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 PLAIN 
 
 INSTRUCTIONS IN GARDENING 
 
 A CALENDAR OF OPERATIONS AND DIRECTIONS 
 FOR EVERY MONTH IN THE YEAR. 
 
 BY MRS. LOUDON 
 
 Elefonuf) Is & it ton. 
 
 LONDON: 
 JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET. 
 
 1874.
 
 
 TO 
 
 N 
 
 THE MEMORY OF 
 
 J. C. LOUDON, ESQ. 
 
 F.L.S. H.S. Z.S., ETC. ETC. 
 
 (--'(CO WHOM THE AUTHOR OF THE FOLLOWING PAGES OWES ALL 
 to 
 
 THE KNOWLEDGE OF THE SUBJECT SHE POSSESSES), 
 O 
 
 CO 
 
 (Tf)is 3!S3orfe is ocDtratfO 
 
 »o 
 
 BY HIS AFFECTIONATE WIDOW, 
 
 » J. W. L. 
 
 296671
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 As the rapid sale of the previous editions of 
 this work affords the surest proof that it has 
 met the wants of those for whose use it was 
 designed, it may be asked why I have now 
 made so many alterations and additions. My 
 answer is, that I have done so in order that 
 my book may keep pace with the improving 
 spirit of the times. For this reason, I have 
 rewritten the chapter on manures, and made 
 various other alterations to meet the present 
 views of scientific men as regards chemistry 
 when applied to horticulture. It is true that, 
 in most cases, the results are the same as prac- 
 tice has long dictated ; but it is pleasant to 
 find theory and practice agree, which was not 
 always the case formerly. In fact, the most 
 interesting feature in the new doctrines is, that 
 they explain scientifically why practices suc- 
 ceed, which formerly appeared quite at variance 
 with theory. 
 
 The other alterations are of minor import- 
 ance, but they are numerous ; and, in fact, 
 every page has been carefully read over, and 
 improved to the utmost of my power. 
 
 J. W. LOUDON. 
 
 Bayswatee, Jan. 20, 1851.
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Page 
 IXTBODUCTIOy .1 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 Stirring the Soil 3 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 On Soils and Manures: including the Formation of 
 Hotbeds 20 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 Sowing Seeds. — Planting Bulbs and Tubers. — Trans- 
 planting and Watering 35 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Modes of Propagation by Division ; viz. Taking off 
 Suckers, Making Layers and Cuttings, Budding, 
 Grafting, and Inarching 58 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 Pruning, Training, Protecting from Frost, and Destroy- 
 ing Insects 95
 
 VU1 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER YI. 
 
 Page 
 The Kitchen-Garden. — The Management of Culinary 
 Yegetables 115 
 
 CHAPTER YII. 
 The Management of Fruit Trees 166 
 
 CHAPTER YIII. 
 
 The Flower-Garden, and the Culture of Flowers . . 20f 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 Management of the Lawn, Pleasure-Grounds, and 
 Shrubbery of a small Villa 251 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 Rockwork, Moss Houses, Rustic Summer-Houses, 
 Rustic Baskets, and Fountains 272 
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 
 Window Gardening, and the Management of Plants in 
 Pots in small Greenhouses 289 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 Calendar of Operations 323
 
 GARDENING FOR LADIES. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 It is scarcely possible to imagine any person 
 more completely ignorant of everything relating 
 to botany and gardening, than I was at the 
 period of my marriage with Mr. Loudon; and 
 as I found all his family and friends thoroughly 
 acquainted with both subjects, it may be easily 
 conceived that I was soon heartilv ashamed of 
 mv ignorance, and anxious to remove it as 
 rapidly as possible. Botany appeared too diffi- 
 cult for me to attempt ; but I thought I might 
 easily learn a little of gardening and of plants ; 
 and as my husband's time was very much 
 occupied, I endeavoured first to teach myself 
 from books. This, however, I soon found was 
 no easy task. Good books on gardening are 
 generally written for professed gardeners, who 
 are supposed to know all the elementary parts 
 beforehand ; and most of the books for begin- 
 ners contained only arbitrary directions, for 
 which no reasons were given, and which, as 
 they did not apply in all cases, only seemed to 
 bewilder me. In this dilemma I was obliged 
 to apply to my husband, and though, of course, 
 he was as anxious to teach me as I was to 
 learn, we found unanticipated difficulties at 
 
 B
 
 I INTRODUCTION. 
 
 every step ; and we both soon discovered the 
 truth of the apparent paradox, that it is not 
 enough to know any art or science to be able to 
 teach it, and instead of wondering that I had 
 not obtained all the information I wished from 
 books, it seemed strange that I had found them 
 of any use at all. 
 
 It is so very difficult for a person who has 
 been acquainted with a subject all his life, to 
 imagine the state of ignorance in which those 
 are who know nothing about it, that a profes- 
 sional gardener has rarely patience to teach 
 anything to an amateur. It is necessary to be a 
 full-grown pupil, as I was myself, to understand 
 the wants of those in a similar situation ; and 
 it requires to have an able and never-wearied 
 instructor, such as I had, to explain the reasons 
 for every rule, to make rules generally ap- 
 plicable. 
 
 In the following pages I have endeavoured 
 to embody the substance of the instructions I 
 received from my husband ; but as these in- 
 structions were given now nearly twenty years 
 ago, and as gardening is a progressive science, 
 I cannot say I have confined myself to them. 
 On the contrary, I have endeavoured to make 
 my readers acquainted with every improvement 
 that has taken place ; always, however, explain- 
 ing, as far as I have found it possible, why the 
 changes I mention have been adopted.
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 STIRRING THE SOIL. 
 
 Diggixg. — Every one knows that the first ope- 
 ration of the gardener, whether a new garden 
 is to be made, or merely an old one replanted, 
 is to dig the ground ; though but comparatively 
 few persons are aware why this is so essential. 
 When a piece of rouoh ground is to be taken 
 into cultivation, and a garden made where there 
 was none before, the use of digging is obvious 
 enough ; as the ground requires to be levelled, 
 and divided by walks, and thrown up into beds, 
 to give it the shape and appearance of a gar- 
 den, which could not be done without stirring 
 the soil : but why the beds in an old garden 
 should be always dug or forked over before they 
 are replanted, is quite another question, and one 
 that it requires some consideration to answer. 
 
 When any soil, except sand or loose gravel, 
 remains unstirred for a length of time, it be- 
 comes hard, and its particles adhere so firmly 
 together as not to be separated without manual 
 force. It is quite clear that when soil is in this 
 state, it is unfit for the reception of seeds ; as 
 the tender roots of the young plants will not be 
 able to penetrate it without o-reat difficultv, and 
 neither air nor water can reach them in suffi- 
 cient quantities to make them thrive. When a 
 
 b 2
 
 4 STIRRING THE SOIL. [CHAP. I. 
 
 seed is put into the ground, it is the warmth 
 and moisture by which it is surrounded that 
 make it vegetate. It first swells, and the skin 
 with which it is covered cracks and partly peels 
 off: then two shoots issue from the vital knot 
 (a point easily discoverable in large seeds), one 
 of which descends and is called the root, while 
 the other ascends to form the leaves, stem, 
 flowers, and fruit. 
 
 This is what is meant by the germination of 
 the seed, and this may be effected by the aid of 
 heat and moisture alone, as is done with mus- 
 tard and cress, when raised on wet flannel in 
 a saucer. But plants raised in this manner 
 cannot be of long duration ; as, though they 
 will live for a short time on the albumen con- 
 tained in the seed (on which they feed, as the 
 chicken does on the nourishment contained in 
 the egg), this is soon exhausted, and the plant 
 will die if not supplied with fresh food, which 
 it obtains principally by means of the root. 
 Thus, the root is necessary, not only to form a 
 base to support the plant and to keep it upright, 
 but to supply it with food ; and nature has given 
 it a tendency to bury itself in the ground, not 
 only to enable the plant to take a firm hold of 
 the soil, but to preserve the root in a fitting 
 state for absorbing food, which it can only do 
 when it is kept moderately warm and moist, and 
 secluded from the light. 
 
 The manner in which the root is fitted for the 
 purposes for which it was designed affords an 
 admirable illustration of the care and wisdom 
 displayed by the Great Creator in all his works. 
 In nature nothing is superfluous, and yet every-
 
 CHAP. I.] DIGGING. • 5 
 
 thing has been provided for. It has been 
 already observed, that the two principal uses of 
 the root are, to give the plant a firm hold of the 
 ground, and to supply it with food. For the 
 first purpose, the root either spreads so widely- 
 through the surface soil as to form a sufficient 
 base for the height of the plant, or it descends a 
 sufficient depth into the earth to steady the part 
 above ground ; and in either case the growth of 
 the plant is wisely and wonderfully proportioned 
 to the strength of the support which the root 
 affords it. For the second purpose, that of sup- 
 plying the plant with nourishment, the root 
 divides at the extremity of each shoot into 
 numerous fibres or fibrils, each furnished at its 
 point with a sponsiole or spongy substance, 
 which affords the plant the means of absorbing 
 the moisture necessary for its support. It is 
 thus quite clear, that everything that tends to 
 nourish and increase the growth of the root 
 must contribute to the health and vigour of the 
 rest of the plant ; and that no plant can thrive, 
 the root of which is cramped in its growth, or 
 weakened for want of nourishment. This being 
 conceded, it is evident that the first step towards 
 promoting the growth of any plat t is, to pro- 
 vide a fitting receptacle for the roo*" ; and this 
 is done by pulverising the ground in which the 
 seed is to be sown, so as to render it in a fit 
 state for the roots to penetrate it easily. Thus 
 they will neither be checked in their growth for 
 want of room, nor be obliged to waste their 
 strength in overcoming unnecessary obstacles; 
 such as twining themselves round a stone, or 
 trying to force their way through a hard clod of
 
 6 STIRRING THE SOIL. [CHAP. I. 
 
 earth. The second point, that of affording the 
 root abundance of nourishment, may also be 
 attained by pulverising the ground ; as pulveri- 
 sation, by admitting the air freely, and allowing 
 the rain to percolate slowly through the soil, 
 affords an equable supply of proper food to the 
 spongioles, without suffering the surplus water 
 to remain so long around the roots as to be in 
 danger of rotting them. 
 
 These, then, are the reasons why it may be 
 laid down as a general rule, that all ground 
 should be stirred before seeds are sown in it ; 
 but there are other reasons which operate only 
 partially, and are yet almost as necessary to be 
 attended to. When manure is applied, the 
 ground is generally well dug, in order to mix 
 the manure intimately with the soil : and when 
 the soil appears worn out, that is, exhausted of 
 its nutritious properties, it is trenched ; that is, 
 the upper or surface soil is taken off by spade- 
 fuls and laid on one side, and the bottom or 
 sub-soil is taken out to a certain depth pre- 
 viously determined, and laid in another heap. 
 The surface soil is then thrown into the bottom 
 of the trench, and the subsoil laid on the sur- 
 face, and thus a completely new and fresh soil 
 is offered to the plants. Trenching is also use- 
 ful to land that has had lime applied to it, and 
 to sandy soils that have been mixed with clay ; 
 as both the lime and the clay have a tendency 
 to sink downwards, and to form layers below 
 the surface soil, which is thus deprived of the 
 benefit which it was expected to derive from the 
 mixture, till they are again brought to the sur- 
 face by trenching. The saline properties of a
 
 CHAP, t] digging. 7 
 
 soil, also, are frequently washed down by re-- 
 peated rains, and require bringing again to the 
 surface. 
 
 The uses of digging having been thus ex- 
 plained, it is now necessary to say something of 
 its practice, and particularly of its applicability 
 to ladies. It must be confessed that digging 
 appears at first sight a very laborious employ- 
 ment, and one peculiarly unfitted to small and 
 delicatelv-formed hands and feet: but, bv a little 
 attention to the principles of mechanics and the 
 laws of motion, the labour may be much sim- 
 plified and rendered comparatively easy. The 
 operation of digging, as performed by a gar- 
 dener, consists in thrusting the iron part of the 
 spade, which acts as a wedge, perpendicularly 
 Into the ground by the application of the foot, 
 and then using the long handle as a lever, 
 to raise up the loosened earth and turn it over. 
 The quantity of earth thus raised is called a 
 spitful, or spadeful ; and the gardener, when he 
 has turned it, chops it to break the clods with 
 the sharp edge of his spade, and levels it with 
 the back. During the whole operation, the 
 gardener holds the cross part of the handle of 
 the spade in his right hand, while he grasps the 
 smooth round lower part of the handle in his 
 left, to assist him in raising the earth and turn- 
 ing it, sliding his left hand backwards and for- 
 wards along the handle, as he mav find it 
 necessary. 
 
 This is the common mode of digging ; and 
 it certainly appears to require considerable 
 strength in the foot to force the spade into the 
 ground, in the arms to raise it when loaded
 
 8 STIRRING THE SOIL. [CELAP. L 
 
 with the earth that is to be turned over, and in 
 the hands to grasp the handle. But it must be 
 remembered that all operations that are effected 
 rapidly by the exertion of great power, may be 
 effected slowly by the exertion of very little 
 power, if that comparatively feeble power be 
 applied for a much greater length of time. For 
 example, if a line be drawn by a child in the 
 earth with a light cane, and the cane be drawn 
 five or six times successively along the same 
 line, it will be found that a furrow has been 
 made in the soil with scarcely any exertion by 
 the child, that the strongest man could not 
 make by a single effort with all his force. In 
 the same way, a lady with a small light spade 
 may, by repeatedly digging over the same line, 
 and taking out only a little earth at a time, 
 succeed in doing, with her own hands, all the 
 digging that can be required in a small garden, 
 the soil of which, if it has been long in cultiva- 
 tion, can never be very hard or very difficult to 
 penetrate : and she will not only have the satis- 
 faction of seeino- the garden created, as it were, 
 by the labour of her own hands, but she will 
 find her health and spirits wonderfully improved 
 by the exercise, and by the reviving smell of 
 the fresh earth. • 
 
 The first point to be attended to, in order 
 to render the operation of digging less labo- 
 rious, is to provide a suitable spade ; that is, 
 one which shall be as light as is consistent with 
 strength, and which will penetrate the ground 
 with the least possible trouble. For this pur- 
 pose, the blade of what is called a lady's spade 
 is made of not more than half the usual breadth,
 
 CHAP. I.] DIGGING. 9 
 
 say not wider than five or six inches, and of 
 smooth polished iron, and it is surmounted, at 
 the part where it joins the handle, by a piece of 
 iron rather broader than itself, which is called 
 the tread, to serve as a rest for the foot of the 
 operator while digging. The handle is about 
 the usual length, but quite smooth, and suf- 
 ficiently slender for a lady's hand to grasp, and 
 it is made of willow, a close, smooth, and elastic 
 wood, which is tough and tolerably strong, 
 though much lighter than ash, the wood gene- 
 rally used for the handles to gardeners' spades. 
 The lady should also be provided with clogs, 
 the soles of which are not jointed, to put over 
 her shoes ; or if she should dislike these, and 
 prefer strong shoes, she should be provided with 
 what gardeners call a tramp, that is, a small 
 plate of iron to go under the sole of the shoe, 
 and which is fastened round the foot with a 
 leathern strap and a buckle. She should also 
 have a pair of stiff thick leathern gloves, or 
 gauntlets (see fig. 8, in p. 70.), to protect her 
 hands, not only from the handle of the spade, 
 but from the stones, weeds, &c, which she may 
 turn over with the earth, and which ought to be 
 picked out and thrown into a small, light wheel- 
 barrow {fig. 1.), which may easily be moved 
 from place to place. 
 
 A wheel-barrow is a lever of the second kind, 
 in which the weight is carried between the 
 operator, who is the moving power, and the 
 fulcrum, which is represented by the lower part 
 of the wheel. If it be so contrived that the 
 wheel may roll on a plank, or on firm ground, a 
 very slight power is sufficient to move the load
 
 10 STIRRING THE SOIL. [CHAP. L 
 
 contained in the barrow ; particularly if the 
 handles be long, curved, and thrown up as high 
 
 FIO. 1. lady's wheel-barrow. 
 
 as possible, in order to let the weight rest prin- 
 cipally upon the wheel, without obliging the 
 operator to bend forward. When, on the con- 
 trary, the handles are short and straight, the 
 weight is thrown principally on the arms of the 
 operator, and much more strength is required 
 to move the load, besides the inconvenience of 
 stooping. 
 
 All the necessary implements for digging 
 being provided, the next thing to be con- 
 sidered is, the easiest manner of performing the 
 operation. The usual way is for the gardener 
 to thrust his spade perpendicularly into the 
 ground, and then, using the handle as a lever, 
 to draw it back so as to raise the whole mass 
 of earth in front of the spade at once. This 
 requires great strength : but by inserting the 
 spade in a slanting direction, and throwing the 
 body slightly forward at the same time, the 
 mass of earth to be raised will not only be 
 much less, but the body of the operator will be 
 in a much more convenient position for raising
 
 CHAP. I.] DIGGING. 11 
 
 and turning' it , which may thus be done with 
 perfect ease. 
 
 The time for digging should always be cho- 
 sen, if possible, when the ground is tolerably 
 dry ; not only on account of the danger of 
 taking cold by standing on the damp earth, but 
 because the soil, when damp, adheres to the 
 spade, and is much more difficult to work (as 
 the gardeners call it) than when it is dry. The 
 ground in fields becomes very hard in dry wea- 
 ther ; but this is never the case in a garden, the 
 soil of which is well pulverised by the constant 
 discsino;, forking, hoeing and raking it must 
 undergo, to keep the garden tolerably neat. 
 Every lady should be careful, when she has 
 finished digging, to have her spade dipped in 
 water, and then wiped dry ; after which it 
 should be hung up in some warm dry shed or 
 harness-room, to keep it free from rust ; as 
 nothing lessens the labour of digging more than 
 having a perfectly smooth and polished spade. 
 Should the earth adhere to the spade while dig- 
 ging, dipping the blade in water occasionally 
 will be found to facilitate the operation. 
 
 The purposes for which digging is applied in 
 gardening are : simple digging for loosening the 
 soil in order to prepare it for a crop ; pointing ; 
 burying manure ; exposing the soil to the 
 action of the weather; trenching; ridging; 
 forming pits for planting trees and shrubs, or 
 for fillincr with choice soil for sowing seeds ; 
 and taking up plants when they are to be 
 removed. 
 
 In simple digging, as well as in most of the 
 other kinds, it is customary to divide the bed to
 
 12 STIRRING THE SOIL. [CHAP. I. 
 
 be dug, by a garden-line, into two parts : a 
 trench, or furrow as it is called, is then opened 
 across one of these divisions or halves of the 
 bed, the earth out of which is thrown up into a 
 heap. The digging then commences by turning 
 over a breadth of soil into the furrow thus 
 made, and so forming a new furrow to be filled 
 up by the soil turned over from the breadth 
 beyond it ; and this is continued till the operator 
 reaches the end of the first division, when the 
 furrow is to be filled with the earth taken from 
 the first furrow of the second division ; after 
 which the digging proceeds regularly as before, 
 till the operator reaches the last furrow, which 
 is filled with the ridge of earth thrown up when 
 the first furrow was made. As few ladies are 
 strong enough to throw the earth from the 
 heap where it was laid from the first furrow, 
 to fill the last, the best way is to put it into a 
 small wheel-barrow, which may be wheeled to 
 the place required, and filled and emptied as 
 often as may be found convenient; or the 
 ground may be divided into narrower strips. 
 It must also be observed, that as a spadeful 
 of earth taken up obliquely will be seldom 
 found to loosen the soil to a proper depth, a 
 second or even a third should be taken from 
 the same place before the operator advances 
 any further along the line; or the whole of 
 each furrow may first be made shallow, and 
 then deepened by successive diggings before 
 proceeding to the next furrow. 
 
 It is obvious that the great art in this kind 
 of digging is to keep the furrows straight, and 
 not to take up more earth in one place than in
 
 CHAP. I.] DIGGING. 13 
 
 another, so that the surface of the ground, whet 
 finished, may be perfectly even. To keep the 
 furrows straight, the first ought to be marked 
 out with the rod and line, and every succeeding 
 line should be frequently and carefully e?* 
 amined. It is more difficult to keep these line* 
 straight than can be at first sight imagined 
 and in proportion as the furrow is allowed to 
 become crooked, it will become narrower, and 
 be in danger of being choked up; or, if kept 
 as wide as before, the surface of the ground 
 will be rendered uneven, and the last furrow 
 left without earth enough to fill it up. In 
 di£2;in£ each furrow also, care must be taken 
 to carry it quite up to the line of demarcation ; 
 as, otherwise, what the gardeners call a baulk 
 or piece of firm land would be left there, and, 
 of course, the bed would neither look well, 
 nor would the object for which it was dug be 
 fullv attained. Great care must also be taken 
 to keep the surface of the bed even, and this it 
 is extremely difficult for a novice to do. It is, 
 indeed, very provoking, after watching the ease 
 with which a gardener digs a bed, and looking 
 at the perfectly smooth and even surface that 
 he leaves, to find how very hard it is to imitate 
 him : and yet it is absolutely necessary to be 
 done ; for, if there are any irregularities in 
 the surface, the hollow places will collect the 
 moisture, and the plants in them will grow 
 vigorously, while those in the raised places will 
 be speedily dried by the sun and wind, and wil" 
 look poor and withered. Practice is certainty 
 required to render digging easy; but, as the 
 principal points, of keeping the furrows straight
 
 14 STIRRING TH3 SOIL. [CHAP. L 
 
 and the surface even, depend on skill more than 
 strength, the art of digging well may be ac- 
 quired by any one who thinks it worth while to 
 take the trouble. Very little strength will, in- 
 deed, be necessary, if the rule of thrusting in 
 the spade obliquely, and aiding it by the mo- 
 mentum of the body, be always attended to. 
 
 Pointing, as it is called by gardeners, is in 
 fact shallow digging, and it consists in merely 
 turning over the ground to the depth of two or 
 three inches. In spring, or in the beginning of 
 summer, when the sun has only warmed the 
 soil to the depth of a few inches, and when the 
 seeds to be sown (as of annual flowers for ex- 
 ample) are wanted to germinate as quickly as 
 possible, pointing is preferable to digging ; be- 
 cause the latter operation would bury the warm 
 soil, and bring that up to the surface which is 
 still as cold as in winter. Pointing is also used 
 in stirring the ground among trees and other 
 plants, in order that the spade may not go so 
 deeply into the ground as to injure their roots. 
 
 Burying Manure. — There are two ways of 
 digging the ground for the purpose of burying 
 manure. According to the first method, the 
 manure is spread evenly over the whole bed, 
 and then the gardener proceeds to dig as 
 though the manure were in fact a portion of 
 the surface of the soil ; and, according to the 
 second method, the manure, having been first 
 brought to the spot, and thrown into a heap, is 
 deposited, a small portion at a time, at the 
 bottom of each furrow as it is formed, and the 
 earth from the next furrow thrown over it. In 
 both cases, the manure should be buried as
 
 CHAP. I.] RIDGING. 15 
 
 speedilv as possible ; as, if left long exposed in 
 small quantities to the air in hot dry weather, 
 it loses a great part of its nutritious qualities by 
 evaporation. 
 
 Ridging. — Digging for the purpose of ex- 
 posing the soil to the action of the weather, 
 trenching, and ridging on a large scale, are 
 operations too laborious to be performed by 
 any one but a gardener's labourer. To be 
 done well, the earth in all these cases should be 
 removed in lar^e spadefuls at a time, and 
 turned over without breaking ; on which ac- 
 count these operations are best performed in 
 moist weather, when the earth is in an adhesive 
 state. Ridging on a small scale is, however, 
 verv useful even in a flower-garden, to mix air 
 with the soil, where it is hard and unproduc- 
 tive. This kind of ridging is performed by 
 opening a trench, and throwing up the loose 
 earth out of it in the form of a ridge ; and 
 then opening another trench, and forming 
 another ridge in the same manner. The whole 
 garden is thus thrown into a series of ridges and 
 trenches, which should be suffered to remain 
 all the winter, and be levelled in spring. It is 
 obvious that this mode of ameliorating the soil 
 can only be practised where the garden is not 
 likely to be visited during winter, as it destroys 
 all beauty, and has a peculiarly desolate and 
 forlorn appearance. It is thus a remedy only 
 to be resorted to in extreme cases ; but for- 
 tunately there are very few flower-gardens in 
 which the soil is in so bad a state as to re- 
 quire it. 
 
 The other kinds of digging are, to form pits
 
 16 STIRRING THE SOIL. [CHAP. L 
 
 for receiving plants, or for filling with choice 
 soil, and to remove plants. In the first case, a 
 hole of sufficient size to receive the plant is 
 dug, and the earth thrown up beside it, to be 
 filled in round the roots of the plant ; and in 
 the second case, the common garden earth is 
 thrown out of a pit a foot or eighteen inches 
 deep, and about the same in diameter, and its 
 place supplied by peat, or whatever other 
 kind of earth may be required. In removing a 
 young tree or shrub, the ground is generally 
 first dug out on one side, so as to form a small 
 trench, and then the spade is driven perpen- 
 dicularly into the ground, below the depth to 
 which the roots descend, and the whole mass is 
 raised like a spadeful of earth. Small plants 
 are raised by the spade at once, without making 
 any trench ; and large trees require all the skill 
 of a professed gardener. 
 
 Forking. — A broad-pronged garden fork 
 may be defined as an implement consisting of 
 a number of small sharply-pointed spades, 
 united by a shoulder or hilt, to which is fixed 
 the handle ; and forking differs from digging, 
 principally in its being used merely to stir the 
 soil, and not to turn it over. In shrubberies, 
 and among perennial herbaceous plants, which 
 are not to be taken up and replanted, forking 
 is very useful ; as it loosens the hard dry sur- 
 face of the soil, and admits the warm air 
 and rain to the roots of the plants. This is 
 very necessary, not only to admit the particles 
 of air, which are required for the nourishment 
 of the plants, but also to admit warmth, as the 
 earth is a bad conductor of heat; and, where
 
 CHAP. L] hoeing. 17 
 
 the surface of the soil is become so hard as to 
 exclude the. air from the roots of the plants, 
 the ground in which they grow will be nearly as 
 cold in summer as in winter. Besides, when the 
 surface of the ground is hard, the rain, instead 
 of soaking gradually into it, runs off, or evapo- 
 rates, without being of any service to the roots. 
 The operation of forking consists merely in 
 thrusting the fork a little way into the ground 
 by the application of the foot to the hilt, and 
 then pulling back the handle as in digging, so 
 as to loosen the earth without raising "it. The 
 ground may thus be roughly pulverised to a 
 considerable depth, without dividing the roots 
 of the plants ; which would have been inevi- 
 table if the operator had used a spade. 
 
 Hoeing. — There are several different hoes 
 which are used for getting up weeds, for loosen- 
 ing the soil, for drawing it up round the stems 
 of growing plants, and for making a shallow 
 furrow or drill for sowing seeds : but all these 
 kinds belong to one of two great divisions, viz. 
 the draw hoe (Jig. 2.), and the thrust hoe {fig. 
 3.), and may be seen at any ironmonger's shop. 
 
 Fig. 2. draw hoe. 
 
 z> 
 
 Fig. 3. thrust hoe. 
 
 Either kind may be used for destroving weeds ; 
 as the weeds may either be loosened or lifted
 
 18 STIRRING THE SOIL. [CHAP. I. 
 
 out of the soil by the thrust hoe, or torn out of 
 it by the draw hoe. Both kinds may also be 
 used for pulverising the soil, or a draw hoe with 
 two prongs may be substituted. In all these 
 operations, the thrust hoe is best adapted for a 
 lady's use, as requiring the least exertion of 
 strength, and being most easily managed ; but 
 the draw hoe is best adapted for making a drill 
 or furrow for the reception of seeds, and also 
 for the last and most important use of hoeing, 
 viz. the drawing up of the earth round the 
 stems of growing plants. 
 
 The operation of hoeing up, though very 
 commonly practised, is only suitable to some 
 kinds of plants ; and it is intended to afford 
 additional nourishment to those which require 
 abundance of food, by inducing them to throw 
 out more lateral fibres from their main roots. 
 
 The plants which will bear to be hoed or 
 earthed up are those that throw out fibrous 
 roots above the vital knot, like the cabbage 
 tribe, &c. ; or that are annuals with long bushy 
 stems, and very weak and slender roots, like 
 the pea. Ligneous plants should never be 
 earthed up, to avoid injuring the vital knot, 
 which forms the point of separation between 
 the main root and the stem, and which gar- 
 deners call the collar, crown, neck, or collet. 
 This part in trees and shrubs should never be 
 buried; as, if it be injured by moisture so as to 
 cause it to rot, the plant will die. A deciduous 
 tree may be cut down close above the collar, 
 and it will throw up fresh shoots ; or the roots 
 may all be cut off close below the collar, and if 
 that part be uninjiired fresh roots will form;
 
 CHAP. I.] RAKING. 19 
 
 but if a tree be cut through at this vital part it 
 never can recover. 
 
 A trowel is another instrument used in stir- 
 ring the soil, but of course it can onlv be em- 
 ployed in boxes of earth in balconies, fcc. ; or 
 in large pots, or tubs. 
 
 Raking is useful in smoothing the soil after 
 digging; and in collecting weeds, stones, <fcc, 
 and dragging them to one side, whence they 
 may be easily removed. An iron-toothed rake 
 is generally used for the ground, and a wooden 
 one for collecting grass after mowing. When 
 it is wished that the teeth of the rake should 
 enter the soil, the handle should be held low ; 
 but if the object be only the. collection of grass 
 or weeds, the handle should be held high. 
 Dry weather is essential to raking the ground, 
 as the principal use of the operation is to break 
 the clods left by the spade; but raking to- 
 gether grass or weeds may be performed in wet 
 weather. 
 
 The degree of strength required for raking 
 depends partly upon the breadth of the head 
 of the rake, and the number of its teeth, but 
 principally upon the manner of holding it. If 
 the rake be held low, it is obvious that greater 
 strength will be required to drag it through the 
 ground, than if it be held high, in which case 
 very little labour will be required to overcome 
 the resistance it will meet with. 
 
 c2
 
 20 
 
 CHAPTER IT. 
 
 ON SOILS AND MANURES ; INCLUDING THE 
 FORMATION OF HOTBEDS. 
 
 The art of cultivating hardy plants consists in 
 improving their size or quality, by giving them 
 more food than they could have obtained in a 
 state of nature ; but the plants of hot countries, 
 when they are to be grown in a cold climate, 
 require in addition artificial heat and shelter. 
 
 To know how to supply plants with food, we 
 must remember that they are organised beings, 
 composed principally of carbon, oxygen, hy- 
 drogen, and nitrogen ; and that they require a 
 constant supply of these elements to enable 
 them to live and grow. They also require cer- 
 tain mineral or earthy substances, which differ 
 according to the nature of the plant. The 
 elementary substances required for the nourish- 
 ment of plants are derived partly from air and 
 water, partly from the soil, and partly from 
 substances occasionally added to the soil, which 
 are called manures. Manures are also used to 
 create artificial heat. 
 
 Carbonic acid gas and nitrogen gas are found 
 in the atmosphere ; and the plant possesses the 
 power of absorbing them by its roots, as well 
 as its leaves, if air be permitted to have access 
 to its spongioles. The plant takes up oxygen
 
 CHAP, n.] CONSTITUENTS OF SOILS. 21 
 
 and hydrogen also by its roots, through the 
 medium of water ; and, as plants cannot be 
 maintained in a healthv condition unless they 
 are supplied freely with these elements, no soil 
 can be fitted for growing plants in that is not 
 sufficiently open to admit air, and allow water 
 to percolate through it. 
 
 Carbon, and the elementary erases, are also 
 found more or less abundantly in the different 
 kinds of soil, by which they are yielded to the 
 plants ; and soils supply certain portions of 
 inorganic or earthy matter, which, though found 
 in plants in very small quantities, are abso- 
 lutely necessary to complete the process of 
 vegetation. 
 
 All the different kinds of soil found on level 
 ground consist of two parts, which are called 
 the surface soil and the subsoil ; the subsoil 
 being what may be considered the natural rock 
 of the particular district ; and the surface soil 
 being compounded of dust crumbled from the 
 subsoil, and mixed with other mineral sub- 
 stances, and various animal and vegetable mat- 
 ters in a state of minute subdivision or decay. 
 
 It would be useless to attempt to give an ac- 
 count of all the various kinds of subsoil; and, in 
 fact, such an account could only be given in a 
 work on geology. It will be sufficient for mv 
 present purpose to mention that the principal 
 rocks which enter into the composition of sub- 
 soils are the quartz rocks, which form the basis 
 of the siliceous or sandy soils; clay, on which lie 
 the argillaceous or clayey soils ; and limestone, 
 which forms the basis of calcareous or chalky 
 soils.
 
 22 SOILS AND MANURES. [CHAP. II. 
 
 In fields and uncultivated places, the surface 
 soil is almost as hard and as coarse in its tex- 
 ture as the subsoil on which it rests ; but in 
 gardens which have been long in cultivation, 
 the surface soil becomes so thoroughly pul- 
 verised by frequent diggings, and so mixed 
 with the manure and decayed vegetables which 
 have been added to it from time to time, that 
 it is changed into the soft, light, fine, powdery 
 substance, called garden mould. If the subsoil 
 be naturally porous or well drained, this mould, 
 however rich it may be made by the addition 
 of decayed vegetable matter or animal manure, 
 will always continue friable ; and, as long as it 
 does so, it will be fit for the growth of plants : 
 but if no vent be allowed for the escape of the 
 water, and it be continually enriched with 
 manure, it will be changed in time into a black 
 slimy substance, and become what the gar- 
 deners technically term sour. 
 
 Surface soil is called peat earth, when it is 
 composed principally of vegetable matter partly 
 decayed, but the decomposition of which has 
 been stopped by its immersion in water. As 
 this kind of earth cannot exist without abun- 
 dance of stagnant moisture, it is almost always 
 found on a clayey subsoil, which prevents the 
 water which falls upon it from escaping. Peat 
 earth has a spongy elastic feel when trodden 
 upon, arising from the quantity of water that 
 it holds, and it can only be rendered fit for cul- 
 tivation by draining, or by depriving it in some 
 other manner of its superabundant moisture. 
 In its elastic state it is what is called in Scot- 
 land a moss, and in England a peat bog.
 
 CHAP. II.] EARTHS. 23 
 
 Should the water, instead of being" afforded a 
 vent by drainage, be suffered to accumulate for 
 many years, till it completely liquefies the peat, 
 the soil becomes what is called a morass, or 
 quagmire ; and it can no longer be trodden on, 
 as it will engulf any substance resting upon it. 
 A still further accumulation of water will, in 
 the course of years, cause the bog to burst its 
 bounds, and overflow the surrounding country ; 
 as the Solway Moss did many years ago, and 
 as bogs in Ireland have done frequently. An 
 excess of vegetable matter on a sandy or gra- 
 velly subsoil differs from the common black 
 peat in being more decayed, as it retains less 
 water; and in being mixed with a portion of 
 the primitive earth, which, from its loose 
 texture, becomes easily detached from the sub- 
 soil, and mino'les with the surface soil, and in 
 this state the peaty matter forms what is called 
 heath mould. 
 
 There are few things which appear more in- 
 credible to those who have not studied the 
 subject, than the great variety of earths which 
 enter into the composition of plants ; and yet 
 there can be no doubt of the fact, for when 
 different kinds of plants have been burnt, 
 and their ashes analysed, as many as eleven 
 different kinds of earths have been found in 
 the ashes. These earths vary in different plants, 
 but the most common kinds in garden vegeta- 
 bles are potash, soda, lime, sulphur, phos- 
 phorus, silica, magnesia, alumina, and a very 
 small quantity of iron. Some of these earths 
 are only found in plants in combination with 
 oxygen or chlorine, and the same earths are
 
 24 SOILS AND MANURES. [CHAP. n. 
 
 not necessary to all plants : but all the earths I 
 have enumerated have been found in the ashes 
 o{ the cabbage, the parsnep, and other common 
 garden vegetables. It is, therefore, not sur- 
 prising that the most productive soils are those 
 which contain the greatest variety of sub- 
 stances. Of all the primitive earths found in 
 garden vegetables, lime is the most abundant, 
 and hence one of the best soils for gardening 
 purposes is generally allowed to be a calcareous 
 loam on a chalky subsoil: as this sort of soil 
 is composed of nearly equal parts of lime, sand, 
 and clay, enriched by depositions of decayed 
 animal and vegetable matters. The next best 
 soil is a sanely loam, composed of clay and 
 sand, also mixed with decayed animal and 
 vegetable matters ; and the worst soils are 
 loose sand, moist black peat, and stiff clay. 
 The first of these soils can only be rendered 
 fertile by the addition of clay ; and the peat 
 and clay are improved by the help of lime or 
 sand. "A gravelly or sandy subsoil is generally 
 better than a clayey one : but in dry seasons 
 the plants are soon burnt up, while those on a 
 clayey subsoil remain fresh and green. A poor 
 sandy soil is necessarily a barren one, as, from 
 the looseness of its particles, it will not retain 
 moisture enough round the spongioles of the 
 roots to keep them in a healthy state ; and a 
 stiff clay is unfertile, from the closeness of its 
 texture not admitting air to the roots, which 
 also waste their strength in the efforts they 
 make to penetrate its adhesive clods. 
 
 Manures. — W hen the soil in which plants 
 are to be cultivated is deficient in any of the
 
 CHAP, n.] HORSE-DUNG. 25 
 
 substances which those plants require for food, 
 it is necessary to supply the deficiency by arti- 
 ficial means ; and this is in fact the theory of 
 manures, for any substance may become a 
 manure if its addition is required to render the 
 soil suitable to the plants which are to be grown 
 in it. As, however, certain elements are oftener 
 required by plants than any other, those sub- 
 stances in which these elements abound are so 
 much the most frequently used as manures, 
 that few people think of any others. I shall, 
 however, say a few words of all the kinds in 
 common use, dividing them into the three heads 
 of animal, vegetable, and mineral. 
 
 Animal Manures. — The most common ani- 
 mal manure, and that which is most useful, is 
 undoubtedly horse-dung, as it is not only rich 
 in all the elements required for vegetable food, 
 but it evolves so much heat in decaying, that it 
 can be made to supply an artificial climate, 
 when necessary, to those plants which are na- 
 tives of climates warmer than our own. During 
 the process of decay, it also throws off a 
 quantity of ammoniacal gas, of so caustic 
 a nature as to destroy any plants subjected to its 
 influence. This the gardeners call burning the 
 plants ; and in fact the leaves look black and 
 shrivelled, as though they had been burnt by 
 fire. To avoid the danger of injuring plants in 
 this manner, horse-dun^ - , when procured fresh 
 from a stable, must be laid in a heap, and 
 turned over several times to allow the caustic 
 gases to escape, till its fermentation is suffi- 
 ciently abated to allow of its being safely 
 applied to the plants. As, however, some of
 
 26 SOILS AND MANURES. [CHAP. IL 
 
 the valuable parts of the manure may be 
 washed away by the rain that falls on the heap 
 while the horse-dung is fermenting, a liquid 
 manure tank may be made to receive them. 
 Where practicable, it is, however, better to use 
 the remains of an old hotbed, or old celery 
 trenches or mushroom-beds, for manuring a 
 garden, than to procure, fresh dung ; as a great 
 deal of manure, and also of time and labour, 
 will be saved. 
 
 It must be observed, that in using stable dung- 
 as a manure, there is one particular period in 
 the process of decay when the manure is more 
 efficacious than at any other; and this the 
 practice of gardeners has decided to be the 
 moment when the mass is sufficiently decayed 
 and amalgamated to be cut with a spade. Pro- 
 fessor Solly observes, that organic matters un- 
 dergo four distinct changes in their progress 
 towards decomposition: and these are fermen- 
 tation, putrefaction, decay, and mouldering ; 
 and it is when decay has begun, that stable 
 manure is in the most fitting: state for being; 
 applied to the soil. During the first process 
 (fermentation), stable manure is totally useless 
 as an agent of cultivation; and during; the second 
 process (putrefaction), it is principally used in 
 the form of hotbeds; but when the process 
 he calls decay has commenced, the elements 
 become separated from each other, so as to 
 form new compounds, till at last all the gaseous 
 products being dispersed, the residuum moulders 
 into dust. 
 
 To facilitate the process of decay, it is abso- 
 lutely necessary that the manure should be ex-
 
 CHAP. H.] FORMATION OF HOTBEDS. 27 
 
 posed to the action of the air; because if the 
 manure is exposed to the action of water and 
 not to air, an intermediate change takes place 
 between putrefaction and decay, to which Pro- 
 fessor Solly gives the term mouldering, but which 
 is, in fact, analogous to that which takes place 
 in vegetable matters when they become changed 
 into peat, and during which the elements of 
 which they are composed are prevented from 
 flying off and forming new combinations, and 
 are thus quite useless as vegetable food, the 
 manure being changed into a black slimy mass, 
 totally unavailable for any purposes of cultiva- 
 tion. This change often takes place in the gar- 
 dens of small suburban houses which are badly 
 drained, and yet constantly watered; and which, 
 being over manured with stable dung imperfectly 
 decayed, have their soil changed into the black 
 slimy substance that I have before described, 
 which is quite incapable of maintaining vegeta- 
 ble life. The soil in flower pots is often found in 
 this state, from frequent watering, and suffering 
 the water to remain in a stagnant condition in 
 the saucers. 
 
 Formation of Hotbeds. — Though several 
 kinds of manure may be used occasionally for 
 hotbeds, the only materials in common use in 
 gardens are, stable manure, dead leaves, and 
 tan. The first of these, which is by far the 
 most general, consists partly of horse-dung, and 
 partly of what gardeners call long litter, that 
 is, straw moistened and discoloured, but not 
 thoroughly decayed. The manure is generally 
 in this state when it is purchased, or taken
 
 28 
 
 SOILS AND MANURES. [CHAP. II. 
 
 from the stable, for the purpose of making a 
 hotbed. 
 
 The necessary quantity of manure is pro- 
 cured, at the rate of one cart-load, or from 
 twelve to fifteen large wheel-barrowfuls to every 
 light (as the gardeners call the sashes of the 
 frames), each light being about three feet wide; 
 and this manure is laid in a heap to ferment. 
 In about a week the manure should be turned 
 over with a dung-fork, and well shaken together ; 
 this operation being repeated two or three of 
 more times, at intervals of two or three days, 
 till the whole mass is become of one colour, 
 and the straws are sufficiently decomposed to 
 be torn to pieces with the fork. 
 
 The size of the hotbed must depend prin- 
 cipally on the size of the frame which is to cover 
 it; observing that the bed must be from six 
 inches to a foot wider than the frame every way. 
 The manure must then be spread in layers, each 
 layer being beaten down with the back of the 
 fork, till the bed is about three feet and a half 
 high. The surface of the ground on which the 
 hotbed is built is generally raised about six 
 inches above the general surface of the garden ; 
 and it is advisable to lay some earth round the 
 bottom of the bed, nearly a foot wide, that it 
 may receive the moisture that will drain from the 
 manure in the bed. As soon as the bed is 
 made, the frame is put on, and the sashes kept 
 quite close till a steam appears upon the glass, 
 when the bed is considered in a fit state to be 
 covered three or four inches deep with mould ; 
 observing, if the bed has settled unequally, to
 
 chap, el] heat of hotbeds. 29 
 
 level the surlace of the manure before covering 
 it with earth. The seeds to be raised may 
 either be sown in this earth, or in pots to be 
 plunged in it. 
 
 Tlie proper average heat for a hotbed in- 
 tended to raise flower seeds or to grow cucum- 
 bers is 60°; but melons require a heat of 6-5° 
 to grow in, and 75° to ripen their fruit. This 
 heat should be taken in the morning, and does 
 not include that of the sun in the middle of the 
 dav. "When the heat of the bed becomes so 
 
 J 
 
 great as to be in danger of injuring the plants, 
 the obvious remedy is to give air by raising the 
 glasses; and if this be not sufficient, the general 
 heat of the bed must be lowered bv making 
 excavations in the dung from the sides, so as to 
 reach nearly to the middle of the bed, and 
 filling up these excavations with cold dung 
 which has already undergone fermentation, or 
 with leaves, turf, or any other similar material 
 which will receive heat, but not increase it. 
 "When the heat of the bed falls down to 48° or 
 lower, it should be raised, by applying on the 
 outside fresh coatings of dung, grass, or leaves, 
 which are called linings. 
 
 "When hotbeds are made of spent tanner's 
 bark or decayed leaves, a kind of box or pit 
 must be formed of bricks or boards, or even of 
 layers of turf or clay, and the tan or leaves 
 filled in so as to make a bed. Where neatness 
 is an object, this kind of bed is preferable to 
 any other ; but a common hotbed of stable ma- 
 nure may be made to look neat by thatching the 
 outside with straw, or covering it with bast mats 
 pegged down to keep them close to the bed.
 
 30 SOILS AND MANURES. [CHAP. n. 
 
 Cow-dung is what is called a cold manure, as 
 it gives out scarcely any heat while decaying. 
 It is never used for making hotbeds; and though 
 when dug into the ground it yields nitrogen to 
 the plants, it is in a much less degree than 
 horse-dung. Cow-dung is seldom used in gar- 
 dens, except in cultivating bulbous plants, in 
 which case it is useful from the slowness with 
 which it decays. 
 
 Liquid animal manure from stables and 
 cow-houses, or the drainings of dunghills, is a 
 very strong, and, in some cases, useful kind of 
 manure. It is, however, seldom, if ever, used 
 for gardens; but a kind of liquid manure may 
 be formed on a small scale, by pouring water 
 over cow-dung or rotten stable manure, and then 
 using it for beds or borders. 
 
 The other animal manures are generally too 
 strong to be used safely in gardens. Pigeons' 
 dung is a hot manure, only used in composts 
 for auriculas, and seldom employed except by 
 commercial florists. Guano is the dung; of the 
 sea-fowls which frequent the Guano Islands on 
 the coast of Peru; which, after having lain 
 almost unknown for centuries, was, a few years 
 since, brought into notice, and almost into 
 general use. It is now, however, seldom used 
 for gardens, as it is very strong, and requires 
 great care in its management. Pigs' dung is 
 soft and cold, and possesses the properties of 
 cows' dung, but in a less degree. Bone dust 
 is principally useful in agriculture for grass land 
 and for turnips, from the great quantity of 
 phosphate of lime and gelatine which it contains, 
 and which make the crops raised on it very
 
 CHAP, n.] VEGETABLE MANURES. 31 
 
 nourishing to cattle. It is seldom used in 
 gardens; but, when it is, it is very lasting in its 
 effects. Poudrette is a manure prepared in 
 Paris bv drying night-soil, and generally adding 
 to it either gypsum or lime. It is a very strong 
 manure, and abounds in nitrogen. Taffb is a 
 manure imported from China, which consists of 
 dried night-soil mixed with clay. 
 
 Vegetable manures consist chiefly of decayed 
 leaves, the refuse of culinary vegetables, tan, 
 and charcoal. Decayed leaves and tan are used 
 for hotbeds, from the heat they evolve in fer- 
 menting: and decaved leaves and other vege- 
 table refuse also form a good, though not a 
 strong, kind of manure if properly turned over 
 and occasionally watered while they are under- 
 going the process of decay. Burnt weeds and 
 the ashes of burnt wood are also very efficacious 
 manures: the latter especially, as it abounds in 
 potash, which is found upon analysis to be the 
 most important element in the inorganic matters 
 contained m most garden vegetables. Green 
 crops of weeds or other vegetable matter dug 
 into the soil before they have been allowed to 
 seed, are also found to act admirably as manure. 
 In many parts of Italy and Piedmont, lupines 
 are sown on purpose to be ploughed in, and 
 thev are always followed bv a rich crop. When 
 vegetable matter in a green state is buried in 
 the ground, but not so deeply as to be out of 
 reach of the air, it decomposes rapidly, and 
 affords the plants grown in the same soil after 
 it, an ample supply of food. In like manner, 
 in the same countries, the tops of potatoes and 
 beans, and the cuttings of vines, &c, are advan-
 
 32 SOILS AND MANURES. [chap. II. 
 
 tageously buried at the roots of the plants from 
 which they were taken. It may seem strange 
 that growing a crop on land and then burying it 
 should produce any good effects, as it appears 
 to be only restoring to the soil what the crop 
 had taken from it; but the fact is, the crop 
 buried derived a great portion of its nourishment 
 from the air, and these nutritious matters are 
 more equally distributed through the soil by the 
 operation of digging the crop in, than they can 
 be in any other way. 
 
 Green crops are, indeed, much better manure 
 than decayed leaves ; as the latter, when they 
 have been suffered to ripen and fall naturally, 
 are found to abound in saline and earthy matters, 
 but not to contain much of the other elements 
 necessary to vegetable life. 
 
 Charcoal and soot are excellent manures in 
 some cases, as they abound in potash ; and they 
 are particularly efficacious when applied to some 
 of the kitchen crops, such as onions and all 
 the cabbage tribe. When thus applied the 
 charcoal should be in a powdered state ; but it 
 may also be most advantageously used in pots 
 broken into small pieces and mixed with chopped 
 turf; as in this state it keeps the earth open, 
 and allows of the passage of the air in a state 
 of minute subdivision to the roots. 
 
 Chopped turf is an excellent kind of manure, 
 especially for peach and other fruit trees, as the 
 roots of the grass keep the ground open for 
 the passage of the air. 
 
 Mineral manures are more used in agricul- 
 ture than in gardens, but lime may be em- 
 ployed advantageously when the ground has
 
 CHAP, ii.] APPLICATION. 33 
 
 become soured by stagnant water. It is also 
 frequently applied to grass; but, when this is 
 the case, it generally sinks through the soil 
 without mixing with it, so as to form a distinct 
 stratum two or three inches below the surface. 
 This may be seen in several places, where grass 
 fields have been cut through to form railways ; 
 particularly on the Midland Counties Railroad 
 near Leicester, where the white, line formed a 
 little below the surface by the lime is verv con- 
 spicuous, from the deep red of the sandstone 
 which forms the subsoil. Quicklime, when it 
 is laid on land, and allowed to remain within 
 the influence of the air, absorbs carbonic acid 
 gas from the atmosphere, and thus becomes of 
 great service to plants in supplying them with 
 carbon. 
 
 Nitrate o£ soda is a mineral which has been 
 lately extensively introduced from South Ame- 
 rica, where it is found in a natural state in great 
 abundance. It is a powerful manure, abound- 
 ing in nitrogen, but its action is very uncertain. 
 W here it has its proper effect, its presence 
 may be traced by the richness of vegetation 
 which it produces, and by the dark green which 
 it gives to the leaves ; but it does not appear 
 to act favourably in the production of seeds, 
 fruit, or grain. Nitrate of potassa, or saltpetre, 
 is more certain, though less powerful, in its 
 effects. 
 
 The following is a Summary of the Rules to 
 be observed in applying Manure to Gardens. — 
 To remember that the best and safest manure 
 for all soils is rotten horse-dung, such as the 
 remains of an old hotbed, when it is wished to 
 
 D
 
 S4 SOILS AND MANURES. [CHAP. II. 
 
 produce an immediate effect ; but if the effect 
 is wished to be more gradual, and prolonged 
 for a considerable space of time, half-decayed 
 stable manure is best, buried in trenches, or 
 bone dust, which is the most durable of all 
 manures. To observe that green crops of vege- 
 tables, dug into the ground, produce the quickest 
 effect on sandy soil. To remember that, when 
 ground has become soured by stagnant water, 
 the best remedy is draining and adding lime. 
 Never to apply fresh stable manure to growing 
 plants without fermenting it, nor liquid manure 
 from a dunghill without diluting it with water. 
 To be very cautious in the use of new manures, 
 as most of those recently introduced are so 
 strong as to be dangerous in inexperienced hands. 
 To mix loam or some other earth with decayed 
 leaves, as they are so rich in saline matters as 
 to be sometimes injurious when they are used 
 alone. To remember that composts, or mixed 
 manures, are generally more efficacious than 
 any simple manure, and that mixed soils are 
 always the most fertile ; and never to forget that 
 the air is full of nutritious food for plants, and 
 that it should be always permitted to have access 
 to the roots, provided it be in a state of such 
 minute subdivision as to be in no danger of 
 drying the roots.
 
 35 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 SOWING SEEDS. PLANTING BULBS AND 
 
 TUBERS. TRANSPLANTING AND WATERING. 
 
 Sowixg Seeds. — The principal points to be 
 attended to in sowing* seeds are, first, to pre- 
 pare the ground, so that the young and tender 
 roots thrown out by the seeds may easily pene- 
 trate into it; secondly, to fix the seeds firmly 
 in the soil ; thirdly, to cover them so as to 
 exclude the light, which impedes vegetation, 
 and to preserve a sufficiency of moisture round 
 them to encourage it; and, fourthly, not to 
 bury them so deeply as either to deprive them 
 of the beneficial influence of the air, or to throw 
 any unnecessary impediments in the way of 
 their ascending shoots. 
 
 The preparation of the soil has been already 
 described in the first chapter, when speaking 
 of digging (see p. 3), and the reasons why it is 
 necessary have been there given ; but why seeds 
 should be firmly embedded in it seems to require 
 explanation. It is well known that gardeners, 
 before they either sow a bed in the kitchen- 
 garden, or a patch of flower-seeds in the flower- 
 garden, generally " firm the ground," as they 
 call it, by beating it well with the back of the 
 spade, or pressing it with the saucer of a flower- 
 
 d2
 
 36 SOWING SEEDS. [CHAP. HI. 
 
 pot; and there can be no doubt that, this is 
 done in order that the seeds may be firmly 
 embedded in the soil. When lawns are sown 
 with grass seeds also, the seeds are frequently 
 rolled in, evidently for the same purpose. The 
 only question, therefore, is, why is this neces- 
 sary ? and the answer appears to be, that a 
 degree of permanence and stability is essential 
 to enable nature to accommodate the plant to 
 the situation in which it is placed. When there 
 is this degree of permanence and stability, it is 
 astonishing to observe the efforts that plants 
 will make to provide for their wants; but, with- 
 out it, seeds will not even vegetate. Thus we 
 often see large trees springing from crevices in 
 apparently bare rocks, or from the walls of 
 neglected buildings ; while not even a blade of 
 grass will grow among the moving sands of a 
 desert. 
 
 The reasons for the second and third points, 
 of covering the seeds and yet not covering them 
 too deeply, appear more obvious ; and yet they 
 also require a little explanation. The seeds are 
 covered to keep them in darkness, and to retain 
 round them a proper quantity of moisture ; not 
 only to make them swell and begin to vegetate, 
 but to enable the roots to perform their proper 
 functions; since, if too much exposed to the 
 air, they would become dry and withered, and 
 lose the power of contracting and dilating, 
 which is essential to enable them to imbibe and 
 digest their food. Burying the seeds too deeply 
 is obviously injurious in impeding the progress 
 of the young shoot to the light, and in placing 
 it in an unnatural position. When a seed
 
 CHAP, m.] REASONS FOR COVERING. 37 
 
 vegetates too far "below the surface, a part of 
 the stem of the plant must be buried ; and 
 this part, not being intended to remain under 
 ground, is not protected from the dangers it is 
 likely to meet with there. It is thus peculiarly 
 liable to be assailed by slugs and all kinds of 
 insects, and to become rotten by damp, or 
 withered by heat. It is also very possible to 
 bury a seed so deeply as to prevent it from ve- 
 getating at all. The ground has more of both 
 warmth and moisture near the surface than at 
 a great depth, as it is warmed by the rays of 
 the sun, and moistened by the rain ; but, besides 
 this, seeds will not vegetate, even when they 
 are amply supplied with heat and moisture, if 
 they are excluded from the influence of the air. 
 Every ripe seed in a dry state is a concentra- 
 tion of carbon, which, when dissolved by mois- 
 ture, and its particles set in motion by heat, is 
 in a fit state to combine with the oxygen in the 
 atmosphere, and thus to form the carbonic acid 
 gas which is the nourishment of the expanding 
 plant. For this reason, seeds and newly sprung 
 up plants do not want to be supplied with 
 manure, and air is much more essential to 
 them : they have enough carbon in their coty- 
 ledons, or in the albumen contained in the 
 seed, and they only want oxygen to combine 
 with it, to enable them to develope their other 
 leaves ; and this is the reason why young- 
 plants raised on a hotbed are always given air, 
 or they become yellow and withered. Darkness 
 is not essential to germination, but it is found 
 to promote it. Light absorbs the oxygen from 
 plants, and occasions a deposition of the car-
 
 38 SOWING SEEDS. [CHAP. in. 
 
 bon ; and when seeds germinate, they want to 
 absorb oxygen and to disperse their carbon. 
 Thus seeds and very young seedlings do not 
 require much light; it is, indeed, injurious to 
 them, as it undoes in some degree what warmth, 
 moisture, and air have been doing for them ; 
 but young plants, when they have expanded 
 two or three pairs of leaves, and when the 
 stock of carbon contained in their cotyledons 
 or in their seeds is exhausted, require light to 
 enable them to elaborate their sap, without 
 which the process of vegetation could not go 
 on. Abundance of light, also, is favourable to 
 the developement of flowers and the ripening of 
 seed*, as it aids the concentration of carbon, 
 which they require to make them fertile. The 
 curious fact, that seeds, though abundantly 
 supplied with warmth and moisture, will not 
 vegetate without the assistance of the air, was 
 lately verified in Italy ; where the Po, having 
 overflowed its banks near Mantua, deposited a 
 great quantity of mud on some meadows ; and 
 from this mud sprang up a plentiful crop of 
 black poplars, no doubt from seeds that had 
 fallen into the river from a row of trees of that 
 kind which had formerly grown on its banks, 
 but which had been cut down upwards of 
 seventy years before. Another instance oc- 
 curred in the case of some raspberry seeds 
 found in the body of an ancient Briton dis- 
 covered in a tumulus in Dorsetshire. Some of 
 these seeds were sown in the London Horti- 
 cultural Society's Garden at Turnham Green, 
 where they vegetated, and the plants produced 
 from them are still (1850) growing. Steeping
 
 CHAP, m.] PLANTING BULBS AND TUBERS. 39 
 
 seeds in oxalic acid before sowing' them, is 
 efficacious in making them vegetate sooner, as 
 there is a speedier combination between the 
 carbon in the seeds, and the oxygen in the acid, 
 than can be effected by the ordinary agency of 
 the air in parting with its oxygen to them ; but 
 it should only be done when absolutely ne- 
 cessary, as what is gained by the more rapid 
 developement of the seed, is generally lost by 
 the weakness of the seedling. 
 
 Planting bulbs and tubers bears considerable 
 analogy to sowing seeds. The bulb or tuber 
 may, indeed, be considered as only a seed of 
 larger growth, since it requires the combined 
 influence of air, warmth, and moisture to make 
 it vegetate ; and then it throws out a stem, 
 leaves, and roots like a seed. There is, how- 
 ever, one important difference between them : 
 the seed expends its accumulated stock of car- 
 bon in giving birth to the root, stem, and 
 leaves, after which it withers away and disap- 
 pears ; while the bulb or tuber continues to 
 exist during the whole summer life of the plant, 
 and appears to contain a reservoir of carbon, 
 which it only parts with slowly, and as circum- 
 stances may require ; depositing matter to form 
 a fresh accumulation when it has wasted away. 
 Thouoh bulbs and tubers have here been men- 
 tioned as almost synonymous, modern botanists 
 make several distinctions between them. The 
 tunicated bulbs, such as those of the hyacinth 
 and the onion, and the squamose bulbs, such 
 as those of the lily, they consider to be under- 
 ground buds; while tubers, such as those of
 
 40 PLANTING BULBS AND TUBERS. [CHAP. III. 
 
 the dahlia and the potato, and solid bulbs or 
 corras, such as those of the crocus, they regard 
 as underground stems. 
 
 These distinctions, however, though they 
 may be interesting to the botanist and vege- 
 table physiologist, are of little or no use in 
 practice ; the practical gardener treating bulbs 
 and tubers exactly alike, and planting them as 
 he would sow a seed : that is to say, he fixes 
 them firmly in the ground, and covers them, 
 but not so deeply as to exclude the air. In 
 preparing a bed for hyacinths or other tunicated 
 bulbs, it is necessary to pulverise the soil to a 
 much greater depth than for ordinary seeds ; 
 as the true roots of the hyacinth descend per- 
 pendicularly to a considerable depth, as may be 
 seen when these plants are grown in glasses. 
 The very circumstance of growing hyacinths in 
 glasses, where they vegetate and send down 
 their roots exposed to the full influence of the 
 light, appears contrary to the usual effects of 
 light on vegetation ; and, indeed, the plants are 
 said generally to thrive best when the glasses 
 are kept in the dark till the roots are half 
 grown. This practice, however, retards the 
 growth of the leaves and stem, and often in- 
 jures the developement of the flowers ; and, at 
 any rate, it is quite certain that hyacinths in 
 glasses should never be kept in darkness after 
 their leaves have begun to expand ; as, if there 
 be not abundance of light to occasion rapid 
 evaporation from the leaves, the plants will 
 soon become surcharged with moisture from 
 the quantity constantly supplied to their roots,
 
 CHAP, ill.] TRANSPLANTING. 41 
 
 and the leaves will turn yellow, and look flaccid 
 and unhealthy, while the flowers will be stunted, 
 or will fall off without expanding. 
 
 Transplanting. — The points to be attended 
 to in transplanting are, care in taking up, to 
 avoid injuring the spongioles of the roots; 
 planting firmly, to enable the plant to take a 
 secure hold of the soil ; shading, to prevent the 
 evaporation from the leaves from beino- greater 
 than the plant in its enfeebled state can sup- 
 port; and watering, that it may be abundantly 
 supplied with food in its new abode. The first 
 point is to avoid injuring the roots; and it is 
 only necessary to consider the construction and 
 uses of these most important organs, to per- 
 ceive how impossible it is for the plant to thrive, 
 unless they are in a perfectly healthy state. 
 Roots generally consist of two parts : the main 
 roots, which are intended to act as grappling- 
 irons to enable the plants to take a firm hold 
 of the ground ; and the fibrous roots, which are 
 intended to supply the plant with nourishment. 
 These fibrous roots are most liable to receive 
 injury from transplanting, as they are covered 
 with a very fine cellular integument, so delicate 
 in its texture as to be very easily bruised ; and 
 they each terminate in a number of small pores 
 of extraordinary delicacy and susceptibility, 
 which act as little sponges to imbibe moisture 
 for the use of the plant. It is well known that 
 these spongioles are the principal means which 
 the plant possesses of imbibing food, and that 
 if they should be all cut oft; the plant must 
 provide itself with others, or it will probably 
 perish for want of sufficient nourishment.
 
 42 TRANSPLANTING. [CHAP. III. 
 
 These spongioles are exactly of the nature of 
 a sponge ; they expand at the approach of 
 moisture, and when surcharged with it they 
 contract, and thus force it into the fibrous 
 roots, the cellular integument of which dilates 
 to receive it; hence the moisture is forced (by 
 capillary attraction, as it is supposed) into the 
 main roots, and thence into the stem and 
 branches of the plant ; circulating like the 
 blood, and, after it has been elaborated and 
 turned into sap in the leaves, as the blood is 
 changed in its nature in the lungs, dispensing 
 nourishment to every part as it goes along. 
 
 The roots have no pores but those forming 
 the spongioles ; and only the fibrous roots ap- 
 pear to possess the power of alternate dilatation 
 and contraction, which power evidently depends 
 on their cellular tissue being in an entire and 
 healthy state. Thus, it is quite evident that if 
 the spongiole of any fibril be crushed, or even 
 the cellular tissue injured, it can no longer act 
 as a mouth and throat to convey food to the 
 plant. When this is the case, the injured part 
 should be instantly removed; as its elasticity 
 can never be restored, and it is much better for 
 the plant to be forced to throw out a new fibril 
 than to be obliged to carry on its circulation 
 weakly and imperfectly with a diseased one. 
 Whenever a plant is taken up for transplanting, 
 its roots should, therefore, be carefully examined, 
 and all their injured parts cut off, before it is 
 replaced in the ground. Deciduous plants, and 
 particularly trees and shrubs, are generally 
 transplanted when they are without their leaves, 
 because at that season they are in no clanger of
 
 CHAP, ill.] SHADING. 43 
 
 suffering from the effects of evaporation ; and 
 when circumstances oblige them to be trans- 
 planted with their leaves on, thev should be 
 shaded and watered over the leaves frequentlv, 
 as the leaves are furnished with pores by which 
 they can absorb both gaseous and liquid food, 
 and the quantity of nourishment taken in by 
 them should be increased as much as possible, 
 to make amends for the smaller quantity taken 
 up by the roots while they are in an enfeebled 
 state. 
 
 Shading is necessary after transplanting any 
 plant that retains its leaves ; as the evaporation 
 from the leaves, if exposed to the full action of 
 the light, would be greater than the plant could 
 support with a diminished number of spon- 
 gioles. If it were possible to transplant with- 
 out injuring the fibrils, and if the plant were 
 immediately supplied with plenty of water, 
 both for the roots and leaves, shading would 
 not be required ; and, indeed, when plants are 
 turned out of a pot into the open garden with- 
 out breaking the ball of earth round their roots, 
 they are never shaded. The reason for this is, 
 that as long as a plant remains where it was 
 first sown, and under favourable circumstances, 
 the evaporation from its leaves is exactlv adapted 
 to its powers of absorbing moisture; it is there- 
 fore evident, that, if by any chance the number 
 of its mouths be diminished, the evaporation 
 from its leaves should be checked also, till the 
 means of supplying a more abundant evapora- 
 tion are restored. 
 
 T7ie use of watering a transplanted plant is
 
 44 TRANSPLANTING. [CHAP. III. 
 
 as obvious as that of shading. It is simply 
 to supply the spongioles and leaves with an 
 abundance of food, that the increased quantity 
 imbibed by each may, in some degree, compen- 
 sate for the diminished number of spongioles. 
 
 All plants will not bear transplanting, and 
 those that have taproots, such as the carrot, are 
 peculiarly unfitted for it. When plants having 
 taproots are transplanted, it should be into very 
 light soil, and what is called a puddle should 
 be made to receive them. To do this, a hole 
 or pit should be formed, deeper than the root 
 of the plant, and into this pit water should be 
 poured, and earth thrown in and stirred, so as 
 to half-fill it with mud. The taprooted plant 
 should then be plunged into the .mud, shaking 
 it a little so as to let the mud penetrate among 
 its fibrous roots, and the pit should be then 
 filled in with light soil. The plant must after- 
 wards be shaded longer than is usual with other 
 plants ; and, when water is given, it should be 
 poured down nearer to the main root than in 
 other cases, as the lateral fibrous roots never 
 spread far from it. Plants with spreading roots, 
 when transplanted, should have the pit intended 
 to receive them made shallow, but very wide in 
 its diameter ; so that the roots may be spread 
 out in it to their fullest extent, except those 
 that appear at all bruised or injured, which, as 
 before directed, should be cut off with a sharp 
 knife. 
 
 It is a general rule, in transplanting, never 
 to bury the collar of a plant; though this rule 
 has some exceptions in the case of annuals.
 
 chap, in.] 
 
 ITS USES. 
 
 45 
 
 FIG. 4. 
 
 Some of these, such as balsams, send out roots 
 from the stem above the collar; and these 
 plants are always very much improved by 
 transplanting". Others, the fibrous 
 roots of which are lono- and de- 
 scending, such as hyacinths, bear 
 transplanting very ill, and when it 
 is absolutely necessary to remove 
 them, it should be done with an 
 instrument called a transplanter 
 (fig. 4.); which may be purchased 
 in any ironmonger's shop, and the 
 use of which is to take up a suffi- 
 cient quantity of earth with the 
 plant to remove it without disturb- 
 
 TRAXSPLANTER. ' m <y \\\Q TOOtS. 
 
 The uses of transplanting are various. When 
 seeds are sown, and the young plants from them 
 beo-iu to make their appearance, they will ge- 
 nerally be found to be much too thick ; and 
 thev will require thinning, either by drawing 
 some of them out and throwing them away, or 
 by removing them to another bed by trans- 
 planting. This, in the case of annuals, is called 
 by the oardeners pricking out. The young- 
 plants are taken up with a small trowel, and 
 replaced in a hole made for them, and the earth 
 pressed round them with the same trowel ; the 
 onlv care necessary being to make them firm 
 at the root, and yet to avoid injurino- the tender 
 sponcrioles. Gardeners do this with a dibber, 
 which they hold in the right hand, and after 
 putting in the young plant with the left hand, 
 they press the earth round it with the dibber in 
 a manner that I never could manage to imitate.
 
 46 TRANSPLANTING. [CHAP. III. 
 
 I have found the trowel, however, do almost 
 equally well, though it takes up rather more 
 time. 
 
 Another use of transplanting is to remove 
 trees and shrubs from the nursery to where 
 they are permanently to remain. To enable 
 this to be done with safety, the trees and shrubs 
 in commercial nurseries are prepared by being 
 always removed every year or every other year, 
 whether they are sold or not. The effect of 
 these frequent removals is to keep the roots 
 short, and yet provided with numerous spon- 
 gioles ; for as the roots are always pruned, or, 
 as the gardeners call it, " cut in," on every 
 removal, and as the effect of pruning is to 
 induce the roots pruned to send out two short 
 fibrous roots furnished with spongioles, in the 
 place of every one cut off, the roots, though 
 confined to a small space, become abundant. 
 The reverse of this is the case when plants are 
 left in a natural state. It has been already 
 mentioned that plants require various kinds of 
 soil ; and, as the ground in which ligneous 
 plants are grown is not so often manured as 
 that used for herbaceous vegetables, some par- 
 ticular kinds of earth are soon exhausted, and 
 the plants to obtain what they want are continu- 
 ally in search of fresh soil. To provide for this, 
 the fibrous roots are possessed of an extraordi- 
 nary power of elongating themselves at their 
 extremities ; and thus the roots of even a small 
 plant, left to nature, will be found to extend to 
 a great distance on every side. It is obvious 
 that this elongation of the roots must greatly 
 increase the difficulties attending transplanting.
 
 JHAP. in.] FIXING WITH WATER. 47 
 
 Where the roots extend to a distance from the 
 tree, a greater extent of ground has to be dis- 
 turbed, both to take up the plant and to make 
 a pit for replanting it; the risk of injuring the 
 fibrous roots is increased ; and as nearly all 
 the spongioles will require to be cut off, from 
 the great length of the roots, and consequent 
 greater difficulty which will attend taking them 
 up entire, the plant will be nearly famished 
 before new spongioles can be formed to supply 
 it with food. All these dangers are avoided by 
 the nursery system of transplanting ; while the 
 inconvenience of confining the roots to so small 
 a space is obviated by placing the plant, every 
 time it is transplanted, in fresh soil. 
 
 It is customary, when trees or shrubs are 
 transplanted to the places where they are per- 
 manently to remain, either to make a puddle 
 for them or to fix them, as it is called, with 
 water; the object, in both cases,- being to sup- 
 ply the plant with abundance of food in its new 
 situation. Care is taken, also, to make the 
 roots firm in the soil, and to let the earth pene- 
 trate through all their interstices. To attain 
 these ends, one gardener generally holds the 
 tree and gently shakes it, while another is 
 shovelling in the earth amono- its roots ; but 
 this mode has the disadvantage of sometimes 
 occasioning the roots to become matted. "When 
 the tree is to be fixed with water, after a little 
 earth has been shovelled in over the roots, 
 water is applied by pouring it from a watering- 
 pot, held as high as a man can raise it; the 
 watering-pot used being large, and with a wide 
 spout, the rose of which must be taken off.
 
 48 TRANSPLANTING. [CHAP. m. 
 
 More earth is then shovelled in, and water 
 applied again. This mode of planting has the 
 great advantage of rendering the tree firm, 
 without staking or treading; the earth down 
 round it, as is usually done ; and the water, 
 from being poured rapidly through the air, 
 carries with it into the soil a quantity of car- 
 bonic acid gas from the stratum of that gas 
 existing in the atmosphere near the earth. By 
 another mode of planting, the gardener spreads 
 the roots of the tree out carefully at the bottom 
 of the hole or pit made to receive them, and 
 then fills in the earth. In all cases, the ground 
 is either made firm with water, or trodden 
 down, or beaten flat with the spade, after plant- 
 ing, so as to fix the roots firmly in the soil, for 
 the same reasons as nearly a similar plan is 
 adopted in sowing seeds ; care being taken, 
 however, not to make the earth so firm as to 
 exclude the air. Newly-transplanted trees are 
 frequently staked ; but this is not essential if 
 the roots are made firm, and, indeed, the tree is 
 generally found to do best when the head is 
 left at liberty to be gently agitated by the wind. 
 It is a great point, in all cases of transplant- 
 ing, to preserve the epidermis or cellular inte- 
 gument of the fibrous roots and spongioles in a 
 flexible state; and, for this reason, the greatest 
 care is taken to keep them moist. This is one 
 of the ends in view in puddling or fixing by 
 water in transplanting; and many planters 
 always dip the roots of trees and shrubs in 
 water before replanting them. When a tree or 
 shrub is taken up that is to be conveyed any 
 distance, the roots should be wrapped up as
 
 chap, in.] TRANSPLANTING. 49 
 
 soon as it is taken out of the around in wet 
 moss, and covered with bast matting; and, 
 where moss cannot be procured, they should be 
 dipped in very wet mud, and then matted up. 
 Cabbage plants are frequently preserved in this 
 manner; and are conveyed, without any other 
 covering to their roots than a cake of mud, to 
 a considerable distance. In all cases where 
 plants are taken up long before they are re- 
 planted, their roots should be kept moist by 
 opening a trench, and laying the plants along it, 
 and then covering their roots with earth. This 
 gardeners call laying plants in by the heels. 
 Where this cannot be done, and the plants are 
 kept long out of the ground, their roots should 
 be examined and moistened from time to time ; 
 and, before replanting, they should be laid in 
 water for some hours, and afterwards carefully 
 examined, and the withered and decayed parts 
 cut off. 
 
 In removing large trees, care is taken to pre- 
 pare the roots by cutting a trench round the 
 tree for a year or two before removal, and 
 pruning off all the roots that project into it. 
 This is to answer the same purpose as trans- 
 planting young trees in a nursery; while the 
 bad effects of contracting the range of the 
 roots is counteracted by filling the trench with 
 rich fresh earth. The removal is also con- 
 ducted with much care ; and either a large ball 
 of earth is removed with the tree, or the roots 
 are kept moist, and spread out carefully at full 
 length when the tree is replanted. Some plan- 
 ters, before removing trees, mark which side 
 stood to the south, in order to replant them with 
 
 E
 
 50 WATERING, [CHAP. m. 
 
 the same side turned towards the sun ; and this 
 is sometimes done with young; trees from a 
 nursery. The reason is, that the tree having 
 generally the largest branches, and being always 
 most flourishing, on the side exposed to the 
 sun, it is thought that its vegetation might be 
 checked, were a different side presented to tha 4 
 luminary, by the efforts it must make to accom- 
 modate itself to its new situation. On the other 
 hand, however, it may be urged that changing 
 the position of the plant, particularly while it is 
 young, will be beneficial in preventing it from 
 taking any particular bent, and in promoting 
 the equal distribution of sap through all the 
 branches. 
 
 Watering is a most essential part of culture. 
 It has been already fully explained that the 
 seed rannot vegetate, and the plant cannot 
 grow, without water. In fact, water itself 
 form? 1 an important article in the food of plants, 
 as it affords them a great part of the oxygen 
 and hydrogen which they contain. Most of 
 'he solid substances that form the food of 
 plants must also be dissolved in water to enable 
 the spongioles to take them up; and the spon- 
 gioles themselves, unless they are kept moist, 
 will soon lose their power of absorption. No- 
 thing, indeed, can be more evident, even to a 
 common observer, than the necessity that plants 
 feel for water ; if a mimulus or a pelargonium 
 in a pot, for example, hangs its head and droops 
 its leaves, what an extraordinary and rapid effect 
 is produced by giving it water ! In an almost 
 incredibly short time its leaves become firm, 
 and its stem erect ; and the plant is not only
 
 CHAP, m.] MODES OF. 51 
 
 preserved from death, but restored to full health 
 and beauty. 
 
 Watering appears an extremely simple opera- 
 tion, yet nevertheless there are several points re- 
 lating to it that it is necessary to attend to. The 
 water should never be suffered to be stagnant; 
 as, when the soil is so completely saturated with 
 water as to exclude the air, the decomposition 
 of the vegetable matters it contains is stopped, 
 and instead of becoming w r holesome food for 
 the plants they are changed into a kind of peat. 
 Water, to be in the best state for beino; taken 
 up by the plants, should be kept in detached 
 globules by the admixture of air ; and it should 
 be only slightly impregnated with carbonic acid 
 gas and other nourishing matter from decaying 
 animal or vegetable substances, as it is found 
 that plants can only take a small portion of 
 food at a time. Nothing can be more admirably 
 and wonderfully adapted for supplying plants 
 properly with water than rain. In falling through 
 the atmosphere, it is thoroughly mixed with the 
 air, and conveys the nitrogen and carbonic acid 
 gas contained in it into the soil ; thus supplying 
 plants in a state of nature with those necessary 
 elements, which in a state of culture they ob- 
 tain chiefly from animal manure. 
 
 It is a very common mistake, in watering, to 
 pour the water down close to the stem of the 
 plant. This is injurious in every respect. Water, 
 when poured profusely on the collar of the 
 plant, which is the point of junction between 
 the root and the stem, is likelv to rot or other- 
 wise seriously injure that vital part; while the 
 spongioles, which alone can absorb the water, so 
 
 e 2
 
 52 WATERING, [CHAP. m. 
 
 as to benefit the plant, being at the extremity ot 
 the roots, are always as far removed from the 
 stem as the nature of the plant will allow. 
 Thus, the distance from the stem at which 
 water should be given varies in different plants. 
 In those that have taproots, such as the carrot 
 and many other culinary vegetables, the lateral 
 fibrous roots are short, and the spongioles are 
 comparatively near the stem ; but in trees, and 
 most plants having spreading roots, the spon- 
 gioles are generally as far distant from the stem 
 as the extremity of the branches ; and the water, 
 to be efficacious, should be given there. 
 
 Another very important point to be attended 
 to in watering is, to water the leaves as well as 
 the roots. I have already mentioned that the 
 leaves have pores through which they can take 
 in nourishment ; and the truth of this may be 
 easily ascertained by keeping plants in pots, and 
 watering some of them over the leaves, and 
 the others merely at the roots, when the differ- 
 ence in the growth will be so striking as to carry 
 conviction to every unprejudiced observer. It 
 has been asserted that plants can be kept alive 
 by watering their leaves only, and this may 
 very possibly be the case ; but then it must be 
 remembered that though they may be kept 
 alive, they cannot by any means be in a state of 
 vigorous health. Plants in pots, in suburban 
 and town gardens, are very much improved by 
 watering them both at the root and over their 
 leaves with slightly soapy water (not strong 
 soap-suds), as this plan supplies the plants with 
 those saline particles which they would find it 
 otherwise difficult to obtain, from the confined
 
 CHAP, m.] QUANTITY TO BE GIVEN. 53 
 
 space in which the roots are grown. Slightly- 
 soapy water given always to the leaves as well 
 as to the roots is also advantageous to plants 
 grown in the open air, but it should only be given 
 to them when they are in a state of vigorous 
 orowth. Watering over the leaves is also effica- 
 cious in suburban gardens in removing the soot 
 and other impurities which frequently rest on 
 the leaves and close up their pores. 
 
 The quantity of water to be given varies, not 
 only according to the nature of the plant, but 
 to the state of its growth. In spring, when the 
 sap first begins to be in motion, and the young 
 plant is every day unfolding fresh leaves or 
 blossoms, it requires abundance of water ; as it 
 does when in flower, or when the fruit is swell- 
 ing. In autumn, on the contrary, when the 
 fruit is ripening, and in winter, when the plant 
 is in a state of perfect rest, very little water is 
 necessary, and much is positively injurious, as 
 being likely either to excite a morbid and un- 
 natural action in the vessels, or even to bring 
 on rottenness and decay. Water is necessary 
 for seeds to induce them to germinate; but 
 much of it is very injurious to young plants 
 when thev first come up, as it unsettles their 
 roots, and almost washes them away. The 
 roots, also, are at first too weak to imbibe 
 water ; and the plants feed on the nourishment 
 contained in the cotyledons, or in the albumen 
 of the seeds. It is when the second pair of 
 leaves has opened that water is required, though 
 it should at first be given sparingly. W^hen the 
 plant begins to grow vigorously, it requires 
 more food ; and, if it be then kept too short of
 
 54 WATERING. [CHAP. IIL 
 
 nourishment, it becomes stunted in its growth. 
 Water is essential to the formation of woody 
 fibre, which is found to consist of carbon, with 
 oxygen and hydrogen combined in the same 
 proportions as they are in water. Thus water- 
 ing forms an important part of culture, the 
 health of the plant depending in a great mea- 
 sure upon the manner in which it is supplied 
 with water or rain. It must be observed, 
 however, that the quantity of water requisite 
 depends partly on the kind of leaves that the 
 plant unfolds. A plant with large broad leaves, 
 like the tobacco, requires twice as much water 
 as a plant with small pinnate leaves, like an 
 acacia. Plants exposed to a strong light, also, 
 require more than plants grown in the shade; 
 because the evaporation from the leaves is much 
 greater; and plants in pots require more water 
 than plants in the open ground. In watering 
 plants in pots, a great deal of water should be 
 given at once, as if only a little is given it 
 generally runs down between the outside of the 
 ball of earth and the inside of the pot, and 
 never touches the middle of the ball of earth 
 at all. The pot should never be suffered to 
 stand in water, but enough should be given to 
 saturate the earth in it. 
 
 The time for watering plants varies accord- 
 ing to the season. In spring and autumn it is 
 best to water plants in the morning, but in 
 summer the usual time is the evening ; while, 
 in winter, the very little that is required should 
 be given in the middle of the day. Many per- 
 sons object to watering their plants when the 
 sun is upon them; but this is not at all in-
 
 CHAP, m.l KIND OF WATER. 55 
 
 jurious, so long as the water is not too cold, 
 and is only given to the roots. Watering the 
 leaves when the sun is upon them will make 
 them blister, and become covered with pale 
 brown spots, wherever the water has fallen. It 
 is much better to water plants during sunshine 
 than to suffer them to become too dry; as, 
 when the spongioles are once withered, no art 
 can restore them. When plants have been 
 suffered to become too dry, the ground should 
 be loosened before watering it ; and water 
 should be given a little at a time, and fre- 
 quently, till the plant appears to have recovered 
 its vigour. A great deal of the good produced 
 by watering depends on the state of the ground; 
 as, when the ground is hard and compact, it is 
 very possible to throw a great quantity of 
 water upon it without doing any service to the 
 plants. 
 
 The kind of water used should also be 
 considered. The best is pond water, as it is 
 always mixed with air, and is, moreover, gene- 
 rally impregnated with decayed animal and 
 vegetable matter; and the worst is clear spring 
 water, as it is always cold, and is seldom im- 
 pregnated w T ith air, or with anything but some 
 mineral substance, which, so far from doing 
 good, is positively injurious to the plants. Rain 
 water collected in open cisterns, and river 
 water, are both very suitable ; and, when only 
 spring water can be obtained, it should be ex- 
 posed for some time to the air before using - . 
 It is always advisable to have the water at 
 least as warm as the plants to be watered; and,
 
 56 WATERING, [chap. m. 
 
 for this reason, the water in hothouses and 
 greenhouses is generally kept in an open vessel 
 in the house some hours before it is given to 
 the plants. In some cases, the water may be 
 much hotter than the temperature in which the 
 plants are grown ; and the effect of hot water, 
 not heated to above 200°, in forwarding bulbs 
 is astonishing ; but it must be observed that it 
 should never be poured on the bulbs, or on the 
 leaves, but on the earth near the rim of the pot. 
 Hot water is also very efficacious in softening 
 seeds with hard coverings when soaked in it; 
 and some of the seeds of the New Holland 
 acacias will not vegetate in this country till 
 they have been actually boiled for about a 
 minute ; the germinating power of other thinner- 
 skinned seeds is, however, destroyed in a few 
 seconds by immersion in boiling water. 
 
 Water is also very useful when poured on 
 manure, as many manures are much best in a 
 liquid state. For example, if a gallon of water 
 be poured on an ounce of guano manure, and 
 allowed to stand twenty-four hours, the liquid 
 may be safely given to plants in pots, which 
 would have been killed by the guano in a dry 
 state. 
 
 Tlie following is a summary of the rules to 
 be observed in watering. — Never to suffer 
 plants to become so dry as to wither their 
 roots, and yet never to saturate the soil so 
 completely as to exclude the air; but to re- 
 member that water is never so advantageously 
 given to plants as when it is kept in detached 
 globules by the admixture of air, which it is when
 
 CHAP, ill.] RULES TO BE OBSERVED. 57 
 
 given through the rose of a watering: pot or a 
 garden eno-ine. In watering plants in pots, care 
 should be taken that every part of the earth is 
 moistened; and it should never be forgotten 
 that plants in pots have been known to die of 
 drought though water has been given to them 
 every day.
 
 58 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 MODES OF PROPAGATION BY DIVISION, VIZ. 
 TAKING OFF SUCKERS, MAKING LAYERS AND 
 CUTTINGS, BUDDING, GRAFTING, AND IN- 
 ARCHING. 
 
 Properly speaking, there are only two modes of 
 propagating plants, viz. by seed and by division. 
 The first raises a new individual, resembling the 
 plant that produced the seed, as a child does its 
 parent, but not perpetuating any accidental 
 peculiarity; and the second method multiplies 
 specimens of the individual itself. Species are 
 propagated, and new varieties are raised, by 
 seed ; but varieties are generally propagated by 
 division, as they do not always come true from 
 seed. The modes of propagation by division 
 are of two kinds : those in which the young 
 plants root in the ground, such as suckers, 
 layers, and cuttings; and those in which they 
 are made to root in another plant, as in bud- 
 ding, grafting, and inarching. 
 
 Suckers. — Sending up suckers, forming off- 
 sets, and throwing out runners, are all natural 
 ways of propagation that require very little aid 
 from the hand of man; and, if all plants pro- 
 duced these, nothing more would be required 
 than to divide the offspring from the parent, 
 and replant it in any suitable soil. But only 
 certain plants throw up suckers, such as the
 
 CHAP. IV.] SUCKERS. 59 
 
 rose, the raspberry, the lilac, the English elm, 
 &c.; offsets are only formed on bulbs; and 
 runners are only thrown out by strawberries, 
 brambles, and a few other plants; and thus these 
 modes of propagation are extremely limited in 
 practice. No plants produce suckers but those 
 that send out strong horizontal under-ground 
 stems; as the sucker is in fact a bud from one 
 of these steins which has pushed its way up 
 through the soil, and become a distinct plant. 
 As this plant generally forms fibrous roots of 
 its own, above its point of junction with the 
 parent tree, it may in most cases, when it is 
 thought necessary to remove it, be slipped off 
 the parent, and planted like a rooted cutting. 
 As, however, the nourishment it can expect to 
 derive from its own resources will be at first 
 much less than what it obtained from its parent, 
 it is customary, when a sucker is removed, to 
 cut in its head, to prevent the evaporation from 
 its leaves being greater than its roots can sustain. 
 Sometimes, when the parent is strong, part of 
 the horizontal under-ground stem to which the 
 sucker was attached is cut off and planted with 
 the young plant. 
 
 Suckers of another kind spring up from the 
 collar of the old plant, and when removed are 
 always slipped or cut off with the fibrous roots 
 that they may have made attached. Offsets 
 are young bulbs which form on the edge of the 
 root-plate of the old bulb, and merely require 
 breaking off, and planting in rich light soil. 
 Runners are shoots springing from the crown 
 or collar of the plant, which throw out roots at 
 their joints, and which only require dividing
 
 60 PROPAGATION BY DIVISION. [CHAP. IV. 
 
 from the parent, and replanting in good soil, to 
 make new plants. 
 
 Layers. — Many plants, when kept in a moist 
 atmosphere, having a tendency to throw out 
 roots from their joints, the idea of making layers 
 must have very early occurred to gardeners. 
 When the roots are thrown out naturally 
 wherever a joint of the shoot touches the moist 
 earth (as is the case with most of the kinds of 
 verbena, which only require pegging down to 
 make them form new plants), layers differ very 
 little from runners ; but layers, properly so 
 called, are when the art of the gardener has 
 been employed to make plants throw out roots 
 when they would not have done so naturally. 
 The most common method of doing this is to 
 cut half through, and slit upwards, a shoot 
 from a growing plant, putting a bit of twig or 
 potsherd between the separated parts, and 
 then to peg down the shoot, so as to bury the 
 divided joint* in the earth (see Jig. 5.); when the 
 returning sap, being arrested in its progress to 
 the main root, will accumulate at the joint, to 
 which it will afford such abundance of nourish- 
 ment as to induce it to throw out a mass of 
 fibrous roots, and thus to convert the shoot 
 beyond it into a new plant, which may be sepa- 
 rated from the parent, and transplanted. A 
 verbena, or any other slightly-ligneous plant, may 
 be treated in this manner, but at the same time 
 it may be observed that it is scarcely worth 
 while to take the trouble of slitting the ver- 
 bena, as it will be sufficient to peg down a joint 
 in moist soil to induce it to send out roots.
 
 chap, rv.] 
 
 LAYERS. 
 
 61 
 
 FIG. 5. A VERBENA. LAYERED. 
 
 The only art required in layering is to con- 
 trive the most effectual means of interrupting 
 the returning sap, so as to produce as great 
 an accumulation of it as possible at the joint 
 from which the roots are to be produced. For 
 this purpose, sometimes, instead of cutting the 
 branch half through, a ring- of bark is removed 
 below the joint, care being taken that the knife 
 does not penetrate into the wood ; and at others 
 a wire is twisted firmly round the shoot, so as 
 to pinch in the bark ; or a knife or other sharp 
 instrument is passed through the branch several 
 times in different directions : in short anything
 
 62 PROPAGATION BY DIVISION. [CHAP. IV. 
 
 that wounds or injures the shoot, so as to throw 
 an impediment in the way of the returning sap, 
 and yet not to prevent the passage of the sap 
 that is ascending, will suffice. 
 
 Layering is a very common mode of pro- 
 pagating plants ; and in nurseries often every 
 shoot of a tree or shrub is thus wounded and 
 pegged down. In this case, the central root is 
 called a stool, from the verb to stole, which 
 signifies the power most deciduous trees possess, 
 of sending up new stems from the collar of 
 their roots when cut down. The seasons for 
 performing the operation of layering are during 
 the months of February and March, before the 
 new sap begins to rise, or in June or July, after 
 all the summer supply of ascending sap has 
 risen ; as at these seasons there is no danger of 
 injuring the tree by occasioning an overflow of 
 the ascending sap, which sometimes takes place 
 when the tree is wounded while the sap is in 
 active motion. In most cases the layers are 
 left on twelve months, and in many two years, 
 before they are divided from the parent plant, 
 in order that they may be sufficiently supplied 
 with roots. In nurseries, the ground is gene- 
 rally prepared round each stool by digging, and 
 sometimes by manuring ; and the gardener 
 piques himself on laying down the branches 
 neatly, so as to form a radiated circle round 
 the stool, with the ends rising all round about 
 the same height. 
 
 Chinese mode of layering. — The Chinese 
 method of layering, which consists in wounding 
 a branch, and then surrounding the place with 
 moist earth contained either in a flower-pot or
 
 CHAP. IV.] CHINESE MODE OF LAYERING. 63 
 
 a basket, is frequently adopted in the Con- 
 tinental gardens ; and it has the very great 
 advantage of producing a young tree which 
 will flower and fruit while yet of very small 
 size. It is generally applied to camellias, 
 orange-trees, and magnolias ; but it will do 
 equally well for almost any other tree or shrub. 
 When a plant is to be layered in this manner, 
 a ring of bark is first taken off, and then the 
 flower-pot is procured, open on one side so as 
 to admit the branch ; and some moss being 
 put at the bottom of the flower-pot, it is filled 
 up with earth, and a piece of wood is placed 
 inside the pot before the open part to prevent 
 the earth from falling out. It may be fastened 
 in its place by wires hung over a branch, or 
 supported by four little sticks tied to the pot 
 with string. .The earth should be very moist 
 before it is put into the pot, and if the season 
 be drv, it mav be remoistened from time to 
 time. When the layer is supposed to have 
 rooted, a tolerably deep notch should be made 
 in the branch below the pot; and afterwards it 
 may be cut off, and the young plant transferred 
 with its ball of earth entire, to another pot or 
 to the open ground. A simpler way of per- 
 forming the operation is, using a piece of lead 
 instead of a flower-pot. A modification of 
 this plan was adopted by Baron Humboldt in 
 South America. When he met with any tree 
 that he thought worthy of being introduced 
 into Europe, he took a ring of bark off one of 
 the branches, and then surrounding the branch 
 above the ring with moist earth, he bound 
 round it several strips of pitched cloth or oil
 
 64 PROPAGATION BY DIVISION. [CHAP. IT. 
 
 cloth, which he carried with him on purpose, s> 
 as to exclude the air, and consequently keep the 
 earth moist. After an absence of two or three 
 months, he returned to the tree, and cut off the 
 branch below the bandage, when he generally 
 found that it had struck root into the moist 
 earth. In this way he obtained nearly all the 
 rare and curious trees that he brought to 
 Europe. 
 
 Cuttings differ from layers in being en- 
 tirely separated from the parent plant before 
 they are put into the ground ; but in both 
 cases the principle is the same, namely, that 
 each bud is essentially a plant, and possesses 
 the power of developing roots, as well as a 
 stem and leaves, if placed in favourable cir- 
 cumstances. In some cases a single bud or 
 eye may be struck ; but as when this is tried 
 there is a difficulty in keeping the vital 
 power of the bud in activity till there are 
 organised roots to supply it with food, it is 
 generally safer to try to strike a cutting having 
 two or more buds ; as the pith contained in the 
 space between the buds is soluble, and is the 
 nutriment prepared by nature for the support 
 of the incipient stem and leaves. 
 
 When the branch is left on the parent tree, 
 only the ascending shoot of each bud is de- 
 veloped, and, under favourable circumstances, 
 this ascending shoot becomes a new branch : 
 but when the branch is made a cutting, the 
 lowest bud must become granulated to force it 
 to develope roots. When a cutting is cut 
 through, not at a bud or joint, it is necessary 
 that the joint should be buried to insure the
 
 CHAP. IV.] CUTTINGS. 65 
 
 developement of roots, and the part below the 
 joint generally rots. In this case there is, of 
 course, a great probability that the whole cutting 
 will become rotten also. Indeed, as all the 
 vessels of a cutting are divided and left open, 
 when it is separated from the parent plant, 
 there is always danger of its rotting if exposed 
 to much damp ; and yet it must have warmth 
 and moisture to excite its vital action. Hence, 
 cuttings are generally potted in sand, and 
 covered with a bell-glass, that the sand may keep 
 the wounded end of the cutting dry, and yet that 
 the bell-glass may preserve a proper degree of 
 humidity in the atmosphere to keep up a vital 
 action in the vessels, and to prevent too much 
 evaporation taking place. 
 
 Great care should be taken that no space is 
 left between the earth and the end of the cut- 
 ting;, which should be quite firm and level ; as 
 unless the earth is pressed closely round it, it 
 is apt to wither or to rot ; and hence it is 
 found that cuttings of orange and lemon trees, 
 which are always considered difficult to strike, 
 will seldom grow unless the end of the cutting 
 rests upon the earthenware of the bottom of 
 the pot. " The object of this," says Dr. 
 Lindley in his Theory of Horticulture, "seems 
 to be to place the absorbent or root-end of the 
 cutting in a situation where, while it is com- 
 pletely drained of water, it may, nevertheless, 
 be in the vicinity of a never-failing supply of 
 aqueous vapour." If, on the contrary, any 
 open space be left, or if the end of the cutting- 
 be left raised or uneven, water is sure to lodo-e 
 round it, and to rise irregularly through its 
 
 p
 
 66 PROPAGATION BY DIVISION. [CHAP. IV. 
 
 vessels, and make them decay. It is also neces- 
 sary to take the greatest care that the end 
 of the cutting is not bruised, and that the bark 
 is not injured in any way ; and that, though 
 the cutting is shaded from the sun to prevent 
 too rapid evaporation, it should not be quite 
 excluded from the light. Cuttings are generally 
 made from the tips of the shoots, and are 
 thought best when cut off just below the point 
 where the shoot of the current year springs 
 from the old wood. Generally speaking, soft- 
 wooded or suffruticose plants grow most readily; 
 and dry hard- wooded plants, such as heaths, are 
 most difficult to strike. Cuttings of the soft- 
 wooded plants may be made at any time in the 
 spring, summer, or autumn ; but the hard- 
 wooded plants do best in autumn, winter, or 
 very early spring. 
 
 The curious little plants in flower in fairy 
 pots, which were so common in the summer of 
 ] 850, were produced by cuttings taken off the 
 tips of the shoots of plants after the flower- 
 buds had formed, and which were then struck 
 rapidly in very small pots, plunged in a slight 
 hotbed, or in a bed of sand in a portable 
 greenhouse, the sand being heated by hot 
 water, as will be described hereafter. 
 
 The cutting being taken off, and the division 
 at the joint being made perfectly smooth (see 
 fig. 6.), several of the leaves should be cut off 
 close to the stem, with a sharp knife ; and, a 
 hole being made in the soil, the cutting should 
 be put in, and the earth pressed close to its 
 extremity, or it will never send out roots. Va- 
 rious means have been devised to induce cut-
 
 CHAP. IV.] 
 
 CUTTINGS. 
 
 67 
 
 tings to strike readily, and amongst others mav 
 be mentioned the following mode of striking 
 cuttings of orange and lemon trees, which is 
 practised by the gardener at Luscombe Royal, 
 near Dawlish, in Devonshire. His plan is" to 
 fill a pot half full of drainage, and then to chip 
 a piece of smooth stone or tile round, so as to 
 fit the pot as nearly as possible. This is laid 
 upon the drainage, and the pot filled with pure 
 
 Fig. 6. a cuttivg of the lemo.v-scevted verbeva (Aloysia 
 citriodora) , prepared for putting into the ground. 
 
 sand, or sand with a very little loam. When 
 the cutting is inserted, care is taken to let the 
 flat part at the base rest upon the stone or tile, 
 without any sand intervening; in order, as he 
 says, to exclude the air from the pith of the 
 branch. The cuttings treated in this manner 
 scarcely ever fail, and generally have good roots 
 at the end of about six weeks: while orange 
 
 f2
 
 68 PROPAGATION BY DIVISION. [CHAP. IV. 
 
 cuttings made in the ordinary way are found 
 very hard to strike, and, even when most suc- 
 cessful, seldom have roots in less than two or 
 three months. 
 
 A new mode of striking cuttings has been 
 invented by Professor Delacroix of Besanc^on. 
 This gentleman, some years ago, conceived the 
 idea of insuring the success of cuttings by 
 putting the lower end in water and the middle 
 in earth, a circular incision being made between 
 the earth and the water. This plan, however, 
 was not found to succeed ; but it led him to 
 another, which he designates as simple, econo- 
 mical, and certain. According to this plan, the 
 cutting is placed entirely under ground, so as 
 to form a curve, with a bud in its highest 
 part, the bud being on a level with the surface 
 of the soil. In this way the whole length of 
 the cutting is protected by the earth, and the 
 bud is the only part exposed to the air. This 
 mode of making cuttings is said to answer 
 admirably with apples, pears, plums, apricots, 
 and tulip trees, all of which are difficult to 
 strike from cuttings ; and it is also found to 
 succeed admirably with rose trees and other 
 plants which though not difficult to strike 
 generally, are so occasionally. 
 
 Cuttings may be struck in the open ground, 
 and in common soil, without any covering : but 
 cuttings thus treated must be those of plants 
 which strike readily. When struck in pots, it 
 is customary to fill the pots half or entirely 
 full of silver sand, to prevent the stalk of the 
 cutting from having too much moisture round 
 it. Those cuttings which are most liable to be
 
 03AP. IV.] 
 
 CUTTINGS. 
 
 69 
 
 
 FlG. ?• CCTTIXGS OF THE COMMON HORSESHOE and LARGE WHITE- 
 FLOWERED geraxh'.ms [Pelargonium zonule and P. maa-antlmm), pre- 
 pared for putting into the ground ; the leaves being left on those 
 stalks which are represented long, and taken off those which appear 
 cut close, or nearly so, to the stem.
 
 70 PROPAGATION BY DIVISION. [CHAP. IV. 
 
 injured by moisture, such as heaths, &c, are 
 struck in pots filled entirely with sand ; or, at 
 any rate, with sand about an inch or two inches 
 deep, at the top of the pot, to keep the stem 
 dry, and to prevent it from rotting. Charcoal 
 powdered may be used with great advantage 
 instead of sand. The cutting, when prepared, 
 should be buried to about the second joint, and 
 two or three joints with leaves should be left 
 above the soil. A few leaves to elaborate the 
 sap, in the case of herbaceous plants or ever- 
 green trees and shrubs, are essential ; for I have 
 known very promising cuttings of petunias, 
 
 Fig. 8. lady's gauntlet of strong leather. 
 
 which had been some weeks in the ground, and 
 which had thrown out abundance of roots, 
 entirely destroyed by some snails having eaten 
 all the leaves ; and I am told that the case is
 
 CHAP. IV.] 
 
 CUTTINGS. 
 
 71 
 
 ig. 9. a ccttin'g of the china rose (Rdsa indica* , prepared for 
 putting into the ground ; it being observed that the leaves represented 
 as shortened are only drawn so for want of room in the page.
 
 72 PROPAGATION BY DIVISION. [CHAP. IV. 
 
 by no means an uncommon one. In preparing 
 cuttings of roses, it is always advisable to wear 
 a gauntlet, as shown in fig. 8., to prevent the 
 thorns from injuring the ringers. Cuttings of 
 delicate plants are generally covered with a 
 bell-glass pressed closely on the earth, to keep 
 a regular degree of moisture round the plants, 
 and to prevent too rapid an evaporation; but 
 some cuttings when thus treated are very apt 
 to damp off, and require to have the glass 
 taken up occasionally and wiped. Cuttings of 
 greenhouse plants, I have been told by practical 
 gardeners, strike best when put into the pots as 
 thickly as possible : and, as they are generally 
 well watered when first put into the ground, 
 they will, if covered closely with a glass, very 
 seldom require any watering afterwards. As 
 long as they continue looking fresh they are 
 doing well ; and as soon as they begin to grow 
 they should be transplanted into small thumb 
 pots, and supplied moderately, but regularly, 
 with water ; changing the pots for larger ones 
 as the plants increase in size, and according 
 to their nature. Sometimes the pots are sunk 
 in a hotbed, or a bed of sand heated by a 
 tank of hot water below it, to induce the cut- 
 tings to take root, and this is called applying 
 bottom heat ; and sometimes one flower-pot is 
 placed within another a size or two larger, and 
 the inner one filled with water (the hole at the 
 bottom being first stopped with clay or putty), 
 and the cuttings placed in the outer one. All 
 these expedients are more or less efficacious; 
 and the great object with all of them is, to 
 excite and stimulate the plant. Cuttings of
 
 CHAP. IT.] 
 
 SLIPS, PIPINGS. 
 
 succulent plants, such as those of the different 
 kinds of cacti, require to be 
 dried for some time after 
 they are made, by placing 
 them on a shelf in the sun. 
 This is done to prevent the 
 wounded part from becoming 
 rotten in the ground, as the 
 sap is very abundant, and in a 
 very liquid state. 
 
 Slips. — When cuttings are 
 made of the shoots from the 
 root or collar of the plant, or 
 of little branches stripped off 
 with a small portion of the 
 root or stem attached, they 
 are called slips : and thev re 
 quire no other preparation 
 than cutting off the portion of 
 bark smooth and close to the 
 shoot. Slips are generally 
 taken off in March, but they 
 will also succeed if made in autumn. 
 
 Pipings are cuttings of pinks and carnations 
 (see Jig. 10.), and, indeed, the term is applicable 
 to all plants having jointed tubular stems. 
 Pipings were formerly prepared by taking a 
 shoot that has nearly done growing, holding; 
 the root end of it in one hand below a pair of 
 leaves, and with the other pulling the top part 
 above the pair of leaves, so as to separate it 
 from the root part of the stem at the socket 
 formed by the axils of the leaves, so that the 
 part of the stem pulled off has a tubular or 
 pipe-like termination. Hence the name of 
 
 PIPING OF A 
 
 Fig. 10, 
 
 carnation'
 
 74 PROPAGATION BY DIVISION. [CHAP. IV. 
 
 pipings ; but now they are merely cut off at a 
 joint like any other cuttings, after which they 
 are inserted in finely-sifted earth or sand, and 
 a hand-glass is fixed firmly over them. Most 
 florists cut off the tips of the leaves of pipings, 
 as shown in fig. 10., but others plant them en- 
 tire ; and the pipings grow apparently equally 
 well under both modes of treatment. 
 
 The 'principal points to be attended to in 
 making cuttings are, to cut off the shoot at a 
 joint without bruising the stem ; to make the 
 cutting at a time when the sap is in motion ; 
 to fix die end which is to send out roots firmly 
 in the soil ; to keep it in an equal temperature, 
 both as regards heat and moisture ; to cut off 
 some of the leaves, and to shade the whole, so 
 as to prevent too much evaporation, without 
 excluding the light, which is wanted to stimu- 
 late the plant; to keep the soil moist, but not 
 too damp ; and to pot off the young plants as 
 soon as they begin to grow. Remember, also, 
 that all cuttings strike sooner, and with more 
 certainty, when they have the advantage of 
 bottom heat. 
 
 Budding has been compared to sowing a 
 seed ; but it may rather be considered as mak- 
 ing a cutting with a single eye, and inserting 
 it in another tree, called the stock, instead of 
 in the ground. A young shoot of the current 
 year's wood is cut off in the latter end of July 
 or August, or, perhaps, if the season should be 
 very moist, in the first week in September ; and 
 incisions are made longitudinally and across, on 
 each side, above and below a bud, so that the 
 bud may be cut out, attached to an oblong
 
 CHAP. IV.] BUDDING. 75 
 
 piece of wood and bark, pointed at the lower 
 end. The leaf is then taken off, but the foot- 
 stalk is left on. 
 
 The next thing is to separate the bark with 
 the bud attached, from the wood ; and on the 
 nicety of this operation much depends, as if 
 any wood be left in the bark the bud will not 
 take ; generally, however, if the sap be in a 
 proper state of movement, the wood comes out 
 easily, without leaving the smallest particle 
 behind. The bud must be then examined 
 below, that is, on the side which was next the 
 wood ; and if it appears fresh and firm it is 
 likely to take, but if it looks shrunk and 
 withered it had better be thrown away, as it 
 will never grow. Slits, longitudinal and across, 
 are then made in a shoot of the stock, generally 
 near the fork of a branch ; and the bark is 
 gently raised with the handle of the budding- 
 knife (which is purposely made thin and flat), 
 while the piece of bark to which the bud is 
 attached is slipped into the opening, and the 
 bark of the stock is closed over it. This is an 
 operation that requires the greatest nicety and 
 exactness; as, unless the inner bark of the 
 bud fits quite closely to the soft wood of the 
 stock, it is in vain to hope that it will take. 
 The operation is then completed by binding the 
 two parts together with a strand or strip of 
 bast mat, which in the case of rose trees is 
 quite sufficient ; but buds on apple and pear 
 trees are sometimes wrapped round with wet 
 moss, which is tied on by shreds of bast 
 matting. In all cases, the strips of bast should
 
 76 
 
 PROPAGATION BY DIVISION. [CHAP. IV. 
 
 be left long- enough to be tied with bows and 
 ends, that the ligature may be loosened and 
 tied again without deranging the position of 
 the bud, as soon as it begins to grow. The first 
 sign of the bud having taken, as it is called, is 
 
 Fig. 11. mode of budding a rose tree. 
 
 when the petiole of the leaf {a mjig. 11.) drops 
 on being very slightly touched with the finger ; 
 but the ligature should not be loosened till the 
 bud begins to throw out leaves ; and then it 
 should be retied only a little slacker than 
 before, until the bud is firmly united with the 
 stock. 
 
 In France, buds are only applied to a part 
 of the stock from which a bud has been taken, 
 so that the bud of the scion may exactly sup-
 
 CHAP, rv.] BUDDING. 77 
 
 plv the place of the original bud of the plant. 
 But this precaution, though certainly founded 
 on reason, is seldom attended to in England. 
 
 Budding, though sometimes used for apples 
 and pears, when the spring grafts have failed, 
 is most commonly applied to roses : it is, how- 
 ever, occasionally used for inserting eyes in the 
 tubers of the dahlia. The root of the dahlia 
 consists of a number of tubers collected toge- 
 ther, each of which should be furnished with 
 an eve or bud at its summit, so as to form a 
 ring round what is called the crown of the root, 
 from which the stems of the plant are to spring. 
 When the plant is to be propagated, the tubers 
 are divided, and planted separately, and each 
 that has a bud at its summit will send up a stem, 
 and will become a new plant. Sometimes, 
 however, it happens that several of the tubers 
 are devoid of buds, and that others have more 
 than one; and, when this is the case, one of 
 the buds is scooped out, and, a notch being 
 made in the top of the barren tuber to receive 
 it, the bud is fitted in, and the point of junc- 
 tion covered with grafting-wax. The tuber 
 must then be planted in a pot, with the budded 
 part above the soil; and the pot plunged into a 
 hotbed till the bud begins to push, when the 
 tuber may be planted out into the open ground. 
 
 What is called flute-grafting is, in fact, a 
 kind of budding; as it consists in taking a ring 
 of bark, on which there is a bud, off a shoot ; 
 and then supplying its place with a ring of bark, 
 with a bud attached, from another tree : placing 
 the supposititious bud as nearly as possible in 
 the position of the true bud. Sometimes, how-
 
 78 
 
 PROPAGATION BY DIVISION. [CHAP. IV. 
 
 ever, this is not thought necessary ; 
 and the ring of bark is taken from 
 any part of the stock; though it is 
 always replaced by a ring of bark con- 
 taining a bud from the scion. There 
 are many other kinds of budding, but, 
 as the principles are the same in all, it 
 is not necessary to detail them here. 
 The blade of the budding-knife {jig. 
 12.) should be short, and it should 
 curve outwards, to lessen the danger 
 of wounding the wood when making 
 the incisions. 
 
 The principal points to be attended 
 to in budding are : to choose a fresh 
 healthy bud ; to separate the bark to 
 which it is attached, without wound- 
 ing it, quite cleanly from the wood ; 
 to make a clear incision through the 
 bark of the stock, and to raise it from 
 the wood without wounding it ; to 
 press the bark containing the bud so 
 closely to the wood of the stock that 
 no air can remain between them ; and 
 to perform the operation in moist wea- 
 ther, not earlier than the last week in 
 July, nor later than the first week in 
 September. Of these points the most 
 important are, the joining closely of 
 the bark of the bud to the wood of 
 the stock, and the performing of the 
 operation in moist, or at least in cloudy 
 weather; and, if these are attended 
 to, there is little doubt of success. 
 When the young shoot begins to grow,
 
 CHAP. IV.] GRAFTING. 79 
 
 it is usual to shorten the branches of the stock, 
 so as to throw the whole vigour of the tree into 
 the bud. It is singular to observe that, even 
 when the operation is most successful, no inti- 
 mate union takes place between the bud and 
 the stock : they grow firmly together, but they 
 do not incorporate, and the point of union may 
 always be distinctly traced. 
 
 It must always be remembered that a plant 
 can only be budded on another plant of the 
 same nature as itself: thus a peach may be 
 budded on a plum, or on an apricot, as they 
 are all three stone fruits, and all belong to the 
 same section of the natural order Rosaceae ; 
 but a peach can neither be budded on a walnut, 
 which belongs to another natural order, nor 
 even on an apple or a pear, both of which, though 
 belonging to the order Rosaceae, are kerneled 
 fruits, and are included in another section. 
 
 Grafting differs from budding in its being 
 the transfer of a shoot with several buds on it 
 from one tree to another, instead of only a 
 single bud ; and as budding has been compared 
 to sowing; seeds, so has Drafting; to making- cut- 
 ting-s. The art of grafting; consists in bringing; 
 two portions of growing" shoots together, so 
 that the liber, or soft wood, of the two may 
 unite and grow together ; and the same general 
 principles apply to it as to budding. There 
 are above fifty modes of grafting described in 
 books, but only three or four are in common 
 use. 
 
 In all kinds of grafting the shoot to be trans- 
 ferred is called the scion, and the tree that is 
 to receive it is called the stock ; and it is always
 
 80 PROPAGATION BY DIVISION. [CHAP. IV. 
 
 desirable, not only that the kinds to be united 
 should be of the same genus, or at least of the 
 same natural family, but that they should agree 
 as closely as possible in their time of leafing, 
 in the duration of their leaves, and in their 
 habits of growth. This is conformable to com- 
 mon sense; as it is quite obvious that unless 
 the root send up a supply of sap at the time 
 the leaves want it, and only then, the s;raft 
 must suffer either from famine or repletion. 
 For this reason, a deciduous plant cannot be 
 grafted on an evergreen, and the reverse. The 
 necessity of a conformity in the habit of growth 
 is strikingly displayed in Mr. Loudon's Arbo- 
 retum Britarwicum, in a wood engraving of a 
 flowering ash grafted on a common ash, and 
 growing at Leyden ; by which it is shown, that 
 an architectural column, with its plinth and 
 capital, may be formed in a living tree, where 
 there is a decided difference in the growth of 
 the stock and the scion. 
 
 These examples show that no intimate union 
 takes place between the scion and the stock; 
 and the fact is, that, though they grow together 
 and draw their nourishment from the same 
 root, they are in every other respect perfectly 
 distinct. The stock will bear its own leaves, 
 flowers, and fruit, on the part below the graft ; 
 while the scion is bearing its leaves, flowers, 
 and fruit, which are widely different, on the 
 part above the graft. Nay, five or six grafts 
 of different species on the same tree will each 
 bear a different kind of fruit at the same time. 
 This want of amalgamation between the scion 
 and the stock is particularly visible in cases of
 
 CHAP. IT.] GRAFTING. 81 
 
 severe frost, when the former is more tender 
 than the latter; as the graft is frequently killed 
 without the stock being injured. It is also 
 necessary, when grafted trees are for any reason 
 cut down, to leave a bud or two above the graft 
 for the new shoots to spring from; as other- 
 wise the proprietor will rind his trees changed 
 as if by magic, and instead of choice kinds 
 only the common sorts left. A rather droll in- 
 stance of this happened some years ago, in the 
 neighbourhood of London. An ignorant gar- 
 dener having a conservatory full of very choice 
 camellias, and wishing to reduce the plants to 
 a more compact shape, cut them down for that 
 purpose; when in due time he found, to his 
 great confusion and dismay, that the choice 
 camellias had all vanished, and that he had 
 nothing left but a number of plants of the 
 common single red on which they had been 
 grafted. 
 
 The proper season for grafting is in spring, 
 generally m March and April ; in order that 
 the union between the scion and the stock 
 may be effected when the sap is in full vigour. 
 At this season a stock is chosen of nearly 
 the same diameter as the scion, whether that 
 stock be a young tree, or merely a branch ; 
 and they are both cut so as to fit each other. 
 One piece is then fitted on the other as ex- 
 actly as possible ; and, if practicable, it is 
 contrived that the different parts, such as 
 the bark, soft wood, and hard wood, of the 
 one may rest on the corresponding parts of 
 the other; and on the exactness with which 
 this is done, the neatness of appearance of 
 
 G
 
 82 PROPAGATION BY DIVISION. [CHAP. IV. 
 
 the graft depends. It is not, however, essen- 
 tial to the success of the operation, that all the 
 parts of the scion should fit exactly on the cor- 
 responding parts of the stock, or even that the 
 two trees should be of the same diameter, for 
 if the bark and the soft wood correspond in 
 any one point so as to unite, it is sufficient to 
 make the graft take. As soon as the scion and 
 the stock are properly fitted to each other, the 
 parts are neatly bound together with a strand 
 of bast mat, steeped in water to make it flexible; 
 and the bast is covered with a composition 
 called grafting-clay, which is put on to keep the 
 absorbent vessels of the wounded parts moist, 
 and capable of the alternate contractions and 
 dilatations which will be necessary during the 
 passage of the ascending and returning sap 
 between the stock and the graft. These direc- 
 tions apply alike to all kinds of grafting ; and 
 the difference between the sorts refers prin- 
 cipally to the manner in which the correspond- 
 ing parts are cut to fit each other. 
 
 Whip, or Tongue, Grafting (Jig. 13.) is 
 where both the stock and the scion are cut in 
 a slanting direction, so as to fit each other, and 
 a little slit is made in the stock, into which a 
 tongue or projecting part cut in the scion fits. 
 The head of the stock is then cut off in an 
 oblique direction, slanting upwards from the 
 part cut to receive the scion, and the two are 
 bound closely together with a strand of bast 
 mat, or wrapped in moss, and then covered 
 with grafting-clay. The part left on the stock 
 in a slanting direction above the graft withers, 
 and is cut off when the graft has taken. This
 
 CHAP. IT.] 
 
 CLEFT GRAFTING. 
 
 83 
 
 is the kind of grafting generally practised in 
 nurseries, and it" is the most useful, as it does 
 not require the scion and the stock to be of the 
 same size. 
 
 
 1 
 
 Fig. 13. common mode of whip, or tongue, grafting. 
 
 Cleft-Grafting is where the scion is shaped 
 at the extremity like a wedge, and a cleft is 
 made in the stock to receive it. When this 
 
 g 2
 
 84 PROPAGATION BY DIVISION. [CHAP. IV, 
 
 kind of grafting is practised with trees and 
 shrubs, the head of the stock is cut off; but a 
 modification of it is practised with succulent 
 plants, in which the end of the graft, having 
 been cut into the shape of a wedge, is inserted 
 in a cleft or notch made in the side of the stock 
 to receive it, and the line of junction is covered 
 with grafting-wax. The tubers of strong com- 
 mon dahlias may be grafted in the cleft manner 
 with choice sorts, as may the tubers of the her- 
 baceous pseonies with scions of the tree pseony. 
 This last is very useful, as cuttings of the Paeonia 
 Motitan remain weak for several years, while 
 roots grafted in July or August will flower the 
 following spring. 
 
 Croicn- Grafting resembles the last kind in 
 requiring the head of the stock to be cut off; 
 but the scion is shaped at the extremity like 
 a wedge flattened on one side, and it is pushed 
 in between the bark and wood of the stock, 
 with its flat side next the wood, till it is stopped 
 by a shoulder with which it is provided, to pre- 
 vent it going in too far. 
 
 In Saddle-Grafting the head of the stock 
 is cut off, and the extremity of the trunk is 
 shaped like a long wedge ; a long slit is then 
 made in the scion, and the divided parts are 
 made to stand astride on the stock. The bark 
 is then pared off at the extremity, so that the 
 two parts may fit quite close ; and a firm liga- 
 ture is applied. 
 
 Herbaceous Grafting is very badly named, 
 as it gives the idea of its being a kind of graft- 
 ing applied to herbaceous plants; whereas, in 
 fact, it only means grafting with the succulent
 
 CHAP. IT.] HERBACEOUS GRAFTING. 85 
 
 wood of the current year, in opposition to com- 
 mon grafting:, which is always performed with 
 firm wood, frequently of several years' growth. 
 Herbaceous grafting is now generally used for 
 trees of the pine and fir tribe, which, only a few 
 years ago, it was thought impossible to graft 
 at all. "The proper time for this kind of graft- 
 in^ is when the young pine shoots have made 
 about three parts of their growth, and are still 
 so herbaceous as to break readily between the 
 fingers, like a shoot of asparagus. The shoot 
 of "the stock used formerly to be broken off 
 about two inches below the point, and all the 
 leaves stripped off for nearly two inches more, 
 except two sheaths of leaves, which were left, 
 one on each side, close to the top. The shoot 
 of the stock was then split with a very thin 
 knife between the sheaths of leaves left; the 
 scion, having had its lower extremity prepared 
 by stripping off the leaves and cutting it into 
 the shape of a wedge, was inserted as in cleft- 
 grafting; and the parts were bound together 
 with list, or with a strip of thin woollen cloth. 
 A cone of paper was then put over the wiiole, 
 to protect it from the sun and rain, and the 
 graft was very seldom found to fail. 
 
 Now, instead of breaking off the end of the 
 shoot, it is found to be more efficacious to make 
 the incision on the side of the stem of the stock, 
 as shown in Jig. 14. The scion is still pre- 
 pared and inserted in the same manner as be 
 fore ; and when the plant is in a pot, it is pre- 
 served as much as possible from the air, in the 
 manner which will be afterwards described when 
 speaking of La Grejfe gtoujfee.
 
 86 
 
 PROPAGATION BY DIVISION. [CHAP. IV. 
 
 Fig. 14 .herbaceous grafting. 
 
 Sometimes this kind of grafting is applied 
 to annual plants. The period chosen should be 
 when the plant is in its greatest vigour, and is 
 just coming into flower. The flower stem is cut 
 off close to a leaf, and a slit is made in the 
 stem downwards. The scion is then taken off 
 near the root of the plant, and the end, being 
 cut into a wedge-shape, is inserted in the slit. 
 The wound is afterwards bound up with strips 
 of cloth spread with grafting-wax, and the leaf 
 taken great care of. When the graft begins to 
 grow, this leaf and all the shoots above it are 
 removed. In this manner artichokes have been 
 grafted on cardoons, and cauliflowers on cab- 
 bages, with great success. Tomatoes have also
 
 CHAP, rv.] 
 
 INARCHING. 
 
 87 
 
 been grafted on potatoes, the potatoes perfect- 
 ing their tubers, and the tomatoes their fruit, 
 at the same time ; and it is said that the ripen- 
 ing of the latter was much accelerated. This 
 mode of grafting was invented by the Baron 
 Tschoudy, a gentleman residing at Metz ; and 
 the principal point in it which requires atten- 
 tion is, the preserving of a leaf, or two leaves, 
 at the extremity of the stock, to serve as nurses 
 to the graft. 
 
 Inarching, or Grafting by Approach [Jig. 
 15.). — Though I have left this till last, it is, in 
 fact, the most simple of all the ways of graft- 
 
 FlG. 15. STOCK AXD SCION' PREPARED FOR IVARCHING. 
 
 ins:, and it is certainly the only one practised 
 by nature. In a natural forest, two branches 
 rub against each other in windy weather, till 
 the bark of both becomes wounded ; a calm 
 ensues, and, while it lasts, the wounded branches 
 lying across each other adhere and grow to-
 
 88 PROPAGATION BY DIVISION. [CHAP. IV, 
 
 gether. Of this, which is called inosculation, 
 examples in the beech, the hornbeam, and the 
 oak, are given in Mr. Loudon's Arboretum 
 Britannicum ; and it is probable that mankind 
 derived the first idea of grafting from observ- 
 ing instances of this kind. Inarching, as prac- 
 tised in nurseries, closely resembles layering. 
 A branch is bent and partly cut through, and 
 the heel thus formed is slipped into a slit made 
 downwards in the stock to receive it. The 
 parts are then made to meet as exactly as pos- 
 sible, and are bound together with bast mat, 
 and covered with grafting-clay, as in common 
 grafting. In five or six months the union will 
 be complete; and the inarched plant will be 
 ready to be separated from the parent, which 
 is done with a very sharp knife, so as to leave 
 a clean cut, and not a bruised one. The head 
 of the stock, if it was left on when the plant 
 was inarched, is then cut away, and the plant 
 is ready for removal. It is, however, customary 
 to keep on the grafting-clay and ligature for a 
 few weeks, till the plant is firmly established. 
 This mode of propagation is very commonly 
 practised in spring (generally in March) with 
 camellias (see fig, 16.), and magnolias; and it 
 is usual in nurseries to see a fine new kind of 
 camellia surrounded by a sort of frame, on 
 which are several pots of stocks of the single 
 red, placed at different heights for the conve- 
 nience of attaching to them different branches 
 of the choice kind to undergo the process of 
 inarching. In most of these cases the head of 
 the stock is retained, and the scion is intro- 
 duced at the side ; but as soon as the graft has
 
 chap, rr.] 
 
 INARCHING. 
 
 89 
 
 Fig. 16. mode of inarching the camellia.
 
 90 PROPAGATION BY DIVISION. [CHAP. IT. 
 
 taken, and has thrown out a sufficient number 
 of leaves to carry on the elaboration of the sap, 
 all the branches of the original plant above the 
 graft are cut away, to strengthen the inarched 
 one. 
 
 Camellias are also now frequently grafted in 
 a manner first practised in Belgium, but which 
 has now become general, which has the ad- 
 vantage of producing flowering plants much 
 sooner than by any other plan. This mode of 
 grafting may be practised at any season, and 
 on a stock of any age, from the cutting of a 
 year old to the long-established plant, provided 
 it be healthy and of sufficiently small size to 
 be grown in a pot. The head of the stock is 
 cut off close to a leaf which has a strong 
 healthy bud in its axil. The cut is made 
 sloping upwards to the leaf, and on the pre- 
 servation of this leaf and bud a great part of 
 the success of the operation depends. The 
 stock is then split in face of the leaf and bud 
 to a depth equal to two-thirds of its thickness ; 
 and the scion, which has been previously cut 
 with a sharp knife into the shape of a wedge 
 terminating in a narrow point, is inserted. 
 The bark of the stock and that of the scion are 
 united as closely as possible, and the two are 
 tied firmly together ; the wound in the scion, 
 where the head was cut off, being covered with 
 pitch, to prevent the possibility of any moisture 
 entering the wood, though no pitch is per- 
 mitted'to touch the point of junction between 
 the scion and the stock, lest it should prevent 
 the uniting of the bark. Sometimes, as soon 
 as the operation is finished, the pot containing
 
 CHAP. IV.] GREFFE ETOUFFEE. 91 
 
 the stock is plunged into a bed of tan, luke- 
 warm if it be in spring, and hot if it be in 
 winter, and covered closely with a bell or hand 
 glass. The glasses ought to be taken off every 
 second day, and wiped, as too much humidity 
 will make the young plants damp off; and the 
 glasses may even be left off for an hour or 
 more occasionally, if the plants appear too 
 moist. It is not, however, absolutely essential 
 to plunge the pot in tan, if care be taken to 
 preserve the graft from the air. This last mode 
 of grafting is called la greffe etouffe'e ; and 
 la greffe des Beiges is another mode of per- 
 forming the operation by a kind of side graft- 
 ing, or rather of inarching. It consists in 
 cutting off the head of the stock, or the end 
 of one of the branches, in a slanting direction, 
 leaving a leaf and a bud above the cut on the 
 higher side ; and then cutting the scion into a 
 slanting shape, so as to fit the wound in the 
 stock exactly, and binding the two closely to- 
 gether with a strip of bast matting, but without 
 using any other covering. As soon as the 
 operation is finished, the pot containing the 
 stock is laid horizontally on a bed of dry tan, 
 or on a bed of dry moss, the branches lying on 
 the surface, and the pot being half-buried in the 
 tan or moss; the grafted part being covered 
 with a bell-glass stuffed round the bottom with 
 the moss or tan, so as to prevent a particle of 
 air from entering. This close covering is kept 
 on for a fortnight, three weeks, or a month, 
 according to the season; at the end of which 
 time, the graft will be found perfectly united to 
 the stock. Air is then admitted to the graft 
 by degrees, by first loosening and then remov-
 
 92 PROPAGATION BY DIVISION. [CHAP. IV, 
 
 ing the moss from the glass ; the glass itself is 
 afterwards taken off, and the pots set erect. 
 
 This mode of grafting is practised very ex- 
 tensively at Messrs. Knight and Perry's Exotic 
 Nursery, Chelsea, and in many other first-rate 
 establishments of the same kind. 
 
 The great points to be attended to in this 
 mode of grafting are, giving the plants bottom 
 heat, and covering them closely, whence the 
 name of greffe etouffee, as the plants appear 
 almost stifled for want of air. According to 
 both modes, as soon as the graft has taken, the 
 leaf and bud of the stock above the insertion 
 of the scion, which were left on to draw up the 
 sap, are cut off, and the plant is then in a fit 
 state to be removed to the greenhouse, or any 
 other place where it is to flower. 
 
 Grafting-clay and grafting-wax have been 
 so frequently mentioned in the various opera- 
 tions of grafting and budding, that it seems 
 necessary to say a few 7 words on their compo- 
 sition. Common grafting-clay is made with 
 any kind of stiff clay mixed with a fourth part 
 of fresh horse-dung free from litter, and a por- 
 tion of cut hay; a little water is sprinkled on 
 the mass, and the whole is beaten together 
 several times a day for about a week, till the 
 ingredients are thoroughly amalgamated. The 
 French grafting-clay, or Onguent de Saint 
 Fiacre, is composed of equal parts of stiff clay 
 and cow-dung; but a superior kind, which was 
 recommended by the late M. De Candolle, is 
 composed of one pound of cow-dung, half a 
 pound of pitch, and half a pound of yellow 
 wax. Grafting- wax is generally made of equal 
 parts of turpentine, bees'-wax, and rosin, with
 
 CHAT. IV.] GRAFTING. 93 
 
 a little tallow, melted together, and thoroughly- 
 incorporated. This is thinly spread on pieces 
 of coarse cotton, and used in strips like cere- 
 cloth. In crafting trees that have a soft and 
 delicate bark, fine moss and cotton wool tied 
 on with ligatures of bast mat are better than 
 anything else, and they are generally quite suf- 
 ficient for every purpose in which grafting is 
 employed by ladies. A composition partly 
 made with caoutchouc, is now often used in- 
 stead of the common grafting-clay. 
 
 The essential points to be attended to in 
 grafting are : choosing a stock and a scion 
 that correspond in nature and in habits of 
 growth; cutting the parts to be united so as 
 to fit exactly, and leave no vacuity between ; 
 taking care that the soft wood of the scion 
 shall "always rest on the soft wood of the 
 stock, as it is between these parts that the 
 union is to be effected ; binding the parts 
 closelv together, and covering them so as to 
 prevent them from becoming so dry as to 
 shrink apart, in which case the vessels would 
 wither and become incapable of uniting. 
 
 Uses of Grafting and Budding. — The ob- 
 vious use of grafting is to propagate varieties 
 that cannot so easily be continued by seed, and 
 that will not strike by cuttings. There is, 
 however, another use nearly as important ; and 
 this is, to make plants flower and fruit sooner 
 than they would otherwise do. There are 
 many plants that only flower at the extremity 
 of their shoots ; and these plants, when tender, 
 would require enormous plant-houses before 
 they would be thrown into flower or fruit. To
 
 94 PROPAGATION BY DIVISION. [CHAP. IV. 
 
 remedy this inconvenience, a method has been 
 devised of cutting off the tips of the shoots of 
 old plants and grafting them on young plants 
 of small size; and then, after they have grown 
 for some time, cutting off the tips again and 
 regrafting them in a similar manner, by means 
 of which flowers are at length produced on 
 plants of quite a small size. The same method 
 is applied in Paris to exotic fruit-trees, to throw 
 them into fruit ; and it has been tried with suc- 
 cess with the rose apple (Eugenia Jambos), the 
 mango, &c. In common nurseries, the fruit of 
 new seedling apples is obtained much sooner 
 by grafting their shoots on common apple 
 stocks, than by leaving the young plants to 
 nature; and this plan was also practised at 
 Brussels by the late Professor Van Mons, to 
 test his seedling pears. Tender plants may 
 also be made to flower in the open air by 
 grafting them on hardy species of the same 
 genus; and thus many kinds of half-hardy 
 flowering shrubs are now grown in the open 
 ground, that were formerly kept in green- 
 houses.
 
 9.5 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 PRUNING, TRAINING, PROTECTING FROM 
 FROST, AND DESTROYING INSECTS. 
 
 Pruning appears at first sight a most laborious 
 and unfeminine occupation ; and yet perhaps 
 there is no operation of gardening which a lady 
 may more easily accomplish. W ith the aid of 
 a small and almost elegant pair of 
 pruning-shears {Jig. 17.), which are 
 sold in all the shops, I have myself 
 (though few women have less strength 
 of wrist) divided branches that a 
 strong man could scarcely cut through 
 with a knife. The only thing to be 
 attended to is to choose a pair of 
 pruning-shears with a sliding joint, so 
 as to make what is called a draw-cut; 
 in order that the branch may be di- 
 vided bv a clean cut, and not bruised 
 on the side next the plant ; and also to leave a 
 somewhat sloping section. "\\ hen a branch is 
 pruned, it should also be cut as near to a bud 
 as can be done without injuring the bud itself; 
 or, to speak more definitely, not more in length 
 than the branch is thick should be left beyond 
 the bud. The cut should slope downwards 
 from the bud, to prevent the water lodging in 
 the angle ; and also that the sun and air may 
 
 PFCNI^G- 
 
 SHKARS.
 
 96 
 
 PRUNING. 
 
 [chap. v. 
 
 have their full influence in exciting the bark to 
 cover the wound. When a long piece of a 
 branch, or what gardeners call a snag, is left 
 beyond the bud, it withers, from there being 
 no leaves beyond it to carry on the circulation 
 of the sap; and it thus not only becomes a 
 deformity, but very often seriously injures the 
 tree, by rotting, and infecting the fruit-bearing 
 branch to which it is attached. 
 
 The secateur of the French (Jig. 18.) is a 
 still more useful instrument than the English 
 pruning-shears, as it is much 
 more powerful ; and it is, in- 
 deed, so efficacious that it is 
 generally used in France for 
 pruning fruit trees. 
 
 According to the usual 
 method of pruning with a 
 knife, the gardener holds the 
 branch in his left hand, be- 
 low the part that is to be 
 removed ; and then, holding 
 the knife firmly with the 
 thumb at the back of the 
 blade, he makes a strong cut 
 upwards, and from him, so 
 as to remove the branch with a single stroke, 
 and to leave a slanting section. This opera- 
 tion, however, requiring strength as well as 
 skill, it will generally be safer for a lady to use 
 only her pruning-shears, or a secateur, which 
 will be sufficient to cut through the largest 
 branch that a lady would be able to remove. 
 For removing dead roses, &c, it may be suffi- 
 cient to use a pair of garden scissors fixed to a 
 
 Fig- 18. 
 
 THE SECATEUR.
 
 CHAP. V.] 
 
 PRUNING. 
 
 97 
 
 pole {fig- 19.)> which may be length- 
 ened or taken to pieces like a fi:-h- 
 ing-rod, as is practised by Captain 
 Mangles. The scissors are strong 
 and sharp, and are made to act by 
 means oi' a long cord which passes 
 through rings down the side of the 
 pole ; but they are not strong enough 
 to remove anything but dead flowers 
 or seed vessels. 
 
 When a very large branch is to be 
 removed, it is generally necessary to 
 cut a notch out of it on each side, 
 and then to divide the remainder 
 with a saw ; but this is an operation 
 that most ladies will prefer leaving to 
 a gardener. In all cases the great 
 art of pruning consists in making a 
 clean sharp cut, so as to leave the 
 bark in a healthy state to make an 
 effort to cover over the wound, and 
 in pruning sufficiently near a bud not 
 to leave any dead wood. 
 
 The time for pruning is, either 
 early in spring, after all danger is 
 over from frost, but before the sap 
 has begun to move ; or in winter, 
 after the movement of the sap tor 
 the summer has ceased. Summer 
 pruning is also necessary with some 
 trees ; but, generally speaking, it 
 should be confined to rubbing off 
 only the buds which would produce 
 unnecessary shoots, and which should 
 be removed as soon as they appear. 
 
 Fig. 10.
 
 98 PRUNING. [CHAP. V. 
 
 This operation is called disbudding, and it is 
 highly efficacious in sparing the strength of 
 the tree. Many persons pinch off the points 
 of those shoots which appear to be running 
 too much to wood ; but, as this only excites 
 the branch to throw out fresh shoots, it is 
 much better to strip the superfluous branches 
 of their leaves as they appear; and, as when 
 thus treated they can produce no buds for 
 want of leaves, their growth will be checked 
 without injuring the tree, and they may be 
 safely removed in the winter pruning. The 
 vine is very apt to bleed when pruning has 
 been delayed too late ; and, in very strong 
 vigorous plants, the ascending sap sometimes 
 drops from the branches like rain. The 
 French, very poetically, call these drops the 
 tears of the vine. 
 
 The uses to which pruning is applied are 
 various; but most commonly it is intended 
 either to improve the form of the tree, or to 
 make it bear more flowers and fruit than it 
 otherwise would do ; it is also used for re- 
 moving diseased or broken branches; and, in 
 cases of transplanting, for proportioning the 
 head to the roots. 
 
 Pruning to improve the form of a tree, in 
 pleasure-grounds, is only required in those 
 cases where trees have grown under unfavour- 
 able circumstances, and where they have been 
 too much drawn up, or distorted in any man- 
 ner ; but, in useful plantations, it is necessary 
 to prepare trees for the purposes for which 
 they are intended. Thus, for example, a tree 
 intended for timber should have its side
 
 CHAP. T.] PRUNING. 99 
 
 branches taken off while they are quite young, 
 in order that the wounds may soon heal over, 
 and not leave loose knots to weaken or dis- 
 figure the wood ; while a tree intended for a 
 screen should be allowed ample space for its 
 branches to spread from the ground upwards, 
 and then they should only be shortened at 
 their extremities, to make them throw out 
 short branches near the tree. In pleasure- 
 grounds the principal object is, generally, 
 either to preserve the shape of the tree or 
 shrub, so that it may form an agreeable object 
 on a lawn; or to let it combine in a group with 
 others, either for ornament, or to serve as a 
 screen or shelter. In the first case, it is ob- 
 vious that no pruning is requisite, but to 
 remove dead, diseased, or unsightly branches; 
 and, in the second, the pruning must depend 
 upon the shape the tree is required to take to 
 group well with the others planted near it. 
 
 Pruning to produce flowers and fruit has in 
 view two objects : first, to cut off all super- 
 fluous wood, so as to throw the strength of 
 the tree into the fruit-bearing branches; and, 
 secondly, to admit the sun and air into the 
 interior of the tree. In both cases, the atten- 
 tion of the pruner must be directed to thinning 
 out weak and crowded shoots ; and to keeping 
 both sides of the tree well balanced, in order 
 that the circulation of the sap may be equal 
 throughout. This will preserve the general 
 health of the tree, at the same time that it 
 throws the sap into the proper channels ; and 
 the fruit will be produced in as much abund- 
 ance as can be done without injuring the tree. 
 
 h 2
 
 100 PRUNING. [CHAP. V. 
 
 It should never be forgotten, that, to effect 
 permanent improvements, nature should be 
 aided, not overstrained ; and that all extra- 
 ordinary exertions are succeeded by a period of 
 feebleness and languor, or, if the exertion be 
 continued too long, by death. Thus, in all 
 cases, pruning and training to produce fruit 
 should never be pushed too far ; as, though by 
 occasioning an extraordinary deposit of the 
 returning sap in some particular part that part 
 may be forced into fruit, the unnatural deposit 
 cannot fail in the end to engender disease. 
 
 Sometimes a tree, from being supplied with 
 more food than it can digest, or from some 
 other cause, has a tendency to produce what 
 the English gardeners call water-shoots, and 
 which the French call gourmands. These are 
 strong vigorous-growing branches, which are 
 sent up from the main trunk of the tree, but 
 which do not produce either flowers or fruit; 
 and which, consequently, if the tree be full of 
 wood, should be removed as soon as their true 
 character is discovered. If, however, the tree 
 have too little wood in the centre, or if it 
 appear exhausted by too much bearing, these 
 branches should be spared, as they will serve 
 admirably both to fill up any blanks that may 
 have been left in the training, and to strengthen 
 the trunk and roots by the quantity of rich re- 
 turning sap which they will send down from 
 their numerous leaves. A certain quantity of 
 leaves and barren branches are essential to the 
 health of every tree ; and the fruit-grower who 
 consults his own interest should cherish them, 
 instead of grudging the sap required for their
 
 CHAP. V.] TRAINING 101 
 
 support. Whenever there is not a sufficient 
 quantity of leaves to elaborate the sap, the 
 fruit that ought to have been nourished by its 
 rich juices becomes flaccid and insipid; its 
 skin grows tough instead of crisp ; and, if the 
 deprivation of leaves has been carried to ex- 
 cess, the fruit never ripens, but withers prema- 
 turely, and falls off. Pruning, at the best, is a 
 violent remedy; and, like all other violent 
 remedies, if carried further than is absolutely 
 necessary, it generally ends by destroying. 
 
 Training is intimately connected with pruning 
 and like it should always be used with caution. 
 A trained tree is a most unnatural object; and, 
 whatever care may be taken of it, there can be 
 no doubt that training shortens its life by many 
 years. The principal object of training is to 
 produce, from a certain number of branches, a 
 greater quantity of fruit or flowers than would 
 grow on them if the plant were left in its natural 
 state ; and this is effected by spreading and 
 bending the branches, so as to form numerous 
 depositions of the returning sap, aided, where 
 the plant is trained against a wall, bv the 
 shelter and reflected heat which the wall affords. 
 Thus the points to be attended to by the gar- 
 dener in training are, the covering: of the wall, 
 so that no part of it may be lost ; the bending 
 of the branches backwards and forwards, so 
 that they may form numerous deposits of the 
 returning sap ; and the full exposure of the 
 fruit-bearing branches to the sun and air. For 
 these purposes the gardener shortens the loncj 
 shoots, to make them throw out side branches, 
 with which he covers his walls, never suffering
 
 102 TRAINING. [chap. V. 
 
 them to cross each other, but letting each be as 
 much exposed to the influence of the air and 
 light as is consistent with a necessary quantity 
 of leaves ; and he bends them in different di- 
 rections to throw them into fruit. These general 
 principles are common to all fruit-trees, but of 
 course they must be modified to suit the habits 
 of the different kinds. Thus, for example, some 
 trees, such as the fig and the pomegranate, only 
 bear on the extremities of their shoots ; and, 
 consequently, if their shoots were continually 
 shortened, these trees would never bear at all ; 
 other trees, such as the apple and the pear, bear 
 their fruit on short projecting branches, called 
 spurs ; and others at intervals on nearly all the 
 branches, and close to the wall. All these 
 habits should be known to the gardener, and 
 the modes of training adopted which will be 
 suitable to each. Training flowers should also 
 be regulated by a knowledge of the habits of 
 the plants ; but it consists principally in check- 
 ing their over-luxuriance of growth, and tying 
 them to stakes or wooden frames. In all kinds 
 of training, neatness is essentially requisite, and 
 any departure from it is exceedingly offensive. 
 Where the hand of art is so evident as it is in 
 training, we require excessive neatness to make 
 us amends for the loss of the graceful luxuriance 
 of nature. 
 
 Tlie operation of training against a wall is 
 performed by the aid of nails and shreds ; the 
 shreds beino- narrow oblong pieces of list or 
 cloth, put round the branches, and attached to 
 the wall by nails driven in with a hammer. 
 Care should be taken that the pieces of list are
 
 CHAP, v.] PROTECTING FROM FROST. 103 
 
 ]ono- enough to allow of the free passage of the 
 sap, and vet not so long as to permit the branch 
 to be so agitated by the wind as to bruise itself 
 against the wall. The nails should also never 
 be driven in so as to wound or corrode the 
 bark ; and, when driving in the nails, the oar- 
 dener should be very careful not to bruise the 
 branch with his hammer. The shreds should 
 be broad enough not to cut the bark, and yet 
 not so broad as to cover the buds ; and they 
 should, as much as possible, be of some uniform 
 and dark colour. As few shreds should be used 
 as are sufficient to attain the end in view; but 
 these should be very firmly attached, as nothing 
 oives a more °joomv picture of miserv and de- 
 solation in a garden, than trees that once were 
 trained having become detached, and hanging 
 drooping: from the wall. Sometimes wires are 
 fastened to walls, to which the plants are tied 
 with strands of bast mat ; the strand, after it is 
 put round the branch and the wire, being gently 
 twisted between the finger and thumb, in order 
 that it may make a firm knot without tearing or 
 weakening the ligament. Climbing shrubs are 
 tied to the pillars of a veranda, or to trelliswork, 
 in the same manner ; as are also flowers to 
 sticks, or slight wooden or wire frames, with the 
 exception that, in their case, the bast does not 
 require twisting. 
 
 Protecting from frost is an essential part of 
 culture to a lady gardener, particularly in so 
 uncertain a climate as that of England. Not 
 only the blossoms of peaches and nectarines, 
 and those of other early flowering fruit trees, 
 are liable to be injured by the spring frosts ; but
 
 104 PROTECTING FROM FROST. [CHAP. V. 
 
 those of the tree paeony (Paeonia Moutan), and 
 other beautiful shrubs, are frequently destroyed 
 by them; and, unfortunately, many of the modes 
 of protection, by knocking off and bruising the 
 blossoms, are almost as injurious as the frosts that 
 they are intended to guard against. Twisting a 
 straw rope round the trunk of a tree, and put- 
 ting its ends into a bucket of water, is certainly 
 a simple method, and it has been recommended 
 as a very efficacious one. When a mat is used 
 to protect wall trees, it does perhaps least injury 
 to the blossoms when curtain rings are sewed to 
 its upper end, and it is hung by these on hold- 
 fasts, or large hooks, driven into the upper part 
 of the wall. To make it more secure, particu- 
 larly in windy weather, it may be tied on the 
 sides with strands of bast mattino- to nails 
 driven into the wall ; and a broad moveable 
 wooden coping should rest on the holdfasts, 
 and cover the space between the mat and the 
 wall, to prevent injury from what are called per- 
 pendicular frosts. Camellias, and many half- 
 hardy shrubs, may be protected by laying straw 
 or litter round the roots ; as the severest frosts 
 seldom penetrate more than a few inches into 
 the ground. Even in the severe winter of 
 1837-8, the ground was not frozen at the depth 
 of ten inches. Tree pseonies, and other tender 
 shrubs that are in a growing state very early in 
 the spring, may be protected by coverinos of 
 basketwork, which are sufficiently large and 
 light to be lifted off during fine days. Hand 
 and bell glasses, sea-kale pots, and wooden 
 frames covered with oiled paper, are all useful 
 for protecting small plants. It is astonishing
 
 CHAP. V.] PROTECTING FROM FROST. 
 
 103 
 
 how very slight a covering will often suffice to 
 protect a plant from frost, if the covering be 
 over the top of the plant, even though the sides 
 be exposed ; while, on the contrary, a warm 
 covering in front of the plant will fail to save 
 it, if the top be exposed to the perpendicular 
 frosts. 
 
 Plants in pots may be protected by plun- 
 ging them in the ground, and then covering 
 them with a bast mat, supported by four or 
 eight stakes, driven into the ground to a suffi- 
 cient depth to make them quite firm, and being 
 of a sufficient height above the ground to keep 
 the mat from breaking the branches of the 
 plants, as shown m jig. 20. The mat is kept 
 
 Fro. 20. Mode of protecting plants. 
 
 in its place by bricks being laid on the part 
 which rests on the ground. Protecting the 
 roots and collar is a most important point, and 
 few half-hardy trees and shrubs will be seriously 
 injured, if the ground over their roots is covered 
 a few inches deep with straw or dead leaves. 
 Every lady should have two or three hand- 
 glasses, of different sizes, always at her dis- 
 posal, even during summer, for the convenience
 
 106 DESTROYING INSECTS. [CHAP. V. 
 
 of sheltering newly-transplanted plants, &c. ; 
 and for winter use she should have several bee- 
 hive-like covers, each with a handle for lifting 
 it, formed of plaited rashes or some similar 
 material, which may be easily made by poor 
 women and children in country places, under 
 the direction of a lady ; and w hich will be a 
 charitable mode of employing them. 
 
 Insects and Snails and Slugs are the terror 
 of all gardeners ; and the destruction they effect 
 in some seasons, in small gardens, is almost 
 beyond the bounds of credibility. Birds do 
 comparatively little injury, and, indeed, all the 
 soft-billed kinds (which fortunately include most 
 of the sweetest songsters) do good. The willow 
 wren and the common wren, the blackcap, the 
 nightingale, the redstart, all the warblers and 
 fly-catchers, the swallows and martins, the wag- 
 tails, the wryneck, the tomtit, the fern owl or 
 nightjar, and many others, live almost entirely 
 on insects, and destroy great numbers every 
 year; while the blackbird and the thrush, the 
 robin and the sparrows, though they devour a 
 portion of the fruit, destroy insects also. All 
 birds may, indeed, be safely encouraged in small 
 gardens near towns, as they will do much more 
 good than injury; and a few cherries and cur- 
 rants are a cheap price to pay for their delightful 
 songs. 
 
 As it is the larvae only of insects, with very 
 few exceptions, that do injury to vegetation, 
 many persons never think of destroying them 
 in any other state ; forgetting that every but- 
 terfly that we see fluttering about may lay 
 thousands of eggs, and that if we wait till these
 
 CHAP. V.J DESTROYING INSECTS. 107 
 
 eggs have become caterpillars, irreparable mis- 
 chief will be done to our plants before they can 
 possibly be destroyed. Whenever a butterfly 
 is seen quietly sitting on the branch of a tree, 
 in the day-time, it will generally be found to be 
 a female, that either just has laid, or, what is 
 more probable, is just about to lay, her eggs. 
 As soon as the eggs are laid, the butterfly gene- 
 rally dies ; and, where dead butterflies are 
 found, search should always be made for their 
 eggs. 
 
 In summer, a little oblong chrysalis, the 
 colour of which is yellow with black bands, 
 will frequently be found hanging from the 
 gooseberry bushes ; and whenever it is seen it 
 should be destroyed. This chrysalis is the pupa 
 of the magpie moth, the caterpillar of which 
 frequently strips the gooseberry bushes of all 
 their leaves in spring, and thus renders their 
 fruit worthless in summer. 
 
 The caterpillar of the lackey moth is another 
 very destructive insect. These creatures, which 
 are curiously striped, like the tags on a foot- 
 man's shoulder (whence their name), assemble 
 together in great numbers, and, covering them- 
 selves with a web, completely devour the ne>hv 
 part of the leaf on which they have fixed 
 themselves, leaving only the veins ; they then 
 draw another leaf to them, which they also 
 devour, and then another, till the greater part 
 of the leaves of the tree they have attacked 
 present a fine lace-like appearance, as though 
 they had been macerated. Did all these insects 
 live to become moths, they would completely 
 destroy, not only our gardens, but our forests,
 
 108 DESTROYING INSECTS. [CHAP. V. 
 
 as they feed on almost every different kind of 
 tree ; but with that beautiful arrangement by 
 which all the works of our Great Creator are 
 balanced equally with each other, and none 
 allowed to predominate, these insects are such 
 favourite food for birds, that not a hundredth 
 part of them are suffered to reach maturity. 
 The eggs of the lackey moth are often found 
 fixed on a naked twig in winter, looking like a 
 bracelet of hard beads, and adhering- so firmly 
 together, that the whole bracelet may be slipped 
 off entire. 
 
 The cabbage butterflies are also very destruc- 
 tive in the larva state. The caterpillars are soft, 
 of a pale whitish green, and very active, leap- 
 ing about in the hand when taken ; and the 
 chrysalis, which is also green, looks as if it were 
 swathed up like a mummy. 
 
 The caterpillar of the beautiful little ermine 
 moth, which is a gregarious feeder, like the 
 caterpillar of the lackey moth, is nearly as de- 
 structive; and it is the more necessary to men- 
 tion this, because the moth itself is so small, so 
 delicate, and so quiet, that no one unacquainted 
 with its habits would think of killing it as an 
 injurious insect. 
 
 The leaf-rollers, the saw-flies, and the gnats 
 which occasion the oak-galls, are all very de- 
 structive. The leaves of the rose tree are often 
 found marked, in summer, with pale brown 
 zigzag lines, with a narrow black line running 
 down the middle of each. These lines are the 
 work of a very small orange-coloured cater- 
 pillar, not more than two lines long, that lives 
 on the parenchyma of the leaf; and the pale
 
 CHAP. V.] DESTROYING INSECTS. 109 
 
 brown mark is occasioned by the epidermis 
 drying where the pulp beneath it has been re- 
 moved. The moth is called the red-headed 
 pygmy, and it is so small as not to measure 
 more than two lines and a half broad, when its 
 wings are fully expanded. 
 
 The " worm i' th' bud " of the rose is the 
 maggot, or grub, of one of the kinds of saw- 
 fly ; a beautiful transparent-winded little crea- 
 ture, that no one would suspect of sprinoino- 
 from such a frightful-looking maggot. But of 
 all the insects that infest the rose, the most de- 
 structive are the aphides. These little irreen 
 flies cover the tender leaves and buds of the 
 young shoots in myriads, and are extremely 
 difficult to destroy without spoiling the appear- 
 ance of the shoots that have been attacked by 
 them. Tobacco-water is an excellent remedy, 
 if not too strong. It should be made by steep- 
 ing half a pound of the best tobacco in a gallon 
 of hot water; and, as soon as the infusion has 
 become cold, the young shoots should be dipped 
 in it, and suffered to remain a few seconds, after 
 which they should be immediately washed in 
 clean water before they are suffered to dry. If 
 this be done carefully, the insects will be de- 
 stroyed, and yet the shoots will remain unin- 
 jured ; but if the tobacco-water be too strong 
 or if it be suffered to dry on the plant, the shoot 
 will be blackened, and the youn^ leaves de- 
 stroyed. Lime-water may also be tried, if no 
 more lime be used than the water will hold in 
 solution ; as unless the water be quite clear in 
 appearance when applied, the plant will be very 
 much disfigured with the white stains of the
 
 110 
 
 DESTROYING INSECTS. 
 
 [chap. v. 
 
 iime. Instead of using lime or tobaceo-water, 
 I greatly prefer dipping the branch into a basin 
 of clean water, and gently shaking it while in 
 the water, the surface of which will become 
 covered with green flies, which should be 
 skimmed off, and put into some vessel where 
 they can be destroyed, while another branch 
 is dipped in the water. In this way I always 
 clear the roses in my own garden, and I am 
 generally rewarded by a brilliant display of 
 flowers. Another means of getting rid of all 
 noxious insects is, to fumigate the plants infested 
 with tobacco; and the best way of doing this is 
 by Brown's patent fumigator (Jig.2l.). The cup 
 
 Fig. 21. Brown's patent fumigator. 
 
 of the fumio-ator is filled with loose tobacco, 
 which is lighted, and the handle being turned 
 round, the fumes are gently spread through the 
 greenhouse, or among the plants. By putting 
 a little of the moxa, or Spanish tinder, among
 
 CHAP. V.] DESTROYING IX>ECTS. Ill 
 
 the tobacco, or using it alone, caterpillars, but- 
 terflies, snails, &c, may be stupified, so that 
 they will fall from the branches, and may be 
 gathered up and destroyed. There are also 
 several kinds of fumigating bellows. 
 
 An excellent preventive remedy is to wash 
 the stems and branches of deciduous rose trees, 
 in winter, with water heated to 200°, or with a 
 mixture of strong tobacco-water and soft soap ; 
 cleaning the branches well, at the same time, 
 with a soft brush. 
 
 The American blight shows itself in little 
 tufts, of a white woolly or cottony substance, 
 which appear on the stems and branches of 
 apple trees, general! v where thev are cankered, 
 or have been injured. This woolly substance 
 is the covering of a kind of aphis, and it is 
 not known why it is called the American blight, 
 as it appears to have been first brought into 
 England from France, about the vear 178". 
 "When the insect was first discovered, it was 
 thought to be a kind of coccus, like that on the 
 vine, and, in fact, it has very much the appear- 
 ance of insects of that kind. The coccus, how- 
 ever, only envelopes its eggs in a white woolly 
 substance ; but in the American blight, both the 
 male and female insects are covered with this 
 white substance, and in very hot weather, the 
 male, which has wings, may be seen occasion- 
 ally floating in the air, and looking like a piece 
 of cotton wool. Wherever these insects esta- 
 blish themselves, the part they attack soon 
 becomes ulcerated or cankered ; and if their 
 ravages be not stopped, the tree will die in the 
 course of a few vears. Various means have
 
 112 DESTROYING INSECTS. [CHAP. V. 
 
 been devised for their destruction, but the plan 
 proposed by Mr. Waterton appears to be the 
 best. This is, to clean the tree from the insects 
 as thoroughly as possible with a brush and 
 water, and then to fill up all the cankered parts 
 with moistened clay. 
 
 Besides the insects already enumerated, there 
 are several kinds of beetles which devour plants 
 both in the larva and perfect state. Of these, 
 the cockchafer remains in the larva state four 
 years, and is one of the most destructive insects 
 known ; its grub is the celebrated ver blanc of 
 the French. The rose beetle, or rose chafer 
 (Cetonia aurata), is extremely beautiful, from its 
 splendid wing cases of burnished green and 
 gold ; and these beetles, notwithstanding their 
 shape, which looks too heavy and clumsy for 
 flying, may frequently, in hot summer weather, 
 be seen upon the wing, making a loud buzzing 
 noise. When taken up in the hand, they draw 
 up their feet, and appear to be dead ; but, after 
 having been handled and even tossed about for 
 some time, they will, if a favourable opportu- 
 nity appears to offer, suddenly spread out their 
 wings and buzz away, leaving their captor too 
 much astonished to be able to make any effort 
 to retain them. Several of these insects may 
 often be found on one rose ; but they appear to 
 be only engaged in sucking the honey from the 
 flower, as they do not injure it. They undergo 
 their transformations in the ground, and the 
 grubs are supposed to live entirely on little bits 
 of rotten wood. 
 
 Besides the insects already mentioned, the 
 various kinds of weevils, the wire-worm, the
 
 CHAP. V.] DESTROYING INSECTS. 113 
 
 thrips, the red spider or rather mite (Acarna 
 telarius), various kinds of Tipula or gaffer long- 
 legs, wood-lice, and earth-worms, are all found 
 on plants, and are all more or less injurious to 
 them. In the general destruction of insects the 
 lady-bird should always be spared, as, both in 
 its larva and its perfect state, it lives on the 
 larvae of the green fly or aphis. 
 
 Snails and Slugs are more destructive to 
 vegetation than any kind of insect; and they 
 are still more difficult to get rid of. There is 
 a very small grey slug-, that is peculiarly inju- 
 rious to plants in pots ; the large grey slug is 
 also very destructive, and the common garden 
 snail. The beautifully banded snail (Helix ne- 
 moralis) is, however, supposed to live partly on 
 earth-worms, and the shell slug (Testacella 
 scutella) lives entirely on them. The usual 
 modes of entrapping snails, slugs, and wood- 
 lice, are, laying down slices of raw potatoes or 
 cabbage leaves at night, and examining them 
 before the dew is oft the plants in the morning. 
 As, however, this requires very early rising, a 
 more convenient method is to lay a few flower- 
 pots upon their side.-, near the places where the 
 snails have committed their ravages ; and the 
 snails, which can neither move nor feed unless 
 the ground be wet with dew or rain, will gene- 
 rally be found to take refuge in the flower-pots 
 from the heat of the sun. They are likewise 
 often found, in the middle of the day, sticking 
 against walls under ivy, or in box edgings. In 
 gardens very much infested with snails, search 
 should be made in winter among all the ivy and 
 box in the garden; and all the snails found in a 
 
 I
 
 114 DESTROYING INSECTS. [CHAP. V. 
 
 torpid state should be destroyed. This, though 
 some may escape, will effectually prevent them 
 from becoming numerous ; and, as the eggs are 
 not laid till April or May, care should be taken, 
 before that season, to destroy all the snails that 
 can be found. The eggs are round, almost 
 transparent, and of a bluish white, like opal ; 
 and they are always found in small clusters, 
 buried in the ground.
 
 11/5 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THE KITCHEX-GARDEX. — THE MANAGEMENT OF 
 CULINARY VEGETABLES. 
 
 In almost all gardens, it is customary to set 
 apart a portion of the ground for the culture of 
 culinary vegetables ; and, in villas and country 
 seats, this portion is quite detached from the 
 pleasure-ground, and is called the kitchen- 
 garden. When this is the case, it usually con- 
 sists of a square or oblong piece of ground, 
 varying from one to five acres in extent, ac- 
 cording to the size of the establishment, and 
 inclosed by a wall ten or twelve feet high. If 
 a greater extent of ground than two or three 
 acres be required, it is generally laid out in two 
 or more gardens, communicating with each 
 other, so as to afford an extent of wall propor- 
 tionate to that of the ground. In front of the 
 wall is a border for the roots of the fruit trees, 
 ten or twelve feet wide, and bevoncl that a walk 
 usually four feet wide, leaving a plot of ground 
 in the centre for the culture of culinary vegeta- 
 bles and espalier fruit trees. The central plot is 
 usually divided by a main walk up the centre 
 five or six feet wide, and two or four side walks 
 three or four feet wide ; the smaller plots, in- 
 closed between these walks, being; again divided 
 into oblong compartments, or beds. 
 
 i2
 
 116 THE KITCHEN-GARDEX. [CHAP. VI. 
 
 The situation of the kitchen-garden must of 
 course be partly determined by that of the 
 house and offices ; as it should be near the 
 stables for the sake of manure, and near the 
 kitchen offices for the convenience of not having 
 far to carry the fruit and other crops. There 
 should also be a convenient road to it concealed 
 from the pleasure-ground. In small suburban 
 gardens there should always be a convenient, 
 and, if possible, a partially concealed, road for 
 servants to bring in vegetables ; and there 
 should be a little plot of ground for thyme, 
 mint, sage, parsley, &c, very near the kitchen 
 door. 
 
 The surface of a large detached kitchen- 
 garden should be level, or gently sloping to 
 the south or south-east; and there should be 
 no plantations or high trees within a hundred 
 or a hundred and fifty feet, to insure a free 
 current of air, which is essential to the welfare 
 of the crops. The whole of the garden should 
 be well drained ; and a basin for water should 
 be in the centre, open to the air, for the con- 
 venience of watering. A kitchen-garden should 
 never be placed in a valley, as in such a situa- 
 tion it would be damp, and very liable to injury 
 from frost ; and it should not be on the summit 
 of a hill, because it would be exposed to high 
 winds. 
 
 The general form and arrangement of all 
 large kitchen-gardens being alike, it is obvious 
 that they must have been determined by some 
 general principle ; and this principle appears to 
 be utility. The walks are made straight, that 
 the heavy loads wheeled along them may not
 
 CHAP. VI.] SOIL. 117 
 
 be in danger of overturning, which they would 
 be if the walks took a serpentine direction ; 
 while the compartments are divided into oblong 
 beds, for the convenience of digging and crop- 
 ping ; it being found most convenient to sow 
 vegetables in straight lines, to allow of weeding 
 and hoeing between them, earthing up, kc. 
 For these reasons, all pieces of ground in small 
 gardens appropriated to the culture of kitchen 
 vegetables should be made to approximate, as 
 closelv as possible, in form and general arrange- 
 ment, to regular kitchen-gardens ; and, where 
 there is any portion of the ground that cannot 
 be brought into a rectangular shape, it should 
 be set aside for tart-rhubarb, artichokes, or 
 some other permanent crop ; and a square or 
 oblong plot in the centre should be reserved for 
 peas and beans, and other annual vegetables. 
 
 Tlie best soil for a kitchen-garden is a sandy 
 loam, and the surface soil should be from two 
 feet to three feet deep. If it is on a clayey 
 subsoil, every part of the garden should be well 
 drained : as, from the quantity of refuse con- 
 stantly dug into the ground from the culinary 
 vegetables, if any water should be suffered to 
 remain in a stagnant state in the soil, it would 
 be particularly injurious. 
 
 When there is only one detached kitchen- 
 garden, it is usual to surround it entirely, or 
 on three sides, with a piece of ground called a 
 slip, consisting of a fruit-tree border on the 
 other side of the wall, with a walk bounded by 
 a low hedge. This is done in order that fruit 
 trees may be grown en both sides of the wall. 
 The vinery and forcing-houses are generally
 
 118 THE KITCHEN-GARDEN. [CHAP. VL 
 
 placed facing the main walk of the garden ; 
 and what is called the melon ground, which 
 forms a small walled garden, is often placed 
 behind them. This, however, is not essential ; 
 but the melon ground should always be on the 
 side next to the stable offices, for the conveni- 
 ence of carting manure. 
 
 Walks. — The obvious use of walks, in a 
 garden constructed on a general principle of 
 utility, is, to enable the gardener and others to 
 reach every part of the garden as speedily as 
 possible, without treading on the beds ; and for 
 this reason, though the walks are made to 
 intersect each other at right angles, it is cus- 
 tomary in many gardens to round the central 
 beds adjoining them at the corners. Paths two 
 feet wide are also made between the beds into 
 which the compartments are divided; and the 
 beds themselves are never wider than a man 
 can conveniently reach across to the middle, to 
 lake or hoe. These paths, however, as they 
 vary according to the nature of the crop, are 
 never made of any permanent materials ; and 
 the whole compartment is generally dug over 
 when necessary, without paying any regard to 
 them, and redivided into fresh beds every 
 season. 
 
 The walks, on the contrary, being intended 
 to be permanent, are of a very different nature ; 
 and, in addition to their obvious uses, it is 
 essentially requisite that they should be hard 
 and firm. This is necessary, as the manure, 
 &c, wanted in a kitchen-garden is generally 
 distributed through the garden in a wheel- 
 barrow; and the weight, in the act of wheeling,
 
 CHAP. VI.] WALKS. 119 
 
 is principally thrown upon a very narrow wheel, 
 which, on soft walks, literally ploughs its way 
 through the gravel, leaving an uneven furrow, 
 extremely offensive to the eye. To avoid this 
 inconvenience, the w r alks in kitchen-oardens, 
 where expense is not an object, are fre- 
 quently made of cement or asphalte. or laid 
 with bricks or flag-stones; but, as all these 
 materials give the idea of a court-yard, rather 
 than a garden, most persons prefer gravel 
 walks. Where gravel is to be employed, the 
 intended walks are marked out with two garden 
 lines; the space between is then dug out, gene- 
 rally in the form of an inverted arch, from one 
 foot to two feet deep in the centre (according to 
 the nature of the soil, and the expense it may 
 be thought advisable to incur), and the excava- 
 tion is filled to within six inches of the top with 
 brick-bats, stones, or any other hard rubbish 
 that can be procured. If the excavation be 
 made in the shape of an inverted arch, in filling 
 it up the extreme point of the arch should be 
 left hollow to serve as a drain; and if it be 
 made rectangular, a drain is generally left on 
 each side. In filling in the rubbish the largest 
 pieces are thrown in first, then smaller ones, 
 and lastly pieces broken very small, which are 
 rammed down or rolled, so as to form a smooth 
 surface immediately under the gravel. This is 
 done both to give solidity to the walk, and to 
 prevent the gravel from being wasted bv trick- 
 ling dow r n between the interstices of the stones. 
 As walks can never be firm unless they are kept 
 quite dry, in all cases there should be at least 
 one drain to each walk. The gravel before
 
 120 THE KITCHEN-GARDEN. [CHAP. VX. 
 
 laying it down should be sifted, and all stones 
 larger than a moderate- sized gooseberry should 
 be thrown out or broken; and, as soon as it is 
 laid down and evenly spread, it should be well 
 rolled, previously to which, if it should be very 
 dry, it ought to be sprinkled with water. If 
 the gravel be at all loose, it should be mixed 
 with equal parts of brick- dust and Roman 
 cement before laying it down, or the gravel 
 may be mixed with burnt clay .powdered, in 
 the proportion of one wheelbarrow full of clay, 
 to a two-horse cart-load of gravel; or if the 
 gravel be already laid, and it is wished to 
 render the walk more firm, powdered burnt 
 clay may be strewn over it, and raked in. In 
 all these cases, the walks must be watered to 
 consolidate the mixture, and the following day 
 heavily rolled. Sometimes the clay is mixed 
 with water before applying it to the gravel. 
 Where good gravel cannot be procured, tolera- 
 bly firm walks may be made of sea gravel, or 
 powdered sandstone, or even of sand, by this 
 treatment. The clay may be burnt by making 
 it into a heap, intermixed and surrounded with 
 faggot-wood ; or, as a substitute for burning, it 
 may be dried by spreading it on the top of the 
 furnace or boiler employed to heat the hot- 
 houses. 
 
 When the walks in a kitchen-garden are 
 formed of flag-stones, artificial stone, or brick, 
 the material used is laid on brick arches or 
 piers ; and when grass walks are employed, 
 they require no other preparation than marking 
 them out on the ground, consolidating it by 
 pressure, and then laying them with turf.
 
 CHAP. VI.] BOX-EDGINGS. 121 
 
 Grass walks were formerly common in kitchen- 
 gardens, but they are manifestly unsuitable, 
 being; more injured than any others by the 
 wheelbarrow, and being quite unfit to walk on 
 in wet weather. 
 
 When gravel walks want renovating, the 
 gravel should be loosened with a pick, turned 
 over, raked, and firmly rolled, adding a coating 
 of fresh gravel wherever it may be found neces- 
 sary. Weeds may be prevented from growing 
 on gravel walks by watering the walks with 
 salt and water. The salt will also kill the 
 weeds already there, and, if these are large, 
 they should, of course, be hoed up and raked 
 off. Great care is, however, nece-sarv to pre- 
 vent the salt and water from touching- the box- 
 edgings, which it is very apt to do, particularly 
 if the walk be raised in the centre, as is some- 
 times the case, though it is not generally ad- 
 visable to make it so, as the w r ater which drains 
 off the centre forms a soft part on each side. 
 AYhen salt and water is suffered to drain to the 
 box-edging;, it kills the leaves on the lower part 
 of the plant, and gives the edging a very bare 
 and miserable appearance. 
 
 Box-edgings are better than any others for 
 gravel walks. They are generally planted in 
 March or April. A garden line being first 
 drawn tightly along the earth bordering the 
 walk, a shallow trench is then opened close to 
 the gravel, and the earth from it thrown on the 
 bed. The box is pulled into separate plants, 
 and the branches and roots of each trimmed, till 
 all the plants are very nearly of the same size. 
 The plants are then put into the trench, with
 
 122 THE KITCHEN-GARDEN. [CHAP. VI. 
 
 no earth between them and the gravel: and the 
 trench is tilled up by drawing the earth into it, 
 and pressing it close to the roots, so as to make 
 the plants quite firm. Nothing else is requisite 
 but a few waterings, till the box begins to 
 grow; and the only difficulty is to keep the 
 plants in a straight line, with the points of their 
 shoots at an equal distance above the soil. 
 W hen box-edgings are pruned, they should 
 always be cut in with a knife, and never 
 clipped with shears. They should also never 
 be suffered to grow too high without pruning; 
 and they should be occasionally taken up and 
 replanted wider apart, when their stems appear 
 to be becoming naked below. 
 
 Cropping. — The crops grown in the open 
 air in a kitchen-garden are of two kinds, those 
 produced by the fruit trees, and those of the 
 herbaceous vegetables : and the latter are ao-ain 
 divided into the permanent crops and the tem- 
 porary ones. The permanent crops are those 
 which remain for a number of years in one 
 place, producing a crop, year after year, from 
 the same roots ; such as asparagus, artichokes, 
 rhubarb, &c. : while the temporary crops are 
 those that require sowing or fresh planting 
 every year, and these should never be sown for 
 two years in succession on the same ground. 
 
 Permanent Crops. — In regular kitchen- 
 gardens, it is of very little consequence where 
 the permanent crops are placed, as every part 
 of the ground is generally alike accessible from 
 the walks, and alike suitable for cultivation : 
 but in small gardens the case is different; and 
 there are generally some awkward corners,
 
 chap, vl] asparagus beds. 123 
 
 which are best set apart for the lasting crops. 
 The part to be sown annually should be always 
 divided into regular square or long narrow 
 compartments, in order to manage properly the 
 rotation of crops. 
 
 Asparagus Beds. — Of all the permanent 
 crops grown in a garden, the one which re- 
 quires most preparation is asparagus. It is not, 
 perhaps, generally known that this plant is a 
 native of Britain ; but the fact is, that it grows 
 wild in several places both in England and 
 Scotland. The cultivated plant is, however, of 
 course, very different from the wild one; for, 
 while the latter is meagre, insipid, and very 
 tough, the former is not only succulent and 
 finely flavoured, but grows to an enormous size. 
 There are two sorts of asparagus grown for the 
 London market : the one having a thick whitish 
 stalk, only just tipped with a pinkish head ; 
 and the other having both the stalk and the 
 head green and slender. Asparagus is always 
 raised from seed ; but, as the stalks are not fit 
 to cut till the roots are two or three years old, 
 persons wishing to plant an asparagus bed 
 generally purchase plants one year or two years 
 old from a nurseryman. 
 
 Asparagus plants require a light, rich, sandy 
 loam, and the ground in which they are to be 
 planted is always first trenched from three to 
 four feet deep, or even more, and plenty of 
 stable dung is buried at the bottom of the 
 trench ; the beds are then marked out four feet 
 wide, with paths two feet wide left between 
 them, and the plants are planted in rows, about 
 six inches deep (the crown of the root being
 
 124 THE KITCHEN-GARDEN. [CHAP. VI. 
 
 left about two inches below the surface) and 
 nine inches apart. The beds are generally- 
 covered during winter with rotten manure, 
 which is forked in and the beds raked in 
 spring ; and this treatment should be repeated 
 every year, or every two or three years at 
 farthest, the beds being slightly covered, in the 
 intermediate years, with litter, leaves, &c., 
 which may be forked in the following spring. 
 The stalks should not be cut till the third year 
 after planting; but, after that, the roots will 
 continue to produce freely for twelve or four- 
 teen years. Asparagus is generally cut a little 
 below the surface, with a sharp knife, slanting 
 upwards ; and the market-gardeners cut all the 
 snoots produced for two months, say from 
 April to Midsummer, but suffer all the shoots 
 that push up after that period to expand their 
 leaves, in order that they may elaborate their 
 sap, and thus strengthen the roots. Whole 
 fields of this plant are cultivated by the market- 
 gardeners near London, to the extent, as it is 
 said, of from eighty to a hundred acres, 
 chiefly near Mortlake, Battersea, and Dept- 
 ford. During some seasons, these fields, and 
 many private gardens near London, are infested 
 with a most beautiful little beetle, striped with 
 red, black, and blue, which eats through the 
 shoots close to the ground almost as soon as 
 they appear, and which can only be destroyed 
 by hand-picking. Where it is known to have 
 been prevalent, or where one is seen for the 
 first time, women and children should be em- 
 ployed to examine the beds, and to destroy all 
 they can find, to prevent the insects from laying
 
 CHAP. VI.] SEA-KALE. 125 
 
 eggs, and thus producing a brood to destroy 
 the crop the following year. Asparagus is 
 generally forced by covering the beds with 
 manure, and by deepening the alleys between 
 the beds, and filling them with manure also. 
 
 Sea-Kale. — About eighty years ago, Dr. 
 Lettsom, a celebrated physician and botanist 
 of that day, happened to be travelling near 
 Southampton, when he observed some plants 
 pushing their way up through the sea sand. 
 Finding the shoots of these plants quite suc- 
 culent, he inquired of some person in the neigh- 
 bourhood if they were ever eaten, and was 
 answered, that the country people had been in 
 the habit of boiling these shoots and eatino 
 them as a vegetable from time immemorial. 
 The doctor tasted them, and found them so 
 good, that he took some seed to his friend Mr. 
 Curtis, the originator of the Botanical Maga- 
 zine, who had then a nursery • in Lambeth 
 Marsh. Mr. Curtis wrote a book about the 
 plant, which brought it into notice, and he sold 
 the seed in small packets at a high price: and 
 thus this long-neglected British plant, which 
 for so many years was only eaten by the 
 poorest fishermen, became our highly-prized 
 and much-esteemed sea-kale, which is now so 
 great a favourite at the tables of the rich. 
 
 Sea-kale is raised either from seeds or cut- 
 tings of the roots. In either case, when the 
 plants are a year old, they are put into a bed 
 thoroughly prepared as if for asparagus, and 
 planted in the same manner. The first year 
 the plants will require little care, except cutting 
 down the flower-stems wherever they appear;
 
 126 THE KITCHEN-GARDEN. [CHAP. VI. 
 
 but the second year they will be ready for 
 forcing. This is performed by covering the 
 plants first with river sand, then turning what 
 are called sea-kale pots over them, and, lastly, 
 covering the pots to the depth of fifteen or 
 twenty inches with fresh stable dung, the heat 
 from which will draw the shoots up, and make 
 them succulent and fit to eat. 
 
 Artichokes are another kind of permanent 
 crop, but they are not suitable for growing in a 
 small garden. The artichoke is a native of 
 Italy, said to have been introduced in the reign 
 of Henry VIII. It is propagated by division, 
 and requires a light, rich, and rather moist soil. 
 Manure should be laid between the rows every 
 autumn, and the plants should be covered with 
 straw in severe weather in winter. Artichoke 
 plants do not continue to produce good heads 
 longer than six or seven years ; but young 
 plants come into bearing the second year after 
 transplanting. 
 
 Strawberries. — Though strawberries should 
 be properly included in the list of fruits, they 
 are generally classed by gardeners among the 
 permanent herbaceous crops in a kitchen- 
 garden. There are a great many named sorts 
 grown in gardens, but they are mostly varieties 
 or subvarieties of three species, viz. the Pine 
 (Fragaria grandiflora), which is supposed to be 
 originally from Surinam; the Chili (F. chi- 
 lensis), and the Scarlet (F. virginiana). Of 
 these, the pine-strawberries are large, with 
 scarlet flesh, and of a very fine and delicate 
 flavour ; and the best kinds are Keens' seedling 
 and the old pine : the Chili strawberries (one of
 
 CHAP. VI.] TART RHUBARB. 127 
 
 which is "Wilmot's superb) have very large fruit, 
 with white flesh, but possess very little flavour ; 
 and the scarlet strawberries have small, bright 
 red, slightly acid fruit, which is principally used 
 for ice-creams and preserving;. To these may 
 be added the Hautbois (F. elatior), which, 
 though so often mentioned by the street 
 venders, is in reality very seldom grown, 
 because the fruit, which is small and blackish, 
 is rarely produced in any quantity. 
 
 Strawberries should be grown in rich loamy 
 soil, and they are generally planted in beds 
 three feet w T ide, three rows in a bed. Every 
 year, the strongest of the runners should be 
 taken off, and planted to form a succession crop, 
 as the beds seldom remain good many years. 
 When strawberries are wanted for forcing, pots 
 are placed near the beds, and the runners are 
 put over them, and kept down with a stone, or 
 hooked down with pegs, to induce them to 
 root. 
 
 Tart Rhubarb. — The part of the rhubarb 
 used for making pies and puddings is the foot- 
 stalk of the leaf; and the kinds usually grown 
 in gardens for this purpose are, Rheum Rha- 
 ponticum, a native of Asia, introduced in 1573, 
 and Rheum undulatum, a native of China, in- 
 troduced in 1734; or varieties of these species. 
 Among these, the Elford, or Scarlet Rhubarb, 
 has slender stalks, but is valuable for its beau- 
 tiful colour ; and the Giant R.hubarb is remark- 
 able for its enormous size. 
 
 Rhubarb is either raised from seed, or pro- 
 pagated by offsets. The seed is sown in April 
 in light rich soil, and the plants are pricked out
 
 128 THE KITCHEN-GARDEN. [CHAP. VI. 
 
 in autumn into a bed of rich sandy loam, which 
 has been dug over, or trenched to the depth of 
 eighteen inches or two feet. Rhubarb may be 
 forced by covering it with pots and manure, 
 like sea-kale ; or the roots may be planted in a 
 box, and kept in the house on a stove, or near 
 the fire in the kitchen, covering the box with a 
 bast mat, to keep the plant in darkness and 
 free from the dust, and watering frequently. 
 
 Horseradish grows best in rich alluvial soil ; 
 and it is propagated by dividing the crown of 
 the root into cuttings, each about two inches 
 long. The ground is then prepared by trench- 
 ing at least two feet deep, and the cuttings or 
 sets are planted in a kind of furrow about 
 fifteen inches deep, with their crowns upwards. 
 The second year the roots may be taken up, 
 and the crowns cut off and replanted. As the 
 sets are planted in March, and the leaves sel- 
 dom begin to appear till the following June or 
 July, it is customary to sow a light crop, of 
 lettuce for example, or spinach, on the surface 
 of the ground over the horseradish sets ; which 
 crop is cleared off, in time to make way for the 
 leaves of the true crop. When the sticks of 
 horseradish are taken up, they may be kept in 
 sand in a cellar or out-house till wanted for 
 use. 
 
 Temporary Crops, and their Rotation. 
 — It has been already explained, under the head 
 of manures, that crops exhaust the soil of certain 
 minerals that are necessary for their support; 
 but as different plants require different earths, 
 the same ground which has become unfitted for 
 one crop, will still continue to produce other
 
 CHAP. VI.J CABBAGE. 129 
 
 crops for several years in succession, without 
 manuring, or at least without renewing the soil. 
 This is called the rotation of crops ; and in fix- 
 ing the order of this rotation, plants differing 
 as much as possible in their habits should be 
 chosen to succeed each other; as, for example, 
 onions may be succeeded by lettuces, carrots 
 by peas, potatoes by cabbages, turnips by spi- 
 nach, &c. 
 
 The Cabbage Tribe. — Few persons unac- 
 quainted with botany will be able to believe 
 that broccoli, cauliflowers, cabbages, Scotch or 
 German greens, Brussels sprouts, and Savoys, 
 not only all belong to one genus, but are ac- 
 tually varieties of one species of a genus, viz. 
 Brassica oleracea ; and that the turnip, the 
 Swedish turnip, and the rape (the seed of which 
 is used for oil), belong to other species of the 
 same genus. The cabbage, in its wild state, 
 is a biennial which grows naturally on the sea- 
 coast in different parts of England, and is a 
 tall straggling plant with loose leaves, and 
 rather pretty yellow cruciferous flowers. The 
 borecole, or kale, is the first improvement ef- 
 fected by cultivation ; and the cauliflower the 
 last. Indeed, it is impossible to imagine a 
 greater difference between any species and va- 
 riety, than exists between the cauliflower and 
 the original wild cabbage plant. All the va- 
 rieties of the cabbage tribe require a soil which 
 has been enriched w T ith abundance of animal 
 manure; and, when decaying;, they have alia 
 peculiarly offensive smell, like that of putrid 
 meat, from the large quantity of nitrogen that 
 they contain. 
 
 K
 
 130 THE KITCHEN-GARDEN. [CHAP. VI. 
 
 The Cabbage. — The word " cabbage," in its 
 onoinal signification, means a firm head or ball 
 of leaves folded closely over each other; and 
 thus it is equally correct to say a cabbage let- 
 tuce and a cabbage rose. The cabbages grown 
 in gardens are usually sown at three different 
 times : for the spring, summer, and autumn 
 crops. The spring cabbages are sown in an 
 open, airy situation, and light soil, generally in 
 the last week in July; some market-gardeners 
 near London fancying their crops will not prove 
 good unless the seed be sown on the 25th of 
 July, or the nearest week day. When the 
 plants come up, they are thinned ; and in Oc- 
 tober or November they are ready for plant- 
 ing out in beds, the plants being nine inches 
 and the rows a foot apart. The summer crop 
 is sown in February, and planted out in April, 
 the plants twelve inches from each other, in 
 rows eighteen inches apart; and the autumn 
 crop is sown in May, and planted out in July, 
 generally eighteen inches apart every way. In 
 small gardens, cabbages are seldom raised from 
 seed ; but the plants are purchased when ready 
 for planting out. All cabbages require a soil 
 enriched with animal manure, and frequent 
 hoeing up to admit air to their roots ; and on 
 this account they should always be planted in 
 rows. In dry weather they should be watered, 
 to make them succulent. The stalks of the 
 spring cabbages are generally pulled up and 
 carried to the refuse heap as soon as the cab 
 bages are cut; but the stalks of the summer 
 and autumn kinds are left standing, that they 
 may throw out what are called sprouts. In
 
 CHAP. VI.] COLEWORTS, SAVOYS, ETC. 13] 
 
 some gardens the February sowing is made to 
 serve for the whole year, by using the Vanack 
 cabbage, the sprouts of which form heads ; and 
 this plan is advantageous in small gardens, as 
 it saves space and labour. The Pomeranian 
 Cabbage, which is remarkable for its conical 
 form and compact habit of growth, is made, in 
 France, to last during the winter by taking the 
 plants up when full grown, and laying them 
 in a sloping direction up to the neck in the 
 soil. 
 
 When the cabbage stalk is left for sprouts, 
 it is customary, in some places, after cutting 
 the cabbage, to give the stalk two cuts across, 
 so as to divide the top into four ; as, when this 
 is done, it is thought to produce sprouts with 
 more certainty. The culture of the red cab- 
 bage is exactly the same as that of the green 
 kinds, except that there is no spring crop, and 
 the stalks are never left standing for sprouts. 
 
 Coleicoris are young cabbages gathered be- 
 fore they form a head ; and they are generally 
 sown in June or July for an autumn, winter, 
 or early spring crop. As they are always eaten 
 young, they need not be planted more than 
 ten or twelve inches apart every way ; and, 
 when they are gathered, the stalks are pulled 
 up and thrown away. 
 
 Savoys and Brussels Sprouts. — Savoys are 
 large cabbages with wrinkled leaves, the seed 
 of which is sown about the end of March, in 
 order that the crop may be ready for the table 
 in November. The culture is the same as that 
 of cabbages, except that, as the Savoys are 
 large, they should be planted out, in the bed 
 
 k 2
 
 132 THE KITCHEN-GARDEN. [CHAP. VI. 
 
 where they are to cabbage, two feet apart every 
 way. Brussels sprouts are a variety of the 
 Savoy cabbage; the plants first produce a small 
 Savoy on an elongated stalk, and, when this is 
 cut off, the long stalk throws out a number of 
 little wrinkled-leaved cabbages from its sides, 
 which are the Brussels sprouts. The culture 
 is the same as for the Savoys, except that the 
 plants, as they do not spread, need not be more 
 than one foot apart every way; and that the 
 seed is generally procured from Brussels, as 
 that ripened in England is said to produce 
 inferior plants. Both Savoys and Brussels 
 sprouts are considered much better if not cut 
 till there has been some frost upon them ; and 
 they are consequently of great value as winter 
 vegetables. 
 
 Broccoli and Cauliflower. — The cauliflower 
 (the nan e of which is supposed to be derived 
 from caulis, a stalk, and Jlorens, flowering) is 
 a native of Cyprus, introduced in 1694; and 
 no one unacquainted with the details of its 
 culture, and who has seen the immense quan- 
 tities brought to the London market, could 
 credit the extraordinary care bestowed on each 
 plant to bring it to perfection. Cauliflowers 
 take nearly a year from their first sowing to 
 bring them into a state fit for the table ; and, 
 as the plants are too tender to bear an English 
 winter without protection, they require to be 
 grown in frames, or sheltered by hand-glasses 
 during frosty weather. The seed is sown in 
 August, in a bed of rich light earth, and the 
 ground is occasionally watered till the plants 
 appear. They are then shaded with mats during
 
 CHAP. VI.] CAULIFLOWER. 133 
 
 the heat of the day, and thinned out, so as to 
 leave the plants a little distance apart. In Sep- 
 tember they are pricked out into beds of rich 
 earth, and watered and shaded ; and about the 
 end of October, or the beginning of November, 
 they are transplanted into frames, or into beds 
 richly manured with rotten dung, spread over 
 the ground three or four inches thick, and 
 trenched in a spade deep; after which, they 
 are watered and covered with hand-glasses. 
 During the whole winter they require constant 
 attention ; slightly watering them, and raising 
 the glasses to sive them air in fine weather; 
 and covering up the glasses closely with mats 
 or straw in severe frosts, and durins; the con- 
 tinuance of sharp winds. They must also be 
 frequentlv looked at, to pick off decayed leaves, 
 kc, which mio-ht rot the stem ; and the ground 
 in which they grow must be strewed with a 
 mixture of lime and soot, to protect them from 
 the attacks of caterpillars and slugs. Care 
 must also be taken, by giving air, ice, to pre- 
 vent them from beino- drawn up, or running to 
 flower too soon. At length spring arrives, and 
 the plants which have safely survived the winter 
 must be looked over, and thinned out so that 
 only one or two may be left to each glass ; the 
 earth is then loosened, the plants are regularly 
 watered, and the glasses taken off in the middle 
 of the day, but carefully replaced at night. 
 At last, towards the end of April, the glasses 
 are removed altogether, and in May some of 
 the plants will begin to make heads ; but even 
 then the care bestowed on them must not cease. 
 The plants must be examined daily, and some
 
 134 THE KITCHEN-GARDEN. [CHAP. VL 
 
 of the leaves turned down over the flowers, to 
 preserve them from the rays of the sun, which 
 would turn them brown, and from the rain, 
 which would rot them. At length, about the 
 end of May, or in June and July, the cauli- 
 flowers are ready for the market ; and little do 
 the purchasers of them think of the labour and 
 unremitting attention which, for so many months, 
 have been required to rear them. A second 
 crop, sown in February and planted out in April, 
 will be ready in August ; and a third crop, sown 
 in May and planted out in July, will be in per- 
 fection about Michaelmas or October, and may 
 be preserved in mild weather till near Christ- 
 mas. 
 
 Broccoli is generally supposed to be a variety 
 of the cauliflower; but it differs essentially, 
 both in being much hardier, and in being very 
 apt to vary. Thus, while only two kinds of 
 cauliflower are known, the early and the late, 
 and even these can hardly be distinguished from 
 each other, there are ten or twelve distinct sorts 
 of broccoli, and more are beino- raised every 
 season. All these kinds, however, appear to 
 have sprung from two, the purple and the green, 
 which are said to have been brought from Italy. 
 Broccoli is grown for the table in autumn, win- 
 ter, and early spring ; but there is no summer 
 crop. The principal seasons for sowing are, 
 February and April for the autumn and winter 
 crops, and June for the spring crop; and the 
 plants succeed best in fresh loamy soil, or, if 
 this cannot be procured, in ground that has 
 been deeply trenched and well manured. The 
 culture is like that of cabbages, except that, in
 
 CHAP. VI.] PEAS. 135 
 
 very severe winters, the plants require a little 
 protection. 
 
 The Borecole is generally known in England 
 by the name of Scotch kale, and in Scotland 
 by that of German greens. There are many 
 different subvarieties, fourteen of which are 
 enumerated in the Encyclopcedia of Garden- 
 ing ; bat all the kinds agree in being generally 
 sown in April, and transplanted in June They 
 require no other culture except hoeing and earth- 
 ing up; and, as they are exceedingly hardy, 
 they are very valuable vegetables for winter 
 use. 
 
 The Leguminous Tribe. — Vegetables belong- 
 ing to this tribe generally occupy the ground 
 but a few months in the summer, and are thus 
 very suitable, in the rotation of crops, to pre- 
 cede or follow those of the cabbage tribe, which 
 occupy the ground the greater part of a year. 
 
 Peas. — The list of peas is almost inter- 
 minable, and it is continually chancing; so 
 that what may be considered the fashionable 
 peas of one season are generally superseded 
 the next by some others, to which every pos- 
 sible merit is attributed. There are, however, 
 some very distinct kinds, the principal of which 
 are : the Dwarf early kinds, which are dry and 
 mealy when full-grown, and become whitish 
 when they are old; the Prussian and Marrow- 
 fat Peas, which are soft and juicy, with a rich 
 marrowy flavour, and which remain green even 
 when quite ripe ; the Early Surprise, which 
 unites the advantages of both kinds, being 
 ready for the table the first week in July, and
 
 136 THE KITCHEN-GARDEN. [CHAP. VI. 
 
 yet having the appearance and flavour of the 
 Marrow-fat Peas ; the Sugar Peas, or Pois sans 
 Parchemin, which are boiled and eaten, like 
 kidneybeans, in their pods ; and the Trans- 
 parent Pea, the foliage and pods of which are 
 both destitute of the usual glaucous hue. The 
 soil for peas should be a light, dry, sandy loam, 
 tolerably rich, but not freshly manured ; and 
 this is another reason why they are particularly 
 well adapted to succeed any of the cabbage 
 tribe, for which a great deal of manure is re- 
 quired. They should generally have an open 
 sunny situation ; and the early crops should be 
 sheltered from the prevailing winds of the dis- 
 trict. If peas are sown in freshly manured, 
 very moist, or clayey soil, they will run to 
 haulm, that is, they will produce more leaves 
 and stalks than peas ; and, if grown in cal- 
 careous soil, they will boil hard and tough, 
 even when young, and when old will never 
 become floury. 
 
 The early peas are small, and few in each 
 pod, with very little flavour. They are, indeed, 
 of little use, except for forcing, or for sowing 
 in November and December, to stand the win- 
 ter in the open border, in order that they may 
 produce a crop the following May or June. 
 When forced, they are sown in pots plunged in 
 a hotbed, and transplanted into the open border 
 in March ; turning them out of the pots into 
 holes made to receive them, without breaking 
 the balls of earth round the roots. In some 
 cases, they are fruited in pots placed in a green- 
 house, or even in a stove ; by which means,
 
 CHAP. VI.] PEA?. 137 
 
 when it is thought worth while to incur the 
 expense, fresh green peas may be had at 
 Christmas. 
 
 The main crop of early peas is sown in 
 February. A pint of small early peas will 
 sow twenty yards of drills ; each drill being 
 one inch and a half deep, and the drills two or 
 three feet asunder. The drills are marked out 
 by stretching a garden-line lengthwise along 
 the bed, and then making a drill or furrow 
 along it with a dibber : the earth is pressed 
 firm at the bottom of the drill by the very act 
 of making it, and the peas are then distributed 
 along; it, "two or three to every inch, or wider 
 apart, according: to their size, and covered with 
 soil, which is afterward* trodden down or rolled. 
 When attacks are apprehended from mice, 
 dried furze is generally strewed over the peas 
 as soon as they are put into the ground, and 
 before they are covered with earth ; and this is 
 efficacious, not only in protecting the peas from 
 their enemies, but in keeping; enough air about 
 them to allow them to vegetate. They should 
 then be well watered, and will require no fur- 
 ther care till they come up. When they are 
 two or three inches high, they should be hoed ; 
 that is, the weeds which may have grown 
 between the rows should be eradicated with 
 the hoe, and the earth drawn up to the roots 
 of the peas. When about six inches high, 
 they should be staked, with two rows of sticks 
 to each row of peas; the sticks being about a 
 foot higher than the average height of the peas, 
 and care being taken never to let them cross 
 each other at top.
 
 138 THE KITCHEN-GARDEN. [CHAP. VL 
 
 Late peas only differ in their culture from the 
 early crops in having their drills farther from 
 each other, and in the peas being placed 
 farther apart in the drills. A pint of these 
 peas is calculated to sow thirty-three yards of 
 rows; as peas of the larger kinds should be 
 from one inch to two inches, or even more, 
 apart in the drills, though dwarf marrowfats 
 and blue Prussians are frequently sown about 
 three in two inches. The time of sowing usually 
 varies from April to July ; but, where no early 
 peas are grown, even the late kinds may be 
 sown as early as February or March. The 
 tall-growing kinds should, however, never be 
 suffered to stand the winter ; and they should 
 not be sown before March, unless the weather 
 appear likely to be open, on account of the 
 greater difficulties attending tall-growing plants. 
 It may, indeed, be here observed, though the 
 fact is obvious, that all dwarf-growing plants 
 are much better adapted for forcing than the 
 tall-growing kinds, from their being much more 
 easily sheltered and protected. Peas are gene- 
 rally eaten when not more than a quarter ripe 
 for using as seed, and they should always be 
 cooked as soon as possible after they are 
 gathered, as they are, perhaps, more injured by 
 keeping than any other vegetable. The pea is 
 a native of the South of Europe, and it is sup- 
 posed to have been introduced in the reign of 
 Henry VIII. 
 
 Beans, though belonging to the same natural 
 order as peas, and generally classed with them 
 by persons speaking of garden products, yet 
 differ in several very important particulars in
 
 chap, yl] kidneybeans. 139 
 
 their culture : for instance, they should be grown 
 in much stronger soil; they do not require 
 sticks ; and they are generally topped, that is, 
 the leading: shoot of each plant is cut off, an 
 operation that would be fatal to peas. There 
 are many different kinds of beans, though not 
 so many as of peas ; and the different varieties 
 may be divided into the early and the late. 
 The early beans may be sown in drills in 
 November or December, to stand the winter ; 
 but the main crop is generally sou n in January 
 or February. The broad beans are sown in 
 March and April, and some even so late as 
 June; and, instead of drills, a hole is made for 
 each bean separately with a dibber. Both sorts 
 are covered with earth, which is pressed down 
 and then watered ; and they require no further 
 care till the beans are three or four inches high, 
 when they should be hoed and earthed up. As 
 soon as the plants come into blossom, the tops 
 are cut off; and this is said not only to increase 
 the crop, but to prevent the plants from beins; 
 attacked with the insect called the black blight. 
 The crop should be gathered when the seeds, 
 that is, the beans, are about half-ripe. The 
 bean is said to be a native of Egypt, and it is 
 supposed to have been brought to England bv 
 the Romans. 
 
 Kidneybeans differ from the other leguminous 
 vegetables, in the pods of all the kinds being 
 eaten. There are two distinct sorts, which are 
 different species, viz., the Dwarf Kidnevbeans, 
 and the Scarlet Runners; and these are again 
 separated into numerous subdivisions. A new 
 variety of the Runners was introduced in 1850,
 
 140 THE KITCHEN-GARDEN. [CHAP. VI. 
 
 the pods of which are of a pale colour, and 
 without any tough lining. This variety is culti- 
 vated in France under the names of Haricot 
 beurre, and Haricot aV Alger. The soil for 
 the dwarf kinds should be similar to that for 
 peas ; viz. rich, light, and dry, but not newly 
 manured ; and it should have been well pul- 
 verised to the depth of a foot or eighteen inches. 
 The drills are generally made about two inches 
 deep, and two feet or two feet and a half apart. 
 The seeds are sown the first or second week in 
 May. As the plants grow, they may be earthed 
 up ; and, if the plants are very vigorous and 
 appear disposed to run to haulm, a few of the 
 leading shoots may have their tops pinched off; 
 but this should be done carefully, and the ope- 
 ration confined to a few of the strongest-grow- 
 ing plants. The scarlet runners require nearly 
 the same culture, except that the seeds should 
 be sown two or three inches asunder, and only 
 lightly covered ; and that the rows should be at 
 least three feet apart. The seeds are covered 
 lightly, as abundance of both air and moisture 
 is required to make seeds enveloped in so thick 
 a skin germinate ; and the rows must be wide 
 apart, as otherwise, from the height of the 
 plants, the crop would not get enough sun and air. 
 The scarlet runner is properly a perennial ; and, 
 if the plants are cut down to the ground after 
 producing their crop, and their roots are covered 
 with dry litter, they will produce an early and 
 abundant crop the following summer. Kidney- 
 beans are very frequently forced nearly in the 
 same manner as peas ; viz. by sowing them in 
 pots plunged in a hotbed, and then removing
 
 CHAP. VI.] POTATO. 141 
 
 them to a hothouse or greenhouse (according to 
 the season) to fruit. Sometimes they are sown 
 in the earth of the hotbed, and fruited there 
 like cucumbers. The dwarf kidneybean is a 
 native of India, and was introduced before the 
 time of Gerard; but the scarlet runner is a 
 native of South America, and was not intro- 
 duced till 1633, when it was at first only culti- 
 vated in the flower-garden as an ornamental 
 plant, and it is treated as such by all the early 
 writers on flowers. 
 
 The Potato is a native of South America; 
 but it was first brought to England, by Sir 
 Walter Raleigh, from Virginia. It was hence 
 called the Potato of Virginia : and it was, at 
 its first introduction, thought very inferior to 
 the Convolvulus Batatas, which was called 
 the Spanish Potato; and to the Jerusalem 
 Artichoke, which was called the Potato of 
 Canada, from its having been first taken from 
 South America to Canada, before it was brought 
 to England. About twenty or thirty sorts of 
 the common potato are now cultivated for the 
 table ; but so large a quantity is wanted in 
 almost every family, that few persons attempt 
 to grow their main crop in a garden. A few 
 early potatoes are, however, frequently grown, 
 even in small gardens, and the best of these is 
 decidedly the ash-leaved kidney. The soil for 
 potatoes should be a deep sandy loam, on a dry 
 subsoil ; the ground should be trenched, and 
 rotten dung dug into the trenches, as few crops 
 are more exhausting to the soil. The potatoes 
 to be planted should be then cut into what are 
 called sets, each set containing a bud or eye.
 
 142 THE KITCHEN-GARDEN. [CHAP. VI. 
 
 Unripe potatoes are considered the best ; as 
 sets from perfectly ripe potatoes are apt to pro- 
 duce diseased plants. Sometimes the tubers 
 are planted whole ; and, when this is the case, 
 it is customary to rub off all the buds but one. 
 Seed is never used, except when it is wished to 
 raise new sorts. Potatoes are seldom good 
 forced ; but an early crop may be raised by 
 planting the sets the first week in October in a 
 light sandy soil, and covering the beds with 
 straw or litter to preserve the sets (which should 
 be planted eight or nine inches deep) from frost. 
 The young plants will appear in March ; and, if 
 they are slightly protected by laying a mat over 
 the bed, the tubers will be fit for the table in 
 May or early in June. The principal early 
 crop is, however, planted early in March, and 
 the principal late crop in May or June. When 
 the potatoes are to be planted, the ground 
 should be first well pulverised, and then, the 
 garden-line being stretched across the beds, 
 holes should be made along it with the dibber, 
 about six inches deep, and about nine inches or 
 a foot apart. The sets should then be put one 
 in each hole, with the eye upwards, and the 
 earth pressed firmly down on each. When the 
 potatoes come up they should be hoed, and 
 again in about a fortnight or three weeks ; and, 
 when the plants are eight or ten inches high, 
 they should be carefully earthed up : hoeing 
 and earthing up, it must be observed, being of 
 the greatest service in admitting air to the roots. 
 As soon as the plants come into blossom, some 
 cultivators cut off the tops, to prevent the roots 
 from being exhausted by the formation of the
 
 CHAP. VI.] POTATO. 143 
 
 potato apples, or fruit. When the stalks begin 
 to wither, the tubers are ripe, and may be taken 
 up ; but most persons have not patience to watt 
 so long, and they begin to take up their early 
 potatoes before the tubers are half-grown. 
 
 In 1845, and the three following years, a 
 dreadful disease attacked the potatoes in Great 
 Britain and Ireland, and almost entirely de- 
 stroyed the main crop. There had previously, 
 as early as 1830, been a disease among the 
 potatoes in Germany, which was called the dry 
 rot, and which made the tubers so hard that 
 they were quite unfit to use as food ; but this was 
 quite different from the murrain which made 
 its first appearance at Liege in 1842, by which 
 the tubers became soft and rotten. It was first 
 noticed in Great Britain near Hyde, in the Isle 
 of Wight, in August, 1845, and its first symp- 
 tom was a dark spot on the leaf, which spread 
 so rapidly to the stem, that in a few days the 
 whole plant became black and rotten. It has 
 been found that if the tubers are taken up as 
 soon as the stem and leaves become blackened, 
 they are fit for use ; but in a very few days 
 spots appear in them, and they rot rapidly, be- 
 coming in a very short time a mass of putres- 
 cent matter. The potatoes, as soon as they are 
 affected, acquire a pungent and nauseous taste, 
 and become totally unfit for food. Various ex- 
 periments w 7 ere tried to stop this fatal malady, 
 and the result of those conducted by Mr. 
 Thompson, in the garden of the Horticultural 
 Society of London, at Chiswick, was, that the 
 plants grown in soil manured with lime and 
 powdered charcoal, were generally very slightly
 
 144 THE KITCHEN-GARDEN. [CHAP. VI. 
 
 affected by the disease; while those grown in 
 soil enriched with stable manure, were decidedly 
 the worst. From some experiments tried in the 
 country, it appeared that phosphate of lime was 
 very efficacious in stopping the progress of the 
 disease. 
 
 The Jerusalem Artichoke is a tuberous- 
 rooted sun-flower, a native of Brazil ; the 
 epithet Jerusalem being a corruption of the 
 Italian word girasole, signifying to turn to the 
 sun, from the supposed habit of the flower. 
 The Jerusalem artichoke is planted in February 
 or March, by sets, like the potato ; and the 
 tubers will be ready for use in September or 
 October. It was introduced in 1716. 
 
 The Turnip succeeds best in a dry sandy or 
 gravelly soil, which has been well manured, and 
 dug to a considerable depth. The beds should 
 be four or five feet wide; and, the seeds having 
 been strewed very thinly along raised drills 
 about a foot apart, the earth should then be 
 raked smoothly over the seeds, and the summit 
 of the drills slightly beaten with the back of the 
 spade. The first sowing is generally made in 
 March, or the first week in April ; and, as soon 
 as the young plants show their rough leaves, 
 they should be hoed up separately. When they 
 are a little more advanced, they should be 
 thinned to six inches apart. The hoeing should 
 be repeated occasionally all the summer, as 
 turnips, like potatoes, require the air to be ad- 
 mitted freely to their roots ; but they should not 
 be earthed up, as it will prevent the tuberous 
 part from swelling They should also be 
 watered frequently in dry weather, to prevent
 
 CHAP. VI.] CARROTS. 145 
 
 the -tubers from becoming tough and stringy 
 They will seldom want any other culture; and 
 about the end of May, if the weather has been 
 favourable, they will be ready for use. A 
 second sowing is generally made about the 
 middle of May; and a third, for the main crop, 
 towards the end of June. A still later sowing 
 is often made in August, for plants to stand 
 through the winter, and supply the greens called 
 turnip tops in February, March, and April. 
 
 Besides the turnips usually sold in seed- 
 shops, the Teltow, or small yellow German 
 turnip, the French long white, and the Scotch 
 vellow. are well deserving of cultivation for 
 their excellence. The common turnip, the 
 carrot, and the parsnep, are natives of England. 
 
 Carrots are of two kinds : the Long Carrots, 
 the taproot of which tapers gradually from the 
 crown to the point; and the Horn Carrots, the 
 taproot of which continues of nearly the same 
 thickness for three-fourths of its length, and 
 then abruptly diminishes to a very long and 
 slender fibrous root. There are numerous sub- 
 varieties of both kinds. The goodness of the 
 carrot depending entirely on the ease with 
 which the root can penetrate the soil, it is 
 obvious that the soil in which these plants are 
 grown must not be of a very adhesive nature ; 
 and thus the best soil for carrots is red sand, or 
 sandy peat. When soils of this nature cannot 
 be procured, the ground should be trenched two 
 spades deep, and a very little thoroughly rotten 
 dun» - , or vegetable mould, should be well mixed 
 with the earth in digging the lower spadeful. 
 If manure in a fresh state be laid on a carrot
 
 146 THE KITCHEN-GARDEN. [CHAP. VI. 
 
 bed, or if the soil be not thoroughly pulverised, 
 the roots will become forked, fibrous, and 
 worm-eaten. The seeds of the carrot, bein^- 
 each furnished with a pappus, or feathery wiii£, 
 are apt to become entangled with each otlw, 
 and can only be separated by rubbing them 
 between the hands, and mixing them with sand. 
 They are then to be sown very thinly, and the 
 ground, after being slightly raked over, to cover 
 them, is beaten flat with the back of the spade. 
 When the young plants come up, the ground 
 should be occasionally loosened, from time to 
 time, with a small hoe, round each. When the 
 leaves begin to change colour, the roots should 
 be taken up, dry weather being chosen for that 
 purpose ; and, the tops being cut off, the carrots 
 should be carried into a cellar, or out-house, 
 and there buried in sand. Early carrots are 
 generally sown in February, and the principal 
 crop about the middle of March. 
 
 The Parsnep requires the same culture as the 
 carrot, except that there is no early crop. The 
 seed is sown in February or March, and the 
 roots are ready for use about the latter end of 
 September or the beginning of October; being 
 easily kept through the winter, like the carrot, 
 in sand. 
 
 Tlie Red Beet is a native of the sea-coast on 
 the South of Europe, and was introduced in 
 1656. The seed should not be sown till the 
 last week in March, or the beginning of April. 
 The ground should previously be dug to the 
 depth of a foot or eighteen inches, and mixed 
 with a little sea or river sand, and vegetable 
 mould, or rotten dung. The roots will be ready
 
 CHAP. VI.] RED BEET, RADISH, ETC. 147 
 
 for the table in September or October. In 
 taking them up, and boiling them, great care 
 must be used not to wound the outer skin ; as, 
 if they are scraped or broken, all the colour- 
 ing liquid will escape, and the root will become 
 of a dull, dins:y, whitish pink, instead of its 
 usual brilliant dark red. 
 
 The Sklrret, the Scorzonera, and the Salsify 
 are all taprooted plants, which require the same 
 culture as the carrot. 
 
 The Radish is a native of China, and was 
 introduced into England before 1584. There 
 are numerous varieties ; but they may be all 
 divided into three or four kinds : the Spring- 
 Radishes, which are subdivided into the spindle- 
 rooted and the turnip-rooted ; the Autumn 
 kinds, which are generally oval, or turnip- 
 rooted ; and the Winter kinds, which are ob- 
 long and dark-coloured. 
 
 The soil for radishes should be light, rich, 
 and well pulverised to the depth of at least 
 eighteen inches ; as, if the taproot of the radish 
 meets with any obstructions in the soil, it be- 
 comes distorted or forked. 
 
 The seed may be sown at any season when 
 the ground is open ; but the very early spring 
 kinds are generally sown in January or Febru- 
 ary, to be ready to draw in March and April. 
 The beds are sown broadcast, the seeds being 
 scattered as thinly as possible ; and they are 
 covered with mats, straw, or fern at night, and 
 during part of the day in very severe weather. 
 After-sowings of the spring radishes may be 
 made every fortnight till the end of May ; and 
 the radishes sown about this time are eenerallv 
 
 l 2
 
 148 THE KITCHEN-GARDEN. [CHAP. VL 
 
 suffered to run to seed, that their green pods 
 may be used for pickling in July and August. 
 The autumnal radishes are sown in June and 
 July, and the winter radishes in July and 
 August. 
 
 Spinach. — The round-leaved variety is gene- 
 rally sown for a summer crop, on rich moist 
 soil, in January or February, if the ground be 
 open; and the triangular-leaved kinds, of which 
 the Flanders is the best, are sown for the 
 winter-crops in August. The only culture re- 
 quired is, occasionally hoeing the ground, and 
 watering if the weather should be dry. The 
 summer crop, when gathered, may be pulled up 
 by the root ; but the winter crop should only 
 have the outer leaves pinched or cut off, and it 
 will thus continue producing fresh leaves for 
 many months. The Flanders Spinach is quite 
 hardy ; and, if protected by matting from being 
 covered with snow, it may be used for the table all 
 the winter. The seeds will keep good four years. 
 New Zealand Spinach is quite different from 
 common spinach, and very inferior ; and what 
 is called French Spinach is the orache of the 
 gardens. Neither of these plants is worth 
 growing. 
 
 Sorrel is a perennial, and it is generally pro- 
 pagated by offsets in spring or autumn ; or, if 
 by seed, it is sown in March. It should never 
 be suffered to remain longer than two years 
 without taking up and replanting, as, if this be 
 neglected, the" plants are apt to rot in the centre 
 and die off. 
 
 The Onion Tribe. — Very few onions, except 
 for salads, are grown in small gardens. Where
 
 ohap.vl] onions. 149 
 
 they are cultivated, the soil should be a rich 
 loam, well pulverised, and richly manured with 
 thoroughly rotten dung-, bone dust, or some 
 other very powerful manure. The seed is sown 
 broadcast in March, on beds about four feet 
 wide; and, after it is raked in, the surface of 
 the bed is rolled or beaten flat with the spade. 
 In about three weeks the beds should be hoed 
 and thinned, as the young onions will be then 
 ready for salads ; and the beds should be aoain 
 hoed and thinned out, from time to time, as the 
 onions may be wanted. Care should be taken, 
 in hoeing the bed, not to earth up the bulbs, as 
 it is said to prevent them from swelling. When 
 the onions are from three to six inches apart, 
 they are generally left to swell for the main 
 crop, and they will be ready to draw in August 
 or September. Many persons, about a month 
 or six weeks before the onions are readv to take 
 up, bend the stalk down flat on the bed, to 
 throw all the strength of the plant into the 
 bulb, and to prevent its thickening at the neck. 
 Onions for pickling are generally sown in April; 
 and onions for salads may be sown at intervals 
 all the year. When onions are wanted of a 
 very large size, they are sown in drills, and 
 regularly earthed up ; and the Spanish onions 
 are generally transplanted. In Portugal it is 
 said "that the alleys between the beds are filled 
 with manure, which is kept constantly watered, 
 and the water directed over the beds. " Charcoal 
 roughly powdered, and mixed with the soil iu 
 which onions are grown, has a most extraordi- 
 nary effect in improving both their size and
 
 150 THE KITCHEN-GARDEN. [CHAP. VI. 
 
 quality ; and it is also said to prevent them from 
 being attacked by the onion fly, a most destruc- 
 tive insect, the grub of which eats into the bulb 
 of the onion. Onions of enormous size have 
 been grown in England, by raising them on a 
 slight hotbed in February, and transplanting 
 them in April or May. When they are trans- 
 planted it is into very rich soil, three-fourths of 
 which is rotten manure; and only the fibrous 
 roots are buried in the soil, the bulb being left 
 above ground. The plants are placed from nine 
 inches to a foot apart every way, and regularly 
 watered. Onions thus grown are not only of 
 enormous size, but of very delicate flavour. The 
 potato and bulb-bearing onions are generally 
 planted in February and taken up in June or 
 Julv ; and they are thus useful for cottagers 
 and in small gardens, as occupying the ground 
 much less time than the common kinds ; but 
 they are very far inferior both in quality and 
 keeping. 
 
 Neither the native country of the common 
 onion, nor the date of its introduction into Eng- 
 land, is known ; but it has been in cultivation 
 from the earliest times of which we have any 
 record. 
 
 Leeks may be treated like onions, and may 
 be grown to an enormous size by transplanting 
 each plant into a hole about twice its own dia- 
 meter, at the bottom of which its fibrous roots 
 are spread out and covered with earth, while the 
 bulb is left untouched by the soil, standing in a 
 kind of hollow cup. The plant is then supplied 
 with water, and will soon swell so as almost to
 
 CHAP. VI.] LEEKS, SHALLOTS, ETC. 151 
 
 fill up the cavity. The leek is a native of 
 Switzerland, and it was introduced before the 
 time of Elizabeth. 
 
 Tlie Chive is a perennial plant, a native of 
 Britain, and it is propagated by dividing the 
 roots in spring- or autumn. 
 
 Garlic is propagated by dividing the bulb 
 into what are called cloves, and planting them 
 in February or March. They are generally 
 put in drills, and hoed frequently as they con- 
 tinue to grow. When the leaves turn yellow, 
 which they will do about August, the bulbs 
 should be taken up, and what may not be 
 wanted for use should be reserved for planting 
 the following spring;. Garlic is a native of the 
 South of Europe, and was introduced before 
 the time of Henry VIII. 
 
 The Shallot is a native of Palestine, and it 
 has been in cultivation in British gardens at 
 least as long as the garlic. It is very difficult 
 to grow, as it is apt to be attacked by a kind of 
 maggot; but it has been found to succeed, 
 planted in cup-shaped hollows, like the leek. 
 
 All the onion tribe require a very rich, well- 
 drained, loamy soil; and they always succeed 
 best where they have abundance of manure, as 
 when the soil is poor they are liable to be 
 attacked by insects. In some places it is 
 customary to sow the onion tribe in drills, and 
 to strew soot along the drills to keep off the 
 fly, which is so destructive to them all ; but 
 mixing charcoal with the soil has all the bene- 
 ficial effects of soot, and it has the advantage 
 of being more nutritious to the plant. 
 
 Salad Plants. — These are very numerous.
 
 152 THE KITCHEN- GARDEN. [CHAP. VI. 
 
 and include lettuces, endive, small salads, celery, 
 &c. It is somewhat remarkable that nearly all 
 these were known to our ancestors, and were in 
 common use at British tables dressed much as 
 we dress them now, while the potato was yet 
 unknown, or only eaten as a sweetmeat stewed 
 with sack and sugar. 
 
 The Lettuce is said to have been introduced 
 in 1562, but from what country is unknown. 
 There are numerous varieties, but they may be 
 all referred to two kinds: the Cabbage Lettuces, 
 which grow flat and spreading; and the Cos 
 Lettuces, which grow compact and upright. 
 The Cabbage Lettuces are most generally used 
 in winter, and the Cos Lettuces grown at that 
 season have generally brown leaves ; but a new 
 green winter Lettuce (the Green Winter Roman 
 Lettuce) was exhibited at a meeting of the 
 Horticultural Society of London in November, 
 1850, which had the colour and appearance of 
 the Cos Lettuces usually grown in the spring. 
 A very remarkable lettuce was also introduced 
 in 1850, called the Artichoke-leaved Lettuce, 
 from the resemblance which the leaves bear to 
 those of the artichoke. Lettuces are generally 
 sown broadcast, in deep, light, rich soil, with a 
 dry subsoil, at any season from February to 
 August; and the cabbage kinds require no 
 after-care, but weeding, thinning out, and 
 watering in dry weather. Cos lettuces are, 
 however, generally blanched, by bending down 
 the tips of the leaves over the heart, and tying 
 them together with bast mat. Lettuces are 
 also sown by the French to cut for salads when 
 quite young, as we cut mustard and cress.
 
 CHAP. VI.] ENDIVE, SUCCORY. 153 
 
 Endive is a native of China and Japan, in- 
 troduced before 1548. In most cases it is sown 
 in large gardens at three times, viz. in June, 
 July, and August; but, in small gardens, one 
 sowing is generally thought sufficient, and that 
 is made in June. The seeds are sown very 
 thinly in beds of rich mellow earth; and, when 
 the plants are from four to six inches high, they 
 are transplanted into beds of rich light earth, 
 where they are planted in drills about a foot 
 apart in the line; and as they stow they are 
 occasionally earthed up. "When the plants are 
 about three parts grown, the outer leaves are 
 tied over the hearts to blanch them, with 
 strands of bast mat or osier twigs; a dry day 
 being chosen for the operation. Onlv a few 
 plants should be tied up at a time; and thev 
 should be seldom allowed to stand more than a 
 fortnight or three weeks after the operation ; 
 as, if they remain longer, particularly if the 
 weather be wet, they begin to rot. In wet or 
 cold seasons endive is best blanched by turning 
 a sea-kale pot over each root, instead of tying 
 down the outer leaves; as, if the plant should not 
 be dry when it is tied down, it is apt to rot. 
 There are two distinct kinds of endive : the 
 Broad-leaved, or Batavian, and the Curled- 
 leaved, which last is the most common, and to 
 which the French give the name of chicoree. 
 
 The true Chicory or Succory is sometimes 
 called wild endive; but the French name for 
 it is barbe de capucin. It is common in cal- 
 careous and sandy soils in different parts of 
 England, where it is conspicuous from its bright 
 blue flowers. Its culture is the same as that
 
 154 THE KITCHEN-GARDEX. [CHAP. VI. 
 
 of endive ; but it may also be treated as a 
 winter salad, by being; taken up in October or 
 N ovember, and stacked in cellars with alternate 
 layers of sand, so that the crowns of the plants 
 may just appear along the ridge. Here, if the 
 frost be excluded, the roots will soon send out 
 a profusion of tender succulent leaves; which, 
 if kept from the light, will also be quite 
 blanched. 
 
 Mustard and Cress. — Mustard is the native 
 white mustard eaten in its seed leaves ; and 
 cress is an annual cruciferous plant, introduced 
 before 1548, but from what country is un- 
 known. They are both of the easiest culture, 
 and will not only grow in any soil or situation, 
 but may even be raised for the table by spread- 
 ing the seed in a saucer on wet flannel. The 
 flour of mustard is made from the ground 
 seeds of the black mustard, which is cultivated 
 extensively in some parts of England for that 
 purpose. 
 
 Corn Salad or Lamb's Lettuce, Winter 
 Cress, Burnet, Tansy, and many other plants, 
 are occasionally used in salads, particularly on 
 the Continent, but they are seldom grown for 
 that purpose in England. 
 
 Celery is frequently used in salads; and it is 
 interesting, as being so greatly improved by 
 cultivation as scarcely to be recognised ; for in 
 its wild state it is a British plant called smallage, 
 which grows in ditches, and is scarcely eatable. 
 In gardens, celery requires more manure than 
 any other vegetable, except the cabbage tribe. 
 The seed for the principal crop of celery is 
 generally sown in March or April, and the
 
 chap, vl] celery, water-cress. 155 
 
 seed-bed should be formed of equal parts of 
 fresh dark loamy soil and old rotten duno - . 
 "When the plants are about two or three inches 
 high, they are pricked out into another bed 
 made of very rich soil, six or seven inches 
 deep, on a hard bottom ; and, when they are 
 about a foot high, they are transplanted into 
 trenches for blanching. The trenches are made 
 four feet apart, eighteen inches wide, and twelve 
 inches deep; and they are filled nine inches 
 high with a rich compost of strong fresh soil 
 and rotten dung. The plants are taken up with 
 as much earth as will adhere to the roots, and 
 the side-shoots or offsets are removed from the 
 central stems ; they are then set by the hand, 
 nine or ten inches apart, in the centre of each 
 trench, and well watered. As the plants in the 
 trenches grow, the earth is gradually drawn up 
 to them, a little at a time, taking care never to 
 let the earth rise above the heart of the plant; 
 and this earthing up is repeated five or six 
 times, at intervals of about ten days or a fort- 
 night, till the plants are ready for use. Thus 
 treated, a single plant of celery of the solid kind 
 has been known to weigh nine pounds, and to 
 measure four feet in length. 
 
 Water-cress is generally gathered wild, but 
 it may be cultivated in gardens where there is 
 a clear running stream, on a sandy or gravellv 
 bottom. The plants are disposed in rows parallel 
 with the stream, about eighteen inches apart, in 
 shallow water; but four or five feet apart if the 
 water be very deep, as if nearer together they 
 will check the stream. Thus treated, the plants 
 mav be cut at least once a week during the
 
 156 THE KITCHEN-GARDEN. [CHAP. VL 
 
 whole summer. The beds must, however, be 
 cleared out and replanted twice a year; and, 
 when this is done, all the plants are taken up, 
 divided, and planted again in the gravelly bed 
 of the stream, a stone being laid on each to 
 keep it in its place. 
 
 Potherbs. — Of these Parsley is a hardy bien- 
 nial, a native of Sardinia, introduced before 
 1548. It is generally sown in a drill in Febru- 
 ary or March, and this will supply leaves all 
 the summer. The plants do not seed till they 
 are two years old. The curled variety is pre- 
 ferred for garnishing. Tarragon is a strong- 
 smelling perennial from Siberia, introduced 
 before 1548. It is principally used for making 
 tarragon vinegar. Fennel is a perennial, which, 
 when once introduced, spreads everywhere, and 
 can scarcely be eradicated. The common fennel 
 is only used for garnishing, and for making 
 sauce for mackerel ; but there is another kind, 
 called Finochio, which is a dwarf variety, the 
 stalk of which swells to a considerable thick- 
 ness. This thickened part is blanched by 
 earthing up, and it is then eaten in Italy and 
 some other parts of the Continent, either as 
 salad with oil and vinegar, or stewed. Chervil 
 is an annual used for garnishing, and some- 
 times in salads ; and the common Marigold is 
 an annual, a native of the South of Europe, 
 introduced before 1573, but now seldom grown 
 except in cottage gardens. 
 
 Sweet Herbs. — These plants, though called 
 in gardening books sweet herbs, are mostly 
 aromatic shrubs : such as thyme, sage, &c. 
 
 Thyme. — There are two kinds of this deli-
 
 CHAP. VI.] SWEET HERBS. 157 
 
 cate little shrub cultivated in gardens; the com- 
 mon and the lemon thyme : both are natives of 
 the South of Europe, and were introduced 
 before 1548. Young plants are generally raised 
 by division of the root, or from offsets slipped 
 off the branching roots in spring or autumn : 
 they grow best in poor dry soil, or in lime 
 rubbish. 
 
 Sage is a much taller-growing shrub than 
 thyme. It is a native of the South of Europe, 
 and was introduced before 1597. It is pro- 
 pagated by slips, or by cuttings of the youno- 
 shoots taken off in May or June; but as the 
 plant is very long-lived, it seldom wants re- 
 newing. It requires the same kind of soil as 
 thyme. 
 
 Mint. — There are three kinds grown nl 
 gardens : the common, or spear mint, which 
 is the kind boiled with peas, and used for mint- 
 sauce, &c; the peppermint, comparatively little 
 cultivated, and only used for distilling ; and the 
 penny-royal. They are all British perennials, 
 and are propagated by dividing the roof, making 
 cuttings, or taking off offsets. All require 
 rather a moist and strong soil. 
 
 Marjoram. — There are four kinds in cultiva- 
 tion : the pot marjoram, which is a low shrub, 
 a native of Sicily, introduced in 1759, and pro- 
 pagated by slips ; the sweet, or knotted mar- 
 joram, a hardy biennial, a native of Portugal, 
 introduced in 1573, and sown every year from 
 seed generally ripened in France ; the winter 
 marjoram, a hardy perennial, a native of Greece, 
 introduced before 1640, and propagated by 
 cuttings or slips; and the common marjoram,
 
 158 THE KITCHEN-GARDEN. [CHAP. VI. 
 
 a perennial, and a native of Britain. The first 
 three kinds require a light dry soil, and the last 
 a calcareous soil, and a sheltered situation. 
 
 Savory and Basil. — Winter savory is a hardy 
 under-shrub, and summer savory an annual; 
 both are natives of the South of Europe, and 
 both have been cultivated in England since 
 about 1650. Basil is an annual, a native of 
 the East Indies, introduced about 1548. All 
 these aromatic herbs may be purchased, admi- 
 rably dried, in small cakes, at Mrs. Johnson's 
 in Covent Garden Market, and at other places ; 
 and, as they are wanted all the year, they are 
 most convenient in this form. The usual mode 
 of drying the aromatic herbs is by cutting off 
 the long stalks when fully grown, and tying 
 them up in bundles, which are hung up to dry ; 
 but the disadvantage of this plan is, that a 
 great quantity of dust becomes attached to the 
 plants while they remain hung up, whereas 
 when they are pressed into the form of cakes, 
 and dried, they may be kept perfectly clean. 
 When it is wished to dry herbs in cakes, the 
 plants should be gathered just as they are 
 coming into flower; and the leaves, being 
 stripped off the stalks, which are thrown away, 
 should be put into square or oblong moulds, 
 and pressed with a common napkin press. 
 
 Cucumbers require a hotbed to grow them to 
 perfection ; but the smaller kinds for pickling 
 are sometimes planted in the open ground. 
 The seed should be from two to four years old, 
 and it should be sown in pots plunged in a 
 hotbed, not below 58° at night, nor above 65° 
 in the day. When the plants come up, they
 
 chap, vi.] CUCUMBERS. 159 
 
 should be pricked out into other pots, three in 
 each pot, and watered ; the earth in the fresh 
 pots, and the water, being previously kept 
 under the glass for some time, that they may 
 be both of the same heat as the plants. When 
 the plants are about five weeks old, they are 
 generally removed to a larger hotbed, with a 
 two or three-light frame. In this bed, a little 
 ridge of earth is made under each light; and, 
 in each of these, the contents of a pot is planted, 
 without breaking the ball of earth round the 
 roots of the plants. The heat of this bed is 
 generallv a little higher than that of the seed- 
 bed. Water should be given every day, warmed 
 to the temperature of the plants. If the plants 
 are wanted to fruit early, the ends of the shoots 
 may be pinched off as soon as they have pro- 
 duced two rough leaves, and this is called stop- 
 ping the runners at the first joint; the stopping 
 being repeated wherever the runners show a 
 disposition to extend themselves without pro- 
 ducing fruit. 
 
 As plants raised under glass have not the 
 benefit either of currents of air or of insects, 
 to convey the pollen of the barren plants to the 
 stigma of the fertile ones, the latter must either 
 be dusted with pollen by the gardener, or the 
 plants must be exposed as much to the air as 
 possible in the middle of the day, when it is 
 warm enough, during the time that they are in 
 flower. Seeds for the first crop of cucumbers 
 are generally sown in December or January; 
 but, as extra heat and care are required at this 
 early season, the crop for a small garden may 
 be sown about 31 arch. The oreat art is to
 
 160 THE KITCHEN-GARDEN. JCHAP. VI. 
 
 grow the cucumbers long and straight, and to 
 keep them green with a beautiful bloom. For 
 the first purpose, many cultivators place a brick 
 under the young fruit ; and for the latter they 
 leave on the plant abundance of leaves, and 
 keep the ground moist, as the plant appears to 
 thrive best when it has abundance of heat and 
 moisture, and is kept in the shade. A dry 
 heat, and especially exposure to the burning 
 rays of the sun, will make cucumbers flaccid 
 and yellow. 
 
 Pickling Cucumbers are generally sown in 
 patches of ten or twelve seeds in each, in the 
 open air; and, when they come up, they are 
 thinned out to four or five in each patch. They 
 are sown in rich ground, and well watered ; 
 and, as they grow, they are occasionally earthed 
 up. 
 
 Melons. — The culture of the melon is the 
 same as that of the cucumber, except that the 
 lowest heat of the seed-bed should not be less 
 than 65°, and that of the fruiting bed 75°. 
 To grow the finer kinds of melons well, how- 
 ever, requires the attention of a regular gar- 
 dener ; and, as this is the case also with pine- 
 apples (the plants of which are too expensive 
 to be trifled with), no directions are here given 
 respecting them. 
 
 Gourds. — The vegetable marrows, the Ame- 
 rican butter-squash and the mammoth gourd, 
 are excellent for the table, either in soup, or 
 half-boiled and then fried in batter. The plants 
 of all these kinds should be raised in a hotbed, 
 the seeds being sown in March or April, three 
 in a pot, and covered nearly an inch deep. In
 
 CHAP. VI.] TOMATOES, MUSHROOMS. 161 
 
 May, the young plants should be removed to 
 the open ground, where they should be planted 
 in rich soil, and sheltered for a night or two, 
 till they have become inured to the change. 
 They should be frequently watered in dry 
 weather, as the fruit will not swell without 
 abundance of moisture. 
 
 Tomatoes. — The tomato, or love-apple, is a 
 tender annual, a native of South America, in- 
 troduced before 1596. The seeds should be 
 sown in a hotbed in March, and as soon as the 
 young plants come up, they should be pricked 
 out into pots. They may be transplanted into 
 a warm border in front of a south wall in May, 
 where they should be trained against the wall, 
 or pegged down over a warm bank of earth 
 sloping to the sun. They require abundance of 
 water while the fruit is swelling; and as much 
 heat as possible while it is ripening. 
 
 Mushrooms. — It was formerly supposed that 
 mushrooms could not be cultivated, but that 
 they were only to be found in a wild state, as 
 truffles are still. Now, however, mushrooms 
 are grown both in houses and in beds in the 
 open air as constantly, and with as much 
 certainty of success, as any other vegetable 
 product. Cultivated mushrooms are notsrown 
 by either seeds or cuttings, but from what is 
 called spawn, which is found amongst old stable 
 manure when it is in a very dry state, and 
 which consists of small white fibres, looking 
 like broken threads. The spawn is procured 
 in cakes, or bricks, as they are called, from the 
 nurseryman, and it is placed in beds of stable 
 manure, either under cover, or in the open 
 
 M
 
 162 THE KITCHEN-GARDEN. [CHAR VL 
 
 air. When it is wished to form mushroom beds 
 in the open air, some stable manure, in which 
 there is a large proportion of straw, should be 
 procured in May, or in June, and it should be 
 thrown into a large ridge, in which it should be 
 suffered to remain till the folio wins; August, 
 after which it should be treated in the following 
 manner, according to the advice of my neigh- 
 bour Mr. Hopgood, of the Craven Hill Nursery, 
 who has been Ions; celebrated as a mushroom 
 grower. 
 
 " If a bed be required to bear in October 
 and November, the manure must be spread 
 out to the air in the last week of August, and 
 well beaten to pieces, that is to say, out of the 
 flakes it will be in when taken from the ridge ; 
 the whole mass being afterwards watered till 
 it is well moistened. This will make it ferment, 
 and when it has become of a nice heat, it should 
 be carefully turned over, mixing the whole 
 well together : if it be not quite wet enough, 
 pour more water over it. Afterwards, it should 
 be turned over every two or three days according 
 to circumstances : if the manure be very hot, 
 every second day ; but if only moderately hot, 
 every third day. When the violent heat is 
 abating, which will be in about ten days or a 
 fortnight, the bed should be made up imme- 
 diately in the following manner : let it be three 
 feet wide at the bottom, about three feet high, 
 and of a conical form; let it be beaten very 
 solid all the time it is being built; and when 
 completed, let it be covered over with mats to 
 get up the heat. As soon as there is sufficient 
 heat in the bed the mats should be taken off
 
 CH^P. VI.] MUSHROOMS. 163 
 
 everv fine day, except when it is very windy ; 
 and when the bed. cools down to a milk-warm 
 heat, it should be immediately spawned by 
 putting in, in four rows, pieces of spawn as 
 large as a moderate-sized orange, each piece 
 being ten inches apart. The bed should then 
 be beaten with a heavy spade, and afterwards 
 three inches at least of good meadow mould 
 should be put over the bed, when it should be 
 again beaten very hard. Having proceeded 
 thus far, the whole bed should be covered with 
 some fresh litter from the stable, about four 
 inches thick, and the mats should be again put 
 on. The work is now completed for a time. 
 In about a fortnight, the mats being removed, 
 the covering should be shaken up, and as much 
 more litter as is alreadv on the bed having been 
 added, the mats should be replaced as before. 
 In another fortnight this operation should be 
 repeated, and very soon after the mushrooms 
 will begin to appear. When this is the case, 
 the litter must be again shaken up, and the 
 beds, while they continue in bearing, must be 
 carefully looked over two or three times a week. 
 Great care must be taken after the beds are 
 once made to keep them as much as possible 
 from the rain. 
 
 "If beds are wanted to bear from November 
 to February, the manure need not be spread 
 out till the middle of September; and if the 
 beds are wanted to bear from 31 arch to June, 
 October is the proper month to begin spreading 
 out the manure. In every other respect, how- 
 ever, the beds should be managed as above 
 
 m 2
 
 164 THE KITCHEN-GARDEN. [CHAP. VL 
 
 directed, only they will be longer before they 
 begin to bear. 
 
 "It is of the utmost importance that every 
 particular in the directions given should be 
 attended to, or the result will most certainly be 
 a failure. The mushroom spawn must also be 
 in good condition ; as, if it be in a bad state, 
 no mushrooms will be produced." 
 
 When mushrooms are grown in a mushroom 
 house, a quantity of fresh stable manure must 
 be thrown together in a heap under cover, and 
 turned over many times in the course of a 
 fortnight or three weeks, till every part has 
 thoroughly fermented. When the dung is 
 thought to be in a fit state, if there are not 
 proper places or boxes, a bed is marked out on 
 the earth forming the floor of the house, twelve 
 or fourteen feet long, and five feet broad. In 
 the bottom of the bed there should be a layer 
 of long fresh stable manure, about four inches 
 thick; and, on this, successive layers of the 
 prepared dung, each beaten flat with the fork, 
 till the bed is about eighteen inches high. In 
 this state it may remain about a fortnight ; and 
 then if the bed be found, on trying it by plung- 
 ing in a stick, to be not too hot, the bricks of 
 spawn should be broken into pieces about an 
 inch and a half or two inches square, and 
 strewed over the bed at about nine inches 
 apart, each piece of spawn being buried by 
 raising up a little of the dung and inserting it. 
 After this the surface of the bed is beaten flat 
 with a spade, and the whole is covered w T ith 
 mould, that of a loamy nature being preferred.
 
 CHAP. VI.] MUSHROOMS. 16-3 
 
 The whole is then beaten quite smooth and 
 Tery hard, and slightly covered with oat straw, 
 which should never be more than six inches 
 thick. In about a month or six weeks the 
 mushrooms will be ready for the table ; and 
 when gathered they should be pulled up bv the 
 roots, and not cut off, as the root, if left in the 
 ground, will decay, and be injurious to the 
 young plants. 
 
 Mushrooms may also be made to grow on 
 lawns and in pleasure-grounds, bv procuring 
 some bricks (as they are called) of mushroom 
 spawn in April or May ; and, after Breaking 
 them into pieces about an inch or two inches 
 square, burying the pieces at intervals all over 
 the lawn. In each place a little of the turf 
 should be raised, under which the spawn should 
 be inserted, and the turf then pressed down 
 over it. The lawn should be afterwards rolled, 
 and no other care will be requisite till the plants 
 are ready for gathering, which thev will be in 
 September, if the summer has been tolerably 
 warm and dry. This plan seldom succeeds in 
 small gardens, as in those situations the mush- 
 rooms, as soon as they appear, are generally 
 eaten by the snails.
 
 166 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 THE MANAGEMENT OF FRUIT TREES. 
 
 The fruit trees cultivated in gardens are of 
 three kinds : the wall trees, the espaliers, and 
 the standards. To these may be added the 
 fruit shrubs and the vines ; which last are gene- 
 rally grown under glass. 
 
 The Wall Fruit Trees. — There are two 
 things on which the welfare of wall fruit trees 
 materially depends, viz. the construction of the 
 wall, and that of the border. The walls of 
 kitchen-gardens are very generally made too 
 high : a serious fault in many respects, but 
 particularly in impeding the free passage of the 
 sun and air to the fruit. It has, indeed, been 
 found, by experience, that walls about eight 
 feet high will produce better fruit than walls of 
 ten feet or twelve feet, which is the general 
 height; and, besides, they have the advantage 
 of not throwing so deep a shadow over the 
 garden. Of whatever height the walls may be, 
 they should always be in straight lines ; as the 
 various expedients which have been from time 
 to time adopted, of curved or zigzag lines, have 
 been found not to answer in practice, but to 
 produce eddies and currents of wind exceed- 
 ingly injurious to the fruit. The garden wall
 
 CHAP, vn.] WALL FRUIT TREES. 167 
 
 should have a slight stone coping; and, where 
 the trees are likely to want protection, strong 
 hooks, or holdfasts, projecting from the wall, 
 should be built in at regular distances, for the 
 convenience of suspending the mats or bunting 
 that may be employed, or of supporting a deep 
 wooden coping. Hot or flued walls are not 
 desirable, as they are very expensive and 
 troublesome, and of very little use. 
 
 Tlie walls should be built on good, sound, 
 and deep foundations, but on no account on 
 arches ; as it is of importance to the gardener 
 to confine the roots of the fruit trees to the 
 border in front of the wall, which is under his 
 control, instead of suffering them to spread 
 through the arches to the other side of the 
 wall, where they are entirely removed from 
 him. 
 
 The essential point to be attended to in the 
 construction of a fruit border is, that, the soil 
 shall not be more than eighteen inches deep on 
 a hard bottom. If the subsoil be hard gravel 
 or rock, covered with mould to the depth men- 
 tioned, nothing more can be desired ; but if the 
 subsoil be wet clay, or sand over gravel, or in 
 short anything that will allow of roots pene- 
 trating into it, artificial means should be re- 
 sorted to, to keep the roots near the surface of 
 the ground. The most common method of 
 forming a border is to excavate the ground to 
 the depth required, and to pave the bottom of 
 the excavation with large stones or pebbles ; 
 but bricks, cement, asphalte, or in short any 
 other substance which appears likely to attain 
 the end in view, may be employed ; taking
 
 168 THE MANAGEMENT OF [CHAP. VII. 
 
 care, however, to provide effectual drainage, 
 as otherwise the chamber, as it is called, would 
 become a reservoir of stagnant water, exceed- 
 ingly injurious to the plants. The chamber 
 having been formed, it should be covered with 
 good rich garden mould to the requisite depth ; 
 varying in some instances according to the 
 kind of tree to be grown in it, but in all cases 
 thoroughly pulverised, so as to offer no obstruc- 
 tion to the passage of the roots. 
 
 When the trees are planted, care should be 
 taken to raise each on a little hillock, at the 
 point of junction between the trunk and the 
 root, to allow for the sinking of the ground. 
 The collar of a ligneous plant should never be 
 buried ; as any moisture collected round this 
 tender part brings on canker, and innumerable 
 other diseases. Fruit trees thus buried gene- 
 rally produce deformed fruit, and die in a few 
 years of premature old age. 
 
 It can never be repeated too often, that the 
 essential point in growing fruit trees is to keep 
 their roots as near to the surface as possible, at 
 least never to suffer them to descend so deep 
 as to be out of the influence of the sun and 
 air. Many persons unacquainted with vege- 
 table physiology have an idea that when a fruit 
 tree which has been productive suddenly ceases 
 to bear, it is because its roots have reached the 
 gravel, or in other words, the subsoil. This is, 
 however, false reasoning on true premises. It 
 is quite true that the tree has ceased to bear in 
 consequence of the descent of its roots; but 
 the reason this descent is injurious is, that the 
 ground far below the surface is cold, and fre
 
 CHAP. VH.] WALL FRTIT TREES. 169 
 
 quentlv impregnated with stagnant water, and 
 either that the roots thus become swollen and 
 unable to perform their proper functions, in 
 which case the leaves turn yellow, and the tree 
 appears to wither, or that, from the want of 
 air, they supply the tree with an abundance of 
 poor thin watery sap, quite unsuitable for the 
 production of fruit. On the contrary, when 
 the roots are kept near the surface, though they 
 have no air-vessels except in the spongioles, 
 these spongioles imbibe carbonic acid gas from 
 the atmosphere with all the moisture they take 
 up; and thus the vessels are not only kept in a 
 healthy state, by not being overcharged with 
 w 7 ater without air, but the sap is so thickened 
 and enriched with the carbonic acid gas, that 
 it is brought into a proper state for forming 
 those deposits which lead to the production 
 of fruit. 
 
 The use of nails is to afford tender plants 
 the heat necessary to mature their fruit, by 
 reflecting the sun's rays back upon it; and by 
 giving out to the fruit during the night the 
 heat they have absorbed during the day. They 
 are also useful in sheltering the plant from cold 
 winds; and in preventing the branches from 
 bruising each other in violent storms. This 
 being the use of walls, it is evident that only 
 those trees should be trained against them that 
 require protection ; and the south and south- 
 east walls being warmer than the others, it is 
 equally evident that the trees trained against 
 them should be only those that require a great 
 deal of heat to mature their fruits. There are 
 some fruits, such as the apple, which too much
 
 170 THE MANAGEMENT OF [CHAP. VII. 
 
 heat renders mealy and insipid ; and these 
 would obviously be injured instead of improved 
 by a south or south-east wall ; while other 
 fruits, such as the peach, could not produce 
 good fruit in our climate without one. Before 
 planting trees against the walls of a garden, it 
 will thus be necessary to select the trees proper 
 for each wall ; and, as some of the finer kinds 
 will be several years before they attain a suffi- 
 cient size to fill up the places assigned to them, 
 trees of inferior kinds may be planted between 
 them, so that no part of the wall may be lost ; 
 the inferior trees being cut in as the others 
 grow, and being finally removed. This is 
 accomplished by planting alternately dwarf 
 trees of the kind which is to remain, and trees 
 grafted standard high, which are called riders, 
 of the kinds which are to be removed. The 
 distance at which the permanent trees should 
 be planted, depends upon the nature of the 
 tree. 
 
 There is, however, one objection to a south 
 or south-east wall for tender plants, which 
 should be carefully guarded against. This is, 
 the danger from spring frosts, to which the 
 blossoms are exposed during the night, from 
 being brought prematurely forward during the 
 day. To guard against this, the south wall 
 should have a deep wooden coping, supported 
 by holdfasts, projecting about a foot from the 
 wall ; and under this coping there should be a 
 row of hooks, on which should be hung a kind 
 of curtain of bunting, which should be kept on 
 day and night in frosty weather, while the 
 blossoms are expanded. This serves not only
 
 CHAP. VII.] WALL FRUIT TREES. 171 
 
 to protect the blossoms from the frost, but to 
 save them from the withering- effect of the sun, 
 which is more injurious to them after a frosty 
 night than the frost itself. In fact, when tender 
 trees are covered with hoar-frost, they may 
 sometimes be saved if shaded till they have 
 thawed ; but they are always killed if exposed 
 while the frost is on them to the sun. The 
 reason is, that the sap contained in the side of 
 the branch next the wall remains unfrozen, 
 while that in the side exposed to the air is 
 melted by the heat of the sun; and thus the 
 melted sap, having no proper means of escape, 
 lacerates the vessels which contain it, by its 
 sudden expansion : whereas, when both sides 
 thaw together, the sap flows Gradually away by 
 its natural channels. Bunting is preferable to 
 matting or canvas for protecting wall trees : 
 because it is thinner, and does not entirely 
 exclude the light and air ; because it is more 
 easily put up and taken down, and takes up 
 less room when stowed aw T av; and because it 
 is cheaper, four square yards costing only two 
 shillings at Edgington's, the marquee-maker. 
 Coarse cotton net, such as is manufactured at 
 Nottingham, is also found efficacious. 
 
 Kinds of Wall Fruit Trees, 8fc. — The prin- 
 cipal fruits grown against a wall in England 
 are those containing stones ; and of these the 
 most valuable are the peach, the nectarine, and 
 the apricot. The plum and the cherry are also 
 occasionally grown against a wall, but thev are 
 most common as standards. The kernel fruits, 
 such as the apple and pear, are generally 
 standards ; the apple being very rarely trained
 
 172 THE MANAGEMENT OF [CHAP. VII. 
 
 against a wall in England, though it is fre- 
 quently in Scotland. In the neighbourhood of 
 London, figs and grapes are grown against 
 walls in the open ground ; and throughout the 
 south of Devonshire this is the case with olives 
 and the orange tribe. 
 
 Stone Fruits. — All kinds of stone fruits are 
 more or less delicate at the time of forming 
 their stones, or " stoning," as it is called ; and 
 the fruit requires thinning at that period, to 
 prevent the greater part of it from dropping 
 off. All the stone fruit trees blossom early, and 
 are delicate while their flowers are expanded. 
 For these reasons their crops are more uncer- 
 tain in a variable climate like that of England, 
 than the crops of the kernel fruits, and require 
 more care and attention to bring them to per- 
 fection. 
 
 Peaches and Nectarines. — The peach and 
 the nectarine are only varieties of one species ; 
 and instances have been known of peaches and 
 nectarines growing on the same tree without 
 grafting. Both peaches and nectarines are 
 divided into two kinds : the free stones, the 
 flesh of which parts readily from the stone; 
 and the cling stones, the flesh of which adheres 
 to the stone. Some of the best peaches for a 
 small garden are the Grosse mignonne, Belle- 
 garde, and Barrington. The earliest peach is 
 the Red Nutmeg, which ripens in July ; and one 
 of the latest is the Catherine, which does not 
 ripen till October. The best nectarines are the 
 Elruge and the Violette native, with the New 
 White for a variety in colour. The Stan wick 
 Nectarine and the Sweet-kernelled Peach have
 
 CHAP. VH.] PEACHES AND NECTARINES. 173 
 
 been lately introduced from Syria, and they 
 form an entirely new class of peaches and 
 nectarines, having sweet eatable kernel-, as 
 well as delicious "pulp. The Stanwick necta- 
 rine is about the size of an Elruge, and it is 
 somewhat like it in shape. The skin is pale, 
 with a slight violet tinge on one side ; and the 
 flesh is white, exceedingly melting, juicy, rich, 
 and sugary, without the slightest flavour of 
 prussic acid. The stone is very rugged, and of 
 a deep chocolate colour; and the kernel is 
 sweet, like that of a nut. This nectarine is 
 about a fortnight later than most of the other 
 kinds, and in some situations the tree retains 
 its leaves all the winter. Both peaches and 
 nectarines are budded on plum stocks, or on 
 seedling peaches or almonds, the latter being 
 greatly preferred by the French nurserymen. 
 The best soil for peaches is, about three parts 
 of fresh turfy loam taken from some field, and 
 one part of drift sand. This soil should be 
 moderately enriched with vegetable mould 
 composed of decayed leaves, or very rotten 
 dung, and it should be laid on the prepared 
 chamber to the depth of about eighteen inches, 
 rather less than more. Care should be taken 
 not to enrich the soil with too much manure, 
 lest the trees should produce more wood than 
 they can ripen. No tree is more liable to 
 produce what gardeners call water shoots or 
 gourmands, than the peach, if over-manured ; 
 and these are shoots which grow with great 
 luxuriance, but which, as they bear only leaves 
 and never fruit, waste the vigour of the tree 
 unprofitably. When the trees are to be planted,
 
 174 THE MANAGEMENT OF [CHAP. vn. 
 
 no pit is dug, but the roots are carefully spread 
 out on the surface of the border (all injured 
 parts being cut out), and then covered three 
 inches deep with soil. Peach trees are seldom 
 planted against the wall where they are to 
 remain, till they have been two, three, or four 
 years trained ; and they are generally removed 
 at the latter end of October, or the beginning 
 of November, just as the leaf begins to fall. 
 They are best trained in the fan manner ; and, 
 as they always bear their fruit on shoots of a 
 year old, these shoots must be left on in prun- 
 ing, and the old wood cut out. The trees 
 should be pruned at two seasons, viz. winter 
 and summer : the winter pruning is performed 
 either at the fall of the leaf, or in the beginning 
 of February, and consists of cutting out or 
 shortening the old wood or barren branches ; 
 and the summer pruning, which consists chiefly 
 of what is called disbudding (that is, rubbing 
 off the buds as soon as they appear), should be 
 applied to the removal of all shoots growing 
 right out from the wall (and which, conse- 
 quently, could not be well trained), or which 
 appear otherwise to be improperly placed. 
 Experienced gardeners also look over the blos- 
 som buds, as soon as they show themselves, 
 and thin them out, without allowing the tree to 
 waste its strength in forming fruit which it can 
 never ripen, and which is of no use in its green 
 state. The disbudding is easily performed ; 
 and watching the trees, to find when it will be 
 necessary, affords a constant source of interest. 
 Thinning the blossoms is rather more difficult; 
 but, with a little practice, a lady could do it
 
 CHAP, vn.] PEACHES AXD NECTARINES. 1 75 
 
 much better than a gardener, as it is an opera- 
 tion that depends principally on delicacy of 
 touch. When a peach tree is trained in the 
 fan manner, the first year the little side shoots 
 are left for producing the fruit, and none of 
 these should be more than a year old. The 
 next year these shoots must be cut out (as the 
 same shoot never bears two years in succes- 
 sion), and others, which have been produced 
 while they were bearing, must be trained in 
 their stead. The borders should never be 
 cropped, on account of disturbing the roots, 
 and only raked or slightly forked over occa- 
 sionally, to prevent the surface from cakincr 
 over, and becoming impervious to air and 
 moisture. No recent stable duns; should ever 
 be given to peaches : and, when the trees seem 
 exhausted, they should be taken up and re- 
 planted in fresh soil ; or they should be 
 removed, and trees of quite a different kind, 
 such as pears for example, planted instead of 
 them in the same soil. When the borders 
 cannot be spared to be left entirely bare, a 
 light crop, such as of spinach, lettuces, mustard 
 and cress, or parsley, may be sown on them, 
 and the remains of this crop, when done with, 
 should be raked off: but fruit borders ought 
 never on any account to be touched with a 
 spade, and even a fork should be used but 
 seldom and sparingly; never, indeed, unless 
 the ground has become too hard and compact 
 to admit the rain, the sun, and the air. It 
 must never be forgotten, that, unless the spon- 
 gioles of the roots are permitted to imbibe, 
 with the moisture they take up, the carbonic
 
 176 THE MANAGEMENT OE [CHAP. vn. 
 
 acid gas always floating in the atmosphere, the 
 sap of the tree will never be rich enough to 
 produce fruit. The fruit and seeds of every 
 plant are, in fact, concentrations of carbon, 
 precipitated by the action of light ; and where 
 any plant is deficient in carbon, or deprived of 
 light, it cannot produce much fruit. The cul- 
 ture of the nectarine is exactly the same as 
 that of the peach. In both, when the season 
 is cold and wet, with but little sun, some culti- 
 vators remove a few of the leaves to admit 
 more air and light to the fruit ; but this should 
 be done very sparingly, as, unless a sufficient 
 quantity of leaves be left to carry on the proper 
 circulation of the sap, the skin of the fruit will 
 become touofi and withered, and the flesh 
 insipid. When the fruit is ripe, it is customary, 
 in large gardens, to suspend a net under the 
 branches to catch any fruit that may fall, and 
 thus to save it from being bruised. The peach 
 is supposed to be a native of Persia, and to 
 have been introduced into England about the 
 middle of the sixteenth century. Peaches and 
 nectarines, on a wall ten or twelve feet high, 
 should be planted about twenty feet apart, with 
 riders of some kind of plum or cherry, till the 
 permanent trees spread. 
 
 The Apricot is a native of Armenia, and was 
 introduced about 1562. The culture is the 
 same as that of the peach, except that it is not 
 trained quite so much in the fan manner, but 
 somewhat horizontally. It also bears, not only 
 on the side-shoots of the last year, but on close 
 spurs formed on the two-years-old wood. The 
 whole of the fruit is also generally suffered to
 
 CHAP. VH.] THE APRICOT. 177 
 
 form, and is thinned out while it is green, in 
 May or the beginning of June, as green apri- 
 cots are generally thought delicious in tarts. 
 The best apricots are, the Moorpark for the 
 table, and the Breda for preserving. This last 
 is frequently grown as a standard. Large 
 branches, or rather arms, of apricot trees, par- 
 ticularly of the Moorpark, are very apt to die 
 off without anv apparent cause ; but, when this 
 is the case, it will be generally found that the 
 plant was injured by frost the preceding winter. 
 Two new kinds of apricot were introduced 
 from Syria in 1847 and 1848. One of these 
 (the Kaisha) ripens when the Moorpark and 
 Turkey apricots, on the same wall, are per- 
 fectly green and hard. The fruit is roundish, 
 about five inches and a half in circumference, 
 and semi-transparent. The skin is slightly 
 downy, of a pale lemon colour, tinged and 
 marbled with red on the side next the sun. 
 The flesh is tender, juicy, of a clear lemon 
 colour, parting freely from the stone, which is 
 small and round. The kernel is sweet, like 
 that of a nut. The fruit is not only delicious, 
 but extremely beautiful from its semi-trans- 
 parency and pale lemon-coloured tint. Ano- 
 ther Syrian apricot is called Shuker Para, 
 or bit of sugar, from its extreme sweetness. 
 A variety of this, originated in the garden of 
 John Barker, Esq., near Aleppo, called the 
 Suedia Green-gage Apricot, has several pecu- 
 liarities. It reproduces itself from seed with 
 as much certainty as any vegetable in the 
 kitchen garden : and as the extraordinary 
 sweetness of the fruit is developed for several 
 
 N
 
 178 THE MANAGEMENT OF [CHAP. VII. 
 
 days before it becomes ripe, it will bear to be 
 transported to a considerable distance. On 
 one occasion, indeed, in India, it was actually- 
 sent, packed in cotton, a month's journey by a 
 caravan. The colour is a yellowish white, 
 tinoed on one side with a somewhat dingy 
 purplish red. The fruit resembles a nectarine 
 in the. consistence of its skin, which can- 
 not be peeled. It has, also, a great affinity 
 to the green-gage plum, and the kernel is 
 perfectly sweet. The apricot flowers sooner 
 than any other wall tree; and the sap, when 
 only partially released by the thawing of that 
 side of the branch which is nearest the sun, is 
 consequently in more rapid motion, and is 
 more likely to lacerate the vessels, than the 
 sap of trees that are later in producing flowers. 
 This theory, which was first broached by Mr. 
 Barron, the very scientific gardener at Elvaston 
 Castle, has since been confirmed by the fact 
 which has been repeatedly observed, that the 
 branches prematurely killed are always on a 
 south wall, and in a situation exposed to the 
 sun. The effect of the frozen and partially- 
 thawn sap is sometimes only shown in the 
 bark, which cracks, and permits the super- 
 abundant sap to exude in the form of gum ; 
 but, when this relief is not sufficient, the 
 branch becomes sickly, and finally dies soon 
 after midsummer, about the time of the return 
 of the sap. The best mode of preventing this 
 serious evil is to begin protecting the branches 
 long before the flowers appear, and, indeed, 
 Mr. Barron keeps them covered all the winter. 
 Apricot trees should be twenty-five feet apart
 
 CHAP. TIL j THE PLUM. 179 
 
 on the wall, as the tree spreads rapidly, and 
 does not bear cutting in. 
 
 The Plum. — Xo plum tree, except, perhaps, 
 the green gage, should be planted on a south 
 wall ; and, as a north wall is too cold for the 
 finer kinds, they do best planted against a wall 
 facing to the east or west. Any common oar- 
 den soil will suit plum trees ; and, when the 
 soil appears exhausted, it may be renovated bv 
 a little rotten dung, laid on the surface, and 
 slightly forked in ; as much care as possible 
 beino- taken to avoid disturbing the roots. 
 Plum trees bear on what are called spurs, 
 which are short rugged-looking little branches, 
 jutting out from the shoots of two or three 
 years' growth. The same spurs bear more 
 than once, and often continue fruitful several 
 years. Plum trees are generally trained hori- 
 zontally. The kinds are very numerous, but 
 the Green Gage and Orleans are, perhaps, the 
 most popular. The Jefrerson Plum is a new 
 variety, introduced from America in 1841, 
 which is said to be superior in flavour even to 
 the Green Gage. The fruit is of a dark yel- 
 low, speckled with purple and brownish red ; 
 and the flesh is a deep orange, slightly ad- 
 hering to the stone, and exceedingly rich and 
 sugary. The tree is a great bearer; and the 
 fruit has the property of hanging on the tree 
 for a considerable time after it is ripe. The 
 fruit ripens well on standard trees. A Syrian 
 plum, called Aloo Bokhara, introduced by John 
 Barker, Esq., in 1848, is remarkable for its 
 transparency, which is so great, that when the 
 fruit is ripe, the stone may be distinctlv seen 
 
 n2 j
 
 1 80 THE MANAGEMENT OF [CHAP. VII. 
 
 through the skin. The kernel is sweet. Flum 
 trees should be twenty feet apart, if all dwarfs; 
 but dwarfs and riders alternately may be only 
 fifteen feet apart. 
 
 The Cherry. — Only the finer kinds of cher- 
 ries are grown against walls ; and the tree, in 
 its native localities, delights in a dry sandy 
 soil, and an elevated airy situation. When 
 cultivated, it will thrive in any common garden 
 soil that is tolerably open; and it is not injured 
 by manure applied moderately, and in a per- 
 fectly rotten state. The cherry is trained hori- 
 zontally, and bears on spurs springing from 
 both the old and the new wood. As the 
 branches are continually throwing out fresh 
 spurs from their extremities, it is a maxim with 
 o-ardeners never to shorten the bearing- branches 
 of a cherry tree. The morello is, however, an 
 exception to this rule, as its mode of bearing 
 resembles that of the peach ; and it is always 
 pruned and trained like that tree. The cherry 
 trees grown against walls are, the different 
 varieties of May Duke, the Circassian, the 
 Large black Tartarian, the Morello, and Bigar- 
 reau. A curious kind of Chinese cherry is 
 grown occasionally, the fruit of which is about 
 as large as a sparrow's egg, of a reddish amber 
 colour, and furnished at the point with a 
 tumour. Its flavour resembles that of the 
 May Duke. The flowers, which are pinkish, 
 are very ornamental. Cherries need not be 
 more than fifteen feet apart for the common 
 kinds, and twenty feet for the morello. 
 
 Fig trees grow and bear quite well in the 
 neighbourhood of London, and they even
 
 CHAP. VII.] FIG TREES. 181 
 
 thrive and bear in many street gardens in the 
 city. The fig requires less care in training and 
 pruning than any other tree; it should, indeed, 
 rarely be touched with the knife, and only the 
 ill-placed shoots removed by disbudding. The 
 fruit is produced on the young wood at the ex- 
 tremity of the branches, but it does not ripen 
 till the wood on winch it grows is a year old. 
 The best soil for figs is a fresh light loam, not 
 above a foot or fifteen inches deep, on a hard 
 well-drained bottom. This is essential; as the 
 fig will not grow with any stagnant water 
 about its roots, though it requires" to be con- 
 stantly and abundantly supplied with moisture. 
 Many country persons throw soap-suds on the 
 roots of their fig trees with very great success. 
 The tree may be trained in any shape ; and the 
 long branches should be bent backwards and 
 forwards, not only to make them throw out 
 side shoots, but to cover the wall. The best 
 figs for general bearing are the Black and 
 Brown Ischias and the Large Blue or Purple 
 Fig. A tree of the last kind which is trained 
 against our house at Bayswater, under the 
 glass veranda, has never failed, during the last 
 twenty years, to produce a good crop every 
 summer. Fig trees should be thirty feet apart, 
 if the branches are trained horizontally ; but 
 they may be placed rather nearer, if the 
 branches are bent backwards and forwards to 
 :*over the wall. 
 
 Espaliers. — Espaliers, though they are 
 nearly as troublesome to train as wall 'trees, 
 have none of their advantages. They are, 
 inaeed, only superior to standards in taking
 
 182 THE MANAGEMENT OF [CHAP. vn. 
 
 up less room, in having a neater appearance, in 
 their fruit being more easily gathered, and in 
 their roots being more under the control of the 
 gardener. The latter is an important advan- 
 tage, and one of which every gardener should 
 avail himself. It has been already observed, 
 when speaking of the laying out of a kitchen- 
 garden, that, beyond the fruit border, there is 
 generally a walk inclosing the compartments 
 devoted to culinary vegetables in the centre. 
 Now, where espaliers are grown, there should 
 be a second chambered border, exactly like the 
 fruit border under the wall, which should be 
 shut out from the culinary compartments by a 
 low wall under ground, or flat stones placed 
 edgewise, or boards, or in fact anything, to 
 prevent the roots of the espaliers from spread- 
 ing into the ground devoted to the culinary 
 crops. When due precautions have been taken, 
 the espaliers should be planted near the bound- 
 ary, and their roots carefully spread out over 
 the chambered border, those parts being cut off 
 which cannot be brought to lie flat in the 
 proper direction. The ground is then pressed 
 firmly upon the roots, and espalier rails, either 
 of iron or wood, are fixed near the trees to tie 
 them to. Espalier trees are seldom suffered to 
 grow higher than five or six feet, on account of 
 the trouble of training them when they are of 
 a greater height; but to make amends for this 
 loss of space, their branches are allowed to 
 spread as widely as possible, according to the 
 nature of the trees. Thus apples should be 
 planted thirty feet apart, and cherries about the 
 same distance ; pears thirty-five feet, and plums
 
 CHARVH.] ESPALIER FRUIT TREES. 183 
 
 twenty-five feet. The finer kinds of fruits are 
 seldom planted as espaliers; and apples and 
 pears are more commonly thus treated than 
 cherries and plums. The continual cutting ne- 
 cessary to keep the trees in a proper shape for 
 training, and the unnatural position of the 
 roots, are, indeed, very unsuitable to trees so 
 apt to gum and canker as the cherrv and the 
 plum. The width of the border destined for 
 the roots of the espaliers is generally five feet ; 
 and it should only be cropped with a few 
 herbaceous or annual flowers, that will not 
 require the ground to be stirred deeper than 
 can be done with a rake. Some persons suffer 
 the roots of their espalier trees to extend under 
 the gravel walks, which are intentionallv left 
 hollow ; but this defeats the purpose for which 
 they are to be attracted to the surface, for the 
 spongioles will be as effectually excluded from 
 the air under a compact coating of gravel, as 
 if they were buried many feet deep in the soil. 
 If an underground wall is built along the inner 
 side of the espalier border to confine the roots 
 of the trees, stones should be fixed in it at in- 
 tervals, with holes made in them for the recep- 
 tion of the espalier rails, which should be run 
 in with pitch. These rails should be about 
 nine inches asunder, and they may be kept 
 together at the top with a transverse rail, to 
 which they should be nailed. The inconve- 
 niences of espaliers are, the very great trouble 
 of training them and keeping them within 
 bounds; the rough and untidy appearance 
 which their spurs assume when the trees beoin 
 to get old; and the numerous diseases to which
 
 184 THE MANAGEMENT OF [CHAP. VII. 
 
 the trees are liable, from their unnatural posi- 
 tion and constant cutting in, and which always 
 render espalier trees short-lived. 
 
 Standard Fruit Trees. — Tall standard 
 trees should never, on any account, be planted 
 in a kitchen-garden; as, from their drip and 
 shade, it is impossible to grow good culinary 
 vegetables under them ; while, on the other 
 hand, the constant digging and trenching ne- 
 cessary to cultivate culinary vegetables force 
 the roots of the trees to descend so far, that it 
 is impossible for them to produce good fruit. 
 Dwarf standards are, however, by many pre- 
 ferred to espaliers ; as they are susceptible of 
 all the advantages, without any of the disad- 
 vantages, attendant on that mode of training. 
 A chambered border may be prepared for the 
 dwarf standards, in the same manner as for 
 the espaliers; and they may be placed in the 
 centre of it, instead of on one side. The 
 dwarf standards are generally grafted very 
 near the collar of the plant, and are trained to 
 form bushes rather than trees, but in various 
 manners. Some are trained round a hoop 
 placed inside, and others have their branches 
 trained upwards for a few feet, and then bent 
 downwards like an umbrella ; some are trained 
 en quenouille, with a single stem; others en 
 py r amide ; and others have their branches 
 spread out horizontally, and supported by 
 stakes placed at a regular distance in a circle 
 round the tree. In short, there are no limits 
 to fancy in this respect. The trees generally 
 grown in gardens as dwarf standards, are 
 apples, pears, and morello cherries. The other
 
 CHAP, vn.] THE APPLE. 185 
 
 kinds of cherries may be treated in the same 
 manner ; but they are generally preferred as 
 tall standards, in a detached orchard near the 
 kitchen-garden, or adjoining the pleasure- 
 grounds. The common kinds of plums and 
 damsons are also grown as tall trees in the 
 orchard, as are the kitchen and keeping apples. 
 Mulberry trees are generally planted on the 
 lawn, as well for the picturesque form of the 
 tree, as for the convenience of the fruit, which 
 drops as soon as it is ripe, and is spoiled if it 
 falls on dug earth or gravel. Sweet chestnuts 
 are grown in the park or pleasure-orounds, 
 among other trees ; and walnuts in similar 
 situations, or in a back court or stable-yard, 
 for the convenience of their shade. Filberts 
 and hazels are generally planted on each side 
 of a walk in the garden or pleasure-ground, 
 which they are trained over; and berberries 
 and elder-bushes in the shrubberies ; the last 
 four being the only kinds of trees which should 
 ever be planted as standards in the slips to the. 
 kitchen-o-arden. 
 
 Kernel Fruits. — The principal of these 
 are apples and pears, but the division also in- 
 cludes the medlar, the quince, and the true 
 service. 
 
 The Apple is universally allowed to be the 
 most useful of all fruits ; and it is certain that 
 there is no fruit more extensively cultivated. 
 The list of apples is as numerous as that of 
 peas ; and it is almost as difficult to make a 
 selection from. Apples are, however, generally 
 divided into three kinds : the dessert or eating- 
 apples, the kitchen or baking apples, and the
 
 186 THE MANAGEMENT OF [CH.VP.VH. 
 
 cider apples. The last are good for nothing 
 but to make cider, and can never be mistaken; 
 the line of demarcation between the first two 
 is, however, not so strongly marked, as many 
 of the kinds will serve both purposes. Many 
 dessert apples, for example, possess the chief 
 merit of a good kitchen apple, viz. that of 
 falling well, or, in plainer terms, of becoming 
 quite soft when baked or boiled ; and many of 
 the baking apples are very good to eat raw. 
 The Ribston pippin, one of the best of all 
 apples, but rather a shy bearer, and the Haw- 
 thornden, a most abundant bearer, but an apple 
 that does not keep well, are both alike excel- 
 lent for the kitchen and the dessert. The best 
 keeping apple is the French crab, of which 
 some specimens have been preserved quite 
 fresh and plump for more than three years. 
 Dwarf apple trees are sometimes grown in 
 pots; and a kind was introduced in 1848, from 
 Armenia, which never grows above two feet 
 high, even though the tree may be forty or 
 fifty years old. 
 
 The most common way of propagating apple 
 trees is by grafting the best kinds on crab- 
 stocks, either standard high, that is, on stocks 
 suffered to grow to the height of about six 
 feet ; or as dwarfs, that is, about six or eight 
 inches from the collar of the stock. Some- 
 times trees intended to be grown as dwarf 
 standards in a kitchen-garden are grafted what 
 is called half standard high ; that is, about two 
 or three feet from the collar. When apple 
 trees are planted in the kitchen-garden where 
 they are to remain, each tree should always be
 
 CHAP. VII.] THE PEAR. 187 
 
 placed on a little hillock ; as no tree is more 
 liable to become cankered from having its 
 collar buried. The tree succeeds best in a 
 deep strong loam, provided it be well drained, 
 and rich rather than poor ; and when the soil 
 appears exhausted, it may be renovated by 
 laying on it what the farmers call a top-dressing 
 of manure, taking care not to bury or even to 
 touch the collar of the tree. Apple trees will, 
 however, nourish in any soil except sand or 
 gravel. They are very apt to become can- 
 kered, and to be attacked by the woolly aphis, 
 sometimes called the American blight (already 
 described in p. 111). Canker is generally 
 caused by some defect in the drainage or the 
 soil, or by planting too deep, and, of course, 
 no remedy can be efficacious till the cause of 
 the disease is removed : when, however, the 
 soil has been renovated or drained, the effects 
 of the disease may be obviated by heading 
 down the tree, when it will produce new and 
 healthy branches ; or by cutting out the cankered 
 part, if it should be so low as to make it in- 
 convenient to cut off the trunk of the tree 
 below it. The American blight is best cured 
 by brushing the parts infested all over with 
 soft soap and water; and repeating the opera- 
 tion whenever any fresh insects appear. 
 
 The Pear. — The culture of the pear, as a 
 standard, differs very little from that of the 
 apple; and, though it is naturally rather a 
 deeper-rooted plant, it requires its fibrous roots 
 to be kept near the surface. There is a general 
 complaint in gardens against pear trees as bad 
 bearers, and very healthy-looking trees have
 
 188 THE MANAGEMENT OF [CHAP. VII. 
 
 been known to exist twenty years in a garden 
 without ever even showing any blossoms. 
 Various causes have a tendency to produce this 
 effect. The pear being naturally inclined to 
 send down its roots, will do so, unless effec- 
 tually prevented by a chambered border, or a 
 hard rocky subsoil; and if the spongioles of 
 the roots are allowed to descend out of the 
 reach of the air, the tree never can produce 
 good fruit. Planting pear trees in a very rich 
 stiff soil will produce the same effect on them 
 as on wall fruit trees, as before stated. Inju- 
 dicious pruning, particularly in summer, is 
 another cause ; as cutting in young shoots, 
 while the sap is in motion, has a tendency to 
 make the tree throw out two new shoots in the 
 room of every one removed, and thus to ex- 
 haust itself in producing branches. Summer 
 shoots should either be checked by disbudding 
 as soon as they appear, or suffered to remain 
 till winter, when they may be cut in, without 
 exciting the tree to fresh efforts to replace 
 them ; stripping them of their leaves, however, 
 during summer, as directed under Pruning, if 
 they appear likely to exhaust the tree. Much 
 of the fertility of pear trees also depends on the 
 habit of the stock being similar to that of the 
 graft ; and much also on a judicious manner of 
 training. As a wall tree, the pear is always 
 trained horizontally, and spurs are left on all 
 the branches for producing fruit. These spurs 
 used formerly to be left large, and standing out 
 a foot or eighteen inches from the wall; but 
 they are now found to bear best when kept 
 short. According to this plan, every spur is
 
 •JHAP. VH.] THE PEAR. 189 
 
 allowed to bear only once, viz. in its third year; 
 and, after this, it is cut out to give place to 
 another spur, which has been trained to succeed 
 it. By this mode of treatment, a constant suc- 
 cession of young spurs is kept up, and fruit is 
 produced all over the tree ; whereas, by the old 
 method of pruning and training, in the course 
 of a few years, the projecting spurs became 
 barren, and fruit was produced only at the ex- 
 tremity of the branches. Pears are frequently 
 grafted standard high, when intended for train- 
 ing against a wall, in order that thev may be 
 used as riders between dwarf plums or 
 peaches. Pear trees generally bear better as 
 espaliers, or dwarf standards, than against a 
 wall, and this has been attributed to rather a 
 curious reason. The stamens of the pear have 
 naturally very little farina ; and where the blos- 
 soms are exposed to great heat, and have little 
 air circulating round them, as is the case with 
 wall trees, the pollen is very apt to dry up with- 
 out fertilising the stigma. The blossoms of 
 espaliers and dwarf standards are exposed to 
 less heat and more air than those of wall trees ; 
 and thus their pollen is more likely to perform 
 its natural functions. The truth of this ob- 
 servation has been proved by shading the blos- 
 soms of a wall pear tree during the whole 
 period of their expansion, and fanning them 
 with an artificial current of air by means of 
 bellows, when it was found that more than 
 twice the usual quantity of fruit was produced. 
 Espalier pear trees have generally a very rough 
 appearance, from their rugged projecting spurs; 
 but dwarf standards both look and bear well.
 
 190 THE MANAGEMENT OF [CHAP. VII. 
 
 It has, however, been asserted by some gar- 
 deners, that riders on the walls, and tall stand- 
 ards in the orchard, come into bearing earlier 
 than dwarf standards, unless the branches of 
 the dwarfs are suffered to grow very long, and 
 are curiously bent and twisted to produce depo- 
 sitions of sap. Probably, however, the true 
 cause of the dwarf standards not bearing is, 
 that, in some cases, they have been plantedin 
 the deep rich soil of the kitchen-garden, in- 
 tended for culinary vegetables ; while the trees 
 in the orchard, compared with them, were in 
 poor light soil, and those against the wall in a 
 prepared border. 
 
 There is perhaps no fruit that has been so 
 much improved by cultivation as the pear ; and 
 this extraordinary improvement has been prin- 
 cipally effected by the exertions of the late 
 Professor Van Mons of Louvain, near Brussels. 
 This gentleman, towards the latter end of the 
 last century, having turned his attention to the 
 culture of fruit trees, conceived the idea that 
 new varieties of pears might be raised scien- 
 tifically; and the result of some experiments 
 tried by him, in conjunction with his friend 
 Counsellor Hardenpont, was, that several pears 
 were obtained very superior to the kinds pre- 
 viously known: and among these were the 
 Passe-Colmar, and the Beurre de Ranz (com- 
 monly called the Beurre Ranee). Encouraged 
 by this success, the Baron Van Mons and 
 Counsellor Hardenpont repeated their experi- 
 ments every year, and thus raised above a 
 hundred thousand new kinds of pears ; and, 
 though by far the greater part of these proved
 
 chap, vil] the quince. 191 
 
 iii the end not worth growing, many very 
 
 valuable pears have been obtained. Some of 
 the best of these are, the Marie Louise ; the 
 Glout Morceau, an excellent bearer ; and the 
 Beurre Diel, a large and finely-flavoured pear. 
 Among' the higher-flavoured pears may be 
 mentioned, the Winter Xelis (Nelis d'Hiver), 
 the Bezi d'Heri, and Van Mons' Leon le 
 Clerc, the last being' said, when grown in 
 favourable situations, to be the finest pear ever 
 known. 
 
 The goodness of all these pears, however, 
 depends a great deal on the stocks upon which 
 they are grafted ; and thus the fruit produced 
 does not always answer the expectations of its 
 growers. Another point to be attended to is 
 the thinning out of the fruit, that more may not 
 set than the tree seems able to ripen ; as, if 
 the tree is suffered to bear too large a crop, the 
 fruit will be small, comparatively, and without 
 flavour. 
 
 The Quince is a low tree, which thrives best 
 near water. It is always grown as a standard ; 
 and the fruit, which is very ornamental when 
 ripe, is never eaten raw. It requires no par- 
 ticular care, except that of planting it in a moist 
 soft soil ; and, if possible, where its roots can 
 have access to water. There are four or five 
 sorts grown in nurseries, but they differ very 
 little from each other. A quince introduced 
 from Persia in 1848, differs, however, from all 
 the other kinds in losing all its austerity when it 
 becomes ripe, and being eatable like a soft ripe 
 pear. This quince is highly perfumed, and its 
 odour is so strong, that it is said to be impos-
 
 192 THE MANAGEMENT OF [CHAP. VII. 
 
 sible for a single specimen of the fruit to be in 
 a caravan without every one accompanying the 
 caravan being aware of its presence. 
 
 Miscellaneous Fruit Trees. — Under 
 this head I shall include all those trees usually 
 grown as standards in pleasure-grounds or on 
 lawns ; but which, as their fruit is eaten, appear 
 properly to belong to the department of the 
 kitchen-garden. 
 
 The Medlar. — There are three or four kinds 
 of medlars, one of which is much larger than 
 the others. The medlar will thrive in any soil 
 or situation not too dry ; but, like the quince, 
 it does best within the reach of water. The 
 fruit, which is never eaten till it is in a state 
 of decay, is not of much value, but the flowers 
 are very large and rather handsome. 
 
 The Mulberry. — There are three distinct 
 species of mulberry, besides innumerable va- 
 rieties. The distinct species are, the White, 
 only used for feeding silk-worms with its leaves; 
 the Black, which is generally grown in gardens 
 for its fruit; and the Red, or American, Mul- 
 berry. In addition to these may be mentioned 
 the Large White Mulberry of Iran, introduced 
 by Mr. Barker in 1848. Many persons are 
 not aware of the difference between the black 
 and the white mulberries, and they think that 
 if they have a mulberry tree in their garden, 
 they cannot do better than feed their silk- 
 worms with its leaves ; though the fact is, that 
 the white mulberry is scarcely ever grown in 
 England, and the leaves of the black mulberry 
 are positively injurious to the worms. Lettuce 
 leaves are, indeed, better than any other food for
 
 CHAP, vn.] THE MULBERRY. 193 
 
 silk-worms reared in England. The fruit of 
 the red mulberry is eatable, but not very good ; 
 and its leaves are also injurious to silk-worms. 
 From the fruit of the large white Persian Mul- 
 berrv a svrup is extracted scarcely to be dis- 
 tinguished from that made from sugar. 
 
 The black mulberry is said to be a native of 
 Persia ; but if so it must have been brought to 
 Europe at a very early period, as it was common 
 in Italy when ancient Rome was at her zenith. 
 It appears to have been introduced into Eng- 
 land long before 1573, as some old trees, still 
 in existence, are said to have been of consider- 
 able size in that year. The mulberry has 
 several peculiarities in its habits, which dis- 
 tinguish it from most other trees. The most 
 striking of these is, that it may be propagated 
 by truncheons : that is, if a large limb of a 
 tree, as thick as a man's arm, or thicker, be 
 cut off, and stuck into the ground, it will grow 
 without anv further trouble being taken with it; 
 and probably the next year, or the year after, 
 it will bear abundance of fruit. This, I believe, 
 is the case with no other tree except the olive. 
 The mulberry also is later than any other tree 
 in coming into leaf; but, when it does begin to 
 open its buds, its leaves are expanded, and its 
 young fruit formed, without any apparent 
 flowers, in an incredibly short time. Another 
 peculiarity is, that old trees frequently split into 
 five or six different parts, each of which in 
 time becomes surrounded with bark, so that a 
 very old and thick trunk appears changed into 
 five or six slender new ones : the branches also, 
 if they lie along the ground, take root and 
 

 
 194 THE MANAGEMENT OF [CHAP. VII. 
 
 become trees ; and if an old mulberry tree be 
 blown down, every branch sends down roots 
 into the ground, and in a very short time be- 
 comes a tree. When apparently dead, a mul- 
 berry may in most cases be resuscitated by 
 cutting it down to just above the collar, when 
 it will send up a number of young stems, 
 which will very soon be covered with fruit. 
 The mulberry, in other respects, needs very 
 little care from the gardener; it requires no 
 pruning, and even the fruit does not require 
 gathering, as it drops as soon as it is ripe. 
 
 The Elder is rather a shrub than a tree ; and 
 from its very disagreeable smell and straggling 
 habit of growth, it is rarely planted except in 
 cottage gardens. There are several kinds ; 
 one with white berries, another with green, and 
 a third, which is very ornamental, with scarlet 
 berries. There is also a very handsome kind 
 with cut leaves. A ptisan made of the flowers 
 is reckoned excellent in France for producing 
 perspiration in cases of colds and fevers ; and 
 the fruit of the black-berried kind is used for 
 making wine, and also a kind of jam. 
 
 The Pomegranate. — If the elder be con- 
 sidered a plebeian fruit, the pomegranate may 
 be called an aristocratic one, as it is rarely seen 
 in England except in the gardens of persons of 
 rank and wealth. Notwithstanding this, it 
 requires but little care from the gardener, and 
 it is only necessary for him to spare the knife ; 
 since the flowers are produced only on the 
 points of the shoots, and on short slender 
 twigs projecting from the branches, which are 
 exactly what a gardener, whose only care is to
 
 CHAP, vn.] THE WALNUT. 195 
 
 make bis tree look neat, would think it advis- 
 able to cut off. Pomegranates require very 
 rich and well-pulverised soil, and to be trained 
 against a wall with a south or south-east aspect. 
 When it is wished to throw pomegranate trees 
 into fruit, the blossoms should be shaded during 
 the whole time of their expansion. The Pome- 
 granate of Tabriz, which weighs from fifty to 
 sixtv ounces, has very rarely any seeds. This 
 fruit is seldom eaten, but its juice is squeezed 
 into a goblet, and drunk like sherbet. 
 
 Nut Trees. — The principal kinds of nut 
 trees cultivated in British gardens are, the 
 walnut, the sweet chestnut, and the filbert. 
 The American hickories and the black walnut 
 are sometimes grown, though but rarely; as 
 are the colurna and other nuts. The almond, 
 also, as it is grown only for the kernel of its 
 stones, may be classed among the nuts, though 
 it is, properly speaking, a kind of peach. 
 
 The Walnut can hardly be mentioned with- 
 out bringing with it a host of classical recollec- 
 tions. The Greeks dedicated this tree to 
 Diana, and held fetes under its shade ; and the 
 Romans called its fruit the nut of Jove. Among 
 the Greeks, at weddings the bride threw a quan- 
 tity of walnuts on the ground as a symbol of 
 her deserting the homage of Diana; and this 
 custom was afterwards adopted not only bv 
 the Romans, but by the Gauls. Hence, in 
 some parts of France, walnuts are still thrown 
 among the crowd by the bride, as she returns 
 from the ceremony ; and hence the French 
 term for a wedding, "faire les noces" is derived 
 from the Latin word nuces, which signifies nuts. 
 
 o 2
 
 196 THE MANAGEMENT OF [CHAP. VII. 
 
 In modern times, the wood of the walnut tree 
 has obtained rather an unpleasant kind of 
 celebrity, as being generally used for making 
 the stocks of muskets. In villages and country 
 places, however, the walnut recalls more agree- 
 able associations, as its noble leaves and 
 spreading branches render it a delightful tree 
 for shade, and formerly it used to be frequently 
 found at the doors of cottages and farm-houses. 
 
 There are several kinds of walnut trees cul- 
 tivated for their fruit; all varieties of one 
 species, and differing principally in the hard- 
 ness or comparative softness of their shells. 
 Walnut trees are generally propagated by sow- 
 ing the nuts ; and, if the young trees are 
 planted in a light, sandy, and well-drained soil, 
 they will grow rapidly, and bear at an early 
 age. 
 
 The custom which prevails among the 
 country people in some parts of England and 
 France, of beating a barren walnut tree to 
 make it bear, is efficacious ; as the beating 
 breaks off the points of the too luxuriant 
 shoots, and makes them send out those short 
 spurs which alone produce fruit, though the 
 end would be attained with more certainty by 
 pruning. A decoction of walnut leaves and 
 husks is said to be very efficacious in pro- 
 tecting plants against insects, if sprinkled on 
 the leaves. 
 
 The nut of the black walnut (Juglans nigra) 
 is so hard as to be of little use for the table ; 
 and only the nuts of two or three kinds of the 
 hickories can be considered as fruit. The best 
 of these is the peccane nut (Carya olivseformis),
 
 CHAP, vn.] THE SWEET CHESTNUT. 197 
 
 of which Washington is said to have been so 
 fond that he used to be continually eating them 
 durino- his campaigns, being rarely without 
 some in his pocket. The white hickory 
 (Carva sulcata), the outer rind of which is 
 very thick and fleshy, is also good to eat. 
 
 The sweet Chestnut is frequently called the 
 Spanish chestnut, because the best sweet chest- 
 nuts were formerly brought to the London 
 markets from Spain. The tree can, indeed, 
 scarcely be considered as an English fruit tree, 
 as very few of the chestnuts sold for the table 
 are grown in England. In France, chestnut 
 trees are more common ; and they are divided 
 there into the chataio-niers and the marroniers ; 
 the former bearing about the same relation to 
 the latter as the crab does to the apple. The 
 best chestnuts in France are those called les 
 marrons de Lyons. The sweet chestnut is a 
 native of Asia ; but it has also been found in 
 the North of Africa and in North America. It 
 is always propagated by seeds, and thrives best 
 in a deep sandy loam ; it will grow in even the 
 poorest gravel, but it never does well in either 
 a calcareous soil, or in a stiff clay. 
 
 There are several celebrated chestnut trees of 
 enormous size and great age ; the most remark- 
 able of which are the Castagna di Cento 
 Cavalli on Mount Etna, and the Tortworth 
 chestnut in England. Till within the last eight 
 or ten years it was believed that the wood of 
 the chestnut was good timber ; but it has 
 lately been discovered that it is absolutely worth- 
 less, except while quite young : the wood that 
 was supposed to be chestnut having been proved
 
 198 THE MANAGEMENT OF [CHIP. VIL 
 
 to be that of the English chestnut oak (Quercus 
 sessiliflora). The wood of the chestnut, when 
 the tree attains a large size, becomes what the 
 English timber-merchants call shaky, or what 
 the French call dialled ; that is, instead of 
 forming: a solid loo; of timber, the trunk when 
 cut down is found to fly off in splinters, or to 
 divide into a number of angular pieces, as if 
 shivered by a blow from the centre. 
 
 The Filbert is only a variety of the common 
 hazel; and it is supposed to derive its name 
 from the words " full beard," in allusion to the 
 length of its husk. The varieties of the hazel 
 are, indeed, divided into two classes : those 
 with long husks, which are called the filberts; 
 and those with short husks, which are called 
 the nuts. All the varieties grow best in cal- 
 careous soils, like those of Kent ; in which 
 county the best nuts grown in England are 
 raised. When either filberts or nuts are grown 
 in gardens, they are usually planted in rows 
 from five feet to ten feet apart from each other in 
 the row, according as they are wanted to grow 
 high or to spread. Filberts are generally pro- 
 pagated by sowing the seeds, and nuts by 
 suckers, which the trees throw up in abund- 
 ance. " The principal art in the culture of the 
 filbert as a fruit tree," says Mr. Loudon in his 
 Arboretum Britannicum, " consists in training 
 and pruning it properly, as the blossoms are 
 produced upon the sides and extremities of the 
 young upper branches, and from small young 
 shoots which proceed from the bases of side 
 branches cut off the preceding year. The tree 
 requires to be kept remarkably open, in order
 
 CHAP. VII.] THE FILBERT, ETC. 199 
 
 that the main branches may produce young 
 wood throughout the whole of their length. 
 In the filbert orchards about Maidstone, the 
 trees are trained with short stems like goose- 
 berry bushes, and are formed into the shape 
 of a punch-bowl, exceedingly thin of wood." 
 When the trees are pruned, care is taken to 
 eradicate all the suckers. Filberts are always 
 kept in their husks; and, if they lose 
 their colour and appear black or mouldy, their 
 appearance is renovated by the dealers, by 
 putting them into iron trays pierced with holes, 
 and gently shaking them over a chafing-dish 
 full of charcoal, on which a little powdered 
 sulphur has been thrown while the charcoal 
 was red-hot. 
 
 The Constantinople Nut, or Colurna hazel, 
 is a large handsome tree ; and the American 
 hazels are shrubs grown occasionally in plan- 
 tations, but not cultivated in England for their 
 fruit. 
 
 The Almond is in fact a peach tree, with a 
 fruit having a leathery pericarp instead of a 
 fleshy one ; and what are called almonds are 
 the kernels of the stones of this fruit. The 
 bitter and sweet almonds are varieties of the 
 same species ; and there are several other 
 varieties differing principally in the degree of 
 hardness of the stone. The other part of the 
 fruit is in all the varieties quite worthless, ex- 
 cept for the prussic acid it contains. The 
 prussic acid used in medicine is, however, made 
 principally from the kernel of the bitter almond, 
 though it does not exist in that of the sweet 
 variety. Almond trees are propagated by
 
 200 THE MANAGEMENT OF [CHAP. VII. 
 
 grafting either on almond or plum stocks. 
 They are frequently planted for the beauty of 
 their flowers, which appear before the leaves, 
 but they are seldom grown in England for 
 their fruit; most of the almonds sold in London 
 being imported from Italy or Spain. The 
 Jordan almonds, which are considered the best, 
 are brought from Malaga. The almond re- 
 quires a dry soil, either sandy or calcareous ; 
 and the situation should be sheltered, as the 
 branches are brittle and apt to be broken off 
 by high winds. When the stones are sown, 
 care should be taken to press the sharp ends 
 downwards. The young plants will not bear 
 transplanting, as they will send down taproots 
 two feet long the first season. 
 
 Fruit Shrubs. — The principal fruit shrubs 
 grown in gardens are, Gooseberries, currants, 
 and raspberries ; to which may be added ber- 
 berries and cranberries. 
 
 TJie Gooseberry. — The number of varieties 
 of this useful fruit almost exceeds belief, and 
 fresh kinds are originated every year. The 
 principal reason of the great number of goose- 
 berries thus raised may be traced to the goose- 
 berry shows now so prevalent in different parts 
 of the kingdom. At these shows the largest 
 and heaviest berries gain the prize ; and it thus 
 becomes an object with the exhibitors to grow 
 berries that shall be as large and as heavy as 
 possible. For this purpose they raise a great 
 many new kinds ; and when they have obtained 
 one likely to suit their purpose, they plant it in 
 very rich soil, water it well, and, picking off 
 all the berries except three or four, they nourish
 
 CHAP. VII.] the gooseberry. 201 
 
 these by putting' saucers filled with water under 
 each. By these cares gooseberries haTe been 
 produced weighing aboTe an ounce and a half 
 each, and one weighing very nearly two ounces; 
 though gooseberries generally, even of large 
 size, seldom weigh above half an ounce. 
 
 Gooseberries may be propagated either by 
 seeds or cuttings ; and they will thrive in any 
 good garden soil, if it be well drained, well 
 manured, and not under the drip of trees. 
 W hen gooseberries are wanted large, the ground 
 between the rows should have a coating of 
 rotten manure laid on it every third year. 
 Gooseberry bushes are generally planted in 
 rows, the rows eight or ten feet apart, and the 
 bushes six feet from each other in the rows. 
 They are pruned twice a year : in winter to 
 remove the branches not likely to produce fruit ; 
 and in early summer, because gooseberry bushes 
 generally produce more shoots than they can 
 ripen, and these superfluous shoots carry off a 
 portion of the nourishment required for the 
 fruit, which is produced partly on the shoots of 
 the preceding year, and partly on spurs of the 
 old wood. Some gardeners only suffer the 
 fruit on the young wood to ripen, as it is larger 
 in size and finer in quality than that on the 
 old wood ; but the spurs produce by far the 
 greater quantity. It is a very good plan to 
 thin the fruit ; which is easily done, when 
 gathering green gooseberries for pies and pud- 
 dings, by taking a few from every branch, and 
 never gathering from the same tree twice. The 
 best Red Gooseberries for general use are 
 perhaps the following; : the Warrington, which
 
 202 THE MANAGEMENT OF [CHAP. VII. 
 
 is a great bearer, and retains its fruit a long 
 time on the tree ; the Champagne, an early 
 gooseberry of very fine flavour; the Early 
 Rough Red, small, but remarkable for its sweet- 
 ness ; the Roaring Lion, the largest gooseberry 
 grown, a good bearer, the berries of which are 
 oblong, and have a smooth skin ; the Iron- 
 monger, the fruit of which is almost black ; the 
 Crown Bob, a very large gooseberry, equally 
 good for using green or ripe ; and the Top- 
 Sawyer, a large, round, and rough gooseberry, 
 with a very thin skin, and an agreeable flavour. 
 The best White Gooseberries are : the White 
 Dutch, the Whitesmith, Wellington's Glory, 
 and the Cheshire Lass, the last two being of a 
 very large size. The best Yellow are : Rum- 
 bullion and Rockwood, the first of which is 
 reckoned the best of all gooseberries for pre- 
 serving ; and the best Green are : Ocean, a large 
 early gooseberry ; Massey's Heart of Oak ; 
 and the Pitmaston Green Gage, a late variety 
 remarkable for its extraordinary sweetness, and 
 for its hanging on the tree till destroyed by frost. 
 The best early gooseberries are : the small dark 
 Rough Red, and Keens' seedling Warrington, 
 the Early Green Hairy, the Green Walnut, 
 and the Early White. The best late goose- 
 berries are : Leigh's Rifleman, Farmer's Glory, 
 the Warrington, the Roaring Lion, the Yellow 
 Ball, the White Honey, the White Fig, Bright 
 Venus, and the Pitmaston Green Gage. 
 
 Currants are very seldom raised from seeds, 
 as there is no particular desire for the produc- 
 tion of new sorts. The usual mode of pro- 
 pagation is by cuttings, which are taken off
 
 chap, vn.] RASPBERRIES. 203 
 
 the strongest shoots in autumn, or early in 
 spring, and planted in rich soil. The cuttings 
 are srenerallv about a foot Ions;; and all the 
 buds are taken off except five or six at the 
 top : the cutting is then firmly inserted in the 
 soil about six inches deep. No other care is 
 required but pruning the young trees every 
 year. The currant bears on spurs of the old 
 and new wood; and, as currant trees when 
 pruned are generally cut in to these spurs, a 
 currant bush after its winter pruning looks like 
 a worthless knotted stump, fit only for the fire. 
 The currant is very hardy, and will grow in 
 any soil or situation, even under the drip of 
 trees. In open situations and rich soils, cur- 
 rants have been grown to a very large size ; 
 but not proportionately large to gooseberries. 
 The red, white, and striped currants are varie- 
 ties of the same species ; but the black is 
 another species. All belong to the same genus 
 as the gooseberry. 
 
 Raspberries thrive best in a light free loam, 
 moderately rich ; and in an open situation. 
 They always bear on the young shoots, so 
 that the principal art required in pruning them 
 consists in cutting out the old wood, and short- 
 ening the vouns 1 . The height at which the 
 bearing shoots should be left is three or four 
 feet. The best raspberries are: the Red and 
 Yellow Antwerp; the Fastolff; and the New 
 Victoria. Raspberries are propagated by 
 suckers, which are produced in great abund- 
 ance every year. The raspberry belongs to the 
 same o-enus as the bramble or blackberry. 
 
 Berberries. — No fruit tree or shrub requires
 
 204 THE CRANBERRY. [CHAP. \U. 
 
 less care in its culture than the barberry, or, as 
 it is more properly called, the berberry. The 
 kinds usually grown for their fruit are all varie- 
 ties of the common sort : they are the common 
 Red, the Stoneless, and the Sweet. Several of 
 the Mahonias or Ash Berberries bear excellent 
 fruit, as do the Nepal species, and that from 
 the Straits of Magelhaen. The common ber- 
 berry will grow in any soil and situation, and 
 it does not require any pruning. 
 
 The Cranberry is generally grown in moist 
 soil or peat earth. It succeeds very well on 
 the muddy margin of a pond ; but it may also 
 be grown very well in the common garden soil, 
 like the strawberry. When the cranberries are 
 once planted, they will require no after-care 
 except the occasional trimming into shape of 
 their long runners. The common cranberry is 
 a native of England, Scotland, and, indeed, of 
 all the North of Europe ; but its fruit is much 
 smaller than that of the American cranberry, 
 which has also a more delicate flavour.
 
 205 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 THE FLOWER-GARDEX, AND THE CULTURE OF 
 FLOWERS. 
 
 Whatever doubts may be entertained as to 
 the practicability of a lady attending; to the 
 culture of culinary vegetables and fruit trees, 
 none can exist respecting - her management of 
 the flower-garden, as that is pre-eminently a 
 woman's department. The culture of flowers 
 implies the lio-htest possible kind of garden 
 labour ; only, indeed, enough to give an interest 
 in its effects. This light labour is, in fact, one 
 of the reasons that the culture of flowers is so 
 generallv a favourite occupation ; as, though it 
 is one of the conditions of our nature that we 
 shall never enjoy what is too easily obtained, 
 it is equally true that we cannot associate the 
 ideas of pleasure with anything that gives us 
 verv much trouble. The culture of flowers is 
 exactly in the happy medium between what is 
 too hard and what is too easy. There are dif- 
 ficulties in it, but they are such as may be 
 readily surmounted; and the result at once 
 gratifies our own sense of what is beautiful, and 
 our pride at being the means of presenting so 
 much that is worthy to be admired to others.
 
 206 THE FLOWER-GARDEN. [CHAP. VIIL 
 
 Laying out a Flower-Garden. — Very little 
 need be said of the aspect of the flower-garden, 
 as, in most cases, it depends on circumstances 
 quite beyond the control of the cultivator of 
 flowers : when, however, a situation can be 
 chosen, the best is one open to the south or 
 south-east, and sheltered on the north. It 
 must be observed, however, in all situations, 
 that flowers never do well under the shade of 
 trees. Where no ground can be spared for a 
 flower-garden but a spot surrounded by tall 
 trees, it is better to give up at once the idea of 
 crowing flowers in it in beds, and to ornament 
 it with rockwork, fountains, vases, statues, &'c, 
 interspersed with a few flowering trees and 
 shrubs, «o arranged, that, though their flowers, 
 if produced, would augment the beauty of the 
 scene, the want of them may not destroy it, if 
 they should fail. Flower-gardens are of two 
 kinds : those that are called natural, and which 
 are planted without any regard to regularity ; 
 and those that are called geometrical, and which 
 consist of beds forming some definite figure. 
 
 The natural, or English style, as it is called 
 abroad, however beautiful it may be in plea- 
 sure-grounds, is very ill-adapted to a flower- 
 garden, which is essentially artificial. The 
 principal beauty of a flower-garden consists, 
 indeed, in the elegance with which it has been 
 arranged, and the neatness with which it is 
 kept; or, in other words, in the evidence it 
 affords of the art that has been employed in 
 forming it. This being the case, it is quite 
 clear that an artificial mode of arrangement is 
 more suitable to it than any other, as it is best
 
 CHAP. Tin.] LAYING OUT. 207 
 
 adapted for keeping up the harmony of the 
 whole. In all cases, therefore, where the gar- 
 den is large enough to show a formal figure to 
 advantage, the artificial mode of arrangement 
 
 should be adopted ; and, wherever it is adopted, 
 the beds should be planted so as to form masses 
 of different-coloured flowers. Where, however, 
 the garden ground is very small, and no part 
 of it can be set entirely apart for flowers, no 
 attempt should be made to produce masses of 
 colour in regular forms; but the plants should 
 be arranged along the borders singly, or in 
 patches, as may be best adapted to display the 
 individual beauties of each. In some cases, 
 flowers may be planted in borders, so as to 
 form a miniature representation of the Natural 
 System of Botany. For instance, first there 
 might be planted patches of ranunculuses and 
 anemones, intermixed with flos Adonis, lark- 
 spurs, columbines, monk's-hood, and other 
 plants belonging to KanunculaceaB ; the spring- 
 flowering kinds being mixed with the autumnal 
 ones, so as to produce a succession of flowers. 
 Next should be planted the different kinds of 
 fumitory and the poppies, to represent the order 
 Papaveraceae; and next, stocks, wallflowers, 
 and other Cruciferous plants. These might be 
 followed by mignonnette, violets and hearts- 
 eases, pinks and carnations, the different kinds 
 of flax, the mallows ; and, in short, the plan 
 might be easily carried through all the orders 
 containing ornamental herbaceous plants, takino- 
 care to choose such species as would flower in 
 succession. In this manner, the beds might 
 be arranged, by mixing perennials and annuals,
 
 208 THE FLOWER-GARDEN. [CHAP. Vin. 
 
 so as to form an ornamental botanic garden 
 during the whole of the flowering season ; and 
 the flower-garden would thus become not merely 
 a source of elegant amusement, but also ac- 
 tually of scientific knowledge, without any ap- 
 pearance of formal arrangement. 
 
 When the flower-garden is to be a wome- 
 trical one, the best way of designing it is to 
 draw a figure on paper consisting of angular, 
 circular, or serpentine forms, to represent beds, 
 and arranging them so as to form a whole. 
 This may appear easy at first, but to do it well 
 requires a great deal of both taste and inge- 
 nuity; as each form should not only harmonise 
 well with the others, but be handsome in itself. 
 Where the space to be laid out is small, the 
 figure may be more complex, and the separate 
 beds more grotesque in their shapes, than when 
 the garden is large : but, where a large space 
 is devoted to flowers, only simply-formed beds 
 should be adopted. The reason for this is, 
 that when the beds are of bizarre shapes, they 
 require to be seen at one coup-dceil to have a 
 good effect ; whereas simple and uniform shapes 
 may be seen either together or alone, without 
 producing any disagreeable impression on the 
 mind. Thus, in large flower-gardens, a suc- 
 cession of circles or ovals at regular distances, 
 so as to form continually changing vistas to 
 the spectator who walks through them, will 
 have a much better effect than any geometric 
 figure, the parts composing which appear ridi- 
 culous when disjointed. Whatever figures may 
 be adopted, as soon as they have been sketched 
 on paper, each bed should be coloured; to try
 
 CHAP. Vin.] LAYING OUT. 209 
 
 what arrangement of colours will be best suited 
 to the form of the beds, &c. The colours, of 
 course, should be those usually found in flowers; 
 for example, yellow, scarlet, blue, pink, orange, 
 and purple : and they should be arranged, not 
 only with a view to effect, but with regard to 
 the practicability of filling the beds with suit- 
 able flowers. The colours above mentioned 
 may, however, generally be procured ; and a 
 bed of white flowers may be added at pleasure, 
 wherever it may appear necessary. 
 
 To understand the best method of combining; 
 colours, it is necessary to know that there are 
 three primitive colours, blue, red, and yellow ; 
 and four compound ones, purple, green, orange, 
 and violet, each of which is composed of two of 
 the primitive colours. In arranging colours, the 
 great art is never to let a compound colour be 
 placed between the two primitive ones that com- 
 pose it ; as, for example, green should not be 
 placed between blue and yellow, or purple be- 
 tween red and blue, as the effect would be dis- 
 agreeable to the eye, and the colours would be 
 killed, that is, they w T ould lose their brilliancy. 
 On the contrary, it is found that each primitive 
 colour has a compound colour peculiarly suited to 
 it, which is composed of the other two primitive 
 colours. Thus the harmonising' colour of red is 
 green, which is composed of blue and yellow ; 
 of yellow, violet or purple, both which are com- 
 posed of blue and red; and of blue, orange, 
 which is a combination of red and yellow ; and 
 hence it will be found, that colours arranged 
 in this order will produce a more agreeable 
 effect to the eye than in any other succession. 
 
 p
 
 210 THE" FLOWER-GARDEN. [CHAP. vni. 
 
 Very dark flowers which are almost black 
 may, like white flowers, be introduced any- 
 where. 
 
 The forms of the- beds and the colour of the 
 flowers having been decided on, the next step 
 is to mark the beds on the ground, and this is 
 done in several different ways. One is by co- 
 vering the paper containing the pattern with 
 squares, and then forming much larger squares 
 with packthread over the ground ; that part of 
 the outline of the figure contained in each of 
 the small squares is then to be transferred to 
 the corresponding large square, by tracing it 
 on the ground with the point of a stick. When 
 the pattern is regular, it is sometimes marked 
 on the ground by stretching a garden line from 
 one point to another by means of pegs. When 
 this line is so arranged as to form the proper 
 figure, it is chalked, and made to thrill between 
 the pegs, so as to transfer the chalk in the pro- 
 per lines to the ground. When circles are to 
 be traced, it is done by first fixing a stake in 
 the centre, and then forming a loop at the end 
 of a cord, and putting it over the stake. One 
 end of the cord being thus fastened to the stake, 
 the other end should be stretched out to the 
 extremity of the radius, or half-diameter of the 
 circle, and a short pointed stick should be tied 
 to it, with which the circle may be traced all 
 round. An oval is made by tracing two circles, 
 the outer edge of one of which just touches the 
 centre of the other ; a short line is then drawn 
 at the top, and another at the bottom, and this, 
 when the central lines are obliterated, forms the 
 oval. Many other ways will suggest them-
 
 CHAP. VIII.] LAYING OUT. 211 
 
 selves, and may be adopted : the essential points 
 in all being to have the ground first dug, and 
 made perfectly smooth and level ; and then to 
 have the figure clearly and accurately traced 
 out and tested by measurement, before any of 
 the beds are formed, or the turf or gravel laid 
 down. 
 
 Planting the beds and forming the walks 
 require nearly as much care as tracing out the 
 figure. Many persons, however, are not aware 
 of this : they think, if the figure be good and 
 accurately traced on the ground, that nothing 
 more will be required; or, if anything more 
 be necessary, it is only to indicate the proper 
 colours of the flowers to be planted in the beds 
 to the gardener. 
 
 This, however, is not enough. Low plants, 
 producing abundance of flowers, must be chosen, 
 and these must be carefully trained, or pegged 
 down, so as to cover the beds entirely, or the 
 effect will be destroyed. If, for example, a bed 
 of scarlet be wanted, a lady would probably 
 think that her gardener would have no. trouble 
 in finding abundance of scarlet flowers; and, 
 having told him the colour, she would give her- 
 self no further trouble. Now the kind of scar- 
 let flower to be used depends entirely on the 
 position of the bed, and the kinds of flowers 
 used in the other beds. If these flowers have 
 been dwarfs, and trained so as entirely to cover 
 the ground, the scarlet flower used should be 
 the Verbena Melindres (or chamaedrifolia, as it 
 is now called), or some of its varieties, and each 
 stem should be pegged down close to the ground. 
 Thus treated, and supplied with abundance of 
 
 p 2
 
 212 THE FLOWER-GARDEN. [CHAP. VIII. 
 
 water, being grown in rich light soil, on a porous 
 or well-drained subsoil, the verbena will soon 
 become a splendid mass of scarlet, almost too 
 dazzling for the eye to bear, unless it be relieved 
 by grass walks between the beds. If, on the 
 contrary, the bed in question had been planted 
 with one of the scarlet lobelias, or even with 
 scarlet pelargoniums, the effect would have 
 been quite different, from the taller growth of 
 the plants, and the greater proportion of leaves 
 to their flowers. Where pelargoniums are grown 
 to produce an effect in beds, either the variety 
 called Tom Thumb should be used, or the plants 
 should be kept bushy while in the greenhouse 
 or frame, by continually shifting them into larger 
 pots, or frequently taking off the points of their 
 shoots ; and, when planted out, they should be 
 at least a foot or eighteen inches asunder, in- 
 creasing the distance if the plants are very 
 large. The Frogmore and Dropmore varieties 
 are very suitable for central beds, or for situa- 
 tions where the height is of no consequence; 
 but where a geometrical figure is to be pre- 
 served, the Tom Thumb variety is preferable to 
 any other from its low growth. The plants 
 should be well watered, and frequently pruned 
 wherever they throw up long shoots. Other 
 plants should be treated in a similar manner ; 
 and great care should be taken to keep all the 
 plants, in the beds which are to combine to 
 form a figure, of the same height, and equally 
 covered with flowers. The centre bed alone 
 may have taller plants. Where the walks are 
 of gravel, a greater proportion of leaves may 
 be allowed to the flowers; but a geometrical
 
 CHAP, vm.] CULTURE OF FLOWERS. 213 
 
 flower-garden never looks half so well on gravel 
 as on grass. Some gardeners spoil the effect 
 of a garden of this kind by putting too many- 
 plants in each bed, and when this is the case, 
 the plants frequently produce more stalks than 
 either leaves or flowers. Whenever, therefore, 
 beds of verbenas look overgrown, and of a 
 dingy green, the plants should be examined, 
 and 'half of them taken up. Three plants are 
 quite sufficient for a bed four feet wide and 
 twelve feet long ; and less in proportion. It 
 must never be "forgotten that the bed appears 
 fuller when there are only a few plants in it, 
 than when there are many; as, when there are 
 only two or three plants in a bed, there is room 
 to peg the branches down, and this makes them 
 flower profusely; whereas, when there are six 
 or eight plants in the same space, the branches 
 are forced to ascend, and the beauty of the bed 
 is destroyed. 
 
 The walks of a geometrical flower-garden, if 
 of grass, may be laid down with turf, or sown 
 with grass seeds ; and in either case they should 
 neverbe pared (as that would enlarge the beds, 
 and destroy their proportion to the walks), un- 
 less some part should accidentally project into 
 the bed, when it should be removed, and the 
 turf pressed down, so as to form the same gra- 
 dual slope from the bed to the walk as in the 
 other part. Where the walks are of gravel, 
 the beds should have a neat edgino- of box, or 
 of any other plant that may be preferred, kept 
 quite low and narrow by frequent pruning, but 
 which should never be clipped. 
 
 TJie Culture of Flowers. — The ornamental
 
 214 THE FLOWER-GARDEN. [CHAP. Vin. 
 
 flowers grown in gardens may be all arranged 
 under the heads of annuals, biennials, peren- 
 nials, bulbs, tubers, corms, dwarf flowering 
 shrubs, climbers, twiners, trailers, and rock 
 plants ; and, as the culture of the plants in each 
 division is nearly the same, I shall say a few 
 words on each, particularising those plants 
 which require a different treatment from the 
 ordinary routine of their kind. 
 
 Annuals. — Most of the hardy annual flow r ers 
 should be sown in March, April, or May, in the 
 open border where they are intended to remain. 
 The usual method of sowing in the borders is, 
 first to loosen the ground with a fork, and to 
 break the soil very fine ; after which it should 
 be made perfectly level, and raked. A circle is 
 then made by pressing the bottom of a flower- 
 pot saucer, three or four inches in diameter, on 
 the ground, and six or eight seeds are spread 
 over the level surface thus formed : a little soil 
 is then sprinkled over them, and the surface 
 slightly pressed again with the saucer. If the 
 weather or the soil be dry, a slight watering 
 should be given to the seeds after sowing, with 
 a watering-pot having a very fine rose ; but this 
 must be done carefully, as too much water would 
 wash the seeds out of their place. It is usual, 
 after sowing, to stick a flat stick into the 
 ground, in the centre of the patch, with the 
 name of the flower upon it ; and it is better to 
 write these names very plainly with a rather soft 
 black-lead pencil, than with ink, as the ink is 
 very apt to run, and to render the words indis- 
 tinct. It is customary with many gardeners, 
 after sowing flower-seeds, to turn a flower-pot
 
 chap, rni.] A NNUA LS, 215 
 
 over them ; and this practice is useful in keep- 
 ing the seeds moist by preventing evaporation, 
 while the hole in the bottom of the pot admits 
 enough light and air for o-ermination. The 
 flower-pot should, however, be removed as soon 
 as the young plants appear above ground ; as, 
 if kept on longer, the plants would be drawn 
 up, and their stems would become so elongated, 
 and consequently so weak, that they would 
 never recover their strength or beauty. Flower- 
 ing plants should always be kept dwarf and 
 compact ; not only on account of the superior 
 neatness of their appearance, but because tall 
 ill-grown plants never produce fine flowers. 
 For this reason, as soon as annuals attain their 
 second pair of leaves, they should be thinned 
 out ; and again, when about a foot high, if ne- 
 cessary. As the plants grow they should be 
 watered occasionally ; and when of a proper 
 heioht staked and tied up, if of a kind to re- 
 quire support. As soon as the flowers fade they 
 should be cut off; unless, as is sometimes the 
 case, the plant has very ornamental seed pods, 
 when they may be left on. It is seldom worth 
 while for any lady to save her own seed ; but, 
 when she does so, the plants for that purpose 
 should be grown in a back garden or reserve- 
 ground, as they greatly disfioure a flower-o-arden. 
 All annuals, indeed, should be taken up, and 
 carried to the refuse heap as soon as they cease 
 to be ornamental; as, in their withered state, 
 they only call up unpleasant images in the 
 mind. 
 
 Tender annuals are raised on a hotbed, and, 
 though generally sown in February, are not
 
 216 THE FLOWER-GARDEN. [CHAP. VIII. 
 
 planted in the open ground till May. When 
 they have been raised in pots, the contents of 
 each pot should be carefully turned out, and put 
 into a hole made to receive them without break- 
 ing the ball of earth that has formed round the 
 roots of the plants. As some plants, for example 
 stocks and all the Cruciferae. require a rich soil, 
 a pit may be dug in the border a foot or eighteen 
 inches in diameter, and about the same depth, 
 and filled with a rich compost of equal parts of 
 garden mould, decayed leaves, and well-rotted 
 manure, or, what is much better, with the re- 
 mains of the trenches in which celery was 
 grown the preceding summer. The pit should 
 be filled with this compost, so as to raise it 
 about six inches higher than the rest of the 
 border, to allow for the new earth sinking, and 
 the annuals should be planted in the centre, and 
 carefully shaded for a few days by a flower-pot 
 beinsf turned over them. The mode of making: 
 and managing a hotbed has been already given 
 in the second chapter of this work ; but the 
 readiest way for the inhabitant of a suburban 
 villa to obtain half-hardy annuals is, to purchase 
 them from some nurseryman when ready for 
 transplanting. The usual price is from two- 
 pence to fourpence for a dozen plants; and thus, 
 for a couple of shillings, a sufficient number of 
 plants may be procured to make a splendid dis- 
 play in a small garden for a whole summer. 
 No one should, indeed, attempt to manage a 
 hotbed, who has not some person to pay con- 
 stant attention to it ; as one day's neglect re- 
 specting giving air, watering, &c, will some- 
 times destroy the hopes of a season.
 
 cHAP. VIII.] BIENNIALS. 217 
 
 The California!! annuals require peculiar 
 treatment. These plants are very hardy, and, 
 though many of them are of short duration in 
 flower, they may, by proper management, be 
 contrived to produce a brilliant effect during the 
 whole summer. For this purpose a well-trodden 
 path, or a piece of very hard ground, should be 
 covered about an inch thick with very light rich 
 soil ; and the seeds of any of the Californian 
 annuals should be sown in it. These will stand 
 the winter, and in February or March, when the 
 flower-beds have been dug over, and made quite 
 smooth, the annuals should be taken up with 
 the spade in patches and laid on the beds ; the 
 spaces between the patches being filled up with 
 soil, and the whole made quite firm and 
 compact, by beating each patch down with the 
 back of the spade. As soon as the patches 
 have been removed, fresh earth should be spread 
 on the hard ground, and fresh seeds sown in it, 
 the plants springing from which will be ready to 
 be transferred to the beds as soon as the first 
 series have done flowering ; and in this way a 
 succession of flowers may be kept up nearly 
 all the year, observing to dig over the beds in 
 the flower-garden, and to rake them smooth, 
 every time the old flowers are removed, in order 
 to prepare them for the new ones. 
 
 Biennials are plants which do not flower till 
 the second year. They are generallv sown in 
 March, April, or May, and are transplanted in 
 September to the situations where they are to 
 flower the following year. The best known of 
 these flowers are, the different kinds of hollv 
 hock, snapdragon, Canterbury bells, wall-
 
 218 THE FLOWER-GARDEN. [CHAP. VEL 
 
 flowers, sweet-williams, Oenotheras, and Bromp- 
 ton stocks ; but there are many others ex- 
 tremely beautiful, and equally well deserving of 
 cultivation. Most of the biennials may be pro- 
 pagated by layers or cuttings, and, thus treated, 
 they will last four or five years. 
 
 Perennial herbaceous plants are so numerous, 
 that few general directions can be given for their 
 culture, and it will be necessary to treat of the 
 principal families separately. Perennial flowers 
 are generally propagated by layers, cuttings, 
 offsets, suckers, and division of the root ; for, 
 when raised from seed, many of the kinds do 
 not blossom for several years. When propa- 
 gated by layers, the earth which is pressed over 
 the pegged-down shoots should not be kept too 
 moist ; as layers of herbaceous plants, particu- 
 larly where the stem has been partly slit through, 
 are very apt to rot. The same remark holds 
 good as to cuttings ; and they should generally 
 have fewer leaves left on than cuttings of trees 
 and shrubs. Many plants produce offsets, such 
 as the potentilla, the wild geranium, &c, and 
 these only require separating from the parent, 
 and planting in spring ; all the flower-buds 
 should, however, be pinched off the first year 
 to strengthen the plant, and to encourage it to 
 send down roots. Suckers are treated in exactly 
 the same manner as offsets. Division of the 
 roots is, however, the most common way of pro- 
 pagating perennials. To do this the plant is 
 generally taken up, and the roots pulled asunder 
 if dry, or cut into pieces if fleshy, and replanted ; 
 care being taken to cut off any part of the 
 fibrous roots that may have been wounded or
 
 
 CHAP. Tin.] AURICULAS. 219 
 
 broken bv the removal. The plant itself is also 
 generally pruned or cut in, and some of its leaves 
 are taken off before replanting ; and it is care- 
 fully shaded and watered till it has recovered 
 from the effects of its removal. All perennial 
 plants should be occasionally taken up, thinned, 
 and replanted with the same precautions : and 
 the ground dug over and renovated, before they 
 are replaced. 
 
 The most remarkable kinds of herbaceous 
 plants are those called florists' flowers. This 
 name indicates plants grown principally for the 
 purpose of exhibiting at some show to gain a 
 prize, and on the culture of which an extraordi- 
 nary degree of care has been bestowed. Most 
 of these are either bulbs or tubers, but some few 
 come under the present head ; and of these the 
 most remarkable are, the auricula, the polyan- 
 thus, the carnation, the pink, the heart's-ease, 
 and the chrysanthemum. 
 
 Auriculas are well-known and favourite 
 flowers ; the wild plant is a native of Switzer- 
 land, but it is almost as different from the culti- 
 vated kinds, as the wild cabbage is from broccoli 
 or cauliflower. The garden auriculas have 
 almost innumerable names, but they are all 
 divided into four kinds, very distinct from each 
 other. These kinds are, the Green-edged, the 
 Grev-edged, the White-edged, and the Selfs. 
 The' beauty of the flowers depends upon their 
 size, the clearness of their colours, and their 
 roundness and flatness ; these last qualities 
 being often assisted by art : the anthers of the 
 stamens should also rise above the stigma ; as 
 when the stigma is seen above the anthers the
 
 220 THE FLOWER-GARDEN. [CHAP. VIIL 
 
 flower is called pin-eyed, and is esteemed of 
 little value by florists. The culture of the auri- 
 cula, when it is to be grown as a prize flower, 
 demands a degree of care and attention that no 
 one but a professed florist would think it worth 
 his while to bestow. The great points appear to 
 be, to make the soil as rich as possible, using 
 the strongest manures ; to let the pots be very 
 well drained, by placing about an inch and a 
 half deep of broken pot-sherds in each pot; and 
 to keep the plants well and regularly watered. 
 When the flowers expand, they are generally 
 shaded with square pieces of board, tin, or 
 pasteboard, supported by a stick just over the 
 flower, so as. to shelter it from the direct in- 
 fluence of the sun, but to admit a free current 
 of air, and sufficient light. This precaution is 
 said to improve the clearness and intensitv of 
 the colours, which otherwise are apt to become 
 dull and clouded. Those persons who grow 
 auriculas for sale generally show them on what 
 is called a bloomino'-staoe, and shade them with 
 an awning like that used for a tulip bed. The 
 plants are propagated by offsets, or by dividing 
 the root; and new varieties are continually being 
 raised from seed. Auriculas are occasionally 
 double or semi-double, but these varieties are 
 considered by florists very far inferior to the 
 single kinds. 
 
 The Polyanthus is of the same genus as the 
 auricula, and of the same species as the prim- 
 rose. It is, however, a very distinct variety of 
 the last; and it is said to take its name of 
 polyanthus, which signifies many-flowered, 
 from its producing its flowers in trusses like
 
 CHAP. Till.] PRIMROSE, CARNATION. 221 
 
 the auricula, while the flowers of the primrose 
 are produced singly, each on a separate stalk 
 rising- from the root. The qualities of the 
 polyanthus resemble those of the auricula as to 
 form and shape, but there is not the same 
 variety as to colour, as the polyanthus is always 
 of a very dark brownish red and golden yellow. 
 The best flowers have generally a narrow 
 edging of a bright golden colour, and as clear 
 and distinct as possible, round the margin of 
 each petal; and no flower is at all esteemed 
 that has what is called a pin-eye; that is, as 
 before mentioned with regard to the auricula, 
 when the stigma projects beyond the anthers 
 of the stamens. The polyanthus is propagated 
 by slips, and by division of the root, and new 
 varieties are raised from seed. 
 
 The Primrose differs essentially from the 
 polyanthus and the auricula, in being only 
 esteemed when double, while they are not con- 
 sidered to rank as florists' flowers unless they 
 are single. The primrose, indeed, is not a 
 florists' flower; and its pretty double pale 
 yellow, dark scarlet, lilac, and white varieties 
 are only grown as common border perennials. 
 They like a rich loamy soil, rather moist than 
 otherwise, and a shady situation; and are pro- 
 pagated by division of the roots. 
 
 Jlie Carnation has long been a favourite 
 florists' flower; and, as it is not quite so difficult 
 to grow to a considerable degree of perfection 
 as the auricula, it is also a favourite border 
 flower. The florists' carnations are of three 
 kinds, viz. the Flakes, which are striped with 
 broad bands of two colours; the*Bizarres,
 
 222 THE FLOWER-GARDEN. [CHAP. VIII. 
 
 which are striped or streaked with three colours; 
 and the Picotees, which are much the hardiest, 
 and are only bordered with a narrow margin of 
 some dark colour, or dotted with very small 
 and almost imperceptible spots. The carna- 
 tion, in its wild state, is a native of England, 
 and is generally found on the walls of some 
 old castle or other ruin, or growing in very 
 poor, gravelly, or calcareous soil. The culti- 
 vated plant, of course, requires different treat- 
 ment; and the following directions have been 
 kindly given to me by one of the first growers 
 of carnations in France, whose opinion may 
 be relied upon. " The compost should be 
 a fresh mellow loam, mixed with an equal 
 quantity of terre de taupiniere (casts from 
 mole-hills); to this mixture should be added 
 a fifth of well-rotted cow-dung, so thoroughly 
 decayed as to have become quite black. The 
 soil thus prepared should be pressed firmly 
 into the pots, more so, indeed, than for any 
 other plant: thus there should be twice as 
 much earth as usual in pots for carnations. 
 The pots are placed in the sun till the 15th 
 or 20th of November, and watered a little 
 at a time, but often. After the 20th of No- 
 vember, at latest, the plants should be kept 
 entirely in the shade, so that they may not be 
 exposed to the sun at any time during the day; 
 and it is also absolutely necessary that they 
 should be kept under a roof where they may 
 be sheltered from the rain and snow; but they 
 must not be put in a hothouse, as a cold situa- 
 tion suits them much better. During frosty 
 weather, they should be very little watered, in
 
 CHAP. Yin.] CARNATION". 223 
 
 order that the soil in which they grow may not 
 freeze very hard. They are thus left in the 
 shade till the end of April, when, there beino; 
 no longer hoar-frosts to fear, they may be 
 exposed to the east, so that the sun may shine 
 upon them from its rising to the middle of the 
 day and no longer. Thus treated, thev will 
 grow luxuriantly, and produce a magnificent 
 show of flowers." 
 
 Carnations are propagated by layers and 
 cuttings, the last of which, as I have before 
 mentioned, are called pipings. The layers are 
 made when the flowers are in full blossom, and 
 several are made at once, as the operation 
 frequently kills the old plant, and consequently 
 cannot be practised with advantage unless a 
 great many plants are ready to take its place. 
 The layers are cut half through, as usual; and 
 covered half an inch deep with mould. As the 
 stalks are very brittle when they are strong 
 and succulent, it is customary to place the 
 plant in the sun for about half an hour or an 
 hour, to render it flaccid before the layers are 
 made. The layers will generally be well rooted 
 in a month or six weeks, and will then be 
 ready to be separated from the parent plant. 
 The mode of treating the pipings has been 
 already described in p. 73. When the buds 
 begin to form they are frequently tied round 
 with a strand of bast mat to prevent them 
 from bursting; and, just as they are opening, 
 a bit of pasteboard curiously cut is slipped 
 under the flower to keep the petals in their 
 proper place. Each flower is also furnished 
 with a paper or tin cap to shade it from the
 
 224 THE FLOWER-GARDEN. [CHAP. VIIL 
 
 sun, and a stake to tie it to, in order to keep 
 the stalk erect. Clove carnations bear the 
 same relation to florists' carnations, as unbroken 
 tulips or self-coloured auriculas do to the finer 
 flowers. The tree carnation is a half-shrubby 
 variety of the same species, and the mule pink 
 is generally said to be a hybrid between the 
 carnation (Dianthus Caryophyllus) and the 
 sweet-william (Dianthus barbatus). Both these 
 may be treated as common perennial border 
 flowers. 
 
 The Pink. — It is remarkable that, though 
 the pink is a commoner and hardier flower than 
 the carnation, it is not known in a wild state, 
 and it does not appear to have been much cul- 
 tivated till the latter half of the last century, 
 though it is said to have been introduced in 
 1629. Its. origin is, indeed, very uncertain; 
 some botanists considering it as a variety ot 
 the carnation, and others making it a distinct 
 species, under the name of Dianthus plumarius. 
 There are now many named sorts, and the best 
 laced pinks rank as florists' flowers, their cul- 
 ture being the same as that of the carnation. 
 The other kinds are considered inferior, and 
 are grown like common herbaceous plants in 
 the open borders. 
 
 The Heart n-ease has only within the last 
 few years ranked as a florists' flower. It had 
 long been a favourite in gardens, as its innu- 
 merable popular names may testify; but it was 
 reserved for a young lady, aided by an indus- 
 trious and intelligent gardener, to show the 
 world the extraordinary variations of which the 
 flower is susceptible. About the year 1810 or
 
 chap, yiil] iieart's-ease. 225 
 
 1812, the present Lady Monck, then Lady 
 Mary Bennet, had a small flower-garden en- 
 tirely planted with heart's-eases in the garden 
 of her father, the late Earl of Tankerville, at 
 Walton-upon-Thames. The young lady natu- 
 rally wished to get as many different sorts into 
 her garden as possible; and, at her desire, the 
 gardener, Mr. Richardson, raised as many new 
 kinds as he could from seed. From this small 
 beginning the present passion for heart's-eases 
 took its rise. Mr. Richardson, astonished at 
 the great variety and beauty of his seedlings, 
 showed them to Mr. Lee of the Hammersmith 
 Nursery. Mr. Lee instantly saw the advan- 
 tages to be derived from the culture of the 
 plant; other nurserymen followed his example, 
 and in a few years the heart' s-ease took its 
 place as a florists' flower. The heart's-ease 
 mania was at its height from 1835 to 1838; 
 but since that time it has appeared somewhat 
 on the decline. The most splendid flowers 
 grown for exhibition are generally hybrids, 
 which possess, in a great degree, the qualities 
 of both parents. Thus, though almost every 
 heart's-ease has sprung partly from the wild 
 kind (Viola tricolor), its other parent may be 
 traced by its general appearance. The very 
 large dark purple and yellow flowers are de- 
 scended from Viola grandiflora, a species with 
 large yellowish flowers; other large flow T ers, 
 with dark purple upper petals, and the lower 
 ones of a bluish tinge, are descended from V. 
 amcena; and the offspring of V. lutea are 
 nearly all yellow, strongly marked with very 
 dark branched lines. The hybrids raised partly 
 
 Q
 
 226 THE FLOWER-GARDEN. [CHAP. VIIL 
 
 from V. altaica are of a very pale yellow, and 
 the petals have an undulated margin; those 
 from V. rothomagensis or V. hispida are of a 
 pale blue; and those from V. bicolor are white, 
 slightly veined with purple, and tinged with 
 yellow at the base. All these vary exceedingly 
 by continual crossings, but some of the 
 characteristics of the parents always remain. 
 
 The culture of the heart's-ease requires much 
 attention. It is the habit of the plant to ripen 
 a succession of seed during; the whole of its 
 flowering season; thus it bears flowers and ripe 
 seeds at the same time during the whole 
 summer. The seeds should be sown in a bed 
 of rich garden mould, at least eighteen inches 
 deep, and highly manured, and the young 
 plants should be suffered to remain till they 
 have flowered, when all the plants should be 
 taken up, the best replanted eighteen inches 
 apart if in a bed, or a foot apart if in pots or 
 boxes, and the inferior ones thrown away. The 
 best soil for replanting the heart's-ease, parti- 
 cularly if the plants are in pots or boxes, is 
 rich loam, mixed with one-sixth of sand and 
 one-sixth of vegetable mould; and, in large 
 towns, all these soils may be purchased in 
 small quantities from the nurserymen. The 
 pots and boxes should also be well drained; for 
 it must be remembered, that, though the heart's- 
 ease is very liable to be scorched by the exces- 
 sive heat of the sun, and will require constant 
 watering in hot weather, it is also very liable to 
 be damped off by cold and wet in winter. The 
 best varieties are propagated by cuttings, taken 
 off in spring, which grow rapidly so as to
 
 chap. Yin.] CHRYSANTHEMUMS. 227 
 
 flower the same summer or autumn. These 
 cuttings should be taken from the points of the 
 shoots, taking them off immediately below a 
 joint; and they should be struck in pure white 
 sand or charcoal, as when the cutting is put 
 into earth it is very apt to damp off. The cut- 
 tings when made should not be watered, but 
 should be covered with a bell-glass, and shaded 
 for several days, on account of the succulent 
 nature of the stems, and the great evaporation 
 from the leaves. Heart's-eases are sometimes 
 propagated bv layers, in which case the branch 
 should be only pegged down by a joint, and 
 not slit, on account of its tendency to damp off. 
 Chrysanthemums are principally winter 
 flowers, and they are valuable for affording a 
 brilliant show at a season when there are few 
 other flowers to be seen. In November and 
 December, when no other flowers are in blos- 
 som, these are in full beauty; and the walls even 
 of street gardens are frequently so completely 
 covered with them as to present a most brilliant 
 and dazzling appearance. Chrysanthemums 
 may, therefore, be safely recommended as most 
 valuable flowers for both town and country: 
 and their great number and beauty make them 
 particularly interesting. There are, indeed, 
 numerous varieties of every possible shade of 
 yellow, brown, orange, buff, pink, reddish 
 purple, lilac, and white, but not blue. All the 
 different varieties of chrysanthemums, and 
 there are nearly a hundred named sorts, ma\ 
 be referred to six distinct tribes, and these are 
 the following: 1. Ranunculus-flowered; 2. In- 
 curved; 3. China-Aster, or Daisy, flowered; 
 
 " Q 2
 
 228 THE FLOWER-GARDEN. [chap. VIII. 
 
 4. Marigold-flowered; 5, Tassel-flowered, or 
 Quilled; and, 6. Half-double Tassel-flowered. 
 The ranunculus-flowered have generally small 
 flowers, in clusters, like little roses; but the 
 rest have large handsome flowers, particularly 
 the tasseled kinds, the quilled petals of which 
 are verv long, and hano- down like tassels. The 
 culture of the chrysanthemum differs according 
 to the use which it is proposed to make of it. 
 When it is to be flowered in pots, cuttings are 
 taken from the tops of the shoots in April; and, 
 as soon as they have taken root, they are 
 transplanted into very small pots, where they 
 are planted in a compost formed of equal parts 
 of sand, loam, and peat. As soon as they 
 begin to grow, and send out plenty of roots, 
 they are removed into other, rather larger, 
 pots; and this shifting is repeated eight or 
 nine, and sometimes ten or twelve, times. This 
 constant shifting will keep the plants bushy, 
 without the cultivator being under the necessity 
 of pinching off the ends of the shoots: a prac- 
 tice which, though it answers the desired end 
 of keeping the plants of a compact habit of 
 growth, has yet the inconvenience of making 
 them throw out so many shoots and leaves as 
 to weaken the flowers. When the chrysanthe- 
 mums are to be planted in the open border 
 against the wall, their roots should be parted in 
 autumn or early spring, and planted in very 
 rich and highly-manured but light soil, at the 
 foot of a south or west wall, against which 
 they should be trained like a peach tree, and 
 all the superfluous shoots cut ofT. When 
 planted, they should be carefully watered, not
 
 CHAP. Vm.] BULBS AND TUBERS. 229 
 
 only at their roots, but all over their leaves, 
 with a fine-rosed watering-pot or garden engine. 
 They should afterwards be watered three times 
 a day, and occasionally with soap-suds or 
 manured water? that is, water in which manure 
 has been steeped. Thus treated, the plants will 
 grow six or eight feet high, and their flowers 
 will not only be produced in great abundance, 
 but they will be of enormous size, and very 
 brilliant in their colours. The best chrysanthe- 
 mums in London are at Chandler's Nursery, 
 Vauxhall. 
 
 Bulbs and Tubers. — The most interesting 
 bulbs in a flower-garden are, the tulip, the 
 hyacinth, and the crocus ; and the most inte- 
 resting tubers are, the ranunculus, the anemone, 
 and the dahlia. There are, how T ever, many 
 other flowers of both kinds hiohlv deserving of 
 cultivation. The culture of all bulbs is nearly 
 the same ; but that of the tuberous-rooted 
 flowers differs in different plants. 
 
 Bulbs are generally planted in autumn to 
 flower in spring ; and are taken up when their 
 leaves begin to wither, to be kept out of the 
 ground a month or two in complete repose 
 before they are replanted. They are generally 
 propagated by offsets, which are produced by 
 the side of the old bulb ; or, rather, by the side 
 of the new bulb, which is formed every year to 
 supply the place of the old one, which wastes 
 away. The new r bulb sometimes forms beside 
 the old one, and sometimes below T it or above it; 
 and this is one of the principal reasons why 
 some kinds of bulbs are taken up and replanted 
 every year ; as, when this is not attended to,
 
 230 THE FLOWER-GARDEN. [CHAP. VIIL 
 
 those bulbs that form every year below the old 
 bulb sink so low in the course of a few years 
 that they become too far removed from the air 
 to vegetate; while those that form above the old 
 bulb are pushed so high out of the ground that 
 they are often killed by frost or drought. In 
 this way, valuable plants often disappear from 
 gardens, without their owners having the 
 slightest suspicion of the cause. It is, how- 
 ever, not necessary to take up the common 
 garden bulbs, such as the snowdrop, the crown- 
 imperial, the corn flag, and others which form 
 their new bulbs at the side of the old bulb ; and 
 even the finest kinds of Gladiolus succeed best 
 when left in the ground and covered during 
 frosty weather with dead leaves, litter, or some 
 other substance which may serve not only as a 
 covering, but as a manure. When raised from 
 seed, bulbs are generally from three to five years 
 before they produce flowers ; and they are never 
 propagated by layers or cuttings. 
 
 Tulip. — Experienced florists raise tulips from 
 seed to obtain new varieties ; but, as the young 
 bulbs are frequently from five to seven years 
 before they flower, this mode of propagating 
 tulips does not suit amateurs. Even when seed- 
 ling tulips do flower they produce only self- 
 coloured flowers for the first two or three years, 
 and in this state they are called breeders. To 
 make them break, that is, produce the brilliant 
 and distinct colours which constitute the beauty 
 of a florists' tulip, they are subjected to the most 
 sudden and violent changes of soil, climate, and 
 management. At one time, they are grown in 
 poor soil, and only allowed enough water to
 
 CHAP. Yin.] TULIP. 231 
 
 keep them living ; and then they are suddenly 
 transported to the richest soil, abounding- with 
 food and moisture. Sometimes, to change the 
 climate effectually, florists send their tulips to 
 be grown for a year or two twenty miles or 
 more from the place where they were raised, and 
 then they are brought back to their natiYe air. 
 This laborious and unscientific mode of pro- 
 ceeding is, however, now rapidly giving place 
 to a proper method of hybridising ; after which 
 the young bulbs are brought forward bv means 
 of bottom heat, water, and frequent sniffings, 
 so as to flower and break the second or third 
 season. Florists' tulips are generally divided 
 into four tribe?, viz. — 1. Bizarres, which have 
 yellow grounds shaded with dark red or purple, 
 and which are subdivided into flamed, in which 
 the red or purple is in a broad stripe or band, 
 rising from the bottom of the petal ; and 
 feathered, in which the dark colour forms a 
 marginal edging to the petals, descending into 
 them in various little delicate feathery veins : 
 2. Byblcemens, having white grounds, shaded 
 with violet or dark purple, and also subdivided 
 into flamed and feathered : 3. Roses, havinc 
 white grounds, shaded with rose-colourorcherry- 
 red, and divided into flamed and feathered : and, 
 4. Selfs, beino- either a pure white or yellow. In 
 addition to these, the French have Baguettes, 
 very tall-stemmed tulips, the flowers of which 
 are white, striped with dark brownish red ; 
 Baguettes Rio-auts, which resemble the former, 
 but have shorter stems and larger flowers ; and 
 Flamands, which are nearly the same as Bybloe- 
 mens. The Dutch have also a kind they call
 
 232 THE FLOWER-GARDEN. [CHAP. Yin. 
 
 Incomparable Verport, a very finely-shaped 
 flower, white, and feathered with bright shinin^ 
 brown. All these kinds are said to be varieties 
 of one species, Tulipa Gesneriana, a native of 
 Italy; and they all ought to have round cup- 
 shaped flowers, clean at the base, and with all 
 the marks and different colours quite clear and 
 distinct. Besides these florists' tulips, several 
 other species are occasionally grown in gardens : 
 the most common of which are, the little Van 
 Thol tulips, which were named after the Duke 
 Van Thol, and which are scarlet, edged with 
 yellow ; the wild French tulip, which is a pure 
 yellow, and very fragrant ; and the Parrot tulip, 
 which appears to be a variety of the last, and 
 the petals of which are yellow, irregularly 
 striped or spotted with green, scarlet, and blue, 
 and fringed at the margin. Of these, the Van 
 Thol tulips are the earliest; and indeed they are 
 frequently brought forward in frames, so as to 
 be among the first flowers of spring. 
 
 The culture of the tulip, as a florists' flower 
 requires unremitting attention and care ; but, 
 for common garden purposes, the tulip will be 
 found hardier, and less liable to injury from 
 insects, &c, than most other flowers. Where 
 tulips are grown in a regular bed, the ground 
 should be dug out to the depth of twentyinches 
 or two feet. A stratum of fresh earth is laid at 
 the bottom of the pit thus formed, on that a 
 stratum of rotten cow-dung, and on this a 
 stratum of loam mixed with sand. The bed 
 should be three or four feet wide, and its surface 
 should be slightly raised in the middle. A fresh 
 bed should be made every year, or, rather, the
 
 CHAP. Till.] TULIP. 233 
 
 same bed should be filled with fresh soil every 
 season; as the tulips will soon exhaust the 
 ground, and they will degenerate if the soil be 
 not renewed. The proper distance at which the 
 tulips should be planted in the bed is seven 
 inches apart every way ; and their colours and 
 kinds may be arranged according to the fancy 
 of the planter. It is customary, w r here the tulips 
 differ a good deal in height, to place the tallest 
 in the middle, and the lower ones on the sides ; 
 and, when this is the case, the centre of the 
 surface of the bed need not be raised. The bed 
 is protected by hoops and mats, which are con- 
 trived to open to admit light, air, and rain at 
 pleasure. When the plants are near flowering, 
 a path is made round the bed; and over the 
 whole is stretched a canvas covering, supported 
 on a wooden frame, and so contrived as to open 
 at the sides or the top, as may be required. The 
 bulbs are planted about two or three inches 
 deep, and are never watered, except occasionally 
 by admitting a gentle rain, till they are in flower. 
 When they have done flowering, the leaves are 
 suffered to remain till they begin to turn brow T n, 
 when the bulbs are taken up, and laid with the 
 lower part upwards on shelves to dry. When 
 this is the case, the dry leaves and the fibrous 
 roots are pulled or rubbed off; and the bulbs 
 are put into drawers or boxes, divided into com- 
 partments so as to keep the named sorts apart, 
 till the season arrives for replanting;, which 
 is the last week of October or the first of 
 November. 
 
 Mr. Groom of Clapham is the principal tulip- 
 grower in the neighbourhood of London, and he
 
 234 THE FLOWER- GAR D EX. [CHAP. VIIL 
 
 lias an exhibition of tulips of extraordinary bril- 
 liancy and beauty every May. 
 
 Hyacinths are perhaps the most beautiful of 
 all flowers, and, when grown in a bed like tulips, 
 they are almost equally brilliant in effect. Mr. 
 Corsten, a Dutch florist residing at Shepherd's 
 Bush, had an exhibition of this kind some years 
 ago, and I have seldom seen anything more 
 striking. Under a tent nearly two hundred feet 
 long and thirty feet wide were two beds, each 
 about one hundred and fifty feet long, divided 
 by a walk covered with matting in the centre, 
 and surrounded by a similar walk, with seats at 
 each end of the tent. In these beds were above 
 three thousand hyacinths, the colours arranged 
 so as to form diagonal lines, and the whole pre- 
 senting a perfect blaze of beauty. Hyacinths 
 are as numerous in their named varieties as 
 tulips, but they are not divided into any distinct 
 tribes, except as regards their colours. The 
 principal distinctions are, the white, the pink, 
 and the blue ; but these admit of various modi- 
 fications, and there are some of a pale yellow, 
 or rather lemon colour, and some of so dark a 
 purple as to be almost black. 
 
 The culture of the hyacinth somewhat resem- 
 bles that of the tulip ; but it is more difficult, 
 from the great length to which the roots of the 
 hyacinth descend perpendicularly, and the ne- 
 cessity which consequently exists for preparing 
 the ground for them to a very great depth. 
 There is also another peculiarity in hyacinth 
 culture which is rather difficult of attainment; 
 namely, that the roots require a greatdealof mois- 
 ture, though the bulbs should be kept quite dry.
 
 CHAP. VIII.] HYACINTHS. 235 
 
 The roots also require the soil to be very rich, 
 but that the manure used should be of the kind 
 called cold. It will easily be seen, from this 
 enumeration of the essentials for hyacinth cul- 
 ture, why Holland is so pre-eminently the 
 country for hyacinths. The dry sandy soil, 
 raised on the numerous dykes and embank- 
 ments by means of which Holland has been 
 rescued from the sea, affords at once a proper 
 bed for the bulbs, and a soil easily penetrable 
 by the roots ; while the constant evaporation 
 rising from the water, which is everywhere 
 found below the dykes, is just what is required 
 with regard to moisture. Even the manure 
 most easily obtained in Holland is precisely that 
 best adapted for hyacinths, as it is cow-dung 
 unmixed with straw ; which thus contains no- 
 thing to induce fermentation and consequent 
 heat. 
 
 It is impossible in England to obtain the 
 advantages so easily attainable by the Dutch, 
 without incurring a very considerable expense. 
 Our soil is generally so adhesive that it re- 
 quires to be pulverised to a very great depth to 
 admit of the descent of the roots ; and even 
 when the soil is sandy, it is very different from 
 the beautiful silvery sea-sand called Diinensande 
 by the Dutch. The only way in which we can 
 imitate this sand is, by mixing nearly in equal 
 parts what we call silver-sand and peat, or by 
 growing the plants in silver-sand, with a very 
 slight admixture of fine vegetable mould. What- 
 ever the soil may be, it can hardly be too light; 
 as the Dutch say that the hyacinth will never 
 thrive, unless in sand so fine as to be blown
 
 236 THE FLOWER-GARDEN. [CHAP. vni. 
 
 away in separate particles by a high wind. 
 When hyacinths are to be grown to the greatest 
 perfection in England, a bed, or, rather, pit, 
 should be dug three or four feet wide and six 
 feet deep, the length depending on the situation, 
 and on the quantity of flowers to be grown. A 
 layer of stale cow-dung, without any mixture 
 of straw or litter, should be laid at the bottom 
 of this pit at least a foot deep, and the pit 
 should then be filled up to within three inches 
 of the top with equal parts of peat and silver- 
 sand, or with a mixture of three parts of silver- 
 sand to one of light vegetable mould perfectly 
 fine and without any stones. About three 
 inches from the top should be spread a layer of 
 pure sand for the bulbs ; and the bed is then 
 filled up with the same mixture as the lower 
 part, and a layer about three inches deep of pure 
 peat is laid over the whole, to form a dark 
 background to give relief to the flowers. Dry 
 weather should always be chosen for the plant- 
 ing; and, when planted, the bulbs must be 
 placed at regular distances, and each with the 
 pointed end, which the Dutch call the nose, 
 upwards. They must be covered with the sand, 
 and should be about six inches below the sur- 
 face of the bed, which ought to be raised at 
 least three inches higher than the surrounding; 
 garden to allow for its sinking. The bulbs are 
 planted the last week in October, or the first or 
 second week in November, and they are placed 
 about four inches apart every way. After they 
 are planted, a mixture of cow-dung and water 
 is generally thrown with a scoop over the bed, 
 bo as to form a thin coating over the soil, but
 
 CHAP. Tin.] HYACINTHS. 237 
 
 not to penetrate into it. When the weather 
 becomes frosty, a covering of dry litter, reeds, 
 or tan, is put over the beds ; or hoops may be 
 fixed over them, on which bast mats are 
 stretched. In March the covering is removed, 
 and the beds are cleared of weeds, and covered 
 with a fresh coating of cow-dung and water. 
 In April an awning of thin canvas is erected 
 over each bed, under which the plants are to 
 flower ; and by the middle of the month they 
 will be in all their beauty. As soon as the 
 flowers begin to fade, the flower-stalks should 
 be cut off and instantly removed. Thev should 
 never be suffered to lie on the bed, and should 
 not even be put where by any chance thev can 
 mix with the earth intended for a hyacinth bed 
 in another year. Care should also be taken to 
 wear gloves when cutting off the flower-stalks, 
 as they appear to contain a kind of corro- 
 sive juice, and the labourers employed in Hol- 
 land to cut them off the bulbs frequently find 
 their hands and bodies become red and inflamed, 
 and sometimes so painful as to prevent them 
 from sleeping. 
 
 When the leaves turn brown at the points, 
 which is generally about the middle of June, 
 the bulbs should be taken up. When this is to 
 be done, the leaves are first pulled off, or, if 
 they will not come off readily by pulling, they 
 are cut off close to the bulb. The bulbs are 
 then taken out of the ground, and laid on the 
 footpath in rows, so as to keep the different 
 kinds distinct. The bed is afterwards raked 
 smooth all over, and a strip about a foot and a 
 half broad is made flat and firm, in the middle
 
 238 THE FLOWER-GARDEN. [CHAP. VIII 
 
 of the bed, by being pressed with a plank or 
 beaten with the back of the spade, and on 
 this the hyacinth roots are laid, still in distinct 
 rows ; earth is then drawn over them two or 
 three inches thick, and they are left for two or 
 three weeks. This the Dutch call lying in the 
 Kauil, and the time of remaining in it varies 
 according to the weather and the size of the 
 bulb, the largest bulbs being removed soonest. 
 When taken from the Kauil, the bulbs are 
 placed on shelves or wooden trays, to dry, 
 with the root end of the bulb inclining tow r ards 
 the south. 
 
 Where it is not thought advisable to sink the 
 bed so deep as six feet, it may be made four 
 feet deep, and the layer of cow-dung at the 
 bottom mixed with soil a foot deep, leaving 
 only about three feet to be filled with a mixture 
 of peat and river sand, with about the propor- 
 tion of a third to the whole of vegetable mould. 
 The other treatment is the same as that detailed 
 above. In all cases the soil should be very 
 light and fine, and only cow-dung should be 
 used as a manure. The roots should always 
 be watered very sparingly, and w 7 ith a mixture 
 of cow-dung and water, though not so thick as 
 that used for coating the bed. When the 
 bulbs are planted, and again when they are 
 taken up, they should be carefully examined, 
 and all that are in any w T ay specked or mouldy 
 should be laid on one side, as they would infect 
 the others. When the infected part is large, 
 the bulb should be thrown away, or burnt with 
 the stalks; but where the speck is small it 
 should be cut out with a sharp knife, and the
 
 chap. Tin.] HYACINTHS. 239 
 
 bulb planted in dry sand, in not more than four 
 and twenty hours after the piece has been cut 
 out. 
 
 Hyacinths are propagated by offsets, by 
 dividing the bulb, and by seed, in which last 
 case they are five years before they flower. 
 When planted in pots or boxes, the pot or box 
 should be very deep, and it should be half-filled 
 with broken potsherds, or some similar material, 
 to insure perfect drainage, and the bulbs 
 should be planted in a compost of peat, sand, 
 and very rotten cow-dung. The bulbs should 
 only be about half-covered with soil ; and, if in 
 boxes, they should be kept, if practicable, in 
 a greenhouse, till they are ready to flower. 
 If in pots, they should be plunged into a hot- 
 bed or into a tan-stove; or where this cannot 
 be done, they should be buried in the garden, so 
 that the point of the bulb should be at least 
 four inches below the surface. Here they 
 should remain till about six weeks before flower- 
 ing, when the pots should be taken out, and 
 placed where they are to flower; the sides of 
 the pots being kept warm with moss, and the 
 flowers brought forward by daily waterings. 
 All hyacinths grown in pots and boxes will 
 require abundance of water, to make amends 
 for the unnatural situation in which their roots 
 are placed. After hyacinths have flowered in 
 pots or boxes or in water glasses, the bulbs 
 are generally planted in the open ground, and, 
 being covered with about an inch of soil, they 
 are left to take their chance. Thus treated, the 
 finer kinds generally perish, but the hardier 
 ones will live and flower for several years, if
 
 240 THE FLOWER-GARDEN. [CHAP. Tin. 
 
 allowed every autumn to retain their leaves till 
 their new bulbs are matured. Hyacinths that 
 have been flowered in glasses or pots, seldom, 
 however, flower so well afterwards, at least not 
 for several years, as they scarcely ever quite 
 recover the shock they have sustained, from the 
 unnatural position of their roots ; whereas the 
 Dutch florists, by allowing the roots of their 
 hyacinths plenty of room to descend perpen- 
 dicularly, and taking up the bulbs every autumn, 
 have been known to keep bulbs of their finest 
 flowers twelve, or even twenty, years, and to 
 have them produce splendid flowers every year. 
 
 It must be observed, that hyacinths very 
 soon exhaust the soil ; and for this reason, the 
 Dutch never grow their hyacinths in the same 
 bed two years consecutively. The usual rota- 
 tion is, first year, hyacinths ; second, tulips ; 
 third, polyanthus-narcissus; fourth, crocuses; 
 and, fifth/hyacinths again. The Guernsey Lily, 
 the bulbs of which are generally thrown away 
 in England as soon as they have flowered, 
 will live many years if treated like the hyacinth. 
 
 Crocuses may be grown in the open ground, 
 and they do not require taking up every year 
 like hyacinths or tulips. If they are taken up 
 and replanted every fifth or sixth year, it will 
 be sufficient. There are above a hundred 
 named varieties, and they will produce a very 
 good effect if planted so as to form figures 
 with their various colours. When this is the 
 case, however, the corms should be taken up 
 and replanted every year; to prevent the figure 
 from becoming confused by the spreading of 
 the offsets. Crocuses may be grown in glasses,
 
 CHAP, vm] CROCUSES. 241 
 
 or in pots or boxes, with very little injury, if 
 planted in the open ground as soon as they 
 have done flowering, and suffered to mature 
 their leaves. In all cases the leaves of the 
 crocus should be suffered to remain till they 
 wither, and not cut off; though many gar- 
 deners, from a mistaken desire for neatness, cut 
 the leaves off as soon as the flowers have faded, 
 and thus seriously injure the conns. All the 
 kinds of Gladiolus, or corn flag, the bulbous 
 Irises, the Ixias, and, in short, most of the 
 Cape bulbs, are conns, and require the same 
 treatment as the crocus. The finer kinds are 
 generally orown in pots, and are kept in a frame, 
 piuno-ed in a slight hotbed during winter ; and, 
 when planted in the open ground, some gar- 
 deners take them up every year. This is, how- 
 ever, bv no means necessary, as the late 
 Honourable and Reverend William Herbert, to 
 whom the floricultural world owes so much, 
 had o-ladioli in the open ground, in his garden 
 at Spofforth, in Yorkshire, which had stood 
 there undisturbed "above twenty years, with 
 the precaution of covering them with leaves 
 from November to March or April." Dr. 
 Herbert found that " they succeeded best when 
 grown into a thick tuft, in which state the pro- 
 fusion of blossom was admirable, the cluster of 
 bulbs and the old skins of the decayed bulbs 
 permitting the wet to drain away, and prevent- 
 ing the earth from lying too close and heavy 
 oil the bulbs in autumn and winter." Dr. 
 Herbert adds, "that there is danger in disturb- 
 ing and parting them, for numbers will rot if 
 reset separately ; and if they must be divided, 
 
 R
 
 242 THE FLOWER-GARDEN. [CHAP. Vni. 
 
 it is best to do so in April ; or, if it be done in 
 the autumn, the roots taken up should be potted, 
 and turned out again in the spring." The 
 above observations are taken from Dr. Her- 
 bert's excellent work on the Amaryllidacea ; 
 and they are particularly valuable, as coming 
 from a man of profound science, and also of 
 great practical experience. I may also add 
 that the finest gladioli I ever saw in my life, 
 which were at Blair-Adam, near Stirling, had 
 been treated in the manner above described. 
 Charl wood's, Co vent Garden, Groom's, Clap- 
 ham, and Carter's, Holborn, are the best places 
 in London for procuring all kinds of bulbs and 
 conns. 
 
 The Ranunculus. — The same florist who had 
 the kindness to send me directions for the 
 culture of the carnation, has given me the fol- 
 lowing directions for the culture of the ranun- 
 culus: — " In November spread well-rotted cow- 
 dung or thoroughly-decayed leaves, four or 
 five inches thick, over the beds which are to be 
 devoted to the ranunculus, and dig the manure 
 into the ground about four inches deep, going 
 over the bed several times, so as to mix it 
 well with the soil. The surface of the bed is 
 raked smooth, and lines, or rather drills, an 
 inch and a half deep, are traced on it, so as to 
 form squares four inches on the side every way. 
 The ground is then left till the beginning of 
 February, when the ranunculuses are planted 
 four inches apart, just at the point of intersec- 
 tion of the lines, and they are covered about 
 an inch and a half deep (rather less than more) 
 with the compost described above, or with fine
 
 CHAP. VIII.] ANEMONES. '243 
 
 garden mould. The advantages gained bv 
 digging the earth in November, though the 
 roots are not planted till February, are, that the 
 ranunculuses are thus planted on a hard bottom, 
 which suits them particularly; and that the 
 gardener is not obliged to dig the earth to mix 
 the cow-dung with it in February, when the 
 ground is generally sloppy, and in a very unfit 
 state for being worked." "When the plants are 
 about to flower, an awning may be erected over 
 the bed to protect them from the effects of the 
 sun, which is apt to destroy the brilliancy of 
 their colours. In frosty weather, they should 
 be protected by a mat, day and night, as the 
 sun will do them serious injury if they have 
 been at all affected by the frost. The plants 
 should be constantly watered in dry weather 
 with a weak solution of cow-dung in water. 
 The tubers should be taken up as soon as the 
 leaves begin to turn brown, which will generally 
 be in July. Groom is considered to keep the 
 best ranunculuses. 
 
 The Anemones of florists are all hybrids and 
 varieties derived from three original species, 
 viz. x-vnemone coronaria (the Garland or Poppy 
 Anemone), the sepals of which are rounded at 
 the tip, and white, with a red ring round the 
 centre inside the flower; A. hort£nsis (the 
 Garden Anemone), the sepals of which are 
 pointed and purplish, with a white centre; and 
 A. stellata (the Star Anemone), the sepals of 
 which are purplish and of one colour through- 
 out. Of these, the best are the Dutch ane- 
 mones, which are varieties of A. coronaria, and 
 
 r2
 
 244 THE FLOWER-GARDEN. [CHAP. VIII. 
 
 some of which have been known to be upwards 
 of six inches in diameter. The tubers of these 
 anemones an sold in the seed-shops by the 
 hundred, and they resemble little bunches of 
 very small black potatoes. These little balls 
 may be separated from each other, and each 
 will produce a new plant, though some of them 
 will probably be too weak to flower the first 
 year. As A. coronaria is a native of Syria, 
 where the ground is parched and dry during a 
 considerable portion of the year, the tubers are 
 very ill- calculated to resist wet, and, conse- 
 quently, they should be taken up in autumn, 
 and kept dry till the season arrives for replant- 
 ing them the following year. This season is 
 February or March, the latter month, or even 
 the beginning of April, being preferred for the 
 Dutch anemones, which are apt to rot if planted 
 too early. Anemones should be planted three 
 inches deep, and five inches apart every way, 
 in a fresh, sound, yellow loam, without any 
 manure. Care should be taken to keep the 
 frost from them ; but they will not need any 
 other attention till the leaves turn brown, when 
 the tubers should be taken up, and treated like 
 those of the ranunculus and the tulip. Old 
 varieties are propagated by offsets, and new 
 kinds are raised from seed. The colours of 
 both anemones and ranunculuses are rendered 
 much more vivid by mixing charcoal with the 
 soil in which they are grown. The common 
 anemones (which are not florists" flowers) should 
 be planted in autumn, and they will require 
 taking up when they have done flowering.
 
 CHAP. VIII.] DAHLIA. 245 
 
 There are many very ornamental species of 
 anemone, one of which (A. apennina) has beau- 
 tiful pale blue flowers; another (A. palmata) 
 has brilliant yellow flowers ; and A. vitifolia 
 has large white flowers. The most ornamental 
 species is, however, A. japonica, a native of 
 China, which was introduced in 1846. It is 
 quite hardy, and does not require taking up in 
 winter. Some varieties of the Japan Anemone 
 have been originated in this country, but they 
 do not rank as florists' flowers. 
 
 The Dahlia is so well known, and so inte- 
 resting a flower, that it appears advisable to say 
 a few words respecting its history, as well as 
 its cultivation. Nearly all the innumerable 
 kinds now grown in British gardens are varie- 
 ties of D. variabilis, which was discovered by 
 Baron Humboldt, in Mexico, in 1788, and 
 introduced into England through Spain the 
 following year. The first plant was received in 
 England by the Marchioness of Bute, and 
 appears to have been soon lost; and this spe- 
 cies of Dahlia was unknown in England till it 
 was re-introduced in 1804 by Lady Holland, who 
 brought seeds of it in that year from Madrid. 
 In the meantime, another species (D. coccinea) 
 had been brought from Mexico to France, from 
 which country it was sent to England in 1802. 
 
 Nothing more appears to have been heard of 
 the dahlia (except the introduction of a purple- 
 flowered species, D. astrantiseflora, in 1812) till 
 1814, when roots of D. coccinea, and of several 
 of the varieties of D. variabilis, were imported 
 from France and Germany. From this period 
 the dahlia appears to have been gradually
 
 246 THE FLOWER-GARDEX. [CHAP. Tin. 
 
 advancing in favour in this country; and about 
 1827, attention was further directed to it by a 
 paper in the Transactions of the Horticultural 
 Society of London, respecting the dwarf dahlias 
 raised in the garden of the late W. Wells, Esq., 
 at Redleaf, and it soon after became regularly 
 established as a florists' flower. From 1820 to 
 the present time several new species have been 
 introduced ; but they have all proved so inferior 
 in beauty to the varieties of D. variabilis, that 
 after a few seasons they have fallen into obli- 
 vion, or at best are only to be found in a few 
 botanic gardens. 
 
 It is rather remarkable that the different spe- 
 cies of dahlia do not hybridise w 7 ell with each 
 other ; so that nearly all the numerous kinds 
 now in cultivation are varieties or cross-breeds 
 from D. variabilis, though their colours vary 
 from purple, crimson, rose-colour, pink, and 
 white, on the one hand, to yellow, orange, and 
 scarlet, on the other. Some of the scarlet kinds 
 have been raised from D. coccinea, but they 
 are seldom wdiat florists call perfect flowers; 
 and some with orange and buff shades have 
 been raised from D. Cervantesii. The anemone- 
 flowered dahlias were raised in Ireland from 
 D. astrantiseflora ; and the ranunculus and 
 globe-no wered dahlias in Paris, from the same 
 parent. These kinds are now, however, rarely 
 cultivated, as they are often deficient in the 
 points that florists consider necessary in a good 
 flower. To understand what these points are, 
 it must be remembered that florists' flowers are 
 of course in a highly artificial state, from the 
 extraordinary care bestowed on their cultiva-
 
 CHAP, vm.] DAHLIA. 247 
 
 tion; and it is, perhaps, for this reason that 
 they are required to be as different from the 
 same flowers in their natural state as possible. 
 Thus the dahlia, being a composite flower, has 
 in its natural state a yellow centre, like the 
 daisy ; but, in the varieties now grown by 
 florists, if the central or disk florets are seen, 
 they are considered to disqualify the flower 
 from contending for a prize. In D. coccinea 
 and its varieties, these disk florets are the only 
 ones that bear seeds; but in D. variabilis and 
 all its numerous progeny the florets of the ray 
 are fertile. 
 
 The root of the dahlia consists of five or six 
 carrot-shaped tubers, springing from a common 
 centre called the crown or collar, and round 
 which are produced the buds, or eyes, as gar- 
 deners call them. When the root is out of the 
 ground these eyes are scarcely visible ; but as 
 soon as the root is planted they begin to swell, 
 and each sends up a stem. The tubers are, of 
 course, furnished with numerous fibres, which 
 are the true roots of the plant, and through 
 which alone it derives its nourishment from the 
 ground. 
 
 The best soil for dahlias is a sandy loam, not 
 too rich : as in rich or moist soils the plant will 
 produce more stalks and leaves than flowers. 
 Where the soil of the garden in which dahlias 
 are to be planted is rich or heavy, a quantity of 
 sand or gravel should be mixed with it. Striped 
 or variegated flowers will soon lose their mark- 
 inos if orown in rich soil. The tubers of the 
 early kinds are planted in April, to flower m
 
 248 THE FLOWER-GARDEN. [CHAP. VIII. 
 
 June; but those of the finer kinds are not 
 planted till May and June. When they begin to 
 grow, the side shoots are removed for from one 
 foot to three feet from the ground ; the prin- 
 cipal stem is then either tied to a stake driven 
 deeply and firmly into the ground, or the whole 
 plant is drawn through a set of dahlia rings. 
 Dwarf plants are frequently suffered to trail on 
 the ground, and are pegged down so as to cover 
 the whole of the bed, with which treatment 
 they look extremely well. In dry weather, the 
 plants should be regularly watered, but not too 
 abundantly. When the leaves and stalks are 
 killed by the frost, they should be directly cut 
 down; but the tubers may be left in the ground 
 a little longer, as, if taken up too soon, they 
 will shrivel, and often become rotten. When 
 taken up, they should be kept in a dry place, 
 and covered with a mat, or buried in sand or 
 sawdust, to exclude the frost. 
 
 Dahlias are propagated either by dividing the 
 root, by making cuttings of the stem, or by 
 seeds ; and the first is by far the most common 
 method. As, however, the buds are not very 
 perceptible when the tubers are in a dry state, 
 and as very often the ring of buds round the 
 collar is by no means complete, it is necessary 
 to throw the roots into a growing state before 
 they are divided. For this purpose the dahlia 
 roots should be potted early in March, with the 
 crown of each plant above the mould, and the 
 pots should be plunged into a moderate hotbed. 
 The buds will soon begin to develope them- 
 selves ; and, as soon as they have grown two
 
 CHAP. Tin.] DAHLIA. 249 
 
 or three inches, the tubers to which they are 
 attached may be broken off from the rest with 
 the thumb and finger, or cut asunder with a 
 knife, and each bud with its tuber planted in a 
 separate pot. This operation nurserymen call 
 "starting the eyes;" and it is essential, before 
 dividing the root, as if a tuber be planted that 
 is blind, as the nurserymen call those that have 
 no buds, though it will live many years in the 
 ground, and every year send out fibrous roots, 
 yet it will never produce a stem. As soon as 
 the young plants are potted, their pots are 
 replunged in the hotbed, where they are kept in 
 a moderate degree of heat, and with a moderate 
 supply of water, but with an ample supply of 
 air, till May or June, when they are transferred 
 to the open ground. The cuttings are taken 
 from the tops of the shoots, dividing a joint 
 with a smooth clean cut ; they should be 
 planted in sand, and covered with a bell-glass, 
 the pots being plunged in a moderate hotbed, 
 and shaded till they have taken root, which will 
 be in about a fortnight. When raised from 
 seed, the seed should be sown in February, and 
 the young plants planted out in June. The 
 roots should be taken up in October, and 
 replanted in the following spring, when they 
 will flower, and the worthless ones may be 
 thrown away. 
 
 The name of Dahlia was given to this genus 
 by Cavanilles, Professor of Botany at Madrid, 
 in 1789, in honour of Professor Dahl, a Swedish 
 botanist. This name was afterwards changed 
 by Willdenow to Georgina, in honour of a 
 German botanist named Georgi, who resided
 
 250 THE FLOWER-GARDEX. [CHAP. vm. 
 
 many years in St. Petersburg, in consequence 
 of the genus Dalea having been previously esta- 
 blished by Thunberg. As, ho v\ ever, this name 
 is neither spelt nor pronounced the same as 
 Dahlia, and as the name of Dahlia was given 
 long before that of Georgina, the plant is now 
 restored to its original appellation.
 
 251 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 MANAGEMENT OF THE LAWN, PLEASURE- 
 GROUNDS, AND SHRUBBERY OF A SMALL 
 VILLA. 
 
 The word lawn may probably conjure up ideas 
 of too lar^e an extent of ground to be managed 
 by a lady; but, when I use the term, I do not 
 mean an extensive park-like surface of level 
 turf, but one of those beautiful verdant glades 
 that produce so delightful an effect even in the 
 smallest gardens. In places where the whole 
 extent of garden ground does not, perhaps, 
 exceed an acre, every one must have felt the 
 relief afforded to the eye by a broad strip of 
 lawn, bordered by trees and shrubs, not in a 
 formal line on each side, but running into 
 numerous projections and recesses, and resting 
 their lower branches, frequently covered with 
 flowers, on a rich, smooth, and velvet-like car- 
 pet of grass. 
 
 Every one possessing a lawn of this descrip- 
 tion must be aware that its chief beauty con- 
 sists in its smoothness, and in the fineness and 
 closeness of its grasses. I say grasses, because, 
 strange as it may sound to unbotanical ears, 
 from twenty to thirty different kinds of grasses 
 sometimes enter into the composition of a
 
 252 MANAGEMENT OF [CHAP. IX. 
 
 square foot of fine turf. Some of the grasses 
 are coarse, and grow high and widely apart; 
 and others are very fine and slender, and grow 
 closely together. This being the case, it is 
 obvious that, when a fine smooth turf is 
 required, the finer kinds of grasses should be 
 chosen, and the coarser ones not only rejected 
 from among the grass seeds sown, but, if pos- 
 sible, destroyed whenever they appear, if they 
 should chance to come up accidentally. 
 
 Botanists have distinguished and arranged 
 nearly fifteen hundred different species of 
 grasses; and of these, -probably, more than 
 three hundred kinds are now cultivated in 
 England. These grasses differ widely in their 
 appearance, habits of growth, &c. ; and, to 
 ascertain their different qualities exactly, a 
 series of experiments was instituted some years 
 ago by the late Duke of Bedford, the results 
 of which were published in the Hortus Gra- 
 mineus Woburnensis. The qualities of the dif- 
 ferent kinds of grasses having been ascertained, 
 the next thing to be considered is, which kinds 
 are most suitable for sowing on a lawn; and 
 to discover this, it must be remembered that 
 the proprietor of a lawn does not want a crop 
 of hay, but a fine, smooth, level turf, the grass 
 on which shall entirely conceal the earth. For 
 this purpose it is evident that slow-growing 
 grasses, the roots of which will retain perma- 
 nent possession of the soil, and which are 
 sufficiently succulent not to be burnt up when 
 closely mown in hot weather, are preferable to 
 those which grow rapidly and produce an 
 abundant crop of herbage, particularly as the
 
 CHAP. IX.] THE LAWN, ETC. 253 
 
 roots of the last kind are generally easily 
 withered up in dry weather. Very fast-growing 
 
 grasses are, indeed, exceedingly annoying to 
 the possessor of a small lawn, as they require 
 constant mowing, and are thus a constant source 
 of expense. 
 
 Some philosophers assert that the chief thing 
 that hinders the attainment of our desires is, 
 that very few of us know exactly what we 
 want ; and it is to save mv readers from being; 
 in this unpleasant predicament with regard to 
 lawns, that I have been thus particular in 
 describing what qualities are requisite in 
 grasses, to make them suitable for producing 
 soft turf. The next thing is to tell them, as 
 well as I can, what kinds of grasses appear 
 most likely to answer the end in view. Of 
 all these, one of the most permanent appears 
 to be the fox-tail meadow grass (Alopecurus 
 pratensis), which is one of the principal grasses 
 in rich natural pastures, and which should 
 always form one-fourth part of the seeds 
 used for laving; down a lawn. The sweet- 
 scented vernal grass (Anthoxanthum odo- 
 ratum) grows best in deep moist soil, but it is 
 worth sowing; in everv situation, for its fineness, 
 its dwarf growth, and for its habit of continuing 
 to vegetate and to throw up fresh stalks nearly 
 all the year. It is this grass which gives so 
 delightful a fragrance to new ha v. The com- 
 mon meadow grass (Poa pratensis) is also 
 suitable for lawns, as, though of slow growth, 
 it has creeping permanent roots ; and the short 
 blue meadow grass (Poa cserdlea) may be 
 added, for its deep blue tint, which gives a
 
 254 MANAGEMENT OF [rHAP. ix. 
 
 richness to the general colour of the turf, and 
 because it sustains no injury from dry weather. 
 The crested dog's-tail grass (Cynosurus cris- 
 tatus) is, however, the best for sustaining 
 drought and heat, as its roots penetrate so 
 deeply into the ground as to keep its blades 
 green while all the grasses around it are quite 
 brown, from being burnt up. The hard fescue 
 grass (Festuca duriuscula) is another kind 
 which will stand the effects of dry weather ; it 
 is also a very fine dwarf grass, and springs 
 early. Many other grasses might be named, 
 but these will suffice. The proportion in which 
 they ought to be mixed is another and an 
 essential point ; but, at the same time, it is one 
 rather difficult to ascertain, as the seeds of the 
 finer kinds of grasses are very often imperfect, 
 and do not germinate ; and thus a larger quan- 
 tity must be sown of these, than of kinds all 
 the seeds of which are generally good. The 
 seed of the meadow fox-tail grass (Alopecurus 
 pratensis) is very often so bad that not above 
 one seed in three will germinate; consequently, 
 a much larger proportion of seed of this grass 
 must be sown than of any of the other kinds. 
 This seed is very light, and consequently a 
 pound of it, if bought by weight, will appear a 
 great deal more than a pound of the crested 
 dog's-tail grass (Cynosurus cristatus), the seed 
 of which is very heavy : and yet, as the latter 
 seed is generally all good, it will cover more 
 ground with grass than the other. The 
 best place to procure grass seeds in the 
 neighbourhood of London is at Cormack's 
 Nursery, New Cross : but, generally, it will be
 
 CHAP. IX.] THE LAWN, ETC. 255 
 
 sufficient to write down the botanic names of 
 the grasses, and to send them to a respectable 
 seedsman, with directions to return enough of 
 the seed of each to produce an equal quantity 
 of grass of each respective species on the lawn. 
 The whole quantity required of the mixed 
 grasses is, generally, not more than four bushels 
 and a half per acre ; but, if an immediate effect 
 be wanted, about a bushel and a half of the 
 common white clover may be added. This 
 quantity of seed will be sufficient to sow the 
 ground very thickly, as when ground has been 
 dug over and rendered perfectly smooth the 
 seeds will go farther, and cover it more com- 
 pletely than when the surface is uneven ; and, 
 if the seeds are sown in dry weather, then 
 rolled in, and afterwards watered, the ground 
 will be as green and covered with as fine a 
 sward the first season, as though it had been 
 laid down with turf. 
 
 From the experiments before alluded to, 
 which w^ere tried by the late Duke of Bedford 
 at Woburn, it was found that the best soil for 
 producing an equal and permanent crop of orass 
 was a sandy loam ; and, accordingly, when the 
 ground which is to form the lawn has been 
 marked out, care should be taken to bring the 
 soil to this state as nearly as possible. For this 
 purpose, if the soil be too sandy, a quantity of 
 clay should be procured to mix with it ; and, if 
 too clayey, it should be mixed with sand. In 
 both cases, the new soil should be spread over 
 the ground, and it should then be dug in about 
 a foot deep. Care should be taken to do this 
 in dry weather, as the two soils to be mixed
 
 256 MANAGEMENT OF [CHAP. IX. 
 
 should be both in a state of dryness. No 
 manure should be dug in, unless the soil happens 
 to be very poor indeed ; as manure will tend to 
 produce a larger and taller-growing crop of 
 grass, which, of course, will increase the trouble 
 and expense of mowing, without being of any 
 use. The ground being dug, and raked to re- 
 move all the large stones, the surface should be 
 rolled, and then the seeds sown ; after which it 
 should be rolled again, and watered with a 
 garden-engine having a very fine rose. This 
 watering may be repeated occasionally if the 
 weather should be very dry ; and, if any mole- 
 hills or worm-casts appear, they should be 
 levelled and the rolling repeated. 
 
 When the ground is to be covered with turf, 
 instead of being sown with grass seeds, the turf 
 should, if possible, be procured from some 
 meadow or downs where sheep have been fed ; 
 as these animals bite so close to the ground as 
 to kill the coarser grasses, which have generally 
 weak fibrous roots, while the finer grasses, 
 which have deep roots, remain uninjured. The 
 turf is then cut with a turf spade, and rolled up 
 for removal. When it is to be laid down, and 
 the ground is ready to receive it, it is spread 
 out, and the different rolls carefully joined to 
 each other ; little bits being cut off or pushed in 
 where the pieces do not exactly fit. It is then 
 watered and rolled, and will require no other 
 care. With regard to after management, a lawn 
 can never be kept neat without frequent mowing, 
 and this is an operation which a lady cannot 
 very well perform for herself; unless, indeed, 
 she has strength enough to use one of Budding's
 
 CHAP. 15.] THE LAWN, ETC. 257 
 
 mo wino -machines. In whatever way, however, 
 the operation may be performed, it should be 
 repeated very frequently. In large establish- 
 ments, the lawn is always mown every week 
 during; summer; and, even in the smallest 
 gardens, the grass should never be suffered to 
 remain more than a fortnight during summer 
 without mowing. The roots will thus become 
 weakened, and will not be able to send up any 
 but dwarf and fine blades of grass, which will 
 form in a few years that beautifully smooth and 
 soft velvet-like turf which it is the principal 
 merit of a lawn to possess. " It is a great mis- 
 take," says Mr. Loudon in his Villa Gardener, 
 " to suppose that anything is gained in the way 
 of economy by suffering the grass of lawns to 
 grow lono- before mowing:, in order to save the 
 expense of once or twice mowing during the 
 season ; for, in proportion as the grass is allowed 
 to grow long before mowing, in the same propor- 
 tion are the rcots strengthened, and enabled to 
 send up still longer leaves and stems ; whereas, 
 if a lawn were kept short by frequent mowing 
 for two or three years in succession, the plants 
 of grass would at last become so weak that not 
 one half the mowing usually required for even 
 slovenly-kept lawns would be necessary, and the 
 turf would be much finer and neater in appear- 
 ance." 
 
 I have dwelt longer than I otherwise should 
 have done on the management of lawns, not 
 only because I am a great admirer of a smooth 
 green turf, but because I believe it is a subject 
 not generally understood. Most persons ima- 
 gine that if they lay down turf, or sow grass 
 
 S
 
 258 MANAGEMENT OF LAWNS. [chap. IX. 
 
 seeds, they have done all that is requisite ; and 
 my object is simply to impress upon the minds 
 of my readers, that this is not enough : for, as 
 there are different kinds of turf and grasses, it 
 is as necessary to choose which to take, as to 
 select flowers for the flower-garden. I have 
 only to add that the reddish-brown hue some- 
 times observed on the brows of hills in pleasure- 
 grounds is produced by Holcus lanatus, a kind 
 of couch grass that wastes all its strength on its 
 fleshy roots, and produces only a thin and wiry 
 herbage. This species, the different kinds of 
 Agrostis, or bent grass, the brome grasses, par- 
 ticularly Bromus arvensis, and the cock's-foot 
 grass, Dactylis glomerata, should never be sown 
 in lawns. 
 
 Grass seeds should be sown either in spring 
 or autumn; and May and August or September 
 are considered the best months. In very old 
 lawns, moss is apt to predominate, and when it 
 is wished to destroy this, the surface of the lawn 
 is dressed, as it is called, in May with lime. 
 Dressing with lime will also destroy the worms, 
 which are often very troublesome in lawns (par- 
 ticularly where the ground has been manured 
 with durig), in throwing up casts, which make 
 the ground uneven and very difficult to mow. 
 
 The Walks in Pleasure-Grounds should be 
 hard and dry ; and they should also be suffici- 
 ently wide to admit of three persons to walk 
 abreast occasionally; as nothing can be more 
 disagreeable than the situation of the third per- 
 son, whom the narrowness of the walk obliges 
 to walk before or behind the others ; and who is 
 obliged either to remain silent, or to carry on a
 
 CHAP. EX.] PLEASURE-GROUXDS. 259 
 
 most uncomfortable and disjointed kind of con- 
 versation. The minor evils of clothes beinsi 
 caught by branches, and leaves discharging; on 
 the pedestrians the remains of a recent shower, 
 would likewise be avoided by broader walks. 
 
 The Laying out of Pleasure-Grounds em- 
 braces a wide field : and, when they are exten- 
 sive, they require the eye of a painter, as well as 
 the taste and skill of a landscape-gardener. 
 Even in small places, so much depends on situa- 
 tion (particularly as regards the house, and 
 whether there may or may not be any distant 
 prospects) ; on the taste of the occupier ; and 
 on the expense to be incurred, not only in laying 
 out and planting, but in after keeping, that few 
 directions can be given that would be generally 
 applicable. It may, however, be observed, that 
 in all places, whether large or small, the walks 
 should be so contrived, that no person passing 
 along one should see the persons walking on 
 another. Indeed, if more than one walk be 
 ever seen at a time, it gives an idea of want of 
 space and confinement; and this idea is one 
 which the landscape-gardener always endeavours 
 as much as possible to avoid. For the same 
 reason the boundary fence should never be seen, 
 if it can possibly be disguised. Even in a small 
 street garden, with three low walls on three of 
 the sides, and the house on the fourth, a very 
 pleasing effect may be produced by effectually 
 concealing the boundary walls with ivy, and 
 thus permitting the imagination to fix the 
 boundary where it will. 
 
 Another general rule in laving out pleasure- 
 grounds is, to avoid monotony or sameness as 
 
 s 2
 
 260 MANAGEMENT OF [CHAP. IX. 
 
 much as possible. Nothing is more wearying 
 to the eye than a place every part of which is 
 alike, and which leaves nothing to the imagina- 
 tion. A place regularly dotted over with trees 
 at equal distances is quite featureless, has no- 
 thing to attract the eye, and nothing to interest 
 the mind : but if the same trees are planted on 
 the same ground in masses, with a broad ex- 
 panse of lawn between; the trees sometimes 
 projecting, and sometimes showing a smooth 
 glade of grass running in among them, the end 
 of which the eye cannot reach ; the imagination 
 becomes excited, and a degree of interest is 
 instantly created. Where the lawn is large, a 
 few single trees may be introduced; but few 
 things in landscape-gardening require more 
 taste. Indeed, in laying out pleasure-grounds, 
 however small they may be, it is generally the 
 best, and also the most economical, way, to have 
 the advice of a professional landscape-gardener 
 at first ; instead of groping on in the dark, from 
 a mistaken idea of economy, till at last it is 
 discovered that all is wrong, and must be done 
 over again. Thus, in the end, the work is gene- 
 rally found to have cost twice as much as would 
 have been expended if it had been begun pro- 
 perly at first ; besides the loss of time, and the 
 annoyance always occasioned by having any 
 thing to undo. 
 
 The Trees and Shrubs. — In all places suffi- 
 ciently small to be managed by a lady, without the 
 aid of a regular gardener, the trees and shrubs 
 should be of the choicest kinds. It is quite the 
 fashion of the present day to plant arboretums ; 
 and, though a place of the kind I mention
 
 CHAP. IX.] PLEASURE-GROUNDS. 261 
 
 would not admit of a complete one, a lady 
 might take some genus or some small natural 
 order to illustrate (as for example the genus 
 Kibes, or the order Berberideae), and fill up the 
 rest of her grounds with hollies or other ever- 
 greens, so as to form a background to the orna- 
 mental trees. The genera Magnolia and Lirio- 
 dendron form the hardy trees of another small 
 order, which it w T ould be easy to cultivate, taking- 
 care to plant Magnolia conspicua, and any 
 other kind that produces its flowers before it 
 does its leaves, w T ith a rich background of ever- 
 greens. The almond, which flowers in the same 
 manner, should be placed in a similar situation ; 
 and standard roses may also be so placed as to 
 have the unsightliness of their long naked stems 
 greatly lessened by a mass of evergreens be- 
 hind. 
 
 Another very interesting mode of arrange- 
 ment, where the ground will admit of it, is to 
 plant particular situations with certain trees 
 which are not to be found in any other part of 
 the grounds ; and thus to form what the land- 
 scape-gardeners call scenes. Thus, for instance, 
 there might be an American ground, formed in 
 some shaded hollow, and planted with rhodo- 
 dendrons, azaleas, and kalmias. All these plants 
 require a light peaty soil, and a shady and some- 
 what moist situation. In another part of the 
 pleasure-grounds there might be some alpine 
 scenery, with pines and firs, and particularly 
 larches, interspersed with a few birch trees, 
 planted in dry sandy soil, on hilly ground. The 
 deciduous cypress and weeping willow should 
 be near w T ater, as should the common willow,
 
 262 MANAGEMENT OF [CHAP. IX. 
 
 nearly all the poplars, and the alders. In 
 another place might be a thicket of the different 
 varieties of hawthorn, with a few of the fine 
 large-fruited foreign kinds of Crataegus planted 
 in striking situations. In short, there are no 
 limits to the numerous and beautiful scenes that 
 might be laid out by a woman of cultivated 
 mind, who possessed fancy and taste, combined 
 with a very slight knowledge of trees; and I 
 think I may safely add that I do not know a 
 more delightful occupation than this kind of 
 landscape-gardening. It is landscape-painting, 
 but on the noblest and boldest scale ; and it is 
 a source of constant enjoyment, from the daily 
 improvement that it displays. What a differ- 
 ence it makes in the pleasure we have in return- 
 ing home, if we have something to visit that we 
 know has been improving in our absence ! We 
 regard the trees and shrubs we have planted, 
 and the scenes we have laid out, with almost a 
 parental fondness ; and a new and daily increas- 
 ing interest is given to life. I would, therefore, 
 most earnestly entreat my readers to study trees 
 and shrubs; and I do assure them that they 
 will find themselves amply repaid, not only by 
 the pleasure they will have in landscap-e-garden- 
 ing, but in the additional enjoyment their ac- 
 cession of knowledge will give to every country 
 walk and ride that they take. 
 
 There is, however, one great drawback to the 
 pleasure that may be anticipated from planting 
 an arboretum, or even an illustration of any 
 particular order or genus ; and this is, the very 
 great difficulty that exists in procuring plants 
 true to their names. Nurserymen put down a
 
 CHAP. IX.] PLEASURE-GROUNDS. 263 
 
 great many more names in their catalogues 
 than they have different kinds of plants ; and 
 thus the same plants, like the actors in a country 
 theatre, are often made to perform under a 
 great many different names in the same piece. 
 I have heard of instances where twelve or four- 
 teen species were named in a catalogue, though 
 the nurseryman only possessed three or four, 
 which, when wanted, were made to do duty 
 under all these different names. It is true that 
 all nurserymen are not alike in this respect; 
 and the rapidly increasing knowledge of trees 
 and shrubs on the part of the purchasers, will 
 soon render it impossible to impose false kinds 
 upon them. 
 
 In planting masses of trees and shrubs, great 
 care should be taken to hide the dug ground 
 around them, which always forms a scar in the 
 landscape. The best way of doing this is, to 
 cover all the space between the shrubs with 
 grass, and to tie down the branches of the trees 
 to pegs or stakes fixed in the earth, so as to 
 make the trees feather down to the ground. 
 Where this cannot be accomplished, on account 
 of the expense of clipping the grass, for it 
 cannot be mown among the trees, ivy may be 
 pegged down over the dug ground, or evergreen 
 trailing roses, of which there are many kinds 
 especially adapted for this purpose. There is 
 one general rule relating to the planting of trees 
 and shrubs, which can never be too often re- 
 peated, or too strongly enforced ; it is, never to 
 suffer them to be planted too thickly. This 
 may appear a very simple rule, but it is one 
 which it is very difficult to put in practice, as all
 
 264 PLEASURE-GROUNDS. [CHAP. IX. 
 
 the persons employed in planting are generally 
 opposed to it. The nurseryman, of course, 
 wishes to dispose of his plants, and the gardener 
 to produce a good effect as soon as possible, 
 >iay, even the proprietor cannot help feeling the 
 bare and desolate appearance of a new planta- 
 tion, where the shrubs are placed at proper 
 distances. There are but two remedies for this : 
 either planting so as to produce an effect- at 
 first, and then thinning out half the plants, 
 beginning the second or third year ; or planting 
 the shrubs at the proper distances, and covering 
 the ground between them with some trailing 
 plant pegged down. 
 
 Nothing can look worse than a row of tall 
 trees, which were evidently planted for a screen ; 
 but which, so far from answering the intended 
 purpose, admit the light between their slender 
 naked stems, which afford no more concealment 
 than the open rails of a paling. Mr. Loudon 
 observes, in one of the volumes of the Gar- 
 dener s Magazine, that the quickest way of 
 thickening a plantation in this state is, if the 
 trees are deciduous, to cut every alternate tree 
 down, in order that the stools of the fallen trees 
 may send up young shoots ; but, if any of the 
 trees have branches within six or eight feet of 
 the ground, the plantation may be thickened by 
 tying these branches to the stem, without cutting 
 down any of the trees. 
 
 A weeping ash is a very ornamental tree on 
 a lawn, but unless it is well trained it loses its 
 effect. When trained to a wooden frame, the 
 hoops and rods of which it is composed are 
 seldom strong enough to sustain the weight of
 
 CHAP. IX.] HOSES. 265 
 
 snow which falls on the summit of the tree in 
 severe winters, and if they give way in any 
 place the boughs are frequently broken. In the 
 arboretum which the late Joseph Strutt, Esq. 
 most liberally presented to the town of Derby, 
 there is a very fine weeping ash, for which Mr. 
 Strutt had an iron framework made. The iron 
 rods are light and elegant, and vet so strong; 
 that they are in no danger of giving way under 
 any weight of snow that is ever likely to fall on 
 the tree. The iron framework has been coated 
 over with gas tar, to preserve it from rust, and 
 it looks exceedingly well. 
 
 Roses. — These beautiful shrubs are so gene- 
 rally admired, and they are grown so universally 
 in all gardens, that I think I ought to give some 
 especial directions for their culture. In the 
 first place, roses are said to require removing 
 every third year; as they rapidly exhaust the 
 soil, and their fibrous roots are few, small, and 
 not widely extended from the bole of the plant. 
 It is not, perhaps, necessary to take this rule 
 strictly au pied de la left re, but it is as well to 
 keep it in view, and to remember that when 
 rose trees look sickly, or fail to produce a due 
 proportion of flowers, removing them to a fresh 
 soil will, in most cases, restore their vigour. 
 
 It is not, perhaps, generally known, that there 
 are nearly two thousand species and varieties of 
 roses. Among such a chaos it would be almost 
 impossible to choose, had not florists arranged 
 them in about twenty general divisions. One 
 of the principal of these contains the Cabbage 
 Roses, and their beautiful descendants the Moss 
 Roses ; of which last there are more than twenty
 
 266 ROSES. [CHAP. IX 
 
 kinds, some of which are very striking, and 
 particularly the dark crimson moss rose, gene- 
 rally called the Rouge de Luxembourg, and the 
 white moss, though the latter is rather too deli- 
 cate for a town garden. The crested moss is 
 also a curious variety, and it is said to have 
 been found growing out of an old wall in Swit- 
 zerland. All the kinds of moss roses should be 
 planted in warm dry situations, and in March a 
 little manure should be laid on the surface of 
 the soil round their roots. Should the season 
 prove dry, the plants should be frequently 
 watered, and the result will be a brilliant display 
 of flowers. There are twenty-five or thirty 
 other kinds of cabbage or Provence roses, all 
 of which are very fragrant, and, indeed, they 
 are the kinds used for making rose-water, &c. ; 
 they are all quite hardy, and require no par- 
 ticular culture. 
 
 The Autumn-flowering, or Perpetual, Roses, 
 are also remarkable both for their beauty and 
 their fragrance. There are more than fifty 
 sorts • one of the most beautiful of which is 
 Lee's perpetual, the Rose du Roi of the French. 
 The Peestum roses, mentioned by Pliny, are 
 supposed to belong to this family; as does 
 also the well-known Rose des Quatre Saisons. 
 Amono- the Hybrid Perpetual Roses may be 
 mentioned the Duchess of Sutherland, a very 
 valuable rose, from the length of time it con- 
 tinues in flower, and La Reine, which is re- 
 markable for the large size of its buds and 
 flowers. The Comte de Montalivet is also a 
 very beautiful rose. All these roses should be 
 pruned twice a year, in November and in June;
 
 CHAP. IX.] ROSES. 267 
 
 and. after pruning", the ground about their roots 
 should be loosened with a fork, and then covered 
 two or three inches deep with manure, the ma- 
 nure being covered over with some fresh green 
 moss, to prevent it from haying an unpleasant 
 appearance. The roses of all the perpetual 
 kinds frequently fade without losing their petals; 
 and, when this is the case, the faded flowers 
 should be instantly removed. They are all 
 propagated by budding on the common dog 
 rose, as they do not readily take root from 
 layering. These roses are particularly valuable, 
 as, with a little management, they may be kept 
 in flower ei^ht months in every year. 
 
 The French, or Provins, Roses are generally 
 widely-opened flowers, like the rose in archi- 
 tecture. The striped and marbled roses belong 
 to this division. These roses have scarcely 
 anv fragrance ; but thev have general lv showy 
 flowers, and thev are verv hardy. The diw- 
 gists use them for making conserve of roses ; 
 and for this purpose they are grown in great 
 quantities near the little town of Provins, in 
 France, whence their name, which is often con- 
 founded with that of the Provence Roses from 
 the South of France. The handsomest of these 
 roses is the Geant des Batailles, the flowers of 
 which resemble a rich crimson velvet, so dark 
 as to look almost black in some lights. The 
 Bourbon Roses are also remarkable for their 
 velvet-like appearance : they are generally large 
 and cup-shaped, the inside of the flower being 
 much the darkest, and they grow best in sandy 
 soils. Among the most beautiful of this family 
 may be mentioned Paul Joseph, and the Coupe
 
 268 ROSES. [CHAP. IX. 
 
 d'Hebe, the latter, which is a most lovely rose, 
 being a Hybrid Bourbon. The White Roses are 
 hardy, and bloom abundantly with very little 
 care. The Scotch Roses are also remarkable 
 for their hardiness, for their blooming generally 
 a fortnight earlier than any others, and for their 
 ripening abundance of seed, from which new 
 varieties may continually be raised. The yellow 
 Scotch rose is very beautiful. Williams's double 
 yellow sweetbriar, and the Austrian yellow, or 
 copper-coloured, rose, are also well worth culti- 
 vating. The latter is yellow on the outside of 
 the petals and red within. This rose will not 
 succeed well in a smoky atmosphere, but it 
 flowers beautifully in Mrs. Marryat's flower- 
 garden at Wimbledon, and in that of R. H. 
 Jenkinson, Esq., at Norbiton House, near 
 Kingston. The common double yellow rose, 
 which seldom flowers well, should be grown in 
 a rich soil and warm situation, and it requires 
 abundance of air. 
 
 Of the Climbing Roses, the Ayrshire roses, 
 particularly the beautiful white-flowered kind 
 called the Queen of the Belgians, and Rosa 
 ruga, a very handsome and fragrant tea-scented 
 variety, are perhaps the best for training upon 
 frames, to form what are called pillars and 
 pyramids of roses, as they are quite hardy. 
 For sheltered situations, Rosa multiflora, and 
 its near ally the Seven Sisters' Rose, may be 
 chosen ; as they grow very fast and very high, 
 and produce myriads of flowers, though they 
 are easily killed by frost. The most valuable 
 climbing roses are, however, the descendants of 
 Rosa sempervirens, the evergreen roses; and
 
 CHAP. IX.] ROSES. 269 
 
 these are the only kinds that should be used 
 for pegging down over the dug ground of a 
 shrubbery. They are of the easiest culture, as 
 they will grow under the drip of trees, and they 
 ought never to be pruned. They may be 
 planted in spring, the ground being first dug, 
 and cleared from the roots of weeds, &c. It 
 should then be manured with the remains of an 
 old hotbed, and the roses should be planted 
 about five feet apart. The following autumn a 
 good coating of manure should be laid on the 
 surface of the ground; and the plants will re- 
 quire no after culture, but pegging down the 
 shoots to prevent them from leaving any part of 
 the ground bare. The Triompbe de Bollwyller 
 is one of the most useful roses for this purpose. 
 The Boui'sault division (the handsomest of which 
 is the Rose de Lisle) may be treated in the 
 same manner. 
 
 The Noisette Roses are known by the great 
 clusters of flowers which they bear at the ex- 
 tremities of their shoots. Their branches should 
 never be shortened, but the dead flowers should 
 be removed as soon as they fade. The Yellow 
 Noisette Roses are very beautiful, particularly 
 Solfaterre and the Cloth of Gold. The Bank- 
 sian Roses, the Tea-scented kinds, and the Ma- 
 cartney and Musk Roses, are rather tender, 
 and succeed best on a south wall. 
 
 Roses are generally propagated by lavers, or 
 by budding on briars of the common wild dog 
 rose, which are found in the hedges ; they are 
 also propagated occasionally by cuttings and 
 seeds. The layers ought to be formed of shoots 
 of the current year, laid down in July, which
 
 270 ROSES. [CHAP. IX. 
 
 in most cases, will have rooted, so as to be 
 removed in autumn. The blossom buds are 
 pinched off the shoots when they are laid down, 
 in order to throw the strength of the plant into 
 the root. Briars for budding are purchased by 
 the nurserymen from country people, who find 
 them growing wild in the coppice woods and field 
 hedges - 7 and these are used for standard roses, 
 the buds being insprted about five or six feet 
 from the ground. These standard roses, though 
 now so common, were unknown till about 1803, 
 when some briars that had been budded in this 
 manner were sent from Holland into France, 
 and afterwards introduced into England. Ac- 
 cording to the old method, when roses were to 
 be raised from seeds, the hips were thrown toge- 
 ther in a rot-heap, and left for twelve months to 
 decay ; but a more rapid mode is now adopted 
 of disengaging the seeds, by rubbing the hips 
 between coarse hair-cloths. The seeds should 
 be sown in February, in a soil composed of 
 vegetable mould and sand, in a shady situation, 
 and they should be kept tolerably moist till the 
 young plants come up. The following spring 
 they should be transplanted into rows a foot 
 apart every way, but they seldom flower till the 
 fourth summer. 
 
 Roses are frequently planted in what are 
 called rose gardens or roseries, that is, in a 
 series of beds forming some regular figures, with 
 walks between, and only filled with roses of 
 different kinds. The form of the beds, and the 
 mode of planting them, must depend entirely 
 on taste and fancy; the only rule to be attended 
 to is, to keep the roses forming the outer beds
 
 CHAP. IX.] ROSES. 271 
 
 lower than those in the centre. Rose baskets 
 may also be formed on a lawn, either raised on 
 pedestals, or formed merely by fixing wires in 
 the ground ; the lower part being covered with 
 roses pegged down, and their branches covered 
 with moss, and the handles to the basket being 
 formed of wire, over which climbing roses have 
 been trained. 
 
 The best roses in the neighbourhood of Lon- 
 don are to be found at Lee's, Hammersmith, 
 and Loddioes's, Hackney. There are also very 
 fine collections at Paul's, Cheshunt, and Rivers's, 
 Sawbridoe worth; at Wood's, Maresfield, and 
 Hooker's, Brenchley, both near Tunbri'lge 
 Wells ; and at Lane's, Berkhampstead ; most 
 of these nurserymen contriving, by means of 
 forcing, to have abundance of roses beautifully 
 in flower from the latter end of January to the 
 middle of November every year, and a few in 
 pots even during the depth of winter.
 
 219. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 ROCKWORK, MOSS HOUSES, RUSTIC SUMMER- 
 HOUSES, RUSTIC BASKETS, AND FOUNTAINS. 
 
 Rockwork, though composed of somewhat 
 ponderous materials, is very frequently ar- 
 ranged according to female taste ; and one of 
 the most remarkable examples in England (that 
 at Hoole House, near Chester) was designed 
 by a lady, and executed entirely under her 
 direction. There are many kinds of rockwork ; 
 but they may be all described as collections of 
 fragments of rocks, stones, flints, vitrified bricks, 
 scoria?, and similar materials, so arranged as to 
 afford a striking object in the landscape ; and, 
 at the same time, so as to form a number of 
 little nests or crevices for the reception of alpine 
 plants. The mode of arranging these materials 
 depends entirely upon taste, and, of course, 
 varies widely. The most natural kind of rock- 
 work is like that at Redleaf, near Tunbiidge 
 Wells; where the late Mr. Wells, the former 
 proprietor, taking what Mr. Loudon called the 
 key-note from the natural scenery of the neigh- 
 bourhood, made his rocks appear "to crop out" 
 of the soil, as though naturally, in such situa- 
 tions as to give the best effect to the scenery.
 
 CHAP. X.] ROCKWORK. 273 
 
 The plants deposited in the hollows between 
 these rocks are so admirably placed, and the 
 art with which they are cultivated is so skilfully 
 concealed, that no illusion can be more com- 
 plete; and we may fancy ourselves in a scene 
 of nature, but of nature in her greatest beautv 
 and highest luxuriance. 
 
 Very different is the rock-garden of the late 
 Duke of Marlborough, in his private gardens 
 at Blenheim. It is, perhaps, more beautiful 
 than the rocks at Redleaf; but no one could 
 possibly mistake it for anything but a work of 
 art, and it owes its chief beauty to the plants 
 grown in it. It is formed on a scar in the 
 natural rock, which is hewn into zigzag paths ; 
 on one side of each of which are numerous 
 niches to receive the plants. These plants are 
 planted and kept with great care; and they 
 grow so luxuriantly, as almost to hide the 
 paths, and to make the rock look at a little dis- 
 tance like a bank of flowers. Mosses of dif- 
 ferent colours are interspersed, and the whole 
 has a peculiarly rich and sparkling effect. 
 
 The rockwork at Syon has been compared to 
 the scenery of a Highland glen; but I must 
 confess there does not appear to me the 
 slightest resemblance. In fact, the Syon rock- 
 work is so overpowered by the magnificent 
 conservatory in front, with its splendid terrace, 
 and the geometric flower-garden at its base, 
 with its myriads of beautiful flowers, that it 
 becomes quite a secondary object, and its real 
 beauties are very apt to pass unnoticed. It, 
 consists of masses of granite, intermixed with 
 broken capitals of columns and other carved 
 
 T
 
 274 ROCKWORK. [chap. X. 
 
 stones, thrown together in a natural manner, 
 and planted with ornamental flowering plants, 
 principally exotic. The rockwork at Norbiton 
 Hali is disposed in the same manner as that at 
 Syon ; but it is on a smaller scale, and its prin- 
 cipal use is to keep moisture round the roots of 
 the plants which are planted among it. 
 
 At Elvaston Castle, the seat of the Earl of 
 Harrington, near Derby, is a kind of rockwork 
 which certainly resembles the scenery of a 
 Highland glen much more than that at Syon. 
 It is constructed on a gigantic scale ; and, as it 
 is placed on the banks of" a long winding lake, 
 with the masses of rock sometimes rising into 
 steep precipices, and sometimes apparently 
 broken and torn asunder by some convulsion 
 of nature, it has a wonderfully natural effect. 
 Narrow winding paths, which appear, when 
 seen, like gullies worn by a mountain stream, 
 conduct the visitor by a gentle ascent to the 
 summit, from which a magnificent view is ob- 
 tained of the valley of rocks, the lake, and the 
 " trim garden" beyond, with its grassy terraces, 
 clipped trees, and numerous statues, looking 
 like a fairy land. 
 
 The rockwork at Chatsworth is remarkable 
 for its close imitation of nature. Some of the 
 masses of rock weigh upwards of 370 tons 
 each, and in one place they are put together in 
 exact imitation of the Strid, a wild mountain 
 torrent at Bolton Abbey, the banks of which, 
 as represented at Chatsworth, are about thir- 
 teen feet high and 300 feet long. There are 
 also some fine specimens of rockwork in the 
 large conservatory, the rocks being planted so
 
 CHAP. X. 
 
 ROCKWORK. 27. 
 
 as to give the idea of rocky scenery in hot 
 
 climates. 
 
 The rockwork of Lady Broughton, at Hoole 
 House, near Chester, is, again, quite different 
 from the rest. The design for this rockwork 
 was taken from a small model, representing; the 
 mountains of Savoy (including Mount Blanc), 
 taken from the valley of Chamouni; and the 
 rocks are made sufficiently large to give a per- 
 son walking; among' them an idea of their 
 reality. The labour of forming this rockwork 
 was very great ; not only from the large size of 
 the stones to be removed, but from the diffi- 
 culty of getting them of the proper colours 
 and shapes. Besides this, it was very trouble- 
 some to make them stand against the weather. 
 " Rain washed away the soil, and frost swelled 
 the stones ; and several times the main wall 
 failed, from the weight put upon it. The walls 
 and foundations are built of the red sandstone 
 of the country; and the other materials have 
 been collected from various quarters, chiefly 
 from Wales." The part that represents the 
 outer circle of rocks is principally composed of 
 the red sandstone of the neighbourhood, in 
 which little niches have been made for plants, 
 and filled with exactly the kind of soil in 
 which alpine plants grow naturally: viz. 
 broken fragments of stones, clean-washed river 
 gravel, the debris of decaving* moss and other 
 plants, crumbling rocks, &c. The plants are 
 all strictly alpine, the only liberty taken being 
 the mingling of the alpine plants of hot and 
 cold countries, or, rather, of different eleva- 
 tions, together; and this is contrived very in- 
 
 t2
 
 276 ROCKWORK. [CHAP. X, 
 
 geniously, by placing fragments of dark stone, 
 to absorb the heat, round those that require 
 most warmth, and fragments of white stone, to 
 reflect the heat, round those that require to be 
 kept cool. In all the trees and shrubs planted 
 among the rocks, the same care is taken to 
 keep up the illusion : they are all alpine plants ; 
 and dwarf species, or those of a very slow 
 growth, are generally chosen, to prevent them 
 from becoming too large for the rocks. The 
 part which represents the " Mer de Glace," is 
 " worked with grey limestone, quartz, and spar. 
 It has no cells for plants ; but the spaces are 
 filled up with broken fragments of white mar- 
 ble, to look like snow; and the spar is to 
 imitate the glaciers." I have already men- 
 tioned that Lady Broughton was her own 
 artist; and I may add that the rockwork was 
 six or eight years in progress, before it was 
 completed. 
 
 Many other specimens of rockwork on a 
 large scale are to be found in different parts of 
 the kingdom; but the finest I have seen, be- 
 sides those I have already described, are those 
 in the Botanic Garden at Manchester, at Lower 
 Boughton Hall near that place, at Ealing Park, 
 at Endsleigh, and at Woburn. 
 
 Whatever kind of rockwork may be erected, 
 the first thin£ to be done is to make a secure 
 foundation; as, unless this is effected, the 
 stones will gradually sink into the earth by 
 their own weight ; and thus, in a few years, the 
 mass will either have become half-buried, or 
 tottering and insecure. It is, therefore, most 
 prudent, unless the rockwork be actually
 
 CHAP. X.J EOCKWORK. 277 
 
 erected on a solid rock, to prepare a foundation 
 for it of brickwork; not suffering, however, 
 any of the wall to appear above the surface of 
 the ground. To prevent the possibility of this 
 foundation wall being seen, it will be best not 
 to carry it higher than to within six or eight 
 inches of the surface. Ail being prepared, the 
 stones may be arranged, the largest at the 
 base, and the upper ones diversified according 
 to the taste of the designer. 
 
 The following g-eneral rules will apply to all 
 the different kinds of rockwork. rsever to let 
 the stones rest against any kind of building; ; 
 as, when so disposed, they give ideas of dis- 
 order and insecurity. Never to mix up decay- 
 ing materials, such as roots of trees, &c, with 
 durable materials, such as rocks and stones ; 
 or things evidently natural with those evidently 
 formed by art. Never to let the rockwork rise 
 abruptly out of the turf, like a great mass of 
 stones discharged from a cart; but gradually 
 to prepare the way for it, by sinking some 
 fragments of stone half-way in the ground, 
 and letting; them become larger and more nu- 
 merous, till the spectator at last arrives at the 
 principal mass. Xever to begin to work with- 
 out having some fixed design, whether avow- 
 edly artificial or apparently natural : and, when 
 the design is to make what may be called a 
 natural rock-garden, like that of the Duke of 
 Marlborough at Blenheim, always to take care 
 that the stones are very large, and piled upon 
 one another so as to imitate the stratification 
 of a rocky country. 
 
 " In general," says Mr. Loudon in his Villa
 
 278 ROCKWORK. [CHAP. X. 
 
 Gardener ', " rockwork, to be truly natural, can 
 only show the rock on one side, or at most on 
 two sides; as scars, cliffs, and precipices are 
 seen in rocky districts." This abrupt side or 
 face of the rock should be represented as pro- 
 jecting into ledges or shelves, to imitate the 
 terminations of the different strata; and the 
 flowering plants should be introduced in what 
 may be supposed to be the clefts and fissures 
 of the natural rock. The summit of the rock 
 and the sloping side should be covered with 
 turf, and may be planted with trees, some of 
 which may hang over the rockwork; or the 
 line of junction between the stones and the 
 turf may be concealed by the luxuriance of 
 alpine plants inserted in the fissures, and suf- 
 fered to climb over the top. It must be ob- 
 served, however, that in granite, basalt, or 
 other unstratified rocks, the fissures are gene- 
 rally vertical, and consequently very ill adapted 
 for forming ledges for plants. The best mate- 
 rials for a natural rock-garden in ledges are, 
 therefore, sandstone and limestone, the lines of 
 stratification in which are chiefly horizontal, 
 with occasional dips. 
 
 It will be evident, from what has been said, 
 that to make good rockwork requires the eye 
 of an artist; and it may be added, that rock- 
 work should never be attempted without first 
 making a coloured drawing of it on paper, or a 
 small model with a child's box of bricks, or 
 some similar materials, to try the effect. 
 
 Moss Houses are interesting as garden build- 
 ings, because they afford great scope for the 
 exercise of the fancy ; not only in the design
 
 CHAP. X.] MOSS HOUSES. 279 
 
 for the entire building, but for the arrangement 
 of the moss in different patterns. The first 
 thing to be considered in carrying the design 
 into execution is the foundation ; and this, if 
 the soil be damp, should be duo- out two feet 
 deep, and nearly filled with concrete. In this 
 must be fixed the rustic pillars which are to 
 support the roof; and these are generally com- 
 posed of the trunks of young larches or spruce 
 firs with their bark on, which should be chosen 
 as nearly as possible of the same size. The 
 number of pillars, and the manner in which 
 they are to be arranged, depend, of course, on 
 the design; but the general number is from 
 eight to twelve. Great care must be taken to 
 drive the posts firmly into the ground, and all 
 to the same depth. The rafters for the roof 
 are then fixed on, and narrow laths or hazel 
 rods nailed between them, and also between 
 the uprights. Between these laths or rods the 
 moss is pushed with a wedge-shaped piece of 
 wood ; the pattern having been first rudely 
 traced with chalk on the outside of the rods. 
 The mosses and lichens to be used should be 
 first collected and sorted, all of the same kind 
 being put together; and, when they are used, 
 the root end should always be the part pushed 
 in between the rods. 
 
 The best Mosses for this purpose are, for the 
 green, some of the kinds of thread moss 
 (Bryum), and feather moss (Hypnum), which 
 are common everywhere, and frequently very 
 beautiful. If gathered in summer, some of the 
 seed-cases will be scarlet, as in Bryum car 
 neum; but they are purple in B. bicolor, and
 
 280 MOSS HOUSES. [CHAP. X. 
 
 green in B. cuspidatum. The red alpine thread 
 moss (B. alpinum) is sometimes almost black 
 in moist situations ; and, where it can be pro- 
 cured, it may be introduced with very striking 
 effect. Most of the kinds of feather moss are 
 loose, and require to be pushed in farther than 
 the thread mosses ; they are generally green, 
 but the red mountain feather moss (Hypnum. 
 rufescens), which is found principally in the 
 Highlands, is of a reddish brown, and Hypnum 
 lutescens and H. nitens are yellowish, the latter 
 having a brownish tinge. H. proliferum is of a 
 beautiful pea-green, and a tuft of it looks like a 
 plume of feathers ; it is generally found on the 
 trunks of trees, and it is a very common species. 
 The wolf's-claw moss (H. rugosum) is of a very 
 beautiful reddish brown, but it is only found in 
 bogs in the North of England and Scotland, 
 and, consequently, cannot always be procured. 
 Many other kinds of moss might be mentioned, 
 but what I have said will be sufficient to direct 
 the attention of my readers to the subject ; and 
 any of them who may reside near a wood or 
 common will find it an amusement to gather 
 mosses and lichens of different colours, and to 
 drv them for use. The most common kinds 
 on the heaths and commons near London are 
 generally of a pale or dingy hue ; but farther 
 north more brilliant colours are found, some 
 of a very dark brown, some of a rich 
 brownish purple, some of a very bluish green, 
 and some so white as to look like snow: and, 
 when the prevailing mosses and lichens of 
 the district have been discovered, the pat- 
 tern and colours for the moss house can be
 
 CHAP. X.] MOSS HOUSES. 281 
 
 arranged accordingly. A very rich, and at the 
 same lime original, effect might be produced in 
 a moss house, by arranging the moss m an 
 arabesque pattern, with different colours com- 
 bined something like those of a Turkey carpet; 
 and, instead of paving the ground with pebbles, 
 the floor misht be formed with moss in the 
 same manner as the walls : or the walls might 
 be of some plain colour with only the crest of 
 the family, or the initials of the designer's name 
 in white or in colours, and the ceiling and floor 
 in arabesque. 
 
 In all cases, the outside of the roof is thatched 
 or covered with shingles, and the outside of the 
 walls is either boarded or covered with a thick 
 coating of moss. Where the house is large, or 
 if there are glass windows, it is best to have the 
 framework made by a regular carpenter; but, 
 where the moss house is small, and open in 
 front, it may be put up by the gardener, or any 
 intelligent servant. In many cases, the roof is 
 finished with a circle of pine cones fixed round 
 it as a cornice ; and the floor is either laid with 
 other pine cones, or with small pebbles, some of 
 which are white, and are arranged in a kind of 
 pattern. Sometimes, however, it is paved with 
 pieces of wood cut off horizontally, and some- 
 times with the small bones from sheep's trotters, 
 but the latter appears to me decidedly in bad 
 taste. The windows are frequently of coloured 
 glass ; and a curious effect is sometimes pro- 
 duced by having those in the back of the build- 
 ing purple, which makes the ground and every 
 object seen through them look as if covered 
 with snow; and those in front of the building 

 
 282 
 
 RUSTIC SUMMER-HOUSES. 
 
 [chap. X. 
 
 filled with yellow glass, which gives every object 
 the rich glow of summer. 
 
 Rustic Summer-houses are sometimes made 
 by filling up the framework with hazel rods 
 nailed together, which have been varnished with 
 the bark on. Sometimes the rods are dyed of 
 various colours and ar- 
 ranged in a kind of pat- 
 tern, in the same way as 
 the moss is in the moss 
 houses ; and if done 
 with taste they produce 
 a good effect. The win- 
 dows in these houses 
 are generally of stained 
 glass. 
 
 Open Summer-houses, 
 or Covered Seats, are 
 sometimes formed of 
 rustic work, in the 
 manner shown in Jig. 
 22. To form this seat, 
 three young larch trees 
 with the bark on are 
 fixed in the ground in 
 the manner shown in 
 the ground plan (a) ; 
 and there may, if 
 thought necessary, be 
 a fourth placed in the 
 centre. To give the 
 work a more finished 
 appearance, each tree 
 may have a plinth (b) 
 and capital (c) nailed FIG - 22 - RUSTIC SUMMER - HOUSE -
 
 CEAP. X.] UN-COVERED SEAT.-. 283 
 
 on, as shown in the figure. Three curved 
 pieces of wood may serve as a floor, and 
 similar pieces, fixed at about eighteen inches 
 from the others, will form the seats, with a 
 slight frame of rustic work for the back. 
 Pieces of hoop may be bent from the capitals 
 of the columns to form arches, and the 
 roof may be thatched. In fig. 22., a kind of 
 drapery of pine cones hangs from each arch, 
 and the tops of the trees project through the 
 roof, a large cone of the stone pine being placed 
 on the summit; but these decorations maybe 
 omitted if thought unnecessary, or they may be 
 varied according to the taste of the proprietor. 
 
 TJie Uncovered Seats, in a garden or pleasure- 
 ground, are generally purchased ready made ; 
 but an agreeable variety may be occasionally 
 produced, by having the stump of an old tree 
 formed into a seat, and twining ivy and creeping 
 flowering shrubs round it. Where it is an object 
 to save trouble, a plant of the Virginian creeper 
 may be planted with one of the giant ivy ; and 
 if both are left to nature the effect will be very 
 good, as the brilliant deep red of the Virginian 
 creeper in autumn will be relieved by the dark 
 green of the ivy. A few moveable seats, one 
 large to wheel about from one part of the garden 
 to another, and others of the folding kind im- 
 ported from Norway, are very convenient. 
 Where there is a terrace, a seat mav be erected 
 at each end, of wood, but of a somewhat mas- 
 sive design, and painted white, being strewed, 
 while the paint is wet, with very fine sand, which 
 will make it a good imitation of stone. Seats 
 may also be decorated by nailing upon a wooden
 
 284 
 
 RUSTIC BASKETS. 
 
 [CHAP. X. 
 
 framework hazel rods with the bark on, of the 
 same kind as those used for the rustic summer- 
 houses. In situations where there is a fine 
 prospect on two sides, the back of the seats may- 
 be made to turn on a pivot, so as to face either 
 way at pleasure, as is the case on the ramparts 
 at Geneva and other places on the Continent. 
 
 Rustic Baskets. — There are, perhaps, few 
 things over which the alchemy of taste has 
 more power, than the apparently worthless 
 materials of which these elegant ornaments are 
 constructed. An old cask, a few pine cones, 
 and a few pieces of rope, combined by skilful 
 hands, will produce an almost magical effect. 
 The baskets at Dropmore were all constructed 
 in this manner from designs by Lady Grenville. 
 As an example of what may be done with the 
 
 FIG. 23. RUSTIC BASKET.
 
 CHAP. X.] 
 
 RUSTIC BASKETS. 
 
 285 
 
 commonest materials in this way, fig. 23. is an 
 old Chinese tea-chest, with part of a tree sawn 
 through as a pedestal, and some pieces of rope 
 nailed on as decorations ; and fig. 24. is an old 
 basket with all its interstices stuffed with moss. 
 
 FIO. 24. MOSS BASKET. 
 
 Many other articles might be devised, which any 
 person of taste and invention would find it an 
 agreeable occupation to design, and to superin- 
 tend the execution of. In addition to these 
 rustic baskets, a few wirework frames might be 
 designed of much more elegant forms than those 
 commonly sold, which an intelligent gardener 
 might be easily instructed to make at his leisure 
 hours; and, indeed, alady, with two pairs of small 
 pincers, would find no great difficulty in twisting 
 the wire herself. The principal point is to exer- 
 cise our own skill and ingenuity ; for we all feel 
 so much more interested in what we do our- 
 selves than in what is done for us, that no lady 
 is likely to become fond of gardening who does 
 not do a great deal with her own hands.
 
 286 FOUNTAINS. [CHAP. X. 
 
 Fountains. — Though fountains are more suit- 
 able to a hot country than to a weeping climate 
 like that of England, yet it must be confessed 
 they are generally a great improvement to garden 
 scenery. The first thing to be considered before 
 erecting one is, where to make the reservoir ; as 
 on the elevation at which that is above the garden 
 depends the height to which the water of the 
 fountain will ascend. The length of time which 
 the fountain will play depends on the quantity 
 of water contained in the reservoir; but this has 
 nothing to clo with the height to which the water 
 will rise. If a cistern be formed on the top of 
 a summer-house ten feet and a half high, and a 
 pipe from that be carried down to a sufficient 
 depth in the ground to secure it from frost, and 
 thence horizontally to the orifice which is to 
 form the fountain, that orifice, if it be only half 
 an inch in diameter, will throw up a jet of water 
 ten feet high, and will continue playing till all 
 the water in the cistern is exhausted. The 
 conducting pipe for such a fountain should be 
 two inches and a quarter in diameter, and it 
 should be furnished with a valve or stop-cock, 
 which may be turned at pleasure, and by which 
 the water may be either suffered to ascend 
 through the orifice, or retained in the con- 
 ducting pipe. The reservoir cistern must be 
 kept full by a forcing pump, or hydraulic ram ; 
 or, in the neighbourhood of London, by high 
 service from the water company which supplies 
 the dwelling. Any cistern sufficiently high 
 above the garden will do. Where a cistern in 
 the roof is well supplied with a high-service 
 pipe, a fountain with a jet thirty or forty feet 
 high, according to the height of the house,
 
 CHAP. X.] PORTABLE FOUNTAINS. 287 
 
 might be had in the garden, at no other expense 
 than that of fixing descending and horizontal 
 conducting pipes. Fountains may be erected 
 of almost any size, where there is a sufficient 
 quantity of water. The highest that is known 
 ;s one called "The Emperor" at Chatsworth, 
 which, from a single jet, throws a column of 
 water nearly 300 feet high, and which requires 
 such an abundant supply, that in one hour it will 
 lower an acre of water the depth of one foot. 
 
 When fountains do not play properly, the 
 fault will generally be found to lie in the hori- 
 zontal conducting pipe, in which an accumula- 
 tion of earthy matter deposited bv the water, or 
 of air, has taken place. To avoid the danger 
 of the earthy deposit the conducting pipe should 
 be made gently slanting towards the orifice from 
 which the water is to ascend; and to prevent 
 any stoppage arising from air, small air-cocks 
 should be affixed to the pipe in suitable places. 
 When a fountain ceases to play, it may gene- 
 rally be restored to action by clearing the pipes 
 with water forced through them by a forcing 
 pump. Should this fail, the plumber should be 
 sent for, as probably one of the pipes has burst. 
 
 The water in a drooping fountain may be 
 made to form various designs, by means of 
 little tubes of brass, called ajutages, which are 
 sc ewed on the orifice of the upright pipe. 
 Some of these designs imitate a convolvulus, 
 some a w heat-sheaf, some a basket, and some a 
 globe. In short, they are very numerous ; and, 
 after exhausting the fancv of the English 
 plumbers, a variety of different and very elegant 
 designs may be obtained from Paris. 
 
 Portable Fountains have been lately invented
 
 288 
 
 PORTABLE FOUNTAINS. [CHAP. X. 
 
 by a manufacturer named Plasse, in the Rue 
 St. Honore, Paris. These fountains require to 
 be wound up with a 
 key, as some kinds of 
 lamps are ; and when 
 wound up, they will 
 continue going for an 
 hour. They are made 
 of various materials, 
 and some have the 
 pedestal and basin 
 painted to imitate mar- 
 ble; while others have 
 the pedestal formed of 
 rustic work. Injig. 25. 
 the pipe for the water 
 passes through a crystal 
 globe, ornamented with 
 leaves, and in which 
 there are several co- 
 loured globules, which 
 show 7 a oreat variety of 
 light as the water falls 
 upon the globe. Some 
 of these fountains are 
 so contrived as to have 
 a box for flower pots 
 on each side of the 
 water; and some of 
 them are made large enough to play for three 
 hours after being wound up. All these portable 
 fountains are furnished with a cover to fit on 
 the basin, to preserve it from dust when not in 
 use. 
 
 FIG. 25. PORTABLE FOUNTAIN.
 
 289 
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 
 WINDOW GARDENING, AND THE MANAGEMENT 
 OF PLANTS IN POTS IN SMALL GREENHOUSES. 
 
 Plants kept in living -rooms are either grown 
 in glasses of water or in pots. The plants 
 grown in water are, hyacinths, which are gene- 
 rally kept in glasses intended solely for that 
 purpose ; crocuses, which are usually grown in 
 earthenware vessels, with holes for the flowers 
 to come through ; Van Thol Tulips ; and Poly- 
 anthus Narcissus. Of these the hyacinths are 
 by far the most common and the most certain 
 of success. The best time for procuring these 
 bulbs is October, and the water should just 
 reach the bottom of the bulb. When it is 
 wished to hasten the growth of the plants, 
 warm water should be used ; and many persons 
 advise boiling the water before putting it into 
 the glasses, to prevent its becoming bad by 
 standing. Many persons advise keeping the 
 glasses in the dark till the roots have developed 
 themselves, but this is rather a doubtful prac- 
 tice, and is not always attended with success. 
 Various expedients have been devised for keep- 
 ing the hyacinths upright, as when there is a 
 heavy flower it sometimes falls over and over- 
 balances the roots. 
 
 The management of plants in pots when 
 kept in living-rooms is extremely difficult from 
 
 u
 
 290 WINDOW GARDENING. [CHAP. XI. 
 
 the want of proper light and moist air : though 
 this latter want may, in some measure, be ob- 
 viated, by opening the window in front of which 
 the plants stand, whenever circumstances will 
 permit. It should never be forgotten that at- 
 mospheric air is as essential to plants as water ; 
 and that they are seriously injured by being 
 forced to inspire air at their breathing pores 
 that is in too dry a state for them. I have 
 often observed the healthy appearance of plants 
 belonging to cottagers ; and I believe it arises 
 principally from the habit that most poor people 
 have, of setting their plants out in the rain 
 whenever there is a shower. This, by clearing 
 the leaves of dust, enables them to perform 
 their various functions, and to take in nourish- 
 ment both from the rain and the atmospheric 
 air. Without a sufficiency of air and light, 
 plants will soon become weak and sickly, and 
 their leaves will turn yellow : but, if a little 
 fresh air be given to them every day when the 
 temperature is not too cold, they will grow 
 nearly as well in a room as in a greenhouse. 
 
 Another reason why plants kept in rooms are 
 generally unhealthy is, that they are watered in 
 a very irregular manner. Sometimes they are 
 suffered to become so dry that the mould in 
 which they grow will crumble under the pressure 
 of the finger, and the spongioles of the roots 
 are quite withered ; and then water is given to 
 them, quite cold from the pump, though they 
 have probably been standing in a temperature 
 of from 60° to 70° ; and part of this water is 
 suffered to remain in the saucer for a day or 
 two, till even the healthy part of the roots is
 
 CHAP, xi.] PLANTS IN POTS. 291 
 
 thoroughly chilled, and the plant, if of a deli- 
 cate nature, is destroyed. The reverse of all 
 this should be the case. The plant should never 
 be suffered to become so dry as to have the 
 mould in a crumbling state ; but, if such a cir- 
 cumstance has occurred, it should be well wa- 
 tered with water at least as warm as the tempe- 
 rature of the room, and better if rather warmer. 
 Enough of this water should be given to fill the 
 saucer ; in order that every part of the mould 
 and of the roots may imbibe some benefit from 
 the moisture; but, as soon as this has been 
 done, the pot should be lifted out of the saucer, 
 and the water thrown away, as nothing can be 
 more injurious to the roots of most plants, than 
 to have the pot they grow in kept standing in 
 water. There are, however, some exceptions to 
 this rule, such as all the kinds of Mimulus, the 
 Hydrangea, Calla (or Richardia) sethiopica, and 
 some kinds of Calceolaria. All these, and all 
 marsh plants, require abundance of water, and 
 will not flower well unless the saucer be kept 
 half full ; but even with them the water should 
 be changed every day. 
 
 It is also a common fault to put plants kept 
 in rooms into too large pots; or, as the gar- 
 deners express it, to over-pot them. This has 
 always a bad effect. If the soil be good, and 
 not over-watered, the plants will, indeed, grow 
 rapidly; but it will be to produce leaves and 
 branches instead of flowers : and if the soil be 
 over-watered, the mass of soddened earth round 
 the roots has the same effect upon them as 
 stagnant water in the saucer. The soil should 
 always be in such a state as to admit air with 
 
 u2
 
 292 WINDOW GARDENING. [CHAP. XI. 
 
 the water to the roots ; and this it cannot do 
 when it becomes a blackened paste by being 
 saturated with water. At the same time, fre- 
 quent repotting is often absolutely necessary to 
 keep the plants in a dwarf compact habit of 
 growth, and to prevent them from being drawn 
 up. The way in which gardeners ascertain 
 when repotting is necessary is, by turning the 
 plant out of its pot with the ball of earth 
 attached ; and, if they find the roots look white 
 round the outside of the mould, then the plant 
 should be transferred to a larger pot ; but only 
 one size larger : afterwards it may be repotted 
 again if necessary, but always in a pot only a 
 little larger than the one it was taken from. 
 By persevering in this mode of treatment for 
 a good while, and never advancing more than 
 one size at a time, a plant may be grown to a 
 large size, and made to produce abundance of 
 flowers; while by the contrary treatment, that is, 
 suffering it to remain in a very small pot, or 
 shifting it suddenly into a very large one, the 
 stem will become weakened and elongated, and 
 the flowers will be few and very poor. In 
 short, on the skilful management of repotting, 
 or shifting, as the gardeners call it, a great deal 
 of the art of growing plants in pots depends. 
 
 The best soil for plants in pots was formerly 
 considered to be peat, mixed with vegetable 
 mould and sand ; but it is now found that turfy 
 soil chopped loosely up and mixed with char- 
 coal roughly broken, is incomparably better. 
 In the case of heaths and other hair-rooted 
 plants, the soil should be mixed with Iroken 
 stones and pebbles, some of the latter bein£
 
 CHAP. XI.] PLANTS IN POTS. 293 
 
 laid on the top. It was formerly the practice 
 to sift the soil for plants in pots, so as to ex- 
 clude every stone, and even every lump ; and 
 the consequence was, that in those plants which 
 require a loamy soil, such as the pelargoniums, 
 the earth in the pot became a solid mass, which 
 it was scarcely possible for water to penetrate. 
 Where the new system is not adopted, the pots 
 should be filled nearly a quarter of their depth 
 with little bits of broken pots, called potsherds, 
 so as to insure complete drainage. When plants 
 are shifted, they are turned out of their old 
 pots with their balls of earth entire ; the roots 
 are then examined, and if any are wxmnded or 
 decayed they should be cut off. The new pot 
 having had a layer of potsherds put at the bot- 
 tom, with a little earth laid over them, the plant 
 is placed in the centre, so that the bole or collar 
 may be just above the level of the rim, and the 
 new earth being put in, the pot is shaken to 
 make it settle; the plant is then slightly 
 watered, and set aside in the shade for the rest 
 of the day. Plants should never be repotted 
 when in flower ; the best time is, indeed, when 
 they are growing, before their 
 flower buds begin to swell, as, 
 when the flower buds have ap- 
 peared, they should be allowed to remain un- 
 disturbed till the flowering season is completely 
 over. Sometimes the soil in a pot becomes 
 covered with moss. When this is the case, the 
 moss should be taken off, and the soil loosened 
 with a pot-hoe {jig. 26.). This little hoe is 
 also very useful when the soil in a pot has be- 
 come hard and caked together, so as to be 
 
 FIG. 26. POT-HOE
 
 294 WINDOW GARDENING. [CHAP. XL 
 
 impervious to the air. Sometimes the soil in a 
 pot looks black from over-watering ; and when 
 this is the case, the plant should be turned out 
 of the pot, and the black sodden earth shaken 
 off the roots, which should be cut in, and should 
 have all their decayed parts removed. A clean 
 dry pot should then be procured, of the same, 
 or nearly the same, size as the one the plant 
 was taken from, and a quantity of potsherds 
 (old pots broken into small pieces) having been 
 put in so as to fill about a quarter of the pot, 
 it should be filled up with a compost of vege- 
 table mould, sand, and peat, mixed with lumps 
 of charcoal. Thus treated, and only moderately, 
 but regularly, watered with warm water, which 
 should never be allowed to stand in the saucer, 
 the plant will soon recover: and, if judiciously 
 pruned, should the stem have been elongated, 
 it will become handsome, and what gardeners 
 call well grown. 
 
 Rough potting. — The advantage of admitting 
 air in small quantities to the roots of plants no 
 sooner began to be understood, than plans were 
 devised for mixing various substances with the 
 soil, so as to prevent it caking together. The 
 first person who practised this system to any 
 extent was the late Mr. M'Nab of Edinburgh, 
 who mixed large pebbles with the soil with 
 which he potted his heaths, and his plan was 
 attended with decided success. Many years 
 afterwards, Mr. Barnes, gardener to Lady 
 Rolle at Bicton, in Devonshire, introduced a 
 system of potting plants in a soil composed of 
 chopped turf, sand, and charcoal. This system, 
 which he called rough potting, was found to
 
 CHAP. XI.] FLOWER-POTS. 295 
 
 answer admirably with some kinds of plants, 
 but not to succeed in ail cases. 
 
 Another mode of potting plants, called the 
 one-shift system, was introduced about the 
 same time, but it is scarcely worth mentioning, 
 as it has proved a decided failure. It consisted 
 in removing plants at once from small pots into 
 very large ones, and though it succeeded in 
 some cases, it was in very few. 
 
 One great objection to growing plants in 
 rooms is, the difficulty that exists in keeping 
 them clear of insects ; particularly of the aphis, 
 or green flv, and the kind of mite commonly 
 called the red spider ('Acarus telarius). These 
 are generally destroyed by fumigating them 
 with some kind of fumigating bellows. W ash- 
 ing with a sponge, and syringing with abund- 
 ance of water, are better modes, particularly 
 the latter ; as it has been often observed that 
 neither the green fly nor the red spider will 
 ever infest a plant that is frequently syringed. 
 
 Flower-pots are of many different kinds, but 
 those of the common red earthenware are de- 
 cidedly the best, because they are the most 
 porous, and consequently do not retain the 
 moisture so as to be injurious to the plants they 
 contain; but they should always be washed 
 clean and suffered to become quite dry be- 
 fore they are used. Pots glazed inside were 
 recommended some time since, but they are 
 found not to succeed. Flower-pots are of 
 various sizes, which are designated by the 
 number made out of a certain quantity of clay 
 called a cast. Thus the largest size, which is 
 a foot and a half in diameter, is called a two,
 
 296 WINDOW GARDENING. [CHAP. XI. 
 
 because there are only two made out of a cast ; 
 and the smallest-numbered size, which is only- 
 two inches in diameter, is called a sixty, be- 
 cause there are sixty pots made out of one cast. 
 When I was in my gardening noviciate, I used 
 to be very much puzzled when I was told that 
 rooted cuttings should be potted in thumbs or 
 in sixties, and that a plant which required trans- 
 planting should be put in a twelve or an eight. 
 Thumbs are still smaller pots than sixties, for 
 there are eighty to the cast ; but they are not 
 described by their number, and are called thumb- 
 pots, because they will not hold more than a 
 large-sized thumb. Besides the common flower- 
 pots, there are double pots, one of which has 
 been sent me by Captain Mangles, which are 
 very useful for balconies, as the roots of the 
 plants are apt to be injured by the outside of 
 the pot in which they grow being dried by the 
 wind, or heated by the sun. When double pots 
 are used, the interstice between the pots may 
 be stuffed with moss kept moist. It does not 
 do, however, to keep plants long in these pots 
 without changing the moss, as if it is suffered 
 to cake together, it prevents the air from enter- 
 ing through the pores of the flower-pot, which 
 it should do to keep the roots in a healthy state. 
 China or any kind of glazed pots may also 
 be used for balconies, as the material of which 
 they are composed does not permit evaporation ; 
 but they are liable to the same objection as pots 
 glazed inside, though in a less degree, and when 
 used they should always be filled at least a third 
 of their depth with broken crocks, or potsherds, 
 to insure drainage. A very elegant Etruscan
 
 CHAP. XI.] 
 
 FLOWER-POTS. 
 
 297 
 
 FIG. 27 • ETRtSCAN FLOWER-POT. 
 
 INNER POT OF EAKTHE.VWARE. 
 
 flower-pot {fig. 27.) has been lately manu- 
 factured of china by Messrs. Copeland and 
 Garratt, with an inner pot of earthenware to 
 prevent injury from the want of evaporation. 
 Another china pot, with an inner pot of earthen- 
 ware, is made like a basket (see fig. 28.). In 
 
 FIG. 28. BASKET POT. INNER POT OF EARTHENWARE.
 
 298 WINDOW GARDENING. [CHAP. XI. 
 
 these flower-pots the inner pot is made with 
 holes for drainage, and the outer pot serves as 
 a saucer. Another kind of flower-pot, manu- 
 factured in Derby of the common red porous 
 earthenware, combines the beautiful form of a 
 vase with all the convenience of a flower-pot 
 and saucer (see fig. 29.). Hunt's flower-pot 
 
 FIG. 29. THE VASE FLOWER-POT AND SAUCER. 
 
 and saucer are also so contrived as to leave a suf- 
 ficient space between the bottom of the pot and 
 the saucer to prevent the water in the latter 
 from injuring the roots of the plants. 
 
 All pots should be well drained, by having a 
 layer of potsherds at the bottom, to prevent 
 the hole from becoming choked up with the 
 earth pressing against it ; and hair-rooted plants, 
 such as heaths, and most of the Australian 
 shrubs, if the earth in which they are grown 
 is not mixed with stones, should have the pot 
 filled to a third of its depth with potsherds. 
 Succulent plants, such as the Cactacese and the
 
 CHAP. XI.] PORTABLE GREENHOUSE?. 
 
 299 
 
 mesembryanthemums, should be drained with 
 cinders ; as the potsherds, being of a porous 
 material, would retain too much moisture for 
 their roots. 
 
 Portable greenhouses. — The French, who 
 generally excel us in contrivances for portable 
 luxuries, have lately invented a kind of green- 
 house which may be kept in a room, and in 
 which plants, in very small pots, may be forced 
 into flower. Many of these curious little pots 
 with plants in them, looking like fairy flowers, 
 have been lately exhibited for sale in the Lon- 
 don flower markets ; and they may be easily 
 grown by any one who chooses to take the 
 trouble, in a portable greenhouse like that shown 
 vnjig. 30. This consists of three pieces of earth- 
 enware : viz. a, the foot, on which stands b, the 
 
 riQ. 30. CIRCULAR PORTABLE GEEEN'HOUiK.
 
 300 PORTABLE GREENHOUSES. [CHAP. XT. 
 
 basin, which is surmounted by the plate c. Li 
 the foot, a, is placed a tin or earthenware lamp, 
 d. Three or four inches above the wick is 
 placed a short iron cistern, e, supported by three 
 feet, which rest on the bottom of the basin, b ; 
 it is three inches deep, seven inches in diameter, 
 and is fed by a pipe and funnel, f, into which 
 water is poured until it can be seen at the 
 bottom of the funnel, which shows that the 
 cistern is full. The plate c is formed of com- 
 mon red earthenware, and consists of two cir- 
 cular trenches, g g and h h, four inches broad, 
 and as much deep. These trenches are filled 
 with sand, and in the trench g are placed, in 
 two rows, eighty-six very small pots. In the 
 trench h are forty more pots ; so that in the 
 two nearly 130 cuttings may be struck at one 
 time. In the foot, a, is a door, fastened by a 
 button, to admit of taking out the lamp, and of 
 replacing it when needful. The lamp is supplied 
 with the air necessary for combustion by eight 
 holes bored at i ; by eight still smaller ones at 
 k ; and by eight or ten in the plate at I. There 
 is a metal plate pierced with holes at m, through 
 which the greater part of the heat rises; so 
 that the trough h h, is much hotter than the 
 trough g g, which is warmed principally by the 
 hollow spaces at n n. The difference of heat 
 between the two troughs is so great, that it is 
 said hothouse plants may be struck in the 
 trough h, and greenhouse ones in g. The frame 
 is covered with the hand-glass, p ; which, of 
 course, may be removed at pleasure. 
 
 The cuttings that are struck in the small pots 
 are taken from the ends of the shoots, with
 
 CHAP. XI.] 
 
 THE GREENHOUSE. 
 
 301 
 
 flower-buds on them, so that they produce 
 flowers though only a few inches in length. 
 
 The management of plants in a common 
 greenhouse differs very little from that of plants 
 in rooms. Whenever the weather will permit, 
 air should be given, if only for half an hour, 
 in the middle of the day. The house should 
 be kept clean, and free from dead leaves ; and 
 the plants should not be too much crowded. 
 Nothing can look worse than pale, sickly green- 
 house plants, drawn up to an unnatural length, 
 and so weak that their stems will not stand 
 upright without the aid of a stick. When £reen- 
 houses are crowded with plants, some of which 
 are too far from the light, this must be the case; 
 and, should it be so, it is quite hopeless to expect 
 either healthy plants or fine flowers. Though 
 it is advisable to have saucers to the pots of 
 plants kept in rooms, for the sake of cleanli- 
 ness, it is much better for those kept in the 
 greenhouse to be without them. All persons 
 having a great number of plants in pots should 
 be provided with a small watering-pot, havino- 
 a very long spout, for the convenience of reach- 
 ing the different pots ; and care should be taken 
 to give water to each pot in succession, by rest- 
 ing the spout of the watering-pot in turn on 
 each. The watering-pot may have roses of two 
 
 FIG. 31. WATER.r.\-G-POT FOR GREENHOUSE PLANT*.
 
 302 THE GREENHOUSE. [CHAP. XL 
 
 or three different kinds, to screw on as wanted 
 (see Jig. 31.). 
 
 As different greenhouse plants require a some- 
 what different treatment, the following direc- 
 tions for the management of a few of the most 
 popular may be useful to my readers. 
 
 Camellias. — The camellia is a plant which 
 requires abundance of water, and is yet soon 
 killed by suffering stagnant moisture to remain 
 about the roots. When grown in pots there 
 should be abundant drainage ; that is, the pots 
 should be about a quarter rilled with potsherds. 
 The soil should be peat-earth and sand, which 
 may be mixed with a little vegetable mould 
 and charcoal, if it is desired to have the plants 
 of very luxuriant growth; and they should be 
 potted high, so as to let the collar of the plant 
 be quite above the rim of the pot. The pots 
 should not have saucers, or, if they have for 
 the sake of cleanliness, the water should be 
 carefully poured out of them immediately after 
 the plants have been watered. The plants 
 should be watered abundantly every day while 
 their flower-buds are swelling; as, if this be 
 neglected, the buds are very apt to drop off. 
 When the flowers begin to expand, the water- 
 ing is not of so much consequence, though it 
 should be continued in moderate quantities; 
 and abundance should be again given when 
 the plants are making their young shoots. 
 After they have done growing, watering once 
 or twice a week will be sufficient till the flower- 
 buds again begin to swell. During the grow- 
 ing season, the plants should be set out and 
 syringed all over the leaves once or twice a
 
 CHAP. XI.] CAMELLIAS. • 303 
 
 week; but care should be taken not to do this 
 when the sun shines, or at any rate not to set 
 the plants in the sun while they are wet, as the 
 heat of the sun acting on the water will scald 
 the leaves, and make them appear blotched 
 and partially withered. The roots of camellias 
 are seldom very strong, and they are very 
 easily injured. Great care should, therefore, 
 be taken, when the plants are repotted, not to 
 bruise the roots, or to cut off all that are in 
 any way injured. If, on turning out the plants 
 previously to repotting, the ball of earth has 
 no white roots appearing on the outside, the 
 earth and decayed roots should be shaken .or 
 cleared away, till good roots are seen; and 
 these should be carefully examined, and all the 
 bad parts cut away. The plants should then 
 be repotted in pots not exceeding by more than 
 an inch the diameter of the ball of earth left 
 round the sound roots ; and they should be 
 well drained at the bottom with very small pot- 
 sherds or clean gravel. Small camellias should 
 not be shifted oftener than once in two years ; 
 and large ones, that is, those above five feet 
 high, not oftener than once in three or four 
 years : but if the earth in the pot appears to 
 have sunk, a little vegetable mould may be laid 
 on the surface. The usual time for shifting 
 camellias is just when they have done flower- 
 ing, before they are beginning to send out their 
 young shoots. When planted in the free 
 ground in a conservatory, they will require no 
 other care than regular waterins;, and svrinoins: 
 
 O O' ./SO 
 
 the leaves once or twice a week. When planted 
 in the open air, the roots should be carefully
 
 304 THE GREENHOUSE. [chap. XI. 
 
 protected by straw during frosty weather. 
 There are some camellias in the Vauxhall 
 Nursery (Messrs. Chandler's) which have been 
 treated in this manner, and have stood out for 
 several years. The hardiest kinds, and the 
 most suitable for planting in the open air, are, 
 the Single Red, the Double Red, and the 
 Double White. The magnificent Camellia reti- 
 culata is also said to be tolerably hardy. The 
 tenderest of the common kinds are, the beau- 
 tiful apple-flowered variety of C. Sasanqua, 
 and the single variety of this species, the 
 flower of which resembles that of the tea 
 plant. These plants are both of low growth, 
 and ought always to be kept in pots. Camel- 
 lias are very often infested with insects, parti- 
 cularly a kind of black aphis, the only reme- 
 dies for which are fumigation and constant 
 syringing. The leaves of camellias should be 
 always syringed on the under side, as well as 
 on the surface, as they curve inwards a little, 
 and thus afford a shelter to insects, from which 
 it is very difficult to dislodge them. For an 
 account of the new method of grafting the 
 camellia, now practised with great success at 
 Knight's Exotic Nursery, King's Road, Chelsea, 
 and some other places, see p. 90. 
 
 Geraniums, or Pelargoniums. — The beautiful 
 greenhouse shrubs which we are accustomed to 
 call geraniums, have, in fact, been long sepa- 
 rated from that genus, and formed into a new 
 one called Pelargonium. The principal differ- 
 ence is in the shape of the seed-vessel; that of 
 the Pelargonium being like a stork's bill, and 
 that of the Geranium like a crane's bill. Both
 
 CHAP. XI.] PELARGONIUMS. 3 O 
 
 are nearly allied to the touch-me-not; and, 
 when the seed is ripe, the valves of the seed- 
 pod burst asunder and curl up. There are 
 almost innumerable species, hybrids, and varie- 
 ties of Pelargoniums grown in our greenhouses, 
 so mixed up together by hybridising that it is 
 very difficult even to class them. One of the 
 hardiest kinds, which has numerous descend- 
 ants, is the Horse-shoe Geranium (Pelargonium 
 zonale); and another, P. inquinans, is the 
 common Scarlet. The Rose-scented Geranium 
 (P. <rraveolens) and the Oak-leaved (P. querci- 
 folium), with their numerous descendants, the 
 flowers of which are all crimson, striped with 
 brown so very dark that it looks almost black, 
 are also tolerably hardy. All the shrubby 
 kinds, which are generally kept in greenhouses, 
 require a rich loamy soil, that is, about half 
 very rotten dung and half sandy loam, to make 
 them produce fine flowers. When the flower- 
 ing season is over, the plants are cut down, 
 and cuttings made from them. (See page 69.) 
 When these have struck, they are potted in a 
 compost of vegetable mould and sand, and 
 kept in this soil till February or March, when 
 they are repotted in rich soil for flowering. 
 W hen the plants are wished to flower particu- 
 larly well, they are put into hotbeds after 
 repotting in February or March, to bring them 
 forward; and they are tied down to little sticks 
 placed round the pot, to keep them bushy. 
 Some gardeners throw away the old plants as 
 soon as they have made the cuttings; but 
 others take the old plants out of their pots, 
 
 x
 
 306 THE GREENHOUSE. [CHAT. XL 
 
 and, shaking the earth from them, cut in the 
 roots, and repot the plants in smaller pots; or 
 tie them up by the roots, and hang them in a 
 cellar till the time for repotting in spring. 
 Some persons, after taking them out of the 
 pots, lay them in rows in a cellar, and cover 
 the roots with sand, till February, when they 
 are repotted and placed in a hotbed to start 
 them, as the gardeners call it, that is, to make 
 them begin to grow. No plant has been more 
 improved than the pelargonium by the new 
 system of rough potting, and mixing the soil 
 with charcoal. According to the old plan, the 
 loamy soil in which the geraniums were planted 
 soon caked together, and became so hard as to 
 be alike impervious to water and air. I have 
 myself found the ball of earth of a geranium 
 hard and dry in the centre, though I had 
 watered it every day. When this is the case, 
 the plants, being deprived of their proper 
 supply of carbon, become weak and etiolated, 
 and are more disposed to produce stems and 
 leaves than flowers. By the system of rough 
 potting, on the contrary, air and water are 
 admitted freely to the roots; and the conse- 
 quence i£ that the plants are compact in shape, 
 and covered with superb flowers. Pelargo- 
 niums require a great deal of air; and when 
 about to flower they should have a great deal 
 of water, but at other seasons very little. They 
 are killed with the slightest frost ; and they are 
 very liable to damp off, if watered too much, 
 and not allowed sufficient air, in winter. Air 
 is, indeed, quite essential to them. The best
 
 CHAP. XL.] HEATHS. 3 1 '7 
 
 geranium-growers in or near London are Mr. 
 Catleugh of Hans Place, Chelsea, and Mr. 
 Gaines of Battersea. 
 
 Heaths. — The kinds grown in greenhouses 
 are all natives of the Cape of Good Hope, and 
 they are very numerous : but they may be 
 classed under six heads, which are named from 
 the shape of their flowers. These divisions 
 are, tubular-shaped, ventricose, spreading or 
 salver-shaped, with an inflated calyx, globular, 
 and ovate. They all require to be potted high, 
 and to be grown in three parts of peat-earth to 
 one of fine white sand, or in what is emphati- 
 cally called heath-mould. According to the 
 late Mr. M'Nab's system, pebbles or broken 
 stones are mixed with the whole of the soil for 
 heaths, and to these Mr. Barnes adds charcoal 
 with astonishing success. The pebbles are laid 
 also on the surface of the earth in the pot, and 
 on removing; them abundance of delicate white 
 roots will be found under each. In potting;, 
 the collar of the plant should always be kept 
 above the soil, as it is very easily rotted bv 
 moisture. Heaths require g;ood drainage and 
 frequent waterings; and, though the water 
 should never be allowed to stand in the saucer, 
 the roots should not be allowed to become 
 quite dry, as, when once withered, they can 
 never be recovered. Heaths also require abun- 
 dance of free air, and no plants are more 
 injured by being kept in rooms. They should 
 not be shifted oftener than once in three or 
 four years. They are propagated by cuttings 
 taken from the tips of the shoots, and then 
 struck in pure white sand. The pots containing: 
 
 i 2
 
 308 THE GREENHOUSE. [CHAP. XI. 
 
 the cuttings should be plunged up to the rim in 
 a hotbed, and each should be covered with a 
 bell-glass. Heaths are easily killed by frost, 
 which acts upon them by splitting, or rather 
 shivering, their stems; and they are very apt to 
 become elongated, and bare in the lower part 
 of the plant. The remedy for the last evil is, 
 tying the branches down to little sticks painted 
 green, so as to be scarcely seen, and by this 
 treatment the heaths become dense masses of 
 flowers. Mr. Barnes practises this mode to a 
 great extent at Bicton; and the consequence is, 
 that his heaths are some of the finest in the 
 kingdom. The best heaths near London are 
 those of Messrs. Rollisson of Tooting; but 
 there are also very good collections at Messrs. 
 Henderson's, Pine-apple Place, Lee's, Ham- 
 mersmith, and Chandler's, Vauxhall. 
 
 Verbenas. — No family of plants better re- 
 wards the care of the cultivator, and none can 
 be more beautiful, than the verbenas. The old 
 scarlet Verbena Melindres, or, as it is frequently 
 called, V. chameedri folia, is the most brilliant of 
 all the kinds, though it is one of the most 
 tender. It is a prostrate plant, and, when 
 pegged down, it is well adapted for covering a 
 bed in a geometric flower-garden; or it may be 
 planted in a vase or rustic flower-basket, to 
 hang down over the sides. Verbena Tweedieana 
 is an upright-growing plant, and though the 
 flowers, which are crimson, are not half so bril- 
 liant as those of V. Melindres, the plant has 
 the great advantage of being one of the hardiest 
 of all the kinds. V. Melindres latifolia and V. 
 M. splendens are both hardier than their parent,
 
 CHAP. XL] VERBENAS. 309 
 
 and they unite its brilliant colour with the up- 
 right habit of V. Tweedieana. V. incisa has 
 pale pink flowers, and an upright habit of 
 growth. It is tolerably hardy, and grows 
 freelv, but its flowers have a faded look. V. 
 Arraniana has an upright habit of growth, and 
 purple flowers, with very dark bluish-green 
 leaves. It is very tender, and very apt to be 
 attacked by a kind of aphis and other insects. 
 V. pulche-lla, V. Aubletia, V. Lamberti, and V. 
 Sabini are prostrate tufted half-herbaceous 
 kinds, and all hardv. V. Neillii has lilac 
 flowers, and rather an upright habit of growth, - 
 and V. teucrioides, which has been much more 
 praised than it deserves, is a coarse-growing 
 plant, with a lono; spike of white flowers, which 
 turn pinkish in dying off. There are also V. 
 sulphurea, a yellowish kind; V. venosa, a very 
 strong-growing species, with purple flowers; 
 and many other species, with innumerable hy- 
 brids and varieties that are increasing every 
 dav. All the verbenas require to be grown in 
 sand and peat, or heath-mould, and to be kept 
 moderatelv watered : they all strike readily 
 from cuttings or layers ; and, indeed, when 
 pgo-ored down, even without any slitting or 
 twisting, most of the shrubby kinds will throw 
 out roots at every joint. When worm-casts 
 are observed on the surface of the earth in the 
 pot, as will very often be the case, the plant 
 mav be turned out with its ball of earth entire, 
 and the worms, which will always be found on 
 the outside of the ball, may be picked off. 
 Worms do considerable injury to plants, espe- 
 cially such as are in pots, by rupturing the
 
 310 THE GREENHOUSE. [CHAP. XI. 
 
 fibres, and impeding the free percolation of the 
 water, besides giving the surface of the earth 
 in the pot a very unpleasant appearance. The 
 flowers of the verbenas should always be cut 
 off as soon as they wither. The Lemon Plant 
 (Verbena triphylla, now called Alo^sia citrio- 
 dora) is remarkable for the sweetness of the 
 odour of its leaves. It is tolerably hardy, but 
 requires great care in watering; as the leaves 
 will soon curl up and wither if it has too little 
 water, and they will drop off if it has too much. 
 The flower has no beauty; and the only recom- 
 mendation of the plant is the delightful fra- 
 grance of its leaves. In Devonshire I have 
 seen bushes of this plant ten and twelve i'eet 
 high in the open garden. 
 
 Petunias may be raised either from seed or 
 cuttings, as they seed freely, and strike readily. 
 The first kind introduced was Petunia nyctagini- 
 flora, which produces a great abundance of large, 
 white, fragrant flowers; Petunia phcenicea, or 
 P. violacea, is another original species ; and from 
 these two nearly all the hybrids and varieties 
 now found in gardens have arisen. These 
 petunias hybridise freely with each other, and 
 most of the kinds produce abundance of seed; 
 but P. bicolor is a distinct species, which does 
 not either mix well with the others, or seed 
 freely. Petunias may be treated as annuals, 
 and raised on a slight hotbed every year from 
 seed; and, thus treated, they will do very well 
 in the open ground. In warm dry situations, 
 they may even be suffered to sow themselves 
 every year, when they will come up and flow T er 
 abundantly. Treated as greenhouse plants,
 
 CHAP. XI.] FUCHSIAS. 311 
 
 they are, however, all shrubby, and will last 
 several years. When intended to he kept in 
 pots, the seed should be sown on a slight hot- 
 bed in February, and the young plants should 
 be pricked out into very small thumb-pots, 
 while they are in the seed leaf. In these pots 
 thev should remain either in the frame of the 
 hotbed, or in a room or greenhouse, for about 
 a week or ten days, and they should be then 
 shifted into somewhat larger pots. These 
 shiftings, always into somewhat larger pots, 
 should be repeated six, eight, or ten times, if 
 the plants are wanted to be bushy; and not 
 more than four, if the plants are wished to 
 grow tall. The bushy plants will flower abun- 
 dantly without any support; but the tall-growino- 
 plants, which are suffered to flower in compara- 
 tively small pots, must be trained to some kind 
 of frame. When the tall plants appear to be 
 growing too straggling, the extremities of the 
 shoots should be taken off and made into cut- 
 tings. Petunias may be grown in any good 
 garden soil; and they require no particular 
 attention as to watering, &c. In fact, thev are, 
 perhaps, the best of all plants for a lady to 
 cultivate; as they will aftbrd a great deal of 
 interest and amusement, with the least possible 
 amount of trouble. 
 
 Fuchsias are another family of plants that 
 may be cultivated with very little trouble. 
 Fuchsia globosa is perhaps the hardiest kind 
 for general purposes ; though the Port Famine 
 Fuchsia (F. discolor) will bear the greatest de- 
 gree of cold. In the summer of 1841 I saw 
 several large bushes of this fuchsia, from ten
 
 312 THE GREENHOUSE. [CHAP. XI. 
 
 to twelve feet high, growing in the gardens 
 between Edinburgh and Stirling in the open air, 
 without any protection during the winter; but, 
 to my great surprise, on my return home, I 
 found that this fuchsia does not always suc- 
 ceed so well near London. F. globosa, how- 
 ever, will live many years in the open ground 
 near London ; as, though it is killed down to 
 the ground every winter, it shoots up again in 
 spring. F. virgata is also tolerably hardy. 
 All the fuchsias require a light rich soil, or a 
 mixture of rich sandy loam and peat, and 
 regular watering ; as when the outer roots are 
 once withered, either by want of moisture, or 
 by exposure of the pot to the direct rays of 
 the sun, the plant generally dies. For this 
 reason the fuchsia is not so well adapted for a 
 window plant as many others. Fuchsia ful- 
 gens diners considerably from the other species, 
 and will not flower well unless in the open air, 
 and with a sunny exposure. It is also tuberous- 
 rooted, though woody in its stem. It is easily 
 propagated ; and even a leaf, taken off without 
 injuring the part of the petiole which was 
 attached to the stem, has been known to grow 
 and form a plant. Several handsome hybrids 
 have been produced by applying the pollen of 
 F. fulgens to the stigma of F. globosa, F. 
 conica, and F. gracilis ; and the reverse, as F. 
 fulgens, seeds freely. It may here be men- 
 tioned, that, whenever hybrids are to be raised 
 by fertilising one plant with the pollen of ano- 
 ther, the anthers of the flower that is to pro- 
 duce the seed should be removed with a pair of 
 scissors, before they burst. The pollen from
 
 CHAP. XI.] FUCHSIAS. 313 
 
 the other flower which is to form the hybrid 
 should be afterwards applied, with a camel-hair 
 pencil, to the stigma of the flower which is to 
 produce the seed; and a bit of thread should 
 be tied round the flower-stalk, in order that the 
 seed-pod may be saved, and set apart. All 
 hybrids may be obtained in the same manner; 
 but it must always be remembered that flowers 
 will not hybridise properly, unless they are 
 naturally nearly allied. Another very showy 
 species is F. corymbiflora, which is quite as 
 hardv as F. fulgens, and will grow six or eight 
 feet high in the open ground, producing nu- 
 merous long drooping spikes of flowers, which 
 have the tube part of a bright rose colour, and 
 the petals of the richest and darkest carmine. 
 The flowers continue for a long time opening 
 at the extremity of the spike, as those which 
 first opened fade and drop off. This species 
 does not seed freely ; but it agrees with F. fal- 
 lens in growing best in the open air, and in re- 
 quiring an exceedingly rich soil. Another very 
 remarkable fuchsia is F. radicans, a climbing 
 species, which throws out roots at every joint. 
 This plant also appears tolerably hardy, and 
 will be a valuable acquisition when it becomes 
 more common. F. cordifolia is remarkable for 
 the rich green which terminates its scarlet 
 flowers, and for its large and handsome leaves, 
 which are heart-shaped at the base. The 
 berrv, in a wild state, is frequently an inch and 
 a half long, and it is eaten by the inhabitants 
 of Guatemala, of which country this species is 
 a native, growing at the height of 10,000 feet 
 above the level of the sea. F. macrantha and
 
 314 THE GREENHOUSE. [CHAP. XL 
 
 F. serratifolia have their flowers also greenish 
 at the tip. The flowers of F. macrantha are 
 exceedingly long, and though they are of a 
 pale colour, they are produced in such abund- 
 ance upon small plants as to be very orna- 
 mental, though they have no petals. This 
 species was found in its native country (Peru), 
 climbing on trees growing on lofty mountains, 
 and in this country it only requires a green- 
 house. F. serratifolia, on the contrary, though 
 also a native of Peru, requires a hothouse in 
 this country, as it grows in a wild state in 
 moist shady valleys. The flowers of this 
 species are very ornamental, and the stalk is of 
 a bright red. Another red-stalked species is 
 F. spectabilis, which has been called the Queen 
 of the Fuchsias, as it is supposed to be the 
 handsomest kind ever introduced. The leaves 
 are of a dark green, and of a rich purple on 
 the under side ; and the flowers are of a bril- 
 liant scarlet, with whitelobed stigmas. F. 
 arborea is a greenhouse species which will not 
 bear the open air near London. The flowers 
 are rather small and purplish, they are pro- 
 duced in clusters, and their shape resembles 
 that of the flowers of F. coccinea. Of the 
 small-flowered kinds, the best are F. micro- 
 phylla and F. cylindiacea, and they are both 
 tolerably hardy ; but they require a little pro- 
 tection in the neighbourhood of London. The 
 best fuchsia for rearing as a standard is F. 
 gracilis, and the mode of treating it is to keep 
 a plant under glass growing for three or four 
 years, and always rubbing off the side shoots, 
 only leaving those at the top. Treated in this
 
 CHAP. XI.] CALCEOLARIAS. 315 
 
 manner the plant will rapidly elongate, and will 
 take the form of a small tree with a weeping 
 head. I have seen standard fuchsias of F. 
 gracilis six feet high; and, if it is thought 
 desirable, the head mav be cut off. and the 
 stem grafted with any other species. The 
 principal fuchsia-growers near London are, Mr. 
 Standish of Bagshot, Messrs. Chandler of 
 Vauxhall, Mr. Catleugh of Hans Place, Chel- 
 sea, and Mr. Groom of Clapham Rise. 
 
 Calceolarias. — Perhaps no plants have ever 
 been hybridised more extensively than these. 
 The principal parents of the numerous and 
 splendid plants that we are continually seeing 
 produced, are Calceolaria corymbosa and C. 
 arachnoidea, the one bearing a yellow, and the 
 other a purple, flower; but there are many 
 other species that have been crossed and re- 
 crossed with these, so as to form a very great 
 variety. C. bicolor, with pale yellow and white 
 flowers, and C. erenatiflora, with spotted 
 flowers, have also been the parents of some 
 very fine hybrids and varieties. All the cal- 
 ceolarias require rather a rich soil; and the 
 usual compost is two parts of thoroughly rot- 
 ten dung, one part of leaf mould or old turf, 
 and one part of white sand. The ingredients 
 of this compost should be well mixed together, 
 and broken fine, but not sifted. They also 
 require plenty of water, and abundance of 
 fignt and air; and they will all flower best 
 when allowed plenty of room for their roots. 
 They are, however, very subject to be attacked 
 by a kind of aphis ; and, when kept in pots, 
 they should be frequently syringed. The best
 
 316 THE GREENHOUSE. [CHAP. XL 
 
 calceolarias near London are those of Mr. 
 Catleugh of Chelsea. 
 
 Myrtles should be grown in a soil composed 
 of peat and loam, in which the former predo- 
 minates: they should be regularly watered, and 
 frequently syringed. Some persons nip oft' the 
 tips of the young shoots, to make the plants 
 grow bushy : but, though it has this effect, it is 
 a bad practice with the flowering kinds, as it 
 prevents them from producing flowers. A 
 better plan is to make cuttings, and first to 
 plant them in very small pots, gradually chan- 
 ging them into larger ones, till the plants have 
 acquired a bushy habit of growth. Myrtles 
 will seldom flower well when of a large size, 
 unless they are planted in the open ground, 
 and when kept in pots they should be allowed 
 plentv of room. 
 
 Mimulus. — Some of the plants belonging to 
 this genus are very handsome, particularly the 
 hybrids raised by the nurserymen from M. car- 
 dinal is, M. roseus, M. luteus, and M. guttatus. 
 These species are all herbaceous, and all natives 
 of South America, Mexico, and California. 
 M. tricolor is a very beautiful annual species, 
 which was introduced in 1848 from California. 
 They are all nearly hardy, and, though gene- 
 rally grown in a greenhouse, they will stand 
 quite v 1 . ell in the open air, the perennial kinds 
 dying clown to the o-round in winter, but send- 
 ing up fresh and very vigorous shoots in spring. 
 A\ hen these plants are grown in the open 
 ground, it should be in a shady moist situa- 
 tion; and, when they are kept in pots, they 
 should alwavs stand in saucers half-full of water.
 
 CHAP. XI.] HYDRANGEA HORTENSIA. 317 
 
 This water should, however, be changed every 
 dav, and when given to the plants it should al- 
 wavs be as nearly as possible of the same tem- 
 perature as themselves. The little musk plant 
 (Mimulus moschatus) requires the same treat- 
 ment as its more showy brethren. As all the 
 species of Mimulus have been found, in their 
 native habitats, growing- in coarse sand or 
 gravel on the brink of a river, this kind of soil 
 should be chosen for them in pots; and the 
 soil in which they are grown can hardly be too 
 poor, provided they have abundance of water. 
 In Chili, the inhabitants eat the leaves as a 
 kind of vegetable. The shrubby kinds of 
 Mimulus, viz. the common monkey plant (M. 
 luteus) and the scarlet-flowered species (M. 
 puniceus), are now considered to belong to a 
 new o'enus called Diplacus. They are both 
 natives of California; and in their treatment 
 they should be considered as greenhouse plants, 
 and have rather a better soil, and less water, 
 than the true kinds of Mimulus. 
 
 Hydrangea Hortensia is another plant that, 
 when grown in a pot, requires to have the 
 saucer kept half- full of water. There are 
 several species of Hydrangea, most of which 
 are hardy shrubs ; but Hydrangea Hortensia, 
 the kind usually called the Hydrangea, is a 
 native of China, and only half-hardy, though 
 it will live in the open air in sheltered situations, 
 or with a very slight protection. This plant 
 was named Hortensia by the botanist Commer- 
 son in compliment to Madame Hortense La- 
 peaute, the wife of a French watchmaker. The 
 hydrangea should be grown in a rich loamy 
 soil, and pruned every year; all the old wood
 
 318 THE GREENHOUSE. [CHi?. XL 
 
 being cut out, so that the wood which is to 
 produce the flowering shoots should never be 
 more than two, or at most three, years old. 
 Cuttings strike readily at any season when the 
 plant is in a growing state; if put into a rich 
 soil and kept moist, they will root in a fortnight, 
 and flower in a month. The flowers of the 
 hydrangea, though generally pink, are some- 
 times blue ; and the art of making them blue 
 at pleasure, has long been a desideratum among 
 gardeners. A great number of recipes for this 
 purpose have been given in gardening books; 
 but, though all of them are occasionally suc- 
 cessful, none of them will insure success. 
 Sometimes, transplanting hydrangeas that have 
 been grown in loam into peat will have the 
 desired effect ; and, at others, watering with 
 water in which iron has been steeped will 
 change the colour of the flowers. The fer- 
 ruginous yellow loams of Hampstead Heath 
 and Stanmore Common are almost always effi- 
 cacious, but even these have been known some- 
 times to fail. All that is known with certainty 
 is, that the change of colour is only a variation, 
 and not permanent ; as cuttings taken from a 
 blue hydrangea, and planted in common soil, 
 almost always produce pink flowers. In 
 Devonshire and Cornwall the hydrangeas grow 
 to an enormous size in the open ground, and 
 frequently produce blue and pink flowers on 
 the same plants; and in the latter county, near 
 the lead mines, the flowers are generally of a 
 most brilliant blue, without any care being 
 taken to make them so, though the soil does 
 not appear to have any effect on the colour of 
 other pink or rose-coloured flowers.
 
 chap. XI.] MESEMBRYANTHEMUMS. 319 
 
 The Japan Hydrangea (H. japonica) is very 
 ornamental, particularly the beautiful blue 
 variety. 
 
 Mesembryanthemums. — There are very few 
 things in gardening respecting which gardeners 
 appear more to disagree than in the treatment 
 of succulent plants ; particularly of the mcsem- 
 brvantheraums, which are mostly natives of the 
 sandy plains near the Cape of Good Hope, 
 where they are subjected to alternate seasons 
 of extreme wet and extreme dryness. Culti- 
 vators, attempting to imitate these peculiarities, 
 have grown these succulents in poor sandy soil, 
 and kept them entirely without water at one 
 season, while they have been inundated with it 
 at another : but the fact is, that when we 
 attempt to imitate nature, we should remem- 
 ber that the attempt is useless, unless we 
 can do so in every particular; and also that the 
 plants we have to cultivate have been nursed 
 up into so very artificial a state, that if 
 they were transplanted to their native plains 
 they would probably perish, like a poor Canary 
 bird which from mistaken kindness has been 
 turned out of the cage in which it has long 
 lived. For this reason, w T e must adopt the 
 mode of treating succulents which the best 
 gardeners find most successful, without troubling 
 ourselves to discover whv it is so different from 
 the natural habit of the plants. This mode of 
 treatment is, then, to grow the plants in a rich 
 loamy soil, kept open, as it is called, by the 
 addition of lime rubbish ; and to give the plants 
 water all the year, but more moderately when 
 they are in a dormant, than when they are 
 in a growing, state. They should also have as
 
 320 THE GREENHOUSE. [CHAP. XI. 
 
 much air and light as possible. The water 
 should never be suffered to stand in the saucer 
 of any succulent plant; but it should be given 
 regularly, diminishing the quantity a little every 
 day as the season for rest approaches. If the 
 water be suddenly stopped, the leaves of the 
 plants will shrink and become flaccid, and, 
 when this is the case, the plant generally dies. 
 A deficiency of air, on the other hand, will 
 cause the plant to damp off. All mesembry- 
 anthenmms are very soon affected by frost, but 
 will thrive in the open air in summer. 
 
 The Cactacece, which are also succulent plants, 
 are arranged in several quite distinct "roups, 
 which require different treatment. The first 
 of these comprises the various kinds of Tree 
 Cereus, which have long slender stems thirty 
 or forty feet high, without either branches or 
 leaves. These singular-looking plants grow on 
 the summit of the mountains of Brazil, in a 
 poor, dry, stony soil, and exposed on every 
 side to the cold breezes of the lofty regions they 
 inhabit. In England they should be kept in 
 only greenhouse heat, even in winter ; and they 
 should have abundance of light and air ; while 
 they should be grown in pots well drained 
 with cinders, and rilled up with a mixture of 
 loam and pounded brick and lime rubbish. The 
 Mammillarias and Echinocacti, forming the 
 group called the Porcupine Cacti, grow in the 
 valleys of the temperate regions, generally in 
 loamy soil, and among thick short grass, passing 
 half their year in continual rain. The Opuntia, 
 sometimes called the Prickly Pear, and some- 
 times the Indian Fig, is known by its flat oval 
 leaves or rather stems, and its prickly but
 
 CHAP. XI.] CLIMBING PLANT?. 321 
 
 eatable fruit ; and it is always found on al- 
 most barren hills, growing in narrow chinks 
 among rocks, where there does not appear 
 sufficient soil to nourish a blade of grass. In 
 some cases these plants grow nearly to the 
 verge of perpetual snow. The Pereskias, which 
 have leaves distinct from their stems, grow in 
 similar situations, and require only a moderate 
 degree of heat; but the Melocacti and the 
 Rhipsalis are only found in the hottest part of 
 the tropics. 
 
 All the Cactacese should be grown in pots 
 well drained with cinders, and in soil composed 
 of a little sandy loam mixed with lime rubbish. 
 Thev should all be watered regularly and 
 abundantly when they are growing;, or comino- 
 into flower, and kept nearly dry during 
 their season of repose; and they all enjoy 
 having their pots plunged in a slight hotbed, 
 which makes them throw out abundance of 
 roots. 
 
 The Australian Plants, of which so many 
 beautiful kinds have been introduced within 
 the last few years, should nearly all be grown 
 in a mixture of sand and peat : and they should 
 have their pots filled one-third with potsherds. 
 They require abundance of water, but they will 
 perish if water be retained about their roots. 
 Most of the Australian plants (particularly the 
 acacias) are very tenacious of life, and, if cut 
 down when thev appear dead, they will gene- 
 rally spring up again from the collar of the 
 root. 
 
 TJte principal herbaceous Climbing Plants 
 grown in pots are the Maurandyas, the Lopho- 
 
 Y
 
 322 THE GREENHOUSE. [CHAP. XT. 
 
 spermums, the Passion-flowers, the Rhodo- 
 chiton, the Eccremocarpus, or Calampelis, the 
 Thunbergias, the Ipomceas, and the Cobcea. 
 There are, however, several others, all of which 
 are very handsome. The greater part of these 
 require a rich light soil to make them grow 
 rapidly, and to be planted in the ground of the 
 conservatory. The Thunbergias are very liable 
 to be attacked by the red spider; and, like 
 many of the other half-hardy climbers enu- 
 merated, they may be treated as annuals, and 
 raised from seeds every year in January, 
 and planted out in June; but they do still 
 better treated as biennials, and sown one 
 year to flower the next. The Bignonias, or 
 Tecomas, are shrubby, and should be grown in 
 equal parts of loam and peat ; and this compost 
 will suit the Polygalas, and other shrubby 
 showy climbers. The Sollyas and Billardieras 
 should be grown in peat, and frequently 
 syringed to keep ofT the green fly. 
 
 All the most beautiful hothouse climber?, 
 such as the Allamanda cathartica, the lpomcea 
 Horsfalliae, Passiflora Loudoni, and Petrel 
 volubilis, may be grown in the open air by 
 keeping their roots in heat; that is to say, it' 
 the roots are grown in a stove, or in a pit 
 heated by hot water or flues to stove-heat, the 
 stems may be brought through some opening 
 purposely contrived, and trained over a trellis 
 in the open garden. A very striking effect may 
 be thus produced by having a bed heated by 
 hot-water pipes concealed under ground, at the 
 foot of a veranda, over which these beautiful 
 tropical climbers may be trained.
 
 123 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 CALENDAR OF OPERATIONS. 
 
 January. — January may be called the dig- 
 ging-month, as almost the only Gardening 
 operation that can be performed in it is digging, 
 or rather trenching, the ground ; and even this 
 cannot be done unless the weather is open and 
 the ground free from frost. Xothino; can be 
 imagined more desolate than the appearance 
 of the flower-garden in this month. Perhaps 
 the Christmas rose may be in flower, and a few 
 lingering blossoms may remain on the Pyrus, 
 or Cydonia, japonica ; but this is generally all, 
 except a few red berries that the birds mav 
 have left on the holly or the pyracantha. Ja- 
 nuary, however, is an excellent month for the 
 destruction of snails and insects. The snails 
 will be found in their winter quarters, sticking 
 to the trunk of some ivy-clad tree, or hidden 
 beneath the coping of a wall. They are quite 
 in a torpid state, and appear dead ; but might 
 soon be revived, by bringing them into a warm 
 room and sprinklino; them with water. Of 
 course, however, if they are to be destroved, it 
 should be done without rousing them from their 
 stupor. The eggs of insects should also be 
 sought for and destroyed. Those of the lackev 
 moth will be found on twigs, fixed firmly round 
 
 y2
 
 324 CALENDAR UP OPERATIONS. [CHAF. XII. 
 
 them like bracelets of small beads. These 
 should be burnt, as they are too hard to be 
 crushed. The eggs of the vapourer moth will 
 be found on the outside of the cocoon, looking 
 like a bag of spider's eggs. A very small 
 scale-like insect will also sometimes be found 
 on the bianches of the rose trees, which should 
 be carefully removed. Indeed, as a precau- 
 tionary measure, it is well to brush the branches 
 of all the rose trees in this month with soft soap 
 and water, to destroy any eggs that may be 
 adhering to them. Sometimes trees and shrubs 
 are planted in January, if the weather be favour- 
 able, but this it very seldom is, as, if not frosty, 
 it is generally very wet. 
 
 In the kitchen-garden, the fruit trees and 
 shrubs, particularly the gooseberries, should be 
 carefully examined for the eggs of insects ; and 
 the trunk and bianches of all suspected trees 
 and shrubs should be brushed with soft soap 
 and hot water. 
 
 February. — In this month, if the weather be 
 favourable, the gardeners " dress" their beds; 
 that, is they dig and rake them, manuring 
 them if necessary. In the flower-garden, the 
 California!! annuals, that had stood the winter 
 in some waste part of the grounds, are now 
 brought forward by spadefuls, and laid over the 
 beds intended for them. The early bulbs, such 
 as the snowdrop and the Scotch crocus, begin 
 to appear ; and here and there a splendid 
 cloth of gold crocus glitters among them, in its 
 rich livery of yellow and brown. The winter 
 aconite and the beautiful hepaticas are now in 
 full glory; and, in short, all nature appears
 
 CHAP. XII.] FEBRUARY. 3 '2 5 
 
 awakening from the sleep of winter. This is 
 pre-eminently the season for spring planting ; 
 and all the trees and shrubs, and even herba- 
 ceous plants, that are to be removed, are put 
 into the ground. The garden rose trees, and 
 other hardy flowering shrubs, are pruned ; care 
 being taken always to cut them in a slanting 
 direction, and to a bud. When the rose bushes 
 have sent up long untidy shoots, every alternate 
 shoot may be cut down to within a few inches of 
 the ground. Thus treated, the shoots that are 
 left will flower, and those that were cut down 
 will send up strong and vigorous shoots for 
 flowering the succeeding year, when the present 
 flowering stems may be cut in. The bushes 
 will thus be kept of moderate size, and of a 
 compact habit of growth, without the flowering- 
 being materially checked. In February the 
 ranunculus roots are planted that are to flower 
 in the following May, and a hotbed is made for 
 the tender annuals. In short, the business of the 1 
 gardener's year has commenced. 
 
 In the kitchen garden, if the weather be 
 open, the gooseberries and currants should be 
 pruned, and also such of the fruit trees as have 
 been left for spring pruning. If the winter 
 has been very hard, the gooseberries and cur- 
 rants should be left as long as possible unpruned ; 
 because the birds, when driven to distress for 
 want of food, very often pick off the buds; and, 
 should the number of buds have been previously 
 diminished by pruning, the hopes of the season 
 for a good crop of fruit are generallv destroyed. 
 Radishes and lettuce should be sown in Feb- 
 ruary, and spinach ; also the first crop of peas
 
 326 CALENDAR OF OPERATIONS. [CHAP. XII. 
 
 and beans. The strawberry beds are pruned 
 and dressed, and the raspberry shoots are 
 shortened and cut in. 
 
 March. — This is the sowing-month. In the 
 flower-garden the seeds of hardy annuals are 
 sown in the open border. Turf is laid down 
 where wanted, and grass seeds are sown. Rose 
 trees are sometimes planted in this month, and 
 the climbing kinds are pruned and trained. 
 The best sorts for training as pyramids of roses 
 are the Noisette and Boursault kinds, and some 
 of the hybrid China. The box-edgings are 
 taken up and replanted; and the gravel walks 
 are raked or turned over, and new gravel 
 added, if requisite. Whenever this is done, the 
 walks should be well watered; and afterwards, 
 as soon as the surface has become quite dry, 
 they should be rolled. Unless the gravel be 
 well watered, the rolling will do but little good; 
 and, unless the surface be allowed to become 
 quite dry before rolling (which it soon will, 
 when exposed to the drying winds of March), 
 the gravel will adhere to the roller, and the 
 surface will be rendered rough instead of 
 smooth. March is the first month that dis- 
 plays the cheerfulness and brilliancy of spring, 
 for the flower-garden is gay with crocuses, and 
 the bees are buzzing about them, while the 
 birds are singing on every tree. The weather 
 is often very fine and warm in March; but 
 there are frequently frosty nights, during which 
 the tree-peeonies and other half-hardy early 
 flowering shrubs should be protected by a kind 
 of beehive-like covering, made sufficiently large 
 to put on and take off without injuring the
 
 CHAP. Xn.] APRIL. 327 
 
 plants. In the country, these coverings may 
 be made of platted rushes sewed together; and 
 the Gathering and platting of them will afford 
 employment to poor old women and children in 
 winter. Biennials, such as hollyhocks, Bromp- 
 ton stocks, &c, are generally transplanted in 
 this month. 
 
 In the kitchen-garden the principal crops of 
 all the culinary vegetables are sown, and potato 
 sets are planted. The spring pruning and 
 planting are also finished. 
 
 Forest trees are planted in the parks and 
 pleasure-grounds, and trees are cut down. In 
 short, in large places, March and April probably 
 form the most laborious period of the gardener's 
 
 year. 
 
 j 
 
 April. — In the first week of this month 
 many gardeners transplant their biennials, in- 
 stead of putting them into the ground in March. 
 The hollyhocks should have a hole duo- for 
 each plant two feet deep, at the bottom of 
 which should be thrown three or four spadefuls 
 of strong stable manure. Many gardeners 
 also plant their dahlia roots in this month, 
 though others delay this operation till May, or 
 even June. Whenever the dahlias are planted, 
 the tubers of the dwarf kinds should be about 
 three feet apart, but the larger sorts should be 
 four or five feet from each other every way. 
 The soil should be a sandy loam, not too rich, 
 lest the plants should produce more leaves than 
 flowers; and not too poor, lest the flowers 
 should be poor also. A bed, dug about two 
 feet and a half deep, with a layer of rubbish at 
 least six inches thick at the bottom, and filled
 
 328 CALENDAR OF OPERATIONS, [chap. XII. 
 
 with two parts of fresh sandy loam, and one of 
 thoroughly rotten dung, is admirably adapted 
 for these plants. In planting the tubers, care 
 should be taken to arrange them in such a 
 manner that the colours of the flowers they 
 produce shall have a harmonious effect. In 
 this month the auriculas generally begin to 
 come into flower in pots, and the polyanthuses 
 and primroses in the open ground. Tuberoses, 
 some of the kinds of gladiolus and ixia, and 
 other showy autumn-flowering bulbs, may be 
 planted towards the end of April, or the first 
 week in May. A bed should be prepared for 
 their reception, by digging the ground about a 
 foot deep, and taking out about half the soil, 
 which is to be replaced by equal parts of vege- 
 table mould and well-rotted dung. When this 
 is well dug over and mixed, drills should be 
 drawn in it, about three or four inches deep 
 and eighteen inches apart, in which the bulbs 
 (after first taking off their offsets) are to be 
 placed about nine inches apart. The bulbs 
 should be made quite firm in the soil, and then 
 covered with mould an inch or an inch and a 
 half deep. They will not require any water till 
 a week or ten days after planting, when the 
 roots have begun to grow, but after that they 
 should be watered regularly. Heart's-eases for 
 autumn flowering may be sown this month, or 
 cuttings may be made of favourite kinds. The 
 heart's-ease requires a shady situation, and a 
 rich loamy soil, plentifully supplied with water. 
 The box-edgings may be pruned in this month, 
 but they should never be clipped. A garden- 
 line should be stretched alono- the edoino- at
 
 CHAP. XII.] MAY. 329 
 
 the proper height, generally about four inches 
 from the ground, above which the highest point 
 of the box should not reach; and the box 
 should be cut down to this line, every shoot 
 being cut in a slanting direction to a bud, and 
 only every alternate shoot suffered to reach the 
 line. Hardy annuals also may be sown in this 
 month, if the sowing of them was neglected in 
 March. The ornamental kinds of Ribes and 
 Berberis will begin to come into flower about 
 this time, as will Magnolia conspicua and the 
 common almond. 
 
 In the kitchen-garden, April may be called 
 the grafting-month, though many gardeners 
 begin to perform that operation in 'March. In 
 the culinary department, those vegetables that 
 require transplanting, such as celery, sea-kale, 
 cauliflower, &c, are generally planted out in 
 April. The peas and beans are hoed up, as 
 are the potatoes ; the asparagus and artichoke 
 beds are dressed ; and the onions, turnips, &c, 
 are thinned. If potatoes for the main crop 
 were not planted in March, they should be 
 now. The peas should be staked when thev 
 are hoed up ; and this is the best season for 
 dividing roots of thyme and other aromatic 
 herbs. 
 
 May. — In the flower-garden, this is the 
 month for planting out the tender annuals 
 which have been raised on a hotbed. The 
 seeds of hardy annuals may still be sown, and 
 also those of biennials for planting out the fol- 
 lowing spring. In this month, ornamental 
 perennial plants may be propagated by slips 
 and cuttings; and, if any were made in April
 
 330 CALENDAR OF OPERATIONS. [CHAP. XII. 
 
 for striking in a hotbed, they may be trans- 
 planted. The leaves of the rose trees should 
 be examined for a little brown grub which 
 infests them at this season, and which should 
 be picked off and destroyed. The flower- 
 garden will now be in all its splendour. The 
 hyacinths will be in full bloom, as will also the 
 different kinds of Ribes, Berberis, and Ma- 
 hdnia, among the shrubs; and several kinds of 
 Magnolia, the Judas tree, Edwardsia, &c, 
 among the trees. The Pseonia Moutan will 
 likewise expand its magnificent blossoms ; and 
 the spring heart' s-ease will be coming into 
 flower, as w 7 ill the Nemophila insignis and 
 several of the other Californian annuals. 
 
 In the kitchen-garden, the operations con- 
 tinue nearly the same as the last month. Peas 
 and beans may be sown for the late crops, and 
 spinach, &c. This is the proper season for 
 sowing kidneybeans. If the first crop of 
 peas has not been staked, it should now be 
 done, and the tops should be taken off the 
 common beans; both may also be hoed up. 
 The blossoms of the fruit trees should be ex- 
 amined, and those attacked by insects should 
 be instantly removed, and the insects they con- 
 tain destroyed. All leaves that are found 
 rolled up should be taken off and destroyed. 
 
 In the park and pleasure-grounds, oak trees 
 are generally felled in May, because the move- 
 ment of the sap at this season makes the bark 
 separate more easily from the wood. 
 
 June. — In the flower-garden, this is the 
 month for making pipings and layers of pinks 
 and carnations, and also for making cuttings
 
 CHAP. XII.] JUNE. 331 
 
 of the tenderer kinds of roses. The hardy 
 roses will be probably much infested with 
 the green fly, or aphis, which should be 
 destroyed with tobacco water. Great care 
 should, however, be taken in using it, or the 
 tobacco water will disfigure the plants more 
 than even the aphis itself. Half a pound 
 of the best shag tobacco should be put into a 
 gallon of hot water, and the decoction suffered 
 to stand till it is quite cold. The infested 
 shoots should then be dipped in the tobacco 
 water, and suffered to remain in it a few 
 seconds, and then immediately washed in clean 
 water. Two persons should perform this 
 operation ; one carrying a saucer or bowl with 
 the tobacco water, and the other a jug of clean 
 water and a saucer, to wash the shoots imme- 
 diately. As, however, this operation is trouble- 
 some, I have substituted for it washing the in- 
 fested shoots in clear water, with the Greatest 
 success. The aphides are thus removed with 
 very little trouble, and the tender shoot re- 
 mains so completely uninjured, that it generally 
 expands its flowers; while the buds on shoots 
 dipped in tobacco water almost always either 
 drop off or become deformed. 
 
 In the kitchen-garden there is very little to 
 do, except to sow w T hat are called succession 
 crops of culinary vegetables, and to continue 
 the operations of the last month where neces- 
 sary. June is, indeed, rather a month of 
 enjoyment in a garden, than one of labour. 
 The fruit trees, however, may be pruned of 
 their summer shoots; and towards the end of 
 the month, budding commences.
 
 332 CALENDAR OF OPERATIONS. [chap. XII. 
 
 July. — The bulbs of hyacinths and tulips 
 are generally taken up in this month, and put 
 into a proper place to dry; as are the tubers 
 of ranunculuses and anemones. The stalks of 
 those herbaceous plants that have done flower- 
 ing should be cut down, that they may send up 
 fresh shoots, and produce a second set of flowers. 
 The dead roses, &c, should be cut away as soon 
 as they fade, as nothing more completely de- 
 stroys the beauty of a flower-garden than a 
 number of dead flowers mingled with the 
 newly-expanded ones. Cuttings of verbenas 
 and other greenhouse or window plants may 
 be made in this month : and those that were 
 made early in spring may be planted in the. 
 beds to supply the place of the bulbs and other 
 plants that have quite done flowering. Roses, 
 pinks, and carnations are in their greatest 
 splendour in June and July. Hoses are gene- 
 rally budded in this month ; though, if the 
 weather be moist, any time will do from June 
 to September. The essential point is, to have 
 the weather sufficiently moist and warm to 
 stimulate the dormant action of the bud. 
 
 In the kitchen-garden, the shallots should be 
 taken up ; but in other respects there is nothing 
 particular to do, except the routine culture of 
 keeping the garden neat, and sowing the seeds 
 of culinary vegetables for succession. 
 
 August. — The box-edgings are again pruned 
 in this month, as they were in spring. The 
 pinks and carnations, having done flowering, 
 should have the layers which were made in June 
 cut away, if they have rooted ; and some Ger- 
 man stocks and other plants, which have been
 
 CHAP. XII.] SEPTEMBER. 333 
 
 purposely raised in pots, should be planted 
 amongst the carnations, to prevent the beds 
 from looking bare of flowers. 
 
 The seeds of most of the annual flowers are 
 now ripe, and should be gathered. The ever- 
 greens and other plants in the shrubberies 
 should be pruned, and their summer shoots cut 
 in, if they have been too luxuriant. The bulbs 
 of crown imperials, lilies, and all the scaly kinds, 
 which generally remain several years in the 
 ground without being taken up, should be 
 planted in this month. They will grow under 
 the shade of trees, and in any situation not too 
 dry. If too much exposed to the sun, the 
 flowers will fade almost as soon as they expand. 
 Scaly bulbs that have been long planted may 
 also be taken up, their offsets taken off, and the 
 bulb removed to a new situation ; but no scaly 
 bulb should be kept long out of the ground. 
 
 In the kitchen-garden, this is the gathering 
 month, as most of the fruits and vegetables are 
 now ripe. 
 
 September. — The dahlias are now the prin- 
 cipal ornaments of the flower-garden ; and they 
 should be kept neatly tied up, and all the dead 
 flowers removed as soon as they fade. The 
 autumn-flowering bulbs are now in full bloom ; 
 and all the greenhouse and frame plants that 
 were turned out are also in flower. The beds 
 for hyacinths and other spring bulbs should be 
 dug over and manured. 
 
 In the kitchen-garden, spinach may be sown 
 for use in spring; and the potatoes and other 
 roots should be taken up. This is considered 
 the best month for planting strawberries. The
 
 334 CALENDAR OF OPERATIONS. [CHAP. XII. 
 
 wall-fruit will require protection from birds, 
 wasps, and flies. Some worsted, twined back- 
 wards and forwards from projecting nails, is 
 said to be the best protection from birds ; and 
 bottles of sugar and water, hung from the twigs, 
 will attract the wasps and flies from the fruit. 
 After the fruit of the wall-trees is gathered, the 
 borders are usually lightly forked over, and 
 what is called a top-dressing of fresh compost 
 is spread over them. 
 
 October. — In the flower-garden, the tender 
 greenhouse plants should be taken up. Seeds 
 of the hardy annuals that will stand the winter 
 should be sown, particularly those of the heart's- 
 ease, rocket-larkspur, coreopsis, eschscholtzia, 
 and all the Californian annuals. The best way 
 of managing these is to choose a portion of 
 hard ground, on which a little light earth, six 
 or eight inches deep, has been laid ; in this the 
 seeds should be sown, and the young plants will 
 be ready to remove by spadefuls, to the beds 
 prepared for them, in spring. 
 
 This is the best season for putting hyacinths, 
 tulips, crocuses, and other spring-flowering bulbs 
 and corms, in glasses, to flower in rooms, and for 
 planting in the ground the different varieties of 
 Anemone hoitensis ; taking care, when planting 
 the latter, to keep the eye of the tuber uppermost. 
 All the kinds of paeonies, as well the Paeonia 
 Moutan as the herbaceous species, should be 
 planted in this month. The leaves, which fall 
 in great abundance in October and November, 
 should be regularly swept up, and carried to a 
 rotting heap, that they may decay, and, when 
 mixed with a little soil, make the earth so valu-
 
 chap, xn.] NOVEMBER. 335 
 
 able to florists, which is generally called vege- 
 table mould. 
 
 In the kitchen-garden, the remaining fruit 
 should be gathered. Towards the end of the 
 month some fruit trees may be planted, if their 
 leaves have dropped ; and the autumnal pruning 
 may begin, unless the trees should be still in a 
 growing state. 
 
 November. — In the beginning of this month, 
 the appearance of the flower-garden is ex- 
 tremely desolate. The dahlias have generally 
 been seriously injured by the frost, but not 
 quite so much as to warrant their removal ; and 
 a few lingering flowers of other kinds recall 
 melancholy ideas of what has been, but is past. 
 A mild November is, indeed, the old a°;e of the 
 floral year; and a sharp frost, that kills all the 
 remaining flowers, is felt positively as a relief. 
 The stems of the dahlias should be cut down as 
 soon as the frost has changed their flowers, and 
 the tubers taken up soon aftei'wards. The 
 names should be written on thin pieces of wood, 
 and attached to the roots by string, or the 
 Chester metallic wire ; and they should be laid 
 on dry boards in a cellar, and covered with 
 sand ; or in some dry place, not too warm, in a 
 greenhouse. When the names are written on 
 paper they are frequently destroyed bv vermin ; 
 snails, in particular, are very fond of devouring 
 paper. The temperature at which the tubers 
 should be kept should be between 35° and 45°. 
 The autumn-flowering bulbs should be taken up 
 in the same manner, and kept in dry sand or 
 moss. All the plants that require protection 
 should be carefully covered or matted up.
 
 336 CALENDAR OF OPERATIONS. [CHAP. XII. 
 
 In the kitchen-garden, the beds should be 
 cleared of all haulm, &e., and dug over and 
 dressed ; and the trees which were not before 
 plan'ed should be put into the ground. 
 
 December. — This month is a perfect blank, 
 both for the flower and the fruit garden ; except 
 for collecting soils, making composts, preparing 
 labels for names or numbers, sticks or stakes 
 for tying up plants, nails and list for fastening- 
 them; and, in mild weather, for pruning the 
 larger and more hardy deciduous trees and 
 shrubs, &c.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Acacias, 321. 
 
 Air necessary to plants, 37- 
 
 Allamanda, to grow in the open 
 
 air, 322. 
 Almond, 199. 
 Aloo Bokhara, a new Syrian plum, 
 
 179. 
 Alumina, or clay, 23. 
 Aloysia, 310. 
 American blight, 111. 187« 
 
 ground, 261. 
 
 Ammoniacal gas, 25. 
 
 Anemones, 243. 
 
 Animal manures, 25. 
 
 Annuals, 214-217. 329. 
 
 Aphides, 109. 
 
 Apples, 185. 
 
 Apricot, 176. 
 
 April, 327. 
 
 Arboretums, 260. 
 
 Artichokes, 126. 
 
 Ashes of burnt wood, useful as 
 
 manure, 31. 
 
 of plants, 23. 
 
 Ash-leaved kidney potato, 141. 
 Asparagus beds, 123. 
 
 kinds of, 123. 
 
 August, 332. 
 Auriculas, 219. 
 Australian plants, 321. 
 Autumn radishes, 147- 
 Ayrshire roses, 268. 
 
 B. 
 
 Banded snail, 113. 
 
 Banksian roses, 269. 
 
 Barren soil, 24. 
 
 Basil, 158. 
 
 Basket flower-pot, 297. 
 
 Basketwork protectors, 104. 
 
 Beans, 13a 
 
 Beds, how to mark, on the ground, 
 
 210. 
 Beehive-like covers, 106. 326. 
 Beetles on asparagus, 124. 
 Beet, red, 146. 
 Berberry, 185. 203. 
 Bienniais, 217. 
 Bignonias, 322. 
 
 Billardiera, 322. 
 
 Birds, K16. 
 
 Blackened soil in pots, 292. 
 
 Blenheim, rock-garden at, 273. 
 
 Blooming-stage, 220. 
 
 Bone-dust, 30. 
 
 Border for fruit trees, 167. 
 
 Borecole, 135. 
 
 Bottom heat, 72. 
 
 Bourbon roses, 267. 
 
 Boursault roses, 269. 
 
 Box-edgings, 121. 328. 
 
 Briars, for budding, 270. 
 
 Bricks of mushroom spawn, 161. 
 
 Broad beans, 139. 
 
 Broccoli, 132. 134. 
 
 Brown's patent fumigator, 110. 
 
 Brussels sprouts, 131, 132. 
 
 Budding, 74. 
 
 points to be attended to 
 
 in, 78. 
 
 ■ uses of, 93. 
 
 Budding-knife, 78. 
 
 Budding's mowing machine, 256. 
 
 Bulbs, 39. 229. 333. 
 
 Burnet, 154. 
 
 Burnt weeds, useful as manure, 31. 
 
 Burying manure, 14. 
 
 seeds too deeply, 36. 
 
 Butterflies, 106. 
 Butter squash, 160. 
 
 Cabbage butterflies, 108. 
 
 roses, 265. 
 
 tribe, 129. 
 
 Cabbages, 130. 
 Cactacese, 320, 321. 
 Calampelis, 322. 
 Calceolarias, 315. 
 Calendar of operations, 323. 
 Californian annuals, 217. 324. 
 Camellia, inarching the, 88, 89. 
 Camellias, 81. 104. 3<i2-3"4. 
 Belgian modes of graft- 
 ing, 90, 91. 
 Carbon, SO, 21.37- 
 Carbonic acid gas, 20. 37. 
 Carnation, piping of a, 73. 
 Carnations, 221.
 
 338 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Carrots, 145. 
 
 Cauliflowers, 132-134. 
 
 Celery, 154. 
 
 Cereus, 320. 
 
 Chamber for fruit trees, 168. 
 
 Charcoal, 32. 70. 140. 
 
 Chatsworth, rockwork at, 274. 
 
 Cherrv, 180. 
 
 Chervil, 156. 
 
 Chicory, 153. 
 
 China flower-pots, 296. 
 
 China-rose, a cutting of the, 71. 
 
 Chinese cherry, 180. 
 
 mode of layering, 62. 
 
 Chives, 151. 
 Chopped turf, 32. 
 Chrysanthemums, 227. 
 Clay, 21. 
 
 Cleft-grafting, 83. 
 Climbing plants, 321. 
 
 ■ roses, 268. 
 
 Cobcea, 322. 
 
 Cockchafer, 112. 
 
 Cold manures, 30. 
 
 Coleworts, 131. 
 
 Collar of a plant, not to be buried, 
 
 44. 
 Colours for a flower-garden, 209. 
 
 ■ how to combine, 209. 
 
 Colurna hazel, 199. 
 Compo>ts, 34. 
 Constantinople nut, 199. 
 Corms, 40. 241. 
 Corn flag, 241. 
 
 salad, 154. 
 
 Covered seats, 282. 
 
 Covering seeds, 36. 
 
 Cow-dung, 30. 
 
 Cranberry, 204. 
 
 Crataegus, 262. 
 
 Cress, 154. 
 
 Crocuses, 240. 289. 
 
 Cropping a kitchen garden, 122. 
 
 1'rops, permanent, 122. 
 
 ■ rotation of, 128. 
 
 temporary, 122. 128. 
 
 Crown-grafting, 84. 
 Cucumbers, 158. 
 Currants, 202. 
 Curtain of bunting, 170. 
 Cuttings, 64. 
 
 of cacti, 73. 
 
 points to be attended to 
 
 in making, 74. 
 
 D. 
 
 Dahlia, 245. 
 Dahlias, 327.335. 
 
 budding, 77. 
 
 Darkness promotes germination,37. 
 Decay, 26. 
 Decayed leaves, 31. 
 December, 336. 
 
 Deciduous plants, when to trans- 
 plant, 42. 
 
 Delacroix's mode of striking cut- 
 tings, <;8. 
 
 Derby Arboretum, 265. 
 
 Destroying insects, 106-114. 
 
 Dibber, use of the, 45. 
 
 Digging, 3. 
 
 common mode of, 7. 
 
 operation of, 10. 
 
 practice of, 7. 
 
 simple, 11. 
 
 time for, 11. 
 
 uses of, 5. 
 
 Diplacus, 317. 
 Disbudding, 98. 
 Draw-hoe, 17. 
 
 Dried aromatic herbs, 158. 
 
 Dunensamie, 235. 
 
 Dwarf apple of Armenia, 186. 
 
 E. 
 
 Early peas, 135, 136. 
 Earths which enter into the com- 
 position of plants, 23. 
 Earth-worms, 113. 
 Eccremoearpus, 322. 
 Eehinocacti, 320. 
 Edgings of box, 121. 
 Eggs of insects, 323. 
 
 snails, 114. 
 
 Elder, 185. 194. 
 
 Elvaston Castle, rockwork at, 274. 
 
 Endive, 153. 
 
 Erminemoth, 108. 
 
 Espaliers, 181. 
 
 Etruscan flower-pot, 297. 
 
 F. 
 
 February, 324. 
 Fennel, 156. 
 Fermentation, 26. 
 
 - — of dung, use of, 25. 
 
 Fertile soils, 24. 
 
 Fig trees, 180. 
 
 Filbert, 185. 198. 
 
 Finochio, 156. 
 
 Finning the ground, 35. 
 
 Fixing with water, 47. 
 
 Flies, to protect fruit from, 334. 
 
 Florists' flowers, 219. 
 
 Flower-garden, 205. 
 
 pots, 295-299. 
 
 Flowers, culture of, 205. 213. 
 
 Flute-grafting, 77. 
 
 Food of plants, 20. 
 
 Forking, 16. 
 
 Formation of hotbeds, 27. 
 
 Fountains, 286-288. 
 
 French grafting-clay, 92. 
 
 roses, 267. 
 
 ■ spinach, 148.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 339 
 
 Fruit shrubs, 200. 
 
 trees, border for, 167. 
 
 management of, 166. 
 
 planting, 168. 
 
 reasons why they do 
 
 not bear, 168. 
 Fuchsias, 311-315. 
 Fumigating plants 
 Fumigator, llo. 
 
 110. 
 
 Gaffer long-legs, 113. 
 Garden fork, 16. 
 
 mould, -2. 
 
 scis-ors, 96, 97. 
 
 Garlic, 151. 
 
 Gauntlet for ladies, 70. 
 Gelatine, 3o. 
 Georgina, 249. 
 Geraniums, 304-307. 
 
 cuttings of, 69. 
 
 German greens, 135. 
 Germination o: seeds, 4. 37. 
 Gladiolus, 241. 328. 
 Gnats, K.I8. 
 Gooseberry, 200-202. 
 Gourds, 160. 
 Gourmands, 100. 
 Grafting, 79. 
 
 by approach, 87. 
 
 points to be attended to 
 
 in, 93. 
 
 season for, 81 . 
 
 the pine and fir tribe, 85. 
 
 uses of, 93. 
 
 Gr;.fting-clav, 92. 
 
 wax, 92. 
 
 Grass seeds, rolling in, 36. 
 
 ■ sowing, 255. 258. 
 
 Grasses, best kinds of for lawns, 253. 
 
 different kinds of, 252. 
 
 Gravel walks, 326. 
 
 renovating, 121. 
 
 Green crops, useful as manure, 31, 
 
 32. 
 
 fly, 10ft 331. 
 
 Greenhouses, management of plants 
 
 in, 301. 
 
 portable, 299. 
 
 Greffe des Beiges, 91. 
 
 etouffee, 90, 91. 
 
 Grey slug, 113. 
 Guano, 30. 
 Guernsey lily, 240. 
 
 H. 
 
 Haricot beurre, 140. 
 
 d' Alger, 140. 
 
 Hazel, 185. 196. 
 
 Heart's-ease, 224. 
 
 Heat, average, for a hotbed, 29. 
 
 Heath mould, 23. 
 
 Heaths, 307- 
 
 Herbaceous grafting, 84-87. 
 
 plants/218. 
 
 Hickory, 196, 1: »7- 
 Hoeing", 17. 
 
 up plants, 18. 
 
 Hoes, 17. 
 Hollyhocks, 327. 
 
 Hoole House, rockwork at, 272. 275. 
 Horn carrots, 145. 
 Horse-dung, 25. 
 Horseradish, 128. 
 Hotbed, average heat for a, 29. 
 quantity of manure re- 
 quired for a. 28. 
 
 • size of a, 28. 
 
 Hotbeds, formation of, 27. 
 
 of decayed leaves, 29. 
 
 of vpent tanners' bark, 29. 
 
 Hothouse climbers, 322. 
 Hot manures, 25. 3<», 3i. 
 IIu bo.dfs mode <.f obtaining new 
 
 trees, 63. 
 Hvacinths, 40.234. 
 
 in glasses, 40. 289. 
 
 Hybrids, 312. 
 Hvdransea, 317-319. 
 Hydrogen, 2u, 21. 
 
 Inarching, 87 
 Indian fig, 320. 
 Inosculati'm, 88. 
 Insects, K.(6. 323, 324. 
 Ipomceas, 322. 
 Irises, 241. 
 Ixias, 241. 
 
 January, 323. 
 J:ipan anemone, 245. 
 
 ■ hydrangea, 319. 
 
 Jefferson plum, 179. 
 Jerusalem artichoke, 144. 
 Jordan almonds, 200. 
 July, operations for, 332. 
 June, operations for, 330. 
 
 K. 
 
 Kaisha, a new Syrian apricot, 1 77. 
 Kernel fruits, 171. 185. 
 Kidney beans, 139. 
 Kitchen-garden, best soil for a, 117- 
 form and extent 
 
 of a, 115, 116. 
 
 situation of a, 116. 
 
 Lackey moth, 107- 323. 
 
 z 2
 
 340 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Lady-bird, 113. 
 
 Lady's gauntlet, 70. 
 ■ spade, 8. 
 
 wheelbarrow, 10. 
 
 Lamb's lettuce, 154. 
 
 Large trees, removal of, 49. 
 
 Late peas, 138. 
 
 Lawn, management of the, 251 
 
 Layering, 61. 
 
 Layers, 60. 
 
 Laying down turf, 256. 
 
 in by the heels, 49 
 
 - out a flower garden, 206. 
 - pleasure-grounds, 259. 
 
 Leaf-rollers, 108. 
 Leeks, 150. 
 
 Leguminous tribe, 135. 
 Lemon plant, 310. 
 Lemon-scented verbena, a cutting 
 
 of the, 67- 
 Lettuces, 152. 
 I.iber, 79. 
 
 Light, effects of, on plants, 37- 
 Lime, 23. 32, 33. 
 Limestone, 21. 
 Lime-water, 109. 
 Linings for hotbeds, 29. 
 Liquid animal manure, 30. 
 
 manure, 30. 
 
 tank, 26. 
 
 Long carrots, 145. 
 Lophospermum, 321. 
 Love-apple, 16i. 
 Lupines for manure, 31. 
 
 M. 
 
 Macartney roses, 269. 
 
 Magnesia, 23. 
 
 Magpie moth, 107. 
 
 Mammillarias, 320. 
 
 Mammoth gouid, 160. 
 
 Manure should be exposed to the 
 
 action of the air, 27. 
 Manures, 24. 
 
 . — animal, 25. 
 
 mineral, 32. 
 
 rules to be observed in 
 
 applying, 33. 
 
 theory of, 25. 
 
 vegetable, 31. 
 
 March, 326. 
 Marigold, common, 156. 
 Marjoram, 157- 
 Marrons de Lvons, 197- 
 Maurandya, 321. 
 May, 329. 
 Medlar, 192. 
 Melocacti, 321. 
 Melons, 160. 
 
 Mesembryanthemums, 319. 
 Mice attack peas, 137. 
 Mimulus, 316. 
 
 Mineral manures, 32. 
 
 Mint, 157. 
 
 Mixed manures, 34. 
 
 soils. 34. 
 
 Monkey plant, 317- 
 Morass, 23. 
 Morel lo cherry, 180. 
 Moss basket, 285. 
 
 houses, 278-282. 
 
 on lawns, to destroy, 258. 
 
 roses, 265. 
 
 Mosses, best kinds of, for mos* 
 
 houses, 279. 
 Mould, 22. 
 Mouldering, 26. 
 Mowing, 256. 
 
 machine, 257. 
 
 Moxa, 110. 
 Mulberry, 185. 192. 
 Mule pink, 224. 
 Mushroom beds, 162. 
 
 spawn, 161. 
 
 Mushrooms, 161. 
 
 — on lawns, 165. 
 
 to grow, in houses or 
 
 sheds, 164. 
 
 in the open 
 
 air, 162. 
 Musk plant, 317- 
 
 roses, 269. 
 
 Mustard and cress, 154. 
 Myrtles, 316. 
 
 N. 
 
 Nails and shreds, 102. 
 
 Nectarines, 172. 
 
 New Zealand spinach, 148. 
 
 Night-soil, 31. 
 
 Nitrate of potassa, 33. 
 
 soda, 33. 
 
 Nitrogen, 20. 
 
 — gas, 20. 
 
 Noisette roses, 269. 
 November, 335. 
 Nut trees, 195. 
 
 O. 
 
 Oak-galls, 108. 
 
 Oak trees felled, 330. 
 
 October, 334. 
 
 Otfsets, 59. 
 
 Onguent de Saint Fiacre, 92. 
 
 Onion tribe, 148. 
 
 Open summer-houses, 282. 
 
 Operations, calendar of, 323. 
 
 Opuntia, 320. 
 
 Orange and lemon trees, cuttings 
 
 of, 67. 
 Oxalic acid, steeping seeds in, 39. 
 Oxygen, 20. 37.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 341 
 
 Pseony, grafting the, 84. 
 
 Psestum roses, 266. 
 
 Parsley, 156. 
 
 Parsnep, 146. 
 
 Passiflora, 322. 
 
 Passion-flowers, 322. 
 
 Peaches, 172. 
 
 Peach trees, management of, 173. 
 
 Pears, 187-191. 
 
 ■ seedling, mode of testing, by 
 
 Van Mons, 94. 
 Peas, 135. 
 
 to protect from mice, 137. 
 
 Peat bog, 22. 
 
 earth, 22. 
 
 Peccane nut, 196. 
 Pelargoniums, 212. 304-3<>7. 
 
 cuttings of, 69. 
 
 Perennials, 218. 
 Pereskias, 321. 
 Permanent crops, 122. 
 Perpetual roses, 266. 
 Persian mulberry, 192, 193. 
 
 quince, 191. 
 
 Petrea, 322. 
 
 Petunias, 330. 
 Phosphate of lime, 30. 
 Phosphorus, 23. 
 Pickling cucumbers, 160. 
 Picotees, 222. 
 Pigeons' dung, 30. 
 Pigs' dung, 3a 
 Pin-eved flowers, 221. 
 Pink, 224 
 Pipings, 73. 
 Pits for choice soil, 16. 
 
 for receiving plants, 16. 
 
 Planting a flower-garden, 2(>6. 211. 
 
 bulbs and tubers, 39. 
 
 fruit trees, 168. 
 
 trees and .-hrubs, 261-264. 
 
 Plants in greenhouses, manage- 
 ment of, 301. 
 
 ■ in pots, 52. 
 
 management of, 
 
 289-204. 301. 
 
 mode of protect- 
 
 ing, 105. 
 
 in rooms, 289. 
 
 in very small pots, 66. 
 
 kept in living rooms, 289. 
 
 that will bear to be hoed 
 
 up, 18. 
 
 ; not bear trans- 
 planting, 44. 
 
 to supply, with food, 20. 
 
 — with spreading roots, trans- 
 planting, 44. 
 
 Pleasure-grounds, laving out of, 
 259. 
 
 — management of, 
 
 Plum, 179. 
 
 Pointing, 14. 
 
 Pois sans parehemin, 136. 
 
 Polyanthus, 220. 
 
 narcissus, 289. 
 
 Polygalas, 322. 
 Pomegranate, 194. 
 
 of Tabriz, 195. 
 
 Pomeranian cabbage, 131. 
 Porcupine cacti, 320. 
 Portable fountains, 287, 288. 
 
 greenhouses, 299. 
 
 Potash, 23. 31, 32. 
 Potato, 141. 
 
 disease, 143. 
 
 murrain, 143. 
 
 Potherbs, 156. 
 Pot-hoe, 293. 
 
 Pots for cuttings, 72. 
 Potting, 293-295. 
 Poudrette, 31. 
 Pricking out, 45. 
 Prickly pear, 320. 
 Primitive earths, 24. 
 Primrose, 221. 
 Propagation, modes of, 58. 
 Protecting apricot trees, 178. 
 
 from frost, 103. 
 
 — wall trees, 1/1. 
 
 Provence roses, 266. 
 Provins roses, 267. 
 Pruning, 95. 
 
 ■ box-edgings, 122. 
 
 time for, 97. 
 
 — to improve the form of 
 
 the tree, 98. 
 
 — to produce flowers and 
 
 fruit, 99. 
 
 • uses of, 98. 
 
 258-264. 
 
 walks in, 258. 
 
 with a knife, 96. 
 
 Prumng-shears, 95. 
 Puddling plants, 47. 
 Pulverising the ground, 6. 
 Putrefaction, 26. 
 
 Quagmire, 23. 
 Quartz rocks, 21. 
 Quicklime, 33. 
 Quince, 191. 
 
 R. 
 
 Radish, 147. 
 Raking, 19. 
 Ranunculus, 242. 
 Raspberries, culture of. ?03. 
 Raspberry seeds found in the bod> 
 
 ot an ancient Briton, 38. 
 Red beet, 146. 
 
 cabbage, 131. 
 
 Redleaf, rockwork at, 298 
 Rtd spider, 113.
 
 342 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Refuse of culinary vegetables, 31. 
 Removing a tree or shrub, 16. 
 
 large trees, 49. 
 
 Renovating gravel walks, 121. 
 
 Repotting, 292. 
 
 Rliipsalis, 321. 
 
 Rhodochiton, 322. 
 
 Rhubarb, 127. 
 
 Ridging, 15. 
 
 Rock work, 272-278. 
 
 Root, uses of the, 4, 5. 41. 
 
 Rose baskets, 271. 
 
 beetle, 112. 
 
 chafer, 112. 
 
 des quatre saisons, 266. 
 
 gardens, 270. 
 
 Roseries, 270. 
 Roses, 265. 
 
 Rose trees, mode of budding, 76. 
 ■ to protect from insects, 
 
 111. 
 Rotation of crops, 128. 
 Rough potting, 204. 
 Rules for budding, 78. 
 
 grafting, 93. 
 
 making cuttings, 74. 
 
 manuring, 33. 
 
 — transplanting, 44. 
 
 to be observed in watering, 
 
 56. 
 Runners, 59. 
 
 of strawberries, 127. 
 
 Rustic baskets, 284. 
 
 summer-houses, 282. 
 
 Saddle-grafting, 84. 
 Sage, 157. 
 Salad plants, 151. 
 Salsifv, 147. 
 Saltpetre, 33. 
 Sandy soil, 24. 
 Savory, 158. 
 Savovs, 131. 
 Saw-flies, 108. 
 Scaly bulbs, 333. 
 Scarlet runners, 139. 
 Scion, 74. 79. 
 Scissors for gardens, 97- 
 Scorzonera, 147. 
 Scotch kale, 135. 
 
 roses, 268. 
 
 Sea-kale, 125. 
 
 Seats, 282, 283. 
 
 Secateur, 96. 
 
 Seedling pears, mode of testing, 94. 
 
 Seeds, sowing, 35. 
 
 ■ vegetation of, 4. 
 
 September, 333. 
 
 Shading, when necessary, 41. 43. 
 
 Shallot, 151. 
 
 Shell slug, 113. 
 
 Shreds for training, 102. 
 
 Shrubbery, 260. 
 
 Shrubs, 260. 
 
 Shuker Para, a new Syrian apricot, 
 
 177. 
 Silica, 23. 
 Silver sand, 68. 
 Skirret, 147. 
 
 Slip to the kitchen garden, 117. 
 Slips, 73. 
 Slugs, 113. 
 
 Smoothness in digging, 13. 
 Snails, 113, 323. 
 Soapy water, 52. 
 Soda, 23. 
 Soil for a kitchen garden, 117. 
 
 for plants in pots, 292. 
 
 kinds of, 21-24. 
 
 preparation of the, for seeds 
 
 and plants, 3. 
 
 ■ stirring the, 3. 
 
 Soils, the most productive, 24. 
 
 Solid bulbs, 40. 
 
 Sollya, 322. 
 
 Soot, 32. 
 
 Sorrel, 148. 
 
 Sowing grass seeds. 255. 258. 
 
 seeds, 35, 214. 
 
 on a hotbed, 29. 
 
 Spade for a lady, 8. 
 Spanish chestnut, 197. 
 
 tinder, 110. 
 
 Spinach, 148. 
 
 Spongioles, 5. 41. 
 Spring cabbages, 130. 
 radishes, 147. 
 
 water, 55. 
 
 Spurs, 102. 
 Squamose bulbs, 39. 
 
 Stable dung, when in the most fit 
 
 state to use as manure, 26. 
 Staking trees, 48. 
 Standard fruit trees, 184. 
 
 roses, 270. 
 
 Stanwick nectarine, 172. 
 Steeping seeds in oxalic acid, 39. 
 Stirring the soil, 3. 
 
 Stock, 74. 79. 
 
 and scion prepared for in- 
 arching, 87. 
 
 Stone coping, 167. 
 
 fruits, 171, 172. 
 
 Stool, 62. 
 Strawberries, 126. 
 Straw rope, 104. 
 Striking cuttings, 72. 
 Subsoil, 21. 
 Succory, 153. 
 Succulent plants, 319-321. 
 
 cuttings of, 73. 
 
 Suckers, 58. 
 
 Suedia green-gage apricot, 1/7- 
 Sugar peas, 136. 
 Sulphur, 23. 
 
 Summary of rules for manuring, 
 33.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 343 
 
 Summer-houses. 282, 
 Summer pruning, ',. 
 Surface soil, 21, 22. 
 Sweet chestnut, 185. 197. 
 
 ■ herbs, 156. 
 
 kernelled peach, 172. 
 
 marjoram, .:'. 
 
 Syon, rock work at, 273. 
 Syrian apricots, 177. 
 plum, 17^. 
 
 Taffo, 31. 
 
 Tan, 31. 
 
 Tansy, 154. 
 
 Taprooted plants, transplanting, 
 
 44. 
 Tarragon, 156. 
 Tart rhubarb, 127. 
 Tears of the vine, 98. 
 Tea-scented roses, 269. 
 Tecomas, 322. 
 Teltow turnip, 145. 
 Temporary crops, J 22. 128. 
 Tender annuals, 215. 
 Thnps, 113. 
 Thrust hoe, 17. 
 Thunbergia, 322. 
 Thyme, 156. 
 Tobacco water, 109. 331. 
 Tomatoes. 161. 
 
 Tom Thumb pelargonium, 212. 
 Tongue-grafting, 82, 83. 
 Training, 101. 
 
 espalier- 
 
 ■ fruit trees in various 
 
 wav: 
 
 184. 
 — objects of, 101. 
 
 Tramp for digging, 9. 
 Transferring a design from paper to 
 
 the ground, 210. 
 Transparent pea, 136. 
 Transplanter, 45. 
 Transplanting, 41-50. 
 
 ■ uses of, 45. 
 
 Tree carnation, 224. 
 
 cereus, 32<». 
 
 paeonies, to protect, bv cover- 
 ings of basket-work, 1ij4. 
 
 Trees and shrubs. . . 
 
 removing, 49. 
 
 Trenching, use of, 6. 
 Trowel, 19. 
 Tuberous 328. 
 Tubers. 39. 229. 
 Tulip, 230. 
 Tunicateu bulbs, 39. 
 Turf, to lav down, 256. 
 Turnip, 144. 
 Tying up plants, 103. 
 
 U. 
 
 Uncovered seats, 283. 
 Underground buds, 39. 
 
 stems, 4". 
 
 Unfertile soils. 24. 
 
 Uses of transplanting, 45. 
 
 Van Thol Tulips, 232. 289. 
 Vegetable manures, 31. 
 
 marrow, 160. 
 
 Verbena, layer of a, 61. 
 Verbenas, 3-'>.S-3I0. 
 Vt-r blanc, 112. 
 Vital knot, 4. 
 
 W. 
 
 Wa'.ks in a flower-garden, 213. 
 
 in a kitchen-garden, 118. 
 
 in pleasure-erounds, 258. 
 
 Wall fruit trees, 166. 171. 
 "Walls of a kitchen-garden, 166. 
 use of, 1 6<i. 
 
 Walnut, 185. 195. 
 Warm water, 56. 
 W -y>,and flies, 334. 
 Water, kind of, 55. 
 
 ■ quantitv to be given, 53 
 
 Water-cress, 155. 
 W .:er-shoots, 100. 
 Watering, 50. 
 
 plants, time for, 54. 
 
 use of, after transplant- 
 ing, 43. 
 Watering-pot, ■ '.. 
 Wee Is, to destroy, 121. 
 Weeping ash, 264. 
 Weevils, 112. 
 Wheelbarrow, 9, 10. 
 Whip-grafting, 82, 83. 
 White hickorv. 197. 
 White mulberry of Iran. 192. 
 Window-gardening, 289-299. 
 Winter cress, 154. ' 
 
 pruning, 98. 
 
 radishes, 1,7. 
 
 Wire-worm, 112. 
 
 Wooden coping, 167. 170. 
 
 Wood-lice, 113. 
 
 Woolly aphis, 111. 
 
 " Worm i' the bud" of the rose, 109, 
 
 W orms in pots, 309. 
 
 Worst soil for a garden, 21. 
 
 V. 
 
 Yellow roses, 268. 
 
 Woodiail and Kinder, Printers, Milford Lane, Strand, London, W.C.
 
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