INDUSTRY c A WAR-TIME Preventable fire is more than a private misfortune . It is a public dereliction. At a time like this of emergency and of manifest necessity for the con - servation of national resources, it is more than ever a matter of deep and pressing consequence that every means should be taken to prevent this evil . Prepared for the COUNCIL OF NATIONAL DEFENSE by the NATIONAL BOARD OF FIRE k UNDERWRITERS a SAFEGUARDING 0 INDUSTRY A WAR-TIME, NECESSITY Prepared for THE. COUNCIL OF NATIONAL DE.FE.N5t by THt NATIONAL BOARD OF FIRE UNDERWRITERS ' - ' . , ' ; , ~ * t ■ f a . . '■ ;£ S , a « ■ - V.. » - ‘ 4; v / % / ' J - — «■ * . - • . s 114 , 8-41 N2-1 1 * 3 - 4 J SAFEGUARDING INDUSTRY A WAR-TIMt NECESSITY ♦ I F we fight as a collection of units, we shall be beaten; if we fight unitedly, as America, we shall win. Some of the fighting will be done in the European trenches; much more of it will be accomplished in the factories, warehouses, fields and homes of our .forty-eight states. ♦ If we are to stand any chance of winning quickly, effi¬ ciency must be developed to the highest possible point— and efficiency means conservation as well as production. It is shocking to note that America prepared herself for entry into the greatest struggle in human history by increasing her per capita fire loss from $1.71, in 1915, to $2.10, in 1916. The $214,000,000 thus wasted last year in fires which were largely preventable—therefore inex¬ cusable—would have built nearly thirty thousand aero¬ planes, or many hundreds of torpedo boat destroyers. What is America going to do about her per capita fire loss for 1917? More specifically, what are you going to do? Is there to be a preventable fire in property under your control before the end of the year? You do not ex¬ pect it, of course, but are you taking any steps to render it impossible? Your factory, warehouse, or other insti¬ tution, great or small, is a part of the nation’s assets. If it be destroyed at a time when the nation needs every ounce of her vitality, her ability to win the war will be lessened to a proportionate degree. Are you entitled to call yourself a true patriot if you are indifferent to this fact? The Only Chance for Victory Wasting 30,000 Aeroplanes 3 SAFEGUARDING INDUSTRY 4 Your Own Responsibility Fire Hazard and Inefficiency May we assume, therefore, that you are awake to the patriotic duty of seeing that your property is to have adequate fire protection, and that you desire to take im¬ mediate steps to bring this to pass? Such steps may be simpler and less expensive than you have supposed, but in any event, they should not be neglected for a single day. Note first, that the best time in which to fight fires is before they occur; in other words, that the most valuable fire protection is fire prevention. Fire is not mysterious. It has been thoroughly studied, and its causes are well- known. Most fires start with conditions which may easily be recognized not only by the expert, but by the thought¬ ful property owner. Most fires, therefore, may be pre¬ vented by the simple process of correcting such condi¬ tions. It is the purpose of this booklet to place before you common-sense rules for recognizing bad conditions, and simple instructions for remedying them. What are Bad Conditions? 1. DISORDER: Uncleanliness and fire hazard go hand in hand. Buildings of the most thoroughly fire-resistive character are liable to have fires among their contents if there is “poor housekeeping” in the plant. Disorder means much more than the accumulation of dirt and rub¬ bish, which is merely one of its symptoms; disorder im¬ plies the relaxation of those rules which are necessary for safety, economy, and general efficiency. The plant where piles of litter are in evidence is apt to be the plant where discipline is so slack that workmen are permitted to smoke while on duty; where fire escapes are insufficient; where stairways are blocked; and where all sorts of fire hazards are allowed to go undetected. The first bad condition to be recognized, therefore, is disorder, and the first step in correction is that of clean¬ ing up. This cleaning up, of course, must not be spas¬ modic. It must be recognized by all hands as merely the € beginning of keeping clean; as the definite opening of a new era. Recognition of this fact cannot fail to result in a toning up all along the line. It will mean better dis¬ cipline, greater alertness and efficiency, and a quicker de¬ tection of existent hazards. 4 r SAFEGUARDING INDUSTRY 2. IGNORANCE AND CARELESSNESS: These are personal elements, closely associated with the physical element—disorder. Most factories include many ignorant hands among their employees. People of this class gener¬ ally require definite instruction, both in their work and in their personal habits. At the very foundation of fire pre¬ vention, therefore, is the necessity for formulating rules for the guidance of employees. Such rules must be very simple, impossible to misunderstand, and must cover the essential points of fire prevention, fire alarm, and fire extinguishing, as applied to the particular plant in question. Carelessness is a somewhat broader subject, and is harder to correct than ignorance. Its greatest danger lies in the fact that it is a habit which is easily formed, # and rapidly spread. Its correction is three-fold: Educa¬ tion, Example and Discipline. Where carelessness is a matter of unconscious violation, instruction must be given, as with downright ignorance. Where it is a matter of 4 wilful violation, it calls for well-executed dscipline, based upon plainly stated rules; but, in any event, the necessity for good example is preeminent, and this example must begin at the top. Habits of carefulness, like those of care¬ lessness, are contagious. 3. DEFECTIVE EQUIPMENT: At this point, the subject becomes more technical, and yet contains many factors calling for the mere exercise of common sense. In a general way, it may be said that a building con¬ sists of its foundation, walls, floors, roof, windows and doors, all of which come under the head of construction; while everything else that it contains as a definite part of the plant is to be classed as equipment. Buildings there¬ fore are equipped with their power, lighting and heating systems, with their machinery, furniture, etc. Almost any of these factors of equipment may become causes of fire if of wrong construction, poor installation, or bad * maintenance. A few rules for recognizing and correcting defects will be given elsewhere (pages 11 et seq.) ; however, most » people responsible for property would do well at a time of national emergency such as this to avail themselves of 5 " Fool-Proof ” Rules What is “Equipment?” SAFEGUARDING INDUSTRY 4 A Simple Precaution expert advice in the making of a thorough inspection of every portion of their equipment. If new equipment is contemplated, the item of cheapness should be held subor¬ dinate to that of safety, and this quality should be ascer¬ tained before ordering. For this purpose the Under¬ writers' Laboratories, founded and maintained by The National Board of Fire Underwriters, is devoting the services of its large staff of technical experts to unceasing tests of all materials, devices, and supplies which enter into the question of fire hazard in any form. This work is undertaken for service, not for profit, and with abso¬ lute impartiality, it designates as safe all goods which are able to pass its searching tests. Such goods are labeled or listed by the Laboratories, and the greatest protection for any purchaser of equipment is that of making sure that his supplies are so designated. Once purchased, the question of installation becomes vital. Careless or inexpert work at this point may in itself create hazard. No one, therefore, should neglect the precaution of making sure that his equipment is installed by the best available workmen. There would be an aston¬ ishing decrease in American fire loss figures if these two rules governing purchase and installation were always ob¬ served. It must not be forgotten, however, that this is only the beginning. Even the best of equipment must be carefully maintained, particularly at the present time when so many industries are working at abnormal pres¬ sure. Those in authority should be constantly upon the alert for such telltale signs as worn electrical insula¬ tion, accumulation of oil, dust or rust upon machinery, and all other evidences of deterioration. Many of these signs will be apparent to any intelligent man who is look¬ ing for them, but such constant alertness should not be allowed to replace expert and thorough inspection at fre¬ quent intervals. Fires, particularly those caused by elec¬ tricity, frequently originate in places that are out of the range of ordinary observation. When discovered, no defect should be deemed too small to be given attention; it calls for immediate repair, or re¬ placement. The four rules for safety in equipment, there¬ fore, are: 6 * SAFEGUARDING INDUSTRY (a) Careful selection, based upon the approval of the + Underwriters’ Laboratories. (b) Careful installation by the most competent work¬ men. (c) * General alertness as to defective conditions. (d) Frequent and thorough inspection by experts. 4. FAULTY CONSTRUCTION: Construction, as already has been indicated, includes all parts of the build¬ ing proper, whose function is merely to enclose space. Faulty construction does not cause fires, but it is a large factor in spreading them. A great fire almost always im¬ plies faulty construction. This is particularly a subject calling for expert advice, since fire-prevention engineer- * ing has become a well-recognized feature of building construction. It hardly needs to be stated that wooden walls and * shingle roofs will burn when masonry will resist fire, but it is also true that under certain conditions, a well-con¬ structed building containing a good deal of wood, as in the so-called “mill construction,” may be a better fire risk than a flimsy building of brick or stone. The layman who is giving careful thought to this sub¬ ject should view his fire danger from two standpoints: those of fire originating on the inside, and on the outside of his plant. If fire originates upon the inside, it natu¬ rally will attack the inside of the structure: namely, its floors, ceilings, posts, inner wall surfaces, etc. If these are of an inflammable nature, a local blaze may quickly spread through the plant, and become a general fire. The observer, therefore, should examine such features with this thought in view. He should recognize the necessity for fire walls and fire doors at the proper intervals, so that fire cannot spread to all portions of the same floor, * and he should pay particular attention to the necessity for protecting openings such as stairways, hoistways, ele¬ vator shafts, etc., leading from floor to floor. * Any layman can recognize defects in these features when once his attention has been called to the subject, 7 Four Rules for Safety Inside and Outside SAFEGUARDING INDUSTRY How About Your Roof f The Common Sense of Construction It May Not Always be “Some One Else ,f and lack of precaution in such matters is one of the prin¬ cipal elements in great fires. The question of danger from outside fires particularly involves roofs and windows. The roofs of all factories, warehouses , storehouses, etc., without exception, should be of incombustible material. The principal lesson taught by most great conflagrations is that of the spread of fire through sparks or flying brands falling upon shingle roofs. Of similar importance is the protection of windows. Ordinary glass readily breaks and falls out, when sub¬ jected to great heat, and fires thus gain access to the interior. Wire glass in metal frame, is much more fire resistive, and factories equipped with outside windows of this nature gain greatly in safety, but where the element of exposure from other buildings is extreme, open sprinklers or metal shutters should be provided, as well. Shutters always should be closed at night. The use of metal window frames, doors, and trim in building construction, may not always be practicable, but it is always desirable. Whatever the material of the building, it stands to reason that good design, and solid, well-executed con¬ struction, tends to produce comparatively safe buildings. 5. INSUFFICIENT PROTECTION. The four di¬ visions already referred to have to do with fire preven¬ tion, but there remains the great need of fire extinguish¬ ing. Here, again, expert advice is desirable, but here, again, common sense will go a long way. Suppose that in spite of precautions, or before such precautions have been fully carried out, the emergency should occur, and a fire should break out in your property. The United States averages more than one fire for each minute of every twenty-four hours throughout the year. You have no right to assume that all of these fires will occur in the premises of other people. Should you be called upon to face an unexpected emergency, what is your basis of confidence that the fire would be quickly extinguished, instead of developing into a great calamity, with the element of tragedy possibly involved? 8 * SAFEGUARDING INDUSTRY The answer to this question is largely to be found in + the fire extinguishing equipment with which you have * provided your plant. Common sense will tell you that almost all fires have small beginnings, from which arises the old saying that the first five minutes in fighting a fire is worth more than the next five hours. This means that your means of extinguishing should be immediately accessible; in other words, that such means should be distributed throughout your premises so that at no point will they be far away. The most valuable of all devices for this purpose is the automatic sprinkler, which is too familiar to need description. It provides an immediate downpour of water at the exact place of the blaze, and generally extinguishes such a blaze at once. Insurance companies recognize this protection by making a large + reduction in rates wherever buildings are well equipped with sprinklers. Fire buckets containing water, chemicals, or sand, have * their value if they are well distributed and within easy reach. Many of the smaller fires may easily be put out by the use of some of the various forms of hand fire extinguishers. Whatever the device employed, therefore, if it depends upon the action of any employee, all em¬ ployees should be instructed in its proper use. But in large plants measures of fire protection should by no means stop at this point, for there also should be fire hose connection in all parts of the plant, proper arrange¬ ment for securing water pressure, a thoroughly drilled fire brigade from among the hands, and possibly even a simple form of wheeled chemical fire engine. There must of course be a complete fire alarm system, frequently tested and maintained in working order, and all employees should be instructed in sending in alarms. * Such plants as are located in cities naturally will se¬ cure additional protection from the city fire department, * but as this must take some time to get into action, indi¬ vidual fire fighting preparation should be carefully made. Many of the greatest.fires would have been averted had such rules as these been applied, and all of them are, in the last analysis, a mere application of common sense. 9 Instruct Every Hand SAFEGUARDING INDUSTRY Do Not ' 6. LACK OF DEFENSE: We naturally think of fire Forget the as an impersonal enemy arising from accident, as is usual- Incendiary ly the case, but the fact is now being brought home to us that the possibility of malicious destruction must also be guarded against. To some extent, this applies at all times. There are no years in which incendiaries are not more or less active, but under war conditions so many outrages have been attempted that no manufacturer or storage or warehouse man can afford to take chances. Lack of defense, therefore, is a bad condition. L. Here again, the application of common sense is called for. Anyone having a malicious intention of destruction would naturally seek to avoid notice. If possible, he would carry out his plans under cover of darkness. The elimina¬ tion of darkness, therefore, at once suggests itself. Plants and storage places should be provided with exterior lights sufficiently powerful to illuminate all parts of the build¬ ings and grounds. In the next place, an adequate force of watchmen or patrols should be placed on duty, and provided with well-understood signals—perhaps with arms. In the third place, close approach to buildings should be made difficult, by means of fences or walls. (See page 22.) And, lastly, careful supervision should by no means be relaxed during the day. If the concern is engaged with ammunition, food products, or other vital necessities, its employees should be provided with some form of identification cards, and should be compelled to enter and leave the premises under the eyes of inspectors, Pay Attention who should give particular attention to unexplained pack- to Packages ages. Any relaxation of rules under the present emer¬ gency may lead to disaster; this already has been the case in not a few instances. The foregoing may be said to give a brief review of the present safety needs of large and small plants, and other industrial institutions. They have been considered in their simple, and non-technical phases, from the mere standpoint of such common sense observations as may be exercised by anyone of intelligence. The following pages X will summarize some of the more technical rules, and their thorough study and application is most earnestly urged upon all recipients of this booklet. 4 10 PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS FOR REDUCING FIRE LOSS I—FIRE PREVENTION (A) Cleanliness Maintain good order and cleanliness. This is the first step towards effective fire prevention. Give particular attention to the shipping and receiving rooms; prevent the accumulation of excess packing ma¬ terial and empty boxes. Wherever excelsior, papers, straw or other combustible materials are used for packing, keep only a day’s supply on hand at a time in a box or bin, lined with tin and provided with a counter-weighted door having a fusible link to insure automatic closing in case of fire. Use standard waste cans as receptacles for such ma¬ terials as oily or soiled waste, rags or excelsior, em¬ ployed in rubbing down oil finishes. Burn under the boilers all such material as is past usefulness every day before closing. Paint, varnish, and oil fillers usually contain linseed oil which will oxidize, heat, and set fire to rags, excel¬ sior, or other similar combustibles used for rubbing down or wiping up these materials. Do not let such combus¬ tibles lie neglected for even an hour. Remove from the buildings daily to a safe place all combustible waste material made in manufacturing unless it can be burned at once. Do not permit the accumulation of any waste combus¬ tible material near buildings, especially those of wooden construction. Shingles or other refuse from the build- 11 General Order Shipping and Receiving Rooms Care of Packing Materials Care of IV aste, Rags, Etc . Refuse Piles Near Buildings The Danger of Grass and Weeds Lockers and Dressing Rooms Removing Refuse Drying Inflammable M aterials Steam Pipes and Woodwork Discarding Stoves Testing with the Hand SAFEGUARDING INDUSTRY ing, waste papers, old lumber, and empty boxes are sometimes neglectfully allowed to accumulate in such places. Keep dried grass, weeds, and brush cleared away from buildings, since a locomotive spark, match, or cigarette may ignite these and burn the building. Provide metal lockers for the clothing of employees. These minimize the danger of a hot pipe in the street coat or a bunch of waste in the overalls pocket. Locate dressing rooms in accessible places where fire can easily be controlled. (B) Common Hazards % (Heat and Power) Keep the boiler room free from accumulations of combustible refuse. \ Never place any combustible material on boilers, ovens, or flues to dry. Do not permit processes requiring use of inflammable materials to be carried on where there are heating devices with open flame. Where steam pipes pass through or close to woodwork, install them so as to maintain a clear space between the two and prevent lint and light combustibles from accu¬ mulating there. Do not use stoves. In practically any factory to-day the steam or hot air system can be extended to all parts. If the back of the hand cannot be held without discom¬ fort in firm contact with woodwork exposed to heat of N flues, boiler settings, or other heating devices, conditions are unsafe. Do not attempt to remedy by covering with metal, which simply transmits the heat and prevents the condition from being seen. 12 SAFEGUARDING INDUSTRY Soft coal, in piles, often heats spontaneously to the ig¬ nition point. Never imbed wooden posts in it but sup¬ port any building on brick piers or fireproofed iron columns. Provide good ventilation in any coal storage building to prevent accumulation of gas. Oil or shavings used as fuel should be stored as advised by the rules of the Underwriters. For proper lubrication provide good oil and make the bearings readily accessible at all times; this' will tend to prevent their neglect and to avoid accidents. (Lighting) Open lights or flame of any character should never be permitted for use in the presence of light combustible or volatile inflammable materials, or where inflammable dust is liable to be present; incandescent electric lights in such localities should be of the keyless socket pattern and enclosed in wire guards, with operating switch located in an apartment separated from the inflammables. Wherever inflammable vapors are present, special vapor-proof electric lamps are necessary; a careful arrangement of the location of all switches is also required. The use of the incandescent electric current for light¬ ing is the safest means of illumination, when the equip¬ ment is installed in strict conformity with the “National Electric Code” and its integrity insured by proper super¬ vision of the equipment. (This code is familiar to most electricians, but copies may be secured, when necessary, through application to the National Board of Fire Under¬ writers, New York City.) Gas brackets must be rigid and guards provided for gas jets wherever it is possible for anything to swing or blow towards them. In such places, if the use of gas is unavoidable, it may even be necessary to enclose the jet completely. l ; net Precautions Lubrication Lights Where Inflammables Are Present Electric Installation Guarding Gas Lights 13 SAFEGUARDING INDUSTRY Gas Leaks Other Lighting Systems Safety Matches Isolating Dangerous Processes The Main Supply of Oil Lighting the Oil House Isolating Inflammable Solvents If the odor of gas or other inflammable vapors is de¬ tected, ventilate the place thoroughly before attempting to find the leak. Always use an electric hand flashlight for such investigations, instead of a lighted match or other flame. Shut off the gas, if possible, before begin¬ ning the search. For the less commonly used and more dangerous light¬ ing systems; that is, acetylene, gasoline gas, or kerosene oil pressure systems, the Underwriters- have formulated rules for installation by which this work should be guided. (Copies of these rules may be secured through applica¬ tion to the National Board of Fire Underwriters, New York City.) If matches must be used, only those lighting on the prepared surface of the containing box or receptacle should be permitted. (C) Special Hazards All specially hazardous and dangerous processes or de¬ vices which may serve to cause or promote fire, should, where possible, be carefully segregated and properly sepa¬ rated from communication with the plant in general, and also receive special consideration in relation to fire extin¬ guishing appliances. (Oils) If possible, keep oils outside of the main buildings in a separate oil house. Never keep the main supply of light inflammable oils, such as gasoline, kerosene, .benzol, acetone, or mixtures containing them, inside of the main buildings except in nominal quantities as necessary to the processes. Illuminate the oil house safely and so brightly that there will never be a temptation for an employee to light a match in order to see while drawing oil. Cut off, by means of a standard fire wall, the place where any process is carried on using inflammable solv¬ ents. These are always dangerous. 14 I SAFEGUARDING INDUSTRY Catch oil drip in metal pans; never use sawdust or other combustible material to absorb it. Excellent oil cabinets are made which drip back into the main tank. Keep pails of sand for use in case of fire where inflam¬ mable liquids are used. (See page 18.)- (Other Hazards) Electric flatirons cause many fires by resting on com¬ bustible material. Set them on well ventilated, metal stands and install in the circuit a red pilot light which will burn whenever the current is on the iron. All finely divided, combustible dust, such as starch, * flour, coal, cork, sawdust, grain dust, powdered sugar, etc., will explode if ignited when suspended in the air. Cleanliness is the first precaution. The use of mechan¬ ical dust collectors is essential where processes generate * such dust. Explosions in these materials are caused by electric sparks, fire from mechanical friction, as well as by open lights. Make it your business to ascertain the fire hazard of everything your factory uses and safeguard these things accordingly. Always set a gas or electric burner device so that it will be clear of woodwork and connect gas with a rigid pipe; not with a flexible tube. Lime, unless stored above the flood level of adjacent streams, tightly enclosed against rain, and protected from water from other sources, is dangerous because it will heat when it is wet; this heating has caused many fires. 'b ;m ■ Some hazardous substances, commonly used and not always understood, are: chlorate of potash or other chlo¬ rates, peroxide of sodium, carbon bisulphide, picric acid, 1 ether, acetone, amyl-acetate, phosphorus, benzol. Drip Pans Pails of Sand Electric Flatirons Dust Explosions Studying Fire Hazards Gas and Electric Connections Lime Other Hazardous Substances 15 SAFEGUARDING INDUSTRY Hazards in Transit Preventing Crowding Screening Openings Vault Lights and Window Panes M aintaining Plastering and Sheathing Smoking Fire Doors In view of a remarkable increase in the transportation of extra hazardous explosive and combustible materials by common carriers, it is advisable that each property owner should make inquiry to ascertain whether his prop¬ erty is subject to danger from the presence in railroad cars or vessels of ammunition or other explosives or in¬ flammable materials, and to invoke the aid of the muni¬ cipal regulations and transportation companies’ rules to minimize such danger if found. Railroads are obliged to affix red and yellow labels to cars carrying such mate¬ rials; this will serve to identify them. The Black Tom disaster serves as a prominent example of this danger. (E) General Maintenance Prevent crowding. This will make for cleanliness and easy inspection. Screen openings exposed to sparks from the railroad, adjacent foundry cupolas, and similar devices. Keep sidewalk vault lights and window panes whole. Keep plastering and sheathing in repair so that nothing can be thrown into the hollow spaces behind. Forbid smoking on the premises. Keep fire doors closed when not actually in use, espe¬ cially at night, and keep them free from obstruction. II.—FIRE PROTECTION Although the number of fires can be materially reduced by proper preventive precautions, they cannot be entirely obviated and it is therefore necessary to consider means of extinguishment. (A) Private Protection While the means and methods for fire protection usually vary with individual cases, there are both automatic and 16 ' SAFEGUARDING INDUSTRY hand-operated devices of approved design and character y which when properly installed, maintained and handled will serve to good purpose in fire extinguishment. Among these are the following: When properly installed, with an abundant and con¬ stant water supply at proper pressure, and the equip¬ ment maintained in a constantly operative condition, the automatic sprinkler has proven itself to be the most re¬ liable and satisfactory fire extinguishing device in use, being suitable for effective service in practically every class of structure and under nearly any condition of fire hazard arising from causes incident to occupancy or proc¬ esses. It is therefore urged that such protection be in¬ stalled in every structure where the nature of the occu¬ pancy is not such as to render these devices inoperative * or ineffective. When properly located and supplied with water, these ♦ devices are of great value in the early stages of a fire, and if intelligently used, frequently prevent serious loss. Like fire pails, these devices are of decided value when available, and have the advantage of enabling the operator to direct an efficient stream immediately upon places which cannot be reached with fire pails. Chemical extin¬ guishers are effective up to a distance of about 40 feet. Stand pipes, when located in accessible positions and under proper pressure, with hose and nozzle attached, serve well in the control of more advanced fires, pro¬ vided the operator retains control of his faculties suffi¬ ciently to “stay by” the appliance and intelligently direct the stream delivered. For ordinary conditions, l^-inch linen hose with > y %-inch nozzles is advisable on inside standpipes. Such standpipes should not be less than 2 inches in diameter, and should be so placed as to provide serviceable streams without requiring too great length of hose. The friction loss of pressure is high in linen hose. 17 Automatic Sprinklers Casks and Pails Chemical Extinguishers Vertical Pipes SAFEGUARDING INDUSTRY Steam Jets Sand Pails Steam Fire Pumps Fire Hydrants Fire Hose Steam jets are of value in suppressing fires in dry- rooms and other confined spaces; where used there should be ample boiler capacity behind them to insure volume of steam, with controlling valves located at readily accessible points. Dry sand forms a very efficient means of extinguish¬ ing fires in oils, varnish and other inflammable fluids by smothering the flame. A proper supply should be main¬ tained, with a scoop for its distribution, in places where such inflammables are used or stored. These are a very efficient means of fire protection when properly designed for the special purpose, and situated in a structure separated from the general plant, with a reliable steam supply; there should be a sufficient water supply to insure continuous operation for a period of not less than one hour’s duration at full capacity. Other types of fire pumps may be used, when properly installed, but it is not advisable to buy one for fire service except of a type designed expressly for that purpose. Ordinary trade pumps, while efficient for general serv¬ ice, are seldom reliable under the stress of fire demands. Fire hydrants, whether public or private, should con¬ form to the National Standard, with a barrel of not less than six (6") inches in diameter, and be fed from a service main of not less than of the same diameter forming a complete circuit of the system, without dead ends, meter connections or other obstructions to the free flow of water, and be located at a distance of not less than 50 feet from the buildings to be protected. Hose connections or outlets should be of the National Standard pattern, unless the city outlets differ from it, in which event the outlets on private equipment should con¬ form to the latter. - . This is an important item controlling the efficiency of fire streams where hose is used, from the fact that the loss of head due to friction in the passage of water through hose of the very best rubber lined quality (of 18 3 SAFEGUARDING INDUSTRY 2y 2 " size) amounts to about 14 pounds per hundred feet * of hose, while with the ordinary quality of hose on the market and in'use, such loss of head may reach 25 or more pounds per 100 feet. Hose for use on hydrants and other devices supplying streams on the outside of buildings should be of not less than 2 y 2 " diameter, with nozzles of 1^8-inch smooth bore pattern. Underground piping should be laid in complete circuit and, where the system is extensive, should be gridironed in order to secure good circulation. Pipe sizes of less than 6 inches in diameter should not be permitted in any equipment. In order to secure efficiency from any of these devices, + the owners, operators and employees of every manufac¬ turing plant should become familiar with its fire protec¬ tion appliances, their location, purpose and use, and a selected few of the most apt and intelligent of the em¬ ployees should be formed into a fire brigade, and thor¬ oughly drilled in the proper use of the appliances. Overconfidence in the efficiency of any private pro¬ tection equipment must not be encouraged; make it a rule in every instance to summon the PUBLIC FIRE DE¬ PARTMENT upon the first discovery of a fire, and then make the most prompt and effective use of the equipment at hand. All private fire protection equipment should be under the care and supervision of some one capable person, who should be instructed to make regular and careful inspec¬ tion of all appliances at least once each week, and more frequently where the equipment is large or intricate. He should be empowered to correct any defects and to make written reports to the management upon the completion of each such inspection. Particular attention should be * given to the valves and other controlling devices of any automatic equipment to insure prompt operation in emer¬ gency, and where possible, the whole equipment should be * regularly tested. Underground Piping Fire Brigade Call the Public Fire Department Inspection and Supervision 19 SAFEGUARDING INDUSTRY * W atchmen Changes in the Plant Inspection by Firemen Calling the Department Access to Hydrants Securing Free Flow Watchman's service should be maintained at all times when the plant is not in operation, and the record of service be shown on such mechanical device as will not permit evasion of duty; records should be examined and checked over, filed and dated each day. (See page 23.) - When additions to or changes in the buildings of the plant are made, it is necessary to make sure that the ex¬ tension of the hydrant, sprinkler, or other fire protection system keeps pace with the work and that any unneces¬ sary interruption to any part of the fire protection be avoided. When interruption is unavoidable, its extent should be restricted as much as possible and the inter¬ rupted service should be restored with the least possible delay. These precautions are often neglected, but they are vital to the protection of the plant. (B) Public Fire Protection While public fire department and water supply organi¬ zations and equipment are usually beyond the control of private organizations, much good may be accomjdished through cooperation between such departments and the property owner. The chief of the fire department and his assistants should be encouraged to visit the plant and inspect in detail its fire protection equipment in order to plan coordi¬ nation of service when summoned to aid.. One or more public fire alarm boxes should be visible and accessible, day and night; capable employees should be instructed in their use and also as to reaching the fire department by telephone.- Public hydrants should never be obstructed by private building or repair operations or by the supplies therefor. Where private fire protection equipments are connected to public water seryice, every efifort should be made to se¬ cure free flow and supply, avoiding as far as possible all obstruction to flow by meters or otherwise. This is par¬ ticularly necessary where automatic sprinklers are used. 20 SAFEGUARDING INDUSTRY >