. JL^a q 
 
 HAULAGE BY HORSES. 
 
 3 
 
 tific demonstration. It is surprising that the disadvantages under 
 which a horse labors should not have engaged the attention of 
 scientific men long ago. 
 
 The manual training schools of this and of every 1 dtli^J* 'country 
 teach all the arts from needlework to blacksmithing. There kre 
 schools for farming and all the professions. But there is not so much 
 as a text-book on wagon and carriage building. If a boy becomes 
 a wagon-maker, he makes no study of the economical application 
 of force to move it. He cuts his lumber and welds his iron after 
 the old methods, except as he may modify them to suit his taste 
 in style. If the horse can be hitched to the vehicle in a manner 
 which will lighten his load, the maker of the vehicle does not 
 know it. 
 
 In the simple matter of so hitching a horse to a wagon as to 
 lighten his load we encounter scientific problems based on scientific 
 principles, and yet almost everybody treats the subject as one of 
 common character. We have in England large and old-established 
 ^wagon-making firms that never knew what it was to work to a 
 ^ scale drawing. What would the world think of an engineering 
 firm that worked on such a basis ? 
 
 I am sorry to say that in all my experience I have never met a 
 ^ wagon or a carriage builder who had an intelligent conception of 
 the fundamental principles of economical haulage. The builders 
 rely, sad to say, too much upon the users of vehicles. The. latter 
 "very naturally come with conflicting statements, and well they may, 
 because of the many different conditions under which they work 
 their vehicles. At present it seems to make no difference to the 
 coach-builder whether the particular vehicle he is making is to be 
 a) used in a hilly or a flat country. The fact is, he does not know that 
 Kt-here is a difference, or at least what that difference is. 
 
 There are all sorts of conflicting notions upon the theory of long 
 and short wheel-based carriages, and very different results are 
 obtained from long and short vehicles, but nobody seems to know 
 exactly why. In fact, there is nothing but chaos as between the 
 ideas of theorists and practical men. From what I gather, the 
 coach-builders owe their advancement to coachmen, and the latter, 
 for want of scientific knowledge, or a knowledge of facts, have had 
 to work largely in the dark. Of necessity they were compelled to 
 act upon a knowledge of what they saw and not upon scientific 
 principles. The driver finds that a particular angle of trace is 
 better or worse than another, taking the whole day’s work into 
 
 ft) 
 
 y* 
 
 o 
 
 Y 
 
 
4 
 
 HAULAGE BY HOUSES. 
 
 consideration ; but if be goes into another part of the country he 
 probably finds that the angle should be varied. He learns by 
 observation that it is better or worse for the horse if a two-wheeled 
 cart is loaded in different ways, according to the circumstances. He 
 is correct in his conclusions, and yet engineers say that u to transport 
 a given load over a given distance in a given time, the work done 
 in foot pounds is just the same.” These engineers differ from the 
 driver; nevertheless, the engineers are wrong and the driver is 
 right, so far as the understanding of the latter goes. In spite of 
 what engineers have often said upon the question of “ work done,” 
 I resolutely maintain that the work done in pushing a wheelbarrow, 
 with a given load over a given distance, is not near so great as 
 when the same vehicle is pulled. 
 
 Again, we have men of supposed scientific information who build 
 hand-carts to be hauled by costermongers. We would not like to 
 admit that these men know more about the principles of mechanics 
 than we do ; and yet they very correctly refuse to haul their carts by 
 the handles. These men know no more about the principles of 
 mechanics than the carts they haul, but they must be credited with 
 knowing which method of hauling is easiest for them. I have 
 made it my pleasing duty to investigate their practices, and when 
 I have come to plot out all the forces exerted by them, as well as 
 by nurse-girls with their perambulators and by boys with their go- 
 carts, I have found that nearly all of them were acting in perfect 
 harmony with natural law and common sense. But we, who boast 
 of our scientific knowledge and of our humanity, in yoking our 
 horses to their loads act in direct opposition to natural law and 
 common sense. No costermonger would suffer himself to work 
 under such conditions as we ignominiously impose upon our horses. 
 Surely, in this respect, what is good for man is good for beast. 
 
 As I have already stated, I am convinced that fifty per cent, of 
 the energy of a horse is wasted by the unscientific method of at- 
 taching him to the vehicle which he is required to haul. I was led 
 to the investigation of this subject by a very simple incident, as 
 Isaac Newton was led to the discovery of the law of gravitation, if 
 I may be pardoned the reference, by noting the fall of an apple to 
 the ground. Two horses were being cruelly beaten by their driver 
 in the streets of London, because they had great difficulty in mov- 
 ing their load, which, under ordinary conditions, they could 
 have moved without much effort. Observing the conditions, I 
 stopped and asked myself the question, from a mechanical point of 
 
HAULAGE BY HORSES. 
 
 5 
 
 view : “ Are the horses attached to the load in a manner which will 
 give them the greatest possible control over it ? ” I at once an- 
 swered my question in the negative. u No, they are not, because 
 they are relying almost entirely upon their own unaided weight 
 for the force they can exert, and they are unable, by reason of the 
 direction of their traces, to exert anything like their full natural 
 strength.” 
 
 Let me illustrate by an example. Suppose the horse replaced 
 by a windlass placed on a smooth floor. The hauling rope is passed 
 under pulley A and over that of B , and attached to a heavy weight, 
 W — not forgetting that the windlass is resting on a smooth surface, 
 neither pinned nor weighed down. The weight W being heavy 
 and the road smooth, the most natural thing in the world to expect 
 would be that the windlass would slip, or slide, toward the weight. 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 What would you think of the man who would thereupon pick up 
 a sledge-hammer and smash the machine because it would not haul 
 the load? Would you not look upon him as possessing less than 
 normal sense ? I am sure you would. But this represents, as nearly 
 as possible, what w r as being done with the poor horses referred to, 
 and what is being done daily to thousands of others. The unfor- 
 tunate brutes were being whipped because the load had a greater 
 mechanical advantage than they had, and through no fault of theirs ; 
 it was the fault of the world’s imperfect knowledge of animal 
 mechanics, or of “ cause and effect.” The horses were unduly and 
 wastefully straining every nerve, because they had not sufficient 
 weight to give them grip to start their load, and the method of 
 attachment was such that they could not get the grip. “ They 
 would if they could, but, poor brutes, they can’t.” 
 
 Let me give a further illustration of my meaning. If we attach 
 
6 
 
 HAULAGE BY HORSES. 
 
 an elephant to a large van in such a manner as we attach our 
 horses, the load and the gradient might be such that he could not 
 possibly haul it. But, if we rid him of the fettered system, and 
 permit him to perform his task as instinct and common sense die- 
 tate, both to man and beast, he will go behind the load where he 
 can place his trunk beneath the van and lift considerable weight. 
 Besides, he will thrust with his head, as depicted in the sketch 
 
 From which diagram Fig. 2 is made. 
 
 before you. He would manage better in front if he could only 
 secure the lift at the vehicle. 
 
 If you plot out the forces in the two cases you will observe that, 
 when yoked like a horse, the more the elephant pulls the more 
 weight he takes from his fore legs and transfers it to his hind legs 
 Therefore, we find ultimately when he is thus exerting his maxi- 
 mum effort the whole of it is measured by the strength of the hind 
 legs alone. On the other hand, if he applies his forces as he thinks 
 best, he can not only exert all the muscular power of his hind legs, 
 but also that of the fore legs. Surely no one will doubt his power 
 
HAULAGE BY HORSES. 
 
 7 
 
 to exert a much greater force by the combined efforts of four legs 
 than of two. To deny this one must contend that a man can bear 
 as much weight upon his back when standing on one leg as when 
 standing on both. 
 
 It is manifestly impossible for a man to lift so great a weight 
 when it is placed on one side of his body as he could if the weight 
 were centrally under or over him, because, when lifting to his ut- 
 
 From which diagram Fig. 3 is made. 
 
 most, he must of necessity support not only all his own weight on 
 the one leg nearest the load, but, in addition, he must support the 
 total weight he is lifting. 
 
 Notwithstanding the apparent simplicity of the question of haul- 
 age by horses, it must be approached by scientific methods. The 
 underlying principles are as real as the principle of gravitation 
 itself, but they must be uncovered by those who are able to analyze 
 forces and trace their resultants. The solution of the question be- 
 longs to the engineer, and, as already stated, the public will look 
 to him for guidance in a matter of so much commercial as well as 
 scientific importance. 
 
8 
 
 HAULAGE BY HORSES. 
 
 What is a horse, and why can he pull a greater load at one time 
 than at another ? A horse is simply a living machine. He has 
 the power to transport himself from place to place at will, or at the 
 command of his master. A machine of iron or steel, like the 
 locomotive, has power to move only by the application of steam or 
 electricity, under the guidance of man. Its power to pull or haul 
 loads is determined by the conditions under which it is placed and 
 the amount of energy it possesses. For example, a heavy load 
 may be lifted by the common windlass, if the pull is vertically 
 upward. But, if the load be so shifted that the pull is horizontal 
 instead of vertical, as in Fig. 1, the machine must be fastened to 
 the ground or weighted to prevent its slipping. It is so evident 
 that its power is weakened by the direction of draught that the 
 question does not need further discussion. 
 
 The principle is the same when applied to the horse, and it is 
 easy even for the unscientific mind to see that the angle of the trace 
 may be such that the animal could not pull a pound beyond his 
 normal weight unless held to the ground by some force or added 
 weight, the alternative being that he would be “ lifted from his 
 fore feet.” 
 
 Again, if the machine, whether it be in the form of a man, 
 horse, or inanimate structure, should be placed upon ice, the coeffi- 
 cient of friction would be very small. If it should require only 
 one pound horizontal pull to overcome the friction due to the 
 weight of the man on the ice, his limit of haulage would be one 
 pound through a similar trace. If ten pounds would overcome 
 the friction of the horse on ice, then the horse, however powerful 
 he might be, could effect only a ten-pound draught. The same 
 rule applies to every condition of road. By this we can readily 
 understand why horses cannot haul the same load upon one road as 
 easily as upon another, and why it is more difficult to pull a load 
 up a hill than along the level. Surely it must be clear that neither 
 a horse nor any inanimate structure would require so much force 
 to pull it down an incline as on the level or up hill. 
 
 The amount of resistance which a horse can overcome depends 
 upon the following conditions : (1) his own weight ; (2) his grip ; 
 (3 his height and length ; (4) direction of trace ; (5) his muscu- 
 lar development, which determines the power to straighten the 
 bent lever represented by his body and hind legs against the two 
 resistances, the vehicle through the trace attached to the shoulder 
 and the hind feet against the ground. 
 
HAULAGE BY HORSES. 
 
 9 
 
 Many erroneous notions exist among men as to the best inclina- 
 tion of the trace for the horse. For instance, if a horse can haul a 
 given load up a given hill with a deep inclination of trace, and 
 cannot do so with a horizontal one, it is generally thought that the 
 former is the better angle. It is, indeed, for that particular hill, 
 but immediately the hill is surmounted it becomes a very bad 
 angle, inasmuch as it involves a great loss of power, as I shall 
 endeavor to prove conclusively. 
 
 To pull through a very low trace, or to have a man, or even two 
 or three men, on a horse’s back is advisable and even necessary if a 
 horse is expected to haul a load requiring the full force of his 
 muscles at any particular moment — and for the moment, under such 
 conditions, he would be able to draw a much greater load than 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 
 without the added weight. But any person can see that the ani- 
 mal could not travel far with any vehicle if he must carry three 
 men on his back in addition to hauling his load. 
 
 This point may be illustrated by the hansom cab. When the 
 horse is pulling up a heavy gradient, the driver is often seen to 
 lean forward, thus endeavoring to throw additional weight on the 
 horse’s back, knowing from experience that the animal can get 
 along more easily if he carries some of the weight on his back 
 rather than all of it on the wheels. If the driver should care to 
 alight from his box and mount the horse, a very great benefit wmuld 
 be conferred during a heavy pull. If the gradient be a slight one 
 and the road a good one, it would be better for the horse if the 
 
10 
 
 HAULAGE BY HORSES. 
 
 man were to keep his seat and not even lean forward at all, but 
 rather backward. Therefore, to deal justly with our horses, we 
 should not only study cause and effect, but should devise some 
 means by which, automatically, every possible advantage could be 
 given to the horse at all times. Otherwise, there must be a con- 
 stant waste of energy, tiring the horse prematurely and increasing 
 the chances of his stumbling and falling. It is easy to understand 
 that the efficiency of the horse is lessened and his life shortened if 
 he is continually bearing an unnecessary burden. 
 
 I wish now to point out the importance of taking into consid- 
 eration all the forces which produce a certain effect when the load 
 
 is placed in the rear or in the front of the axle. Let us first consider 
 the conditions and the results when the load is placed at the rear 
 end of the cart, as in Fig. 6. 
 
 I will omit to plot out the simple levers constituted by the cart 
 itself and the axle as its fulcrum. We will assume that the said 
 lever will produce such a lift at the belly-band as to equal ten 
 pounds at the point A or T. The lift at the belly-band must 
 therefore, be greater than ten pounds, because the long arm of the 
 lever from the centre of the wheel to Y (point of backhand) is 
 shorter than to the point of the liame A . We must now under- 
 stand what it is that the horse is doing. We know that if both the 
 traces should break the load would run backward down hill. But, 
 
HAULAGE BY HORSES. 
 
 11 
 
 as the load is kept moving forward up the hill in spite of its 
 tendency to run backward in obedience to the force of gravitation, 
 we know that a counteracting force must be exerted by the horse 
 through the traces. Inasmuch as we are also aware that the cart 
 would tilt upward at the shafts, were it not for the influence of the 
 belly-band, it must be clear that the horse is exerting a force not 
 necessary to the mere pulling of the cart. He is holding down the 
 shafts with a force at the belly-band equal to ten pounds at A. 
 
 How let us suppose that he is exerting a force of 36 lbs. 
 through AB in a line from the hame to the centre of the wheel. 
 Then let AC represent the vertical depression necessary to hold 
 
 C 
 
 Fig. 6. 
 
 down the shafts. Since AB and AC are the forces necessary 
 to produce motiou, by completing the parallelogram ACDB we 
 find that AD represents the resultant of the forces AC and AB. 
 Thus we determine one arm of the lever, GS, acting against GT \ 
 the other arm. G/S is a line drawn at right angles from the 
 resolved angle of force AD. 
 
 Let us make it clear that if the load had been balanced on the axle, 
 then, regardless of the angle of trace or hame-chain, the virtual 
 angle of draught exerted would be through AB to the centre of 
 the wheel. Then a line at right angles with AB to G would have 
 been the short arm of the lever, which would have enabled the horse 
 to have pulled a much greater load than possible by the longer arm, 
 GS. But, due to the load being behind the axle, the forward weight 
 
12 
 
 HAULAGE BY HORSES. 
 
 of the animal is reduced by the lift of the shafts at the point A, 
 and the result is the same as if the traces had been put up at the 
 point D , and the load, with a 33-lb. pull through such a trace, would 
 be exactly balanced and no lift at that moment would be exerted 
 at the belly-band. Neither would there be any depression at the 
 backhand, although the trace would be so much above the centre 
 of the wheel. In other words, the tendency of the load to rotate 
 backward would, by such a trace (AD, with a 33-lb. pull), be coun- 
 teracted. There would be equilibrium, and the horse, so far as his 
 power to pull is concerned, would be acting under the same con- 
 ditions as though he had the lift at the belly-band and his trace 
 at the centre of the wheel. 
 
 A resultant pull of 33 lbs. through AD is equal to the thrust on 
 horse’s hind foot in the direction HG , tending, as will be observed, 
 to draw the animal’s foot off from, instead of into, the ground, thus 
 causing him to slip sooner than if the resultant had been either 
 parallel with the road, or, especially, if it had been digging into the 
 ground. This resultant ought now to be treated as a component, 
 together with the horse’s natural and added weight on hind feet 
 due to the pull and the gradient. [Complete diagrams on applica- 
 tion to the author.] 
 
 Let O V represent the horizon passing through the point D. If 
 DA represents 33 lbs., then FA will represent 4 lbs., so that 4 
 lbs. must be added to the horse’s natural weight by the pull AD. 
 Or, if the pull through the trace AB is 36 lbs., then, drawing BE 
 parallel with the horizon UV , EA (14 lbs.) will represent the 
 depression due to a 36-lb. pull through AB. But, when the lift 
 due to the shafts, 10 lbs., is deducted from the depression of 14 lbs., 
 there remains as before an increased weight of 4 lbs. on the horse. 
 
 But when the same horse is pulling with the same force upon a 
 level as in Fig. 7, we find that results are very different from 
 those when pulling upon an incline. Let PA be the direction 
 from the liame to the centre of the wheel and represent a 361-b. 
 pull. The load having been moved farther to the rear, the lift at 
 the belly-band is still 10 lbs. at P — the load is moved backward to 
 shift the centre of gravity. The resultant of the two components 
 PA and PB is PC, and PC now equals about 35.9 lbs., whereas 
 the resultant AD in Fig. 6 is only 33 lbs., or 2.9 lbs. less than on 
 the level. It will now be found that 36 lbs. pull through PA will 
 increase the horse’s weight 4.5 pounds, represented by PO, which 
 is determined by drawing AO from A parallel with the horizon, 
 
HAULAGE BY HORSES. 
 
 13 
 
 cutting the line of gravity PE. But, as the disposition of the load 
 is such that 10 lbs. are taken from the horse, it is obvious that, if 
 only 4.5 lbs. are put back by the said pull of 36 lbs., the horse has 
 still 5.5 lbs. less than his natural weight in Fig. 7, while in Fig. 6 
 he has 4 lbs. more than his natural weight. 
 
 It is essential that we should know why this difference is brought 
 about ; otherwise, we should not know why horses have greater 
 difficulty in climbing hills with loads than travelling on the level 
 Neither could we have an intelligent idea how to mitigate the evil, 
 or how to assist the animal in the duties he is called upon to per- 
 
 Fig. 7. 
 
 form. In all cases it is absolutely necessary that we should know, 
 not only the pull through the trace, which the horse is exerting, 
 but we must know the exact force exerted by the animal, either 
 through the backhand or the belly-band, according to the disposition 
 of the load. The one or the other of these forces is of just as much 
 importance as the pull through the trace. And yet, strange to say, 
 they have been practically ignored in the past, with lamentable 
 results. 
 
 Inasmuch as these forces are continually changing, due to the 
 inequalities of the road over which the horse is travelling and to the 
 strides of the horse, they must not be considered as constant, although 
 
14 
 
 HAULAGE BY HORSES. 
 
 no perceptible change is taking place. They exist only momen- 
 tarily, varying in proportion to the irregularities of the roadway or 
 the unsteadiness of the gait of the horse. These irregularities in- 
 tensify and diminish the lift and depression very much for and 
 against the horse ; to such a degree even, that, should he happen to 
 get his propelling foot upon a hard or slippery surface at the moment 
 when the forces referred to are against him, he slips and receives a 
 strain or is thrown. 
 
 If the load be shifted to the front end of the cart, as indicated 
 in Fig. 8, the resultant of the forces PJ and PK lies in the direc- 
 
 Fig. 8. 
 
 tion of jPZ, and the added weight on the horse is 22 lbs. instead o 
 4 lbs. as in Fig. 6, tending to thrust his hind foot into the ground 
 at O, and he is able to pull 40 lbs. as against 33 lbs. under the con- 
 ditions indicated in Fig. 6. 
 
 A word now as to the difference between the resultants when 
 pulling up a gradient and on a level plain, the latter being soft or 
 stony ground requiring exactly the same pull through the trace as 
 when climbing the gradient. It will be observed in Fig. 6 that 
 the point of application of force A (the hame) is above the hori- 
 zontal line U V, drawn through the point D, this being the point 
 at which the traces might be fixed with an advantage equal to 
 having them attached to the axle when the given lift is exerted at 
 A, with a lift at the belly-band as set forth ; whereas P, the point 
 
HAULAGE BY HORSES. 
 
 15 
 
 of application of force in Fig. 7, is now mnch below the horizontal 
 line JO 7 , drawn through the point G on the resultant, or virtual 
 line of draught. Therefore, if we now compare the triangles of 
 forces, ABE (Fig. 6) and PAO (Fig. 7), we shall find a great 
 difference. AB and PA represent the pull through the traces, and, 
 inasmuch as they are not at the same angle with the horizon, 
 although the force in each is precisely the same — viz., 36 lbs. — the 
 result upon the horse is quite different. 
 
 If AB in Fig. 6 represents a 36-lb. pull, and AC a 10-lb. lift, 
 then AD (33 lbs.) is the resultant direction of force applied by the 
 animal. Now it will be found that a 36-lb. pull through AB , 
 together with a lift of 10 lbs. through AC or a pull of 33 lbs. 
 through AD, will both be effective in lifting 2.6 lbs. from the 
 horse’s fore quarters. 
 
 The question has been asked, “ Should the horse support the 
 vehicle, or the vehicle the horse?” I will refer to the bicyclist in 
 answer. It is obviously clear to all that the man can travel very 
 much farther and easier when riding his machine than if he were 
 to walk and carry it. In like manner, on similar roads, where re- 
 sistance to traction is small, it is equally easy for the horse, if at 
 such times the vehicle is made to carry as much of the horse’s 
 weight as possible. But while it is clearly right for the bicycle to 
 carry the man on a hard and level road, the condition and the in- 
 clination of the road might be such as to make it actually necessary 
 for him to get off and carry a part or the whole of his machine 
 The same principle will apply to the horse and his load. 
 
 In further elucidation of this question, I will repeat the results 
 of some experiments. Having hired an out-porter with his bag- 
 gage-cart, I borrowed three sacks of iron bolts, weighing 112 lbs. 
 each. The cart weighed 70 lbs. and the man 168 lbs. In the first 
 experiment the load was disposed as in Fig. 9. Attaching a dyna- 
 mometer to the shafts at point P , I found it required 110 lbs. 
 pressure, bearing vertically downward, to prevent the shafts from 
 being thrown up into the air. To counteract this force, a weight 
 of 110 lbs. must, of course, have been taken from the man. Con- 
 sequently, in his effort to thrust the 3 cwt. up the hill, a gradient 
 of 1 in 12 on an ordinary roadway, he failed completely to move it 
 away from the scotches placed to prevent the vehicle from running 
 backward. 
 
 Mr. James Dredge, Honorary Member of your Society and one 
 of the honorary Presidents of this Engineering Congress, when he 
 
16 
 
 HAULAGE BY HORSES. 
 
 saw my four original diagrams, kindly and very wisely suggested 
 that another, showing the load still farther from the man, would 
 entirely suspend him in the air, and thus make it unmistakably 
 clear that the man would have no possible control over the load 
 whatever. Such a diagram is produced in Fig. 11. 
 
 Fig. 9 is no stretch of imagination, bat taken from life. 
 
HAULAGE BY HORSES. 
 
 17 
 
 In my second experiment I moved the sacks of bolts nearer to 
 the man, and added to their weight seven boys — all there were 
 about — as illustrated in Fig. 12. Again I asked the man if he could 
 move the increased load on the same hill and from the same spot. 
 He made the effort, and, to his own surprise as well as that of 
 others, he succeeded, walking up the hill with the 7-cwt. load, al- 
 though in the first experiment he could not manage even the 3 cwt. 
 
 The results of these experiments are somewhat startling to many 
 people. This ought not to be the case, since the results, like all 
 other phenomena, are governed by law, and not by chance. When 
 we understand the law there is nothing whatever to marvel at. 
 
 Fig. 11. 
 
 Let us examine the conditions, and see why the man could not 
 move the 3 cwt. in the first experiment, but could move more than 
 double the weight on the same gradient in the second experiment 
 In the first case the load had the greater mechanical advantage, and 
 the man was compelled to submit to the greater power. I have 
 said that 110 lbs. of the man’s weight were required to prevent 
 the shafts from being tilted. Thus of his natural weight only 58 
 lbs. remained on his feet. This weight, even if the man’s feet were 
 spiked to prevent slipping, acting upon the lever L M (Fig. 9), 
 which was 1 foot 7 inches long, against LG, 3 feet 7 inches long, 
 could only effect a thrust through PA equal to 25.6 lbs. This 
 force was totally inadequate to compete with the load of 336 plus 
 2 ] 
 
18 
 
 HAULAGE BY HORSES. 
 
 70 lbs. (the latter the weight of the cart) plus 110 lbs. (the man’s 
 weight), a total load of 516 lbs. on a gradient of 1 in 12. Even if 
 the man had been thrusting in a line parallel with the plane, thus 
 getting the advantage of the full leverage of the wheel, he would 
 have required a force of 43 lbs. through that line. However, he 
 was not thrusting parallel with the plane, but obliquely downward ; 
 
 From which Fig. 12 is produced (from life). 
 
HAULAGE BY HORSES. 
 
 19 
 
 therefore even still more of his weight than the 110 lbs. was placed 
 upon the wheel by such a declining thrust. The resultant force 
 due to the components PK (110 lbs.) and PJ (25.6 lbs.) was equal 
 to one force of 116 lbs. in the direction of PH. So that, if the 
 gross load of the bolts and cart (336 lbs. plus 70 lbs.), 406 lbs., were 
 balanced on the wheels, and the man were to thrust directly through 
 the centre of the wheels in a direction AE ' parallel with PH, the 
 effect, both upon the wheel and upon the man’s foot, would be 
 precisely equal. 
 
 Again, if a pair of wheels weighing 406 lbs., as in Fig. 10, were 
 resting upon the incline, and the man were so thoughtless as to 
 believe that he could either prevent the wheels from running back- 
 ward, or that he could thrust them forward by advancing and prac- 
 tically lying down upon them, he would find himself very much 
 mistaken. And yet there would not be the slightest difference in 
 the result as between the efforts indicated in Figs. 9 and 10. 
 
 Let us now see what takes place in the second experiment, illus- 
 trated in Fig. 12. Although the load is more than double what it 
 was in the first experiment, the man, instead of being partly sup- 
 ported by the vehicle, is supporting 110 lbs. of the load, which 
 consists of 336 lbs. (the bolts) plus 70 lbs. (the cart) plus 412 lbs. 
 (the boys), equal to 818 lbs. minus 110 lbs. supported by the man. 
 The difference, 708 lbs., only requires a force through PA equal 
 to 59 lbs., obtained by the lever IM acting against LG, the former 
 being 1 foot 3 inches in length, and the latter 2 feet 6^ inches in 
 length, this force being represented by PJ, while PK represents 
 the vertical lift of 110 lbs. by the man in the act of supporting 
 the shafts. 
 
 By completing the parallelogram PKHJ, we find that the diag- 
 onal PH gives us the magnitude and direction of the resultant 
 force due to the two components PJ and PK, which is 122 lbs. in 
 a line with the man’s arms (which would naturally be the case with 
 such a force). 
 
 Again, if we draw EF parallel with PH and through the centre 
 of the wheel, and draw a line BE from the periphery of the wheel 
 where it touches the ground, at right angles with the force EF, 
 then EB will give us one arm of a lever constituted by the wheel, 
 and a horizontal line drawn from B to the line of gravitation will 
 give us the other arm of the lever, BD. 
 
 While EB equals 36.4 inches in length, BD equals 5.5 inches. 
 So that, if the total load of 818 lbs. were resting upon the wheel 
 
20 
 
 HAULAGE BY HORSES. 
 
 and the man were to pull directly from A to F , lie would then 
 move the load/ws^ as easily and with precisely the same effect upon 
 his feet and arms as when exerting his forces at the end of the 
 shafts, or as if he were pulling at the weighted wheels from A to 
 jP, and the parallelogram PKHJ in Fig. 13 is exactly equal to the 
 parallelogram in Fig. 12. The difference between the two dia- 
 grams shown in Figs. 10 and 13 is very marked. So is the differ- 
 ence between what the man can do in one way and the other. 
 
 Again, it has been claimed that “ when a cart is properly loaded 
 a very considerable part of the burden is made to rest upon the 
 horse, and this addition to his weight tends to increase his draught 
 power.” 
 
 If the author of such a statement were compelled to transport a 
 4-cwt. load over a distance of, say, five or six miles a day, and his 
 master were to insist upon having the load so distributed as that a 
 very “ considerable portion,” say 1 cwt., rested either upon his 
 hands or upon his shoulders, I appeal to you, would not every one 
 of you be ready to cry “ shame ” upon such a cruel master ? 
 Would he ever again, after his first half-day’s work, commit him- 
 self to such an amazing statement as that a horse, any more than 
 a man, should be compelled to carry such a burden except when 
 absolutely necessary to assist him when climbing, as in Fig. 12 ? 
 
 I think you will agree with me that such a person, equally with 
 the costermonger, \vould prefer to recline upon his vehicle rather 
 than be compelled to carry any portion of the vehicle or load when 
 travelling on hard, level roads. If this is clear to you, it is obvious 
 that the vehicle should undoubtedly be caused to render the horse 
 every possible relief by supporting him as much as circumstances 
 will allow, no matter whether it be a heavy cart or sprightly car- 
 riage horse. 
 
 I should add, before leaving this part of my subject, that the 
 lighter the load the more the vehicle ought to support the horse. 
 When, however, the load increases, the horse ought gradually to 
 lose that support until, with a very excessive load, he ought to 
 support a part of the vehicle himself. This, of course, is a very 
 different thing to the contention that a poor cart-horse, because he 
 travels slowly, should invariably support “a very considerable” 
 portion of the load. There is one point, however, that I wish to 
 emphasize. It is this ! A load which a horse can draw up any 
 ordinary gradient should never require the horse to support any 
 part of either his vehicle or the load on a hard, level road. 
 
HAULAGE BY HORSES. 
 
 21 
 
 I will now proceed to a discussion of the question as to what 
 should take place when a horse is climbing a gradient. In this 
 case, with a heavy load it is necessary that the horse should support 
 a part of the vehicle. We all know that horses, cannot haul as 
 heavy loads up a hill as they can on a level plain, but tlieW are 
 many erroneous notions as to the cause. For example, one of life 
 cleverest practical and theoretical men on this subject has made 
 this statement : “ It has been properly observed that horses lose 
 part of their power in drawing up hill because a portion of their 
 w T eight is transferred from their fore to their hind quarters/’ 
 And again, he says : “ From what has already been said on this 
 subject, it follows that placing the point of traction below the 
 horizontal line is advantageous to the horse in drawing up hill, 
 because it adds to his weight at the time when he loses force by 
 having the centre of gravity of his body thrown backward by his 
 inclined position on a hill.” 
 
 It is obvious that the speaker did not understand this part of his 
 subject, for he is entirely wrong. I make the statement at the 
 risk of being considered dogmatic, but I know the facts will sustain 
 me, as I could easily prove to you did time permit. Before pro- 
 ceeding further, I would briefly call your attention to what is 
 known as the limit of the u angle of repose.” If I place a body 
 upon an incline plane and it remains at rest, it is understood to be 
 within the angle of repose ; but, if the incline should be increased 
 to such an angle that the body will not rest upon the plane, but 
 will slip down, it is then said to be outside the angle of repose. 
 If this part of the subject had been properly understood in its 
 bearing upon the question at issue, then Mr. Edgeworth would not 
 thus have committed himself. 
 
 Some experiments made by Captain Shaw of the Metropolitan 
 Fire Brigade, London, might easily be made to prove the fallacy 
 of the position taken by Mr. Edgeworth. I will only relate the 
 nature of those experiments. It was contended by certain parties 
 that a horse could haul a ton load up a given hill, and Captain 
 Shaw was made referee. The load was made up of twenty sacks 
 of earth, each weighing 1 cwt. The horse tried to haul this load 
 in a two-wlieeled cart; to which he was attached, but signally failed 
 to get up the hill. Some one suggested that the load was not 
 properly distributed, and two sacks were taken from the cart and 
 placed on the horse’s back. The horse tried again, and this time 
 succeeded in climbing the hill. But Captain Shaw gave a verdict 
 
22 
 
 HAULAGE BY HORSES. 
 
 against the horse on the ground that he did not draw the total 
 load, but pulled 18 cwt. and carried 2 cwt. For some reason the 
 verdict did not satisfy even the judge, and he determined to repeat 
 the experiments, but instead of 20 sacks he would use 22. On the 
 following day the horse was required to make the effort to haul 
 the 20 sacks as in the first experiment, but again he failed. Then 
 the two extra sacks were placed on the horse’s back. The result 
 was, as the captain afterward told me, the horse climbed the hill 
 with as much ease, apparently, as he did on the previous day with 
 18 sacks in the cart and 2 on his back.* 
 
 The additional weight on the horse’s back, together with the 
 pull through the ham e-chains, virtually gave the horse a better 
 angle of draught. Captain Shaw was wrong when he said the 
 horse did not pull the load in the second experiment. If he pulled 
 it in one case he pulled it in another. 
 
 If there is any difference between pulling and thrusting, a horse 
 does not pull at any time ; he thrusts. The collar and traces are 
 no part of the horse any more than the shafts are. The collar is 
 only a suitable contrivance for the horse to put his shoulders 
 against, so that he can thrust without hurting himself. It does not 
 matter whether the horse thrusts at one angle or another — it is a 
 thrust. But the angle of this thrust depends entirely upon circum- 
 stances ; it may be a bad one or a good one. If the load is heavy 
 and difficult to move, and the horse is compelled to effect a hori- 
 zontal thrust and thus not be able to increase his grip and mechan- 
 ical conditions, he fails. But if the conditions are such that some 
 of the weight is actually removed from the load and placed on the 
 horse, it is only equal to allowing his thrust to be an obliquely 
 upward one, whereby the transference is got by the thrust. 
 
 I wish next to relate to you some experiments with a cripple by 
 which he was enabled to haul a 7-cwt. load, although he could not 
 previously have walked a yard to save his life, without his crutches 
 or some such aid. 
 
 About three years ago I asserted the possibility of enabling a 
 cripple, who could not possibly walk a yard without assistance, not 
 only to walk but to take with him a loaded wagon weighing from 
 6 to 7 cwt. Such a man came to me, an engine driver, who, in 
 the year 1879, had both legs cut off, one above and the other below 
 
 * Diagrams of these experiments may be had on application to the author of 
 this paper. 
 
HAULAGE BY HORSES. 
 
 23 
 
 the knee. He had cork legs, and could only get about with the 
 aid of crutches or a machine. 
 
 I yoked him to the shafts of a specially fitted wagon, one that I 
 use for experimental purposes. When he was yoked I took away 
 his crutches and he walked away with my wagon, which contained 
 a gross load of 6 to Y cwt., greatly to the astonishment of those 
 who witnessed the experiment. 
 
 But there was nothing marvellous in the result. There was only 
 an application of a well-known mechanical law, one of which the 
 costermonger makes use every day of his life. The costermonger 
 seeks and actually finds rest in the performance of his work, under 
 certain conditions of road, in hauling his cart ; it is actually easier 
 to take the vehicle with him than to travel without it, at certain 
 times. 
 
 A babe that has not the strength either to walk or to stand alone 
 can actually move fairly heavy chairs about the floor, especially if 
 they are mounted on wheels or casters. The babe, like the cripple, 
 finds it necessary only to recline against the chair or the vehicle, 
 and the falling tendency of the one or the other overcomes its 
 resistance and motion results. The babe or the cripple needs only 
 to obey the motion, keeping a suitable attitude by the aid of the 
 chair or the machine. The result is precisely what every man 
 seeks when he has any hauling to do. 
 
 The better to impress the force of this illustration, it might be 
 well to point out the fact that it is with the greatest difficulty a 
 man can stand quite still for two hours, but he can walk about for 
 eight or ten hours. The natural restoration of energy is so regular 
 and so complete that we can lead an active life of fourteen to six- 
 teen hours’ daily labor, with six to eight hours’ intervening rest, 
 Exhausted energy is regularly restored, and we are always ready 
 for the new day’s work. 
 
 A man can haul a loaded vehicle, weighing 5 or 6 cwt., many 
 miles over a level road more easily than he can stand on the street 
 corners with his hands in his pockets. In this case the principle is 
 the same as that which enables a man to climb a gradient with a 
 bicycle more easily than he can alone. So, too, a man can walk 
 farther and more easily with a walking-stick than he can without 
 it. The same thing is true of the nurse-girl with her perambulator 
 and the boy with his go-cart. The same advantages are secured 
 by the use of the hand-rail in ascending and descending stairs. 
 
 In these and in innumerable other instances the muscles of the 
 
u 
 
 HAULAGE BY HORSES. 
 
 arms are brought into action unconsciously to aid the legs. We 
 cannot stand in the streets without ridding ourselves of any parcel 
 we may be carrying. When standing we involuntarily lean upon 
 our sticks, a table, wall, or any convenient object. We seek to 
 relieve the muscles of the legs, which have been doing most of the 
 work. If we have been sitting, we stand to relieve other muscles. 
 We sit after walking or standing. In our beds we shift from one 
 side of our bodies to the other, or to our backs. In short, we are 
 
 always resorting to methods of relief which relaxation of muscles 
 affords. 
 
 Although we have been following these practices from the 
 very day of our birth, we have kept on yoking our horses, gener- 
 ation after generation, by methods which compel them, in the 
 shafts of a four-wheeled wagon, to rest their entire weight on their 
 feet. They can neither sit nor lie down, nor relieve their leg 
 muscles, except, as is often seen, by resting their heads upon carts 
 or other support in front of them ; this affords some relief to the 
 legs. It is not uncommon to see a horse shifting his weight from 
 one leg to another. When tired, the horse shows the same rest- 
 
HAULAGE BY HORSES. 
 
 25 
 
 lessness that a man does. Men are continually moving, resting 
 first on one foot and then on the other, in search of relief. Gener- 
 ally they can sit down, but horses cannot without being smartly 
 beaten for the effort to relieve themselves. 
 
 In Fig. 18 we have an illustration of an interesting principle, 
 concerning the action of the effort in overcoming an obstacle in 
 the path of a wheel. Its load consists of wire coiled around 
 its axle, and it requires a force of 12 lbs. through AC at right 
 angles with BA to raise it over the obstacle B. By such a pull 
 the man No. 1 would increase his natural weight 6 lbs. ( CF ), 
 and would exert a horizontal force of 10.3 lbs. (CE). For some 
 reason or other it may be necessary that the man should be at a 
 much lower elevation than the wheel, and, say, 1 or even 20 
 miles away from it. Let this be as it may. If you uncoil the wire, 
 
 Fig. 19. 
 
 which constitutes the load, so that the man can reach one end of it 
 (you may uncoil as much of the wire as you please, so long as its 
 weight does not increase the weight of the man No. 2 more than 
 6 lbs.), the man No. 2 can rotate the wheel as easily as if he were 
 in the place of No. 1. The truth of this assertion is ascertained 
 by the parallelograms as shown in the figures referred to. If the 
 weight of the uncoiled wire should not be sufficient to increase the 
 weight of man No. 2 to that of No. 1, then an added weight, IF, 
 might be attached, but this added weight must be taken from the 
 load on the wheels and not be an independent load. 
 
 Fig. 19 represents a boy endeavoring to haul a truck up a gra- 
 dient by means of a trace, AB. He finds the task impossible, because 
 10 lbs. is as much as he can exert through the trace without slip- 
 ping. By exerting 40 lbs. through such an angle with the horizon, 
 
26 
 
 HAULAGE BY HORSES. 
 
 he adds only 14 lbs. to his natural weight. The resultant thrust 
 on the ground by his right foot (which will now be doing practically 
 all the work) is in the direction DE , which overcomes the resistance 
 of his own and the added weight on the road. But, if the boy gets 
 behind the truck and exerts his forces as an elephant does his (Fig. 
 20), and if he were to lift 50 lbs. with his hands, exerting 39 lbs. 
 through EF, the resultant force on his rear foot (assuming it to be 
 doing all the work in this case) would be 64 lbs. in the direction 
 AD , which is a very different angle to that of DE (Fig. 19). The 
 boy can thus exert to the limit of his muscular capacity without 
 fear of slipping. In fact, if he were to lift, say, 98 lbs. through 
 GE and still exert only a 39-lb. thrust through FE , the resultant 
 through his legs would be 110 lbs. in the direction EC. 
 
 1 was once told by a professor that the draught power of a 
 horse depended more upon the development of his muscles thaA 
 upon his bodily weight, and that a light thoroughbred horse, with 
 well-developed muscles, could haul a greater load than a much 
 heavier horse with muscles not so well developed. This statement 
 I contradicted, asserting that, apart from the extra momentum 
 which the light horse could throw into the traces, the heavier horse 
 could always effect the strongest pull, provided all conditions, 
 excepting those of muscle and weight, were equal. The build and 
 the disposition of a horse will often deceive us if we are not on our 
 guard. Even one nail in the shoe of the lighter and weaker horse 
 may be the means of misleading us. 
 
 Very soon after my controversy with the professor I approached 
 Mr. Sandow, the strong man, w T ho had just created a great sensation 
 
HAULAGE BY HORSES. 
 
 27 
 
 in London by proving himself stronger than Samson — “the 
 strongest man on earth.” He kindly consented to allow me to try 
 any experiments I chose with him to elucidate my views upon the 
 use and importance of muscular development. Such development 
 cannot enable a horse or a man to make a heavier steady pull, but 
 it will enable him to maintain that pull through a much greater 
 space of time, and effect a stronger jerk, imparting greater momen- 
 tum than could be given by the weaker horse or man. 
 
 I placed Sandow on a pivoted foot-board, with an adjustable 
 block to prevent his assuming any other position than the one in 
 
 Fig. 21. 
 
 which I placed him. In the position indicated in Fig. 21, Sandow, 
 with all his muscular development, could not exert a steady pull of 
 more than 2 pounds against my little boy, then 6 years of age 
 But when I allowed him to assume the position shown in Fig. 22 
 he could exert a 40-pound pull against myself, but that was the 
 limit. In that position I could overcome all the resistance he could 
 effect. But, when in the position shown in Fig. 23, I could not 
 outdo him. On the contrary, I might have fagged myself to death 
 by pulling, while he would have been little or none the worse for 
 the effort. His muscles were so well developed that they could 
 endure my pull very much longer than my muscles could main- 
 tain it. 
 
28 
 
 HAULAGE BY HORSES. 
 
 Were Sandow to lie down flat and exert his forces in a direct 
 line through his body, there is not a horse in Chicago that could out- 
 pull him, since he could then exert the full power of his muscles in 
 a direct line with his body, without being hampered by conditions 
 which, in the preceding experiments, prevented the possibility of 
 his bringing into play the forces he possessed. 
 
 Not only are our horses compelled to exert themselves under 
 unfavorable mechanical conditions, on the lines set forth in Figs. 
 21. 22, and 23, when they are required to haul heavy loads, but they 
 suffer even a greater cruelty at our hands at such times as when 
 
 Fig. 22. 
 
 the vehicle requires little or no pulling. This I will endeavor to 
 make clear to you by reference to the structure and movement of 
 the locomotive engine, which are familiar to the members of this 
 congress. 
 
 Let us, for example, mount a locomotive upon incomplete wheels 
 — spoke-wheels, if they may so be called — wheels without a periph- 
 ery, and suppose the extremities of the spokes to be 2 feet apart 
 and the spokes themselves 4 feet long. If the total weight of the 
 engine (50 tons) should be resting upon two of these spokes, it 
 would require a horizontal force of more than 25 tons at the centre 
 of the wheel to produce motion in that engine on a level plane, with 
 no tender attached. Yet, if the same load were resting upon a 
 
HAULAGE BY HOUSES. 
 
 29 
 
 perfectly round wheel, it would move on the application of a force 
 of about 10 cwt., or considerably less than that amount. 
 
 Therefore, when we realize the fact — for it is a fact , whether 
 you believe it or not — that our horses are compelled not only to 
 deal continuously with their own weight upon their feet, but also 
 with some of the weight of the vehicle, thus they are caused, 
 absolutely unnecessarily, to waste their strength, and life, and 
 energy, just as would be the case with an engine if compelled to 
 work on a polygonal wheel, with sides measuring from one to two 
 feet in length. It becomes obviously clear to all of you that it is 
 
 Fig. 23. 
 
 no more possible for a horse to carry his centre of gravity parallel 
 with the plain upon which he is running, when he must rotate 
 first upon one leg and then upon another, than it would be possible 
 to get the same steady run of a locomotive engine upon a poly- 
 gonal wheel as is secured by the present round one. 
 
 From this it is plain that the horse is compelled , absolutely 
 unnecessarily, to exert himself under conditions such as no engi- 
 neer in the world would for a moment think of applying to his 
 steam-horse, under which to waste its energies and knock itself to 
 pieces, in, practically , no time. I appeal to you, is there any wonder 
 at our living horses suffering so much by reason of their legs failing 
 them when so brutally knocked about, pot only by such unscientific 
 methods of attachment, but by reason of the rough and stony roads 
 
30 
 
 HAULAGE BY HORSES. 
 
 over which they travel ? I say, gentlemen, there is no wonder, 
 unless, indeed it be, that they bear such treatment so long and so 
 patiently. 
 
 We need no further or more forcible example of the vast differ- 
 ence between the two methods of effecting transportation than is 
 contained in a mere reference to what we ourselves can do. Of 
 course, there is no practical difference between the conditions under 
 which a man or a horse transports himself when in the act of 
 walking ; both require a great amount of force, as in the case of 
 the engine on polygonal wheels. If a man starts out on a long 
 walk he does very well if he covers 50 miles in a day, but the 
 same man is not only able to transport himself but to take a machine 
 with him and travel more than 400 miles in 24 hours. Further 
 proof of my contention is afforded by the use of pneumatic-tired 
 wheels, which tend to keep the centre of gravity more nearly par- 
 allel with the plane. 
 
 Be good enough to put the man on polygonal wheels, w r hen you 
 will find that he will have great difficulty in travelling his 50 miles, 
 the distance, of course, depending upon the length of the sides of 
 the wheels. By adopting such means as those described you put 
 the man back to the unfavorable and extravagant method of trans- 
 portation which hampers him when walking. I do not wish to 
 be understood as complaining of our construction ; on the contrary, 
 we are the most perfect of machines, wonderfully conceived, with 
 brains — if we would only use them — to plan not only our own 
 comfort and pleasure, but the comfort of the noble creatures we 
 are here to consider, interests which I believe to have been 
 sadly too long neglected. 
 
 Before leaving the question of the locomotive engine, I 
 should have liked very much to have discussed the question as 
 to what are and what are not its impelling forces, upon which 
 question I hold very different opinions to those which are said 
 to have been accepted as true by engineers for the past thirty or 
 forty years — before dismissing the locomotive, let me give you one 
 or two simple illustrations, which may tend more forcibly to impress 
 my views upon this important feature of our subject. 
 
 In Fig. 24 the sphere weighs 5 cwt. In Fig. 25 the square 
 block has the same w t eight. ISTow, it would be quite an absurdity 
 seriously to ask any man which of the two bodies (Figs. 24 and 
 25) he would prefer to roll along the road. In Fig. 24, B is 
 the point of rotation of the wheel A, and the centre of gravity of 
 
HAULAGE BY HORSES. 
 
 31 
 
 the load is directly above it at A, balanced, as it were, and ready 
 to roll either to the right or to the left on the application of the 
 slightest force, provided the wheel is rigid and upon a hard 
 smooth rail. 
 
 But the line of resistance in Fig. 25 is CD and must rotate 
 about D , and C, being the centre of gravity, must be literally 
 raised until its altitude is increased from CE in Fig. 25 to GF in 
 Fig. 26 before the load will roll as easily as in Fig. 24. But, to 
 produce motion at all from the position indicated in Fig. 25, 
 there must be exerted a horizontal force through the centre of 
 gravity C equal to 5 cwt. The body would, therefore, remain in 
 its present position forever if its motion depended upon the 
 unaided strength of a man to roll it by a force exerted through its 
 centre of gravity. 
 
 The result of my investigations is that, having ascertained the 
 fundamental and economic principles involved in the haulage of 
 vehicles and the transportation of living or inanimate matter, I 
 have devised a special contrivance applicable to all kinds of four- 
 wheeled vehicles or sledges, which will, at all times, automatically 
 afford the horse all possible assistance. It does not matter whether 
 he be travelling on smooth, level roads, up hill or down, with 
 a heavy or a light load, he cannot fail to receive a direct advantage 
 from the very moment he is attached to the moment he is detached. 
 The relief is afforded while he is walking, running, or even stand- 
 ing. 
 
 The percussion on his feet is reduced at every stride during the 
 day. His muscles are less strained, and his energy is economized 
 
32 
 
 HAULAGE BY HORSES. 
 
 as you would economize the energy of a locomotive. He receives 
 that relief on a level road and while going down hill, and in part 
 while going up hill, that a lady would receive by taking the arms 
 of two gentlemen, one on either side of her. The relief is better 
 felt than expressed. The costermonger and others seek for and 
 obtain it, though they know not what it is. The simple contriv- 
 ance which I have hit upon, and which gives to the horse all the 
 advantages which men so persistently demand for themselves, is on 
 exhibition at the World’s Fair and may be seen and tested in Sec- 
 tion “ G 55,” Transportation Building. 
 
 INTERESTING EXPERIMENTS WITH AN AMERICAN-MADE BUGGY BE- 
 LONGING TO THE RIGHT HON. THE EARL OF LONSDALE, WHO HAS 
 DONE MUCH TO FACILITATE MY INVESTIGATIONS. 
 
 The buggy is claimed to be a vehicle of 5 lbs. draught on a level 
 road. I prove conclusively it is nearer 15 lbs. 
 
 In America, as in England and other countries, there seem to 
 be very incorrect ideas as to the proper method of testing the 
 draught of a carriage. In testing the draught of the buggy in 
 question, I first weighed the shafts at the point where they are 
 held by the backhand to ascertain the force which the horse must 
 exert before he begins to pull. I found the weight to be no less 
 than 9 lbs. ; therefore, the animal must exert 9 lbs. vertical force to 
 support the shafts alone. 
 
 To ascertain beyond a doubt the direction and magnitude of the 
 force required to travel on any given road, tie a small steel spindle 
 across the shafts at A (Fig. 27), passing easily through a strip of 
 wood, or other material. Attach one end of this to a dynamometer, 
 AT, the latter being supported by a stay, L M, supported at the rear 
 of a moving vehicle. 
 
 By this simple contrivance we transmit all the forces to the 
 buggy which are necessary not only to carry the shafts, but to 
 draw the vehicle along at any required speed, taking care to keep 
 the shafts at about their normal working height. Hot only will 
 the strip of wood then indicate exactly the angle of traction, 
 but the dynamometer will indicate exactly the amount of force 
 exerted through that angle. (It will be observed that this angle 
 will be continually changing.) 
 
 Instantaneous photographs were taken during the progress of 
 the following experiments. The angle of traction is indicated in 
 each instance by KO , on a slight up-gradient. How, apart from 
 
HAILAGE BY HORSES. 
 
 38 
 
 the force registered on the dynamometer, knowing the shafts to 
 weigh 9 lbs. at A, set down nine equal parts vertically from A, 
 giving us AD. Draw AC in a line from A to the centre of the 
 point of rotation of the shafts, and a line parallel therewith from D, 
 cutting a line continued through KO to B. From the point where 
 ]JB cuts the extended line KO , draw BC parallel with DA, thus 
 
 Fig. 27. 
 
 From which Fig. 27 is produced. 
 
 completing the parallelogram ACDB. Then, if AD equals one 
 component force of 9 lbs., AC will represent another of 8.1 lbs., 
 the resultant of which will be found in the direction and mag'ni- 
 tude of the diagonal AB. This shows that the exact force exerted 
 by the horse is 13.6 pounds, and gives the angle through which 
 such force is exerted to keep the buggy in motion at that particular 
 moment. 
 
 2 
 
34 
 
 HAULAGE BY HORSES. 
 
 Thus we prove that the angle of draught, instead of being 
 through and in a line with the traces, as most people think, is actu- 
 ally in the direction of the oblique line AB , and that the draught 
 is 13.6 lbs. instead of 5 lbs. as claimed. 
 
 This diagram further proves that, with such an oblique force 
 through AB , there must be a vertical force in the direction of the 
 
 The Horse is made to CARRY ^ 
 10-3 lbs. Whilst .be only 
 
 pulls Slbs^u©fiiz,ontal forced 
 
 0 
 
 Fig. 2 8 . 
 
 From which diagram Fig. 28 is taken. 
 
 line BE of 11.2 lbs., transferred from the vehicle to the horse’s 
 feet. Therefore, it is clear that the horse is compelled to carry 
 11.2 lbs. in addition to his own weight. But the costermonger 
 would have carried less than his own weight (very sensibly, too, 
 when resistance was so small). This 11.2 lbs. means that there is 
 about 22 lbs. greater percussion on the animal’s feet when travel- 
 ling only about 4 miles an hour, even on level ground, but consider- 
 
HAULAGE BY HORSES. 
 
 35 
 
 ably more when travelling rapidly. (I regret that I am unable to 
 treat of this part of the subject in this paper.) 
 
 Without delaying to explain the action of all the forces indicated 
 in Fig. 28, in which the vehicle is shown to be travelling down a 
 slight grade, we find the obliquity of KO is not so great as when 
 the vehicle was moving in the opposite direction over the same 
 ground. 
 
 We now find that AC is equal to 5.2 lbs., AI ) , the weight of 
 the shafts, remaining the same, the resultant AB , in Fig. 28, is 
 equal to 11.5 lbs. against 13.6 lbs. in the preceding experiment, 
 and that the added weight on the horse, even when he is travelling 
 down hill, is actually increased by the amount BE, or 10.3 lbs. 
 
 Fig. 29. 
 
 Passing hastily to Fig. 29, with the same vehicle drawn by men 
 at a slower rate of speed, we again find that the obliquity of KO is 
 not so great as in Fig. 27 (due, of course, to the slower pace). 
 Here we find AC equal to 7.6 lbs., AD remaining the same. AB , 
 13.3 lbs., is now the resultant angle, and the magnitude of the force 
 exerted to draw the vehicle — not merely 5 lbs., as shown by easy 
 reasoning. 
 
 In Fig. 30 we have quite different results. By means of a 
 special contrivance a lift is effected at the belly-band, or at the 
 point A, equal to 24.1 lbs., so that when the weight of the shafts is 
 deducted from that amount we still have a lift of 15.1 lbs. at the 
 belly-band. To resist this lift, and at the same time produce a 
 forward movement of the vehicle, it is now found that the men 
 must pull down at the dynamometer, and that KO is the re- 
 
36 
 
 HAULAGE BY HORSES. 
 
 sultant direction of the components AD( 15.1 lbs.) and AC (7.1 lbs.). 
 AB is the magnitude of this force, which is equal to 14 lbs. exerted 
 in the direction from B to A, thus reducing the weight on the men, 
 or the animal pulling, by 15.1 lbs., instead of increasing it as in 
 the preceding experiments, making a difference of 15.1 plus 11.2 
 minus CE , 2.7 lbs., equal to 23.6 lbs. less weight to be carried on 
 the horse’s feet, or a percussion less by 47.2 lbs. at every stride, 
 when the horse is travelling at a speed of four miles an hour. 
 Multipty this by the number of strides he takes in a day divided 
 by four, and you will appreciate the difference in the effect upon 
 
 Wrrrr a lift of 2 6<4 lbs. at the belly-bajmo.A, after oeoc/ctinl weight op 
 SHAFTS C9 L0 S^ WE HAVE STILL A LIFT OF I7>J— '.5*2= |2*4l0S.AtA 
 
 Fig. 30. 
 
 ( laken from a Photograph ) 
 
 the horse, and will see how work is done unnecessarily, energy 
 wasted, and discomfort increased. 
 
 To realize the practical effect of the difference between a light 
 and a heavy blow, let us tap gently with our knuckles upon a hard, 
 fixed stone. We feel, perhaps, that we might go on knocking 
 without suffering. But, striking a harder blow, w T e soon find that 
 we must cease the operation. 
 
 Take another illustration, as indicated in Fig. 31, where the 
 forces are applied by a man hauling a cart weighted, as shown, at 
 the rear of the axle. In this case, as in Fig. 30, the dynamometer 
 must pull downward and forward to prevent the shafts from shoot* 
 ing upward, and to cause the vehicle to move forward. In this 
 case we have clearly set before us the conditions which men find 
 from experience to be so conducive to their own comfort. It is to 
 
HAULAGE BY HOUSES. 
 
 37 
 
 these conditions I wish to draw your special attention, since I 
 believe they are the only conditions upon which economic haul- 
 age can possibly be effected on fairly good roads, and where 
 heavy gradients are not encountered. 
 
 In Fig. 31 the load W (67 lbs.) is so disposed that a force F 
 (42.8 lbs.) is required at P, acting vertically downward, to produce 
 equilibrium in the lever PJH , of which J, the centre of the 
 wheel, is the fulcrum. It is obvious that the wheel is supporting 
 not only the 67 lbs., the weight of the boy, besides that of the cart 
 body, but is supporting also 42.8 lbs. of the man’s weight; but, 
 mind you, only when the cart is at rest. 
 
 To ascertain the angle and magnitude of draught required to 
 
 haul this load, let us refer again to Fig. 31. The dynamometer K 
 with the slip of wood, as used in the preceding experiment, is 
 again brought into use to prevent the shafts from tilting upward, 
 and to keep them at about the same angle as when hauled by the 
 man in Fig. 32. We find by the parallelograms ACBD and AEBN 
 (Fig. 31) what are the component and resultant forces which are 
 required to produce the desired advance. The force AD (42.8 lbs.) 
 is determined by the disposition of the load on the lever PJH . 
 Let us then set off 42.8 equal parts on the vertical line AD. Draw 
 A C to the centre of the wheel and DB parallel with that line, cat- 
 ting AB (an extension of the line KO running through the dyna- 
 mometer), and from B draw BC parallel with AD , thus complet- 
 ing the parallelogram of forces exerted by the man. 
 
38 
 
 HAULAGE BY HORSES. 
 
 Although a vertical force of 42.8 lbs. is required at P to produce 
 equilibrium, the vehicle still at rest, it may seem remarkable that a 
 single force of 33.3 lbs. exerted through BA will not only balance 
 67 lbs. at H , but will propel the vehicle at the same time. The 
 action of the force AB (33.3 lbs.) may be considered in two ways. 
 
 1. BA being the direction and magnitude of that force, if we 
 draw a line from the centre of the wheel J to and at right angles 
 with the extended line BA, cutting it at 0 , we shall find that OJ 
 represents the leverage which a force, BA, has upon the short arm 
 of the ]e< T er JH, and that, as OJ measures 7.3 feet against PJ , 5.6 
 feet, BA will slightly more than balance 67 lbs. at H, and that, by 
 
 Fig. 32. 
 
 reason of the obliquity of BA, a horizontal force of 16 lbs. in the 
 direction from E to A is imparted to the vehicle, which now causes 
 it to move on a slight up-gradient. 
 
 2. From the fact that a force of 42.8 lbs., acting vertically 
 upward, is exerted at A by the weight W at H , there does not follow 
 the conclusion that the total w r eight is taken from the man’s feet 
 when the vehicle is at the point of motion, for the simple reason 
 that the vehicle will not run up hill without an external applica- 
 tion of force. This force is represented by the component AC, 
 which equals 20 lbs. Well now, to resist a force of 33.3 lbs. 
 through BA in addition to the 42.8 lbs. through AD, it will require 
 another force of 20 lbs. through AC to counteract BA. There- 
 
HAULAGE BY HORSES. 
 
 39 
 
 fore a pull or resistance of 20 lbs. by the vehicle from the centre 
 of the wheel in the direction AC will be effective in bringing CE , 
 13.5 lbs. of the 42.8 lbs., back on the man’s feet when the load is 
 at the point of motion. So that the reduced weight on the man’s 
 feet, which he feels to be of such great relief to him, is 29.3 lbs. 
 
 By this reasoning it is clear that, although the vehicle, while at 
 rest, might take a given number of pounds from the horse’s feet, it 
 depends entirely upon whether the virtual angle of pull is above 
 or below the horse’s hame-hook to determine whether the horse’s 
 weight is increased or diminished. 
 
 As to the effect of added weight upon the feet of a man or a 
 
 Fig. 33. 
 
 horse when travelling, it is seen in the evident and appalling 
 agony indicted upon the carriers of the sedan-chairs at the World’s 
 Fair grounds. This is the most HORRIBLE sight to be seen at 
 the World’s Fair. 
 
 Refer to Figs. 33 and 34, in which the load is represented as con- 
 sisting of a small boy. Our costermongers would as soon think of 
 flying as to haul him about the streets, placed in the position shown 
 in the illustration. It is to be noticed, in this case, that the man is 
 not bearing half the boy’s weight. Then think of the weight of 
 the sedan-chairs, and a 14-stone man within smiling at the mis- 
 fortune of those who are being almost tortured to death by the 
 weight of his heavy idle bones. It is an act of extreme cruelty 
 thus to suffer one’s self to be carried when there are other and 
 
40 
 
 HAULAGE BY HORSES. 
 
 easier means of transportation, even though one suffer in carrying 
 his own weight upon his wellnigh exhausted muscles. 
 
 From the standpoint of commercial advantage, which may 
 appeal more forcibly to the world at large, is there not a most 
 urgent demand that we lessen the burdens placed upon the horse? 
 We have seen that the costermonger, who knows no more than his 
 cart about natural law, when hauling his wares, acts in perfect har- 
 mony with natural law and unquestionably in accordance with com- 
 mon sense. When we plot out the forces which this ignorant man 
 brings into action in moving his cart, no matter whether his load be 
 
 Fig. 34. 
 
 heavy or light, whether he be travelling up hill or down, or upon 
 the level road, the application of the resultant is found to be mathe- 
 matically correct, notwithstanding the man’s absolute ignorance of 
 mathematics. This is not to be wondered at, since man, when a free 
 agent, seeks to obtain all the ease and comfort he can, and when 
 doing his own work is sure to find out the easiest way. 
 
 Experience alone has taught the costermonger how to deal with 
 his load and how to relieve himself of unnecessary burdens. It is 
 not a matter of indifference to him where he places his load, or 
 whether he shall push or pull his cart. To him his methods are 
 everything, and he rightly persists in his usage. On the other 
 hand we, who boast of our education and civilization, are acting in 
 
HAULAGE BY HOKSES. 
 
 41 
 
 defiance of natural law and common sense by so yoking our horses 
 as to compel them to do their work under conditions such as no 
 man would for a moment consider in the execution of his own 
 work. 
 
 Time fails me in my attempt to lay before you hundreds of 
 interesting diagrams, based upon scientific facts, and bearing upon 
 this important subject ; therefore, I have tried merely to impress 
 upon you the fact that the subject is one well worthy all the 
 intelligence that can be brought to bear upon it. Although it may 
 relate to the common draught of a horse, it embodies principles 
 which have never yet been practically applied, and principles which 
 no man need be ashamed to understand, whether they be applied 
 to the steam engine , steamboat , horse, or a million other subjects. 
 
 I am profoundly impressed with the importance of the subject, 
 and I trust this congress, representing the profession which, more 
 than all others, helps the world on to better things, will give it the 
 consideration it deserves. It may seem a simple matter to aid the 
 horse in his work, and one of no particular importance, because he 
 is a brute and toils at our bidding. On the contrary, as I have 
 shown you, it is a question in which the humanity of man is 
 involved, one which should no longer be permitted to defy scien- 
 tific principles, and one upon which commercial prosperity so 
 largely depends. 
 
 4