 
 
 * Essays : Political, Economical, and Philosophical, by Benjamin coimt Rumford, voL i. p. 299. 
 
Chimpanzee. 
 
 Chinchilla. 
 
 788 
 
 Lave more ascending power; while in the contracted throat widening downwards, and 
 having its sides strongly heated, there is a rapid rush of heated air, which carries the 
 smoke upwards, and resists the passage of temporary down-draughts. Most modern 
 chimneys and fireplaces are now constructed in accordance with count Rumford’s sug- 
 gestions. See Grate. 
 
 One frequent cause of smoky chimneys is the want of sufficient inlet for air to the 
 room. Sand-bags placed under doors, and other devices for preventing ventilation, may 
 cause a well-constructed C. to smoke. Openings must exist somewhere, of sufficient 
 capacity to supply the air which is to ascend the chimney. If the air enters the room 
 on the same side as the fireplace, and sudden gusts of air pass across the front of the 
 fireplace, a temporary descending current is likely to be produced. The openings are 
 best opposite the fire. For the methods of arranging and regulating such openings for 
 the admission of air, see Ventila<tion. 
 
 Tall factory-chimneys, usually built of brick, are very costly structures, many of 
 them rivaling in height our loftiest cathedral spires. Their construction has been con- 
 siderably economized by building from the inside, and thus saving the expensive scaf- 
 folding. Their walls are built very thick at the base, and gradually thinner upwards: 
 recesses are left at regular intervals in the inside, and stout wooden or iron bars rest 
 upon these to form a sort of temporary ladder for the workmen to ascend; the materials 
 are hoisted by ropes and pulleys. 
 
 Sheet-iron chimneys are largely used in Belgium. They are much cheaper but less 
 durable than brick, and are objectionable on account of their rapid cooling by the action 
 of the external air. 
 
 CHIMP AN'ZEE, Troglodytes niger, a species of ape; one of those which in form and 
 structure exhibit the greatest resemblance to man. It is a native of the w^armest parts 
 of Africa; to which also the gorilla (q.v.), a larger species of the same genus, belongs. 
 The C. is sometimes called the black orang; but differs from the orang (q.v.) {jpithecus) 
 of Asia in the proportionally shorter arms, which, however, are much longer than those 
 of man ; in the possession of an additional dorsal vertebra, and an additional or thir- 
 teenth pair of ribs; and in other particulars, in some of which it more nearly resembles, 
 and in others more widely differs, from the human species. In both, the difference 
 from man is very wide in the general adaptation of the structure for movement on all- 
 fours and for climbing and moving about among branches, rather than for erect walking, 
 although the C. is able to move in an erect posture more easily than any other ape, 
 usually, however, when so doing, holding its thighs with its hands; and still more in the 
 form of the skull, and consequent aspect of the countenance, the facial angle being as 
 low as 35° in the C. when it is measured without regard to the high bony ridges which 
 project above the eyes; the jaws excessively projecting, and the outline of the face 
 rather concave. There is also an important difference from the human species in the den- 
 tition ; although the number of teeth of each kind is the same, the canine teeth of the apes 
 are elongated, so as to pass each other, and corresponding intervals are provided for them 
 in the opposite jaw. An interesting point of difference of the anatomy of the C. and 
 orang from that of man, is in the muscle which in man terminates in a single tendon, 
 and concentrates its action on the great toe, terminating in the apes in three tendons, 
 none of which is connected with the great toe or hinder thumb, but whiqh fiex the 
 three middle toes ; part of the adaptation of the foot for clasping as a hand. The great 
 toe both of the C). and orang is shorter than the other toes,- and opposed to them as a 
 thumb. 
 
 ^ The C. does not seem to attain a height of quite 4 ft. when in an erect posture. Its 
 skin is thinly covered with long black hair in front; the hair is thicker on the head, 
 back, and limbs. The ears are remarkably prominent, thin, and naked, not unlike 
 human ears in shape. The nose appears aS little more than a mere wrinkle of the skin. 
 The thumb of the hand is small and weak, that of the foot comparatively large and 
 powerful. In a wild state, the animal appears to be gregarious, but its habits are not 
 well known. Truth and fable have been so mixed up in the accounts of it that new 
 information must be obtained from reliable sources, before even things not in themselves 
 very improbable can be believed. In a state of confinement, it exhibits, at least when 
 young, considerable gentleness and docility, and readily learns to imitate human actions, 
 in eating with a spoon, drinking out of a glass, and the like ; but its intelligence does 
 not appear to be superior to that of many other monkeys, or indeed of many kinds of 
 brutes. Its natural food consists chiefly of fruit and other vegetable substances; in 
 confinement, it exhibits a great fondness for sweetmeats and for wine. The C. is 
 impatient of cold, and the climate of Britain soon proves fatal to it. 
 
 CHIMSEYAlSrS, Indians of the n.w. coast of North America, between 53° and 55° 
 n., including several small tribes. They are noted, like the Indians of Alaska, for di^ 
 figuring themselves by inserting a large piece of wood or ivory in the under lip. Their 
 language is said to be sonorous and comprehensive. 
 
 CHINA. See Chinese Empire. 
 
789 
 
 Chimpanzee. 
 
 Chinchilla. 
 
 CHINA, or China-ware. See Porcelain. 
 
 CHINA BABK, a name of cinchona (q.v.) bark, often to be met in books, and in com- 
 mon use on the continent. It is derived, not from the empire of China, but from kina 
 or quina, the Peruvian name of cinchona. 
 
 CHINA CLAY, or Ka'olin. See Clay. 
 
 CHINA GRASS, or Chinese Grass, the popular name of a fiber used in China for 
 the manufacture of a beautiful fabric known as grass-cloth. The name appears to have 
 originated in the belief that the fiber was that of a grass ; but this is not the case, it being 
 chiefly obtained from hoshmeria (q.v.) nivea, a plant allied to the nettle. Besides this 
 and other species of the natural order urticaceos, other plants, as species of corchorus 
 <q.v.) and (q.v.) are believed to yield fibers employed in the same manufacture. 
 The fibers are said not to be spun after the European manner, but joined into long 
 threads by twisting their ends together. Grass-cloth is now brought in considerable 
 ouantity to Europe, especially in the form of pocket-handkerchiefs. It has a fine glossy 
 appearance and a peculiar transparency. 
 
 CHINANDE'GA, a t. of Central America, Nicaragua, stands in a fertile plain at the 
 foot of some mountains, about 18 m. n.w. of Leon, and about 10 m. from the Pacific 
 coast. The houses are straggling, of one story, built of adobes, and many of them are 
 inclosed by gardens and plantations. Maize, sugar, cotton, hides, and poultry are pro- 
 duced in the vicinity. Pop. about 10,000. — Old Chinandega, which is contiguous, has 
 a pop. of about 4,000. 
 
 CHINA ROOT, the root, or rather the rhizome (root-stock) of smilax China, a climbing 
 shrubby plant, closely allied to sarsaparilla, and belonging to the same genus; a native 
 of China, Cochin-China, and Japan. See Sarsaparilla and Smilace.®. The stem is 
 round and prickly, the leaves thin and roundish oblong; the rhizome tuberous and 
 large; sub-astringent and diaphoretic. It is occasionally used in medicine, and is 
 imported in a dry state into Europe; but it is also employed in the e. as an article of 
 food. It abounds in starch. 
 
 CHINA WAX, produced by an insect which lies on the ash trees of China. It is 
 scraped from the limbs, melted and strained, when it resembles bees’ wax. 
 
 CHINCHA ISLANDS, three small islands in the Pacific, 13° 38' s. and 76° 28' w., 
 12 m. from the coast of Peru, and 106 m. from Callao. The largest, known as north 
 island, is only about 170 acres in surface. The importance of the islands is owing to 
 their immense deposits of guano. They are of granitic formation, rising from the sea 
 in precipitous cliffs, worn into countless caves and hollows, which furnish convenient 
 resting places for sea-fowl. Their highest point, now 113 ft., was once nearly 90 ft. 
 higher, the whole deposit being of guano. The name of the islands and of the town 
 and valley of Chincha in the mainland is derived from an ancient Indian race, which has 
 left some interesting relics of its sojourn. A stone idol and two water-pots of grotesque 
 form were discovered under 62 ft. of guano ; and a number of wooden idols, two regal 
 emblems, and a curious stone slab have been found. In 1846, the amount of guano in 
 these islands was estimated to be 18,250,000 tons, and in 1852 there still remained 12,- 
 360,000 tons. The supply is now nearly exhausted. Between 1853 and 1872, 8,000,000 
 were taken from the n. and middle islands. In 1868, there was a population of 6,000; 
 in 1874, only 105 remained. 
 
 CHINCH AYCO'CHA, a lake in Peru, 10° 42' s. and 75° 40' w., 10 m. s.s.e. of Pasco, 
 and 13,000 ft. above sea-level. It is 35 m. long by about 7 wide. 
 
 CHINCH BUG, Blissus leucopterus, an insect which has sometimes done immense 
 damage to wheat and other crops in the western United States. The female lays her eggs 
 on the ground, and there are often two swarms of bugs in a single year, one in June and 
 one in the autumn. The chinch bug is from a seventh to a fifth of an inch in length; the 
 wing-covers are black, with three or four white dashes, sometimes wanting; the 
 body is usually black, though the unwinged young are at first red, with a white band 
 on the back. 
 
 CHINCHEW, or Chinchh, an ancient and famous port of China, in the province of 
 Fuh-keen, 27° 57' n. and 118° 35' east. Though occasionally visited by missionaries and 
 others, Chinchu is not one of the treaty ports. The chief exports are tea, sugar, china- 
 ware, tobacco, and nankeens. The English Presbyterians have had a chapel in the city 
 since 1862. In the middle ages this city was the great port for western trade with 
 China, and was known to Europeans as Zayton. 
 
 CHINCHILLA, Chinchilla, Eriomys, or Callomys, a genus of South American quad- 
 rupeds, of the order rodentia; the type of a family, chinchilUdoe, allied to cavies {cavida), 
 but differing from them in possessing clavicles. The general aspect is somewhat rabbit- 
 like. There are several genera of distinguished in part by the number of 
 
 toes ; the true chinchillas having four, with the rudiment of a fifth on the fore-feet, and 
 four on the hind -feet; whilst in the genus lagidium or lagotis there are four on each foot; 
 
Chinchilla. 
 
 Chinese. 
 
 790 
 
 and in lagostomus, four on the fore-feet and three on the hind-feet. All the species of this 
 family are gregarious; feed much on roots, for which their strong and sharp incisors are 
 particularly adapted; and live either in holes, which they select for themselves in rocky 
 districts, or in burrows, which they excavate. They are valued for their fur, particularly 
 the Chinchilla of the Andes {G. lanigera), of which the fur constitutes an important 
 article of commerce. Their numbers are said to be sensibly decreasing in consequence 
 of the demand for the fur. The ancient Peruvians were accustomed to employ the 
 wool of the C. for the manufacture of fine fabrics. Molina suggests that it might 
 easily and profitably be kept in a domesticated state. 
 
 CHINCHILLA, a t. of Spain, in the province of Albacete, 10 m. s.e. of the city of 
 that name. It is situated on an abrupt rocky hill, crowned by a castle, and is sur- 
 rounded by walls. The town is in general well built, with good streets, and a fine 
 parish church, containing some excellent works of art. It has ^manufactures of cloth, 
 linen, leather, earthenware, and glass, and a trade in the agricultural produce of the 
 district. Pop. 7,500. 
 
 CHINCHON', at. of Spain, in the province of Madrid, 25 m. s.s.e. of the city of that 
 name. It is pleasantly situated on a hill near the Tagus, and is well built, with wide, 
 regular, and clean streets. Agriculture forms the chief occupation of the inhabitants, 
 but leather, linen, and earthenware are manufactured to a small extent. Pop. 5,400. 
 
 CHINDWA'RA, a t. in the central provinces of India, lat. 22° 3' n., and long. 78° 58 
 east. It occupies a plateau amid the Deoghur mountains, standing 2,100 ft. above the 
 level of the sea. Its climate is consequently one of the most agreeable and salubrious in 
 India, attracting many visitors in search of health or recreation. Pop. ’72, 8,626. 
 
 CHINE, La, a village of the dominion of Canada on the s. side of the island of 
 Montreal, and about 9 m. to the w. of the city of that name. Both the city and the 
 village stand on the left bank of the St. Lawrence, or rather, of a branch of the Ottawa; 
 for here, and at least 10 or 12 m. further down, these united rivers keep their waters 
 unmingled. As the intermediate portion of the stream forms the rapids of St. Louis* 
 the consequent interruption of the navigation naturally rendered La C. a turning-point 
 between the maritime and the inland communications. Gradually, however, its impor- 
 tance in this respect has been diminished, if not extinguished, by works between it and 
 Montreal — a canal, a railway, and even improvements in the rapids themselves. The 
 pop. in 1871 was 1696. 
 
 CHINESE EMPIRE, a vast territory in eastern Asia, comprehending five great divisions, 
 viz.: 1. Mantchuria (q.v.); 2. Mongolia (q.v.); 3. Turkestan (q.v.); 4. Thibet (q.v.); 5. 
 China proper or the eighteen provinces {8hih-pd-sang\ including the two laige islands of 
 Formosa and Hainan — the former being reckoned in the province of Fuh-keen, and the 
 latter as a department of Kwang-tung. 
 
 China Proper occupies the eastern slope of the table-lands of central Asia. In form it 
 approaches to a square, and covers a surface eighteen times as large as Great Britain. It 
 is inhabited by more than 360 millions of the human race, living under the same govern- 
 ment, ruled by the same laws, speaking the same language, studying the same literature, 
 possessing a greater homogeneity, a history extending over a longer period, and a more 
 enduring national existence than any other people, whether of ancient or modern times; 
 indeed, when we consider its high antiquity, its peculiar civilization, its elaborate admin- 
 istrative machinery, its wondrous language, its philosophy and classic literature, its 
 manufacturing industry and natural productions, giving rise to such a gigantic com- 
 merce with our own land, China is perhaps the most remarkable country in the world, 
 and is worth a closer and more serious study than has yet been generally accorded to it. 
 China proper is included between 18° and 40° n. lat. (which takes in the island of 
 Hainan), and 98° to 124° e. longitude. Its coast-line exceeds 2,500 m. and the land- 
 frontier 4,400 miles. A line running direct n. and s. would give a length of 1474 m. ; and 
 another at right angles to this, 1355 m. ; but one drawn diagonally from its north- 
 eastern extremity through Yun-nan would measure 1669 miles. The area of China 
 proper is usually given as 1,297,999 sq.m. ; but Dr. Williams considers that the entire 
 dimensions of the 18 provinces, as the Chinese define them, cannot be much under 
 2,000,000 sq. miles. All these measurements, however, must be taken as mere approxi- 
 mations. 
 
 Phynical Features . — China has a general slope from the mountains of Thibet to the 
 shores of the Pacific. The two principal mountain-chains divide it into three longi- 
 tudinal basins, drained by those great rivers for which China is famous. Within its 
 provinces are found alluvial plains, fertile river-valleys, large populous towns, as well as 
 thinly inhabited, hilly, and mountainous regions. To describe its suface more particu- 
 larly, it may be viewed under its natural divisions of mountainous country, hilly country, 
 and the great plain. The first comprehends more than half the region between the 
 meridian 113° and Thibet. East of this meridian, and to the s. of the Yang-tse-kiang 
 river, is the hilly country, which includes the provinces of Fuh-keen, Keang-se, Kwang- 
 tung, and a portion of Hu-nan and Hu-pih; while to the n.e. stretches the great plain. 
 This latter extends from the great wall to 30° n. lat. ; a line drawn from King-chow in 
 Hu-pih to Hwae-king on the Yellow river, may be considered its western limit; and the 
 
791 
 
 Chinchilla. 
 
 Chinese. 
 
 sea forms its boundary on the east. This vast and generally fertile tract has an area 
 of 210,000 sq. miles, and supports a population of 177 millions. 
 
 From the mountains of Thibet two grand ranges stretch across China, having a general 
 •direction from s.w. to n.e. The more northerly of these — the Thsin-ling or Blue moun- 
 tains — are included between the parallels of 31° and 34°. The southern or Nan-ling chain 
 is a spur of the Himalayas. Commencing in Yun-nan, it bounds Kwang-se, Kwang- 
 tung, and Fuh-keen on the n., and passing through the province of Che-keang — where 
 some of its peaks reach the height of 12,000 ft. — enters the sea at Ning-po ; thus forming 
 a continuous barrier — penetrated only by a few steep passes, of which the Mei-kwan, 
 nr Mei Pass, is the best known — that separates the coast-land of south-eastern China 
 from the rest of the country. This great chain throws off numerous spurs to the s. and 
 €., which, dipping into the sea, rise above it as a belt of rugged islands along the 
 southern half of the Chinese sea-board. Of this belt, the Chusan archipelago is the 
 most northerly portion. 
 
 The magnificent river-system of China is represented by those noble twin streams, the 
 Hoang-ho or Yellow river, and the Yang-tse-kiang, which, springing from the same 
 water-shed, the eastern mountains of Thibet, are widely separated in their mid course, 
 but enter the sea within 2° of each other. The former has its source in 35|^° n. lat, and 
 about 96° e. long. ; and after a very tortuous course, empties itself into the ocean in lat. 
 34°.* It is a “mighty, impracticable, turbid, furious stream” for the most part, and 
 little adapted for Chinese navigation. But the river most beloved by the Chinese is the 
 Yang-tse-kiang, or “son of the ocean” — more correctly translated, “ the son that spreads ” 
 — which name is only applied to it by the natives below the commencement of the delta; 
 for above that it is called simply Ta-kiang or Great river. The basin drained by it is 
 estimated at 750,000 sq. miles. Of the other rivers that water the country, the Peiho in 
 the n., and the Choo-keang in the s., are the most noteworthy. 
 
 The principal lakes of China are five in number — viz., the Tung-ting-hu, in 113° 
 €. long., with a circumference of about 220 m. ; the Poyang-hu, in 116 e. long,, 90 m. 
 in length by 20 in breadth; the Hung-tsin-hu, in Keang-su; the Tsau-hu, between Ngan- 
 kin-fu and Nankin; and the Tai-hu, in 120° e. long. On these lakes, artificially con- 
 structed floating islands, with houses, fields, and inhabitants, animals, and birds, are 
 sometimes seen. 
 
 The Grand Canal has very greatly facilitated the internal navigation of the country. 
 Until lately the great annual grain-fleet, with its 430,000 tons of rice for the use of the 
 capital, passed from the s. to the neighborhood of Pekin by this great water-way; 
 thus avoiding the storms and pirates of the coast, but the alteration already mentioned 
 in tlie course of the Hoang-ho, has rendered it comparatively useless. It connects Tien- 
 tsin in Chih-le with Hang-chow in Che-keang; though the canal proper commences in 
 Shan-tung, and its total length is about 650 miles. 
 
 Another world-famous structure is the Great Wall — called Wan-li-chang (myriad-mile- 
 wall) by the Chinese — which was built by the first emperor of the Tsin dynasty about 
 220 B.C., as a protection against the Tartar tribes. It traverses the northern boundary 
 of China, extending from 3^° e. to 15° w. of Pekin, and is carried over the highest hills, 
 through the deepest valleys, across rivers and every other natural obstacle. The length 
 of this great barrier is, according to McCulloch, 1250 m. Including a parapet of 5 ft., 
 the total height of the wall is 20 ft. ; thickness at the base, 25 ft. ; and at the top, 15 ft. 
 Towers or bastions occur at intervals of about 100 yds. These are 40 ft. square at the 
 base, and 30 ft. at the summit, which is 37 ft., and in some instances 48 or 50 ft., from 
 the ground. Earth inclosed in brickwork forms the mass of the wall; but for more 
 than half its length it is little else than a heap of gravel and rubbish. 
 
 Geology. — The high lands, where are the sources of the great rivers of China, consist 
 of granitic and metamorphic rocks. These are continued round the s. and s.e. of 
 the country, until they leave a huge basin, through which flow the Yang-tse-kiang and 
 Hoang-ho, occupied hj fossiliferous strata. The wild and rugged scenery of the larger 
 portion of China is owing to the predominance of those crystalline and sub-crystalline 
 rocks. The fossiliferous strata exhibit representatives of the various formations. The 
 paleozoic rocks are but sparingly developed in a narrow stripe which runs from near 
 Pekin in a south-westerly curve, to nearly the center of the empire. Cretaceous rocks 
 occur in the valley of the Yang-tse-kiang. Tertiary beds fill up the eastern portion of 
 the immense basin ; while extensive districts to the w. of this region, extending to the 
 crystalline rocks in the extreme w., are covered with modern detritus. 
 
 Though no active volcanoes are known to exist except one in Formosa, yet indica- 
 tions of volcanic action are not wanting. Salt and hot-water springs are found in Yun- 
 nan; sulphur springs near Foochow; and wells of petroleum in Shen-se and Formosa. 
 The most famous amongst the minerals of China is jade or the yu-stone, obtained chiefly 
 in Yun-nan. Coal, limestone, and porcelain clays are abundant. Precious stones are 
 said to be met with in some districts. In Yun-nan, gold is washed from the sands of the 
 
 * The Hoang-ho has recently altered its course, and now enters the sea in a sonaewhat hig;her latl 
 tude. Such changes, causing losses, and entailing expense, are not unusual; and hence this river has 
 been called “ China’s sorrow.” 
 
Chinese. 
 
 792 
 
 rivers, and in tlie same province silver-mines are worked; here, too, is obtained the cele- 
 brated pe-tung or white copper. All the commoner metals are likewise found in China. 
 Near the city of Ning-po are extensive stone-quarries. 
 
 Vegetable Productions. — Our knowledge of the flora of China has been much advanced 
 by the researches of Mr. Fortune ; and his works contain valuable notices of the geog- 
 raphy, culture, and varieties of the tea-plant, and of the botany of the country generally. 
 The tea-plant {thea viridis and thea bohea) is the most important vegetable production of 
 China. See Tea. The tallow-tree {stillingia sebifera), the dryandra cardata or varnish - 
 tree, the camphor-tree (laurus camphora), the Chinese pine {pinus sinensis), the Chinese 
 banyan {ficus nitida), the funereal cypress — introduced into this country by Mr. Fortune 
 — and the mulberry, are amongst the most important trees of China. The cocoa-nut 
 and other palms flourish on the southern coast. Of the bamboo, which grows as far n. 
 as lat. 38°, there are 63 principal varieties; and it is said that the bamboos of China are 
 more valuable than her mines, and, next to rice and silk, yield the greatest revenue. 
 The various uses to which they are applied is truly astonishing; and, amongst others, 
 the bamboo is famous as an instrument of punishment. The fruits of both the tropical 
 and temperate zones — apples, grapes, pomegranates, mangoes, pine-apples, three species 
 of orange, the lichi, etc, — are found in the country; and camellias, azaleas, and gardenias 
 are natives of the “flowery land.” The nympJum, or water-lily, is greatly prized by the 
 Chinese, both for ornament and in an economical point of view. Agriculture is held in 
 higher estimation in China than, perhaps, any other country in the world. On the first 
 day of each year, a grand state- ceremony is performed in its honor. The emperor, accom- 
 panied by his great officers of state, repairs to the sacred field, and, having offered sacri- 
 fices on an altar of earth, he traces a furrow with the plough, and his example is followed 
 by princes and ministers. A like solemnity is celebrated by the governor of every 
 province, who represents the emperor. The agricultural system of the Chinese is rude, 
 but effective; and every inch of arable land is carefully cultivated. Spade-husbandry 
 and irrigation are carried on to a great extent. The Chinese have a strong perception 
 of the value of night-soil as a manure; for, whilst in this country thousands of pounds’^ 
 worth are annually thrown into the Thames, in China it is everywhere saved, bears a 
 high price, and is collected in a manner exceedingly offensive to European notions. In 
 the northern provinces, the cereals are principally maize, barley, and wheat; but in the 
 south, rice is raised in vast quantities, and forms the staple food of the people. Tobacco 
 and the poppy are also raised in considerable quantities. 
 
 Animals. — Very little is really known of the zoology of China. Some of the more 
 ferocious of the carniverous animals still linger in the jungles of Yun-nan, and are occa- 
 sionally found along the whole of the Nanling range of mountains as far as Ning-po, 
 where there is a mart for their skins. Wild-cats are common in the forests of the south, 
 and bears are still found in the hills of Shan-se. Of the ruminantia, there are the musk- 
 deer {moschus moschiferus), the moose-deer, and a few other species. The gold and silver 
 pheasant, the argus pheasant, and other gallinaceous birds, hold a prominent place in 
 the ornithology of China. Fly-catchers, thrushes, grackles, and goat-suckers have their 
 representatives in China, and there are several species of crows, jays, and magpies. 
 Water-fowl inhabit the lakes, rivers, and marshes. The larger reptiles are unknown; 
 but tortoises and turtles abound on the coast, and lizards are plentiful in the south. 
 The ichthyology of China is considered to be one of the richest in the world. Sharks, 
 rays, sturgeons, and other cartilaginous fishes, are common on the coast; and the carp 
 formerly was very plentiful in the lakes and rivers. The goldfish has been introduced 
 into Europe from China, Of insects, the arachnidse are large and numerous; indeed, a 
 tree-spider captures and kills small birds. Locusts often commit extensive ravages. 
 Silk-worms are highly valued, and reared in large numbers. 
 
 In a country of such vast extent — extending from 18° to 40' n. lat. — the climate must 
 vary greatly. Indeed, as regards both climate and productions, China may be divided 
 into three zones — the northern, the central, and the southern. The northern zone 
 extends to the 35th parallel, and includes the fine provinces of Shang-tung, Chih-le, 
 Shan-se, Shen-se, and Kan-su. It produces the grains, fruits, and animals of northern 
 Europe. Here the children are red-cheeked, and the extremes of heat and cold 
 are great. In Chih-le, the winters are very severe; and at that season ice a foot 
 thick renders the rivers unnavigable. The natural productions of this and the con- 
 tiguous northern provinces are wheat, barley, oats, apples, the hazel-nut, and the 
 potato; they are also rich in wood and minerals. The central zone, the richest 
 portion of China, contains eight provinces — Sze-chuen, Kwei-chow, Hu-nan, Hu-pih, 
 Keang-se, Gan-hwuy, Ho-nan, and Keang-su — and is bounded by the 27th or 28th 
 parallel ; tea and silk are its characteristic products ; the middle portion is the granary 
 of China, and the eastern part is celebrated for its manufactures of silk and cotton. 
 The southern zone embraces five provinces — Yun-nan, Kwang-tung, Kwang-se, Fuh- 
 keen, and Che-keang. The exchange of its tropical productions for those of the northern 
 zone is an important branch of the internal commerce of the country. Kwang-tung 
 lies partly within the tropics; and the whole province is tropical, both in climate and 
 productions. The following table (no later census has been made) exhibits the situation, 
 area, and population of the eighteen provinces into which China is divided for admin- 
 istrative purposes: 
 
793 
 
 Chinese. 
 
 Provinces. 
 
 Population, 
 Census of 1812. 
 
 Sq. miles 
 
 Pop. per 
 sq. mile. 
 
 Northern Provinces — 
 
 Chih-le 
 
 27,990,871 
 
 58,949 
 
 475 
 
 Shang-tung 
 
 28,958,764 
 
 65,104 
 
 444 
 
 Shan-se 
 
 14,004,210 
 
 55,268 
 
 252 
 
 Ho-nan 
 
 23,037,171 
 
 65,104 
 
 420 
 
 Pastern Provinces — 
 
 Keang-su 
 
 37,843,501 
 
 44,500 
 
 850 
 
 Gan-hwuy 
 
 34,168,059 
 
 48,461 
 
 705 
 
 Keang-se 
 
 23,046,999 
 
 72,176 
 
 320 
 
 Che-keang 
 
 26,256,784 
 
 39,150 
 
 671 
 
 Fuh-keen . 
 
 14,777,410 
 
 53,480 
 
 276 
 
 Central Provinces — 
 
 Hu-pih 
 
 27,370,098 
 
 70,450 
 
 389 
 
 Hu-nan 
 
 18,652,507 
 
 74,320 
 
 251 
 
 Southern Provinces — 
 
 Kwang-tung 
 
 19,174,030 
 
 79,456 
 
 241 
 
 Kwang-se 
 
 7,313,895 
 
 78,250 
 
 93 
 
 Yun-nan 
 
 5,561,320 
 
 107,969 
 
 51 
 
 Kwei-chow 
 
 5,288,219 
 
 64,554 
 
 82 
 
 Western Provinces — 
 
 Shen-se 
 
 10,207,256 
 
 67,400 
 
 153 
 
 Kan-su 
 
 15,193,125 
 
 86,608 
 
 175 
 
 Sze-chuen 
 
 21 435,678 
 
 166,880 
 
 128 
 
 Totals 
 
 360,279,897 
 
 1,298,079 
 
 277 
 
 But, according to the Almanach de Gotha for 1877, the population of China, properly 
 so called, was estimated at 405,000,000; and of the rest of the empire, including Mant- 
 churia, Mongolia, Tibet, and Corea, 28,000,000 — in all, 433,000,000. After Pekin, the 
 capital, the largest cities in China are Canton, Tien-Tsin, Foochow, Hankow, Hang- 
 chow-Foo, Ning-po, Amoy, Shanghai, etc. 
 
 Inhabitants. — Ethnologically, the Chinese belong to that variety of the human species 
 distinguished by a Mongolian conformation of the head and face, and a monosyllabic 
 language. See Chinese Language, Writing, and Literature. A tawny or parch- 
 ment-colored skin, black hair, lank and coarse, a thin beard, oblique eyes, and high 
 cheek-bones, are the principal characteristics of the race. The average height of the 
 Chinaman is about equal to that of the European, though his muscular power is not so 
 great; the women are disproportionately small, and have a broad upper face, low nose, 
 and linear eyes. Of the general character of the Chinese, it is not easy to form a fair 
 and impartial judgment; and those who have resided long in the country, and know 
 them well, have arrived at very different conclusions. M. Hue asserts that they are 
 “destitute of religious feelings and beliefs,” “ skeptical and indifferent to everything 
 that concerns the moral side of man,” “their whole lives but materialism put in action;” 
 but “all this,” says Mr. Meadows, “is baseless calumny of the higher life of a great 
 portion of the human race.” He admits, indeed, that these charges are true of the mass 
 of the Chinese, just as they are true of the English, French, and Americans; but as 
 amongst these there is a large amount of generosity and right feeling, and also ‘ ‘ a 
 minority higher in nature, actuated by higher motives, aiming at higher aims,” so also, 
 he maintains, is there amongst the Chinese a similar right feeling, and a like minority 
 who live a higher life than the people generally. See Hiouen-thsang. As regards 
 valor, their annals record “deeds akin to the courage of antiquity;” they have no fear 
 of death, commit suicide as the solution of a difficulty, and endure the most cruel tortures 
 with a passive fortitude ; but neither their arms nor discipline enable them to stand before 
 European forces. The Chinese are, as a race, unwarlike, fond of peace and domestic 
 order, capable of a high degree of organization and local self-government, sober, indus- 
 trious, practical, unimaginative, literary, and deeply imbued with the mercantile spirit. 
 It is to be observed that the inhabitants of China Proper are essentially one people ; the 
 differences, except in dialect, being hardly more marked than between the Northumbrian 
 peasant and the Cornish miner. The south-eastern Chinese — the people of Kwang-tung, 
 Full-keen, and the south of Che-keang — are the most restless and enterprising in all the 
 eighteen provinces, and may be regarded as the Anglo-Saxons of Asia. In the moun- 
 tainous districts of the four south-eastern provinces of China, but principally in Kwang- 
 se, are certain tribes who maintain a rude independence, wear a peculiar dress, and are 
 descended from the aboriginal inhabitants of China. Of these, the Meaon-tze are the 
 best known. 
 
 The manners and customs of the Chinese can only here be glanced at. The worship 
 of ancestors is a remarkable and prominent feature in their social life, and is dictated by 
 that principle of filial piety which forms the basis of Chinese society. The rich have 
 in their houses a chamber — a kind of domestic sanctuary — dedicated to their forefathers. 
 Tablets, representing the deceased persons, and inscribed with their names, are here 
 carefully preserved; and at stated seasons, prostrations and ceremonies are performed 
 
Chinese. 
 
 794 
 
 before them according to the book of rites. All Chinese worship from time to time at 
 .the tombs of their parents. In everything that relates to death and sepulture, the cus- 
 toms of the Chinese are no less singular. They meet their last enemy with apparent 
 unconcern ; but whilst their future state troubles them little, they regard the quality of 
 their coffins as of vital importance, and frequently provide them during their lifetime; 
 indeed, a coffin is reckoned a most acceptable present, and is frequently given by chil- 
 dren to their parents. “To be happy on earth,” say the Chinese, “one must be born 
 in Su-chow-, live in Canton, and die in Lianchau ” — Su-chow being celebrated for the 
 beauty of its women. Canton for its luxury, and Lianchau for furnishing the best wood 
 for coffins. Yet death is never alluded to in direct terms, but indicated rather by peri- 
 phrases, such as — the person “exists no more,” “he has saluted the age,” “ascended to 
 the sky,” etc. Banquets are offered to the dead, and pathetic speeches addressed to 
 them. In China, marriage is universal, and within the reach of all; but there is a strict 
 separation of the sexes, and betrothal is undertaken by the parents or by professional 
 match-makers. Minute ceremonial observances regulate every step, and frequently the 
 bride and bridegroom see each other on the wedding-day for the first time. Women 
 hold a very inferior position, and are little better than slaves. Polygamy is not recog- 
 nized by law, but secondary wives are common, especially when the first proves barren. 
 Infanticide, though regarded as a crime, is undoubtedly practiced to some extent, as is 
 proved by edicts issued against it; and parents possess almost unlimited authority over 
 their children. The intercourse of the Chinese with each other, especially of the upper 
 classes, is regulated by a tedious and elaborate etiquette; indeed, they are the slaves of 
 custom, and everything is done by precedent. Many curious instances of Chinese polite- 
 ness might be cited. The well-bred host presses many things on a visitor, which the 
 latter must never dream of accepting. “A Chinaman,” says Mr. Oliphant, “has won- 
 derful command of feature ; he generally looks most pleased when he has least reason to 
 be so, and maintains an expression of imperturbable politeness and amiability, when he 
 is secretly regretting devoutly that he cannot bastinade you to death.” The Le-king, or 
 book of rites, regulates Chinese manners, and is one cause of their unchangeableness; 
 for here they are stereotyped, and handed down from age to age. The ceremonial 
 usages of China have been estimated at 3,000; and one of the tribunals at Pekin— the 
 board of rites — is charged with their interpretation. Chinese cookery, in the use of 
 made dishes, more nearly resembles the French than the English. Birds’ nests soup, 
 sharks’ fins, deer-sinews, and ducks’ tongues, are amongst its delicacies. The wine, or 
 weak spirit {tsew), more correctly speaking, used by the Chinese is made from rice; and 
 from this, again, they distill a stronger spirit, the “samshoo” of Canton. The former 
 is drunk warm in minute cups at their meals; tea never appears during a repast, though it 
 may be taken before or after. The Chinese have numerous festivals; and perhaps the 
 most remarkable of these is that celebrated at the commencement of the new year, when 
 unbounded festivity prevails. Preparatory to this, debts are settled, and the devout 
 repair to the temples to gain the favor of the gods. The first daj>^ of the }'ear may, in 
 one sense, be reckoned the birthday of the whole people, for their ages are dated from 
 it. Visiting is, at the same time, carried on to a great extent, whilcst parents and teach- 
 ers receive the prostrations and salutations of their children or pupils. The festival of 
 the dragon-boats is held on the fifth day of the fifth month; and at the first full moon of 
 the year, the feast of lanterns. In the manufacture of these the Chinese excel; and on 
 the night of the festival, lanterns illuminate each door, wonderful in their variety of 
 form and material. 
 
 In the matter of dress, the Chinaman exhibits his usual practical sense, and varies 
 the material according to the season, from cotton- wadded or fur-lined coats to the light- 
 est silk, gauze, or grass-cloth. On the approach of cold weather, he lights no fire in 
 his dwelling, but puts on additional clothing until the desired temperature is attained. 
 A tunic or kind of loose jacket fitting close round the neck, and a wide short trouser, 
 are his principal garments. Shoes are made of silk or cotton, with thick felt soles. 
 White is the color of mourning. The Tartar tonsure and braided queue became gen- 
 eral with the Mantchu conquest of the country, since which 180,000,000 of men have 
 the hair removed from their heads at short intervals; and as no Chinaman is his own 
 barber, a great number of this calling find employment. The Chinaman is very sparing 
 in his ablutions, and appears to be afflicted with a strange hydrophobia; for cold water, 
 either as a beverage or for washing his person, he holds in abomination. Long nails 
 are fashionable. The custom of the women differs but little from that of the men, and 
 their shoes are the most remarkable part of their toilet. A lady’s shoe measures about 
 3| in. from the heel to the toe. The feet of the Tartar women are left as nature made 
 them; but amongst the Chinese, all young girls of the better classses are crippled by a 
 tyrant custom. In early infancy the feet are tightly bound, the four small toes being 
 tucked under the sole, of which, after a time, they become a part, and the heel is brought 
 forward. The process is at length complete; stumps have been substituted for the 
 ordinary pedal extremities, and the Chinese lady totters on her goat’s feet. 
 
 The principal manufactures of the Chinese are silk, cotton, linen, and pottery, for 
 which latter they are especially celebrated. The finest porcelain is made in the province 
 of Keang-se. The Chinese invented printing in the beginning of the 10th c. , and in 
 932 A.D. a printed imperial edition of the sacred books was published. The skill of the 
 
795 
 
 Cliinese. 
 
 Chinese in handicrait i» astonishing. Their rich silks and satins, light gauzes, beauti- 
 ful embroidery, elaborate engraving on wood and stone, delicate filigree- work in gold 
 and silver, carvings on ivory, fine lacquered ware, antique vessels in bronze, and their 
 brilliant coloring on the famous pith paper, command our admiration. 
 
 Of the grand modern discoveries in the physical sciences the Chinese are profoundly 
 ignorant, and the study of nature is altogether neglected. The Chinaman objects to be 
 wiser than his forefatliers, but spends a life-time in studying his classical literature and 
 the sages of antiquity ; and here is doubtless one ^reat cause of the homogeneity of the 
 race, and the stereotyped nature of the Chinese mind. 
 
 Of animal physiology and medicine the Chinese have very crude notions, as is shown 
 by their scheme of the human body, in which the heart is placed in the center, with the 
 other organs ranged round it, and their unphilosophical theory of the pulse, which 
 plainly demonstrates that they are ignorant of the true circulation of the blood, and the 
 vascular system in man; hence their practice of medicine must be empirical. Chinese 
 physicians believe that man is composed of five elements; that so long as each maintains 
 its due proportion, health is preserved; but should one gain the ascendency, illness fol- 
 lows, and the equilibrium must be restored by proper remedies. Acupuncture is prac- 
 ticed. The Chinese have had the opportunity of practically testing the superiority of 
 western medical science, by the establishment of English and American hospitals, the 
 introduction of vaccination, and by the publication of popular treatises on physiology 
 and practical surgery, etc., by Dr. Hobson, late of Canton. It is worthy of remark, 
 that these books were eagerly sought after, and excited a deep interest among their 
 literati; indeed, the physiology has been twice republished by persons holding high 
 oflicial situations at Canton, and in a preface to the Chinese edition, the publisher 
 observes: “ Our science, indeed, cannot compete with that of the philanthropic author.” 
 
 Government. — In the centralized autocratic government of China, the emperor is 
 absolute in the empire, the governor in the province, the magistrate in the district. The 
 emperor claims no hereditary divine right, and is not always the eldest son of the pre- 
 ceding monarch ; the ablest son is nominated, but his right to the throne as the Teen-tze, 
 or Tien-tze, “son of heaven,” W\q Fung-tien, “divinely appointed,” can only be estab 
 lished by good government, in accordance with the principles laid down in the national 
 sacred books. If, on the contrary, he violates these principles, the people firmly believe 
 that heaven signifies, by unmistakable signs, that their ruler is not its chosen represent- 
 ative. “The rivers rise from their beds, the ground sullenly refuses its fruits, the 
 plains tremble, the hills reel, and the typhoon rages over seas and coasts, all alike utter- 
 ing a ‘Numbered, numbered, weighed and parted,’ that requires no interpretation, but 
 is read in anxiety by the people, in dismay and terror by the prince,” who seeks by 
 repentance, and a return to the true principles of the government, to avert his doom. 
 The emperor is absolute as legislator and administrator; but he must legislate in accord- 
 ance with the general principles acknowledged in the country. He also constitutes, in 
 his own person, the highest criminal court. The Chinese possess a carefully digested 
 code of laws, which is added to and modified from time to time by imperial edicts. 
 Their penal code commenced 3,000 years ago, and copies of it are sold at so cheap a rate 
 as to be within reach of people of the humblest means. Death, which the Chinaman 
 prefers to long confinement, is the penalty for a large number of offenses, and in ordi- 
 nary years about 10,000 criminals are executed. Several modes of torture are legal. 
 The emperor is assisted in governing by two councils — 1. The inner or privy council, 
 composed of six high officials, three of whom are Chinese and three Mantchus. The 
 four senior ministers exercise functions corresponding to those of an English prime- 
 minister. 3. The general or strategical council, which closely resembles our cabinet; 
 being composed of the most influential officers in the capital, who exercise high legisla- 
 tive and executive duties. Under these are six yamuns or colleges of government, each 
 charged with a distinct department of government. Over all is the court of general 
 inspection, or the censor ate, as it is called by foreigners. The mandarins composing this 
 number from 40 to 50; they are “the eyes and ears of the emperor;” for it is their prov- 
 ince to see that all officers of the government, provincial or metropolitan, are faithful in 
 the discharge of their respective duties; and they alone have the right to make represen- 
 tations or complaints to the emperor. 
 
 The administrative machinery of the Chinese is very perfect in its organization, and 
 demands an attentive consideration for the right understanding of the people and gov- 
 ernment. In each of the 18 provinces is an imperial delegate or governor, who, besides 
 being at the head of the civil jurisdiction, is commander-in-chief, and possesses the 
 power of life and death for certain capital offenses. He is privileged to correspond with 
 the cabinet-council and the emperor. Under the governor are the superintendent of ' 
 provincial finances, the provincial criminal judge, and the provincial educational exam- 
 iner; each communicates with his especial board in Pekin. The governor is also assisted 
 by many other judicial and administrative officials. The governmental organization of 
 each province is complete in itself, but in a few instances two provinces — Kwang-tung 
 and Kwang-se, for instance — form a viceroyalty, over which a governor-general, in 
 addition to the governors, exercises authority. Every province is again subdivided into 
 districts, departments, and circuits. The average number of districts in a province is 
 eighty, and each of these is about the size of an English county. A civil functionary. 
 
Chinese. 
 
 796 
 
 called sometimes the district-magistrate, presides over this division, and is assisted by 
 several subordinate oflScers. A group of districts — six is the average number for the 
 whole 18 provinces — forms a department, and is ruled by a prefect, who resides in the 
 fu or departmental city. Three departments, on an average, constitute a circuit, oi 
 which an intendant (taoutae) has the charge. 
 
 The several grades of mandarians, or Chinese government officials (Chinese name, 
 kwan-fu), are distinguished chiefly by a different-colored ball or button on the top of the 
 cap. There are twelve orders of nobility confined to the imperial house and clan, and 
 also five ancient orders of nobility open to the civil and military servants of the state. 
 The normal government of China is less a despotism than a morally supported autocracy, 
 and it is in principle paternal. What the father is to his family, that the governor, the 
 prefect, and the magistrate are intended to be, each in his own sphere, to the people ; 
 whilst the emperor stands in the same relation to the myriad inhabitants of his vast 
 dominions. In ordinary times, the Chinaman enjoys much practical freedom and can 
 travel through the country without passport, or follow any calling he likes. 
 
 The Chinese executive system is based on those noteworthy competitive examinations^ 
 which are intended to sift out from the millions of educated Chinese the best and 
 ablest for the public service. The first examination takes place every three years in 
 the capital of each department, when the lowest degree — that of bachelor — is conferred 
 on a certain number of candidates from each district. Triennial examinations are held 
 in the provincial capital, presided over by two examiners from Pekin, at which some- 
 times as many as 10,000 bachelors present themselves, and compete for the degree of 
 licentiate. Some 1200 obtain it, and these may attend the triennial metropolitan 
 examination at Pekin, when about 200 may hope for the coveted degree of doctor, 
 which insures immediate preferment. 
 
 Mr. Meadows, the most philosophical, perhaps, of our writers on China, and from 
 whose works the foregoing sketch of the administrative system of the country has 
 been chiefiy derived, has entered very fully into what may be termed the philosophy oj 
 Chinese government, which he sums up in the following doctrines, and believes them to be 
 deducible from the classic literature of the country, and the true causes of the wonder- 
 ful duration of the Chinese empire. 1. That the nation must be governed by moral agency, 
 in preference to physical force. 2. That the services of the wisest and ablest men in the 
 nation are indispensable to its good government. 3. That the people have the right to 
 depose a sovereign who, either from active wickedness or vicious Indolence, gives cause 
 to oppressive and tyrannical rule. And to these he adds an institution — the system of 
 public -service competitive examinations. But, on the other hand, these examinations, 
 by directing the attention of students solely to the ancient literature of the country, to 
 the exclusion of the physical sciences and inductive philosophy, however efficient in pro- 
 ducing that wonderful homogeneity for which the inhabitants of the central kingdom are 
 famous, stunt and stereotype the national mind, which, like the dwarfed tree the China- 
 man delights to raise in a flower-pot, or the feet of a Chinese girl, can never fully expand. 
 
 Education, as the high road to official employment, to rank, wealth, and influence, 
 is eagerly sought by all classes. Literary proficiency commands everywhere respect 
 and consideration, and primary instruction penetrates to the remotest villages. Self- 
 supporting day-schools are universal throughout the country, and the office of teacher 
 is followed by a great number of the literati. Government provides state-examiners, 
 but does not otherwise assist in the education of the people. The Chinese have a 
 remarkable reverence for the written character. Waste printed paper is collected from 
 house to house and burned, to preserve it from profanation. 
 
 . Army. — According to the Pekin Gazette, China has a prodigious army, but in reality 
 the greater part figures only on paper. Each province is provided with a military force 
 varying from 8,000 to about 68,000 men. According to Mr. Meadows the average for 
 each province is about 34,500 men, and 640 officers. The governor of a province is 
 also commander-in-chief, and is assisted by a general-in-chief, as well as lieutenants and 
 majors general. The Chinese and Tartar troops form two important divisions of the 
 army. The Tartar garrisons are indeed the real strength of the Mantchu emperor. That 
 at Pekin is 150,000 strong; and 18 others, averaging each about 3,000 men, are dotted 
 about the provinces, forming, with their wives and children, military colonies. These 
 troops, which are armed wdth good two-edged swords, and serviceable matchlocks, or 
 the national bow, have alone been able to stand against the victorious Tae-ping rebels, 
 and turn them from the capital. According to the most recent statistics (see Die mirth- 
 schaftlichen Zustdnde im Suden und Osten Asiens, Stuttg. 1871), the army is composed of 
 678 companies of Mantchus of 100 men each, of 211 companies of Mongols, of 106,000 
 Chinese cavalry, and of 500,000 Chinese infantry, besides a large body of irregular 
 militia — in all 858,000 men. The Tartar infantry soldier receives four taels a month, 
 and the trooper four and a half. The marquis de Moges (see baron Gros’ Embassy) 
 thinks that “ two regiments of chasseurs and two regiments of zouaves would suffice 
 to conquer China.” ‘‘ There is not,” he says, “a corps in the empire that could stand 
 fast under a bayonet charge. ” This, however, is no longer the case. The native troops 
 in all the large cities of the empire are drilled after the European fashion, and arrned 
 with the Snider and other breech-loading rifles; and in the opinion of intelligent English 
 
Chinese* 
 
 residents, the next Chinese war will be a very different affair from anything that has 
 preceded it. 
 
 Navy . — The imperial navy is divided into river and sea-going vessels. The former 
 amount, it is said, to 1900 ships; the latter to 918 — with an aggregate number of 188,000 
 sailors. This force, however, is insufficient to extirpate or even keep in check the 
 pirates who infest the whole coast of China, and the expedient was formerly resorted to 
 of promoting a pirate chief to some high civil employment. Even yet he is sometimes 
 appointed pilot. The Chinese are now building frigates on their own account — another 
 evidence of the stride taken under the regency of prince Kung. 
 
 Revenue . — The estimates of the public revenue of China vary greatly, and while they 
 are stated by some to exceed 100 millions sterling, are held by others not to come up to half 
 that amount. Official returns of the Chinese government — intended for a special use — 
 were published in 1844, according to which the revenue amounted to £63,934,713„ 
 derived mainly from three sources — customs duties, licenses, and a tax upon land. 
 
 Religion . — The Chinese, remarkable in so many ways, exhibit, in the matter of relig- 
 ion, their usual eccentricity. Three forms of belief — the Confucian, the Buddhist, and 
 the Taouist — may be considered the national religions, as they are believed in, more or 
 less, by the great mass of the people. Of these, the Confucian and the Taouist are indig- 
 enous, but Buddhism was introduced from India. A struggle for ascendency was long 
 maintained between these religions, but has now entirely ceased ; indeed, it is no unusual 
 thing for all three to be professed by the same person, and as they supplement each 
 other, this is not altogether inconsistent. Confucianism is the basis of the social life 
 and political system of the Chinese. It has been professed by all their greatest men, and 
 is still the sole belief of the educated classes. It is, however, less' a religion than a phi- 
 losophy, and does not pretend to treat of spiritual things; hence room was left for other 
 creeds to supply its deficiencies in this respect. The questions to which Confucius- 
 replied were: “How shall I do my duty to my neighbor? How can I best discharge the 
 duty of a virtuous citizen?” Funereal temples are erected to Confucius, and though his 
 in>age is not used as an idol, his tablet is worshiped, and sacrifices of oxen and sheep 
 are offered before it at the vernal and autumnal equinoxes. For an account of Confu- 
 cius’s philosophy, see Confucius. 
 
 Buddhism in China, though extending over the whole country, and infiuencing more 
 or less the mass of the people, is fast losing its hold on them, and has very little of the 
 power and authority it once possessed. Its edifices are going to decay, and no new 
 ones rise upon their ruins. Its priests are illiterate, and together with their religion, are 
 held in contempt by the philosophic Chinaman. Aged people and women are now its 
 chief devotees. The begging-monk is characteristic. He wears a loose yellow robe and 
 large stockings; at his back is a wallet in which to receive the contributions of the faith- 
 ful; and he gives notice of his approach by striking his mu7i-yu. The northern form of 
 Buddhism, which differs considerably from that of Ceylon and the Indo-Chinese penin- 
 sula, prevails in China. Its sacred books, in common with those of Nepaul and Tibet 
 are written in Sanscrit, or are translations from that language. Amongst other addi- 
 tions to the creed are the western paradise and the goddess of mercy. 
 
 Taouism has not more hold than Buddhism on the literate Chinese. Its priests are 
 generally ignorant men, few of them teaching or understanding the real principles of 
 their faith. They practise a mystic alchemy, prepare spells and incantations, and like 
 modern spiritualists, hold intercourse with the dead. When all other remedies have failed 
 with a sick person, the Taouist priests are sometimes sent for to exercise the evil spiiit 
 that is supposed to afflict the patient; and they chant prayers from their mystic ritual, 
 amid the din of gongs, drums, flutes, etc. These mystics worship certain stars, which are 
 supposed to influence human life, and also genii, devils, and inferior spirits. They live 
 in temples with their families, and are known by their slate-colored robes. For a fuller 
 account of Taouism and its doctrines and founder, see Lao-tse. 
 
 Besides these three religions, which alone affect the bulk of the people, there is a 
 ritual state worship, which regards the emperor and court alone — a kind of philosophic 
 pantheism, an adoration of certain natural objects; but it is a mere ceremonial, and asso- 
 ciated with no theological doctrines. Three classes of objects are distinguisned, to which 
 the great, medium, and lesser sacrifices are offered. The first-class includes the heaven 
 and earth. Equal to these, and likewise restricted to the v^orship of the emperor, is the 
 great temple of imperial ancestors. The medium sacrifices are offered to the sun and 
 moon, the. gods of the land and grain, genii, and sages. In the third class are reckoned 
 certain natural phenomena, as well as deceased statesmen and scholars. The emperor 
 appears to acknowledge a supreme Being as king of kings, the rewarder of virtue and 
 the punisher of vice; but still, Chinese philosophy, as fixed by Chu-tze, is atheistical, 
 and deduces “ the development of the universe from one unintelligent and will-less prin- 
 ciple.” Hence all educated Chinese are atheists, at least theoretically, as will be found 
 by arguing with them; but when they speak of human affairs generally, and their own 
 particular lot in life, they exhibit a belief in teen as a supreme, intelligent, rewarding,, 
 and punishing power. 
 
 Between the followers of the three national religions there is not only a total absence 
 of persecution and bitter feeling, but a very great indifference as to which of them a 
 man may belong. It arises probably from religious apathy; yet still it is preferable to- 
 
Cliinefe. 
 
 798 
 
 the fanatical zeal and cut-throat earnestness of the Moslem. Amongst the politer classes, 
 when strangers meet, the question is asked: “ To what sublime religion do you belong?” 
 and each one pronounces a eulogium, not on his own religion, but on that professed by 
 the others, and concludes, with the oft-repeated formula: “ Religions are many; reason 
 is one; we are all brothers.” The government is equally tolerant of religious diversity, 
 except where a political design is suspected. 
 
 Temples belonging to the three religions are very numerous. Those dedicated to 
 Confucius are funereal in character. The Buddhist temples are crowded with images, 
 and Buddha is represented expounding his doctrine to attentive listeners. The many- 
 storied tower takes the place of the bell-shaped dagoba or relic-shrine of other Buddhist 
 countries. 
 
 History and British Intercourse . — The early annals of China, like those of most other 
 countries, belong rather to mythology than to history. Beginning with Pan-ku, the first 
 of all beings, the country was ruled over first by gods, and then god-descended person- 
 ages, who revealed to men the essential arts of life. Of those mythical rulers the most 
 famous is Po-hi. The historical period may be said to commence with the Hia period 
 or dynasty, begun by Yu the great about 2200 b.c., although a great infusion of the 
 fabulous still continues. Some date the real history of China from the Tchow or Chow 
 dynasty, which began with Wu-wang about 1100 b.c. It was during the reign of Ling- 
 wang (571-544), one of this dynasty, that Confucius was born. China would seem during 
 this period to have been divided into a number of independent states. The kings of 
 Tsin gradually gained the ascendency, and at last one of them reduced the other states 
 to subjection (247 b.c,), and assumed the title of Hoang, or emperor. It is from the 
 Tsin dynasty that the country has taken its name, Tsina or China. This first emperor 
 finished the great wall (see above), as a protection against the Tartars, who had all along, 
 under the name of Hiong-nu (Huns), been a source of danger and annoyance to the 
 richer and more pacific Chinese. We cannot enumerate the various dynasties that fol- 
 lowed, nor the frequent divisions and reunions of the empire, varied by incursions and 
 partial subjugations by the troublesome Tartars. At last, the Mongols or western Tar- 
 tars, being called in to aid the Chinese (1209), became finally (see Kublai Khan) masters 
 of the wiiole country (1279), and reigned over it till 1368, when they were expelled by 
 the Chinese, and the Ming native dynasty succeeded, which lasted 276 years, and fell at 
 length through its own misgovernment. A general of the last Ming emperor, who was 
 employed in keeping the Mantchus (q.v.) in check, made peace with them, and obtained 
 their assistance against the native usurper who had deposed his sovereign. The Mantchus 
 established themselves in Pekin (1644), and finally, after a seven.years’ struggle, acquired 
 the sovereignty of the whole empire. Many of the conquering race now filled the high- 
 est offices of state, and owed their position to birth alone. More than one powerful 
 emperor of the race has ably conducted the government of the country; butHien Fung, 
 who ruled from 1850 to 1861, was reported to have passed his time in a state of drunken 
 imbecility. C The late emperor, Tung-chi, succeeded to the throne when only a child five 
 years old, but the government was ably carried on under the co-regency of the empress- 
 dowager, Tze-an, the empress-mother, Tze-sse, and the enlightened prince Kung, brother 
 of Hien Fung. Tsai-Tien, cousin of Tung-chi, ascended the throne in 1875. As he was 
 then only about four years old, the empresses continued to act as regentg^ 
 
 Of recent events in Chinese history, the most remarkable is the rise, progress, and 
 overthrow of the Tae-ping rebels. Their famous leader, Hung-sew-tseuen, was a man of 
 humble origin, and an unsuccessful candidate for government employment. Some 
 Christian tracts, it is said, led him to renounce idolatry, and he founded a society of 
 Ood-worshipers, which, in the autumn of 1850, was brought into collision with the 
 imperial authorities, and immediately assumed a political character. Hung persuaded 
 himself and his followers that he had received a divine commission to uproot idolatry, 
 extirpate the Tartar intruders in the country, and establish the new native dynasty of 
 Tae-ping, or universal peace. He assumed the title of heavenly or divine prince (Tae- 
 ping-wang, sometimes called Tien-wang), and bestowed the titles of eastern prince, 
 western prince, southern prince, northern prince, and assistant prince on five of his 
 chosen leaders. The fanatical principle of divine revelations and other extravagances 
 followed. They spoke of Tien-na, the wife of the Heavenly Father; they held that 
 Tien-wang was the son of God as really as Jesus, and worshiped him accordingly. 
 Polygamy was a dark feature of their system, the Tien-wang himself having married 30 
 wives. The course of this religio-political rebellion, the victorious march of the Tae- 
 ping army from Kwang-se to Nankin in 1850-53, and its subsequent career, cannot here be 
 traced. We can only afford room to state, that after a series of wasteful and revolting 
 barbarities, it was finally suppressed in 1865 by the imperial troops, led by British and 
 American officers, of whom the most conspicuous and able was col. Gordon. See Tab- 
 bings. 
 
 In early times, the Chinese do not appear to have been opposed to intercourse with 
 foreigners; but the conduct of the Spaniards and Portuguese between 1520 and 1570 
 excited their hostility. The Mantchu government restricted British trade and inter- 
 course to Canton, where it was carried on through the medium of the hong merchants 
 on the one side, and the East India company on the other. Differences arose, however, 
 from time to time between these two commercial bodies, occasioned chiefly by the exac- 
 
799 
 
 Chinese* 
 
 tlons of the mandarins on foreign trade. With a view to a better understanding, the- 
 British government despatched to Pekin an embassy under lord Macartney in 1792, and 
 another under lord Amherst in 1816. On the 22d April, 1834, the monopoly of the East 
 India company ceased, and British imperial officers were appointed to carry out the new 
 judicial and fiscal arrangements. Constant dissensions between these and the manda- 
 rins continued till the end of the year 1839, when the latter, under pretense of stopping 
 the opium-trade, committed acts of open hostility. A war broke out the following year, 
 at the commencement of which Chinese officials talked of invading England overland, 
 by way of Russia. The imperial government was, however, sufficiently humbled by the 
 middle of the year 1842, and on the 29tli Aug., a treaty of peace was signed before Nan 
 kin, by which the ports of Amoy, Fu-chow, Ning-po, and Shang-hae were, in addition to- 
 Canton, throwm open to foreign trade. The other most important articles of the treaty 
 provided that the island of Hong kong should be ceded in perpetuity to her Britannic 
 majesty, her heirs and successors, and that the emperor of China should pay $21,000,009 
 towards the expenses of the war. 
 
 With five free ports, British trade with China soon assumed gigantic proportions; 
 and though the Chinese evaded the treaty whenever practicable, no important event 
 occurred to interrupt commercial intercourse till 8th Oct., 1856, when the authorities at 
 Canton seized the crew of the lorcha Arrow, a vessel registered at Hong-kong, and 
 entitled, it was considered, to British protection. Under pressure from the British 
 forces at hand, the imperial commissioner, Yeh, delivered up the men, but refused all 
 apology. Yeh continuing obstinate. Canton was stormed (Dec. 28, 1857) by the allied 
 French and English forces, and the Chinese imperial commissioner captured (Jan. 5, 
 1858). The government of the city was still carried on by Chinese officials, but under 
 the authority of the plenipotentiaries and commander-in-chief. The former now pro- 
 ceeded to the n. of China, to put themselves in more direct corrmunication with the 
 imperial government, which still continued obstinate. The forts at the mouth of the 
 Peiho were taken (May 20, 1858), and at length an important treaty was signed at Tien- 
 tsin, June 26, 1858, which stipulates that the queen of Great Britain may (art. ii.) 
 appoint diplomatic agents to the court of Pekin, who (art. iii.) shall be allowed to reside 
 at the capital, where also her majesty may acquire a building site. The Christiau 
 religion (art. viii.) shall be protected by the Chinese authorities. British subjects (art. 
 ix.) shall be allowed to travel for pleasure or business to all parts of the interior, under 
 passports issued by their consul. British merchant-ships shall trade (art. x.) upon tho 
 Great river (Yang-tze); but as its lower valley is disturbed by outlaws, no port except 
 Chin-keang shall be opened for the present. Chin-keang to be opened in a year from 
 the date of the signing of the treaty. 
 
 By this treaty, the vexed question of transit-dues is settled, it being agreed that tho 
 British merchant may purchase at the rate of 2i per cent ad. mlorem, in the case of 
 imports at the port of entry; and in the case of exports, he may purchase a certificate 
 enabling him to pass his goods, duty-free, to the port of shipment. By a separate 
 clause, the Chinese government agreed to pay two million taels (about £650,000), as 
 indemnity for losses sustained by British subjects at Canton, and a like sum towards 
 the expenses of the rrar. 
 
 The repulse on the Peiho (June, 1859), by a Tartar force concealed in the Taku forts, of 
 the expedition forming the escort of the British and French ambassadors, who were on their 
 way to Pekin, to ratify with the emperor of China the treaty of Tien-tsin, entailed another 
 costly demonstration in the Chinese waters. The Taku forts were captured by the allied 
 English and French forces, Aug. 21, 1860, and Pekin itself in Dec., 1860. The treaty 
 of Tien-tsin was ratified, two additional articles being inserted, one of which legalized 
 coolie emigration. Since 1861, a gradual but beneficial change has come over the spirit 
 of the Chinese government. Prince Rung proved a vigorous and successful regent. 
 The army has been reorganized, and is now subjected to European drill (see par. army)\. 
 a respect for the observance of treaties has sprung up ; a national flag has been adopted, 
 and a desire shown on the part of the Chinese to make themselves acquainted with 
 international law. In 1866, arrangements were begun for telegraphic communication 
 between Pekin and the rest of the world; and emigration to all other countries was 
 allowed. Shanghai has telegraphic communication with Europe, and some local lines; 
 but the first Chinese railway opened there in 1876, has unluckily been closed again. 
 Chinese are now found on almost every shore of the Paciflc, where their industry, skill, 
 and sobriety secure them abundant employment. They are especially numerous in the 
 Paciflc states of the American Union, where harsh measures, including a heavy tax ou 
 arriving, have recently been adopted in order to repress Chinese immigration. Between 
 1855 and 1878, upwards of 200,000 Chinese had, for a longer or shorter time, established 
 themselves in the United States. 
 
 Commerce . — The rivers and numberless canals of China are covered with vessels of 
 all sizes, employed in the internal commerce of the country. The Chinese are devoted 
 to traffic, and the Middle Kingdom is throughout its length and breadth a perpetual fair. 
 The total value of the imports into China in 1876 is given at £23,423,190, and of the 
 exports, £26,950,170, Tea and silk are the great staple exports from China. The table 
 gives some recent statistics of British trade with C. : 
 
Chinese. 
 
 800 
 
 Year. 
 
 1870. 
 
 1873. 
 
 1875. 
 
 1877. 
 
 Exports from China 
 to Great Britain. 
 
 ... £9,481,737 
 ... 12,454,234 
 ... 14,809,632 
 .... 15,323,342 
 
 Imports of British Home 
 Produce into China. 
 
 £6,139,633 
 
 4,882,701 
 
 8,528,311 
 
 7,912,663 
 
 There is no coinage in China except the copper tchen, or “ cash,” which is in value 
 nbout the tenth of a halfpenny ; and all but the most trifling payments are made by a 
 certain weight of silver, or in Mexican or Spanish dollars. Chinese accounts are kept in 
 taels, mace, candareens, and cash. A tael is worth 6s. 8d. , British currency. 
 
 The following works (which have been used as authorities in the preparation of this 
 article) may be consulted for further information on China. Meadows’s Chinese and 
 their Behellions (Lond. 1856); Davis’s (sir J. F.) China: a General Description of that 
 Empire (Londi. 1857); Davis’s uhina during the War and since the Peace (Lond. 1852); 
 Williams’s Middle Kingdom (New York and Lond. 1848); Oliphant’s Narrative of the 
 Earl of Elgin's Mission to China and Japan, in the years 1857, 1858, and 1859 (Edin. 
 1859); Marquis de Moges’s Recollections of Baron Gros’s Embassy to China and Japan in 
 1857 and 1858 (Lond. 1860); Hue’s Chinese Empire (Lond. 1858); Cooke’s China in 1857 
 1858; Fortune’s Three Years' Wanderings in China (Lond. 1847); Fortune’s Visit to 
 the Tea Districts of China (Lond. 1852); Edkin's Religious Condition of the Chinese (1858); 
 Cobbold’s Pictures of the Chinese by Themselves (1859); Twelve Tears in China, by a 
 British Resident Memoire^ sur la (1869); Rev. A. Williamson’s Journeys in 
 
 North China, etc. (1870); also Dr. Gray’s China: a History of the Laws, Manners, and 
 Opinions of the People (1878); and the Freiherr von Richthofen’s great work, China 
 (1st vol. 1877). 
 
 CHINESE EDIBLE DOG. The kind of dog used as an article of food in China, and 
 reared in order to be so used, being esteemed as a delicacy, is a small dog of greyhound- 
 like form, with somewhat terrier-like head, and muzzle more elongated than in terriers. 
 It is fleet and active, gentle and affectionate. The skin is almost destitute of hair; but 
 there is a variety having a crest of long hair on the head, and a large tuft of hair at the 
 tip of the slender and otherwise naked tail. 
 
 CHINESE HEMP. See Corchorus. 
 
 CHINESE INK. See Indian Ink. 
 
 CHINESE LANGUAGE, WEITING, AND LITEEATURE. The Chinese language belongs 
 to those Asiatic languages commonly called monosyllabic, because each word is uttered 
 by a single movement of the organs of speech, and expresses in itself a complete idea or 
 thing. All Chinese words end either in a vowel, a diphthong (in which, however, each 
 vowel sound is distinctly pronounced, making the word often to appear of more than one 
 syllable), or a nasal. Of such simple words or roots there are about 450. But the emphasis 
 or accent of many of these words may be varied by the speaker in four or five different 
 ways, so as to produce a corresponding variety in their meaning, by which means the 
 number of simple words or roots amounts to about 1200. There is no distinction of parts of 
 speech in the Chinese language, and no recognition of the principle of inflection, Chinese 
 words being incapable of any modification oiform. The relations of words are ascertained 
 by their position in a sentence. Hence Chinese grammar is solely syntax. Thus ta, accord- 
 ing to its position in a sentence, at one time serves the purpose of an adjective, meaning 
 “great;” at another, a substantive, meaning “ greatness;” and again of a verb, meaning 
 “ to enlarge” and “to be great,” or of the adverb “very.” There are certain words, 
 however, which have at length lapsed into so vague and general a signification, that in 
 conversation and literature they are now used in some cases as particles to determine 
 the relations of other words; but in the older literature this is very rare, and is against 
 the genius of the language. From what has been said, it will readily be inferred that 
 the gender, number, and case of words are not determined by the form of the words 
 themselves. They are, in fact, denoted by the addition of other words. Thus, people 
 in Chinese is multitude man, son is man child, daughter is woman child. The best of men 
 is in Chinese a hundred man good. The purest Chinese is spoken at Nankin, but the 
 same idiom, called “the language of the mandarins,” is spoken by the educated in all 
 parts of the empire. For a knowledge of Chinese grammar, see Schott’s Chine&ische 
 Sprachlehre (Berlin, 1857); Summers's, Handbook of the Chinese Language Julien, 
 
 Syntaxe Nouvelle de la Langue Chinoise (Paris, 1870); Morrison’s Dictionary of the ijhinese 
 Language (Shanghai, 1865). 
 
 In Chinese the written character, generally speaking, does not indicate the sound of 
 the word, but gives a kind of hieroglyphic or pictorial representation of the idea or 
 thing to be expressed. Hence there are required as many of these characters or sjnnbols 
 as there are ideas to be represented. Since many words similar in sound are different 
 in signification, whilst in writing each 'd-^ia has its peculiar symbol, the number of 
 words represented by writing — without reckoning those peculiar to certain dialects — is 
 perhaps ten times greater than those distinguished by the ear. The number, in fact, is 
 reckoned at 50,000, but these are far from” being all in general use. In writing and 
 
801 
 
 Chinece. 
 
 printing, the characters are arranged in perpendicular columns, which follow one 
 another from right to left. 
 
 In its origin, Chinese writing is hieroglyphic or picture-writing, with the addition of 
 a limited number of symbolical and conventional signs; the larger number of Chinese 
 characters are formed by the combination of such hieioglyphs and signs. But as one 
 such character by itself seldom determines the sound, an additional word is con- 
 joined for this purpose; so that the great mass of Chinese written words consist of an 
 ideographic and a phonetic element. Native grammarians divide their characters into 
 six classes. The tirst class comprises simple i)ictorial representations of sensible objects, 
 such as sun, moon, mountain, etc., and contains 608 characters. The second class 
 includes such characters as are formed by the combination of two or more simple hiero- 
 glyphs. which together convey, in a more or less intelligible manner, some other idea: 
 for example, the hieroglyph for sun, combined with that for moon, conveys the idea of 
 light; mouth and bird, that of song, etc.; of these there are 740. The third class 
 embraces those characters which indicate certain relations of position, as above, below, 
 the numerals, etc. ; of these there are 107. The fourth class consists of characters which, 
 by being inverted, acquire an opposite signification, as right, left, standing, lying, etc., 
 and contains 372. The characters of the fifth class are termed derived characters; 
 the meaning of the simple or compound characters used to express physical objects, is 
 transferred to mental objects, or to other physical objects with which they are asso- 
 ciated, e. g., the hieroglyph for a heart signifies the soul — that for a room, signifies the 
 wife, etc. ; of these there are 598. The characters of the sixth class include those which 
 are comp-osed, as above mentioned, of sign and sound. Almost all names of plants, fishes, 
 birds, and many other objects which it w’ould be difficult to represent hicrogiyphically, are 
 denoted by the compound characters of the sixth class, which amount to 21,810 in num- 
 ber. As this class, however, consists merely of repetitions of the other five classes, the 
 immense number of Chinese characters may be reduced to 2,425; and whoever learns 
 these may be said to know them all. 
 
 The hierogiyphical characters in their oldest form were easily recognizable figures: 
 thus, the hieroglyph for sun was as in the fig. at a\ for moon, as at 6 ; for light, a combi- 
 nation of sun and moon, as at c; fortolisten, 
 folding-doors and an ear, as at d\ for white, 
 a very squint e3’^e, in which hardly anything 
 but the white is seen, as at e; for friends, the (J 
 two valves of a bivalve shell, as at/. In the a 
 course of time, through hasty and careless 
 tracing, the objects denoted by the hiero- a 
 glyphs have almost ceased to be recognizable. ^ 
 
 The modern hieroglyphs corresponding to 
 the above are as represented at a', h\ c', etc. 
 
 See Abel Remusat’s “Memoire sur I’Ecriture 
 Chinoise,” in the Memoires de V Academie des Inscriptions, vol. viii. ; and for a view of 
 the Chiuese characters, both ancient and modern, Hager’s Monument de Yu (Par. 1802). 
 
 The Chinese literature, in a geographical, ethnographical, and historical point of 
 view, is unquestionably the most comprehensivi and important of the whole of Asia. 
 The printed catalogue of the emperor Kien-long’s library is composed of 122 volumes; 
 and a selection of the Chinese classics, with conr.mentaries and scholia, which was begun 
 by the order of the same emperor, is said to comprise 180,000 volumes, of which, in 
 the year 1818, 78,731 volumes had already appeared. In the five canonical or classical 
 books, called King, are contained the oldest monuments of Chinese poetry, history, 
 philosophy, and jurisprudence, some portions of which belong, perhaps, to the most 
 ancient writings of the human race. Confucius (q.v.), in the 6th c. b.c., collected 
 them from various sources, and in this collection thej’’ have been pretty faithfully 
 handed down to us. Next to these in value are the Sse-shu, or the four books. These, 
 as they were WTitten by Confucius and his disciples, must be regarded as the most 
 trustworthy source of insight into the intellectual and political life of the Chinese. 
 A complete and elaborate edition of the five King and the four Shoo has been under- 
 taken by our great English Sinologue, Dr. Legge, under the title of “The Chinese 
 Classics, wilh a translation, critical and exegetical notes, prolegomena, and copious 
 indexes. In seven volumes;” of which five vols. appeared between 1861 and 1878. 
 A popular edition, under the title of “The Chinese Classics translated into English,” 
 has also been published, of which vols. i. and ii. deal respectively with the “Life and 
 Teachings of Confucius” and the “Works of Mencius.” Almost contemporary with 
 Confucius lived Lao-tse (q.v,). who was born 604 b.c. He was the founder of a school 
 of philosophy, more spiritual in its character than that of Confucius, but which has 
 now degenerated into the lowest and must vulgar kind of demonology; see Le Lime de 
 la Voie de la Vertu, Chinese and French, by Julien (Par. 1842). In mythology, the 
 Chinese have The Book of the Mountains and Seas, 2 he History of the Gods and Spirits, 
 and some others. In jurisprudence may be mentioned the universal collection of 
 laws, and the criminal code of the present dynasty; see Ta- Tdng4u-li, being the Fun- 
 damental Laws and Supplementary Statutes of the Penal Code of China, by Staunton 
 (Lond, 1810). The Chinese literature is also very rich in works on medicine, natural 
 U. K. III.-51 
 
 J) (|) ©o ■ 
 
 Bed 0 f 
 
 p <r d' ^ 
 
 Chinese Characters. 
 
Clilnese. 
 
 Cliipman. 
 
 802 
 
 history, astronomy, agriculture, military science, music, and all branches of mechanics 
 and industry; Retfume des 'primi'paux TraUea Chirwis, mr la Culture des Muriers et 
 VEducation des Vers-d-soie, by Julieu (Pur. 1837). lii philology, the most valuable 
 works are the dictionaries, in which the Chinese characters have been collected and 
 elucidated by examples from the whole treasury of Chinese literature; but the greatest 
 of all works of this kind is the dictionary of the emperor Kang-hi, which is now 
 regarded as the highest authority for the pronunciation and meaning of the charac- 
 ters. Of the encycloptedias of the Chinese, the most conspicuous are that by Ma-tuan- 
 lin (1300 A.D.), called Wen-hien-iltong-khao — i.e., an accurate investigation of the ancient 
 documents, with rich supplements; and the Koo-kindoo-Hhoodsei-chi/ig, or Complete CoUec- 
 tiou of Ancient and Modern Books — of which latter vast work a copy was secured for the 
 British museum in 1877. But the most valuable portions of the Chinese literature are, 
 undoubtedly, their historical and geographical works, which are indispensable to a 
 knowledge of Upper Asia. Sse-ma-thsian (100 b.c.) compiled, from every recognized 
 authority, a work called or historical memorials, which embraces the history of 
 China from the year 2637 b.c. up to the commencement of the dynasty of Ilan in the 
 2d c. B.c. This work has been continued by the different dynasties, and forms a 
 complete collection of the annals of the empire up to the termination of the Ming 
 dynasty in 1643 a.d. It is known under the title of Nian-eul-sse, or the 22 histories. 
 The entire collection of the official annals from 2698 b.c. to 1645 a.d., comprising a 
 
 S eriod of 4343 years, and consisting of 3706 books, is to be found in the library at 
 [unich. 
 
 Amid all their scientific labors, the Chinese have not neglected the art of poetry, 
 in wdiicli they possess voluminous collections that have yet to be make known to Europe. 
 In lyrical poetry, the most distinguished names are Li-thai-pe and Tu-su, both of whom 
 flourished at the beginning of the 8th c. a.d.; see Davis “On the I^oetry of the 
 Chinese,” in the Transactions of the Boyal Asiatic Society, vol. ii. The romantic poetry 
 of the Chinese, although void of poetic beauty, is valuable for the insight it gives into 
 their domestic life. Their dramatic poetry has laws peculiar to itself, and resembles 
 partly the romantic drama of the Germans, and partly the comedia delle arte of the 
 Italians. They have also a kind of novel in dialogues, which forms a subordinate 
 species of drama. Besides the speaking persons or actors, there is what they call a 
 singing person, who introduces into the piece songs which he sings to popular melodies, 
 and appears to correspond in a rude way to the Greek chorus. The best collection of 
 works in this species of literature is the Yuen-dschin-pe-tschong, i.e., the hundred dramas 
 from the Mongol dynasty (1260-1341), from which all the Chinese dramas known to 
 Europeans have been taken. A Chinese novel, affording a graphic view of the tastes 
 and literary views of that people, was some time ago placed within the reach of 
 European readers by the eminent Chinese scholar Stanislas Julien, under the title of 
 Les Deux Jeunes Fiiles Lettrees (Par. 1860). English readers may also obtain instructive 
 pictures of Chinese life from lu-kias-li, or the Two Fair Cousins, transl.ited from the 
 French version of Remusat in 1827; and The Flowery Scroll, translated, with numerous 
 learned notes, by sir John Bowring, in 1868. But valuable sketches will be found in 
 Schott’s Chinesische Spi'achlehre (1857), Davis’s Chinese Miscellanies (1865), and Wylie’s 
 Fotes on Chinese Literature (Shanghai, 1867). 
 
 CHINESE SEA, or China Sea, that portion of the Pacific ocean which has China and 
 Siam on the w., the island of Formosa, on the n.. the Philippines on the c., and Borneo 
 on the s., and which forms the great gulfs of Tonquin and Siam. 
 
 CHINESE WHITE. The white oxide of zinc has recently been introduced into the 
 arts, under this name, as a pigment in place of the preparations of white-lead. It 
 changes very little either by atmospheric action, or by mixing with other pigments; 
 but it has not the body of white-lead. 
 
 CHINGLEPUT'.— 1. A fort, with a t. adjacent, in lat. 12° 4V n., and long. 80° 2'e., 36 
 m. to the s.w. of Madras. It is accessible to an enemy only from the s., having a tank 
 or artificial lake on the e. and part of the n., and rice-fields, irrigated from the same, on 
 the remainder of the n. and on the west. In the dry season the tank is nearly exhausted, 
 the weeds and slime in its bed causing malaria. Notwithstanding this, however, the 
 place is considered to be more than ordinarily healthy. Pop. of town (officially spelt 
 Chengalpaf) in 1871, 7,979. — 2. A district taking its name from the town above mentioned. 
 It stretches in n. lat. from 12° 14' to 14°, and in e. long, from 79° 35' to 80° 25', and con- 
 tains 2,753 sq, miles. Pop. ’71, 938,184. With about 120 m. of coast, it has not a single 
 harbor or anything like shelter from the surf. Nor is its internal navigation of any 
 value. The only considerable river, the Palar, is in most parts destitute of water during 
 the dry season. Excepting in Oct., Nov., and Dec., comparatively little rain falls. 
 From that circumstance, and perhaps also from an inferiority of soil, cultivation is said 
 to be so much circumscribed as to embrace only about 96,000 acres, or ^^^th part of the 
 entire area. 
 
 CHINI', a village of the Punjab, about a mile from the right bank of the Sutlej, the 
 most easterly of the five rivers which give name to the country. It is in lat. 31° 31’^ n-, 
 and long. 78° 19' c., and is 8,770ft. above the sea. Notwithstanding this elevation, it is 
 a delightful place of sojourn, and was a favorite residence of Lord Dalhousie. It occu- 
 
803 
 
 Chinese. 
 
 Chipiuan. 
 
 
 BuRMah, Cochin China, ante. 
 
 Bon to doubt if C. will ever become u place of iu.portancl Idie Soral ,?e 
 
 ?onnf’^-,f"'^ 1 ®“^ ’’'“P*® exportation produced in tbe neb’-hborimr 
 possesses no adyaiitap as regards the introduction of foreio-?i goodf 
 i^oimerly, however, as the soutiiern key of the Grand canal it wos l.nfl. nn f. ™ ; 
 
 for°n ^ traffic. The injury which the Grand canal has sustained liL 
 
 for the present practically extinguished the inland trade, and the four years G8'-)S 57VhnW 
 
 rotor^ .0 iia^e ^e^‘ut1^^r;o;f 
 
 CHINN03, a musical iustrument of the ancient Hebrews, with 32 strings, 
 
 the'^^mnf ’aVm"! W ”'® ?'^P'«'‘ment of Indre-et- Loire, beautifully situated on 
 
 16 V ienne, 2o m. s.w. of Tours. It has the remains of a huge old castle formprlv th« 
 occasional residence of the Plantagenet kings of England and also of some of tho Snih 
 Bovercugus and celebrated as the place wSere Joan of Arc coiZ^ccS hm histo^^ 
 
 ColSm^Sin otg^n';' They'^arno^wTariy m 
 
 CHINQUAPIU. See Chestnut and Oak. 
 
 22” 6™'Tnt’ ‘‘sr the Hooghly, about 20 m. above Calcutta, in lat. 
 
 *’‘“cmNTZ " fo?1he En^fish pos" ef^olit in IhefsUnd oTSatrl' 
 
 light colored croum^ P““?™ *“ >t t^hite or 
 
 CHI 0. See Scio. 
 
 r ‘he »atural order cincJu>. 
 
 trailing herb, 'm^e lS a Sush^ nn?.?“<“T ‘he former a 
 
 small doses as a diur:tl°rnd " 
 
 the province of^Ven^ce^shandVtm^anl^^^^ seaport of northern Italy, m 
 
 connected with the mainland bv a stnnp the same name in the Adriatic, and is 
 
 in the''coa^^t4t?ad;!l?-lac^^^^^^^^ 
 
 by slaying the^t^ant^O^earclnis^ hnt^th*°f ^e^ght to liberate his native city 
 
 .h^e opVtsion o7"e peSeiam“srni m conspirators an5 
 
 CHIOTIS and CHIO NIDai. See Sheath Bill. 
 
 CHIP HATS. See Brazilian Grass. 
 
 eoll™ a™hegk? faTplaaiceln^^^^^ of Nathaniel; educated at Dartmouth 
 
 ture and of congress and nrnfkfnr „f ? * a • ^ He was a member of the legisla- 
 
 1806 to 1816. He Was the'^Sst jurisprudence in Middlebury college from 
 
 ihe state, and the aXr of An S ‘'f ®“P’'""'« “'"'‘"f 
 
 yific Articles. on the Law of Contracts for the payment of Spe- 
 
 STale,^e™(fMa^eurin dm ® °u‘‘™ Connecticut, educated at 
 
 nouth. He was admitted to thJ W in 1770*™^’ present at the battle of Mon- 
 
 lecame chiefdusdce of tlm Vn ^ In 170?’,“'' P™«ice in Vermont, where he 
 
 °rrfn^:’?o7}«^ 
 
Chipmunk. 
 
 Chironectes. 
 
 804 
 
 elected chief -justice of the state. He was afterward for 27 years professor of law ih 
 Middlebury college. Among his published works are The bketches of the Principles of 
 Government; a volume of Reports and Dissertations; and Principles of Government — a 
 Treatise on Free Institutions, including the Constitution of the Unit^ States. 
 
 CHIPMUNK, the common name of the ground squirrel, tamias striatus, especially 
 in the New England and northern states. See Squirrel, ante. 
 
 CHIPPENHAM, a parliamentary and muncipal borough in Wiltshire, in a valley on 
 the left bank of the upper part of the Bristol Avon, on the Great Western railway, 22 
 m. e. of Bristol. It consists chiefly of a well-built street above half a mile long. A 
 bridge of 21 arches crosses the Avon here. C. is famed for its markets of cheese and 
 corn, its cheese market being one of the largest in Britain. There are silk and woolen 
 manufactures, and some mineral springs in the vicinity. Population of parliamentary 
 borough (1871), 6,875; of municipal. 1387. It returns one member to parliament. C. 
 was the seat of the Saxon kings of Wessex. Abont 880, the Danes took it from Alfred, 
 and kept it two years. 
 
 CHIPPEWA, a CO. in n.c. Michigan, on lakes Huron and Superior and the straits of 
 Ste. Marie; 1500 sq.m.; pop. ’SO, 6243. The surface is hilly, and mostly covered with 
 pine forests. Co. seat, Sault Sie. Marie. 
 
 CHIPPEWA, a CO. in s.w. Minnesota, on the Minnesota, Chippewa, and Chetomba 
 rivers, reached by the St. Paul and Pacific railroad; 2,445 sq.m.; pop. ’80, 6408. Pro- 
 ductions, almost entirely agricultural. Co. seat, Chippewa City. 
 
 CHIPPEWA, a co. in n.w. Wisconsin, on the head-waters of the Chippewa river; 
 4,000 sq.m. ; pop. ’80, 15,492. The surface i.s varied, and to a great extent covered with 
 forests. Lumbering is the chief business. Co. seat, Chippewa Falls. 
 
 CHIPPEWA, a village in the province of Ontario, Canada, at the junction of the 
 Chippewa with the Niagara river, 2 m. above the great falls. It was here that gen. 
 Scott defeated the British. July 5, 1814. The Americans had 1900 men, of whom 68 
 were killed and 267 wounded; the English had 2,100 men, of whom 138 were killed 
 and 365 wounded. 
 
 CHIPPEWA RIVER, in Wisconsin, rising in the n.w. part of the state and emptying 
 into the Mississippi just below lake Pepin. Its length is about 200 miles. 
 
 CHIPPEWAYS. See Indians. 
 
 CHIPPING BIRD, or Chipping Sparrow, Spizella sodalis, a common American 
 bird, 5 or 6 in. long, white underneath, back and sides ash color, with stripes of black 
 and white. Its half-dozen notes of song are repeated with great rapidity. 
 
 CHIQTJICHIQUI PALM, Leopoldinia piassaba, the Piassaba of the n. of Brazil, and 
 one of the palms which yield the piassaba (q.v.) fiber, now so much used for making 
 brushes. The piassaba fiber exported from Para is all obtained from it. It grows in 
 swampy or occasionally flooded lands on the banks of the Rio Negro and other rivers 
 of Venezuela and the n. of Brazil; and has a crown of very large, regularly pinnate 
 leaves, with smooth slender stalks. The leaves, like those of many other palms, are 
 much used for thatching. The commercial fiber is obtained from a remarkable covering 
 of the stem; formed of marginal processes of the leaf-stalks, elongated into ribbon- 
 like strips, and interlaced, finally splitting into fine fibers, hanging down 5 or 6 ft., 
 and entirely concealing the stem, so as to give the tree a very extraordinary appear- 
 ance. It twists readily into cordage, and the fiber has been long used for cables of 
 canoes on the Amazon and other rivers. Before the independence of Brazil, the 
 Portuguese government had a factory on the Rio Negro, for the manufacture of cables 
 of this fiber. The export of the unmanufactured fiber from Para to England began 
 about the middle of the present century. 
 
 CHIQTJIMU'LA, Isthmus op, in Central America, to the s.e. of the peninsula of 
 Yucatan, in long. 89’ west. Its breadth from the Caribbean sea to the Pacific is about 
 150 m. — the greatest elevation not exceeding 2,000 feet. 
 
 CHIQUIMU LA, a department of Guatemala, running from the Caribbean sea along 
 the Honduras border; 4,000 sq.m. ; pop. about 75,000. The river Motaguaruns through 
 the middle of C. and empties into the gulf of Honduras at San Tomas de Castillo, one 
 of the best ports in Central America. 
 
 CHIQUI'TOS, a nation of Indians once very powerful in South America, inhabiting 
 the region w. of Paraguay river. Early explorers described them as an intelligent, war- 
 like, and independent people, living in families, subsisting by agriculture and by the 
 chase, very numerous, and having ample material resources. The Spaniards first 
 invaded their country in 1525, and there were frequent wars with little advantage to the 
 whites. The first permanent white settlement among them was not efl^ected until 1691, 
 when a Jesuit mission was established. The missionaries soon obtained great influence 
 over them, and agriculture and arts prospered, and a considerable trade grew up with 
 the adjoining Spanish settlements. The missions were prosperous until the expulsion 
 of the Jesuits in 1767. Thereafter the Indians rapidly deteriorated, and within a third 
 
805 
 
 Chipmunk. 
 
 Chironectes. 
 
 ©f a century following the abandonment of the missions two thirds of the C. nation had 
 disappeared. 
 
 CHIRA'TA, Chiretta, or Chireeta {agathotes chirayta, also known as Ophelia 
 chirata), an officinal plant belonging to the natural urder gentianeoe, and possessing prop- 
 erties similar to tliose of the common gentian, the centaury, and other plants of that 
 order. It is a native of the mountains of the n. of India. The whole plant is intensely 
 bitter, and has been long used in its native country as a tonic and stomachic. It is also 
 in high estimation with European practitioners in India as a febrifuge, and is often used 
 by them as a substitute for cinchona. The medicinal virtues reside both in the herb and 
 root. The whoie plant is pulled up at the time when the flowers begin to fade, and is 
 dried for use. It is now imported to some extent into Britain. 
 
 CHIBIQTJI', a name of various application in Central America. — 1. A province on the 
 isthmus and in the slate of Panama, Colombia; area 500 sq.m. ; pop. 18.000. — 2. A river 
 flowing towards the n. — the lat. and long, of its mouth being about 9° n., and 82° 80' 
 cast. — 3. A spacious lagoon with three entrances, and with a depth of water for the 
 largest ships, which receives the river. It measures 90 m. along the coast, and 40 or 50 
 in width. — 4. An archipelago between the lagoon and the Caribbean sea. 
 
 CHI'ROMANCY, fortune-telling by a study of the human hand (always the left 
 hand), once widely believed in and still practiced to some extent. The points to be 
 observed are the lines, the projections, the joints, the nails, and the contour of the thumb 
 and fingers. The principal line the line of life, running in a curve from the upper 
 joint of the forefinger around the ball of the thumb to the joint of the wrist. If this line 
 shows four distinct and equal furrows near its beginning at the forefinger joint, the per- 
 son is promised an easy attainment of wealth and honor. If the line be regular and 
 ■deeply colored, a long and linppy life is predicted; if it be freely marked, tortuous and 
 broken, it foretells ill health and short life. If short perpendicular lines run from ihe 
 line of life toward the palm of the hand, the person may be expected to go on a lon^ 
 journey; if toward the wrist, to be exiled. If the line of life be narrowed but long and 
 strongly colored, it indicates ingenuity and wisdom; a deep line, equally colored, denotes 
 R malicious disposition; and if separated near the center by sharply defined cross lines, 
 it is a sign of approaching death. The next important line is the line of health, starting 
 with the line of life and running nearly or wholly across the middle of the hand. If the 
 line be clear and unbroken, it indicates excellence of body and mind ; if it be broken and 
 feeble, timidity and ill health are indicated. The line of fortune, or happiness, is below 
 the line of health, and runs from the base of the fore to the base of tlie little finger. 
 When this line is distinct and straight it indicates happiness and pleasant temper; if it 
 begins close to the upper side of the hand, it indicates pride; if red in the upper section, 
 -envy is foreshadowed ; a cross line, so that the two form an upright cross, indicates gen- 
 erosity; if broken and crossed by small lines near the middle, it indicates duplicity. 
 Another line not found in all liands is the line of the joint, or line of the tnangle, extending 
 from the base of the little finger to the middle of the joint of the wrist. When this line 
 is clear, it promises great success after much difficulty. The mountain of Venus is the 
 elevation at the base of the thumb, and when smooth and unfurrowed a happy tempera- 
 ment is indicated. T\\q mountain of Jupiter \s the fleshy projection at the base of the 
 forefinger; that of Saturn at the base of the middle finger; that of the sun at the base of 
 the ring finger; that of Mercury at the base of the little finger, and that of the moon is the 
 elevation or bunch on the lower side of the hand. When these mountains are clear and 
 smooth, the indications are: of Jupiter, a heart inclined to virtue; of Saturn, love of 
 labor, and simplicity of character; of the sun, eloquence and vivacious temperament; of 
 Mercury, firmness in men, and modesty in women; of Mars, courage and heroism; of 
 the moon, a tranquil disposition inclined to melancholy. The lines and shades on the 
 mountains have their significance. Small lines near the little finger, parallel with the 
 line of fortune, indicate happy wedded life, and some say their number foretells the 
 number of children. One more line is called the milky way, running downward on the 
 mountain of the moon from the wrist joint toward the little finger; if it belong and 
 clearly defined, it foretells success in studies or in arts or fortune in a distant land. Small 
 white spots under the nails indicate the fulfillment of wishes, at near or remote periods 
 as they are far or near the roots. Aristotle regarded C. as a distinct science; the Roman 
 sootlisayers, and even the emperor Augustus, practiced it; in the middle ages it was 
 studied with alchemy and astrology by the greatest philosophers; the church tolerated 
 it while condemning astrology, or its interference with the doctrine of human liberty. 
 No longer regarded as scientific, it presents at least a curious study. 
 
 CHI'BON, or Cheiron, the most famous of the Centaurs (q. v.). In the ancient works 
 of art, C. of course appears as half-man, half-animal; but his features, instead of express- 
 ing mere savage and sensual strength, as those of the Centaurs generally do, are marked 
 b^ a mild wisdom, in harmony with the character and deep knowledge attributed to 
 him by the Greek mythologists. 
 
 CHIRONEC TES, a genus of salt-water fishes remarkable for their grotesque forms. 
 The mouse-fish may be taken as a specimen. 
 
^^liirra. 
 
 Chiusi. 
 
 806 
 
 CHIE'BA POOIT'JEE, a t. in the n.e. of India, in lat, 25° 14' n., long. 91° 45' east. It 
 stands on the Cossya hills, at the height of 4,200 ft. above the sea, and has a tempera- 
 ture during the hot months 20° F. lower than that of the plains of Bengal. Notwith- 
 standing this, however, the place has proved unsuccessful as a sanatorium. The vicin- • 
 ity abounds in mines of coal and iron, which may be profitably worked. 
 
 CHI'RU, Antilope Hodgsoni, a species of antelope, inhabiting the pine-forests and 
 elevated open plains of Thibet, in regions bordering on the limits^of perpetual snow. It 
 is much larger than the chamois, being about 5 ft. in length, and the height at the shoul- 
 der about 3 ft. The C. lives in great herds, and seems to exceed almost all the other 
 gregarious ruminants in watchfulness against the approach of danger. Sentinels are 
 constantly posted to prevent surprise. 
 
 CIIISA'GO, a CO. in c. Minnesota, on the Wisconsin border; 450 sq.m. ; pop. ’80, 
 7982. It is intersected by the Lake Superior and Mississippi railroad. 'I'he principal 
 productions are wheat, corn, oats, hay, and butter. Co. seat, Chisago City. 
 
 CHISELHURST, a parish in Kent, England, 11 m. s.e. of London. It was here 
 that Napoleon III. fixed his residence in 1871, and died, Jan. 9, 1873. His widow, the 
 empress Eugenie, dwells in Chiselhurst (1880;. 
 
 CHISHOLM, Caroline (Jones), b. England, 1810; a noted philanthropist who set- 
 tled in Australia in 1838 and founded at Sydney schools and asylums for destitute girls. 
 In 1841-45 she procured employment for more than 11,000 persons, and lent in small 
 sums about $6,000, of which all but $120 was returned. In her honor the people of 
 Sydney founded the “Family Colonization Society." 
 
 CHIS WICK, a village in the center of Middlesex, 7^ m. s.w. of St. Paul’s, London, on 
 the left bank of the Thames. Pop. ’71, 8,508. Around C. are many fine villas, exten- 
 sive market-gardens, to supply London, and the gardens of the London horticultural 
 society, 
 
 CHI'TIN forms the skeleton of all insects and crustaceans. In insects, it constitutes 
 not merely the external skeleton, the scales, etc., but also forms their tracheae, and thus 
 penetrates into the most remote portions of their organs; indeed, one of the layers of 
 their intestinal canal consists of chitin. Hence, we can make good preparations of 
 these parts by treating insects with a solution of potash, which dissolves all but the C. .* 
 in this way, we can microscopically examine the most delicate parts, as, for instance, 
 the valves of the tracheal openings. 
 
 In a state of purity, it is a white amorphous body, which usually retains the form of 
 the tissue from which it is prepared. It has been analyzed by C. Schmidt, Lehmann, 
 and other chemists. Schmidt considers that its composition is represented by the for- 
 mula Ci 7 Hi 4 NOu. The best method of obtaining 0. is by boiling the elytra of the cock- 
 chafer with water, alcohol, ether, acetic acid, and a.kalies. The substance left after 
 these respective boilings is pure chitin. It seems to be identical with the substance 
 termed by Lassaigne entomaderm. 
 
 CHI'TON, a Linnsean genus of mollusks. Linnaeus, regarding merely the shell, 
 placed them in the class of multivalves, a class entirely artificial. They are now 
 regarded as constituting a family {chitonidce) of gasteropodous mollusks, of the order 
 cydobranchiata of Cuvier, and as occupying a place in systematic arrangement close to 
 limpets. The shell is composed of eight narrow, transverse, calcareous pieces, overlap- 
 ping each other in a row along the back, and strongly attached to the mantle, which is 
 remarkably fleshy and fibrous. They have the power of rolling themselves up into a 
 ball. The organ of locomotion is an oval foot, more or less wide, according to the spe- 
 cies, and extending the whole length of the animal. More than 200 species are known; 
 they occur in all climates, most abundantly on rocks at low water, but some of them at 
 great depths. Some of them creep along the sand. All the British species arc small; 
 but some foreign ones grow to 3 or 4 in. in length. The fry of these mollusks swim 
 about by means of long vibratile cilia. 
 
 CHITTAGONG, a maritime district in Lower Bengal, taking its name from its capital 
 below mentioned. It is bounded on the s. by Arracan, and on the w. by the bay of 
 Bengal, and stretches from lat. 20° 45' to 23° 25' n., and from long. 91° 32' to 93° east. 
 
 It has an area of 2,498 sq.m., with a pop, (1871) of 1,127,402. C. (properly ChattagrarriY 
 also gives name to a division; area, 13,592 sq.m.; pop. 3,444,874. In the forests of C., 
 large numbers of elephants are annually caught. 
 
 CHITTAGONG, or Islamabad (the second name having been conferred by Aurung- 
 zebe, who captured it towards the close of the 17th c.), a city of India, standing on the 
 Kurrumfuli, about 7 m. from its mouth, in lat. 22° 20' n., and long. 91 54' east. It 
 came into possession of the British, along with Bengal proper, in 1760-65. But hav- 
 ing originally formed part of Arracan, it was claimed, after a lapse of sixty years, by 
 the Burmese emperor as a dependency of that territorj' — a claim which formed one of 
 the grounds of the war of 1824. Through the results of that contest, C. diminished in 
 importance, but some European merchants began to settle there in 1864, and its pro^ 
 perity is returning. In 1873, it exported 104,565 tons of rice. Its ship-building busi 
 ness IS now transferred in great measure to Moulmein, in Tenasserim, Pop. ’71, 20,604. 
 
807 
 
 Chirra. 
 
 Chiusi. 
 
 CHITTAGONG HILL TRACTS, a district on the e. frontier of British India, 
 between 21° 13' and 23° 47' n., and 91° 46' and 92° 49' e. ; 6,882 sq.m. ; pop. '72, 69,607; 
 among whom were only 31 Christians. The region is hilly, with deep ravines and 
 prominent cliffs, covered with gigantic creeping plants. The crops are rice, corn, 
 tobacco, and cotton. 
 
 CHITTAGONG- WOOD, the wood of cJiickroftsia tabularis, a tree of tlie natural order 
 cedrelaceo), a native of the mountainous countries to the e. of Bengal. In some parts of 
 India, it is called cedar or bastard cedar, names, however, which are also given to other 
 kinds of wood. C. W. is much valued in India, and is used for all purposes for which 
 mahogany is used in Britain. It makes beautiful and light furniture, but is apt to warp 
 in very dry weather. Beautifully veined and mottled pieces are occasionally met with, 
 And are highly valued. 
 
 CHITTELDROOG, or Chitradurg, a t. in British India, in the province of Mysore, 
 280 m. w.n.w. of Madras. It is in a fertile plain, and was once one of tlie strongest 
 places in India. The present fortress crowns a high rock in the rear of the town, and 
 IS a formidable defense. Hyder Ali besieged C. in 1776, getting possession eleven years 
 later, but then only through treachery. 
 
 CHITTENDEN, a co. in n.w. Vermont, on lake Champlain; 517 sq.m.; pop. '80, 
 32,798. It is drained by the Winooski and Lamoille rivers, and traversed by the Cen- 
 tral Vennont, the Rutland and Burlington, and the Burlington and Lamoille railroads. 
 The productions are wheat, corn, oats, potatoes, hay, cheese, butter, wool, and maple 
 sugar. Co. seat, Burlington. 
 
 CHITTENDEN, Martin, 1766-1840; son of Thomas; a graduate of Dartmouth col- 
 lege, and for many years in judicial offices in Vermont. He was chosen to congress in 
 1803, and four times therealter; and was governor of the state from 1813 to 1815. 
 
 CHITTENDEN, Thomas, 1730-97; the first governor of the state of Vermont, b. in 
 Conn., where he was a member of the legislature. In 1774, he settled in Vermont, 
 and participated in all the political action of the people in councils and conventions, 
 until the territory became a state, before and after which period he was the governor. 
 
 CHITTOR', the name of two fortified towns in India. — 1. C. in the district of Arcot, 
 abou^ 80 m. to the w. of Madras, in lat. 13° 12' n., and long. 79° 9' east. It stands on the 
 fi. or right bank of the Puni, an affluent of the Palar, and is about 1100 ft. above the sea. 
 Its river varies, according to the season, from a small rivulet to an expanse of 400 yards 
 in width. When the stream is at its lowest, the very tanks, as well as the deserted 
 channel, become little better than slime — the result being fever, ague, dysentery, and 
 other diseases. The thermometer has occasionally reached 140° in the sun ; but the 
 annual range in the shade runs from 56° to 100°. — 2. C. in Odeypoor, or Mewar, about 
 270 m. to the s.w. of Agra, in lat. 24° 52' n., and long. 74° 41' east. The fortress occu- 
 pies the summit of an isolated rock of nearly 6.000 yards in length, and of 1200 in 
 breadth, which is scarped all round to a depth of 80 or 100 feet, about a fourth part of 
 its entire altitude. Within the inclosure are several antique structures — such as temples, 
 tanks, a palace, commemorative pillars, and an inner citadel. 
 
 CHITTY, Joseph, 1776-1841; a lawyer of England whose text-books have been con- 
 sidered almost necessary for students and young practitioners. » The chief of his vsmrks 
 are. Treatise an the Parties to Actions and to Pleadings; Treatise on the Law of Nations rela- 
 tive to the Legal Effects of War on the Commerce of Belligerents and Neutrals, and on Orders 
 in Council in Licenses; Political Treatise on Criminal Law; and Synopsis of Practice in 
 the King's Bench and Common Pleas. 
 
 OTITT'SA, La, a t. of n. Italy, province of Cuneo, situated on the left ,bank of the 
 Pesio, 8 m. s.e. of Coni. It has manufactures of silk and glass, and a pop. of 3,000. 
 
 CHITJ'SA, La (so called from the ground having been originally inclosed as pasture- 
 land for horses), a t. of Sicily, in the province and 30 m. s.s.w. of Palermo, on the slope 
 of some hills. The t. was built in 1320. Agates are found in the vicinity. Pop., 6,840, 
 
 CHITJ'SI, a t. of central Italy, province of Siena, 37 m. s.e. of Siena, with a pop. of 
 S,000, stands on an eminence in the Val di Chiana, not far from the lake of the same 
 name. In ancient times, under the name of Clusium, it was one of the twelve republics 
 of Etruria, and the residence of Porsena (q.v.). When Italy was overrun by the barba- 
 rians, C. fell into decay, the whole valley was depopulated, and became the pestilential 
 pool described by Dante. Since the improvement of the course of the Chiana (q.v.), C. 
 bas begun to fiourish again along with the whole district. But it is in connection with 
 the discovery of Etruscan antiquities that C. is chiefly heard of. Within the last quar- 
 ter of a century, immense quantities of these remains have been found in the neighbor- 
 hood in the grottos that served the ancient Etruscans as tombs. There are three muse- 
 ums in C. filled with them, and a great number are in the public gallery at Florence. 
 They consist chiefly of sun-dried earthenware vases, black, and partly covered with 
 mythological figures. Excavations still continue to be made, but discoveries have become 
 rarer of late years. 
 
Chivalry. 
 
 Chlaiuyphorus. 
 
 808 
 
 CHIVALRY (Fr. cTiemlerie, from chevalier, a knight or horseman), the system of 
 knighthood, together with the privileges, duties, and manners of knights. The social 
 arrangement to which this term is applied seems first to have assumed the character of 
 a positive institution during the lithe.; but so far from being an invention of tliat 
 period, it had its roots in the manners of the Germanic races, amongst whom it 
 ultimately arose, at the earliest period at which they are historically traceable. In the 
 description which Tacitus has given us of the manners of the Germans, we find the 
 most unequivocal indications of the existence, not only of the general spirit, but, in a 
 partially developed form, of many of the special arrangements of chivalry. But it was 
 in connection with feudality that G. attained to its full proportions, and in many respects 
 it must be regarded as the complement of that institution. See Feudal System. 
 Whilst feudality exhibits the political, in C. we see the moral and social side of the 
 arrangements of mediaeval life. It was in the feudal mansions of the barons that the 
 system was developed; and to the lay portion of the youth of the higher classes, the 
 instruction which they there received in the usages of C. formed by far "the most impor- 
 tant part of education. In addition to the martial accomplishments, which corresponded, 
 to those of a modern cavalry-officer, they were instructed in the political relations wdiich 
 subsisted between the vas.sal and his lord, by which the whole body of society was then 
 bound together; and in what might almost be called a system of ethics, strangely enough 
 exhibiting unmistakable traces of the stoic philosophy. The analogy between the 
 severer virtues recommended to the special cultivation of their disciples by the followers 
 of Zeno, and those inculcated on the novice in C., and practiced by the knights of the 
 middle ages, might be ascribed to other than historical causes, were it not that we are 
 able to trace the connection between them with something approaching to certainty. If 
 any one wishes to convince himself of the truth of our assertion, let him compare the 
 last production of the intellectual life of antiquity with one of the earliest and most 
 important of our own literature, the Consolations of Philosophy of Boethius with Chaucer’s 
 Testament of Love. The resemblance is so close, that the latter work has, not without 
 reason, been regarded as an imitation of the former; but the main features which distin- 
 guish them, and mark Chaucer’s work us belonging to the modern world, are more 
 instructive than even their similarity. The place wliich Philosophy, the celestial con- 
 soler, occupies in the work of Boethius, in that of Chaucer is supplied by Love — a being 
 whom we must in nowise confound either with the heathen goddess, or, as some have 
 done, with the divine love of the Christian religion. She is neither more nor less than 
 the embodiment of an abstract idea which formed the central point of the whole system 
 of C. ; and her substitution for the philosophy or reason of Boethius is very character- 
 istic of a state of society in which the affections and passions, rather than the intelli- 
 gence, were the motive principles. The ‘'Love” of Chaucer is a complete generaliza- 
 tion, altogether independent of individual object, and the consolation which she proffers 
 to her votary is that of enlisting in his favor the special guardian, the “Margarite,” who 
 is supposed to watch over his individual fortunes. The “ Margarite ” seems to corre- 
 spond to the chivalrous idea of the Lady-love, in its purest sense, when its reference to 
 a person was by no means indispensable, but when it signified rather “the love of 
 woman,” the highest object of the knight’s ambition. IJuder the protection of this 
 guardian spirit, the lover is represented as altogether sheltered from the caprices of 
 fortune, and in her name he has a dose of rather frigid comfort administered to him,, 
 greatly resembling that which Boethius receives at the hands of Philosophy. Such is 
 the general idea of the book, and it is a noble idea, embracing the very essence of 
 society as it existed then, and presenting a much deeper view of that singular institution 
 C. than is usually to be met with in writers who have not been actually brought in con- 
 tact with its iufiuences. But to the two elements which we have mentioned as ingredi- 
 ents in the spiritual life of C., the Germanic traditions on the one hand, and those of 
 classical antiquity on the other, a third falls to be mentioned, which was, perhaps, the 
 most important of all — that of Christianity as represented by the church. The clergy 
 ware too fully aware of the importance of early impressions, not to seize on the imagina- 
 tion of^he aspirant to C. at the all-important moment of his inauguration. The purifi- 
 cations, prayers, and vigils, the sacrament and the vows by which this solemn rite wa.s 
 accompanied, are detailed elsewhere (see Knight, Banneret, Bath, etc.); and their 
 influence in casting a religious character over the whole institution of C., and occasion- 
 ally in directing its energies specially to the propagation of Christianity, by means of 
 the various religious orders of knighthood and the crusades, is well known. Nor was- 
 the poet behind the priest in availing himself of the influences of C., and developing 
 them in the region of the imagination. What Chaucer has exhibited in the work to 
 wdiich we have referred, may be regarded rather as the philosophical than the poetical 
 3ide of the institution. Put to poets of a lighter and more imaginative cast of mind, C. 
 has furnished, from the days of the troubadours down to the present poet-laureate, no 
 insignificant portion of their subject-matter. King Arthur and his knights of the round 
 table, the traditions regarding whom had been taken from a period altogether mythical, 
 and long anterior to the existence of C. as an institution, became to the poetry of the 
 middle ages very much what the heroes of the Trojan war were to tb it of the wdiole 
 ancient world. Much astonishment has often been expressed at the contrast between 
 the lofty and ideal purity of the code of morals inculcated by C., and the gross- 
 
809 
 
 Chivalry. 
 
 Chlamyphonu, 
 
 
 ^ W * «.aAV 
 
 S3 .-ss:“ S “5 ~ S“ s; 
 
 I sXit" rii .r;"v."rs'ir>j i* ~ S’ = 
 
 ■; »ndToVeeX^”!'e'di^t?n«S‘7fdyre^^^^^^ 
 
 ;si“S3SSi«M 
 
 I the ifffbankVthrpktrut “re\7Turia >“’ " P'“>" 
 
 I ?^e“C‘'STarc^re^ 
 
 1: earthenware, soap, etc., and a trade in^the asricultuTai prodte of IhfS X'’ 
 
 onio” ^’ aXm”); fXnfaX;TToo“ “"<» 
 
 bulbs, increasinff by its bulbs sons tn ^ height, -with veiy small, flat, clustered 
 
 Jc-i^xaxSS^^ 
 
 aeTnfdling'flXtskndafe'us^^^^^^^ 
 
 iXs in'jhh:L^‘r “““• ?h^younTieaT:^,"wSX!;t^ 
 
 in ttfSfo? H ” f 
 
 hors. Tlieylive in the arrond^ssemtn^f despised and hated hy their neigh- 
 
 s;,S£”r.;s,:%t’ss tSi £ 
 sr.%x*T.j;Eis;s?r"?K^^^ 
 
 mmemorial, the C and B have bppn finiri ii^aiiy among themselves. From time 
 >f them are very good rooking The cattle-dealers, butchers, etc. Many 
 
 vith large black^ eves See^ Michel ^ handsome, clear-complexioned, 
 
 'Bspi^gne (2 yo\8., Hr 1847) ^ ^ Maudites de la M'ance et de 
 
 t Witten^^^g,^Nov!^ 30 ^ 1 ^^^^ He?tudie?Hw science of acoustics, was b. 
 
 ^here, in 1782, he was made do^or o^^^^^^^^^ ^eipsic. 
 
 Itogether, devoted his mind to natural scienee^nn f ^ abandoned judicial studies 
 
 .iSer^rSeV^nu^icr' hI ZlilZXT 
 
 "i, traveled for fo years ^rfti^maT.h.':;!^, ^ 
 
 vinff leetnrp« rm tiro on 
 
 md, France, Itair Bussirand years (after 1802) through Germany. Hol- 
 
 ery successful. He died ’in Breslau AnrH subject which were 
 
 meeming the Theory of Sound (1787)’ wrUings include Discoveiies 
 
 817); and Contributions to Practical Aeov •it) Contributions to Acoustics 
 
 enU (1822), C. also wrote s^:^uLay“on“^eTetif^^^^^ 
 
 ant™of plIi?ed®ftm'?o^vlredS^^ on its neck a singular 
 
 is lizard is nearly 3 ft, long. edged with spines. When full grown, 
 
 |le genu^If mammalia onhe™^^^^ soldier’s cloak), a very remark- 
 
 ith the armadillos, but differimr in imnnrtonf naturalists in the same family 
 
 iown quadrupeds. Only one Secies knnVrf^pP^/^* 
 
 the interior of Chili, living un^derirround like the’ ® in long, a native 
 hahits. and feeding on the’eanre l^ndTf^ool ‘^^37or^ef:c'r:?e'L’"a^^i^ 
 
Chlainy.H. 
 
 Chlorine. 
 
 810 
 
 altliougli in a different manner from those of the mole. The skull is destitute of 
 sutures; there are resemblances to the osteology of birds in the ribs and their union ta 
 the sternum; the hinder part of the body is altogether unlike that of any other known 
 animal, in its terminating quite abruptly, as if cut off almost where its thickness is 
 greatest, or as if the back were suddenly bent down at right angles, the tail not spring- 
 ing from where the line of the back appears to terminate, but far below. The whole 
 upper and hinder parts of the body are covered with a coat of mail, made up of a series 
 of square plates; the under parts and legs are covered with long silky hair. The tail is 
 very peculiar; it is covered with small scales, is expanded at the tip, and is usually 
 incurved along the belly, but is furnished with such muscles as to suggest the proba- 
 bility of Its being employed to throw back the earth in excavations. 
 
 CHLA.iMYS, an outer garment worn by the Greeks and some other people of the 
 east. It was of wool, smaller than the more common blanket, of liner material, and 
 often of brilliant colors. It was an oblong square, twice as long as its width. The 
 wearer fastened the corners of the shortest side to the middle of the chest, the chlamys 
 falling down over the back to the knees; or when fastened on the right shoulder it fell 
 over the left arm and side. The chlamys for women often had a fringe or border of 
 rich colors. 
 
 CHLOPIGEI, losEPH, a Polish general, and dictator of Poland during the revolution 
 of 1830. was b. in Galicia in 1772. He entered the army in 1787, attracted the notice 
 of Kosciusko during the first insurrection of the Poles, and after tlie storming of Praga, 
 9th Nov., 1794, when the hopes of the patriots were extinguished for a while, he passed 
 into the service of the new Cisalpine republic, and distinguished himself in viirious 
 battles. In 1806, when Bonaparte called the Poles to arms, C., among others, obeyed, 
 and fought gallantly at Eylau and Friedland. He was subsequently sent by the emperor 
 into Spain, and in 1813 followed him to Russia, taking part in the bloody engagements 
 at Smolensk and Moskwa. After the relics of the invading force had returned, C. left 
 the imperial service, on account of receiving certain sliglits in the way of his profes- 
 sional advancement. After the taking of Paris by the allies in 1814, he led back to 
 Poland the remains of the Polish troops who had fought under Bonaparte, and waa 
 well received by the emperor Alexander, who made him a general of division. When 
 the second insurrection of the Poles broke out in 1830, C., who foresaw the hopelesa 
 nature of the attempt, concealed himself; but the voice of the nation called him forth 
 from his hiding-place, and on the 5th Dec., 1830, he was elected dictator. His moderate 
 views, however, involved him in disputes with the extreme patriotic party, and on tho 
 23d Jan., 1831, he resigned his office; but, to prove his sincerity, he entered the Polish, 
 army as a simple soldier, and took p irt in the murderous battles at Wavre and Grochow. 
 After the suppression of the insurrection, C. went to Cracow, and withdrew altogether 
 from public life. He died at Krzeschowitz, 30th Sept., 1854. 
 
 CHLO'BAL (C4CI3HO2) is a body formed when anhydrous alcohol is acted upon by 
 dry chlorine gas. It is an oily liquid with a peculiar penetrating odor. 
 
 CHLORAL {ante), a liquid prepared from absolute alcohol by the action of dry 
 chlorine. It is composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and chlorine, formula C2HOCI3. 
 Combined with water, it forms chloral hydrate, a transparent crystalline substance, 
 having the appearance of alum, sometimes administered to induce sleep. Its effect is 
 attributed to chloroform produced in the system from the chloral hy the alkaline 
 reaction of the blood. As a rule 20 grains causes in a healthy adult a light and 
 refreshing sleep, after about half or three quarters of an hour, without headache or other 
 bad results. Repeated use blunts the good effect, and causes serious nervous demoral- 
 ization; over loses have caused death. Chloral hydrate has special value where the use 
 of opium is i nadmissible; also in delirium tremens, mania, rheumatism, gastralgia, and 
 as antagonistic to tetanus and the effects of strychnia. 
 
 CHLORANTHA CE.9:, a natural order of exogenous plants, closely allied to the pep- 
 pers; herbaceous and half shrubby plants, with jointed stems, opposite simple leaves, 
 and minute stipules between them. The flowers are in terminal spikes, and are desti- 
 tute of calyx and corolla, but have each a small scale or bract. The stamens are 
 lateral; either only one or few, and partly cohering. The ovary is one-celled, imme- 
 diately crowned with the stigma; the ovule is pendulous; the fruit a drupe or one-seeded 
 berry; the embryo naked, not in a fleshy sac as in the peppers. — The number of known, 
 species is small : all of them are tropical, or natives of China and Japan. They are 
 generally aromatic, and some of them, as species of chloranthus in the East Indies, and 
 of hedyosmum in the West Indies and South America, are used as antispasmodics, stimu- 
 lants, stomachics, and tonics. The roots of chloranthus officinalis and G. hrachystachys 
 have been ranked among the most efficacious remedies in fevers and other diseases 
 requiring continual and active stimulants, and instances have occurred of great benefit 
 from their employment during the prevalence of epidemics in Java. C. inconspicuu» 
 is the Chu-Lan of the Chinese; its leaves, spikes of flowers, and berries are used by 
 them for imparting a peculiar fragrance to tea. All the teas which have what is called 
 the cowslip flavor owe it to this plant. 
 
811 
 
 Chlamys.' 
 
 Clxlorin** 
 
 CHLO'BIC ACID (ClOa) is a compound of one atom of chlorine and five atoms of 
 oxygen, and is generally met with in combination with potash, as the white crystalline 
 salt, chlorate of potash (K0,C10s). This salt is mainly interesting from the readiness 
 with which it parts with its oxygen to combustibles, as when thrown on red-hot char- 
 coal, when it causes violent deflagration. The salt is employed in the fabrication of 
 certain kinds of lucifer-raatches, which give a slight explosion when struck. If a crys- 
 tal of cldorate of potash b*e placed on a piece of paper saturated with turpentine, and 
 a drop or two of oil of vitriol added, it causes the inflaming of the turpentine with 
 explosive rapidity. The chlorate of potash is also used in medicine, with the view 
 of imparting oxygen to the blood. 
 
 CHLORIC ETHER, a name formerly given to a compound of chlorine and olefiant 
 gas, also called chloride of ethylene, or Dutch liquid. Now applied to a mixture con- 
 taining one part of chloroform and eight or nine parts of strong alcohol. Dr. John C. 
 Warren’s “ chloric ether,” used by him as an anaesthetic, contained one part of chloro- 
 form and two of alcohol. C. E. is used as a means of administering chloroform inter- 
 nally ; it is a mild anodyne, useful to allay restlessness and spasmodic disturbances, as of 
 the air-passages. 
 
 CHLOBIM ETBY, or Chlorom'etry, is the process of estimating the proportion of 
 available chlorine in bleaching powder (q. v.), which may vary from 20 to <36 per cent. 
 The process depends upon the great power with which chlorine, in the act of being 
 liberated from its compounds, causes the oxidation of many substances. The salt gen- 
 erally used is pure crystallized sulphateof iron, which, in its ordinary state, gives a deep 
 blue color, with a drop of ferrideyanide of potassium, but ceases to do so when it has 
 been fully oxidized, or converted from a proto-salt into a per-salt, through the influence 
 of chlorine. It being known that 78 grains or parts of sulphate of iron are oxidized by 
 10 grains or parts of chlorine, the mode of procedure in C. is as follows: 78 grains of 
 fine crystals of the su phatc of iron arc dissolved in water slightly acidulated with 
 hydrochloric acid in a white porcelain basin. A given quantity of the bleaching 
 powder— say 50 grains — is dissolved in a little tepid water, and introduced into a tall 
 measure-glass called a chlorimeter or burette, similar to an alkalimeter, which is divided 
 into 100 parts, and water added till the solution rises to the top mark. After subsidence 
 of the insoluble matter, the clear solution is very gradually poured into the solution of 
 sulphate of iron in the basin, the whole being kept constantly stirred, and every now 
 and again a drop of the iron solution is taken out and placed on a new drop of ferrid- 
 eyanide of potassium placed on a white plate; and whenever the iron solution ceases to 
 produce a deep blue, and only forms a light greenish-yellow tint, it is known that the 
 iron has been fully oxidized by the chlorine. Suppose that at this stage the burette has 
 been emptied to the 55th division ; as w'c know that the liquid poured out must have 
 contained 10 grains of chlorine, we can calculate the chlorine contained in the whole; 
 for 
 
 55: 10:: 100: 18.18. 
 
 Thus 50 grains of the powder contain 18.18 grains of chlorine, or 86.86 per cent. 
 Protochloride of manganese, subchloride of mercury (calomel), or a solution of indigo 
 of known strength, may be employed instead of the sulphate of iron; but the latter is 
 preferable, and is generally employed by chemists and manufacturers. 
 
 CHLO'BINE (Gr. chloros, pale green) is a nou-metallic element discovered by Scheele 
 in 1774, and named by him dephlogisticated marine air. Afterwards, in 1810, Davy 
 proved it to be an elementary body, and gave it the name which it now bears. In 
 nature it is always found in a state of combination. United with sodium (Na), it 
 occurs very largely as the chloride of sodium (NaCl) — common salt — in the ocean; in 
 large beds, as rock-salt; in all natural waters, including even rain-water; in clays, soils, 
 limestone; in volcanic incrustations; and in the vegetable and animal kingdoms. The 
 preparation of gaseous C. by its liberation, directly or indirectly, from common salt, 
 has been fully described under Bleaching Powder, which is the form in which C. is 
 prepared and employed commercially. For experimental purposes, the gas may be 
 received in jars filled with water at the pneumatic trough, when the C. rises into the jar, 
 and displaces the water. When thus obtained, it is a yellowish-green gas with a 
 peculiar and suffocating odor, is not combustible,, and a very feeble supporter of 
 ordinary combustion. A lighted candle placed in it burns with a very smoky flame, 
 owing to the hydrogen of the oil alone burning, and the carbon being liberated. Several 
 of the metals, such as antimony, copper, and arsenic in a fine state of division, or in the 
 condition of thin leaves, at once become red hot, and burn when introduced into the 
 gas. A piece of thin paper soaked in turpentine likewise bursts into flame. C. has the 
 symbol Cl, and the atomic weight or equivalent of 35.5. It is a very heavy gas, nearly 
 
 times heavier than air, its specific gravity being 2,470 (air=1000); it is soluble in cold 
 water to the extent of two volumes of C. in one of water, and yields a solution resem- 
 bling the gas in color, odor, and other properties. The principal properties of C. are 
 those of a bleacher of cotton and linen (see Bleaching), and a most powerful disinfect- 
 ant (q.v.). The gas can be condensed by pressure and cold info a transparent dark 
 greenish-yellow limpid liquid, with a specific gravity of 1330 (H0=1000), which also 
 
Chlorite. CIO 
 
 . Chocolate. 0 1 ^ 
 
 possesses bleaching properties, and a most powerful odor. On the animal system C. 
 acts, in very minute quantity, by producing a sensation of warmth in the respiratory 
 .passages, and increasing the expectoration: in large quantity, by causing spasm of the 
 glottis, violent cough, and a feeling of suffocation. The workmen in chemical manu- 
 factories, who get accustomed to the C. in small quantity, are generally stout — at least, 
 lay on fat — but complain of acidity in the stomach, which they correct by taking chalk, 
 and also suffer from the corrosion of their teeth, which are eaten away to stumps. 
 The antidotes to the evil effects of the introduction of C. into the lungs are the inhala- 
 tion of the vapor of water, alcohol, ether, or chloroform; but the two latter should 
 never be resorted to except under medical supervision. 
 
 C. unites with the metals and many other substances to form an extensive class of 
 salts known as chlorides. 
 
 CHLO KITE (Gr. chlvros, green), an abundant mineral, consisting of silica, alumina, 
 magnesia, and protoxide of iron, in somewhat variable proportions. It is of a green 
 color, rarely occurs crystallized in hexagonal crystals, sometimes foliated like talc. It 
 is rather soft, and is easily broken or scratched with a knife. Before the blow-pipe, it 
 is with difficulty fused on thin edges. It is readily distinguished from talc by yielding 
 water in a closed tube. 
 
 CHLO'RITE-SCHIST, or Chlorite-slate, a green slaty rock, in which chlorite is 
 abundant in foliated plates, usually blended with minute grains of quartz, and some- 
 times with feldspar or mica. 
 
 CHLO'EODYNE is a patent or quack medicine of considerable popularity, invented 
 by a Dr. Collis Browne, but largely imitated by various chemists. It contains opium, 
 chloroform, prussic acid, and probably Indian hemp, and is flavored with sugar and 
 peppermint. As it is apt to separate into two liquids on standing, it should never be 
 taken unless it has previously been well shaken; and as, in taking a dose of chlorodyne, 
 the patient swallows an unknown quantity of three or four of the deadliest poisons with 
 which we are acquainted, it is always advisable to begin with small doses. It is unques- 
 tionably a compound which sometimes succeeds in allaying pain and inducing sleep, 
 when opiates have failed; but whether a physician is justified in recommending a rem- 
 edy with the composition of which he is unacquainted, is a doubtful question. Ten or 
 fifteen drops is the average dose. 
 
 CHLO'KOFORM, or the Terchlo'ride op Formyle (C2HCI3), was originally discov- 
 ered by Soubeiran, and experimented upon by Dumas, and was long known only to 
 scientific chemists as a rare organic body, possessing interest from being one of a series 
 of organic substances, but not known to possess any properties likely to call it into use, 
 or even likely to let it be known by name to the general public. The remarkable power, 
 however, which it possesses of producing anaesthesia, has led to the preparation of C. 
 on a very extensive scale. The materials employed are alcohol, water, and bleaching 
 powder, and the proportions are four parts of bleaching powder, to which sufficient 
 water is added to make a thin paste, and thereafter one part of spirits of wine; the 
 whole is introduced into a capacious retort, which must not be more than half filled, 
 and heat being applied, the C., accompanied by water and a little alcohol, distills over. 
 As the C. is heavier than water, and is not readily miscible therewith, two layers of 
 liquid are obtained in the receiver — the upper being water and alcohol, and the lower 
 being chloroform. The upper liquid being cautiously poured off, the C. is agitated 
 with fused carbonate of potash, which abstracts the remaining traces of water, and on 
 subsequent redistillation the C. is obtained pure and ready for use. 
 
 C. is a highly limpid, mobile, colorless liquid, which is very volatile, has a charac- 
 teristic and pleasant odor, and an agreeable sweetish taste. It* has a specific gravity of 
 nearly 1500 (water = 1000), being thus half as heavy again as water, and boils at 140° F. 
 It is not inflammable in the ordinary sense of the term, at? it will not take fire when a 
 light is brought down upon it; but when thrown on red-hot coals, it burns with a green 
 flame, evolving much smoke. It is slightly soluble in water, but more readily mixes 
 with alcohol and ether. It dissolves camphor, amber, copal, and other resins, wax, 
 caoutchouc, black and red sealing wax. iodine and bromine, as well as strychnine and 
 other alkaloids. Its purity may be determined by placing some on the palm of the 
 hand, and allowing it to evaporate, when no alcoholic or other odorous substance should 
 be even momentarily recognized; and by agitation with oil of vitriol, when, on settling, 
 the C. should readily swim on the surface of the vitriol, and the two layers of liquid 
 remain colorless. The employment of C. as an anesthetic has already been considered 
 under Anesthesia; but it may be here repeated that C. is a substance that cannot bv. 
 too cautiously dealt with, and "that if should never be administered except in the pres- 
 ence and by the sanction of a medical practitioner. When skillfully given, it is among 
 the safest of all anaesthetics, and the greatest boon that chemistry has bestowed on suf 
 fering humanity. 
 
 CHLORO METH'YL, or Methylene Bichloride, CH5CI2; a liquid— clear, volatile, 
 of pleasant odor; when inhaled, producing anaesthesia more quickly than chloroform, 
 and usually free from disagreeable consequences. Like chloroform, not absolutely 
 safe. 
 
813 
 
 Chlorite. 
 
 Chocolate. 
 
 (Gr green, and phyllon, a leaf), the substance to which the 
 
 leaves and other parts ot plants owe tueir green color. It is somewhat analogous to 
 wax, IS soluble in alcohol and ether, but insoluble in water, and floats in the fluid of 
 minute granules. Light is indispensable to its formation, and 
 nr phenomenon of blanching (q.v.), either from accidental causes 
 
 the gardener. Young leaves do not exhibit so deep a green as those 
 which have been longer exposed to the light; and the green of a leaf generally deepens 
 1 It begins to change into the tints of autumn. Hydra viridis, and other minute ani- 
 mals, appear to owe their green color to a substance an^alogous to chlorophyll. 
 
 CHLO EOPS. See Corn-Fly and Wheat- Fly. 
 
 ^ peculiar form of anemia or bloodlessness 
 common m young women, and connected with the disorders incident to the critical 
 period of life It has been called the green sickness, from the peculiar dingy greenish- 
 yellow hue of the complexion; the green color, however, is not always chImftSistic 
 ti^^'n ^ debility, and often with breathlessness, palpi t 
 
 tion. and other distressing or even alarming symptoms. When there is no organic dit 
 ease present, however. C. may be pronounced curable in a large propo^tbn o“^ 
 The principal ineans to be employed are air, exercise, often salt-water Lths tlm use of 
 ^ nutiitious and rather stimulating diet, and purgatives if required; together 
 femedies as are adapted for restoring deficient secretions and brino-- 
 ing the entire female system of organs into a natural condition. * ^ 
 
 CHLOSO'SIS, a diseased state of plants, in which a sickly green or greenish-vellow 
 color takes the p ace of the natural lively hue. Sometimes only a partfS S k 
 ^ected by It, but very generally the whole plant; and it seems to depend upon causes 
 tomaH/Trnf nof P ^"J.^^^^oether unhealthy, the pallid appearance bemg merely symp 
 hi?’ not only the formation of chlorophyll, but all the functions of vegetable 
 life being languidly and imperfectly carried on. Bad seed, damp soil and c^d w^et 
 
 common causes of chlorosis. Plants affected by this 
 disease are often to be seen among crops generally healthy; but whole crops of Jrain 
 
 diminished in va'lur'^FimifS 
 
 moSXe L7a SIS 
 
 Is 
 
 fin Dnn 0 renaoved to Boston. In 1841, he was chosen U.% senator to 
 
 Tn Webster s unexpired term, the latter having been appointed secretary of state 
 
 WeSr H s Pilgrims, and a eulogy on Daniel 
 
 weDster. -tLf* works and correspondence liaye been published ^ 
 
 employed on ship-board to aid in the support of Tarious 
 chocks,- and chocf s to Support T enSs“e boat-chocks, stow-tvood 
 
 in^®D^?t®o°f Granada, in South America.-!. The bay form- 
 
 f department of Caucus to. v ) 
 
 cinchona etc C is used as a ^ Iceland moss, and for medicinal purposes with 
 or milk. ’ Sometimes thp ^?nUr t purpose is dissolyed in hot water 
 
 soup or wine It is also emnlnvpfi it? and sometimes it is dissolyed in 
 
 satisfies ti rappetite a?d n . .liqueurs. In a pure state, it soon 
 
 lating Goo7c fexternanv sLolh^ ‘ eontains spices, it is also stimu- 
 
Chocolate. 
 
 Choking. 
 
 814 
 
 on the surface, and leaves no sediment of foreign substances. C. is adulterated in 
 many ways, by mixing it with rice-meal, oat-meaT, flour, potato-starch, roasted hazel- 
 nuts or almonds, and with benzoin, storax, etc., in place of vanilla. The Mexicans, 
 from time immemorial, were accustomed to prepare a beverage from roasted and pounded 
 cocoa, dissolved in water, and mixed with maize-meal and spices. This they called 
 chocolatl (c/wee, cocoa, and latl, water). From the Americans, the Spaniards derived 
 an acquaintance with C., and by them it was introduced into Europe in 1520. C. is 
 ■used in South America, Spain, and Italy, more than in other parts of the world, although 
 it is used to a considerable extent in Germany. Its use in Britain has given place in 
 a great measure to that of the simpler cocoa. 
 
 CHOCOLATE ROOT. See Geum. 
 
 CHOCTAW, a co. in s.w. Alabama, on the Mississippi border; 800 sq.m.; pop. ’80, 
 15,731 — 8344 colored. It is watered by tributaries of the Tombigbee. Productions 
 chiefly agricultural. Co. seat, Butler. 
 
 CHOCTAW, a co. in central Mississippi, on Big Black river; 900 sq.m. ; pop. ’80. 
 9036 -2500 colored. Agriculture is the chief business. Co. seat, Greeusborough. 
 
 CHOCTAWS, or Chahtas, a tribe of American Indians now occupying a portion 
 of the Indian territory on Red river, numbering about 16,000, and possessing 10,450 sq m. 
 of land. When flrst known to Europeans they occupied the country now forming 
 the w. part of Alabama and s. part of Mississippi. When Louisiana was settled they 
 formed an alliance with the French against the Chickasaws and the Natchez By degrees 
 they became friendly to the English, ami in 1786 they recognized the supremacy of the 
 federal government. About 1800, they began to emigrate beyond the Mississippi. In 
 the war with England and the Creek war they did great service to the union. Georgia 
 gave them special privileges, even making them citizens, but they preferred to emigrate, 
 and were all gone soon after 1830. In 1818, missions were established among them. In 
 the civil war, they went with the confederates, but after it was over new treaties were 
 made by the United States, slavery was abolished, and other necessary changes made. 
 They have a regular constitution, prefaced by a bill of rights. Free males 21 years old 
 and six months citizens of the nation arc voters. There is a house of representatives 
 of 17 to 35 members chosen for two years. The governor is elected for two years by 
 the people, and is eligible for four years only out of any term of six. There are courts, 
 supreme, civil, and probate; and justices of the peace. Books are printed in their lan- 
 guage, and a newspaper is regularly issued every week at their chief town. 
 
 CHODOWIE'CKI. Daniel Nicolas, 1726-1801; a Polish painter and engraver 
 who designed and engraved subjects from the seven j^ears’ war, and subsequently the 
 “ History of the Life of Jesus Christ,” a series of miniature paintings that made him at 
 once famous. Thereafter he was represented by his work in almost every book of 
 importance published in Prussia in which engravings could be used. Still, the picture 
 of “ Calas and his Family” is the only one of C.’s that has wide reputation. 
 
 CHCENIX, a Grecian measure of capacity variously represmted as equal to 0.186, 
 0.248, and 0.495 of an English gallon. It is supposed to have been used chiefly for 
 measuring grain. 
 
 CHQ5R'ILUS, a Greek tragic writer of the time of Thespes and .^schylus. He was 
 a competitor for the tragic prize in 529 b.c. It is said that he took 13 prizes, and was 
 the author of 150 tragedies, besides other works that have been lost. 
 
 CIKER'ILUS, OF Samos, a Greek writer, b. about 470 b.c. ; author of a poem treat- 
 ing of the wars of Greece with Darius and Xerxes. Fragments of his writings have been 
 pre.served in the works of Aristotle, Josephus, and Ephorus. 
 
 CHOIR (Lat. chorus). In its literal sense, the C. is the portion of the church devoted 
 to the singers; and in all descriptions which concern the ritual it is so limited, including 
 only the space from the western door or screen to the end of the stalls, whilst the part 
 from the stalls eastward to the high altar is called the presbytery. But in ordinary 
 language, and even as used by architects, it denotes the entire space which is inclosed 
 for the performance of the principal part of tlie service. In this sense, it includes the 
 C. proper and the presbytery, and corresponds to the chancel in parish churches. 
 Where the church is cruciform, and the term is confined to the eastern limb, it comes 
 to be entirely different from the C. in the ritual sense, or the stall-place, which in such 
 a building is commonly situated either under the tower or in the nave. In large churches, 
 the aisle generally runs along each side of the C;, and frequently passes across the e. 
 end of it; an arrangement which is very common in the larger churches of the continent 
 which have polygonal or semicircular terminations. — C. is also the name given to the 
 singers of the choral service. 
 
 CHOIR-SCREEN, or Choib-Wall, the screen or wall which divides the choir and 
 presbytery from the side aisles. It is often very richly ornamented. 
 
 CHOISEUL, Claude Antoine Gabriel, Due de, 1760-1838; a col. of dragoons 
 during the French revolution, and a warm supporter of the royal cause. He made an 
 attempt to rescue Louis XIV. from the revolutionists, but the royal party was recaptured, 
 a price was set upon C.’s head, and he was compelled to fly. He raised a regiment of 
 
815 
 
 Chocolate. 
 
 Choking. 
 
 hussars and joined the royalist army. He was finally taken prisoner and confined at 
 1 Dunkirk, lie escaped, and sailed for India, but was wrecked on the coast of France, 
 captured, and condemned to death. Yet he escaped deatli, and at the restoration he 
 1 was called to the house of peers by Louis XVIII. In the revolution of 1830, he was a 
 : prominent member of the provisional government, and afterwards received from Louis 
 Philippe the post of aide-de-camp to the king and governor of the Louvre. 
 
 CHOISEUL-AMBOISE, Etienne Francois, Due de, minister of Louis XV., was b. 
 June 18, 1719, educated by the Jesuits, and on the completion of his studies, entered the 
 army. He fought lira vely in the Austrian wars of succession; but only after he had 
 attracted the fancy of the king’s mistress, Madame Pompadour, did fortune also really 
 favor him. Through the influence of Madame Pompadour, he was made licut. gen. in 
 1748, ambassador to the courts of Rome and Vienna in 1756, and due de Choiseulin 1758. 
 C. now became instrumental in bringing about a family league of the Bourbon monarchs 
 in Europe; and in 1763, at the close of the war so disastrous to the French arms, he 
 obtained, by his prudence and dexterity, milder terms for his nation than had been 
 expected. This made him very popular, as did also his successful attempt to overthrow 
 the Jesuits. In 1764, Madame Pompadour died, but the power of C. continued unabated. 
 He conceived, and almost carried out, a plan for the formal emancipation of theGallican 
 church from papal influence, paid great attention to the improvement of the army and 
 navy, developed the trade and industry both of the nation and of the colonies, and 
 opened up anew an intercourse with India, whose native princes were assisted by French 
 officers in their endeavors to expel the British from the peninsula. He had spies in 
 every European court, and so ruled all diplomatic and political cabals, that the empress 
 of Ru&sia, who dreaded him, called him Le Cocker de V Europe (“the driver of Europe”). 
 But the rise of Madame Dubarry, who succeeded Madame Pompadour in the ro3"al 
 affections, gradually alienated Louis from his able minister, and in 1770 he retired to his 
 magnificent estate of Chanteloup, where he lived in princely splendor. After the acces- 
 sion of Louis XVI., C. received permission to return to Paris. He was often consulted, 
 but never recovered his official position. He died May 7, 1785. 
 
 CHOISEUL-GOUFFIER, Marie Gabriel Florent Auguste, Comte de, 1752- 
 1817; a French scholar who traveled in the cast, and published in 1782 the first volume 
 of his Voyage Pittoresque en Grdce. During the revolution he adhered to the royal 
 cause, and afterwards went to Russia, where he was made director of the imperial 
 libraries, and of the academy of fine arts. Another part of his work appeared in 1809, 
 and the concluding portion in 1824, after his death. 
 
 CHOEE-CHERET, a name given to certain nearly allied species of cherry (q.v.), of the 
 bird-cherry section of the genus or sub-genus, natives of North America, having small 
 fruit in racemes, and the fruit at first rather agreeable, but afterwards astringent in the 
 mouth. Some confusion has long existed as to the different kinds, and their botanical 
 names ( pi'unus or cerasus virginiana, serotina, and borealis) are not more determinate 
 than the popular ones. Perhaps they ought to be regarded as mere varieties rather than 
 distinct specie.s. They have a considerable resemblance to the Portugal laurel, although 
 the leaves are deciduous. The bark is used as a febrifuge and tonic7 under the name of 
 wild ckeriy hark; and by distilling it with water, a volatile oil is obtained from it asso- 
 ciated with hydrocyanic acid, called oil of wild cheri'y. This bark allays nervous irrita- 
 tion, and is particularly suitable as a first tonic in cases of recovery from fever or inflam- 
 mation. 
 
 , CHOKE-DAMP. See Carbonic Acid. 
 
 CHOKING, the obstruction of the gullet, or of the passage leading to it, by morsels of 
 food imperfectly chewed, or other substances accidentally swallowed. The consequences 
 of C. in the human subject are serious, and will be best considered in connection with 
 the parts concerned. See Pharynx and CEsophagus. What follows relates to the C. 
 of cattle. 
 
 ' Causes. — These may be classified under two heads: 1. Those that depend on the 
 
 material swallowed;^ and 2. Those that depend on the animal swallowing. Under the 
 ^ first head we find sharp-pointed objects which become fixed into or entangled in the 
 membrane lining the throat and gullet; solid masses too large to pass on to the stomach; 
 dry farinaceous materials which clog in the passage. The second class of causes consists 
 j in inflammation of the throat, or irritation of the organs of deglutition; constrictions of 
 I the passage, as in crib-biting horses; ulceration of the oesophagus, which is apt to run 
 i after C., and is the cause of a relapse; lastly, without any disease of the deglutating 
 organs, an animal may be choked by eating too greedily, and imperfectly masticating or 
 salivating its food. 
 
 Symptoms. — These vary according to the position of the obstruction. If high up in 
 the pharynx, the animal cannot swallow, evinces great distress, and attempts to cough 
 up the object. Saliva drivels from the mouth, the animal chews, and makes an ocasional 
 ineffectual effort to swallow. The breathing is very greatly disturbed. In some cases a large 
 lump of food has become fixed in the larynx or upper part of the windpipe, and has 
 suddenly suffocated the animal. When the obstruction is in the course of the gullet 
 down the neck, the symptoms are very similar, though less urgent, and there is addition- 
 
Cbolera. 
 
 816 
 
 ally the local sign of swelling, with the peculiar hardness or softness of the substance 
 indicating its nature. When an animal is choked by a substance lodging in the gullet 
 within tlie chest, the symptoms are more mysterious, and likely to mislead. The animal 
 swallows; a considerable quantity of liquid may enter the gullet, but it is suddenly 
 regurgitated or thrown up. as in the act of vomiiing. The distress is great; and in the 
 course of three or four days, unless the animal is relieved, it dies of prostration. In the 
 ox, sheep, and goat, the most alarming symptoms, in any case of C. arise from the 
 paunch becoming distended by gas. This condition will be treated under the head 
 Hoven. 
 
 Treatment . — Remove the obstruction with the hand, when you can. Cause the animal 
 to swallow the substance, if possible, by giving it water or oil. Carefully push the 
 offending agent down by a probang, if it is possible to effect this, and if withdrawal by 
 the mouth is impracticable. In some cases, the gullet has to be cut into by a qualified 
 surgeon. After a case of C., keep the animal on soft food, and attend to ils general 
 health, in order to avoid a relapse, which is of frequent occurrence in cattle. 
 
 CHOL'EKA, a Greek term used in the Hippocratic writings, but of indeterminate 
 etymology, being derived perhaps from chole, bile, or from cholera, a water-spout or 
 gutter. It is now universally employed in medicine as indicating one of two or three 
 forms of disease, characterized by vomiting and purging, followed by great prostration 
 of strength, amounting in severe cases to fatal collapse. The variety called cholera sicca 
 (dryC.) by ancient writers (in which collapse and death take place without discharges) 
 !s comparatively rarely observed. The milder forms of C. occur almost every summer 
 and autumn, even in temperate latitudes, and are hence termed by some — in reference 
 to this country, and by way of contrast — British or summer 0.; wliile the more devas- 
 tating and fatal forms of the disease are generally supposed to originate only in tropical 
 countries— especially in India— and thence to be propagated epidemicjdly over vast pop- 
 ulations, and in a somewhat regular geographical course, reaching this country usually 
 through Persia, the steppes of Tartary, Russia, and the Baltic, at the same lime extend- 
 ing to Egypt, Turkey, and the south of Europe. These very fatal forms of the disease 
 are commonly called Asiatic, Oriental, or epidemic C. ; sometimes cholera morbus, or 
 pestilential cholera. The milder forms are sometimes also called bilious C. ; and the 
 severer, spasmodic C., from the character of the symptoms in each. Some writers of 
 great authority are inclined to consider the tv\'o forms as one disease, varying in indi- 
 vidual cases and according to season. It is certain that it is not always possible to dis- 
 tinguish the one form from the other in particular instances; but the marked difference 
 between the mortality of groups of cases of British C. on the one hand, and of Oriental 
 or Asiatic C. on the other, renders it probable that there is something in the latter dis- 
 ease which amounts to a distinction in kind. Whether in the milder or severer form C. 
 is usually ushered in by a period of premonitory symptoms, when the more distinctive 
 characters of the disease are not established ; the case resembling one of common diar- 
 rhea (q.v.) or looseness of the bowels. At this stage it is very apt to be neglected, and 
 unfortunately, in the severer epidemic forms of the disease this is the only stage much 
 under control. Whenever, therefore, there is a reasonable suspicion that epidemic C. is 
 threatened, every person attacked with diarrhea should make a point of placing himself 
 under medical advice, and, if possible, of escaping from any situation in which epidemic 
 disease is known to be prevalent. He should also be particularly attentive to diet, and 
 especially to the purity of the water he drinks, and to its absolute freedom from con- 
 tamination by animal matters filtering through the soil, or thrown into water-courses by 
 sewers, etc. If water absolutely cannot be had in a pure state, it should be boiled before 
 being used for drink, or indeed for any domestic purpose. Many cases of C., and several 
 local epidemics, have been traced in the most positive manner to organic impurities of 
 the drinking-water; and no single cause of the disease has been established by so much 
 evidence as this. Hence, in all probability, arises the well known preference of C. for 
 low .situations, and particularly for the low-lying flats on the banks of rivers, especially 
 where the inhabitants are supplied with water from streams polluted by sewerage, and 
 wells into which the contents of drains are permitted to filter from a superior elevation. 
 — See Dr. Snow’s work on the communication of cholera, 2d edition. 1855; also the report 
 of the registrar-general of England on the cholera of 1848-49, and his 17th annual report, 
 for 1854. 
 
 It is hardly within the scope of a work such as this to present a minute description 
 of fully developed C. in its severer or Asiatic variety. It is truly an appalling pesti- 
 lence* too easily recognized by a few leading features. After some hours or days of 
 simple relaxation of the bowels, vomiting commences, and occurs again and again, 
 accompanied by frequent and extremely copious discharges downwards, at first of 
 matters colored with bile as usual, but in the end of colorless and turbid fluid resembling 
 water in which rice has been boiled. These discharges (often to the extent of gallons of 
 liquid), succeeding each other with the most alarming rapidity, act as a drain upon the 
 fluids of the body generally; and by the changes they effect upon the blood, contribute 
 
 * The epidemic of 1848-49 carried oft 53,293 persons In England and Wales; and that of 1854, 20,097 
 persons. See the Registrar-General’s report for the latter year. This estimate is exclusive of cases of 
 ratal diarrhea. 
 
817 
 
 Cholera* 
 
 to bring about the state called collapse. In this condition, the patient lies motionless 
 and apathetic, except when tormented by cramps, which are of frequent occurrence; the 
 surface is cold; the finger-ends, lips, and tip of the nose become livid; the eyes are 
 deeply sunk in the sockets, and often bloodshot; the tongue is clammy; the breath with- 
 out any sensible warmth when caught on the hand; the pulse is suppressed at the wrist, 
 the breathing extremely slow and feeble, the heart just audible tiirough the stethoscope. 
 Purging and vomiting have ceased ; even the urinary secretion has dried at its source. 
 In fact, all the vital processes are nearly brought to a stand, and unless reaction comes, 
 a few minutes, or at most a few hours, suffice to bring life to a close. Reaction in the 
 most favorable cases is gradual and without accident; it is not unfrequently, however, 
 accompanied by fever, closely resembling typhus, and constituting, at least in the tem- 
 perate zone, one of the chief dangers of the progress of cholera. 
 
 Medicine is almost powerless against C., except in the earliest stages, in which the 
 treatment usually pursued in diarrhea (q.v.) has sometimes been found useful. Very 
 remarkable temporary restorative effects have been found to follow the injection into 
 the veins of dilute solutions of saline matter, resembling as nearly as possible the salts 
 of the blood which are drained away in the discharges. Unhappily, these experiments 
 have as yet only very imperfectly succeeded. The patient is restored to life, as it were, 
 from the very brink of the grave; but he revives only for a few hours, to fall back into 
 his former condition. 
 
 The true medicine of C., so far as we yet know, is preventive medicine. The meas- 
 ures to be adopted have been partly pointed out above; in addition, it may be said that 
 personal cleanliness is of the first importance; and that all unnecessary contact with the 
 sick should be avoided, as the disease is probably to some extent contagious, though by 
 no means in the highest degree. In short, all the precautions are to be taken which are 
 recommended in the case of epidemic disease (q.v.). 
 
 CHOLERA INFANTUM. A disease of infants characterized by intestinal disturb- 
 ance more or less obstinate and dangerous. Opinion is unsettled in regard to the nature 
 of the complaint, and it passes under different names in different countries. In this 
 country, besides C. I. a common name for it is summer complaint, because it is essen- 
 tially a disease of hot weather. Most British authorities describe it under the general 
 head of diarrhea, others call it weaning brash, watery gripes, and choleric fever of 
 children. In France it has various names, principally alluding to its location, as colo- 
 enteritis, follicular enteritis, and gastro intestinal catarrh, the latter name being also the 
 one in most frequent use in Germany. But the disease as it is known in this country, 
 and doubtless elsewhere, depends upon a variety of pathological conditions, which, 
 however, may change from one to another during the progress of the case. The causes 
 of the complaint are not completely settled, although all the authorities agree that hot 
 and badly ventilated apartments and malaria generally are highly conducive to it. The 
 older American physicians were, with Dr. Benjamin Rush, accustomed to call it infan- 
 tile bilious remittent fever, and many of the cases which occur in those rural districts 
 where remittent malarial influences prevail have much of the character of remittent 
 fever, but in cities, particularly where the sewerage is bad, and the streets are suffered 
 to be choked with decaying garbage, the diarrhea has more the character of that of 
 typhoid fever, and many of the symptoms are of a general typhoid, that is, of a weak 
 nervous character. Too high a heat maintained in the nursery, will, if continued, 
 probably so alter the functions of secretion as to bring on the disease; especially if the 
 diet is defective, as from poor milk, or the injudicious giving of solid articles of food. 
 It sometimes comes on very suddenly, but is often insidious in its advances, deluding 
 the mother and family with the idea that it is merely a temporary diarrhea that will 
 soon pass away, or can easily be relieved. The attack, however, may commence with 
 violent symptoms, and there will be much excitement of the circulation, with vomit- 
 ing and purging. There is in all cases great weakness of the digestive and assimi- 
 lative powers. Milk which has been given but a short time before is voided by the 
 rectum in curds, mixed with greenish slime of various depths of color, and contain- 
 ing fibrinous shreds and gelatinous masses, indicating mucous inflammation, and having 
 a peculiar and diagnostic odor. The evacuations are preceded by colic pains, often 
 intense, the movement usually giving temporary relief. The abdomen may be quite 
 full at first, but gradually, often rapidly, grows gaunt, with more or less rapid emacia- 
 tion of the whole body. The child becomes peculiarly fretful and impatient, the 
 expression of its features and its general appearance being highly diagnostic to the 
 experienced oliserver. In advanced stages there is a withered, clammy appearance of 
 the hands, arms and legs, peculiar to the disease. Without change of air or diet, or 
 under bad treatment, the disease usually runs a rapid and fatal course, but sometimes, 
 under fair but not decided treatment, the sufferer lies for several weeks, when, accord- 
 ing to statistics, death is more likely than recovery. There is a considerable differ- 
 ence, according to the testimony of practitioners, in the mortality which occurs in 
 the practice of different individuals. In some charitable institutions the deaths of 
 cases of C. I. run as high as 70 per cent, even under as good hygienic regulations as 
 may be had in a city, and many private physicians, from the result of their practice, 
 place the percentage of deaths above ^0 per cent. There are others; and they form a 
 large portion of the profession, who maintain that under their method of treatment tko 
 U. K. III.— 53 
 
Cholesterine. 
 
 Cbopiuo. 
 
 818 
 
 mortality is much less, ranging on an average from 10 to 25 per cent, and even below 
 this All concur as to the importance of pure air and proper diet. Often the simple 
 removal to a mountainous district will, alone, result in recovery; or even a change from 
 hot to cold weather, without removal, will often produce decided relief. As the digest- 
 ive functions are very much weakened, the food should be the most digestible which 
 can be olitained, also nutritious. If the case be one in which the child is suckled by the 
 mother, but there is reason to suppose that her milk disagrees with it, weaning may be 
 advisable; but, as a rule, the mother’s milk is the best food for a child under 14 months 
 of age. When the child is fed from a bottle, beef lea, made either from fresh beef, or 
 from beef extract, may be given with advantage. Farinaceous articles, such as farina, 
 tapioca, corn starch, and arrow root, are, contrary to the ill-advised conclusions of 
 many, not proper food for infants. The only article of the kind that ever ought to be 
 given in a case of cholera infantum, is rice water, which, from its slight astringent prop- 
 erties, may sometimes be given in moderate quantities together with good milk and 
 beef tea. The radical difference between physicians, in the medical treatment aside 
 from hygienic measures, and aside from any reference to the different “schools” of 
 medicine, consists in the degree of reliance to be placed upon opiates and astringents, 
 or in other words, upon palliative treatment, as distinguished from that which seeks 
 to produce a decided change in the functions of the various secreting organs, a great 
 majority of which are manifestly much deranged in the disease under notice. The 
 bile is scanty and not of normal character, and the inflamed and highly irritated mucous 
 membrane of many parts of the intestinal tract interferes greatly with the functions of 
 the mucous glands of these parts. There has long been a discussion among physi- 
 cians as to the therapeutical value of mercurial preparations, particularly as to calomel, 
 and its power of influencing the secretion of the liver, and diminishing inflammation. It 
 seems proper therefore to say that in the experience of the most successful physicians it 
 is found that the administration of small and oft repeated doses of calomel in cases of 
 C. I. is attended, as a rule, with decidedly beneficial results; so that in the course of two* 
 or three days, frequently in a few hours, a change takes place for the better in the char- 
 acter of the fecal evacuations and in the appearance of the patient. The administration 
 of the calomel alone, given in a little pulverized sugar, slightly moistened and placed on 
 the child’s tongue, in quantities from one twelfth to one quarter of a grain, and repeated 
 every two, three, or four hours, will often produce decided relief; but it is generally advis- 
 able, or necessary, also to give a slight opiate, such as paragoric elixir, and perhaps a 
 few drops of the tincture or aromatic syrup of rhubarb. The calomel must be persisted 
 in for several days after the evacuations have be(;ome natural, although not given so 
 often. It is a rule with but few exceptions among physicians of experience, that an 
 infant cannot be salivated. On the contrary, the child grows strong and hearty under 
 the use of calomel in those cases when the secretions are much deranged and the system 
 reduced. In doses sufficiently small it undoubtedly possesses the power of improving 
 assimilation. Warm baths, or rather warm sponging, and general attention to cleanli- 
 ness, and the preservation of an equable temperature, should not be neglected. Patients 
 who cannot be removed to the country, may be taken out in an easy carriage and 
 wheeled on the shady side of the street, or in a park or grove. 
 
 CHOLES TERINE is one of those bodies which are termed by chemists lipoids, or non- 
 saponifiable fats. It was originally discovered in gall-stones, but is now recognized as 
 an ordinary constituent (although occurring in very minute quantity) of bile, blood, and 
 the tissue of the brain. It likewise occurs in pus, the contents of cysts, and other mor- 
 bid fluid products. 
 
 It separates from its solutions in glistening nacreous scales, which, when examined 
 under the microscope, appear as very thin rhombic tablets, whose obtuse angles are 
 100" 30', and whose acute angles arc 70° 80'. Different formulae have been assigned for 
 its composition, the one genWally accepted being C 37 H 32 O. It is not always very easy 
 of detection in animal fluids, but if, by its insolubility in water, acids, and alkalies, and 
 its solubility in hot alcohol and ether, it has been recognized as a fatty substance, it 
 may be readily distinguished from all similar substances by the measurement of the 
 angles of its rhombic tablets. The best method of preparing C. is by boiling gall-stones 
 containing it in alcohol, and filtering the solution while hot. From this hot filtered 
 solution it crystallizes as the fluid cools. 
 
 Chemists have obtained substances known as cholesterilins and cholesterones from 
 the decomposition of cholesterine. 
 
 CHOLET, a t. of France, in the department of Maine-et-Loire, on the right bank of 
 the Maine, 32 m. s.w. of Angers. Here, during the Vendean war, two actions were 
 fought in 1793, in both of which the royalists wore defeated. In the first, they lost 
 their brave gen. Bonchamps; and the second drove them across the Loire, thus vir- 
 tually deciding the war against them. It has manufactures of fine woolen and mixed 
 fabrics, and leather, and a trade in cattle. Pop. ’76, 12,335. 
 
 CHOLTJ'LA, a once flourishing, but now decayed, t. of Mexico, 60 m. to the e.s.e. of 
 the capital, and 15 to the w.n.w. of La Puebla. Cortes found in it 20,000 houses, and 
 as rrany more in the suburbs, and also 400 temples. Now the place contains only about 
 10,000 inhabitants. Its most remarkable memorial of aboriginal times is a pyramid of 
 
819 
 
 Cholesterine. 
 
 Chopine. 
 
 clay and brick, surmounted on the top by a chapel of Spanish origin. Its height is 177 
 ft., while the side of its base measures 480 yards. C. stands on the table-land of 
 Anahuac, at an elevation of 6,912 ft. above the level of the sea. 
 
 CHOMEL. Auguste Francois, 1788-1858; a French^ physician long employed in 
 the Paris hospitals; author of Esaai sur les Rheumatismes; Elements de Pathologie generate; 
 and Traite des ji^vres et des Maladies pestilentielles. He was made professor of medicine 
 at the faculty of Paris, as successor to Laennec. He had a more lucrative practice than 
 any other physician in France. 
 
 CHONDA, a t. of Gwalior, 18 m. to the n.w. of the fort of the latter name, in lat. 26’ 
 27' n., and long. 78’ east. It claims notice merely as the scene of a decisive victory 
 gained by sir Hugh, afterwards lord Gough, over the Mahrattas, on 29th Dec., 1843. 
 
 CHON DRINE. See Gelatine. 
 
 CHONDROPTERY'GII. See Cartilaginous Fishes. 
 
 CHO'NETES, a genus of fossil brachiopodous mollusca, nearly allied to the well-known 
 genus 'prodticias. It is characterized by its transversely-oblong shell, and by having the 
 long margin of the ventral valve armed with a series of tubular spines. Twenty-nine 
 Bjiccies have been described from the paleozoic formations. 
 
 CHO NOS ARCHIPELAGO, a group of islands off the w. coast cf Patagonia, lat 44° to 
 46° s., long. 74° to 75° west. With the exception of a few of the most westerly, all are 
 bare and scantily peopled, though several are of considerable extent. 
 
 CHONS, or Khonsou, an Egyptian deity worshiped at Thebes as the great eldest 
 eon of Amen-Ra and Mut, and identified with the moon. The Greeks thought him 
 to be a form of Hercules. Like Horus, he is represented as a youthful god, his form 
 mummied, wearing the lock of hair at the right side of his head, and a skull-cap 
 surmounted by the full and dichotomized lunar disk; or hawk-headed, wearing the 
 same. He holds a crook and whip. He was a celestial deity, and at a later time 
 connected with Thoth, and was said to have proceeded from Nu or Han, the celes- 
 tial waters. A tablet found in a temple at Karnak which was dedicated to this god, 
 records the departure of C. in his ark in the 16th year of the reign of Rameses 
 XII. to the land of Baktan to expel a demon which had possessed the daughter of 
 a king of that country and sister of the queen of Egypt. He succeeded, and returned 
 in his ark 17 years later. The worship of C. appears to have been common in the 
 Ptolemaic period, and figures of the go(l in porcelain and bronze are not uncommon. 
 He represents the youngest, as Ammon did the oldest, of the divinj circle. 
 
 CHONTA'LES, a district of Nicaragua, n.e. of lakes Nicaiagaa and Managua, tra- 
 versed by the Cordilleras, along the slopes of which are valuable mines. There are a 
 number of small towns peopled chiefiy by native Indians. Some of the gold mines now 
 worked by them were worked by the early Spanish adventurers. There is a bed of 
 coal near lake Nicaragua. The grassy plains among the mountains support large 
 herds of horses and cattle. Tropical fruits grow abundantly, and there is good tim- 
 ber in the neighborhood of the mines. 
 
 CHO PIN (Scotch, chappin), the name of a Scotch liquid measure equivalent to the 
 English quart. 
 
 CHOPIN, Frederic, a distinguished Polish pianist and musical composer. He was 
 b. at Zelazowa-wola, near Warsaw, in 1810, and studied music at Warsaw under prof. 
 Joseph Eisner. An exile after the revolution of 1830, he took up his residence in 
 Paris, where he lived admired both professionally and in society. His health, always 
 delicate, broke down in 1837, when he went fora time to Majorca, from which he after- 
 wards returned, benefited by the change. After again suffering much from illness and 
 depression of spirits, he visited England and Scotland in 1848, and in London was wel- 
 comed with enthusiasm in public and private. He never recovered from the fatigues of 
 this journey, but died in Paris, 17th Oct., 1849, and was buried, by his desire, beside 
 Bellini, in the cemetery of P^re la-Chaise. His compositions, restricted to pianoforte 
 music, are in high esteem among musicians, and consist chiefiy of preludes, nolturnos, 
 
 E olonaises, mazurkas, and valses, with a few concertos and sonatas. They are pervaded 
 y a sensitive, restless, and highly poetic fancy, and abound in subtle ideas, graceful and 
 original harmonic effects, and rich ornamentation. The so-called polonaises, mazurkas, 
 and valses are not dance music, but dreamy compositions suggestive of the rhythm and 
 character of these dances, in which the peculiarities of Polish national music are blended 
 with French elegance and taste. 
 
 CHOP INE (Spanish, cliapin), a high clog, or slipper, deriving its name, as is sup- 
 posed. from the sound chap, chop, made by the wearers in walking. Chopines were of 
 eastern origin, but were introduced into England from Venice during the reign of Eliza- 
 beth. They were worn by ladies under the shoes, and were usually made of wood 
 covered with leather, often of various colors, and frequently painted and gilded. Some 
 of them were as much as half a yard high; and in Venice, where they were usually 
 worn, their height distinguished the quality of the lady. The C. is mentioned by 
 Shakespeare in Hamlet. 
 
Choptank. 
 
 Chorus. 
 
 820 
 
 CHOPTANK RIVER rises in Delaware, and flows s.w. through that state and 
 Maryland, forming a wide estuary as it nears Chesapeake bay, into which it empties. 
 It is navigable for small vessels for about 50 miles. 
 
 CHOBA'GIC MONUMENTS. The choragus, or person at Athens who, on behalf of his 
 tribe, had supported the chorus (q.v.), and who, in competition with the othej- tribes, 
 had exhibited the best musical or theatrical performance, received a tripod for a prize; 
 but he had the expense of consecrating it, and of building the monument on which it 
 was placed. There was at Athens a whole street formed by these monuments, called 
 the “street of the tripods.” The figure represents the monument of Lysicrates, pop- 
 ularly known as the “lantern of Demosthenes.” 
 
 CHOEALE', a musical term adopted from the German, means a melody to which 
 sacred hymns or psalms are sung in public worship by the whole congregation in unison. 
 The melody of the C. moves in notes of a slow and strictly measured progression, and of 
 a solemn and dignified character that disposes the mind to devotion. Although the 
 term C. is now always applied to the music of the Protestant church, it belonged to the 
 Christian church at all times, as melodies still in use can be traced with certainty to 
 have been sung by the congregations in the first centuries of Christianity. Among these 
 is the song of praise by St. Ambrose, still retained in the Lutheran church, to the 
 words “Herr, Gott, dich loben wir.” The C. is intimately connected with the history of 
 music, as vocal music was the only kind used in worship until far on in the middle 
 ages. The C. is precisely what our psalm-tune is, or rather what it formerly was, and 
 ought again to become. The pure, simple C. has, in a great degree, been cast aside in 
 the British isles, and its place occupied by tunes of a comparatively puerile style, which 
 are frequently only adaptations of operatic songs and other profane pieces. 
 
 CHORAL MUSIC, the ancient music of the church. Music in parts for different 
 voices. See Sacred Music. 
 
 CHORAL SERVICE, the musical service of the English church, celebrated by a full 
 complement of clergymen and choristers in a cathedral church, and when all those pai'ta- 
 of the servic are sung as ordered in the rubrics. 
 
 CHORD. The C. of an arc of a curve is a straight line joining its two extremities. A 
 Scale op Chords is used in laying off angles. It is thus constructed: Let AB be 
 tlie radius o^ the circle to which the scale is to be adapted. With 
 center A and radius AB describe a quadrant BEC. Divide the 
 quadrantal arc BEC into nine equal parts BD, DE, etc. This may 
 be done by taking a radius equal to AB, and from the centers B 
 and C cutting the arc in G and F. As the radius is always equal 
 to the chord of 60° or I of a quadrant, the arc CB is thus divided 
 into three equal parts, BF, FG, GC, and each of these parts may 
 then be trisected by trial, as no direct method is known. Drav/ the 
 chord of the quadrant BC; from B as a center, and the chord of BD 
 as a radius, describe an arc cutting BC at 10; with the chord of BE 
 as a radius, describe an arc cutting BC in 20; with the chord of BF, 
 describe an arc cutting BC in 30; and in a similar manner, find the divisions 40, 50, 60, 
 70, 80. Then the arcs BD, BE, BF, being arcs of 10°, 20°, 30°, etc., respectively, the 
 
 distances from B to 10, 20, 30, etc., are the chords of arcs of 10°, 20°, 30°, etc. ; so that 
 
 BC is a scale of chords for every 10°, from 0° to 90°. To lay down or measure angles- 
 with such a scale, the arc of measurement must be described with the chord of 60°. 
 
 CHORD, in music, is the simultaneous and harmonious union of different sounds, at 
 first intuitively recognized by the ear, and afterwards reduced to a science by the inven- 
 tion of the laws or rules of harmony. See Harmony. Chords may consist of from two 
 to five parts. Absolute chords of two parts are produced only by thirds or sevenths. 
 Chords of more than two parts are either fundamental chords or inversions of them, and 
 are divided into concords and discords. The union of sounds in all chords will be 
 found, on analyzing their component parts, to be an admixture of major and minor thirds. 
 The common chord, or iria& harmonica perfecta, is the basis of all harmony, and con- 
 
 
 These 
 
 sists of a bass note, or prime, with its third and fifth above, thus 
 
 three sounds are at the distance of a third from each other. When the lowest third is the 
 greater third, as above, the C. is a major chord; but when the lowest third is the lesser, 
 
 thus: 
 
 — « — 4, the C. is called a minor chord. A chord of two minor thirds com- 
 
 bined IS called diminished, as the interval from the lowest note to the highest is less than 
 
 a perfect fifth, thus: 
 
 The common C. admits of two inversions, accord- 
 
821 
 
 Choptank* 
 
 Cliorug. 
 
 ing as one or other of its notes is made the bass, or lowest note of the C., thus: 
 
 Fundamental Chord. 1st inversion. 2d inversion. 
 
 By adding another third above the common C., a C. of four parts is produced, which is 
 called the chord of the seventh, because the highest note is a seventh above the bass. 
 When the C. of the seventh is produced on the fifth of the scale, it is then called the 
 dominant seventh, which is the most perfect species of the C. It then consists of a major 
 third, perfect fifth, and seventh, the minor, which is the next harmonic produced by 
 nature above the fifth. The C. of the seventh may also be formed on any of the notes 
 of the major or minor scale taken as a bass note, which produces the varieties of major,, 
 minor, and diminished sevenths, thus: 
 
 Dominant 7th. Major 7th. Minor 7th. Diminished 7th, 
 
 The C. of the seventh admits of three inversions, according as the notes above the funda- 
 mental note are used as bass notes. From its nature, it requires a resolution, and is 
 therefore always followed by a common C, who§e fundamental bass is a fifth below that 
 of the seventh. For the C. of the ninth, see Harmony. The first proper arranged sys- 
 tem of chords is by Rameau, in 1720, which has from time to time been extended and 
 improved by Marpurg, Kirenberger, G. Weber, F. Schneider, Marx, and the late pro- 
 fessor S. W. Dehn of Berlin. 
 
 CHOBE'A {Gv.choreia,a dancing or jumping), a disease popularly called St. Vitus’s dance, 
 and consisting of a tendency to involuntary and irregular muscular contractions of the 
 limbs and face, the mind and the functions of the brain generally being quite unaffected. 
 The spasms of C. differ from those of most other convulsive affections in being unac- 
 companied either by pain or by rigidity; being, in fact, momentary jerking movements, 
 indicating rather a want of control of the will over the muscles, than any real excess of 
 their contractions. In some cases, the disease resembles merely an exaggeration of the 
 restlessness and “fidgetiness” common among children; in others, it goes so far as to be 
 a Very serious malady, and may even threaten life. Fatal cases, however, are fortu- 
 nately very rare, and in the large majority of instances the disease yields readily to 
 treatment carefully pursued, or disappears spontaneously as the patient grows up. C. 
 is a disease much more common among children of 6 years old, and upwards, than at 
 any other period of life; it is also more common among female children than among; 
 males. The treatment generally pursued is the use of metallic tonics, such as zinc, 
 copper, iron, and arsenic (the last, perhaps, the best), sometimes preceded or accompa- 
 nied by purgatives. Exercise in the open air is also to be recommended; and gymnas- 
 tics afford material aid in the cure. It is to be observed that the name St. Vitus’s dance 
 (dance of St. Weit) was applied originally in Germany to a different form of disease 
 from that above referred to — one closely approaching in its characters the epidemic 
 “dancing mania,” which, in Italy, was called tarantism (q.v.). 
 
 CHOREPIS'COPI, an order of ministers of ancient origin, whose functions were to 
 assist city bishops in rural districts or remote places. They acted in a subordinate capa- 
 city, and possessed limited powers, acting as colleagues or vicars of the bishops. They 
 possessed the privilege of attending councils in their own right, and not merely as sub- 
 stitutes for bishops. At first they were confined to the eastern church, but began to 
 multiply in the western church in the 5th century. They were succeeded after the 10th 
 c. by archdeacons, vicars-general, and rural deans. In the east the order was abolished 
 by the council of Rodicea about 365 A.D. 
 
 CHOKLEY, a t. in Lancashire, on a hill on the Chor, 9 m. s.s.e. of Preston. It has 
 an ancient parish church, supposed to be of Norman origin, and manufactures of cot- 
 ton-yarn, jaconets, muslins, fancy goods, calicoes, and ginghams. In the vicinity are 
 several coal-mines, a lead-mine, besides mines and quarries of iron, alum, slates, mill- 
 stones, etc. Pop. ’71, 16,864. 
 
 CHORLEY, Henry Fothergill, 1808-72; an English author who paid much atten- 
 tion to musical criticism. After long effort he got a position on the London Athenmum, 
 and for 35 years conducted the musical department of that journal. He wrote on other 
 subjects besides music, producing the librettos of the Amber Witch; the May Qneen; St,^ 
 Cecilia," Kenilworth; Ihe Sapphire Necklace; and Fand. Other of his works are. Conti 
 the Discarded, and Other Tales; Sketches of a Seaport Town; Memorials of Mrs. Remans; 
 Lion, a Tale of the Coteries; Mvsic and Manners in France and Germany; Fomfret; 
 Criticisms on Modern German Music; and Thirty Tears' Musical Recollections. 
 
 CHOROID COAT See Eye, ante. 
 
 CHO'BTJS, among tlie ancients, meant a band of singers and dancers employed or 
 festive occasions of great pomp, and also in the performance of tragedy and comedy 
 
Chose. 
 
 Chouteau. 
 
 822 
 
 on the stage. In the time of the Attic tragedy, the C. consisted of a group of persons, 
 male and female, who remained on the stage during the whole performance as specta- 
 tors, or rather as witnesses. When a pause took place in the acting, the 0, either sang 
 or spoke verses having reference to the subject represented, which served to increase 
 the impression or sensation produced by the performers. At times, the C. seemed to 
 take part with or against the persons in the drama, by advice, comfort, exhortation, or 
 dissuasion. In early times, the C. was very large, sometimes consisting of upwards of 
 fifty persons, but afterwards it was much reduced. Its leader was termed the cory- 
 pheeus. The charge of organizing it was considered a great honor among the citizens 
 of Athens. The person appointed for this purpose was called ih^choragm. I'he honor 
 was very expensive, as the choragus had to pay all the expenses incurred in training 
 the members of the 0. to perform their parts efficiently. They were, besides, fed and 
 lodged by him during training-time, and he had also to provide for them masks and 
 dresses. At times, the C. was divided, and spoke or sang antiphonally. These divisions 
 moved from side to side of the stage, from which movement originated the naming of 
 the single songs or stanzas, such as strophe, antistrophe, and epode. How the musical 
 element of the ancient C. was constituted or composed, is net known with any certainty. 
 Possibly, it was only a kind of rhythmical declamation, and doubtless very simple. It 
 was accompanied by fiutes in unison. With the decline of the ancient tragedy, the C. 
 also fell into disuse; and only lately has there been an attempt to produce the same on 
 tire stage in the manner of the ancients, as, for example, in Schiller’s Bride of Memna. 
 The music which has been set in modern limes to some of the Greek tragedies, does not 
 give the least idea of the original music. 
 
 In modern times, by C. i^understood the union of singers or musicians for the joint 
 pe formance of a musical work C. is also the name given to a musical com- 
 position for numerous voices, either with or without accompaniment, and intended 
 to express the united feelings of a multitude. The musical C. is the only artistic 
 means by which a simultaneous movement or sentiment of a multitude can be 
 represented in the drama, the language or ,text being always of a simple rhythm, 
 permitting only of a limited movement suited to the combination of a mul- 
 titude. It is, however, not always necessary that every part of the C. should mani- 
 fest the same feeling or sentiment. Two or more parts of the C. may act against each 
 other, as suits the purport of the drama. Double, triple, and quadruple choruses are 
 found in the old Italian compositions for the church. In modern times, the C. is much 
 used, and with great eft’ect, in operas, especially those of Meyerbeer and Wagner. 
 In oratorio, the (J. is of the greatest importance, and the numbers now employed to sing 
 the C. far exceed anything attempted a century ago; but this is not always an advan- 
 tage, for the tempi must necessarily be taken much more slowly, which has a sluggish 
 effect; while increase in the number of voices does not always produce a greater power 
 of sound. The C. of 35 well-trained voices from the pope’s chapel, whf) sang at the 
 coronation of Napoleon I., in the cathedral of Notre Dame, Paris, produced afar greater 
 and more wonderful effect when they entered singing the Tu es Petrus, than another C. 
 of hundreds of voices, and 80 harps, that had been assembled and trained for the same 
 occasion, in expectation of surpassing all that man could imagine. The greater 
 the number, the greater is the difficulty in obtaining unity. — C., in organ-building, is the 
 name given to stops of the mixture species, some of which contain 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, or more 
 pipes to each note, tuned at consonant intervals in relation to the fundamental stops. 
 
 CHOSE IN ACTION, in the law of England, is that kind of property which consists 
 not in possession, but in the legal right to possess. As this right can, in general, be 
 vindicated and made aviiilable only by means of an action, the property to which it 
 relates, whether real or personal, is called a thing (res or chose) in action, to distinguish 
 it from a thing already in possession. Money due upon bonds and bills, goods bought 
 and not yet delivered, are examples of choses in action, as is also the right to compen- 
 sation for damage occasioned by breach of contract. “By the strict rule of the ancient 
 common law, no chose of action could be assigned or granted over, because it was 
 thought to be a great encouragement to litigiousness, if a man were allowed to make 
 over to a stranger his right of going to law. [See Champerty.] But this nicety is now 
 not so far regarded as to render such a transaction really ineffectual. It is, on the con- 
 trary, in substance, a valid and constant practice; though, in compliance with the ancient 
 principle, the form of assigning a chose in action is in the nature of a declaration of 
 trust, and an agreement to permit the assignee to make use of the name of the assigner, 
 in order to recover possession. . . . The king is an exception to this general rule, for 
 he might always eitlier grant or receive a chose in action by assignment; and our courts 
 of equity, making the rule itself give way to the expediency, in a commercial point of 
 view, of facilitating the transfer of property, allow the assignment of a chose in action 
 as freely and directly as the law does that of a chose in possession.” — Stephen’s Commen- 
 taries, ii. p. 45. One would imagine that the more convenient and philosophical arrange- 
 ment would be, by the interposition of the legislature, to make law conform at once tc 
 equity and expediency. 
 
 CHOSROES. See Khosru, aixie. 
 
823 
 
 Chose. 
 
 Chouteau* 
 
 CHO'TA NAGPOEE', or Nagpore the Less, one of the lower provinces of Bengal, 
 containing 5 Britisli collectorates, besides 7 tributary minor states. The area of the 
 British divisions is 28,482 sq.m., and in 1871 the pop. was 3,419,591, consisting chiefly 
 of aboriginal tribes who are little removed from barbarians. The country is for the 
 most part wild and hilly, consisting of an undulating plateau 3,000 ft. above the sea. 
 Its chief products are coal, jute, tea, and indigo; iron is also found. From the eleva- 
 tion of the tract, the temperature varies considerably, ranging in winter from 32** to 02", 
 and in summer from 78“ to 98“. 
 
 CHOTEAU, a co. in Montana, on the Canadian border, near the head waters of the 
 Missouri river, drained by the Missouri, the Dog, Milk, Arrow, Teton, Judith, Bear, and 
 other rivers; about 12,500 sq.m. ; pop. ’80, 3058, besides Indians. Co. seat. Fort Benton. 
 
 CHOTYN, Khotin, or Choczin, a t. in Bessarabia, on the river Dneister, 45 m. 
 s.w. of Kamieniec; pop. ’67, 20,917. It is a fortified military post, and once belonged 
 to the Turks, but was taken by the Russians in 1739. 
 
 CHOTJANS were bands of insurgent royalists, who, during the French revolution, 
 organized a reactionary movement in Brittany. They obtained their name from their 
 leader, Jean Cottereau. This person, who had been a smuggler, went by the name of 
 Chouan — a corruption, it is said, of cJiat-huant (“screech-owl ”) — because, while he and 
 his accomplices were engaged in their nocturnal work, they were wont to be warned of 
 their d inger by some one on the watch imitating the cry of this bird. At the period of 
 the revolt, however, he followed the humble occupation of a clog-maker. The first indi- 
 cations of an anti-revolutionary spirit in Brittany manifested themselves in tiie begin- 
 ning of 1791, when several trees of liberty were destroyed at night, and other more 
 serious outrages committed. These disturbances ivere fomented by seditious priests. 
 In 1792, and insurrection was planned by the marquis de la Rouarie, with the sanction 
 and approval of the two brothers of Louis XVI. The agents of the marquis entered 
 into communications with Jean Cottereau — well knowm for the reckless audacity of his 
 character — and other smugglers; but having the misfortune to be arrested, the carrying 
 out of the insurrection devolved upon the latter. The Chouanerie, as the insurrection 
 was called, at first digraced itself, both by the drunken license and the cruelty which 
 marked it. After several successful exploits of the guerrilla sort, Jean Cottereau perished 
 in ah engagement which took place on the 28th July, 1794, near the wood of Misdon, the 
 theater of his first efforts. Before this, however, other and more illustrious leaders had 
 appeared in Brittany to direct the movement, the chief of whom were Georges Cadou- 
 dal (q.v.) and Charelte. Through their endeavors it was more widely extended, and for 
 a time seemed likely to imperil the security of France, but was suppressed towards the 
 close of 1799. Petty spurts of insurrection, however, broke out till about 1803, when 
 the Chouanerie ceased for awhile. In 1814-15, it again made its appearance on both 
 sides of the Loire; and after the July revolution, was once more excited by the duchess 
 of Berry on behalf of the duke of Bordeaux, but crushed by the energetic measures 
 taken by M. Thiers. 
 
 CHOUGH, Fregilus, a genus of birds of the crow family {coruidm), but approaching to 
 the characters and appearance of the starlings {sturnidm). The length of the bill has 
 induced some naturalists, among whom was Cuvier, to place them beside the hoopoes* 
 but this is now generally regarded as an error ; they agree with crows in having their nos- 
 trils covered with stiff bristles directed forward, and in their habits. The beak is longer 
 than the head, strong, arched, and pointed. The tail is slightly rounded. The only 
 European species is the common C., sometimes called the Cornish C., or red-legged crow 
 (F. graculus), a widely distributed but very local bird, inhabiting the Swiss Alps, the 
 high mountains of Spain, of Greece, of India, and of Persia, the s. of Siberia, the n. of 
 Africa, and some parts of the British sea-coasts; but almost exclusively confined to .sit- 
 uations where there are high cliffs. In these it generally makes its nest; sometimes, how- 
 ever, in ruined tow'ers. Its long hooked claw^s enable it to cling easily to a rough rock, 
 but it seems unwilling even to set its feet on turf. It lives in societies like the rook. It 
 feeds on insects, berries, grubs, and grain. It is easily tamed, becomes very familiar and 
 forw'ard. and exhibits in the highest degree the curiosity, the pilfering disposition, and 
 the delight in brilliant or glittering objects, which also characterize others of the crow 
 family. — Other species of C. are known, natives of Australia, Java, etc. Some natural- 
 ists unite the chocards and the choughs into one genu.s. 
 
 CHOULES, John Overton, d.d., 1801-56; a native of England, who emigrated to 
 the United States in 1824. In 1827, he became minister of the Second Baptist church in 
 Newport, R. I. Six years later, he went to New Bedford; in 1837, to Buffalo; in 1841, to 
 the Sixth street Baptist church in New York: and in 1843, to the church at Jamaica 
 Plain, near Boston. In 1847, he returned to his Newport church; and in 1854, accompa- 
 nied commodore Vanderbilt in his yacht voyage to Europe. Among his publications 
 are Young Americans Abroad, and '^he Cruise of the North Star (the commodore’s yacht). 
 He also contributed to and edited several historical works. 
 
 CHOUTEAU. Auguste, 1739-1829; a native of New Orleans, and a pioneer in 
 north-western settlements. With his brother Pierre he was the founder of the present 
 city of St. Louis. 
 
Chouteau. 
 
 Christ. 
 
 824 
 
 CHOUTEAU, PifeiiRE, 1749-1849; brother of Auguste, and with him the founder of 
 St. Louis, where they settled in 1764. The two were members of an expedition under 
 Laclede, sent by the French government of Louisiana to open trade in the Yegion of 
 the Missouri and upper Mississippi. The brothers remained in St. Louis all their lives, 
 Auguste reaching 90 and Pierre 100 years of age. They were the heads of large fami- 
 lies of high standing and great wealth and intiuence in Missouri and adjoining states. 
 
 CHOUTEAU, Pierre, 1789-1865; son of Pi6rre the founder of St. Louis. He was 
 all his life engaged in the fur trade, following the Indian tribes as they retired before 
 white encroachment, and establishing trading-posts in many remote points. In 1834, 
 he and his associates bought the fur-trade interests of John Jacob Astor, and extended 
 their operations over all the regions e. of the Rocky mountains down to Mexico. 
 Chouteau was a member of the convention that framed the first constitution of 
 Missouri. 
 
 CHOWAN, a co. in n.e. North Carolina, on Albemarle sound, and bounded w. by 
 Chowan river; 240 sq.m.; pop. ’80, 7900 — 4267 colored. The surface is uneven, and 
 the soil fertile, producing corn, cotton, etc. Co. seat, Edenton. 
 
 CHOYA. See Chay Root. 
 
 CHRESTIEN, or CHRETIEN, DE TROYES, an early writer of French romance, 
 of whose life little is known, except that he was b. at Troyes in the 11th century. It is 
 supposed that he was attached to the court of Philip of Alsace, count of Flanders. 
 The six romances that critics concede to be of his composition are: Irec et Enide, from 
 which Tennyson took one of his Arthurian legends; Cliges ov Cliget, second round- 
 table romance; Le Chexalier au Lion; GuilUtume d' Angleterre; Le Chetalier de la Gharette; 
 and Perceval le^Oallois. He also wrote THatan, ou le Boi Marc et leBeine Yseult, and 
 Chevalier de VEgee, but these two works are lost. 
 
 CHRESTIEN, Florent, 1541-96; a Latin poet, at an early age tutor to Henry of 
 Navarre, afterwards Henry IV., who made him his librarian. Chrestien was the author 
 of many translations from Greek into Latin verse, and also of translations into French. 
 He wrote in verse against Pibrach, the apologist of the massacre of St. Bartholomew; 
 but his claim to a place among satirical writers rests upon his share in the SatyreMenip- 
 pee, a pasquinade in the interest of Henry IV. 
 
 CHRESTOM'ATHY, a collection of extracts, or text books, useful in learning a Ian 
 guage, or in gaining special information. 
 
 CHRISM (Gr. chrisma, ointment) is the name given to the oil consecrated on holy 
 Thursday, in the Roman Catholic and Greek churches, by the bishop, and used in bap- 
 tism, confirmation, orders, and extreme unction. There are two kinds of C. — the one, 
 a mixture of oil and balsam, is u.sed in baptism, confirmation, and orders; the other, 
 which is merely plain oil, is used in extreme unction. 
 
 CHRI'SOME, the name of the white vesture laid by the priest on the child in former 
 times at baptism, to signify its innocence. It was generally presented by the mother as 
 an offering to the church, but if the child died before the mother was “ churched” again, 
 it was used as a shroud. By a common abuse of words, C. came to be applied to the 
 child itself. A C. child is a child in a C. cloth. As late as Jeremy Taylor (Holy Dying, 
 c. i., s. 2), we have the following: “Every morning creeps out of a dark cloud, leaving 
 behind it an ignorance and silence deep as midnight, and undiscerned as are the phan- 
 tasms that make a chrisome child to smile.” 
 
 CHRIST, a title of our Saviour (see Jesus), now in general use almost as a name or p 
 part of his name. It is originally Greek, signifies anointed, and corresponds exactly in 
 meaning and use with the Hebrew word Messiah (q.y.); so that this title given to Jesus 
 of Nazareth, is an acknowledgment of him as the Saviour long promised to the house of 
 Jacob and to the human race. As prophets, priests, and kings were anointed on being 
 called to their several offices (I Kings i. 34, 39; I Sam. xvi. 13; Exod. xxix. 7), so the 
 Saviour was anointed as at once prophet, priest, and king; the Holy Spirit, often rep- 
 resented under this figure, being given to him to qualify his human nature for all that 
 belonged to his mediatorial office and work. * 
 
 The whole system of Christianity depends on the doctrine of the Person op Christ. 
 An essential difference necessarily exists on almost every point between the systems of 
 doctrine maintained by those who do and by those wdio do not acknowledge a union of 
 the divine and human natures in his person. Some of the early heretics maintained an 
 opinion, which has long ceased to have any supporters, that the body of C. was not a 
 real body, but a mere visionary appearance. See Docet.® and Gnostics. The opposite 
 extreme is that of Socinians, by whom C. is regarded as a mere man; whilst Arians 
 (q.v.) regard him as in his pre-existence — i.e., before his incarnation — the highest of all 
 created beings; and according to the generally received doctrine of Christians, he is 
 “God and man in two distinct natures and one person.” This doctrine, of course, bears 
 a most intimate relation to that of the Trinity (q.v.); and all who hold the divinity of 
 Jesus Christ, regard him as the incarnate second person of the godhead. The proof of 
 the whole doctrine may almost be said to consist simply in a proof of the divinity of 
 C.; his real humanity, although equally important, being ho longer disputed. And this 
 
825 
 
 Chouteau. 
 
 Christ. 
 
 proof is found, not so much in particular texts which directly assert the divinity of C. — 
 although such texts are important — as in the multitude of texts which imply it, and 
 admit of no reasonable or natural explanation apart from it; and in showing that cer- 
 tain doctrines are taught in Scripture which cannot be maintained without this. 
 
 The ancient Apollinarians, Eutychians, Monophysites, etc., regarded C. as having 
 only one nature — a comupound of the divine and human; but such a notion as that C. had 
 only a human body, the divine nature supplying the place of a .soul, is held to be subver- 
 sive of the whole L'liristian system; and his human nature, to be real, must be viewed 
 as consisting both of a true body and a true soul. His human nature never existed, 
 however, apart from his divine nature, and was “conceived by the power of the Holy 
 Ghost.” 
 
 Closely connected with this subject is that of the humiliation and consequent exalta- 
 tion of C., in his character of mediator between God and man; a subject, to the former 
 branch of which belongs the whole doctrine of the work of C. for the redemption of 
 sinners, including the great doctrine of atonement (q.v.). To the latter belongs the 
 doctrine of the reward of his work, in his sitting at the right hand of God, and having 
 all thiugs put under his feet; not only exercising dominion as king in his church, 
 but over all things for the advancement of the salvation of his church, and of every 
 member of it; while also he sends forth the Holy Spirit to apply to men the blessings 
 which, as the reward of his work, he has mediatorially obtained for them; and still 
 continuing to act as a priest, makes continual intercession (q.v,), founded upon his 
 work and sacrifice. 
 
 CHBIST, Order of, in Portugal. When the Templars were expelled from France, 
 and their property confiscated by Philippe le bel, with the sanction of pope Clement V., 
 they were received into Portugal, and their order revived in 1317, under the title of 
 “ The Order of our Lord Jesus Christ,” With some difficulty, pope John XXII. was 
 induced to sanction the new order. The knights of the order of Christ joined the Portu- 
 guese in all their crusades against the infidel, and also in their African and Indian 
 expeditions, receiving in compensation continual additions to their own possessions. 
 The grand prior of the order was invested by pope Calixtus III, with power equal to 
 that of a bishop; and as an encouragement to adventure, the knights were promised all 
 the countries which they might discover, to be held under the protection of Portugal. At 
 length, their wealth and power excited the jealousy of the kings of Portugal; their future 
 acquisitions, and, subsequently, even their actual possessions, were declared to be crown 
 possessions, and the offices of administrator and grand-master were transferred to the 
 crown. A fine cloister belonging to the older is still to be seen at Tomar, to which place 
 the seat of the order was transferred from Castro-Marino in 1366. Noble descent, and 
 three years’ military service against the infidel, were required for admission. The mem- 
 bers took the three monkish vows of chastity, poverty, and obedience, till the pope 
 released them from the first two, on condition of their applying the third part of their 
 revenues to the support of Tomar cloister, the priests of which were bound by the three 
 vows. This cloister is now a theological institution for the instruction of the priests 
 of the order. 
 
 It is said that the order still possesses 26 villages and farms, and 434 prebends. It is 
 very numerous — consisting of 6 knights of the grand cross, 450 commanders, and an 
 unlimited number of knights. Catholics of noble descent alone are admitted, and for- 
 eigners are excluded from participation in the revenues, being exempted in return from 
 its rules. 
 
 CHBIST, Papal Order op. This is a branch of the Portuguese order, created by 
 pope John XXII. It has only one class. 
 
 CHBIST, Pictures op. To represent the form and countenance of C. in a manner 
 that shall even approximate to the latent ideal in the minds of men, is unquestionably 
 the most sublime and the most difficult work which an artist can undertake. It is the 
 highest pictorial effort of the creative faculty. From a very early period in the history 
 of the church, we can trace the growth of the endeavor. At first, indeed, the horror 
 entertained for the idols of the pagans, must have inspired Christians with an aversion 
 to images or pictures of the Savior. Gradually, however, as paganism disappeared, and 
 time removed C. further from his .people, this feeling would subside, and the longing 
 would arise to possess some representation of him on which the eye might rest with 
 pious delight. When Christian art originated we cannot precisely say; it is usually 
 dated from the time of Constantine. Nevertheless — as lord Lindsay remarks, in his 
 Sketches of the History of Christian Art (hond. 1847) — “ it would be more correct to say 
 that it then first emerged above ground; its earliest efforts must be sought for in the 
 catacombs.” In these subterranean excavations, forming amaze of unknown extent and 
 labyrinthine intricacy, to which the Roman Christians had recourse in the days of per- 
 secution, are to be found the first traces of Christian sculpture and painting. The 
 sarcophagi of the martyrs and confessors, of the heroes and heroines, of the bishops, 
 and, in general, of those of higher mark and renown, were painted over with the sym- 
 bols and devices of Christianity. The parables were the chief source from which these 
 sepulchral artists drew their symbols. C. is painted as the good shepherd in the midst 
 of his flock, or, with “ pastoral pipe,” seeking the lost sheep, or returning with it on his 
 
Christ. 
 
 Christian. 
 
 826 
 
 ehouiders. Sometimes he figures as an ideal youth in the bloom of his years, sometimeg 
 as a bearded man in the prime of life, sometimes as Orpheus surrounded by wild beasts 
 enrapt by the melody of his lyre. Such pictures, however, were only nymbollcol, and 
 did not satisfy the religious craving for a The age of Constantine marks the 
 
 transition from the symbolical to the pseudo-hiiftorical picture. We now find C. repre- 
 sented in the midst of his disciples, or in the act of performing a miracle; but it is not 
 till about the close of the 4th c. that we actually encounter that type of countenance 
 which, which certain modifications, continued to rule the conceptions of artists during 
 the whole of the middle ages. To vindicate this type, myths, at a later period, sprang 
 into existence; and we read of a portrait of 0. possessed by king Abgaius of Edessa, 
 and imprinted on a handkerchief, and of another miraculously obtained by St. Veronica 
 at the crucifixion; but there is as little foundation for these legends as for that which 
 attributes to the evangelist Luke such a picture. Tlie emperor Alexander Severus (230 
 A.D.) is said to have pos.sessed in his palace an image of Christ. An antique mosaic, 
 probably of the 3d c., which exists in the Maseo Chrktiano of the Vatican — where are 
 to be found also some specimens of the frescos of the catacombs — gives an idea of the 
 manner in which the heathen artists expressed their notion of Christ. He is depicted as 
 a bearded philosopher in profile. A letter which Lentulus, the predece>sor of Pilate, is 
 declared to have written to the Roman senate, but which is evidently apocryphal, 
 attributes to C. a figure and countenance of manly beauty. Towanls the middle of the 
 8th c., John of Damascus gives a description which he pretends to have gathered from 
 more ancient authors. According to him, C. was tall, had beautiful eyes, but the eye- 
 brows meeting; a regular nose, flowing locks, a black beard, and a sandy or straw-col- 
 ored complexion, like his mother. Among the most ancient representations of C. which 
 profess to be portraits, are the two paintings in the Calixtine and Pontine catacombs 
 near Rome, and which are given in Arighi’s lioma Subterranea JVova. J'he Savior is 
 there represented with an oval visage, a straight nose, arched eyebrows, and high fore- 
 head. The expression is earnest and mild; the hair is parted on the forehead, and falls 
 over the shoulders in waving locks; the beard is short and scattered. These two busts 
 agree with the apocryphal letter of Lentulus, and the artist or artists wdio executed 
 them, may possibly have employed it as a model. The majority of the Byzantine and 
 Italian painters, down to the age of Michael Angelo and Raphael, adhered to this type. 
 
 CHBIST or Ckis Cross ROW, the alphabet arranged in the form of a cross, for the 
 use of children; and so printed, in old “ horn” books, or primers. The letter A was at 
 the top, and Z at the foot of the cross. 
 
 CHRISTADEL'PHIANS, a recently organized religious sect in America, whose 
 principles are thus stated: The Old and New Testaments are equally important; Uod 
 will restore to immortal life all who love him in this life, but those who have not 
 accepted this immortal principle cease to exist at death; there is no personal devil; 
 Christ is the son of God, deriving from the Deity moral perfection, but from his mother 
 a human nature; he has the three-fold character of prophet, priest, and king; the first 
 office he fulfilled by his life and death on earth, and now as priest he mediates before 
 the deity; as king he will return to earth and reign over all the world from the throne 
 of David. The adherents of this sect are few. 
 
 CHRISTCHURCH, a parliamentary and municipal borough and seaport on the English 
 channel, in Hampshire, at the head of the estuary formed by the Avon and Stour, 24 
 m. s.w. of Southamptom. It has manufactures of fusee chains for clocks and watches, 
 and of hosiery. It has also a salmon-fishery. The priory church, one of the most 
 interesting and magnificent of English ecclesiastical structures, dates from the reign of 
 William Rufus, and was restored in 1861. A battery of artillery is generally stationed 
 in the commodious barracks. The borough comprises two favorite watering-places, 
 Mudeford and Bournemouth. There are traces here of a Roman temple to Mars. Pop. 
 '71, 15,415. It returns one member to parliament. — C. bay has a double tide every 12 
 hours. 
 
 CHRISTCHURCH, capital of the province of Canterbury, in New Zealand, situated 
 on the river Avon, about 8 m. from the sea. Its port is Littleton, with which it is con- 
 nected by a railway, and it is in railway communication with the n. and south. It is 
 the center of a great grazing district, and has also flourishing manufactories. There is 
 a large export trade, chiefly in timber and wool. The city possesses numerous fine 
 public buildings, churches, theater, etc. Pop. ’75, 10,294; of electoral district, 13,000. 
 
 CHRIST-CHURCH, The Cathedral op (Oxford). This great society has had three 
 distinct foundations. In 1526, cardinal Wolsey obtained from Clement VII. a bull for 
 the suppression of 22 monasteries, the site of one of which he selected as the site of a 
 new college, to be called cardinal college, and which he intended to endow on a scale of 
 magnificence beyond that of any other foundation in Oxford. On the fall of Wolsey in 
 1529, the whole establishment came into the hands of king Henry VIII. In 1532, that 
 prince refounded it under the name of king Henry VIII. ’s college, and in 1546, he once 
 more re-established the college, under the name of “ Christ-church cathedral in Oxford, 
 or the. foundation of king Henry VIII., with a dean and 8 canons, 60 students. 40 school- 
 boys, clerks, choristers,” etc. This foundation is now subsisting, though it has under- 
 
827 
 
 Christ. 
 
 Christian. 
 
 gone considerable modifications. To none of the canonries were any duties assigned 
 by king Henry VIII. From time to time, however, the canonries have been annexed 
 to various university professorships, more particularly one to the professorship of 
 divinity, by king James I. ; one to the professorship of Hebrew, by king Charles I. , 
 and one to the professorships of ecclesiastical history and pastoral theology respectively, 
 by queen Victoria. 
 
 Several changes were introduced by the commissioners appointed under 17 and 18 
 Viet. c. 81. There is now only one sineciire-enjoying canon. When he is off the list, 
 no crie may hold a canonry save a professor, the archdeacon, or the sub-dean. The 
 studentships are now 80 in number, and are, as before, divided into junior and senior 
 studentships, differing considerable as to emolument. All these are now open, the old 
 system of appointment by nomination having been abolished. About three junior 
 students are elected every year in Lent term, one in every three for excellence in math- 
 ematics or physical science; and besides these, three are sent up yearly from Westmin- 
 ster. The senior studentships are also open, with thq usual limitation of independent 
 income. Of these, however, only a third can be held by laymen. The studentships 
 were very poor; but an improvement in this respect has been included among the recent 
 changes. Some valuable exhibitions, however, and 90 benefices, are in the gift of the 
 society. In 1875, there were about 1150 names on the college books. No statutes were 
 given to C., owing to the death of the king having taken place shortly after the final 
 foundation of the college. It was, in consequence, entirely governed by the orders of 
 the dean and chapter, to the total exclusion of the tutors. To this separation of the 
 governing from the teaching body, as well as to the small value of the studentships, 
 may be ascribed, in great measure, the inconsiderable degree of success in the schools, 
 which, for many years past, brought no small discredit on this magnificent society. 
 
 CHBISTENING, a term often used as equivalent to baptism (q.v.). It is disliked by 
 some, and of course liked by others, as favoring the doctrine of baptismal regeneration; 
 being, indeed, according to its derivation, expressive of the notion that a person is made 
 a ChiiAtian in baptism. But, like many other terms, it is frequently employed without 
 reference to its origin, and without any intention of conveying the opinion which it 
 might be strictly held to imply. 
 
 CHRISTIAN, a co. in central Illinois, traversed by the Illinois Central, the Indian- 
 apolis and St. Louis, the Springfield and Illinois South-eastern, and the St. Louis 
 division of the Toledo, Wabash, and Western railroads; 675 sq.m. ; pop. ’80,28,232. 
 It is generally level timber-land and prairie; productions agricultural. Co. seat, 
 Taylorsville. 
 
 CHRISTIAN, a co. in s.w. Kentucky, on the Tennessee border, intersected by the 
 Evansville, Henderson and Nashville railroad; 704 sq.m.; pop. ’80,81.861 — 14,639 
 colored. It is hilly in the n., but level in the s., with productive soil; the products are 
 wheat, corn, hay, butter, wool, and tobacco. Co. seat, Hopkinsville, 
 
 CHRISTIAN, a co. in s.w. Missouri, drained by James river, and intersected by the 
 Atlantic and Pacific railroad; 500 sq.m.; pop. ’80, 9649 — 197 colored. The surface is 
 hilly, and the soil in the valleys is rich, producing wheat, corn, tobacco, etc. Timber 
 abounds. Co. seat, Ozark. 
 
 CHBISTIAN II., King of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, b. at Vyborg, in the island 
 of Funen, 2d July, 1481. He ascended the throne of Denmark in 1513. Shortly after 
 his marriage in 1515, with a sister of the emperor Charles V., a young Norwegian 
 peasant-girl, with whom C. was in love, died, or, as it was believed, was murdered. 
 That natural ferocity, for which C. was surnamed the Angry, burst forth most furiously 
 on this occasion. He caused the governor of the castle, Torben Oxe (see Dyveke), to 
 be beheaded. He afterwards declared open war against Sweden, took Stockholm 
 through fraud, and had himself crowned king. But the cruel vengeance and treachery 
 of C. after this event excited the indignation of that country, which, headed by Gustavus 
 Wa.sa (q.v.). succeeded in driving out the Danes, liberating itself from the yoke of the 
 house of Kalmar, and finally electing Gustavus Wasa (in 1523) to the throne. In Den- 
 mark, too, the aristocracy had risen, and an insurrection in Jutland following, C. found 
 himself forced to flee for refuge to the Netherlands, and his uncle Frederick 1. (q.v,), 
 the introducer of the reformation into Denmark, elected king in his place. Encouraged, 
 however, by the Catholic party in the Netherlands, and assisted by Charles V., C. landed 
 successfully in Norway in 1531; but at the battle of Aggerhuus in 1532, he was totally 
 defeated, and made prisoner in the castle at Sonderburg, from which he was liberated 
 after 12 years of confinement. He died 28th Jan., 1559. 
 
 CHBISTIAN IV., King of Denmark and Norway, and duke of Schleswig Holstein, b. 
 in Zealand, 12th April, 1577, and elected successor to the throne in 1580. He assumed 
 the scepter in 1593. From 1610 he carried on a successful war, known as the Kalmarian 
 war, against Charles IX. of Sweden, and his successor, Gustavus Adolphus, which 
 ended in an advantageous peace in 1613. As leader of the Protestants in the thirty 
 years’ war, C. was not successful. His labors for the improvement of his country, in 
 which he was indefatigable, were, however, most beneficial. He strengthened its 
 maritime power; extended its commerce as far as the East Indies, where he obtained 
 
Christian. 
 
 828 
 
 inland trade of the country. His legislative and financial reforms, together with his 
 love and patronage of the arts and sciences, gained for him the esteem of liis people, 
 especially of the learned. He died in 1648. 
 
 CHBISTIAN VII., King of Denmark, son of Frederick V. and Louisa of England, b. 
 29th Jan., 1749. He succeeded to the throne of his father 14th Jan., 1766, and in the 
 same year married Caroline Matilda, sister of George HI. of England. The dissipations 
 of his early life had enfeebled his energies, and rendered him unfit for government. 
 The management of the state was, in consequence, seized by his ministers, with count 
 Bernstorff, who had possessed the entire confidence of the king’s lath<;r, at their head. 
 Bernstorff, however, was soon forced to retreat before Struensee (q.v.), who exercised 
 unbounded influence over the king and his imprudent young queen. But innovations 
 of a despotic tendency, and insults offered to the national feeling, soon drew upon this 
 minister the hatred of the nation. The queen-dowager seeing this, made it an occasion 
 for satisfying her ambitious nature, by attaching herself to the malcontents; and in 1772 
 she succeeded, with the assistance of her son, Frederick (b. 1754, d. 1805), in persuad- 
 ing the vacillating king to draw up an order of arrest for Struensee and the young queen. 
 Bernstorff was recalled from Hamburg. The king, who was now incapacitated by 
 mental disease, governed only nominally. In 1784, his son, Frederick VI. (q.v.), 
 came to the head of the government, as joint regent with the queen-mother. C. died 
 13th Mar., 1808. 
 
 CHRISTIAN VIII., 1786-1848; king of Denmark, nephew of Christian VII. When 
 Norway was ceded to Sweden by the treaty of Kiel, the people of tlu* former country 
 repudiated the transfer, and C. was then made governor, raised an army and convened 
 a diet, at which a constitution was framed, and he was elected. May 29, 1814, king of 
 Norway under the title of Christian L, but the allied powers compelled him to relin- 
 quish the throne on the 10th of Oct. On the death of Frederick VI., Dee. 3, 1839, he 
 became king of Denmark. He tried to unite Schleswig and a part of Holstein to Den- 
 aark, but did not succeed. He died just before the beginning of the revolution of 
 848. 
 
 CHBISTIAN BTJBIAL. See Burial and Felo de se. 
 
 CHBISTIAN CHABITY, Knights of the Order op, in France. King Henry III. 
 aaving instituted the order of the Hoi}" Ghost for princes and persons of distinction, 
 founded the order of C. C. for the support of maimed officers and soldiers, who had 
 done good service in the wars. He assigned revenues to the order, drawn from all the 
 hospitals in the kingdom. The knights wore on the left breast an anchored cross 
 embroidered on white taffety or satin, with a border of blue silk, and in the middle of 
 the cross a lozenge of sky blue charged with a Jieur de Us or. The completion of the 
 institution was reserved for Henry IV., who placed it under the charge of the marshals 
 and colonels of France; and by means of it, many of those who had served their coun- 
 try faithfully were enabled to spend the latter portion of their lives in peace, and above 
 want. The order formed the germ of that noble hospital the Invalides, which was 
 founded by Louis XIV., and which served as a model for our own hospitals of Chelsea 
 and Greenwich. When the Invalides was founded, the order of C. C. was superseded. 
 
 CHRISTIAN COMMISSION, The United States, an important organization in 
 the loyal states during the war of the rebellion, to aid and co-operate with the sanitary 
 commission, and generally to assist in the cause of the union. Its purpose was to sup- 
 ply material wants and comforts for the army, especially to the sick or wounded. It 
 gave also an unsectarian religious help. Like the sanitary commission, it accomplished 
 a vast amount of valuable work. The C. C. was originated by a call from the Young 
 Men’s Christian association of New York. It is noticeable as one of the earliest signs, 
 as well as causes, of the growing charity among different denominations so marked in 
 recent years. 
 
 CHBISTIAN CONNECTION, a denomination of Christians which originated about the 
 beginning of the 19th c. in the United States of America, and is diffused over all the 
 states. The name was assumed in avowed dislike to the acknowledgment of any human 
 authority and to sectarian distinctions, and all doctrinal terms of communion were 
 rejected, the Bible being adopted as the only rule of faith, and personal piety made the 
 test of qualification for membership. The connection soon came to consist, however, 
 almost exclusively of persons denying the divinity of Christ. 
 
 CHRISTIAN CONNECTION {ante), an organization of American Christians drawn 
 mostly from the Baptist, Methodist, and Presbyterian churches in various parts of the 
 United States. The earliest organizations were “Republican Methodists,” seceders 
 from the Methodist church in 1793, who too|i the name of “ Christians.” In 1800, there 
 was a secession from the Baptist churches in Vermont, which soon grew to considerable 
 importance. Nearly at the same period there w'as a secession from the Presbyterian 
 church in Tennessee and Kentucky, and a separate synod was formed. These three 
 organizations finally merged in one body, and adopted the common name of “ Chris- 
 tians.” Each congregation is independent, and they take the Bible as their standard of 
 doctrine. They hold that the Scriptures are inspired, and are of divine authority; that 
 
829 
 
 Christian* 
 
 every man has the right to interpret the Bible for himself, and that therefore differences 
 of theological views are no bar to church fellowship; that there is one God, but the 
 doctrine of the Trinity is not generally received; that Christ is a divine being, that he 
 pre-existed, and is the mediator between God and man; that the sufferings of Christ 
 atone for the sins of all men, who, by repentance and faith, may be saved; that immer- 
 sion is the only proper form of baptism, and believers the only proper subjects for that 
 ordinance; that communion at the Lord’s table is open to believers of all denomina- 
 tions. In government and usage they are congregational, each church being indepen- 
 dent, although there are annual or state conferences which receive and ordain pastors, 
 but can pass no laws that will be actually binding on the several churches. They have 
 an American Christian convention, which has a regular constitution, officers, and 
 departments. Among their institutions of learning are Hesperia and Pierce Christian 
 colleges in California; Eureka college in Illinois; Bedford college, Butler university, 
 ^nd Union Christian college in Indiana; Oskaloosa college in Iowa; Eminence college 
 and Kentucky university in Kentucky; Christian university in Missouri; Christian col- 
 lege in Oregon; and Bethany college in West Virginia, besides a number of theological 
 seminaries and academies. Antioch college in Ohio, though not officially known as 
 belonging to this connection, has had much favor in the denomination. 
 
 CHRISTIAN ERA, sometimes called the era of the incarnation, is now almost uni- 
 versally employed in Christian countries, and is used by some eastern nations. Its 
 epoch, or commencement, is the 1st of Jan. in the fourth year of the 194th olympiad, 
 the 753d year from the foundation of Rome, and the 4,714th of the Julian period. It 
 is usually supposed to begin with the year of the birth of Christ, but there are various 
 opinions with regard to the year in which that event took place. The general opinion 
 seems to be that Christ was born four years earlier than the dates now used imply. 
 The C. E. was introduced into Italy in the 6th c., and began to be used in Gaul in the 
 ^th c., though not generally used in England before the close of the 8th century. 
 Before its introduction the usual practice in Latin countries was to distinguish the 
 years by their number in the indiction. In the C. E. the years are distinguished by 
 Arabic numerals, those before the birth of Christ being marked b.c. (before Christ), 
 or A.c. {ante Christum)-, and those after Christ a.d. {anno Domini, in the year of our 
 Lord). There is difficulty in determining the years before Christ, since astronomers 
 reckon the year preceding our era as the year 0 b.c., while chronologers call it 1 b.c. 
 The latter seems to be correct, and by that method the leap years before Christ fall 
 on the years 1, 5, 9, 13, etc., while those after Christ fall upon 4, 8, 12, etc. Dates of 
 the C. E. are greatly confused by variations of time for the beginning of the year. 
 Dionysius, who was the author of the C. E., began the first year on the 25th of Mar., or 
 on the day of the Annunciation to the virgin Mary, 9 months before the birth of Christ. 
 By this calculation the C. E. began 9 months and 7 days before our year 1, which 
 began on the 1st of January. This beginning the year on the 25th of Mar. was the prac- 
 tice in most Italian states as late (in Pisa) as 1745. It was adopted in some papal docu- 
 ments, and it was employed in France about the middle of the 11th century. In some 
 instances the year was counted from the 25th of Mar. following our epoch, which 
 would be 2 months and 24 days after our beginning of the era. A few writers of the 
 6th and 7th centuries began the year on the 1st of January. In France, the practice as 
 late as the middle of the 16th c. was to begin the year with Easter; but in 1663 
 Charles IX. directed that thereafter the year should commence on the 1st of January. 
 In Germany, about the 11th c., it was usual to begin the year with Christmas, and this 
 practice prevailed at Milan, Rome, and other Italian cities in the 13th, 14th, and 15th 
 <)enturies. In England, the practice of beginning the year at Christmas was intro- 
 duced in the 7th c., and traces of it are found down to the 13th century. Gervase 
 of Canterbury mentions that most writers of his country agreed in regarding Christmas 
 as the first day of the year, because it formed the term at which the sun finished and 
 recommenced his annual course. This is a remnant of the old Norse religion. In the 
 severely cold regions of Scandinavia the return of the sun from its extreme southern 
 declination was hailed with great rejoicing; the great yule festival was held, and offer- 
 ings and thanksgiving marked the period. This was, of course, at the winter solstice, 
 in early ages very nearly on the day of Christmas. When Anschar and other Roman 
 Catholic mi.ssionaries penetrated to Denmark, they engrafted upon the heathen yule the 
 Christian Christmas, and for the ret\irn of the material sun they taught the rising of the 
 son of God. Thus, the church Christmas may be the successor not only of the Roman 
 saturnalia, but of the Odinic yule. The memory of the latter is still strong among the 
 rural population of England. In England, in the 12th c., the practice prevailed of 
 beginning the year on the Annunciation, the 25th of Mar., and that was the general 
 practice until the reformation of the calendar, in 1751, by a parliamentary law, which 
 directed that the year 1752 should be reckoned from the 1st of Jan., thus leaving 1751 
 nearly three months short. English authors, however, have endeavored to make the 
 beginning of the historical year on the 1st of January. The liturgic year of the church 
 of England began with the first Sunday in Advent, the Lord’s day before Christmas, 
 These variations in the commencement of the year lead to much confusion in dates. 
 The English revolution as popularly called the revolution of 1688;. but if we reckon 
 
Clirlstlania. 
 
 Christianity. 
 
 830 
 
 from the 1st of Jan., it began in 1689. In the tables of modern works on chronology,, 
 the Urth of Christ is placed in the year 4 before Christ. Some recent chronologers of 
 eminence place the Nativity nearer the Christian era. Eusebius dates the crucilixion iu 
 the year 38 A.D. ; but Augustine, Origen, and others, place it in the year 29a.d. In 
 either case, the long-established date of the commencement of the C. E. is not altered. 
 See Chkonology. 
 
 CHHISTIAN'IA, a province in s. Norway; about 10,000 sq.m. ; pop. ’76, 489,915, 
 is a rough, mountainous region containing many lakes, and is traversed by the Glommer» 
 the Drammen, and other rivers. The mineral products are copper, silver, and iron- 
 Agriculture is scarcely profitable, though cattle and horses are raised in large numbers- 
 The chief article of export is lumber. 
 
 CHRISTIAN IA, capital of Norway, is situated in the province of Aggerhuus, in a 
 beautiful open valley on the northern side of the Christiana fiord. Pop. ’75, 77,041. C. 
 is the seat of the Norwegian government, the superior courts, and the storthing. Besides 
 the suburbs of Pipervigen, Hammarsborg, Vaterland, and Greenland, the town consists 
 of C. properly so called (which was laid out by Christian IV. in 1614, in the form of a 
 regular parallelogram of 1000 paces in length and breadth); the Old Town or Opslo, 
 wliere the bishop resides; and the citadel Aggerhuus, from which the broad straight 
 streets of the town can be fired upon. The most important public buildings are the royal 
 palace, the bank and exchange, the house of representatives or storthing, the governor’s 
 palace, and the cathedral. To these may be added the university, the only one in Nor- 
 way, which was opened in 1813, and possesses a staff of 41 ordinary and 6 extraordinary 
 professors. About 800 students attend it annually. This institution contains, besides 
 various scientific collections, a library of about 150,000 books, a botanical garden, and 
 an observatory (in 59° 54' 42" n. lat,, and 10° 50' e. long.). The latter was opened in 1833. 
 C. has also^ome good schools and learned societies, of which the “ society for northern 
 antiquities” is famous. The manufactures of C. are cotton, oil, paper, soap, and bricks. 
 There are also numerous distilleries and corn-mills. It exports in considerable quanti- 
 ties wood, iron, anchovies, and glasswares. In 1871, 1894 vessels of 262,853 tons entered 
 the port (which, however, is covered with ice for four months). It has a regular steam- 
 boat communication with Gottenburg, Copenhagen, Kiel, Hull, and Leith. C., by 
 means of its bay, is connected with Drammen (pop. 18,838), famous for its extensive 
 trade in timber, etc. The scenery of the whole bay is unsurpassed in beauty. 
 
 CHRISTIAN ITY. It is proposed in the present article to give a very brief outline of 
 the system of the Christian religion, and of the evidences by which its truth is established. 
 The principal parts, both of the system and evidences of C., will be found noticed under 
 separate heads. 
 
 C. comes to us with a claim to be received as of divine origin. It is no product of 
 the human mind, but has for its author the Being whom it sets before us as the object of 
 worship. It is consequently altogether exclusive; it claims to be deemed the only true 
 religion — “ the truth” — and admits of no compromise or alliance with any other system. 
 
 C. cannot be view^ed as distinct from the religion of the Jews and of the patriarchs; 
 it is the same religion accommodated to new circumstances; there has been a change of 
 dispensation only. In studying either the system or the evidences of C., we are com- 
 pelled continually to revert from the New Testament to the Old, and must in some 
 measure trace the history of the true or revealed religion through the previous and pre- 
 paratory dispensations. 
 
 The whole system of C. may be regarded as having its foundation in the doctrine - 
 of the existence of one God. See God. Next to this may be placed the doctrine of the 
 fall (q.v.) of man. Man is represented as involved in misery by sin (q.v .) — original and 
 actual — and every individual of the human race as incapacitated for the service and fel- 
 lowship of God, obnoxious to the displeasure of God, and liable to punishment in a future 
 and eternal state of being. See Punishment. Future. And here we may regard the 
 doctrine of the atonement (q.v.) as next claiming our attention — a doctrine taught in 
 all the sacrifices (see Sacrifice) of the patriarchal and Jewish dispensations, as well as 
 by the words of inspired teachers. Man being utterly incapable of effecting his own 
 deliverance from sin and misery, God sent his Son to save sinners, to deliver them from 
 hell., to make them holy, and partakers of the eternal joy and glory of heaven. 
 
 By those who regard Christ as a mere creature, atonement or reconciliation with God 
 is made to depend on the repentance of man as its immediate cause; whilst the life and 
 death of Christ are represented as merely an exara|)le to us of obedience, virtue, and. 
 piety in the most trying circumstances; the doctrines of a propitiatory sacrifice, a sub- 
 stitutionary obedience, and an imputed righteousness, with all that form part of the 
 same system, falling completely and even necessarily to the ground. These doctrines, 
 however, are all consistently maintained in connection with the doctrine of the Trinity 
 and the generally received doctrine as to the person of Christ. See Christ and Trinity. 
 The very incarnation (q.v.) of the Son of God is regarded as a glorious display of the 
 divine condescension, and a wonderful exaltation of human nature; whilst a personal 
 enjoyment of the highest dignity and bliss of which humanity is capable in the favor 
 and fellowship of God for ever, is to be attained by faith in Jesus Christ. See Faith 
 and Justification. 
 
831 
 
 Christiania. 
 
 Christianity. 
 
 The indissoluble connection between faith and salvation arises from the divine 
 .appointment, but secures a moral harmony, as it provides for bringing into operation — 
 in accordance with the intellectual and moral nature of man — of most powerful and 
 -axcelleut motives for all that is morally good, the partakers of salvation being thus fitted 
 for the fellowship of him into whose favor they are received; and as it prevents the 
 possibility of any of them taking to themselves, or giving to others, the glory of that 
 salvation which they really owe to Christ, and which they must therefore ascribe to 
 Christ, as God is a God of truth, and truth must reign in the kingdom of heaven. 
 
 Salvation is ascribed by all Christians to the grace of God. The mission of Christ 
 was an act of supreme grace; and all must be ascribed to grace for which we are 
 indebted to Christ. The doctrine of grace, however, is part of the system of C. on which 
 important differences subsist, especially as to the relation of tlie grace of God to indi- 
 vidual men. Such are the differences concerning election (q.v.), and concerning the 
 •^origin of faith, and man’s ability or inability to believe of himself. But by Christians 
 ^generally, the personal relation of the believer to Christ, and his faith in Chiist, are 
 ascribed to the Holy Ghost or Spirit of God, the third person of the Godhead, and so to 
 the grace of God. See Arminius, Calvinism, and Pelagius. 
 
 In the view of all who hold the doctrine of the Trinity, the doctrines concerning 
 the Spirit of God form a very important part of the Christian system. ’I'o the agency 
 ^of this person of the Godhead, besides all that is ascribed to Him concerning the 
 human nature of Christ, we are indebted for all that is spiritually good in man; He, in 
 the economy of grace, being sent by God, on the intercession of Christ, to communicate 
 “ the blessings purchased by Christ in his obedience and death. See Holy Guost. 
 
 Salvation begins on earth; and whenever a man believes in Christ, he is a partaker 
 ■ of it — is in a stale of salvation. It forms an essential part of the Calvinistic system, 
 that he who is in a state of salvation always remains so, and that the salvation "begun 
 on earth is in every case made perfect in heaven. See Perseverance of Saints. 
 'Thus salvation is viewed as beginning in regeneration (q.v.), and as carried on in sanc- 
 tification (q.v.), and all its joys as connected with the progress of sanctification. Faith 
 in Jesus Christ cannot be unaccompanied with repentance, and repentance is always 
 renewed when the exercise of faith is renewed. For although all believers are mmU or 
 holy, as set apart to God, and in contrast to what they previously were, yet there is none 
 in this life free from temptation and sin; the successful tempter of our first parents, 
 who assailed our Saviour with temptation and was defeated, being still the active 
 e^iemy of man, against whom believers in Jesus Christ are called to contend, to watch, 
 .and to pray. See Devil. The sense of responsibility belongs to human nature; and 
 the doctrine of a judgment (q.v.) to come may be considered as to a certain extent a 
 doctrine of natural religion, as may also that of the immortality (q.v.) of the soul; but 
 the clear and distinct enunciation of these doctrines belongs to the Christian revelation, 
 to which belongs entirely the doctrine of the resurrection (q.v.) of the dead. 
 
 Of the moral part of C., which has already been referred to, it may be sufficient here 
 to state, that it is as harmonious with the doctrinal as it is inseparable from it; that it 
 is founded upon the attributes of God, and is perfectly illustrated in the character of 
 • Jesus Christ; and that it is divisible into two great parts — one, of the love of God, 
 ■and the other, of the love of man, or of ourselves and our neighbors. See Law, Mor\l. 
 
 The means of grace, or of the attainment or the blessings of salvation, form an 
 important part of the Christian system. Of these the Word of God — or divine revela* 
 ‘tion contained in the Bible (q.v.) — first claims attention as the means of conversion to 
 Christ, and of edification in Christ, the instrument by which salvation is both begun and 
 carried on in men. The ordinances of God’s worship are among the means of grace. 
 Thus prayer (q.v ) is one of the chief means of grace. The sacraments (q v.) are means 
 of grace, concerning the precise use of which, and their relative importance as compared 
 with the other means, considerable difference of opinion prevails among Christians. The 
 •same remark applies also to the combination of Christians into an organized body or 
 community, the church (q.v.) with its own laws or system of church government (q.v.) 
 :and church discipline (q.v.). 
 
 We have endeavored to sketch the outline of the system of C., as much as possible 
 according to the general belief of Christians, merely indicating the points on which 
 the chief differences of opinion exist. Some of the principal controversies will be found 
 noticed under separate heads. 
 
 The truth of C. is established by many different evidences, distinct and independent, 
 but rnutually corroborative. It appeals to reason, and demands to have its claims 
 -examined and admitted. Nor is there any faith where there is not a mental conviction 
 arrived at by a process of sound reasoning. 
 
 The evidences of C. are very generally divided into two great classes, intenml and 
 external— t\\n former consisting of those which are found in the nature of the Christian 
 system itself, and in its adaptation to the nature and wants of man; the latter, of those 
 which are derived from other sources. The boundary between the two classes, liowever, 
 is by no means so distinct in reality as it appears in the definition of the terms. Of the 
 multitude of books which have been written on the subject of the evidences of C., some 
 .•are devoted mainly to one of these classes, and some to the other; whilst some are 
 occupied with the development of particular evidences or arguments, and some with 
 
Christian. 
 
 Christison. 
 
 832 
 
 the refutation of objections, and in particular of what may be called a p>reliminarr 
 objection — that a divine revelation can never be established by sufficient evidence at all 
 See Rkvelation. 
 
 The evidence of miracles (q.v.) and the evidence of prophecy (q. v.), two of the principal 
 branches of the external evidences of C.,will be found noticed in separate articles. Another 
 argument, which has been much elaborated — for example, inPaley’s Emdences — is derived 
 from the character and sufferings of the apostles and other first preachers of C. ; their high 
 moral worth, considered along with their great earnestness and devotedness; the absence 
 of all possibility of selfish or base motives; and at the same time, their perfect oppor- 
 tunity of knowing the truth or the facts which they proclaimed. A subsidiary argument 
 is found in the admission of the great facts regarding Jesus of Nazareth, by the early 
 opponents of Christianity. A most important and valuable argument is found in the 
 perfect coherence of all the parts of the Christian system, and in the agrecmeni, as to the 
 religion which they teach, of all the books of Scripture, notwithstanding the widely 
 different dates of their composition, and their very different nature in other respects. 
 See Bible. The relation of the Jewish ceremonies to the doctrines of C. supplies 
 another argument of this kind, capable of being developed in a multitude of particulars. 
 The minor coincidences between the different books of Scripture have been pointed out 
 with happy effect in the Horce Paulines of Paley, and in other works. Tffe character of 
 our Savior supplies an argument of great power; the impossibility of the invention of 
 such a character, and of the history in which it is exhibited, by any effort of human 
 genius, is also urged as corroborative ; and the inconsistency of the morality displayed, 
 with the supposition of imposture, has been dwelt upon with the same view. The 
 excellency, both of the doctrinal and moral part of the system of C., its elevating and 
 purifying tendency, the agreement of its doctrine with the facts of man’s sinfulness and 
 misery, and the suitable provision which it makes for his most deeply felt wants, are 
 principal branches of the internal evidence of its truth. The effects of C., where it has 
 prevailed, supply a confirmatory argument in its favor, which has formed the subject 
 of works of great learning and interest. 
 
 CHEISTIAN KNOWLEDGE, Society for Promoting, one of the great religious 
 associations connected with the church of England, and the oldest of them all. It 
 was founded in 1698, although it did not receive its present name till 1701 ; and bad 
 for its object: “1. To promote and encourage the erecting of charity schools in all 
 parts of England and Wales. 2. To disperse, both at home and abroad. Bibles and 
 tracts of religion; and, in general, to advance the honor of God, and the good of 
 mankind, by promoting Christian knowledge, both at home and in other parts of the 
 world, by the best methods that should offer.” These objects it has never ceased to 
 pursue, chiefly directing its efforts to the British dominions; partaking at once of the 
 nature of an educational association, a missionary society, a Bible society, and a relig- 
 ious tract society; and notwithstanding the operations of other great societies in 
 these several departments of Christian benevolence, its revenue amounts to about 
 £100,000 a year. The Protestant missionaries who labored in the s. of India m last 
 century, were supported chiefly by this society, which has also contributed largely of 
 its funds for the establishment of Christian schools in that country. 
 
 CHRISTIAN NAME. See Name. 
 
 CHRISTIANSAND', the principal t. of the province or stifi of that name in Norway, 
 is situated at the mouth of the Torridalself, in the bay of Christiansand. Pop. ’75, 
 12,137. C. is the residence of a bishop and high-bailiff or stift-amtmand, and pos- 
 sesses a branch of the Norwegian bank, a gymnasium, and several charitable founda- 
 tions. The manufactures are leather, tobacco, cotton, etc. Ship-building forms also a 
 considerable branch of its industry. The town, which was built in 1641 by Christian 
 IV., has an excellent harbor, divided into two parts by the island of Oddern, upon 
 which are situated the quarantine hospital and custom house. C. exports wood, lob- 
 sters. and salmon in large quantities. The town and harbor are protected by several 
 fortifications. To the Tvest of C. lies the harbor of Ny-Hollesund. 
 
 CHRIS'TIANSFELD, a settlement of Moravian brothers, in the northern part of 
 Schleswig, was founded in 1772. It consists of 64 houses and about 700 inhabitants. 
 The houses, which are well built, and cheerful in appearance, are arranged in two 
 parallel streets, with the church upon a green plot in the middle. The settlement 
 is represented by the inspectors or chiefs appointed by the directors of the fraternity, 
 and the representatives elected by the members of the sect. The manufactures are 
 linen, soap, cotton, leather, etc. 
 
 CHRISTIANS OP ST. JOHN, or Nazareans, a sect in Persia, in the country 
 around Bassorah. They seemingly deify John the Baptist and consider Jesus an impos- 
 tor. They say that they dwelt on the Jordan in the time of Jesus, but were driven 
 from Palestine by the Mohammedans. Their name “ Christians” is wholly a misnomer. 
 They consider the Jehovah of the Jews a spurious divinity, and Christ a false teacher; 
 that the world was created by seven angels of darkness who inhabit the seven planets, 
 and there is also a kingdom of light superintended by good angels. Behind these king- 
 doms is a region of splendor, and there is the supreme original being, Ferha, and the 
 
833 
 
 Christian. 
 
 Christison. 
 
 female principle, Ajar. There are conflicts between the worlds of darkness and of light, 
 but light is to triumph. The Mosaic and Christian systems of religion came from the 
 region of darkness; but that of John the Baptist from the region of light. Baptism is 
 the means of introducing men to the kingdom of light. John was married, but his 
 children sprang from the Jordan. These people practice polygamy, and forbid mourning 
 for the dead. , They have five sacred books, of which four are doctrinal, and one treats 
 of astrology. It is supposed that, 200 years ago, they numbered about 100,000. 
 
 CHRISTIANS OF ST. THOMAS, the name of a branch of an old Persian church 
 still existing on the Malabar coast, formed originally by excommunicated Nestorians. 
 Their liturgy is in the Syriac language. They still celebrate the early agape or love 
 feast, use bread, salt, and oil in the communion of the supper, and anoint infants in 
 baptism. Their priests are allowed to marry. While the Portuguese held Malabar they 
 were submissive to the Roman Catholic church, but as soon as the Dutch took control 
 the Nestorian system was resumed. 
 
 CHRISTIANSTAD', the strongly fortified capital of a province of the same name in 
 the s. of Sweden. It is situated on the Helge, about 9 m. from the Baltic, and 265 s.w. 
 of Stockholm. C. is the residence of a governor, and the seat of a court of justice. 
 It is a beautifully built town, and possesses an arsenal, a school, a magnificent church, 
 and a senate-house. Pop. 6,422, employed chiefly in the manufacture of woolen goods, 
 leather, gloves, etc. There is also some trade in wood, pitch, potash, etc. The town, 
 which was founded by Christian IV., has suffered many sieges during the wars between 
 Denmark and Sweden. The province of Christianstad has an area of 2,400 m. ; pop. 
 75, 229,176. 
 
 CHRIS' TIANSTED, the chief t. of the Danish island of St. Croix, in the West. Indies. 
 It stands on the n.e. coast of the island, and has an excellent harbor, which is defended 
 by a fort and a battery. Here resides the governor-general of the Danish West Indies 
 The number of its inhabitants is 5, 700. . 
 
 CHRISTIANSUND', a seaport on the w. coast of Norway, 85 m. w.s.w. of Trondh- 
 yem, in 63° 3' n., and 7° 40' e. ; pop. 5,709. The town is built on three small islands by 
 which its harbor is inclosed. The chief exports are fish and fish products. 
 
 CHRISTIAN UNION CHURCHES, an organization projected at Columbus, Ohio, 
 in 1865, and supposed to have 30,000 to 40,000 members, principally in the western and 
 south-western states. Their leading doctrines, as stated in their publications, are: the 
 oneness of the church, with Christ the only head, and the Bible the only rule of faith 
 and practice ; the good works of a Christian life the only condition of fellowship ; the 
 suppression of controversy ; local or congregational church government ; no preaching 
 of party politics. They adopt the motto, “In things essential, unity; in non-essentials, 
 liberty ; in all things, charity. ” Baptism is a condition of membership, but in commu- 
 nion they are practically unrestricted. 
 
 CHRISTI'NA, Queen of Spain. See Maria Christina. 
 
 CHRISTI'NA, Queen of Sweden, only child of the great Gustavus Adolphus, wash. Dec., 
 1626, and succeeded her father in 1632, when only six years old. Distinguished equally 
 by beauty and the possession of a lively imagination, a good memory, and uncommon in- 
 telligence, she received the education rather of a man than of a woman; and to this may 
 in part be attributed the many eccentricities of her life. During her minority, the king 
 dom was governed by the five highest officers of the state, the principal being chancellor 
 Oxenstiern. In 1644, she assumed the reins of power, and, in 1650, was crowned with 
 the title of king. She had previously declared her cousin, Charles Gustavus, her suc- 
 cessor. For four years thereafter, she ruled the kingdom with vigor, and was remark- 
 able for her patronage of learned and scientific men. In 1654, however, at the age of 
 28, weary of the personal restraint which royalty imposed on her, she abdicated in favor 
 of her cousin, reserving to herself sufficient revenues, entire independence, and supreme 
 authority over her suite and household. Leaving Sweden, she proceeded to Brussels, 
 where she embraced the Roman Catholic religion. She afterwards went to Rome, which 
 ishe entered on horseback, in the costume of an amazon, with great pomp. Confirmed 
 by pope Alexander VII., she adopted the surname of Alessandra. In 1656, she visited 
 Paris ; and the following year, on a second residence there, she caused her grand equerry, 
 Monaldeschi, who had enjoyed her entire confidence, to be executed in her own house- 
 hold for treason. In 1658, she returned to Rome, and, in 1660, the death of the king, 
 her cousin, caused her to hasten to Sweden; but, failing in her attempt to be reinstated 
 on the throne, she again left the country. In 1666, she aspired to the crown of Poland, 
 but was unnoticed by the Poles. The remainder of her life was spent in Rome in artis 
 tic and scientific pursuits. Besides founding an academy, she collected valuable MSS., 
 medals, and paintings, and died April 19, 1689. Much of her conduct favors the idea 
 that at times she was scarcely sane. 
 
 CHRISTI'NOS, a political party in Spain during the regency of queen Christina, 
 who were opposed to the Carlists. 
 
 CHRIS'TISON, Sir Robert, d.c.l., an eminent physician, son of Alexander Chris* 
 tisoki, professor of humanity in the university of Edinburgh, was b. at Edinburgh, July 
 U K. HI -53 
 
Christlieb. 
 
 Christology. 
 
 834 
 
 18, 1797; was educated at the high school of his native place, and, in 1811, became a 
 student at the university there. After graduating in 1819, he proceeded to London and 
 Paris; and, in the French capital, studied toxicology under the celebrated Orfila, a 
 department of medical science in which in Britain his name has become eminent. Com- 
 mencing the practice of medicine at Edinburgh, he was, in 1822, appointed professor 
 of medical jurisprudence in the university of that city, and, in 1832, was promoted to 
 the chair of materia medica. Besides contributing papers on various subjects to medi- 
 cal journals, C. is author of a Treatise on Poisons, published in 1829, recognized as a 
 standard work on the subject; Biographical Sketch of Edward Turner, M.D., 1837, being 
 an address delivered before the Harveian society of Edinburgh; a treatise On Granular 
 Degeneration of the Kidneys, 1839; and The Dispensatory, a Commentary on the Phar- 
 macopoeias of Great Britain, 1842. Twice president of the royal college of physicians,. 
 Edinburgh, and ordinary physician to the queen in Scotland, in 1871 he was created a 
 baronet. In 1877, sir Robert retired from professorial and other public work. 
 
 CHRISTLIEB, Theodor, d.d., b. 1833; a native of Wurtemberg; educated at 
 Tubingen, a teacher in France, a preacher in London, and an author of lectures on 
 Modern Doubt and Christian Belief. He returned to Germany in 1865, and was made 
 professor of theology at Bonn. In 1873, he was a delegate to the evangelical alliance, 
 meeting that year in New York. At its sessions his addresses excited great interest. 
 
 CHRISTMAS, the day on which the nativity of the Savior is observed. The institution 
 of this festival is attributed by the spurious Decretals to Telesphorus, who flourished in 
 the reign of Antoninus Pius (138-61 a.d.), but the first certain traces of it are found 
 about the time of the emperor Commodus (180-92 a.d.). In the reign of Diocletian 
 (284-305 A.D.), while that ruler was keeping court at Nicomedia, he learned that a mul- 
 titude of Christians were assembled in the city to celebrate the birthday of Jesus, and 
 having ordered the church doors to be closed, he set fire to the building, and all the 
 worshipers perished in the flames. It does not appear, however, that there was any 
 uniformity in the period of observing the nativity among the early churches; some held 
 the festival in the month of May or April, others in Jan. It is, nevertheless, almost 
 certain that the 25th of Dec. cannot be the nativity of the Savior, for it is then the 
 height of the rainy season in Judea, and shepherds could hardly be watching their flocka 
 by night in the plains. 
 
 C. not only became the parent of many later festivals, such as those of the Virgin, 
 but especially from the 5th to the 8th c., gathered round it, as it were, several other festi- 
 vals, partly old and partly new, so that what may be termed a Christmas cycle sprang 
 up, which surpassed all other groups of Christian holidays in the manifold richness of its 
 festal usages, and furthered, more than any other, the completion of the orderly and 
 systematic distribution of church festivals over the whole year. Not casually or 
 arbitrarily was the festival of the nativity celebrated on the 25th of Dec. Among 
 the causes that co-operated in fixing this period as the proper one, perhaps the most 
 powerful was, that almost all the heathen nations regarded the winter-solstice as a most 
 important point of the year, as the beginning of the renewed life and activity of the 
 powers of nature, and of the gods, who were originally merely the symbolical personi- 
 fications of these. In more northerly countries, this fact must have made itself pecu- 
 liarly palpable — hence the Celts and Germans, from the oldest times, celebrated the 
 season with the greatest festivities. At the winter-solstice, the Germans held their 
 great yule-feast (see Yule), in commemoration of the return of the fiery sun-wheel ; 
 and believed that, during the twelve nights reaching from the 25th Dec. to the 6th 
 Jan., they could trace the personal movements and interferences on earth of their great 
 deities, Odin, Berchta, etc. Many of the beliefs and usages of the old Germans, and also 
 of the Romans, relating to this matter, passed over from heathenism to Christianity, 
 and have partly survived to the present day. But the church also sought to combat and 
 banish — and it was to a large extent successful — the deep-rooted heathen feeling, by 
 adding — for the purification of the heathen customs and feasts which it retained — its 
 grandly devised liturgy, besides dramatic representations of the birth of Christ and the 
 first events of his life. Hence sprang the so-called “ manger-songs,” and a multitude of C. 
 carols, as well as C. dramas, which, at certain times and places, degenerated into farces or 
 fools’ feasts (q.v.). Hence also originated, at a later period, the Christ-trees, or Christmas- 
 trees, adorned with lights and gifts, the custom of reciprocal presents, and of special C. 
 meats and dishes, such as (^!. rolls, cakes, currant-loaves, dumplings, etc. Thus, C. 
 became a universal social festival for young and old, high and low, as no other 
 Christian festival could have become. 
 
 In the Roman Catholic church, three masses are performed at C. — one at midnight, 
 one at daybreak, and one in the morning. The day is also celebrated by the Anglo- 
 Catholic church — special psalms are sung, a special preface is made in the communion 
 service, and the Athanasian creed is said or sung. The Lutheran church, on the conti- 
 nent, likewise observes C. ; but the Presbyterian churches in Scotland, and the whole 
 of the English dissenters, reject it, in its religious aspect, as a “human invention,” and 
 as “savoring of papistical will-worship,” although, in England, dissenters as v/ell as 
 churchmen keep it as a social holiday, on which there is a complete cessation from all 
 business. But within the last hundred years, the festivities once appropriate to C. have 
 
835 
 
 Christlieb. 
 
 Cliristulos^. 
 
 much fallen off. These at one time lasted with more or less brilliancy till Candlemas, 
 and with great spirit till twelfth-day; but now a meeting in the evening, composed, when 
 possible, of the various branches and members of a family, is all that distinguishes the 
 day above others. 
 
 CHBISTMAS-BOX, a small money -gift to persons in an inferior condition on the day 
 after Christmas, which is hence popularly called hoxing-day. The term, and also the 
 custom, are essentially English, though the making of presents at this season and at the 
 new year is of great antiquity. A number of interesting particulars concerning the 
 Christmas-box will be found in Brand’s Popular Antiquities. Here, we need refer only 
 to the usage in its later aspect. Within the memory of middle-aged persons, the 
 practice of giving Christmas-boxes, or petty presents, to apprentices, domestic servants, 
 and tradesmen, had become a serious social nuisance, more particularly in London, 
 where every old custom seems to linger, and is most difficult to be got rid of. Householders 
 felt under an obligation to give money to the apprentices in the shops where they dealt, 
 also to various inferior parish officers, including scavengers and lamplighters; while 
 shopkeepers, on the other hand, were equally impelled to make presents to the male and 
 female servants of their customers. Thus, as referred to in Ghristmas, a poem: 
 
 “ Gladly, the boy, with Christmas-box in hand, 
 
 Throughout the town his devious route pursues; 
 
 And, of his master’s customers, implores 
 The yearly mite: often his cash he shakes; 
 
 The which, perchance, of coppers few consists. 
 
 Whose dulcet jingle fills his little soul 
 With joy.” 
 
 At length the Christmas-box system became such an intolerable grievance, that trades- 
 men stuck up notices in their windows that no Christmas-boxes would be given; and at 
 the same time, the public authorities issued remonstrances to the same effect. At 
 Christmas, 1836, the secretary of state for foreign affairs issued a circular to the different 
 ^embassies, requesting a discontinuance of the customary gifts to the messengers of the 
 foreign department, and other government servants. Since this period, the practice 
 has greatly decreased, doubtless to the improvement of the self-respect of the parties 
 interested. « 
 
 CHRISTMAS CAROLS. The word carol (Ital. carola, and Fr. carole, a round dance — 
 probably from Lat. corolla; Welsh, coroli, to reel, to dance; the name is thence applied 
 to the music or song accompanying such a dance: carillon is probably allied) signifies a 
 song of joy. The practice of singing carols, or, at all events, sacred music, in celebra- 
 tion of the nativity of Christ as early as the 2d c., is considered as proved by the cir- 
 cumstance that a large sarcophagus belonging to that period has sculptured upon it a 
 representation of a Christian family joining in choral praise for this purpose. A century 
 or two after this, however, th'e C. C. seem to have sadly degenerated, and become, in 
 fact, so indecent, that the clergy found it necessary to forbid them. Under the Anglo- 
 Saxon kings, merriment and piety were pleasantly combined in English life, a peculiar- 
 ity that affected the C. C. of that period not a little; but by the 13lh c. the jocosity had 
 unhappily lapsed into what would now be considered profanity. The oldest printed collec- 
 tion of English C. C. bears the date of 1521. The majority of these, though written by 
 men of learning — priests and teachers — exhibit a lamentable ignorance of the character 
 of the two most prominent persons in the carols — Mary and Jesus. In 1525 was kept 
 the “ still Christmas,” on account of the illness of king Henry; but with this exception, 
 the sacred season appears to have been regularly celebrated with joyous music and songs 
 during the Tudor period. In 1562, C. C. of a more solemn nature were introduced. By 
 the Puritan parliament, Christmas was abolished altogether, and holly and ivy were 
 made seditious badges; and in 1630 the Psalms, arranged as carols, were advertised. After 
 the restoration, theC. C. again exhibited a hearty, cheerful, and even a jovial character. 
 Those with which the dawn of Christmas is now announced in England arc generally 
 religious, though not universally so. In France, the carols at this season used to be much 
 less sacred than gay. Often, indeed, they were grossly Bacchanalian. 
 
 See an interesting paper in the Athenmum for Dec. *20, 1856; also Sandys’s Ghristmaa 
 Carols, 8vo, 1833 ; Sylvester’s Ghristmas Garols and Ballads. 
 
 CHRISTMAS ROSE. See Hellebore. 
 
 CHRISTOL'OGY is the doctrine of the person of Christ. The word itself is to be 
 found, once or so, in the divines of the 17th c. (see Dean Trench on Vs\q Study of Words), 
 but the department of scientific theology which it now represents is almost entirely the 
 growth of modern, and particularly of German inquiry. As yet, it can hardly be said 
 that the word C. is accredited in Great Britain, but the same differences of opinion which 
 led to its adoption in Germany, are beginning to manifest themselves here also. There 
 are only three methods of apprehending the doctrine of the person of Christ. First, 
 there is the rationalistic method. This consists in representing the development of the 
 Messianic idea in Jewish history as purely natural, and conditioned by purely human 
 and historical influences — in short, as a subjective or self-originated notion, to which 
 there was no corre.spondent divine reality. Second, there is, what, for want of a better 
 word, we may call the spiritualistic method (that of theologians like Neander, Rothe, 
 etc.). This consists in representing the development of the Messianic idea in Jewish 
 
Christophe. 
 Christ’s hospital. 
 
 836 
 
 history as both natural and supernatural; that is to say, it asserts the existence of a' 
 divine objective reality (“ the eternal Son of God ”) as the basis of the subjective idea in 
 the minds of the Jews, and regards the growth of that idea, and the influence of histor- 
 ical circumstances, as the result of a supernatural providence, which culminated in tho 
 revelation “of the mystery of godliness, God manifest in the flesh.” Third, there is the 
 dogmatic method, which is the one accepted by the common order of theologians. This, 
 consists in representing the doctrine of the person of Christ as symbolically known to the 
 spiritually-minded among God’s people from the earliest ages. “Abraham saw his 
 (Christ’s) day afar off.” This is interpreted to signify that, by the grace of prophetic 
 illumination, the righteous men of old were enabled to foresee in a mysterious and inex- 
 plicable manner the atonement of Christ, as it happened in history. Admitting with 
 the spiritualistic theologians, that the Messianic idea among the Jews underwent, in some 
 sense, a historical development, the dogmatic Christologists differ, in general, from the 
 former by attributing to the higher minds such a knowledge of the work of Christ, aa 
 logically involves a knowledge of his person and character. The entire absence, how- 
 ever, of 2 iny personal traits of Christ in the Old Testament, such as might be expectedL 
 of those who had seen him even with the eye of faith, has induced many orthodox theolo- 
 gians to shrink from making any statement in regard to what may have been the doc- 
 trine of the person of Christ among the ancient Jews. 
 
 CHBISTOFHE, Hejsri, king of Hayti, b. Oct. 6, 1767, was at one period a slave and 
 tavern-cook in Cape Town, St. Domingo, and afterwards overseer of a plantation. In 
 1790, he joined the black insurgents against the French, and, from his gigantic stature, 
 energy, and courage, soon became a leader among them. By ToussainCLouverture, he 
 was appointed brig. gen., and employed to suppress an insurrection headed by Moyse- 
 or Moses, his nephew. C. captured the latter, and on his execution, succeeded him as- 
 governor of the northern province of French St. Domingo. In 1802, he gallantly 
 defended Cape Town when gen. Leclerc arrived there with a French army destined for 
 the reduction of the blacks, and effected his retreat with 3,000 men, after having burned 
 the greater part of the town. The perfidious seizure of Toussaint he amply revenged, 
 and during the short-lived government of Dessalines, who was slain by a military con- 
 spiracy in Oct., 1806, C. ^as gen. -in-chief of the Haytian army. In Feb., 1807, he was^ 
 appointed president of Hayti for life. A republic being, about the same time, organized 
 at Port au-Prince, with Petion at its head, civil war commenced between them. On 
 Mar. 28, 1811, C. was proclaimed king of Hayti, by the name of Henri I., and solemnly 
 crowned, June 2, 1812. In 1814, he and Petion suspended hostilities, and by his power 
 and skill, C. was enabled to counteract the attempts made by France to regain its 
 authority in the island. His avarice and cruelty led to an insurrection, which was aided 
 by gen. Boyer, who had succeeded Petion in 1818; and the rebellion having spread to 
 Cape Town, C.’s deposition was proclaimed, at the head of the troops, by the duke of 
 Marmalade, one of the first dignitaries in the kingdom. Deserted by his body-guard 
 and all his nobles, he shot himself, Oct. 8, 1820. He left a code of laws, which he 
 called the “Code Henri,” in imitation of the Code Napoleon. 
 
 CHRISTOPHER, Herb. See Act^a. 
 
 CHRISTOPHER, Saint, a saint of the Roman Catholic and Greek churches. He is 
 supposed to have suffered martyrdom about the middle of the 3d century. According 
 to vulgar legend, C., whose name was originally (the unrighteous), was a native 
 
 of Palestine, Syria, orLycia, and a person of prodigious bulk and strength. His height 
 was 12 feet. So proud was he of his gigantic frame, that he would serve only the migh- 
 tiest princes. Having attached himself to one, who went for the greatest of his day, 
 C. stayed with him for a short time, but soon discovered that his master was terribly 
 afraid of the devil, in consequence of which, C., with fearless consistency, passed into 
 the service of the latter. One day, however, when the devil and he chanced to be 
 walking through a wood, they came across an image of Christ. His new master exhib- 
 ited such perturbation and alarm at the sight, that C. entirely lost confidence in him, 
 and resolved to find out the Savior, and follow him. For a long while he searched in 
 vain, but finally he fell in with a hermit, who showed him Christ, and baptized him. 
 C. despised the customary penances, and in consequence, it was imposed on him to 
 carry Christian pilgrims on his shoulders over a stream which had no bridge. One 
 day, a little child came to the stream; C. took it on his shoulders, but soon began to 
 sink under the weight of his burden. The child was Christ himself, and to prove it, 
 he commanded C. to stick his staff into the ground. He did so, and next morning it 
 had blossomed into a palm-tree bearing fruit. This miracle converted thousands to 
 Christianity. C.’s success excited the enmity of Dagnus, the prefect of that region, 
 who put him in prison, scourged him with red-hot rods, put a burning helmet on his 
 head, and clapped him on a b^irning stool. C. still remained uninjured. Multitudes of 
 poisoned arrows were now discharged against him, but they rebounded from his charmed 
 body, and one even wounded the prefect himself in the eye. C. pitied his tormentor, 
 and freely offered his head to the executioner, that the prefect might be healed by the 
 blood which should flow from it. This was done, and, as a matter of course, Dagnus 
 and his family became Christians. The Greek church celebrates his festival on the 9th 
 of May; the Roman Catholics, on the 25ih of July. 
 
837 
 
 Christ’s hospital. 
 Christophe. 
 
 St. C. was greatly invoked in times of pestilence, or when people were digging for 
 treasures, to frighten away the spirits who watched over them. The formula used was 
 called a Christopher's prayer. He was also the patron of an order of moderation, founded 
 in Austria in 1517, for the purpose of checking excessive drinking and swearing, and 
 which was called the order of St. Christopher. 
 
 CHRISTOPHER’S, St., or, popularly, 8t. Kitts, an island near the n.e. bend of the 
 great arch of the Antilles, 46 m. to the w. of Antigua, and 3 m. to the n. of Nevis. With 
 a very unequal breadth, it is 20 m. long from s.e. to n.w., containing about 44,000 acres, 
 and (1871) 28,169 inhabitants. It belongs to Great Britain, and has a legislature of its 
 own, with an executive immediately subordinate to the governor-in-chief of the Leeward 
 group, 'residing in Antigua. In 1876, the revenue of the colony was £32,000, having 
 been only £3,638 in 1834; so that, under the system of free labor, it had increased nearly 
 nine-fold in 42 years. During the same interval, the imports had risen in value from 
 £63,018 to £139,000, and the exports from £105,267 to £156,000. The staple exports 
 are sugar, rum, and molasses. The debt of the island in the year 1876 amounted to 
 £6,000. Education is in a promising condition. In the year 1865, there were 27 schools 
 receiving government aid, attended by 1367 pupils in all — 11 of the establishments 
 belonging to the church of England, 8 to the Moravians, and 8 to the Wesleyans. 
 
 The chief towns, both of them seaports with open roadsteads, are Basse-Terre, 
 defended by fort Smith, and Sandy Point, protected by fort Charles and Brimstone Hill. 
 Of fort Smith, the exact lat. and long, are 17° 17' 7" n., and 62° 48' west. The mean 
 annual temperature of these places, and of the coast generally, is about 80° F. ; but the 
 mornings and evenings, even of the hottest days, are agreeably cool. The length of the 
 island is traversed by a well- wooded ridge of volcanic origin, which has in its center a 
 crater; and towards the w. extremity of the range, rises the nearly perpendicular crag of 
 Mt. Misery, with an altitude of 3,711 ft. above the level of the sea. Over the adjacent 
 slopes, which gradually descend to the water’s edge, this central range sends down sev- 
 eral streams — almost every plantation, in fact, receiving its rivulet in the rainy season. 
 The springs, though numerous, are yet mostly brackish; and indeed the southern 
 extremity of the island presents a number of salt ponds. 
 
 St. Kitts, appropriately named by the natives “the fertile isle,” was discovered by 
 Columbus in 1493, and colonized by the English in 1623, who were almost immediately 
 mined by some French adventurers. After treacherously exterminating the Caribs, the 
 French and English, often quarreling, occupied the island, till, in 1713, the treaty of 
 Utrecht gave the whole to England. In 1782, during the war of American independ- 
 ence, St. Kitts was captured by the French, but restored. On July 31, 1865, a terrific 
 fire took place at Basse-Terre. 
 
 CHRISTOP'ULUS, Athanasios, 1772-1847; a Greek poet, the son of a Wallachian 
 ^iest. He studied at Buda and Padua, and became teacher in the family of the 
 Wallachian prince Mourousi, and, after the fall of that prince, he assisted the hospodar 
 Caradja in drawing up a code of laws for the nation. He wrote love ditties and 
 drinking songs, which are very popular among the' Greeks. He is also the author of a 
 tragedy, and some philological works. 
 
 CHRIST’S COLLEGE, Cambridge, was originally founded by Henry YI., under the 
 name of God’s house, and was intended by him to consist of a master, 12 fellows, 
 and 47 scholars. In 1505, however, there were only three fellows besides the master, 
 when lady Margaret, countess of Richmond and Derby, mother of Henry VII., “count- 
 ing herself, as of the Lancaster line, heir to all Henry YI.’s godly intentions,” made 
 up the full number, and endowed the college liberally, changing its name to Christ’s 
 college. Edward VI. added one fellow, and three scholars; and sir John Finch and 
 sir Thomas Baines increased the number of fellows to fifteen. C. C. possesses many 
 rich benefactions for the encouragement of students, amongst which are specially to be 
 noticed four studentships founded by Christopher Tancred, worth £107 per annum, 
 and tenable for three years after taking the degree of b.a. A student is elected annu- 
 ally before coming into residence. Amongst the illustrious men connected with this 
 college may be noted bishop Latimer, John Milton, and Ralph Cudworth, author of the 
 Intellectual System. 
 
 CHRIST’S HOSPITAL, Newgate street, London, was founded on the site of the 
 Greyfriars' monastery, by Edward VI., June 26, 1553, as a hospital for orphans and 
 foundlings. It is usually called the “ blue-coat school,” on account of the dress worn 
 by the boj’^s. This consists of a blue woolen gown or coat with a narrow red-leather 
 girdle round the waist, yellow breeches, and yellow stockings, a clergyman’s bands at 
 the neck, and a small blue worsted cap, but this last they seldom wear, and are gen- 
 erally seen going about bareheaded — such has been the costume of the boys since the 
 foundation of the school in the reign of Edward VI. ; the persistency in it through suc- 
 cessive generations, affording a curious instance of the unchangeableness in some of the 
 English usages. No boy is admitted before seven years of age, or after 10, and none can 
 remain after 15, with the exception of “king’s boys” (i.e., those who attend the mathe- 
 matical school founded by Charles II. in 1672) and “Grecians” (i.e., the highest class 
 of scholars in the hospital), of whom eight are sent on various scholarships to the uni- 
 versities of Oxford and Cambridge. Altogether, about 800 boys can be admitted. The 
 
Clirist’s thorn. 
 Chronicles. 
 
 838 
 
 right of presentation is vested in the managing governors. These are the lord mayor of 
 London, the aldermen, and 12 common councilmen. Besides these, all noblemen and 
 gentlemen who benefit the hospital to the extent of £400 are governors. The manag- 
 ing governors are the patrons of several churches, chiefly in Surrey and Essex. Tin 
 most of the income of C. H., which amounts to about £50,000, is derived from legap 
 cies subsequent to its original charter. King Charles’ foundation enriched it by 
 £7,000, with an additional annuity of £370 10s., for the purpose of educating yearly 
 10 boys for the sea-service. Most of the building perished in the great fire of 1666; but, 
 through the generosity of the corporation of London, and the liberal help of wealthy 
 Englishmen, it was soon rebuilt, under the superintendence of sir Christopher Wren. 
 In the course of time, the new hospital fell into decay, and in 1825, a third structure 
 was erected by Mr. Shaw. The great hall of the hospital is a magnificent room, second 
 only to that of Westminster. C. H. is essentially a classical institution, Latin and Greek 
 being the basis of education; but, to satisfy the wants arising from the changed condi- 
 tion of society, the modern languages, drawing, etc., are also taught. In 1683, the gov- 
 ernors built a preparatory school at Hertford, where the children are trained till they 
 are old enough to enter the hospital. The girls, however, remain permanently here. 
 It can receive about 400 of both sexes. Dependent schools in Newgate street accommo- 
 date 1200 children. Several eminent persons have been educated at C. H., such as 
 Camden, Stillingfleet, Coleridge, and Lamb. 
 
 CHKIST’S THOEN. See Jujube and Paliurus. 
 
 GHEOMAT'IG, in music, is a term applied to a series of notes at the distance of a 
 semitone from each other. Such a series is produced by dividing the whole tones of 
 the diatonic scale into semitones, so that with the two diatonic semitones, already in the 
 natural scale, the octave is divided into 12 semitones. The word C. is from the Greek, 
 and means colored. Ascending C. passages are formed by the whole tones of the dia- 
 tonic scale being raised or elevated by a sharp or a natural, according to key, and 
 descending passages by their being lowered by a flat or a natural, thus: 
 
 It IS usual to speak of the C. scale, but that is wrong, as it is only a melodious pro- 
 gression of semitones, certain notes of which belong to, and form the diatonic scale, 
 showing that the foundation of the system of music does not rest on a C. basis, but on 
 the natural diatonic progression of sounds. 
 
 GHROMATIG, in optics. See Achromatic. 
 
 GHROMATIGS is that part of the science of optics (q.v.) which explains the properties 
 of the colors of light and of natural bodies. Before 1666, when sir Isaac Newton began 
 to investigate this subject, the notions which prevailed respecting the nature of colors 
 were purely fanciful. Till Descartes’ time, indeed, it seems not to have been conceived 
 that color had anything to do wdth light. As examples of the notions prevalent at very 
 early times, we may cite those propounded by Pythagoras and Zeno. According to the 
 former, color was the superficies of bodies; according to the latter, it was “ the first con- 
 figuration of matter” — whatever that may be. It is now settled that wdiite light is not 
 homogeneous, but consists of rays of different colors, endued with different degrees of 
 refrangibility, and that the different colors of bodies arise from their reflecting this or 
 that kind of rays most copiously. According to this, a body that appears red reflects 
 red rays in greater abundance than the others; and one that appears black reflects none 
 of the rays— in other words, absorbs all the light that falls upon it. The analysis of a 
 beam of the sun’s light by a prism was the experiment by which Newton demonstrated 
 his great optical discovery of the unequal refrangibility of the variously colored rays, 
 and laid the foundations for the above theory of color. The reader will find an account 
 of this experiment, and of the most interesting phenomena presented by the spectrum, 
 under the article Spectrum. Newton concluded from his experiments that white light 
 is composed of seven colors, which he called the primary colors — viz., red, orange, yel- 
 low, green, blue, indigo, and violet, and that all other shades of color arise from the 
 admixture of these in different proportions. Sir David Brewster, on the other hand, 
 conceives that he has established that the primary colors are only three in number — red, 
 yellow, and blue. This result he obtained by examining the rays of the spectrum 
 through different absorbing media — a mode of experiment now admitted to be fallacious 
 in principle. Professor Maxwell, by oirect examination of the rays, concludes that the 
 three primary colors are red, green, and blue. Recently, a theory has been propounded, 
 that all the colors are the results of the admixture of white light and of shade, or dark- 
 ness; but as yet no attempt has been made to support this theory by direct experiment 
 on the sun’s rays. It is rested on results obtained by combining by motion certain pro- 
 
839 
 
 Christ’s thonu 
 Chronicles. 
 
 portions of white and black pigments on a revolving card. See the articles Light, Dis- 
 persion, and Newton’s Kings. 
 
 CHRO'MATYPE (Gr. chrome, color; typoe, impression), a photographic process, thus 
 described by its discoverer, Mr. K. Hunt. One dram of sulphate of copper is dis- 
 solved in one ounce of distilled water, to which is added half an ounce of a saturated 
 solution of bichromate of potash; this solution is applied to the surface of the paper, 
 and when dry, it is tit for use, and may be kept for any length of time without spoiling. 
 When exposed to sunshine, the first change is to a dull brown, and if checked in this 
 stage of the process, we get a negative picture; but if the action of light is continued, 
 the browning gives way, and a positive yellow picture on a white ground is obtained. 
 In either case, if the paper, when removed from sunshine, is washed over with a solu- 
 tion of nitrate of silver, a very beautiful positive picture results. In practice, it will be 
 found advantageous to allow the bleaching action to go on to some extent; the picture 
 resulting from this will be clearer and more defined than that obtained when the action 
 is checked at the brown stage. To fix these pictures, it is necessary to remove the 
 nitrate of silver, which is done by washing them in pure water. If the water contains 
 any chlorides, the picture suffers, and long soaking in such water obliterates it — or, if a 
 few grains of common salt be added, the apparent destruction is rapid. The picture is, 
 however, capable of restoration, all that is necessary being to expose it to sunshine for 
 a quarter of an hour, when it revives; but instead of being of a red color, it assumes a 
 lilac tint, the shades of color depending upon the quantity of salt used to decompose 
 the chromate of silver which forms the shadow parts of the picture. Mr. Bingham sug- 
 gested the substitution of sulphate of nickel for sulphate of copper, as yielding a higher 
 degree of sensitiveness and greater definition. Neither process has been much used. 
 
 CHROMIC ACID, composed of trioxide of chromium and water; formula, Cr 04 Ha. 
 It forms coloring pigments, such as chromate of lead, and chromate and bichromate of 
 potash ; and is used as a caustic in surgery. 
 
 CHROMIC IRON, or Chromite, ore of chromium, found in Maryland, Pennsyl- 
 vania, the Shetland islands, Scotland, France, and other places. It usually occurs in 
 mass, but is sometimes crystallized in octahedrons. Oxides of chromium and iron are 
 its ingredients. 
 
 CHBO'MIUM {chrome, color) is a metal, so called from the many-colored compounds 
 it produces. It was discovered by Vauquelin in 1797. C, occurs naturally as the chro- 
 mate of lead (PbO,CrOs), and the chromite of iron, chrome iron (Fe 0 ,Cr 203 ), at Unst 
 and Fetlar in the Shetlands, and Portsoy in Banffshire, etc. The metai has been obtained 
 in powder and in scales, but as a metal it possesses no interest. The principal com- 
 pound of C. is the bichromate of potash, obtained by heating chrome iron ore in powder 
 with one fourth of its weight of niter, and then digesting in water, which dissolves out 
 the chromate of potash (K 0 ,Cr 03 ), a yellow salt, and when this is acted upon by sul- 
 phuric acid, it is converted into bichromate of potash (K 0 , 2 Cr 03 ), readily crystallizes in 
 orange-red crystals, which is soluble in water, and is largely used by the dyer and calico- 
 printer. If this salt be added to a solution of lead, an abundant yellow precipitate 
 occurs of chromate of lead (Pb 0 ,Cr 03 ), or chrome yellow, which is used largely by the 
 painter as a yellow pigment. A sesquioxide of C. (Cr 203 ), chrome green, possessing a 
 bright green color, which renders it useful in enamel-painting, and being innocuous, it 
 is now introduced into paper-hangings instead of the highly dangerous arsenical green 
 pigment. The bichromate of potash is employed in conjunction with sulphuric acid as 
 an agent in bleaching palm-oil and other oils and fats. 
 
 CHRONICLE (from chronos, time), denotes a history in which events are treated in 
 the order of time. A C. is understood to differ from annals in being more connected 
 and full, the latter merely recording individual occcurences under the successive years 
 or other dates. Most of our older histories were called chronicles, such as the Saxon 
 ijhronicle, Holinshed's Chronicle. The term is seldom applied to a modern book, but fre- 
 quently to a newspaper — as, for instance. The Morning Chronicle. 
 
 CHRONICLES, the name of two of the books of the Old Testament, as found in the 
 common English Bible. In the Hebrew canon the C. form but one book, which is 
 entitled Events of the Times — and this appears to have been a designation commonly 
 applied to special histories — in more definite shape. Events of the Times of King David, or 
 the like. The Greek translators divided the long Hebrew book into two, and adopted 
 the title Ihings Omitted, that is, not recorded in the other historical books. Jerome 
 suggested the title Chronicon, whence comes the English name. The book of C. begins 
 with Adam and ends abruptly in the middle of Cyrus’s decree of restoration. The con- 
 tinuation of the narrative is found in the book of Ezra, which fills up the fragment of 
 the decree of the Persian king. Of the authorship of C. nothing is known except what 
 can be determined by internal evidence. The language implies that the book is one 
 of the latest of the Old Testament. In the Hebrew Bible it is placed last. As to the 
 time of the writing of C., it is argued that the chronicler wrote after the fall of the 
 Persian monarchy. What seems to be certain and important for a right estimate of 
 the book is that the author lived a considerable time after Ezra, and stood entirely 
 under the influence of the religious institutions of the new theocracy. This point of 
 view determined the nature of his interest in the early history of his people. The true 
 
Chronogram. 
 
 Chronology. 
 
 840 
 
 importance of Hebrew history had always centered in the fact that this petty nation was 
 the people of Jehovah, the spiritual God. The tragic interest which distinguishes the 
 annals of Israel from the forgotten history of Moab or Damascus lies wholly in that 
 long contest which finally vindicated the reality of spiritual things and the supremacy 
 of Jehovah’s purpose, in the political ruin of the nation which was the faithless 
 depositary of these sacred truths. After the captivity, it was impossible to write the 
 history of Israel’s fortunes otherwise than in a spirit of religious pragmatism. But 
 within the limits of the religious conception of the plan and purpose of the Hebrew 
 history more than one point of view might be taken. The book of Kings looks upon 
 liistory in the spirit of the prophets. But before the chronicler wrote, the last spark 
 of prophecy had become extinct. The Jerusalem of Ezra was organized no longer as 
 a nation, but as a municipality and a church. The center of religious life was no 
 longer the prophetic word, but the ordinances of the Pentateuch and the liturgical 
 service of the sanctuary. The religious vocation of Israel was no longer national, but 
 ecclesiastical and municipal; and the historical continuity of the nation was vividly 
 realized only within the Myalls of Jerusalem and the courts of the temple, in the solemn 
 assembly and stately ceremonial of a feast day. These influences naturally operated 
 most strongly on those who were officially attached to the sanctuary. To a Levite, even 
 more than to other Jews, the history of Israel meant above all things the history of 
 Jerusalem, of the temple, and of the temple ordinances. The author of C. betrays 
 in every page his essentially Levitical habit of mind. To such a mind, in the fallen 
 condition of the Jews as a political nation, there seemed to be room for a new history, 
 which should confine itself to matters still interesting to the theocraey of Zion, keep- 
 ing Jerusalem and the temple in the foreground, and developing the divine signifi- 
 cance of the history in its causes and results, not so much with reference to the 
 prophetic word as to the fixed legislation of the Pentateuch, so that the whole narra- 
 tive might be made to teach that the glory of Israel lies in the observance of the 
 divine law and ritual. For the sake of systematic completeness, the author of the 
 C. begins with Adam; but he had nothing to add to the Pentateuch, and the period 
 from Moses to David contained little that served his purpose. He therefore contracted 
 the early history into a series of genealogies, which were by no means the least inter- 
 esting part of his work at a time when every Israelite was concerned to prove the 
 purity of his Hebrew descent. From the death of Saul the history becomes fuller, 
 and runs parallel with the books of Samuel and Kings. The limitations of the author’s 
 interest in past times appear in the omission, among other particulars, of David’s 
 reign in Hebron, of the disorders in his family and the revolt of Absalom, of the circum- 
 stances of Solomon’s accession, and of many details as to the wisdom and splendor of 
 that sovereign, as well as of his fall into idolatry In the latter history the ten 
 tribes are quite neglected, and political affairs in Judah receive attention, not in pro- 
 portion to their intrinsic importance, but according as they serve to exemplify God’s 
 help to the obedient and his chastisement of the rebellious. That the author is always 
 unwilling to speak of the misfortunes of good rulers, is not to be ascribed to a desire 
 to suppress the truth, but shows that the book was throughout composed not in purely 
 historical interest, but with a view to inculcate a practical lesson. The more important 
 additions which the chronicler makes to the old narrative consist partly of full details 
 of points connected with the history of the sanctuary and the great feasts, or the 
 archaeology of the Levitical ministry, and partly of narratives of victories and defeats, 
 of sins and punishments, of obedience and its reward, which could be made to point 
 a plain religious lesson in favor of faithful observance of the law. The minor variations 
 of C. from the books of Samuel and Kings are analogous to the larger additions and 
 omissions, so that the whole work has a consistent and well-marked character, pre- 
 senting the history in quite a different perspective from that of the old narrative. An 
 immense amount of criticism has been expended upon C. ; but after all it is safe to con- 
 clude, with Ewald and other careful critics, that there is no foundation for the charge 
 that the chronicler invented history in the interest of his practical purpose of exhor- 
 tation and encouragement. But it is not to be doubted that in shaping his narrative he 
 allowed himself the same freedom taken by other ancient historians, and even by copy- 
 ists. [Portions of this article are, with modifications, from EncyclopoBdia Britannica, 
 ninth edition.] 
 
 CHEO'NOGRAM, or Chro'nograph (Gr. chronos, time, and gramma, a letter, or 
 gragho, I write), a whimsical device of the later Romans, resuscitated during the renais- 
 sance period, by which a date is given by selecting certain letters amongst those which 
 form an inscription, and printing them larger than the others. The principle will be 
 understood from the following C., made from the name of George Villiers, first duke 
 of Buckingham. t 
 
 georgIVs, DYX. bVCkIngaMLe. 
 
 The date MDCXVVVHI (1628) is that of the year in which the duke was murdered by 
 Felton, at Portsmouth. 
 
 CHRO NOGRAPH. Different forms of time-measures, or time-recorders, under this 
 designation, have been invented within a recent period. 
 
 Benson's chronograph is intended to measure intervals of time down to tenths of a 
 
841 
 
 Chronog^ram* 
 
 Chronology. 
 
 second, for use at horse-races and other occasions where a seconds watch is not exactly 
 suited. It has an ordinary quick train-lever movement, carrying hands which move 
 over a dial. One of these is a seconds hand, very peculiarly made. The seconds hand 
 is double, consisting of two distinct hands, one superposed on the other. The outer end 
 of the lowermost hand has a small cup v/ith a minute hole at the bottom ; while the 
 corresponding end of the uppermost hand is bent over so as exactly to reach this punc- 
 ture. The little cup is filled with ink, having a consistency between that of writing- 
 fluid and printers’ ink. Suppose that a horse-race is about to take place. The observer 
 keeps a steady look-out for the fall of the starter’s flag, or whatever the signal may be: 
 he gives a pull to a cord or string connected with the mechanism peculiar to the instru- 
 ment; by this movement, the outer and bent end of the upper seconds hand dips down 
 through the ink-cup in the lower hand, and through the puncture to the dial. A small 
 black spot or mark is thus made upon the dial-plate; and this is repeated as each horse 
 passes the winning-post. If the eye and hand of the operator are quick and accurate, 
 there is a reliable record thus presented by the instrument of the duration of the race, 
 sometimes as close as one tenth of a second. The instrument is now adopted at the 
 principal races as a suitable one for the purpose; thus it is used for races such as the 
 Derby, the Oaks, the Goodwood, the St. Leger, etc. It is also available for many other 
 purposes. 
 
 Strange's chronograph is designed for a more scientific purpose, and constructed 
 with more careful details. The object is to measure extremely short intervals of time, 
 for the determination of longitudes in great trigonometrical surveys. The observer, 
 when a particular star traverses the field of his telescope, touches a small ivory key; 
 and on the instant, a dot or mark appears on a sheet of paper coiled round a barrel. 
 The instrument being connected with an astronomical clock, there is a dot made for 
 every beat of the pendulum ; and as these dots are a considerable space apart (consider- 
 able, that is, for the refined instruments of the present day), it is possible to determine 
 so wonderfully minute an interval as one hundredth of a second. 
 
 Other forms of chronograph have been adopted by astronomers. One was sug- 
 gested by prof. C. A. Young in 1866 to assume the functions of a recording chrono- 
 graph, by marking the instant of observation in hours, minutes, seconds, and hundredths 
 of a second, in printed characters, and in a form suitable for preservation and reduction. 
 
 Chronographs connected with electric and magnetic apparatus are used for determin- 
 ing the velocity of projectiles. Many forms have been devised by Noble, Bashforth, 
 Navez, Le Bouleuge, and other inventors. The most general arrangement consists in 
 causing the bullet to pass through a series of screens ; the rupture of each screen breaks 
 for a moment the continuity of an electric current, sets in action an electro- magnetic 
 apparatus, and makes a permanent mark or record. 
 
 CHRONOL'OGY is the science of the divisions of time. It has two main branches — 
 mathematical C., and historical chronology. Mathematical C. is engaged with such of 
 the units for the measurement of time as begin and end with the period of complete 
 evolution of recurring celestial phenomena. See articles Calendar, Year, Month, 
 Day, and Cycle, where the chief points in mathematical C. are explained. Historical 
 C. uses these units among others to measure the distance in point of time between events, 
 and to fix their dates. As in geography and navigation, longitude is measured from some 
 arbitrary line, such as the meridian through Greenwich, so in historical C., dates are 
 fixed by giving their distance from some arbitrary point of time, usually chosen because 
 of some remarkable occurrence which signalized it. Such a fixed point, or epoch, forms 
 the beginning of an era. It is thus that dates have been aptly said to be to events in 
 history what the latitude and longitude of places are to the places in geography and 
 navigation. The mathematical, or, to speak more properly, the astronomical units of 
 time above referred to have not been, as has been already hinted, the only units used in 
 historical chronology. In early times, the more accurate methods of mathematics were 
 unknown, and such vague periods as “a generation,” or the lifetime of leading persons 
 in a nation, such as the priestesses of Juno, or of the kings, were assumed as units in 
 historical chronology. The great variety of eras, too, in ancient times confuses the 
 student of chronology. Thus the era of the Greeks began with the year of the first olym- 
 piad, or that in which Coroebus was victor; being the first celebration of the games at 
 which the victor’s name was recorded, and which is calculated to correspond to the year 
 776 B.c. From this epoch, the Greeks measured time by olympiads or periods of four 
 years. Thus, the 3d year of the 12th olympiad would be the year 729 b.c. The Koman 
 era was reckoned from the founding of the city, being either 752 or 753 b.c. The Roman 
 practice of dating events from the building of the city, seems to be the first instance of 
 the method of reckoning time from a fixed point by single years. It thus forms one of 
 the great stages in chronology. Of other eras we shall merely mention the Mohamme- 
 dan, which commences with the flight of Mohammed, 622 a.d., and which is called the 
 Hedgrah{(\.v .). The Roman and Greek methods of measuring time continued to be in use 
 long after the birth of Christ; the olympiads, indeed, appear to have been employed in 
 Europe down to the 304th olympiad, or 440 a.d. Prom 312 a.d., however, the public 
 mode of computation throughout the Roman empire was by indictions, which were periods 
 of 15 years, beginning with that year (see Indiction); and this mode was at one time 
 
Cbronology. 
 
 Cliryselephantine. 
 
 842 
 
 almost universally followed in the west. In France, it was not altogether discontinued 
 till the end of the 15th century. The Christian era is said to have been first proposed 
 in the year 527 a.d,, and is now universally used in Christendom. Part of the business 
 of C. is to determine the relationships of the different eras, so as to enable one to express, 
 in the language appropriate to one mode of computation, the date of an event recorded 
 in another. Owing to the birth of Christ being a comparatively recent event, the Chris- 
 tian era is attended by this inconvenience, that we must count backwards from it for 
 the dates of occurrences prior to it. To obviate this, various comprehensive periods, 
 such as the Julian and Louisian periods have been invented, which have the merit of 
 being applicable to most events lying within the limits of history. 
 
 "Various systems of C., such as the Chinese, Babylonian, Egyptian, Indian, and 
 Chaldean, are worthy of attention. Accounts of the periods "which these nations 
 respectively assign to their histories, will be found under the heads Ciiikese Empire, 
 Babylon, etc. Of sacred C. there have been various systems. In these the epochs are 
 the creation of the world, and the flood; but the chief copies of the Bible do not agree 
 as to the dates of these events. While the Hebrew text reckons 4,000 years from the 
 creation to the birth of Christ, and to the flood 1656 years, the Samaritan makes tlve 
 former much longer, though it counts from the creation to the flood only 1307 years. 
 The Septuagint version ditters from both. It removes the creation of the world to 6,000 
 years before Christ, and 2,250 years before the flood. These differences have never 
 been reconciled. It is, now, however, universally admitted, that the creation of the 
 world is not to be regarded as having occurred even so recently as 6,000b.c. The mod- 
 ern understanding of the first chapter of Genesis leaves the period of the creation quite 
 indefinite, and one scheme of interpretation stretches out the days of creation into 
 periods of indefinite length. Of the Newtonian C., all that can be said here is, that it 
 was an attempt, now generally admitted not to have been very successful, to rectify 
 the obvious blunders of ancient chronologers, by determining certain epochs by means 
 partly of astronomical calculations, and partly of the critical examination of such chron- 
 icles as measured time by reigns and generations. By a very fine argument, the sound- 
 ness of which has since been doubted, Newton set down the date of the Argonautic 
 expedition as being 43 years after the death of Solomon, or 937 b.c. 
 
 CHRONOL'OGY {ante), a fixed period from which dates are reckoned. The Chris- 
 tian era (q.v.) starts at the birth of Christ. The years before are marked b.c. and those 
 after, a.d. (Anno Domini). This era is now almost universally accepted. The 
 olympiad was a Greek era in periods of five years; the birth of Christ occurred in the 
 middle of the fourth (some say in the second or third) year of the 194th Olympiad. 
 The era of the foundation of Rome is usually assigned to 753 b.c. The era of the 
 creation is fixed at many widely varying points. The reckoning of Constantinople, 
 which is still used by the Greek church, makes it 5509 b.c. ; the Aby.ssinian church, 
 5492; the Alexandrian church, 5502, and later 5492; the Jews, 3761. One writer on the 
 C. of sacred history collected more than 200 different estimates of the era of the 
 creation, the shortest being 3483, and the longest 6984 b.c. If such or such a date 
 from the creation means anything, it is probably to be read by the period fixed by Dr. 
 Usher, which was 4004 b.c. Yet it must be understood that, on this point, we are with- 
 out the data for an accurate and positive chronology. There is an era of the creation 
 used in India, which is only 3102 b.c. The era of Vicramyditya in common use in 
 India begins 56 b.c. The Spanish era, dating from the conquest of Spain by Augustus, 
 38 B.C., was in use in Spain, Portugal, North Africa, and Southern France. The era 
 of Diocletian, or of the martyrs, is dated 284 a.d. The Mohammedan era, beginning at 
 the time of the prophet’s flight to Medina, is 622 a.d. As reckoned by our ordinary 
 C., the precise dates of commencing the above and other eras are: 
 
 Grecian, Mundane 
 
 Constantinop.e, Civil. . . 
 
 Alexandrian 
 
 Antioch, Mundane 
 
 Julian I'eiiod 
 
 Mundane, Usher 
 
 Mundane, Jewish 
 
 Abraham 
 
 Olympiads 
 
 Rome, foundation of. . . 
 
 Nabonassar 
 
 Metonic Cycle 
 
 Macedonian, or Grecian 
 
 Tyrian 
 
 Sidonian 
 
 Caesarian, of Antioch. . . 
 
 Julian Year 
 
 Spanish Era 
 
 Actian 
 
 Augustan 
 
 
 1. 
 
 5598 
 
 B.C. 
 
 
 1, 
 
 5508 
 
 4< 
 
 .Aug. 
 
 29, 
 
 5502 
 
 it 
 
 
 1, 
 
 5492 
 
 it 
 
 
 1, 
 
 4713 
 
 ti 
 
 
 
 4004 
 
 it 
 
 
 
 3761 
 
 it 
 
 .Oct. 
 
 1, 
 
 2015 
 
 tt 
 
 .July 
 
 1, 
 
 776 
 
 it 
 
 . April 
 
 24, 
 
 753 
 
 ft 
 
 .Feb. 
 
 26, 
 
 747 
 
 it 
 
 July 
 
 15, 
 
 432 
 
 tt 
 
 . Sept. 
 
 1, 
 
 312 
 
 ft 
 
 .Oct. 
 
 19, 
 
 126 
 
 it 
 
 .Oct. 
 
 
 no 
 
 it 
 
 
 1, 
 
 48 
 
 it 
 
 
 1, 
 
 45 
 
 it 
 
 Jan. 
 
 1, 
 
 38 
 
 tt 
 
 
 1, 
 
 80 
 
 
 .Feb. 
 
 14, 
 
 27 
 
 ti 
 
843 
 
 Chronolog^y. 
 
 ChryselephantlnOb 
 
 TTsual Christian (ours) . . . 
 Destruction of Jerusalem 
 
 Era of Maccabees 
 
 Era of Diocletian 
 
 Era of Ascension 
 
 Armenian 
 
 Mohammedan, Hegira . . , 
 Persian of Yezdegird 
 
 .Jan. 1, 
 
 1 
 
 B.C. 
 
 .Sept. 1, 
 
 69 
 
 A.D. 
 
 .Nov. 24, 
 
 166 
 
 
 .Aug. 29, 
 
 284 
 
 a 
 
 .Nov. 12, 
 
 295 
 
 it 
 
 July 9, 
 
 552 
 
 a 
 
 .July 16, 
 
 622 
 
 a 
 
 .June 16, 
 
 632 
 
 ** 
 
 CHRONOM'ETEB, or time-measurer, is the name given principally to such time-keep- 
 ers as are used for determining the longitude at sea. The mechanism is essentially the 
 same as that of a common watch ; only the size is generally greater, and additional pre- 
 cautions are taken to secure regularity under changes of temperature and other derang- 
 ing influences. See Horology. 
 
 CHRON'OSCOPE, an instrument contrived by sir Charles Wheatstone to measure the 
 duration of certain short-lived luminous phenomena, such as the electric spark, of which 
 the eye itself can be no judge, owing to the persistence of impressions of light on the 
 eye after the cause of sensation has ceased. The phenomenon is observed by reflection 
 in a mirror, in such rapid motion that the image of the luminous object would appear 
 to describe a circle, supposing the luminosity to endure long enough. Should the 
 phenomenon be instantaneous, the image will appear as a mere point; should it last for 
 an appreciable time, the image will form an arc, greater or less, of the circle. The 
 electric spark is found by this test to have no duration. 
 
 CHRTT'DIM, a t. of Bohemia, beautifully situated on a small river, about 62 m. s.e. of 
 Prague. It is walled, has a noble collegiate church, a high school and Capuchin 
 convent, manufactures of cloth, and very important horse-markets. Pop. ’69, 11,218. 
 
 CHRYSALIS, or Chrys'alid, a name originally Greek, and strictly belonging to 
 those pupmoi butterflies which are adorned with golden spots, but extended to the pupae 
 of lepidopterous insects generally, and even of other orders of insects. The chrysalids 
 of lepidopterous insects are inclosed in a somewhat horny membranous case; sometimes 
 very angular, sometimes nearly round; generally pointed at the abdominal end, some- 
 times at both ends; and before the caterpillar undergoes its transformation into this 
 state, it often spins for itself a silken cocoon, with which earth and other foreign sub- 
 stances are sometimes mixed, so as to increase its size, and within which the chrysalid 
 is concealed. Chrysalids are often suspended by cords, and generally remain nearly at 
 rest; some have the power of burying themselves in the earth; others are bound 
 by a single silken thread which passes round their middle some twirl themselves 
 round when touched, or when the stalk or leaf to which they are suspended is touched; 
 and in general, they give signs of life, when disturbed, by violent contortions of the 
 abdominal part. See Insects; Pupa; Lepidoptera; Butterfly, Hawk-moth, Moth, 
 and Silkworm. 
 
 CHRYSAN'THEMUM (Gr. gold-flower), a genus of plants of the natural order compo^ 
 siUB, sub-order corymbifercB; having a hemispherical or nearly flat involucre, with imbri- 
 cated scales, which are membranous at the margin, a naked receptacle, the florets of 
 the disk tubular and hermaphrodite, those of the ray strap-shaped and female, the fruit 
 destitute of pappus. The species of this genus are annuals, perennials, or shrubby; and 
 all have leafy stems. They are natives chiefly of the temperate parts of the old world. 
 G. leucanthemum, the Ox-eye, or Ox-eye Daisy, is abundant in fields, meadows, and grassy 
 places of woods, in most parts of Europe. It has large flowers, with white ray and 
 yellow disk. It is often a troublesome weed among hay and in pastures ; being peren- 
 nial, and having a creeping brittle root-stock, it is not easily extirpated. It is common 
 in Britain, which has only one other native species, C. segetum, Corn Marigold, a fre- 
 quent weed in cornfields — although rare in the neighborhood of Edinburgh — an annual, 
 with large deep yellow flowers. It is dealt with like annual weeds in general, by pull- 
 ing it up when young. — (7. carinatum, an annual species with white ray and dark-red 
 disk, the scales of the involucre keeled, a native of Barbary, is frequently cultivated in 
 green-houses or — where the climate permits — in flower-gardens. The favorite species 
 of the gardener is, however, G. Indicum, the Chinese or Indian C., a native of China, 
 Cochin-China, and Japan; which has long been cultivated in its native countries as an 
 ornamental plant, and of which there are many varieties. Its colors are also very 
 various — red, lilac, rose-color, white, yellow, orange, or two colors combined. It flowers 
 in autumn and winter. It is easy of cultivation, succeeds best in a light rich soil, is 
 easily propagated by cuttings, suckers, or parting the roots, but requires the green- 
 house in Britain. It was introduced in 1789. It is reckoned among florists’ flowers. 
 
 CHRYSELEPHANTINE (Gr., from chrysos, gold, and elephas ivory), the art of making 
 images of gold and ivory, was extensively practiced amongst the Greeks. Winckelmann 
 has calculated that about 100 statues of this kind are mentioned by the ancients. The 
 colossal works executed by Phidias at Athens, in the time of Pericles, are the most 
 famous of this class, the greatest being the Pallas of the Parthenon. It was 26 cubits 
 high, and represented the goddess in armor, covered with a long robe. The famous 
 Olympian Jupiter of Phidias, executed in the same materials, was also a world-wide 
 
Chryslppus. 
 
 Cbrysostom. 
 
 844 
 
 wonder. The combination of gold and ivory was chiefly used in temple statues; and 
 though the execution of the more famous works of this class belongs to an advanced 
 period of art, the use of various materials in the same statue was very ancient, and 
 probably borrowed from the custom of adorning the wooden images of the earliest time 
 with the precious metals. Sometimes, too, the head, the arms and hands, and the feet 
 were of marble, whilst the rest was of wood, covered with thin plates of gold. These 
 were called aerolites {akrolithoi). See Statuary. 
 
 CHEYSIP'PUS, an eminent Stoic philosopher, was b. about 280 b.c., at Soli in Cilicia. 
 He came to Athens when still a youth, and eagerly addicted himself to philosophical 
 pursuits. His principal master was Cleanthes, although he is said to have also studied 
 under the academic teachers, Arcesilaus and Lacydes, and learned from them what 
 were the objections urged by skeptics against the doctrines of the Stoics. He had the 
 reputation of being the keenest disputant of his age, and was happily described as 
 “the knife for the academic knots.” In fact, his logic was held to be so convincing, 
 that people were wont to say: “ If the gods make use of dialectic, it can only be that of 
 Chrysippus.” It is also related of him, that he told Cleanthes he merely wanted to know 
 the principles of his system, as he intended to find arguments for them himself; and this 
 story appears to indicate his true position in philosophy. He was not the creator of a 
 new system, but the expounder of an old. C.’s industry was very great. He seldom 
 wrote less than 500 lines a day, and is said to have composed more than 700 works. 
 Many of these, however, were compilations, and were not characterized by. great beauty 
 of style. Only a variety of fragments remain, which have been edited by Petersen 
 (PhilosophuB ChrysippecB Fundamenta, Altona and Hamburg, 1827). 
 
 CHRYS'IS, a Linnsean genus of hymenopterous insects, now constituting a family 
 chrysidoBy allied to the ichneumonidee, and forming a connecting-link between them and 
 bees, wasps, etc. The French call them Ouepes dorees (gilded wasps), and they some- 
 times receive the English names of golden-tailed and ruby-tailed flies. They delight 
 in sunshine, and may be seen poised in the air — the motion of their wings being so rapid 
 as to render the body alone of the insect visible. 
 
 CHRYSOBALANA'CEJS, or Chrysobalane^e, according to some botanists, a distinct 
 natural order of plants; according to others, a sub-order of rosaceae (q. v.). They are 
 distinguished from the other plants usually included in the order rosaceae by their irreg- 
 ular petals, and by having the stamens also irregular, either in size or position; the 
 ovary stalked, its stalk adhering on one side to the calyx, the style proceeding from its 
 base. The fruit is a drupe of one or two cells. The species are trees or shrubs, natives 
 generally of tropical and sub-tropical regions. About 50 species are known. The fruit 
 of many is eatable, as the cocoa plums (q.v.)of the West Indies {chrysobalanus), the fruit 
 of parinarium excelsum in Sierra Leone, and that of 'inoquilea grandijiora in Brazil. The 
 kernels of some resemble sweet almonds, as those of parinarium campestre and^. mon- 
 tanum. A useful oil is expressed from the seeds of prinsepia utilis, a spiny plant, com- 
 mon in some parts of the Himala5'a mountains, and which is also planted for hedges in 
 the Khasia hills, at an elevation of 5,725 ft, above the sea; whilst in Sikkim it is only 
 found where the elevation is above 8,000 feet. This plant would in all probability suc- 
 ceed well in Britain, and an attempt should certainly be made to introduce it. 
 
 CHRYSOBERYL, a gem almost as hard as sapphire, and the finer specimens of which 
 are very beautiful, particularly those which exhibit an opalescent play of light. Lapi 
 daries sometimes call it oriental or opalescent chrysolite. It is of a green color, inclining 
 to yellow, semi-transparent, or almost transparent, and has double refraction. It occurs 
 crystallized in six-sided prisms; often in macles, or twin crystals. It is found in granite, 
 in sandstone, and in alluvial soil; in Ceylon, Pegu, Siberia, Brazil, and Connecticut. It 
 is composed of alumina, glucina, and a little protoxide of iron; the alumina being about 
 80 per cent of the whole. 
 
 CHRYS'OeOLLA, or Copper-Green (Gr. gold-glue), an ore of copper, found in Corn 
 wall and in many parts of the world, but particularly in Wisconsin and Missouri, where* 
 it is so abundant as to be worked for copper. As a pigment, it was much used by the 
 ancients. 
 
 CHRYS'OLITE (Gr. golden-stone), a mineral composed of silica, magnesia, and protox- 
 ide of iron; of a fine green color, with vitreous luster; transparent, and having double 
 refraction; in hardness, about equal to quartz; and with conchoidal fracture. It often 
 crystallizes in four-sided or six-sided prisms, variously modified. Very fine specimens 
 are brought from Egypt and from some parts of the east, also from Brazil. C. is used 
 by jewelers as an ornamental stone, but is not highly valued. Olivine, which occurs 
 generally massive, in grains and roundish pieces, and is frequent in volcanic countries, 
 and found in the igneous rocks of some parts of Scotland — as on Arthur’s seat — is 
 regarded as a coarse variety of chrysolite. — The chrysoberyl (q.v.)is sometimes called C. 
 by jewelers. 
 
 CHRYSOLO'RAS, Manuel, a learned Greek of Constantinople, was b. in the middle 
 of the 14th century. He is regarded as the first who transplanted Greek literature into 
 Italy. About the year 1391, the Byzantine emperor, John Palseologus, sent C. to Eng- 
 land and Italy to entreat assistance against the Turks. This mission made C. known 
 
845 
 
 Cliiysippas. 
 
 Chrysostom* 
 
 Italy, and, in 1397, he left his native land and went to Florence, where, as teacher of 
 Greek literature, he was highly esteemed and admired. Leonardo Bruno, Poggius, 
 Philelphus, Guarinus of Verona, and other eminent scholars, were pupils of his. He 
 was afterwards employed in public services — especially in mediating a union of the 
 Greek with the Roman church — by pope Gregory XII. In 1413, C. went with John XXII. 
 to the council of Constance, where he died 1415. Besides theological works, his 
 Brotemata, or “Accidence of the Greek Language” (Venice, 1484), has been preserved. 
 Manuel C. must be distinguished from his nephew, John Chrysoloras, who also went 
 ■to Italy and gave lessons in Greek. 
 
 CHRYSOMELA and Chrysomelin^. See Godlen Beetle. 
 
 CHRYSOPHYLLUM. See Sapotace^, Monesia Bark, and Star Apple. 
 
 CHRYS'OPRASE is merely a variety of chalcedony, but is valued far above common 
 •chalcedony as an ornamental stone; so that a stone of this kind, fit for mounting in a 
 ring, is worth from £10 to £20. It is of a fine apple-green color in choice specimens, but 
 inferior ones exhibit other shades of green, and it is sometimes spotted with yellowish- 
 brown. It is often set in a circlet of diamonds or pearls. Unfortunately, it. is apt to 
 lose its color through time, particularly if kept in a warm place; but dampness is 
 favorable to its preservation, and it is therefore sometimes kept in damp cotton. It is 
 found in lower Silesia — where 'the search for it was particularly encouraged by Fred- 
 ■crick the great — and in Vermont. The inferior specimens are made into brooches, 
 necklaces, etc. ; and those still coarser, into snuff-boxes, seals, cups, etc. — The C. of 
 the ancients was a stone of yellowish-green color, but it is not certain what it was. 
 
 CHRYS'OPS. See Cleg. 
 
 CHRYS'OSTOM, John (Gr. Chrysosiomos, golden-mouth; so named from the splendor 
 of his eloquence), was b. at Antioch in 347 a. d. His mother Anthusa was a pious 
 woman, wholly devoted to her son, who grew up under her loving instructions into an 
 earnest, gentle, and serious youth, passing through, as Neander significantly observes, 
 none of those wild, dark struggles with sinful passions which left an ineffaceable impress 
 on the soul of Augustine, and gave a somber coloring to his whole theology. He 
 studied oratory under Libanius, a heathen rhetorician; soon excelled his teacher; and, 
 after deyoting some time to the study of philosophy, retired to a solitary place in Syria, 
 and there read the Holy Scriptures. The ascetic severity of his life and studies brought 
 on an illness which forced him to return to Antioch, where he was ordained deacon by 
 "bishop Meletius in 381, and presbyter by bishop Flavianus in 386. The eloquence, ear- 
 nestness, and practical tone of his preaching excited the attention of Jews, heathens, and 
 heretics, and secured for him the reputation of the chief orator of the eastern church. 
 In 397, the eunuch Eutropius, minister of the emperor Arcadius, who had been struck 
 by the bold and brilliant preaching of C., elevated him to the episcopate of Constanti- 
 nople. C. immediately began to restrict the episcopal expenditure in which his prede- 
 cessors had indulged, and bestowed so large a portion of his revenues on hospitals and 
 other charities, that he gained the surname of “John the Almoner.” He also endeav- 
 ored to reform the lives of the clergy, and sent missionaries into Scythia, Persia, Pales- 
 tine, and other lands. His faithful discharge of his duties, especially in reproof of 
 vices, excited the enmity of the patriarch Theophilus and of the empress Eudoxia, who 
 succeeded in deposing and banishing him from the capital. He was soon recalled, to be 
 banished again shortly afterwards. He now went to Nicsea, in Bithynia; but was from 
 thence removed to the little town of Cucusus, in the desert parts of the Taurus moun- 
 tains. Even here his zeal was not abated. He labored for the conversion of the Persians 
 and Goths in the neighborhood, and wrote the seventeen letters (or rather moral essays) 
 to Olympias, to whom he also addressed a treatise on the proposition — “None can hurt 
 the man who will not hurt himself.” The emperor, enraged by the general sympathy 
 expressed towards C. by all true Christians, gave orders that he should be more remotely 
 banished to a desolate tract on the Euxine, at the very verge of the eastern Roman 
 empire. Accordingly, the old man was made to travel on foot, and with his bare head 
 exposed to a burning sun. This cruelty proved fatal. C. died on the way at Comanum, 
 in Pontus, Sept. 14, 407 a.d., blessing (Jod with his dying lips. The news of his death 
 excited much sorrow among all pious Christians, for C. was a man who drew the hearts 
 of his fellows after him; a lovable, manly Christian, haling lies, worldliness, hypocrisy, 
 and all manner of untruth fulness, with that honest w^armth of temper which all vigorous 
 people relish. A sect sprang up after his death, or martyrdom as they conceived it, 
 called Johannists, wJio refused to acknowledge his successors; nor did they return to the 
 general communion till 438, when the archbishop Proclus prevailed on the emperor 
 Theodosius II. to bring back the body of the saint to Constantinople, where it was sol- 
 ernnly interred, the emperor himself publicly imploring the pardon of heaven for the 
 crime of his parents, Arcadius and Eudoxia. The Greek church celebrates the festival 
 of C. on the 13th of Nov.; the Roman, on the 27th of January. In \\\s Homilies (Thomas 
 Aquinas said he would not give in exchange those on St. Matthew for the whole city 
 of Paris) C. displays superior powers of exegesis. In general, he rejects the allegorical 
 system of interpretation, and adheres to the grammatical, basing his doctrines and sen- 
 timents on a rational apprehension of the letter of Scripture. He is, however, far from 
 being a bibliolater. He recognized the presence of a human element in the Bible as 
 
Chrysotype. 
 
 Cliuquisaca. 
 
 846 
 
 well as a divine; and instead of attempting, by forced and artificial hypotheses, to 
 reconcile what he thought irreconcilable in Scripture statements, he frankly admitted 
 the existence of contradictions, and shaped his theory of inspiration accordingly. But 
 his greatest and noblest excellence lay in that power, springing from the fervor and 
 holiness of his heart, by which the consciences of the proud, the worldly, and the prof- 
 ligate were awakened, and all were made to feel the reality of the gospel message. The 
 surname C. was first applied some time after his death, and, as it is supposed, by the 
 sixth oecumenical council in 680. C.’s works are very numerous, and consist of, 1st, 
 Homilies, on parts of Scripture and points of doctrine; 2d, CommentaHes, on the whole 
 Bible (part of which has perished); 3d. Epistles, addressed to various people; 4th, Trea- 
 tises, on dilferent subjects (such as Providence, the Priesthood, etc.); and 5th, Liturgies. 
 Of these the most valuable, as well as the most studied, are the Homilies, which are 
 held to be superior to everything of the kind in ancient Christian literature. 
 
 The most correct Greek edition of C.’s works is that by Henry Savil (8 vols., Eton, 
 1613); and the most complete Greek and Latin edition is that by Montfaucon (13 vols.. 
 Par. 1718-38; republished in 1834-40). The best authority in regard to C. is Nean- 
 der, who, besides treating of his life and labors in his Kirchengeschichte, published a life 
 of this eminent father. 
 
 CHRYS OTYPE (Gr. chrysos, gold; typos, impression), a photographic process invented 
 by sir John Herschel, and depending for its success on the reduction of a persalt of iron 
 to the state of protosalt by the action of light, and the subsequent precipitation of 
 metallic gold upon this protosalt of iron. The process is conducted as follows: Good 
 paper is immersed in a solution of ammonio-citrate of iron of such a strength as to 
 dry into a good yellow color, without any tinge of brown in it. It is then exposed to 
 light under a negative until a faint impression is obtained. A neutral solution of 
 chloride of gold is then brushed over the paper, when the picture immediately appears, 
 and is rapidly developed to a purple tint. It should then be freely washed in several 
 changes of water, fixed with a weak solution of iodide of potassium, again thoroughly 
 washed and dried. The action of the iodide of potassium is to convert any unaltered 
 chloride of gold into a soluble double iodide of gold and potassium, thus rendering the 
 picture permanent. 
 
 CHRZANOW'SKI, Adalbert, 1788-1861; a native of Poland, who participated in 
 Napoleon’s Russian campaign, in the engagements at Leipsic, Paris, and Waterloo. 
 After Napoleon’s final defeat he served in the Russo-Polish army, and was under Die- 
 bitsch in Turkey in 1829. In the Polish revolution of 1830 he served with distinction, 
 rose to the rank of gen. of division, and was made governor of Warsaw. He fell under 
 suspicion of friendliness to the Russians, and was from time to time under a sort of 
 ostracism. In 1849, he was chosen by Charles Albert commander-in-chief of the Sar- 
 dinian forces in the short-lived revolution of that period. Ramorino and C. were 
 charged with treachery, and the former was put to death. Some years later C. emi- 
 grated to the United States, and died in Louisiana. 
 
 CHUB, Leuciscus cephalus, a fish of the family cyprinidoe, of the same genus with the 
 roach, dace, bleak, minnow, etc. See Leuciscus. The color is bluish-black on the 
 upper parts, passing into silvery white on the belly; the cheeks and gill-covers rich 
 golden yellow. The C. rarely attains a weight exceeding 5 lbs. It is plentiful in many 
 of the rivers of England, and occurs in some of those of the s.w. of Scotland. In the 
 rivers of Cumberland it bears the name of shelly, supposed to have reference to the size 
 of its scales; but the schelly of Ullswater lake is the gwyniad, and the C. is there called 
 \\iQ cheviu. It is found in many rivers of the continent of Europe ; being i\\e jentling 
 or hratfisch of the Danube, and the jese of the Oder. It spawns in April apd May. It 
 is not in great esteem for the table. 
 
 The C. rises well at a fly, and takes freely a variety of baits. The same baits and 
 the same means of fishing may be employed as for the barbel and bream. The C. is 
 very fond, moreover, of slugs, grasshoppers, cockchafers, and humble-bees. The latter 
 two are to be used either naturally, by means ofdibbing or dapping, or, being imitated, 
 may be used artificially, and cast as a fly. The best flies for the C. are large red, black, 
 and brown palmers, with the hackles laid on thickly. The best places to fly -fish for C. 
 are close under overhanging boughs at the sides of streams, or against piles, or other 
 places where they can get some shelter, for the C. is somewhat shy and easily alarmed. 
 He is a bold riser, and when he comes at a fly seldom fails to hook himself. Of all the 
 baits for bottom-fishing, he prefers greaves, cheese, and worms ; and the fatter the bait 
 the better he likes it. He will occasionally run at a minnow, and is often taken on a 
 spinning bait. The C. spawns in May and comes into condition again by the end of 
 June or early in July; bites best, and is in the best condition for bottom-fishing, in 
 Oct. and Nov. When first hooked, he makes a great dash, but he very soon gives in. 
 Some years ago, the scales of the C. were in much at repuest, in common with those of 
 the bleak, for artificial pearl-makers. 
 
 CHUBB, Thomas, an English rationalist, who wrote on religious questions during the 
 first half of the last century, was b. at East Harnham, in Wiltshire, in 1679. He received 
 but a meager education in youth, and, after an apprenticeship to a leather glove and 
 breeches maker in Salisbury, he became a tallow-chandler, in which business he con- 
 
847 
 
 Chrysotyp©. 
 
 Cliuquisaoa. 
 
 tinned to the end of his life. His first work, published in 1715, was entitled Supremacy 
 of Ood the Father Vindicated. Besides this, he wrote a multitude of treatises on other 
 religious subjects. Among these may be mentioned: A Discourse on Reason, as a suf- 
 ficient Guide in Tnatters of Religion; On Sincerity; On Future Judgment and Eternal Pun- 
 ishment; Inquiry about Inspiration of the Neio Testament; and Doctrine of Vicarious 
 Suffering and Intercession Refuted. C. died in 1746. 
 
 CHUCK-WILL’S-'WIDO'W, Antrostomus Carolinensis, a bird of the goatsucker family 
 icaprimulgidce), a native of the southern parts of the United States. It has received its 
 singular name from its note, which resembles these words or syllables articulated with 
 great distinctness, and is repeated like that of the cuckoo, or of its own congener, the 
 whip-poor-will (q.v.). 
 
 CHUCUI'TO, or Chuquito, a t. of Bolivia, in the department of Puno, and 100 m. 
 €.n.e. of Arequipa, on the w. shore of lake Titicaca, at the mouth of a stream flowing 
 from the Andes. It was formerly of much greater size and importance than it is at 
 present, having had, it is said, at the beginning of the 18th c., the incredible number of 
 800,000 inhabitants. Its present- pop. is only about 5,000. In the province of the same 
 name, of which it is the capital, there are mines of silver and gold, and interesting anti- 
 quarian remains. 
 
 CHU-LAN. See ChlokaKthack®. 
 
 CHUMBTJL', a river rising in the Vindhyan mountains, which form the southern limit 
 of the basin of the Ganges. Its source, at a height of 2,019 ft. above the sea, is in lat. 22* 
 26' n., and long. 75° 45' east. During a generally n.e. course of 570 m., it receives many 
 tributaries on both sides, till, in lat. 26° 30' n., and long. 79° 19' e., it enters the Jumna 
 from the right, with such a volume of water, that, when itself flooded, it has been known 
 to raise the united stream 7 or 8 ft. in twelve hours. The C. is remarkable, here and 
 there, for the wildness of its current and the picturesque character of its banks. 
 
 CHTJNAM', the Indian name for a very fine kind of quicklime made from calcined 
 shells or from very pure limestone, and used for chewing with betel (q.v.), and for 
 plaster. Both recent and fossil shells are used for making chunam. Extensive beds of 
 fossil shells employed for this purpose occur in the s. of India, particularly in low 
 marshy situations near the sea-coast. The shells used are in the first place very care- 
 fully cleaned; they are then calcined in kilns, with wood charcoal. When chunam is to 
 be used for plaster, it is mixed with fine river-sand, and thoroughly beaten up with 
 water. A Yi\X\q jaggery (coarse sugar) is also added. When very beautiful work is desired, 
 three coats of chunam are given to the wall, and the result is a plaster almost equal to 
 marble in its polish and beauty. The third coat is applied in the form of a very fine 
 paste, consisting of four parts of lime and one of fine white sand, beaten up with whites 
 of eggs, sour-milk, and ghee (butter). After it has been rubbed on with a wooden rub- 
 ber, the surface is washed with a cream of pure lime, and is rubbed with a polished 
 piece of quartz or rock crystal. During this process, the wall is sprinkled with powder 
 of pot-stone, and the rubbing is continued until the wall is quite dry, every trace of 
 moisture being finally removed by a cloth. Chunam is an important article of trade in 
 India. 
 
 CHUNAB6UEH', or Chunar, a fortified t. on the right bank of the Ganges, 16 m, 
 to the s.w. of Benares, and in the division of that name. It is in the district of Mirza- 
 pore, and lieutenant-governorship of the north-west provinces. The population of the 
 town in 1871 amounted to 10,154. The fortress, which occupies the summit of a sand- 
 stone rock, contains the commandant's house, the hospital, the prison, and an ancient 
 palace, with a deeply excavated well of indifferent water. The river in front is navi- 
 gable at all seasons for vessels of from 50 to 60 tons. 
 
 CHUND, or Chand, a Hindu writer of the 12th c., court poet to the last of the 
 Hindu sovereigns of Delhi. He wrote in verse an immense encyclopsedic work, includ- 
 ing a history, and especially an account of the exploits of the author and of his master. 
 
 CHUPRA, a t, in India, in the province of Behar, Bengal, on the n. bank of the 
 Ganges, 35 m. n.w. of Patna. It extends nearly a mile along the river, and has several 
 pagodas, mosques, and churches. There is trade in cotton, sugar, and saltpeter. Pop. 
 about 30,000. 
 
 CHUQUISA'CA, or Su'cre, the capital of Bolivia or Upper Peru, in lat. 19° 20' s. , 
 and long. 65° 30' west. It is situated on a table-land about 9,000 ft. above the sea, and 
 has a pleasant climate. The town is well built, has a cathedral of great magnificence, 
 n university, a college of arts and sciences, and a mining-school. C. was founded in 
 1538 by Pedro Auzures, an officer of Pizarro’s, on the site of an old Peruvian town 
 called “Choque Chaka,” or “bridge of gold,” “the treasures of the Incas having passed 
 through it on their way to Cuzco.” At one time, C. bore the name of La-Plata, on 
 account of the rich silver mines in its vicinity. Pop. 23,979. C. gives name to a 
 territory containing 223,668 whites, besides many native Indians. It has five silver 
 mines in operation ; and in it are magnificent ruins of unknown origin. The second 
 name is derived from the general who, in Dec., 1824, fought and won the last great 
 battle for colonial independence at Ayacucho. 
 
Chnr. 
 
 Cburclu 
 
 848 
 
 CHTTE (Ft. Coire, anct. Chiria RhcBtorum), a t. of Switzerland, capital of the Grisons, 
 in the valley of the Upper Rhine, in a fertile plain about 2000 ft. above the sea, and sur- 
 rounded by high mountains, 60 m, s.e. of Zurich, on the Plessur, about a mile from its 
 junction with the Rhine. It is of importance as standing on the great road to Italy by 
 the Splilgen and Bernardin passes, and thus possessing a considerable transit trade. C. 
 stands on uneven ground, has narrow streets, and is divided into a high and low town.. 
 The bishop’s palace, and the quarter around it, inhabited by the Roman Catholics, 
 occupy the summit of an eminence, and are separated from the rest by walls and battle- 
 ments, closed by double gates. In the same quarter stand the old cathedral, a round, 
 arched, or Byzantine edifice, founded in the 8th c. ; the church of St. Lucius or the 
 Dom, a curious example of early pointed Gothic, including fragments of earlier build- 
 ings. It contains singular old carving, paintings, and statues, and also, it is said, the 
 bones of St. Lucius, who was a British king. Behind the episcopal palace is a kind of 
 ravine lined with vineyards. In the lower town there are also some very ancient build- 
 ings. Romanscli is still spoken in the vicinity; a newspaper in this dialect is published 
 in the town; and a considerable collection of Romansch literature is to be found in the 
 library of the cantonal schools. There are several new* roads leading in different direc- 
 tions through the Grisons; and a railway connects the town with Zurich and other 
 places. There are manufactures of zinc wares and cutting tools. Pop. 70, 7,652, of 
 whom about 2000 are Catholics. 
 
 CHTTRCH, a word which signifies either a place of Christian worship or a collective 
 body of Christian people. It is, in all probability, derived from the Greek adjective 
 kyriakos (from kyrios, lord), the place of worship having been called the Lord’s house, and 
 the worshipers the Lord's people. The Scottish kirk, the German kirche, etc., are merely 
 different forms of it. 
 
 Under the terms apse and basilica (q.v.), we have already explained that the ear- 
 liest ecclesiastical structures of the Christians were copied or adapted not from the 
 heathen or Jewish temple, as might have been anticipated, but from that peculiar com- 
 bination of a hall of justice and a market-place to which the name basilica was given 
 by the ancients. The reason of this selection is probably to be found, not so much in 
 the spirit of opposition which no doubt existed between Christians and heathens, as in 
 the essentially different conceptions which they formed of the character and objects of 
 public worship. The rites of heathendom were performed exclusively by the priest, the 
 people remaining without the temple; and the temple itself, which was lighted only 
 from the door, or by the few lamps which burned around the image of the god, waa 
 regarded not as a receptacle for worshipers, but as the abode of the deity. The dark, 
 mysterious character which thus belonged to it, rendered it equally unsuitable for the 
 performance of liturgical services in which the people were to participate, and for the 
 delivery of those public addresses which from the beginning were employed as a means 
 of Christian teaching and exhortation. To such purposes, the prcetor’s court-room, 
 with its surroundings, were readily adapted, by the few simple alterations which we 
 have described in the articles referred to. But the basilica, as thus altered, was a mere 
 utilitarian structure. It served the purposes of Christian worship, but there was noth- 
 ing in its form which responded to the feelings of Christian worshipers, or tended to 
 awaken Christian sentiments. Now, the cross (q.v.) had been used % Christians from 
 a very early period to indicate their allegiance to the author of their salvation and the 
 object of their faith; and gradually it had become the distinctive emblem of Christian- 
 ity. Nothing, then, could be more natural than that when it became desirable to give 
 distinctively Christian characteristics to what hitherto had been a heathen structure, 
 this should be effected by such a modification of its form as should convert it into a 
 representation of this sacred emblem. Nor did this alteration lead to any very extensive 
 change on the form of the C., as it had hitherto existed. The basilica, as we have 
 already explained, not unfrequently had side entrances, either in place of, or in addi- 
 tion to, that from the end. All that was requisite, then, to convert the simple parallelo- 
 gram of which it consisted into a cross, was, that at each side of the building these 
 entrances, in place of direct communications with the exterior, should be converted into 
 passages, or arms running out at right angles, and more or less prolonged, according as 
 the object was to attain the form of a Greek or of a Latin cross (see Cross). If the C. 
 was to be in the form of a Greek cross, the arms were made of the same length with the 
 other two portions into which they divided the building; whereas if the cross was to be 
 a Latin one, the portion of the building which ran towards the w. was made consider- 
 ably longer than either of the others. In either case, the arms running at right angles 
 to the C., and directly opposite to each other, cut it across, and thus obtained the name 
 of transepts. 
 
 ■ The external form of the C. being thus indicated, we now proceed to explain its 
 internal arrangements, and to enumerate the various adjuncts which in cathedrals and 
 others of the larger churches frequently sprang up around it. 
 
 Over the point at which the arms hr transepts intersect the body of the cross, a cen- 
 tral tower or spire is very frequently erected. From this central tower, or, if the tower 
 or towers are situated elsewhere, from this central point, the portion of the building 
 which runs westward, to where the Galilee or entrance chapel, or, in other instances, the 
 
849 
 
 Chur. 
 
 Churoh* 
 
 ,i»^reat entrance-door is situated, is called the nave (from navis, a ship), whilst the portion 
 which runs eastward to where the altar, or high-altar, if there be several, is placed, is 
 called the choir. In the larger and more complete churches, the nave, and frequently 
 also the choir, are divided longitudinally by two rows of pillars into three portions, the 
 portion at each side being generally somewhat narrower and less lofty than that in the 
 center. These side portions are called the aisles of the nave, or of the choir, as the case 
 may be. In some churches, the aisles are continued along the transepts, thus running 
 round the whole C. ; in others, there are double aisles to the nave, or to both nave and 
 choir, or even to nave, choir, and transept. Behind, or to the e. of the choir, is situ- 
 ated the Ladye’s chapel, or chapel of the Virgin, with sometimes a number of altars; and 
 it is not unusual for side chapels to be placed at different places along the aisles. These 
 usually contain the tombs of the founder, and of other benefactors to, or dignitaries 
 connected with, the church. The extent to which these adjuncts exist depends on the 
 size and importance of the C., and they are scarcely ever alike in two churches, either 
 in number, form, or position. Vestries for the use of the priests and choristers generally 
 exist in connection with the choir. Along the sides of the choir are ranged richly orna- 
 mented seats or stalls, usually of carved oak, surmounted with tracery, arches, and pin- 
 nacles; and amongst these seats, in the case of a bishop’s church, the highest and most 
 conspicuous is the so-called cathedra, or seat for the bishop, from which the cathedral 
 takes its name. The larger English cathedral and abbey-churches have usually a chap- 
 ter-house attached to them, which is of various forms, most commonly octagonal, and is 
 often one of the richest and most beautiful portions of the whole edifice. On the conti- 
 nent, chapter-houses are not so common, the chapter (q.v.) being usually held in the 
 cathedral itself, or in one of the chapels attached to it. Cloisters (q.v.) are also frequent, 
 and not unusually the sides of those which are furthest removed from the C. or chapter- 
 house, are inclosed by other buildings connected with the establishment, such as a 
 library, and places of residence for some of the oflicials of the cathedral. It is here that, 
 in Roman Catholic churches, the hall, dormitories, and kitchens for the monks are com 
 monly placed. Beneath the C. there is frequently a crypt (q.v.). In some cathedral 
 churches, the crypt is in reality a second underground C. of great size and beauty. The 
 baptistery (q.v.) is another adjunct to the C., though frequently forming a building alto- 
 gether detached. Most of the parts of the C. which we have mentioned may be traced ; 
 but it must not be supposed that their position is always that which is there represented. 
 The position of the nave, choir, or chancel, aisles, and transepts are nearly invariable, 
 but the other portions vary, and are scarcely alike in two churches. 
 
 Churches are of five classes — metropolitan, cathedral, collegiate, conventual, and par- 
 ish churches — and of these the first are, generally speaking, the most, and the last the 
 least elaborate. In ordinary language, any building set apart for religious ordinances is 
 called a church, though when of a minor kind it is more usually designated a chapel. 
 After a long period of neglect and poverty of taste, the building of churches in a supe- 
 rior style, emulative of the older styles of architecture, has greatly revived, not only as 
 regards the church of England, but the church of Scotland and nearly all dissenting 
 bodies. 
 
 As applied to a collective body of Christian people, the word C. is the translation and 
 equivalent of the Greek word ecclesia (Lat. ecclesia, Fr. eglise), used in the New Testament. 
 It is common among Protestants to distinguish between the visible and the invisible C. — 
 the invisible C. consisting of all those who are savingly or spiritually united to Christ, 
 that is, of all true believers; the visible C. consisting of all who profess the religion of 
 Jesus Christ. Roman Catholics do not in the same manner acknowledge the distinction 
 between the visible and the invisible C., but regard a connection with the hierarchy, and 
 consequent participation of ordinances, as establishing a connection with the true C. 
 and with Christ. Protestants regard the C. as subsisting from age to age, in virtue of 
 the authority of Christ, and through the faith of individual believers and their confession 
 of him; Roman Catholics regard the apostolical succession of the hierarchy, and the regu- 
 lar administration of the sacraments, as essential to the continued existence of that 
 Catholic ov universal C. which Christ planted on the earth, and the existence of which he 
 has promised to maintain throughout all ages. Protestants, in general, regard the C. of 
 Rome and the Greek C. as forming part of the visible C. of Christ; but Roman Catholics 
 are not accustomed to make a corresponding admission with respect to the Protestant 
 churches. From the hierarchical principle of the C. of Rome and of the Greek C., results 
 an ernployment of the term C. to designate the hierarchy alone, which is contrary to the 
 principles of the reformation, although a tendency to it may be observed in some Prot- 
 estant churches. It has been usual for Protestants to designate by the term C. the 
 collective body of Christians in a particular country, distinguished by "the name of that 
 country ; the greater number of Protestants (Episcopalians and Presbyterians) believing 
 that such a portion of the universal C. may warrantably be associated under a common 
 government; and in countries where religious liberty exists, diversities of opinion on 
 points of doctrine and C. government have given rise to the existence of separate Christian 
 associations, distinguished by names generally indicative of some of the peculiarities 
 which characterize them; but these, however'much they may differ on many points, do 
 not in general hesitate to recognize each other as belonging to the universal visible C. of 
 U. K. ni.— 54 
 
Cliurch. 
 
 850 
 
 Christ, whilst they retain in common the same great first principles of the Christian faith, 
 and particularly the belief in one God and in the three persons of the Godhead, the 
 incarnation of the Son of God, the atonement by Jesus Christ, and the work of the Holy 
 Spirit. Tho term C., however, is regarded by Independents (q.v.) or Congregationalists, 
 as more strictly applicable to those who are united as worshipers in a particular place 
 of worship, partaking of the Lord’s supper together, and exercising discipline and C. 
 government among themselves. 
 
 CHURCH, Albert E., ll.d., 1807-78; b. Cohn.; graduated at West Point in 
 1828. He became professor of mathematics in the U. S. military academy in 1838, and 
 published Elements of Differential and Integral Calculus; Elements of Analytical Geome- 
 try; Elements of Analyticcd Trigonometry ; and Elements of Descriptive Geometry, with its 
 application to ^herical Projections, Shades and Shadows, Perspective and Geometric Pro- 
 jections. 
 
 CHURCH, Benjamin, 1639-1718; a New England soldier who served with distinc- 
 tion in king Philip’s wars, and was commander in the fight in which Philip was killed. 
 He commanded a number of expeditions against the Indians of New Hampshire and 
 Maine. From his dictation and memoranda his son wrote a history of king Philip’s 
 war. 
 
 CHURCH, Frederick Edwin, b. Conn., 1826; a pupil of Thomas Cole, and 
 a painter of eminence. The works which gave him prominence are a “View of East 
 Rock, near New Haven.” and “Scenes in the Catskill Mountains.” He visited South 
 America in 1853 and 1857; and in Ecuador and New Granada made sketches for a num- 
 ber of paintings, some of which have attained great celebrity, such as the “ Heart of the 
 Andes,” “On the Cordilleras,” and “Cotopaxi.” Another celebrated work is the 
 “ Horse-shoe Fall, Niagara.” He visited Jamaica, and afterwards Europe and the Holy 
 Land. Some of his other works are “Damascus,” “Jerusalem,” “The Parthenon,^’ 
 and “Tropical Scenery.” 
 
 CHURCH, John Hubbard, d.d., 177^1840; a graduate of Harvard in 1797, and for 
 nearly 40 years pastor of a Congregational church in Pelham, N. H. He held various 
 offices in Dartmouth college, Andover theological seminary, and Phillips academy, and 
 was prominent in Bible, tract, and missionary societies. 
 
 CHURCH, sir Richard, 1780-1873; an Englishman, who held the principal com- 
 mand in the Greek war of independence. On the final establishment of the kingdom of 
 Greece he was made a councilor of state, and afterwards a member of the senate ; and 
 was for many years at the head of the army and navy. 
 
 CHURCH, Sandford E., ll.d., 1815-80; b. N. Y. ; bred to the law, in which he 
 speedily rose to a prominent position. In 1850, he was elected lieut.gov. of New 
 York, and was re-elected in 1852; in 1857, he was elected comptroller, but twice after- 
 wards defeated for the same oflSce. In 1870, he was elected chief justice of the court of 
 appeals, which position he held until his death. 
 
 CHURCH, States op the. See Papal States. 
 
 CHURCH CALENDAR, a table of the order and series of days, weeks, months, and 
 holy days in the year. The name is derived from calendce, or first days of the Roman 
 month. The earliest now existing which contains the Christian festivals is that of 
 Silvius, 448 a.d. A fragment of a Gothic calendar remains, which probably belongs to 
 the 4th century. The name is applied also to the fasti or catalogues for particular 
 churches, of the saints most honored by them, such as bishops, martyrs, etc. At the 
 reformation the German Lutheran church retained the Roman calendar. In 1850, a 
 calendar was published for the evangelical church of Germany. It has been continued 
 annually, and contains much interesting information, in addition to the table of feasts, 
 fasts, etc. The full calendar of the church of England contains 9 columns, giving the 
 golden number, days of the month, the dominical or Sunday letter, the calends, nodes 
 and ides, the daily Scripture lessons, and the holy days of the church, together with 
 some of the Roman festivals which have been retained, not as having any religious value, 
 but because the practice of the courts, the habits of tradesmen, and the times of popular 
 amusements had become interwoven with them. The calendar of the Protestant Epis- 
 copal church in the United States retains only the festivals which are referable to a 
 Scriptural origin. 
 
 CHURCH CONGRESS, the name of free gatherings of ministers and laymen of the 
 established church of England, annually convened for the discussion of ecclesiastical and 
 religious questions. The first church congress was held in 1861 in Canterbury, 
 and in the following years successively in Oxford, Manchester, Bristol, York, etc. The 
 attendance is usually very large, and comprises many bishops and lower dignitaries. 
 Full reports of the proceedings of each session are published. Such meetings, having 
 the advantage of free interchange of views, but with no claim to ecclesiastical authority, 
 have been found very profitable in this country; and though in the Protestant Episcopal 
 church the sentiment in their favor has not been unanimous, they are winning for them- 
 selves an established position through either enthusiastic advocacy or silent consent. 
 
851 
 
 Oburch. 
 
 CHURCH DIET, the free gathering of ministers and lay members of German 
 Protestant churches. Such meetings arose in consequence of the revolutionary move- 
 ments of 1848, which threatened to endanger the influence of the evangelical church 
 upon society. Members of the Lutheran, Reformed, the United Evangelical, with the 
 high church “ confessionals” participated in the earlier meetings; but after 1860 only the 
 evangelical parties were represented. Annual reports are published. 
 
 CHUBCH DISCIPLINE, DisnpUna ecclesiastica, includes all the means employed by 
 the Christian church, besides the ministration of word and sacraments, to secure on the 
 part of its office-bearers and members a faithful adherence to their profession and a cor- 
 responding blamelessness of life. It rests upon the authority of Christ, and at the same 
 time necessarily arises, in some fo?m of it, out of the very constitution of the church as 
 a society. Among the early Christians, it soon assumed forms of great severity 
 towards offenders, especially towards the lapsed (q.v.). At a later period, the disci- 
 pline of the church was chiefly exercised with respect to persons accused of heresy and 
 schism. The penances of the church of Rome have long formed an important part of 
 its discipline, and therewith its indulgences (q.v.) are closely connected, as well as its 
 doctrine and rule of auricular confession (see Confession), In the Protestant churches, 
 public confession of sins by which public scandal has been given, and submission 
 to public rebuke, are sometimes required. Practices more analogous to those of the 
 primitive church were established in many churches after the reformation, but in gen- 
 eral have fallen greatly, or entirely, into disuse. The power of exclusion from the 
 Lord’s Supper, and from the rights and privileges of church membership, is, however, 
 generally retained and exercised, until, by profession of repentance, and by reformation 
 of life, the cause of such exclusion is removed; and ministers or other office-bearers are, 
 upon offense given in their doctrine or conduct, suspended from their functions, or 
 altogether deposed from their office. The exercise of C, D. belongs more or less exclu- 
 sively to a hierarchy, or to the office-bearers assembled in church-courts, or to the mem- 
 bers of each congregation, according as the church is Episcopalian, Presbyterian, or 
 independent in its church government. There is an increasing tendency among Chris- 
 tians in general to scrutinize closely the claim of right to exercise C. D., and the limits 
 within which it may be exercised. 
 
 CHUBCH GOVEBNMENT. The Christian church, like every other society, must have 
 a certain constitution and rules according to which its affairs are administered. It is 
 disputed, however, among Christians, how far this constitution has been defined, or 
 these rules prescribed by divine authority, and how far they have been left to the dis- 
 cretion of men. The form of C. G. depends primarily on the idea entertained of the 
 constitution of the church. Congregationalists, or independents (q.v.), accordingly 
 place all C. G. in the hands of the members of the congregation and the office-bearers 
 whom they have elected. This theory of C. G. is maintained by many Baptists and 
 others, who, for various reasons, assume different denominations. — Episcopalians and 
 Presbyterians agree that many congregations are to be united under a common govern- 
 ment; but this, according to Presbyterians, is properly carried on by ministers and 
 elders of these congregations meeting for this purpose on a footing of equality; whilst, 
 according to Episcopalians, it is more or less absolutely in the hands of bishops, who 
 are superior to the mere pastors of congregations. See Episcopacy and Presbyteri- 
 anism. 
 
 CHUBCH HISTOBY or ECCLESIASTICAL HISTOBY. The history of the Christian 
 religion and church forms one of the most important parts of the general history of man- 
 kind, and is intimately connected not only with the political history of the world, but 
 with the history of philosophy, of literature,* and of civilization. The sources and author- 
 ities are extremely various, and their due appreciation often requires as much judgment 
 as their exploration requires toil. Church history is either general — embracing a view 
 of the affairs of the church in the whole world from the beginning to the present day — 
 or particular, relating to some particular country, or time, or portion of the church. By 
 some authors, it has been treated chiefly with regard to the outward affairs of the church; 
 and by others, with reference to doctrine, morals, and the evid^ces of spiritual life; 
 whilst others still have devoted their attention chiefly to the forfffs of worship, the con- 
 stitution of the church, and other things generally comprehended under the name of 
 ecclesiastical antiquities. All these, of course, have important relations to each other. 
 The earliest writers of church history were in general mere chroniclers, following the 
 order of time; in the great work of the Magdeburg centuriators, a method was adopted, 
 of which there had been previous examples, and which afterwards became frequent, of 
 treating each century separately, the centuries being subdivided according to convenience 
 of subjects; but arrangements less mechanical and arbitrary have been adopted by the 
 most eminent modern authors. With much diversity on minor points, there is a gen- 
 eral agreement in dividing the whole history of the church into three great periods: the 
 first, from our Saviour to the time of Constantine; the secqnd, from that time to the 
 reformation; and the third, from the reformation to the present day. 
 
 The earliest facts of C. H. are to be learned only from the New Testament, after 
 which, however, the epistles and other writings of the apostolic and other primitive 
 fathers afford sources of information, unfortunately very scanty; Hegesippus, who 
 
Churchill. 
 
 Church. 
 
 852 
 
 wrote about tbe middle of the 2d c., has transmitted to us some very imperfect memo- 
 rials of these early times; but the first proper ecclesiastical history is that of Eusebius 
 of Caesarea (324). This work was continued to the 5th c. by Socrates Scholasticus, 
 Hermias Sozomenus, and Theodoret. Similar compilations were executed by 
 Lactantius, Epiphauius, Hieronymus, Theodoret of Cyrus, Philostorgius, and Zosimus. 
 In the 6th c. , the chief ecclesiasticai historians are — Theodorus Lector, Evagrius, and 
 Nicephorus Callistius; in the 8th, the venerable Bede and Paul Warnefried; in the 9th, 
 Theophanes Confessor, Claudius of Turin, Haymo of Halberstadt, Scotus Erigena, and 
 Hinkmar of Rheims; in the 12th and 13th, Photius, Simeon Metaphrastes, Theophy- 
 lact, Matthew Paris, Albert of Strasburg, and Ptolemy of Lucca; in the 15th, Lauren- 
 tius Valla is the most conspicuous name. Protestant writers were the first to treat C. 
 H. in a critical and scientific manner. This was natural, for their position as apparent 
 schismatics compelled them to vindicate historically the changes which they had 
 wrought in the character of the church. Hence their writings were of an apologetic 
 and polemical cast. The first work of this kind was the Magdeburg Centuries (q.v.), 
 published by Matthias Flacius. Special histories of the reformation were composed by 
 Sleidan and Seckendorf. In the 17th c. , Calixtus distinguished himself in this depart- 
 ment, and after him Thom. Illig, Adam Rechenberg, and Thomasius. The new life 
 that awoke in Germany towards the middle of the 18th c., produced a multitude of 
 church historians, of whom we can only afford to mention Arnold, C. M. Pfaff, 
 Mosheirn, Semler, and J. Matth. SchrSckh ; while in still more recent times, Marheineke, 
 Danz, Neander, Gieseler, and Hagenbach have achieved the highest distinction in the 
 same sphere of labor. But others besides the Lutheran divines have rendered valuable 
 services to church history. The reformed church boasts the eminent names of Du 
 Moulin, Joh. Dallaus, Blondel, Hottinger, Spanheim, Turretin, Venema, Jablonski, 
 and recently, D’Aubigne; while among Englishmen, Usher, Pearson, Bingham, Lard- 
 ner, and recently, Milman and Maurice, have won a distinguished place. Scotland has 
 few names, the chief being Calderwood, Wodrow, M'Orie, and recently Cunningham. 
 In the Roman Catholic church, since the period of the reformation, ecclesiastical histo- 
 rians have rarely manifested a dispassionate and philosophic spirit. They have 
 appeared mainly in the character of defenders of the papacy. The greatest names in 
 C. H. in Catholic France are Tillemont, Bossuet, Bayle, Du Pin, Thomassin, and 
 Fleury. Among the Italians may be mentioned Orsi, Saccharelli, Pallavicini, Guic- 
 ciardini, and Muratori; and among the Roman Catholics of Germany, Dannenmayr, 
 count Stolberg, Ritter, Hortig, Dollinger, etc. 
 
 For the benefit of the English reader, it may be stated that the extensive, profound, 
 and philosophic work of Dr. Augustus Neander has been translated from the original 
 German into English, and is published in 10 vols. by Bohn. 
 
 CHURCHILL, a co. in w. central Nevada, intersected in the n. part by the Central 
 Pacific railroad; 5,800 sq.m.; pop. ’80,479. It is watered by the Humboldt, Carson, 
 Walker, and other rivers. Among the minerals are gold, silver, salt, soda, etc. Co. 
 seat, Stillwater. 
 
 CHUR'CHILL, Charles, an English poet, now remembered almost as much for his 
 profligacy as his poetry, was b. at Westminster, where his father was a curate, in 1731. 
 He was educated at Westminster school, and in his 17th year made a clandestine mar- 
 riage. In 1756, he was ordained, and, two years afterwards, succeeded his father as 
 curate of St. John’s, Westminster. Soon after his transference here, he fell into habits 
 very ill-becoming his clerical character. In 1761, he published (at his own risk, the 
 booksellers having refused him five guineas for it) The Rosciad, a satire on theatrical 
 managers and performers, which displayed much critical acumen, clever sarcasm, and 
 no little humor, and enjoyed such an immense success that C., who on its publication 
 had withheld his name, was soon delighted to avow himself author. In the same year 
 appeared The Apology, a bitter satire on some of his critics, which added alike to his 
 purse and his notoriety. He now totally neglected the duties of his oflEice, was a 
 constant attender at theaters, and altogether led a most dissolute life. His parish- 
 ioners were scandalized, and his dean remonstrated, whereupon C., to show his utter 
 contempt for the ministerial profession, appeared in a blue coat, gold-laced hat and 
 waistcoat, and large rutfles. He was obliged, however, to resign his preferment, which 
 pecuniary sacrifice was little, as his works brought him considerable sums. He further 
 displayed the complete licentiousness of his nature by separating from his wife, and 
 seducing the daughter of a tradesman in Westminster, and by endeavoring to excuse 
 his vices in a poem called Night, on the ground that avowed profligacy was more harm- 
 less than profligacy practiced in concealment. The boon-companion of as great a 
 debauchee as Inmself — Wilkes — he contributed to the pages of the North Briton, among 
 other things. The Prophecy of Famine — A Scots Pastoral, one of the best of his satires. 
 Among his other works, all more or less satirical, are the Epistle to Hogarth; The Author; 
 The Candidate; The Ohost; Gotham; T7ie Duellist, etc., of which The Author is the 
 best. He died Nov. 4, 1764, while on a visit to Wilkes at Boulogne. C.’s thorough 
 reprobacy has naturally led to an unjust depreciation of his poetical abilities. See 
 Poetical Works by Took (1867), with Life by Hannay. 
 
 CHURCHILL, John. See Marlborough, ante. 
 
853 
 
 Charchlll. 
 
 Chureh. 
 
 CHURCHILL, Missinnippi, or English RIVER, in British North America, rising 
 in Methy lake, and running s.e. through Buffalo and La Crosse lakes, to Hudson’s bay; 
 length about 700 miles. 
 
 CHTJECHING of WOMEN, a religious usage prevailing in the Christian church from 
 an early period, of women, on their recovery after child-bearing, going to church to 
 give thanks. It appears to have been boiTowed from the Jewish law (Lev. xii. 6). In 
 the church of the early ages, it was accompanied with various rites; and in the church 
 of Rome and Greek church, it is imperative. In the church of England, also, a service 
 for the Q of W. finds a place in the liturgy. By the Presbyterian and independent 
 churches of Britain it is rejected, as having no Scripture warrant. 
 
 CHURCH OF ENGLAND. See England, Church op, ante. 
 
 CHURCH OF GOD. See Winebrennerians. 
 
 CHURCH OF SCOTLAND. See Scotland, Church op, ante. 
 
 CHURCH OF SCOTLAND, FREE. See Free Church of Scotland, ante. 
 
 CHURCH RATES, in England, a tax or assessment laid on the parishioners and occu- 
 piers of land within a parish, by a majority of their own body in vestry assembled, 
 for the purpose of upholding and repairing the fabric of the church and the belfry, the 
 bells, seats, and ornaments, the churchyard fence, and the expenses (other than those 
 of maintaining the minister) incident to the celebration of divine service. The par- 
 ishioners are convened for this purpose by the church- wardens (q.v.). The chancel 
 (q.v.) being regarded as belonging peculiarly to the clergy, the expense of maintaining 
 it is laid on the rector or vicar, though custom frequently lays this burden also on the 
 parishioners, as in London and elsewhere. 
 
 The C. R. -were anciently a charge on the tithes of the parish, which were divided 
 into three portions: one for the structure of the church, one for the poor, and the third 
 for the ministers of the church. This distribution is said to have originated with pope 
 Gregory, who enjoined St. Augustine thus to divide such voluntary offerings as might 
 be made to his missionary church in England. A canon of archbishop JElfric in 970, 
 and an act of the Wittenagemote in 1014, in Ethelred’s time, have been quoted in proof 
 of the recognition of this rule by our Saxon fathers. It seems to have been their cus- 
 tom, also, to devote to the repair of each church a portion of the fines paid for offenses 
 committed within the district attached to it; and every bishop was bound to contribute 
 to the repair of his own church from his own means. A third of the tithes thus origi- 
 nally devoted to the repairs of churches, continued to be applied to that purpose under 
 the Normans, down to the middle of the 13th c. ; and the manner in which this burden 
 came to be shifted to the parishioners, has been a subject of much discussion among legal 
 antiquaries. Lord, then sir John, Campbell, who published a pamphlet on the subject in 
 1837, is of opinion that the contributions of the parishioners were at first purely voluntary, 
 and that the custom growing, it at last assumed the form of an obligation, and was 
 enforced by ecclesiastical censures. The care of the fabric of the church, and the due 
 administration of its offices, are laid upon the ministers and the church-wardens con- 
 jointly, and the latter may be proceeded against by citation, in the ecclesiastical courts, 
 should they neglect these duties. But there is no legal mode of compelling the parish- 
 ioners as a body to provide the rate ; and this circumstance has occasioned much diffi- 
 culty in imposing the tax in parishes in which dissent is prevalent, and led to many 
 churches falling into a partially ruinous condition. The proper criterion for the amount 
 of C. R. is a valuation of the property within the parish, grounded on the rent that a 
 tenant would be willing to pay for it. Glebe land, the possessions of the crown in the 
 actual occupation of the sovereign, and places of public worship, are not liable for C.R. ; 
 but there is no other exception as regards immovable property, and in some parishes, 
 custom even extends it to stock in trade. It has been often decided in the courts that a 
 retrospective church-rate — i.e., a rate for expenses previously incurred — cannot be validly 
 imposed. Much difficulty has been experienced in recovering the rates imposed by the 
 parish on individuals refusing to pay. Previous to 53 Geo. III. c. 127, the only mode 
 was by suit in the ecclesiastical court. That statute, however, in all cases under £10, 
 empowered the justices of the peace of the county where the church was situated, on 
 complaint of the church-wardens, to inquire into the merits of the case, and order pay- 
 ment. Against the decision of the justices, an appeal lies to the quarter-sessions. In 
 1868. an end was put to all parochial contentions by enacting that no suit or proceeding 
 should thereafter be allowed in any court to enforce or compel payment of a church-rate, 
 except where a local act authorized this rate. But except so far as related to the com- 
 pulsory payment of these rates, the church- wardens might, as before, make, assess, 
 receive, and deal with such rates. In each district parish, the inhabitants may treat their 
 ■own church as if it were their parish church, and make and receive rates for the repair 
 of the same. A body of trustees may now be appointed in each parish to receive con- 
 tributions for ecclesiastical purposes in the parish. The result of this act of 31 and 32 
 V. c. 109. is thus not to abolish C. R., but rather to convert them into voluntary pay- 
 ments; allowing, as it does, all faithful adherents of the church to contribute, as before, 
 to the repairs of their own churches. In Scotland the burden of upholding the parish 
 churches is by custom imposed on the heritors of the parish ; and where the parish is 
 
Clmrch. 
 
 Cialdini. 
 
 854 
 
 partly within burgh and partly in the country, the expense must be borne by heritors and 
 proprietors of houses, in proportion to their real rent. See Scotland. Church of; see 
 also Dissenters, and Parish, [By an act passed in 1868, the compulsory collection of 
 C, R. was abolished, and provision was made for the administration, by a body of church 
 trustees, of such contributions as may be voluntarily agreed to, and of donations and 
 bequests made for ecclesiastical purposes in the parish.] 
 
 CHUBCH BOAD. See under the article Highway. 
 
 CHUBCH-WABDENS, in England, are ecclesiastical officers, elected sometimes by the 
 parishioners and minister jointly, sometimes by the minister alone, and sometimes by 
 the parishioners alone, for the purpose of protecting the edifice of the church, superin- 
 tending the celebration of public worship, and to form and execute other parochial 
 regulations. They are generally two in number. See Church Rates, Parish, Vestry. 
 
 CHUBCH- YABD. See Burial, Cemetery. 
 
 CHUBH, a machine for agitating milk or cream for the production of butter. The 
 principle of the operation is considered in the article on Butter. Of the great variety 
 of forms that have been given to the machine, it is very difficult to determine which 
 deserves the preference. It is obvious that the more thorough and uniform the agita- 
 tion, the more completely will the butter be separated from the milk. The consistency 
 and color of the butter are also elements in judging of the relative merits of churns. 
 The temperature of the air and the milk affect the butter in these respects. During 
 summer, that of the milk should not exceed 62°, and in very hot weather may be under 
 60°. During cold weather, the milk should be about 2° higher when put into the churn. 
 The speed at which the operation is performed also influences the result. Trials insti- 
 tuted to test the relative merits of churns have failed to settle which is the best form 
 for actual use in the dairy; for the same machine, under different conditions does not 
 always yield the same result. The oldest form is the upright or plunge churn. There 
 is a general prejudice in favor of this form of C., on the ground that the butter is more 
 completely separated and of better quality. Its great defect is that the operation, being 
 generally performed by hand, is fatiguing. Recent improvements have chiefly aimed at 
 ease in working, and a saving of time. The original barrel C., with a rotatory motion, 
 like a grindstone, which motion was reversed every few rounds, has fallen from its once 
 high repute into comparative neglect. An improvement on the barrel C. was the making 
 of the barrel stationary, the milk being agitated by internal apparatus fixed on a hori- 
 zontal spindle which is turned by a winch handle. Barrel churns, sometimes of monster 
 size, are generally used in large dairies in Holland. For small or moderate-sized dairies, 
 perhaps the most suitable is the box C., consisting of a cubical or oblong box, of birch 
 or plane tree, having the agitators fixed on a horizontal spindle. Churns on a centrifu- 
 gal action have also been successfully used, particularly in Sweden. More recently, 
 churns of a barrel form, with an oscillating motion like a child’s cradle, have been intro- 
 duced, but without any decisively superior results. 
 
 To all forms of churns, power other than manual can be and is applied. In some 
 parts of the continent of Europe, and in America, the dog is employed in churning by 
 means of a contrivance like a squirrel’s box. Horse-power is in very general use in 
 large dairies in Great Britain. In very exceptional cases, steam-power is used. 
 
 CHUB'BUS. See Hemp. 
 
 CHURUBUS'CO, a village 6 m. s. of the city of Mexico, on the river Churubusco, 
 connected with the capital by an elevated paved causeway. In the village is the large con- 
 vent of San Pablo. In the war between the United States and Mexico, Santa Anna made 
 a stand here, Aug. 20, 1847, but the Americans under gen. Scott were victorious after a 
 sharp action. On the same day occurred the battle of Contreras, and three weeks after 
 that of Chapultepec, and the capture of the Mexican capital. 
 
 CHUSAN', an island on the e. coast of China, 40 m. n.e. from Ningpo, in 30° 40' n. 
 lat., and 121° 48' e. long., of an oblong shape, and about 50 m. in circumference. It is 
 mountainous; but has many fertile vallej^s, with a plentiful supply of water, and is 
 very carefully cultivated by the hardy and independent people by whom it is inhabited. 
 Mr. Fortune was struck with. the richness of its flora. Azaleas clothe the mountains; 
 clematises, roses, and honeysuckles grow in great luxuriance. The camphor and tallow 
 tree, and many varieties of bamboo, are found in the valleys. Tea is cultivated to some 
 extent on the hill-sides. For three fourths of the year, the climate is temperate. June. 
 July, and Aug. are the hot months. In Aug., the thermometer averages 83°, but in 
 Jan. and Feb. it is often as low as 20°. Ting-hai, the capital, a walled town about 2 m. 
 in circumference, containing a fine specimen of Buddhist temple-architecture, surren- 
 dered to the British forces, July 5, 1840, and was retaken by them (having been evacu 
 ated the previous Feb.) Oct. 1, 1841. At the close of the war, the island was delivered 
 up to the Chinese. In 1860, it was again occupied by British troops, but restored by 
 the convention of Pekin. Pop. about 200,000. 
 
 CHUSAN ISLANDS, a group of islands scattered round the one described above. The 
 most remarkable of these is the sacred island of Pu-tu, lying e. from Chusan. It is 
 covered with Buddhist tempies, pagodas, and monasteries, which latter are inhabited by 
 
855 
 
 Church. 
 
 CialdinL 
 
 ft great number of Bonzes, as the Chinese priests are called. The island is devoted 
 exclusively to religious purposes, and no layman is allowed to reside upon it. 
 
 CHUTIA, or Chota, NXgPUR, a division of British India undp the lieutenant- 
 governor of Bengal, comprising the districts of Hazaribagh, Lohardaga, Manbhum, and 
 einhbhum, and the seven tributary states which constitute the south-west frontier agency, 
 between 21° and 25° n., and 82° and 87° e. ; 43,901 sq.m. ; pop. ’72, 3,825,571, residing in 
 25,766 villages and 725,287 houses. The people consist of 2,567,292 Hindus, 169,006 
 Mohammedans, 15,798 Christians, and 1,703,475 of no religion specified. The last- 
 named class consists mostly of remnants of tribes driven from the plains by the Hindus. 
 There are in the division only six towns of more than 5,000 inhabitants. The chief 
 productions are rice, corn, pulse, potatoes, and oil-seeds. A little tea is grown in two 
 of the districts. The climate is dry and healthy. 
 
 CHUTIA, or Chota, NXqPUR TRIBUTARY STATES (of India), seven in number, 
 viz. : Sirguja, Udaipur, Jashpur, Gangpur, Bonai, Koria, and Chang Bhakar, now under 
 the political superintendence of the commissioner of Chutia Nagpur, and forming the 
 south-west frontier agency. The states are mountainous, thinly cultivated, and inhabited 
 for the most part by wild aboriginal tribes; area, 15,419 sq.m. ; pop. ’72, 405,980. There 
 are no towns, and only three villages of more that 1,000 inhabitants. 
 
 CHUT'NEE, or Chut'ny, an East Indian condiment, very largely used in India, and 
 to a considerable and increasing extent in Great Britain. Indian C. is a compound of 
 mangoes, chillies or capsicum (q.v.), and lime-juice, with some portion of other native 
 fruits, such as tamarinds, etc., the flavor being heightened by garlic. It is sometimes 
 manufactured for sale in England, but not in any quantity. Families occasionally 
 make it for their own use, and employ the following ingredients: Chillies, 1 to 1| lbs.; 
 apples, 1 lb. ; red tamarinds, 2 lbs. ; sugar-candy, 1 lb. ; fresh ginger-root, l4 lbs. ; garlic, 
 4 to f lb.; sultana raisins, 1^ lbs.; fine salt, 1 lb.; distilled vinegar, 5 bottles. The 
 chillies are to be soaked for an hour in the vinegar, and the whole ground with a stone 
 and muller to a paste. 
 
 CHWALYNSK', a t. of Russia on the Volga; pop., 14,262. It is a river port, and 
 has important manufactures. 
 
 CHYLE. The food undergoes various changes in the alimentary canal, which will 
 be fully noticed in the article on Digestion. One of these changes is its conversion in 
 the stomach into a pulpy mass termed chyme. The chyme, which passes onward into 
 the small intestine, is acted upon by the bile, pancreatic fluid, and intestinal juice, and 
 through their influences is separated into the chyle^ which is absorbed or sucked up by 
 the lacteals (q.v.) and into matters unfit for nutrition, w’hich ultimately find their way out 
 of the system by the intestinal canal. The mode in which this nutritious C. is taken up 
 by vessels distributed over the small intestines, and the changes which it undergoes 
 before it is converted into true blood, are described in the articles Lacteals, Thoracic 
 Duct, and Nutrition. We shall here merely notice its leading physical and chemical 
 properties. When obtained from the thoracic duct of an animal that has been killed 
 while the process of digestion was going on (especially if it had taken fatty food), the C. 
 is a white, milky-looking, or yellowish fluid, with a faintly alkaline reaction. Like the 
 blood, it coagulates in about ten minutes after its abstraction from the body of the 
 animal; and in about three hours a small but distinct gelatinous clot is separated from 
 the serous fluid of the chyle. 
 
 On examining C. under the microscope, we find that it contains enormous numbers 
 of minute molecules (probably consisting of fat), together with nucleated cells, which 
 are termed the chyle-corpuscles, and are apparently identical wdth the white or colorless 
 blood-cells. The chemical constituents of C. are much*the same as those of blood; 
 fibrin, albumen, fat, extractive matters, and salts being the most important. 
 
 CHYLIF'EROUS SYSTEM. See Lacteals and Thoracic Duct. 
 
 CHYME. See Chyle and Digestion. 
 
 CHYTR^'US, David, 1530-1600; an eminent Lutheran theologian. He studied at 
 Tubingen and Wittenberg, and was a pupil of Melancthon. His learning and talents 
 gave him high position, and he was employed by Maximilian II. to arrange ecclesiasti- 
 cal affairs in Austria. He was principal author of the statutes of Helmstadt, and one of 
 the authors of the Formula of Concord. He left a number of important theological 
 works. 
 
 GIALDINI, Enrico, was b. at Castel Vetro, Modena, Aug. 10, 1813. Designed for 
 the medical profession, he studied at Parma. When the abortive insurrection of 1831 
 broke out in the duchies, C. joined the volunteers of Reggio; and on the capitulation of 
 Ancona, embarked for Prance, where he resumed his medical studies. The struggles 
 against absoludsm in the Iberian peninsula opened anew the career of arms to the Italian 
 exiles. He joined the legion raised by Dom Pedro in France against the Miguelists, 
 when his great personal courage soon secured his promotion; and the unanimous vote 
 of his comrades pronounced him the worthiest man to receive the order of the tower 
 and sword decreed by the government to his company. After the capitulation of Evora, 
 C. joined (Oct. 22, 1835) the legion of Oporto, formed under Borso di Carminati for sei- 
 
Cibao. 
 
 Cicero* 
 
 856 
 
 vice in Spain. In this force, C. gained further honors. In 1843, he followed Narvaez 
 in his march against Madrid; was made by him col. of the regiment of St. Ferdinand; 
 and afterwards employed in organizing the civil guard on the model of the French geTi- 
 darmerie. He was in this force when Charles Albert headed the Italian rising in 1848, 
 when he hurried to Italy, and in the struggle which ensued he received a dangeroui 
 wound, and fell into the hands of the Austrians. On his release, he was employed by 
 the Sardinian government to reduce to regular discipline the unruly volunteers from 
 the duchies. He succeeded at last, and fought well at the head* of his new regiment in 
 the brief campaign of 1849. During the ten years that elapsed from the defeat of 
 Novara to the renewal of the war in 1859, C. was actively employed. In the Crimea, he 
 commanded the third division of the Sardinian contingent; and on his return was 
 appointed inspector-gen. of bersaglieri and aide-de-camp to the king— a rare distinction 
 for a man of plebeian origin. He was intrusted by Cavour with the formation of the 
 famous Cacciatori delle Alpi, placed under the command of Garibaldi after the declara- 
 tion of war, and co-operated actively with them at the head of the fourth division. The 
 victory at Palestro was his chief exploit, the further progress of the Italians being 
 stopped by the peace of Villafranca. In 1860, he defeated the papal army under gen. 
 Lamorici^re, at Castelfidardo. Diplomacy delayed the fall of Gaeta till Feb. 13, 1861, 
 when it yielded to C. after a vigorous bombardment, as did the citadel of Messina shortly 
 afterwards. Turin erected a statue to C. {mncitore semgre), and Reggio elected him 
 deputy in April. For a few months he was governor of Naples. He had to act against 
 Garibaldi in the second Sicilian expedition. When the army of Italy was reorganized 
 in 1863, C. w'as appointed to one of the chief commands. Senator in March, 1864, he 
 signalized himself by his brilliant speech in favor of the transfer of the capital (Dec., 
 1864). In the war of 1866, the advice of La Marmora was followed, and the defeat of 
 Custozza was the result. C. was appointed chief of the staff on the resignation of La 
 Marmora. In 1867, C. was intrusted by the king with the formation of a new ministry, 
 but failed; he was also made commander-in-chief of the troops in central Italy. In 
 1870, he was engagedin the annexation of the papal states; and in 1876, he "was sent as 
 ambassador to Paris. 
 
 CIBA'O, a range of mountains in the middle of the island of Hayti, about 90 m. 
 long, and having summits more than 7,000 ft. high. Gold has been found in these 
 mountains. 
 
 CIBBER, Caius Gabriel, 1630-1700; a sculptor, b. in Holstein, who was engaged 
 to execute the hassi riliem on the pedestal of the London monument, to commemorate 
 the great fire of 1666. He made also the two figures representing “ Madness ” which 
 once adorned the gate of the old Bethlehem hospital. He built the Danish church in 
 London at his own expense. 
 
 JIBBER, Colley, was b. on the 6th Nov., 1671, in London. He was sent to the free 
 school at Grantham, in Lincolnshire, in 1682. Five years thereafter, he returned to 
 London, and in 1688 was a volunteer in the forces raised by the earl of Devonshire in 
 support of the prince of Orange. He afterwards conceived a passion for the stage, and 
 after performing gratuitously for several months, he succeeded in obtaining an engage- 
 ment at 10s. per week, which was raised to 15s. ; and on the commendation of Congreve, 
 who had witnessed his performance of lord Touchwood, five additional shillings per 
 week were added. Incited by this magnificent success, he, at the age of 22, married 
 Miss Shore, to the great rage of her father, who revenged himself by spending the 
 greater portion of his fortune in the erection of a retreat on the banks of the Thames. 
 After marriage, C., discovering that 20s. per week was a somewhat insufficient income 
 for an elegant gentleman and an elegant gentleman’s wife, was induced to add thereto 
 by the writing of comedies, some of which were remarkably successful. In 1711, he 
 became one of the patentees in the management of Drury Lane, and remained in con- 
 nection with that theater till 1730; when, on being appointed poet-laureate, he sold his 
 interest in the business. He was, however, sometimes tempted back to the stage by an 
 offer of 50 guineas a night. C. wrote and adapted many plays, but as an author he is 
 best known by his Apdogy. He died suddenly on the 12th Dec., 1757. 
 
 CIBBER. Susannah Maria, 1716-66; wife of Theophilus, and daughter-in-law of 
 the dramatist Colley Cibber. Dr. Arne was her instructor in music, in which first she 
 appeared publicly ; but after her marriage she preferred tragedy. She is the actress of 
 whom Garrick exclaimed, on hearing of her death, “Then tragedy has expired with 
 her!” 
 
 CIB'OL. See Onion. 
 
 CIBO'RIUM, a chalice, pyx, or cup, usually of gold or silver, with a cover sur- 
 mounted by a cross. It is used in the Roman Catholic service to contain the host, or 
 consecrated wafer, in the service of the mass. Ciborium is also the name of a canopy 
 on the altar, supported by four columns, to which the cup, in the shape of a dove, was 
 attached by chains. This especial cup contained the wafer for the communion of the 
 sick. 
 
 CIBRA’RIO, Luigi, an Italian historian and politician, was b. at Turin, 28d Feb., 
 1802. He studied at the university of that city, where he took his degree in 1824 as 
 
857 
 
 Cibao. 
 
 Cicero. 
 
 doctor of laws. Devoted to historical investigations, he secured a reputation in this 
 important department, at a very early period. In 1825 appeared his Notizie sulla Storia 
 dei Princvpi di Savoia; in 1826, his Notizie di Paolo Simone de Belli; and in 1827, his Belle 
 Storie di Cliieri Lihri IV. King Charles Albert — with whom he was always a great 
 favorite — frequently employed him in diplomatic service, and in 1848, when Italy rose 
 against the Austrians, appointed C. extraordinary royal commissioner at Venice. Dur- 
 ing .the same year, he was created a senator of the kingdom. When Charles Albert- 
 after the unfortunate issue of the war — went to live in voluntary exile at Oporto, C. was 
 sent by the Sardinian senate to induce him to return. He wrote an account of his unsuc- 
 cessful mission, entitled Ricordi dduna Missione in Portogallo al Re Carlo Alberto (1850). 
 During his public career, however, C. did not neglect his early and favorite pursuits. 
 In 1839, he published his Bella Economia Politica del Medio Evo; in 1840, his Stoi'ia della 
 Monarchia di Savoia; in 1844, his Storia & Bescrizione della Badia d' Altacomha; and in 
 1847, his Storia di Torino. But the new life and energy which Sardinia began to mani- 
 fest under Victor Emmanuel had its claims on his public usefulness. In 1850, he w’^as 
 appointed superintendent-general of customs, and while occupying this office intro- 
 duced several important reforms. Subsequently he was intrusted with full powers to 
 negotiate a treaty of commerce with France, in which he distinguished himself notably 
 by his advocacy of the principles of free trade. In 1852, he was made minister of pub- 
 lic instruction, and, in 1855, minister of foreign affairs. When Cavour took this depart- 
 ment into his own hands, C. became first secretary of the king. In 1857, he was ap- 
 pointed president of the telegraphic congress of Turin. In 1860, C. again made a most 
 successful appearance as an author, in his Operette Varie (Torino), and in his Jacopo Val- 
 perga di Masino, Cancelliere di Savoy a. He died at Salo, in the province of Brescia, 1st 
 Oct., 1870. 
 
 CICA'DA, a genus of insects of the order liemiptera, sub-order homoptera, remarkable 
 for the sounds which they emit, the loudness of which is very extraordinary, when con 
 sidered with reference to the size of the creatures producing them. The largest Euro- 
 pean species are only about an inch long. The elytrse, or wing-covers, of the cicadae 
 are almost always transparent and veined. They dwell on shrubs and trees, of which 
 they suck the juices. The male insects alone possess the organs of sound perfectly 
 developed. These are in no way connected with the mouth or throat, but may be 
 described as a musical apparatus on the under side of the abdomen. This apparatus 
 is very complicated, consisting of a set of membranes and fibers connected with power- 
 ful muscles. The sound can be produced even after the insect has been long dead, by 
 pulling the fibers, and letting them escape. Cicadas are most common in tropical and 
 warm temperate regions, and are scarcely known in Britain, although one or two species 
 have been found in the s. of England. The ancients regarded the sounds of these insects 
 as types of music and eloquence. In some countries they bear names which signif^^ 
 that sleep is banished by their din. The sounds produced by some of the South Ameri- 
 can species,, which are much larger than the European, are loud enough to be heard at 
 the distance of a mile, and have been likened to the sound of a razor-grinder at work. 
 The Greek name of the C. is tettix, often erroneously translated grasshopper. These 
 insects have indeed no resemblance to grasshoppers, and no power of leaping. C. is 
 the Latin name. The modern Italian is cicale, the French cigale. Byron speaks of the 
 “ shrill cicalas.” 
 
 CICATRIZA'TION (Lat. cicatrix, a scar), the process of healing or skinning over of an 
 ulces or broken surface in the skin or in a mucous membrane, by which a fibrous mate- 
 rial, of a dense resisting character, is substituted for the lost texture. The new tissue, 
 in such a case, is called the cicatrix, and usually resembles, to a considerable extent, the 
 structure which it replaces; it is, how^ever, less elastic, and from its shrinking in vol- 
 ume, sometimes produces an appearance of puckering. The glands and other special 
 structures of the original tissue are wanting in the cicatrix, which, however, performs 
 perfectly well, in most instances, the office of protection to the parts below the surface. 
 See Inflammation and Ulceuation. 
 
 CIC'ELY, MyrrMs, a genus of umbelliferous plants, nearly allied to chervil, of which 
 one species, sweet C. {M. odorata), is common in the central and southern parts of 
 Europe, and in similar climates in Asia, but in Britain is so generally found near human 
 habitations that it appears probably to have been introduced. It is sometimes called 
 meet chervil, and in Scotland, myrrh. It is a branching perennial, 2 ft. high or upwards, 
 with large triply pinnate leaves and pinnatifid leaflets, somewhat downy beneath ; the 
 fruit remarkable for its large size, and, as well as the whole plant, powerfully fragrant, 
 the smell resembling that of anise. The seeds, roots, and young leaves are used in Ger- 
 many and other countries in soups, etc. The plant was formerly much in use as a 
 medicinal aromatic. 
 
 CI'CER. See Chick Pea. 
 
 ^ CIC'EEO, Marcus Tullius, the greatest orator of Rome, and one of the most Illus- 
 trious of her statesmen and men of letters, was b. at Arpinum, on the 3d of Jan., in 
 the year 106 b.c. He belonged to an ancient family, of the equestrian order, and pos- 
 sessed of considerable influence in his native district. His father, himself a man of 
 
Cicerone. 
 
 Cid. 
 
 858 
 
 culture, and desirous that his son should acquire an eminent position in the state, 
 removed him at an early age to Rome, where, under the direction of the orator Crassus, 
 he was instructed in the language and literature of Greece, and in all the other branches 
 of a polite education. In his sixteenth year he assumed the manly gown, and was intro- 
 duced to the public life of a Roman citizen. He now acquired a knowledge of law, and 
 underwent a complete course of discipline in oratory. At the same time, he studied 
 philosophy under three successive preceptors, of the Epicurean, Academic, and Stoic 
 schools, and neglected no mental exercise, however arduous, which might conduce to 
 his future eminence; being thus early of the opinion which he afterwards maintained in 
 his treatise De Oratore, that an orator should possess almost universal knowledge. With 
 the exception of a brief campaign under Sulla, in the social w’ar, he passed his time in 
 these preliminary studies until his 26th year, when he began to plead in public. In one of 
 his earliest causes, he distinguished himself by defending the rights of Roscius, a pri- 
 vate citizen, against one of the favorites of Sulla, who was then dictator. Soon after, 
 for the benefit of his health, and in order to his improvement in elocution, he traveled 
 to the chief seats of learning in Greece and Asia; and, on his return, was regarded as 
 second to no orator at the Roman bar. Having been elected quaestor (76 b.c.), he was 
 appointed by lot to a government in Sicily, a post which he filled with great ability, and 
 to the entire satisfaction of those whom he governed. Some years after his return, he 
 laid the Sicilians under still greater obligations by his successful prosecution of their 
 praetor, Verres, against whom he prepared no less than six orations, although the first 
 had the effect of disheartening the accused so effectually, that he voluntarily retired into 
 exile. Passing, at short intervals, through the offices of aedile (69 b.c.) and praetor (66 
 B.C.), he was at length elected, by an overwhelming majority, to the consulship. His 
 tenure of office was rendered memorable by the conspiracy of Catiline, which he frus- 
 trated with admirable skill and promptitude. See Catiline. The highest praises 
 were showered upon C. ; he was hailed by Cato and Catulus as the “father of his coun- 
 try;” and public thanksgivings in his name were voted to the gods. But his popularity 
 did not last long after the expiry of his consulship. His enemies charged him with a 
 public crime, in having put the conspiring nobles to death without a formal trial, and 
 he found it necessary to leave Rome, and went to reside in Thessalonica (58 b.c.). A 
 formal edict of banishment was pronounced against him, but he was recalled from exile 
 in about 16 months, and on his return to Rome was received with great enthusiasm. His 
 recovered dignity, however, soon excited the envy of the honorable party in the senate, 
 with whom he had desired to make common cause; while Pompey and Caesar, the great- 
 est powers in the state, and from whose enmity he had most to dread, courted his alli- 
 ance and co-operation. Thus, while preserving an appearance of independence, he was 
 betrayed into many actions which he could not but regard as ignominious, and which, 
 by increasing the power of the triumvirs, led indirectly to the ruin of the republic. A 
 remarkable exception to this servile conduct is to be found in his assisting Milo wheu 
 suing for the consulship, and defending him, against the wish of Pompey, and in spite 
 of the hostile feeling of the populace, after he had slain Clodius in an accidental ren- 
 counter. During this period he composed his works, De Oratore, De Bepublica, and De 
 Leglbus. After a year’s admirable administration of the province of Cilicia (51 to 50 b.c.), 
 he returned to Italy on the eve of the civil war. With the convictions which he avowed, 
 there was but one course which it would have been honorable for him to pursue — to 
 enlist himself, at all hazards, on the side of Pompey and the republic. But instead of 
 this he hesitated, balanced the claims of duty and of interest, blamed Pompey for his 
 want of preparation, and criticised the plan of his campaign. At length he joined the 
 army of the senate, but, after the battle of Pharsalia, abruptly quitted his friends, and 
 resolved to throw himself upon the generosity of the conqueror. After nine months’" 
 miserable suspense at Brundusium, he was kindly received by C£Esar, whom he followed 
 to Rome. During the years which ensued, he remained in comparative retirement, com- 
 posing his principal works in philosophy and rhetoric, including those entitled Orator; 
 Hortemius; De Finibus; Tascidanm Disputationes; De Natura Deorum; De Senectute; De 
 Amicitia; and De Offieiis. On the death of Caesar, he was disposed to unite his interests 
 wiih those of Brutus and the other conspirators, but was restrained by dictates of pru- 
 dence. In the commotions which followed, he espoused the cause of Octavianus, and 
 gave utterance to his celebrated philippics against Antony. These orations were the 
 occasion of his death. When Octavianus and Lepidus joined with Antony in a trium- 
 virate, C. was among the proscribed; and his life was relentlessly sought. The soldiers 
 of Antony overtook him while his attendants were bearing him, now old, and in an 
 infirm state of health, from his Formian villa to Caieta, where he intended to embark. 
 He met his death with greater fortitude than he had supported many of the untoward 
 incidents of his life. Desiring his attendants to forbear resistance, he stretched forward 
 in the litter, and offered his neck to the sword of his executioners. He died in the 63d 
 year of his age, on the 7th Dec., 43 b.c. 
 
 The character of C. is one which it is not difficult to estimate. Really a lover of 
 virtue, no one could follow in her footsteps with greater dignity when attended by the 
 popular applause. But he was weak enough to yield to the depraved spirit of his 
 times, arnd to act according to his convictions only when they were not evidently dis- 
 cordant with his private interests. Few men, possessing such talents, have been bo 
 
859 
 
 Cicerone. 
 
 Cid. 
 
 utterly devoid of anything approaching to heroism. As a statesman, it would be unjust 
 to deny his legislative abilities; but he was generally deficient in courage and resolution. 
 He was one of the greatest masters of rhetoric that have ever lived. His orations were 
 the result of consummate art, combined with unwearied industry, and survive as char* 
 acteristic memorials of a time when eloquence, far more than at present, was a powel 
 which bent the verdicts of judicial tribunals, and influenced the decrees of the state. In 
 philosophy, he does not rank with the original thinkers of antiquity; nor, in truth, did 
 he aspire to do so. His writings on speculative subjects are chiefly valuable on account 
 of the noble and generous sentiments which they contain, and as reflecting the varied 
 thought of the different schools. The best edition of his collected works is Orelli’s (9 
 vols. 8vo, 1826-1837). See Forsyth’s Life of 0. (1864). 
 
 CICEBO'NE (from Cicero, the orator or speaker), a snide, usually for the purpose of 
 showing the curiosities and works of art in a town to strangers. Cicerones are of all 
 degrees, from distinguished archaeologists, who undertake the office as a favor, to the 
 humble laquais de place, who, though quite indispensable on a first arrival, is too often 
 both incompetent and dishonest. The stranger ought to be particularly on his guard 
 against allowing a C. to make purchases for or even with him, as the practice of adding 
 a commission to him to the price charged now prevails probably in every country in 
 Europe. 
 
 CICHO'RIIJM. See Chicory and Endive. 
 
 CICINDELA, a genus of insects of the order coleopUra, section pentamera, the type of 
 a large family, cicindelidce. This family is nearly allied to carahidce, and the insects 
 belonging to it are among the most voracious of those beetles which, both in their per- 
 fect and lava state, prey on other insects. They have a strong head, with projecting 
 toothed mandibles, and are particularly distinguished by a sort of hook or nail, which 
 is articulated by its base to each of the lower jaws or maxillae. They are more abundant 
 in tropical than in cold countries; a few species, none of them large, are found in 
 Britain. The head of the larva is large, concave above, and the back furnished with 
 two remarkable hooked spines, which are said to be used as anchors to fix it at any part 
 it chooses of its burrow in the earth ; whilst the soil which it excavates is carried to the 
 mouth of the burrow in a sort of natural basket formed of the concave back of the 
 head and the recurved mandibles. The larva lies in wait in its burrow, its head just 
 level with the ground, till its prey comes within reach, upon which it suddenly rushes. 
 — G. campestria, a green species with whitish spots, is common in most parts of Britain 
 in dry sandy places exposed to the sun. 
 
 CICISBE'O is the name given in Italy to the professed gallant or constant attendant 
 upon a married lady. In the higher ranks of Italian society, it was at one time consid- 
 ered unfashionable for the husband to associate with his wife anywhere except in his 
 own house. In society, or at public places of amusement, the wife was accompanied 
 by her C., who attended at her toilet to receive her commands for the day. This cus- 
 tom, which was once universal, and which naturally gave rise to much scandal, has 
 now almost disappeared. C. is synonymous with camliere servente. 
 
 CICOGNA’RA, Leopoldo, Count da, 1767-1834; an archaeologist and art-critic of 
 Ferrara. He visited all the noted cities of southern Europe, studying them with the 
 eye of an archaeologist and connoisseur. Napoleon found him engaged in politics and 
 a member of the legislative body of Modena. In 1808, C. was made president of 
 the academy of fine arts in Venice. In 1813-18, he produced his great work on the 
 history of art, designed to complete the labors of Winckelmann and d’Agincourt. He 
 published many other elaborately illustrated works. 
 
 CICO'NIA. See Stork. 
 
 CICTJ'TA. See Hemlock. 
 
 CID'ABIS, a genus of echinidce (q. v.), or sea-urchins, closely allied to the genus echinus 
 itself, and included along with it in a family or tribe called cidarites, in which the 
 mouth and anus are opposite to each other — the mouth below, and the anus above. 
 Only one species, C. papillata, has been found in the British seas, and that only on the 
 coasts of Zetland. The Zetlanders call it the piper, from a resemblance which they 
 trace in its globe and spines to a bagpipe. They say that it is sometimes found with 
 spines a foot long. The markings of the shell and spines are extremely beautiful. 
 
 CID CAMF’eADOB is the name given in histories, traditions, and songs to the most 
 celebrated of Spain’s national heroes. There is so much of the mythical in the history 
 of this personage, that hypercritical writers, such as Masdea, have doubted his exist- 
 ence; but recent researches, more particularly those of Dozy, and the investigation of 
 newly discovered Arabic sources, have succeeded in separating the Instorical from the 
 romantic. See Dozy’s Recherches sur VHistoire Politique et Litter aire de VEspagne pen- 
 dant le moyen age (Leyden, 1849). The following is the result of these inquiries; 
 Roderigo Ruy Diaz (Roderic the son of Diego) was descended from one of the proudest 
 families of Castile. His name first appears in a document written in 1064, during the 
 reign of Ferdinand of Leon. Under Sancho II,, son of Ferdinand, he became standard- 
 bearer and commander of the royal troops. In a war between the two brothers, Sancho 
 
Cider. 
 
 CimbrL 
 
 860 
 
 II. and Alfonso VI. of Leon, it was a stratagem of Roderic’s — which, according to 
 modern notions, was anything but honorable — that secured the victory of Sancho at 
 Llantada (1068) over his brother, who was forced to seek refuge with the Moorish king 
 of Toledo. He appears at this time to have already been called the camjpeador, a word 
 supposed to answer to our chalnpion. 
 
 Upon the assassination of his friend and patron, king Sancho, he required the next 
 heir, don Alonzo, to clear himself by oath of any participation in his brother’s murder, 
 ere the nobles of Leon and Castile should do homage to him. By this act, he incurred 
 the new monarch’s enmity; an enmity which, however, the king’s policy concealed in 
 the hour of danger, and he even consented to Roderic’s marriage with his cousin 
 Ximena — daughter of Diego, duke of Asturia. But when the king thought the services 
 of Roderic no longer necessary to his own safety, he lent a willing ear to the latter’s 
 personal enemies, and banished him in 1081. Roderic then joined the Moorish kings of 
 Saragossa, in whose service he fought against both Moslems and Christians. It was 
 probably during this exile that he was first called the Cid or Sid, an Arabic title which 
 means lord. He frequently defeated the king of Aragon and the count of Barcelona, 
 the latter of whom, Berenguer Ramon II., he took prisoner. 
 
 He was again reconciled to the king, but only for a short time, when he was con- 
 demned to a second exile. In order to support his family and numerous followers, he 
 now saw himself forced to carry his sword against the Moors, over whom he gained a 
 victory, and established himself as sovereign or lord of Valencia (1094). He retained 
 possession of Valencia five years, during w’hich time he took many neighboring 
 fortresses. He died of grief in 1099, on learning that his relative and comrade in arms, 
 Alvar Fanez, had been vanquished by the Moors, and that the army which he had sent 
 to his assistance had been defeated near Alcira. After the Cid’s death, his widow held 
 Valencia till 1102, when she was obliged to capitulate to the Almoravides, and fly to 
 Castile, where she died in 1104. Her remains were placed by those of her lord in the 
 monastery of San Pedro de Cadena. The Cid had a son, who was slain by the Moors in 
 a battle near Consuegra. He also left behind him two daughters, one of whom was 
 married to the count of Barcelona; the other to an infant of Navarre, through whom 
 the kings of Spain and many rcwal houses of Europe claim kindred with “ Mio Cid el 
 Gampeador” Relics of the “Blessed Cid,” as he is still called in Spain, such as his 
 sword, shield, banner, and drinking-cup, are still held in great reverence by the popu- 
 lace. The numerous Cid romances that were first published in the 16th c., contain the 
 most romantic improbabilities concerning the life and deeds of the Cid. See Silva de 
 Varios Romances (1550), and Romancero General (1604). These romances were taken 
 from the ancient cantares (national songs) and poemas, most of which are entirely lost. 
 The most important of modern works on this subject, besides that of Dozy above men- 
 tioned, are Huber’s Geschichte des Cid, etc. (Bremen, 1829), and Southey’s fascinating 
 Chronicle of the Cid (Lond. 1808). The former of these is, however, the more valuable 
 in a historical point of view. See also Willemaers, Le Cid (Bruss. 1873). 
 
 CIDEE is the fermented juice of apples, and is extensively prepared in Gloucestershire 
 and other parts of England, in Ireland, in the northern districts of France, and in North 
 America. In Normandy, a vast number of varieties of acid or bitter-apples are grown 
 for the preparation of cider. The apples are first bruised in a circular stone-trough or 
 chcLse, by a similarly shaped stone or runner, which revolves by machinery in the interior 
 of the trough. The pulp so obtained is placed in sieve-bags made of hair-cloth or reed- 
 straw, and subjected to pressure, which yields a dark-colored, sweet liquid, and leaves 
 in the bag a somewhat dry residue, consisting of the pips, skin, and other fibrous parts 
 of the apple. The apple-juice passes first into a shallow tub or trin, and is almost imme- 
 diately placed in casks in a cool place, when fermentation begins, part of the sugar is 
 converted into alcohol, and in a few days, a clear liquid is obtained, which can easily 
 be racked off from sedimentary matter. C. is largely used in England as a beverage, 
 and is very palatable and refreshing. It contains from 5i to 9 per cent of alcohol, and 
 is therefore intoxicating when drunk in quantity. It does not possess the tonic and 
 nourishing properties, however, of bitter-beer. C. quickly turns sour, becoming hard 
 C., owing to the development of lactic acid, and great difficulty is experienced in the 
 attempt to preserve it. 
 
 CIENFUE'GOS, a city in Cuba, on the s. coast of the island, on the bay of Jagua, 
 120 m. s.e. of Havana; pop. 9,950. It has a good harbor, and is one of the best built 
 cities in the island. Railroads give communication with Cardenas and other towns on 
 the n. coast. C. was founded in 1813 by a captain-general of that name. 
 
 CIE'ZA, a t. of Spain, in the province of Murcia, 26 m. n.w of the city of that 
 name. It is situated on an eminence near the river Segura, overlooking a plain of great 
 fertility. The streets are tolerably wide and w’^ell paved, and there are manufactures 
 of linen, hempen fabrics, wine, and oil; and silk-worms are reared. Pop. 9,500. 
 
 CIGAHS. See Tobacco. 
 
 CI'GOLI, Ludovico Cabdi da, an eminent painter of the later Florentine school, 
 which, about the end of the 16th c., developed, in opposition to the languid mannerists 
 of the time, a peculiar eclectic style of art. C. was b. at Empoli in 1559. His model was 
 
861 
 
 Cider. 
 
 Cimbrl, 
 
 Correggio; but as the latter was deficient in design, and in the scientific knowledge of 
 perspective, C. endeavored to unite these with the warm bright coloring and wonderful 
 chiar-oscuro of Correggio. ,He was invited by Clement VII. to Rome, where he died 
 in 1613. Among C.’s most famous pictures may be mentioned — “ The Healing of the 
 Lame Man” (St. Peter’s, Rome), “The Martyrdom of St. Stephen ” (Uffizi Gallery, 
 Florence), “Tobias in the Act of Thanking the Angel” (St. Petersburg), and “St. 
 Francis,” a favorite subject with C. (Pitti Palace, Florence). C. was also held in high 
 estimation as an architect, and designed several of the Florentine palaces. 
 
 CILIA, (Lat. eyelashes), a term variously employed in botany and zoology to desig- 
 nate fringing hairs or hair-like processes. Thus, the margins or nerves of leaves, petals, 
 etc., are often described as ciliated or furnished with cilia. The fine thread-like pro- 
 cesses which surround the opening of the fruit of many mosses, are called C. ; but these 
 processes, when broader, are denominated teeth. — The description and uses of C. in the 
 animal kingdom are given in the article Epithelium. 
 
 CILIC'IA, an ancient division of Asia Minor, now included in the Turkish eyalet of 
 Koniah. The Taurus range, which separated it from Cappadocia, bounded it on the n., 
 the gulf of Issus and the Cilician sea on the s., while the Amanus and Pamphylia 
 bounded it respectively on the e. and west. Lat. 36° to 38° n., long. 32° 10' to 3'f° 8' e. 
 The eastern portion of C. was fertile in grain, wine, etc. ; while the western and more 
 mountainous portion furnished inexhaustible supplies of timber to the ancients. The 
 pass called by the Turks Golek Boghaz is that b}’’ which the younger Cyrus passed from 
 Tyana in Cappadocia to Tarsus; and it is also the same by which Alexander the great 
 entered Cilicia. Pop. about 100,000, mostly nomadic. 
 
 In early ages, (J. was ruled by its own kings, the dynasty of Syennesis being^ 
 apparently the most important. The Cilicians were a distinct people in the time of 
 Xenophon; but the Greeks appear to have got a footing after the time of Alexander. 
 The Cilicians were notorious pirates, but having carried on their depredations too close- 
 to the shores of Italy, the Roman arms were turned against them, and C. was made a 
 Roman province in Pompey’s time. 
 
 GIMABTT'E, Giovanni, one of the restorers of the art of painting in Italy, which: 
 nad fallen into neglect during the barbarism of the dark ages, was b. at Florence in 
 1240. At this time, the fine arts were practiced in Italy chiefly by Byzantines, and had 
 degenerated into a worn-out mechanical conventionalism, C. at first studied under 
 Byzantine masters, and adopted their traditional forms, but gradually excelled his 
 teachers, made innovations on the fixed patterns set before him, and gave life and 
 individuality to his works. Two remarkable pictures of the Madonna by C. are still 
 preserved in Florence — one (chiefly Byzantine in style) in the academy; the other, dis- 
 playing a more purely original genius, in the church of Santa Maria Novella. It is said 
 that this latter work in the time of C. was admired as a miracle of art, and was carried 
 to the church in a sort of triumphal procession. More remarkable pictures in point of 
 expression or dramatic effect, are found in C.’s frescoes in the church of San Francisco- 
 at Assisi. C, died soon after 1300. What strikes one as very wonderful about C.’s^ 
 pictures, is the accuracy of his naked ’ figures, considering that he had no better pro- 
 fessional guides than the Byzantine artists. His draperies were also very good, but 
 he had apparently no knowledge of perspective, though acquainted with architecture. 
 His greatest pupil was Giotto (q.v.). 
 
 CIMAHO'SA, Domenico, an Italian composer of operas, wash, at Naples in 1755, and was 
 educated in music under Sacchini, and in the conservatory of Loretto. His first pieces 
 were the Sa^njicio di Ahramo and the Olympiade. When barely 22, he had achieved a 
 reputation in all the leading Italian theaters. He was then called to St, Petersburg, 
 where he resided four years. Afterwards, he lived at various German courts; thence he- 
 proceeded to Vienna, where he became imperial chapel-master; and finally, he returned 
 to Italy. At Naples, his comic opera, H Matvimonio Segreto, composed at Vienna, 1791,, 
 was repeated 57 times in succession. C. died at Venice in 1801. His comic operas are 
 remarkable for their novelty, spirit, whimsicality, and liveliness of idea, as well as for 
 their great knowledge of stage-effect. The wealth and freshness of his invention gave- 
 rise to the saying, that one finale of C. contained material for a dozen operas. 
 
 CIM'SALO, a musical instrument with a set of keys like the clavecin or harp- 
 sichord. 
 
 CIM'BRI, or Kim'bri, a people who issued from the n. of Germany in conjunction 
 with the Teutones, and first came into hostile contact with the Romans in the eastern 
 Alps in 113 B.c, They were victorious in several great engagements, and were only 
 prevented from devastating Italy by sustaining a terrible defeat from Marius, on the 
 Raudii Campi, near Verona, or, according to others, near Vercelli, in Aug., 101 b.c. 
 Their infantry fought with their shields fastened together by long chains; their horse- 
 men, of whom they had 15,000, were well armed with helmet, coat of mail, shield, and 
 spear. Marius had so chosen his position that the sun and dust were in their faces, and 
 yet they contested the victory most bravely with the Romans, w'ho w^ere 55,000 strong. 
 WficQ the battle was lost, the women, wdio remained in the camp formed of the wagons,, 
 killed themselves and their children. 140,000 C. are said to have fallen in the battlej; 
 
Cimex. 
 
 'Ohinchona. 
 
 862 
 
 the number of prisoners is given at 60,000. It is not till long afterwards, when the 
 Romans themselves penetrated into Germany, that the name of the C. again appears. 
 CfEsar represents the Aduatici of Belgium as the descendants of the C. and the Teu- 
 tones. Tacitus speaks of a people, bearing the name of C., few in number, but of great 
 reputation, that sent ambassadors to Augustus. This people lived in the extreme n. of 
 Germany, on the borders of the ocean ; according to Pliny and Ptolemy, at the extremity 
 of the peninsula called from them the Cimbric Chersonese, now Jutland. The ethnology 
 of the C. is doubtful. Greek writers associated them groundlessly with the Cim- 
 merians (q.v.); Sallust calls them Gauls; Caesar, Tacitus, and Plutarch looked upon 
 them as Germans, and the opinion of their German origin has been adopted by most 
 moderns. Yet H. Muller, in his Marken des Vaterlands (1837), has endeavored to show 
 that they belonged to the Celtic race, and lived originally on the n.e. of the Belgae, of 
 kindred origin; and that their name is the same as that by which the Celts of Wales 
 designate themselves to this day — Oymri. 
 
 CI'MEX AND CiMi'ciD.®. See Bug. 
 
 CIMICIF'UGA, or Bugbane, an herb of the' order ranunculacecB. It is the black 
 snake-root found in all the northern states, and much used in rural districts as a medicine, 
 chiefly in the form of a decoction. It is believed to be useful in nervous diseases, rheu^ 
 matism, and bronchitis. 
 
 CIMIN'NA, a t. of Sicily, in the province of Palermo, 18 m. s.e. of the city of that 
 uame. Pop. 71, 5,721. 
 
 CIMME RIANS, or CiiOTE'En, in the poems of Homer, the name of the people dwell- 
 ing “beyond the ocean-stream,” where the sun never shines, and perpetual darkness 
 reigns. — But the historic C. were a people whose country lay between the Borysthenes 
 (Dnieper) and the Tanais (Don), including also the Tauric Chersonesus (Crimea). The 
 Cimmerian Bosporus (strait of Yenikale) derived its name from them. Being driven 
 out by the Scythians, they migrated to Asia Minor, dwelt there for some time, plun- 
 dered Sardis, failed in an attempt upon Miletum, and were finally routed and expelled 
 by the Lydian king Alyattes, some time after 617 b.c. 
 
 CIM'OLITE. See Fullers’ Earth. 
 
 CI'MON, an Athenian commander, was the son of Miltiades, the conqueror at Mara- 
 thon. In conjunction with Aristides, he was placed over the Athenian contingent to 
 the allied fleet, which, under the supreme command of the Spartan Pausanias, continued 
 the war against the Persians (477 b.c.). He effected the important conquest of Eion, a 
 town on the river Strymon, then garrisoned by the Persians. Later (according to 
 Clinton, 466 b.c.), when commander-in-chief, he encountered a Persian fleet of 350 ships 
 at the river Eurymedon, destroyed or captured 200, and defeated the land-forces on the 
 same day. He succeeded likewise in driving the Persians from Thrace, Caria, and 
 Lycia; and expended much of the money which he had obtained by the recovery of his 
 patrimony in Thrace upon the improvement of the city of Athens. At this period he 
 appears to have been the most influential of the Athenians. The hereditary enemy of 
 Persia, it was his policy to advocate a close alliance with Sparta; and when the Helots 
 revolted, he led an army upon two occasions to the support of the Spartan troops; but 
 on the latter occasion, having lost the confidence of his allies, he was ignominiously 
 dismissed. After his return to Athens, his policy was opposed by the democracy, 
 headed by Pericles, who procured his banishment by ostracism. He was recalled in the 
 fifth year of his exile, and was instrumental in obtaining a five years’ armistice between 
 the Spartans and the Athenians. He died in the year 449 b.c., while besieging the Per- 
 sian garrison of Citium, in Cyprus. 
 
 CINALO'A, a t. of Mexico, in the state of the same name, on the Rio Cinaloa, about 
 50 m. from its entrance into the gulf of California. It is a thriving place, with gold- 
 washings in the vicinity. Pop. about 9,000. 
 
 CINALOA. See Sinaloa. 
 
 CINCHO'NA, a most important genus of trees of the natural order cinchonacecR; yield- 
 ing the bark so much valued in medicine, known as Peruvian bark, Jesuits’ bark, 
 China bark, quina, quinquina, cinchona bark, etc., and from which the important 
 alkaloids quinia or quinine (q.v.), and cinchonia or cinchonine, are obtained. The species 
 of this genus are sometimes trees of great magnitude; but an after growth springing from 
 their roots when they have been felled, they often appear only as large shrubs; and some of 
 them in the highest mountain-regions in which they are found, are low trees with stems 
 only eight or ten feet in height. They exist only in South America, between s. lat. 20* 
 and n. lat. 10°, and chiefly on the eastern slope of the second range of the Cordilleras. 
 All the cinchonas are evergreen-trees; with laurel-like, entire, opposite leaves; stipules 
 which soon fall off; and panicles of flowers, which, in general appearance, are not 
 unlike those of lilac or privet. The flowers are white, rose-colored, or purplish, and 
 very fragrant. The calyx is small and 5-toothed; the corolla tubular with a salver- 
 shaped 5-cleft limb. In the true cinchonas, the capsule splits from the base upwards; 
 the species in which it splits from above downwards form the sub-genus cascariUa; the 
 
863 
 
 Cimex. 
 
 Chinchona. 
 
 distinction acquiring importance from the consideration, that the barks of the former 
 alone contain the alkaloids so valuable in medicine; and this property is further limited 
 to those species which have the corolla downy or silky on the outside. Beyond the 
 botanical limits thus narrowly marked out, not a trace of these alkaloids has yet been 
 discovered anywhere. 
 
 Great difficulty has been found in determining the species by which the different 
 varieties of C. bark known in commerce are produced. The common commercial 
 names are derived partly from the color of the kinds, and partly from the districts in which 
 they are produced, or the ports where they are shipped. It appears, however, to be now 
 ascertained that calisaya bark, also called royal or genuine yellow bark, one of the very 
 best kinds — mostly shipped from Arica — is chiefly the produce of C. calisaya, a large 
 tree, growing in hot mountain valleys of Bolivia and the south of Peru. To give all 
 the varieties of bark and species of tree w^ould go beyond our limits. 
 
 The accurate discrimination of the different kinds of bark requires much experience. 
 The taste is always bitter ; but it is possible even to distinguish by the taste those varie* 
 ties w'hich contain quinia most largely from those in which cinchonia is qiost abundant. 
 
 The cutting and peeling of C. trees are carried on by Indians, who go in parties, and 
 pursue their occupation during the whole of the dry season. They build a hut, which 
 serves both for their abode and for drying the bark. The trees are felled as near the 
 root as possible, that none of the bark may be lost; and the bark being stripped off, ia 
 carefully dried ; the quilled form of the thinner bark is acquired in drying. The bark 
 is made up into packages of various size, but averaging about 150 lbs. weight, closely 
 wrapped in woolen cloth, and afterwards in hides, to be conveyed on mules’ backs to 
 the towns. These packages are called drums or seroons. It is in them that the bark is 
 always brought to Europe. 
 
 A number of spurious kinds of Peruvian or C. bark are either sent into the market 
 separately, or are employed for adulterating the genuine kinds. They are bitter barks, 
 and have, in greater or less degree, febrifugal properties, but are chemically and 
 medicinally very different from true C. bark. They are produced by trees of genera 
 very closely allied to cinchona. 
 
 Whilst C. trees have been becoming every year more scarce in their native regions, 
 no attempt has been made to cultivate them there, notwithstanding the constantly 
 increasing demand for the bark; but the Dutch have recently made extensive plantations 
 of them in Java; and the same has been done in British India, from seeds and plants 
 obtained from the South American governments, by Mr. Markham. In the course of 
 his researches in South America, Mr. Markham found only one C. tree planted by human 
 hands. See Peruvian Bark. 
 
 The Indians of Peru call the C. trees kina, from whence are derived the names china, 
 quina, etc. But it is not certain that they knew the use of the bark before the arrival 
 of the Spaniards. It is a medicine of great value in the cure of intermittent fevers (see 
 Ague), and diseases attended with much febrile debility; also in certain forms of 
 neuralgia (q.v.), and other diseases of the nervous system. It seems to have been first 
 imported into Europe in 1639, by the countess Del Cinchon or Chinchon, the wife of the 
 viceroy of Peru, who had been cured of an obstinate intermittent fever by means of it, 
 and upon this account it was named G. bark and countess's powder {pulvis comitisscc).. 
 The Jesuit missionaries afterwards carried it to Rome, and distributed it through thei:' 
 several stations, and thus is acquired the name of Jesuit's bark and powder of the father* 
 {pulvis patrum). Cardinal Juan de Lugo having been particularly active in recorc 
 mending and distributing it, it was also known as Cardinal de Lugo's powder. It attained 
 great celebrity in Spain and Italy, being sold at high prices by the Jesuits, by whom it 
 was lauded as an infallible remedy, while by most of the orthodox physicians it was 
 coldly received, and by the Protestants altogether repudiated. Its mode of action not 
 being well understood, and the cases to which it was applicable not well defined, it 
 seems, in the first instance, to have been employed without due discrimination, and to 
 have fallen very much into the hands of empirics. Falling, however, into disuse in 
 Europe, it was again brought into notice by sir Robert Talbor or Talbot, an English- 
 man, who brought it to England in 1671, and acquired great celebrity through the cure 
 of intermittents by means of it, and from whom Louis XIV. purchased his secret in 
 1682. A pound of bark at that time cost 100 louis-d’or. Talbor seems to have been a 
 vain and self-seeking man, but who had, nevertheless, the acuteness to discern and 
 systematically to avail himself of the healing virtues of the neglected Jesuits’ bark, which, 
 he mixed with other substances, so as to conceal its taste and odor. Soon afterwards, 
 both Morton and Sydenham, the most celebrated English physicians of the age, adopted 
 the new remedy; and its use, from this period, gradually extended, both in England and 
 France, notwithstanding the opposition of the faculty of medicine in the latter country. 
 As it came into general use, it became a most important article of export from Peru; 
 but for a long time, the value of the bark to be procured in New Granada remained 
 unknown; and in order to the maintenance of a commercial monopoly, extraordinary 
 methods were even employed to prevent it from becoming known at a comparatively 
 recent period of Spanish rule in America. The discovery of the alkaloids on which its 
 properties chiefly depend, constitutes a new era in the history of this medicine, and did 
 not take place till the beginning of the present century. 
 
Cindionacece. 
 
 Cincinnati. 
 
 864 
 
 The chief active principles are the two alkaloids, quinine (q.v.) and cinchonine. 
 The latter is not generally present in so large a proportion as the quinine, and does 
 not possess such powerful medicinal properties. When isolated, the alkaloid cinchonia, 
 or cinchonine, has the formula (C40H24N2O2), and can be obtained in a crystallized state. 
 
 C. bark itself has, in later times, fallen into comparative disuse, owing to the dis- 
 covery of the alkaloid quinine, which is now extensively in use in medicine in the form 
 of sulphate or disulphate of quinine, and is given in doses of from one to twenty 
 grains, in almost all the cases to which the bark was supposed to be applicable. 
 
 CINCHONA'CEJS, a natural order of exogenous plants, consisting of trees, shrubs, and 
 herbaceous plants, with simple, entire, opposite, or whorled leaves, and stipules between 
 their foot-stalks. The calyx is adherent to the ovary; the corolla is tubular and regu- 
 lar, its segments are equal in number to those of the calyx, when tl\e calyx is divided; 
 the stamens arise from the corolla, ana are alternate with its segments. The ovary is 
 surrounded by a disk, and usually two-celled; the style single, the fruit either splitting 
 into two halv^ or not splitting at all, either dry or succulent. — This order has been 
 very generally regarded by botanists as a sub-order of rubiacem\(\.\ but far exceeds all 
 the rest of that order, both in the number and importance of its species, of which from 
 2,500 to 3,000 are known, mostly tropical, and the remainder, with few exceptions, sub- 
 tropical. The C. are nearly allied to caprifoliaceoe (woodbines or honeysuckles, etc.), 
 and interesting relations have been pointed out between them and umbelliferce. They 
 constitute a very large part of the flora of tropical regions. Besides the genus cinchona 
 (q.v.) and other genera producing febrifugal barks — exostemma, condaminea, Pinckneya, 
 Portlandia, etc. — the order produces a number of valuable medicinal plants, of which 
 ipecacuanha (q.v.) is the most important. The coffee (q.v.) shrub belongs to it; and 
 also the tree which yields gambir (q.v.). It produces a number of plants employed in 
 dyeing, among which are the chay root or choya, and some species of moHnda. Some 
 trees of this order yield valuable timber. Many of the species have beautiful and frag- 
 rant flowers; and some produce pleasant fruits, among which are the genipap 
 Americana) of South America, the native peach {sarcocephalus esculentus) of Sierra Leone, 
 and the voavanga of Madagascar {mngueria edulis). 
 
 CINCINNATI, the commercial capital of Ohio, is situated on the right bank of the 
 river which gives name to the state, and separates it from Virginia and Kentucky. It 
 stands inlat. 39° 6' 30" n., and in long. 84° 26' w., 458 m. below Pittsburg, in Penn- 
 sylvania, where the Ohio, as such, is first formed, and 500 m. above the junction of that 
 stream and the Mississippi. Though C. was founded in 1788, yet in 1800 it had only 
 750 inhabitants. In the years 1820, 1830, 1840, 1850, and 1860, respectively, the census 
 returns showed a population of 9,602, 24,830, 46,338, 115,438, and 161,004. In 1870, it 
 had increased to 216,289, including a large proportion of Germans and Irish. The 
 natural facilities of C. for commerce are great, and they have been increased artificially 
 by the Miami canal, which unites it with lake Erie. Railways branch off from C. as a 
 center in several directions, and the river Ohio gives facility for the carrying on of a 
 large portion of the commerce. In the ten years ending 1875, the exports averaged 
 $20^1,236,066, and the imports $314,528,009; being together equivalent to about £110, 
 000,000. 
 
 The staple article of the trade of C. is pork. In 1874^75, 560, 164 hogs were slaughtered. 
 Wine from the Catawba (q.v.) grape is made in the neighborhood to a great extent. 
 The city itself also is largely engaged in a variety of important manufactures, hundreds 
 of steam-engines being employed in the different establishments, and the aggregate 
 product having, in 1874, been computed at $144,207,371. The manufactories include 
 iron-foundries, rolling-mills, lard, oil, and stearine factories; and countless works con- 
 nected with flour, clothing, furniture, paper, printing, tobacco, soap, candles, hats, etc. 
 In 1874, iron was produced to the value of $17,000,000; food, $M, 000, 000; clothing, 
 $13,230,000; and liquors, $24,000,000. There are about 75 newspapers and periodicals, 
 including 9 daily, of which 3 are in German. 
 
 C. is substantially and handsomely built. Its ecclesiastical, literary, and commercial 
 edifices are as numerous as befits the acknowledged queen of the west. The city 
 occupies chiefly two terraces, which are elevated respectively 50 ft. and 108 above 
 the level of the river. For the supply of the inhabitants, the water of the Ohio has 
 been lifted up into an immense reservoir, at an expense of about £160,000. A large 
 suspension bridge, 100 ft. above low- water, connects the city with Covington in Ken- 
 tucky. There is a railway pier-bridge. Education flourishes, and there are numerous 
 free schools. 
 
 CINCINNATI {ante), the chief eity of Ohio, covers an area of 24 sq.m., and is laid 
 nut upon a plan substantially like that of Philadelphia, the long streets and avenuues, 
 mostly 66 ft. or more in breadth, being generally well paved or macadamized, and some 
 of them adorned with shade-trees. The buildings are mostly of brick, and very sub- 
 stantial. Some of the streets leading back from the river towards the high hills on the 
 w. are of a steep grade. The summits of these hills, which have been made accessible, 
 command highly picturesque views of the surrounding country, including a wide sweep 
 of the territory on the other side of the river, in Kentucky. The main portion of the 
 city lies between Deer creek on the e. and Mill creek on the w., these two streams enter* 
 
865 
 
 Cinclionaceas* 
 
 Cincinnati. 
 
 ing the Ohio at a distance from each other of 2| miles. The hillsides between the creeks, 
 n. of East Liberty street and Hamilton road, are terraced with streets to the summits, 
 imd covered with dwellings. On some of the western hills are vineyards and gardens. 
 The suburban portions of the city in various directions are very attractive, being filled 
 with elegant and costly private residences, surrounded by trees and shrubbery and 
 •cultivated lawns, with picturesquely winding paths. There are beautiful drives in 
 various directions, the roads being fine and the scenery of a very attractive charac- 
 ter. The city is well provided with parks and public grounds. Eden park, on a hill in 
 the eastern district, commands a fine prospect. It contains 216 acres. Lincoln, Wash 
 ington, Hopkins, and City parks near the center of the city, are beautiful, though 
 small. Burnet woods contains 170 acres, nearly all forest. Spring Grove, a beautiful 
 ■cemetery, is 3 m. n.w. of the city, in the valley of Mill creek. It is approached by an 
 ^ivenue 100 ft. wide, and contains 600 acres of land tastefully laid out, and has a large 
 number of costly monuments, among which are the Dexter mausoleum, and a bronze 
 statue commemorating the suppression of the rebellion of 1861. The most noteworthy 
 work of art in the city is the Tyler Davidson fountain, in Fifth street between Vine and 
 Walnut, which was cast at the royal foundry in Munich, and which cost $200,000. It 
 was suggested by Mr. Tyler Davidson, after whose death it was completed and pre- 
 sented to the city by Mr. Henry Probasco in 1871. Standing in a conspicuous place, it 
 is an object of perpetual interest to citizens and strangers. During the warm days of 
 summer, from early morning till midnight, its flowing jets make their welcome music, 
 and impart a refreshing coolness to the air. The suspension bridge across the Ohio, 
 connecting Cincinnati with the Kentucky shore at Covington, was designed by John A. 
 Hoebling, and completed in 1867 at a cost of $1,800,000. Another bridge, of wrought 
 iron and resting upon piers, connects the city with Newport, Ky., and is used for both 
 railroad and ordinary travel. Many of the public buildings of Cincinnati are distin- 
 guished for architectural beauty. The U. S. government building, containing the post- 
 oflice, custom-house, court-rooms, and various offices, presents a front of 150 ft. on Vine 
 street, and 80 ft. on Fourth street. It is of sawed freestone, three stories high, in the 
 Roman Corinthian style. The county court-house is a square of three stories, and 
 nearly fire-proof. Its cost was $500,000. With the county jail in its rear it occupies a 
 whole square. The buildings for the use of the city government are less imposing, 
 though well adapted to their purpose. The city hospital, consisting of eight distinct 
 buildings arranged around a central court, occupies a square of nearly four acres. It 
 cost over $700,000, exclusive of the ground, which is worth $300,000 more. It has 
 accommodations for 700 patients. The publi,c library, built of brick in the Romanesque 
 style, with funds raised by taxation, cost about $675,000. Masonic hall, in the Byzan- 
 tine style, 195 by 100 ft., and four stories high, is a very imposing edifice. Pike’s opera- 
 house also is of grand dimensions, with a front of 134 ft. and a depth of 170 feet. 
 Mozart hall is a massive edifice, with an auditorium seating 3,000 people. St. 
 Xavier’s college is a splendid building, in the Romanesque style. The city work- 
 house, 515 ft. long, has cells for 700 prisoners, with workshops and grounds for 
 their employment. Longview asylum for the insane, at Carthage, 10 m. from the city, 
 is of brick in the Italian style, 612 ft. long and four stories in height. Tlie value of the 
 buildings and grounds is $1,000,000. St. Peter’s cathedral (Roman Catholic) is the 
 finest church edifice in the city. It is 180 ft. long and 60 and 90 ft. deep, in the 
 pure Grecian style, with a stone spire 224 ft. high. The number of churches in 
 Cincinnati exceeds 150, of which upwards of 40 are Roman Catholic, the rest being 
 divided among a large number of Protestant sects. The public library contains 
 
 60.000 volumes, the young men’s mercantile library 27,000, and the historical library 
 
 18.000 and many valuable MSS. There are in the city five literary colleges, six 
 medical colleges, one law school, one college of dentistry, five commercial colleges, and 
 a university. The common schools, about 30 in number, are well organized and 
 managed. The Woodward and Hughes high schools have a high reputation for effl- 
 <jiency. The Roman Catholics support over 100 parochial schools. The Wesleyan col- 
 lege for women, established here in 1842, has preparatory, academic, and collegiate 
 departments, and a department of music and art. St. Xavier’s college, administered by 
 the Jesuits, alfords instruction to many students. Lane theological seminary, on Wal- 
 nut hills, a Presbyterian institution, was organized in 1829, with an endowment of 
 $200,000. Cincinnati is the center of a vast network of railroads, by means of which it 
 is in direct and easy communication with every portion of the country. It is con- 
 nected wdth lake Erie by the Miami canal, and the Ohio river opens for it a channel of 
 intercourse with a vast region, rapidly increasing in population and commerce. It is 
 well supplied with daily and weekly papers and other periodicals, and is the center of a 
 vast and various manufacturing industry and a widely extended commerce. Pop. in 
 ’80, 255,804. The city was founded in 1789 by settlers from New Jersey. Hostile Indians 
 at that time rendered the navigation of the Ohio difficult and dangerous, and its prog- 
 ress for many years was slow. After the introduction of steam it grew rapidly. Though 
 saved from the inroads of slavery by the ordinance of 1787, its proximity to, and its 
 social and commercial relations with, the slave states, induced among its inhabitants an 
 inveterate opposition to every scheme of emancipation. From 1831 to 1838, the public 
 discussion of slavery there was hardly less odious and dangerous than it was in New 
 
 U. K. III.-55 
 
• Cincinnati. 
 Cinnamic. 
 
 866 
 
 Orleans and Richmond. Two or three times an anti-slavery press established there by 
 James G. Birney was destroyed by a mob, with the open and avowed sanction of emi- 
 nent citizens and the connivance of the city government. The excuse urged for these 
 outrages was that C. depended for her prosperity largely upon her trade with the slave 
 states, and that this trade could not be retained if an anti-slavery journal were toler- 
 ated. The city was a rendezvous and a thoroughfare for fugitive slaves on their flight to 
 Canada, and thus served to keep the people in a state of constant fermentation. Levi 
 Coffin, a Quaker citizen of the place, who lately died at an advanced age, was proud to 
 declare that he had harbored no less than 3,000 of these fugitives, not one of whom failed 
 to make good his escape. A large proportion of the population, moreover, were natives 
 of the south, and therefore in natural sympathy with the region whence they had emi- 
 grated. So strong was this sympathy in 1862, when an attack by a confederate force 
 was expected, that it was deemed necessary to put the city under martial law. These 
 memories, however unpleasant, are a part of the history of a period now happily passed 
 away. 
 
 CINCINNATI (the Cincinnatuses), a society or order in the United States of North 
 America, established by the oflicers of the revolutionary army in 1783, “to perpetuate 
 their friendship, and to raise a fund for relieving the widows and orphans of those who 
 had fallen during the war.” It was so named b^ecause it included patriots, headed by 
 Washington, who in many instances had left rural affairs to serve their country (see 
 CrNCLNNATUs). The badge of the society is a bald eagle suspended by a dark-blue 
 ribbon with white borders, symbolizing the union of France and America. On the 
 breast of the eagle there is a figure of Cincinnatus receiving the military ensigns from 
 the senators, with the plow in the background; round the whole are the words. Omnia, 
 reliquit servare rempuUicam. On the reverse, the same hero is represented crowned by 
 fame with a wreath on which is inscribed mrtutis preemium, etc. As this distinction 
 was made hereditary, it was attacked as opposed to republican equality. Franklin saw 
 in it the germ of a future aristocracy, and at a meeting held in Philadelphia in 1784, 
 several changes were made in the constitution of the society, and in several of the 
 states it was quietly abolished. There are still, however, several state societies, which 
 hold a general meeting by delegates triennially. 
 
 CINCINNATI, SOCIETY OF THE {ante). At the second general meeting, in 1787, 
 Washington was elected president-general, and was re-elected every third year during 
 his life. His successors in office were Alexander Hamilton and the Pinckneys; and 
 when Lafayette visited the country in 1824, he was its only surviving maj.gen. The 
 last survivor of the original association w^as Robert Burnet, of New York, wdio died in 
 1854. The society now exists but in four or five states. Hamilton Fish, ex-secretary 
 of state, is the presiding officer, and the largest gatherings are at the annual meetings 
 in New York city. Nearly all the prominent generals in the U. S. army have been 
 or are now members of the society. It has been thought or charged that the society has 
 some political partisan significance or inclination, but this is not the fact. The Tam- 
 many society, which is aggressively partisan, was started to oppose the society of the 
 Cincinnati, because the latter was supposed to be established in the interest of the 
 wealthier and more aristocratic classes. 
 
 CINCINNAT'US, Lucius Quinctius, a Roman consul, regarded by the later Romans 
 as the model of antique virtue and simple manners. So far as we can discern his char- 
 acter through the veil of legend, C. appears to have been a violent patrician. About 
 460 B.C., he was chosen consul, and two years later was made dictator. When the 
 messengers from Rome came to tell C. of his new dignity, thej’’ found him plowing on 
 his small farm. He soon rescued the consul Lucius Minucius, who had been defeated 
 and surrounded by the JEqui. Livy’s account of the mode in which the deliverance 
 was effected is rejected by Niebuhr, who points out the inconsistencies and impossibili- 
 ties of the story, and seems disposed to regard the whole as a mere myth. We are next 
 informed that, after a dictatorship of sixteen days, C. returned to his small farm on 
 the Tiber. When 80 years old, he was once more made dictator (439 b.c.), and sup- 
 pressed a threatened plebeian insurrection. 
 
 CINDER-BED, a name given by the quarrymen to a stratum of the Upper Purbeck 
 Beric-3, almost entirely composed of the loosely aggregated shells of a small oyster 
 {ostrea amorta). 
 
 CIN'EAS, the vihief adviser of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus. His most famous work 
 was in visiting Rome, to arrange for peace, after the defeat of the Romans in 280 b.c. 
 In Rome, he learned in a single day the name of every man of importance in the city. 
 He was not successful in securing peace, and when he returned he told Pyrrhus that 
 Rome was a temple and its senate an assembly of kings. 
 
 CINERA RIA, a genus of plants of the natural order compo&itce, sub-order coi'ymbifera, 
 very nearly allied to senecio (groundsel, ragwort, etc.), from which it differs only in 
 having the involucre formed of one row of equal erect scales. The species are numer- 
 ous, and widely diffused over the world in very various climates. They are 
 annual or perennial herbaceous plants; with simple, generally toothed or sinuate 
 leaves. Many of them are remarkable for the ashy appearance of the lower part of 
 
867 
 
 Cincinnati* 
 
 Cinnamic. 
 
 the leaves, whence their name (Lat. cinis, -eris, ashes). The leaves are often covered 
 with a peculiar sort of down. Two small species are natives of the southern parts of 
 Britain. The flowers of some are very pretty. G. maritima, a native of the s. of 
 Europe, and other species, have for some time been much cultivated in gardens and 
 green-houses. Many hybrids and varieties have been produced by cultivation. 
 
 CIN'ERAKY URNS (Lat. cinis, ashes) were used by the nations of antiquity to contain 
 the ashes of the dead when gathered from the funeral pile. Previous to being deposited 
 in the urn, the embers were soaked with wine; the urn was then placed in a niche in the 
 family mausoleum. Only the wealthy could afford so expensive a rite. C. U. were either 
 sculptured in marble, or formed of clay or glass. They were not always in the form in 
 which we commonly see them represented on modern tombs. The celebrated cinerary 
 urn known by the name of the Portland or Barberini vase, preserved in the British 
 museum, a beautiful production of Greek art, was discovered about the middle of the 
 16th c., in a marble sarcophagus in a sepulcher (believed to be that of the Roman 
 emperor Alexander Severus, 223-235 a.d.) at Monte del Grano, near Rome. The height 
 of the urn is 10 inches. One of the finest specimens yet discovered in the British isles, is 
 preserved in the museum of the royal Irish academy. It was found in a small stone 
 chamber near Bagnalstown, co. of Carlow. It is composed of very fine clay, and is but 
 2i in. high. It contained the burnt bones of an infant or very young child. 
 
 CINI'SI, a t. of Sicily, in the province of Palermo, 14 m. w.n.w. of Palermo, near the 
 coast. It is a neat, cheerful town, with straight, regular streets, and has 6,714 inhabit- 
 ants. The Benedictine convent here was once a feudal castle. 
 
 CIN'NA, Lucius Cornelius, a Roman noble, was one of the principal supporters of 
 the faction of Marius. After Sulla had driven Marius from the city, and before setting 
 out on his expedition against Mithridates, he allowed C. to be elected to the consulship. 
 But C. had no sooner entered upon that office (87 b.c.), than he impeached Sulla, endeav- 
 ored to form an interest among the citizens who had been added to Rome after the 
 social war, and agitated for the recall of Marius. The events which led to the return of 
 Marius are stated in the article Marius (q.v.). After a cruel massacre of the Roman citi- 
 zens, in which some of the most eminent statesmen and orators were slain, Marius and 
 C. declared themselves consuls. On the death of Marius, which occurred within a few 
 days of his usurpation, C. made L. V. Flaccus his colleague for that year, and C. P. 
 Carbo for the two succeeding years. In 84 h.c., he prepared to meet Sulla, who was 
 then on his way from the east to take vengeance upon his enemies, but was slain by his 
 disaffected troops at Brundusium. During his fourth consulate, his daughter Cornelia 
 had been married to Julius Caesar. 
 
 CIN'NABAR, an ore of mercury, from which almost all the mercury of commerce is 
 obtained. Chemically, it is a bisulphuret of mercury, containing 86.2 parts of mercury 
 and 13.8 of sulphur. It occurs both crystallized and massive, not unfrequently dissem- 
 inated. Its crystals are six-sided prisms. It varies from perfectly opaque to almost 
 transparent; has an adamantine almost metallic luster, and a carmine color, with a bright 
 scarlet streak. Its specific gravity is 8 to 8. 2. Hepatic G., so called from its liver-brown 
 color, is a variety containing a little carbon. C. sometimes occurs in primitive rocks, 
 but more frequently in those of the coal formation, and is sometimes even intimately 
 mixed with coal itself. It is, however, a rare mineral, and is nowhere found in Britain. 
 The C. mines of Almaden, in Spain, have been worked for about 2,300 years, and are 
 still the most productive in the world. At Almaden, the C. is found in a dark-colored 
 slate mixed with quartzite. Next to the mines of Almaden, rank those of Idria in Car- 
 niola. C. mines exist also in Germany, Hungary, Peru, California, China, Japan, etc. 
 C. is used as a pigment under the name of mrmilion. 
 
 CINNAM IC ACID AND THE CINNAMTL SERIES. Cinnamyl is a compound radical, 
 as yet unisolated, which is represented by the formula C18H7O2, and which includes 
 amongst its compounds cinnamic acid (CisHtOs.HO), oil of cinnamon, which is 
 chemically a slightly impure aldehyde of cinnamic acid, or a hydride of cinnamyl 
 (CisHtOsjH), chloride of cinnamyl (CisHtOs.CI), styrone or peruvine, known chemically 
 as cinnamic alcohol (CieHioOa), cinnamol and styrol, each represented by the formula 
 CieHe, and styracin (C18H16O4). We shall briefly notice the most important of 
 these compounds — viz., cinnamic acid and oil of cinnamon. Ginnamic acid 
 crystallizes in colorless prisms, which are sparingly soluble in cold water, but 
 dissolve readily in boiling water, alcohol, and ether* It fuses at 266°, and boils 
 with or without decomposition, according to the manner in which it is heated, at 
 about 570°. It is converted by most decomposing agents into benzoyl compounds, 
 such as benzoic acid, oil of bitter almonds, etc. ; for example, when fused with hydrate 
 of potash, it assimilates the elements of water, and breaks up into acetic and benzoic 
 acids; when boiled with peroxide of lead, it is converted into oil of bitter almonds and 
 benzoic acid, etc. It exists naturally in a free state in liquid storax, the balsams of 
 Tolu and Peru, and gum benzoin, and is often deposited in large crystals from old sam- 
 ples of oil of cinnamon and from cinnamon water. It is always formed from oil of 
 cinnamon when the latter is exposed to the action of the air, and it has been syntheti- 
 cally or artificially formed by exposing equivalent quantities of chloracetyl (C4H3O2CI) 
 
Cinnamon. 
 
 Cluti-a. 
 
 868 
 
 and oil of bitter almonds (C^HeOs) to a prolonged heat in a closed glass tube. Oil of 
 cinnamon and oil of cassia, although prepared from different kinds of trees, are virtually 
 identical in their composition, each consisting mainly of cinnamic aldehyde, or hydride 
 of cinnamyl, mixed with certain resinous matters. Oil of cinnamon is an article of the 
 materia medica, and in doses of one minim to a five-grain pill, forms an excellent aro- 
 matic addition to cathartic pill-masses. 
 
 CIN'NAMON is the spicy, aromatic, and stimulating bark of certain species of the 
 genus cinnamomum. This genus belongs to the natural order lauraccoi, and was formerly 
 included in laurus. It contains a considerable number of species, natives of tropical 
 and subtropical parts of the east. C. has been in use from the remotest antiquity. It 
 is mentioned in the Old Testament, and by a name almost the same as that which it still 
 bears in most languages. The finest kind is said to be chiefly produced by cinnamomum 
 zeylanicum (formerly, laurus cinnamomum), which chiefly grows in the island of Ceylon, 
 although, having been introduced into the West Indies in 1782, along with various other 
 plants of the east, it is now cultivated there to some extent. The tree attains the 
 height of 20 to 30 ft., and is sometimes foot in thickness. Its bark is of a grayish- 
 brown color, internally of a yellowish red. The leaves are oval, 4 to 6 in. long, with 
 a blunt point, and marked with three principal nerves. They have the taste of cloves. 
 The flowers are of a silky gray on the outside, and a pale-yellowish color internally. 
 The fruit is somewhat like an acorn in shape; it is a small drupe, brown when ripe. 
 There are two seasons of cinnamon-harvest in Ceylon, the first commencing in April, 
 and the last in Nov. — the former being that in which the chief crop is obtained. The 
 branches of 3 to 5 years’ growth being cut down, the epidermis is scraped away; the bark 
 is then ripped up longitudinally with a knife, and gradually loosened, till it can be 
 taken off. The slices are then exposed to the sun, when, as it dries, it curls up into quills, 
 the smaller of which are inserted into the larger, and the whole tied up in bundles of 
 about 88 lbs. each. C. is examined and arranged according to its quality by persons 
 who are obliged for this purpose to taste and chew it, although in a short time it pro- 
 duces painful effects on their mouths and tongues. The finest C. is yielded by the 
 young branches of the tree, especially by the numerous shoots which spring up from 
 the stump after a tree has been cut down, and which are cut when about 10 ft. long, 
 and of the thickness of an ordinary walking-stick. The smell, particularly of the thin- 
 nest pieces, is delightfully fragrant, and the taste pungent and aromatic, with a mixture 
 of sweetness and astringency. It is used like other spices by cooks and confectioners, 
 and also in medicine as a tonic, stomachic, and carminative. The average quantity 
 annually imported into London is about 500,000 lbs. Its virtues depend chiefly upon 
 the essential oil which it contains (c» 2-7 Oil of cassia is very often substi- 
 
 tuted for this oil, as cassia — which, however, may readily be distinguished by its muci- 
 laginous taste — is for cinnamon. The root of the cinnamon-tree contains camphor. The 
 fruit yields a concrete oil, called cinnamon suet, which is highly fragrant, and in Ceylon 
 was formerly made into candles, for the exclusive use of the king. — Cassia (q.v.) is the 
 produce of another species of cinnamomum, — C. loureirii, a native of Cochin China and 
 Japan, is said to yield a bark even superior to that of G. zeylanicum. A species of C,, 
 which ascends to the elevation of 8,500 ft. in the Sikkim Himalaya, deserves a trial even 
 in the climate of Britain. 
 
 The constituents of C. are a volatile oil {oil of C.), tannin, starch, mucilage, w^oody- 
 flber, resin, coloring matter, and an acid. The oil of C. is generally prepared in Ceylon 
 by grinding the coarsest pieces of C., soaking them in sea-water for two or three days, 
 and then distilling. Two oils pass over, one lighter, the other heavier than water. Oil 
 of C. varies in color from yellow to cherry-red, the yellow variety being considered the 
 best, and is most highly esteemed. Oil of C. leaf is, prepared from the leaves in Ce}don 
 by a similar process, and is met with in commerce under the name of clove oil, which it 
 much resembles in odor. C. water is obtained by adding water to C., and distilling a 
 large quantity, or by diffusing the oil of C. through water by the aid of sugar or carbo- 
 nate of magnesia. Spirit of G. is procured by acting upon C. with spirit of wine and 
 water, and distilling; and tincture of G,, by soaking C. in spirit of wine, and straining. 
 The medicinal properties of C., and its preparation, are aromatic and carminative, and 
 it is serviceable in cases of nausea and vomiting, and in cases of flatulence and spas- 
 modic states of the stomach and alimentary canal. 
 
 CINNAMON-STONE, a precious stone, of which the finer specimens are highly 
 esteemed; it is regarded as a variety of garnet (q.v.). Its color varies from hyacinth 
 red to orange yellow; and when pure, it is transparent. It is composed essentially of 
 silica, alumina, and lime. It is found chiefly in Ceylon, where vast bowlders of gneiss 
 containing it in profusion exist in many places. 
 
 CIN'NYEIS. See Sun-birds. 
 
 CINQU^ CEN'TO (Ital.), five hundred. A technical, or rather slang artistic term, 
 used to designate the style of art which arose in Italy after the year 1500, and which 
 therefore belongs to the 16th c. ; i.e., after the fall of all the great schools. It is sensu- 
 ous in its character, the subjects chosen being usually borrowed from heathen mythology 
 or history 
 
869 
 
 Cinnamon* 
 
 Cintra. 
 
 CINQUE'FOIL, in botany. See Potentilla. 
 
 CINQUEFOIL, a common bearing in heraldry. It is usually depicted with the leaves 
 issuing from a ball as a center point. — C., in architecture, is an ornamental foliation in 
 five compartments, used in the tracery of windows, panelings, and the like. The C. 
 is often represented in a circular form, the spaces between the points or cusps repre- 
 senting the five leaves. 
 
 The C. of heraldry and of architecture is not derived from any leaf of five leaflets, 
 but, as its perfect regularity of form indicates, from the flower of the plant called C. 
 {potentilla), or other similar flower of five petals or leaves. The C. thus closely resembles 
 the rose, with which it would, indeed, be identified, but that a double and not a single 
 rose is chosen for the purposes of heraldry and decorative art. 
 
 CINQUE' PORTS (Fr. five ports). It is said that the five maritime ports of England 
 lying opposite to the coast of France — Sandwich, Dover, Hythe, Romney, and Hast- 
 ings — were enfranchised in the time of Edward the confessor. But it was subsequent 
 to the battle of Hastings that the conqueror, in order that he might wield the resources 
 of the seaports with greater vigor, constituted this whole line of coast into a jurisdic- 
 tion entirely separate from the counties of Kent and Sussex, and erected it into a sort 
 of county palatine, under a warden or guardian, the seat of whose administration was 
 in Dover Castle. The warden, whose office corresponded to that of the ancient count 
 of the Saxon coast {comes littoris Saxonici), exercised jurisdiction, civil, military, and 
 naval, uniting in his single person the functions of sheriff, custos rotulorum, lord-lieu- 
 tenant, and admiral. Privileges equal to those originally bestowed on the C. P. were subse- 
 quently extended to the so-called ancient towns of Winchelsea and Rye, and most of the 
 municipal towns had subordinate ports and towns attached to them, which were called 
 members. In place of the Saxon terms of aldermen and freemen, those of jurats and 
 barons were introduced, and the latter term has always been applied to the representa- 
 tives of the C. P. in parliament. The chief function performed by the C. P. in early 
 times consisted in furnishing such shipping as w'as required for the purposes of the 
 state, the crown having possessed no permanent navy previous to the reign of Henry VII. 
 In the time of Edward I., they were bound to provide no less than 57 ships, fully 
 equipped and manned at their own cost; though the weight of this heavy burden was 
 somewhat lessened by the provision, that the period of gratuitous service should be 
 limited to 15 days. In consequence of the warlike navy which they were thus com- 
 pelled to maintain, the C. P. became so confident in their strength, and so insolent and 
 audacious, as not only to undertake piratical expeditions, but even to make war and 
 form confederacies as independent states. Previous to the revolution of 1688, the 
 lord-wardens were in use to nominate the barons, or parliamentary representatives of 
 the C. P. ; but in 1689, an act was passed to “declare the right and freedom of elec- 
 tion of members to serve in parliament for the cinque ports.” The reform bill of 
 1832 reduced the number of members sent to parliament by the C. P. from 16 to 8, 
 and the municipal reform act has broken up the ancient organization of the ports, 
 and assimilated their internal arrangements to those of other English municipalties. 
 The ancient courts of Stepway, Brotherhood, and Guestling are still occasionally held, 
 but their powers scarcely extend beyond matters of form, such as appointing the 
 barons, who are to exercise an ancient privilege of the ports, which consists in carry- 
 ing the canopy over the sovereign’s head at a coronation. The lord-warden’s juris- 
 diction, in relation to civil suits and proceedings, was abolished by 18 and 19 Viet. c. 
 48, amended by 20 and 21 Viet. c. 1. 
 
 CIN TRA, a small but picturesquely situated town in Portugal, in the province of 
 Estremadura, about 15 m. w.n.w. of Lisbon, with a pop. of 4,000. It stands on the 
 declivity of the Sierra de Cintra, and is surrounded by country residences. There is a 
 palace at C. , a strange mixture of Moorish and Christian architecture, anciently occu- 
 pied by the Moorish kings, and subsequently a favorite residence of the Christian mon- 
 archs, A charming view of the town and of the sea is to be had from the top of a hill 
 crowned jvith the ruins of a Moorish castle. On another hill-top stands La Penna, once 
 a convent, now a residence of the king of Portugal, who has restored and given it the 
 outward appearance of a feudal castle. In the neighborhood, also, is what is called the 
 Cork convent, which derives its name from the cells — V’^hich are cut out in the rock — 
 being lined with cork to prevent damp. 
 
 C. is historically remarkable for the convention concluded here, Aug. 22, 1808, 
 between the English and French, by which the iMter agreed to evacuate Portugal. " 
 Junot had been defeated by sir Arthur Wellesley at yimieira, and had retreated towards 
 Torres Vedras and Lisbon, whither the English under sir Hew Dalrymple,who had just ' 
 arrived and assumed the chief command, were preparing to follow them. But the 
 French, despairing of finally holding out, agreed to evacuate the country, on condition 
 of not being treated as prisoners of war, but landed on the coast of France, retaining 
 their arms and effects. This convention excited the greatest public indignation both in 
 the Peninsula and in England. Several English newspapers appeared in mourning, and 
 the ministry were obliged to have the generals who signed the convention tried by a 
 court-martial, which, however, resulted in their acquittal. In fact, though the terms of 
 the convention might be advantageous for the French, to obtain immediate possession 
 
Clone. 
 
 pircle. 
 
 870 
 
 Df Portugal and Lisbon, instead of being put to the necessity of a bloody siege for 
 months, was no less advantageous to the English and their allies. Such, at least, was 
 the opinion of two competent judges — Napoleou and Wellington. 
 
 CIO'NE, Andrea di. See Orcagna. 
 
 CIOTAT, La, a t. of France, in the department of Bouches-du-Rhone, situated on the 
 w. side of a bay in the Mediterranean, about 15 m. s.e. of Marseilles, in the midst of a 
 district clad with olive, orange, and pomegranate plantations. It is well built and has 
 a good and commodious harbor, formed by a mole, and well defended. The industry 
 consists in cotton-spinning, ship-building, and an active trade in the produce of the dis- 
 trict. Pop. ’73, 8,233. 
 
 CI'PHER, an ornamental arrangement of the initial letters of a name, by which they 
 become also a private mark, adopted by artists and architects as distinctive of their 
 work. That of Albrecht Diirer is well known, 
 
 CI'PHER- WRITING. See Cryptography. 
 
 CIPRIA NI, Giambattista, painter and copper-engraver, was b. in Florence, 1733, 
 or, according to others, in 1727, and when 19 years old, went to Rome, where he chose 
 Correggio as a model, and soon gained a high reputation. Invited by certain English 
 residents in Rome, the artist came to London about 1754, where he was one of the first 
 members of the royal academy (founded 1769) and died in 1785. His drawing is 
 correct, his coloring harmonious, his heads have grace and loveliness, and the general 
 style of his works is attractive, although exceedingly conventional. A series of small 
 copper-plate illustrations of Orlando Furioso well exemplifies his graceful style. Several 
 of Bartolozzi’s best engravings are in C.’s manner. 
 
 CIRC.2S'A (from Circe, q.v.), a genus of rather pretty little herbaceous plants of the 
 natural order Onagracece, with a deeply 2-cleft calyx, a corolla of two petals, and two 
 stamens. C. lutetiana is frequent in shady situations in Britain, and in most parts of 
 the continent of Europe. It bears the English name of Enchanter’s Nightshade, and 
 in Germany it is called Hexenkraut (witches’ herb). The origin of such names is not 
 easily explained. The plant possesses no remarkable properties, being merely a little 
 astringent. Other species are found in the Himalayas, etc. 
 
 CIRCAR, an Indian term applied to the component parts of a province, each of 
 which is administered by a deputy governor. In English, it is principally employed in 
 the name of the Northern Circars, used to designate a now obsolete division of the 
 Madras presidency, which consisted of a narrow slip of territory lying along the w. side 
 of the bay of Bengal, from 15° 40' to 20° 17' north. These Northern Circars were Cicacole, 
 Rajahmundry, Ellore, Condapilly, and Guntoor, in all 30,000 sq. miles. 
 
 CIRCASSIA, a division of the Western Caucasus, comprising the n., and also a por- 
 tion of the s. slope of that mountain-range extending in lat. 42° to 45° n,, and long.*37° to 
 47° east. See Caucasus. 
 
 CIRCASSIANS, in the wide sense of the term, is the name given to all the independent 
 tribes of the Caucasus ; in a narrower sense, it denotes the tribes who inhabited the 
 western part of the range which is called, in consequence, Circassia. The C. proper, 
 however, occupied only the s.w. wing of the Caucasus, with the exclusion of Abasia, 
 or the portion between the Black sea in the w. and the lower bank of the river Kuban 
 in the north. They call themselves Adighe, but the Russians and Turks call them 
 2'cherkesses. On their conquest by Russia in 1864, rather than remain in subjection to 
 that power they chose to emigrate to Turkey, and from 400,000 to 500,000, or nearly 
 the whole nation of 15 tribes, carried this resolution into effect. The greater part of 
 them were distributed over the Turkish possessions in Asia Minor, but others were Set- 
 tled in the mountainous parts of Bulgaria and on the borders of Servia. In their origi- 
 nal country they were a marauding and warlike people, amongst whom it was held more 
 honorable to live by plunder than by peaceful industry. In common with all brigand 
 tribes, the C. cherished the most unrestrained love of independence. Their government 
 was a singular compound of constitutionalism and feudalism. There were five distinct 
 ranks in the nation — viz., chiefs or princes, nobles, common freemen, dependants, and 
 slaves. The class of common freemen made up the great mass of the people; they pos- 
 sessed property, and enjoyed the same political rights as the nobles. The fourth class, 
 the dependants, were the vassals of the princes and nobles, whose lands they cultivated, 
 and whose armies they formed. Yet theii lord had no right over their persons; for in 
 some cases they and their whole families left him; and they could only be sold as slaves 
 for punishment according to the previous verdict of a national assembly. The fifth 
 class comprised the slaves, or those who had been made captive in war. That the C. 
 have not lost some of the worst traits of their natural character since their settlement in 
 Turkey is shown by their participation in the Bulgarian massacres of 1876 and 1877. 
 
 The C. princes and nobles are principally Mohammedans, whilst the great mass of 
 the people have a religion which is a kind of mixture of Christianity and paganism, in 
 which the celebration of Easter, the sign of the cross, sacred trees, sacrifice, and proces- 
 sions with lights, play an important part. Besides agriculture and the raising of cattle, 
 they possess a few other branches of industry. The 0. are proverbially handsome; 
 
871 
 
 Clone. 
 
 Circle. 
 
 they are also strong, active and temperate, and are characterized by the higher attributes 
 of self-dependence, courage, and prudence. As a nation they made their first historical 
 appearance during the middle ages. They are, however, chiefly known through their 
 long struggles to maintain their independence against the aggression of Russia. See 
 Caucasus. For their place in ethnology, see Caucasian Vakiety op Mankind. 
 
 CIBC£, a fabulous sorceress, is described by Homer as “ fair-haired, a clever goddess, 
 possessing human speech,” sister of “all-wise -^Fsetes,” daughter of “the Sun, who 
 gives light to mortals, and of Perse, whom Ocean begot as his daughter.” Round her 
 palace in ^sea were numbers of human beings, whom she had changed into the shapes 
 of wolves and lions by her drugs and incantations. She changed two-and-twenty of 
 the companions of Ulysses into swine, but that hero, having obtained from Mercury the 
 herb moly, went boldly to the palace of the sorceress, remained uninjured by her drugs, 
 and induced her to disenchant his comrades. He remained with her for a year; and 
 when he departed, she instructed him how to avoid the dangers which he would 
 encounter on his homeward voyage {Odyssey, books x. and xii.). Jealous of Scylla, 
 whose love was sought by Glaucus, she poured the juice of poisonous herbs into that 
 part of the sea "where her rival was accustomed to bathe, and changed her into a hideous 
 monster {Metamorphoses, book xiv., fables 1 and 6). 
 
 CIRCETI, a t. of ancient Italy, in Litiu m, at the foot of Mons Circeius, a short dis- 
 tance from the sea, 10 or 12 m. from Terracina. Its ruins are still visible on the Monte- 
 della Cittadella, and consist of walls and gateways, built of polygonal blocks. 
 
 CIRCENSIAN GAMES. See Circus, ante . 
 
 CIRCLE, a plane figure bounded by a curved line, which returns into itself, called its 
 ( Circumference , and which is ever3'"where equally distant from a point within it called the 
 of the circle. The circumference is sometimes itself called the C., but this is 
 improper; C. is truly the name given to the space contained within the circumference. 
 Any line drawn through the center, and terminated by the circumference, is a diame - 
 ter . It is obvious that every diameter is bisected in the center. (See Arc, Chord.) In 
 co-ordinate geometry, the C. ranks as a curve of the second order, and belongsdo the 
 class of the conic sections. It is got from the right cone by cutting the cone by a plane 
 perpendicular to its axis. The C. may be described mechanically with a pair of com- 
 passes, fixing one foot in the center, and turning the other round to trace out the cir- 
 cumference. The C. and straight line are the two elements of plane geometry, and 
 those constructions only are regarded as being properly geometrical which can be 
 effected by their means. As an element in plane geometry, its properties are well known 
 and investigated in all the text-books: Only a few of the leading properties will here 
 
 be stated. 
 
 1. Of all plane figures, the C. has the greatest area within the same perimeter. 
 
 2. The circumference of a C. bears a certain constant ratio to its diameter. This 
 constant ratio, which mathematicians usually denote by the Greek letter n, has been 
 determined to be 3.14159, nearly, so that, if the diameter of a C. is 1 foot, its circum- 
 ference is 3.14159 feet; if the diameter is 5 ft., the circumference is 5 X 3.14159; and, 
 in general, if the diameter is expressed by 2r (twice the radius), then c (circumference) 
 
 2r X Archimedes, in his book De Dimensione Circuli, first gave a near value to 
 the ratio between the circumference and the diameter, being that of 7 to 22. Various 
 closer approximations in large numbers were afterwards made, as, for instance, the ratio 
 of 1815 to 5702. Vieta, in 1579, showed that if the diameter of a C. be 1000, etc., then 
 the circumference will be greater than 3141.5926535, and less than 3141.5926537. This 
 -approximation he made through ascertaining the perimeters of the inscribed andcircum 
 ficribed polygons of 393,216 sides. By increasing the number of the sides of the poly- 
 igons, their perimeters are brought more and more nearly into coincidence with the cir- 
 cumference of the circle. The approximation to the value of it has since been carried 
 (by M. de Lagny) to 128 places of figures. It is now settled that tt belongs to the class 
 of quantities called incommensurable (q.v.), i.e., it cannot be expressed by the ratio of 
 any two whole numbers, however great. In general, it may be considered that 3.14159 
 is a sufficiently accurate value of tt. 
 
 Though the value of re was at first approached by actually calculating the perimeter 
 of a polygon of a great number of sides, this operose method was long ago superseded 
 by modes of calculation of a more refined character, which, however, cannot here be 
 -explained. Sufiice it to say, that various series were formed expressing its value; by 
 taking more and more of the terms of which into account, a closer and closer approach 
 >to the value might be obtained. We subjoin one or two of the more curious. 
 
 ^ = 4 1 
 
 3^5 
 
 
 l + i-^+etc.). 
 
 ~ — 1 — ?! 
 
 K >y I K rf jCk (7011 
 
 3.5.7 ' 5.7.-9 7.9.11 ‘ 9.11.13 
 
 — etc.y 
 
 3. The area of a C. is equal to re multiplied by the square of the radius (=7rr*); or 
 
 Tt 
 
 to the square of the diameter multiplied by i.e., by .7854. Euclid has proved this 
 
Circle. 
 
 872 
 
 by showing that the area is equal to that of a triangle whose base is the circumference^, 
 and perpendicular height the radius of the circle. 
 
 4. It follows that different circles are to one another as the squares of their radii or 
 diameters, and that their circumferences are as the radii or diameters. 
 
 Tiie C. is almost always employed to measure angles, from its obvious convenience 
 for the,purpose, which depends on the fact demonstrated in Euclid (book iv. prop. 33), 
 that angles at the center of a C. are proportional to the arcs on which they stand. It. 
 follows, from this, that if circles of the same radii be described from the vertices of 
 angles as centers, the arcs intercepted between the lines, including the angles, are 
 always proportional to the angles. The C. thus presents us with the means of compar 
 ing angles. It is first necessary, however, to graduate the C. itself; for this purpose 
 its circumference is divided into four equal parts, called quadrants, each of which 
 obviously subtends a right angle at the center, and then each quadrant is divided into 
 degrees, and each degree into minutes, and so on. The systems of graduation adopted 
 are various, and will now be explained. 
 
 The sexagesimal scale is that in common use. According to it, each quadrant or right 
 angle being divided into 90 degrees, each degree is divided into 60 seconds, and each 
 second into 60 thirds, and so on. According to this scale, 90° represents aright angle;. 
 180°, two right angles, ora semicircle; and 360°, four right angles, or the whole circum* 
 ference — the unit in the scale being the ^g^^th of a right angle. As the divisions of the- 
 angles at the center, effected by drawing lines from the center to the different points- 
 of graduation of the circumference, are obviously independent of the magnitude of 
 the radius, and therefore of the circumference, these divisions of the circumference of 
 the C. may be spoken of as being actually divisions of angles. By laying a graduated 
 C. over an angle, and noticing the number of degrees, etc., lying on the circumfer 
 ence between the lines including the angle, we at once know the magnitude of the- 
 angle. Suppose the lines to include between them 3 degrees, 45 minutes, 17 seconds, 
 the angle in this scale would be written 3° 45' 17". 
 
 It is obvious, however, that the division of the quadrant into 90 degrees instead of 
 any other number, is quite arbitrary. We may measure angles by the C., however we 
 graduate it. Many French writers, accordingly, have adopted the 
 
 Centesimal Division of the Circle . — In this division, the right angle is divided into lOO 
 degrees, while each degree is divided into 100 parts, and so on. This is a most con- 
 venient division, as it requires no new notation to denote the different parts. Such a 
 quantity as 3° 45' 17" is expressed in this notation by 3.4517, the only mark required 
 being the decimal point to separate the degrees from the parts. Of course, in this illus- 
 tration, 3° means 3 centesimal divisions of the right angle, and 45' means 45 centesimal 
 minutes, and so on. If we want to translate the quantity 3° of the common notation 
 into the centesimal notation, we must multiply 3 by 100, and divide by 90. To translate- 
 minutes in the common notation into the centesimal, the rule is to multiply by 100, and. 
 divide by 54. 
 
 There remains yet another mode of measuring angles, known as the 
 
 Circular Measure . — The circular measure of angles is in frequent use, and depends- 
 directly on the proposition (Euc. vi. 33), that angles at the center of a C. are propor- 
 tional to the arcs on which they stand. Let POA be an angle at the center O of ai 
 C., the radius of which is r\ APB a semicircle whose circumference accordingly = 
 
 Ttr\ and let the length of the arc AP = a. Then, by Euclid, ^^^gbt ang^ ~ 
 
 Z POA = . Now, supposing a and r to be given,. 
 
 It r 
 
 although the angle POA will be determined, yet its nunaerical 
 value will not be settled unless we make some convention as- 
 to what angle we shall call unity. We are free to make any con- 
 vention we please, and therefore choose such a one as will render 
 the preceding equation the most simple. It is made most sim- 
 ple if we take ^ = i. We shall then have (denoting- 
 
 ^ Tt 
 
 the numerical value of the angle POA by 6)0 = — . The result of our convention is,. 
 
 that the numerical value of two right angles is it, instead of 180°, as in the method of 
 angular measurement first alluded to ; and the unit of angle, instead of being the nine- 
 tieth part of a right angle, is ^ or 57° 17' 44" 48"' nearly. Making 6 = 1 in 
 
 the equation 0 = —, we have a (or AP) = r (or AO), which shows that in the circular 
 
 measure, the unit of angle is that angle which is subtended by an arc of length equal 
 to radius. It is frequently a matter of indifference which mode of measuring angles is 
 adopted; the circular measure, however, is generally the most advantageous, as being 
 the briefest. It is easy to pass from this mode of measurement to the sexagesimal. If 
 
873 
 
 Circle 
 
 Q be the circular measure of an angle, the ahgle contains -- . 180* ; conversely, if an 
 
 7f 
 
 H 
 
 angle contain its circular measure i® 
 
 CIRCLE, Magic, a space in which sorcerers were wont, according to the ancient 
 popular belief, to protect themselves from the fury of the evil spirits they had raised. 
 This C. was usually formed on a piece of ground about 9 ft. square (in the east, 7 ft. 
 appears to have been considered sufficient), in the midst of some dark forest, church- 
 yard, vault, or other lonely and dismal spot. The C. was described at midnight in cer- 
 tain conditions of the moon and weather. Inside the outer C. was another somewhat 
 less, in the center of which the sorcerer had his seat. The spaces between the circles, 
 as well as between the parallel lines which inclosed the larger one, were filled “ with all 
 the holy names of God,” and a variety of other characters supposed to be potent against 
 the powers of evil. Without the protection of this C., the magician, it was believed, 
 would have been carried off by the spirits, as he would have been, had he by chance 
 got out of the charmed space. 
 
 CIRCLE, Mural, an instrument used for determining the meridian altitude or 
 zenith distance of a star. It consists of an astronomical telescope firmly fixed to a 
 graduated circle, which moves about a horizontal axis, fixed in a strong vertical 
 wall running north and south. In the common focus of the eye-piece and object- 
 glass of the telescope is a system of cross-wires (spider lines are generally used for 
 the purpose), one being horizontal, and five vertical, with equal spaces between. The 
 line joining the optical center of the object-glass with the intersection of the hori- 
 zontal and middle vertical wires, is called the line of coUimation of the telescope, 
 and when the instrument is in perfect adjustment, this line moves in the plane of 
 the meridian. 
 
 Besides the above-mentioned fixed wire, there is a movable one, called a microm- 
 eter wire, which is moved by means of a screw, remaining always parallel to the 
 fixed horizontal wire. 
 
 If the instrument be so adjusted that the image of a star, while passing across 
 the middle vertical wire in the field of view, shall at the same time be bisected by 
 the fixed horizontal wire, the star is at that moment in the line of collimation of 
 the telescope. It is therefore at that moment in the meridian, and its meridian zen- 
 ith distance is the angle through which the circle would have been turned from the 
 position it had when the line of collimation of the telescope pointed to the zenith. 
 There is a fixed pointer, for the purpose of approximately reading the instrument. 
 If the instrument were accurately adjusted, so that the pointer was opposite the 
 zero point of the circle, when the line of collimation of the telescope pointed to the 
 zenith, the arc intercepted between these two positions of the instrument would be 
 the meridian zenith distance of the star. 
 
 Great nicety is required in “reading ” the instrument; i.e., in determining exactly 
 the arc through which the circle has moved in bringing the telescope from the ver- 
 tical to any other position. The rim is usually graduated at intervals of five min- 
 utes; and the eye could determine only the division nearest to the fixed index. But 
 by means of a “reading microscope,” or micrometer (q.v.), fixed opposite to the rim, 
 the portion of the interval to the nearest division on the rim can be read to seconds. 
 There are usually six such microscopes fixed opposite different points of the rim; 
 and the “reading” of the instrument is the mean of the “readings” of all the micro- 
 scopes. This tends to eliminate errors arising from imperfect graduation and adjust- 
 ment. ^ If the instrument is properly adjusted, the zero point of the circle will be 
 opposite the fixed pointer when the line of collimation of the telescope points to 
 the zenith. In practice, however, this is not always accurately, or even approxi- 
 mately the case. As we shall immediately show, it is of no consequence, as the 
 final result of every observation is the difference between two readings. 
 
 It is evident that the difference between any two readings of the instrument will 
 tepresent the angle through which the line of collimation of the telescope moves in 
 passing from one position to the other. It remains to show how a fixed point, viz., 
 the nadir (q.v.), is observed, and then how an observation is taken of the star itself 
 in its meridian passage. 
 
 We must explain here that the fixed horizontal wire in the eye-piece of the tele- 
 scope, in the instruments as now used, is only an imaginary line which determines 
 the iine of collimation of the telescope. It coincides with the position of the micrometer 
 wire, when the screw-head of the micrometer marks zero. 
 
 To observe the nadir, a trough of mercury is placed underneath the instrument, and 
 the telescope is turned so as to look vertically downwards into it. An image of the 
 system of cross- wires which is in the common focus of the object-glass and eye-piece, 
 will be reflected back again to nearly the same focus. Looking into the telescope, the 
 observer now adjusts it by means of a tangent screw till the reflected image of the hori- 
 zontal wire coincides with the real one. The final adjustment is perhaps most deli- 
 cately affected by turning the screw-head of the micrometer which moves the wire itself. 
 When they coincide, the line joining the center of the object-glass of the telescope with 
 
Circle. 
 
 Circulating. 
 
 874 
 
 the intersection between the middle vertical and horizontal micrometric wire, will be 
 vertical. Now, the angle between this and the line of collimation of the telescope, 
 which, as we have said, joins the optical center of the object-glass with the intersection 
 of the middle vertical and imaginary fixed horizontal wire, will, if the micrometer is in 
 proper adjustment, be at once read off the micrometer screw-head. The instrument 
 being clamped as above adjusted, the microscopes are read off, and the reading of the 
 micrometer screw-head above mentioned being added to or subtracted from this read- 
 ing, as the case may be, the nadir reading of the instrument is determined. The zenith 
 reading, therefore, which differs from it by 180°, is at once known. 
 
 Again, to observe a star in the meridian, the instrument is previously adjusted so 
 that the star, in passing the meridian, shall pass over the field of view of the telescope. 
 As the image of the star approaches the center of the field, the observer adjusts the 
 telescope by the tangent screw, so as very nearly to bring the image of the star to the 
 horizontal wire. Finally, just as the star passes the middle vertical wire, he bisects the 
 image of the star with the horizontal wire by a touch of the micrometer screw-head. 
 The circle being now clamped (or made fast), the “reading” is determined as before by 
 reading the pointer and microscopes, and adding or subtracting, as the case may be, 
 the reading of the micrometer. This I'eading now subtracted from the zenith-reading 
 gives the meridian zenith distance of the star; and this, again, subtracted from 90°, 
 gives its meridian altitude above the horizon. 
 
 At the royal observatory of Greenwich, the principal observations are now made by 
 an instrument which combines the mural C. with the transit instrument. See Transit 
 Instrument. 
 
 CIBCLE, Quadrature of. See Quadrature. 
 
 CIBCLES OF THE SPHEBE. See Armillary Sphere. 
 
 CIRCLEVILLE, a city in Pickaway co., Ohio, on the Scioto river, and the Cincin- 
 nati and Muskingum Valley railroad, and the Ohio canal; pop. ’70, 5,407. It was built 
 on the site of an old Indian fortification of circular form, from which comes the name. 
 The city has many mills and manufactories. 
 
 CIRCUIT COURT, in American jurisprudence, a court whose jurisdiction extends 
 over a number of counties or districts, and which holds its sittings in various places 
 within the jurisdiction. More definitely, a class of federal courts of which the terms 
 are held in two or more places successively in the various circuits into which the whole 
 union is divided. They are presided over by the chief-justice of the United States, or 
 one of the associate judges, or by a special circuit justice, or in some cases by a district 
 judge. The C. C. has jurisdiction in law and equity, direct and appellate; hears appeals 
 in admiralty, and in some instances in criminal cases. The systems respecting circ.uit 
 courts in the several states differ considerably. In the classification of English courts 
 no such title is known. 
 
 CIBCTJITS (Ft. circuit; Lat. circuitus, a going round). In England. — England and 
 Wales, with the exception of the co. of Middlesex, are divided, for judicial purposes, 
 into eight C., which the 15 judges visit twice or thrice a year, in pairs, for the purpose 
 of adjudging civil and criminal causes. These C. are the Home, the Midland, the Nor- 
 folk, the Oxford, the Northern, the Western, the North Wales, and the South Wales. 
 Criminal charges within the co. of Middlesex and the city of London and surrounding 
 district, are disposed of at sessions which are held monthly at the central criminal court. 
 Before and after term, the judges of the superior courts sit for the adjudication of civil 
 causes in the Guildhall of the city of London, with the exception of the lord chancellor 
 and the vice-chancellor, who §it at Lincoln’s inn. “ These judges of assize came into 
 use in the room of the ancient justices in eyre, justiciarii in itinere, who were regularly 
 established, if not first appointed, by the parliament of Northampton, 1176 a.d., in 
 the twenty-second year of Henry II., with a delegated power from the king’s great 
 court, or aula regia, being looked upon as members thereof.” — Stephen’s iii. 
 
 p. 415. See Assize and Nisi Prius. — Ireland is divided into the North-east, the 
 North-west, the Home, the Leinster, Connaught, and Munster circuits. See Ireland, 
 Scotland, Justiciary Court. 
 
 CIBCIILAB NOTES are bank-notes specially adapted for the use of travelers in foreign 
 countries; and being, in fact, bills personal to the bearer, they are believed to be more 
 safe as traveling money than ordinary notes or coin. C. N. are furnished by the 
 chief London banking-houses. Those who wish to obtain them, determine beforehand 
 what sum of money they will require on their journey, and that they pay to the banker, 
 who, in exchange, gives C. N. to the amount, eaeh of the value of £10 and upwards. 
 Along with these notes is given a “letter of indication.” This letter (a lithographed 
 form in French) is addressed to foreign bankers, requesting them to pay the notes pre- 
 sented by the bearer, whom they name, and to aid him in any way in their power. By 
 way of verification, the bearer appends his signature, and the letter is complete. On 
 the back of the letter there is a long list of foreign bankers, extending all oyer Europe, 
 any of whom will cash one or more of the C. N., on being presented and indorsed by 
 the bearer; the indorsement being of course compared wutli the signature on the letter 
 of indication, which is at the same time exhibited. In paying these notes, the money 
 
875 
 
 Circle. 
 
 Circulating. 
 
 of the country is given, according to the course of exchange, and free of any charge for 
 commission. For security, the letter and the notes should not be carried together, in 
 case of being stolen or lost. These C. N. are doubtless a safe and convenient species of 
 money, exchangeable in almost every town visited ; and if any remain over on coming 
 home, they will be taken back at their value by the banker who issued them. There 
 are, however, certain drawbacks connected with these notes, which every traveler less 
 or more experiences. In many, almost in all, instances, there is a difficulty in finding 
 out where the banker named is to be found; for foreign bankers generally occupy obscure 
 apartments several stories high, and not unusually in dingy out-of the-way alleys. To 
 discover them, a commissionaire may be necessary, Then, in some instances (in Paris 
 invariably), the banker jealously scrutinizes the bearer, asks to see his passport, and 
 takes a note of the hotel at which he lodges ; all which may be proper as a precaution 
 against roguery, but it is not pleasant. Further, the C. In. are ordinarily of a thick 
 stiff kind of paper, which does not well fit into a purse or pocket-book. On these sev- 
 eral accounts, the careful class of travelers who keep to the main thoroughfares of 
 France, Germany, and Belgium, will find £5 or £10 bank of England notes, and sover- 
 eigns or napoleons, a preferable kind of money to take on their journey. w. e. 
 
 CIBCULAR NUMBERS are numbers whose powers end on the same figure as they do 
 themselves: such are numbers ending in 0, 1, 5, 6. 
 
 CIRCULAR PARTS, the name given to a rule in spherical trigonometry, invented by 
 lord INapier. It is to be found in any treatise on that subject. 
 
 CIRCULATING DECIMALS. See Decimals. 
 
 CIRCULATING LIBRARY, a collection of books lent out on hire — circulated from 
 hand to hand. The plan of lending books on hire is not new. Chevillier, in his Origines 
 de VImprimerie de Paris (4to, 1694), mentions that, in 1342, a century before the inven- 
 tion of printing, a law was framed in Paris, to compel stationers to keep books to be lent 
 on hire, for the special benefit of poor students and others. This fact is alluded to as 
 follows, by E. S. Merryweather, in his entertaining work. Bibliomania in the Middle 
 ^ges (hondoTL, 1849): “The reader will be surprised at the idea of a circulating library 
 in the middle ages, but there can be no doubt of the fact, they were established at Paris, 
 Toulouse, Vienna, and other places. These public librarians, too, were obliged to write 
 out regular catalogues of their books, and hang them up in their shops, with the prices 
 affixed, so that the student might know beforehand what he had to pay for reading 
 them.” This writer, quoting from Chevillier, gives a list of books so lent out, with the 
 prices for reading them. The books are all of a theological or classical kind. Among 
 them is the Bible, the perusal of which is set down at 10 sous. “This rate of charge,” 
 it is added, “was also fixed by the university, and the students borrowing these books 
 were privileged to transcribe them, if they chose; if any of them proved imperfect or 
 faulty, they were denounced by the university, and a fine was imposed upon the book- 
 seller who had lent out the volume.” In these arrangements, we see the efforts that were 
 made to procure the use of books before the art of printing had cheapened the cost of 
 literature. 
 
 By whom the modern C. L. was projected, there Is no record. All that can be given 
 are a few facts on the subject. It is known that Allan Ramsay, author of The Gentle 
 Shepherd, who was a bookseller in Edinburgh, established a C. L. in that city about 
 1725. Fond of dramatic literature, Ramsay appears to have incurred some local obloquy 
 by lending out plays ; and his wish to introduce a taste for the drama into Edinburgh may 
 accordingly have suggested the notion of a circulating library. Be this as it may, the 
 library which he began was continued through various hands for above a hundred years. 
 At Ramsay’s death in 1758, his library was sold to a Mr. Yair, whose widow carried it 
 on till 1780, when it was bought by Mr. James Sibbald, an ingenious inquirer into Scot- 
 tish literary antiquities. Sibbald lived some years as a literary man in London, during 
 which period, beginning with 1793, the C. L. was carried on, subject to an agreement 
 by a Mr. Laurie. Sibbald afterwards resumed the direction of the library, which he 
 considerably extended. At his death in 1803, his brother attempted to carry it on; but 
 not being successful in his management, he disposed of it in 1806 to Alexander Mackay, 
 a person of extraordinary energy and perseverance. By the acquisition of various other 
 libraries, Mr. Mackay greatly enlarged the collection, wffiich, under the name of the Edin- 
 burgh C. L., he conducted at 154 High street. Here, by long-continued and minute 
 attention to business, Mr. Mackay realized a competency, and he retired from active 
 pursuits in 1831, when this extensive collection of books was broken up and sold by 
 auction. 
 
 There are several circulating libraries in London, claiming to be of old date, but 
 probably not so early as 1725. In a late reprint of an old advertisement, we see 
 “ Proposals for erecting a public circulating library in London,” under date June 12, 
 1742. This library was to be established “in some convenient place at or near the royal 
 exchange;” and the subscription was to be a guinea per annum. Two of the present 
 circulating libraries are believed to be descended from this primitive stock. So numer 
 OU3 had circulating libraries become in the early years of the present century, that they 
 absorbed whole editions of novels and romances prepared for the purpose by a London 
 
Circulating'. 
 
 876 
 
 publishing establishment, designated the Minerva press. The issue of cheap books and 
 periodicals about 1832 (see Book-trade) seriously damaged theC. L. system; for people 
 now bought instead of borrowing materials for light reading. The vast increase to the 
 reading public in recent times, and the continually augmenting number of new and 
 popular works of a respectable class, have been the means of restoring prosperity to 
 circulating libraries, more especially in London, where some of them are on a surpris- 
 ingly gigantic scale. To one library alone, as many as 100,000 new books are said to be 
 added annually, and of kinds very different from those of the old Minerva press school. 
 The method of reading from these libraries consists in paying a sum per annum — usually 
 a subscription of a guinea — for which a number of new books may at all times be 
 procured, and kept for a specified period. When the books are no longer in demand, 
 they are sold at reduced prices. 
 
 The method of circulating books among the members of private associations, is 
 noticed under the head Book-club; and that of circulating books in rural districts by 
 means of libraries which are shifted from place to place, will be found in the article 
 Itinerating Libraries. W. C. 
 
 CIRCULATING MEDIUM. See Money, ante. 
 
 END OF VOr.UME III. 
 

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