mu^fu^fPHP^^M 
 
 LIBRARY OF THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 
 
 AT URBANA-CHAMPAIGN 
 
 IN MEMORY OF 
 
 STEWART S. HOWE 
 
 JOURNALISM CLASS OF 1928 
 
 STEWART S. HOWE FOUNDATION 
 
 eo6.i 
 
 V
 
 ^ii^US 
 
 XlM
 
 FAIR MANAGEMENT
 
 FAIR
 
 A Guide For Future Fairs 
 
 MANAGEMENT 
 
 The Story of A Century of Progress Exposition 
 
 by LENOX R. LOHR 
 
 General Manager of A Centur-j oj Progress 
 President oj the Museum of Science & Industry 
 
 Chicago • The Cuneo Press, Inc. • 1952
 
 Copyright 1932 by The Cuneo Press, Inc. 
 Printed in the United States of America. 
 Quotations and reproductions from this book may be 
 made provided proper credit is given to the source.
 
 
 This Book Is Dedicated To My Wife 
 
 JOSEPHINE WIMSATT LOHR
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER 
 
 TITLE 
 
 
 
 PACE 
 
 
 Foreword ...... 1 
 
 1 
 
 Early History 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 Organization and Management 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 3 
 
 Finances 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 4 
 
 The Site 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 5 
 
 Getting Ready to Work 
 
 
 
 57 
 
 6 
 
 Architecture Interprets the Theme 
 
 
 
 60 
 
 7 
 
 Color Vitalizes Architecture . 
 
 
 
 73 
 
 8 
 
 Landscaping . 
 
 
 
 82 
 
 9 
 
 Decorative Features . 
 
 
 
 93 
 
 10 
 
 Illumination's Dramatic Role 
 
 
 
 101 
 
 11 
 
 Interiors 
 
 
 
 111 
 
 12 
 
 Science — The Basis of Exhibits 
 
 
 
 116
 
 CHAPTER 
 
 TITLE 
 
 PACE 
 
 13 
 
 Industrial Exhibits . . . . . 
 
 127 
 
 14 
 
 Social Science Exhibits . . . . 
 
 140 
 
 15 
 
 Federal, State, and Foreign Exhibits 
 
 146 
 
 16 
 
 Art Exhibits ...... 
 
 159 
 
 17 
 
 Concessions ..... 
 
 163 
 
 18 
 
 Fair Operated Attractions 
 
 171 
 
 19 
 
 Villages ..... 
 
 175 
 
 20 
 
 Operations and Maintenance . 
 
 180 
 
 21 
 
 Revenue Control .... 
 
 202 
 
 22 
 
 Promotion and Publicity 
 
 212 
 
 23 
 
 Legal Phases ..... 
 
 214 
 
 24 
 
 Construction of Fair Buildings 
 
 226 
 
 25 
 
 Electrical System . . 
 
 241 
 
 26 
 
 Water Supply .... 
 
 248 
 
 17 
 
 Changes for 1954 .... 
 
 253 
 
 28 
 
 Demolition . . . . • 
 
 260 
 
 29 
 
 A guide for Future Fairs 
 
 267 
 
 APPENDICES 
 
 I Ojlicers 
 
 Executive Committee . 
 Board of Trustees 
 Guarantors of Gold Notes 
 
 II South Park Ordinance 
 
 282 
 282 
 283 
 285 
 287 
 
 index 
 
 295
 
 FOREWORD 
 
 The impact of fairs on the culture and civilization of the world dates back to 
 Biblical times. The Book of Esther tells how Assuerus, who reigned from India 
 to Ethiopia, called all the nobles and the people to a great festival "that he might 
 show them the riches of the glory of his kingdom and the greatness and boasting 
 of his power, for a long time, to wit, for a hundred and fourscore days." 
 
 Down through the ages fairs have marked significant milestones in man's de- 
 velopment, for each generation has felt the urge to vent its pride and demonstrate 
 its progress and the quality of its products. Fairs have greatly accelerated the ac- 
 ceptance of new methods and of scientific, technical and agricultural discoveries. 
 Masses of people assembled from distant parts saw for the first time recent develop- 
 ments that could be useful to them and thus was speeded the otherwise lengthy 
 interval between inception and general public acceptance. 
 
 And so through the halls of future times there will ring the gay voices of crowds 
 seeking that which is new, and, since human nature changes but little, that which 
 is old. There were skeptics in 1930 who felt that the day of fairs was over. They 
 reasoned that the world had become sophisticated and blase — through the printed 
 word and the radio, people had heard all worth hearing, and with the ease of 
 travel made possible by the automobile, they had seen all worth seeing. The 
 doubters proclaimed that the day of the "hick" was gone forever, and with him 
 the reason for a fair. That they were wrong was amply attested by the record- 
 breaking crowds which have attended fairs since. 
 
 There will be fairs in the future, and their promoters and administrators will 
 be faced with the same problems that have baffled their predecessors, for major
 
 fairs are not going concerns — each one is born anew. The failures and successes, 
 the pitfalls and fortuitous events of A Century of Progress are told in this book. 
 May it serve as a "lamp of experience." 
 
 As a history it will fall short of covering much that happened or was shown. 
 But it has a more significant purpose than recording those events, though it is 
 hoped that it will be of nostalgic interest to those who participated in A Century 
 of Progress. It has been written with the desire to give all possible help to those 
 who may project or operate a fair in the future. Better to serve this latter group, 
 there have been included discussions of the basic principles of fair operation, most 
 of which were learned in the hard school of experience. While each fair is unique, 
 with considerations peculiarly its own, there are certain fundamentals applicable to 
 all and which time will modify only slightly. Fairs that were not successful finan- 
 cially have not necessarily lacked high entertainment value, spectacular propor- 
 tions or large attendances, but rather there was a failure to understand some 
 fundamental concepts. An attempt has been made in this book to delineate and 
 evaluate them. 
 
 This account has been written many years after the event which gives it the 
 benefit of perspective and a more philosophical viewpoint of predicaments than 
 would have been possible at closer range. The basic data were prepared in great 
 detail by the heads of the various departments and divisions during the Exposition 
 and immediately thereafter, thus providing a higher degree of accuracy than 
 would memory. 
 
 A Century of Progress was conceived in the boom year of 1927. It was 
 constructed and held during the great depression of the thirties. This combination 
 was a blessing, even if in disguise, for its conception was on a grand scale and 
 its execution was at a time of surplus high-grade manpower and a dearth of 
 construction projects which made each dollar do the work of two. 
 
 Opening to the public in May of 1933, the Fair was a bright spot in a world 
 of gloom. It did much to redeem the reputation of Chicago from its stigma 
 of the prohibition era. Two hundred million dollars of fresh capital poured 
 into Chicago, rescuing many of its institutions from bankruptcy. It showed 
 the millions of visitors that Chicago is a grand city to bring their business to and 
 to settle down in with their families. 
 
 It is now only a memory, but one which Chicago cherishes. The paid 
 attendance of over 39,000,000 was the largest of any American fair up to that 
 time. The nearest approach had been the 21,000,000 who attended Chicago's 
 World Columbian Exposition in 1893. 
 
 The Exposition's outstanding achievement was that all debts and obligations 
 were paid in full, and, when the final setdement was made, there was a surplus 
 of a hundred and seventy thousand dollars which was distributed to scientific in- 
 stitutions whose purpose was similar to that of the Fair. 
 
 There was at times considerable local skepticism as to whether the Fair 
 would ever be opened, and when this was transmitted to important business 
 interests it added one more obstacle to be overcome. That the Fair would
 
 actually open was never doubted by the staff. The only question would be 
 its size and extent. No expenditures were made until the actual cash was on hand 
 to meet them. And the construction developed into a contest between time 
 and money. The primary goal was to open complete and on time. This was 
 done, although drastic measures in the last weeks were required to accomplish 
 it. It was vital that the first visitors receive a favorable impression. 
 
 The Mayor of Chicago and the President of the Park District with their 
 associated officials were at all times cooperative and maintained a keen interest 
 in the welfare of the Exposition. There was never a hint of political pressure, 
 and this, to a large measure, contributed to the Exposition's ultimate success. 
 
 It is not contemplated that everyone who reads this book will do so from cover 
 to cover, but rather it is believed that most readers will seek those sections of par- 
 ticular interest. Therefore an attempt has been made to make each chapter a com- 
 plete summary of the phase or activity it describes. This necessarily involved some 
 repetition of material covered elsewhere. 
 
 The thanks of the author are extended to Mr. John F. Cuneo, President of The 
 Cuneo Press, Inc., for his personal interest in publishing this volume. It is sus- 
 pected that he had a sentimental interest, for his company printed the guide books 
 and many other publications of the Exposition. His enthusiastic and loyal support 
 in periods of stress and financial stringency during per-opening days was a 
 material factor in getting the Fair off to a good start. 
 
 The illustrations in the book are reproduced through the courtesy of Kaufman 
 & Fabry Company, the official photographers of the Fair. 
 
 To give due credit here to the thousands of loyal and effective workers on whom 
 the success of the enterprise depended would make this entire volume an en- 
 comium to their work. 
 
 No adequate tribute can ever be paid to Rufus C. Dawes, A Century of 
 Progress's President, for the influence his fine personal qualities exerted upon 
 those privileged to be his associates was of such depth and value that it remains 
 among their most precious memories. 
 
 His scholastic achievements were high, he had successfully conducted many 
 industrial enterprises and he had a distinguished record of public service, but 
 in our work with him this background was transcended by his fine personal 
 qualities. 
 
 Reading was an absorbing interest and, being a philosopher and student by 
 nature, he was astute in his selection of the worthwhile. He pondered each 
 thought as it was presented, weighed it critically, and then discarded it as unsound 
 or made it an integral part of his philosophy if he believed it had merit. The result 
 was a mental retention of basic principles in politics, religion, social forces, busi- 
 ness, and many other fields. 
 
 All who listened to him learned. Twice daily for four years I rode with him 
 between Evanston and the World's Fair Grounds, and the time consumed on 
 these trips will remain forever in my memory as the most profitable hours 
 I have ever spent. He was an absorbing conversationalist and, while he had a
 
 keen sense of humor and adeptness of expression, he never indulged in banalities. 
 His conversations were illuminated by his broad philosophy, his interpretations 
 of past and current events, his belief in God, his impeccable living and honest 
 thinking. His judicial mind made practical application of his store of know^ledge, 
 enabling him to find the obstacles that would confront one, and to know how to 
 meet them. No man ever gave more freely to his friends the benefits of such 
 counsel, while, at the same time, encouraging them to think and act inde- 
 pendendy. This inherent understanding was frequendy misunderstood and was 
 certainly unappreciated by casual acquaintances. 
 
 My first insight into this phase of his character came early in the Fair 
 construction period when I went to him for counsel on extremely important 
 negotiations scheduled for the next day. He listened attentively to my story 
 and then went into a reminiscence of some twenty years before, and I, wishing 
 impatiently to bring his thoughts back to the subject at hand, had to listen to 
 an account of the discussions of a committee meeting of the Illinois Constitutional 
 Convention. It was much later that evening that the light suddenly dawned. 
 His basic philosophy was to give authority where he had entrusted responsi- 
 bility, because he realized that in an intricate negotiation, the negotiator should 
 not be so bound by instructions that he would be unable to take full advantage 
 of unforeseen opportunities as they presented themselves. Every thought he 
 had had in that conversation was focused on my problem and every word 
 he had said had a direct bearing on it. He had drawn upon his own experiences 
 to find those instances which most nearly paralleled mine of the moment, and, 
 although he had given me the last drop of his wisdom, he had presented it in 
 such a way that it was usable without tying my hands. 
 
 He, therefore, gave the fruits of his wisdom in such a way as to enhance 
 their usefulness without insisting on their use. Mr. Dawes was one of the most 
 completely unselfish of men. I never knew him to expect anything in the way of 
 praise, power or wealth, and he would put himself in the background in order 
 that another, or a project for which he worked, might succeed. He lost no 
 opportunity to give credit for and to extoll the work of those under him, and he 
 was as proud of the accomplishments of his associates as if they were his own. 
 
 It was this fairness and leadership that made the staff of A Century of Progress 
 willing to make personal sacrifices, to work beyond the point of fatigue, and to 
 fight to make the Fair a success. Mr. Dawes' high courage was a source of in- 
 spiration. His attitude towards adversity, sorrow, or disappointment was, when 
 it became inevitable, to accept it without complaint and immediately to face the 
 next task. 
 
 Rather than be hurried to decisions of gravity, he would withstand strong 
 pressure and criticism for failure to act. He often said that it was when circum- 
 stances were most urgent and action most imperative that one should work his 
 mind the hardest and refuse to be rushed into decisions dictated by impulse. 
 
 The author expresses his appreciation to many who have assisted in the 
 preparation of this manuscript, to Malcolm McDowell, Mrs. Dorothy O'Neil,
 
 George Barclay, J. Franklin Bell, Miss Helen Bennett, Daniel M, MacMaster, 
 Mrs. Janice R. Feldstein and Miss Janet E. Irwin, but particularly to Miss Martha 
 Steele McGrew, who, as administrative assistant to the General Manager, was 
 in a position to have a more comprehensive view of the entire operation of the 
 Fair than any other staff member. 
 
 LENOX R. LOHR 
 November 1st, 1951 
 Chicago, Illinois
 
 Chapter i 
 
 EARLY HISTORY 
 
 A Century of Progress, celebrating Chicago's one hundredth birthday, was 
 the first high radiance in the gray of a steadily darkening sky. The first lift 
 in the long depression, the Fair was the symbol of the venturesome pioneer 
 spirit that has made Chicago great. 
 
 The city was built in the brief span of one hundred years from a swampy 
 frontier outpost into a world metropolis. At the time of its incorporation as a 
 town in 1833, its population was about four thousand. The young town's small 
 commerce was carried by wind-driven ships and covered wagons. Its few streets 
 were muddy trails; its homes and business establishments were log cabins and 
 frame shacks. Trade was largely a matter of barter. Flintlock rifles were still 
 in use, and Indians stalked the way that was to grow into State Street. Coonskin 
 caps and leather leggings were the dress of the citizens. 
 
 These pioneers were men of enterprise and hardihood. With resolute labor 
 and persistent vision they surmounted an amazing series of formidable obstacles. 
 When the litde town was but a few years old, there came the panic of 1837. 
 Scarcely had there been time to stabilize civic and economic life when the Civil 
 War tore the country. The young city suffered from the panic of 1873 that 
 followed so closely on the great conflagration of 1871 which destroyed most 
 of the city as it then existed. Its quick rebuilding was a Herculean task that 
 amazed the nation. 
 
 The surmounting of so many difficulties engendered in Chicago a spirit of 
 confidence, and developed an unflinching determination that blossomed into 
 its courageous motto: "I Will". 
 
 EARLY HISTORY 7
 
 Chicago As an Exposition City 
 
 Today, the frontier outpost of the 1830's is the fourth largest city of the world. 
 Through a fortunate proximity to vast stores of raw materials and an agricultural 
 hinterland of great richness and productivity, it has become not only one of the 
 leading industrial cities of this country, but one of the greatest grain and lumber 
 markets of the world. Founded in the beginning at a natural portage on a 
 mighty inland sea, Chicago has held and enhanced its position of traffic 
 importance. Land transportation facilities have made it the great railroad center 
 of the United States, with seventy percent of all the country's trackage within 
 a 500-mile circle. It is a terminal point for thousands of miles of air routes 
 operating on regular schedules, and is an important harbor for water borne 
 traffic. 
 
 With a large number of small parks and playgrounds, miles of boulevards, an 
 extensive outer park or forest preserve system, and numerous bathing beaches 
 along its lake front, Chicago's people enjoy unexcelled recreational advantages. 
 Exceptional opportunities are offered by its educational institutions which are 
 world famous for their diversity and high academic standards. 
 
 Virtually unlimited space for residential and commercial growth, a boundless 
 water supply for both domestic and industrial purposes, and its position as hub 
 of the nation's transportation facilities promise the city a future as progressive 
 as its past has been constructive. 
 
 Sixty years had gone into the building of Chicago before the shining white 
 city that was the World's Columbian Exposition of 1893 attracted the attention 
 of the world to the young city by the lake. 
 
 Events moved more rapidly after that. Forty years later the grown-up city 
 was ready for another great world's fair. Chicago's one hundredth birthday was 
 worthy of notable observance. The fair of 1893 had been a landmark in the 
 city's history and growth. The birthday exposition must translate clearly 
 through modern thought and showmanship the amazing results of the swiftly 
 moving four decades. 
 
 First Ideas and Their Abandonment 
 
 Like all such projects this idea had to progress through nebulous stages 
 before any practical development could be realized. One of its earliest presenta- 
 tions in tangible form, made before the Commercial Club, was rejected. How- 
 ever, numerous individuals, notably W. E. Clow, Myron E. Adams, Albert A. 
 Sprague, and D. F. Kelly, continued active in the urging of this celebration 
 and in response to their request Mayor William E. Dever, on April 8, 1926, 
 called a meeting of citizens in his office. After some discussion it was resolved 
 that an organization should be effected to make plans for such a celebration, and 
 the mayor appointed a ways and means committee of which Edward N. Hurley 
 was chairman. 
 
 The objectives given this committee were to outline the scope of the centennial 
 
 8 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 celebration and to prepare a program of its organization and activities. In one 
 sense this committee set a precedent that was followed later in the permanent 
 organization. It was motivated by a fine idealism and envisioned high purposes. 
 It stressed the necessity of service to humanity and of the creation of lasting 
 values. While in themselves these plans did not come to fruition, appreciative 
 tribute must be paid them for they set the mind of the public to thinking on a 
 large rather than a small scale, and they established a lofty goal to be handed 
 down from group to group. When the committee had served its purpose it 
 asked to be released and, on July 8, 1927, Mr. Hurley and the members of his 
 committee tendered their resignation to Mayor William Hale Thompson, William 
 E. Dever's successor. 
 
 The seed had now been planted and eventually it germinated and blossomed. 
 But the project was to run the entire gamut of doubt, of lack of confidence, and 
 of poverty. There were many times — up to the very day the gates were opened 
 — when only those working on the grounds and a small but faithful group of 
 Chicago citizens were firm in their belief that the Centennial would be a succeess, 
 and that a second Exposition could be as triumphant as its predecessor. Could 
 those who had inspired the early efforts have foreseen this long path of hardship 
 and travail, it is to be wondered whether they would have deemed it worth 
 while. To have been instrumental in bringing about the justification of that 
 early sowing was one of the high satisfactions of those who carried on. 
 
 Mayor Thompson, after studying the report of Mr. Hurley's committee 
 which had resigned, sought the advice of a number of prominent citizens concern- 
 ing the value of a Fair and found the consensus to be that it was unreasonable 
 to expect such a project to succeed. Arguments were many and varied. The 
 doubtful outcome of the Sesquicentennial Exposition in Philadelphia in 1926 was 
 cited. Stress was laid on the business depressions that frequendy followed and 
 often were attributed to expositions. Civic apathy and lack of public interest 
 were pointed out. It was maintained that the universal advantages of the radio, 
 the moving pictures and the automobile had produced a generation of sophisti- 
 cation that had no concern with expositions. The day of the World's Fair 
 had passed. 
 
 The City Council voted against any further action on the centennial celebration 
 and, a month later, the Mayor announced that the project of holding a world's 
 fair had been abandoned. 
 
 Revival 
 
 But the idea was not dead. It was merely in a state of suspended animation 
 until Charles S. Peterson, by personal and individual effort, accomplished its 
 revival. He enlisted the enthusiastic approval of General Charles G, Dawes, 
 then Vice President of the United States, and this gave the needed impetus to 
 assure the revival of the project, Mr, Peterson was tireless in seeking out those 
 individuals who shared his view, for he recognized that, while scattered, they 
 would be ineffective unless organized into a working unit. 
 
 EARLY HISTORY 9
 
 On the invitation of Mr. Peterson a group of eleven met at the Chicago 
 Athletic Club on November 27, 1927. After listening to the arguments in favor 
 of holding a fair, those present expressed themselves as unanimously in favor 
 of the project and a resolution was drawn up by Mr. B. E. Sunny strongly 
 endorsing the project and suggesting that a public meeting be held in the City 
 Council Chambers in the near future. It was felt that this would put the idea 
 to the crucial test. Possible rejection of the attempt to revive enthusiasm was 
 faced, but it was felt that while this possible lack of approval might mean delay, 
 it could no longer frustrate the movement. 
 
 This meeting, held in the City Council Chambers on the afternoon of December 
 13, 1927, was a glowing chapter in the history of the Centennial's development. 
 Chicago's gallant optimism prevailed. Twelve outstanding citizens, voicing 
 their opinions, found they were practically of one mind. Their enthusiasm was 
 based on substantial foundations; their conclusions were backed by formidable 
 facts; and as the meeting progressed it became clear that at last the Centennial 
 had behind it a closely knit body of vigorous protagonists. 
 
 A motion presented by B. E. Sunny and adopted unanimously, summed up 
 the sentiments expressed by the speakers. "It is the unanimous sentiment of 
 this committee that the centennial of Chicago be amply and fully celebrated by 
 its citizens; that they invite and urge others from every part of the world to come 
 here and join with them on that occasion, and that the common gathering place 
 should be a second exposition, as wonderful and exhaustive, and as representative 
 of the progress of the world in 1933, as was the Columbian Exposition in 1893. 
 
 "RESOLVED, that we pledge our loyal and hearty cooperation at all times 
 with this great project." 
 
 Mr. Peterson, by resolution, was named the chairman of an Organization 
 Committee which was given full power to act. The other members were Samuel 
 Insull, B. E. Sunny, J. E. Gorman, F. L. Bateman, Chauncey McCormick, 
 D. F. Kelley, Edward N. Hurley, and Ruth Hanna McCormick. Mayor 
 Thompson also appointed a general committee of several hundred men and 
 women. The organization of these two groups marked the placement of the 
 Exposition in private hands, rather than as a municipal undertaking. 
 
 It is felt that a more auspicious foundation could scarcely have been laid for 
 any enterprise; there was evident a feeling of relief over the ending of doubt 
 and uncertainty. But this happy state of mind was tempered by the conviction 
 that an immense undertaking, attended by vast responsibilities, had been laid 
 upon the people of Chicago; that, alone, the Organization Committee was help- 
 less without the confidence, the active cooperation and the loyal backing of the 
 city's people. 
 
 None realized this more keenly than the members of the committee themselves 
 when they met to select their president, their leader. In the words of one of them 
 all recognized that "every great enterprise is the lengthened shadow of a man." 
 They felt that the project would encounter conditions such as no previous 
 exposition had faced; that its activities would lead them in directions where 
 
 10 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 there were no guide posts. The entire situation demanded a leader of resource- 
 fulness who would see the project through to its conclusion. They knew they 
 must have a man of sound economic judgment, capable of adjusting himself 
 and his enterprise to changing conditions, one who had had a successful business 
 career, who had made civic contributions to his community and whose innate 
 interests were scholarly. He must be a recognized leader around whom the varied 
 groups of Chicago citizens could rally. During the following week the committee 
 met, and with unanimity the choice rested on Mr. Rufus C. Dawes. 
 
 Mr. Dawes Accepts Presidency 
 
 Mr. Dawes formally accepted the call to leadership and at the Committee's 
 next session, December 20, he became President of the Organization Committee. 
 At his request, Amos C. Miller was added to the Committee, which then elected 
 Charles S. Peterson as First Vice-President and Daniel H. Burnham as Secretary. 
 The careful, studious thought given to the project by Mr. Dawes and his 
 associates was shown by the celerity of their action during the remaining week 
 of 1927, and by the fact that their accomplishments proved to be not temporary 
 expedients, but permanent fixtures in the Exposition's construction. 
 
 As its first step toward establishing a basis of public support for the enterprise, 
 the Committee invited Mayor Thompson, the presidents of leading organizations 
 and representative businessmen to meet with it at the Union League Club on the 
 evening of December 23. Even before the session adjourned it was evident that 
 the Exposition project had gained important allies in its developing plans. 
 
 The vital question of financing was the next consideration and Mr. Dawes 
 called the Organization Committee together December 29 for a discussion of 
 this subject. He stressed the fact that adequate money was an immediate 
 necessity for the preliminary organization with the need of more for the launching 
 of a campaign to arouse favorable sentiment all through the Chicago area. The 
 larger financing of the many millions that would be required for the actual 
 enterprise might come later, when definite plans for an exposition could be 
 well defined. 
 
 It was at this meeting that Mr. Dawes suggested the principle of the financing 
 of the Exposition entirely from private funds, without solicitation for appropria- 
 tions from the City of Chicago, the State Legislature or the Federal Congress. 
 The subsequent adoption of this principle gave the Exposition a plan of financing 
 unique in the history of international expositions. Not a penny of subsidy ever 
 was solicited or received from any tax collecting body. The details of this plan 
 and its operation are discussed in a later chapter. 
 
 Plan to Test Public Sentiment 
 
 To test the strength of public endorsement of the Exposition and to give 
 individuals a personal interest in the undertaking, a fair membership campaign 
 was launched. 
 
 Associate or "booster" memberships-at-large, costing $5.00 each, would be 
 
 EARLY HISTORY 11
 
 offered to the public through the Chicago press and civic organizations. Each 
 membership would include a certificate entitling the holder to ten admission 
 tickets to the Exposition. This appeal would be taken to all the people. If the 
 response should prove to be not strong and immediate, then the fact should 
 be faced that the fair would be merely a local celebration of the completion of 
 the century of Chicago's corporate life. If the response should be large, the 
 Exposition then would be in a position to tap great sources of financial support 
 and individual energy for the purposes of the Fair. The members of the 
 committee were unanimous in their approval of this suggestion. 
 
 The necessity of legal recognition and of a name for the Exposition was 
 recognized, and these became the fourth and fifth steps taken at this important 
 session of the Organization Committee. It was recommended that application 
 be made for a state charter in the name of "Chicago Second World's Fair 
 Centennial Celebration". A voluntary legal committee recommended that an 
 Illinois charter be obtained for the institution, the corporation to be organized 
 "not for profit". 
 
 In retrospect, the year 1928 becomes increasingly important in the life of the 
 Fair. The direction signs placed in that year staked out definite roads, which 
 could be followed, irrespective of later needs. Foundation stones were sought 
 and developed with such studious forethought, keen planning, and productive 
 imagination, that they stood the tests later put upon them. 
 
 The charter to "Chicago Second World's Fair Centennial Celebration" was 
 issued by the Secretary of State of Illinois on January 5, 1928. 
 
 By its provisions the original incorporators became trustees. They were Floyd 
 L. Bateman, Daniel H. Burnham, Rufus C. Dawes, Oscar G. Foreman, Charles 
 F. Glore, Chauncy McCormick, Ruth Hanna McCormick, Amos C. Miller, 
 Charles S. Peterson, Albert A. Sprague, and B. E. Sunny. 
 
 Following several amendments to the charter it was voted that the number 
 of trustees should be ninety-three, to be chosen in three classes to serve respectively 
 for terms of two, four, and six years; that the trustees should be elected by 
 Founder and Sustaining Members, each Founder Member being entitled to 
 twenty votes and each Sustaining Member to one vote, and that the Trustees 
 should elect the officers of the corporation and all members and officers of 
 committees, acting either in formal meetings as Trustees, or by an Executive 
 Committee with ad interim powers. Membership in the World's Fair Organiza- 
 tion would be of two classes — Founder Members, who would subscribe $1,000; 
 and Sustaining Members, with a subscription amounting to $50.00. 
 
 The first meeting of the original Board of Trustees, January 9, 1928, was 
 highly important for it established the executive leadership of the Exposition by 
 the election of permanent officials; Rufus C. Dawes, president; Charles S. Peter- 
 son, vice-president; Daniel H. Burnham, secretary; and George Woodruff, treas- 
 urer. The next day the trustees selected the Exposition headquarters — a suite of 
 offices in the Burnham Building at 160 North LaSalle Street — and an Exposition 
 staff entered into a program of tangible activities. 
 
 12 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 During this period the formation of committees was started. Their combined 
 membership formed the nucleus of a widespread civic interest. Meeting in the 
 new headquarters January 18, the trustees formed a legal committee, and on this 
 date also the first bank account was opened in the National Bank of the Republic. 
 
 Two weeks later, February 1, the legal committee submitted a draft of by- 
 laws which was adopted by the board of trustees. At this meeting also, Dr. Allen 
 D. Albert was appointed assistant to the president. 
 
 The Trustees, on February 8, adopted the draft of a form for founder member- 
 ship certificates. The time now was come for concrete suggestions relative to the 
 physical setting of the Exposition and a committee on preliminary design was 
 created. At the same time a committee on sports was formed. 
 
 At this board meeting the $5.00 membership drive, suggested by Mr. Dawes 
 as a test of public opinion, was initiated, under the leadership of Stuyvesant Pea- 
 body. The first step in the building up of the organization was the mailing of 
 1200 invitations to civic and commercial bodies in and around Chicago, urging 
 them to appoint delegates to meet with the drive committee to discuss plans for 
 the 1933 celebration. 
 
 A mass meeting was held in the Auditorium Theater, March 19, 1928, to which 
 all Chicagoans were invited to come and show their civic loyalty by lending a 
 hand to the Centennial. 
 
 The Architectural Commission and Finance Committee 
 
 The architectural commission was created on February 21 and it was decided 
 that the selection of the members of this body should not be restricted to local 
 architects but they should be chosen from over the nation, with no restrictions of 
 any kind. From a long list of architects compiled by an impartial group, forty 
 were named. This list was shortened to ten, and finally to five, none of whom 
 was a Chicagoan. These were asked to recommend three Chicago architects. 
 
 In March, 1928, President Dawes announced that the following had been ap- 
 pointed members of the Architectural Commission: Paul Philippe Cret of Phila- 
 delphia; Raymond Mathewson Hood, Harvey Wiley Corbett and Ralph T. 
 Walker, of New York; Arthur Brown, Jr. of San Francisco; Edward H. Bennett, 
 Hubert Burnham, and John A. Holabird of Chicago. Mr. Bennett was desig- 
 nated to make a general plan of the Exposition grounds. The Architectural 
 Commission held its first meeting in Chicago May 23, 1928. 
 
 The financial machinery of the Exposition was set in operation with the crea- 
 tion by the Trustees, February 21, 1928, of the General Finance Committee with 
 Samuel InsuU as its Chairman. The other members were Charles F. Glore, Brit- 
 ton I. Budd, Abel Davis, Joseph E. Otis, George Pick, Daniel Schuyler, Jr., H. L. 
 Stuart, Albert A. Sprague, Clement Studebaker, Jr., and George Woodruff. Its 
 functions were "to develop and submit with its recommendations, for the consid- 
 eration of the President and the Board of Trustees, a complete general financial 
 plan for the Association; and in general to serve as an advisory council to the presi- 
 dent and board of trustees in all matters of finance relating to the Exposition". 
 
 EARLY HISTORY 13
 
 Action by the Finance Committee would, of necessity, follow a determination 
 of the scope and plan of the Exposition. Pending this determination, the function 
 of the Committee was largely that of fact finding and comparison, bringing under 
 review all plans which had been used by other fairs of similar character, and sug- 
 gesting new ones. 
 
 The Finance Committee recommended that preliminary expenses be financed 
 by means of Founder Membership certificates and this was accepted as the policy 
 of the Exposition. It also was decided that the proceeds of the $5.00 popular 
 subscription drive be held intact and not used until the opening of the Fair was 
 assured. 
 
 It had become increasingly evident to President Dawes and the trustees that 
 the proposed Exposition of 1933 must be different from any previous World's 
 Fair. It was being cast for a new world. It must have a new note, a distinctive 
 idea, and a new architectural concept. 
 
 Exposition s Central Theme 
 
 A number of interested people had noted that the entire span of life of Chicago 
 coincided with the most amazing period of progress in the physical sciences and 
 their application to industry. It was a century holding greater advance in this 
 field than all the ages which preceded it. Chicago had received its first charter 
 only five years after the first steam locomotive ran over rails in America. 
 
 It was the only city of major importance whose entire life had been passed 
 within this remarkable century, one in which the application of science to indus- 
 try had brought profound changes in both the economic and cultural structure. 
 The world-wide nature of the progress of that century and the resultant impor- 
 tance of world forces, as well as local ones, in Chicago's development, strength- 
 ened the feeling that the celebration of such a period could only be fitting if 
 international in its character and scope. 
 
 Out of such reflections, the vision of the new World's Fair grew. On August 
 28, 1928, President Dawes announced the Exposition's central theme as "the 
 dramatization of the progress of civilization during the hundred years of Chi- 
 cago's existence." 
 
 The translation of the vision into the theme and the theme into the preparation 
 of the scientific exhibits essential to its demonstration was made possible by the 
 cooperation of the National Research Council, an organization of the best scien- 
 tific minds in the country. Its work is told in a later chapter. 
 
 During this period a series of important committees was created: the Com- 
 mittee of Progress through Religion, with George W. Dixon as Chairman; the 
 Committee on Fine Arts, with Chauncey McCormick as Chairman; the Auditing 
 Committee, of which Oscar G. Foreman was Chairman; the Committee on 
 Building and Grounds, and, on September 18, the Executive Committee. 
 
 The Executive Committee was to consist of seven members, or more, at the dis- 
 cretion of the President. It was given full power to act between the regular 
 meetings of the Board of Trustees. All other committees were made advisory to 
 
 14 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 this Executive Committee. By this means a way was opened to eliminate the 
 danger incident to scattered authority and conflicts in plan and procedure. 
 
 Support to the activities of the Exposition came from perhaps the most power- 
 ful commercial organization in Chicago when the Executive Committee of the 
 Chicago Association of Commerce, on November 30, 1928, passed a resolution 
 announcing its intent to cooperate with the World's Fair. 
 
 The sponsorship, by the United States Government, of the Exposition was a 
 matter of vital importance if the celebration were to be international in character 
 and the participation of foreign nations insured. On November 30, 1928, Presi- 
 dent Dawes informed the Trustees that, as a result of interviews with several 
 United States senators regarding this matter, a bill would soon be presented to 
 Congress. 
 
 For months the Enrollment Committee of the World's Fair Legion had been 
 giving wide publicity to the drive for $5.00 memberships. Eventually 118,773 
 citizens paid in $5.00 each for a fair that was still several years distant. The funds 
 received from this source were not used for financing any of the Exposition's 
 operations, but were held intact until the opening of the fair was assured. The 
 actual amount of money obtained, which, with interest, totaled $637,754, was of 
 less importance than the diffusion of knowledge that a World's Fair would be 
 held in Chicago. 
 
 The Exposition's basic organization had now been founded through the Presi- 
 dent, the Trustees, the Executive Committee and the various committees; the 
 theme and purpose had been evolved; the National Research Council was co- 
 operating; the preliminary financing had been undertaken; and a large block of 
 the public in Chicago and elsewhere was favorably inclined toward the Expo- 
 sition. 
 
 The problem now was to translate nebulous ideas into action. The power was 
 there but it would have to be harnessed to become productive, and a first necessity 
 in achieving this was the centralization of operating control in one place. 
 
 Of the importance and seriousness of this step the President and Trustees were 
 well aware, for what was now needed was a permanent operating organization. 
 The office of general manager was established in April 1929, and the writer held 
 it until December 1935. 
 
 On the recommendation of a group of influential citizens the name of the ex- 
 position was changed to "A Century of Progress." 
 
 EARLY HISTORY 15
 
 Chapter 2 
 
 ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT 
 
 There was nothing so unique in the Exposition's work as to require funda- 
 mentally different basic organization and management principles from those of 
 any other group of people working together. A difference did lie in the necessity 
 of the Exposition to analyze its philosophy of organization and its methods of 
 achieving its ends in terms of the future instead of developing them normally as 
 traditions. A group of people would be brought together for a short period of in- 
 tense preparation, a period of feverish activity and then disbanded forever. It 
 must live in the future as it would never have a past. 
 
 The deliberate objective of the officers was the thoughtful conception of poli- 
 cies, which could be tenaciously followed, to the end that the Fair would never 
 be dependent upon good fortune nor hopelessly a prey to those ill fortunes, which, 
 from time to time, inevitably dog all places and organizations. It was believed 
 that in the realization of this purpose there would be the Fair's best guarantee 
 against failures. 
 
 Selection of Personnel 
 
 In the selection of personnel, it was a fundamental belief that no system can 
 be better than the people who operate it, and that the success of any enterprise 
 can be measured by the ability of the leaders to coordinate their endeavors. 
 
 Loyalty was recognized as an employee's most important asset, for even an 
 inefficient employee would have some value if his attitude towards his work and 
 his superiors was right. The most capable worker without loyalty is a detriment 
 to any organization. Loyalty, however, cannot be ordered or purchased. It must 
 
 16 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 be won. It is given only when there is respect for the character and the ability of 
 the superior. Since loyalty is greatest to an immediate superior, sterling qualities 
 of character were considered of paramount importance in the top executives and 
 their principal assistants. The directing staff of a Century of Progress was as fine 
 a group as the author has ever encountered. 
 
 Native ability was often given greater consideration than particularized ex- 
 perience, especially in non-professional capacities. It was demonstrated many 
 times at the Exposition that those with a good general background and who 
 were mentally alert could be assigned to tasks quite foreign to anything they had 
 previously done and in a short time could master the details and function effi- 
 ciently. On the other hand it was often true that men with much experience 
 along a certain line, endeavoring to apply their usual methods to a job with an 
 entirely different set of operating conditions, unwisely drew upon their experience 
 instead of making a minute study of their immediate problem. It is not to be 
 inferred from this that experienced men were not considered valuable. But em- 
 phasis was laid on loyalty and native ability as the main factors in the successful 
 performance of work; and if a choice was to be made between a man of this 
 caliber and the experienced man of less mental and moral fibre, it was the policy 
 to choose the former. 
 
 A strictly enforced rule was that personnel should be hired on the basis of 
 merit alone. Any effort to secure positions through the patronage of powerful 
 individuals was emphatically repelled. No worker was ever wished on the Fair, 
 because of a "pull", either personal, financial, or political. A high level of effi- 
 ciency was the natural result of such a policy. Of equal importance was the 
 avoidance of the entanglements so likely to stem from such alliances. 
 
 Operational Policies 
 
 High morale, essential to a strong organization, necessitates a stability of policy 
 towards employees. They must be backed to the limit when they have performed 
 their duty. They must not be constantly subjected to unexpected and sudden 
 changes in plans and policies. They must be advised of plans and changes as far 
 in advance as possible. When this is done, a feeling of security follows which is 
 one of the best guarantees of efficient work. Knowledge of the unwavering sup- 
 port of those higher in authority is a more satisfactory reward than flowery praise. 
 
 Rules and policies cannot be enforced by mandate but only by the desire of 
 those in each echelon of command to carry out the spirit — even when violations 
 could not be detected by those above. Realizing that each worker will follow his 
 leader only as the leader himself conforms to regulations, all heads and sub-heads 
 of departments and divisions were meticulously careful to set an example in this 
 in this respect. Good results ensued from their efforts, a smooth-running and 
 orderly organization, an ease and lack of tension among employees, and a pleas- 
 ant camaraderie among workers regardless of their official status. 
 
 In a complicated organization it is necessary that there be elaborate rules and 
 regulations governing what personnel may do. Inevitably numerous requests 
 
 ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT 17
 
 will be received for exceptions to be made, for it is doubtful if there was ever a 
 rule so carefully prepared that an exception is not occasionally merited. This 
 however places a burden of responsibility upon the one breaking the rule. Sub- 
 ordinates should not be permitted to grant favors or break rules that superiors 
 deny. Few enough people have discretionary powers and certainly those at the 
 top are best able to administer such powers. There are few things that cause 
 greater disruption than the granting of special privileges, even when they seem 
 justified, and those unacquainted with the circumstances are likely to question 
 the motives. Moreover, the exception breeds disrespect for the rule itself; and if 
 broken at the top, then it is sure to be broken successively down the chain of com- 
 mand by those without authority to do so. This situation never was a problem 
 at the Fair. Staff members quickly learned to ask questions when doubt crept into 
 their minds. This engendered wholesome respect for the rules which were ac- 
 cepted because understood. As a corollary to this, the stafJ became imbued with 
 sufficient sense of responsibility and knowledge of consequences to break a rule 
 or regulation when the emergency was sufficient to warrant it. 
 
 An organization must be given direction from the top and will quickly reflect 
 the character and methods of its leader. It must feel that there is some respon- 
 sible person continuously directing Its destinies. Yet this presents a nice problem. 
 The leader must exert his own will without destroying the initiative and the 
 self-respect of those under him. Coupled with this is the fact that even a mediocre 
 plan executed with decision and dispatch has a better likelihood of success than 
 the most meticulously conceived plan carried out with Indecision and frequent 
 modifications. 
 
 The management of the Fair believed that the maximum of efficiency would 
 be achieved when the superior announced to his responsible heads his contem- 
 plated course of action and gave each of them the opportunity to express frankly 
 his opinions on its merits. Then, when they had been heard from and their 
 counsel weighed, he rendered his decision and subsequently held his subordinates 
 to Its successful completion. 
 
 Elements in Ma\ing Decisions 
 
 Few tasks of the executive are more Important than the making of decisions. 
 Cases where a decision has a mathematical solution, or where the results can be 
 assayed accurately within a short period of time on a basis of fact, are infrequent. 
 There sometimes comes to the best of executives, after he has marshalled all his 
 facts and assembled all his arguments, doubt as to whether his decision is the 
 wisest one. If he allows such doubt to develop, it is transmitted by some instinct 
 to his subordinates, who, In turn, react with an indecision of their own. The 
 making of decisions has an important psychological effect on all who administer 
 them or who are affected by them. Accordingly, it is mandatory upon the execu- 
 tive to exercise the utmost care in arriving at a judgment, and, when it Is finally 
 reached, to maintain It rigidly unless circumstances of grave Importance arise to 
 affect It. 
 
 18 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 At A Century of Progress decisions took on an importance and complication 
 exceeding those met in normal business operation. The problem was an almost 
 totally unknown one, the experience of previous expositions often being invali- 
 dated because the conditions under which they were held were so radically dif- 
 ferent. Because of the magnitude of the enterprise, dozens of decisions had to be 
 made every day with no chance to test their accuracy or efficacy. In some cases 
 decisions had to be made as far as four years in advance, and if and when they 
 proved inept it would then be too late to change them. When a major decision 
 was once made, it became the controlling influence in dozens of others subse- 
 quently made, and the consequences of an error could have been appalling. Care 
 was continuously exercised to avoid permitting personal idiosyncracies or tempera- 
 ment or pride to sway the foundation of the entire structure. 
 
 When there is a difference of opinion, the decision should effect a solution 
 rather than a compromise. In a compromise certain factors are given up by both 
 sides and hence neither is completely satisfied. In a solution both sides get 
 what they want, but in the proportion of their desirability and to their difficulty 
 of achievement. It was demonstrated many times at the Exposition that if suffi- 
 cient energy was expended solutions of the most harassing and embarrassing 
 problems could be found, and a final decision reached which satisfied the various 
 contending viewpoints. 
 
 The time element inherent in every decision is an all-important one. Snap judg- 
 ments are seldom the best, but there comes a time when a decision must be 
 rendered. Situations arise where great rewards accrue by taking instant advan- 
 tage of opportunities and by striking at the psychological moment. At the Expo- 
 sition the policy was therefore formulated that if there were a minute in which to 
 make a decision, take the full minute; if there were a day, take the day; if there 
 were a month, take the full month. But the study of problems was to be so ex- 
 pedited that if the anticipated time were shortened by unavoidable circum- 
 stances, the decision could still be given promptly. A decision was neither de- 
 layed nor given prematurely. 
 
 The usual methods of obtaining assistance on a problem for which no ready 
 solution seems apparent are to search the history of similar operations for a prece- 
 dent or to seek the advice of experts. While the fullest advantage should be 
 taken of both of these methods in the making of any major decision, extreme 
 caution must be exercised in accepting either the apparent verdict of history or 
 the advice of the expert. The experience of history can be accepted only where 
 conditions are practically identical, and this rarely occurs. To accept the advice 
 of experts at its face value, even when the expert is competent and has given an 
 accurate and unselfish estimate of the situation, is courting embarrassment. 
 While a full measure of respect must be given his evidence, it may only be ac- 
 cepted with a clear understanding of its relation to other essential activities. 
 Expert advice may be faultless when applied to the problem on which the expert 
 is an authority; but the proposition submitted to him is so often inextricably in- 
 terwoven with other essentials that his advice, applying to only the thread of the 
 
 ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT 19
 
 skein, is inadequate. 
 
 A Century of Progress, like all semi-public enterprises, was the recipient of 
 much unsolicited advice. Some of this was good, and some was completely im- 
 practical. Due regard was given to all suggestions, and many were workable and 
 proved of great value. At the same time reservations always had to be kept in 
 mind, because there are those who urge a course of action for selfish reasons, or 
 because they are thoroughly, though erroneously convinced of the wisdom of 
 their advice. Considerable tact is required in meeting such situations, and, al- 
 though discretion often suggested that the advice be accepted regardless, yet the 
 Exposition pursued the path which its own best judgment indicated as correct. 
 This line of action was sure to elicit criticism, and the management was accused 
 of arrogance. In the long run, however, the course fully Justified itself, for when 
 a reputation had been established that there was to be no favoritism and that 
 management and staff were working only for the good of the Fair, even when 
 we made mistakes of judgment, most of our critics forgave us and in many cases 
 became our staunchest and truest friends. 
 
 Importance of the Press 
 
 While it is true of all enterprises, it is especially true of one which deals with 
 large groups of the public, that the best of friends or the worst of enemies are the 
 newspapers. No small part of whatever success A Century of Progress attained 
 was due to the fine cooperation of the metropolitan dailies and the news services. 
 Over the years, this support was generously given despite the fact that there was 
 no paid advertising from the Exposition. Even during the dark days when a suc- 
 cessful fair seemed remote, its activities were fully covered, first because the 
 Exposition was news which was of interest to readers; and, second, because the 
 newspapers believed the Exposition would make a material contribution to the 
 prosperity of Chicago. In order to be worthy of this continued support, and in 
 order to facilitate the work of the newspapers, certain definite plans were made 
 and policies established. Much of this was pure routine such as would obtain in 
 any organization having close association with the press. There were the custom- 
 ary press passes, office space and telephone arrangements which were furnished 
 without charge. But in addition to these technical details, a substantial working 
 arrangement was made with the newspapers without which the Exposition would 
 not have received the fine cooperation and benefit which ensued. 
 
 The newspapers were looked upon as collaborators. They knew the Exposi- 
 tion's problems and had its complete confidence. They were given access to offi- 
 cials and information at all times and their time was not wasted with inconse- 
 quential stories. In four years of almost constant contact this confidence was 
 never betrayed but once, and that time in regard to a matter of little consequence. 
 
 Not infrequently unpleasant things occurred on the grounds or matters arose 
 that might develop into a situation which would be damaging to the Exposition 
 if they appeared in print in the wrong light. The more the Exposition desired 
 that unpleasant incidents be truly represented in the news stories, the more 
 
 20 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 quickly they called in the reporters and told them the whole story. With their 
 keen intuition and noses sharpened for news, it was inevitable that they would 
 have soon run into these stories anyhow, and perhaps in distorted form. If there 
 had been any feeling on the reporters' part that items of importance were being 
 kept from them, they would quickly have dug up an unfortunate tale, and then 
 being under no obligation other than to print the story as they heard it, could 
 easily have made a bad situation worse. Knowing that they had a full story accu- 
 rately, as known by the Exposition, they did not have to depend on unsubstanti- 
 ated reports or stories of those who were unfriendly to the Fair, or who were un- 
 informed. 
 
 No member of the staff was expected to do or to say anything which he was 
 not willing to see in the papers — either in pictures or in the printed word. The 
 acceptance of this by the staff undoubtedly saved the Exposition much embarrass- 
 ment. As with all large enterprises, rumors, many of them disparaging, sprang 
 up like mushrooms. Immediately some reporter would receive a tip on what 
 seemed to be a "good" story. Instead of rushing into print, he would give the 
 Exposition an opportunity to explain its position. Since any accredited reporter 
 was at any time shown the original of any contract, bid, or agreement, and allowed 
 to see a copy of the balance sheet or any other pertinent data he desired, and this 
 without reservation or quibbling, the facts of the case governed. 
 
 Another problem arose because of the fact that reporters must confine them- 
 selves to actual news. If, therefore, a reporter desired to have an opinion ex- 
 pressed he would seek a quote from someone in authority, as matters of specula- 
 tion or probable consequences could be dealt with only in this manner. Obtaining 
 a quote is often more difi&cult than it appears. First, the authority must be 
 reached, sometimes a matter of telephoning, perhaps in the small hours of the 
 night. Time is consumed in obtaining and preparing the quote, and there is 
 always the uncertainty as to whether it will be correctly understood over the tele- 
 phone. Therefore, those reporters who were regularly assigned to the Fair were 
 kept constantly informed on how the authorities at the Exposition were thinking, 
 and knew full well, through attendance at many conferences what the manage- 
 ment's point of view was on many subjects. Carrying it still farther, their famili- 
 arity with the management's principles and methods of operation, enabled them 
 to deduce what the reasoning of the authorities would be in connection with 
 matters which might never have been discussed before them. Consequendy, 
 those reporters who were regularly assigned to the Fair were given the authority 
 to quote the general manager without first obtaining permission, and, during the 
 entire duration of pre-fair and fair activities, never once was this privilege abused. 
 As a matter of fact, the quotations were less likely to cause embarrassment when 
 they were prepared by the reporter than in the usual way. With their back- 
 ground the reporters were able to write a quotation themselves as accurately and 
 usually in more readable form than if it were given in person. Moreover, they 
 watched the rewrite man to make sure it was not garbled in pagination. 
 
 Service to the newspaper photographers was another element which merited 
 
 ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT 21
 
 consideration. As a rule, they work under the most difficult conditions of light, 
 positions, and time. But not infrequently in their zeal to get the pictures, they 
 irritated the subject and disrupted ceremonies. Conscientious effort was made 
 at the Exposition to remember the problems these men were facing and help 
 solve them. It was realized that if some time and thought were given in advance 
 and every facility put at the photographers' disposal, not only better pictures, of 
 extreme value to the Fair, would result, but a large percentage of the irritation 
 would be avoided. 
 
 What applied to the newspapers, applied in a large measure to the radio and 
 the news-reels, and, while their spheres of activity were quite different, their 
 friendship and cooperation were equally valuable, and the Exposition endeavored 
 to be ever alert in its efforts to understand their problems and to meet them 
 satisfactorily. 
 
 Early Organization 
 
 A Century of Progress can lay no claim to having developed a new type of 
 organization, or especially starding methods of routine operations. Each step was 
 taken as the need arose, from a handful of employees wondering what a world's 
 fair was all about, to a large and complex organization working at a feverish 
 pace on thousands of specialized tasks. 
 
 During the early stages, an individual office was set up for each separate activ- 
 ity, all reporting directly to the General Manager. Though it would have proved 
 impractical in the long run, the practice served effectively during the experimental 
 period, and had the additional advantage of leaving little framework to tear down 
 when the permanent organization plan was to emerge. 
 
 An early decision was made to avoid the conventional organization charts with 
 regimented squares for which individuals must be found and into which they 
 must be fitted. The rapidly changing organization had to be kept flexible and a 
 chart would have made for rigidity. But more important was the feeling that 
 the management, rather than the inanimate and inflexible lines of a predeter- 
 mined chart, should run the Exposition. Contrary to the customary formula of 
 beginning from the bottom and going up, the Exposition started at the top and 
 went down. 
 
 Centralization of Authority 
 
 Before an organization could be developed, the necessity of acquiring a com- 
 plete picture of the whole undertaking was recognized. Those who labored so 
 long and faithfully over the history of the San Francisco Fair of 1915 would feel 
 amply repaid if they knew the great assistance which that history gave in the 
 working out of this objective. The five volumes were read with the greatest care. 
 Notes of all the important items were made on a roll of paper which reached a 
 length of thirty-five feet by the time the task was accomplished. Each item repre- 
 sented a piece of work which either had to be done or on which some decision was 
 required. Related items were then grouped, and an estimate made of the approxi- 
 
 22 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 mate date when each operation must be started to assure its completion on time. 
 
 When this was completed, a basis for a budget had been laid, a priority sched- 
 ule had been formulated, organization possibilities had been clarified, and the 
 foundations for the various departments established. 
 
 The arrangement of groups which had been made was then checked against 
 the existing organization. They did not mesh. Therefore all existing depart- 
 mental lines were done away with and every function thrown into the General 
 Manager's office, later to be paid out to the responsible units. This arrangement 
 had many advantages. With everything centering in the Manager's office, it was 
 possible for him to learn a situation rapidly, to know his personnel and their 
 capabilities, and to explore the past, present, and future problems of such an 
 organization. The centralization of all functions served two important ends. It 
 prevented individual tangency and promoted teamwork. It also gave the General 
 Manager an understanding of details which was later to stand him in good stead 
 and assist in making the quick decisions which as time passed and tension grew, 
 became more and more imperative. Only two of the operating functions remained 
 there from first to last and never were delegated. These were approval of expendi- 
 tures and the signing of contracts. 
 
 One of the cardinal considerations as the organization began to take shape was 
 the establishment of specific departments. Through the interested cooperation ©f 
 Britton I. Budd, the services of S. P. Farwell of the Business Research Bureau, an 
 expert on organization, were given the Exposition. Until the organization had 
 been perfected to the point where the staff itself was representative of all the 
 types of experience required, that organization ably provided such perspective. 
 
 The system of early centralization and subsequent decentralization proved 
 fundamentally sound, though it had its drawbacks and had to absorb many 
 shocks. Many situations were critical and changed so quickly that it was often 
 impossible to keep the organization units advised of them immediately. These 
 circumstances dictated the making of decisions in the General Manager's Office 
 which would have been and were later made elsewhere in a normal routine 
 of operations. The departments recognized this necessity, but it was a necessity 
 not easy to live with day in and day out. Then, in order to avoid every item of 
 expense possible, the organization of departments was delayed longer than was 
 desirable, thus creating a bottleneck in the transfer of functions. The patience of 
 department heads went far in alleviating the effects of the drawbacks. 
 
 Departmental Organization 
 
 Eight departments and two boards were eventually organized between 1930 
 and 1933; Works, General Service, Exhibits, Concessions, Promotion, Secretary's, 
 Comptroller's and Operations and Maintenance. The last, which superseded the 
 General Service Department, was the last to get under way, and its creation was 
 an innovation in World's Fair organization. 
 
 The function of the Works Department included the handling of all matters 
 relating to general layout; the design and construction of buildings, roads, walks, 
 
 ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT 23
 
 bridges, and other structures, or, if the work was done by contractors, the super- 
 vision of it; the providing of landscaping, sculpture, fountains, general and spe- 
 cial illumination, and other decorative effects; the granting of permits for and 
 inspection of all connections to utilities, performed by or for exhibitors or con- 
 cessionaires whether in exhibit buildings or elsewhere; the demolition of struc- 
 tures and rehabilitation of the grounds upon the close of the Exposition; the 
 supervision and inspection of all buildings on the Exposition Grounds; and the 
 administration of the Building Code. 
 
 Months before Daniel H. Burnham left his own offices of Burnham Brothers, 
 to come on the full time staff, he functioned as Director of Works. His genial 
 personality, his close personal associations with the development of Chicago, his 
 ability and abiding interest in the exposition project, made his tenure of office suc- 
 cessful, even though it covered the Fair's most trying period from a construction 
 standpoint. Mr. Burnham's immediate assistants were Clarence W. Farrier from 
 Bennett, Parsons and Frost, and John Stewart of Black, McKenny and Stewart 
 Their creative and administrative ability made themselves felt in every construc- 
 tion program. Mr. Farrier was transferred to the Operations Department and 
 Mr. Stewart succeeded Mr. Burnham as Director when the latter's personal inter- 
 ests dictated his resignation. Mr. Stewart's driving powers were largely respon- 
 sible for the phenomenal construction accomplishments of the last pre-fair weeks 
 
 The duties and responsibilities of the General Service Department were so 
 varied, so multitudinous, so necessary as almost to beggar description. Perhaps 
 this department could be best described as that which had no end of its own bui 
 without which no other department could function. Long before the remaining 
 departments were organized, the General Service had delved into many vita! 
 activities and had been the experimental laboratory for the rest of the organiza 
 tion. Its functions were designed to include the development and maintenance 
 of the personnel section; provision for services such as files, messenger, mail, in 
 formation, library and research, duplicating, central telephone, janitor, restauran 
 and maintenance of office property; the receipt, storage, and issuance of material; 
 and supplies; the maintenance of trucking and delivery service; the purchase o 
 materials and supplies; and serving as liaison with such utilities as were housec 
 at the Exposition for the benefit of employees but not a part thereof. 
 
 The administrative functions in the General Service Department were undei 
 the capable guidance of John C. Mannerud, whose long previous service as gen 
 eral manager of Carson, Pirie, Scott and Company's wholesale establishment 
 eminently qualified him. The Fair was fortunate in having here a man of higl 
 integrity, good judgment, and indefatigable industry. 
 
 The establishment of the Personnel Office was one of the early and importan 
 activities of this Department. Perhaps nothing is more important to an Exposi 
 tion than the selection of its personnel. It may be said that this is true of an; 
 organization or enterprise. But it is doubly true of Expositions, because the] 
 must have a fast-working flexible personnel, and also because the time in whicl 
 the work is to be done is so limited that labor turnover is more serious than ii 
 
 24 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 Avenue of Flags. 
 
 Site of Hall of Science. 
 
 laiiBi 
 
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 i^'^i'^n; 
 
 'V*- '.**«^^ 
 
 
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 ^^'^^■^^CS::^ 
 
 ^-^■ 
 
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 ^.^ias^: 

 
 Skyride Oominated Chicago s Evening Silhouette. 
 
 Panorama Northward from South Entrance.
 
 organizations which carry on indefinitely. With thousands of people seeking 
 employment at A Century of Progress, this office under the direction of Jay 
 Tomlin constituted one of the Exposition's chief contact points with the public, 
 and the attitude and policies maintained there helped to form much of the public 
 impression of the entire enterprise. Ail applicants filled out forms which were 
 kept in the current files for three months. At the end of this time, if the applicant 
 had not been employed, his card was removed from the active file. Although it 
 was customary for the person responsible for the work in question to interview 
 a number of applicants and select new employees, all the preliminary negotia- 
 tions, selections and the actual employment were handled by the personnel office. 
 
 It soon became evident that a centralized file was needed as the various offices 
 were maintaining their individual files, and the inconvenience of such an ar- 
 rangement was obvious. Accordingly several weeks were spent visiting different 
 companies and inspecting their filing systems. The results of these inspections 
 were typical of the problems which the Exposition faced constandy — none of 
 these filing systems exacdy filled the Exposition's need. So pioneering work was 
 again in order. The Exposition, profiting by what it had learned from other sys- 
 tems, drew out again its 35 foot list of things to be done and organized its 
 own filing system adequately fitted for the special work of such an undertaking. 
 The burden of this task was capably borne by Myrtle V. Wesenberg. 
 
 The problem of supplies and purchases was another question that came early 
 to the front, calling for close attention. At first the issue of supplies was confined 
 to bare necessities and the purchases were so few that they were performed as an 
 adjunct to another office. As the need for it quickly developed, a Purchase 
 Office was established under George Hodgins with a separation of purchase and 
 supply functions and the definition of a group of policies which were kept with 
 practically no changes throughout the entire period of the Fair. 
 
 In accordance with these policies no member of the stafi was permitted to make 
 purchases direcdy, however small, as requisitions approved by Department Heads 
 and the office of the General Manager were required as authority. On receipt of 
 the approved requistion, the materials were ordered by the Purchase Office and 
 the bills checked by the Comptroller. So many hands thus held the papers, that 
 the possibility of collusion and wrongdoing was practically eliminated. In gen- 
 eral three or more bids were invited on everything purchased, with the award to 
 the lowest satisfactory bidder. All purchase orders were approved by the Pur- 
 chase Office and mailed to the successful bidder, copies of these going to the re- 
 ceiving depot, the accounting department and the office requiring the purchase. 
 
 Standard purchase procedure was varied in many cases because of the policy 
 early adopted by the Exposition of obtaining as large a percentage as possible of 
 its merchandise and service in exchange for A Century of Progress Gold Notes, 
 One hundred and twenty-one merchants, contractors, and suppliers accepted a 
 total of $2385,000.00 in notes for material and services. Great care was e.xercised 
 to assure that no premium was paid to those who took notes instead of cash. 
 It was a fundamental consideration that the bonds must pass at par. WTien the 
 
 ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT 25
 
 notes became exhausted, deferred payments were obtained which provided thai 
 the goods should be delivered during the pre-fair period with payment therefore 
 at intervals throughout the operation of the Exposition. Some were secured by 
 promissory notes, while others were open accounts. Such deferred liability agree- 
 ments were entered into with one hundred and twenty-seven companies to the 
 value of $1,748,536.74. Purchases for cash were infrequent and in comparatively 
 small amounts. 
 
 The Exhibits Department, established in 1931, was charged with the sale of 
 exhibit space, the planning and installation of all exhibits, the handling and re- 
 turn of all domestic and foreign exhibits, the cooperation and affiliation with local 
 agencies available in connection with the exhibits, the preparation of catalogs 
 and publications related to exhibits, and the protection of exhibits. 
 
 The Exhibits Department had three different directors. First was Admiral 
 L. E. Gregory, former Chief of the Bureau of Yards & Docks, of the Navy De- 
 partment. Ill health of Mrs. Gregory brought about his retirement in a few 
 months. Colonel John S. Sewell gave up his position as president of the Alabama 
 Marble Co. to become the second Director. It was a cruel blow when Col. Sew- 
 ell's health failed, mitigated only by the able way in which his assistant, Charles 
 Walton Fitch took up his duties and led the department through its most trou- 
 bled days. Assisting Mr. Fitch were W. H. Raymond, who came to the Fair from 
 Armour & Company, bringing wide business experience and knowledge, and 
 Capt. M. S. Daniels, Jr., of the U. S. Army, whose death shortly after the Fair 
 brought to the entire staff a sense of keen personal loss. 
 
 In September of the same year the Concessions Department was organized. Its 
 functions included the handling of such features not assigned to other depart- 
 ments as might be operated for profit by the Exposition itself, and those on a 
 concession basis. After studying the concession histories of other fairs, where 
 difficulties had been so acute, it was obvious A Century of Progress must find 
 exactly the right person to head this activity. Tradition was broken in that a 
 scientist was chosen. The man was Forrest Ray Moulton, whose brilliant achieve- 
 ments and long association with the University of Chicago need no amplification 
 here. Be it said that no one could have done a more courageous job. Milton P. 
 Kerr, who had demonstrated his integrity, resourcefulness, and energy as Assist- 
 ant Comptroller, was transferred to the Concessions Department as Assistant 
 Director. 
 
 The functions of the Promotion Department, as established by official order in 
 February 1932, included the handling of all matters pertaining to the gathering 
 and disseminating of public information in regard to A Century of Progress 
 both in this country and abroad. This included the press, periodicals, pictorial 
 displays, radio, moving pictures, lectures, and various other forms of publicity 
 and promotion. The Promotion Department began its departmental existence 
 under the first Assistant Director, Norman Gregg. E. Ross Bartley, who had 
 been dean of the White House press correspondents in the Harding Administra- 
 tion, and later secretary to the Vice President of the United States, was chosen as 
 
 26 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 director of promotion. There was no better loved man associated with the fair. 
 
 The Comptroller's Department, officially inaugurated in September 1930, had 
 previously functioned as an accounting oflice, and now handled all financial 
 transactions, in which were included the duties of collection, control, auditing, 
 accounting, insurance, and the budget, as well as the advance ticket sale. 
 Throughout the early days Mr. Kerr, at first as Office Manager and then Assistant 
 Comptroller, headed the financial office. The appointment of Mr. Martin Tveter 
 as Comptroller was the signal for intensive work on the structure for revenue 
 control. 
 
 How well the work of this office was done is evidenced by the fact that, out 
 of over two hundred million dollars handled, there was less than two thousand 
 dollars discrepancy, including charges for counterfeit money inadvertently taken 
 by cashiers. 
 
 The Secretary's Department, established in January 1931, recorded the minutes 
 of the meetings of the Corporation, the Board of Trustees, the Executive Com- 
 mittee, and Standing Committees; acted as custodian of all official records, includ- 
 ing the corporate seal; signed with the President or General Manager all con- 
 tracts; was responsible for the issuance and regulation of all passes; and investi- 
 gated and recommended action in any matters involving unauthorized use of the 
 corporate name of "A Century of Progress." Patrick J. Byrne succeeded D. H. 
 Burnham as secretary. It was Mr. Byrne's privilege to be both the first and last 
 paid employee of the Exposition. 
 
 The Operations and Maintenance Department was organized in April, 1932. 
 Aside from the assumption of the functions of the General Service Department 
 its responsibilities included the operation and maintenance of all buildings, utili- 
 ties and matters pertaining to public safety and welfare; the handling of traffic 
 in the grounds; transportation systems; the handling of freight and express trans- 
 portation; the operation and maintenance of all buildings and property of the 
 Exposition; the conduct of all matters connected with the concessions, aside from 
 the determination of the "fixed charges" mentioned in the concession contracts 
 after a temporary permit of occupancy had been issued; and the handling of all 
 aliens employed upon the grounds under the immigration laws. Col. Robert I. 
 Randolph's distinguished record in the service of Chicago, as President of the 
 Association of Commerce and in connection with the Secret Six made him an 
 ideal choice as Director of Operations. His major assistants were Clarence W. 
 Farrier, transferred from the Works Department, John C. Mannerud from the 
 General Service Department, and Commander H. D. Nuber of the United States 
 Xavy. For twenty-four hours every day, this quartet was responsible for the 
 major direction of the operating period. 
 
 While never part of the Exposition staff, two groups were organized upon the 
 grounds that worked in close harmony with all the staff units. These were the 
 Exhibitors' Association, under the farseeing leadership of Edward H. Sniffen of 
 Westinghouse, and the Concessionaires' Association with able and vigorous Robert 
 Eitel of Old Heidelberg as its president. 
 
 ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT 27
 
 It is interesting to note that the tentative organization scheme set up in 1929 
 was followed with but two exceptions. It was originally thought that "Events" 
 or "Special Features" would function best as a separate department, but in the 
 interest of economy these functions were later allocated to the Operations and 
 Maintenance Department. It was also intended that the treasury functions would 
 be separate from the accounting functions, but again in the interest of economy, 
 both functions were placed under the Comptroller. 
 
 Coordination of Departments 
 
 The coordinating function among all the departments was performed by the 
 General Manager. This task was made comparatively easy by the fine attitude of 
 department heads. It was a rule never to alibi or let their staffs do it. They kept 
 themselves clear of entangling details so they could look clearly ahead. They 
 kept under control those trivial personalities that could have resulted only in 
 damage to the Fair. As fast as policies and procedures were setded upon, they 
 were circulated among the staff in the form of office orders. There were three 
 classes of orders: (1) executive orders which were used by the General Manager 
 for setting up of the organization; (2) general orders, issued by the General Man- 
 ager to set forth either matters of policy or the detailed procedure which applied 
 alike to every member of the staff, no matter where assigned; (3) departmental 
 orders, issued by each department head to the members of his own department 
 and in many cases containing detailed instructions as to how to carry out the 
 executive and general orders. 
 
 In order to emphasize teamwork, and to give newly organized departments the 
 experience of the older ones, all orders regardless of their point of origin, were 
 circulated from the office of the General Manager, and no order became effective 
 until it was on file in his office. 
 
 The usual procedure was to call together representatives of each department 
 interested in the subject on which instructions needed to be issued. A proposed 
 rough draft was drawn up, circulated for comment, revised and issued after dif- 
 ferences were ironed out by the General Manager. There was then no trouble in 
 enforcing the order because its contents had been thoroughly threshed out and its 
 purpose well understood. 
 
 Orders were held to a minimum and before issued were screened by four tests. 
 (1) Will it be understood by the recipient or recipients? (2) Will I obey it my- 
 self? (3) Will I take the trouble to check that it is obeyed? (4) If not obeyed, 
 am I willing to take disciplinary measures to assure compliance? Unless "yes" 
 could be answered to all four, the order remained unissued. Actually, the loyal 
 cooperation of the staff in endeavoring to carry out the intent of a directive made 
 direct orders seldom necessary. This was facilitated by keeping all key members 
 of the staff constantly apprised of all developments and circumstances. Daily 
 staff luncheons and dinners presented an excellent opportunity. 
 
 28 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 Management during Operation 
 
 With the opening of the Fair, many new and vexing problems arose. Some 
 were the same that confront every corporation; others were native to A Century 
 of Progress. Among the former, the most troublesome arose when lines of com- 
 munication broke down between the Administration Building and the Ground 
 units. An example was the never-to-be-forgotten opening day. 
 
 Rain during the last days of construction had been so continuous that it was 
 impossible to use mechanical trench diggers for the installation of telephone 
 lines. The trenches had been dug by hand and, with the opening day advanced 
 to May 27th, the communication service was far from perfect. The switchboard 
 broke down completely, and, in addition, the inter-office telephone service went 
 out about an hour after the opening, due to the overload placed upon it. 
 
 The operations personnel on the grounds had had only two days experience in 
 working together as a team, and a lack of practical knowledge by which to steer 
 a course worked to considerable disadvantage. There was a round of complaints 
 from tardy exhibitors and concessionaires because cars were not admitted to the 
 grounds; queries from the gates, the public protection sections, the pass office, and 
 the information desk as to what was the policy on this or that. Few of the ques- 
 tions had been anticipated. One minute it was whether to allow dogs on the 
 grounds, and the next it was what to do with baby buggies. 
 
 On the spur of the moment instructions were given to permit dogs on leashes 
 to be admitted. The next day two dogs on leashes fought, entangled a woman in 
 their leashes, threw her against a lamp-post and broke her shoulder. After that, 
 dogs were barred, but people who had previously brought their dogs in com- 
 plained bitterly the next time they came. Then there was the woman who ap- 
 peared at the office at two o'clock in the morning, half hysterical because the Sky- 
 Ride power cable had severed about midnight and left her stranded in rocket-car 
 "Madam Queen" over rocks. She would not have minded, she explained, if it 
 had been over water or land, but rocks were just too much. 
 
 To meet these operating exigencies, the general manager's office was kept open 
 for twenty-four hours a day and was adequately staffed to handle all emergencies 
 expeditiously. The General Manager seldom left the grounds during a period of 
 six months, having living quarters adjoining his office. 
 
 From first to last, Col. Frank C. Boggs and Miss Martha S. McGrew served as 
 technical and administrative assistants, respectively. No amount of praise ex- 
 pressed in this book would adequately convey the high order of their service to 
 the Exposition. Suffice it to say that their contribution to its success was second 
 to none. 
 
 Some of the most important events are not recorded in this chapter. The things 
 which did not happen were quite as impressive as the accomplishments. There 
 were no hold-ups; no riots; no embezzlements; no forgeries; no serious fires; no 
 pestilence; no counterfeiting of tickets; no strikes other than jurisdictional; no 
 lawsuits deriving from contractual relations; no claims by contractors for exten- 
 sion of time; no political interference; no structural failures; and no catastrophies. 
 
 ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT 29
 
 Chapter ^ 
 
 FINANCES 
 
 No phase of the Exposition's varied activities was more dramatic than that 
 of its financing. Reduced to mere words in a story of the exposition, and to cold 
 figures, it loses the suspense, the thrill, the travail, and the satisfaction which 
 attended this most critical of operations. In many aspects it was unique. Not 
 one cent was sought or obtained from any tax-paying body, in the form of a 
 subsidy or gift. The principal financing was accomplished in the depth of 
 the worst depression the country had known, and the Exposition was held 
 during the years when the nation was slowly struggling back to recovery. 
 
 Yet the miracle happened — every debt was paid in full, including a million 
 and a half dollars in interest on the Gold Note issue. Moreover, when demolition 
 was completed there remained a surplus which was distributed to institutions 
 which had assisted the Exposition. Other American fairs had received substan- 
 tial subsidies from government agencies, but they had been able to pay off 
 only a few cents on the dollar, either on their incurred indebtedness or to 
 those who had subscribed to their bond issues. 
 
 Early Fwancing 
 
 The initial financing of the Exposition was obtained through the sale of 
 Founder and Sustaining memberships at $1,000 and $50 respectively. Early 
 in 1928 when a preliminary organization was being formed, an active committee, 
 under the leadership of General Abel Davis, set about raising funds for its 
 maintenance. Great credit for the ultimate triumph of the Exposition is due 
 these pioneers who first believed in the success of the enterprise, and who gave 
 
 .no A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 their money as a contribution without thought of return, other than being able 
 to deduct it from their income taxes. And, as might be expected, it was these 
 same men and women who later rendered many invaluable services. The 
 $271,400 received from these memberships carried the operating organization 
 through its first year. 
 
 About this time, another undertaking was launched, first known as the "World's 
 Fair Boosters" and later changed to "Chicago World's Fair Enrollment Commit- 
 tee." Its outward purpose was to sell $5.00 Legion Memberships to the general 
 public, these to be exchanged for ten admissions when the Fair opened, but 
 its real function was to enlist the active interest of a vast number of citizens 
 in a project which required public support to be successful. A city-wide network 
 of offices was set up and solicitation was carried not only to individuals, but 
 through large industrial organizations, foreign language groups and civic clubs. 
 It was eminently successful in making Chicago conscious of a Fair which was 
 still five years off. To Colonel Stuyvesant Peabody, and his many capable 
 assistants, goes the credit for the raising of $637,754.35 (with its accumulated 
 interest) through the sale of 118,773 memberships. 
 
 The money received from these memberships was held as a trust fund, not 
 to be used until the gates were ready to open; thus, if the Fair had to be aban- 
 doned, every cent might be returned. This money later came under the terms 
 of the Trust Indenture which provided that forty percent of all gate receipts 
 should be deposited with the Trustee to be used for amortizing the Gold Notes. 
 
 Having accomplished its primary purpose of advertising the Fair, the campaign 
 for the sale of certificates was discontinued in May of 1929. Actually, money was 
 being borrowed from the National Bank of the Republic at this time to keep 
 the organization going, and the Fair found itself in the awkward position of 
 spending money it did not have to get money it could not use! 
 
 The possessors of these memberships were justly proud of their certificates, 
 and their attendance did much to stimulate the crowds in the first weeks that 
 the gates were opened — of primary importance in stimulating later attendance. 
 
 The Guarajiteed Gold Notes 
 
 May of 1929 found the finances of the Exposition at their lowest ebb. All the 
 monies received from the founder and sustaining members had been expended, 
 the Legion membership fund was safely impounded until 1933, and our credit 
 with the bank was stretching to the breaking point. 
 
 Two separate committees had, one after the other, studied the situation and 
 sought some plan for the major financing of the Exposition, only to report that 
 they had nothing to offer. The situation was desperate. An appeal was made 
 to Gen. Charles G. Dawes, then the Vice-President of the United States, and 
 his response was undoubtedly the outstanding contribution to the financial 
 success of the Exposition. If he had not found time from the pressure of his 
 public duties to organize the drive and almost lone-handed to carry through 
 the securing of guarantors and subscribers to the Gold Notes, there would have 
 
 FINANCES 31
 
 been no Exposition. 
 
 The plan adopted was one proposed by the Treasurer, George WoodruflF. I 
 contemplated an issue of Gold Notes to be guaranteed by 40% of the gat( 
 receipts, and further secured by the pledges of individual guarantors in ar 
 amount greater than the issue. $10,000,000.00 in bonds were to be issued ir 
 various denominations, bearing coupons paying 6% interest and maturing or 
 October 15, 1935. 
 
 The Board of Trustees formally authorized the issue of Gold Notes on Octobei 
 28, 1929. In the Trust Indenture to the Central Trust Company of lUinoi; 
 were specified the terms and conditions which, among other items provided tha 
 any individual guarantor might be relieved of his guaranty by purchasing Golc 
 Notes up to the amount of his guaranty. Notes so purchased would be stampec 
 by the Trustee as not secured by the other guarantors though, of course, the) 
 retained the protection of the forty-percent-of-the-gate-receipts clause. 
 
 As brilliant as was the concept of the plan, it was to meet its first test wher 
 an attempt was made to secure the guarantors. In a whirlwind campaign 
 General Dawes secured $12,176,000 in signed guarantees. As with most thing! 
 which are successfully prosecuted, he began with himself, personally pledging < 
 large proportion of the total secured. Mention must be made of the large pledge; 
 made at that time by Mr. Julius Rosenwald and Mr. Samuel InsuU. 
 
 These preliminary steps, while essential, did not produce cash, so during the 
 summer and fall of 1929 active steps were taken to sell the bonds. Again 
 General Dawes took the initiative and in a two-listed drive disposed of the 
 initial large blocks of bonds. Subscriptions of $6,610,000 were received from 
 guarantors, and $912,700 from others. It will be recalled that the great break 
 in the stock market occurred in October of 1929. To dispose of securities in 
 so nebulous and uncertain an enterprise as a World's Fair, still four years off, 
 during days when personal fortunes were toppling and when prospects of a 
 chaotic future were ahead, called for salesmanship and faith of a high order, 
 The brave ones who purchased Gold Notes at this time little realized it was 
 one of the few investments they could have made which would pay of? in full 
 with six per cent interest. They deserved their good fortune. 
 
 The subscriptions provided that a call could be made for the entire amount 
 or, as was actually done, for parts, to be paid by the subscriber on thirty days' 
 notice. The first call for 10% was paid on February 1, 1930 and amounted 
 to $612,500. The remaining nine calls were made at intervals of about three 
 months, the last one being made on October 15, 1932. A total of $5,999,200 
 was received in the ten calls. 
 
 To assure the prompt payment of their subscriptions, many subscribers set 
 aside other securities. The depression caused these to drop to a small percent 
 of their original value. In spite of this and many other difficulties inherent in 
 the times, only $610,800 was not paid promptly on call. Even this was somewhat 
 offset by subscribers who took $683,000 of Gold Notes in advance of the calls. 
 
 The first call liquidated the $325,000 which had been borrowed from the 
 
 32 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 bank and provided working funds for corporate purposes. From this time until 
 the opening of the gates, no further borrowings were made. The Fair was on 
 a stricdy cash basis. 
 
 Though many additional millions were going to be necessary to complete an 
 Exposition of minimum scope, it was realized that little more could be expected 
 from individuals, and that many other sources of income would have to be 
 explored and developed. The hundred and one ingenious ways in which these 
 monies were raised is the epic of the Exposition. Some of the major items are 
 here described, but space will not permit telling of many which were most 
 interesting and unusual. Let it be said that the general depression assisted 
 rather than hindered the later financing. A department store took gold notes 
 for laying wood floors and a mail order house drove piles in the lagoon. The 
 revenue made important additions to their sagging income statements. 
 
 A story of how the depression helped in construction may prove illuminating. 
 The low bid for a large concrete job was just one-third of the estimate made by 
 the Exposition's engineeri-ng department. The contractor was called in for an 
 explanation, as the Exposition could not afford to have a stoppage of work due 
 to bankruptcies or errors in estimating. The contractor explained that he had a 
 warehouse full of cement which was rapidly deteriorating and, while it could be 
 used on the sand foundations at the Exposition, it could not be used in high 
 construction. Mountains of sand and gravel had been standing untouched in 
 his yard due to the cessation of building construction. His machinery was 
 rusting and would be ruined if not used. His foremen and principal workers 
 were already being carried on his pay rolls, though they had no work. He 
 almost convinced the Exposition authorities that it would be a privilege to do 
 the work for nothing. He got the job. 
 
 The Budget System as Inaugurated in 7929 
 
 As contradictory as it may seem, the budget was the extreme of both rigidity 
 and flexibility. This was because certain precepts, adopted early in the construc- 
 tion period, were adhered to faithfully. They were summed up in the axiom, 
 "We intend to open the gates, not the sheriff." 
 
 It was not certain until the very end how extensive the Exposition would be, 
 for its size was to be determined by the available funds. Neither commitments 
 nor purchases were made until the actual cash was in hand to pay for them. 
 Prospects of income, no matter how bright, were never considered valid. 
 
 The havoc of the depression on personal fortunes and the skepticism of many 
 important individuals as to whether the Exposition would ever actually open 
 created a situation where some expected funds failed to materialize. 
 
 Further confusing the problem was the fact that many irrevocable decisions 
 had to be made months, and even years, before the gates were to open. These 
 factors combined to make necessary a budget control that was absolute, with 
 nothing being spent unless specifically provided, yet the entire budget was often 
 recast several times in a week. 
 
 FINANCES 33
 
 One illustration, out of hundreds of examples, will indicate the complexitic; 
 of the situation and how they were met. The water supply lines for drinking 
 fire, and sanitary purposes, had to be installed under ground before the buildinc 
 program was too far advanced. Sound engineering practice dictated a loop o: 
 pipe around the entire grounds, so that in case of a break in the thin walls of the 
 temporary piping, it could be valved ofi at both sides of the break, and the 
 grounds supplied by pumping water both ways up to the damaged section. A 
 dead-line date was set when work must start if it were to be completed or 
 time. The drawings were ready and the contractors' bids in hand, waiting fo: 
 the zero hour. This coincided with the date of the next call for payment or 
 subscriptions to Gold Notes. Chagrin reigned supreme when we were notifiec 
 that two hundred thousand dollars, considered definite, could not be paid. Th< 
 laying of the pipe had to begin, but there was no cash on hand to pay for it— 
 a seemingly impossible dilemma if we were to hold to our precepts. 
 
 But a solution was found. Over the protests of the engineering department 
 the loop system was scrapped and a single line ordered put in which could b( 
 paid for with the funds on hand. The fire hazard was covered by buildim 
 ramps close to the water's edge, where fire engines might drop their suctioi 
 hose into the waters of Lake Michigan. A cross connection made to the cit; 
 supply system at the far end of the pipe, with the valve closed except during 
 emergencies, satisfied the sanitary requirements. The whole incident was ; 
 blessing in disguise, for, unorthodox as it was, it functioned perfectly and savec 
 nearly a hundred thousand dollars. 
 
 So, while the budget was absolute for administrative items, for constructioi 
 it was more in the nature of a program. Each day there was submitted t< 
 the General Manager a statement showing availability of funds and the project 
 for which provisions were still to be made. As soon as authorization was given 
 the entire cost of the project was immediately deducted from available casl 
 and set up in a separate account. 
 
 To assure the integrity of the use of funds, other separate accounts wer 
 established. Funds from space sold to exhibitors in exposition buildings wer 
 segregated for use on that structure only. The later buildings, such as Agricultur 
 and General Exhibits, were designed and built to conform to the space actuall 
 taken by exhibitors, with provision for subsequent enlargement if the demanc 
 developed. Sometimes their space fees were received a year before the buildinj 
 was started. During the interim, the money was not intermingled with corporat 
 funds, but was kept in separate trust accounts for each building. 
 
 This sound financial policy became known to contractors and local bank 
 and, despite the continued pessimism of some distinguished citizens, includini 
 some able bankers, the credit of the Exposition increased to a point where al 
 needs could be met. 
 
 Sale of Exhibit Space 
 
 The policy of previous Expositions had been to give space to exhibitors fo 
 
 34 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 competitive displays, and award medals and ribbons to winners. All this was 
 changed at A Century of Progress. It was believed that the endless repetition 
 of competitive products did not make for public interest. Also, if a substantial 
 fee was paid for space, the exhibitor would value it more highly and accordingly 
 produce a better exhibit. So the decision was made to sell space, eliminate 
 competitive awards, and guide displays to cover different phases when in the 
 same field. Exclusive privileges would be granted where this seemed best to fit 
 the needs. All this was decided before the financial stringency developed, but 
 it was most fortunate, for the sale of space in the Exposition's own buildings 
 amounted to $3,000,000.00. 
 
 To sell space during a depression was a problem in itself, but to obtain pay- 
 ment literally years in advance called for real ingenuity. Space in many of the 
 buildings was sold while they were still in blue-print form. 
 
 Before the foundations were laid for the Foods and Agriculture Building and 
 for the General Exhibits Group, $600,000.00 had been received from exhibitors. 
 In a number of cases, the full price of the space was paid two years before the 
 building was started. Besides giving the Exposition the cash in advance for the 
 construction, it had the added advantages of permitting exhibitors to make 
 interior alterations on the plans and of giving an accurate measure of how large 
 a specific building should be. 
 
 The rules and regulations for the sale of exhibit space were carefully developed 
 and were ready early in 1931. 
 
 The basic price for space was fixed at $10.00 a square foot, which, when aisles 
 and utility space were deducted, represented the average cost to the Exposition 
 for construction. To induce exhibitors to pay the full rental price in advance, a 
 cash discount of three-fourths of one per cent per month was allowed. Many 
 took advantage of this discount. The others were required to pay 5% with the 
 application; 20% at the time space was definitely allocated; 25% on September 1, 
 1932; 25% on February 1, 1933; and 25% on June 1, 1933. 
 
 A discount of 10% was allowed from the base price to exhibitors filing applica- 
 tion for space prior to December 31, 1931, and 5% to those filing between 
 January 1, 1932 and June 1, 1932. No discount was allowed for purchases 
 after the last date. 
 
 There was no ground rent to exhibitors who constructed their own buildings. 
 Utilities were brought to the boundary line by the Exposition authorities but, 
 from there on, all construction was at the expense of the exhibitor. The space 
 charge in the Exposition's own building was designed to amortize its cost, so 
 it became financially immaterial whether an exhibitor built his own structure 
 or rented space in one belonging to the Exposition. 
 
 The history of concessions in previous fairs had not been a happy one. Many 
 had been forced to close through lack of income in the early months after open- 
 ing. Bankrupt businesses and darkened show fronts do not lend to the carnival 
 spirit of a Fair. The knowledge of previous disasters, coupled with the difficulty 
 of concessionaires in raising enough money to build creditable rides and shows, 
 
 FINANCES 35
 
 caused A Century of Progress to take a generous position, even though it was 
 designed to be for the best interests of all concerned eventually. The general 
 policy was to make little or no space charge, and permit the concessionaire to 
 keep all of his take until his original investment had been amortized. Hence 
 concessions were not a material help in solving the financial problem in the 
 pre-fair period. 
 
 Advance Ticket Sales 
 
 A substantial source of pre-fair income was evolved from the advance sale 
 of admission tickets, though there were collateral advantages which were equally 
 important. Books of single admission tickets and season tickets went on sale 
 in December, 1932, and by May 26, 1933, there had been 2,342,155 single 
 admission tickets and 3,858 season tickets sold, the total proceeds of which 
 amounted to $966,237.18. Of course, 40% of this was deposited with the Gold 
 Note Trustee under the Indenture, but 60% was available for construction 
 and operation. 
 
 It seemed inconceivable to the Exposition authorities that any skepticism 
 should remain in January of 1933. They saw the acres of buildings nearing 
 completion and knew that there was enough cash on hand to open the gates 
 on schedule time. But many in metropolitan Chicago were certain that the 
 Exposition would be postponed or would open unfinished, or even would be 
 abandoned at the last minute. Some of these disbelievers even spread their 
 doubts at out-of-town conventions, causing exhibitors in distant cities to call 
 up and frantically inquire if all were well. 
 
 The advance ticket sale did much to allay these fears. With hundreds oi 
 thousands in the possession of citizens, they wanted to believe the Fair would 
 open. When important corporations investigated and purchased large blocks 
 of tickets, it did much to hush the doubting Thomases, if not convince them, 
 
 Previous fairs had suffered badly from a small attendance in the first two 
 months. Even the great Columbian Exposition of 1893, which eventually broke 
 all attendance records up to that time, was so poorly attended in the opening 
 weeks that by July many concessionaires closed their doors and moved out, and 
 the Exposition itself was threatened with closing, as even operating expenses 
 could not be met. 
 
 It was believed, if a substantial early attendance could be stimulated, and if 
 the Exposition merited praise, that the word-of-mouth publicity of those who 
 came first would have a profound influence on a successful outcome. This is 
 actually what happened, and in no small amount was due to the advance ticket 
 sales, which, when combined with the holders of Legion Membership tickets, 
 put 3,399,919 tickets in the hands of the public before opening day. The 
 psychology of having a ticket in hand did much to overcome the natural inertia 
 of many to come early and often. For having come once, they quickly made 
 attendance a habit. 
 
 36 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 Gold Notes Finarice Construction Program 
 
 By the summer of 1932, there still remained unsold nearly $3,000,000.00 worth 
 of the original issue of Gold Notes. The depression had so depicted private 
 fortunes that sales to individuals had virtually ceased. However, many corpora- 
 tions still had substantial cash reserves or materials in stock, and had little use 
 for either. 
 
 A number of concerns were approached with the proposition of accepting 
 Gold Notes for construction work, services, and merchandise. The plan was 
 eminently successful, and $2,581,400.00 of notes were so taken by contractors 
 and suppliers. 
 
 Where notes were traded for goods, it was specified that the notes must be 
 accepted at par and the full regular discount allowed the Exposition. For 
 services, notes were given to low bidders as though on a stricdy competitive 
 cash basis. In other words, not one penny of discount was given on the notes 
 and no brokerage fee was paid to anyone in connection with the sale and disposal 
 of any part of the note issue. 
 
 While Gold Notes were being sold to others, the staff expressed its belief 
 in their security by subscribing to $309,500 of them. Every employee took part 
 of his or her salary in notes, and many took as much as half. This entailed 
 many personal sacrifices, but inspired confidence in others. 
 
 As the last of the Gold Notes were being used, the credit of the Exposition 
 reached a point where contractors offered to perform work for unsecured notes, 
 or by carrying the liability on open account. Over $1,800,000 worth of work 
 and materials were supplied on this basis. 
 
 It was here that one of the most heart-breaking decisions of the Exposition 
 had to be made. There were many things still desired: more trees and land- 
 scaping; more elaborate illumination; more decorative items such as fountains, 
 statuary groups and incidental buildings. The credit was there to get them. 
 At least another million dollars was offered by contractors anxious for additional 
 work. But the decision was "No". There was enough on the grounds to open 
 a successful Fair, more would have been gilding the lily, but particularly it 
 would have meant another million dollars eventually to be paid back. There 
 was a fixed determination, reiterated many times every day — "We will pay off 
 the Gold Notes in full". That controlled every thought and act of the Exposition 
 management. 
 
 The Exposition had been in constant touch with loop banks. While there 
 was no need to borrow money during the construction period, the banks 
 had been kept fully informed on its financial position and prospects. This 
 proved most helpful because many contractors and material manufacturers were 
 able to negotiate loans from these banks on their Exposition contracts. 
 
 The major items of income during the construction period arc recapitulated 
 here: 
 
 FINANCES 37
 
 Gold Notes purchased by guarantors $5,999,200.00 
 
 Gold Notes purchased by non-guarantors 912,700.00 
 
 Gold Notes purchased by employees 309,500.00 
 
 Gold Notes used in payment for materials and services 2,581,400.00 
 
 Total amount of Gold Notes Issued $9,802,800.00 
 
 Gold Notes to the amount of $78,600.00 were later accepted in 
 payment for exhibit space and other obligations, leaving Gold 
 Notes to the value of $9,724,200.00 as net issued and outstanding. 
 
 Founder and Sustaining Memberships $ 271,400.00 
 
 Rental of space to exhibitors and concessionaires 3,742,865.06 
 
 Advance ticket sale 966,237.10* 
 
 Legion Memberships 637,754.35* 
 
 Unsecured notes or open account 1,800,000.00 
 
 Miscellaneous items such as interest and pre-Fair admissions 100,000.00 
 
 In accordance with the Trust Indenture, the Exposition was required to 
 deposit daily with the Trustee 40% of the gate admissions, leaving only 60% 
 for operating expenses. This, with other factors, contributed to an expected 
 period of financial stringency. Many of the early visitors came in on advance 
 sale tickets, the receipts from which had been already used. In accordance with 
 the contracts with the concessionaires, the Exposition would not share in their 
 take until their capital investment had been paid off, or not until August. Large 
 crowds were not anticipated until the vacation period began, which was after 
 the middle of July. Liabilities incurred during the construction period were 
 scheduled for payment during July. 
 
 While credits could undoubtedly have been extended, the Exposition desired 
 to maintain its reputation of meeting every obligation on time, so while it still 
 had $400,000 in its operating cash fund on July 1, 1933, the decision was made 
 to negotiate a loan of $500,000 from the banks. Since they were well aware of 
 the situation, no trouble was experienced and the money was obtained through 
 joint action of the Continental Illinois Bank and Trust Company, the First 
 National Bank of Chicago, the Harris Trust and Savings Bank, the Northern 
 Trust Company, and the City National Bank and Trust Company. 
 
 This loan was secured by pledging receivables of $300,000 and providing 
 that income from concessions was to be paid daily to the banks. While not 
 due until September 15, the loan was retired in full by August 19th. By this 
 time all obligations incurred during the construction period and scheduled for 
 payment had been liquidated. 
 
 The anticipation of large crowds in August and substantial income from 
 concessions proved correct. All indebtedness was paid in advance of due dates, 
 resulting in the saving of interest and taking advantage of cash discounts. 
 
 Except for the payment of the Gold Notes, the Exposition was never again 
 
 •Only sixty percent available for construction and operating purposes. 
 38 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 in tight financial straits. 15ut this freedom did not permit any relaxation in 
 the close scrutiny of every expenditure. Ihe operating budget was studied 
 daily and altered many times to meet changing prospects and conditions. 
 Unremitting, meticulous care that funds be not wasted was observed. However, 
 large sums were frequently appropriated for extra spectacles, pageants, and 
 stunts not contemplated in normal expenses, when the returns in revenue, 
 attendance, or publicity seemed to justify them. 
 
 Payments to Note Holders 
 
 1 hrough all this, funds were accumulating in the hand of the Trustee. There 
 were monies representing forty per cent of Legion Membership and advance 
 ticket sales, in addition to the daily deposit from gate receipts. By September 
 1, 1933, these funds amounted to $2,187,835.14. So on September 1 an initial 
 distribution of 2Q% was made, amounting to $1,944,840. An additional 10% 
 was paid on October 1, on October 15, and on November 13, each of which 
 amounted to $972,420. These payments totalled 50 /T of the original par value 
 outstanding ($9,724,200) and amounted to $4,862,100. 
 
 With the close of the Exposition on November 11, half of the Gold Notes 
 were paid. The determination to pay them in full was to a large measure 
 responsible for the decision to hold the Fair the second year. There was a 
 widespread public demand for an encore and exhibitors and concessionaires 
 had expressed a willingness to go along, but there had to be a definite urge to 
 run the great risk of a second season. The staff was dead tired, there were 
 endless legal and financial problems to be solved, and it was venturing into an 
 untried field contrary to all precedent. 
 
 With the last payment on November 13 to the holders of Gold Notes, there 
 remained in the Exposition treasury a net amount of $1,095,755.13, after 
 balancing off accounts receivable and payable. This was just about the sum 
 required to demolish the Fair as provided in the contract with the South Park, 
 so litde or no additional money could have been paid on the Gold Notes. 
 
 A careful study indicated that the total cost of wintering the Exposition and 
 of new construction and rehabilitation would be within the funds probably 
 available. 
 
 Operating expenses a second year could be met by a smaller attendance than 
 the most pessimistic of predictions, therefore substantial additional sums could 
 be paid on the Gold Notes. In the decision to hold the Fair the second year, 
 there seemed to be everything to gain and nothing to lose. Much the same 
 arguments were presented to hold open a third year. But the incentive was 
 gone — the bonds were paid in full. 
 
 Early predictions for the 1934 season proved accurate and, on opening day, 
 the Exposition was in an excellent cash position and it had not been necessary 
 to seek outside credit in the interim. 
 
 During the stand-by period from November 12, 1933 to May 26, 1934, there 
 was an expenditure of $3,300,083.17 classified as follows: 
 
 FINANCES 39
 
 New construction and equipment $1,209,466.61 
 
 Rehabilitation 891,705.63 
 
 Administrative and financial 1,198,821.93 
 
 The income during this period amounted to $3,543,026.47. 
 
 It was possible to negotiate more favorable concessionaire contracts to the 
 Exposition than the previous year. This was because their principal construction 
 costs had already been amortized and particularly because accurate data was 
 available from the previous year's experience on their actual take and profits. 
 There was received $622,932.75 from this source. 
 
 The income from exhibitors was considerably less than the first year, as the 
 rental charge was placed at $2.50 per square foot, compared with the basic 
 charge of $10.00 per square foot for the 1933 Fair. There was received 
 $859,624.75 from this source. 
 
 Advance ticket sales produced $2,060,468.97, and on opening day there were 
 in the hands of the public over 5,000,000 single admission tickets and 8,250 
 season tickets. 
 
 L^gal and Financial Problems 
 
 A number of knotty problems presented themselves for solution. They usually 
 involved the question of whether the 1934 Exposition was an entirely separate 
 enterprise with its own legal and financial entity, or whether it was merely a 
 continuation of the 1933 edition. It was far from being an academic question, 
 for such practical issues arose as the validity of guarantees obtained in 1929, 
 which warranted the payment of Gold notes for an Exposition to be held in 1933. 
 
 To prevent any embarrassment, it was decided to negotiate new contracts on 
 all Exposition affairs, and to seek releases from all persons or agencies which 
 might consider the second year a separate affair. Later, in a test case, the 
 courts decided that the 1934 Exposition was not a continuance of that of 1933, 
 but a new Exposition. 
 
 The original guarantors had subsequently purchased Gold Notes to an amount 
 of $5,999,200.00. They had been released from their guarantee by an amount 
 equal to the value of the Gold Notes purchased. These notes in turn had been 
 stamped "not guaranteed". 
 
 During the latter part of 1933, a number of additional guarantors bought 
 guaranteed notes in the open market and presented them to the Trustee for 
 release of their guarantee. By early 1934, there remained only $1,578,000 par 
 value of the original note issue that had not been released from the guarantee, 
 $8,146,200 having been so released. 
 
 To forestall any legal involvement over the question of paying off all the 
 outstanding notes on an equal pro rata basis, the guarantors who had purchased 
 notes and caused them to be released were asked to subordinate their notes to 
 the remaining notes still bearing the guarantee. It was a great deal to ask of 
 those who had already supported the Exposition so loyally, and it was most 
 
 40 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 gratifying to have 80% of them acquiesce to the subordination. It meant that 
 they would not receive anything on their notes in addition to the 50% already 
 received until all of the guaranteed notes had been paid — both as to principal 
 and interest. That they were fully rewarded for their faith, was the brightest 
 light of the Exposition. 
 
 The following schedule is a summary of the dates and amounts of distribution 
 made to holders of Gold Notes in both 1933 and 1934: 
 
 Dates and Amounts of Distribution Made to Gold Note 
 Holders in 7953 and ig^^ 
 
 AMOUNT PAID TO 
 
 Guaranteed Released Subordinated 
 Date Notes Notes Notes Total 
 
 September 1, 1933 $ 315,600 $ 331,500 $1,297,740 $1,944,840 
 
 October 1, 1933 157,800 165,750 648,870 972,420 
 
 October 15, 1933 157,800 165,750 648,870 972,420 
 
 November 13, 1933 157,800 165,750 648,870 972,420 
 
 June 1, 1934 789,000 165,750 954,750 
 
 September 1, 1934 165,750 648,870 814,620 
 
 October 1, 1934 165,750 648,870 814,620 
 
 October 15, 1934 165,750 648,870 814,620 
 
 November 1, 1934 165,750 713,757 879,507 
 
 November 20, 1934 583,983 583,983 
 
 $1,578,000 $1,657,500 $6,488,700 $9,724,200 
 
 It will be noted that no payment was made to subordinated note holders in 
 the distribution of June 1, 1934 and no payments on guaranteed notes in subse- 
 quent distributions. The subordination agreement permitted the payment of all 
 guaranteed notes in full out of the first monies received by the Trustee. This 
 in effect released all of the guarantors, as there were then no guaranteed notes 
 outstanding. 
 
 The interest paid on all classes of notes from April 15, 1930 to November 20, 
 1934 amounted to $1,480,888.02. The payments from both principal and interest 
 totalled $11,283,688.02, of which $6,833,385.12 represented 40% of the gate 
 receipts, and $4,450,302.90 was remitted to the Trustee from corporate funds. 
 
 Final Balance in the Blacky 
 
 The 1934 edition came to a triumphant conclusion with all major goals 
 accomplished. The splendid organization was rapidly disbanded, expenses were 
 quickly curtailed, and all financial obligations both contractual and moral, were 
 liquidated as soon as they were presented or could be determined. By December 
 31, 1934, there was a net balance on hand of $688,165.35, to be used for demoli- 
 tion, future claims, and dissolution of the organization. 
 
 FINANCES 
 
 41
 
 Tlie Exposition had been granted the right to use land under the jurisdiction 
 of the South Park, provided that the site was returned in the condition in which 
 we acquired it. The Park commissioners had the right to retain any of the 
 buildings owned by the Fair. The only structure selected was the Administration 
 building, and this was used as Park headquarters until their new office building 
 was completed. It was demolished in 1940 and today the only remaining mark 
 is the memorial column commemorating the Balbo flight. 
 
 Exhibitors and concessionaires removed their own structures. The Barker- 
 Goldman-Lubin Company of Springfield, Illinois, demolished and removed all 
 Fair buildings, paying the Exposition $28,000 for the salvage value. Early in 
 1936 their work was completed to the satisfaction of the management and the 
 park officials. 
 
 There would have been still much to do to comply with the terms of the 
 ordinance to restore the grounds. Original roads and walks had been torn 
 up and miles of new ones laid. Level green sod and elms covered vast areas 
 which originally had been dump heaps of ashes, bed springs, and automobile 
 bodies. Sewer and drainage systems criss-crossed underground, much of which 
 might be usable for Park purposes. 
 
 To attempt to restore the grounds to the letter of the contract would have been 
 exorbitantly expensive, wasteful of usable material and works, and diflicult 
 of determination. A working solution was formed by agreeing to pay to the 
 Chicago Park District a compensating sum of money, and being relieved of all 
 further obligations of restoration. By an ordinance passed July 2, 1935, the sum 
 of $275,000 was accepted and the Exposition finally vacated the grounds. 
 
 It was a mutually fortunate adjustment. It would have cost the management 
 more than the agreed sum, for it would have had to maintain an expensive 
 overhead organization for at least another year. The Park gained because it 
 was not only free to utilize whatever of value was left by the Exposition, but 
 received sufficient cash to make many new improvements in the Park area. 
 
 It marked the termination of what had been a most pleasant association. The 
 South Park, which later was incorporated in the Chicago Park District, had 
 been excellent landlords. Within the authorities granted them, they had done 
 everything in their power to make the Exposition a success and a credit to 
 Chicago. No political demands whatsoever were made upon the administration 
 of the Fair. Our deep thanks and appreciation went to Edward J. Kelly, as 
 President of the South Park Board, and to Robert J. Dunham, as President of the 
 Chicago Park District, and to George T. Donoghue, who was Superintendent 
 under both administrations. 
 
 The Exposition was incorporated as an organization not for profit, and hence 
 no member, employee, or associate could receive a dividend or share in a profit 
 or surplus. Because of this status, it enjoyed many privileges such as exemption 
 from income taxes or the payment of a tax on gate receipts. Those who made 
 financial contributions were empowered to deduct them from their income 
 tax returns. 
 
 42 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 It seemed an academic question to ask in 1929 what was to be done with any 
 money remaining when the Exposition was over, as no World's Fair held 
 previously (or since) has enjoyed a surplus. It is diplomatically simple to divide 
 up money that does not exist, and which few believed ever would. How difTercnt 
 a story to have money which must be given away and to decide among all the 
 claims, charities, funds, and worthwhile projects who might demand a share. 
 To decide which and how much would only mean hard feelings on the part 
 of those who perhaps had an apparendy rightful claim, but who had to 
 be left out. 
 
 So in 1929 the decision was made to divide the surplus, if any, among those 
 who had been of material aid to the Exposition and whose announced purposes 
 were similar to those of A Century of Progress. Binding contracts were 
 negotiated in which there was a quid pro quo. Substantial contributions were 
 made to the success of the Exposition, by the so-called "residual legatees" and 
 they were entided to share in the surplus. 
 
 When the books of A Century of Progress finally closed, there was $160,000 
 available for distribution. The South Park received 25%, the Museum of Science 
 & Industry 25%, the Chicago Art Institute 20%, the Adler Planetarium 10%, 
 and the remaining 20% was divided among the Yerkes Observatory, the Smith- 
 sonian Irstitution, the Chicago Regional Planning Commission, and associations 
 for the care and preservation of the Lama Temple of Jehol and for Fort 
 Dearborn. 
 
 FINANCES 43 
 
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 FINANCES 47
 
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 FINANCES 
 
 49
 
 Chapter ^ 
 
 THE SITE 
 
 The histories of world's fairs have been replete with differences of opinion con- 
 cerning the location of the grounds within the city of choice. Each section, vaunt- 
 ing its achievements and advantages, would proffer its claims and intimate its 
 unique qualifications for candidacy, 
 
 A Century of Progress was particularly fortunate in that its administration was 
 never required to steer a diplomatic course through such friendly rivalries. 
 While one or two sites in the outskirts of the city were suggested as possibilities, 
 none was ever pressed. The Exposition, at its very outset, benefited from the 
 unanimity of the Chicago citizenry in the assumption that the Fair was to be on 
 the lake front, and in the heart of the city. 
 
 Both of these essentials were embodied in the strip of parkland bordering the 
 lake, extending from 12th Street on the north, for a distance of approximately 
 three miles, to 39th Street on the south. This section included the island known 
 as Northerly, and covered an area of about 427 acres, of which the lagoons, lying 
 between Northerly Island and the mainland, constituted approximately 86 acres. 
 
 The immediately obvious advantages were its accessibility, the group of per- 
 manent buildings already there, and its adjacency to the water. Closely approxi- 
 mating the center of the metropolitan population, this site was equally accessible 
 from all sections of the city. It was separated from the loop, Chicago's central 
 business district, by only a dozen blocks. Nearly a million people entered the 
 Loop daily for business and other purposes by the existing means of transporta- 
 tion, and on its fringes lay the principal railroad terminals. There, too, were 
 located large hotels with a capacity of more than 25,000 people. 
 
 50 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 The location of the Illinois Central Railroad, literally at the door of the site, 
 established it as a major transportation service to the Exposition, without the 
 necessity of special construction work other than a short spur and some minor re- 
 arrangement of layout. The adjacent harbor ollered its additional facilities, while, 
 on the land side, the fact that the park drive was a principal artery through the 
 city had already occasioned the development of extensive parking facilities in the 
 area. To accommodate the public buildings already located in the park, and the 
 crowds entering adjacent Soldier Field for special events, both bus and street car 
 service ran within walking distance of several entrances. Thus the only necessary 
 consideration was the possible extension of existing lines and expansion of the 
 service. 
 
 Importance of Nearby Facilities 
 
 The existing transportation facilities, serving the permanent structures imme- 
 diately adjacent to the Exposition site provided a great initial advantage. These in- 
 stitutions — the Field Museum of Natural History, the Shedd Aquarium, the Plane- 
 tarium, Soldier Field, and, a little farther distant, the Art Institute — would lend 
 grace and dignity to whatever form might be evolved for the Exposition, though 
 many thought that the modern lines of Exposition buildings would clash with 
 their classical style. They had not only already familiarized Chicago and its 
 visitors with this locality, but would continue to draw people there during the 
 pre-Fair period, enabling them to note the progress of the work on the grounds, 
 with a resultant quickening of their interest. 
 
 Figures on attendance at previous large events in Soldier Field, and the mate- 
 rials of construction and the various service supplies which had to be brought to 
 the institutions in the Grant Park area, were invaluable guides in the computa- 
 tion of the Exposition's estimate of the rate at which the existing transportation 
 system could handle the exposition problems, during both construction and oper- 
 ation periods. 
 
 And, of course, dominating and enhancing everything was Nature's own con- 
 tribution — the ever<hanging waters of Lake Michigan. Their beauty was sug- 
 gestive of endless possibilities in the elaboration of the Exposition, which might 
 lend to the spectacle a pleasing variety, and contribute to that spirit of festivity, 
 adventure and romance so inseparably a factor of the successful fair. 
 
 The Exposition was later fully to appreciate further advantages inherent to the 
 site. The acreage was adjustable to whatever size developments might indicate. 
 Also, location on state controlled land, where all functions usually a part of munic- 
 ipal organization were confined to one governmental agency, was to be of ines- 
 timable assistance in reducing to the minimum the time required to push through 
 the construction program. 
 
 As early as 1927, in the Hurley report, the lake shore between 12th Street and 
 57th Street was mentioned as the ideal site. From that time on, the Exposition 
 and the lake front appeared synonymous in the minds of the Board, the press, 
 and the Chicago citizenry. 
 
 THE SITE 51
 
 Legislative Enabling Act 
 
 Nevertheless, it was not until June of 1929, about ten days before the adjourn- 
 ment of the Illinois State Assembly for a two-year period, that the informal con- 
 versations on the subject were suddenly translated into action for the securing of 
 the necessary enabling act. Only then could this forward step have been indis- 
 putably defended. Further delay would have meant the calling of a special ses- 
 sion of the legislature. An earlier attempt would not have permitted sufficient 
 solidification of the basic plans to give that certainty of an ability to perform on 
 which the Exposition authorities always insisted. This was one of the early prece- 
 dents of a standard from which there was to be no deviation — never to start a 
 thing until every tenet of every agreement could be fulfilled. 
 
 The immediate attention which the State Assembly gave to this matter was 
 one of the many indications of the depth of interest shown in the project by the 
 several public bodies concerned. Exposition authorities had remembered with 
 some trepidation the apparendy endless legislative delays which many fairs had 
 encountered in their development. Here, however, was a bill of primary and 
 basic importance which went through from start to finish in ten days. It is in- 
 teresting to note at this point that so well did every individual, within whose 
 province the bill came, do his work, that when the decision for a 1934 Fair neces- 
 sitated a second enabling act, only minor changes from the 1933 Act were found 
 desirable. No more telling commentary could be made on the assembly's alert 
 knowledge of its trusteeship in a matter involving the public interest, nor on the 
 careful thought and painstaking study which the Legal Committee and its asso- 
 ciates had given to the Exposition's needs. 
 
 The bill passed with only one amendment, and this the Exposition was very 
 glad to have inserted. It was the requirement that the Exposition police be se- 
 lected from the state police civil service eligibility roll. 
 
 The bill was a simple one and did not enter into a mass of detail which befogged 
 the basic issues. It simply granted an authority and then designated an agent of 
 the state, the South Park Commission, to draft a proper contract covering the de- 
 tails of the Exposition's occupation. While retaining to the state in no uncertain 
 terms its sovereign rights, it coincidentally assured to both the Park Board and 
 the Exposition freedom to meet every exigency that arose, without having its 
 legality questioned or put to test. One excellent provision was its grant of author- 
 ity to the State's Attorney to exercise the right of eminent domain in the Exposi- 
 tion's behalf. The fact that no need arose to utilize it did not invalidate its essen- 
 tial wisdom. 
 
 South Far\ Ordinance 
 
 With the Enabling Act passed, it was tempting to hasten on to the drafting of 
 the South Park Ordinance. The South Park and Exposition authorities, however, 
 were so imbued with the determination to avoid major mistakes, and to under- 
 stand completely every phase of the situation into which they were entering, 
 
 52 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 that almost a year was allowed to elapse before a contract was formally signed. 
 In the meantime, frequent and exhaustive discusiions relative to the problems 
 and progress had ensued, and these laid the firm foundations on which the future 
 relationship of these two bodies so satisfactorily rested. 
 
 Both the Commission and A Century of Progress turned to the exposition 
 agreements of 1893 as a starting point. They gave the general form, but local 
 conditions had changed to such an extent that pioneer work was necessary. 
 
 The essential spirit of the whole Ordinance, as it evolved, was the full recog- 
 nition of the superior governmental control inherent in the South Park Commis- 
 sion. While the Exposition was allowed full freedom of action, in the last analysis 
 it must be recognized that the Commission held a basic responsibility. However 
 sympathetic it was to the Fair's plans and appreciative of its problems, the same 
 test was always applied to each paragraph of the contract — namely, the effect on 
 these public lands which had been loaned to the Exposition. The yardstick was 
 that of public interest, and the Commission measured meticulously. To have 
 wished an alteration in this attitude towards the Exposition would not have been 
 even remotely possible, for the support through troublous times of a body so con- 
 stant to its responsibilities was fully appreciated. This spirit was determinedly 
 continued throughout 1934, when the several city park boards were consolidated 
 into one. 
 
 Illustrative of these points was the requirement by the Commission of the 
 building of a three-mile highway to replace the road which would be denied city 
 traffic with the enclosing of the Exposition grounds. Although somewhat ap- 
 palled by the necessity of constructing a diversion channel for the city traffic, the 
 Exposition was unable to deny the logic and justice of the Commission's position. 
 For the Commission felt it would not be fulfilling its obligation to the public 
 should it force more traffic onto the already overcrowded, adjacent city streets. 
 
 The Commission left no opportunity for the Exposition's possible failure to re- 
 bound on the park. The posting of a performance bond, within 30 days of the 
 acceptance of the Ordinance, was required. The amount of this was automati- 
 cally increased with each succeeding year up to the close of the Fair, as insurance 
 of its adherence to the terms of the Ordinance and indemnification against any 
 damage resulting from the use of the park grounds, or from abandonment of the 
 project before completion. 
 
 Looking also into the future, it provided that immediately after the close of the 
 Exposition the Commission might designate any of its structures or other works 
 desirable to maintain for park purposes, which were to be surrendered to them 
 within ninety days. All structures or works not so designated were to be removed 
 by the Exposition at its own expense, the park area to be restored to the same 
 condition as when turned over to the Exposition authorities. 
 
 It is not to be denied that, at the time, the stringency of the Exposition's finances 
 made these insurances a hardship. However, in retrospect, there were many com- 
 pensations. Permission to take over the area in small sections was granted. This 
 meant that it was unnecessary to establish an immediate guard force over the 
 
 THE SITE 53
 
 entire area or to incur many other overhead expenses. Use of the existing park 
 facilities, such as water and electric utilities, was allowed the Exposition wherever 
 it would not interfere with regular park services. These things, and later the 
 establishment of the Code Commission, under the jurisdiction of the park offi- 
 cials, instead of under the Exposition, gained a higher degree of public confidence 
 than would have been possible otherwise. 
 
 The spirit of understanding and cooperation shown by Mayor Edward J. Kelly, 
 then President of the Board of South Park Commissioners, and Mr. George T. 
 Donoghue, General Superintendent of the South Parks, was an important factor 
 in the success of the Fair. Consistent with their public responsibilities, they gave 
 a full measure of support to the Exposition. To them, and to the other officials 
 of the Park District who helped goes the deep appreciation of the Fair manage- 
 ment. 
 
 After the State Legislature had functioned and the South Park Commission 
 had acted, there was yet one more hurdle to take before the Exposition could 
 enter into the full enjoyment of its lease. Lake Michigan, as "navigable waters", is 
 under the jurisdiction of the Federal Government. Accordingly, while any num- 
 ber of pleasing plans might be drawn both for utilization and embellishment of 
 the lagoons and the lake shore, before any actual development of them could take 
 place, it was essential to obtain the permission of the U. S. War Department, 
 together with its approval of specific plans. 
 
 A question immediately raised was whether, even though acting under 
 an Ordinance of the South Park Commission, a private group could erect 
 temporary structures in the nature of bridges, or decorative features such as 
 fountains, within the harbor district. The Federal authorities cooperated with 
 the Exposition to the fullest extent here. Since the lagoons were of no use for 
 maritime shipping and similar purposes, they could hardly interfere with harbor 
 activities, and there was, therefore, no potential injury of public rights to require 
 challenge by the authorities. 
 
 It was fully appreciated that the Exposition's right to enclose the lagoons, even 
 as a matter of protecting life and property on its grounds, might be disputed. 
 Fortunately, the civic interest of the local group of yachtsmen, to whom the 
 free run of these lagoons would have been personally advantageous, was so 
 closely bound up with the welfare of the Exposition that this theoretical question 
 was never forced to a practical issue. 
 
 Determining Boundaries 
 
 When the time came for the consideration of boundaries, the fixing of the 
 western line was determined by the location of the Illinois Central right-of-way. 
 Provision was made for the diversion road to carry city traffic, as required in the 
 Ordinance, and the fence line then indicated as close to that as possible, for the 
 southern half of the grounds was very narrow, having a width of only a few 
 hundred feet. 
 
 The natural layout of the northern end fixed that boundary in general. The 
 
 54 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 inclusion of Grant Park to the north was attractive to contemplate, for that 
 area was already well landscaped and developed, even though its waterfront, 
 being an integral part of the activities within the harbor and subject, therefore, 
 to restrictions, would have occasioned an increase in complexities for the Exposi- 
 tion. That this idea had short life proved most fortunate in the long run, for 
 since the Field Museum and the Aquarium did not become a part of the 
 Exposition, their presence in this area would have created a serious obstacle 
 towards extension from Grant Park to the south. 
 
 Another disadvantage of the inclusion of Grant Park lay in a suit, pending 
 at the time, for the purpose of testing the right of an adjacent hotel, which 
 overlooked the park, to prevent the erection of a structure of sufficient height 
 to interfere with its view of the lake. The outcome of such a suit was prob- 
 lematical, and should any decision be greatly postponed, it would create an 
 unnecessary hazard to the prompt opening of the Exposition. 
 
 The northern entrance was later specifically determined in consultation with 
 the authorities of the Planetarium, the Aquarium, and the Field Museum. Each 
 of these institutions had footage reserved to avoid encroachment. The Plane- 
 tarium indicated its desire to be included within the Fair grounds, and boundary 
 lines were negotiated with the other institutions concerned. 
 
 To build a series of islands close to shore was an accepted part of the project 
 of the Chicago Plan Commission, and Northerly Island was the first of this 
 series. When it would be completed and others built was uncertain, yet 
 apparently not so far distant that such possibilities could be disregarded in 
 laying out the Fair grounds. From the architectural standpoint, an extension 
 of Northerly Island was highly desirable because it would result in modification 
 of the disproportionate length of the strip of land to its breadth, thus permitting 
 a better balance to the ground plan. The extension would also narrow the 
 lagoon opening to the lake, and hence make it safer for the small craft plying 
 between buildings. 
 
 By the time the South Park Commission contract was entered into, the 
 suggestion that the Exposition itself build islands was recognized as impossible. 
 Whatever was going to be done on the islands would determine how far south 
 it would be necessary to take the southern boundary of the Fair. These things 
 were finally weighed when the decision was made on the location of the Travel 
 and Transport Building. 
 
 The question of extension appeared definitely setded when, in the summer of 
 1929, a bond issue for the island's completion was duly voted. However, the 
 stock market collapsed and the beginnings of the depression were evident 
 before the island bond issue was marketed. Park authorities announced that 
 the bonds could not be legally sold for less than ninety-five, and it proved 
 impossible to obtain that figure. The completion of the island, therefore, hung 
 in the balance for two years. The dilemma was solved when the Fair purchased 
 sufficient bonds from the Park at ninety-five to complete the island and resold 
 them immediately at ninety-two and one half. 
 
 THE SITE 55
 
 The actual completion of the island was an ordinary construction job. The 
 extension comprised twelve acres of filled-in sand brought from the Michigan 
 and Indiana shores, eight to thirty miles away, by suction dredges and self- 
 unloading barges, and dumped into water from twelve to thirty feet deep. The 
 fill was made behind a bulkhead twenty feet wide consisting of fifty-four hundred 
 piles varying in length from forty-five to fifty-five feet, filled with sixty thousand 
 tons of small riprap stone, and capped with seven thousand tons of one to 
 five-ton co\'er stones. 
 
 The Site Was "Man-Made" Lafid 
 
 The three-mile by six-hundred-feet strip on which the Exposition was to be 
 built was an area of waste land, relieved only by clumps of weeds and an 
 occasional straggly poplar, with a narrow strip of planting along Leif Eriksen 
 Drive. It was entirely "man made". The fill above the lake bottom averaged 
 from twenty to thirty feet in depth and varied from a miscellaneous assortment 
 of junk and rubbish to good sand. Part of the site had been filled in by dumping 
 refuse, and under the surface were found rusty bed springs, tin cans, radiators 
 of old automobiles, discarded phonographs, coffee pots, odds and ends of every 
 description; even a submerged scow was encountered while piles were being 
 driven for the Foods and Agricultural Building. 
 
 Other parts of the site had been filled with sand taken from the bottom of 
 Lake Michigan and pumped into areas enclosed by bulkheads. Beneath the lake 
 level was a 45-foot layer of soft silt-like clay and sand, and under this was found 
 hard pan, or solid rock. A section from 14th to 16th Streets had been filled 
 from a borrow pit dug in the north lagoon. Obviously, such land created no 
 inconsiderable problem in the determination of foundations and construction 
 methods, and its difficulties were further aggravated by the capillary action 
 from the lake. 
 
 56 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 ^m 
 
 . ^m 
 
 Sculpture in Hall of Social Science. 
 
 A Concert in the Hall of Science Court. 
 
 ^BliBNi ■BK«iB^^^^ 

 
 General Exhibits Croup with Firestone in Background. 
 Decorative Features, Hall of Science.
 
 Chapter 5 
 
 GETTING READY TO WORK 
 
 When the first field force of the Exposition, a small group of surveyors, set 
 forward into their territory, the raw site of the Fair, they were confronted by 
 conditions so starkly primitive that the adjacency of Michigan Boulevard and the 
 teeming "Loop" might well have seemed an absurd unreality. There was but a 
 single road through this strip of land. Stepping off it, evidences of civilization 
 abruptly ceased, and feet sank into sand or mud and water. Among the riprap 
 along the shore, wharf rats scurried to cover. There were no electric lines except 
 along the Drive, and there was neither drinking water nor sewerage facilities. 
 
 Yet, somehow, before even the first elements of construction could begin, heavy 
 trucks must plow through this land, steel would have to be transported from the 
 railroad at the western boundary or through city traffic, some system of lighting 
 installed, some means of water supply established. It was a challenge which the 
 Exposition's trail blazers faced with pioneer sturdiness as they set themselves to 
 the task of overcoming each obstacle as it arose. 
 
 Since the continuous traffic along Leif Eriksen Drive would be obstructed by 
 the slow movement and the unloading of trucks along its length, it was recog- 
 nized that one of the early essentials was the construction of the diversion road re- 
 quired in the South Park Ordinance. With the consequent freeing of the drive 
 for Exposition purposes, there would be at least one avenue established for the 
 passage of equipment and materials. Later, as building sites were determined, 
 service roads leading to them would be constructed. 
 
 The trucking of materials into the grounds was fraught with potential diffi- 
 culties. Extra handling from train to truck of such supplies as came into the city 
 
 GETTING READY TO WORK 57
 
 by rail might result in appreciably greater expenses. The moving of heavy trucks 
 through the congested downtow^n districts w^ould involve considerable traffic 
 complications. 
 
 Once they w^ere inside the grounds, it was a matter of grave doubt that the type 
 of pavements contemplated could bear the burden of the heavier loads. The 
 answ^er to some of these problems was anticipated in the existence of a spur rail- 
 road track which, had been previously used in the construction of Soldier Field 
 and the Aquarium, at the north end of the park. 
 
 Lighting along the drive was provided from the regular park facilities. Fol- 
 lowing negotiations with the Park officials, arrangements were made for the 
 Exposition to meet its own immediate electrical demands through the temporary 
 use of the Park transformer vault in Soldier Field. This required no large capital 
 expenditure, and was a stopgap over the period when the needs which the com- 
 pleted system must fulfill were being analyzed. 
 
 Raw water, pumped from the lake, had been installed to supply the Park's 
 meager needs for landscaping, and this sufficed for the first construction require- 
 ments pending the evolution of the Exposition's own permanent system. 
 
 In spite of these primitive conditions, a population of several hundred indi- 
 viduals had existed for several years in this area, particularly on the edge of the 
 island. 
 
 Living in tin can shacks wedged between the rocks and among the few volun- 
 teer bushes which had sprung up, they somehow eked out an existence. The Fair's 
 introduction to the tact and efficiency of the South Park police was the consider- 
 ate but thorough manner with which that little colony of nomads was uprooted 
 when the grounds were later enclosed. 
 
 First Construction Contract 
 
 September 15, 1930, marked an important milestone in the Fair's history, for it 
 was on this day that the first construction contract was let. To have a roadway, 
 and that outside of the grounds, emerge as the first construction project was 
 Slightly deflating to both the staff of the Fair and the interested public who had 
 been indulging in roseate dreams of a blossoming panorama of buildings, gardens 
 and fountains. It was significantly indicative, however, of the vast amount of 
 effort and money which went under the ground and into utilities of which the 
 average visitor was to be completely oblivious. 
 
 Competition for this first contract was keen and there were some fears that the 
 low bidder would make up in "extras". But the quality of the work was so high, 
 and the dealings of the contractor so fair and cooperative, that eventually this 
 contractor did practically all the road work on the grounds. The type of con- 
 struction adopted was a macadam base with a natural rock-asphalt wearing 
 surface. 
 
 The approach of winter made time a vital consideration if the road were to be 
 ready for the next construction season. With unflagging determination, work 
 was carried on simultaneously at several points along the three-mile stretch. 
 
 58 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 When, on Dcxeniber 17th, the entire job was finished, there surged through 
 everyone a triumphant satisfaction, tor the stage was now set lor the beginning ot 
 operations, and the Fair was in a position to take over the site. 
 
 Nearness to Railroad Helpful 
 
 The location adjacent to a railroad proved exceptionally fortunate for a number 
 of reasons. Much of the powered equipment required in the early construction 
 operations was so heavy that its passage over the new roads involved too great a 
 risk. What could well have been a formidable impediment was resolved through 
 negotiations with the Illinois Central Railroad, which resulted in permission to 
 bring such equipment through its yards, after the Fair had agreed to hold the 
 railroad harmless in case of accidents. 
 
 Arrangements were made with the Illinois Central and the Park Board for the 
 retention of the spur track to the north of the grounds. Tracks were laid into 
 the south end of the grounds to the Travel and Transport site, and to service the 
 freight station, later built by the Exposition. 
 
 During the pressure period before the opening of the Exposition, all available 
 track space was in use and as many as 82 freight cars arrived in a single day. In 
 all, 4,698 cars were switched in before the opening of the Fair on May 27, 1933. 
 
 Temporary Facilities Installed 
 
 The problems of light, water and toilets had to be solved from day to day. 
 Temporary power was brought into the southern end of the grounds from the 
 Commonwealth Edison station at 31st Street, and Soldier Field supplied the 
 northern end, while, for Northerly Island, a temporary submerged cable was laid 
 across the lagoon. 
 
 Water for drinking purposes was hauled in. Construction needs were met 
 from the existing Park water system during the summer months. However, this 
 had not been built to meet either heavy demands on it, or a rigorous winter 
 season. More than one contractor pumped directly from Lake Michigan, and a 
 particularly enterprising one even installed a system and sold the lake water direct 
 to his associates. 
 
 The first winter exposed another urgent need. When the snows melted away 
 it was found that the winter storms and ice had played havoc along the shore 
 line. Several areas were seriously eroded, and it was obvious that this must be 
 checked in order to carry out the general ground plan being developed. The 
 Park authorities were quite as much interested in this as the Exposition, and the 
 two groups combined their resources to provide heavy riprap wherever that would 
 suffice. At one or two points, where the shoreline was exposed to the full force 
 of the waves, more effective protection was required. 
 
 GETTING READY TO WORK 59
 
 Chapter 6 
 
 ARCHITECTURE INTERPRETS THE THEME 
 
 Theme and purpose having been determined, A Century of Progress turned to 
 consideration of its tangible outward form. The architecture of an exposition 
 implants first impressions and, being omnipresent, continues to impress itself on 
 the visitors' consciousness. 
 
 The classical architecture of its predecessors which had satisfied the tastes of 
 their generations and influenced architectural designs of succeeding periods, was 
 not indicated for A Century of Progress. This should be radically novel. The 
 millions of people who come many miles- to see world's fairs are lured by some- 
 thing not encountered in the routine of their daily lives. The architecture should 
 key the theme of the Exposition — in this case the application of science to indus- 
 try. It should create structures most suitable for the purpose for which they were 
 designed, and express the spirit of its own time. 
 
 While each structure must integrate these qualities, it must form part of a co- 
 ordinated whole, vast in scale, inspiring in the massed efTect and capable of trans- 
 porting the visitor to a fairyland dream-world. Yet, underlying it all, and largely 
 hidden, must be the facilities of a great mundane city, vv'ith such practical things 
 as water pumping stations, sewers, transformer vaults and surface drains. 
 
 While the philosophy directing the pattern of its architecture was early estab- 
 lished, many unknowns made its achievement a matter of dailv concern, for an 
 exposition is confronted with a myriad of problems not normal to more conven- 
 tional construction. The size of each building and the number would depend 
 upon the extent to which exhibitors could be induced to take space. The arrange- 
 ment of the interiors would hinge upon the type of exhibits housed, and these 
 
 60 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 would vary in size from the Hope diamond to a giant electric locomotive. The 
 amount of money that would be available ultimately was subject only to specula- 
 tion. 
 
 While the answers to these questions, vital to every phase of the project, would 
 not become definitely known until a few days before the opening date, construc- 
 tion must start three years in advance. A modus operandi must then be formu- 
 lated which, while meeting the basic needs, would be flexible enough to absorb 
 and adjust to the daily vicissitudes. With time always of the essence, with a lixed 
 zero hour, with multitudinous details of interdependence tending to distract from 
 the main course, with a credit that must be maintained, the plan must preclude 
 interruptions to a swift and sure prosecution, yet permit the widest latitude in 
 avoiding obstacles or taking advantage of fortuitous opportunities. It would be 
 easier to change direction than velocity, for a lost momentum is difficult of restora- 
 tion while a course may be altered with slight if any loss of speed. 
 
 The Architectural Commission 
 
 In the halls of the Administration Building expression was frequently given to 
 the thought that "a kindly Providence looks over us and guides our destiny". It 
 was certainly applicable to the selection of the Architectural Commission. Drawn 
 from the far corners of the country and chosen with the conscious desire to find 
 men who had "eminence as designers; capability as demonstrated in existing 
 buildings of their creation; and ability to cooperate", they gave a full measure of 
 loyal and unselfish service. Theirs was a doubly difficult task. While never for a 
 moment yielding in their desire for an exposition of the highest architectural 
 caliber, they met the practical problems of construction and the exigencies of many 
 a desperate situation, with a whole-hearted and understanding spirit. They were 
 fully conscious of the financial stringency and were willing to apply these finan- 
 cial policies to themselves, for they were the first to volunteer to accept due pay- 
 ments in gold notes. As a dream came toppling tor want of money to realize it, 
 they caught up its fragments to make the best that was possible with the funds 
 that could be spared. 
 
 Announcement of the appointment of the Architectural Commission was made 
 by President Dawes on March 2, 1928. It was composed of Harvey Wiley Corbett 
 of New York as Chairman; Paul Philippe Cret of Philadelphia; Raymond Hood 
 of New York; Arthur Brown, Jr., of San Francisco; Ralph T. Walker of 
 New York and John A. Holabird, Edward H. Bennett, and Hubert Burnham 
 of Chicago. Later Daniel H. Burnham, Joseph Urban, and Ferruccio Vitale were 
 made members of the Commission. Alfred Geiffert, Jr. of New York was ap- 
 pointed after Mr. Vitale's death. Dr. Allen D. Albert served as secretary of the 
 commission. 
 
 Early Architectural Problems 
 
 In expositions of the past, palaces of plaster had risen in stately processions, 
 with rooms and ceilings impressive in their size and height, but with little regard 
 
 ARCHITECTURE INTERPRETS THE THEME 61
 
 and seldom proper planning tor the kind and size of exhibits they were to house. 
 
 It was early decided to cast off the shackles of the past and give a new freedom 
 to design, particularly one which would serve the practical purpose of providing 
 buildings suited in form and size to their primary requirement — the display of 
 exhibits. With architectural requirements based on exhibit demands, the effective- 
 ness would depend on planes and surfaces, as a background for the decorative 
 effects of color and light, and the animated pattern of crowds of people moving 
 at various levels on ramps and terraces. The architecture would give buildings, 
 designed to create an effect based primarily on usefulness. New elements of con- 
 struction, the products of science and industry, would be the vehicles of achieve- 
 ment. 
 
 The first meeting of the Commission was held in Chicago on May 23, 1928, 
 and soon after the architects presented a statement to the Board of Trustees in 
 which they outlined some of these thoughts: 
 
 "The architecture of the buildings and grounds in 1933 will illustrate in definite 
 form the development of the art of architecture since the great Fair of 1893, not 
 only in America but in the world at large. 
 
 "New elements of construction, products of modern invention and science will 
 be the factors of architectural composition. Artificial light, the tremendous pro- 
 gress of which has astonished all designers in recent years, will become an in- 
 herent component of the architectural composition. The extraordinary opportu- 
 nities of the site for the use of water as an intrinsic element of the composition 
 will be developed to the maximum". 
 
 Site and Building Layout 
 
 The architects looked over the suggested site on the lake front, and found it 
 different in shape from that of any previous exposition. It was long and narrow — 
 about three miles from end to end, and it varied in width from about 100 yards 
 to half a mile. It was all "made" land, which a few years before had been fathoms 
 under the surface of Lake Michigan. An island of about eighty acres — Northerly 
 Island — lay abreast the mainland from 12th Street south; an addition, yet to be 
 built, would carry it as far as 23rd Street. Between the mainland and the island 
 was a lagoon. 
 
 The architects were told they could develop plans as they thought best. They 
 went back to their respective offices and studied the problems of site and building 
 layout. It was an assignment such as an architect seldom receives. The site, as to 
 size, shape and location, was still indefinite, for while a location in Burnham 
 Park had been promised, many months were to elapse before enabling legislation 
 and a South Park Ordinance would convey a right to use the ground. An as- 
 sumption that a fill might be made on Northerly Island to round out the queer, 
 re-entrant angle on the southeast side caused a misconception of the available area, 
 and resulted in an abandonment of the first ground layouts. 
 
 A harbor line had been established by the complicated, four-party "Ordinance 
 of 1919", which would have required years to change. Not even an approximation 
 
 62 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 could be given of the amount of money that would be available, and conjecture 
 as to the number, size, and use of prospective buildings would still be years in 
 coming. It was as indefinite a problem as architects have ever been called upon to 
 solve, and it is not to be wondered that it was late in 1929 before their plans bore 
 any resemblance to what actually transpired. 
 
 Establishment of Definite Style 
 
 To achieve startling originality, a prime requisite in a world's fair, the imagii^a- 
 tion was given full sway. With heads in the clouds there were dreams of jeweled 
 skyscrapers, pits a mile deep, moving sidewalks, and chains of picturesque islands 
 strung pearl-like along Lake Michigan's shore. This was in the early days of 
 1928 and 1929, during those first meetings in the studio atop the Burnham Build- 
 ing where carved in stone over the massive fireplace was the inspiring charge of 
 Daniel H. Burnham, builder of the World's Columbian Exposition of 1893: 
 "Make no little plans — They have no magic to stir men's blood and probably 
 themselves will not be realized — Make big plans — Aim high in hope and 
 work remembering that a noble — logical diagram once recorded will never 
 die — but long after we are gone will be a living thing — asserting itself with 
 ever growing insistency — Remember that our sons and grandsons are going 
 to do things that would stagger us — Let your watchword be order and 
 your beacon beauty". 
 
 Through the years that followed dreams dissolved in favor of practicalities and 
 the pattern was gradually fitted together. But there were many pieces which, 
 while good of themselves, did not belong; some too costly, some impractical, some 
 that just did not fit. Much of the study of the first two years indicated what not 
 to do. Real progress was made when the great truth dawned that if something 
 had been successful at a previous fair, it should be scrutinized all the more cau- 
 tiously if its use was contemplated at A Century of Progress. If it were the cor- 
 rect solution for one set of conditions, the probability was it would not meet the 
 needs of a quite different set. The few times that this was short-circuited in favor 
 of precedent brought regrets. Since the great fairs of the past there had been 
 radical changes in physicial conditions and ways of thinking. Differences in cli- 
 mate, location, transportation facilities, method of financing, management and 
 media of publicity made the problem one for original study. Above all, people 
 were more traveled, more sophisticated, less easily thrilled. 
 
 While all this was borne out by the experience of operation, there was one 
 factor which failed to receive its due weight. Through the ages, human nature 
 does not change basically. In the constant quest for that which was new, many 
 things which are forever new were overlooked, the simple, homely things which 
 have stirred the emotions from time immemorial. While a realization was dawn- 
 ing, it did not come in full force until early in 1934, when a circus was tried out 
 on the lagoon theater. Engaged as a filler for a week, it remained all summer as 
 one of the best attended attractions. Ponies jumping through hoops to the crack- 
 ing whip of a high-hatted ring-master. Dogs walking on their hind legs and 
 
 ARCHITECTURE INTERPRETS THE THEME 63
 
 turning somersaults — Farmer Cornta'ssel with his mule and a red-bearded police- 
 man. Slapstick comedy which had brought the same gales of laughter from their 
 great grandparents. 
 
 As they struggled through 1928 and the early part of 1929, the Commission's 
 first efforts were on a general style and ground plan. 
 
 Inspired by a desire to summate these attributes, the architectural commission 
 labored through a maze of classical and modernistic design. Their firm establish- 
 ment of a definite style was their greatest achievement. 
 
 Each submitted an independently arrived at scheme for the consideration of 
 the group, and it was decided to select the best elements of each suggestion and 
 combine them as far as possible. 
 
 The Plan Asymmetrical 
 
 All of the early sketches had stressed vertical architecture, and all were sym- 
 metrical, following in this respect the tradition of former expositions. It was a 
 dramatic moment in the history of the Exposition when, at a meeting of the com- 
 missioners in the fall of 1929, Raymond Hood presented a plan radically different 
 from any that had been previously submitted. It was unsymmetrical. The balance 
 of tower with tower and pillar with pillar was absent. The decision to accept it 
 was made, not without much discussion, for its fundamental soundness was 
 manifest. And so they embarked on a radical departure in exposition architec- 
 ture, as they broke from the time-honored traditions of balance and classical sym- 
 metry. It was prompted by a desire for an architectural style which was practical 
 for the utilization of the new materials of construction and better adapted to the 
 geography of the site. Yet its most important attribute lay in the fact that an 
 asymmetrical plan permitted an unprecedented elasticity. 
 
 When the clouds of financial uncertainty rolled up in the years that followed, it 
 permitted a maximum of flexibility in the utilization of scant resources. It did not 
 demand the slavish adherence to the previous commitments of the symmetrical 
 plan where features must be duplicated. In the words of Ralph Walker, "If you 
 would express the aspirations of science in a general composition, that composi- 
 tion must express the variety of science". Had this decision not been made, it is 
 difficult to see how the task of completing the Exposition could have been suc- 
 cessfully accomplished. 
 
 The flexibility of the asymmetrical plan proved its value in other respects. In- 
 tensive studies of the city's arteries and transportation facilities adjacent to the site 
 indicated strategic locations for entrances, but these had to be co-ordinated with 
 the crowd-circulating system within the grounds. In addition it was realized that 
 both would have to be adjusted after they had been subjected to the test of the 
 crowds. It is easier to conform to the natural movement of masses of people than 
 battle to get them to move as you might think best. The final boundaries and 
 shape of the site were not fixed until many buildings were under construction. 
 The non-rigid ground plan made it easy to alter the area without doing violence 
 to work already in progress. 
 
 64 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 Building Heights 
 
 Exposition buildings were designed for two primary rcquircnients, the first, to 
 meet the demands ot exhibitors who were to purchase space in them, and second, 
 to offer the maximum in comfort and convenience to the visitors. These were 
 coupled with the problems of producing an exterior of interest compelling beauty, 
 at a cost of construction so low that they might be amortized in the few months 
 of revenue producing operation. 
 
 To achieve an imposing and stately beauty the early sketches of the buildings 
 for A Century of Progress were towering structures of many stories. To meet the 
 objections of exhibitors, whose experience had taught them that visitors would 
 not go above the ground floor, ingenious devices were conceived to maintain an 
 equal flow of traffic at the different levels. Principal among them were elevated 
 entrances which would bring the visitors in at an upper level by an overhead 
 intramural transportation system. Ramps with gentle gradients and with exhibits 
 on either side were to lure visitors to upper levels. Balconies with comfortable 
 seats and gay flowers were to entice them up for a better view over the grounds, 
 and thence to the exhibits on the upper floors. 
 
 Practical considerations forced the elimination of most of these plans, and ex- 
 perience in the construction of the earliest buildings showed the way for later 
 ones. In spite of a ramp and the moving stairs of a modern escalator, the second 
 floor of the Travel and Transport Building proved disappointing. Few exhibitors 
 were willing to risk the hazards of a second floor; and this, coupled with the 
 greater heat and an access which was not natural, caused its virtual abandonment 
 the second year. On the other hand, the second floors of the Hall of Science and 
 the General Exhibits Group proved of equal interest to the first. 
 
 Largely contributing to this were the science exhibits, the real keynote of the 
 Fair, located on the second floor, but the buildings themselves were admirably 
 designed for the dual levels. A third floor in the Hall of Science was not opened 
 to the public because of the fire hazard. The solution, which finally proved to be 
 the best, was a half second floor somewhat like a mezzanine, where exhibits and 
 visitors might be seen from one floor to the other, thus inducing vertical move- 
 ments of traffic. 
 
 Size of Structures 
 
 No problem was more perplexing than that of size, and almost invariably orig- 
 inal designs of a building were far too large. The greater the space the more 
 difficulty there would be in filling it with creditable exhibits, especially of a cate- 
 gory, and great restraint was required to refrain from filling vast vacant spaces 
 with exhibits of poor quality or out of character. What few objectionable ones 
 crept in to the Exposition were largely attributable to the horror of a partially 
 filled building. 
 
 The General Exhibits Group was a satisfactory answer to this dilemma. Built 
 in a series of similar units, a few at a time, it could he extended to meet the 
 
 ARCHITECTURE INTERPRETS THE THEME 65
 
 needs that eventuated. Having ceilings of varying heights and an interior column 
 arrangement giving maximum facility in accommodating exhibit booths of differ- 
 ent sizes, and v^^ith many prominent entrances, it proved attractive to exhibitors 
 and visitors alike. It was a solution to that difficult architectural problem of pro- 
 viding a structure capable of indefinite expansion, yet highly usable, attractive, 
 and appearing finished at whatever size it happened to be stopped. Flexibility 
 must be the dominant factor in exposition building design. 
 
 Windowless Buildings 
 
 Sunlight for daytime illumination of buildings is a variable factor. Windows 
 sufficient for a bright day give a cathedral-like gloom on cloudy ones. In large 
 buildings there is a wide difference in light near the walls and in the center of the 
 rooms, and there is difficulty in stepping up the intensity of illumination near en- 
 trances where the eyes of visitors have not yet become adjusted from the bright 
 light outdoors. Sunlight frequendy comes from the wrong direction, shining into 
 the eyes, rather than upon the objects it is to illuminate. 
 
 Artificial light gives a controlled efifect; exactly the correct amount of illumina- 
 tion, whether it be general or to accentuate a particular spot, may be determined 
 by the use of photometers. Each area in a building may be studied for its proper 
 light balance, each exhibit may be set off to the best advantage, and objectionable 
 shadows or glare may be eliminated. 
 
 But, in addition, windowless buildings effected an important economy in con- 
 struction and permitted a more flexible arrangement of interiors. Sash and win- 
 dowglass are expensive, and entail considerable labor in setting. Long strips of 
 factory-made exterior wall material, in standard widths, may be economically and 
 swiftly applied on evenly spaced studding that runs without break from ceiling to 
 floor. It permitted great flexibility; a building might be altered or enlarged to 
 accommodate an exhibitor and do minimum violence to the original design. It 
 offered a better opportunity to mold buildings to fit the peculiar nature of the 
 site. 
 
 The desirable intimacy of the closed booth for the best showing of exhibits 
 could be had without considering window-spacing — a particularly important 
 point when a building must be designed before the size and shape of the booths 
 have been determined. And, of course, it gave more wall space for diagrams or 
 hanging exhibits. The elimination of skylights and windows offered an unpre- 
 cedented opportunity for bold adventure in the decorating of interior surfaces, 
 even as it complicated the problem of exterior treatment. 
 
 Windowless buildings require additional wiring and ventilating systems. But 
 at A Century of Progress this did not entail extra expense, for the buildings were 
 kept open until ten o'clock at night. Forced air would have been necessary, any- 
 way, to relieve the oppression of the summer sun and to give fresh air to the 
 visitors, who frequently swarmed every nook and cranny. 
 
 In restaurants, utility buildings, and various other structures through the 
 grounds, windows had their place. It must not be assumed that under certain 
 
 66 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 I 
 
 conditions windows are not better adapted for exhibit display than artificial light. 
 For instance, in an indoor horticultural display only the sun can give flowers 
 their delicate hues. 
 
 Use of New Materials 
 
 In their normal development, innovations in building construction arc slow in 
 finding general public acceptance. Architects are loath to specify for their clients 
 untried materials or methods, especially in permanent buildings, where mistakes 
 may point an accusing finger for many years to come. Without elaborate adver- 
 tising campaigns new things are slow in achieving public attention. A Century of 
 Progress offered a unique opportunity to serve as a testing ground. Both the 
 theme of the Exposition and the dictates of economy indicated that the latest 
 which science had to offer should be an integral part of the physical layout. De- 
 velopments which did not prove up in service would be demolished and forgotten 
 in a few months. Those which did would be brought to the attention of millions 
 of people. 
 
 Prior to 1930, the research laboratories of the large corporations had been work- 
 ing at top speed to meet a highly competitive field. With the cessation of general 
 buying, occasioned by the depression, the talent in these organizations became 
 available for a consideration of the Exposition's problems, and were ready and 
 eager to tackle the task. Working in close cooperation with the staff of the Works 
 Department, literally hundreds of innovations were developed to meet the Exposi- 
 tion's special needs. 
 
 New wall coverings and methods of fastening; unheard of uses of standard 
 materials slightly altered for a new role; raceways for electric conduits of low cost 
 and great ease of access; water pipes of amazing thinness, welded in the trench; 
 bar joints; roofing and flooring materials; indirect gaseous tube illumination for 
 architectural effect; and a host of others found their places. Not all were success- 
 ful, but many made outstanding contributions to construction and greatly influ- 
 enced future projects. But it is certain that, in the aggregate, they effected a sav- 
 ing of hundreds of thousands of dollars, and gave such promise as to be accepted 
 and followed almost in their entirety by exhibitors and concessionaires in their 
 own buildings. That large corporations were willing to embody them in their 
 own construction gave promise of their permanent value. 
 
 Taking into consideration the diversity of the requirements, such as short life 
 of building, probable need of alteration, adequate fire resistance, foundation con- 
 ditions on the site and severe lake front weather, comparative cost studies were 
 made of various types of construction. They pointed to the use of construction 
 methods and materials permitting a maximum employment of machinery during 
 processing and erecting in order to avoid the greatly increased cost of hand labor. 
 Particularly to be avoided was hand shaping in the field, so, wherever possible, 
 material arrived on the site in such form as only to require setting in place. 
 
 A standard steel frame for the buildings was adopted with connections and end 
 plates in place, riveted at the mill, and field connections were bolted, where prac- 
 
 ARCHITECTURE INTERPRETS THE THEME 67
 
 tical, in order to facilitate demolition. However, rivets and welding were fre- 
 quently used. Wall coverings which could be applied in large sheets, such as 
 gypsum board, plywood, transite and sheet metal, were adopted. The difficult 
 problem of weather protection, which they presented, was solved in ingenius 
 ways, principal among which was the thorough impregnation with a priming 
 material at the mill. 
 
 Ejects of Finances on Architecture 
 
 The first buildings were erected from the original proceeds of the bond issue. 
 The Administration Building was the initial effort, suggested by the desirability of 
 the stall's actually working on the grounds, and also by the dictates of economy, 
 as the rent saved from loop offices would be sufficient to amortize its cost. Fort 
 Dearborn was second. It was selected because it was believed that in any plan its 
 log walls, contrasting with the skyline of Chicago, would best epitomize the hun- 
 dred years of the city's development. Opened to the public on May 16, 1931, at a 
 small charge, the revenue from pre-Fair admissions nearly equalled the sum ex- 
 pended on it. 
 
 Next came the Travel and Transport Building, inspired by overenthusiastic 
 hopes of substantial support from the transportation companies. Its location pre- 
 sented a more perplexing problem, and became the subject of much serious dis- 
 cussion. To assure a better grouping of large buildings with limited funds, the 
 23rd Street area, or the southern end of the Island, seemed a more logical place 
 than 31st Street. It took courage and confidence to place it nearly two miles from 
 the nearest structure then in contemplation. How could the intervening ground 
 be filled? The wisdom of the decision and its far reaching influence became evi- 
 dent as the opening date neared. Without the substantial evidence, which this 
 location gave, that the Exposition believed that an area the size then outlined 
 could be filled with people, it is highly doubtful if exhibitors could have been 
 persuaded to erect the magnificent structures that were grouped near it, and in- 
 evitably the size of the Exposition would have been materially reduced. Caution 
 had to be tempered by courage. 
 
 The Hall of Science, originally conceived as a building for general exhibits, 
 became the third, and last, of the structures largely financed from bonds which 
 had been sold for cash. 
 
 The rest of the Exposition's own structures were built mainlv with moneys re- 
 ceived from the sale of exhibit space, with bonds taken for services and materials 
 and promissory notes to be met out of operating income. These are fully dis- 
 cussed in the chapter on financing, and are mentioned here only to indicate 
 their effect on architecture and construction. 
 
 A large portion of the exhibit space was paid for when the contract was signed; 
 in some cases as much as two years before the Exposition opened. In effect, this 
 created a revolving building fund. With money received for space in buildings, 
 such as the Travel and Transport Building and the Hall of Science, other build- 
 ings could be erected. This plan proved so acceptable in practice that eventually 
 
 68 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 exhibit space was selling not only in buildings under construction, but in struc- 
 tures not yet started. As a matter of fact, before the foundations were laid for 
 the Foods and Agriculture Building and the General Exhibits Group, $600,000 
 had been received from exhibitors who had purchased space in these buildings. 
 
 Building Details Follow Actual Needs 
 
 The development of the details of the architectural plans followed actual needs 
 as they arose, though at times this precipitated a struggle between the practical 
 and the aesthetic. Ihe primary need was for exhibit buildings, so the greatest 
 consideration was properly accorded them. Each was designed from the inside 
 out, but built from the outside in. Painstaking care was exercised in developing 
 architectural details contributing to the best display of the exhibits — still an in- 
 definite quantity, for no one could yet see specific exhibit needs. But there were 
 many fundamenial conditions applicable in general, and permitting of later 
 changes, as experience and circumstances demanded. In previous fairs the major 
 exhibition buildings had been designed for their outer architectural effectiveness 
 without specific consideration for the use of the interior space. The exteriors of 
 the buildings of A Century of Progress were designed to conform to the probable 
 interior usage. 
 
 This study included such items as ceiling heights, aisle widths and arrangement, 
 column spacing for booths, supply of various utilities, circulation of crowds, ease 
 of ingress — and how to make the visitor comfortable. If he were physically at 
 ease, and could be given some respite from the foot-sore miles, so much the greater 
 his ability to assimilate whatever the exhibits had to oflfer. For such as he, lounges, 
 rest rooms, protection from inclement weather, ramps, and easy stairs were 
 planned. In turn, and concurrently, all these became subjects of the architectural 
 hour. 
 
 While the interiors were studied first, actually they were constructed last, but 
 based on known and average needs, an exterior was designed which would not do 
 violence to or prevent a final interior arrangement acceptable to future purchasers 
 of exhibit space. So the original contract on practically all exhibit buildings was 
 let for the foundations, exterior walls, and roof only. Subsequently, and in some 
 cases more than a year after the exterior had been accepted, contracts were let for 
 interior wall covering, flooring, partitions, insulation, electric wiring, and other 
 utilities. This system permitted the major part of the work to be out of the way, 
 yet held off until the last moment the interior arrangements, when exhibit plans 
 were better developed. The preliminary studies gave a "shell" with the utmost 
 flexibility to meet exhibitors' needs. It also meshed in with the financial scheme 
 as it broke contracts into smaller units, which could be met with funds in hand. 
 
 Flexibility the Great Need 
 
 It was not always possible to anticipate all the factors involved. For example, 
 in the Hall of Science, the space arrangement left much to be desired in placing 
 science demonstrations logically and in sequence. It had been originally designed 
 
 ARCHITECTURE INTERPRETS THE THEME 69
 
 for other purposes, as it was first contemplated that the Hall of Science would be 
 astride the 16th Street bridge over the lagoon. However, in such instances, early 
 deficiences in planning for unknown exhibit schedules were simply a challenge to 
 meet the emergency by other means. The price paid for this once in a while was 
 staggering, notably in the Electrical Group. 
 
 In buildings of later design, such as the Foods and Agriculture and those of 
 the General Exhibits, better preparation was made to meet developing conditions, 
 some normal rearrangements, others exasperating, and to allow for considerable 
 expansion without adversely affecting the architectural design of either the build- 
 ing or the surrounding group, if the sale of space justified it. 
 
 The need of flexibility was illustrated nowhere better than in the States Build- 
 ing. Rather than have separate pavilions for each state it was early decided, in the 
 interest both of economy and architectural harmony, to house all in one great 
 building, assigning to each self-contained sections varying in size from 2,000 to 
 ]0,CCO square feet. This arrangement, so different from the individualistic dis- 
 plays of previous expositions, was readily accepted. Grouped around the Govern- 
 ment building these states sections seemed to epitomize the Federal Union, and 
 to give architectural expression to a national thought. 
 
 The original plans were drawn for twenty-eight states, and this may have been 
 a little optimistic in the light of state participation in other fairs. Before the build- 
 ing was completed, there were forty-four states which had taken official action 
 looking towards participation. Not daring to believe that all of them could con- 
 summate their plans, the design was increased to accommodate forty states. As 
 the depression deepened and the various commonwealths felt its force, it became 
 obvious that fewer than this would actually present exhibits, so the plans were 
 changed again to thirty-two states. 
 
 This elasticity of design, which permitted a constant shifting to meet actual 
 conditions even after construction had started, was a strong factor in the eventual 
 ability of the Exposition to close with a surplus. 
 
 In the intelligent execution of the architectural plans, no better trio could have 
 been found than C. W, Farrier, Louis Skidmore, and N. A. Owings, who brought 
 to their problems a freshness of approach, an enthusiasm, and a skill that often 
 approached the miraculous. When the design days were past, each took up other 
 duties at the Fair where they were equally successful. 
 
 The "Necessity Policy" 
 
 Many months before the actual construction began the "necessity policy" was 
 initiated in the architectural field. Lists of all structures desirable were made in 
 the order of their preference. They were divided into three classifications: first, 
 those necessary before the gates could open; second, those which would so much 
 improve the plan of the Fair that they would assuredly produce an income above 
 their cost; third, those which were in the nature of embellishments and refine- 
 ments pleasing to the eye. Every proposal was measured by the "necessity" yard- 
 stick, and as funds became available they were allotted on this schedule. 
 
 70 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 It was inevitable that there should be suggestions made lor novel and compli- 
 cated devices. Among those which seemed worthy of detailed study were a geo- 
 logic mountain, moving sidewalks, a monorail intramural transportation system, 
 and routing the buses through the second story of buildings and on viaducts to 
 assure that upper floors would be visited, and to afford trafTic separation. 
 
 They were eliminated either because of the expense which would have been 
 out of proportion to the benefit or because of the uncertainty of their operation and 
 the cost of maintenance. It was well enough to experiment and pioneer on items 
 which would not jeopardize the functioning of the Exposition, but on utilities and 
 essentials there must be certainty of continuous operation. With the daily crowds 
 of an exposition there can be no time-out for repairs, and nothing to cause appre- 
 hension. Though the rocket cars on the Skyride stopped only a few times, those 
 stoppages caused considerable agitation. 
 
 Much publicity was given in the early days to a "chain of man-made islands". 
 A letter apparendy serious, from an Alabama farmer, caused much amusement. 
 It read, "I see in the papers that you are going to build a lot of islands. Well, I 
 have a lake on my farm, and in the middle of it there's an island about two acres 
 in size which I would be glad to sell you cheaply, as I have no boat or bridge to 
 it." The obvious answer of "F O B site" was not made. 
 
 Visits of members of the stafif to foreign expositions had created a strong senti- 
 ment against numerous, small detached buildings, so common abroad as well as 
 in previous American fairs. Every effort was made to eliminate the "hot dog" 
 stand type of equipment. Outdoor concession booths were grouped in banks of 
 six or more, and styled to conform to their surroundings. Ticket booths, kiosks, 
 utility buildings, and the many small structures necessary to the operation of a 
 fair were, wherever practical, similarly treated. A minimum size was set for free 
 standing buildings, constructed by either exhibitors or concessionaires. 
 
 Little Change frojjj First Plan 
 
 Although many dreams had crashed to earth, there were, on the opening day 
 only two structures missing from the grounds which had been on the clay model 
 of the Commission's ground plan in 1930. 
 
 It had been a fond hope to have the Hall of Science stand in the middle of the 
 lagoon. The early design was so drawn, but in estimating the cost it was obvious 
 that it could not be done without sacrificing other essential construction. The re- 
 sult was that Paul Cret's building on the shore was utilized for the Hall of 
 Science, 
 
 The second item, and keenly desired, was Ralph Walker's Tower of Water and 
 Light at the south end of the lower lagoon. This was sketched as a lofty structure, 
 cascading water down the length of its three surfaces, and would have been an 
 impressive edifice. Because of its great cost, which could not be met through sale 
 of space within it, and the hazards of the technical uncertainties inherent in such 
 large quantities of water, it remained unbuilt. At the same time, the plans for 
 the Sk yride took definite shape and form. 
 
 ARCHITECTURE INTERPRETS THE THEME 71
 
 From the standpoint of beauty the SkyriJe could not substitute for what the 
 Tower of Water and Light would have been, but it served somewhat the same 
 purpose in the architectural plan by affording a dominant feature and by arousing 
 public interest in its unusual construction. 
 
 During the construction period many harsh criticisms were directed at the 
 architecture rising in embryonic nakedness. To the Administration building was 
 applied the criticism: "a factory building with a wash-board front and with paint 
 peeling as though with leprosy", and to the Travel and Transport Building: "a 
 gas lank coupled to a barn". 
 
 Public acceptance was slow, for the style depended on completeness to achieve 
 its effect. 
 
 On opening day the public response was more of awe and amazement rather 
 than an appreciation of beauty but, as the summer wore on sentiment gradually 
 changed. 
 
 An interesting comment, made more than once was "The 1934 edition is much 
 more beautiful than the 1933 Fair". It is doubtful if the improvements, as im- 
 portant as they were, could accomplish so great a change. It is more probable 
 that as people became used to the style and, through much association, had be- 
 come friendly to it, those things which at first seemed grotesque or shocking, be- 
 came lovely. 
 
 Appreciation of beauty is influenced by habit and association. Of course, there 
 were many who remained unconvinced. 
 
 72 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 Chapter y 
 
 COLOR VITALIZES ARCHITECTURE 
 
 Carnival of color, brilliant and startling, was the flame that caught and blended 
 into one dramatic whole the strangely structured and informally arranged archi- 
 tectural plan of A Century of Progress. Color was the common denominator of 
 the outward and visible aspect of the Exposition. It gave life to materials not in- 
 herently attractive and provided the bright setting and fiesta spirit so essential to 
 a world's fair. 
 
 Every architectural era is a summation of the solutions of the problems con- 
 fronting the people of its time. Since available materials and methods of con- 
 struction radically affect its form, the machine age produced fundamental ad- 
 vances in both. 
 
 The architect of each of the Exposition buildings interpreted these new mate- 
 rials in an individual fashion. Without the classical factors of columns, cornices, 
 and porticos in the composition such as had correlated the structure of other 
 American fairs, and with a general style which resolved itself into a study of 
 mass and silhouette, something was required to give it unity. The gay blending 
 quality of color was the covering answer. 
 
 Study had been given to the color of former expositions. White which blazoned 
 the Columbian Exposition as the "Great White City", creates a glare in the lake 
 front sun that becomes trying to the eyes. An architecture of great surfaces re- 
 quires color and variety of color for emphasis and interest. The imitated stone in 
 travertine buff used at the 1915 San Francisco Fair was not suitable here where 
 color was to be used as a material and not to imitate a material. The pastel shades 
 
 COLOR VITALIZES ARCHITECTURE 73
 
 of other fairs received more serious consideration, but, lacking resistance to the 
 sun, these soon fade and show dirt and stain. 
 
 Paint Becomes an Architectural Asset 
 
 Turning the drab necessity of paint into an architectural asset was considered 
 from the beginning, and color was destined to be used for its own intrinsic 
 value as an architectural medium and as an integral part of the design. Actually, 
 the cost of coloring brilliandy for effect was little more than would have been 
 the cost for protection and simple sightliness. 
 
 While the concept was positive, the solution was elusive. Never in modern 
 times had color been used for its architectural potentialities on such a scale. On 
 interiors, such as theaters and restaurants, much that was satisfying had been 
 accomplished, but on the whole the Exposition presented a pioneer endeavor. 
 
 As we hum the aria of an opera, few of us are conscious of the technique in 
 its composition or that it is following well-established laws. So it is probable 
 that few visitors to A Century of Progress realized that each color was selected 
 for a definite purpose and that their juxtaposition, repetition, and transition 
 were far from haphazard, but meticulously considered for their individual 
 and massed effects. The psychological effect of colors has been well established, 
 those on the blue and green end of the spectrum being restful and those on the 
 yellow and red end being stimulating. Each color has a specific quality of its 
 own, yet several can be composed to produce harmony or modification. Where 
 there is transition from unit to unit a proper modulation is possible to balance 
 or complete the theme. 
 
 Through the medium of color, the form of each building was emphasized, 
 accentuated, or softened; groups were coordinated; and the whole was articulated 
 into a unified composition. It was a three-dimensional problem of interrelated 
 masses existing in space, subject to vistas and avenues of approach from many 
 directions, as well as being a changing panorama a mile or more in extent. 
 
 Since color was to give vitality to the mass, pigments of the strongest and 
 purest hues were sought. For each locality, the color was planned to suit a 
 mood; an exciting red at an entrance or a restful green at an assembly court. 
 And colors were selected for their reaction to natural light; blues for the shadows 
 of a north facade and perhaps a yellow for bright sunlit areas. The quality of 
 colors to reflect the flood lights at night was almost as important as their day- 
 time effect. 
 
 The elements of the scheme may be summed up by, first, a selection of colors 
 for their architectural integrity; second, their application, not as ornamental 
 details, but in great blocks in hues of strong definition accentuated by such 
 neutrals as black or sky gray; third, a plan having sequence in the application 
 or color with definite points of rest and arranged continuity. 
 
 All this was the patient work of many men and not crystallized until Joseph 
 Urban became the guiding genius, but the struggles during the formative periods 
 are an essential part of the story. 
 
 74 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 The first experiment in color was the Administration Building, and it proved 
 a sorry one. It was gay with its graduations of green-blue bands on the wings 
 around the center block painted solid in the darkest shade of green. But soon 
 the lack of affinity between oil paints and the alkaline and lime content of the 
 uncured asbestos board caused peeling, and there appeared great stains due to the 
 exuding of the asphalt impregnation of the insulation between walls. 
 
 With the disappointing experience of the Administration Building, it was 
 determined that a specialist should be found who would concentrate on the color 
 and paint problem. So, in January of 1931, the color section was formed. Its 
 first efforts were devoted to materials and a study of the experiments which 
 had been carried on by members of the staff in conjunction with their other 
 duties. Later, in consultation with the architects of the buildings, studies were 
 made and paint applied to the Travel and Transport Building and the Hall 
 of Science. 
 
 Urban s Daring Color Schemes 
 
 Although these buildings were attractive in themselves, there was no continuity 
 in what had been done, and there was no general scheme to guide the color 
 of future buildings. When the Architectural Commission met in January of 1932, 
 the problem had so resolved itself that they recommended that Joseph Urban 
 be invited to present a general color scheme for the Exposition, including the 
 correlating of all decorative effects on the grounds. His wide experience as a 
 creative artist in color and scenic design gave him the courage to lay out a 
 scheme as starding as it was brilliant. Only a master would have dared go 
 to such extremes, for here were laid out such colors as never before had been 
 seen in architecture. All previous discussions had been on schemes of more 
 subdued colors and milder contrasts, but there were no compromises here — you 
 would take it straight in forthright doses and like it, or you would not. 
 
 But it was to be Urban's last great work and from his death bed he put the 
 final touches on the great panorama of color, which he was never to see finished. 
 It was an ephemeral monument which has already passed away, but the memory 
 of it and its influence on the future will long remain. 
 
 Mr. Urban's palette consisted of twenty-three colors, all of the brightest inten- 
 sity. They were: white; sulphur yellow; chrome yellow; light orange; dull 
 Persian orange; dull vermillion (almost terra cotta); bright vermillion; blue 
 carmine; tomato bisque pink; brown red; greenish blue; peacock blue; true blue; 
 ultramarine blue; dull dark blue; emerald green; peacock green; turquoise blue; 
 blue gray; black, aluminum, gold and gray. Seldom were more than five of 
 these colors used on any one building, and usually only three or four. Approxi- 
 mately twenty per cent of all painted surfaces was in white, twenty per cent 
 in the blues, twenty per cent in the oranges, fifteen per cent in black, and the 
 remaining twenty-five divided among the yellows, reds, grays and greens. Solid 
 colors were designed to emphasize the building block system, for the style of 
 architecture required firmness of treatment in harmony with the definiteness of 
 
 COLOR VITALIZES ARCHITECTURE 75
 
 its unornamented form. Mr. Urban assigned Otto Teegan to represent him in 
 Chicago, and to act as his field agent in carrying out his plans. 
 
 The interior of buildings was largely an exhibits' problem, and so came under 
 a different department, but the work was done in close cooperation with Mr. 
 Urban — and later his assistant, using much the same palette, and was applied 
 under the same contract as for the exterior. Painting of interiors proceeded 
 with that on the outside and gave a reserve, of work for inclement weather. 
 
 The technical problems involved in obtaining proper materials and in finding 
 economical and satisfactory methods of application received intensive study 
 during the late summer of 1932. Much preliminary work had already been 
 done, which proved invaluable in meeting the specific problems of the finally 
 determined scheme. For two years, a "bone yard" had been maintained on a 
 balcony of the Administration Building, where paddles, painted innumerable 
 hues and from many sources, had been exposed to sun and weather. Usually 
 three weeks established the resistance of a material. Although many samples 
 had been submitted to weathermeter tests, no laboratory existed with adequately 
 unfavorable conditions. 
 
 While the action of sun and rain could be simulated and their effect accelerated, 
 the chemically complex equivalent of Chicago air defied reproduction. Later, 
 samples were applied to large areas of the buildings, as this gave a uniform test 
 for each product under exacdy the conditions that would be met. These checker- 
 boards of colors caused such consternation among passersby that the information 
 desk was kept busy explaining that this was not the color scheme. 
 
 Some Paint Problems 
 
 Urban's palette must be matched, a task which brought paint manufacturers 
 almost to despair. The colors must remain bright and clean until the end of the 
 Exposition in spite of severe climatic and atmospheric conditions, for they would 
 be subjected to great variations of heat and cold; to wind and rain; heavy 
 condensation of moisture due to thin construction and the difference in tempera- 
 tures inside and outside; and to air laden with the soot and sulphur of a great 
 manufacturing and railroad center. 
 
 The paints were to be applied to a wide variety of materials: gypsum board, 
 asbestos-cement board, plywood, masonite, metal siding, rough timbers, steel, 
 galvanized iron, cast iron, concrete, stucco, plaster and roofing materials, each 
 requiring a different treatment and many so new in construction that experience 
 gave insufficient data on their reaction to paints. A tremendous area, requiring 
 some 15,000 gallons of paint would have to be covered in less than three months. 
 Because of abnormally inclement weather only thirty-three working days were 
 actually available. 
 
 Three major buildings had received preliminary coats of paint, and data 
 gathered from these experiences served to focus the difficulties for the final study. 
 Among the problems with which the painters had battled were sandstorms, rain, 
 insects, and temperatures which blistered the paint on the metal sidings. 
 
 76 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 In the fall preceding the Fair, it was found that all buildings would require 
 further protection over the winter, for some of the gypsum board and plywood 
 were already blistering, and the metal siding was corroding at the joints. Alumi- 
 num paint was an effective sealer and would make a splendid base for the Imal 
 job. Its application was made possible by the American Asphalt Paint Company, 
 which arranged to accept promissory notes payable out of operating receipts 
 for the work. 
 
 So stringent was the financial situation at this time that warning was given 
 that the aluminum paint should be well applied, for, if the worst came to the 
 worst, it might have to remain as the final color. Bleak and gray the buildings 
 stood, and as someone remarked, "They look like a fleet of battleships scuttled 
 in the mud of Scapa Flow." Later, Grover M. Hermann, President of the com- 
 pany, offered to extend the contract on the same basis for all the remaining 
 paint, and, since the products of his company had stood exceptionally well in 
 tests, the execution of the color scheme became assured. 
 
 The use of oil paints was so standardized that only the task of matching 
 pigments and the applying of fading tests under actual conditions were 
 necessary, but on the suggestion that casein paint — new and almost untried in 
 this country — be used, much pioneer work had to be done. It seemed to ofTer 
 unique possibilities for an exposition, though no records were obtainable on its 
 use outdoors on a large scale in this country. While a cold water paint, it 
 differs materially from calcimine, which uses glue as a binder, in that it makes 
 use of casein — a dairy product. It has the attribute of drying within a few 
 hours, a quality of great importance as rains might be expected almost daily 
 during the spring and there would be a shorter period of danger from the 
 myriad of insects and the wind-blown sand. 
 
 Painting might start immediately after a rain as the casein adheres best to 
 a wet surface. Once dry, rain merely washes away a little of the outside surface, 
 taking with it any accumulation of dirt, and leaving the color in almost its 
 pristine brightness. Because of this, it is in no sense a preservative paint, but 
 recommends itself particularly to temporary structures, especially where clear 
 pigmentation is an important factor. It covers well in one coat since there is a 
 large proportion of pigment in casein, as the inert materials for thickening 
 purposes in oil are the covering pigments in casein. 
 
 Pigments are not so transparent as in oil and hence give a fuller tone and 
 better reflective values in daylight. With its non-glassy mat texture, casein 
 gives a more even illumination without bright reflecting points in night flood- 
 lighting. Paints with other binders such as soy bean oil and china wood oil were 
 subject to exp>criments but did not meet the Fair's peculiar requirements. 
 
 Union rules prohibited spraying with oil paint and limited the size of brush 
 to four and one-half inches. But spraying, which enables three times as large 
 an area to be covered in a given time, and a ten-inch Dutch brush, were permitted 
 with cold-water paint, suggesting a great saving in both time and cost of 
 application. The spray, however, did not prove successful, as too much paint 
 
 COLOR VITALIZES ARCHITECTURE 77
 
 was blown away on the windswept lake front. 
 
 The experience of the two years of the Exposition proved casein paint eminently 
 satisfactory within its limitations. As a matter of fast, by September of the first 
 year of the Fair, nearly all colors looked as fresh as when applied. The dark 
 green blue showed the worst fading; the yellow tended to lighten and lose 
 some of its orange character; one of the reds and one of the greens became 
 somewhat transparent and would have been unsightly had there not been an 
 undercoat of oil paint of the same color. While little of the deterioration was 
 unsightly, a small amount of repainting was done about this time. 
 
 Most of the exterior colors required at least two coats over the aluminum 
 priming. The undercoat of the designated color was generally in oil, serving 
 as a protection to the surface and a color reinforcement, for the overcoat of 
 casein. This procedure fitted in well with the terms of the contract which had 
 a limitation on the amount of casein which would be furnished. 
 
 Cooperation of Exhibitors 
 
 Color schemes for the structures of exhibitors and concessionaires followed the 
 lead of the Exposition's general plan. In some instances schemes were prepared 
 for them and in others suggestions given. They all gave a full measure of 
 cooperation, though in a few instances, after some confusion. For example, the 
 general scheme for 1934 designated for one building the trademark colors of 
 that firm. It was not to be wondered that a competitor objected when he was not 
 permitted to use his own colors. But a solution was found by changing one color 
 in the building and repainting the ring of the 23rd Street entrance. 
 
 Miscellaneous structures, and what became generally known as "gadgets", 
 some decorative, some utilitarian, including boat landings, light fixtures, shelters, 
 banners and flags, all received the attention of the color section. Awnings and 
 umbrellas, especially those of concessionaires, presented a problem. Solid colors 
 or the use of stripes, the full width of the material, was insisted upon. The use 
 of a lot of reds was discouraged, but colors were not required to match the 
 general palette exactly. 
 
 The painting contract was unique in its provisions, for manufacturer and labor 
 contractor were united. With the painters having direct responsibility to the 
 paint maker, the old bone of contention was avoided, for the painter could 
 not blame the material, nor the manufacturer the application. As far as the 
 Exposition was concerned, it was to pay a stipulated price per foot for each 
 color applied, to be figured on the number of "squares" (100 square feet) 
 covered. Adjustments or unit prices were established for scaffolding, cleaning 
 rusted metal, and, in the case of aluminum, for the material to which applied. 
 Both exteriors and interiors of all buildings owned by the Exposition were 
 included. 
 
 The remarkable air brush and water color sketches prepared by Urban for 
 the general color scheme were supplemented for work in the field by special 
 drawings. These were black-line prints with areas designated for color by key 
 
 78 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 numbers which corresponded to those on the palette, and the actual color usually 
 applied to a portion of the area as a check. When the drawings and the work 
 order had been given to the contractor for a building, or a group of buildings, 
 there remained for the Exposition field supervision, inspection of the work, and 
 actual measurement of the painting executed as the basis for payment. The total 
 cost of the work was about $285,000.00. 
 
 Through the spring rains the Fair burst into bloom, and the bold splashes 
 of color which greeted the thousands on opening day seemed almost articulate 
 with the spirit of carnival and joy, the very essence of a great World's Fair. But 
 withal there was a satisfying harmony which expressed the Exposition's more 
 lasting implications and purposes. Here was an architectural scheme of utilitarian 
 modernity cloaked in the garments of festival. As the first reaction of amazement, 
 and sometimes irritation, changed to understanding, color became to the visitor 
 as definite a part of the Fair as the exhibits. 
 
 The ig^4 Palette 
 
 As soon as the 1933 Fair had been battened down for the winter, thoughts 
 turned to an even more attractive show for the next summer. So in December, 
 Shepard Vogelgesang, who had had charge of interiors the year before, was 
 assigned to prepare the color scheme for 1934. While he continued the basic 
 principles of Urban, he developed a new palette and a radically different arrange- 
 ment. It was felt desirable to give the Exposition a new aspect to those who 
 had been frequent visitors the year before, and the experience gained suggested 
 changes, such as the elimination of colors which had faded or did not reflect 
 artificial illumination. Over the winter there grew a rather insistent demand 
 that the Exposition be painted all white, but this was disregarded for the same 
 reasons that it was not used originally. 
 
 The number of principal colors used in 1934 was reduced to ten from the 
 twenty-three used in 1933. It was believed that ten color differences were as 
 many as the public would be able to recognize clearly in one great panorama, 
 especially as similar colors are easily confused later in the season when they faded 
 unevenly. This was particularly evident with the four shades of orange used 
 in 1933. 
 
 The colors of the 1934 palette were: a yellow; a red; orange; a true red, a blue 
 red (nearly magenta); a turquoise or a ceruleum, which was distinctly green; a 
 blue slightly on the blue side rather than the purple; a green slightly on the 
 blue side; a gray violet; and black and white. These colors were distinct enough 
 from one another by nearly equal differences to have individuality, and yet 
 related enough not to appear harsh in combination with one another. That 
 the gorgeous blue, which had been used on the semi-circular apse of the north 
 face of the Hall of Science was missing brought sincere regrets from many. 
 
 The 1934 color scheme, built upon the framework of the previous year's 
 plan, added to it a zoned color treatment which was new and effective. It 
 emphasized vistas inherent in the architectural conception by grouping related 
 
 COLOR VITALIZES ARCHITECTURE 79
 
 hues. Starting at the North Entrance, the exterior effect was white and red 
 beyond the entrance. Red, blue red, and white were carried to and included 
 the exedra of the Hall of Science. Red and orange colors carried across the 
 planetarium Bridge and included the groups of the Foods and Agriculture and 
 the Wonder Bakery buildings, and the Government and the States buildings. 
 
 The court of the Hall of Science established a green dominance repeated 
 across the lagoon in the artificial "trees" of the Electrical Group. The circular 
 court of the Electrical Group was dominandy white, held in massings of blue. 
 Blue and green were repeated alternately on the north facades of the General 
 Exhibits Group. The south facades were alternately white and yellow. The yellow 
 tied in with a yellow motif established at the 23rd Street entrance, accented with 
 blue. This yellow dominance, relieved by white and red, carried over Swift's 
 Bridge of Service to the buildings on the south end of Northerly Island. 
 
 The Travel and Transport area, while predominandy white, still permitted 
 buildings erected by the three motor companies to have characteristic schemes. 
 White was used as the element of continuity between these and the Exposition's 
 own buildings. Thus the Home Planning Hall, adjoining this group on the 
 north, was white with accents of turquoise blue and yellow. The main Ford 
 Building was white with accents of dark green, blue and yellow; the General 
 Motors Building was white with an accent of red, contrasting with turquoise 
 at the main entrance; the Chrysler Building, white accented in lavender and 
 yellow, was balanced by the dome of the Travel and Transport Building. The 
 two reds used on the Travel and Transport Building recurred in the smaller 
 buildings on the Lake Michigan side of Leif Eriksen Drive. 
 
 Most of the building groups did not utilize more than three colors, thereby 
 giving greater prominence to each color. The generous use of white established 
 a transition and provided a foil, but was also used where form could be 
 accentuated by shadows. 
 
 Certain colors in the 1933 scheme had been particularly disappointing at night, 
 such as the dull dark blue on the north facade of the Hall of Social Science. 
 During the season the intensity of illumination on this surface was multiplied 
 several times, yet so much was absorbed that it remained an apparently unlighted 
 area. In other cases the source of the light was reflected as unpleasant bright 
 spots on an otherwise evenly illuminated surface. 
 
 In an effort to find a better solution for these difficulties an experimental 
 laboratory was established to ascertain the reaction of colors and paints to 
 night lighting. Much was learned as to light absorption, fluorescence, and the 
 type of color of lenses and gelatin screens for floodlights to strengthen and 
 vivify colors. But the results of the tests were inconclusive, as they did not 
 parallel outdoor conditions where spill light from many adjacent sources of 
 illumination must be contended with. Preliminary tests generally fail to indi- 
 cate sufficient intensity unless due account is taken of the increase light level of 
 actual operation. 
 
 Differing from the method employed in 1933, bids were taken from separate 
 
 80 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 groups of manufacturers and painting contractors. A number of paint makers 
 were given a set of established colors and asked to submit wet samples for tests. 
 Each was told to inspect the present conditions of the buildings before making 
 recommendations and to submit the material considered most likely to give a 
 satisfactory result for priming, for sealing and for finish coats. 
 
 The grounds were divided into nine sections for bidding on the paint 
 application. The total amount of exterior painting on which bids were taken 
 was 60,000 squares as compared with 80,000 squares executed in 1933, and on 
 only 600 squares of interior painting, as compared with 25,000 squares executed 
 in 1933. The total cost of the 1934 job was just over $100,000.00 and, at the 
 height of the work, there were some 1,500 painters engaged. 
 
 COLOR VITALIZES ARCHITECTURE 81
 
 Chapter 8 
 
 LANDSCAPING 
 
 All man-made efforts are subjected to adjectives and to differences of opinion, 
 and so the Exposition's architecture was either modernistic or functional; its 
 color was bizarre or stimulating; its lighting was glorious or spotty. Even 
 the magnificence of Chicago's skyline, which was to form the backdrop for the 
 new city by the shore, was not exempt, and evoked comments on its garish 
 signs and dilapidated factory buildings to the south. 
 
 But few could find fault with Nature's offering to the stage setting — sunlit 
 skies, Lake Michigan's many moods and colors, and the universal appeal of 
 trees, flowers and grass. It became evident, however, that the last of these would 
 require much assistance from man. Except for a narrow strip of planting along 
 Leif Eriksen (now South Lake Shore) Drive, there were three miles of waste, 
 relieved only by a clump of volunteer poplars on the Island, and a few struggling 
 weeds and sunflowers on the mainland. It had been practically untouched since 
 the sand dredge and the dump truck had "made" the land. The erosion of rain 
 and storm waves had taken heavy toll along the bulkhead. The "fill" varied 
 widely as to material; sand from Indiana, caisson clay from Loop excavations, 
 and cinders generously intermixed with bed springs and automobile bodies. 
 
 Ramps and lounges might contribute to the comfort of the visitors, but what 
 could be more alluring to the dog-tired than a shady bench, near a gurgling 
 pool and a bed of petunias? Harsh and desolate would be man's best efforts 
 without the aid of growing things. 
 
 Late in 1930, Ferruccio Vitale was made a member of the Architectural 
 Commission, and began his studies of the landscaping problem. Due to illness, 
 
 82 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 Mr. Vitale turned over his task to his partner, Alfred Geiffert. Herbert \V. 
 Schmitt, who was associated with the firm, came to the Exposition and eventually 
 became head of the Landscape Division. It was under his direction that the 
 final plans were developed and the work done. 
 
 The Administration, Travel and Transport, Hall of Science, and Electrical 
 Building areas, planted in 1931 and 1932, were the outdoor laboratories. So 
 well did the trees and grass around the Administration Building flourish, and 
 so much did they enhance the attractiveness of the structure itself, that former 
 critics resolved to withhold final judgment. 
 
 The landscape plan must serve two purposes; one, to complement the 
 architecture; the other, to impart the refreshing atmosphere of a garden. The 
 color of the buildings would be stirring and the landscaping would accentuate 
 it by providing a restful background. Shrubs and tall cedars would break the 
 monotony of plain walls, and tubbed trees and flower boxes would grace the 
 terraces. All plantings would be carefully and subdy adapted to the type and 
 architecture of the building they would adorn, so that each spot would have 
 its unique place in the general pattern. At night the ingenious use of light 
 would transform the landscape into a brilliant new scene. 
 
 The asymmetrical architectural plan simplified the landscape design. It made 
 possible the development of the area around each building independendy of the 
 others, without preventing a blending of all into a pleasing composition. There 
 was less complication incident to the circulation of vehicular and pedestrian 
 traffic which necessarily influences the layout of a formal plan. 
 
 Continual changes in construction plans, and the additions, deductions, and 
 changes in the various units, as well as the shifting of sites for special buildings, 
 rendered impractical an approved general design. However, a number of sketch 
 plans were prepared, which served as guides to an ultimate goal of uniformity. 
 Much preliminary work was done on scale models, where miniature trees and 
 shrubs of green sponge could be "spotted in" until the right effect was attained. 
 
 Landscaping a Dual Problem 
 
 The real landscaping problem was not so much one of design, but of how to 
 make things grow and how to obtain the necessary funds. It is obvious that 
 the planting was not a self-supporting item, such as exhibit space. It would 
 be essential that no major conflicts occur between the landscaping and the 
 construction work and the installation of underground utilities. All might 
 have to carry on together in the same area at the same time. 
 
 Throughout the entire schedule, thought had been given to the sub-grading 
 and preparation of the lawn areas so that they might be ready to receive grass 
 seed a month before the opening of the Fair. Here, again, coordination with 
 the construction forces would play an important part in arranging the schedules 
 of procedure, so that clearing the sites of the debris of construction would be 
 completed prior to the time the lawns must be built. 
 
 The time element, therefore, became of the essence in the selection of plants 
 
 LANDSCAPING 83
 
 to make possible the effects desired. Plants, unlike brick, stone, wood, or metal, 
 which may be readily manufactured to specifications, require time and patient 
 nursing to insure the size and form desired. To assure an adequate source of 
 desirable ones, a thorough and comprehensive survey was made of the types and 
 varieties of plant materials available at the nurseries over a wide area. This 
 information was gathered and compiled during the winter of 1931-1932. 
 
 Information was requested on plant materials as to varieties, height, spread, 
 quantity available in each size, prices delivered f.o.b. Chicago, and prices 
 delivered and planted. Using this information as a guide, a proposed list of 
 plant materials was developed. The selection was confined to varieties that would 
 react satisfactorily the first season after transplanting, particularly those with 
 compact root system, and to those which would thrive under the climatic and 
 atmospheric conditions of the Lake Front. 
 
 Without a complete planting layout, the quantity of materials required could 
 not be definitely fixed. An approximation was found by estimating the acres 
 of landscaping around the buildings called "intimate" areas, and the quantity 
 of materials required per acre of landscaping in the areas between the buildings, 
 called "general" or "park areas." 
 
 Upon completion of the material list, planting specifications were prepared for 
 each item, covering in detail the methods to be used in digging, balling, trans- 
 porting, preparation of planting areas, mixing of topsoil with peat moss, planting, 
 guying, mulching, clipping, and pruning, preparation and planting of flower 
 beds, and maintenance of all materials to June 1, 1933. 
 
 When the bids were received and analyzed, it was possible to determine just 
 how far the Exposition could go in creating the restful, parklike atmosphere 
 so much desired. 
 
 Soil was shipped from Southern Illinois by freight, unloaded at a siding within 
 the fence of A Century of Progress, and distributed to the sites in measured 
 trucks, thereby eliminating the difficulties of trucking it through the city. 
 
 Selection of Soil and Plants 
 
 The factors that entered into selection of the soil itself were fertility, proper 
 texture to aid and stimulate root growth, freedom from weeds, and satisfactory 
 price. The first order for five thousand cubic yards was delivered early in the 
 fall of 1932 to various areas throughout the grounds for immediate use. An 
 additional pile of nine thousand cubic yards was stored at 16th Street to provide 
 for the winter and early spring needs, when it would be impossible to make 
 delivery from the source of supply. In the spring of 1933 an additional delivery 
 of twelve thousand, five hundred cubic yards was made for the balance of the 
 planting and the lawn areas. 
 
 Peat moss, five thousand six hundred bales of it, was used freely as a soil 
 conditioner, keeping the soil open and loose to stimulate root action. Peat moss, 
 also has the quality of retaining many times its own weight in water, thereby 
 aiding plant growth during the hot, dry summer days. 
 
 84 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 At the sources of supply the plants were each carefully picked, inspected 
 and cataloged according to form, size and shape, and then reserved by marking 
 the plant materials that would satisfactorily fulfill the requirements of effects and 
 settings. Every tree was chosen for its particular location, thereby eliminating 
 the problem and expense of reshifting and resetting. 
 
 More than sixteen hundred trees were planted on the grounds of A Century 
 of Progress. All came from Illinois, except the cedars, which were brought 
 from the East. Among the familiar native trees were the American elm, maples 
 in variety, Lombardy poplars, lindens in variety, horse<hestnuts, American ash, 
 hackberry, Wheatly elm, native hawthorns, junipers, arbor vitae, and small, 
 tubbed catalpas. 
 
 Settifig Out the Planting 
 
 Most of the tree planting was done during the winter and spring of 1933. 
 Each tree hole was dug carefully three to four feet deep, for a ball of earth 
 varying from seven to twelve feet in diameter and held intact by careful wrap- 
 ping and strapping. These great leafless skeletons, varying in height from 
 twenty-five to fifty feet, were loaded on special equipment, and moved through 
 the city streets under police escort, during the early hours while Chicago slept. 
 Sufficient prepared topsoil was supplied by A Century of Progress to take care 
 of the future growth, and the trees were properly guyed and mulched. 
 
 The drainage of the tree holes in heavy clay areas raised problems. The usual 
 solution, connecting the area to be drained to the nearest storm drain with either 
 tile or gravel lines, could not be accomplished, as most of the storm drains 
 were not laid sufficiently deep. Resort was made to a layer of gravel, or broken 
 stone, in the bottom of each tree hole, with a dry well to receive the excess water 
 which, when necessary, could be removed by the use of hand pumps. 
 
 More than twenty-five thousand shrubs of many sizes and kinds were puddled 
 by hand and individually planted. There was twenty-four thousand lineal feet 
 of hedging, mosdy privet, forsythia, and Japanese barberry, and the delicate trac- 
 ing of two thousand vines, including bittersweet, rambler, and matrimony vine, 
 added charm to many walls. 
 
 The seventy-five thousand square feet of flower beds scattered about the 
 grounds in various settings and combinations, afforded one of the most spectacular 
 of the landscape effects. Here, more than anywhere else, color had to be 
 considered, for the vivid hues of the Exposition buildings provided an unusual 
 background for flowers. Considerable planning and study were required to 
 obtain the right flower for each location. In various settings and combinations 
 were beds of ageratum, marigold, petunia, salvia, vincas, heliotrope, begonia, 
 dusty miller, snow-on-the-mountain, and geranium. 
 
 May, 1933, witnessed the final stage of planting — the lawn areas. Through 
 studies of results of the year before, the time required for a green carpet was 
 determined and a time schedule accurately laid out. Specifications gave in 
 detail the mixing and spreading of topsoil and fertilizer, the preparation of the 
 
 LANDSCAPING 85
 
 seed bed, and the planting and maintenance of the areas until the opening 
 date. The materials were to be furnished by A Century of Progress and the 
 contract was let on an acreage basis. Lawn construction began with careful 
 subgrading and spreading, to a depth of six inches, the properly prepared and 
 mixed topsoil. A slow-acting fertilizer, which would not interfere with seed 
 germination, was incorporated in the soil. 
 
 And Then It Rained 
 
 All was moving methodically on schedule. It was known to a day when the 
 seed would germinate and just how high the blades would be on May 27. And 
 then it rained. Day after day the planting was postponed; day after day, hopes 
 were high that the morrow would be fair. Anxious calculations were made on 
 how long the seeding could be put off and still have a vestige of green showing. 
 It couldn't rain that long — but it did. With a horror of the sea of mud in which 
 some other expositions had opened, there was a quick shift to sod. But could 
 any such quantities be found and placed in the few days remaining? 
 
 It has been said that a primary requisite of success is the ability to get things 
 done, and the Landscape Section was equal to the task. The sod started rolling 
 in at the rate of 9,000 square yards per day, and feverishly men worked day 
 and night that a carpet of velvety green might be ready on time. Its success was 
 an epic of the Fair. 
 
 When the ground dried out sufficiently, some secondary areas were planted 
 with a special mixture of rye grass, red top, blue grass and white Dutch clover. 
 The first two require but six or eight days for germination and make a creditable 
 showing in as little as three weeks. They also provide shade for the tender 
 shoots of the blue grass and clover which are slower germinators but tougher 
 and more lasting grasses. 
 
 Roads and Paths 
 
 Along its roads and paths the Exposition was also eager to demonstrate its 
 theme. "Wear your old Shoes", the accepted slogan for all expositions, must 
 be proven outmoded, and a new standard of comfort and cleanness achieved. 
 The visitor should be able to get from place to place without lost motion, and 
 have soft surfaces underfoot in the going. He should be able to keep his shoes 
 clean and his eyes free from glare. Early in 1931 the area just south of the 
 Administration Building blossomed with experimental sidewalks in all colors, 
 sizes and materials. Long before they need be laid, it would be seen what types 
 best conformed to the Fair's requirements. 
 
 Inside the building, the engineering staff was trying to resolve more difficult 
 factors. The time element demanded the building of roads considerably in 
 advance of the location of many of the structures. Even where the site of a 
 building had been designated, it was impossible to determine its service area 
 or entrances, as this hinged on the proportion of space which would have to be 
 assigned to exhibits. 
 
 86 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 In the planning of walks, the economy of running ihem between buildings, 
 as straight as possible, was weighed with the more decorative ellect of designing 
 them in harmony with the landscaping. The logical movement of traffic and 
 whether it would be light or heavy was another debatable point. 
 
 Again, the answer was to select that which was absolutely essential and work 
 towards it, basing decisions on as many facts as could be known, but, when 
 the actual construction zero hour arrived, to go ahead on the best assumption 
 possible to make. 
 
 Low Cost a Consideration 
 
 In common with all other utilities, pavements were designed with low 
 construction cost as a major consideration, since it was believed that relatively 
 large maintenance charges would be justified during their short useful life. 
 X'ehicle pavements had a 5-inch cinder base with a wearing surface 3 inches 
 thick; pedestrian walks, a 3-inch cinder base and a 1-inch wearing surface. 
 Wearing surfaces were of crushed stone precoated with a 60-40 per cent 
 emulsified asphalt. 
 
 In parts of the area, the heavy, blue-clay nature of the soil made imperative a 
 foundation material beneath the pavement base. Broken bricks and building 
 material refuse, with some limestone rock was used on such occasions. In two 
 areas, the dahlia gardens, and between the Moroccan and Belgian villages, 
 brick walks were laid. 
 
 A heavy service road to the paper baling and refuse loading yard, and receiving 
 depot, was paved with brick as protection against damage from the continual 
 twisting and turning of heavy trucks and trailers. 
 
 As mainland building plans and traffic studies developed, it became evident 
 that vehicular transportation could move most advantageously on the western 
 edge, along the fence. A 26-foot roadway was constructed there, and Leif Eriksen 
 Drive, a parallel road, selected as the main pedestrian walk. As each building, 
 then, was located, paths were placed to connect it with both the roadway and 
 the pedestrian walk. 
 
 On the Northerly Island this same layout was originally contemplated — that 
 is, a roadway along the lake and one paralleling the lagoon, both stretching the 
 entire length of the area, with connections to each building. The design of the 
 Electrical, Social Science and Communications Buildings, together with the 
 location of the Horticultural Gardens, however, modified that arrangement. 
 
 Landscaping by Exhibitors and Concessionaires 
 
 The exhibitors and concessionaires played an important role in the land- 
 scaping. All contracts for special buildings erected by others carried provisions 
 for landscaping a prescribed area around their buildings in a manner approved 
 by the Exposition. Most of these were veritable garden spots. Notable among 
 them was the American Radiator Company's, the principal part of whose display 
 was a luxuriant garden and cascade with towering trees shadowing lovely walks 
 
 LANDSCAPING 87
 
 lined with statuary. General Motors offered a delightful formal garden north 
 of their building. 
 
 At various places through the grounds were other interesting floral exhibits 
 sponsored by societies and growers, such as the Peony Garden by the Northbrook 
 Gardens, which was in its glory at the opening of the Fair. Color was main- 
 tained throughout the season by the interplanting of later blooming perennials 
 and annuals. 
 
 Gardens sponsored by the American Gladioli Society were located at the 
 southeast side of the North Lagoon, at the southwest side of the North Lagoon, 
 and along both sides of the avenue south of the Hall of Science, giving an 
 extraordinary display of color and showing many rare varieties. This exhibit 
 was one of the most extensive collections of gladioli ever assembled, growers 
 from Vermont to California showing over three hundred and seventy-five 
 varieties and using two hundred thousand bulbs to create the display. The 
 Dahlia Gardens, near the Home Planning Group, sponsored by the Central 
 States Dahlia Society, had an interesting exhibit showing the finest varieties. 
 
 Just south of the Belgian ^'i;lage was the Alpine Garden — a half acre of 
 wide paths, and terraces climbing up and down the steep hillside. Water 
 cascaded to a pool at the bottoiii where water lilies floated and goldfish swam. 
 Rare plants from Thibet, Greece, Japan and China, even the famous edelweiss, 
 flowered in their new setting, and rock ledges of weathered stone gave no hint 
 of having just been placed. Restful seats offered hospitality to those who would 
 watch the noisy Midway nearby. 
 
 Garden Displays of States 
 
 The Exposition set aside generous spaces for those states which desired to 
 dramatize their recreational features or augment their exhibit with outdoor 
 gardens. Indiana installed a garden of formal design with a central pool contain- 
 ing a rare collection of water lilies, surrounded by statuary contributed by the 
 State's sculptors. Michigan's garden offered hospitality; its welcoming hedge of 
 petunias and its beach umbrellas and chairs inviting the visitor to rest and relax. 
 
 Minnesota presented an unusual scale model of Itaska Park, with its ten lakes 
 reproduced to exact contour, and the headwaters of the Mississippi River simu- 
 lated by a springlet. Hundreds of growing miniature trees gave representation 
 to the great variety of species which thrive in the North Woods. Forest ranger 
 watch towers, tourist camps, roads and streams were all to correct relative size. 
 
 Missouri elected to place its garden indoors. Here was shown in full size 
 a modern concrete highway with traffic aids such as sign posts and cable guard 
 rail. In contrast was a venerable "worm fence" with hand-split rails and a 
 pioneer cabin, all weatherworn, but still serviceable. Just beyond was a winding 
 brook with speckled trout swimming about in the tumbling waters. There were 
 native rocks from the hills, and through the trees and shrubs were birds and 
 game. Behind it all was the colorful panorama of the Ozarks. 
 
 The state of Arizona in 1934 used the natural sand back of their exhibit for a 
 
 88 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 
 Federal Building Surrounded by Court of States. 
 
 Entrance to Social Science Exhibits.
 
 The sky-ride towers, 628 feet high and 
 1,850 feet apart, gave visitors a spectacu- 
 lar view of the fair. Cables at the 200 foot 
 level carried passengers in rocket cars.
 
 cactus garden, where choUa, sahaura, pin-cushions and prickly pear felt at home 
 in the summer sunshine. Here they stood until the last night of the Fair, when, 
 "believe it or not", souvenir hunters uprooted them all and attempted to conceal 
 them from the watchful guards at the gates. 
 
 Behind the sophisticated, ultra modern interior of the New York State exhibit, 
 was a bit of Nature's handiwork, for here on the sands of Lake Michigan was 
 recreated a typical portion of the Adirondack Mountains. It was done with rare 
 charm and fidelity to nature and beauty. Seven carloads of soil, rocks, ledges, 
 tree stumps, decaying leaf mold, moss, broken branches, native plants, and 
 animals were brought to Chicago, and ingeniously fashioned into an age-old 
 forest scene. 
 
 A woodland path wound through thickets of berried shrubs, white birches 
 and ferns, then to a corduroy road, clinging to the side of a lake fringed with 
 lilies and aquatic plants. A sheltered spring in the rocks became a rippling 
 stream end, and as it passed under a rustic bridge, native fish could be seen 
 and an occasional turtle or croaking frog. A climb over timeworn ledges brought 
 the visitor to a slight promontory, where huge stumps, cordwood, and a dilapi- 
 dated skidway indicated the site of a former lumber camp. The old trees had 
 been cleared and the younger trees and seedlings had gained a foothold to build 
 the forest of the future. 
 
 Florida's unique contribution was a 3-acre garden, located between the Lagoon 
 and the Agriculture Building. A grove of orange trees, laden with fruit, was re- 
 moved from the semi-tropical climate of the Everglades to thrive and bear in a 
 northern climate. Months before, their roots had been carefully cut from the rich 
 black muck in which they grew. When these delicate feeding systems had gradu- 
 ally healed over, each tree was carefully boxed and transferred to half shade for 
 their long journey to Chicago. 
 
 In preparation for the hazardous trip, each orange was separately wrapped, the 
 limbs securely anchored and the entire tree enclosed in cloth to eliminate loss of 
 leaves or fruit. The patience and skill of those responsible were well repaid, for. 
 not only did the trees flourish, but becoming somewhat mixed in their dates, and 
 bewildered by the freakish changes in climate, they decided it must be blossoming 
 time again. So, visitors saw trees bearing mature fruit, green oranges, and blos- 
 soms, all at the same time. 
 
 In addition, Florida presented a delightful garden and patio. Tropical and 
 semi-tropical trees and vegetation, oranges, grapefruit, and other citrus trees waved 
 their fronds. A miniature Everglades, planted with sugar cane in different stages 
 of growth, rose about the huts with their thatched roofs. Rock pools, with color- 
 ful tropical fish, and fountains built of stone, brought in Spanish ships to the 
 coast of Florida hundreds of years ago, delighted the visitors. 
 
 The Horticultural Gardens 
 
 Most extensive of all was the concession — Horticultural Gardens. Within the 
 exhibit building was a series of magnificent "weatherscapes" — dioramas with 
 
 LANDSCAPING 89
 
 foregrounds to full scale, bathed in daylight from concealed skylights. There was 
 a scene of the Italian Alps with mountain blooms carpeting the foreground in a 
 profusion of brilliant colors. In the middle distance, an ancient stone bridge 
 spanned a rocky stream, shaded by deep green firs. High on a rocky crag were 
 the grim, gray walls of a feudal castle, its frowning battlements dwarfed by the 
 purple peaks of the Alps. 
 
 The next diorama transported the visitor deep into the Florida Everglades. 
 From the drooping branches of gnarled old cypress trees, gray Spanish moss hung 
 in filmy streamers while tropical butterflies, bright green parakeets, slender black 
 herons, and an alligator just emerging from the marshy foreground waters, added 
 realism to the scene. 
 
 "A Study in White" represented a mountain woodland scene with dark rocks 
 jutting out from glistening white snow. At one side was an old log cabin; an ice- 
 bound brook circled the twisted roots of a tree and trickled down to a pool in 
 the foreground. 
 
 Further along the broad corridors was a Colonial mansion, with spacious lawns, 
 magnolias, and lilies of the valley; then a bit of the great southwest with interest- 
 ing cactus and Joshua trees struggling in the desert. There was an Italian lake, 
 rimmed by prim trees; a woodland scene from northern Michigan, with the pleas- 
 ant odor of balsam wafting from the great trees; a doorway court garden; and a 
 sixteenth century interior, with glimpses of an old-fashioned garden through the 
 windows. 
 
 Outdoors, in a series of displays were five acres of the finest that floriculture and 
 horticulture had to offer. Down the middle ran a formal Italian garden, flanked 
 by rows of tall trees mirrored in five pools and set in a profusion of stately flowers 
 and carved stone from Florence. "A Garden Rhapsody" offered a reflecting lily 
 pond, fed by a small stream cascading from a rocky background, and a quaint 
 summer house where the visitor could rest and enjoy its rustic charm. Nearby a 
 rose garden of fifteen thousand bushes presented its 256 varieties of this lovely 
 flower. 
 
 The characteristic gardens of many foreign lands were on view. A working 
 Dutch windmill, rustic bridges, and an old-fashioned water mill hedged by an 
 ancient split-rail "zig-zag" fence imparted authentic atmosphere. 
 
 The Park District of Oak Park, Illinois, presented a formal garden of outstand- 
 ing beauty. A colorful flagged walk, pool and statuary were used to balance flow- 
 ers and shrubs in attractive geometric groupings. The Palace Gardens of Ver- 
 sailles contributed an original statue of Diana as the central figure of another for- 
 mal garden, built about the borders of a bright blue reflecting pool, which used 
 replicas of broken Roman marble columns to suggest its Italian origin. 
 
 Mountains and a desert, painted on the wall of the north wing of the Floricul- 
 ture Building, provided an appropriate setting for the California hacienda built 
 in typical Spanish Mission style, with its garden of cacti. Here were flitting 
 butterflies, songs of birds, and scents of a thousand flowers. 
 
 90 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 The Lagoo7i Problem 
 
 All early studies of landscaping had contemplated the unparalleled opportunity 
 for the use of water. Three miles of Lake Michigan's shore and a lagoon a mile 
 long conjured up many enticing picture studies. A magnificent bathing beach, 
 early envisioned as an American Lido, proved unpopular, as Exposition visitors 
 in their rush to see all in their limited stay had little time for beaches. The shore 
 line, because of the bulkhead of enormous random stones necessary to protect it 
 from the ravages of the waves, did not lend itself either to treatment or use. 
 
 A boardwalk entirely encircling the lagoon provided a cool place to rest and 
 watch water sports. Sightseeing launches gave an unparalleled view of the 
 illuminated buildings, and, especially at night, the gorgeous panorama was breath- 
 taking in its beauty. But, architecturally, the lagoon was too wide, separating the 
 Exposition into two parts, preventing the intimacy of large crowds, which is part 
 and parcel of a fair; and making it difficult to get people on the island. At night 
 the lagoon itself was a dismal and forbidding hole. This was the first year, and 
 was not entirely unanticipated, for the Architectural Commission had repeatedly 
 stressed the necessity of large structures in the lagoon. But the shortage of money 
 and the great additional cost of building in the water precluded such work. 
 
 In the period between the 1933 and 1934 Fairs attention was focused on cor- 
 recting this condition. The Grand Fountain was built in the North Lagoon, and 
 the floating theater was greatly enlarged. Three exhibitors constructed substantial 
 buildings — one on each side of the 16th Street bridge and one on the north side 
 of the 23rd Street bridge. Exotic boats, underwater lights, and an augmented 
 system of lighting along the boardwalk and on the bridges, a searchlight bank on 
 the 12th Street bridge, and many modifications gave the 1934 Fair an aspect more 
 nearly in line with early hopes. 
 
 Numerous studies and experiments were made to conceal the pile bulkhead 
 around the lagoon. In turn came rapidly growing vines, and a cascade of water, 
 the rising mist lighted from below; but the vines grew slowly and irregularly, 
 and the fine nozzles of the cascade plugged with algae. The final solution, simple 
 and effective, was a covering of large sheets of wallboard, painted to harmonize 
 with the color scheme. 
 
 Landscaping Maintenance 
 
 The upkeep and maintenance of the landscaping during the operating period 
 was performed by a staf? averaging seventy-five men. The variance in subsoil 
 conditions prevented a definite and regular watering and maintenance schedule 
 and required that the soil of each tree and planting area be checked individually 
 at weekly intervals. 
 
 The smoke and fume-laden atmosphere of a great manufacturing city plays 
 havoc with all forms of vegetation by the deposit of soot on the leaf surfaces, re- 
 tarding the proper functioning of the leaves, starving the plant and eventually 
 causing death. These were counteracted by daily washing, with a strong water 
 
 LANDSCAPING 91
 
 spray, the foliage of all newly planted materials, particularly the evergreens which 
 suffer more than deciduous trees. This kept the foliage clean and healthy, and it 
 also aided in carrying the plantings through the extremely hot, dry months of 
 June and July, 
 
 Because of these same conditions, the lawns required additional topdressing 
 and feeding, besides the regular watering and general lawn care, to produce and 
 maintain the desired green throughout the summer and fall. During the latter 
 part of August and September, to rid the lawns of weeds — particularly crab grass 
 which could not be removed by hand because of the cost — close mowing, raking 
 and proper feeding was used. 
 
 The lawn watering was done by the night crew of eighteen men who worked 
 from 11:00 p.m, to 7:30 a.m., the following morning, a schedule that made possi- 
 ble the use of lawn sprinklers without interfering with the visitors. The day 
 crew worked from 6:00 a.m. to 2:30 p.m., spraying, watering, pruning, clipping, 
 cultivating, weeding and mowing. The overhead washing and spraying of the 
 foliage was done during the early morning hours before the gates opened. 
 
 The landscape maintenance organization was divided into three units with a 
 foreman to oversee the work of each. Daily the head of the Landscape Section 
 checked all areas, giving the necessary instructions as to the general maintenance 
 and special treatment required. The lawn mowing was done by one crew which 
 circulated throughout the grounds. Changes in landscape planting, due to build- 
 ing additions, were handled by an emergency crew. 
 
 The landscape work, from the end of 1933 to the close of the 1934 Exposition; 
 was divided into three separate periods. The first covered the winter protection of 
 all landscaped areas. The second included the preparation of plans and layouts 
 for new landscaped areas and development of these new projects; the clearing and 
 removal of 1933 landscaping from locations taken over by new exhibitors or con- 
 cessionaires to make way for their own new construction; the removal of winter 
 protection and maintenance of the previous year's plant material. The third 
 period covered summer maintenance. 
 
 The flowers required for 1934 included geraniums, petunias, heliotrope, agera- 
 tum, periwinkle, salvia, cobea scandeas, castor oil bean, verbena and marigold, 
 A total of 300 new trees, 16,000 lineal feet of hedges, 7,400 shrubs, and 145,000 
 square feet of sod were planted during the spring of 1934, 
 
 Some new attractive outdoor features were added. The Ford Garden, covering 
 three acres, with its Roads of the World and banked evergreens, flanked the lake 
 shore across Leif Eriksen Drive from the Exhibit building. The maintenance of 
 the landscaped areas during the 1934 Exposition was handled in practically the 
 same way as in 1933. 
 
 92 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 Chapter 9 
 
 DECORATIVE FEATURES 
 
 The style of the buildings and the general development of the grounds neces- 
 sitated a new grammar of architectural expression for decorative features and 
 those appurtenances which the public expects at an international exposition. While 
 some were utilitarian in nature, most were designed to give a carnival atmos- 
 phere and to transport the visitor from his normal sphere to a world glamorous 
 and scintillating with the gaiety of masquerade. To achieve this, there came a 
 clamor for superlatives — the biggest, the first, the most. Exhibitors and conces- 
 sionaires looked to the Exposition to provide such a setting, so the greater share 
 of the burden was carried at Exposition expense, although much was provided 
 under sponsorship of business concerns. 
 
 The criticism that the entrances lacked impressiveness was just, but other fac- 
 tors than lack of funds dictated the course pursued, particularly the geography of 
 the site, bounded as it was by a high speed traffic artery and railroad tracks on 
 the west, and large classical permanent buildings on the north. From a func- 
 tional standpoint, the entrances served their purpose well, and in appearance 
 were a satisfactory solution to a difficult problem. They were not subject to com- 
 promise, they had to be either simple or elaborate, to fit their surroundings. 
 
 In both exhibits and concessions, and as adjuncts to them, there were many 
 features that were highly ornamental and spectacular, but those which are de- 
 scribed in this chapter subordinated other purposes to the purely decorative. 
 
 Simple and effective was a group of six flags, twenty by thirty-eight feet, rising 
 above a fountain and flower bed at the 12th Street gate. The United States Flag 
 greeted the visitor, lovely by day and inspiring under floodlights at night. 
 
 DECORATIVE FEATURES 93
 
 The Avenue of Flags 
 
 Indelibly impressed upon the memory of all who attended the Fair is the 
 Avenue of Flags. Banners as high as a five-story building lined both sides of Lief 
 Eriksen Drive, from the Administration Building to the Hall of Science, nearly a 
 third of a mile. The forty-seven poles, tilted at an angle of 60 degrees and sup- 
 ported by latticed steel columns, rose eighty-five feet in the air forming a canopy 
 over the seventy-foot Drive. Breathtaking in their thrilling beauty, and filling 
 the eye, their streaming furls took a commanding place in the decorative features 
 of the Fair. In 1933 the flags, all alike, were a brilliant red with a narrow stripe 
 of yellow. In 1934 they were a soft turquoise blue. 
 
 At first designed to hang stiff and formal, samples were made of heavy canvas. 
 But even with a gende wind, they were torn to shreds while being hung. When 
 a change was made to bunting, guy ropes were tried to hold them in place, but 
 the force of the wind on so vast an area made this not feasible and they were per- 
 mitted to fly freely to the breeze. In spite of watchful care, their life was but a 
 few months. It was exciting to see an emergency crew endeavoring to furl them 
 before the arrival of a predicted storm. A litde ineptitude and a gust of wind, 
 billowing in the folds, would send struggling men sprawling across the Drive. 
 
 In the court on the lake side of the Communications Building rose four great 
 pylons, their form reminiscent of the cypress trees at the crossroads of the famed 
 Villa d'Este Gardens in Rome. At their center was a pool beneath whose waters 
 lay a blue-tiled bas-relief of the world, with racing spirits weaving about it a net 
 of wires and radio waves to provide communication for mankind. The "trees" 
 were 100-foot steel towers, covered with wire lath and rough plaster, suggesting 
 leaves. 
 
 As one stood between the towering green forms and looked out toward the 
 blue sky over the lake in early evening, the sky was no longer blue, but a gor- 
 geous purple-violet. Curious and unique, it was the optical effect caused by flood- 
 ing the eye with the reflected light from the green towers while at the same time 
 gazing at the blue sky. The combination on the retina caused the brain to per- 
 ceive a color that defied nature. 
 
 The wind, no matter from what direction, was caught in the interior flute of 
 one pylon or the other, swirling a cool breeze about the pool on even the hottest 
 days. No doubt many a foot-weary Ulysses on his Odyssey through the Fair sank 
 with a sight of contentment on a bench by the quiet pool, and imagined himself 
 in the cool cave home of Aeolus. 
 
 The Lofty Thermometer 
 
 From an architectural standpoint a dominant was required near 23rd Street, 
 and this need was fulfilled by a thermometer, sponsored by the Havoline Com- 
 pany. This graceful shaft, towering 240 feet, was triangular in form and on each 
 face appeared the graduations of a thermometer, with the temperature indicated 
 by a column of neon tubes. A delicately adjusted master thermometer in the base 
 
 94 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 I 
 
 operated a scries of relays, which lighted or extinguished a three-foot, six-inch 
 section for each two degrees of change. Simulating mercury, the column of light 
 was continuous from the base and burned both day and night. 
 
 To turn the necessity for scats and shade into a decorative opportunity, giant 
 umbrellas with gay colored covers were spotted about the grounds. A pipe ring 
 suspended from a center column and securely guyed, formed the frame upon 
 which the canvas top was stretched. In attractive settings and large enough to 
 accommodate eight benches, they proved popular and serviceable. 
 
 Opposite the General Exhibits Group was the Cactus Pergola. A flat roof in 
 the form of a segment of a circle was supported high in the air by slender, round 
 columns. It sheltered concrete benches and a small fountain, made of rain spout- 
 ing, and suggestive of a clump of cacti. 
 
 Flags by the hundreds, in many sizes, shapes and colors, carried a gay note in 
 the lake breezes. Practically every building had its quota, and free-standing poles 
 were erected in strategic locations. Intensive study was given to selecting flags of 
 correct size and color to harmonize with their surroundings. Supplies of the flags 
 of all nations and states were maintained, and under the rules of diplomatic eti- 
 quette they were properly flown on appropriate occasions. Few things can con- 
 tribute more to an unkept and slovenly appearance than bedraggled and soiled 
 flags. Care and maintenance created a constant problem. A shop, under an ex- 
 perienced navy flagmaker, and a special crew, were necessary for their upkeep. 
 The cost of flags is insignificant compared to the beauty and appeal of their 
 massed effect. 
 
 The magnificence of the Court of Honor at the Columbian Exposition of 1893 
 was largely attributable to the lavish use of sculptured forms. Not without re- 
 luctance, it was admitted that both the cost and the style of architecture would 
 preclude such extensive use of sculpture at A Century of Progress. It was prob- 
 ably also a feeling that a 1933 World's Fair demanded a modern expression of 
 all forms of art, rather than its architectural need, that prompted a limited repre- 
 sentation. 
 
 It has been said that the meaning or symbolism of sculpture is frequently ap- 
 plied after completion by the sculptor's friends or enemies. However, so dra- 
 matic and forceful were some of the panels on the exteriors of buildings that the 
 eye was likely to catch the action, follow the sweeping line or come to rest on 
 some detail, and be unaware of the fundamental idea. 
 
 The Architectural Commission, on January 30, 1931, suggested Lee Lawrie as 
 consultant on sculpture. He modeled some of the sculpture himself and cooper- 
 ated with the Works Department in selecting other sculptors, and in developing 
 the suggestions for the subject matter and a treatment which would be in har- 
 mony with the architecture. 
 
 The sculpturing on the Administration Building was the work of Alvin Meyer. 
 It comprised two slender figures, one connoting Science, by the zodiac characters 
 arranged in a semi-circle at the base, and the other, Industry, by gears and ma- 
 chinery wheels. They were bas-reliefs, in plaster, affixed to the walls on opposite 
 
 DECORATIVE FEATURES 95
 
 sides of the front entrance. 
 
 The Hall of Science represented some variety in sculpture. The Fountain of 
 Science in the open-air court at the north, was the work of Louise Lentz Wood- 
 ruff and had for its theme — "Science Advancing Mankind". It was illustrated by 
 a great robot-like figure, typifying the exactitude, force and onward movement of 
 science, with its hands at the backs of the figures of a riian and a woman, urging 
 them on to the fuller life. Below the large elevated pool, from which the central 
 group rose, were eight lower pools, each dedicated to one of the basic sciences, 
 and decorated in relief. 
 
 On the building's north elevation, between the huge pylons, were four sculp- 
 tured panels by John H. Storrs, symbolizing Physics, by a half-kneeling, female 
 figure holding a plumb-bob; Mechanical Science, by a male figure, seated, hands 
 resting on a wheel; Chemistry, a female figure, holding in the palm of one hand 
 a glass flask; and Natural Science, a female figure, half-kneeling, grasping a grow- 
 ing plant. Nearby, a free-standing male figure. Knowledge, was depicted in 
 combat with the serpent, Ignorance, entwined about his legs and impeding his 
 progress. 
 
 Electrical Building's Sculpture 
 
 Across the Lagoon in the circular court of the Electrical Building were the 
 most spectacular and elaborate examples of modern sculpture. Two plaques, 
 40 feet high, flanked the cascade. On the left was the heroic figure of a woman 
 flashing through boundless space and symbolizing Stellar Energy — "Light is the 
 beginning of all things. From the utmost ether it issues, shaping the stars, an- 
 swering in its patterns to the majesty of creative thought." On the right was the 
 companion figure of a man, representing the dynamic forces of Atomic Energy — 
 "Energy is the substance of all things. The cycles of the atoms, the play of the 
 elements, are its forms, cast as by a mighty hand to become the world's founda- 
 tions." 
 
 Twin, free standing pylons, rising one hundred feet, and guarding the water 
 gate, were decorated by bas-reliefs, entitled "Light and Sound," the creation of 
 Lee Lawrie. They showed how man's two main receptive senses. Sight and Hear- 
 ing, have received vast extensions through the power of electrical instruments. 
 At the base of the north pylon was a glaring sphinx, symbol of the unknowable, 
 over which was a serpent (here representing Wisdom, instead of Ignorance) and 
 the sun, moon, and invented light. Above these were bands of ornament, symbols 
 of earth and water, with a genie descending with light. Over the listening sphinx 
 of the south pylon were three grotesques of Sound — thunder, music, and tele- 
 phonic sound, and above bands of air waves was a genie descending, calling. The 
 designs were modern, but had an obvious Aztec leaning. 
 
 Above the entrance of the Communications Building was a group designed by 
 Gaston Lachaise, entitled "The Conquest of Time and Space." The central figure 
 was the Genius of Electrical Communication, rising from a dynamo, its out- 
 stretched arms encompassing the world of radio, telephone, and telegraph. Below, 
 
 96 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 a mass of humanity marched towards the symbols of the positive and negative 
 electrical poles. On the left was a symbolic figure of Electrical Science — on the 
 right a figure of the Dark Ages, veiled, rising from a stratum of prehistoric life, 
 the pyramids of Egypt and a temple of classic Greece. 
 
 The facade of the Radio Building conveyed a broad representation of modern 
 radio, with electromagnetic waves, mechanical apparatus, and man's uses thereof 
 interwoven into the design. The dissemination of music was shown in the central 
 panel, classical rendition represented by violinists and an opera singer with harp 
 and organ pipe motifs, and popular music by a Negro jazz orchestra. Other 
 panels presented announcers, suggesting the broadcast of news and lectures; a 
 man in distress sending the tragic call of "SOS;" a man bringing himself in con- 
 tact with his family and work through the medium of television; and a scientist 
 in his laboratory, with an X-ray tube, and skeletons of a human and a cat, sug- 
 gesting the X-ray's significance in research and medicine. This sculpture was 
 done by Alfonso lanelli. 
 
 Leo Friedlander executed a series of four figures on pylons towering above the 
 north entrance of the Hall of Social Science. The figures were allegorical, deriv- 
 ing their inspiration from Indian and Hindu mythology. The east pylon depicted 
 the God of Fire, represented by a two-headed youth with a goat to his right; next 
 was a male figure with chariot, the God of Light; then a female figure, the God- 
 dess of Night or Darkness, and above her head symbols of the solar system and 
 stars; last, a youth with an elephant spouting water, and clouds above, represent- 
 ing the God of Storm. 
 
 The United States Government building was decorated by sculptured figures, 
 symbolizing the three branches of the Federal Government. The Judicial was 
 done by Lorado Taft; the Legislative by John H. Storrs; and the Executive by 
 Raoul Josset. Bronze replicas of the insignia of the United States Government 
 were also sculptured by Mr. Josset. 
 
 Above the entrance to each state exhibit of the States Building was placed a 
 large reproduction of the ofBcial seal of that commonwealth, as a decorative 
 feature. These gilded plaster seals were also the work of Raoul Josset. Twenty- 
 two of these seals, supplemented by the official seal of the Exposition over Exposi- 
 tion offices, were a part of the 1933 decoration. Additional seals were sculptured 
 and cast for the new states and territories participating in 1934. 
 
 Three plaster figures by Raoul Josset, depicting Agriculture, formed a part of 
 the exterior decoration on the Foods and Agriculture Building. Several exhibitors 
 presented notable examples of contemporaneous sculpture. Noteworthy among 
 these was the work of Carl Millis, in the court of the Swedish Pavilion. 
 
 The potentialities of water conjured alluring visions, but the practical difficulties 
 in its use precluded many attractive features which had received serious study. 
 There was the projected Tower of Light and Water, abandoned because of its 
 cost and technical uncertainties. The molds of an elaborate fountain were 
 presented to the Exposition and shipped to Chicago, but its classical beauty was 
 to remain unseen upon the grounds, as no place could be found where it would 
 
 DECORATIVE FEATURES 97
 
 not appear incongruous in contrast with the architectural style of the neighboring 
 structures. 
 
 Fountains and Cascades 
 
 Water found its place in literally scores of places throughout the grounds and 
 in many interesting forms and phases. In the ring formed by the 23rd Street 
 bridge, three fountains were constructed a hundred feet off shore. The water 
 effects of all three were identical and changed in synchronism by means of a 
 thrustor valve actuated by a central controller. They recirculated water from the 
 lagoon, 3600 gallons a minute, in a variety of forms from the finest mist to heavy 
 columns of water, with a towering central plume. 
 
 Through a cycle of ten-minute duration, the center fountain evolved gradual 
 changes of red, green, blue and amber light, the 70 incandescent projectors, 
 submerged under the water of an upper pool, and controlled by a thyratron 
 reactor system. The two flanking fountains used only clear light. 
 
 The center of the Electrical Court was graced by an ingenious fountain, sug- 
 gestive of a huge morning glory. At the center of the pool was a stepped basin, 
 with vertical streams emanating from annular rings of jets at each of the four 
 levels. Each band was illuminated a different color by static light, red at the bot- 
 tom, yellow next, then green and blue at the top. Perched seventy feet above the 
 pool and supported on structural steel legs, was a 32-foot cone-shaped canopy of 
 chromium-plated, hand-hammered copper. Its specular surface reflected down- 
 ward a myriad of tiny flashes of mobile color, which combined to give a glow of 
 synthetic white over the court. Jets of water intercept less than ten percent of the 
 light and the remainder would have been lost were it not for the canopy which 
 reflected a large amount of the light from the 135 submerged floodlights back to 
 the ground. Particularly from the lagoon launches was this fountain a spectacle 
 of superb beauty. 
 
 The Firestone Garden presented a notable creation. From a long pool there 
 rose a series of dome-shaped fountains of mist-like spray with a high center jet. 
 The water play and the variations of color emanating from a battery of submerged 
 lights were synchronized with music, the fountain reflecting the mode or tempo 
 of the notes, and so it became known as the "Singing Fountain." The inspiration 
 for this beautiful feature came from the temple fountain in the Alcazar Gardens, 
 Sevilla, Spain. 
 
 Striking and effective were the pools of the National Terrazzo Association, 
 which remained after the close of the Exposition, making a permanent approach 
 to the Planatarium. Six hundred feet long, it is composed of a series of twelve 
 graduated basins, the shallow water in each spilling over into the one next below. 
 The geometric design, by John Norton, on the floor of each pool, symbolized one 
 of the twelve months, and well illustrated the possibilities of terrazzo to use gay 
 colors or subdued effects. Bordering the pools are wide terrazzo esplanades. Dif- 
 fering from mosaic where stone is laid in patterns, terrazzo traces the design with 
 brass stripes on edge, between which are placed colored marble chips and other 
 
 98 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 pigmenting material, mixed with cement. On drying, the surface is ground 
 smooth and polished to bring out the colors. 
 
 Among the fountains of more standardized design were those in the gardens 
 of the Chrysler, Horticulture, American Radiator, and Good Housekeeping Maga- 
 zine exhibits, where they were major decorative features. 
 
 All fountains on the grounds recirculated the water, either from the lagoons or 
 their own pools. A notable advance was made in the economy of submerged 
 light fixtures, not only in waterproofing, but in permitting the water to flood the 
 reflectors. This kept the globe cool and gave mechanical strength to the colored 
 lenses to resist the crushing force of the water falling upon them. While prompted 
 by economy, it was found that for temporary use, ordinary pipe slighdy flattened 
 at the end gave quite as satisfactory results in most cases as carefully designed 
 nozzles. 
 
 Signs Raise Hard Problems 
 
 Through the pre-Fair and operating period, signs continuously presented prob- 
 lems difficult of satisfactory solution. While of themselves not considered decora- 
 tive features, lack of a strong control over their use could readily have destroyed 
 beautiful effects otherwise achieved. Every exhibitor and concessionaire had a 
 right to expect adequate facilities for advertising his goods or entertainment, and 
 the large majority willingly acquiesced to the rules and regulations realizing they 
 were designed for their own protection. But it was the vociferous minority that 
 demanded signs of exaggerated size and glaring brilliance, that they might at- 
 tract disproportionate attention to themselves and away from their neighbors and 
 competitors. 
 
 The rules adopted were specific and fair and designed to preserve the dignity 
 and beauty of the grounds and to assure uniformity of treatment to all. The regu- 
 lations governing exterior signs provided that they be a minimum distance above 
 the ground or terrace; that the vertical height be limited, dependent on their 
 elevation; and that they be substantial in construction. It also was provided that 
 there should be no exposed source of light, except for gaseous tubes at the south 
 end of the grounds, but that the illumination should be indirect, or so contrived 
 as properly to diffuse the light by opal glass. While flashing was not permitted, 
 signs which utilized dimming and color changes were attractive and interest- 
 compelling, notably those on the Firestone building. Wording was carefully cen- 
 sored for accuracy, and could apply only to the exhibitors' own products. Before 
 erection, all signs had to be approved by the Exposition. 
 
 A new technique in signs was developed, which has been followed elsewhere, 
 for it was demonstrated that signs could be made beautiful without losing high 
 attention value. It was the belief of the Exposition that signs which are offensive 
 or simply ugly, do not contribute to the box office, and may do actual harm. 
 
 Through the period when funds for necessary construction were so limited, 
 suggestions were made that the Exposition follow the precedent of previous fairs 
 and sell space for commercial advertising about the grounds. Great electric signs 
 
 DECORATIVE FEATURES 99
 
 on the towers of the Skyride, posters on the main fence and sides of buildings 
 were among the proposals. That there would have been a large and immediate 
 income from this source did not deter the Exposition from its firm determination 
 that visitors should not be greeted by selling arguments at every turn, and that 
 what beauty had been attained should not be marred. 
 
 With the Exposition foregoing this opportunity for revenue, its hands were 
 strengthened in dealing resolutely with violations of the rules. For with repeated 
 slight encroachments, it would have been easy for signs to get out of all control, 
 with resultant chaotic conditions. In spite of the added expense all would have 
 felt it mandatory to keep abreast of their neighbors. Typical of the difficulties 
 was the offer of a great corporation to install a number of drinking fountains. 
 As the visitor would lean over the Jet, his head would intercept a beam of light 
 on a photoelectric cell, which would cause a graphophone record to whisper 
 softly in his ear an enticing selling message. 
 
 While the fountains were attractive in design, and while the novelty of the 
 device would have assuredly intrigued the visitors, they were reluctantly disap- 
 proved, partly because the advertiser was not an exhibitor, but principally because 
 it would have brought an irresistible demand for other forms of detached adver- 
 tising devices all over the ground — the time to stop was at the beginning. 
 
 100 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 Chapter lO 
 
 ILLUMINATION'S DRAMATIC ROLE 
 
 From the spectacular gas flame that illuminated the Paris exposition of 1851, 
 to the beauty and grandeur of the electrical jewelry still remembered as the out- 
 standing feature of the San Francisco Fair of 1915, each succeeding world's fair 
 has blazoned notable advances in the art of illumination. 
 
 The Crystal Palace in London in 1882 had used incandescent lights for the 
 first time. Chicago's Columbian Exposition starded the world with the white 
 brilliance of its electrical display, for which it used more current than the entire 
 City of Chicago did at that time. 
 
 With the advance made by science in the intervening years and the opening of 
 the new field of thermionics, it was anticipated that A Century of Progress would 
 outshine its predecessors in the novelty and magnificence of its night display. 
 With such a goal, studies were begun even before the first buildings were started. 
 
 If color by day was to be the common denominator of structures differing vast- 
 ly in character, so light by night should perform the same fimction. The poly- 
 chrome festival of the day should be transformed into an even more dazzling 
 spectacle by night. 
 
 In the illumination of an exposition the utilitarian features, and even the 
 efficiency of luminaires are secondary to the aesthetic and psychological effect. Its 
 function is to vitalize buildings and landscaping and blend the whole into a 
 gorgeous color symphony, to present to awe-struck and foot-sore crowds a satisfy- 
 ing glory of joyous light. 
 
 Strung along three miles of lake front and subject to atmospheric conditions, 
 frequently fog-like in their density, a lighting effect which was to hold A Century 
 
 ILLUMINATION'S DRAMATIC ROLE 101
 
 of Progress together presented baffling questions. Water effects must be studied, 
 and the opportunity of the lagoons for reflections; the shrubbery and arboreal 
 features must not be slighted; the play of great lights in the air must receive its 
 place. 
 
 The problem was threefold: first, the installation of feeder cables of sufficient 
 capacity and with convenient outlets; second, the placing of fixtures of proper in- 
 tensity and characteristics for the flood lighting of buildings and general illumina- 
 tion of the grounds; and third, the contriving of spectacular features of poetic 
 beauty and emotional appeal. 
 
 The charge of illuminating engineers that architects were prone to design a 
 structure and call in the lighting men after the building was finished seemed well 
 founded. In the interest of both economy and efficiency it was determined that 
 the work of the two groups should go hand in hand and that their close coopera- 
 tion would assure a structural design that would provide for the lighting effects. 
 
 However, as with many other carefully laid plans, eventualities did not permit 
 its full realization. Some of the early lighting devices, so intriguing in the labora- 
 tory, and for which provision was made in building design, did not prove prac- 
 tical for use on a large scale. The uncertainty of funds prevented commitments 
 for lighting effects sufficiendy in advance to give the architects complete informa- 
 tion for their studies, yet construction could not wait for final illumination plans. 
 However, all buildings incorporated considerable illumination in their original 
 design, and this was augmented when the general scheme was put into effect, 
 just before the Fair opened. 
 
 In July of 1930 E. W. Lloyd was asked by the Exposition to organize an Advis- 
 ory Committee on Illumination. He assembled a distinguished group of illumi- 
 nating engineers, secured the use of the well equipped Chicago Laboratory of the 
 Commonwealth Edison Company, and delegated E. D. Tillson to act as resident 
 member of the Committee on the staff. 
 
 Scope of Committee Study 
 
 To show the scope of the study given by this Committee, the agenda for their 
 meeting of December 30, 1930 is reproduced: 
 
 (a) Submarine lighting patterns, geysers, fountains, cascades, and cold vapor 
 effects. 
 
 (b) Mobile color patterns such as produced by scintillators, gyration of light 
 sources and lenses, "Liqui-Lite", color organs, Colorama, Clavilux, Lumitone, 
 Scene-in-Action, etc. 
 
 (c) Fluorescent and phosphorescent effects. Use of luminescent paints for in- 
 terior surfacing, creation of changing and disappearing patterns, luminescent cas- 
 cades, fountains, etc. 
 
 (d) Immobile floodlighting, color-shadow illumination, multi-plane lighting, 
 fixed color patterns by projection, silhouette lighting, etc. 
 
 (e) Gaseous conductor lighting for interior and exterior use. Indirect silhouette 
 cove and niche lighting by means of neon tubes. Use of neon with panels of 
 
 102 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 etched glass by the "Viking" principle. Traveling and stroboscopic effects, etc. 
 
 (f) Utilitarian lighting of exhibition halls — use of special skeleton equipment 
 for this purpose. Emergency and exit lighting. Stairway and ramp lighting. 
 
 (g) Lighting of exhibits. Stage effects for exhibits. Diorama lighting. Dim- 
 ming. Cycloramas. 
 
 (h) Motor highway, footway, and plaza lighting — types to be considered — de- 
 sirable intensities — combination systems. Directional lighting. Safety and traffic 
 control systems. 
 
 (i) Synchronous control of lighting effects throughout certain areas or within 
 certain buildings — Thyratron, pneumatic, hydraulic, and other parallel systems of 
 control. 
 
 A laboratory was set up in the basement of the Administration Building, where 
 various suggestions could be tested and demonstrated. It served to focus attention 
 on difficulties and to warn of what not to do. There were ingenious devices which 
 produced thrilling effects in darkness, but one 40-watt lamp would ruin them and 
 hence, because there would be "spilled" light from many sources during opera- 
 tion, they were eliminated. 
 
 There were fluorescent paints that blazed in colored brilliance under the unseen 
 rays of ultra violet lights. Reflections from ripples in a pan of water caused 
 tongues of flame to play on walls. Tiny mirrors oscillated by the breeze of an 
 electric fan gave translucent windows a mysterious opalescence. "Color shadows" 
 from gaseous tubes painted rainbows on the ceilings. Man-made lightning from 
 a "ladder-arc" roared and snapped between vertical electrodes thirty feet long, and 
 changed color in chemical vapors. 
 
 Intriguing as they were in the laboratory, they were not practical for use in 
 the Fair, It became evident that with the grand scale of an exposition, detail light- 
 ing or small special effects would be lost, and, therefore, available funds must be 
 concentrated on the illumination of masses and on spectacular effects of great size. 
 
 In these early days of the Fair there was little of interest to show distinguished 
 visitors or prospective exhibitors, yet they all expressed an interest in seeing some- 
 thing tangible of the plans. The lighting laboratory admirably filled this need 
 for here were dozens of dazzling and beautiful effects of the wizardry of light. 
 No one went away without feeling that he had caught a glimpse of the progress 
 of a century, and a sample of the wonders to be seen at the Exposition three years 
 hence. 
 
 By the fall of 1932 considerable illumination had been installed, though con- 
 necting elements were lacking. General policies had crystallized and there had 
 been gathered many ideas and a wealth of data on the specific problems. Some 
 things that were done were far from satisfactory to that ultimate test — the human 
 eye. The doorway of the Administration Building had been the first endeavor 
 and with much dismay it was admitted that it gave a splendid representation of 
 a row of milk bottles. Screens of spotted color turned them to weird hobgoblins 
 at close range and killed all effect at a distance. Each installation had shown that 
 
 ILLUMINATION'S DRAMATIC ROLE 103
 
 there was still much to learn, for its great scale and diverse conditions make of 
 each exposition a subject for original research and individual solution. 
 
 Getting The Job Done 
 
 Through the earnest work of staff members and the able assistance of eminent 
 illuminating engineers, who gave unstintingly of their time and thought, the 
 problems had narrowed down to the practical one of getting the job done. The 
 physical layout was set, for most structures were then nearing completion; the 
 color scheme had been determined and the successes and failures of the early at- 
 tempts had clearly indicated the broad course. 
 
 The opening was but six months off — all too short a time for the tremendous 
 amount of work still to be done. And funds to complete projects already off the 
 drafting board were not in sight, much less for those necessary to key the whole 
 composition to the high note that an exposition demands. 
 
 The solution came in a joint agreement reached at this time with the General 
 Electric Co. and the Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Co., whereby they 
 agreed to furnish materials, engineers and the use of their laboratories for the 
 remainder of the lighting plans, and accept gold notes in full payment. The 
 $350,000 assigned for this purpose was in addition to that of other agreements 
 where gold notes had been accepted for such utilities as transformers and incan- 
 descent lamps. 
 
 The services of the late W. D'Arcy Ryan, who had been the Director of the 
 General Electric Company's illuminating engineering laboratories, were offered 
 to the Exposition and he was made Chief of Illumination, with Charles Stahl, of 
 the Westinghouse Co. as his chief assistant. 
 
 The successful and harmonious execution of this contract was largely due to 
 the willingness of the representatives of the two companies to concentrate on mak- 
 ing the teamwork effective in producing a creditable result. In close cooperation 
 with staff members they worked feverishly to be ready on time. They succeeded, 
 but it must be admitted that many a switch was thrown for the first time on open- 
 ing night. 
 
 When the vivid colors of the Urban palette were approved in January of 1933, 
 a new element was introduced which caused many apparently feasible lighting 
 effects to be thrown into the discard. In former expositions the white or soft- 
 colored surfaces could be changed by the illuminating engineer to colors to suit 
 his will, but with the strong colors of A Century of Progress light could only em- 
 phasize them, or modify their hues. The application of mobile color where the 
 dimming and changing of multi-colored lights would produce an opalescent in- 
 termingling and kaleidoscopic movement, successful in other expositions, was 
 abandoned on the advent of strong colors. The final scheme would be static and 
 use only clear light to flood the building facades. Color lenses and screens would 
 provide depth and atmosphere. 
 
 One of the earliest considerations had been to prevent disagreeable intensities 
 or exposed light sources, because it had been realized that a single bright light in 
 
 104 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 the foreground would kill the effect of an effectively lighted building behind it. 
 This was accomplished by indirect lighting and by translucent shades. Incan- 
 descent lamps of low wattage and blue gaseous tubes were the only exposed lights 
 except where the distance from which they could be viewed was sufficient to sub- 
 due more brilliant sources. 
 
 The designed intensity of light varied in different locations from one "foot- 
 candle" on the facade of an inner court, to fifteen "foot-candles" on prominent 
 architectural features. But the amount of light which the eye sees on a flood- 
 lighted surface is as much dependent on the coefficient of reflection of the color 
 or character of surface as it is on intensity of source. And this varied from five 
 percent for the dark blue to seventy-five percent for the white, and averaged only 
 thirty percent for the entire exposition. That is, seventy percent of the light 
 would be absorbed and lost. 
 
 Except for the more lavish use of lamps of high wattage, the floodlight and the 
 searchlight, which formed so important a part of the night illumination, were 
 essentially the same as had been used at San Francisco in 1915. But there were 
 many new effects which the visitor was to see for the first time at A Century of 
 Progress. Development does not divide itself into neady separated one-hundred 
 year blocks, but, despite the dates of expositions, is a continuing process. So it was 
 snatched on the fly, and used in an embryonic state or along the path toward ma- 
 turity. Noteworthy among these scraps of development was the gaseous tube, 
 more popularly known as the neon tube. 
 
 The Gaseous Tube 
 
 This had found considerable use in signs where short lengths delivered their 
 stroboscopic glare direct to the eyes. A new technique in its application was de- 
 veloped for the Exposition soon after 1929, where its architectural possibilities 
 were demonstrated. Its long shadowless lines of light and its atmosphere of color 
 gave a fairy glow to gay surfaces. For both exteriors and interiors a variety of 
 uses produced enchanting effects. 
 
 The so<alled "neon" light is a glass tube of carefully figured dimensions with 
 metal electrodes enclosed at the ends. When the air has been exhausted, a tiny 
 amount of one of the so-called "rare gases" is admitted to the tube and sealed in. 
 As the high voltage from a small transformer is applied to the ends, electrons 
 break away from the atoms in the electrode and, traveling at terrific speed, crash 
 into the atoms of the gas within the tube. The result of the collision is to dislodge 
 other electrons from those atoms which, as they fly off, knock loose still more 
 electrons. The flying electrons are continually finding new homes with atoms that 
 have been deprived of their quota. As long as the current is on, new disruptions 
 and collisions are continually taking place and, as each occurs, light flares up. 
 
 As a result of this electronic bombardment neon gas emits an orange red light. 
 Blue light is obtained by using argon together with a mixture of krypton, helium 
 and mercury vapor. The same mixture in a tube of yellow glass gives green. 
 
 ILLUMINATION'S DRAMATIC ROLE 105
 
 Helium produces a pinkish white light in a clear tube, and with yellow glass, a 
 rich gold. 
 
 The first use at the Exposition of gaseous tubing on a large scale was on the 
 tower of the Hall of Science, where nearly a mile of it, blue on the north and west 
 faces and red on the south and east, gave a warm glow that could be seen for 
 miles. With tubes concealed behind channels the results were purely those of 
 reflected light. 
 
 Outstanding among all effects was its use to simulate a cascade in the great 
 court of the Electrical Building. This section of the building was designed to 
 represent a great dam, and for the spillway there was a tumbling waterfall of 
 4600 feet of tubes emitting a soft blue light that seemed to diffuse itself through 
 the atmosphere like fine mist. 
 
 From their first studies in 1929, the Exposition engineers were convinced that 
 in the field of gaseous tube lighting lay possibilities for unappreciated opportuni- 
 ties, and the Federal Electric Co. was asked to undertake their exploration. They 
 made a special research appropriation and their R. E. Barclay devoted practically 
 his entire attention and effort to it for several years. 
 
 The extended shape of the ground required some method of unification or 
 tying together, and this was accomplished effectively by a bank of searchlights at 
 the south end of the grounds. The 24 lights, mounted on a two-step platform, 
 spread an aurora of colored light over a large part of the Exposition. Each light 
 delivered sixty million beam-candlepower. Manned by a crew of trained operators, 
 the beams could revolve singly or together, could be focused down or expanded 
 and, with screens of many colors, could produce moving patterns in the sky both 
 weird and beautiful. And then at command they could be stopped to spread a 
 silver fan over the grounds. 
 
 A striking effect, which was used but a few times, because of the expense and a 
 location which permitted only a poor view, was produced by steam jets in the form 
 of plumes, fans and pinwheels on which the searchlights played. Had a better 
 location been available, it is probable it would have been used more. The smoke 
 from aerial bombs was also used as a medium on which to play the varicolored 
 beams. 
 
 Two other banks of searchlights were employed in 1933. The tops of the 
 Skyride towers were used to mount 25, 24-inch searchlights to flood nearby 
 buildings and produce naturalistic shadows. In the Electrical Building court there 
 were focused 17 searchlights, so that their beams converged directly over the foun- 
 tain. Their 21 million candle power represented the largest battery of incan- 
 descent searchlights used up to that time. 
 
 In all some fifty different forms of lighting standards and pylons were used 
 throughout the grounds. In most cases no attempt was made to disguise either 
 the luminaires or their structures, but they were treated in the same functional 
 style as the buildings. In many instances, the fixtures were an integral part of 
 the architectural design of either the area or building they served. 
 
 106 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 Floodlights Raise Problem 
 
 The difficulty of placing floodlights for building facades was accentuated by the 
 "set-backs" in the building, the roofs of which offered delightful spots for visitors. 
 The balconies, terraces and the connecting bridges were an essential part of the 
 architectural plan as they afforded broad vistas over the grounds and facilitated 
 circulation on upper floors. But in these localities, to place floodlights in such 
 normal locations as beds of shrubbery, would have meant that the observers 
 would look directly down into the glare of the light sources. 
 
 A group of unique lighting standards was designed to overcome this obstacle. 
 Latticed steel poles were surmounted by banks of 18 floodlights which could be 
 individually directed to light evenly a surface. A simple canvas backing, painted 
 the color of the building they faced, concealed the reflectors. 
 
 The purely functional "street lighting", whether on the main thoroughfare, on 
 bridges or on the many paths which wound through the grounds, met definite 
 requirements. The source of light must be either concealed or so subdued as not 
 to interfere with the decorative illumination. The standards and fixtures must 
 be unique and interesting in design, without the over-decoration that would be 
 inconsistent with the general architectural style. They must be economical in con- 
 struction. 
 
 The Avenue of Flags was made brilliant with long tubular frosted Mazda 
 lamps mounted horizontally between reflecting discs. Ball shaped luminaires sur- 
 rounded by the signs of the Zodiac were appropriately placed on Planetarium 
 Avenue. Particularly effective were the "Weeping Willow" lights in the Court of 
 States where hundreds of tiny, flame-tinted, lamps were formed like the branches 
 of a tree. Besides being decorative they performed the useful purpose of illuminat- 
 ing the facade of the States Building, which had presented a difficult problem 
 because of the second floor terrace, generally crowded with people to sec the 
 night events in the court. 
 
 None attracted more attention than the "mushroom" lights, which v/ere so 
 successful that the number was increased to cover many landscaped areas in addi- 
 tion to their original purpose of path lighting. Their soft colors and circles of 
 light on the ground, which appeared as mounds, dotted many areas, and produced 
 charming and surprising effects. Cones of colored, translucent Micarta were sup- 
 ported on low shafts of finned aluminum. The reflected rays of the single incan- 
 descent lamp caused a glow to emanate from the ground, and the visitor seemed 
 to be walking waist deep in a pool of light, with only the soft color of the shade 
 above. 
 
 Of interest, because it so well illustrates a problem met with many times during 
 the construction period was the "chromoscope". Through the alternate louvers 
 of this tall pylon, red and blue green lights constantly mingled and changed. To 
 accomplish this, the interior offered a marvel of electrical magic, baffling in its 
 complexity. Hot-cathode mercury and neon gaseous tubes were dimmed and con- 
 trolled by thyratron tubes, an ingenious hook-up of induction ballasts, reactors, 
 condensers and a motor-driven timer. Costing many thousands of dollars, it rep- 
 
 ILLUMINATION'S DRAMATIC ROLE 107
 
 resented the last word in electrical development. But most of this was concealed 
 from the casual visitor and the effect which he saw could have been produced by 
 more conventional means for a fraction of the cost. It typified the humorous 
 expression, "Technique is doing the simplest thing with the greatest difficulty." 
 
 The Exposition was fully conscious that the 1933 lighting scheme left much 
 to be desired. The number, size and location of even major structures could not 
 be finally determined until a few months before the opening, leaving all too short 
 a time to prepare the illuminating effects properly. But, behind it all, was that 
 most difficult and baffling question — where is the economic point beyond which 
 an additional expenditure would not produce commensurate returns towards 
 meeting the primary obligation of paying debts.? 
 
 Common to all decorative effects was the query — will this particular feature 
 cause an increase in gate receipts suflScient to justify its expense? Obviously, it 
 had to be balanced with many factors, and there could be no "control" which 
 would demonstrate the wisdom of the ultimate decision. 
 
 Study igs4 Lighting Effects 
 
 The experience of the first year's operation made clearer the solution for 1934. 
 Study was given over the winter months to the elimination of dark areas, esf)e- 
 cially those where it was desired to induce crowds to move at night, such as the 
 Island Midway. It was felt that the general light level should be raised, and that 
 additional spectacular effects were needed to impart a sense of newness to the 
 second edition. Such technical problems as the better concealment of light 
 sources, rearrangement of floodlights to give more uniform illumination and the 
 more effective use of color screens to intensify colors received full consideration. 
 
 Particularly worthy of note is the fact that the greatly improved scheme was 
 accomplished with a disproportionately small ouday of funds. In fact, through- 
 out the Exposition, whether in exhibits or in outdoor displays, it had been demon- 
 strated that cost is a poor criterion of effectiveness. A lavish expenditure of 
 money would not compensate, in crowd-gathering interest, for lack of ingenuity 
 or imagination. Thousands would be spent on one exhibit that was ignored by 
 the visitors, while an adjacent one, costing a few hundred, would have a continu- 
 ally waiting queue. This phase is more fully discussed in the section on Exhibits 
 but, the application being general, an especially significant example is given here. 
 
 The Skyride, as an opportunity for a night display, had not been utilized be- 
 cause of the excessive cost of the means suggested. In 1934, a series of 25-watt 
 incandescent bulbs were strung on 20-ft. centers on the cables connecting the 
 towers. Like stars they twinkled above the crowds, attracting the attention and 
 comment of nearly every visitor to the grounds. But significant is the fact that 
 they cost but a small fraction of other devices, whose existence but few realized. 
 With the addition of bands of neon tubes around the observation platforms and 
 green floodlights on the top, the Skyride emerged from its noctural obscurity of 
 the year before to become the dominant feature of the night display. 
 
 In 1933, the lagoons at night had been somber and unattractive, their width 
 
 108 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 being so great that the lights on the sides did not carry across. So, for 1934, it was 
 determined to carry out an early suggestion of John Holabird and construct a 
 fountain in the north lagoon on such an elaborate scale as to focus attention on 
 this end of the grounds. 
 
 The Great Fountain 
 
 As constructed, the fountain was composed of a stem projecting southward 
 from the Planetarium bridge, a great dome and three detached fountains. The 
 stem was 540 feet long and produced by a double row of jets arched toward the 
 dome. More than 200 floodlights, submerged below the surface of the lagoon, 
 bathed the spray in clear white light. The dome, 150 feet in diameter, was formed 
 by concentric rings of nozzles projecting toward the center, giving what was 
 apparently a solid mass of water 40 feet high. Paralleling the rings were troughs 
 for floodlights, so controlled as to give a changing color glow through the ambers, 
 reds and blues, and then pure white. With the red lights alone, there was pro- 
 duced the effect of a great steaming caldron, with lengthening tongues of flame 
 leaping up its sides. Gradually this would subside to become a block of jade, and 
 then barely visible under a soft deep purple. The mist rising hundreds of feet 
 into the air and drifting with the lake winds would be caught in the beams of 
 multicolor searchlights, producing a never-to-be-forgotten effect. 
 
 Ten giant pumps recirculated the water from the lagoon at the rate of sixty- 
 eight thousand gallons a minute. The world's next largest fountain only used 
 fourteen thousand gallons a minute. Nearly a million watts of electrical energy 
 were used in its illumination. There was water and current enough to supply a 
 large modern city. 
 
 To balance the searchlight bank at the south of the grounds a new bank of 
 sixteen high-intensity arc searchlights mounted on the 12th Street bridge formed a 
 gay aurora over the north lagoon and the Grand Fountain. 
 
 The new exhibit buildings added materially to the night effects, notably the 
 Ford Building with its mobile color on the three set-backs of the rotunda. In seem- 
 ingly endless combinations, the reds, blues and greens would merge imperceptibly, 
 one with the other. While the colors were apparendy of the same intensity, it is 
 interesting to note that they were in the proportion of 100 red, 150 green and 200 
 blue. Exposed gaseous tubes were installed on the dome and fin of the "Doodle- 
 bug"; on the pylons and south wall of the Armour Building; and on the fins of 
 the Lagoon Theatre. 
 
 The 1933 fixtures for the general illumination of the grounds remained substan- 
 tially unchanged, but several new types were designed and installed for 1934, such 
 as the "Discs" on the Beach Midway, the "Lily of the Valley" fixtures of the 
 Midway approach, and several of fantastic shape at the south end of the Island. 
 Many odds and ends of electrical equipment had accumulated in the store houses 
 and these were fashioned into ingenious fixtures, almost without cost to the Expo- 
 sition. Some of these were quite as attractive and more practical than those which 
 had been specially built from elaborately prepared designs. 
 
 ILLUMINATION'S DRAMATIC ROLE 109
 
 That so much was accomplished under such trying circumstances speaks vol- 
 umes for the patience and ingenuity of those who made the final result possible. 
 Among these, it was J. L, McConnell whose tireless work translated into final 
 action the various and sometimes conflicting factors. 
 
 A notable step forward was made in making light an integral part of architec- 
 ture and not merely an adjunct to be applied to a finished product. It is certain 
 that better than ever before, were the potentialities of light grasped by the archi- 
 tects to beautify building form, and by business men better to display their wares. 
 Every known form of lighting found its niche somewhere upon the grounds. 
 
 110 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 Chapter ii 
 
 NTERIORS 
 
 An exposition is divided naturally into exteriors and interiors — broad vistas 
 and towering masses; close relationships and intimate detail. The problems 
 involved in each are quite different, yet there must be a relationship and a 
 transition. Although interiors exist solely for the display of exhibits, yet in 
 their design and construction the architect and the exhibitor are inseparably 
 connected. With enclosing walls designed around probable exhibit needs, the 
 arrangement of the interior became a study of how best to set off the displays 
 and how to alleviate the inevitable fatigue of the visitor. 
 
 Frequent lounges were an obvious contribution to the comfort of the visitor, 
 but the more subtle means, such as the texture of floor surfaces, restful colors, 
 proper illumination, the arrangements of aisles, the sequence and orderliness 
 of exhibits, convenient rest rooms, and a host of others, did much toward permit- 
 ting the visitor to absorb what the exhibits had to offer. There was so much to 
 see, so much to take-in, that the mental exertion contributed largely to the 
 physical strain. 
 
 This was never better expressed than by a Negro nurse brought up from 
 Tennessee to help care for the children on their tour through the Fair. On 
 reaching the hotel that night, she dropped into a chair thoroughly exhausted. 
 "Are you tired, Mary?" asked her employer. "Lawsy, no, but my eyes done 
 wore out." 
 
 BreaJ{^ with Precedent 
 
 A Century of Progress broke wide from precedent in presenting interiors 
 
 INTERIORS in
 
 of beauty and finish. Previous fairs had generally left structural members 
 exposed, or made attempts at decoration with bunting, imitation evergreens, 
 velvet tassels, and potted palms. To undertake the completion and ornamenta- 
 tion of thousands of square feet of exhibit space, with the same degree of care 
 as that given to the outside of buildings, was a task approaching heroic 
 proportions. 
 
 In designing interiors, two major objectives had to be satisfied; first, laying 
 out spaces of a size, location and general attractiveness that would persuade 
 exhibitors to purchase them; and second, the forming of a background of such 
 character that exhibits might exert a maximum of appeal to the visitors. To 
 accomplish these, the major buildings were planned to contain one or more 
 great halls for special features at salient points, with connecting links between 
 them. In the former, the principal exhibits were free standing and central, the 
 hall being a great space surrounding the display. 
 
 The connecting links were aisles flanked on either side by exhibit spaces of 
 unit sizes, which took on the nature of enframements. Not that this distinction 
 was always clear cut, for often great halls, such as that in the Hall of Science, had 
 exhibits enframed along one or more walls in addition to those on the central 
 axis. The connecting links, likewise, offered a variety of treatment, such as 
 aisles with exhibit islands, ramps with stepped exhibit spaces, galleries with 
 many variations of exhibit offerings, and then stairs, passages, and entrances 
 for circulation of visitors. 
 
 The first pavilion of the General Exhibits group was a clearly defined envelope 
 for the great central exhibit of steel. Here the walls were treated uniformly 
 and the running decoration — a mere change to a band of darker color — ran 
 continuously around the room. The second pavilion of the same building, 
 which housed an oil exhibit, was an example of partial use of wall surface for 
 exhibit purposes. Here the color was broken to lead the eye around to the 
 large drawing of oil fields and cracking machinery which covered the south 
 wall. The ceiling was banded and divided to unite the front, rear and sides 
 of the room to form a whole. 
 
 The circular hall of the Electrical Building was another example of the use 
 of one side of the space for exhibit purposes, and the other side as a foil. The 
 long hall in the Travel and Transport group was a combination of wall back- 
 ground and a surrounding for central displays. 
 
 Each group of exhibits had its own vertical panel background, similar in 
 theory to a surrounding wall and plaster treatment. The colors used in each 
 maintained the separateness of the panel unit, yet the selection of their color 
 for value and intensity was such as to maintain uniformity of treatment and 
 blend the Hall into a harmonious whole. 
 
 Advisory Service 
 
 The large majority of exhibits were installed in one or more standard exhibit 
 bays which normally measured twenty by twenty feet. The architectural treat- 
 
 112 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 mcnt of these consisted of columns and lintels, within which the exhibitor might 
 establish his own background and floor arrangement. While an extensive 
 advisory service was extended to exhibitors by the Exposition management to 
 assist in arranging their displays, this remained their prerogative. The Exposition, 
 nevertheless, retained a rigid control over the development of the aisles, that 
 there might be continuity of treatment and an equal opportunity for each 
 exhibitor to present his best showing without interference by his neighbors. 
 
 The side panels of the exhibit bays were the steel columns which supported 
 the roof or floor above. These were left exposed, not merely to save the cost 
 of boxing, but because their "I" shaped cross section permitted an interesting 
 treatment of paint and an easy construction for dividing partitions. Contrasting 
 colors were carried on webb and flanges of the columns, giving the emphasis of 
 salient and interior planes. 
 
 The lintel part of the enframement was of uniform design and constituted a 
 light shelf for the illumination behind cut-out letter signs. The backgrounds 
 were generally white to reflect the light from the concealed sources, and permit 
 the letters to stand out in bold relief. These signs gave opportunity for each 
 exhibitor to announce his name and wares and by their uniformity made a pleas- 
 ing appearance and assured that an adjacent sign would not have a dominance. 
 
 Attempts were made to complete the frame along the floor line by such 
 devices as a floor raised several inches above the aisle. The latter was emphasized 
 in the early designs, as it was felt it would help set off the display and facilitate 
 the nightly cleaning, because the accumulated trash could be readily swept into 
 the aisles. It was abandoned, however, when it was realized that it would 
 constitute a hazard as packed crowds could not see its existence. The general 
 solution was to leave the front of the exhibit space free of obstructions, unless 
 it was desired to have a closed room, in which case walls were built from 
 floor to ceiling. 
 
 Gay and Assertive Atmosphere 
 
 The painting of the interiors was planned to accomplish several clearly 
 defined objectives. While the colors were gay and assertive, their selection and 
 arrangement were such as to set off the exhibits and the architecture. Painting 
 fulfilled its primary mission by subtly and unobtrusively directing the visitors' 
 interest to focal points, by orienting him or influencing his movements, by 
 creating moods and atmosphere, and by completing or balancing the picture. 
 When its motives became too obvious, or when it became the center of interest, 
 it registered at least partial failure in design. 
 
 The exhibits themselves were obviously of prime consideration and the purpose 
 of their setting was merely to present them in the most attractive way to the 
 public. Many exhibitors had not the talent in their own organization to present 
 properly their display and when they obtained the services of an interior decorator 
 or architect, all too frequendy the accent was placed on the background rather 
 than on the exhibit. 
 
 INTERIORS 113
 
 
 To meet this need, the Exposition established a division to assist exhibitors 
 in arranging and decorating their spaces, and to head this highly important 
 service, Louis Skidmore, who had rendered outstanding service as Chief of 
 Design in the Works Department, was transferred to the Exhibits Department. 
 
 While this division designed many exhibit areas in toto its primary function 
 was to approve the plans submitted by the exhibitors, and where they were 
 not In accordance with regulations or had not made the most of their oppor- 
 tunities, to offer suggestions for changes and improvements. Most of the 
 exhibitors made full use of the aid which the Exposition could offer them. 
 
 It was not uncommon to have an exhibitor present a design for his space, 
 with the concentration in the wrong direction. There would be sumptuous 
 settings, with velvet drapes, gold tassels, corded railings and other trappings, 
 smothered in architectural detail. It was a pretty picture, decorative and dazzling 
 to the exhibitor, but the exhibit itself had been obliterated by the glitter of 
 the setting. 
 
 Such sketches received frank and sometimes devastating criticism, which was 
 not always received with good grace. Generally, however, the exhibitor quickly 
 saw the reasons, and after further discussion of his advertising objectives, his 
 products, and other phases of his business, resubmitted acceptable designs. Some- 
 times the exhibitor's architect was more tenacious upon traditional treat- 
 ments than his employer. He would have to be convinced that his plan was 
 incongruous in the modern setting of the Exposition and that he could render 
 his client best service by forgetting decoration and concentrating on the display, 
 giving a setting which clearly defined the exhibit but was entirely subordinate 
 to it. 
 
 Color, form, line, illumination, and texture were all employed to the best 
 advantage, but none of these elements was important except as it contributed 
 to the exhibit itself. For instance, if the exhibit itself had interest in color, it 
 was given a neutral gray, or black and white setting, but if it had no color, or a 
 dominant one, then the space would be so painted as best to set off the exhibit. 
 
 Zoned Colors Help Visitor 
 
 Throughout the buildings, colors were zoned, and while this produced a 
 pleasing harmony of design its greater purpose was to orient the visitor as to 
 his location in a section and to guide him through a sequence of exhibits, some- 
 what as "Follow the green line" principle. The continuous light shelf along 
 the corridors, which formed the upper part of the enframement for exhibit 
 spaces, offered an opportunity for a continuity of color on the soffit and the 
 lip of the light shelf. The soffit was usually painted in contrast to the columns 
 below it and the lip repeated a color of the columns. 
 
 In like manner contrasting colors were carried on the webb and flanges of 
 the exposed "I" beam columns, and could be reversed in location to establish 
 an axis at right angles to the main traffic route. The colors on the horizontal 
 bands and the columns served to connect the color treatment of the great halls 
 or to announce the limit of extent of an exhibit classification. 
 
 114 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 Ceilings served a similar purposes. For example, the Great Hall of the Hall 
 of Science established electric blue, white, grey and aluminum as colors, and 
 the science exhibits in the connecting corridors were linked with a turquoise 
 blue ceiling, and a grey and white lintel and column treatment. Medical Science, 
 in the same building, was announced by a blue red lip and light shelf treatment 
 which culminated in a niche surrounding the central medical exhibit. Yellow 
 was used to denote the industrial exhibit areas and the three colors were combined 
 on ramps and staircases where no special exhibit character governed. Thus, 
 color indicated to the visitor which section he was in and led him to the next, and 
 gave a pleasing transition by combinations of colors between connecting sections. 
 
 With the exception of the columns, all structural members of the exhibit 
 buildings were concealed, the walls and ceilings of gypsum board offering 
 opportunities for color and decoration. This applied to areas other than those 
 occupied by exhibits, such as entrances, stairs, and connecting halls. They per- 
 mitted a treatment of sufficient interest to lead the visitor on, to impart a sense 
 of expectancy, of something new ahead. Here, color and lighting were used full 
 force. They marked points where a change from exhibits rested the visitor, 
 perhaps by making him conscious of the architecture he had seen outside, then 
 giving him a glimpse beyond, on which his attention might be again concentrated. 
 
 Theory behind the Faints 
 
 The theory behind the painting of the large exhibit halls was similar to that 
 of areas without exhibits. Here, the surrounding architecture would attract 
 some attention, and, feeling the distance from the central object to the walls 
 around, the visitor would unconsciously observe them. So they were designed 
 to have a middle ground of interest, to hold the visitor's eye for merely an 
 instant, when his attention would bound back to the center of interest. Hence, 
 the color changes were few and in quiet relationship to one another. 
 
 In planning the interior decoration, it was assumed that in the bustle and 
 jam, and with thousands of displays competing for attention, small detail had 
 no place. 
 
 Ornament has always been the place where craftsmen told a story, though it 
 might only be the fact that the decoration was interesting to do, or showed the 
 craftsman's skill of hand. There was litde opportunity for the transient popula- 
 tion of the Exposition to notice this skill, for small details in coloring require 
 time to appreciate as they require time to produce. 
 
 Consequendy large areas were treated to tell a story or produce a pattern by 
 large murals of simple lines, or mere arrangements of large blocks of color. 
 They were direct in their appeal and had the friendly quality of not requiring 
 too much attention or of being too difficult to understand. 
 
 The mechanics employed in applying the paint to the interiors were similar 
 to that of the exterior. In general, the same contractors were used, and under 
 the same contract. There was some duplication in the palettes. The priming 
 coat was aluminum, and except for some light colors, one coat was sufficient 
 to cover. Both oil and casein paints were used. 
 
 INTERIORS 115
 
 Chapter 12 
 
 SCIENCE— THE BASIS OF EXHIBITS 
 
 In the outcome of every venture there is a determining factor, and the degree 
 of success is proportionate to its quality. From the beginning, it was evident that 
 exhibits must express a definite philosophy and that in them would lie success 
 and through them the Exposition's challenge for recognition. Without this essen- 
 tial distinction of spirit, the most elaborate exterior trappings would be as hollow 
 as a book of exquisite binding whose pages were literary trash. The first exhibit 
 studies, therefore, were dedicated to determining basic requirements. 
 
 Since the turn of the twentieth century many new avenues for enjoyment had 
 opened for man. Any venture falling within the category of entertainment ac- 
 cordingly faced a competition as certain as it was exacting. To equal this situa- 
 tion, the compulsion of providing an idea unique enough to conquer rivalry was 
 recognized. If this idea could be expressed in a central theme sufficiently quicken- 
 ing to the imagination and stimulating to the interest to transcend these widened 
 opportunities for diversion, the necessary urge for visiting the Exposition would 
 have been provided. And, while the theme must have its appeal through those 
 higher concepts of education, science and culture, it was realized that their inter- 
 pretation must apply showmanship and entertainment of high order, for people 
 visit an exposition with a carnival spirit, hoping to be amused and diverted from 
 humdrum routine existence by dreams of fantasy. That these could be success- 
 fully combined was amply attested by the results. 
 
 Selecting a Central Theme 
 
 The all absorbing question, then, was what should be the central theme. It re- 
 
 116 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 quired no particular analytical ability to see that it would have to be one of general 
 appeal. At the same time, it was necessary that it have a definite coordination 
 with the centennial celebration concept. The problem resolved itself into the 
 creation of ideas, with a subsequent decision as to what eombination of them 
 could be evolved into a theme which was idealistic and at the same time practical. 
 
 Turning to the lamp of experience, three conclusions could be drawn. First, 
 that previous expositions had their exhibits wound around the theory that com- 
 petition is the life of trade and offered scores of medals and blue ribbons for ex- 
 cellence of product and exhibit. Second, that the exhibits had not been tied to- 
 gether by a common philosophy but interest and effects were individualistic rather 
 than collective, with no attempt at coordination as a whole. To present them as 
 related units fused to a central motif was an experiment never yet undertaken on 
 a major scale. Third, that the industrial type of show had become increasingly 
 popular over the previous state fair and amusement park varieties, despite the fact 
 that the standards of these two latter were higher than ever before. To deter- 
 mine the reason for this would have been an interesting path to explore, but one 
 which had to be passed by. Fortunately for the Exposition, however, the experi- 
 ences and deductions of the state fair and amusement park officials were most 
 generously put at its disposal, thereby saving much study and research. 
 
 At this juncture of the Fair's evolution, Dr. George E. Hale, Director of the 
 Mount Wilson Observatory, suggested that the theme of the Exposition might be 
 centered upon the service of science to humanity during the past hundred years. 
 
 A few months later. Dr. Michael Pupin, professor of electromechanics at Colum- 
 bia University came to Chicago for an address to the Commercial Club. At an in- 
 terview between him and Exposition officials Dr. Pupin was much impressed with 
 the suggestion of Dr. Hale, and expressed the opinion that the National Research 
 Council might be induced to sponsor the Exposition's activities in such a field. 
 Created by Abraham Lincoln during the Civil War, and re-created by President 
 Wilson during World War I as the best means of pooling the scientific minds 
 of the nation for military offense and defense, the National Research Council had 
 been commissioned after the armistice by President Wilson as an agency for fram- 
 ing and guiding the machinery of peace and progress. 
 
 That the sponsorship and support of such an organization would be invaluable 
 was immediately recognized by the officials of the Exposition, who foresaw that 
 its national charter, distinctive character and past accomplishments would admir- 
 ably qualify it for the mobilization of the scientific knowledge of the nation. Its 
 accomplishments had already gained for it the respect and confidence of the tech- 
 nical leaders in science and industry, and brought it into intimate contact with the 
 personnel of universities and institutions of science and technology, and had given 
 it a unique position of trust and favor in scientific and technical circles through- 
 out the world. 
 
 To celebrate the successful union of science and industry immediately caught 
 the imagination of the foremost citizens of this nation. Here was indeed fertile 
 soil for the fructification of such a suggestion. Not only did it offer a superb 
 
 SCIENCE— THE BASIS OF EXHIBITS 117
 
 theme but, could it have the association of the National Research Council to lend 
 an immediate national and international flavor, it was peculiarly appropriate as a 
 birthday commemoration. From that time on there was never any question con- 
 cerning the theme itself, all discussion being confined to the most practical way of 
 relating it to every activity of the Exposition. 
 
 The Science Advisory Council 
 
 During the months of negotiations that ensued, the Exposition had no more 
 steadfast ally than Dr. William Allen Pusey. A member of both the Exposition's 
 Board of Trustees and the Executive Committee of the National Research Coun- 
 cil, he labored indefatigably to bring about their partnership. The universal re- 
 spect which his high personal character, his reputation in the medical profession, 
 and his years of experience in the educational field commanded, yielded to his 
 efforts a marked consequence. Dr. George K. Burgess, Director of the U. S. 
 Bureau of Standards, who was then Chairman of the National Research Council, 
 Dr. Vernon Kellogg, its secretary, Dr. Frank B. Jewett, Vice President of the 
 American Telephone and Telegraph Company, and Mr. Ciano Dunn, President of 
 J. G. White and Company, early lent the stimulus of their interest. 
 
 These endeavors culminated in the endorsement by the National Research 
 Council, on October 9, 1928, of the proposed theme of the Exposition, and the 
 authorization of the appointment of a special committee of forty members for the 
 consideration of such development. In December, this committee, as the result of 
 a series of conferences with Exposition officials, submitted its report to the Na- 
 tional Research Council. The report endorsed the feasibility of the Exposition 
 along the lines contemplated, and recommended that the Council should provide 
 advisory assistance. It authorized the immediate formation of a large and repre- 
 sentative committee as a coordinated point of contact between the Exposition offi- 
 cials and the necessarily scattered membership of the National Research Council 
 to carry out the proposed projects. Dr. Frank B. Jewett was appointed chairman 
 of this committee. No selection could have been more fortunate. The sterling 
 character of Dr. Jewett and his unfailing sympathetic grasp of the Exposition's 
 problems were a source of constant encouragement and help on many phases of 
 the Exposition's activities. 
 
 Between the summer of 1928 and the spring of 1929 the Science Advisory Com- 
 mittee organized sub-committees composed of leaders in the various branches of 
 science, to prepare reports covering every phase of scientific development during 
 the century, and especially to suggest how the achievements in pure science could 
 be displayed at the Exposition. 
 
 It was apparent that as a practical necessity the committee must have a clearing 
 house. While, from the operating standpoint, the location of such an agency in 
 Chicago was desirable, the wisdom of its establishment in New York was recog- 
 nized. Close cooperation with the National Research Council whose base was in 
 the East would be essential; the sterling stamp of the entire undertaking would 
 be lost if the Exposition exposed itself to the slightest hint of controlling the com- 
 
 118 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 mittee's views and recommendations, or if ideas were curtailed or directed by the 
 impingement of the practical necessities inherent to an operating base. Mr. 
 Maurice Holland, Director of the Division of Engineering and Industrial Research 
 of the National Research Council, was assigned to the New York oflice, as execu- 
 tive secretary. He was ably assisted by Mr. Robert P. Shaw, later director of the 
 New York Museum of Science and Industry. 
 
 The membership of the subcommittees totaled over 400 and months were spent 
 in frequent meetings and intensive study. Their 33 reports covered every phase 
 of scientific development during the past century, contained recommendations to 
 the specialists in each field and suggested how the achievements in pure science 
 might be utilized for the purposes of the Exposition. The list of basic discoveries, 
 after the elimination of many considered fundamentals, reached into the thou- 
 sands. Studies were carried on by the central committee endeavoring to group 
 them by science and by industry. Chronological and schematic buildings were 
 laid out endeavoring to combine them in three dimensional space. Radial aisles 
 would trace the development of an industry, circular intersecting aisles would 
 show the application of a particular science to each industry, and floors one above 
 the other, would show the developments of industries and the sciences through the 
 years. 
 
 It was a most intriguing concept but one which the practical limitations of 
 space and money forbade. Rough calculations indicated that a single building 
 practically the size of the entire fair grounds would be necessary to house it. The 
 report for Physics and Optics, for example, suggested over 900 exhibits requiring 
 a total area of 160,000 square feet. It was obviovis that few visitors could be ex- 
 pected to devote four or five days to see such an array of exhibits in the Physics 
 section alone. 
 
 Thus, practical considerations dictated the establishment of the policy to show 
 only the fundamental discoveries, or milestones, that marked the path scientists 
 had traveled in their search for knowledge, to illustrate only such significant 
 achievements as the discovery of the relationship between electricity and magnet- 
 ism, the classification of the elements, and the development of the atomic theory. 
 
 With their field of endeavor narrowed and clearly defined, the scientific stafT 
 began the difficult task of adapting the reports of the Science Advisory Committee 
 to space and other practical limitations. 
 
 Basic Science Exhibits 
 
 To Dr. Henry Crew, professor of Physics at Northwestern University was en- 
 trusted the task of translating the magnificent concepts of the Science Advisory 
 Committee into practical exhibits in the basic sciences. Dr. Crew was a constant 
 source of admiration. Already past seventy, he attacked his pioneer task with 
 a vigor that others envied. 
 
 Scientists of repute and experience were selected to head the several sections 
 of this division: Capt. F. H. Roberts, in Mathematics; Dr. G. S. Fulcher, in 
 Physics; Dr. I. E. Muskat, in Chemistry; Dr. }. F. W. Pearson, in Biology; Dr. J. 
 
 SCIENCE— THE BASIS OF EXHIBITS 119
 
 Volney Lewis, in Geology; Dr. E. J. Carey, in Medicine; and Dr. Carey Croncis, 
 in Geology. 
 
 It was considered unnecessary to show exhibits in astronomy, when the magni- 
 ficent Adler Planetarium in which the subject was covered so adequately under 
 the directorship of Dr. Philip Fox and Miss Maude Benot, was within the gates 
 of the Exposition. Arrangements had been made with the South Park Commis- 
 sioners to maintain an expanded Planetarium program and this proved to be one 
 of the outstanding educational features of the Exposition. 
 
 For four years the Basic Science staff labored to correlate, select, construct, and 
 install scientific exhibits; they supervised all scientific publications; and arranged 
 the program of scientific meetings. To them goes the credit for accomplishing 
 a most difficult task in bringing into physical being exhibits within the Exposi- 
 tion budget, without departing an iota from the standards held up by the Science 
 Advisory Committee. 
 
 It was first recognized that science exhibits must appeal to the non-scientific 
 mind and to those who were in daily contact with the applications of scientific 
 principles to industrial development, yet who realized only dimly the nature and 
 significance of the scientific discoveries on which the necessities and luxuries of 
 life are based. To help the average citizen to understand the work accomplished 
 in the pure sciences through displaying examples of outstanding achievements 
 in this field would lead him to a deeper appreciation of the service of science to 
 society, and by giving him an opportunity to become oriented in the mysteries 
 of science and by stressing the influence of scientific progress, his continued sup- 
 port of research in the pure sciences might be assured. 
 
 That these concepts could be realized was evident as the public crowded into 
 the Hall of Science. The exhibits seemed to satisfy some need of which not even 
 the Exposition was entirely aware when they voiced the serious purpose of the 
 project. On days of slack attendance which etched worried frowns on the faces 
 of concessionaires, the aisles of the Hall of Science were jammed with visitors, 
 slowly reading and assimilating messages on impersonal unemotional science. 
 On crowded days, they stood ten deep around the Geological Time Clock, studied 
 lessons in electromagnetism and listened to lectures on Mathematics. It was 
 proved conclusively that exhibits of pure science, properly presented, are a show 
 of high entertainment value. 
 
 But what baffled and delighted the men of science, the technicians and me- 
 chanics, whose industry and ingenuity produced the exhibits in this great struc- 
 ture, were the youngsters who accepted it as their own. With the rides of the 
 Midway beckoning, with the rocket cars of the Sky Ride lurching invitingly over- 
 head, with popcorn and hot dogs to be purchased and munched on the Avenue 
 of Flags close by, they flocked to the Hall of Science. That the majority of them 
 were there for a serious purpose was indicated by the intelligent questions asked 
 and the quantity of Basic Science exhibit catalogues they bought. 
 
 As you entered the Hall of Science, up the ramp from the Avenue of Flags, 
 or from the main stairway to the east, your first impression was of the great 
 
 120 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 
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 Night Scene from Skyride. 
 
 Greyhounds Call at General Motors
 
 23rd Street Plaza Connected with Island. 
 
 Ford Building at Night. 
 
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 Hall with its decorations of geometric designs illustrating the idea of having 
 ornamentation in keeping with the function of the interior. Dominating the 
 Hall was a Periodic Table of the Elements. The ninety-two then known ele- 
 ments were shown as they occurred in nature and in their pure form, together 
 with examples of their use in industry. At one end of the Hall was the "Clock of 
 Ages," with its ten-foot dial representing the advancing geologic periods by com- 
 pressing our world's two million years into one revolution of the clock hands in 
 four minutes. At the other end, one above the other, were the stratosphere 
 gondola of Dr. Pickard and the Bathesphere of Dr. Beebe, vehicles which had 
 carried man into the highest layer of the atmosphere, and the lowest of the ocean 
 depths. 
 
 In the section on Geology the story of the origin and growth of our planet was 
 told. Here were volcanoes in action, spouting geysers, the upheaval of mountain 
 ranges, the creation of canyons by cataracts, gold and coal mines, underground 
 torrents and moving sand dunes. The composition of the globe's center was 
 shown by illuminated sections and working models revealing the working 
 scientific knowledge of the core of the earth. Visitors tested model seismographs 
 and saw how geologists use them to get records of miniature earthquakes pro- 
 duced by dynamite. 
 
 The Mathematics ("Queen of the Sciences") Section undertook to illustrate 
 and explain the concepts of abstract mathematics by moving object lessons. Cubes, 
 cones, and ellipses changed into other forms. Einstein's Theory of Relativity 
 was explained by a series of exhibits, and an attempt was even made to make the 
 concept of a fourth dimension comprehensible to laymen. The fallacy of per- 
 petual motion was shown by historic models and the hidden contrivances neces- 
 sary to make them operable. 
 
 The Physics Section was divided into a series of exhibits covering gases, sound, 
 electricity, radio, and light. 
 
 Many spectacular exhibits told the story of Chemistry: mercuric oxide heated 
 in a quartz retort and breaking into component parts, ribbons of iron burning 
 like paper in a jet of oxygen, a stream of liquid fire caused by a jet of phos- 
 phorous forced through a small orifice and instantly combining with air, liquid 
 air, colloid chemistry, oil refining, and production of rubber. A giant talking and 
 gesturing robot, ten feet tall, with a transparent digestive tract was a dramatic 
 feature of the exhibit of physiological chemistry. 
 
 In the section on Biology, a bass wood twig, magnified to seven and a half 
 feet in diameter, added a year of growth in seventy-five seconds, becoming nine 
 feet in diameter by the accretion of new material. In the Microvivarium drops of 
 water were magnified by high-powered projection microscopes, so that on the 
 screen one could see in action the ferocious, weird, microscopic living creatures 
 contained in the water. Here the story of how life takes form was told from the 
 primitive cell to its highest evolution in man, magnified cells and moving 
 models demonstrating the principles of growth. 
 
 No formal exhibit, such as the Medical Section, had ever been made in this 
 
 SCIENCE— THE BASIS OF EXHIBITS 121
 
 country at least, in a similar exposition. Dr. William Allen Pusey, outlined the 
 plan and organization of the exhibit, and Dr. Eben J. Carey, Dean of the Medical 
 School of Marquette University, developed the actual exhibits. 
 
 The general plan of exhibit was that it should be made with a view to inter- 
 esting both physicians and the public and that it should illustrate first, the basic 
 scientific facts in medicine; second, their application in the practice of medicine; 
 and, third, the arts and sciences which produce the chemicals and instruments 
 used in the practice of medicine. 
 
 In carrying out the plan it was necessary to get the active support of the great 
 medical organizations, of representative physicians, of teaching and research 
 institutions, and of commercial and industrial organizations that produced med- 
 ical and surgical supplies. It also was necessary, in order to get the support of 
 these, to keep the exhibit free from charlatanism. All of these ends were attained 
 to a degree that gave the exhibit the approbation of those experienced in medical 
 displays. 
 
 The exposition provided space, rent-free, for exhibits in the Medical Section 
 and gave due credit to the institutions sponsoring them. The institutions spon- 
 soring the exhibits bore the expense of transporting, installing and insuring their 
 displays, and supplied their own personnel during the operating period. 
 
 In cooperation with the Chicago Medical Society, the American College of 
 Surgeons, and the Municipal Tuberculosis Sanitarium, a series of popular lec- 
 tures on medical subjects was prepared for delivery during the Exposition. 
 During the convention weeks of the American College of Surgeons, popular 
 medical talks were broadcast by outstanding physicians, surgeons and dentists. 
 
 The outstanding exhibit in the Medical section was the transparent man, a 
 full-size figure with all the organs of the body in place and illuminated in turn. 
 An exhibit which attracted wide-spread attention showed the various stages in 
 the growth of the human embryo. Elsewhere there were displayed cross-sections 
 of human bodies and models showing the physiological relations of the thyroid, 
 pituitary, suprarenal and sex glands. The development of modern surgery and 
 pernicious anemia, work on goiter, diseases of the digestive tract and the nervous 
 system were illustrated. 
 
 All of this touches but a few of the high spots of the science exhibits in the 
 Hall of Science. There was a complete catalog describing the exhibits in detail 
 available to visitors at the Fair which can now be found in libraries. It is a 
 valuable reference work for anyone interested in science museums. 
 
 Though designed ahead of the exhibits it housed, the Hall of Science adapted 
 itself remarkably well. Thrown across Leif Eriksen Drive at the South end of 
 the Avenue of Flags, connected by bridges to Northerly Island to the east and 
 the General Exhibits Building to the south, it became an inevitable destination 
 for visitors circulating through the grounds. Gentle ramps and graceful stair- 
 ways invited entry. Its commanding position and the skill of Paul Philippe Cret 
 combined to impress upon the visitor the fact that the Hall of Science was indeed 
 the centerpiece of the Exposition. 
 
 122 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 As the construction of the Exposition progressed, the economic depression 
 deepened. In their great need for exhibits essential to the telling of their story, 
 the scientists turned salesmen. Armed with drawings and floor plans, they called 
 upon individuals, schools, laboratories, research institutions, museums, and in- 
 dustries which applied scientific principles to the manufacture of their products. 
 In payment for a specified display all these "salesmen" could offer was a modest 
 printed sign bearing the sponsor's name to be placed on the exhibit, and his name 
 in italics in the Basic Science handbook. 
 
 Allotted a certain number of A Century of Progress bonds to be used in lieu 
 of cash, the men of science once more made the rounds of laboratories, research 
 institutions and professional exhibit makers, this time asking them to construct 
 exhibits in whole or in part for bonds. 
 
 The sale of certain exhibits, for delivery after the close of the Exposition, 
 provided funds necessary for the construction of other displays. The Mayo 
 Foundation bought the Transparent Man, the Buffalo Museum of Science bought 
 a number of exhibits, and the Museum of Science and Industry of Chicago con- 
 tributed $10,000 for the construction of several physics exhibits in which it was 
 particularly interested and which became the property of the Museum after the 
 close of the Exposition. 
 
 Visitors discovered a well-filled and complete Hall of Science on opening day. 
 The spirit of the Science Advisory Committee's reports had been carried out. 
 The majority of self-operating exhibits functioned efficiently from the start, and 
 it was evident that the Exposition had opened an entirely new field of display in 
 perfecting exhibits of this type. Adjustments had to be made and various weak- 
 nesses eliminated, but in a few weeks all exhibits were operating smoothly. 
 
 By that time, legends which, on opening day, were typewritten and tacked on 
 the walls had been printed and properly installed. Experimentation with signs 
 was carried on up to the close of the Fair in an effort to produce labels which 
 were entirely satisfactory both as to subject matter and physical features such as 
 illumination and location on exhibits. Previous study of museum labels indicated 
 that they had been written to amaze curators of other museums and were too 
 abstruse to be understood by the general public. A single label could not be so 
 worded as to be understood by the grammar school pupil and yet supply all the 
 technical information for the advanced student. Two separate labels provided 
 the solution. 
 
 Exhibit Techniques 
 
 Coincident with the selection of subjects for exhibition went experimentation 
 on methods of display. In January 1931 three bays were set up on the ground 
 floor of the Administration Building, assigned to biology, to chemistry and to 
 physics. The production and installation of exhibits in these sciences called for 
 a development shop and laboratory facilities equipped with necessary machines 
 and tools. It was under the supervision of Carl Dietrich. 
 
 Skillful mechanicians and draftsmen were employed, and the shop became the 
 
 SCIENCE— THE BASIS OF EXHIBITS 123
 
 proving ground where the brains of the men of science, divining the goal, joined 
 forces with the ingenuity of the workmen to achieve it. 
 
 Certain problems could be solved by immediate experimentation, and small 
 self-operating exhibits were constructed in the shop and placed on display. Visi- 
 tors to the Administration Building, prospective exhibitors, technical advisers, 
 professional exhibit makers, the executive staff and employees of the Exposition 
 were invited to view these first efforts. The result was the decision that exhibits 
 which operated automatically, though expensive to construct, were superior both 
 as to showmanship and mechanical performance, but that the displays would 
 have to be considerably enlarged in order that they might be viewed in com- 
 parative comfort by entire groups of people at one time. Viewing the result, no 
 visitor could have any realization of the difficulties involved in constructing dis- 
 plays to operate automatically twelve hours a day for the entire period of the 
 Exposition. 
 
 The preparation of chemistry exhibits exemplified these problems. To show a 
 chemical principle one must apply various forms of energy together with chem- 
 ical reagents which are used up and must be replaced. Refuse and by-products 
 must be removed. Fumes arc produced and proper ventilation must be obtained 
 to remove corrosive and poisonous gases. Great care must be used to obviate the 
 danger of fire and explosions. It is one thing to heat mercuric oxide in a test 
 tube and show that mercury and oxygen are formed, but it is quite another thing 
 to construct a dynamic exhibit which will automatically perform this reaction 
 without fail once a minute, every day for a hundred and fifty days. Again and 
 again the development shop and the laboratory were called upon to make exhibits 
 that not only had not been made before, but exhibits which the Division had 
 repeatedly been told could not be made. 
 
 Three dimensional models had been vogue for many years, but there was 
 developed in England in the 1920s a new technique of presentation known as the 
 "diorama." It differed radically from its predecessor, as all of the objects were 
 in perspective. This required that they be relatively small in size, seldom more 
 than five feet at the proscenium opening, for the illusion of deep perspective 
 could be best obtained from a narrow angle at the front. In the process of produc- 
 tion, the various objects, when viewed from above, appeared grotesquely distorted, 
 but gave an amazing effect when viewed properly. Special mathematics and skill 
 were required in their production, so Mr. Edward J. Ashendon, who had devel- 
 oped the technique for British expositions, was brought over from England. He 
 established a studio in the Administration Building where he trained a number 
 of students in their production. Their effect was so realistic that many exhibitors 
 desired to use them in such numbers that they lost sight of the many other 
 techniques of exhibit display. It became necessary to take precautions against 
 using them as a panacea to solve all exhibit problems. 
 
 Out of the argument, discussion and experimentation finally evolved a uniform 
 policy with regard to all exhibits which was predicated upon the following con- 
 siderations. 
 
 124 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 1. The exhibits should be inspirational as well as instructive. 
 
 2. The exhibits should be dynamic rather than static, and constructed to with- 
 stand hard use and even abuse. 
 
 3. The exhibits should be self-explanatory as far as possible rather than de- 
 pendent upon long descriptive labels. 
 
 4. The exhibits should be limited to a series of well-chosen representative dis- 
 plays rather than inclusive of a large number which would only confuse the 
 visitor. 
 
 5. The exhibits should be arranged in logical sequence. 
 
 Special Features 
 
 From the very start, it was realized that science is a purely human achievement 
 and that living men of science and the method which they employ are its chief 
 characteristics. Gatherings of scientific men, it was thought, would be helpful 
 in every way. And since the Exposition, like science itself, was to be international 
 in character, it was decided to join with the American Association for the Ad- 
 vancement of Science in the invitation of foreign scientists to be guests of the 
 Chicago meeting during the Exposition. Seventy-three invitations went out. 
 Some thirty-eight men sent acceptances and were present at the meetings and 
 presented important papers. 
 
 In July, 1930, a committee on Scientific Publications was appointed. The in- 
 tention was to make a distinct contribution to scientific literature for young 
 people and for thinking men who had not been trained along technical lines. 
 The committee was fortunate in finding an excellent publisher, Williams and 
 Wilkins, willing to assume entire financial responsibility for the series. The 
 twenty volumes of the series were all off the press before the Exposition opened. 
 
 With the cooperation of the Crerar Library, a library of 1,000 volumes was 
 assembled in the Hall of Science, covering six of the fundamental sciences being 
 shown. 
 
 The need for a catalog of exhibits in the basic sciences was recognized as plans 
 for the Hall of Science developed. Accordingly a handbook was prepared con- 
 taining descriptions of all the Science exhibits. 
 
 The Basic Science Division also was responsible for completing arrangements 
 for demonstrations of educational motion pictures in the Hall of Science. Early 
 in the spring of 1933, the University of Chicago Press suggested daily programs 
 demonstrating the new type of educational motion pictures produced by the 
 University of Chicago. Many of these pictures, the result of intensive research 
 and the special work of distinguished scientists, treating the subjects of geology, 
 astronomy, physics, chemistry and biology, had never before been presented to 
 the public. The intelligent selection of these pictures tended to increase the 
 interest and to clarify the interpretation of scientific exhibits found elsewhere 
 in the Hall of Science. The films also demonstrated how the motion picture can 
 be used to advantage in showing the natural processes of growth and develop- 
 ment and the laboratory procedures and lecture methods utilized. 
 
 SCIENCE— THE BASIS OF EXHIBITS 125
 
 Not only inside the Hall of Science did Dr. Crew's work flourish but it also 
 distinguished itself in stage form in the Science Theater. The Arcturus ceremony 
 was ably supported by scientific demonstrations put on in cooperation with in- 
 dustrial firms. "Music By Telegraph" demonstrated how a musician seated at 
 an ordinary telegraph typewriter, in a far off city could play on the Hall of 
 Science carillon. The Clavelux color organ, electronic wave musical instruments, 
 amateur short wave, two-way radio, the phenomena of sound, liquid air and 
 other chemical demonstrations were given to large outdoor audiences. 
 
 The great lesson learned from the Hall of Science, which bears repetition here, 
 is that exhibits in pure science, when properly presented, make a show of high 
 entertainment quality. Records of attendance indicated that visitors, with a free 
 choice, attended the Hall of Science in numbers thirty times as great as that of 
 any concession on the Midway. It is a clear indication that, while people come 
 to an exposition or a Museum with a primary idea of a pleasant occasion, it is 
 essential that they leave, feeling that their visit was worthwhile through the 
 knowledge that they have absorbed and which will be of value to them in their 
 later lives. 
 
 126 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 Chapter i^ 
 
 INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITS 
 
 While the Science Advisory Committee was preparing its report the exposition 
 staff was engaged in assembling data on industrial exhibits and endeavors were 
 being made to arrive at policies which were later to become the basis of the ex- 
 position's rules and regulations for exhibitors. Inquiries were directed to the 
 various trade associations to ascertain whether it was feasible to expect coopera- 
 tion from the industrial groups in presenting collective exhibits. 
 
 Out of its contacts and conversations with the trade associations emerged one 
 very significant fact — that industry considered it a good investment to buy exhibit 
 space. Despite the precedent of other fairs in giving away exhibit space, it was 
 clear that to sell it was a practical means of realizing the Fair's need of additional 
 financing. The thought was father to action, and calculations were carefully made 
 on the extent of charging, the amount and the basis therefore. 
 
 While the revenue from the sale of space to exhibitors was essential to the com- 
 pletion of the Exposition, other important factors influenced this decision. Chief 
 among these was the conviction that what is given away is seldom appreciated, 
 but when a substantial sum has been paid initially for the space, it offers a power- 
 ful incentive to put on an exhibit of real merit, and not merely fill the area. The 
 amount to charge was problematical. A research in building construction methods 
 was conducted, and it was found that by using the least expensive methods then 
 available for the exposition type of building, the cost would be approximately 
 $5.00 a square foot for gross space in the building. After elimination of such 
 public areas as aisles, rest rooms, and general exhibition spaces, from which no 
 revenue could be obtained, approximately half of a building could be available 
 
 INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITS 127
 
 for sale. It would, therefore, be necessary to charge |10 per square foot for net 
 space in order that the exhibitors might pay the full cost of the building. This 
 would also place the exhibitors in rented space on a parity with those who con- 
 structed their own buildings. To the latter, no charge was made for ground 
 space, but they undertook all expenses within their assigned areas. 
 
 Collective Exhibits Not Practical 
 
 It was first contemplated that there should be collective exhibits by industries 
 rather than by separate corporations or business. It was believed that exhibits 
 should be the product of scientific, industrial and social agencies organized for 
 the promotion of industry and the betterment of human beings rather than the 
 advancement of competitive individual interests. The fact that competition had 
 become a struggle among different industries in a given field as well as between 
 members of the same industry and that trade associations were active in elimina- 
 tion of waste, the improvement of production and sales methods and the promo- 
 tion of scientific research, encouraged anticipation of a cooperative display of 
 their wares and processes. 
 
 In furtherance of this idea the industrial and agricultural fields were solicited. 
 Though they listened with interest and expressed their approval, it was found 
 that the sentiment which united a trade association was not yet strong enough 
 to establish complete cooperation among the members and build a fair by 1933. 
 In the distribution of expenses, in the selection of agents to prepare the exhibits, 
 and in the choice of exhibits, controversies arose which, in most cases, blocked 
 any concerted action within the time available. 
 
 Harvey Sconce was active in the early inquiries into the agriculture field. 
 When the collective plan collapsed, Dr. A. W. Bitting, retired from his work in 
 development of pure food laws and standards, carried the agricultural exhibits 
 to their successful conclusion. 
 
 With the emphasis shifted to individual exhibits, the industrial field was re- 
 classified into transportation, communications, electrical, agriculture, home plan- 
 ning, general exhibits, and the social sciences. It was then proposed to invite 
 participation by industrial corporations, associations, schools, institutions and 
 other units interested in any of these categories with the Expositon itself setting 
 up exhibits in the basic sciences. Those of industry would show the end products 
 of science and invention, the relationship among all exhibits being correlated by 
 insistence that the spirit of the Science Advisory Committee's recommendations 
 be consistently maintained. 
 
 The industrial participation was placed in the capable hands of Col. }. Franklin 
 Bell and a staff chosen from industrial fields. This phase of the exhibit structure 
 had a tremendous range in order to show even a part of the applications made of 
 basic scientific discoveries to man's material life — from a pancake to a steam 
 engine; from a set of false teeth to an airplane; from a needle to a glass dwelling 
 house. It was evident that the field was almost limitless. For there was no part 
 
 128 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 of man's material existence that had not taken on new form because of the work 
 of some scientist in his laboratory. 
 
 The groundwork of general interest among industry had been laid first by the 
 approaches through members of the Science Advisory Committee, many of whom 
 were associated with industrial laboratories; second by the Exposition itself in 
 the course of its exploration of the subject of collective exhibits. 
 
 Col. Bell gathered about him an earnest, eager, and capable staff of men who 
 discharged their duties with high-minded zeal and competence. 
 
 Tangible progress in securing binding agreements could be obtained only by 
 positive answers to fundamental questions which would be asked by every 
 potential exhibitor. What space is available? What can we show? Will wc be 
 protected against labor troubles? What will my competitor do? Who else is 
 going to make presentations? 
 
 As a pilot plant, to give a practical test to theories, the decision was made 
 to start the Travel & Transport Building, as the center of the transportation ex- 
 hibits. While its plans were being drawn, parallel work on the exhibit rules and 
 regulations and contract forms proceeded apace. In them were incorporated the 
 wisdom garnered from the study of the history of other fairs, from personal visits 
 to current trade fairs and expositions both in this country and abroad, and from 
 the indications of our own experience. If these forms seemed arbitrary, it was in 
 recognition of the need of such control that no part should ever become more 
 powerful than the whole and thus jeopardize the entire structure. 
 
 An equally important decision was taken, to follow erection of the Travel fie 
 Transport Building with that of the Electrical Building. It was also thought to 
 try to obtain more agreements to take space in this building in terms of footage 
 with specific locations, susceptible to later floor plans. If this could be done, it 
 would open a new vista for the correlation of financial needs and floor plans. 
 
 The first industrial contracts for exhibits were signed in May, 1931 by an 
 intrepid group of individual corporations whose vision was undimmed by absence 
 of rules, floor plans, or exhibit details. To them — Western Union, Baltimore & 
 Ohio, International T & T, American T & T, and General American Tank Car — 
 the Fair owed its ability to prove that it would have industrial exhibits. At about 
 the same time promises to sign contracts were given by Westinghouse, General 
 Electric, RCA, and the Rock Island Railroad. With such encouragement and 
 with ground broken for two buildings besides the Hall of Science, the fair could 
 announce a general plan of exhibit buildings. So conclusive was the effect upon 
 other exhibitors that a steady stream of contracts followed. 
 
 By January of 1933, the exhibit areas were well defined. The various Exposi- 
 tion buildings in which space had been rented were flanked by special buildings 
 and outdoor displays of exhibitors who showed some particular phase of the 
 industry concerned. The areas were: 
 
 The Travel and Transport, to show railway, marine, aviation, and automotive 
 exhibits and their allied products. 
 
 The Electrical Group, to display exhibits of electrical equipment and supplies, 
 
 INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITS 129
 
 those of the electrical utility companies and of the communication and radio 
 industry. 
 
 The Agricultural, to show food, farm machinery, horticultural and dairy 
 products. 
 
 The General Exhibits Group, for the various industries which could not 
 logically be shown in any of the preceding. The five pavilions were devoted to 
 mineral industries and industrial engineering; graphic arts and paper products; 
 furniture, oiTice equipment and sporting goods; jewelry and cosmetics; and 
 textiles. 
 
 The Home Planning Group was primarily to give the manufacturers of new 
 kinds of building materials or developers of new uses for standard materials an 
 opportunity to show what they could do in building small, inexpensive homes. 
 
 Agriculture and Foods 
 
 Logically, the agriculture and food exhibits began in the Hall of Science where 
 the visitor could see that the discoveries of scientists had aided amazingly in the 
 agricultural progress of the last hundred years. Biology had pointed the way to 
 improve plants and animals by selection and breeding and to adapt them to new 
 living conditions. Chemistry had taught how to banish or put to good use insect 
 life and fungus growths and to analyze soil and enrich it. Physics made possible 
 larger and better cultivation by means of farm implements, power to lighten the 
 farm tasks and to increase profits. Meteorology told the farmer the best time to 
 plant and to harvest. Medicine had played its part in the prevention and cure of 
 animal diseases. 
 
 These various phases vied with one another in telling part of this tremendous 
 story of the last century — a story the results of which have been so great a 
 factor in the improvement of man's everyday way of life and his material fortune. 
 
 Outside the agricultural building the visitor was tempted to believe himself in 
 a tropical or semi-tropical clime, for here flourished orange and lemon trees, 
 grapefruit and other semi-tropical vegetation — blooming, bearing fruit, and ripen- 
 ing, as the season went on. Within the building one read the story of foods, their 
 production and preservation and their distribution. This saga was told by 
 dioramas, moving models and actual processes. In one section salt was brought 
 up from a mine and purified, while in another one could see how salt is obtained 
 from the great beds near Salt Lake City. There were exhibits of the treatment 
 of the leaves of the tea plant and of the berries of cofTee. Other staples and their 
 way of production and life were shown. One especially interesting exhibit was 
 that of a great commercial cuisine, and its evolution from the primitive and old- 
 fashioned home kitchen. 
 
 By dioramas and models, the live stock industry was shown from the lone 
 cowboy on the range, through the modern feeding farm, the corn fields and 
 moving trains of livestock on their way to market. The livestock and meat 
 industries held sway here, and left nothing undone to show the great advances 
 that have been made in the development of livestock and the treatment and 
 
 130 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 preservation of meats. The history of these industries was also told, together with 
 an account of the distribution of meats and the methods taken in the handling 
 of them for the protection of the public. 
 
 The mechanization of agriculture was portrayed by dioramas, actual machinery, 
 such as the latest types of tractors, cultivators, corn pickers and similar mechan- 
 ized units. The history of the development of this new machinery-run farm 
 was dramatically told. 
 
 In the Dairy Building was the shrine of the cow. In common with most good 
 exhibits, it told a story. It began with the spectacle of primitive man worship- 
 ping the cow and later on when the caveman became transformed into the herds- 
 man, he is seen caring for his cattle. The journey of the cow with the Pilgrims 
 to Plymouth is a dramatic one as is also the trek of this friendly and essential 
 animal into the great West with the trains of emigrant wagons. Then came 
 modern days and the distribution of dairy products by modern facilities. Sanita- 
 tion and refrigeration appear. Finally the happy children strong and straight 
 limbed, the men and women healthy and vigorous testify to the grand finale, 
 labelled "Dairy products build superior people." 
 
 The preparation of ice-cream, cheese, butter and dry milks preceded an exhibit 
 permitting the visitor to follow milk from the country receiving station to the 
 refrigerated tank car, to the receiving tank at the city milk plant, through the 
 processes of the plant, and to the delivery wagon. 
 
 Down in the south end of the grounds were a lot of busy hens engaged in an 
 egg laying contest. One Rhode Island Red bent upon breaking the record laid 
 two eggs in one day. The contest was sponsored by the National Poultry Council. 
 Nearby was a model farm house, with stables of draft horses, a model barn and 
 dairy with thoroughbred stock in sanitary stalls, showing scientific production 
 of milk, and an exhibit of the prancing goat, as he becomes a profitable member 
 of the agricultural group. 
 
 A forty foot relief map showed a typical quarter section farm one hundred 
 years ago, fifty years ago and in 1933. 
 
 Supplementing the story told in the Exposition halls were several special build- 
 ings. The Armour Building was devoted to the depiction of activities necessary 
 to collecting, processing and distributing meat foods to the dinner table. In con- 
 nection with the exhibits a solarium restaurant served selected menus emphasiz- 
 ing Armour products. 
 
 The Atlantic & Pacific Tea Co. gave a view of the merchandising of foods, 
 attracting huge crowds to its amphitheater where daily programs of entertain- 
 ment were given. 
 
 In 1934 the Continental Baking Company took over the Dairy Building to 
 show the story of grain foods and of scientific breadmaking. Swift & Company 
 took over the 23rd Street Bridge for an exhibit of packing products. A puppet 
 show told their story and one of the high points of the fair was the auditorium 
 in which occurred the Swift presentations of the Chicago Civic Orchestra. 
 
 INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITS 131
 
 The Home Planning Group 
 
 The home planning group provided a unique proving ground for new materials 
 of construction and pioneered in designs then considered futuristic, but since 
 adopted as standard practice. Unfettered by the wishes of a prospective owner, 
 the designer could give full play to his imagination, and the architect could 
 experiment with fantastic designs long repressed by the necessity of earning a 
 living in planning more conventional houses. Visitors had the opportunity of 
 inspecting and evaluating pre-fabricated houses, built of glass, steel and artificial 
 stone, and of a wide price range. Some of the structures were demolished but 
 most of them were removed elsewhere and occupied. There is no doubt that they 
 exerted a profound influence on the future building of homes showing particu- 
 larly how gracious living could be provided at relatively low cost. 
 
 The "lumber house" was untraditional except for its basic material and its 
 sloping roof. The exterior was of California redwood, too rich to need paint. An 
 innovation of corner windows opened up numerous possibilities for decorative 
 treatment and arrangement of rooms. The ceilings were of Douglas fir, cypress, 
 and birch. The floors were of oak, maple, and southern pine, and the door and 
 window frames and sashes, of ponderosa pine. The living room was done in 
 Appalachian white oak — sawn comb plywood panels on the walls and herring- 
 bone on the floor. The dining room was finished in American walnut from its 
 veneered plywood walls to the parquetry flooring in Marie Antoinette pattern. 
 In one bedroom the paneling was in oak and birch, and in another, wide knotty 
 pine boards were used lengthwise on the walls. The dining room, set with 
 wooden plates, appeared and vanished by means of panels, taking its place as a 
 part of the living room when the panels were folded. 
 
 The brick house was all brick — walls, floors, ceilings and stairs. It looked like 
 a slim ancient castle gone suddenly modern. There were three short bc-angled 
 stories with bias balconies. The ground plan was an irregular hexagon. The 
 front half of the first floor was cut away for a driveway under the second floor 
 porch. On this ground level was entry, laundry, and a playroom. A brick stair- 
 way led up to the living-dining room which with the kitchen occupied the second 
 floor. All floors were of the natural brick ground to a smooth polish. The kitchen 
 and bathroom were done in Carrara glass. With its three tiers, its odd decks 
 and balconies and its queer cornered rooms, the brick house was altogether 
 delightful. 
 
 Masonitc, one of the then new materials, had been on the market but not well 
 known. The Masonite house was a modern bungalow built on a wood frame, 
 using Masonite Prcsdwood for both exterior and interior, on the floors and the 
 walls. The decoration and finishing were designed to live with any furniture a 
 new owner might have. The walls of the living room were papered with lapis 
 Kiri, a Japanese laminated wood in sapphire blue. The curtains and furniture 
 were off-white. There were oval cut-glass plaques on the wall and chromium 
 chandeliers with frosted light bulbs in fluted cones. One bedroom was papered 
 
 132 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 with white, gleaming woven cellophane. The white glass curtains and green 
 overdraperies were of knitted cellopane looking sheer and hanging heavily. 
 
 The Rostone house was built, a story and a fraction, of a new material made of 
 a pulverized special limestone and shale pressed into panels showing that this 
 material could be of various thicknesses of almost any desired color and moulded 
 into any shape. This house was square-fronted and flat-roofed, with a wing on 
 either side of the slighdy taller center indented by a picturesque front door below 
 a small window. All living quarters were on the ground floor, except the master 
 bedroom which lifted the rear of the center to a second story and opened on the 
 roofs of the wings. The decks and the entrance hall were paved in colored 
 rostone which was used also effectively in the oak paneled living room. The 
 solarium recreation room had a black parquet floor, a black glass and chromium 
 fireplace, and walls of Chinese red with gold ornaments. 
 
 The Armco-Ferro Enamel house with its stately traditional lines and shuttered 
 windows, except for the dull gloss enamel of its outer walls might have been 
 standing for many years in an old New England city. Actually, it was one of 
 the most innovative. It was a frameless all-steel two-story house built of factory- 
 made house-high units with door and window frames welded in place. Walls 
 and floors were of box-like units so fitted to each other that the house was put 
 together in five days by six men. 
 
 The Stransteel House was of the new type of steel construction. The frame 
 members were made of two channels with grooved backs welded or riveted to- 
 gether. Part of the house, which was conservatively cornered and angled, ran 
 up two stories and utilized the roofs of the wings for recreation decks. 
 
 "Design for Living" was a modest, much-verandaed little house built of a 
 composition material called Homosote and painted yellow. The ground floor 
 had a porch at one end and at the other, an outside stairway led up to a roof 
 deck on which the rooms of the second floor opened. The living room was 
 Z-shaped with the dining room and a study opening off opposite ends. Above 
 the book shelves, the walls were covered with copper sheeting. An aluminum 
 fireplace was one of the outstanding and beautiful features of the house. 
 
 The General Houses house was a snug one-story cottage of all-steel frameless 
 construction. Steel panel units like stage scenery were built at the factory and 
 assembled at the Fair. The cold steel of the exterior was concealed under white 
 paint. The insulation, it was claimed, was equal to twenty-four inches of brick. 
 
 The Cypress house was a mountain lodge in the best, most conservative tradi- 
 tion. Built of cypress logs to demonstrate the many uses of "the wood eternal," 
 it was a picturesque building with casement windows, set in a garden where 
 there was a cypress workshop in which demonstrations were given of carving 
 from cypress "knees." 
 
 The "House of Today" was a quietly conservative house outside gone violendy 
 modern inside. The large two-story living room had a vaulted blue ceiling and 
 a gallery. Its walls were lemon color; its Empire fireplace, black. Radio and 
 telephone were both concealed behind Regency bookcases and a Regency chaise 
 
 INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITS 133
 
 lounge stood beside the fireplace. A circular dining bay, separated from the living 
 room by a mirrored screen, was furnished in mahogany and there were crystal 
 girandoles at the entrance. A colonial bedroom and a directoire one were con- 
 nected by a bathroom. The kitchen indulged in concealed lighting, steel cabinets 
 and every luxury of modern easy working. 
 
 The "House of Tomorrow" was a circular structure entirely of clear glass in 
 the form of a perpendicular triple graduated drum. It had, in lieu of windows, 
 plate glass walls and a perfect air conditioning system. Venetian blinds, shades 
 and curtains of cream silk marquisette achieved some seclusion. The ground 
 floor drum of the house was occupied by a garage, hangar, workshop, laundry, 
 recreation room, and miniature bar. The middle drum housed the living quar- 
 ters, and the top drum was a solarium surrounded by a circular roof terrace. A 
 central pillar ran through the house from top to bottom supporting its weight 
 and holding plumbing and gas pipes and electric light wires. The living room 
 which opened on an extensive deck terrace was finished in bakelite and all the 
 floors of the middle drum were of walnut blocks. The floor was done in rubber 
 tile and two aquariums full of lively bright-hued fish provided entertainment 
 for the children. Movable wardrobes took the place of closets in the house. The 
 electric kitchen was all stainless metal, porcelain, and glass. Lights could be 
 dimmed or brightened by the turning of knobs in the stairwell. 
 
 The "Florida Tropical House" was the third in the trio of luxury houses. It 
 was the sort of house designed for a climate that invites the outdoors to come 
 inside. Entrance was direct into a spacious two-story living room with white 
 walls, a great deal of cool blue in the decorating, a balcony, a ceiling-high studio 
 window and metal furniture. A shining aluminum open stairway leading to the 
 upper floor added to the beauty of the room. Aluminum panels opened into a 
 bar served from the buder's pantry. On the other side was a tile-paved loggia. 
 There were two bedrooms on the ground floor and a bath room with a sunken 
 tub and glass spray shields. The entire roof, except for the space occupied by the 
 tall room, was a sun, living and recreation deck. 
 
 The Glass Block house was not a residence, but was erected to demonstrate the 
 building possibilities of glass blocks. The walls were of one thickness of blocks 
 and were unsupported by frame, but the fifty-foot tower had a steel core. The 
 building ran the whole gamut of color, from pale yellow of the tower to deep 
 violet at the rear. 
 
 The Johns-Manville house was built of materials designed to exhibit sound- 
 proofing, heat-proofing, and similar qualities. Biit it was planned, constructed, 
 painted, and lighted to focus on a mural painted on an asbestos wall. The entire 
 building was illuminated by reflected light. 
 
 American Radiator constructed two buildings and six kiosks to show the 
 stories of heating, and air-conditioning, sanitation and plumbing, and bathroom 
 layouts. 
 
 • The Crane Company highlighted its building with a 45 foot shower bath. 
 Here was a unique display of antique and historical plumbing fixtures. Com- 
 
 134 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 plete exhibits were made of installations for the rural home, a modern kitchen 
 and the heating and air conditioning of a family house. 
 
 The Good Housekeeping Pavilion was the scene of a spacious, beautifully 
 furnished living room, with a terraced, classical garden. To illustrate the use of 
 pottery as decoration Haeger Potteries had a plant making pottery and a group 
 of southwestern Indian potters at work. 
 
 Johns-Manville Building featured a complete home re-modeling exhibit show- 
 ing the uses of asbestos, and all stages of its manufacture. The Kohler Building 
 added the story of kitchen equipment and labor saving devices. 
 
 Penland Weavers put a Carolina mountain cabin on a wagon behind a pair 
 of mules and drove it to the Fair, where their mountaineers made homespun, 
 rugs, coverlets, pottery and pewter. 
 
 The Electrical Group 
 
 The electrical group was a three-unit structure designed by Raymond Hood. 
 Its exhibits epitomized the story of electrical progress and communication. The 
 Electrical Court was illuminated at night by seven towering cascades of blue 
 gaseous tubing — symbolizing the source of hydro-electric power. Beams from a 
 battery of search-lights on the roof met and crossed over the electric fountain in 
 the center of the Court. 
 
 In Western Union Hall a number of devices were demonstrated for transmit- 
 ting communications by wire which have since become commonplace, such as 
 the electric teletypewriter and the multiplex sending and receiving unit whereby 
 a number of messages may be sent simultaneously over a single wire. A method 
 of synchronizing numerous clocks from a single master one, and a stock market 
 ticker were others. 
 
 Radio Corporation of America presented extensive exhibits of radio products 
 including a radio tube manufacturing plant, a record pressing plant, a color 
 organ wherein music was translated into colors and two theatres. 
 
 The Westinghouse Company had exhibits of heavy-duty electrical machinery, 
 domestic appliances, a "Playground of Science", and a heroic-size robot capable of 
 many movements and controlled entirely by the voice. 
 
 General Electric Company had an extensive exhibit of electrical appliances 
 and electrical machinery, but their outstanding attraction was the "House of 
 Magic", a stage show in which the latest developments in electrical and allied 
 sciences were demonstrated. Despite the fact that shows were run practically 
 continuously through the day, long queues were always waiting for the next 
 performance. 
 
 The Illinois Bell Telephone Company demonstrated the intricacies of voice 
 communication by wire, including many discoveries in the basic sciences by 
 the Bell Laboratories. 
 
 Practically every phase of the electrical industry was demonstrated in the 
 numerous other exhibits located in the great halls. Testing devices such as 
 the cathode ray oscillograph, air conditioning equipment, an all-electric kitchen, 
 
 INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITS 135
 
 the development of lighting from age-old stone lamps to the gaseous tubes, the 
 use of storage batteries, various means of transportation, and cut-away and 
 operating models of various types of electrical machinery. 
 
 From Wagons to Wings 
 
 The century celebrated by a A Century of Progress had encompassed the 
 spanning of the continent by the railroads, the chugging into existence of the 
 automobile, and travel from sun to sun by airplane. Surrounding the pageant 
 presenting this story vividly on a huge outdoor stage were grouped the building 
 and outdoor exhibits of the travel and transport area. The "T and T" Building 
 housed the first Pullman and the aluminum, stream-lined marvel of 1933. A 
 Rocky Mountain stage coach, a Conestoga wagon, an early high-wheeled auto- 
 mobile, and an original Curtiss box-kite pusher plane reminded the visitor of 
 the evolution and mastery of transportation. Here, too, were the beginnings of 
 a new type of exhibit — a glass automobile to show the machine in action, a 
 chassis cut away to show motor car lubrication, and a working oil well. 
 
 On the tracks outside stood the Union Pacific's first streamliner, the English 
 Royal Scot, the Baltimore & Ohio's Capitol Limited, the presidential train of the 
 Mexican Republic carrying the famous Monte Alban jewels, and many types of 
 United States railroad equipment — mail cars, refrigerator cars, mine rescue cars, 
 locomotives and signal equipment. A glass-towered parking place brought Nash 
 cars up and down all day long. 
 
 Industry in Fascinating Phases 
 
 Devoted entirely to industries, the general exhibits area was dominated by 
 the five pavilions of the Exposition's General Exhibits Building. In the first, 
 the step-by-step process of making steel and the story of oil were told. The 
 second was given over to graphic arts. Miniature and life-sized models worked 
 to demonstrate the extensive and intricate problems of printing, engraving, and 
 paper making. The unique reproduction of the Gutenberg press was on display, 
 while in the foundry, type was cast to print reproductions of pages from the 
 famous Gutenberg Bible — sponsored by The Cuneo Press. 
 
 The third pavilion was devoted to the development of business efficiency — 
 the modern machines that replaced the grocery "till", teletypes and other 
 mechanical wizards that have made man's working hours shorter, even if 
 more complex. 
 
 The fourth contained a spectacular display of international diamond industries, 
 with a diamond mine in operation. An assembly line turned out small packages 
 of toothpaste, while over in the last pavilion one could watch shirts made and 
 hosiery woven. 
 
 Special Exhibit Buildings 
 
 A number of exhibitors built special buildings, some of which, with their 
 exhibits, were worth several million dollars apiece. The GENERAL MOTORS 
 
 136 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 BUILDING, four hundred and twenty-nine feet long and three hundred and 
 six feet wide and dominated by a one hundred and seventy-seven-foot tower 
 required eleven hundred piles to be driven to provide the foundation. The center 
 of interest was the automobile assembly line which could be viewed from a 
 balcony a fifth of a mile long accommodating a thousand visitors at a time. 
 Two hundred skilled workmen assembled the cars. A steel chassis started at 
 one end of the line; engines, transmission and wiring were deftly attached. Cranes 
 swung the body into place and the cars were driven off under their own power. 
 In the Hall of Progress the methods and implements used by the scientists and 
 engineers of the Corporation's research laboratory were shown, together with 
 many of the machines and devices used in testing the component parts of the 
 automobile and the materials from which it was fabricated. 
 
 The FORD BUILDING drew attention by its dome, two hundred feet in 
 diameter, which represented the giant cogs of a gear wheel. Here was housed 
 a museum of transportation with sixty-seven vehicles showing development 
 from the Egyptian chariot to the modern motor car. Henry Ford's first work shop 
 was transported bodily to the museum, as was his first automobile, built in 
 1896. The Industrial Hall, five hundred and eighty-five feet long by two 
 hundred and thirty-five feet wide, told the story of the raw materials required 
 to produce an automobile. Copper, iron, zinc, aluminum, rubber, cotton and 
 wool were carried through the actual stages of manufacture to the finished 
 part of the motor car. 
 
 Across from the Ford Building, on the Lakefront, were the beautiful Ford 
 Gardens. Here was the "Roads of the World", reproducing in nineteen separate 
 sections examples of world-famous highways from the earliest Roman and 
 Chinese roads to the smoothly paved highways of today. Daily concerts by 
 the Detroit Symphony Orchestra of seventy pieces were given in the gardens. 
 
 The CHRYSLER BUILDING was in the form of a Maltese Cross with four 
 pylons one hundred and twenty-five feet high and an open center well. A huge 
 drop forge hammer shaped steering knuckles from red hot billets. In demon- 
 stration of actual operations, welding was performed, cloth woven, safety glass 
 made, coil springs wound, and lacquer shown in process of production. The 
 effect of air resistance on different shapes of cars was demonstrated in a wind 
 tunnel. On an exhibition track a demonstration of automobile driving and 
 testing was given under the direction of Barney Oldfield by his corps of "Hell 
 Drivers". Before the amazed eyes of the spectators a car driven at high speed 
 would be swept sidewise into a sand pit. With an explosion of sand it 
 would roll on its side, top, and back on its wheels and then, under its own 
 power, drive up to the grandstand where a smiling driver got out and bowed 
 to his astonished audience. Any words as to the ability of the car to take 
 severe punishment would have been superfluous. 
 
 The FIRESTONE BUILDING featured the most modern type of automobile 
 tire factory in full operation, turning out complete tires ready for use. Beginning 
 with bales of crude rubber received from the Firestone plantations in Liberia, 
 
 INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITS 137
 
 the crude rubber was masticated in mixing machines to which was added the 
 additional ingredients needed for tire rubber. The "gum dipping" process by 
 which the tire cords were impregnated and the methods of coating the cords 
 under pressure in a calendering machine were then shown. The component 
 parts were assembled, placed in the vulcanizer from which the finished tire 
 emerged ready for inspection and wrapping. In the adjacent Firestone garden 
 were singing fountains, wherein the streams of water were made to synchronize 
 with the rhythms of music, an ingenious and relaxing diversion. 
 
 The SEARS ROEBUCK BUILDING greeted the visitor as he entered the 
 grounds from the North. It was dedicated to the comfort and convenience of 
 the visitors, and the company received many letters of commendation in the 
 years that followed for the many courtesies which their guests received. The 
 exhibits included a mysterious "talking robot", an animated map of the United 
 States, demonstrations of laboratory inspections, a series of historic dioramas 
 showing the progress of merchandising from the Indian trading post to the 
 modern department store, and a home wood-working shop. 
 
 The SINCLAIR EXHIBIT turned back the pages of time with giant pre- 
 historic monsters to indicate the connection between the age of dinosaurs and 
 the origin of oil deposits. Here on a brown stone hillside a forty-ton bron- 
 tosaurus swung its long neck, jerked its huge tail, clashed its jaws and emitted 
 life-like screeching grunts. In a pool a glaring-eyed trachodon splashed with 
 his huge clawed foot as he watched a fight between a three-horned triceratops 
 and a tyrannosaurus, the most ferocious creature that ever lived, with crocodile 
 jaws and hind legs like those of a kangaroo. Near them a stegasaurus browsed 
 on prehistoric vegetation. The animation of these huge creatures was most 
 realistic and many a squeal was heard from startled visitors. 
 
 Within the curve of the 23rd Street bridge SWIFT constructed an open-air 
 auditorium with a seating capacity of seventeen hundred. Separated by an 
 expanse of water was the stage where the Chicago Symphony Orchestra with 
 Frederick A. Stock and other nationally-known conductors presented two 
 concerts daily. On both sides of the auditorium were exhibit halls containing 
 institutional displays of Swift products and puppet shows telling the stories 
 of their production. 
 
 Conclusion 
 
 This chapter has touched but briefly a few of the many industrial exhibits 
 on display in the Fair. To record them in the detail which they merit would 
 require several volumes. One visitor who had no official connection with the 
 Fair and who spent a full three hundred days there during the two years was 
 shown several motion pictures of fair exhibits some months later. Her frequent 
 comment during the showing of the pictures was: 
 
 "Where was that? I never saw it." 
 
 Another visitor with an unusually meticulous mind spent his entire two weeks' 
 
 138 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 vacation in one building, and, when asked why he had missed other attractions, 
 commented: 
 
 "I didn't have the opportunity to see thoroughly and understand all the things 
 in that building, and I felt that it was much more important to do the one 
 building well than to get a smattering of many." 
 
 Certainly, by whatever method a visitor surveyed the endless array of exhibits 
 covering almost every field of human endeavor, he was well repaid for his 
 time, for here, in the most assimilable form that many minds could devise 
 were the stories of the products and methods of American industry. 
 
 NDUSTRIAL EXHIBITS 139
 
 Chapter 14 
 
 SOCIAL SCIENCE EXHIBITS 
 
 Mind and mechanics arc always inextricably interwoven. The connection 
 between the scientist and the sociologist is a close one. Early planning by A 
 Century of Progress foresaw that depicting the application of science to industry 
 would be incomplete did it not also envision the effects of these scientific and 
 industrial changes not only upon the material life of man, but upon his social 
 existence — even upon the inner life of man himself. 
 
 The first link between the basic and social sciences was forged when the 
 National Research Council formed a division of Anthropology and Psychology. 
 The sub-committee on anthropology eventually became the basis of the Social 
 Science Division. This was entirely logical, for anthropology is on the dividing 
 line between the basic and the social sciences. 
 
 The original plan provided for showing the various culture areas of aboriginal 
 America with the typical Indian tribes of each region. The Eskimos, living 
 as closely as possible under the conditions of the far north were to be shown 
 carrying on their regular arts and crafts in order that the visitors to the Fair 
 might have a faithful picture of that culture. In contrast to them, a group of 
 Indians would be brought from the northwest coast, with their great plank 
 houses and totem poles, and other evidences of a life radically different from 
 that of the Eskimos. Next would come the Indians of California who lived 
 almost entirely on wild acorns and seeds, dwelt in houses of brush and made 
 extensive use of baskets instead of pottery. Following them would be the Indians 
 of the Plains, the buffalo hunters who lived in skin tepees and led a nomadic 
 existence. The Indians of the woodlands were to form the next unit — a people 
 
 140 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS 
 
 I
 
 living in wigwams, carrying on a limited agriculture. Then would appear the 
 picturesque Pueblos of the southwest in their terraced houses of adobe and stone, 
 practising an extensive agriculture, making pottery and weaving blankets. 
 
 Finally the whole exhibit was to culminate in a reproduction of a Mayan 
 temple, standing on the top of a high terrace or pyramid. Within this structure 
 were to be exhibits showing the ancient, high civilization of Middle America. 
 
 The Fair obtained the interest of the Institute of Middle American Research at 
 Tulane University, and it was decided to reproduce the stately and highly 
 colorful Monjas, or Nunnery at Uxmal in Yucatan, as the culminating feature 
 of an anthropological exhibit. The director of the Institute, with a group of 
 architects, modelers and casters, spent several months in Yucatan gathering data 
 and preparing casts and models, which resulted in the reproduction further 
 described in the chapter devoted to building construction. 
 
 In the meantime it became clear to the officials of the Fair that all these 
 romantic and vivid reproductions of the past, together with the recent achieve- 
 ment in the various fields of science would remain incomplete unless account 
 was taken of their social consequences and implications. Acting upon the 
 advice of the National Research Council, the Social Science Research Council 
 was invited to appoint a committee to give aid in the plans. 
 
 It was true in the field of Social Science as in many other projects of A 
 Century of Progress, that though things did not always work as planned, they 
 usually worked someway, somehow, somewhere. Many more ideas developed 
 than materialized, but many of them came to a brilliant completion. 
 
 The Epic of America, though progressing satisfactorily for some time gave 
 way eventually to the rich national days made vivid by pageants, choruses, and 
 dances, and to the Foreign Villages, wherein their home life was so delightfully 
 and accurately portrayed; the children's playground became a separate unit known 
 as the Enchanted Island in which practically all the original ideas of the Social 
 Science Division were carried out; the plans for host facilities, information 
 centers, traveler's aid were carried out sometimes by A Century of Progress 
 itself and sometimes in cooperation with outside organizations; part of the 
 health program which had been envisaged by the Social Science Division was 
 admirably displayed in the medical section in the Hall of Science. 
 
 The Hall of Religion, included in early plans, became eventually independent 
 of the Social Science Division and operated under the direction of The Committee 
 on Progress through Religion, appointed by A Century of Progress. Church 
 groups, foreign and home missionary societies, allied organizations, and commer- 
 cial groups dealing in ecclesiastical supplies were all willing to assist. The 
 Committee on Religion had already decided on a building of its own and 
 approval was given for a special building to be erected near the 23rd Street 
 entrance north of the Midway. Standing on a curve of the shore line, it 
 commanded a beautiful view of the Lagoon and included many exhibits and a 
 series of murals representing Christianity, Buddhism, Confucianism, Moham- 
 
 SOCIAL SCIENCE EXHIBITS 141
 
 medanism, Judaism, the early American Indian's worship of the Great Spirit, 
 and the ancient Persian and Greek Faiths. 
 
 The Social Science Division faced two major problems. The first was the form 
 of exhibits. In common with the policy of the Fair it realized that all exhibits must 
 tell a story; that the story as a rule was more effectively told by dynamic 
 exhibits, stressing either action, color, or sound; that these exhibits must be so 
 conceived and constructed that their meaning could be readily grasped by a 
 public not familiar with the scientific aspect, and that they must also add to the 
 general decorative effect of the Hall in which they are displayed. It is compara- 
 tively easy to plan and design such exhibits when they illustrate material things. 
 Some of the social science exhibits fell easily into this group, but others dropped 
 with a dull thud into the questionable and difficult problem of the intangibles. 
 Long study, careful and numerous trial by exhibit makers, plus patient effort 
 resulted at last in a series of exhibits before which people of all kinds and ages 
 stopped and read part of the story of human needs and advances. 
 
 The second problem was that of funds. Because of the very nature of its 
 exhibits, this division was not able, except in rare cases, to draw upon industry 
 for its support, and social organizations, educational institutions and economic 
 foundations were already hard put by the depression. The hope of help from 
 these sources died slowly and hard. And the Social Science Division found 
 itself in the same position as other divisions, obliged to change its plans and 
 to put on as good a show as possible with the funds at its disposal. 
 
 The Fair turned over the building originally intended for radio to the Social 
 Science Division, to house the anthropological and archaeological exhibits. The 
 building was situated direcdy across the Lagoon from the Hall of Science, and 
 it was fitting that these two buildings should be joined by the bridge. The loca- 
 tion, also, was adjacent to that of the Federal and State Buildings in which were 
 many exhibits allied to those of the Social Sciences. 
 
 Changes in Family Life Depicted 
 
 The central theme of the social science exhibits was the changing condition of 
 the family in the last one hundred years as the result of scientific discovery. The 
 family as the smallest social unit is swayed by all the forces of politics, law, and 
 economics, is in the experience of all people and had in the last one hundred 
 years been undergoing a radical change. A century ago the family in rural 
 districts and small towns produced almost everything it used. It did not need 
 much money for it was able to exchange for those articles which it could not 
 produce. The children received much of their education in the home, and as 
 the apprenticeship system was still being used, were trained in trades and even 
 in some professions either in the home or in the shop or office of someone in the 
 community. Today the family no longer produces what it needs. Much of the 
 social life is outside the home and in various centers. 
 
 Not only the educational exhibits showed these changes, but the sociological 
 exhibits. The social work exhibits through the efforts of a Chicago committee 
 
 142 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 working with the Public Welfare Department of the State of Illinois put on a 
 cooperative exhibit in which over ninety social work agencies took part, showing 
 its material, not by agency or organization names, but by subjects. Child welfare, 
 the care of dependents, delinquents, and defectives, recreational work, occupa- 
 tional therapy, and many allied subjects were demonstrated in one of the most 
 complete presentations of social work ever placed before the public. 
 
 Educational projects were presented by colleges, secondary schools, the public 
 schools, the United States Bureau of Education, and by the Phi Delta Kappa 
 and the Educational Exhibit Committee for A Century of Progress. Through the 
 use of dioramas, advances in the educational field were shown. A century of 
 curriculum contrast was presented and other phases of the educational move- 
 ment. Allied to these was the Creative Arts of Childhood, the spontaneous 
 art work of orphan children. A school book publishing company added to the 
 treasures with old and rare textbooks and models of primitive and modern 
 schools. 
 
 An exhibit by the Department of Anthropology of Harvard may help prove 
 that through succeeding generations of native born Americans, America may be 
 producing a race of its own. This conclusion may be the outcome of the work 
 done at the Fair by the Anthropometric Laboratory for the Measurements of 
 men. All willing visitors, and there were many, were measured. The number 
 of tests made and the outcome were surprising to the scientists themselves. 
 
 Archaeology added much to the dramatic effects in this hall. On the first floor 
 an exhibit that always drew crowds and caused much comment was the cross 
 section of a city dump. Everyone has wondered how archaeologists have been 
 able to tell so much about the lives of dead and all but forgotten people, by 
 digging in ruins of old cities. This dump illustrated the technique, for here 
 were to be found articles buried in the dump for the last forty years. In 1893 
 people threw away kerosene lamps, parts of old style bicycles, Deadwood Dick 
 novels, rats that women wore in their hair and countless other objects long 
 forgotten. A thousand years from now, some archaeologist, digging in such a 
 ruin will know that in the latter part of the nineteenth century people burned 
 kerosene lamps, rode bicycles and women wore rats in their hair. 
 
 Next to this was an exact reproduction of an Indian mound in southern 
 Illinois. Half excavated, it showed the skeletons in place with the artifacts 
 that had been buried with them. Three different races that made this part of the 
 country their home in different ages were shown with their varying types 
 of burial. Nearby was the model of an old European cave where people lived 
 thousands upon thousands of years ago. Primitive tools and other artifacts formed 
 another distinguished exhibit. 
 
 High color and drama characterized the showing of the Oriental Institute 
 of the University of Chicago. Maps and materials from the "Fertile Crescent," 
 curious little stone Sumarian images, the oldest sculpture in the world and a 
 wealth of Egyptian treasures and models. These proved to be of as much interest 
 to the crowd as to the scholar. 
 
 SOCIAL SCIENCE EXHIBITS 143
 
 Outdoor Exhibits 
 
 When A Century of Progress opened its doors in May 1933, the Social Science 
 Division found itself in charge of six different groups of exhibits, two of which 
 were indoors and four out of doors. In addition to those in the Social Science 
 Building, there was a Maya Temple at 31st Street housing a wealth of exhibits. 
 The temple itself stood on a rise of ground, dominating the landscape. Leading 
 up to it from the lower ground was the immense stairway like the original, 
 except for the fact that the treads were wider and the risers shorter. Originally 
 it was built for the barefooted, but modern man with extremities cased in today's 
 foot wear could not easily ascend such a stairway. 
 
 It was especially appropriate that this bright temple of jade green and tawny 
 gold with its gorgeous decorations of fantastic highly colored masks should 
 come to A Century of Progress. The principal element of the sculpture 
 which formed the elaborate facade was the serpent mask, a representation 
 of Kukulcan, the plumed serpent god. Within the temple was an array of 
 exhibits, some of rare value, others telling by pictures the life of those days. 
 
 Of the out-door exhibits the most important was the Indian Village. As 
 Exposition funds were not available, it was decided that if satisfactory arrange- 
 ments could be made with an exhibitor for an Indian Village which would show 
 sharply contrasting groups of Indians, he would be allowed to construct a 
 stadium or Indian Theater in which dances and ceremonials might be held 
 and an admission fee charged, and conduct an Indian Trading Post where 
 authentic Indian goods would be displayed and sold. The general oversight of 
 this village was to remain with the Social Science Division. Arrangements were 
 concluded with interested Chicagoans. The village, its groups and its works and 
 amusements carried out much as anticipated in the first planning. The grounds 
 of the Indian Village covered three and one third acres and were typical of the 
 regions and groups represented, showing contrasting character of American 
 Indian cultures. At the north end of the grounds were Alaskan totem poles, 
 loaned by the Field Museum of Natural History, and a typical board house of 
 the Northwest Coast Indians. Adjacent to them were the Winnebago Indians 
 with their dome shaped wigwams, representing the Woodland tribes. Just 
 south was a camp circle of Sioux Indians, the warriors and buffalo hunters of 
 the plains, living, as had been planned, in their skin covered tepees. Across the 
 roadway mud covered hogans housed the semi-nomadic Navajos of the south- 
 west, while adjacent to them was the terraced house of the Hopi or Pueblo 
 Indians of Arizona. 
 
 In the midst of this settlement stood the old-time Trading Post, from which 
 the various Indian groups were rationed and in which typical Indian goods were 
 sold. In the northwest corner of the grounds a stadium or Indian Theater was 
 built in which Indian dances and ceremonials were held during the day and eve- 
 ning. A total of one hundred and ninety two Indians representing six tribes lived 
 in this village throughout the period of the first Fair, and they, with their dances 
 
 144 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 and ceremonials, furnished one of the most comprehensive Indian exhibits ever 
 held in the United States. 
 
 The early planning of the Social Science exhibits was made by Dr. Howard 
 W. Odum. The assembling, construction and operation fell to Dr. Fay-Cooper 
 Cole and Miss Helen Bennett. They had to make bricks without straw, and 
 only their full measure of devotion to the project made it possible. Working 
 under severe handicaps and with limited funds, by their personal efTorts, they 
 assembled the most outstanding exhibit of the subject made up to that time, and 
 probably since. 
 
 SOCIAL SCIENCE EXHIBITS 145
 
 Chapter 75 
 
 FEDERAL, STATE, AND FOREIGN EXHIBITS 
 
 Federal Participation 
 
 Official recognition by the Federal Government was essential to the status 
 of a World's Fair and was a necessary prelude to invitations to foreign govern- 
 ments to participate. The Exposition neither desired nor received any subsidy 
 from the United States. Federal participation was on the same basis as that of 
 other important exhibitors, constructing its building and exhibits at its own 
 expense and paying the standard rental for space occupied in other buildings. 
 
 The contributions of the Federal Government to the success of the Exposition 
 were many and varied. The Federal Building presented an imposing appearance 
 and its beautifully executed exhibits told the dramatic story of the multitudinous 
 operations of the republic. Elaborate receptions were provided for the entertain- 
 ment of official visitors and other distinguished guests. The Commissioners and 
 their staffs were loyal supporters of all phases of the Exposition's activities and 
 were unstinting in their service to its welfare. 
 
 Charles G. Dawes, who was then vice-president of the United States, submitted 
 to Congress in 1928 the Fair's proposal that Congress should invite the participa- 
 tion of foreign nations in an international exposition to be held in Chicago in 
 1933. The announcement that no financial support would be requested through 
 Congressional action was received with surprise and, in some Congressional 
 quarters, with incredulity. The necessary legislation was adopted and approved 
 by President Hoover on February 5, 1929. 
 
 "RESOLVED BY THE SENATE AND HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES 
 OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA IN CONGRESS ASSEMBLED 
 
 146 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 that whenever it shall be shown to the satisfaction of the President that a sum of 
 not less than $5,000,000 has been raised and is available to the Chicago World's 
 Fair Centennial Celebration corporation for the purpose of a world's fair to be 
 held in the City of Chicago, in the State of Illinois in the year 1933, to celebrate 
 the one hundredth anniversary of the incorporation of Chicago as a municipality, 
 the President is authorized and requested, by proclamation or in such other 
 manner as he may deem proper, to invite participation of the nations of the 
 world in the celebration. 
 
 "Sec. 2. That all articles which shall be imported from foreign countries for 
 the purpose of exhibition at said celebration shall be admitted free of duty, 
 customs fees or charges, under such regulations as the Secretary of the Treasury 
 shall prescribe. * * * 
 
 "Sec. 3. That the Government of the United States is not by this resolution 
 obligated to any expense in the connection with the holding of such world's 
 fair, and is not hereafter to be so obligated, other than for suitable representation 
 thereat." 
 
 The invitation by the United States to foreign governments to exhibit in the 
 Fair, and the acceptance by Congress and the President of Section 3 of the 
 proposal, ensured the presence of the United States government as one of the 
 principal exhibitors of the Fair. The necessary legislation for such participation 
 was in the form of a resolution which was approved by President Hoover on 
 February 8, 1932. It provided for the participation of the Federal Government 
 in A Century of Progress (the name of the Exposition had been changed by 
 that time), authorized an appropriation of $1,000,000 for this purpose, part of 
 which might be expended in the erection of a Government building, and 
 appointed a commission to consist of the Secretary of State, the Secretary of 
 Agriculture, and the Secretary of Commerce to represent the United States. 
 It authorized the President to appoint a Commissioner to A Century of Progress 
 for the purpose of more effectively carrying out the provisions of the resolution. 
 
 Thus the United States Government became one of the largest and most 
 cooperative of the Exposition's exhibitors. All its departments. State, Treasury, 
 Navy, Army, Agriculture, Post Office, Interior, Justice, Commerce and Labor, 
 installed edifying and skillfully arranged exhibits, with trained men and women 
 detailed to serve as guides and demonstrators. In addition to these ten depart- 
 ments, eight major Federal establishments cooperated with interesting displays: 
 the Government Printing Office, Library of Congress, National Advisory Com- 
 mittee for Aeronautics, National Capitol Park and Planning Commission, the 
 Panama Canal, United States Shipping Board, Smithsonian Institute, and the 
 Veterans Administration. 
 
 The Federal Building occupied a commanding site on the east bank of the 
 North Lagoon. With the unique States Building it formed a triangular Court 
 of States. The Federal Building itself formed the base of the triangle. Around 
 its golden dome were three 150 foot towers triangular in section, representing 
 the three branches of government, executive, legislative, and judicial. In addition 
 
 FEDERAL. STATE, AND FOREIGN EXHIBITS 147
 
 X 
 
 ?^ 
 
 to those in the Federal building, the United States government exhibited or 
 loaned material for exhibits in The Hall of Science, the Hall of Social Science, 
 the Agriculture Building, and the Travel and Transport Building. 
 
 The United States Commissioner for the Fair was Harry S. New, former 
 United States Senator from Indiana and United States Postmaster General. 
 Colonel William B. Causey, was appointed Assistant Commissioner. Both these 
 officials supervised the erection of the Federal Building and the installation of 
 its exhibits. Mr. New resigned his commission just before the opening of the 
 1934 Fair and President Roosevelt named Edward F. Dunne, former mayor of 
 Chicago and former Governor of Illinois, as his successor. He was ably assisted 
 by his daughter, Mrs. Arthur T. Leonard. 
 
 When it was decided that a A Century of Progress should continue in 1934 
 one of the first questions to be resolved was action by the Federal Government, 
 Thirty days before the close of the 1933 Fair, assurances were received from the 
 President of the United States during his visit to the Fair on October 2, that 
 he would recommend a continuation of the Federal Exhibit, should an exposition 
 be held in 1934. He later wrote: "There seems to be a very considerable demand 
 that you reopen next spring, and since there is every reason to believe that 
 there are many, many thousands who were unable to afford the trip to Chicago 
 this year, but hope to be in a better position next summer, I am rather inclined 
 to agree that it might prove a very fine thing, if the opportunity is still open. I 
 can assure you that I will recommend to Congress that an appropriation be 
 made sufficient to maintain the Government buildings and exhibits there." 
 
 Delay in the passage of an enabling act by the Illinois legislature prevented 
 action on the continuance of the federal exhibit until near the end of March. At 
 that time the President sent to Congress a special message commending to its 
 favorable consideration the recommendation of the "Chicago World's Fair 
 Centennial Commission," consisting of Cordell Hull, Secretary of State, Henry 
 A. Wallace, Secretary of Agriculture, and Daniel G. Roper, Secretary of Com- 
 merce, that the Government exhibit be continued and an appropriation of 
 $405,000 together with the unexpended balance of the appropriation for the 
 Federal exhibit in the 1934 Fair be made. 
 
 The President's message together with the suggested draft legislation was 
 referred in the Senate to the Committee on Commerce of which Senator Hubert 
 D. Stephens of Mississippi was chairman, and in the House to the Committee 
 on the Library of which Representative Kent E. Keller of Illinois was chairman. 
 Action was taken speedily by the Senate, the Commerce Committee reporting the 
 legislation favorably the day following the receipt of the President's message. 
 Senator James Hamilton Lewis of Illinois, who had evinced a strong interest in 
 the Fair, called the bill up and it was passed by the Senate without a dissenting 
 vote. 
 
 But in the Lower House, matters were different, for indications of an intention 
 to delay action were shown at an early date. The legislation, however, drew the 
 warm support of Speaker Henry T. Rainey, a member of the House from Illinois 
 
 148 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 and Representatives Britten, Kocialkowski and Moynihan of the Illinois delega- 
 tion. 
 
 It was indicated that some of the opposition to the continuance of the Govern- 
 ment's exhibit was due to the fact that certain politicians had been unable to 
 influence the employment department of the Fair in obtaining positions for 
 their followers. There were, however, many of the representatives who defended 
 the Exposition's policy of keeping itself free from political entanglements. The 
 bill was approved on May 21, five days before the opening of the Fair, but it was 
 not until June 19 that legislation was enacted making money available for the 
 continuance of the Federal exhibit. The unexpended balance from the previous 
 year amounting to approximately $120,000 had permitted winterizing of the 
 Federal building, its refurbishing for 1934, and its opening on time. 
 
 This was a season of delays in connection with the Governmental activities. 
 It was necessary to pass a bill providing for the admission of foreign exhibits 
 free of duty unless sold or otherwise disposed of. This measure had been drafted 
 by the Exposition in cooperation with the Collector of Customs in Chicago 
 in the light of experience gained from the administration of customs matters 
 during the 1933 Exposition. Final approval came on May 15, a delay which 
 proved most inconvenient to those shipping from abroad. The cooperation of 
 Anthony Czarnecki, Collector of Customs at Chicago, was always a source of 
 great satisfaction to the Fair. His common sense and enthusiastic assistance solved 
 many perplexing problems. 
 
 The cooperation of the Federal Government was valuable and generous in 
 many ways, particularly the assistance given by the Army and the Navy. Both 
 of these services, upon the invitation of A Century of Progress, assigned officers 
 to act as points of contact between them and A Century of Progress. From 
 the early days of the project until the close of the second Exposition competent 
 officers of these services acted as members of the Exposition staff and proved 
 capable and enthusiastic in a variety of ways. They directed the planning and 
 operation of transportation within the Exposition's grounds, managed various 
 concessions operated by A Century of Progress, such as the Sky-Ride, Enchanted 
 Island, Wings of a Century, Fort Dearborn, and the Lama Temple, oEBciated 
 in the reception and entertainment of guests and in the management of events, 
 helped in the preparation of scientific exhibits, cooperated with the Federal 
 authorities in connection with the collection of customs, and directed the purchas- 
 ing of supplies and the sale of property remaining after the Exposition. 
 
 Those who gave such outstanding performances were Capt. Frank H. Roberts, 
 Lieut. Commander Horace D. Nuber, and Commander John M. Creighton of the 
 Navy; Major C. L. Fordney of the Marine Corps; and Major E. S. J. Irvine 
 of the Corps of Engineers, Captain Morris S. Daniels of the United States 
 Cavalry, and Captain C. W. Ball, Corps of Engineers. 
 
 Realizing that the Exposition must be punctilious in observing the formalities 
 and mores of its diplomatic activities, the State Department was requested to 
 designate a man qualified by diplomatic experience to act as Chief of Protocol. 
 
 FEDERAL, STATE, AND FOREIGN EXHIBITS 149
 
 The assignment of Mr. U. Grant Smith, whose long career in the service 
 admirably qualified him for the post, was a happy one for A Century of Progress. 
 His wide experience saved the Fair many embarrassing situations which had 
 befallen other Expositions, and his affable manner and social qualities made the 
 reception of distinguished guests and the arrangement of official ceremonies 
 affairs of universal pleasure and dignified importance. 
 
 The Army Camp, under command of Col. Morris M. Keck, provided an 
 interesting spectacle of army life and its many formal ceremonies drew large 
 crowds. Its personnel formed a guard of honor for official guests. These were 
 met at the entrance by a squadron of cavalry and conducted to a review and 
 inspection of three companies of infantry, while the military band played appro- 
 priate marches. Their presence on the grounds, together with detachments of 
 sailors and marines, lent an air of impressive dignity. 
 
 Participation by the States 
 
 Shortly after the Federal Government had signified its intention of participating 
 in the Exposition, the States Division was formed with Col. Christopher Van 
 Deventer as head in January of 1931. His wide experience, broad vision, and high 
 character made themselves felt in every undertaking. Recognizing that the 
 legislatures of thirty states were in biennial session and would not have another 
 meeting before the opening of the Fair, it was decided to move quickly and 
 energetically in bringing the Fair to their attention. 
 
 The nation was divided into districts and representatives of the Fair were 
 dispatched to visit each state and present invitations directly to the Governors. 
 Every state was covered on this initial visit, but since there were many instances 
 where repeated calls were required the territorial subdivisions were discontinued 
 after the first round. 
 
 In previous expositions there had been an array of individual state buildings, 
 simple or expensive, small or elaborate, according to the tastes and coffers of 
 the respective states. It seemed desirable that there should be a change. For one 
 thing, the ground accommodations of A Century of Progress did not lend them- 
 selves to the erection and landscaping of a large number of separate buildings; 
 for another, times were hard and money scarce, and it seemed probable that if 
 A Century of Progress was to have a state representation there would have to 
 be an arrangement whereby the states could enter at a lesser cost than had been 
 possible at former fairs. Hence one of the first policies established was that 
 there would be a single state building around a court of states. One group 
 building consisting of individual and distinct units with separate entrances would 
 permit the development of each exhibit as a completely independent unit. This 
 arrangement would permit housing all states under one roof and adjacent to 
 the United States Government building and so symbolize the unity of the 
 Federal and State governments. The plan proved economical and attractive, 
 although it was unique in design and policy. 
 
 In order to eliminate repetition and to make the exhibits wide in their appeal, 
 each state was asked to feature a few selective subjects to be strongly emphasized 
 
 150 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 and dramatized and not to attempt to show all the details and varieties of 
 its products and attractions. It was proposed to show primarily the undeveloped 
 natural resources which would attract investors and home-seekers and the scenic, 
 historical and recreational subjects of interest to tourists and visitors. The chief 
 objective, as in all the exhibit buildings of the Fair, was to avoid duplication 
 and repetition and to offer variety and originality in design and execution. 
 
 Following the invitations, efforts were next made to secure the appointments 
 of state commissions that would investigate and report on definite plans for 
 making an attractive exhibit at a minimum cost with maximum efficiency and 
 popular appeal. 
 
 The States Building was originally designed for twenty eight States but 
 enthusiasm was running high throughout the country for the Fair, and so 
 many states and territories believed confidently that they could get the necessary 
 funds in one way or another that it was decided to provide for forty-two, and 
 the plans were changed accordingly. Before construction was started, it was 
 found necessary to reduce the size of the building to thirty-two units to economize 
 ground space and to provide for the east tower of the Sky Ride, 
 
 The plans for state participation were seriously affected by the election upset 
 of 1932, as complete changes were made in many states both in the chief execu- 
 tives and in the members of the legislatures. In March 1933 more trouble came 
 through the bank moratorium which affected state funds held in banks and 
 was the last blow to several states' participation. While some states were can- 
 celling contracts the states of Washington, South Dakota, West Virginia, Texas 
 and Iowa acted favorably; and Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota substantially 
 increased their original appropriations. At one time all thirty two spaces were 
 reserved, but when the Fair opened in 1933, only twenty-one states and territories 
 were present in the States Building. 
 
 Illinois as the host state was most generous in its support. The legislature 
 made a liberal appropriation and it was wisely administered by a distinguished 
 commission. The gracious hospitality of the Illinois Host House and the cordial 
 reception extended to all visitors by the ladies in attendance won many warm 
 friends for the State. 
 
 An incident, both tragic and amusing, merits relating. The State of New York 
 laid out an inviting section of Adirondack Park. It was to be as realistic as 
 possible so many trees and shrubs were brought from their native habitat and 
 planted in their new home. There were alluring paths and a babbling stream 
 teeming with brook trout. As the final touch of authenticity several car loads 
 of the actual ground covering was brought all the way from the Empire state. 
 It included moss, rotten logs and branches, the dry leaves, pine needles and 
 humus which carpet the ground under a dense forest. But it arrived just before 
 the Fair opened and was piled near the site, awaiting the careful spreading 
 by the expert. 
 
 The night before the Fair opened, there came the order for the grand clean-up. 
 Scores of trucks were marshalled and directed to pick up everything that might 
 
 FEDERAL, STATE, AND FOREIGN EXHIBITS 151
 
 mar the finished appearance of the ground on opening morning. They did 
 the work all too well, for when the sun rose, there, in the dump piled high 
 with broken packing cases and the rubbish and litter of a last house cleaning — 
 was the coating of the Adirondack garden. 
 
 All states were invited to select official State days to be celebrated at the 
 Exposition and in most cases historic dates were chosen. Governors issued 
 official proclamations calling their people to cooperate with the state commissions 
 and the Exposition to make the celebrations memorable. The press publicized the 
 event locally and the transportation companies offered special low rates resulting 
 in greatly increased travel and attendance. 
 
 Programs were arranged for each state day by the Special Events Division. 
 Military exercises, parades and pageantry were among the attractive features of 
 these programs and many states used these occasions for dedication of the state 
 exhibits with appropriate ceremony and programs of speaking and entertainment. 
 Many famous state bands and local organizations joined in these celebrations, 
 which generally took place in the Court of States. 
 
 When the governor of the state was in attendance, special military honors 
 were accorded the official party. They included the military salute of nineteen 
 guns, cavalry escort from the 14th Street gate, through the Court of Honor and 
 the Avenue of Flags with a review of the troops from the steps of the Administra- 
 tion Building, and an informal reception by President Dawes and presentation 
 of the commemorative medal. 
 
 The second-year record of the Hall of States furnished further and convincing 
 evidence of the popularity of the group plan building. 
 
 Some months before the opening in 1934, the Exposition anticipated a shortage 
 of state exhibits because there had been few regular sessions of the legislatures 
 during the previous year. However, the state exhibits in 1934 were either 
 privately financed or maintained by balances left over from the previous year's 
 appropriations, and the response was so much greater than had been expected 
 that it was necessary to send official notice to all stales that had not yet contracted 
 for locations to the effect that no more space was available in the States Building. 
 
 Florida added in 1934 to its original exhibit a tropical garden under a 
 conservatory roof, creating an atmosphere of the southland and a practical 
 demonstration of its charm and lure for tourists and permanent residents. 
 
 Arizona, New Mexico, Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands were among the 
 new exhibits of the second Fair. California, Washington, Georgia, Ohio, South 
 Dakota, Missouri, West Virginia and Illinois were among those which repeated 
 their 1933 exhibits with added features and improved methods of display and 
 operation. 
 
 In one state exhibit where sales were permitted and limited to a few typical 
 products of the state, the receipts reached a total of more than $100,000 during 
 1934. In another state exhibit the sale of a single article of commerce in which 
 the state excels was sufficient to carry the major cost of the entire exhibit for 
 the two years. 
 
 152 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 
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 J! 
 
 Quiet Spot in Horticultural Garden. 
 Scenes from the Villages. 
 
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 XT 
 
 Skating at Black Forest. 
 
 Villages from over the World. 
 
 
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 Most states, including Missouri, Ohio, Georgia and Illinois, did not permit 
 sales, relying on intangible returns. Such returns were easily traced because 
 of increased interest in tourist travel, the sale of lands and undeveloped resources 
 and in many cases the establishment of new industries. 
 
 The far west of the mountains, the eastern land of the sea, the middle west 
 of the prairies, the south of the balmy air and the north of the cold snows all 
 sent their messengers to the Fair. They came and spread out their wares in 
 the long building that stretched to the east from the Federal Building, linked 
 in reality as they were in spirit — one people — one Union. 
 
 Foreign Participation 
 
 High hope of foreign representation — with exotic exhibits, learning brought 
 from far off lands and old world buildings reproduced on the shores of Lake 
 Michigan — loomed large in the early plans of A Century of Progress. 
 
 The story is not told in the difficulties encountered, the disappointments met, 
 the dwindling hope that early plans might materialize, but rather in the 
 development of the substitutes which made gay the Fair grounds, brought foreign 
 groups together and etched pictures of old world countries on the landscape of 
 the Fair. 
 
 Foreign participation was one of the earliest phases of organization activities 
 to receive attention. Long before Congress enacted legislation for federal coopera- 
 tion in the Fair and for conferring authority on the President of the United 
 States to invite other nations to participate in the Exposition, a Century of 
 Progress was laying plans for representation from abroad. The management 
 realized however that unfavorable economic conditions in many parts of the 
 world were not conducive to robust optimism. There was scarcely an important 
 nation that was not encountering difficulty in balancing its budget and restoring 
 its economy to normal after the shock of World War L Parliamentary bodies 
 could hardly be expected to authorize expenditures not urgently required for 
 domestic welfare. 
 
 In the fall of 1930 a group of Exposition officials toured Europe for the purpose 
 of making contacts that might lead eventually to favorable consideration by 
 the countries visited. It also presented the opportunity of visiting some of the 
 Fairs which at that time were being held on the continent and in England, and 
 learning something of their organization, buildings, exhibit forms and other 
 matters connected with successful expositions. Although it had been determined 
 by that time to build this American Fair around a new idea which would 
 necessitate many changes from the old formulas, it was also realized that much 
 could be learned from experienced people in countries that were exposition 
 minded. 
 
 In September of that same year the Fair established a London office with Sir 
 Henry Cole in charge. The purpose of this office was to map out a campaign 
 for European participation in the Fair and to supply explanatory literature to 
 European government officials, chambers of commerce, railroads, steamship 
 
 FEDERAL, STATE, AND FOREIGN EXHIBITS 153
 
 agencies, newspapers and magazines. One of the first duties of the London office 
 was to obtain the consent of the International Convention on Expositions to 
 permit their subscribers to participate in A Century of Progress. By agreement 
 among thirty-one nations, this convention had been formed in 1930 for the 
 purpose of bringing into conformity the conditions of official participation in 
 international expositions and of limiting the number and nature of expositions 
 in which subscribers to the Convention could participate. In their preliminary 
 contacts with European governments it soon became apparent that the articles 
 of the Convention were a serious obstacle to the acceptance of the President's 
 invitation as the United States Government was not then a subscriber to the 
 Convention. Negotiations were opened with the headquarters of the Convention 
 in Paris and after a concentrated effort by the London and Paris offices, the 
 Convention agreed in January 1931 to consider A Century of Progress as 
 admissible to participation by their subscribers providing the rules and regulations 
 governing foreign participation in A Century of Progress had been brought 
 into line with the requirements of the Convention. 
 
 The staff of the London office made a careful study of traffic conditions, antici- 
 pating considerable shipments from Europe to the United States. This entailed 
 much research and constant contact with the principal shipping lines and freight 
 agents on both sides of the Adantic, as well as close cooperation with the Trans- 
 portation Section of the Exposition in Chicago. Negotiations also were under- 
 taken with European freight conferences with the result that advantageous freight 
 rate reductions were obtained for European exhibits. None of this work was 
 wasted, for though the number of countries formally participating was small, 
 many exhibits were sent from foreign countries, especially to the Hall of Science. 
 
 Out of their study of European Expositions and their interviews with govern- 
 ment officials was drawn up the first concrete plan for the participation of foreign 
 governments. In the face of opposition to the high tariff policy of the United 
 States, it was useless to suggest to foreign countries that an exhibition of their 
 products at the Fair would result in a greatly increased demand for them in 
 America. Handwork and artcraft, impossible to duplicate in industrialized Amer- 
 ica and luxury articles appealing to a limited group were felt to be the only mer- 
 chandise for which markets could be created in spite of heavy import duties. An 
 exhibit designed to increase tourist travel would be of real benefit to participating 
 countries. The plan proposed was based on the construction at the Fair of repro- 
 ductions of medieval buildings, grouped around village squares, each unit to be 
 typical of the architecture of the country represented. The ground floors of each 
 building would be used for exhibit space where governmental activities, exhibits of 
 artcraft and handwork, tourist attractions, displays sponsored by railway and 
 steamship lines could be shown. It was believed that part of the expense involved 
 in such an undertaking could be recovered through the sale of space to tourist 
 agencies and industrial organizations likely to derive benefit from such a project, 
 through the sale of merchandise and the operation of restaurants serving food 
 typical of the countries concerned. 
 
 154 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 This plan was thought desirable, not only because it seemed to be a workable 
 one, but also because these quaint old world villages would afford an interesting 
 contrast to the extremely modern structures in surrounding areas on the Fair 
 grounds, and an opportunity for comparing the mellow, time-worn architecture 
 of the middle ages with a new architecture which had not yet proved itself. 
 
 Numerous objections to the plan were raised by officials of foreign governments. 
 That kind of exhibition, they said, had already been done at recent expositions in 
 Antwerp and Barcelona. Other governments emphasized the fact that in an 
 Exposition purporting to demonstrate the progress made in all lines of endeavor 
 during a century, they would not want to reproduce the old, but rather would 
 desire to show what their own country had accomplished in the last one hundred 
 years. Moreover, they were desirous of showing the latest in science and manu- 
 factured goods rather than inferring they were living in a dead past. Lastly there 
 was the expense of making casts of old buildings and reconstructing them in the 
 United States. Belgium alone, and then only unofficially, through the efforts of 
 an individual, constructed a village at A Century of Progress in 1933. It proved 
 to be one of the outstanding successes of the Fair and led to the erection of many 
 others in 1934, all of which were privately financed and operated as concessions. 
 
 One other plan was suggested — A Hall of Nations to be erected by the Exposi- 
 tion, similar in structure to the Hall of States, consisting of a series of adjoining 
 pavilions, each with a separate entrance. Some opposition to this scheme was ex- 
 pected as it upset the traditional idea that each nation occupy a building of its 
 own. 
 
 In presenting these plans to foreign officials it was made clear that they were 
 merely suggestions and that participating governments were free to organize and 
 present any type of exhibit they saw fit to offer. The Exposition's Rules and 
 Regulations Governing Foreign Participation provided that subject to the limita- 
 tions of areas available, free ground space would be allotted to foreign govern- 
 ments for the erection of special pavilions. 
 
 The Hall of Nations materialized in a modified form when it became evident 
 that covered space would have to be provided for some foreign governments 
 which did not desire to erect pavilions of their own. A section of the Travel and 
 Transport Building was set aside for this purpose and space was rented to four 
 nations and one foreign exhibit sponsored by a private group. 
 
 When it became clear that foreign participation would be difficult, the London 
 office was closed and in March 1931 the Foreign Participation Division was set up 
 in the Chicago offices. This Division was greatly assisted by the Chicago Com- 
 mittee on Nationalities, under the leadership of Major Felix Streyckmans, 
 through which it made contact with consulates and foreign colonies in Chicago. 
 This committee, which had been organized in 1928, had already been of assistance 
 in publicizing a Century of Progress through correspondence with connections 
 abroad, through the foreign language press in the United States and through 
 journeys to the native countries of members of the committee. Thirty-four na- 
 tional groups were organized in Chicago with the sanction and support of the 
 
 FEDERAL. STATE, AND FOREIGN EXHIBITS 155
 
 consulates. One of the main functions of this committee was the planning of 
 national celebrations on the Exposition grounds. In addition to drawing large 
 numbers of people to witness these programs which emphasized the international 
 aspect of the Exposition, the various sections of the Committee invited their diplo- 
 matic officers in Washington to participate in the festivities and cooperated with 
 the Fair Administration in receiving and entertaining these dignitaries. 
 
 One of the most important duties of the Foreign Participation Division was to 
 maintain close contact with the consular corps of Chicago and keep them in- 
 formed as to the progress of the Exposition as a whole. The consuls gave valuable 
 assistance, for when government officials were approached in the capital of a coun- 
 try, information and reports were required to be submitted by the consuls resi- 
 dent in Chicago before final action was taken as to participation. 
 
 From time to time the Fair administration sent special emissaries to visit the 
 capitals of various countries and to seek from government officials participation in 
 A Century of Progress. Some foreign countries were also visited by individuals 
 who offered their services to the Exposition while making trips abroad on busi- 
 ness or for pleasure. 
 
 That there was a real desire among many countries to exhibit was shown by 
 the governments who accepted the President's invitation but were later forced to 
 withdraw. They included Argentina, Cuba, France, Lithuania, Persia, Roumania, 
 and Turkey. Committees of government officials, industrialists or chambers of 
 commerce were organized to promote participation in Colombia, Great Britain, 
 Hungary, the Netherlands, Poland and Yugoslavia, but could not fulfil their plans. 
 
 Brazil accepted in January 1932 and in August 1933, after the Fair had been 
 open for more than two months, took space in the Travel and Transport Building. 
 Sufficient funds were appropriated by the government to install an exhibit in 
 which trade with the United States was stressed and certain products advertised. 
 
 Immediately after the close of A Century of Progress in 1933, foreign commis- 
 sioners accredited to the 1933 Fair were invited to confer with the Fair manage- 
 ment with regard to the possible participation by their governments in the Fair of 
 1934, and to discuss certain changes contemplated in the rules and regulations 
 governing foreign participation. 
 
 The changes were directed at defining more specifically than in 1933 the type 
 of sales operations carried on in exhibits sponsored by foreign governments. 
 Under the revised regulations only merchandise imported from abroad and sold 
 directly by the commission appointed by the participating government or by a 
 governmental agency could be sold without a percentage of the gross receipts 
 being retained by the Exposition. Sales of merchandise and restaurants conducted 
 for profit by individual concessionaires in governmental sections were subject to 
 the same rules and regulations that governed other concessionaires on the grounds. 
 
 Notable new features in the Italian exhibit were the Venetian glass factory 
 located in a separate building to the north of the main pavilion, and an exhibit of 
 wines in a structure to the south. The Italian government presented to the City of 
 Chicago an antique marble column as a memorial to General Italo Balbo's flight 
 
 156 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 to the city in 1933. The column in front of the pavilion was dedicated at Italian 
 Day at the Exposition, July 15, the anniversary of the arrival of General Balbo. 
 
 Although the government of Czechoslovakia was unable to participate, it made 
 its pavilion available to the Czechoslovakian American Chamber of Commerce 
 under whose auspices it was operated. 
 
 The governments of Sweden, Spain and Greece were prohibited from partici- 
 pating in the 1934 Fair under the regulations of the Paris Convention of World's 
 Fairs, but all of them sent exhibits and native handicrafts to be shown by local 
 national organizations or in their respective villages. 
 
 The government of Mexico, having taken its train and its Monte Alban jewels 
 home, placed exhibits of art, industry and handicraft in the Mexican village 
 where they found a homelike and characteristic setting. 
 
 Because of the number of foreign villages on the grounds in 1934, the Fair pre- 
 sented a more foreign and exotic appearance than it probably would have had if 
 foreign countries had come in in the usual way with large and dignified build- 
 ings. Each of these foreign villages was true to type — each contained a number 
 of buildings of characteristic architecture, each had interesting exhibits from the 
 homeland and gave the entertainments known across the seas and served typical 
 native food. 
 
 Canada participated by taking a large space on the first floor of the Travel and 
 Transport Building, and installed an exhibit prepared by the government and the 
 Canadian railways, showing the industrial and agricultural development of the 
 country and its attractions for tourists. 
 
 The Grand Duchy of Luxembourg occupied a section on the second floor of the 
 Travel and Transport Building with an exhibit of statistical information regard- 
 ing the iron and steelworks of the country, its banking system and tourist attrac- 
 tions. Shortly before the Fair opened the Irish Free State also took space on the 
 second floor of this building, the exhibits for which were collected by the Minister 
 of Industry and Commerce and the Hibernian Academy. 
 
 The Danish foreign office appropriated a substantial sum to procure a collection 
 of Danish scientific and mechanical exhibits for the Hall of Science, which after 
 the Fair were transferred to the Museum of Science and Industry. In addition, 
 Danish linens, silver, and lace were shown in the Travel and Transport Building. 
 
 The Dominican Republic constructed a model of the proposed Columbus 
 Memorial Lighthouse, a project sponsored by the Pan-American Union for which 
 ground had already been broken in Santo Domingo. 
 
 Egypt constructed a pavilion which displayed art handicraft, tourist attractions 
 and replicas of some of the treasures of the Pharaohs. 
 
 The Japanese building was erected to house exhibits procured largely from 
 Japanese commercial organizations by the Japanese Exhibitors' Association, 
 which was of official character. The appropriation from the government was sup- 
 plemented by funds from this association. In the pavilion were art craft, silk, an 
 exhibit of the pearl and tea industries and various agricultural and industrial 
 products. The South Manchuria Railroad erected a small building adjacent to the 
 
 FEDERAL, STATE, AND FOREIGN EXHIBITS 157
 
 main structure and displayed a relief map and exhibits showing the agricultural 
 and industrial resources of Manchuria. 
 
 Costa Rica which had not accepted until May 1933 purchased two areas in the 
 Agricultural Building. In one section was an exhibit of native woods, tortoise 
 shell and other native products. In the other section was a coffee garden where 
 coffee and chocolate were served. 
 
 Czechoslovakia built a pavilion in which was placed a display of glassware, 
 china, woodcraft, jewelery, handwork and pictures and printed material to attract 
 tourists. A restaurant was operated in an adjoining building. 
 
 Mexico's participation was the unusual exhibit of its presidential train with the 
 celebrated Monte Alban jewels in one coach. Under the charge of officials of the 
 National Railways of Mexico, it attracted enthusiastic praise. 
 
 Sailing across the Atlantic, down the St. Lawrence River, through the Great 
 Lakes the training ship "Sordanlet" arrived in Chicago and docked on the Expo- 
 sition shores on June 20, 1933 bringing Norway's greeting for Norwegian Day. 
 
 A project sponsored at first by individuals was later taken over by the Spanish 
 government — a pavilion devoted to displays of tapestries, paintings, sculpture 
 and floor coverings. 
 
 Belgium asked that the site set aside for it be placed at the disposal of a Belgian 
 city as the country was unable to assume financial or other responsibility. A cor- 
 poration was formed which built and operated the Belgian Village as a concession. 
 
 Outstanding among the foreign buildings was the Italian pavilion, of modern 
 design and costing 3,000,000 lire. An interesting series of charts showed the 
 progress made in various governmental projects. Transparencies of historic scenes 
 engaged the attention of scholars and tourists and the exhibit of handwork and 
 art craft had wide appeal. Italy also presented an outstanding exhibit in the 
 medical section of the Hall of Science and a second exhibit of old and mod- 
 ern engineering, model airplanes, important inventions of the last century and 
 naval construction. The most spectacular part of Italy's participation was the 
 flight of an armada of seaplanes under the command of General Italo Balbo which 
 flew across the Atlantic from Italy to the Fair Grounds. They were sent by the 
 Italian Government as a gesture of good will and friendship for the United States 
 and the Exposition. The armada flew low over the Exposition grounds for the 
 first time on July 15, while the Fair crowds cheered the doughty fliers after their 
 long air journey. General Balbo and his fliers remained a number of days in Chi- 
 cago, feted by their friends, by A Century of Progress and greeted with wonder 
 and honor by all who could manage to meet them. 
 
 In April 1931, China accepted the invitation to participate, but definite plans 
 were not completed until early in 1933. An appropriation made by the Chinese 
 government was supplemented by funds from the Chamber of Commerce and 
 several Chinese provincial governments. The Chinese Exhibitors Association was 
 organized for the purpose of collecting exhibits which included jade, embroideries, 
 porcelains, lacquer work and wood carving. A compound of typical Chinese 
 buildings was erected which housed the exhibits and a restaurant and theater. 
 
 158 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 Chapter i6 
 
 ART EXHIBITS 
 
 Art of the Century of Progress was exhibited ofiEcially at the Art Institute under 
 the leadership of Mr. Chauncey McCormick. The one thousand borrowed master- 
 pieces were safe within the solid granite and limestone walls that had been built 
 for the purpose of housing art treasures, and had the skilled and unceasing care of 
 experts. 
 
 The collection, one of the largest and finest ever gathered together under one 
 roof, was lent by twenty-five museums, two hundred and fifty galleries and pri- 
 vate collectors in the United States. One important exception was Whisder's 
 "Portrait of the Artist's Mother" from the Louvre in Paris. In addition to these, 
 many great works of art owned by the Art Institute were shown. The exhibition 
 began with a room devoted to fourteenth, fifteenth and sixteenth century English, 
 French and German paintings, including among others Holbein's "Portrait of 
 Catherine Howard," Jean Clouet's "Charlotte of France" and a remarkable small 
 head by Corneille de Lyon. 
 
 There were two Rogier van der Weydens, a Memling "Madonna," a brilliant 
 Jacob Cornelisz van Amsterdam, a Geraerd David, a Lucas van Leyden, and the 
 famous "St. Jerome" by Peter Christus in the collection of Dutch and Flemish 
 paintings. 
 
 The works of the early Italians occupied four galleries in which were to be seen 
 such treasures as the Segna di Bonaventura "Madonna Enthroned with Saints and 
 Donor," Sassetta's "Journey of the Magi," "Crucifixion," by Masolino, Giovanni 
 Bellini's "Madonna," and a painting of two Oriental heads by his brother. Gentile. 
 There were three famous Botticelli paintings, "Madonna and Child," "Adoration 
 
 ART EXHIBITS 159
 
 with Angels," and a portrait of a young man, supposedly Botticelli himself, and 
 the "Rape of Deianira," by the brilliant Pollaiuolo and Bernard Daddi's "Vision 
 of St. Dominic," and "A Lady Holding a Rabbit," by Piero di Cosimo. 
 
 Among the Spanish primitives were the famous Ayala altarpiece dated 1396 
 and "St. George and the Dragon" by Bernado Martorell. 
 
 Sixteenth century painting was superbly represented, with three compositions 
 by Titian, including "Venus and the Lute Player." Others in the section included 
 Tintoretto's "Christ on the Lake of Galilee" and "Rest on the Flight into Egypt" 
 by Veronese. A group of later Italian painters included Tiepolo, Guardi, Cana- 
 letto, Magnasco, Mola, Piazzetta, and others. 
 
 The great Dutch masters of the time of Rembrandt were grouped in one large 
 gallery where a breath-taking sweep of the room showed Van Dyck's portrait of 
 "Marquesa Polixena Spinola-Guzman de Leganez," the magnificent "Aristotle 
 with the Bust of Homer," by Rembrandt, landscapes of Hobbema and Ruisdael 
 and the superb "Skittle Players" by Pieter de Hooch. 
 
 One of the finest collections of Spanish masterpieces featured the Institute's own 
 great masterpiece by El Greco "The Assumption of the Virgin" and his great 
 landscape "View of Toledo" as well as Goya's "Six Episodes in the Capture of 
 the Bandit Margato by the Monk Pedro de Zaldivia," "Boy on a Ram," and "The 
 Bull Fight." There were also five canvases by Ribera, Morales, Zurbaran and 
 other Spanish masters. 
 
 Seventeenth and eighteenth century English and French paintings were a de- 
 light. English painters of the eighteenth century included four Gainsborough's, 
 among them his "Queen Charlotte of England," Constable's "Stoke-by-Nayland," 
 Reynolds' "The Honorable Mrs. Watson," and others. Raeburn the Scot was rep- 
 resented by several portraits, and examples of Lawrence, Turner, Romney and 
 Bonington were included. French seventeenth century painting was represented 
 by works of Poussin, Claude and the two Le Nains, and the eighteenth century by 
 Boucher, Lancret, and Pater; "The Industrious Mother" by Chardin, David's 
 "Mme. Jeanne de Richemont and Her Son," and the Ingres, "Mile. Jeanne Gonin." 
 
 A large gallery devoted to the pre-Impressionist period in France gave Dela- 
 croix's "Spring" and Corot's "View of Volterra," "Jumieges," and "Interrupted 
 Reading." Millet, the Barbizon School and Courbet and Daumier were repre- 
 sented in the same room, Courbet by "Toilette of a Bride," and Daumier by "The 
 Uprising" and "The Drinkers." 
 
 Impressionism in France, which had its beginning in the sixties, was represented 
 by some of the finest examples of the painters of the modern French school, bring- 
 ing the representation well into the twentieth century. It began with Monet's 
 brilliant "Argenteuil" and many excellent examples of the work of Monet and 
 Degas, among the latter's being "Carriage at the Races in Provence," "Race 
 Course: Before the Start," and "Uncle and Niece Cezanne was honored by a 
 one-man group. His "Still Life with a Clock," the vivid "Still Life with Apples," 
 "Road to Auvers" and "The Bathers" graced an impressive array of eighteen of 
 his most renowned paintings. 
 
 160 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 Of Manet's there was "Jesus Mocked by the Soldiers," "The Music Lesson," the 
 two "Philosophers," the "Boulogne Roadstead". Outstanding Renoir examples 
 were "Luncheon of the Boating Party," "The Moulin de la Galette," the "Bather," 
 "Diana, the Huntress," and "The Two Litde Circus Girls". These were fol- 
 lowed with such works of Gauguin as "Tahiti Woman with Children," and "We 
 Greet Thee Mary" and with the Seurat "Sunday Afternoon on the Island of 
 Grand Jatte." Matisse and Picasso carried on the story with canvases such as 
 Matisse's "Decorative Composition," "White Plumes," and "Pont St. Michel," 
 and Picasso's "The Woman with a Fan," "Figures" and "The Woman in White." 
 
 There was a gallery of distinguished American portraits of the Colonial and 
 Federal periods, works of Copley, Stuart and Ralph Earl, Hesselius, Feke and 
 others. Albert P. Ryder's "Moonlight in Maine" and "Death on the Pale Horse," 
 "Diana's Hunt" and "Elegy in a Country Churchyard," Thomas Eakins' "Music," 
 "Addie" and "The Pathetic Song," Winslow Homer's "The Herring Net," "The 
 Look Out — 'All's Weir," John Singer Sargent's "Mrs. Charles Gifford Dyer," and 
 "Robert Louis Stevenson" and his well known "Egyptian Girl," and Whisder's 
 famous "Mother," and several others of his, including "The Artist in the 
 Studio," and "Nocturne, Southampton Waters." 
 
 Mary Cassatt, the only American woman recognized by the French as ranking 
 with Manet and Degas was represented by "At the Opera," "The Girl Comb- 
 ing Her Hair" and "La Toilette." Duveneck's "Whistling Boy" and Blakelock's 
 "The Vision of Life," Inness' "Coast of Cornwall," "Storm," and "Moonlight on 
 Passamaquoddy Bay," were shown with works by Maurice Prendergast, while 
 Twachtman, Arthur B. Davies and George Bellows were all represented. Seven 
 galleries were devoted to contemporary American painters, many of whom cooper- 
 ated with museums and individuals in gathering together what was the most 
 comprehensive loan exhibition of works of American masters ever achieved. 
 With them were shown works of contemporary artists of France, Italy, England, 
 Germany, Switzerland. Poland, Norway, Spain, Russia, Mexico and Czechoslo- 
 vakia. 
 
 To the Art Institute's own exceptional exhibits of sculpture were added valuable 
 and important pieces representing the work of leading American, French, and 
 German sculptors. Charles Cary Rumsey, Stirling Calder, Lorado Taft, Paul 
 Manship, William Zorach had magnificent pieces in the American group. The 
 work of Maillol, Bourdelle, Rodin, Jean Poupelet and Despiau of the French, and 
 of Lehmbruck, Belling, Di Fiori, Barlach, and Kolbe of the Germans was shown 
 as were others of such international importance as Mestrovic, Milles, Kai, Nielsen, 
 and Epstein. 
 
 Paralleling the exhibitions of painting and sculpture, in the Print Galleries of 
 the Institute there was an exhibition in two sections of the greatest masterpieces in 
 the history of the graphic arts. Some of the finest collections in the world were 
 represented in either "Prints by Old Masters," or "A Century of Progress in Print- 
 making". In the former the first two centuries of the development of the graphic 
 arts in Europe were shown. Development of early graphic art was traced from 
 
 ART EXHIBITS 161
 
 fifteenth century woodcuts and engravings to its most famous representatives, 
 such as Diirer, Holbein and their contemporaries. The progress of engraving in 
 the north of Europe was represented, and Italy's activities were traced from the 
 rare niello prints to the great accomplishments of PoUaiuolo and Mantegna. 
 
 The exhibition of the art of etching began with Diirer's "Christ on the Mount 
 of Olives," 1515, and its development in Germany and France was followed 
 through the work of Altdorfer and Hirschvogel, Callot and Claude. The rise of 
 lithography was shown from Delacroix to Daumier, followed by examples of 
 present day revival in a section devoted to contemporary work. 
 
 The art exhibit was selected and assembled by the Art Institute which was re- 
 sponsible for the care and return of the borrowed paintings and pieces of sculpture. 
 A Century of Progress, for its own part, agreed to permit no other art exhibit 
 under its control or sponsorship either on the grounds or elsewhere. The only 
 exception to this was the exhibit of religious art in the south bay of the Hall of 
 Religions. The art of the Christian church in painting, sculpture, tapestries, robes, 
 mosaics, altars, and candelabra was gathered from seven European countries. The 
 various objects included works by Catholic, Jewish and Protestant artists. 
 
 162 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 Chapter ly 
 
 CONCESSIONS 
 
 "Come right on down close. We want everybody to hear!" "We guarantee a 
 thrill each and every minute!" "Come up close, right up close. If you folks real- 
 ized how hard it is to talk loud, you would come up close!" "I'm going to bring 
 the whole troupe out — look at them!" "I don't want to keep you in the sun. 
 You'll like it in here. Come on in — only twenty-five cents." "Hurry, hurry, 
 hurry!" The voice of the barker was heard in the land. Vying with each other, 
 they "ballyed" for lions, for elephants, for rides and shows, for foreign villages, 
 for dancers, for every conceivable attraction. The Midway was alive, alight, and 
 noisy, the noisier the better. Crowds jammed the walks, every street and passage- 
 way seemed a solid mass of humanity, and the closer they were packed, the better 
 they seemed to like it. They had eaten, they had rested, they had been instructed; 
 — now evening had come and they were out to "do" the Midway. 
 
 The concessions at the Fair provided plentifully for all tastes. A Century of 
 Progress itself added special attractions, and many exhibitors supplied free shows 
 and entertainment which brought the public in droves to their exhibits. In gen- 
 eral, the rules of the Fair were well obeyed. Occasionally, a concessionaire got 
 out of hand, or more likely, the ballyhooing took on a misleading or undesirable 
 tone, and then guides, police, or even Fair officials quietly went to work until 
 order was established again. 
 
 Visitors at exhibitions appreciate beauty and the opportunity of learning. But 
 they must also be amused, fed, and made comfortable. Without amusement, food 
 and drink, and the comforts of life, any exposition loses its charm. 
 
 To supply these needs, a concession department becomes an essential. It has a 
 
 CONCESSIONS 163
 
 wide range of duties and much grief. Perhaps this is because it has to deal with 
 such a variety of operations and people. The head of a concessions department 
 must not lose sight of the high aims of his exposition, but he must also under- 
 stand showmanship; he must be able to wrestle with experienced, down-to-earth 
 performers and producers; he must know as much about food and food costs as 
 the restaurateur, and, when space becomes scarce, he must decide whether the 
 public would prefer trained seals or a shooting gallery. And, never for a moment, 
 must he lose sight of the fact that the concessions department is counted upon to 
 bring in financial returns. Profits of a fair depend in large degree on the type and 
 handling of its concessions. 
 
 The concessions department at A Century of Progress was officially established 
 on July 24, 1931, with Dr. Forrest Ray Moulton, an eminent scientist, in charge. 
 It thus had almost two years in which to set up its organization, its rules and 
 regulations, and to obtain the type of concessions which would meet with the 
 approval of the Fair and of the public and at the same time make money. These 
 requirements were all eventually met. 
 
 Policies and Rules 
 
 Preparation of the rules and regulations was among the most important first 
 steps to be taken, a difficult task because of the necessity for their rigid enforce- 
 ment. At A Century of Progress they were drawn up with an idea of a fair 
 profit for both the concessionaire and the Exposition. The Fair adopted the liberal 
 policy of taking only a small or even no part of the gross receipts of a concession 
 until its capital costs had been amortized. From that time on, the percentage was 
 gradually increased until the net profits of the concession were divided equally 
 between the concessionaire and A Century of Progress. Such an arrangement, 
 while highly satisfactory to both contracting parties, demanded much adjustment, 
 as different concessions came into their own at different rates of speed. Some 
 were affected more by weather than others, some by the character of the crowds 
 which differed on various days, some by accidents or other circumstances beyond 
 their control. The elasticity which was employed in dealing with the concession- 
 aires made for good will and proved in the end to be of financial benefit to 
 everyone. 
 
 Previous fairs had had the unfortunate experience of having many of the con- 
 cessions go bankrupt and close during the lean early weeks after opening. The 
 great crowds do not arrive until after the Fourth of July, but the daily overhead 
 or "nut" is continuous. Too many concessionaires are overly enthusiastic and 
 spend far more on building their shows than their estimates contemplated, so they 
 have no reserve to maintain operation until the big profit period arrives. If the 
 Fair takes its normal percentage during this critical period, it may well force 
 highly desirable attractions to close. This has further repercussions, as a blank 
 spot on the Midway adversely affects its neighbors and, in its desire to reopen a 
 show, a Fair may be tempted to relax its standards. The policy adopted by A Cen- 
 
 164 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 tury of Progress was largely instrumental in keeping most of its concessionaires 
 happy and prosperous. 
 
 Another stand taken by the Exposition was that no employee or agent of A Cen- 
 tury of Progress should have any financial interest directly or indirectly in any 
 concession or in its financing without the express authorization of the Board of 
 Trustees of A Century of Progress. This provision, strictly complied with, helped 
 materially in keeping the slate clean. 
 
 A safeguard which prevented what might have been a long series of misunder- 
 standings and difficulties was the article in the rules and regulations providing 
 that no concessionaire would be permitted to assign, transfer, or sublet any portion 
 of the space allotted him for a concession or any part of his interest in the con- 
 cession without the written consent of A Century of Progress. It was recognized 
 that the Exposition management itself must keep absolute control of all leases 
 whether for exhibits or concessions, to avoid objectionable features. Also, this 
 prevented promoters from getting permits for concessions and selling them to 
 others at a profit. The Fair would not accept an application for a concession until 
 the applicant had fully arranged for its financing. 
 
 A rule with a long and honored history, and yet so obvious that it might be 
 forgotten, was that no concessionaire would be permitted to operate or maintain 
 any type of concession other than that specified and described in his application 
 without the written consent of A Century of Progress. 
 
 In order to avoid an undue number of kiosks, or small detached stands, with- 
 out unity of plan or type of architecture, the sales concessions were limited to 
 booths in the general buildings of the Exposition and to special buildings con- 
 structed for the use of concessionaires. 
 
 A policy which had not hitherto been general in expositions, related to the let- 
 ting of single contracts for specified articles, such as food or souvenirs, instead of a 
 multitude of contracts to separate individuals. There were many advantages in 
 this plan. A single contract for popcorn is much easier to close for a violation 
 than would be twenty or fifty. The labor of making deliveries of material and 
 goods is greatly reduced; central storage, if necessary, is more readily supplied; 
 quality can be more easily controlled; unsatisfactory conditions of operations can 
 be corrected wtih less trouble and time, and accounting is much simplified. Of 
 prime importance, is the fact that a large concern is less likely to get into financial 
 difficulties than small ones operating on a shoe-string. 
 
 It was the policy of the Fair to give its major concessions such as those for 
 food and transportation to large, well-established concerns, rather than to groups 
 organized for the sole purpose of operating a Fair concession. The former had 
 reputations at stake and would permit no infractions or snide practices which 
 would jeopardize their reputations when the Fair was over. The latter group, 
 often with unnamed backers, would go out of existence when the Fair was over 
 and hence might have fewer inhibitions toward making a quick profit at the ex- 
 pense of the customer. 
 
 The problem of itinerant vending was ever present. A Century of Progress 
 
 CONCESSIONS 165
 
 established the policy that there should be no wandering hawkers on the 
 grounds, though requests, some of them seemingly reasonable, came from highly 
 reputable groups. The restrictions on itinerant vending were occasionally waived 
 in behalf of public needs, such as the selling of rubber capes during a rainstorm. 
 
 Feeding the Millions 
 
 The Department sought to keep in mind first and foremost that concessions 
 should be solely for the benefit and satisfaction of visitors to the Exposition, and 
 that the interests of the public should be paramount. People differ so much in 
 their ideas of entertainment that the best solution is to give as wide a variety of 
 good amusement as could be provided. If people liked good music, well and 
 good. If they preferred monkeys, let them have them. Lounges for tired sight- 
 seers were welcomed by all. Good drinking water was always to be found. The 
 greatest problem of the Exposition was to please the great American fairgoer on 
 the question of food. It was paramount that only the best quality of foods 
 and beverages should be sold. All purveyors of food were required to keep up 
 the quality of their table and all food was prepared and served under the best 
 possible sanitary conditions. The food served on the Fair grounds was equal in 
 quality and price to food of the same grade served elsewhere. It was not all ex- 
 pensive food, as good meals could be bought in a number of the restaurants at 
 prices ranging from fifty cents to one dollar. 
 
 The other real problem relating to food was quantity. How many eating places 
 should there be? What should be their separate and combined capacity? The an- 
 swers to all of these questions depended upon unknown quantities. Would the 
 appetites and purses of visitors call for simple low-priced meals or for more elab- 
 orate and expensive ones, and in what proportion? Where would the crowd be — 
 around the Hall of Science, in the south end of the grounds or on the Island? 
 The best that could be done was to estimate the probable attendance, and attempt 
 to ascertain from a study of records of previous expositions what percentage of 
 people would eat on the grounds. The Fair had been open only a short time 
 when it was apparent that there was insufficient provision for the hungry crowd. 
 It was simple to increase the seating capacity of the restaurants, and to put up 
 additional lunch stands. This was more satisfactory than having too great a 
 number of eating places with the concessionaires losing money. 
 
 There were ninety-eight restaurants and cafes on the grounds with a total seat- 
 ing capacity of thirty-four thousand, six hundred and thirty-three. Many of them 
 had name bands and orchestras, floor shows, wandering singers, and other forms 
 of entertainment. Among the larger ones were: the Muller Schlitz Garden Cafe 
 seating 1,000; Pabst Blue Ribbon Casino seating 2,500; Victor Vienna Garden 
 Cafe seating 1,500; Old Heidelberg Inn seating 4,000; and Muller Pabst Cafe 
 seating 2,000. 
 
 Among the concessionaires serving food and drinks from stands were: Crown 
 Food Company with fifty stands for hot dogs, hamburgers and fried ham sand- 
 wiches; the Doughnut Machine Corporation with ten stands; Coca Cola with 
 
 166 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 forty stands; Orange Crush with sixty stands; root beer, twenty stands; candies, 
 fifty stands; fruit and nuts, fifteen stands; tomato juice, twenty stands; pineapple 
 juice, ten stands; ice cream, thirty-three stands; popcorn, forty stands. 
 
 Selling non-food items were the Century News Company with fifty stands for 
 souvenirs, and the Green Duck Company. The Moffett Studios took portraits. 
 There were bonded checking stands, a tobacco shop, several general merchandise 
 stores, a drug store, filtered water stands, pay telephone booths, and hotel service 
 information. 
 
 Kaufman-Fabry Company, the official photographers of the Exposition, had a 
 shop where camera and film supplies were sold. 
 
 Stands were well distributed over the entire Fair grounds, and usually in 
 grouped shopping centers. This made for greater convenience, and accessibility 
 for visitors and prevented undesirable competition among vendors. 
 
 During the period preceding the opening of the Exposition, a total of 396 con- 
 cession contracts were let, of which only 21 were cancelled and 11 superseded by 
 subconcession contracts. After the opening of the Exposition the initiation of sub- 
 contracts was assigned to the Operations and Maintenance Department subject to 
 their approval by the Concessions Department. Under this arrangement 311 sub- 
 concessions were accepted by the Exposition. The entire number of contracts and 
 sub-contracts negotiated was 887, and included foreign villages, restaurants, food 
 and drink stands, animal shows, amusement rides, merchandise, spectacles, shows, 
 news stands, souvenirs of various kinds, transportation, chairs, books and printed 
 material. 
 
 Revenues from Concessions 
 
 In addition to the percentage charges received from concessions, there were a 
 number of other sources of revenue derived directly or indirectly from conces- 
 sions. The concessionaires were required to pay "privilege charges" for vacant 
 sites on which they constructed their concessions. These charges were due in ad- 
 vance and provided a total of $206,000.00 to the Exposition. Space charges were 
 for two types of space; that in structures erected solely for concessions, and for 
 exhibit space sold for the purpose. In both instances the buildings were erected by 
 the Exposition, hence the $653,000.00 received from this source did not represent 
 net income. 
 
 By January of 1933 two bridges were available from the mainland to the 
 Island, the causeway at the north end, and the bridge constructed by the Fair at 
 the center of the Island. Funds were not available for a third bridge at the south 
 end. The vital need for a bridge connecting the southern end of the grounds and 
 the Island was plain from the first, so means were sought to finance the expensive 
 undertaking. The possibility of placing shops upon the bridge and applying the 
 rentals to the construction of the bridge was considered, and preliminary sketches 
 were made showing that enough concession space could be provided to pay for 
 the cost of the bridge which was estimated at $100,000. A contractor agreed to 
 build the structure with the understanding that all receipts from the sale of space 
 
 CONCESSIONS 167
 
 on the bridge should be applied to his contract price until June 1, 1933. If it was 
 not completely paid for by that time, the contractor would accept gold notes for 
 the remainder of his bill. The amount involved in the building of this bridge 
 was not large as exposition figures go; and it is recounted here as being typical of 
 of many such ingenious negotiations, based on the policy of no commitments un- 
 less definite means were in sight to meet them. The bridge was completed before 
 June at a cost of $93,686.53, and was completely paid for by the sale of conces- 
 sion space upon it. 
 
 Amusement Areas 
 
 In contrast to other fairs where the amusement areas had usually been definitely 
 segregated, A Century of Progress had several amusement areas. The reasons for 
 this were the lay-out of the grounds which, being long and narrow, made it diffi- 
 cult for the visitor who might be at the opposite end of the grounds to get readily 
 to a single Midway, and the fact that major areas were already occupied by large 
 exhibit groups. Three amusement areas resulted — one from 23rd to 27th Streets, 
 another between 35th and 39th Streets, and one at the north end of the Island. 
 Each of these contained villages, shops, rides and shows, so that the casual visitor, 
 no matter where he was, could always turn from his contemplation of the serious 
 side of the Fair to the lighter vein of the Midway. 
 
 Soldier Field, the great arena bordering on the grounds, was expected to be an 
 important asset to the Exposition. However, it was found impracticable to sell 
 concession space in the Field, and the amusements attempted there did not prove 
 profitable. While immediately adjacent to the Exposition grounds, it was psycho- 
 logically far removed, as it was a permanent structure of different architecture 
 and off the main line of travel. 
 
 The Midway 
 
 The Midway was amply provided with rides to meet all desires for thrill or 
 novelty. They were largely owned and operated by Mr. Harry Illions. He was 
 not only one of the first concessionaires to demonstrate confidence in A Century of 
 Progress, but through the operating period proved a loyal and effective friend on 
 all matters pertaining to the Exposition's welfare. 
 
 Once it became established that the Fair was really to open, the early apathy 
 diminished and many excellent shows appeared on the Midway. 
 
 "Hollywood" presented moving picture sets and techniques and other attrac- 
 tions of the Coast City. 
 
 "Spoor's Spectaculars" gave motion pictures on a gigantic screen, using 64 mm. 
 film giving the effect of a third dimension. 
 
 "Darkest Africa" was a reproduction of native huts in a tropical setting, with 
 tribal dances, fire-eating and native dances by Ituri pygmies and stalwart 
 Camaroons. 
 
 "Life" presented an excellent collection of human embryos and a synopsis of 
 pre-historic man. 
 
 168 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 "Snake Show" by Cliff Wilson could be easily located by the squeals of the 
 ladies. It featured monster pythons and many varieties of snakes and reptiles. 
 
 "Odditorium", a "Believe It Or Not" show by Ripley, while typical of the 
 classical freak show, had many new performers. A trained nurse was in constant 
 attendance for those who couldn't take it standing. 
 
 "Seminole Indian Village" showed life in the Florida Everglades, including 
 alligator wrestling, and an exhibition of archery, 
 
 "Bring 'Em Back Alive" by Frank Buck was an animal show, with a Monkey 
 Island and a great variety of exotic creatures. 
 
 Many smaller shows were on the Midway, such as the flea circus, the shooting 
 gallery, and games of chance and skill. These latter games required continuous 
 policing and many were closed by the Fair authorities when they elected not to 
 conform to regulations or cheated the public. Ceaseless care must be exercised in 
 insisting that actual probability of chance be available to the public. Unscrupu- 
 lous operators have concealed devices which change the pay-off ratio to a more 
 reasonable one on official inspections. Other operators have a vicious "come-on" 
 system wherein the unsuspecting visitor receives on his first tries two of the three 
 necessary credits to win the grand prize. His cupidity is aroused and he spends 
 his last cent in the futile effort to get the last and critical one. Clever manipulators 
 play on the weaknesses of normal people, leading them on to a goal ever out of 
 their reach, for the game is "fixed". Fair authorities must be ruthless in exter- 
 minating this breed as soon as discovered, or better still, prevent them from com- 
 ing in. 
 
 The baby incubator presented by Dr. M. A. Couney was one of unusual at- 
 traction and scientific interest. A number of premature babies were given the 
 most expert care in an elaborately arranged nursery, with specially designed and 
 intricately constructed incubators with complex controls for temperature and 
 humidity. The public viewed the babies through a wall of glass. Through his 
 many years of successful rearing of premature babies, Dr. Couney had achieved 
 wide recognition by the medical profession and he performed an important social 
 service. An unthinking public asked many amusing questions: 
 
 "Are these the same babies you had at the St. Louis Exposition in 1904.'*" 
 
 "Where do you get the eggs.''" 
 
 Special Problems 
 
 A major problem of Exposition management Is allotting existing funds most 
 advantageously among the many conflicting demands and aspirations. It demands 
 nice decisions and disturbing denials, for there are always so many more in- 
 triguing plans than there is money to meet them. Normally, utilities and necessi- 
 ties have priority over ornamental features and luxury items, so washrooms and 
 toilets were high on the agenda, though their cost would be in the many thou- 
 sands of dollars. 
 
 A concessionaire offered to install these fixtures at his expense, provided eighty 
 percent were coin operated and the receipts paid to him up to the amount of his 
 
 CONCESSIONS 169
 
 investment plus a fair profit. It was a hard decision, but it permitted the building 
 of many other desirable features on the grounds. However, it provoked much 
 criticism during 1933, so the next year they were taken over by the Exposition 
 and made free. 
 
 Loud speakers along the Midway became a nuisance, particularly when their 
 excessive volume and continuous use competed with neighboring ones. Efforts 
 to control them by inspectors proved fruitless, as they would be turned up as soon 
 as the Fair personnel left. Arbitrary and summary action proved the solution, 
 with Fair technicians cutting wires and dismanding speakers of repeated 
 offenders. 
 
 Fan dancers and oriental dancers presented a serious dilemma. The first arrest 
 taken to court presented the Fair with an injunction to leave the show alone. 
 The attendant publicity increased the box office and other concessionaires wanted 
 to change their shows. Some groups accused the Fair of being too lax, while 
 others thought it too strict. The Fair demanded that all live up to their original 
 contracts and remain within the law. Later violations were not taken to court, 
 much to the disgust of the offenders who desired the notoriety, but the shows 
 were closed by Exposition police, the offenders' passes taken up and they were 
 denied future entrance into the grounds. 
 
 CoHection of Customs Duties 
 
 The United States Customs, through an Act of Congress, made practically the 
 entire grounds of A Century of Progress a bonded warehouse. This permitted 
 merchandise from all over the world to be placed on exhibit and offered for sale 
 within the grounds before it had been cleared of its duty through the regular cus- 
 toms channels. This made the Exposition ultimately responsible for any unpaid 
 duties. Most of the foreign concessionaires had little money upon arrival, and it 
 proved to be a costly burden to A Century of Progress. 
 
 The Act of Congress provided that merchandise used for exhibit purposes only, 
 and which was returned, would be free from duty while being exhibited, but if 
 the merchandise were sold, then duty was to be collected immediately. About 
 half way through the Fair it became evident that A Century of Progress had a 
 liability in excess of its bond of $100,000 which had been placed to guarantee the 
 payment of any unpaid customs. Seventy-five concessionaires and sub-concession- 
 aires had imported goods both for sale and display purposes upon which customs 
 duties were yet to be paid and an investigation of all duty delinquent accounts 
 and a system by which close contact was kept on the entire situation was insti- 
 tuted so that the situation was satisfactorily adjusted. 
 
 The gross sales of all concessions amounted to $48,730,000.00 for the two years. 
 The Fair's participation amounted to $5,438,000.00 in addition to the $1,396,000.00 
 received for space charges. 
 
 While the attendance was less in 1934, the income from concessions was larger, 
 due to the amortization of installation costs and the knowledge of their most 
 economic operation gained from the experience of the previous year. 
 
 170 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 Chapter i8 
 
 FAIR-OPERATED ATTRACTIONS 
 
 The Adler Planetarium, a permanent institution, was a gift to Chicago by Mr. 
 Max Adler. Because of its location within the grounds of A Century of Progress, 
 special arrangements were made with the South Park Commissioners which re- 
 sulted in its being classified as a concession. Lecture demonstrations started on an 
 hourly basis, but during the months of high attendance at forty-minute intervals. 
 Often by ten o'clock in the morning queues hundreds of feet long would be seen 
 awaiting admission. The gross receipts of the Planetarium from May 27th to 
 October 31, 1933 were $208,118.50. 
 
 The two best-known and most spectacular of A Century of Progress's own 
 concessions were "The Wings Of A Century" and "The Sky Ride." 
 
 Wings of a Century 
 
 "The Wings of a Century" was located near the 39th Street entrance and, fit- 
 tingly, across the roadway from the Travel and Transport Buildings. This 
 pageant of the incredible changes in transportation from the stage coach to the 
 airplane was written by Edward Hungerford and directed first by Helen Tieken 
 and later by John Ross Reed. Never did pageantry portray more colorful or dra- 
 matic episodes. Never did a time scope permit of the staging of so many ex- 
 tremes. Never did men, women, children, whites, negroes, Indians, the pioneer, 
 the sophisticate, horses, mules, wagons, stagecoaches, boats, engines, (primitive 
 and modern), and soaring airplanes combine in an outdoor show with such 
 effect. Lake Michigan, blue, gray, or green, as pleased her mood, was the back- 
 drop for the stage. The settings were confined practically to the entrance wings. 
 
 FAIR-OPERATED ATTRACTIONS 171
 
 But the drama and the color of each episode were so vivid that only the waters of 
 the lake and the blue of the sky were needed to enhance the work of the players. 
 
 The stories of the development of transportation and of the rise of American 
 civilization parallel each other. In the telling of this world-challenging story, one 
 hundred and fifty actors and performers were used, and many distinguished 
 names were found in the cast. The pageant employed seventy horses, thirteen 
 full-sized trains showing the evolution of locomotive and cars, a series of early 
 automobiles, a clipper ship, a river steamboat, a reproduction of Fulton's "Cler- 
 mont", two canal boats, a stagecoach, emigrant wagons, fire engines, fine carriages, 
 and a model of the Wright Brothers' first airplane. 
 
 Among the episodes shown was the prologue in two scenes, depicting wilder- 
 ness pathfinders, and a band of Indians, their horses dragging the primitive 
 travois. Daniel Boone appeared with his caravan and accoutrements. Contrasting 
 with this was "Litde Old New York" in 1807. Lake Michigan was the New York 
 Harbor, and familiar customs of the day added beauty — the lamplighter, the old 
 woman with her apple cart, the rambling gentleman on a hobby-horse bicycle, 
 and the stage coach starting for Philadelphia, 
 
 There was a scene along the Erie Canal. There was another scene showing the 
 famous race between the Baltimore & Ohio's first horse-drawn coach and the Tom 
 Thumb locomotive built by Peter Cooper. The white horse won. One of the 
 most thrilling episodes was the gold rush of '49 with prairie schooners, pony ex- 
 press riders, and the Wells-Fargo stage coach with its precious load of gold. 
 There was the historic meeting of the Union Pacific and Central Pacific railroads 
 when the continent was spanned for the first time by the "Iron Horse", Other 
 scenes bridged the gap until the days of the "Gay Nineties", the Columbian Expo- 
 sition, and the triumph of travel in the air at Kitty Hawk. All forms of modern 
 transportation assembled for the final scene. 
 
 Music throughout the performance, flags floating, colorful off-stage dialogue, 
 all lent life and color to one of the most popular amusements on the grounds. 
 But it was more than a show, for the audience left with a fuller appreciation of the 
 factors which made our country great and with a surge of pride at being Ameri- 
 cans. 
 
 The Sf(y Ride 
 
 Soft green lights flooded the tops of the two sky-piercing towers with their red- 
 patterned platforms, six hundred and twenty-eight feet from the ground. Higher 
 than any building in Chicago, the Sky Ride stretched its massive cables more than 
 a third of a mile across the Lagoon connecting the mainland and Island and acted 
 as a symbol of the relationships between the basic and the social sciences, the two 
 buildings it connected. Its high lights shining so far above and always cutting 
 through the darkness became well-known outposts to guide the visitor to his des- 
 tination. 
 
 The Sky-Ride was to A Century of Progress what the Eiffel Tower was to the 
 Paris Fair of 1889 and the Ferris Wheel was to the Columbian Exposition held in 
 
 172 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 Chicago in 1893. Double-decked rocket cars, twelve in number, ran suspended 
 from the four cable "track" between the two towers eighteen hundred and fifty 
 feet apart. The car seats were arranged lengthwise, so that passengers faced out- 
 wards for a better view of the panorama below them. The cars were suspended 
 from their aerial track by four-wheel trucks, each wheel running over a separate 
 cable to insure absolute safety. The cableway had a breaking strength of 220,000 
 pounds per square inch of cross section, and only one span, that of the George 
 Washington Bridge across the Hudson River just above New York City, exceeded 
 it in length. The steel for the towers weighed 2,000,000 pounds, and over one 
 hundred miles of stout strands of steel were used in cables for the aerial track and 
 the 600-foot-long backstays. 
 
 Passengers desiring the thrill of the aerial ride were transported to the rocket 
 car platform at the 200-foot level by four elevators each holding thirty persons. 
 Many, who did not wish the rocket-car ride, went to the 600-foot tower tops to 
 gaze with entrancement at the panorama of light and color stretching on every 
 side. In the daytime they had a bird's-eye-view of flowered lawns, multi-colored 
 buildings, and the fountain playing at the north end of the lagoon. Looking to 
 the south, one could see the Indiana dunes, to the north the wooded hills of Wis- 
 consin, to the west beyond Chicago's jagged sky-line the soft blending of its subur- 
 ban areas, and to the east the seemingly limitless waters of Lake Michigan. At 
 night the Fair grounds became a sea of sparkling jewels, breath-taking in its 
 grandeur. 
 
 Flood lights attached to the bottoms of the elevators transformed the glass shafts 
 into mounting and receding pillars of color as the elevators rose and descended. 
 The aluminum and glass rocket cars emitted colored steam like rocket tails, as 
 powerful searchlights trailed them as they ran from tower to tower. 
 
 Cooperating with A Century of Progress in erecting this aerial runway were the 
 Otis Elevator Company, Mississippi Valley Structural Steel Company, John A. 
 Roebling's Sons Company, Inland Steel Corporation, and the Great Lakes Dredge 
 and Dock Company. 
 
 Nathaniel Owings, an associate of Louis Skidmore of the Works Department, 
 was largely responsible for the organizational work of Wings of A Century 
 and Skyride, and was later in charge of concession operations. His original 
 suggestions led to many of the Fair's unique features. 
 
 Old Fort Dearborn 
 
 Two widely contrasting concessions which A Century of Progress sponsored 
 were the reproduction of Old Fort Dearborn, and the Golden Pavilion of Jehol, 
 the pioneer west and the most sophisticated periods of the Far East. 
 
 It was fitting that the Exposition should reproduce Fort Dearborn, for on its 
 site now stands a modern skyscraper, and the pathway of the long and ill-fated 
 march of its people on the day of the massacre now is marked by wide boule- 
 vards, stately buildings, and peaceful parks. The litde log fortress was the first 
 
 FAIR-OPERATED ATTRACTIONS 173
 
 completed exhibit unit of A Century of Progress. The materials used to build 
 the original Fort in 1803 were easily obtained. But to duplicate them for an expo- 
 sition in 1933 was not so simple. Norway pines were brought from Wisconsin to 
 furnish logs for the stockades and buildings. Stone that had lain in the open for 
 many years made a weatherbeaten powder magazine, chimneys and fireplaces. 
 Glass, discarded because of its flaws, reproduced the crude litde windows. The 
 entire group of buildings was reconstructed from old maps in the office of the 
 War Department and data from the Chicago Historical Society and they were 
 faithful to the smallest detail. The interior followed as closely as possible that of 
 its predecessor. From a tall flagstaff within the Fort, the United States flag with its 
 fifteen stripes was kept flying. 
 
 The Golden Pavilion of Jehol 
 
 From thousands of miles away, and from a civilization equally distant came the 
 Golden Pavilion of Jehol. Like Fort Dearborn it too was a reproduction. The 
 original was built in 1767 at Jehol, summer home of Manchu emperors from 
 1714 until the abdication of the last of their dynasty. The double-decked roof of 
 the Temple was covered by copper shingles coated with pure gold leaf. On the 
 exterior twenty-eight columns in red lacquer, sixteen feet high, supported the 
 lower deck. Carved grills in red, blue, yellow, and gold enclosed the glass 
 window panes. The cornice beams were gilded and carved with images of 
 dragons, cats and dogs. Hundreds of pieces of carved wood formed the gilded 
 ceiling, while within the temple were priceless images, incense burners, priestly 
 robes woven of pure gold thread, and other precious objects brought from the 
 Orient. The thousands of pieces were so precisely joined that neither nails nor 
 other fastenings were used in reassembling the structure. 
 
 The Enchanted Island 
 
 A Century of Progress, in its search for interests, historical and thrilling, did 
 not forget the groups of youngsters who would attend the fair, and constructed 
 the Enchanted Island, a perfect amusement park and resting place for children. 
 It was sponsored by several construction companies, and the Junior League of 
 Chicago, which arranged and presented the programs. 
 
 A restaurant serving proper food for little tots, a Magic Mountain with a 
 thirty-inch-deep moat for motor-boat rides, a Fairy Castle with its exciting slides, 
 miniature air rides, a play house called Adventure Land with Mother Goose 
 stories illustrated by characters and scenes, an undersized maze, pony rides, and 
 the Children's Theater, where different productions were given, marionette 
 shows, merry-go-rounds, and other fantastic and fun-making devices were among 
 the many attractions offered. Trained nurses were in constant attendance to look 
 after the welfare of the little ones, and to check on the possible presence of com- 
 municable diseases. 
 
 174 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 Chapter ig 
 
 VILLAGES 
 
 Among the most engaging concessions at a Century of Progress were the 
 foreign villages that danced and sang through the two-year drama of the Fair. 
 The five present in 1933 were so successful that the number was quadrupled in 
 1934. While all of them were authentic and beautiful there were too many for 
 visitors to absorb. With their crooked, uneven streets and picturesque archi- 
 tecture, their old-world food, wares, and recreations, all in their own accustomed 
 setting, they made a colorful contribution to the international atmosphere of the 
 Exposition. Two of the '33 villages — the Belgian Village, and the Streets of 
 Paris — carried through the second year. The Oriental, Moroccan and Chinese 
 villages were only a part of the first year's Fair. 
 
 The Belgian Village lifted its gabled houses, reminiscent of Spanish rule, 
 straight from narrow, irregular, cobbled streets over which amiable dogs driven 
 by costumed milk-maids pulled litde milk carts which carried brass cans. The 
 gate of Ostend, the old French-Gothic church of St. Nicholas at Antwerp, an 
 old town hall, and the city gate of medieval Bruges were faithfully reproduced. 
 Into litde shops came the sabot-maker carving wooden shoes from blocks of 
 white willow, an ancient Koper Smid hammering at his anvil, glass blowers 
 fashioning their fragile deer and dogs, birds and flowers, and the famous Belgian 
 lace-makers with their delicate lovely fabrics. Folk dances by peasants in old 
 Flemish costumes attracted crowds to the public square in the afternoons and 
 evenings. The cafes served distinctive Belgian dinners in the dim-lit rooms and 
 on the terraces of the ornate buildings. 
 
 The Streets of Paris, with the typical rollicksome ways that endear themselves 
 
 VILLAGES 175
 
 to those who live with them, seemed to have been transplaced direcdy from Paris 
 to the Fair, with the old walls, sidewalk cafes, and faithful reproductions of well- 
 known buildings. Strolling artists and musicians, dancers, fashion shows, and 
 swimming and diving exhibitions, furnished continuous entertainment. 
 
 The Moroccan Village was northern Africa alive at the Fair with Moors in 
 costume parading its streets and camels padding along the way. Dancing girls 
 wore the baggy trousers and head shawls that dancing girls of Morocco have 
 worn for centuries. A beggar with bell and alms dish looked as beggars have 
 looked in Morocco for time immemorial. Barbaric jewels and heady perfumes, 
 gay rugs made for spreading on sand, African leather goods, camel clothes, 
 metals, and potteries were offered for sale in its shops. In the coffee shop they 
 served minted tea or thick coffee made by their famous recipe, "black as hate, 
 sweet as love, and strong as hell." The village was dominated by a muezzin's 
 tower. 
 
 An Oriental Village featured dancing girls, tumblers, and palmists. Gold and 
 silver hand-wrought jewelry set with moonstones, zircons, garnets, tourmalines, 
 and other semi-precious stones, bright colored leather Moroccan slippers, rugs and 
 cushions, embroideries, and fine pottery representing a recendy revived art of 
 Palestine were offered for sale. And for the venturesome, camels were available 
 for slow padding rides through the streets. 
 
 The Chinese Village was a copy of a walled village in China. Its exhibits in- 
 cluded carved jade, porcelain, lacquer ware, silks, embroideries, rugs, furs, 
 carved ivories, furniture. A carved jade representation of a Chinese temple of 
 seven stories, fifty inches high, occupied its own shrine. Entertainment was 
 furnished by Chinese actors in dramatic interpretations, and by a troupe of 
 Chinese acrobats. 
 
 The English Village went back three centuries to bring its famous literary 
 years and still-remembered inns into the twentieth century. Entrance was 
 through gateways reproduced from those of the Tower of London and guarded 
 by "beef-eaters" with halberds. The presentation of Shakespeare's plays in the 
 Globe Theatre, produced as they were in his time, was so popular that a con- 
 tinuous line stretched from the box office into the narrow street. The Cheshire 
 Cheese Inn. a delightful copy of the old gathering place of Dr. Samuel Johnson, 
 Oliver Goldsmith, and James Boswell, served beef and kidney pie made from 
 the time-honored recipe, and showed faithful replicas of Dr. Johnson's favorite 
 table and chair. To the Red Lion Inn, Queen Elizabeth came nightly with her 
 entourage and dined lustily. The Old Curiosity Shop where visitors met Little 
 Nell and her grandfather was a charming leisurely bit of the early nineteenth 
 century. 
 
 The Irish Village ran the gamut from Tara's Hall where Irish kings dwelt a 
 thousand years ago, to the dark thatched cottage of the humblest peasant. En- 
 closed by a Norman wall, its ancient gray castles, fishing smacks, and flowering 
 fields of flax were deep in the green of moss, fern, and shrubbery. A jaunting 
 cart carried visitors over the rough streets. On the village green Irish songs were 
 
 176 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 sung with the authentic lilt of the Emerald Isle, and folk dances and jigs were 
 danced to the music of harps and bagpipes. The Book of Kells, dating back to 
 the eighth century, a twelfth century harp, and a beautiful collection of Irish 
 paintings were on exhibition. 
 
 The Black Forest Village brought to A Century of Progress, a gala, spectacular 
 fling of winter. Snow was banked on cottages and on steep-slanted chalet roofs 
 with icicles hanging from the eaves. On a frozen millpond expert skaters gave 
 exhibitions of fancy skating. Little German bands strolled among the spectators, 
 and in the shops costumed mountaineers of the Black Forest country worked on 
 native handicraft. Wood carvers and a village blacksmith plied their trades and 
 cuckoo clocks came to completion under the eyes of the visitors. 
 
 The Dutch Village waved its windmills and flaunted its gorgeous tulips in a 
 typically Netherlands fishing village complete with canals and a drawbridge. The 
 houses were a riot of color with red tile roofs and brilliant blue shutters. Inside, 
 even with the cow stable opening into the family living quarters, their outstanding 
 feature was their immaculate cleanliness. Edam cheese was manufactured and 
 marketed by villagers' boats floating on the canals. Dutch maidens in stiff white 
 caps and young men in great loose trousers and wooden shoes, danced in the 
 village square. 
 
 The Hawaiian Village staged the romance and drama of the island against an 
 active volcano. In its flaming crater a Hawaiian girl was sacrificed as the climax 
 of the nightly show. The Palm Garden restaurant, serving native food, did a 
 pleasant business and Hawaiian music and dancing were provided by native 
 entertainers. 
 
 The Italian Village was gay, colorful, and historic. Visitors passed through a 
 reproduction of the gate of the walled town of Signa and faced the broad ramp 
 leading up to a temple of Apollo. The Vias Cristoforo Columbo and Marconi 
 were lined with distinctive houses and shops in which craftsmen worked on 
 hand-made jewelry and pottery. The leaning tower of Bologna, an exact copy 
 of a feudal garrisenda tower of the thirteenth century was surrounded by arcaded 
 loggia. 
 
 The Mexican Village was joyous, sunshiny, and full of bright color, merry 
 music, and carefree dancing. Highly seasoned dishes of Mexico were served in 
 restaurants and on terraces. In quaint houses pottery was made, serapes woven, 
 and leather carved. The dominant notes of the village were the replicas of 
 beautiful old churches, the Cathedral of Cuernavaca and the Acatape church 
 with an Amacamecca chapel. 
 
 The Oasis was a South Mediterranean village from the edge of the desert. 
 A gay, green spot, as its name implied, with tall palms and olive trees, and a 
 lively village square. Syrian war dances were performed by heavily jeweled 
 Oriental dancers, to weird music from pipes and strange stringed instruments. 
 Strolling leisurely about were sword-swallowers, fire-eaters, and solemn men who 
 walked on broken glass as easily as foot-weary Fair visitors trod the welcome 
 soft green of the square. Jugglers unrolled their carpets nonchalantly and gave 
 
 VILLAGES 177
 
 their exhibitions. In shops around the walls native workers wove rugs, made 
 jewelry, hammered brass, and tooled leather. 
 
 The Spanish Village assembled gray old casde walls, ancient houses, and ex- 
 hibits from six provinces of Spain and half a dozen centuries. Notable among 
 the buildings was a reproduction of the eleventh century monastery of Poblet in 
 which is housed the famous shrine of the Virgin of Pilar. The gateway to the 
 village was through batdemented watch towers reminiscent of the Moorish con- 
 quest. In the shops that lined the picturesque streets with their ambling, ami- 
 able donkeys, were weavers and potters working at their ancient crafts. 
 
 The Streets of Shanghai, which succeeded the Chinese Village of 1933 brought 
 the Orient to the shores of Lake Michigan in a gaily-colored, crowded village. 
 High, brilliandy painted pagoda towers stood on either side of the entrance. Its 
 narrow winding streets were lighted by thousands of Chinese lanterns. Fronts of 
 litde tea shops were painted in bright colors. Rare silks, jades, bronzes, and 
 porcelains were on exhibition. 
 
 The Swiss Village, in a snowy Alpine setting, reproduced characteristic parts 
 of the older portions of Berne. Young men and women in Swiss costumes 
 danced native dances in the village square, and a troupe of yodelers entertained 
 from the balcony of a chalet. Watch makers and lace makers worked at their 
 delicate crafts. St. Bernard dogs were brought from the monastery of St. Bernard, 
 and a litter of beautiful sociable puppies born in the village during the early 
 weeks of the Fair, added a friendly interesting touch. Wood carvers, wine pro- 
 ducers, and chocolate makers exhibited their wares, and the variety of cheeses 
 shown was incredible. 
 
 The Tunisian Village was a bizarre. North African, living picture with 
 exotic food, nomads, skilled handicraft workers, bazaars, and the muezzin call 
 to prayer from the tower of the old mosque. Dancing girls, jugglers, acrobats, 
 snake charmers, and magicians performed, and solemn people of many races in 
 varied and gorgeous costumes strolled through the streets. 
 
 Two villages typical of life in the United States were in sharp contrast. The 
 Colonial Village was as quiet, dignified, and serene as a Puritan Sabbath morn- 
 ing. The Bowery was raucous, rowdy, and captivating. 
 
 Old North Church and Mount Vernon dominated the Colonial Village, which 
 was composed of replicas of famous buildings from all over the thirteen colonies. 
 Along one side of the village were Paul Revere's house, the House of Seven 
 Gables, the Old Boston State House, the house in which Betsy Ross made the 
 first American flag, a colonial kitchen, a Pilgrim settlement, Washington's birth- 
 place, the Governor's Palace at Williamsburg, and Longfellow's Wayside Inn. 
 On the other side were the village smithy, Franklin's printing shop, the witch's 
 house in Old Salem, and the pirate's gaol. The Virginia Tavern and the Wayside 
 Inn served early American dishes. All the people of the village wore costumes of 
 the colonies. 
 
 The Bowery turned back to the late years of the last century and New York's 
 famous lower east side. The Night Court was in session with night-life charac- 
 
 178 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 tcrs stumbling through in swift rough procession. Its vaudeville show brought 
 back old songs, and old types of beauties. Chuck Connors' Place was one of the 
 popular spots in the Bowery. 
 
 The Midget Village was a dwarfed reproduction of the ancient Bavarian city 
 of Kinkelspuhl, one of the few walled towns left in Europe. The village had 
 forty-five buildings, municipal, police and fire departments, a church, and a 
 school for its one hundred and fifteen midget inhabitants. 
 
 VILLAGES 179
 
 Chapter 20 
 
 OPERATIONS AND MAINTENANCE 
 
 Preparation Period 
 
 Visitors loitering within the grounds of A Century of Progress, riding in 
 chairs or in buses, eating in any one of the many restaurants or at a hot dog 
 stand, enjoying the pleasant and comfortable, yet exciting, aspects of a great 
 exposition, gave litde heed to how it came into being. 
 
 How amazed many of them would have been could they have known of 
 the months of labor and the money that went into the making and keeping 
 of a safe and orderly Fair. They met uniformed and courteous guides, red- 
 coated policemen, pretty girl cashiers, and an occasional helmeted fireman. Once 
 in a while an ambulance glided quiedy by. But ambulances were to be seen 
 every day, and it did not occur to the visitor to wonder how and why ambulance 
 service could be immediately obtained on the grounds or where the big white 
 car was bound. That the food was savory and safe, that the grounds were 
 clean and fresh, they took, as a matter of course. 
 
 This attitude was the greatest possible tribute to the Exposition and to each 
 of its workers. For there was not an employee who did not feel that part of 
 his task was to help uphold the operating mechanism of the Exposition. The 
 apparent ease and smoothness of an operation is testimony to the assiduous 
 planning of the preparation. 
 
 General Services Organized 
 
 A fuller realization of what the operating problems would be, presented itself 
 as soon as the Administration Building was occupied. It was decided at that 
 
 180 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 early date to organize a General Service Department so that when the Fair 
 opened this department could become the grounds operating unit. With this 
 end in view, the General Service Department, as the progenitor of the Operations 
 and Maintenance Department, was set up not only to meet the existing needs, 
 but so that it could expand quickly without breaking down and take over a 
 greater task later on, without undue readjustment. So deeply was this need 
 for future expansion instilled into the General Service Department staff that 
 when the Fair was over they could look back on a minimum of failures caused 
 by undue pressure. 
 
 The Administration Building became a proving ground. The first aid station 
 later developed into a hospital. The dining room, established for workers on 
 the grounds, served as a guide for requirements made of restaurant concession- 
 aires. The reception of distinguished guests, prospective exhibitors and con- 
 cessionaires, and representatives of state and foreign governments at informal 
 gatherings in the Trustees' Room, served as a background and afforded 
 routine experience in handling the hundred and one details of elaborate official 
 functions during the operating period. The problems of getting the staff to 
 work on time when the nearest transportation was a mile away pointed up the 
 traffic problems of 1933. The winter blizzards threatened more than once to 
 maroon the staff, and, in fact, during one of the heaviest storms, the guards at 
 Fort Dearborn were out of touch with the world for four days. 
 
 During the pre-Fair period, the General Service Department handled the 
 Administration Building operation, including the restaurant and the barbershop, 
 had charge of the personnel section and general automobile service, operated 
 the pass gates, maintained a stenographic pool, supervised the operation of 
 telephones and telegraph service, the supply and purchase offices, the mail and 
 messenger service, the reception and entertainment of guests, and services which 
 belonged in no other department. 
 
 From the time the Administration Building was opened in November 1930 
 its operation was an important matter. The offices had to be equipped and 
 provided with office supplies. The restaurant proved to be one of the busiest 
 and most necessary of places, because of the distance of the Exposition grounds 
 from the business district and the large amount of evening work which was 
 found to be necessary. Aside from its convenience for the employees of the 
 Fair, as well as for the exhibitors and concessionaires, it served a most useful 
 purpose in the entertainment of business guests of the staff. As the time of 
 the opening drew nearer, civic and social organizations were encouraged to hold 
 luncheon and dinner meetings here, to be followed by a guided tour of the 
 grounds. The General Manager's conference room and the Green room were 
 in almost constant use for entertainment of outside guests or for luncheon 
 conferences of the staff. With the opening of the fair the Trustees' Lounge 
 was added to these available spots. It had been fitted up on the southwest wing 
 of the Hall of Science and decorated and furnished in modern fashion. The 
 Trustees' Room in the Administration Building was extensively used especially 
 
 OPERATIONS AND MAINTENANCE 181
 
 before the opening of the Fair. Frequently the number of guests exceeded that 
 which could be accommodated at the great wedge-shaped table and it was 
 necessary to set up small tables and sometimes to use the adjacent balconies. 
 The restaurant privileges of the Building were never open to the general public 
 but organizations were welcome if they made arrangements in advance. 
 
 The stenographic pool was designed not only to furnish extra stenographic 
 service as needed, but also to serve as a testing and training school for the 
 stenographers and secretaries who would later occupy key positions throughout 
 the exposition grounds. 
 
 The basis of any sound operation is the orderly arrangement of movement from 
 the base of supply to the point of use. The years 1930 and 1931 saw not only 
 the daily routine functioning of the Administration Building, but also the 
 forming of what was later the World's Fair Police, the development of the infor- 
 mation service and of special operating features. At the telephone switchboard 
 there were daily lessons in the plans and lay-out of the Fair. When the number 
 of calls justified it, one operator was assigned to answering questions. Every 
 ceremony, as the breaking of ground for new buildings, every event was treated 
 as a school where one might learn what to do with the hoped-for crowds of 
 the future. 
 
 After each piece of construction started, a temporary fence was thrown around 
 it, with a field shack as headquarters for the contractor and such of the exposition 
 staff as were on duty in connection with the project. Each of these units was a 
 little kingdom within itself, with its own guards, watchmen and superintendents. 
 The problems of central government increased with the number of kingdoms. 
 
 Fort Dearborn Opened 
 
 It was a happy day when Old Fort Dearborn became an operating unit and 
 was opened to the public on May 16, 1931. Great was the disappointment when, 
 shipping its way across the lake with the dawn, came a spring gale bringing 
 with it a threatening sky and a chill wind. Not to be daunted, the parade 
 formed to meet the famous Black Horse Troop and its band. Attired in the 
 colorful uniforms of the United States Cavalry of 1812, they trotted out of 
 the Fort by way of the north sally port and the gates were formally opened. 
 The invocation was pronounced by Bishop George Craig Stewart. The dedicatory 
 address was made by the President of the Fair, and an address on the history of 
 Fort Dearborn was given by Dr. James Alton James, Dean of the Graduate 
 School of Northwestern University. A detachment from the Fort Dearborn 
 Post of the American Legion, dressed in coonskin caps, buckskin shirts and 
 leggings of the old frontier days carried a flag into the fort and raised it to the 
 top of the seventy-foot spruce pole. As the flag, bearing fifteen stars and fifteen 
 stripes, was raised, the Legion Post buglers played "to the colors." A twenty 
 one gun salute was fired by the 124th Field Artillery. A Century of Progress 
 had dedicated its first building and specific operations had begun. 
 
 During these early years when finances were so important, the cost of various 
 
 182 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 operating functions was appalling. Each increase in the number of personnel 
 required a corresponding increase in overhead. Yet, such increases were necessary 
 to provide the skeleton force which would serve as the leaders around which 
 later, inexperienced personnel would be grouped. The experience at Fort 
 Dearborn pointed a way. When the Fort was completed and opened to the 
 public an admission charge of twenty-five cents was made. Response and interest 
 were immediate. 
 
 When, therefore, by early June 1932, the grounds of A Century of Progress 
 had been enclosed by a fence and construction had progressed to a point where 
 it was worth seeing, the public was admitted to the grounds at a charge of 
 ten cents. Certain portions of the Hall of Science and the dome of the Travel 
 and Transport Building were made accessible to visitors, in order to increase 
 the interest in what could be viewed, and in the plans of the various buildings 
 in the process of construction. The guides were given instruction which enabled 
 them to give lectures on the various features and to answer the innumerable 
 questions to which a trip through the grounds gave rise. 
 
 The Abraham Lincoln concession was opened soon afterwards and on 
 November 19, the Lama Temple, to which an admission charge of fifteen cents 
 was made. 
 
 Amusements which were completed early were allowed to operate. Several 
 restaurants and lunch stands furnished food and drink and a pre-fair guidebook 
 appeared. Buses were put into service within the grounds. Round trip tickets 
 were sold which gave the patrons a sight-seeing excursion with the privilege 
 of stopping off at various points and taking a following bus. 
 
 Pre-Fair Opening a Proving Ground 
 
 The advantages of the pre-fair openings were enormous. First, and what 
 seemed most important at the time, the various admission charges provided 
 the wherewithal to police and maintain grounds and structures without extra 
 cost. Second, a training school for the main event was provided, a proving 
 ground for avoiding mistakes and gave a reservoir of experience which became 
 invaluable in all the operating phases. Moreover, many visitors absorbed a 
 proprietary interest in the progress of installation resulting in secure public 
 goodwill. 
 
 Traffic and Transportation 
 
 It was early realized that both pedestrian and vehicular traflSc would be of 
 prime importance. From the time the first building force moved into the 
 grounds, this question had careful and intelligent study. The loan of Major 
 Elroy S. J. Irvine of the Corps of Engineers was a matter of great good fortune 
 for the Fair. In conjunction with a Traffic Committee, of which Sidney S. Gorham 
 was chairman, a study was made of the broadest aspects of traffic problems. 
 These included not only problems to be encountered on the grounds themselves, 
 but those of transporting large numbers of people to the grounds each day, of 
 providing housing facilities for an influx of out-of-Chicago visitors, of moving 
 
 OPERATIONS AND MAINTENANCE 183
 
 freight into the grounds, both by truck and train. They were problems in which 
 the first essential must be cooperation among existing facilities and the exposition 
 officials. Too great credit cannot be given to the transportation companies, all 
 of which made large contributions to the Fair of their time and facilities. 
 
 The Fair recognized the fundamental premise that it should use to the widest 
 extent the facilities already established rather than set up its own agencies. In 
 the short years available, it could never have accomplished what the Convention 
 Bureau, the Hotel Association, the Association of Commerce, the automobile 
 associations, and the railroad passenger associations did in promoting attendance, 
 in listing rooming houses and motor camps, and in bringing in the materials 
 and visitors so essential to the exposition undertaking. 
 
 The narrowness of the exposition site made it evident that one transportation 
 artery capable of carrying large crowds quickly from one point to another along 
 this extended front would best serve the purpose. The elevated monorail, the 
 moving sidewalk, and the Never-stop railway, were suggested as possible means 
 of carriage, but shortcomings were common to them all; namely the high cost 
 of installation and the lack of flexibility to meet the constantly changing demands 
 of Exposition traffic. They were discarded in favor of a motor bus system. The 
 drawbacks to bus transportation were clearly recognized — their small unit 
 capacities, delays in loading and unloading, delays in collecting fares, and 
 slow movements on crowded thoroughfares. To overcome these defects, it was 
 decided to have a rapid transit road along the boundary fence, to be used 
 exclusively by the buses; to provide for the payment of fares through a turnstile 
 leading into the rapid transit right-of-way, and to use buses with a carrying 
 capacity of one hundred and twenty-five persons, with open doorways on either 
 side of the vehicle to insure quick ingress and egress. 
 
 The Greyhound Corporation secured the contract for the installation of the 
 bus system and sixty buses were used. The two of these buses placed in operation 
 in July, 1932, provided a series of tests to determine the section of the road 
 required for curves of various radii, the proper width of safety islands and for 
 safe passage of buses in motion. Based on these data, a trial station was built 
 at 26th Street and the buses were run in a manner to simulate operation on 
 the rapid transit roadway. As a result of these tests practically no changes were 
 necessary in the rapid transit system after the opening of the Exposition. 
 
 Supplementing the buses were chairs and rickshaws for the more leisurely 
 type of sightseeing which such a means of transportation afforded. Nine hundred 
 and fifty chairs and thirty-nine rickshaws were in use during the Fair. The 
 manpower for these vehicles was drawn largely from the ranks of college athletes, 
 at least one of whom in later years became a college president. Their high caliber 
 and courteous attention provided many favorable comments from Fair visitors. 
 
 Entrance Requirements 
 
 Though eight land entrances to the grounds required more personnel to man 
 them, they were a blessing in relieving congestion outside entrances and in more 
 
 184 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 
 I 
 
 Avenue of Flags. 
 
 Entrance at 23rd Street. 
 
 
 L' hi ' 
 
 
 fin sRH 
 
 jj 
 

 
 
 
 ifir' ■ i-iiif^^^^^*'^^ 
 
 Hall of Science from Skyride Car. 
 
 In the Midst of the Villages.
 
 evenly distributing visitors inside the gates. 
 
 The general traffic plan provided for grade separation ot vehicular and 
 pedestrian traffic at all entrances. The carrying out of this plan involved the 
 construction of seven passerelles, costing over $100,000. After their completion 
 it was possible for visitors to approach the Exposition by street cars, buses, 
 taxicabs, private automobiles or on foot without the hazard of having to cross 
 vehicular traffic lanes. 
 
 In order to establish the width of pedestrian crossings required, as well as 
 the number of turnstiles at each entrance, a comprehensive set of estimates was 
 made on the probable number of visitors using each entrance. All available 
 data on Soldier's Field and the Grant Park area was compiled. Then each city 
 transportation company was requested to submit its own figures on their expec- 
 tancy of the percentage of passengers using the different entrances. In order to 
 convert them into an hourly rate, it was necessary to estimate the daily attendance 
 figures and the percentage of the daily total which would occur in a maximum 
 hour. It was believed from records of previous large events of a similar character, 
 that it would be safe to assume that about sixteen percent of a day's total would 
 enter in a single hour; that in an emergency, such as rain storm or the breaking 
 up of a large event, the expectancy would be for maximum hourly egress, twenty- 
 five percent of the day's attendance. It was further figured that on a normal 
 day, the maximum population of the grounds at any one time should be about 
 sixty percent of the day's attendance. From these figures, the widths of the 
 various overhead crossings were computed by using the standard unit figures 
 for pedestrians passing over ramps and stairways. These estimates proved out 
 in practice. 
 
 Another traffic problem was how to extend mass transportation lines to the 
 Exposition grounds. The extension of the street car lines was found to offer great 
 possibilities for handling traffic and at the same time to be economically feasible. 
 After considerable negotiation the city approved the extension of both the 22nd 
 Street line, with terminals at the 18th and 23rd Street entrances, and the Roosevelt 
 Road line with a terminal opposite the Court of Honor entrance on Columbus 
 Drive. 
 
 The early traffic studies made in Grant Park and Soldier Field showed that 
 a large percentage of visitors to events in these areas came directly from the 
 Loop district. Hopes of the Exposition to assist the other transportation agencies 
 in handling this "short haul" traffic proved unfeasible. Shortly before the open- 
 ing of the Fair it was proposed that a narrow gauge railroad be constructed 
 operating from the North Entrance to a convenient location at the north end 
 of Grant Park. After some difficulties in securing the necessary franchises a 
 company began the construction of a narrow gauge line from a terminal on 
 Monroe Street east of Michigan Avenue to a point just north of the Shedd 
 Aquarium. The road was completed and placed in operation June 24, 1933. The 
 equipment consisted of 6 small gasoline engines and 42 cars, each with a seating 
 capacity of 28 passengers. The one-way trip was made in about 3 minutes. This 
 
 OPERATIONS AND MAINTENANCE 185
 
 railroad operated until October 9, when an injunction was obtained by the 
 Attorney General of Illinois restraining further operation. During this period 
 it carried in excess of 1,115,000 passengers. 
 
 With the tremendous growth in automobile traffic in the two decades preceding 
 the Fair, it was obvious that the private car would bring a large number of 
 out-of-town visitors to the Exposition, Preparations for this traffic included the 
 marking of a World's Fair Highway System, the development of information 
 booths both on the highway and in the city itself, the construction of tourist 
 camps, the creation of parking areas near the entrances to the Fair, provision for 
 traffic control in the vicinity of the grounds, establishment of automobile 
 unloading zones at the Exposition entrances, and the publication of an official 
 automobile map showing all the facilities for the automobile tourist. Practically 
 all of these were accomplished by outside organizations, either at the request of 
 the Fair or with its cooperation. 
 
 Contacts were maintained with the Railroad Passenger Traffic Associations for 
 more than a year before the opening of the Fair. These associations granted 
 extremely favorable rates. In addition to the general excursion rates, many 
 special week-end excursions were run. During the summer months as many as 
 20 sections of a World's Fair excursion would arrive on a single railroad in 
 one day. 
 
 Freight Traffic 
 
 The working out of reasonable rates for the shipping of goods and terminal 
 handling of exhibits was a major task. After much correspondence and many 
 conferences, reductions varying from twenty-five to fifty percent were obtained 
 from 107 steamship lines operating between the United States and foreign 
 countries. Conferences with railroad freight handling groups resulted in the 
 assurance that the Exposition would receive the free return privileges on exhibits. 
 In addition the Chicago rate on incoming exhibits was obtained and a number 
 of railroads agreed to absorb the switching charges on outgoing shipments. 
 
 With the larger transfer companies the contract entered into gave rates as 
 low as 7 cents per 100 pounds to exhibitors for hauling from switch tracks 
 to the building entrances. The maximum charge for trucking from points in the 
 city of Chicago and delivery to the exhibits booths in the buildings was 16'/2 
 cents a hundred-weight. In addition bids were obtained covering the customs 
 brokerage and freight forwarding service. These arrangements made it possible 
 for exhibitors to compute exactly the cost of transporting their exhibits from 
 the point of origin to their resting place in the Fair. 
 
 A freight house 300 by 25 feet was constructed along a siding at the south 
 end of the grounds. Seventeen thousand feet of tracks, the majority of which 
 were south of the Travel and Transport Building, were made available for 
 incoming shipments. During the active period before the opening of the Exposi- 
 tion, all available track space was in use and 4698 cars were switched in before 
 the opening of the Fair. During the operating period of the Fair, about four 
 
 186 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 cars daily were required to handle the incidental shipments and the removal 
 of rubbish from the grounds. 
 
 With the advent of the operating period, deliveries of freight and all vehicular 
 traffic except for emergencies were stopped when visitors were on the grounds. 
 Midnight found long lines of trucks and cars outside the entrances. From then 
 until early morning all supplies must be delivered and all signs of the freight 
 traffic obliterated by the clean-up forces. 
 
 Visitor Accommodations 
 
 For many months, serious consideration was given to the questions which 
 would arise in supplying housing for out-of-town visitors. Meetings of hotel rep- 
 resentatives, religious groups, social agencies, and associations of commerce were 
 held on the subject. The Association of Commerce published a list of accommo- 
 dations and prices in sixty hotels. This listing served as a standard for all others 
 who let rooms and facilities. Be it said to their lasting credit that the hotels and 
 rooming houses abided by these standards and only minor complaints were heard 
 of either prices or accommodations. A committee from the various associations 
 handled all requests concerning places to sleep and rest and Chicago's reputation 
 for friendliness and cordiality to strangers grew apace. 
 
 The Pass System 
 
 It is unlikely that any system of passes ever devised was suitable for everyone. 
 Their histories indicate that the subject was a sore one for previous fairs, not only 
 creating grief for the management but calling for consummate diplomacy in its 
 handling. Fortified by four years of experience with pre-fair passes and bul- 
 warked by a requirement of the gold note trust indenture that passes be confined 
 to specific business requirements, the Secretary, to whom pass planning was as- 
 signed, took up his duties. Patrick J. Byrne was qualified by his native endow- 
 ments and by his previous experience in various phases of the Fair preparation 
 work, to assume this responsibility. 
 
 No passes were issued as favors. To discourage any padding of pass lists, 
 exhibitors and concessionaires were charged for their workman passes, and heavy 
 fines were imposed for loss of passes, or for failure to turn in passes of discharged 
 employees. Passes in plenty must be issued to everyone who has a right to them. 
 But the question of who has a right to them is sometimes difficult to decide. 
 Many a project has been in serious difficulty because of failure to extend these 
 courtesies, and many a one has found itself embarrassed because of unwarranted 
 liberality in their issuance. 
 
 In 1933, 543,571 passes were issued, and during 1934, 372,477 passes. Many of 
 these, especially of employees, exhibitors, concessionaires and their aides, were 
 used daily, as were also many service passes, newspaper, radio and business passes. 
 Over 2,000 De Luxe annual passes were issued to founder members, sustaining 
 members, guarantors of gold notes, members of the Board of Trustees, South 
 Park Commissioners and other public officials whose offices entitled them to this 
 
 OPERATIONS AND MAINTENANCE 187
 
 class of pass. This included officials of the United States Government, the Gov- 
 ernment of the State of Illinois, Cook County and the City of Chicago, The press 
 passes included season passes, monthly passes, 60 admission, short term and single 
 admission passes and were generously distributed. Visiting newspaper men from 
 all over the country were given the courtesy of free admission and a large number 
 of tickets went to radio, magazine and trade paper representatives. Many single 
 admissions were issued on special days for groups taking part in entertainment. 
 
 The 1933 experience indicated only one important change in the handling of 
 passes during the 1934 season and that was the establishment of a press courtesy 
 office at the gate to take care of the increased number of newspaper men visiting 
 the grounds. 
 
 Fire Protection 
 
 Early in 1932, when construction began to spiral sharply upward, the Exposi- 
 tion's own fire protection unit came into being, with two companies, one a hook 
 and ladder, the other a pumper. A former deputy fire chief of Chicago headed 
 the unit which was drafted from the Fire Insurance Patrol and the Chicago Board 
 of Underwriters. Within a month, new and heavier apparatus was obtained and 
 eighteen additional men, including a Captain and a Lieutenant were added. 
 
 The congestion soon arising from completing construction on the Island and 
 on the Midway, from the increase in the number of workmen of all sorts and 
 from the installation of elaborate exhibits, necessitated an added measure of fire 
 protection. To supplement the main station, two smaller stations were built, one 
 on Northerly Island immediately south of the east Sky-ride tower, and one on the 
 Midway. 
 
 The cooperation of the Chicago Fire Department was most important. For 
 their responses, the Fair grounds were divided into twelve zones and a fire alarm 
 box was indicated for each zone. When any fire call was received at the city 
 alarm office the corresponding number was sent out to the whole Chicago Fire 
 Department and the company units responded just as though the box was actually 
 in existence. This system was referred to in the Chicago Fire Department as 
 "phantom boxes." 
 
 To this excellent system and administration may be credited the fact that there 
 were no serious fires on the Fair Grounds, Although a total of a hundred and 
 four alarms and special duty calls were received during the Fair period of 1933, 
 all but three might fairly be termed incipient. The damage done in the remaining 
 three amounted in all to less than four thousand dollars. The causes of fires and 
 alarms were much as would be found in any city paralleling the size of A Century 
 of Progress — cigarettes, defective flues, electric wiring and over-heated motors, 
 explosion of gasoline vapors, ignition of combustible material by open flame, 
 ignition of motion picture films and fireworks. There was no damage to persons 
 in any of these fires, and no damage to buildings that could not be repaired almost 
 immediately, 
 
 188 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 The Public's Health 
 
 An essential where groups of people gather in large numbers, is provision for 
 their health and well-being. 
 
 Favored with the presence, on the Board of Trustees, of the renowned physi- 
 cian, Dr. William A. Pusey, and, on the staff, of Dr. Eben J. Carey, Dean of the 
 Medical School of Marquette University, there was never a time when the exposi- 
 tion's mind was not attuned to the inherent need for careful attention to the 
 health of the public. Dr. Herman Bundesen, director of Chicago's Public Health 
 Service, became the third member of the triumvirate that so ably guided the expo- 
 sition in these matters. The health program began at home with the employees 
 of the Exposition and was then extended to exhibitors and concessionaires. Two 
 types of physical examinations were required of employees and were given with- 
 out cost. One was a general examination for control of communicable disease, 
 the other a special examination for those engaging in certain types of work such 
 as food handling and care of children. All workers were required to be vaccinated 
 against smallpox, and they were subject to re-examination after every absence of 
 forty-eight hours or more, due to illness, before returning to work. The Director 
 of Health at his discretion accepted a statement in writing from the United States 
 Public Health Service setting forth the results of a physical examination made by 
 that service of recent arrivals from foreign countries, in lieu of requiring a physi- 
 cal examination. This applied to workmen on the foreign villages. 
 
 Great care was taken in connection with all handling of food. It was required 
 that any person so engaged report contagious or suspected contagious diseases in 
 his own home, and he was excluded from his work until permitted to do so by the 
 health authorities. 
 
 Every building plan had the approval of the Public Health Engineering Bureau 
 of the Chicago Board of Health. Modern ventilation systems were installed to 
 avoid bad air conditions. Lighting was so arranged as to give the minimum eye 
 fatigue. Every sewer and water pipe was checked over in detail before permission 
 was given to dig the first ditch. The chlorination of the drinking water to make 
 it safe for consumption, and the designing of the sewer system to prevent any 
 sewage from reaching the lake or the lagoon were required. 
 
 Inspections of restaurants and stands selling food and drink were made daily 
 by a staff of four qualified inspectors from the Bureau of Foods of the Chicago 
 Board of Health, whose duties were to test refrigerators for proper temperatures, 
 to test the quality of food served and even to subject the lowly dishwater to a test 
 for sufficient chlorine disinfectant. Other officials roamed the grounds at regular 
 intervals, interested in garbage, flies, mosquitoes, rats, and insects. 
 
 The Exposition owes a deep debt of gratitude to Dr. Bundesen for his high 
 professional standards and his unfailing interest in its health problems. 
 
 The receiving hospital operated by the insurance companies, subject to Exposi- 
 tion rules, was completely equipped for the handling of emergency cases. Pa- 
 tients requiring further treatment were promptly transferred to local hospitals. 
 
 OPERATIONS AND MAINTENANCE 189
 
 There were three ambulances in attendance; one stationed at the hospital, one on 
 the Midway and one on the Island. The latter two were connected with the hos- 
 pital by direct telephone lines. No first aid treatment was furnished except by the 
 ambulance surgeons or in the hospital itself. Four doctors were on day duty and 
 two on night duty. Three nurses were always on duty. No cases were kept 
 overnight. 
 
 Travelers' Aid 
 
 A leaf was taken from the experience of the railroad stations in affording assist- 
 ance to visitors in difficulty through separation from friends and relatives, or 
 through unexpected circumstances such as loss of funds or bad news from home. 
 A proposal of the Travelers' Aid Society to operate a branch on the grounds was 
 accepted, thus emphasizing once more the basic policy to avoid setting up special 
 exposition agencies where one already existed which had had superior experience 
 in dealing with the problem under consideration. 
 
 The Exposition provided in a central location the space, furniture and necessary 
 telephone service. The Travelers' Aid furnished the essential supplies and main- 
 tained a staff of seven workers on two shifts, providing regular daily service from 
 eight thirty in the morning until midnight, and sometimes until as late as three 
 or four in the morning. On peak days, in addition to the regular workers, a volun- 
 teer staff of from four to sixteen persons was required. 
 
 The total number of individuals assisted through this agency during 1933 was 
 about fifteen thousand. Of these more than eight thousand were children lost in 
 the crowds, who were reunited with distracted parents on the grounds or returned 
 to their homes in the city. The expected ingenuity of American children was 
 manifest in frequent presentations of themselves as lost when, in reality they had 
 come to the fair alone, then spent their fare home after discovering that the Trav- 
 elers' Aid would send them home in the police patrol at midnight. This attractive 
 activity stopped after some irate parents were required to come to the grounds 
 and collect their mendacious offspring. In the cases of runaways from other cities, 
 shelter and care were arranged until provision could be made for their safe return 
 home. An almost equal number of adults appealed to the Travelers' Aid for as- 
 sistance in locating relatives and friends from whom they had become separated. 
 
 In addition to separations, other problems brought to this office were sudden 
 illness, mental disturbances, physical handicaps, inadequate funds, and the loss of 
 pocketbooks. The more serious problems requiring actual "case work" were re- 
 ferred to the Travelers' Aid Central office to be handled in their regular routine. 
 About one hundred such cases arose during the summer. 
 
 Information Booths 
 
 Nor was the Travelers' Aid the only office that received questions. Exposition 
 visitors are notorious for their inquiring minds and for their inability to find their 
 way around the grounds. Shortly before the Fair opened, an information counter 
 with one attendant was established in the Administration Building; a telephone 
 
 190 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 information service to which all information calls were switched was inaugurated; 
 plans were begun for the establishment of information booths throughout the 
 grounds; uniforms for these booth attendants were selected and ordered; and in- 
 formation relative to the Exposition was compiled in book form for the use of 
 these attendants. 
 
 When the Exposition opened thirty-two of these information booths were in 
 operation — sixteen on the grounds and sixteen inside the buildings. As soon as 
 the guides and other personnel became proficient in the question-answering, all 
 but three of the building booths were found unnecessary and were withdrawn. 
 
 Surveys indicated that about a thousand visitors were serviced weekly from an 
 average booth. The largest number of questions concerned the locations of toilets, 
 buildings, and exhibits in that order, with many inquiries concerning the city it- 
 self. Of course, there were the never-failing, fantastic, absurd, but seriously put 
 queries, such as: "When do they feed the lagoons?" "When will the Wings of a 
 Century fly?" "I read that the light from the star Arcturus set the Fair ablaze. 
 Where was the fire?" 
 
 An added duty assigned to the Information Section at the opening of the Expo- 
 sition was the operation of the Lost and Found Service. Lost articles were taken 
 direcdy to an office in the General Exhibits Building or to the nearest information 
 booth. When articles were turned in at the latter place, a ticket was made out in 
 triplicate, the original and duplicate being sent with the article by regular grounds 
 messenger service and the third copy given to the finder. Of the seven thousand 
 articles turned in about one third were reclaimed by their owners. After the close 
 of the Exposition, the articles remaining on hand were turned over to the Salva- 
 tion Army. 
 
 Guides 
 
 Even before the opening period, a variety of needs presented themselves in 
 creating an orderly, well-behaved fairgrounds. In the early days, the Works De- 
 partment was responsible for the watch service in buildings under construction 
 because most of the watchmen belonged to the contractors. As buildings were 
 turned over to the Exposition, it must establish its own watch service; as the 
 construction area grew in extent, coordination among the watch services became 
 necessary. These requirements were met with the creation of a motorized night 
 patrol which covered the entire grounds and looked out for prowlers and fires, 
 the two chief adversaries of buildings under construction. As soon as pre-fair 
 openings occurred the number of gatemen was increased, and guides were needed 
 to conduct the sightseers. At this point, these men, and the already established 
 watch service in both buildings and grounds were merged into one public protec- 
 tion unit and placed under the administration of the Operations Department. 
 
 With the installation of exhibits in the various buildings, some exhibitors re- 
 quired special guard service during the night hours and a clear distinction was 
 made between this type of guard duty and all others. The building watch service 
 was turned over to the Pinkerton National Detective Agency, and remained there 
 
 OPERATIONS AND MAINTENANCE 191
 
 until the exposition was finally closed. 
 
 To make the grounds safe, comfortable, and pleasant for every visitor was a 
 vital matter, for within the grounds would be found a large group of strangers 
 who must be made to feel especially welcome. A large proportion of this crowd 
 would come considerable distances and would be receiving its impression not 
 only of the Fair but of the City of Chicago. Again, expositions, county fairs, car- 
 nival shows, all are happy hunting grounds for pickpockets, shortchange artists 
 and confidence men. 
 
 The guide service, under the able direction of Major Robert Wigglesworth, 
 made an indelible impression on opening day visitors for courtesy and compe- 
 tence, a reputation this force carried with it throughout the entire operating 
 period. This was no accident. In the beginning, unusual care had been exercised 
 to em.ploy young men who would be able to meet emergencies, who were re- 
 sourceful in meeting visitor needs, and who had the judgment to do a job with a 
 minimum of instructions and fuss. To find them, special tests were arranged by 
 the Institute of Juvenile Research. Each must be five feet ten inches or taller, 
 pass a strict physical examination, have a satisfactory I.Q., a high school education, 
 and be of good general appearance without noticeable physical defects. 
 
 To find out whether these young men had other characteristics so necessary in 
 handling public events, the applicants were subjected to a grueling examination 
 and ordeal. Those who survived got the jobs. Among the many questions asked 
 two are characteristic. A list of fifty prominent names was given with a blank 
 opposite each. The applicants were told to indicate whether these were states- 
 men, actors, athletes, musicians, or leading industrialists. It was not contem- 
 plated that any applicant would be familiar with all the names in such diverse 
 groups, and the scoring of this question was done on the basis of two credits for 
 each one right and four credits deducted for each mistake. It was in no sense 
 an intelligence test, but rather a method of determining whether he had the 
 courage to admit that he did not know. It was important to the Exposition 
 that guides should not give false information to visitors asking questions merely 
 to hide their ignorance. If the applicant passed other portions of the examination 
 successfully, but failed in this one, the trait evidenced here was explained to him, 
 and he was cautioned to avoid it. 
 
 Another question was a series of ten rather simple problems in arithmetic. 
 During this test absolute quiet reigned in the examination room. Later another 
 set of ten questions was given which appeared identical with the first, but which 
 had slight differences. During the period for answering this second set of ques- 
 tions, every distraction conceivable went on in the room. A radio was turned on 
 full blast, men ran through the room at intervals ringing bells, knocking against 
 tables and chairs or letting out fiendish yells. The purpose of this test obviously 
 was to determine not only a man's powers of concentration, but particularly how 
 much more accurately his mind would function under normal conditions than 
 amid a bedlam of confusion. This was important because it was possible that the 
 guides would frequently be subjected to the most stressing circumstances. Per- 
 
 192 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 haps simultaneously one visitor would be complaining about some real or landed 
 fault while another was asking why the buildings were painted in such "funny 
 colors," and a frantic mother clutching at the arm of the guide would be demand- 
 ing the return of her lost child. The usefulness of this test was amply proven in 
 that it permitted the elimination of a large number of applicants who were tem- 
 peramentally unfitted for the position. 
 
 Before the opening day the grounds and buildings had been divided into four 
 major areas in which four guide companies had been organized to operate. The 
 Chief of the Guide section selected as company commanders men who had had 
 considerable military experience and were accustomed to positions of command. 
 The headquarters staff consisted of an executive officer, adjutant, personnel officer, 
 quartermaster, and a lieutenant in charge of the night detail. It was also found 
 advisable to establish a Lagoon Patrol, with a personnel of fifteen men. Ten of 
 these men were picked from the guide force for their life-saving qualifications, 
 and the other men were experienced mechanics on out-board motors. The duties 
 of the Lagoon Patrol consisted mainly of patrolling the Lagoon and functioning 
 at events such as the outboard motor races, the Venetian Night festivals, fire 
 works, baby doll parades, swimming races, and other events on the water front. 
 
 While the exhibits were being installed and concession stands and buildings 
 erected, it was necessary to employ about 1700 guides to direct traffic, protect 
 property and help clear the grounds of the huge number of job seekers and 
 stragglers. This number was not needed after the opening of the Exposition, as 
 the police and regular watchmen took over their special duties and the gate per- 
 sonnel cared for the incoming crowds. During the period of the two Fairs the 
 guides were placed where their especial training and experience would make 
 them the most valuable. Those who had majored in or who had received degrees 
 in medicine, physics, geology, chemistry and other sciences were assigned to the 
 Basic Science Division in the Hall of Science, where they not only performed the 
 regular duties of guides but often gave lectures and explained scientific exhibits to 
 visitors. Eight were assigned to the Maya Temple and given information as to 
 the exhibits therein and the history of the famous old Temple which had been 
 reproduced. Ten guides, uniformed as wooden soldiers, were sent to the En- 
 chanted Island where they added much to the color and to the delight of the chil- 
 dren. Among these young men thirteen foreign languages were spoken. One hun- 
 dred thirty-three colleges in nearly every state of the Union and in five foreign 
 countries had helped to educate them. 
 
 The Police 
 
 Since the exposition was located on state park land, the law required the selec- 
 tion of all police officers from the Illinois police civil service list. These men had 
 already passed the physical and mental examinations given the park police. How- 
 ever, the same aptitude tests were applied to them as to the guides. They wore 
 tropical-weight, regulation, open British jackets, of red whipcord; full length black 
 trousers with yellow stripes on the sides; Sam Brown belts; regulation .38 Colt re- 
 
 OPERATIONS AND MAINTENANCE 193
 
 volvers with five inch barrels; blue swagger sticks; white pith helmets with chin 
 straps; light blue shirts and blue ties. Their stars were the regulation six-pointed 
 stars bearing the official emblem of A Century of Progress, 
 
 Plain clothes men were always on duty. Many of these men were seasoned 
 operators, some of them knew every pickpocket and other petty criminal by sight, 
 and arrested them as they attempted to enter the gates. Policewomen were used to 
 make daily investigations of the facilities provided for the convenience of the 
 public, to watch for pickpockets in women's dressing rooms and for morons. 
 They were not in uniform, and, as their identity was not known, they worked 
 very effectively. 
 
 An Investigation Section was set up to act as liaison for the legal department. 
 The investigators worked in close cooperation with the men assigned to the Fair 
 Grounds by the Chicago Chief of Detectives, and with the federal agencies for 
 crime prevention. Their first concern was to keep the fair free of crooked games 
 and gambling. It was not enough however to eliminate such annoyances; a con- 
 stant watch had to be kept to be sure that such misdemeanors did not recur and 
 that shows were within bounds of propriety. 
 
 Another problem was to keep the grounds as free as possible of intoxicating 
 liquor. Here the investigators worked in close conjunction with the Bureau of 
 Prohibition Enforcement of the Department of Justice. It must be remembered 
 that this was in 1933 before the repeal of the Eighteenth Amendment, so that 
 trespassers were not only liable to local authorities but to Federal authorities as 
 well. 
 
 The Investigation Section could not confine itself to things that occurred within 
 the grounds. Frequently its duties took it outside, into the very heart of Chicago 
 itself. For example, complaints were received from stores throughout the city 
 that they had been victimized by counterfeit pay-roll checks drawn on the ac- 
 counts of various concessionaires. To permit such excursions outside the grounds, 
 the Sheriff of Cook County deputized the investigators. The hunt for these male- 
 factors was long and tedious, but they were generally apprehended, tried and con- 
 victed. 
 
 Depriving a citizen of his freedom is a serious matter and severe qualms were 
 entertained over the prospect of having several hundred rookies, without any real 
 background of police experience in a position to take such drastic action. The 
 regular South Park Police Department gave the Fair the answer to this problem. 
 Capt. Robert E. Redd, an officer with many years of outstanding service to his 
 credit, was detailed to the exposition as its Chief of Police. With him, the Park 
 assigned twelve other veteran officers. These twelve were placed in command of 
 the several police stations about the grounds, with Capt. Redd to coordinate and 
 direct them. It was then possible to instruct all grounds police to bring to the 
 nearest station anyone suspected of crime or misdemeanor and never to place 
 him under formal arrest on the spot. Upon arrival at the station, it was the regu- 
 lar officer who decided, in the wisdom of his experience, whether to arrest the 
 offender or whether to reprimand him for misbehavior and send him on his way, 
 
 194 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 sometimes within and sometimes without the grounds. This procedure, and its 
 wholehearted acceptance by the force, probably accounts for the fact that no suit 
 was ever brought against A Century of Progress for false arrest. 
 
 It was also debated whether the rookie patrolmen should be permitted to carry 
 arms for the same reasons they were not permitted to make arrests. Here, the 
 decision was an affirmative, because no man should be placed in a spot where his 
 life may be endangered by his assignment, without being given positive means of 
 defending himself. 
 
 Through the entire period of the 1933 Fair only two hundred and twenty -eight 
 arrests were made, and this in spite of the fact that in addition to the thousands 
 of employees and exhibitors, more than 22,500,000 visitors passed through the 
 gates that year. Offenders were not detained at the World's Fair station. As soon 
 as they were booked and questioned they were immediately taken to Chicago 
 Police Headquarters at 1121 South State Street to await proper hearing. 
 
 Gate Operation 
 
 It was especially needful for the gates to function smoothly, even though by 
 their very nature they were inherently and always potential trouble spots. Here, 
 the drunks and rowdies must be turned away; here the counterfeit money must 
 be recognized and those passing it taken to the police station; here, must be re- 
 fused entrance to the dogs, monkeys, and cats which sometimes accompanied 
 their owners; here, the tickets must be purchased, taken, and the turnstiles kept 
 clicking; here, the passes must be scrutinized and their holders diplomatically 
 screened; here, must be received a vast host of distinguished guests, emergency 
 crews, business guests, and employees; not to mention thousands of plain visitors. 
 It was here that those who came received their first and often their lasting im- 
 pression of the entire exposition. 
 
 Three departments worked at the gates — the police, guides, and information 
 booths were part of the Operations Department; the cashiers, ticket takers, and 
 bank personnel reported to the Comptroller's Department; the passes were han- 
 dled by the Secretary's Office. Supervisors from each of the three were not enough. 
 Often, things happened quickly, perhaps policies were involved or departmental 
 interests conflicted. To coordinate forces into a facile team, the Operations super- 
 visor was placed in command and made responsible for the entire gate operation. 
 
 Area Operations 
 
 As was to be expected, the organizational problem of operating the grounds was 
 the most difficult faced. The reason for this lay in the nature of the task itself. 
 Each department had business in the grounds operation and yet little of it could 
 be attended to without stepping on the rights of other departments. Besides, it 
 was the departments other than Operations that had the background of building, 
 exhibit, and concession history. After grave consideration of the possible methods 
 of organizing the grounds operation, it was decided to make good men do what 
 theoretical organization chart could not. As the construction ended, the workmen 
 
 OPERATIONS AND MAINTENANCE 195
 
 became maintenance crews and the engineers and construction superintendents 
 were drafted into the Operations Department to hold key places where their pre- 
 vious exposition experience was valuable. When the exhibits and concessions 
 preparations were past their peak, the men and women from those departments 
 went into operations. 
 
 For the operating period, the grounds were divided into nine areas with a head- 
 quarters office in each area. The personnel mentioned above were attached to 
 those areas in the capacity of area chiefs and assistant chiefs, so that the headquar- 
 ters were covered 24 hours every day. For administrative purposes, the area chiefs 
 reported to the Director of Operations; for policy purposes they turned to the di- 
 rector of whatever department or departments were concerned with the matter 
 that was in hand. Through the area offices cleared all matters concerning opera- 
 tion of exhibit and concessions in the areas, with the police, the guides, the watch, 
 and the maintenance personnel performing as service units. The contributions of 
 these area offices to smoothness of operation was great indeed. 
 
 Night Time 
 
 Operations both picturesque and grubby were those that occurred behind the 
 scenes and at night. At ten o'clock the buildings closed their doors and janitors 
 moved in. The visitors poured out into the walks and streets and most of them, 
 happy but foot-sore, found their way to the exit gates. Some of the gayer ones 
 joined the crowds in the Midway areas. At midnight the entrance turnstiles were 
 silenced, the ticket booths were closed and the cashiers, firmly grasping their little 
 black bags, departed for the nearest bank. For most of the visitors the day was 
 over, but for half of the Fair personnel it had just begun. What happens be- 
 tween midnight and reveille? Plenty. 
 
 On the stroke of midnight, trucks and automobiles began to rumble through 
 the gates bringing the supplies for the next day's activities. Concessions began to 
 close and begin on their night work of cleaning up and putting things in order. 
 The night clubs and amusement places kept going with diminishing crowds 
 until 2 o'clock. Then they too closed their doors and the late revellers straggled 
 into the streets. By two thirty in the morning, the grounds were practically free 
 of visitors and work for the night crews picked up momentum. A few eating 
 places remained open all night so that night workers could get sandwiches and 
 coffee. The street lights were kept on all night. The decorative lighting had been 
 shut off gradually and building exteriors darkened. Landscaping crews would 
 be busy cutting and watering grass and replanting flower arrangements, repair 
 crews would be touching up worn paint, replacing lamp bulbs and tattered flags, 
 while electricians and plumbers went from trouble to trouble that had been re- 
 ported during the day. Inspectors stalked for hazards of fire and disease. 
 
 Street crews were busy cleaning up the litter which the day's crowd had scat- 
 tered everywhere. Trains of Mercury trailers rattled along the almost deserted 
 streets and trailers were dropped here and there to be filled with refuse by con- 
 cessionaires. Crates for paper collections were left at convenient points. All night 
 
 196 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 long Greyhound busses passed through the grounds along Leif Eriksen Drive for 
 the convenience of the night workers and employees of concessionaires and ex- 
 hibitors who had work to do in their places before sun-up. 
 
 Around the grounds, the regional banks were busy drawing up the totals of 
 the day's take and preparing it for Brink's express pickup in the early dawn. In 
 the Hall of Science, the ticket custodian was readying tomorrow's tickets for issu- 
 ance to their selling points next morning; the tickets for the day just past were 
 being shredded and baled for sale as waste paper, and the laundry was working at 
 full blast to have personnel looking trim for another day. 
 
 In the .Administration Building, the dining room was running full blast; the 
 Publicity Department newsroom was grinding out releases for tomorrow's papers 
 and for broadcasting; the accountants and auditors were making up the daily 
 statements; the assistant directors of Operations and the General Manager's ad- 
 ministrative assistant were swapping reports of the day and planning the routine 
 of the morrow. 
 
 The red-coated policemen continued their all-night patrol, though the plain 
 clothesmen's duties were over when the concessions had closed and the last visitor 
 had made his way to the outer world. In the exhibit buildings the night shift 
 kept watch for unauthorized people in the buildings. The streets were washed 
 clean by pressure sweepers. 
 
 Morning came up over the Lake. The Avenue of Flags waved a gay colored 
 welcome to the visitors of each new day — a day fresh and clean, a day with new 
 beauty and delight. 
 
 Special Events 
 
 A litde orange -colored ray of starlight completed a forty-year journey and 
 turned on the lights for A Century of Progress. It had started from the star 
 Arcturus during the first Chicago world's fair in 1893 and traveled through the 
 years down to the earth at an even speed of six hundred and seventy million 
 miles an hour. 
 
 Arcturus, one of the most neighborly of the stars — two hundred and twenty-live 
 million million miles away, contributed the most spectacular, dramatic opening 
 that any world's fair ever has known. A Century of Progress was stressing science, 
 its development and achievements. Science was the very heart and core of 
 Chicago's second World's Fair, so it was altogether fitting that it should be 
 opened by a scientific triumph. 
 
 The world's largest telescope, which had been on exhibition at the Columbian 
 Exposition, was moved at the end of that fair to the Yerkes Observatory at Wil- 
 liams Bay, Wisconsin. The borrowed light from Arcturus which had been send- 
 ing out its light for thousands of millions of years, was caught by this telescope 
 and focused on a photo-electric cell which furnished the current necessary to turn 
 on the illumination for the entire grounds. 
 
 Two eastern observatories and one in the middle-west were asked to co-operate 
 with Yerkes the night of the Fair opening, to eliminate the possibility of intcr- 
 
 OPERATIONS AND MAINTENANCE 197
 
 ference with the starlight from massing clouds or other sky disturbances. It was 
 not possible to use any western observatory, because darkness came too late to the 
 west. In the courtway of the Hall of Science at twilight a great hushed crowd 
 waited, watching the large illuminated panel that towered above the rostrum. The 
 lower half was a map of the eastern part of the United States showing the four 
 observatories. The upper half contained the instruments that closed the circuit. 
 
 "Harvard, are you ready.'*" 
 
 "Yes." 
 
 A red glow ran across the map from Cambridge to Chicago. 
 
 "Is Allegheny ready.'*" 
 
 "Ready." 
 
 "Illinois ready .f*" 
 
 "Yes." 
 
 "Yerkes?" 
 
 "Let's go." 
 
 In the center of the flaming circle a star flashed out. The switch was thrown, 
 and a searchlight at the top of the Hall of Science shot a great white beam across 
 the sky. It circled slowly from one exposition building to another and, at the 
 touch of its finger, one after another burst into full brilliant illumination. 
 
 The lighting from Arcturus was the first special event. 
 
 Following the opening of the Fair, special days and events crowded the calen- 
 dar closely. From a canoe regatta to a salute of twenty-one guns for the President 
 of the United States; from a boys' marble tournament to the spectacular arrival 
 of General Italo Balbo and his Italian air armada at the end of their flight direct 
 from Italy to the Fair, the exposition ran the gamut of interest with accented 
 events and persons through the summer and fall months of 1933 and 1934. 
 
 Days were set aside for foreign nations and their American born children; for 
 the states of the Union and its territories; for special events of dramatic, pictur- 
 esque or especial importance; and for persons of distinction. 
 
 Foreign countries, between twenty and twenty-five in number, each celebrated a 
 day of its own in both Fair periods with music, folk dancing and addresses by 
 speakers, frequently their ambassadors. The nations represented changed little 
 from one Fair to the next. The folk dancing proved so popular that in 1934 the 
 Nationality Strollers were organized. Groups of from fifteen to fifty dancers in 
 the native costumes of fourteen nationalities strolled through the grounds daily, 
 dancing, singing, and playing small instruments. 
 
 On August 7, 1934, six hundred and seventy -five people representing twenty- 
 six nationalities, marched in costume down the Avenue of Flags to the Hall of 
 Science and were taken to various villages and concessions on the grounds to give 
 programs of music and dancing. Other parades of costumed entertainers con- 
 tributed their bit of carnival color to the "streets" of the Fair. 
 
 In these as in other events, the Illinois Host House played an important part 
 as the welcoming center for Illinois. Here were entertained guests from all over 
 the country. Not only were formal receptions held for visiting dignitaries with 
 
 198 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 local and state officials and other eminent cititzens aiding in the hospitality, but 
 there was always a note of greeting for the many strangers who came, sometimes 
 in small groups and sometimes singly. Aside from its pleasant and widely wel- 
 coming doors, it contained interesting Illinois exhibits, chief of which was the 
 Lincoln Room. The soft blue and white of the rotunda, the bufi and mauve color- 
 ing of the spacious lounge with its commodious chairs and divans, its bowls of 
 fresh flowers, the Governor's room in which committee meetings were held, all 
 contributed to the air of simplicity and friendliness which was the keynote of this 
 building. 
 
 Several times the Presidential salvo of twenty-one guns was fired. For Presi- 
 dent Roosevelt, who visited the Fair on October 2, 1933, for ex-President Hoover, 
 who attended with Mrs. Hoover, and Postmaster General James A. Farley when 
 he represented the President at the opening of the Fair. Many other distin- 
 guished guests were entertained. Among them were cabinet officers and other 
 statesmen, personal representatives of foreign powers, members of royal families, 
 diplomats, explorers, scientists, and movie stars of the first magnitude and noted 
 military men. Mrs. Franklin D. Roosevelt was an honored guest, on July 9, 1934. 
 Mrs. Frances Perkins and Mrs. Ruth Bryan Owen had the distinction of being 
 the first women to be honored by a salute of guns. 
 
 Guglielmo Marconi was one of the distinguished guests to whom a day of his 
 own was given. He was the honored guest of American Legionnaires, scientific 
 societies, and Italian organizations. Alfred E. Smith was honored by a day of his 
 own. 
 
 Sports events were important on the programs of both Fairs. They included 
 national outboard motorboat, rowing, and canoeing regattas; swimming and field 
 meets; water polo, football, archery, baseball, basketball; bicycle and boat races, 
 chess games with human chessmen; and a wild west rodeo. 
 
 Several beautiful, colorful Venetian carnivals were given on the lagoons. The 
 floating theater of the first Fair was anchored for the second one, having a stead- 
 fast stage constructed on piles, with band shell and dressing rooms. This Lagoon 
 Theater was devoted almost entirely to professional entertainment, while the 
 Science Theater in the Court of the Hall of Science was used only for scientific 
 demonstrations. 
 
 The Court of States Theater in the Court of the Hall of States handled prac- 
 tically all types of entertainment not belonging to the Lagoon or Science Theaters. 
 The stage level was about four feet above the ground so that the performances 
 could be seen from all the seats in the court and from the balconies of the states 
 building. 
 
 The All-States Round-Up was presented at intervals during the last month of 
 the Fair. It was made up of a variety of acts by members of the staffs of the 
 different state exhibits and was organized by the Federal and States Participation 
 Division of the Department of Scientific and Governmental Exhibits. 
 
 Special events in a Fair constitute such an ambitious program in giving it 
 
 OPERATIONS AND MAINTENANCE 199
 
 light and color that it is inevitable that many hands touch it. So it was 
 at a Century of Progress. Out of those who molded the special events none shone 
 more brightly than John A. Reilly. 
 
 Music 
 
 Art and music at A Century of Progress were entertaining, educational, and 
 highly inspirational. They gave an account of themselves, not only for the cen- 
 tury, but from early chanting and primitive sketching, that never before was 
 achieved at any world's fair, and set a measure for expositions to come. 
 
 Art came to the Fair in such a valuable collection that it was necessary to house 
 it in a more permanent building than was financially possible to A Century of 
 Progress, and the offer from the Art Institute of space and care was accepted 
 gladly. 
 
 Music played a diversified obligato to all the life of the Fair. From the world's 
 greatest symphonies to the newest slanged syncopation; from old violins to young 
 voices, there was music everywhere. Music to please the scholarly musician and 
 the man in the street who recognizes the Star Spangled Banner only because peo- 
 ple stand up. 
 
 Bands and symphony orchestras ofifered the most spectacular in music. The 
 United States Marine Band came from Washington by special permission of the 
 President, and its two concerts a day drew large listening crowds in addition to 
 those who went their sight-seeing way conscious of the accompaniment of a great 
 band. 
 
 Between the finished musicianship and long tradition of the United States 
 Marine Band, and the sauciest, most obviously rhythmic little aggregation on the 
 grounds, hundreds of bands filled the air with music. Well-known bands gave 
 serious concerts. High school and college bands did their enthusiastic bits. Litde 
 foreign bands emerged from villages and played about. Oriental instruments gave 
 forth music unfamiliar to western ears. The brass bands kept vivid the carnival 
 spirit of the Fair. They would not let anyone forget. 
 
 The famouse Tipica Police Band of Mexico City that played at all official func- 
 tions in the Mexican capital, was the star attraction when it made a special visit 
 to the Fair. Its fifty-five musicians with string and brass instruments and the 
 marimba, attired in their picturesque charros costumes played Mexican music. 
 They brought with them a troupe of singers and dancers. 
 
 A marimba band of one hundred pieces was assembled especially for the Cen- 
 tury of Progress. 
 
 The great march king, John Philip Sousa wrote "The Century of Progress 
 March," especially for the Fair. 
 
 The proud accomplishment of Chicago's 1893 Fair in offering music by a mar- 
 velous symphony orchestra was doubled by the forty-year later Fair. The Theo- 
 dore Thomas Orchestra, afterward the Chicago Symphony, played through the 
 World's Columbian Exposition. During the summer of 1934 at A Century of 
 Progress, the Chicago Symphony and the Detroit Symphony Orchestras each gave 
 
 200 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 two concerts daily on the grounds of the Swift and Ford Motors exhibits. They 
 were led by their own conductors and for several short engagements by famous 
 guest conductors. People stood in quiet crowds at the back of the amphitheater 
 waiting for seats. They sat uncomplainingly under a hot sun, held umbrellas 
 against light rains, and sometimes waited patiently through the intermission be- 
 tween the afternoon and evening concerts to hold their seats. 
 
 Choruses were heard in great numbers; professional groups with hundreds of 
 members, amateur choruses, school choruses. Community sings were sponsored by 
 different organizations in the court of the Hall of Science, where crowds lifted 
 their voices in popular songs. Choirs sang hymns and anthems, and organ recitals 
 were given in Meditation Chapel in the Hall of Religion. 
 
 Music festivals made valuable and attractive contributions to the music of the 
 Fair. They brought to their gala days symphony orchestras, string ensembles; 
 band, fife, drum, and bugle corps; organ recitals, A Capella choruses, choirs, set- 
 tlement and school music groups of all kinds. The Illinois Federation of Music 
 Clubs, at its Autumn Festival and Conference in October, 1933, celebrated a 
 "Home Coming Week," having been organized forty years before, at the time of 
 the World's Columbian Exposition in response to a suddenly recognized need. 
 
 The carillon in the Hall of Science Tower known as the Deegan Chimes rang 
 out its concerts from bells that were tubular instead of flaring. The advantage of 
 a tubular bell is that it all vibrates, instead of only the rim, and one bell weighing 
 eight hundred pounds makes as much noise as a flaring bell weighing three thou- 
 sand. The longest of the tubes was twelve and a half feet; the shortest, six. They 
 could be played electrically or by key-board. 
 
 The Real Hosts 
 
 No phase of an exposition's activities is more important than ground opera- 
 tions. The public is keenly aware of details which irritate them or which cause 
 inconvenience. Gorgeous spectacles, thrilling shows, and beautiful surroundings 
 are forgotten when the visitor has a lost child, blistered feet, or is given wrong 
 directions. Visitors seldom have the opportunity to meet the top Fair executives. 
 Their real hosts are the guides, the police, and exhibit and concession attendants. 
 Courtesy and helpfulness on the part of these does as much as the spectacle itself 
 to make a happy day and pleasant recollections. There is a multitude of detail in 
 the routine of operation, but none is as important to the public appreciation of the 
 Fair as the personal courtesies and attention which they receive. 
 
 OPERATIONS AND MAINTENANCE 201
 
 Chapter 21 
 
 REVENUE CONTROL 
 
 When a Fair visitor handed a dime to a concessionaire, there was litde 
 realization that during the day several hundred thousand other people v/ould 
 be doing the same thing, not once but a dozen times. In the course of a single 
 day, millions of individual transactions would be accomplished, all of which 
 must be properly accounted for and the proceeds safely handled. Tomorrow 
 would be a new day and all the loose ends of the preceding day had to be 
 gathered and cleared, so that the next cycle could be started with a clean slate. 
 
 It is one thing to count thousand dollar bills and quite another to account for 
 a half million dollars in small change weighing over three tons. To further 
 complicate the money traffic, hundreds of revenue points were scattered over 
 a vast area. How this money was collected, guarded, transported and accounted 
 for, is only one phase of the task that confronted the finance offices of the 
 Exposition. 
 
 The Exposition engaged in almost every kind of business, even in the early 
 days. Collecting the $5.00 memberships and recording them; every imaginable 
 type of construction contract; a huge insurance project; the various trust accounts 
 for buildings and other purposes; the engagement of the exposition itself in 
 the restaurant business, a shoe shine parlor, a pageant, a sky-ride, a nursery; 
 and a wide range of concession financial arrangements all worked together to 
 present an intricate pattern for the comptroller and treasurer to direct. 
 
 Mr. Arthur Andersen served the Exposition as its Comptroller from the very 
 beginning of the organization until resigning due to ill health December 1930. 
 But his influence did not stop here, for it was his guiding genius that steered 
 
 202 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 the Department through its entire life. His great contributions to the Fair 
 were his wise counsels, his common sense, and his expert technical knowledge. 
 The early functions of the Comptroller's Department were performed by 
 members of the staff of Arthur Andersen & Co.; in the months following the 
 Exposition's incorporation, these were replaced from time to time by employees 
 of the Exposition. 
 
 Mr. George Woodruff was elected Treasurer on January 9, 1928 and served 
 in this position throughout both Expositions. He took an active part in the 
 affairs of the Executive Committee and as related elsewhere was the author 
 of the financing plan. 
 
 Both these men carried heavy responsibilities in their own fields of endeavor 
 and obviously the time came when it was needful to have the duties of their 
 offices fully functioning in the Administration Building. Other fairs had 
 organized the comptroller and treasurer functions in separate departments. 
 For two reasons, they were combined at A Century of Progress. It was believed 
 that a more economic and better coordinated set-up could be obtained. Further, 
 the general economic outlook was such that it was necessary for the General 
 Manager to assume many of the policy duties usually performed by the comp- 
 troller and treasurer. These phases have been related in discussing the financing 
 of the exposition and its relation to budget control. 
 
 In August, 1930, Mr. Martin M. Tveter was engaged as Assistant Comp- 
 troller and was later appointed Comptroller, with the duty of directing both 
 the comptroller and treasurer functions. The splendid record of this department 
 was a direct reflection of his vigor and superior ability. As time went on, he was 
 assisted in the comptroller functions by R. C. Otley and in the treasury functions 
 by C. E. Brophy. These men gave devoted and unstinted attention to the 
 manifold operations of the department. 
 
 Simplicity of Procedures Required 
 
 Earnest endeavor was made from the beginning to avoid having a money 
 control system that was so complicated it might fall of its own weight under 
 pressure. It was sought to develop a plan that made the Comptroller's Depart- 
 ment one of the team rather than an authority set up to dictate and pass 
 judgment upon other members of the organization. As each plan was proposed 
 it was carefully measured. First came the question, "Does this call for spending 
 a quarter to save a dime?" If it did, the plan was discarded and another searched 
 out. The next question asked was whether a proposed plan put a burden of 
 bookkeeping on other departments in addition to that in the Comptroller 
 Department where it belonged. 
 
 An important measure of safety called for including several offices in every 
 financial procedure on the theory that if it were necessary for several to partici- 
 pate, it lessened materially the chance for collusion in wrongdoing. The requisi- 
 tioning department signed requests for materials and supplies of all sorts which 
 were approved in the General Manager's Office. Purchases were made in the 
 
 REVENUE CONTROL 203
 
 General Service Department (later Operations) if for other than construction 
 material, when they were handled in the Works Department, and were received 
 by different people from the purchasers. The Comptroller's accounting division 
 collected the paper work and checked it, and the treasury division paid it after 
 receiving directly the vendor's statements. One further precaution was taken, the 
 counter-signature on the checks was that of the technical assistant to the General 
 Manager. While the procedure varied with purchasing a typewriter and contract- 
 ing for landscaping, the basic principle was maintained. 
 
 The early activities in the Comptroller's Department consisted chiefly of re- 
 cording transactions pertaining to the proceeds from sales of Founder, Sustaining 
 and Legion Memberships, and disbursements relating to payrolls and miscel- 
 laneous expenses. 
 
 They were developed gradually to meet the expanding responsibilities in con- 
 nection with the receipts from the sales of Guaranteed Gold Notes, exhibit space 
 and concessions, construction and other disbursements, the recording of all forms 
 of contracts, and the development of the system of revenue control to be used 
 during the Exposition period. 
 
 The operating budget, described in the chapter on "Financing," was prepared 
 in the office of the General Manager, but the Comptroller's office was called upon 
 for numerous estimates, computations, statistical data and summaries of receipts 
 and expenditures. Since the budget was changed at frequent intervals to meet 
 rapidly changing circumstances, an unusual number of demands was made on the 
 Comptroller's Department. 
 
 In addition to the general budget report, a daily cash statement was submitted 
 to the General Manager for the control of construction. This statement showed 
 the previous day's unallocated total of unexpended funds, the particular day's al- 
 lotment of funds to particular construction projects, any additions to this unallo- 
 cated fund from receipts of various kinds, and the balance remaining in the man- 
 ager's reserve that could be allocated to construction. 
 
 As funds were appropriated for construction purposes, the entire amount allo- 
 cated was immediately deducted from the available reserve so that the General 
 Manager had before him a daily statement of all funds that could be used for fur- 
 ther construction projects. 
 
 Paralleling the budget was a cash forecast covering a period of six months, set- 
 ting forth the actual cash and probable available cash for the period, as well as the 
 actual and probable commitments. It was used as the basis for studies on any ex- 
 pansion or contraction in the construction program established by the budget; 
 but it was not permitted to supersede the policy "no commitments until cash on 
 hand to pay them." This forecast was made every three months up to the opening 
 day, and during the Fair period it included an estimate of the attendance, prob- 
 able receipts from attendance and concessions, and operating expenses determined 
 from the actual experiences of operation. During the operating period it gave the 
 management the necessary information to provide adequately for the liquidation 
 of the liabilities, including the Gold Note Issue. 
 
 204 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 Payments for construction work were made under the provisions of the Illinois 
 Mechanics Lien Law. In addition, careful attention was given to the checking of 
 all receipts of materials and supplies, including provision for the proper certifica- 
 tion by both the foreman and general superintendent that the work called for 
 under the contract had been performed in accordance with the original contract 
 and its change orders. 
 
 Because the exhibit contracts were standardiz.ed, the collection and accounting of 
 fees were normal financial procedures. It was not so with concessions accounting 
 because of the variety of the services and entertainments covered. Not only was it 
 necessary to do the Exposition's accounting for concessions but the Exposition must 
 keep up the concessionaire's business as well because of the general agreement to 
 let the concessionaire retire his investment before profit splitting between him and 
 the Fair. To assure the complete integrity of a concession, as a matter of policy, 
 the Exposition early decided it would collect all gross receipts obtained by conces- 
 sionaires from the public, that it would bank such funds, and remit them to the 
 concessionaires once each week, after deducting expenses charged against the con- 
 cessionaires and the participation percentage due A Century of Progress. 
 
 During the summer of 1932 when the grounds were enclosed, a nominal admis- 
 sion was charged to see the Exposition in the making. Sixteen concessions were 
 operating within the enclosure, ranging from restaurants to bus transportation, 
 amusement rides, shows, and historical reproductions. It was during this period 
 that the nucleus of revenue control key personnel received its baptism for the 
 major operating years. 
 
 Also, this period provided a factual basis for estimates of the amount of revenue, 
 the number of revenue points, the probable receipts from each and the participa- 
 tion of A Century of Progress in each concession — figures needed to plan the 
 revenue control. 
 
 Operating Problems 
 
 The efficient handling of 2,000 revenue points — places where cashiers collected 
 money — scattered over an area of approximately 338 acres, with the farthest being 
 three and one-half miles from the Administration Building, was the nub of the 
 problem. Because of the inaccessibility of some of the revenue points, the grounds 
 were to be divided into districts, with a branch "bank" in each district through 
 which all cashiers, collectors and others handling receipts from the gates and the 
 concessionaires, would clear. This bank system simplified the problem of supply- 
 ing over a thousand cashiers with change funds. Each cashier called for his own 
 change fund and turned it in to the branch bank at the close of each day's business. 
 During the day, collectors visited coin turnstiles and control points, picking up 
 deposits and reporting back to their home banks with them. 
 
 With the decentralization of the "banks", really depositories for cash, it was 
 necessary to provide some arrangement for safely transporting money between the 
 main bank and the branch banks, as well as between the main bank and the banks 
 in downtown Chicago where money was deposited. A contract was made with 
 
 REVENUE CONTROL 205
 
 Brink's Express Co. to maintain an armored truck on the Exposition grounds at 
 all times together with a crew of armed guards. 
 
 Only once was there a hold-up scare. Rumor had it that an armed gang would 
 hold up the main bank at ten that night. Flood lights were quickly mounted on 
 top of the building, police with machine guns were strategically located. Then the 
 newsmen and photographers were called in and all waited in suspense for several 
 hours. To the relief of some, but keen disappointment of most, nothing hap- 
 pened. Perhaps the publicity scared them off. 
 
 As often as five times in twenty-four hours money was picked up and deposited 
 in the safes, and turned over to the main bank in the Administration Building. 
 The main bank recorded these collections, verified the money so collected and im- 
 mediately prepared it for deposit with the banks in downtown Chicago. Deposits 
 were made several times daily in the Chicago banks and in the event the banks 
 were closed, Brink's would accept the money and deposit it in their vaults until 
 the next morning. On some peak days the money taken in reached $500,000.00 
 and an average of two and one-half tons of metal money was handled daily. 
 
 During 1933, a total of $52,883,671.00 was handled, representing both cash re- 
 ceipts and change funds; in 1934, $42,000,000.00, a total of nearly 95 million dol- 
 lars for the two years. During 1933, the total discrepancy representing tellers' and 
 collectors' shortages, losses by counterfeit and shortage claims in rolled silver and 
 slugs, amounted to only $1,173.80, and in 1934 this was reduced to the low sum of 
 $117.02. 
 
 A good organization is a self cleansing organization. It is almost impossible for 
 top executives to detect small peculations, but fellow workers on the same level are 
 quick to catch minor thieving. Where there is pride in an organization and self- 
 respect among its employees, they will take action in their own hands and force a 
 pilferer or cheater out, rather than report him to higher authority. Unexplained 
 resignations from the staff were occasionally from this action. Where morale is 
 high, morals are high. 
 
 Every cashier was required to attend a school of instruction where the art of 
 detecting counterfeit money was taught, and booklets were furnished, giving com- 
 plete information on every new counterfeit discovered. Cashiers were prohibited 
 from changing a bill larger than $20.00, the visitor being referred to one of the 
 branch banks. 
 
 When presented with a suspected coin or bill, the cashier requested the patron 
 to wait a few moments until adequate change could be obtained. The cashier 
 then called the gate lieutenant who, in turn, notified the main bank, and an ex- 
 perienced bank teller immediately was dispatched to the scene. After the bank 
 teller had satisfied himself that the bill was actually a counterfeit, he informed the 
 patron that the bill would have to be taken up and turned over to the United 
 States Secret Service Division. He gave the patron a receipt for the counterfeit bill. 
 Of course, most persons presenting counterfeits were unaware that they were 
 carrying them. This procedure often worked a hardship on the individual, and it 
 was sometimes necessary to advance funds to enable the visitor to return home. 
 
 206 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 All money advanced in this manner was repaid in full. 
 
 The whole procedure required much discretion. The cashier was on the horns 
 of the dilemma of either accusing an innocent person or of permitting a counter- 
 feiter to escape. On one occasion, the Treasury Department had notified the Fair 
 to be on the lookout for a certain counterfeit bill and accurately described the 
 persons passing them. By one of those unexplainable coincidences, two persons 
 exactly fitting the description endeavored to pass some questionable-looking bills. 
 The over-zealous teller called the police and they were taken to the Fair police 
 station. An expert from the Secret Service pronounced the bills genuine, but there 
 were two irate visitors to be placated. All further arrests were left to government 
 oflScers. 
 
 The Chief of the Chicago District of the Secret Service Division worked in close 
 cooperation with Fair authorities. 
 
 In choosing young men and women for cashier service different characteristics 
 were required from those needed for guide service. The cashiers, in addition to 
 being scrupulously honest, had to be accurate, speedy and not easily rattled. As 
 time went on new and unexpected duties fell upon this group; they often had to 
 help out informally on information. The cashier had to be courteous and as well 
 informed as possible, for it was the established policy of the Fair that all visitors, 
 at all times, should be given every possible assistance. 
 
 It was indeed not unusual for an eager looking woman to ask of the girl 
 cashier: "What kind of plants do they grow in the Planetarium?" And the young 
 man sitting behind his money boxes was not particularly surprised when an el- 
 derly quiet gentleman, pointing to the Hall of Science, queried, "What time does 
 the Octopus ceremony go on?" 
 
 The cashiers at the gates had their own worries and amusements. There was 
 the tired and somewhat wind-blown woman who appeared from within the 
 grounds late one afternoon to ask if that was the same gate at which she had en- 
 tered in the morning. Then there were, as always in such amusement centers, 
 the people who tried to beat their way in, the woman who had lost her season 
 ticket and the man who thought that because he had eight children with him he 
 should have a wholesale rate. 
 
 Cashiers had to be alert and resourceful. Late one evening a man flashed a 
 gold police star at the gateman and he was admitted, as police and firemen were 
 always welcomed into the grounds free. But this man did not look like a police- 
 man so the gateman beckoned the gate lieutenant to follow him. This he did, to 
 the fence, where the badge was passed out, and in a few minutes it was again pre- 
 sented, shrewdly, at another gate. The lieutenant having kept track of it, de- 
 tained the man and found that it was a missing badge stolen from a police official. 
 But it takes courage to arrest a policeman. 
 
 Ticket Handling 
 
 Study had been given to the possible use of script instead of cash at all conces- 
 sions throughout the grounds, but the difficulties experienced with it at amuse- 
 
 REVENUE CONTROL 207
 
 ment parks decided against its use for an operation as large as A Century of 
 Progress. 
 
 Tickets used at the admission gate and at concessions were not handled through 
 the branch banks, but by a separate division set up under the supervision of the 
 ticket custodian. With this setded the problem of the types of tickets and ticket- 
 selling machines was investigated. It was decided that the most practical machine 
 was one which vended tickets in numerical order and recorded each ticket as it 
 was released from the machine. 
 
 Tickets sold in advance of the opening, good at any time during the Fair, were 
 printed on a special paper stock, selected because of the impossibility of counter- 
 feiting. This paper was made up of special layers of distinctive colors which 
 became readily visible when the ticket was torn. 
 
 Tickets used each day at the gates were of the strip-folded type on the usual 
 ticket stock of thirty varying colors and imprinted "Good only on the day printed 
 hereon." As a precaution against counterfeiting, each ticket bore one of thirty 
 different overprints, the design and color of which changed at random each day. 
 Arrangements were made with the printer to supply tickets on twenty-four hours' 
 notice. No one, except the ticket custodian and the printer, knew either the color 
 of the ticket or the overprint until the tickets were turned over to the cashiers at 
 the gates for sale. Tickets used at the concessions were of the same type except 
 for the changing of color, overprinting and date. 
 
 The type of turnstile used at the entrance gates and at concessions having ticket 
 admissions was the three-bar type manufactured by the Perey Co. They were pur- 
 chased, as was all of the revenue control equipment, on a re-purchase agreement, 
 the re-purchase price being determined at the time of the original sale. 
 
 Their operation proved eminently satisfactory, though some of those entering 
 had difficulty with the unusual angle of rotation. Occasionally the third arm would 
 smack a slow entrant on the back, sometimes to the embarrassment of the cashier, 
 who was accused of patting the visitor through. 
 
 Electric contacts were fitted to each entrance gate turnstile and every admission 
 was instantly recorded on master counters in the Administration Building. In 
 this way the number of visitors in the grounds and the rate of entrance could be 
 immediately determined. It was not used for revenue control. 
 
 A number of concessions including those for the sale of merchandise, beverages, 
 and food required the use of a cash register in order to control the revenue. In so 
 far as possible, the registers were standardized for a particular type of concession. 
 In most concessions the smallest type of register was used with, however, the 
 added features of a large visible indicator, a detail tape, and a cumulative total 
 register. Registers with the same protective features, but registering higher de- 
 nominations, were used by merchandise concessions in which the individual sales 
 were large. The restaurants required either a register used as a food checker, or 
 one of large denomination for a strictly cash operation or, in some cases, a com- 
 bination of both. Approximately 1,200 cash registers were used during each 
 season. 
 
 208 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 bisurance 
 
 During 1929, the firm of Marsh & McLennan was made the official insurance 
 broker, an arrangement which proved eminently satisfactory during the entire life 
 of the Exposition. Robert M. Cunningham of that firm distinguished himself for 
 the diplomatic, effective and fair manner in which he administered all matters 
 under the agreement. 
 
 The question of Workmen's Compensation on employees of contractors, a liabil- 
 ity which by law passed to the owner of the property under construction unless 
 covered by the contractor, was eliminated by placing full responsibility on the con- 
 tractor, including injuries to the public, and by securing certificates of such con- 
 tractors' Workmen's Compensation and Public Liability Insurance. The contin- 
 gent liability of A Century of Progress was further protected under an owner's 
 protective liability form of coverage. The question of fire and windstorm insur- 
 ance on increasing values was covered under a special policy form with bimonthly 
 increases in amount. 
 
 Prior to January 18, 1932, coverage was placed in the various companies as 
 required. It was soon evident that such an arrangement would not be satisfactory, 
 because the various kinds of construction would make some structures desirable 
 risks and others undesirable from the insurance companies' viewpoint. To over- 
 come the possibility of cancellation and replacement and also to provide a suffi- 
 cient market for all coverage needed, Marsh and McLennan, with the aid of the 
 Chicago Board of Underwriters, arranged an insurance pool to write all fire and 
 windstorm insurance needed on A Century of Progress property at an average 
 rate. A group of more than 100 stock companies agreed to this arrangement, 
 which with minor changes continued in force throughout the Exposition. In 
 April of 1933 the Mutual companies organized a similar pool and insured 10 per 
 cent of the total value at risk. 
 
 The pool started operation January 18, 1932, on the issuance of a policy in the 
 amount of $1,800,000.00 and this gradually increased until with final adjustments 
 the coverage amounted to $5,571,000.00, representing values approximating 
 $7,000,000.00. The total cost of this coverage was $144,072.50. 
 
 When it was decided to continue the Fair during 1934, it was necessary to 
 replace the fire and windstorm coverage. All structures were re-valued and the 
 total insured value of 1934 amounted to $2,963,600.00 at a total premium cost 
 of $54,176.31. All losses to October 31, 1934, at which time all coverage ceased, 
 amounted to $361.01. This was an extraordinary record and reflected on the 
 materials used, their construction, and the infinite care of every employee. 
 
 A cardinal principle ingrained in every employee was to turn in the fire alarm 
 at the first suspicion of a fire. Investigation could come after the alarm had been 
 given. Under no circumstances was an attempt to put out the fire to be made, 
 even though it looked minor, until the fire department had been summoned. 
 Many small fires could be easily repaired, but a major conflagration would have 
 been disastrous. There would be no time to rebuild a major structure during the 
 
 REVENUE CONTROL 209
 
 Fair period and the charred skeleton of a building would have had a depressing 
 effect on the carnival spirit. To a large extent this same principle guided our 
 attitude on insurance. The money from a destroyed building could not com- 
 pensate for its loss. An Exposition being of limited duration, presents a special 
 problem. Articles loaned for exhibit were insured under an all-risk form of cov- 
 erage. The risk was assumed on contents owned by the Exposition. 
 
 Public liability coverage was necessary from the time the first land was turned 
 over to the Exposition for the construction of buildings, through the construction 
 period, the Fair operating periods, and the demolition period, until its return to 
 the Chicago Park District. 
 
 A special policy of public liability was drawn by the Zurich General Accident 
 and Liability Insurance Co., covering the legal liability of A Century of Progress. 
 It was the intent of the Exposition management that the coverage should be 
 broad enough to cover all possibilities of accident claims, and such intent was fully 
 accepted by the company. No question ever arose over any claim presented. 
 
 Every effort was made to reduce hazards and all claims were expeditiously 
 handled. The insurance company assumed the responsibility of hospitalization 
 and arranged with Dr. F. W. Baylor for the establishment of a first class receiv- 
 ing hospital on the grounds. 
 
 In the same arrangement, claims for damage to property of visitors were 
 handled by the Zurich, although no insurance of this character was carried. The 
 insurance company was later reimbursed by A Century of Progress plus a small 
 charge for handling. 
 
 During the pre-Fair period, the amount of money at risk was small, but during 
 the Fair operation especially broad and flexible coverage was required, since it 
 included the cash fund of $200,000.00 coverage on the main bank in the Adminis- 
 tration Building, nine branch banks, the main gate cashiers' booths at the various 
 entrances, the 2,000 stations within the grounds and the bank messengers. 
 Many precautions and safeguards were installed and the coverage was written on 
 a blanket form to include all possible contingencies. The coverage was in the 
 amount of $200,000.00 at a premium of $7,000.00 for 1933 and $6,000.00 for 
 1934. The vast amount of money handled was considered by the insurers as 
 extremely hazardous; however, the exposure at any one location reduced this 
 hazard. No loss was sustained either year and the insurance company profited 
 100 per cent. 
 
 The cost of all insurance to the Exposition, from January 5, 1928, to October 
 31, 1934, based on gross premiums, was $847,963.09. In addition to the types al- 
 ready described, the coverage included fidelity bonds, customs bonds, performance 
 and construction bonds, the South Park Ordinance bond, miscellaneous bonds, 
 riot and civil commotion insurance, plate glass insurance and marine insurance. 
 In addition, exhibitors and concessionaires carried extensive insurance coverage 
 on Workmen's Compensation, Public Liability and Property Damage, as well as 
 Fire and Theft. 
 
 Many pages could be written describing the methods used to make up payrolls, 
 
 210 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 keep time records, handle garnishments, attachments and assignments, and han- 
 dling billings and vouchering and auditing accounts. Many words of praise could 
 be bestowed on the faithful accountants, auditors, clerks, tellers, cashiers, collec- 
 tors, and all those who often toiled through the night to keep up-to-date the tre- 
 mendous volume of financial minutia in which a fair is involved. Most of it 
 could never be spectacular, but it was necessary and they were faithful, as the 
 financial results testify most eloquendy. 
 
 REVENUE CONTROL 211
 
 Chapter 22 
 
 PROMOTION AND PUBLICITY 
 
 Century of Progress publicity, in common with all legitimate publicity, carried 
 itself by its own worth. News items, stories and pictures given out from the Fair 
 concerning its different phases and activities all held intrinsic interest for the 
 reader, the movie-goer, or the radio listener. 
 
 The theme of the Exposition, its plans for basic science exhibits and its endorse- 
 ment by the National Research Council opened doors for publicity in many fields, 
 particularly educational. The unusual architecture, novel and striking use of color, 
 new building methods and engineering principles created interesting controversy. 
 The exhibits furnished informative and entertaining reading material, and the 
 purpose of the Fair was provocative of editorial comment. 
 
 The publicity for an exposition must be widely differentiated from such at- 
 tention-arresting occurrences as Presidential campaigns or World Wars. The 
 exposition was a deliberately planned event rather than a natural happening and 
 carefully worked out plans had to be laid to bring it to the attention of the world. 
 
 Newspapers in every section of the country and in the remote corners of the 
 civilized world carried news of A Century of Progress. Magazines of national 
 circulation published special illustrated stories and every type of class and sec- 
 tional magazine from religious and agricultural publications to the most obscure 
 house organ told its readers something of A Century of Progress. 
 
 Newsreels throughout the world showed the landscape and the domed and 
 spired sky-scape of the Fair itself, its exhibits, and activities. Radio, for the first 
 time at any world's fair, was available for spreading of the story. 
 
 The problem of arousing in people sufficient enthusiasm to support and attend 
 
 212 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 a world's fair is primarily one of mass psychology. From the days of the Roman 
 circus to the parades and spectacles of the present, the thrilling and the unusual 
 have held the same appeal to human emotions. The steady reiteration of time 
 and place and purpose is irresistible. 
 
 The character of the attendance at A Century of Progress was the best proof 
 of the far-flung appeal of its publicity. A large portion of the attendance came 
 from outside Chicago, and even from beyond the boundaries of Illinois. It was 
 one of the greatest peace-time movements of people in all history. How such 
 results were obtained is an interesting commentary on the relative merits of 
 publicity methods. 
 
 First Publicity Efforts 
 
 The first publicity of the Fair was directed by a committee under the capable 
 chairmanship of Homer J. Buckley. To arouse interest from scratch, to over- 
 come opposition from those who believed that world's fairs brought on de- 
 pressions, and those who felt that because of movies, the radio, and the auto- 
 mobile, the days of fairs were forever over, was no mean task. Combined with 
 the effective work of the $5.00 membership committee under Stuyvesant Peabody 
 all Chicago was made conscious, if still skeptical, of the plans for an Exposition. 
 
 An amusing incident occurred during these early days. To acquaint Chicagoans 
 with the reasons for a Fair, they were invited to hear a debate in one of the 
 large theaters on the subject, "Shall Chicago Have a World's Fair.'" Eminent 
 speakers were chosen for both sides and invitations and reserved seats sent to 
 leaders in all fields of Chicago activities. But a catastrophe occurred just two 
 days before the scheduled event. The gentleman who had agreed to take the 
 negative withdrew on the grounds that all the arguments were in favor of having 
 a Fair, that the auspices under which the debate was being held clearly indicated 
 that the affirmative must win and that he would be placed in an unfavorable posi- 
 tion by apparently opposing something so obviously for the good of the city. 
 
 Frantic but unavailing efforts were made to find a last minute substitute, for 
 it was too late to cancel the performance. In desperation, a voluble member of 
 the publicity committee was prevailed upon to sacrifice himself and take the 
 negative. To make a good show, he read all the letters opposing the fair and in 
 his enthusiasm built up such a strong argument that he received the unanimous 
 verdict of the judges. 
 
 While publicity had been in operation since 1928, the Department of Promotion 
 was not established until November of 1931. The fine work of its Director. 
 E. Ross Bartley, of John Clayton, George A. Barclay, Victor Rubin, P. }. Morrison 
 and their staffs is more fully covered in the chapter on organization. 
 
 PROMOTION AND PUBLICITY 213
 
 Chapter 23 
 
 LEGAL PHASES 
 
 Is a "treasure hunt" gambling? Is "grease paint" clothing? What is a "bar?" 
 When does a promise become a contract and what right of recovery has the 
 recipient of such a promise? What persons in the hierarchy of the corporation 
 can obligate it? Can you listen to a presumably friendly suggestion, without 
 incurring the risk of later damages, if you adopt it? 
 
 These, and a thousand and one other queries of a similar or of a much more 
 far-reaching and serious import, were presented to the Exposition's legal 
 advisers. 
 
 In the formative days, legal matters were handled by a "Committee on Legal 
 Affairs," appointed by President Dawes from the members of the Association. 
 This Committee consisted of: C. C. Carnahan, Chairman; William H. Beckman, 
 Francis X. Busch, Samuel A. Ettelson, Carl Latham, Amos C. Miller, and Julius 
 Smietanka. To the activities of this committee are due the preparation of the 
 by-laws and the early incorporation of the Association. 
 
 With the beginning of the active work of preparation for the Exposition, it 
 became apparent that the legal work involved was more than could be expected 
 of a voluntary committee, and arrangements were made, on April 11, 1930, 
 with the law firm of Carnahan & Slusser to act as General Attorneys for the 
 Exposition. 
 
 With the exception of some few special matters, all legal affairs were handled 
 by the General Attorneys, with the help of assistant attorneys, who were employed 
 direcdy by the Exposition and had their offices in the Administration Building. 
 Assistant attorneys B. L. Grove and W. E. Dever did exceptionally fine work in 
 
 214 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 expediting the preparation of the vast number of contracts with exhibitors and 
 concessionaires. 
 
 Following the appointment of the General Attorneys, requests for opinions 
 and the handling of matters requiring legal attention, were for the most part 
 transmitted to the attorneys through the office of the Secretary of A Century 
 of Progress. As the work increased, it became evident that a more intimate 
 coordination between the General Attorneys and the office of the General 
 Manager was necessary for the promotion of efficiency and speed in the dispatch 
 of business. Accordingly, on September 30, 1931, a section of the General 
 Manager's office was created, and thereafter continued to function under the 
 title of "Legal Section". 
 
 The function of this office was to keep the General Attorneys advised as to 
 all matters requiring legal attention, and to serve as the contact point between 
 them and the General Manager. During the progress of the Exposition, 
 innumerable practical problems daily pressed for solution. It was obviously 
 necessary for the General Attorneys to be advised immediately as to the existence 
 and nature of such problems as might have legal significance or repercussions. 
 Col. F. C. Boggs, by virtue of his capacity as Technical Assistant to the General 
 Manager, was the official in constant touch with these problems, and, hence, 
 was the logical head of the Legal Section. Thomas H. Slusser, as head of the 
 legal stafT was responsible for the preparation and execution of the legal phases 
 of the Exposition's work, and his devotion saved the Fair much legal grief. 
 
 General Legal Principles 
 
 Litigation is warfare and is the last resort when all other means fail. Like 
 war, it should be avoided whenever possible, and such avoidance could best be 
 accomplished by the careful foresight enunciated in the general principles 
 followed by the Fair's legal advisers. 
 
 These were based on the old proverb "An ounce of prevention is worth a 
 p>ound of cure". As interpreted by those in charge of the legal matters, their 
 major function was to guide the affairs of the Corporation so they might operate 
 properly and smoothly. As they viewed their duties, it was obligatory on the 
 lawyers to assist the executives in seeing to it that policies and objectives, and 
 the methods of putting them into execution, were legal and sound. In this 
 view, the Management of the Corporation heartily concurred, especially as the 
 organization and the operation of a great Exposition involves some character- 
 istics not incident to the carrying on of any other business, however large. 
 
 An Exposition is a show; a show of sufficient magnitude to justify the Great 
 Barnum's slogan of "The Greatest Show on Earth". In the conduct of an exposi- 
 tion the importance of the actor's dictum, "The show must go on", is magnified 
 to the 'nth degree. Men, materials and equipment must be delivered when and 
 as needed, or in many cases it is forever too late. With the ordinary business, 
 litigation is always a nuisance, usually an expensive luxury, and sometimes 
 disastrous. 
 
 LEGAL PHASES 215
 
 But with an Exposition, which must proceed with no delays in the accomplish- 
 ment of its schedule of preparation and operation under penalty of suffering 
 irreparable loss in its gate receipts, litigation takes on an even more ominous 
 aspect. The nuisance becomes redoubled, taking as it does the attention of 
 hard-pressed executives who are the underwriters, producers, stage managers, 
 scene shifters, carpenters and stage hands of The Big Show. 
 
 The expense may be borne, although usually an exposition has sore need of 
 all of its funds; but more serious than that is the threatened delay and interrup- 
 tion of work. Regardless of the ultimate outcome, if litigation or any other 
 disorganizing condition is permitted to develop which prevents the curtain 
 rising on time, or which seriously interferes with the day-by-day presentation 
 of The Show, or any considerable portion of it, as advertised, real disaster may 
 result. For the Big Show's main asset is its gate receipts, and the public is 
 quick to sense that something is wrong and the turnstiles tell the story. 
 
 Moreover, the evanescent nature of an exposition makes it almost obligatory 
 that every effort should be made to prevent matters from coming before a court. 
 Delays incident to court procedure, including the intentional delays of the other 
 parties, might extend cases for months, or even years, at a risk to the corporation, 
 of maintaining an organization at considerable expense, and also of its inability 
 to obtain the testimony of witnesses familiar with the matters involved due to the 
 separation of these witnesses from its employ. 
 
 Based on these general principles, the duties of the Fair's legal advisers were, 
 in general, as follows: 
 
 Examination of all written contractual agreements before signature by the 
 authorized officer of the Exposition, to determine whether they were in proper 
 form, whether the interests of the Corporation were properly protected, and to 
 see that there was no conflict with other existing contracts or general principles 
 enunciated by the Management. 
 
 Examination before issue of all rules, regulations or other instructions, involv- 
 ing others than Corporation employees. 
 
 Examination, previous to signature, of all letters which might involve the Cor- 
 poration in any financial or legal obligation. 
 
 Representing the Corporation in suits, injunctions or other matters before the 
 courts. 
 
 Conferences with and advice to all departments on any matters requiring legal 
 opinion or interpretation. 
 
 In addition to legal matters, the members of the Legal Section were frequently 
 consulted by various department heads concerning matters of policy and proce- 
 dure. 
 
 Drawing of Contracts 
 
 The ordinary problems confronting the lawyer in the drawing of contracts 
 were gready intensified and complicated by the fact that the subject matter of the 
 Exposition contracts was, for the most part, new and untried, and precedents from 
 
 216 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 Sears, Roebuck Building Combined Lounges with Exhibits. 
 1934 Fountain Played to Color and Light.
 
 
 The Children's Enchanted Island. 
 
 The Midway on an Average Day. 
 
 i^itk
 
 other Expositions in most cases were inapplicable because of utterly different 
 conditions. It became apparent, early in the period of preparation, that the Legal 
 Advisers must devote special efforts to the drawing of contracts to which A Cen- 
 tury of Progress was a party, so that operations thereunder might be carried on 
 smoothly and effectively. The General Attorneys, for their own benefit and for 
 the guidance of the assistant attorneys, established certain rules for the drawing 
 of contracts. These are clear and concise, and form an excellent example of the 
 practical manner in which all legal matters of the Fair were handled. 
 
 "/. Find out just what it is that the parties intend and want. Ninety-nine 
 times out of a hundred you will discover that neither party has thought of all the 
 points he desired to have covered in the contract. It is your job by persistent ques- 
 tioning to clear up the hazy spots and to aid in bringing the parties to an agree- 
 ment on essential elements which have been overlooked by both. The parties 
 usually are agreed upon the objective which they wish to achieve but, many times, 
 they have mutually agreed on cumbersome, indefinite and impractical machinery 
 to reach that objective. It is also a part of your job to suggest simple means for 
 accomplishing what the parties desire. Simplicity is at all times the essence of a 
 good contract. Usually the broad highway of established and well recognized 
 business principles is preferable to circuitous by-paths through the bushes of un- 
 certainty and doubt, even though the latter may seem to be shorter. 
 
 "2. Simplicity and clarity of language is the outstanding jeature of a good 
 contract. Most of the time which a good craftsman spends on a contract is spent 
 to eliminate the use of unnecesary words, not to add additional ones. If you re- 
 quire an undue amount of language to express your thoughts, the chances are 
 your thoughts are still 'fuzzy'. Analyze the matter further in your own mind 
 and then phrase it in its simplest terms. Many contracts are of considerable length 
 because the number of necessary and integral parts is great. But it should be pos- 
 sible to phrase the mechanism of each part simply and without undue complica- 
 tions. Strive always, however, to eliminate unnecessary parts. That is the direc- 
 tion of progress and good craftsmanship in the engineering field. It is no less 
 true in the drafting of legal documents. 
 
 "3. After you have drafted a document, read it over carefully, testing each 
 provision as to clearness, workability and safety. A contract may sound good and 
 an engineer's drawing of a bridge may look good, but the test of either is how 
 will it stand up when pressure is put upon it. The draftsman of a legal document 
 must keep in mind at all times his 'Stresses and Strains'. Ask yourself these ques- 
 tions among others: 
 
 "Is the contract clear, definite and certain so that a court can enforce its pro- 
 visions } 
 
 "How would you make proof in court in the event your client were compelled 
 to sue for breach of contract? 
 
 "Is every possible provision made to enable your client to keep out of court, 
 that is, are remedies provided in so far as possible which are either self -enforcing 
 or capable of enforcement by your client.? 
 
 LEGAL PHASES 217
 
 "Is the contract as simple as you can make it? 
 
 "Is the contract workable from a practical business man's standpoint? 
 
 "Does the contract violate any of the commitments of A Century of Progress 
 to South Park Commissioners, concessionaires, exhibitors or others? 
 
 "Having in mind that a theoretical legal right of A Century of Progress to liti- 
 gate in court questions arising under the contract is of little or no value because 
 of the necessity of immediate correction of anything which hinders or obstructs 
 the holding of an attractive, smoothly functioning exposition, have you made 
 every possible provision reserving to A Century of Progress freedom to take neces- 
 sary summary action? 
 
 "4. Avoid as you would the plague the fetish of 'legality'. It is assumed, of 
 course, that you will draw a 'legal contract' with proper consideration, in harmony 
 with all laws and ordinances under which A Century of Progress operates and 
 not in violation of any other contractual commitments previously made. But 
 your job is to produce a simple, workable, safe contract, a contract which fits the 
 necessities of the situation in which A Century of Progress finds itself. Contracts 
 to be of any use to A Century of Progress must be so devised as to produce men, 
 material and services when and as needed. The right to sue somebody if a con- 
 tract does not accomplish these results is of approximately the same value to A 
 Century of Progress as a perfectly legal set of dispatcher's orders are to a train 
 crew after the orders have brought about a 'head on collision'. 
 
 "5. Discuss freely with your associates in the legal section and with the General 
 Attorneys the principles of any contract which presents new, unusual or difficult 
 questions. This need not involve unnecessary duplication of work, and it will be 
 of great assistance in protecting against entering into some undesirable or dan- 
 gerous commitment. The man does not live who does not have his 'blind spots' 
 in considering and working on any question. But rarely do two men have the 
 same 'blind spots', and cooperation minimizes the danger. 
 
 "6. Insist at all times on giving adequate attention to problems presented. It 
 is for you to determine whether a particular matter is a major operation or the 
 removal of a hang-nail. And don't permit the urgings of the operating agencies 
 to induce you to attempt to perform a major operation in the time it takes to re- 
 move a hang-nail. The results will most certainly be disastrous to the patient. 
 Speed? Yes, at all times speed is necessary but the old adage of 'Make haste 
 slowly' is still good." 
 
 Building and Exhibit Contracts 
 
 One of the first of the major tasks was the drafting of standard forms of con- 
 tracts for the construction of buildings, together with the general conditions con- 
 stituting part of such contracts. Special considerations rendered it necessary that 
 these standard contracts and general conditions be worked out with exceptional 
 care. The question of whether mechanics' liens could attach to buildings on park 
 lands, and what would happen if such liens did attach, were among the problems 
 considered. The general conditions contained a provision that no liens of any 
 
 218 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 kind or description could be attached to the work, construction or premises cov- 
 ered by the contracts, and that the contractor would in all cases deliver the same 
 fully completed under the contract, free and clear of any and all such liens. 
 
 In view of the ever present necessity for speed and completion of construction 
 work on time, special provision was made for the right of A Century of Progress, 
 in the event of default of the contractor, to terminate the contract and to perform 
 the work itself. Having in mind the public nature and activities of A Century 
 of Progress, and the undesirable effect which would inevitably be produced in the 
 event a contractor failed to perform his contract, leaving claims for material and 
 labor unpaid, careful provision was made so that A Century of Progress could 
 withhold payments due under the contract and apply the same directly in dis- 
 charge of amounts due for material or labor. Special forms for application by the 
 contractor for payments were provided, which enabled A Century of Progress to 
 keep accurate check on the operations of the contractor with respect to meeting 
 his obligations to others. 
 
 It is interesting to note that all of the construction work done by A Century of 
 Progress under these documents was carried out and performed with substan- 
 tially no delays or difficulty, and that no litigation of any kind arose in connection 
 therewith. 
 
 Of equal importance were the forms of exhibit contracts and the rules and 
 regulations for exhibitors adopted by A Century of Progress. Some precedents 
 from other expositions were available, but because of special conditions it was 
 necessary to devise much of the framework of these contracts and regulations 
 without the assistance of precedents. The special nature of the occupancy by A 
 Century of Progress of the park lands devoted to the Exposition and the plan 
 adopted whereby exhibitors, for the most part, paid for their space in advance, 
 required careful provisions in order to avoid uncertainty and confusion. 
 
 It will be remembered that it was necessary that these exhibit contracts and 
 regulations be available for distribution early in 1931, and before the buildings set 
 aside for exhibit space were fully designed. The policy of the Management that 
 no building should be constructed until funds were in sight for the purpose 
 demonstrated its soundness in the results obtained. This policy, however, required 
 the utmost care in the drafting of the contractual relations with exhibitors, so that 
 no exhibitor could jusdy complain as to the location and nature of the space as- 
 signed to him, or as to the privileges granted. 
 
 In preparing the contracts and regulations for exhibitors, the exposition care- 
 fully considered the question of policy as to whether these documents should be 
 drawn containing all possible provisions whereby A Century of Progress might 
 take summary action in the event of failure on the part of the exhibitor to operate 
 his exhibit in a satisfactory manner, or whether, in the interest of removing 
 "sales resistance," they should be milder in form. It was decided to pursue the 
 former course. Accordingly, the contracts and rules and regulations for exhibitors 
 were drafted enabling A Century of Progress, in a summary manner, to step in 
 
 LEGAL PHASES 219
 
 and correct any possible misuse by the exhibitor of his space, or the privileges 
 extended to him. 
 
 The wisdom of this policy adopted with respect to exhibit contracts and regula- 
 tions was fully vindicated. It is interesting to recall the comment of an executive 
 officer of one of the first and largest exhibitors at A Century of Progress (a law- 
 yer, by the way) who, after carefully reading the exhibit contract and regulations, 
 stated, in substance, that he had no objection thereto and that if his company were 
 undertaking a project such as the Exposition, he would want just such a contract. 
 This viewpoint was generally held by the exhibitors at A Century of Progress, it 
 bemg understood that the severe provisions of the documents were actually for 
 the protection of the exhibitors themselves. 
 
 Drafting Concession Contracts 
 
 The drafting of concession contracts and regulations followed soon after the 
 preparation of the contracts and regulations for exhibitors. Much the same ques- 
 tions arose in connection with the concession documents as were experienced in 
 the preparation of contracts and regulations for exhibitors, with some additions. 
 Most of the exhibitors were corporations and individuals engaged in established 
 businesses. A large portion of the concessionaires consisted of corporations and 
 groups of individuals organized for the sole purpose of operating the particular 
 concessions involved, so that financial strength and stability of previous manage- 
 ment, in many instances, were lacking. 
 
 The exf)erience of previous expositions in connection with stock-selling cam- 
 paigns by concessionaires designed to raise money to finance concessions, was any- 
 thing but satisfactory, and much litigation arose out of such activities. Special 
 efforts were exerted to avoid the evils incident to improper methods of financing 
 on the part of the concessionaires. In all cases, it was insisted that the concession 
 contract should be made with the real parties in interest, and no assigning or 
 subletting of concessions was permitted without the consent of A Century of 
 Progress. The insistence upon this principle was undoubtedly effective in avoid- 
 ing trouble. 
 
 Recognition of the public belief that the Exposition would be opened on time 
 and would be successful, could be used by overenthusiastic promoters of conces- 
 sions to further their schemes. Regulations for concessionaires provided that no 
 advertising matter of any kind or description, designed to induce financial partici- 
 pation in a concession, should contain any statement to the effect or implying 
 that the concession was an activity of, or operated by, A Century of Progress. 
 The regulations further required that every prospectus and circular designed to 
 secure assistance in the financing of a concession must bear on its face in bold type 
 the statement, 
 
 "A Century of Progress is not interested in any way in the sale or the distribu- 
 tion of the within-mentioned securities." 
 
 It is but fair to state that the great majority of the concessionaires of A Century 
 of Progress were men of integrity who performed their obligations under diffi- 
 
 220 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 cult circumstances. It is believed that the care exercised in the selection of con- 
 cessionaires and in restricting methods of financing and operating were effective 
 in keeping dangerous and unsatisfactory conditions from developing. 
 
 Insurance Matters 
 
 Litigation in which A Century of Progress was involved, arising out of per- 
 sonal injuries sustained in the course of the Exposition, fell into two classes; suits 
 at law in the courts of Cook county, and Workmen's Compensation proceedings 
 before the Industrial Commission. 
 
 One of the first steps necessary for any exposition, large or small, is taking out 
 adequate insurance covering public liability and workmen's compensation liabil- 
 ity, A Century of Progress also decided that exhibitors, concessionaires, contrac- 
 tors and others, engaged in activities on the Exposition grounds, would be re- 
 quired to carry like insurance, and that A Century of Progress should be named 
 as co-assured in the policies for such insurance. The wisdom of this policy was 
 demonstrated by the results obtained. 
 
 Under the guidance of Marsh & McLennan, insurance brokers for the Fair, 
 blanket policies covering public liability and workmen's compensation insurance 
 were taken out with the Zurich General Accident and Liability Insurance Co., 
 Ltd. By agreement between this corporation and A Century of Progress, a first 
 aid hospital was established and maintained on the Exposition grounds, equipped 
 with adequate facilities and personnel. The immediate attention of all persons 
 requiring medical assistance, through the facilities of this hospital, was not only 
 economically advantageous to the Exposition, but also produced ideal results 
 from the public and humanitarian standpoints. Under these insurance arrange- 
 ments, also, the insurance carrier provided prompt and experienced investigation 
 of claims, a service which it would have been difficult, if not impossible, for A 
 Century of Progress to provide from among its own personnel. 
 
 Favorable public comment upon the manner of handling the delicate and diffi- 
 cult questions arising in this phase of the Exposition's activities, was additional ap- 
 proval of the methods used. Reports show that covering the entire period of prep- 
 aration and operation, including both expositions, the number of cases handled 
 by the Zurich Company, exclusive of cases setded before action commenced was 
 only one hundred and twenty-five. 
 
 Numerous questions arose during the Exposition period in which the technical 
 counsel and advice of the Fair's insurance brokers. Marsh & McLennan, were of 
 the greatest value to the Exposition. A Century of Progress is particularly grateful 
 to Charles Ward Seabury, William Otter, Robert M. Cunningham, and Gordon 
 Fox, of Marsh & McLennan, for their untiring efforts in solving the questions 
 which arose. 
 
 Suits in Which the Fair Was a Party 
 
 It is one thing to set forth general principles; it is another to make them work. 
 How effective the legal advisers' efforts proved is best demonstrated by the re- 
 
 LEGAL PHASES 221
 
 suits of litigation in which A Century of Progress appeared as a party. 
 
 Exclusive of Workmen's Compensation, cases and suits brought against A 
 Century of Progress which were covered by public liability insurance, cases at 
 law and in equity in which the Exposition appeared as a party amounted to only 
 eighty-one. Most of these were promptly disposed of, and none remained when 
 the Exposition's affairs were finally closed. In no cases at law or in equity was a 
 final order or judgment entered adverse to A Century of Progress. 
 
 A number of the cases at law and in equity were bills for injunction against A 
 Century of Progress to restrain it from interfering with certain concessionaires 
 operating games and side-shows which, under the terms of concession contracts, 
 had been summarily closed by the Exposition in whole or in part because of im- 
 proper operation by the concessionaires. 
 
 As to the so-called "games of skill", experience showed that, however carefully 
 a concession contract may be drawn, it is practically impossible in the contract to 
 preclude a concessionaire from overstepping the line of proper operation. There 
 was not a sufficient percentage of profit in a game of skill to satisfy a few of the 
 operators. Human nature among the customers being what it is, the gambling 
 feature is the chief allure. And human nature among the operators being what it 
 is, the gambling feature is frequently used merely as a "front" to cover up manip- 
 ulation of the game so that the player has little or no chance. 
 
 During the first few days of the 1933 Exposition, it became evident that drastic 
 methods would have to be adopted in order to hold the operators of so-called 
 "games of skill" within satisfactory bounds. The summary methods taken by the 
 Management in closing objectionable concessions of this nature, and defending 
 such action in court, were in large part effective in keeping this evil under con- 
 trol. It is interesting to note that because of the determined stand and action 
 taken by A Century of Progress in this regard, the complaints and trouble arising 
 from this source during the 1934 Exposition were negligible. 
 
 Suppression of indecent exhibitions on the grounds followed a very similar 
 course, although this evil was even more difficult to keep under control. The 
 ballyhoo of this type of concession was frequendy more objectionable than the 
 exhibition itself. Repeated warnings were effective temporarily only, and the 
 temptation on the part of the operator to paint a word picture of something which 
 should not be seen, and which, as a matter of fact, did not exist, was too strong 
 to be resisted. 
 
 In one case, after repeated warnings, summary action was taken and the show 
 was closed. An injunction suit was commenced by the operator, and A Century 
 of Progress counter-attacked by asking for an injunction against the operator to 
 restrain the use of objectionable ballyhoo. This injunction was granted, and the 
 peril of contempt proceedings in the event of violation of the injunction there- 
 after was largely effective in keeping the operator within due bounds. The issu- 
 ance of this injunction at the instance of A Century of Progress also had a salutary 
 effect in other cases. Since an action in court pesented an excellent opportu- 
 nity for free publicity, the policy of the Exposition was to eject from the grounds 
 
 222 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 and take up the passes of performers guilty of improper conduct. Much to their 
 disgust their demands for their "constitutional right to be arrested" were ignored. 
 
 The Fair's experience in connection with both the 1933 and 1934 Expositions 
 warrants the conclusion that the drastic provisions contained in its concession 
 contracts providing for summary closing of concessions for improper operation 
 were fully justified, and that summary action is the only effective way of keeping 
 concessionaires of this type within the proper limits. The bringing of injunction 
 suits by concessionaires who had been subjected to discipline of this sort pre- 
 sented no serious difficulty. It always was found that the courts were inclined to 
 support the Exposition in its reasonable efforts to keep the grounds clean. 
 
 Of the litigated matters, only three cases were commenced by A Century of 
 Progress. One of these was a suit at law by A Century of Progress to recover 
 balance due from an exhibitor at the 1933 Exposition, the case being settled before 
 trial. Another was an injunction suit brought by A Century of Progress to re- 
 strain the publisher of a private guide book from designating his book as "offi- 
 cial", in which suit the injunction was granted. The third was a suit in inter- 
 pleader brought to procure the decree of the court as to which of two contesting 
 claimants was entitled to certain funds held by A Century of Progress in which 
 it claimed no interest. Needless to say, the decree was entered and the money 
 paid over. 
 
 Settlement of Litigation 
 
 Settlements of litigation were made in some instances where circumstances 
 warranted such action, but the records show that the amount of money paid out 
 by A Century of Progress in this way was comparatively insignificant. Neverthe- 
 less, the willingness of the Exposition to examine carefully the facts and possible 
 equities on both side of any controversy and to do what was fair in the light of 
 such examination was most helpful in economically disposing of controverted 
 matters in and out of court. It became quickly known that a fair claim would be 
 promptly and equitably settled, but threats or attempted "shakedowns" would be 
 met with an uncompromising rejection. This policy built up confidence in and 
 good will for the Exposition and avoided much litigation. 
 
 The one hundred and sixty-nine suits of garnishment and attachment were 
 the result of the fact that A Century of Progress collected the concessionaires' 
 money in nearly all cases. The great majority of garnishment and attachment 
 cases commenced were brought by creditors of concessionaires, seeking to collect 
 claims of monies in the hands of A Century of Progress belonging to the conces- 
 sionaires. 
 
 Many difficult and intricate questions arose in connection with this type of liti- 
 gation, but the records show that almost without exception the questions involved 
 were disposed of to the satisfaction of all concerned. Dismissal of garnishment 
 and attachment cases by stipulation of the parties was frequent, and, of course, 
 such disposition of these cases rested upon adjustments out of court satisfactory 
 
 LEGAL PHASES 223
 
 to the parties. A few of the concessionaires, who were unfortunate in the selection 
 or operation of their amusements went into bankruptcy. 
 
 In addition to the questions ordinarily arising in bankruptcy matters, these 
 cases presented two problems somewhat unusual in character. In those cases 
 where a receiver or trustee was appointed by order of the Federal Court during 
 the operating period of the Exposition, it usually was the desire of the receiver or 
 trustee to make such disposition of the physical property of the bankrupt that 
 some new operator might go into possession and take advantage of the operating 
 period remaining. 
 
 In all cases A Century of Progress took the position that the right to operate 
 the concession was personal to the bankrupt and did not pass to the receiver or 
 trustee, but that it would permit any new operator selected through the bank- 
 ruptcy proceedings to go into possession and operate, provided such new operator 
 was responsible and would make a satisfactory arrangement by contract with A 
 Century of Progress for the new operation. 
 
 The Federal Courts sitting in bankruptcy sustained A Century of Progress in 
 this position, and purchasers or lessees of physical assets from a bankrupt estate 
 entered into new concession contracts with the Exposition under the order of the 
 Federal Court. While some of these rearrangements were troublesome, they 
 worked well for the most part. The willingness of the Exposition to grant new 
 concession privileges, under proper contract, to responsible parties acquiring 
 bankrupt assets, evidenced to the courts a fair and reasonable spirit on its part and 
 produced good results. 
 
 The problem of demolition presented new questions in connection with bank- 
 ruptcy cases. Under the law all interest of a bankrupt in the physical assets of the 
 bankrupt estate passes to the trustee in bankruptcy. A Century of Progress, how- 
 ever, took the position that the interest of the trustee in bankruptcy in such 
 physical assets was encumbered with the obligation resting upon the bankrupt, by 
 virtue of his concession contract, to demolish structures and restore the premises 
 at the close of the Exposition. 
 
 Again the Federal courts agreed with this reasonable view, and proper orders 
 were entered so that any purchaser of the bankrupt's physical assets was under 
 the necessity of performing the obligation of the bankrupt to demolish as a condi- 
 tion to his getting the benefit of his purchase. While the procuring of the neces- 
 sary orders in bankruptcy cases, in order to accomplish demolition of properties 
 in bankruptcy, required considerable attention, the procedure outlined was car- 
 ried out with no substantial difficulty. 
 
 The final phase in the legal history of A Century of Progress was finished 
 three years after the close of the second exposition. 
 
 A Century of Progress asked the Superior Court of Cook County, Illinois, in 
 December of 1936 to: 
 
 1. Take jurisdiction of the accounting of A Century of Progress; 
 
 2. Ascertain, expedite the hearing of, and determine all existing claims; 
 
 224 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 3. Order and direct payment of such claims as the Court may find and deter- 
 mine to be just and proper; 
 
 4. Enter a final decree; 
 
 5. Give to A Century of Progress and to the parties to this suit other further 
 and efficient relief as may be in accord with the principles of equity and as 
 the Court may find fitting and proper. 
 
 The Final Decree handed down in December 1937 closed with these words: 
 "It is ordered, adjudged and decreed that the Decree in so far as it requires the 
 making of any payment of money by A Century of Progress be, and the same 
 hereby is, satisfied of record." 
 
 The Exposition's obligations had been met. It has paid off its bonds, settled 
 its outstanding accounts, and apportioned its profits to specified institutions. 
 Satisfaction had been given to the Corporation itself, the exhibitors, the public, 
 and the courts. Its accounts were closed. 
 
 LEGAL PHASES 225
 
 Chapter 24 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF FAIR BUILDINGS 
 
 As work on the buildings began, there was need for constant alertness and 
 forethought. While the construction equipment required was mostly light, and 
 operations of filling, grading, pile driving, trenching and foundation excavation 
 called for no unusual processes or apparatus, the employment of new materials 
 was continually demanding departures from standard practices in erection. 
 
 Progress was often hindered by the miring of derricks and trucks, particularly 
 in the caisson clay, a sticky plastic material which came from excavations of Loop 
 buildings, and which constituted part of the fill. Since, heretofore, no accurate 
 utilities maps of this section had been needed, accidental penetration of water 
 mains and park system cables by workmen was unavoidable, and the cause of 
 many exasperating delays. 
 
 Test borings through the top fill, taken as closely as 15 feet apart, gave entirely 
 different results and made it almost impossible to figure accurately on spread- 
 type foundations for the buildings. The ground might settle badly below a 
 loaded area, and rise in unloaded areas nearby. This condition made necessary 
 the use of pile foundations for most of the buildings. Of the Exposition's own 
 structures, the Administration Building was on consolidated fill, and the Travel 
 and Transport Building (outside of the dome) and the Home Planning Hall 
 were on sand fill. 
 
 For economy's sake, a system of one and two-pile footings under columns was 
 employed, instead of following the general practice of using a minimum of three 
 piles under each column. Single piles were used under columns along exterior 
 walls, with a wall beam supporting the wall at the ground surface to resist any 
 
 226 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 eccentricity of the pile in relation to the center of the column. Two or more piles 
 were used under interior columns. 
 
 Further economies in piling were achieved by the use of cantilevered concrete 
 girders, extending over and beyond the piling. These were used to support walls 
 set away from columns and, likewise, to support stair construction. This method 
 of pile foundations became standard for the construction of all buildings erected 
 by the Exposition. 
 
 Pile-driving conditions afforded interesting problems. In the Hall of Science 
 area, it was almost impossible to prejudge the length of pile required. A 65-foot 
 pile might be started and have to be driven with a follower from 8 to 12 feet 
 below grade, to obtain proper bearing value. A second pile, 75 to 80 feet long, 
 would be used in order to make certain that it would bring up properly above 
 grade. Though but a few feet away this second pile would reach absolute refusal 
 when 20 or more feet above ground. To bring the piles driven with followers to 
 the surface, an excavation was made to the pile butt, and a 15-inch corrugated 
 culvert section set on the pile to bring it to the proper height, and filled with 
 concrete. 
 
 Unusual Materials and Construction 
 
 The problems of materials and construction paralleled those confronting an 
 engineer in war time, in that they must perform for a short period at a high de- 
 gree of efficiency, yet allow speedy and economical demolition, once their purpose 
 had been served. Here, however, the military parallel ended, for not only were 
 strength and durability essential, but architectural fitness must be observed, and 
 fire resistance and safety were of prime importance. The materials used were 
 determined by application of a few basic qualifications. 
 
 Low cost in manufacture and fabrication, and the minimum of field work for 
 erection were fundamental. Light weight, reflecting a saving in supporting 
 framework and foundations, was essential from the standpoint of cost cutting 
 and labor saving. The necessity of demolition demanded ease and security of 
 fastening to joists, and materials which would permit easy disassembly and have 
 a high salvage value. 
 
 The early structures were practical field tests of the various ideas that had been 
 developed to meet the peculiar requirements of an Exposition. Particularly true 
 was this of the Administration Building, first of these structures, which, from its 
 cornstalk roof insulation to its sour milk paint, was truly a laboratory for the new 
 in material and construction. 
 
 Many materials were investigated and, of these, some eminently suitable had to 
 be passed over, for while satisfactory for temporary structures, they were too ex- 
 pensive. Among those which met the requirements may be listed — precast rein- 
 forced gypsum slabs with interlocking joints; precast reinforced magnesite com- 
 position slabs with interlocking joints; matched wood planking, including fin- 
 ished wearing surface in the single deck thickness. Precast reinforced light 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF FAIR BUILDINGS 227
 
 weight concrete slabs, with interlocking joints and wearing surface, were used on 
 ramps. 
 
 Framewor\ 
 
 For the skeleton framework in two-story buildings, with terraces overlooking 
 courts or the lagoon, structural steel proved more economical than timber. In 
 addition, the use of this material satisfied the underwriters' requirements of non- 
 combustible framing of multi-storied structures, and gave a clear floor span of the 
 20 or more feet needed by exhibitors. No fireproofing of either columns or 
 beams, such as is required in permanent buildings, was used at the Fair. 
 
 The typical framing consisted of bents of structural steel girders, varying from 
 20 feet to 30 feet spans for floors, and up to 50 feet spans for roofs. Structural 
 steel shapes were designed for unit stresses not exceeding 21,000 pounds to the 
 square inch, and the steel Joists were designed for stress not to exceed 18,000 
 pounds. This limited deflections to 1/360 of the span. Standard steel open truss 
 joists were selected as the most economical. 
 
 Uniform, full support was insured by specially developed stiff compression 
 bridging, rigidly attached to the joists by field welding and by ingenious clamping 
 on the steel girders at the bearings. Connections of typical girders to columns 
 were designed to be bolted, arranged with a shelf angle bottom connection of 
 girder to column, and a web flange top connection, so as to develop the maximum 
 rigidity of the joist for wind stiffness. 
 
 Such framing was adaptable to both metal and wood decks; it had simplicity 
 of beam connection; it permitted the use of the space between the finished ceiling 
 and the finished floor above as a ventilating duct. In small, one-story structures, 
 the framing was generally of wood, wood joists being economical up to 16-foot 
 spans. 
 
 Most buildings had exceptional features, such as great halls, towers, large 
 cantilevered canopies, projecting pylons or fins, or high ceilings heights. In these 
 instances, individualized framing was designed for the particular condition, in- 
 volving special wind bracing connections, cross bracing, trusses, steel arches, etc., 
 and were generally riveted in the field. 
 
 In these operations, the increase in allowable stress, especially in steel, was one 
 of the experiments in structural flexibility which proved most helpful, and, at the 
 same time, was one of the widest departures from standard practice. 
 
 Flooring 
 
 Floors on fill were either of plank laid on sleepers bedded in the fill, or of rein- 
 forced concrete. Those not on fill were on either a metal or a plywood deck; the 
 live loads were uniform per square foot — in general, 100 pounds. All deflections 
 were limited to l/360th of the span. 
 
 Several methods of floor deck construction were developed, all of which were 
 suitable for use over the steel trussed joists. Two types were generally used. The 
 first was of sheet metal, made of individual interlocking channel units 6 inches 
 wide, or made in 16-inch widths with 4 ribs 4 inches on center in each unit. 
 
 228 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 Experience showed that this metal deck, after being put in place, deformed easily 
 under construction activities and required mastic fill to permit the laying of the 
 finished floor. Without the mastic fill, there was no insulation against sound. 
 
 The second type of deck used was a plywood of 5-ply Douglas fir, mill-cut in 
 large panels and laid with V-tongued joints. Besides serving, without additional 
 covering, as a sub-floor for exhibit space, it provided a good insulating value, per- 
 mitting one-half inch insulating material to be used instead of the one-inch insula- 
 tion required with metal. Its surface gave an inexpensive finished floor and a 
 greater latitude to exhibitors who desired special finishes. Its cost was about half 
 that of the metal system. 
 
 Much experimenting was done on wearing surfaces for floors, both in labora- 
 tories and on the site. The factors determining the outcome were low cost of 
 material and application, durability and resistance to wear, and harmony with 
 the remainder of the interiors. The Exposition had agreed to furnish the finished 
 corridor floors and a good subfloor for the exhibit space. Therefore, in considering 
 merits, suitability of the deck for a subfloor was important. 
 
 The various materials which were selected for consideration as finishes were 
 laid in sizable samples on top of the subfloor decks of some of the first buildings 
 erected, and thus subjected over a period of a year to construction traffic. Appro- 
 priately enough, a large share of these experiments was conducted in the Travel 
 and Transport Building. 
 
 Through such a testing process, several faults were revealed, the chief of which 
 were general lifting from the subfloor of some of the composition floorings, ex- 
 cessive wear, or separation from the subfloor on some of the composition tile 
 finishes, and some separation from the subfloor of wood finishes, cemented down. 
 Most of the finishes were generally quite satisfactory. Those showing the best 
 results, and selected for use, were as follows: composition tile on a mastic bed, for 
 offices, magnesite composition finish, wood finish cemented down, and wood fiber 
 sheets on mastic beds for the General Exhibits buildings. 
 
 For exterior terraces, much research was given to selecting a light weight mate- 
 rial which would be satisfactory over a membrane waterproofing. An asphalt 
 composition plank tile, laid in a hot asphalt mopping, with a hot asphalt mastic 
 finish laid over the membrane, was finally selected. This resulted in a very light 
 weight finish which acted as a component part of the membrane covering, and 
 which provided safety for the pedestrians because of its resiliency and non-slip 
 character. It materially reduced the live-load requirements over the other terrace 
 materials. All terraces were designed for a live load of 100 pounds per square 
 foot. Some terraces were paved with a %-inch precast terrazo tile which was laid 
 over a two-ply membrane roofing. In colors it was limited to black, brown and 
 dull red. 
 
 Walls 
 
 In determining what types of wall sections would be most suitable, conclusive 
 tests as to structural and weather resisting qualities were made in the field. The 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF FAIR BUILDINGS 229
 
 main factors to be considered in selecting wall sections were economy in the sup- 
 porting framework, the effective sealing of joints, the moisture absorption of the 
 surface material, whether structural movement could be absorbed by the wall 
 without damage to the material, the ability of the material to retain a surface paint 
 cover without chemical reaction, and the fire resistant qualities. Also, the wall 
 structure should be light in weight so as to reduce structural framing and founda- 
 tion costs. 
 
 Early in the considerations it became apparent that the solution lay in some 
 form of thin wall board fastened to a structural backing. Such a material could 
 be brought to the job in a finished state which lessened the difficulties of cold 
 weather construction. If properly fastened and of reasonable size, it would resist 
 damage from structural movement in the building, and if damaged, could be 
 cheaply and quickly replaced. 
 
 In general, two types of wall construction were developed and used. One util- 
 ized light pressed metal channel sections, extending from the base course to the 
 party wall, and forming a finished surface to the wall. These channel sections had 
 interlocking joints for weather resistance. The ribs of the channels were turned 
 toward the inside of the building and were supported on horizontal steel girders, 
 to which they were clipped with a sheet steel device which was readily and 
 quickly fastened with the ordinary tools carried by a mechanic. 
 
 The other type utilized various wall boards for the exterior covering, applied 
 on metal or wooden studs, which were in turn fastened to the structural members 
 of the building. Three wall board materials were used: asbestos cement board, a 
 special type of gypsum board, and Douglas fir plywood. 
 
 The first of these, asbestos cement wall board, was both durable and incom- 
 bustible. Since this material absorbed moisture freely and therefore swelled and 
 shrank considerably with variations of moisture content, it was necessary to hold 
 the boards to the studs at the edge with exterior battens which allowed expansion 
 and contraction to take place freely. The stud backings were usually placed two 
 feet on centers. The wall board sizes used were 4-foot widths, in lengths from 8 
 to 12 feet. They were set with lengths vertical in most cases. 
 
 A Z-shap)ed metal weather strip or flash was used at the horizontal joints, ex- 
 tending up under the upper board and over the lower board, making a fairly 
 weather tight joint. In both the horizontal joints and the vertical joints, a water- 
 proof mastic compound was used to increase the weather resisting qualities of the 
 wall. With this type of wall board, difficulties were experienced in obtaining a 
 lasting paint covering, as there seemed to be a chemical reaction between the 
 wall board and the paint, causing the paint to peel off. However, after experi- 
 mentation, an effective sealer coat was found, which permitted a satisfactory 
 paint job. 
 
 A special type of gypsum wall board was also employed. It was '/z-inch in 
 thickness and was also used in 4-foot widths and lengths up to 12 feet, with the 
 joints along the length of the board shaped in a V-form. The lengths of the 
 boards were also placed vertically in most cases. The vertical joints were covered 
 
 230 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 with batten strips in such a way as to permit movement of the board, and the 
 horizontal joints were flashed with a Z-shaped metal section. All joints were 
 filled with a waterproof mastic. 
 
 Gypsum wall board was primed at the mill before delivery with aluminum 
 paint containing a varnish vehicle. This board was found satisfactory for use if 
 protected from moisture by a general prime coat of paint soon after erection, and 
 was found to have an excellent base for final painting. 
 
 The third wall board used was 54 inch 5-ply Douglas fir plywood in 4-foot 
 widths and lengths up to 12 feet. It was arranged with half-lapped joints, and 
 generally set with the length running vertically. This board was primed at the 
 mill with hot linseed oil. It could be used for curved sections down to a 20-foot 
 radius. With smaller radii, two 54 -inch 3-ply boards with a coat of white lead 
 and oil between the boards were used. 
 
 For interior walls %-inch gypsum board was generally used, as this was the 
 only economical wall board commercially obtainable which would meet the nec- 
 essary requirements as to fire resistance. The butt joints of the interior wall gyp- 
 sum board were laid close with no filler or joint covering except that desired for 
 decorative effect. The horizontal nailing members were framed between the 
 studs at all horizontal joints. 
 
 Roofs and Railings 
 
 Roofs were designed for supporting a live load of 25 pounds per square foot 
 uniformly distributed. The surface treatment of all roofs was 3-ply composition 
 roofing felt mopped on with asphalt over the insulation material, which in turn 
 was fastened to the various types of roof deck. On metal roof decks the insula- 
 tion material was also mopped to the deck with asphalt. On wooden roof decks, 
 the insulation material was fastened by nailing. 
 
 In most cases the roofing membrane was carried up over the coping to serve as 
 a flashing. Copings were kept low so as to permit snow to be blown of? the roof 
 readily without drifting. All roofs were pitched to the drains so as to secure a 
 complete water run-ofl. In some cases, canvas decks were used over plywood, and 
 were painted to obtain an interesting variety of color. 
 
 The railings on stairways and around terraces on the buildings were largely of 
 the open type to increase visibility. In the main, these open railings were made of 
 welded pipe held in place by clipping over the coping. In most cases they were 
 also braced by a strut lag-screwed to the outer wall face of the building. 
 
 The Breathing Dome 
 
 While each building had its own construction characteristics, a few of the 
 projects differed so much from the normal building construction of the times 
 that they warrant more specific mention. 
 
 The Travel and Transport Building was designed at a time when a large in- 
 door exhibit of historical and modern locomotives seemed certain. In order to 
 view and comprehend their development from the earliest model to the most 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF FAIR BUILDINGS 231
 
 modern, it was considered advisable to place them around a circle, similar in ar- 
 rangement to their position in a roundhouse. 
 
 The necessity of great space without columns suggested the cantilever method 
 for covering the building. Accordingly, the mode of construction resolved upon 
 was the adaptation of the principles of the suspension bridge to the roof of a 
 building. Twelve tower columns, approximately 125 feet in height, were erected 
 around the periphery of a circle. These towers were back-guyed to concrete coun- 
 terweights constructed below the surface of the ground. Cables were hung from 
 each tower to the tower opposite, and the roof construction was suspended from 
 these cables. The roof itself was of very light steel, easily erected with staging, 
 and formed a hemispherical section. 
 
 Because of the large amount of movement that occurs in such construction, due 
 to the different conditions of loading and changes of temperature, the twelve 
 columns were constructed with rocker bases which allowed them to take the re- 
 sultant movement with the development of interior flexure. The maximum move- 
 ment which took place in this structure amounted to a change in diameter of 
 24 inches, but this produced a change in circumference at the top of over six feet. 
 
 The circumferential difference was provided for in four windows at the cardinal 
 points of the compass. These window motives were hung from the trusses, rest- 
 ing on the towers at the roof line, on sliding connections so that free movement 
 could take place. On the exterior, an overlapping sliding construction joint kept 
 the walls fairly air tight. The sliding connections also took care of the roof lines 
 around the periphery. The change in shape in the spherical section in the dome 
 during the movement was provided for by four radial expansion joints in the roof. 
 
 Louver openings were constructed in the outside periphery below the roof line 
 and flap valves were placed in a monitor over the center of the dome to permit a 
 quick adjustment of any difference which might occur in air pressure within the 
 building as compared to that on the outside of the building. Even with these 
 provisions there was considerable vertical movement at the center of the roof, 
 giving rise to the name "The Breathing Dome". At the time of its completion it 
 was believed to be the largest clear space under roof ever constructed. 
 
 The unique conception of the dome itself was matched by its unusual methods 
 of construction. An illustration of this point was the assembling of the large 
 columns. These came in three sections, and it was decided to assemble the two 
 upper sections while lying on the ground, making it possible to reach high 
 enough with the derricks. Then the lower sections were set up and guyed with 
 temporary guys while the lower steel bracing was set in place. The main steel 
 columns were entirely unsupported until the entire cable job was finished. 
 
 Considerable thought and experimentation were given to finding a proper 
 lubricant for the points of contact or joints made necessary by the movement of 
 the members. There were no means of getting at the bearings after erection, and 
 it was certain, with the heavy weight upon them, that lubrication with ordinary 
 oils or grease at time of erection, would not last throughout the Exposition. A 
 special graphite paste was developed which dried almost immediately after ap- 
 
 232 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 plying, leaving a thick coating of hard graphite on the bearing point. 
 
 The under side of the roof of this large room being a spherical section, formed 
 a huge sound reflector and produced some interesting acoustical effects. A man 
 speaking in a whisper while standing at one side of the room could be heard two 
 hundred feet away on the other side of the enclosure. A loud noise in the center 
 of the room would produce about forty separate and distinct echoes before dying 
 to inaudibility. 
 
 Sl{y Ride and Its Towers 
 
 All major expositions have felt the need of some dominant feature projecting 
 into the air to a height considerably above all other fair structures. This feature 
 has been designed as an architectural climax of the composition as a whole, and 
 to give the visitors a thrill by its unusual appearance. The French Exposition 
 had the Eiffel Tower, built in 1889. The Ferris Wheel was the dominant feature 
 of the Chicago Exposition in 1893. Many such features were taken under con- 
 sideration for use at the Century of Progress and for various reasons they were 
 discarded in favor of the Sky Ride. 
 
 The structure when completed consisted of two steel towers 628 feet in height 
 and 1,850 feet apart, one being erected on the mainland near the south end of 
 Soldier Field and the other on Northerly Island. 
 
 The towers were connected by a cable suspension span which supported the 
 track cables on which traveled ten rocket-shaped cars at a height of 219 feet. The 
 towers were backstayed to great counter weights located 600 feet in the rear of 
 each tower. These counter weights were designed to maintain constant tension 
 on the cable structure during its various movements in expansion and contraction. 
 
 Each tower was equipped with four elevators, two going to the observatory 
 floor at the 600-foot level, and two to the car platform at the 219-foot level. The 
 observatory consisted of a two-story structure, one entirely enclosed, with ample 
 glass sections to allow easy visibility over the surrounding country, and the other 
 an open observatory enclosed with steel netting. 
 
 The "rocket" cars, leaving from the 219-foot level, traveled across the suspended 
 cable way to the opposite tower, and were capable of speeds up to 500 feet per 
 minute. The cars then passed over the rigid track section around to the far side 
 of the tower and returned over the other track cable. Provision was made for 
 side-tracking the cars at the rear section of the tower to permit repairs. 
 
 The rocket-shaped cars had a seating capacity of thirty-six passengers arranged 
 in two tiers. They left the loading platform under their own power. After accel- 
 eration to the approximate speed of the traction cable, an automatic gripper en- 
 gaged the traction rope which furnished the power for drawing the cars across 
 the cable span. As they reached the other end, the automatic gripper disengaged 
 the cars and they ran under their own power to the unloading platform. This 
 permitted them to slow down and stop with minimum disturbance. 
 
 The Sky Ride proved to be one of the most popular features of the Exposition. 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF FAIR BUILDINGS 233
 
 It was patronized by approximately 12 percent of the patrons of the Fair, and on 
 one day accommodated around 55,000 people. 
 
 Inasmuch as this was a new type of structure, very careful watch was kept upon 
 all important structural parts to assure the safety of the visitors. This necessi- 
 tated a thorough inspection of the cable section between the towers, accomplished 
 by a maintenance crew traveling over this filmy structure at a dizzy height on 
 bosun's chairs and by other means. The maintenance work was done during the 
 closed hours of the Exposition. 
 
 In spite of the fact that this structure was novel and untried, it had very few 
 periods of serious breakdown, and no accidents of a serious nature occurred dur- 
 ing its operation. 
 
 Old Fort Dearborn 
 
 In the midst of the modern structures and new materials, the faithful replica of 
 little old Fort Dearborn stood as a constant reminder of the changes which the 
 century had wrought. The basis for the working drawings of the fort was Cap- 
 tain John Whistler's drawings, dated January 20, 1808. These were part of that 
 officer's report, on that date, to the War Department on the condition of the fort 
 located at the bend of the "Cheykaho" river. The Chicago Historical Society, 
 with painstaking care and a deep interest, obtained the drawings for the Exposi- 
 tion, with the cooperation of the War Department. The original drawings, as 
 interpreted, were followed absolutely. It must be remembered, however, that only 
 the fort itself was reproduced by the Exposition, and that the original included 
 many outlying buildings, gardens, barns and stockades. 
 
 As the engineers began staking out lines and elevations for Fort Dearborn the 
 situation was reminiscent of those early days, more than a hundred years before, 
 when the original fort was being laboriously constructed. For here was a wilder- 
 ness of sand of man's making, removed from telephone and electric power, from 
 drinking water, food and transportation. 
 
 However, it can hardly be imagined that the early settlers had difficulty in ob- 
 taining logs close at hand, while it was now necessary to go several hundred miles 
 for the Norway pine required to rebuild the old fort. The beginning of actual log 
 work brought realization that there existed no modern equipment for the eco- 
 nomic handling of logs, so it was necessary to revert to the horse, the same motive 
 power that had been used a century before. Four lumberjacks were brought down 
 from the Northern Wisconsin woods, to assist in cutting and hewing the logs. 
 
 A painstaking search was made for other materials sufficiently weathered to 
 be in harmony with the fort's reproduction. Field stone which had lain in the 
 open for years, and was of various shades, was carefully chosen. "Hand split 
 cedar shakes" from the West Coast were selected to resemble the shingles used a 
 hundred years before, and laid in staggered fashion with a fold of heavy mule-hide 
 roofing between each layer of shingles to insure water tightness. 
 
 The doors and window detail gave additional difficulty, for it was necessary, in 
 building the doors, sashes and blinds, carefully to hand-adze the surface of each 
 
 234 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 piece used. As no glass manufacturer would undertake to supply the inferior ma- 
 terial used in 1803, except at a prohibitive cost, it was finally decided to use glass 
 which had been rejected because of defects, and accordingly bubbles, seams and 
 other flaws were eagerly sought. 
 
 A tall, straight spruce, seventy feet high, which was about 14 inches at the base 
 and tapered to a 6-inch point, was selected near Shawano, Wisconsin, to be the 
 flagpole. As shipping by rail would have required three flat cars, the tree was 
 trucked directly to the site. The old flag of 1812, with its 15 stars and 15 stripes, 
 was raised to float proudly over the replica of Chicago's first official building. 
 
 Beautiful Lama Temple 
 
 In 1929, Vincent Bendix of Chicago, commissioned Dr. Sven Hedin, Swedish 
 explorer and author, to set out for Mongolia in quest of a Lama Temple, to pre- 
 serve for Chicago a fitting representation of this superb architecture, so fast disap- 
 pearing. Dr. Hedin selected the Golden Pavilion of Jehol, built in the interior of 
 China in 1767. A replica of this magnificent structure was made and shipped, in 
 pieces, to Chicago. It was a coincidence that the arrival of this treasure came at a 
 time when public interest in the Fair was rapidly gaining momentum throughout 
 the metropolitan area. Mr. Bendix' thoughts, consequently, turned to the Exposi- 
 tion as the proper place to display the shrine, and an agreement was reached 
 among the Exposition, Mr. Bendix and U.S. customs authorities for the placement 
 of the Temple on the Fair grounds. 
 
 Dr. Hedin had spent two years on his work of reconstruction. Some 28,000 
 pieces of wood had been carved and fitted. Each piece was marked to denote its 
 position in the building, and they had been fashioned with such nicety that they 
 could be fitted together with dove-tail joints and dowels. Great was the conster- 
 nation, when the boxes were opened up, to find that the markings were in North- 
 ern Chinese characters, and the work was held up for several days until Chicago's 
 Chinatown had literally been scoured to find someone who understood the mark- 
 ings, and the architecture as well. 
 
 The secrets of Chinese painting had been passed down from father to son 
 through generations, and it was necessary, in order that the work be correctly 
 done, to bring painters from far-away Pekin to retouch, with imported Chinese 
 paint, those sections which had been damaged by salt water, and to prepare the 
 material for the non-painted portions. 
 
 The double-decked roof of the Temple conformed to the original, and 25,000 
 copper shingles, overlaid with pure leaf-gold, crowned the pavilion in a blaze of 
 glory. 
 
 Maya Temple 
 
 The Maya Temple, reproduced at the Exposition, was a section of the Nunnery 
 of Uxmal, one of the ruined cities buried in the jungles of Yucatan. Relic of the 
 lost Mayan civilization, it was perhaps the greatest achievement of early man in 
 America and is considered the finest example of Mayan architecture. 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF FAIR BUILDINGS 235
 
 An expedition from Tulane University, which obtained the architectural data 
 and the casts of statuary and ornaments for the Temple's reproduction, was 
 financed by A Century of Progress. Under the leadership of Dr. Franz Blum, a 
 group of architects, surveyors, modelers, plaster casters and photographers spent 
 two seasons in Yucatan making accurate measurements and casts for the Temple, 
 and the work, thereafter, was continued in the University at New Orleans. 
 
 Although a reproduction of the entire structure of the Temple and its wings 
 had been contemplated originally, it was soon realized that this would require 
 such an acreage of enormous buildings that curtailment of the plan to the showing 
 of one wing of the Nunnery, and that on a slightly reduced scale, was found neces- 
 sary. 
 
 The Maya Temple was reproduced as nearly like the original, both as to archi- 
 tectural detail and color, as the data available and the necessity of operating as an 
 exhibit building would permit. The original building was built of stone — the 
 reproduction of plaster and wood. 
 
 The purpose of placing this exhibit at the Exposition was to give the visitors 
 an insight into the life and culture of one of the most advanced peoples who in- 
 habited this hemisphere before the coming of the Europeans. 
 
 The material exhibited in the building consisted of artifacts and sculptures of 
 the Mayas — some original and others in reproduction, ancient and modern Maya 
 figures in costume engaged in characteristic work, and paintings and murals de- 
 picting the culture of these peoples. 
 
 To Dr. Fay-Cooper Cole, head of the Department of Anthropology at the Uni- 
 versity of Chicago, and to Dr. Franz Blum of Tulane University, we are indebted 
 for the general picture presented and for the details which gave it life. 
 
 Fencing 
 
 Careful thought was given to the subject of fencing in the grounds during the 
 fall months of 1931. It was, of course, highly important that the fence be satisfac- 
 tory from the point of protecting the grounds, and that it be of pleasing appear- 
 ance and minimum cost. 
 
 A cyclone wire fence was considered, but was deemed unsatisfactory because 
 of the open view through the wire mesh. A board fence either of solid or picket 
 type, was proposed and found to be cheaper, but too easily scaled. Plans were 
 drawn for a solid wooden fence, much more difficult to scale, consisting of large 
 plywood sheets applied on a heavy wooden frame on a saw-tooth plan. This, how- 
 ever, proved to be too costly. Some time later, fabrication of the corrugated metal 
 type of fence was worked out on an economical basis, and this fence was subse- 
 quently contracted for and built. 
 
 Other People's Construction 
 
 The construction work carried on by other organizations than the Exposition 
 represented largely whole buildings, each devoted exclusively to a single exhibitor 
 or concessionaire. The problems of erecting these coincided with those which con- 
 
 236 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 fronted the Exposition, with two general exceptions. Probably none of these par- 
 ticipants had financial anxiety except to keep costs within appropriations, and 
 these buildings offered a greater field for experimentation than the Exposition's 
 own buildings. 
 
 The story behind the large buildings for single exhibitors was largely the same 
 as that of the Fair's general buildings. The history of the small buildings was 
 highlighted in the eleven modern homes, constructed in close proximity to one 
 another, and invitingly landscaped. 
 
 As an avenue of approach to putting into practical use many of the suggestions 
 offered by the exhibit buildings, this colony of homes was highly important. In 
 the building of eight of them, prefabricated units were employed, and the safety 
 factors involved in the increased use of steel were easily demonstrable, substitute 
 materials were explained and made recognizable, and the definite economies coin- 
 cident with this type of construction, convincingly illustrated. Elimination of ex- 
 ternal adornment and dependence on light and color for decorative effects, so 
 integral to the modern architecture, were shown to be a natural accompaniment 
 of the new construction. 
 
 As an embodiment of new building principles and materials, the frameless steel 
 house had been a development of keen interest to both the industry and the lay- 
 man. Classically simple in line, the exterior wall surface of porcelain enamaled 
 steel panels, its fire-resistance, lighting, safety and termite-proof qualities were 
 self-evident. These houses revealed that the proved economies of factory produc- 
 tion of prefabricated units, and ease and speed of their assembly, were compatible 
 with variety and individual distinction. Each is described in the chapter on in- 
 dustrial exhibits. 
 
 The Building Code 
 
 The more people there are congregated within an area, the greater are the 
 hazards of fire and accident occasioned by unsafe construction. In a project like 
 a fair, which is continuously in the public eye, and where its success can be 
 blocked by a single catastrophe, it is essential that visitors have no need to fear 
 for their personal safety. 
 
 In the normal routine of living, building codes are established by the various 
 city communities. The provisions of such codes are usually exacting in order to 
 ensure that the buildings erected will not deteriorate to the point of being dan- 
 gerous to life and property during the entire period of their existence. 
 
 A Century of Progress, even though not within the City of Chicago jurisdic- 
 tion, gave consideration to asking the city to take jurisdiction over its construc- 
 tion because of the confidence it would give to those who would be its guests. 
 There were two serious drawbacks to requesting city inspection on the basis of 
 the Chicago code. First, the Chicago code was not drawn for temporary struc- 
 tures and compliance with it would necessitate a durable type of construction un- 
 warranted for the Exposition's short duration. Also, the Chicago code had been 
 drawn before development of the type of materials the Exposition intended to use, 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF FAIR BUILDINGS 237
 
 which would be a handicap too great to overcome within the funds available 
 without changing the city code, for which there was no time. 
 
 For these reasons, the Exposition took advantage of its location and requested 
 the South Park Board to prepare and authorize a building code to apply to the 
 Exposition. As a result, a committee was established, composed of prominent 
 engineers, architects and members of the Board of Fire Underwriters, to draw up 
 a code. 
 
 Taking as a foundation, the national codes of the underwriters and recom- 
 mended codes of the Bureau of Standards, of the U.S. Department of Commerce, 
 a proposed building ordinance was prepared and submitted to the South Park 
 Commissioners. Engineers of the Board of Underwriters on this committee 
 recognized that unusual precautions were to be taken in the Exposition's build- 
 ings to prevent the growth of incipient fire, such as the installation of automatic 
 as well as manual fire alarm systems to be connected not only with the Exposi- 
 tion's own fire department headquarters, but, also, with Chicago fire department 
 headquarters. They also recognized that the organization was to be set up in such 
 a manner that there would be almost daily inspection of the complete plant to 
 suppress fire and other hazards. 
 
 The proposed code frankly recognized conditions as they were to exist on the 
 grounds, and also made ample provision for the safety of the patrons and the 
 Exposition's personnel. At the same time they did permit the maximum use of 
 economical materials and building construction methods. 
 
 When the code was submitted to the South Park Commissioners, a committee 
 was appointed to review it. Upon the recommendation of this group of promi- 
 nent Chicago architects and engineers, the code was adopted and the reviewing 
 committee was appointed by the Commissioners to act as the code executors. 
 
 Buildings already erected were first checked. It speaks well for the design and 
 construction forces that few changes were required. The checking of buildings 
 in the process of erection came next, and then future plans and designs. The 
 Exposition, and others erecting structures, were required to procure both erection 
 and occupancy permits from the Code authorities. 
 
 The cooperation of the Code authorities in this basically important work was 
 outstanding. No members of the Exposition's own staff worked more faithfully 
 than they. For days and nights at a stretch they labored to aid in pushing con- 
 struction, but never once did they falter in enforcing the highest degree of safety. 
 
 That there were no structural failures was a high tribute to their ability and in- 
 tegrity of performance. Their inspections, moreover, did not end with the con- 
 struction period, but continued with commendable frequency throughout the 
 entire period of the Fair's operation. 
 
 Prime Factors in Progress 
 
 In retrospect, the whole building phase resembled a jigsaw puzzle. The pieces 
 were there if only they could be identified and assembled properly, in the time 
 available. Occasionally one piece was lost and it was necessary to stop and make 
 
 238 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 another, which might be discarded in turn when the right one later turned up. 
 
 The fact that the goal was reached by the prescribed date can be credited to a 
 combination of factors, the failure of any one of which would either have delayed 
 the opening or have occasioned one characterized by incompleteness. On the other 
 hand, no single one of these factors could be credited as the reason for success. 
 
 The relationship with contractors was of such basic soundness that it expedited 
 work at every point. In the first place, lack of construction activity incident to the 
 then current depression made securing a contract an important matter for the con- 
 tractor instead of just another job. Prompt cash payments to him enabled a quick 
 turnover of his capital and his taking advantage of a buyer's market in equipment 
 and materials. No large and obstructive inspection force was placed over the con- 
 tractor; rather, he was put on his mettle to produce a finished job in his own way 
 in the shortest time. 
 
 The Fair exercised only advisory superintendence as long as the work pro- 
 ceeded according to the contract. Dividing the work into many individual con- 
 tracts limited the responsibility and assured a more personal direction by the con- 
 tractor himself, and also induced much good-natured rivalry. With few excep- 
 tions, the result was a cordial response to every effort which was made. 
 
 Fine Cooperation from Labor 
 
 Labor took a high place in getting A Century of Progress built. The Exposi- 
 tion itself was never involved as a principal in any strike, though it was many 
 times in the position of mediator. In the early days of construction, a few cessa- 
 tions of work for short periods occurred while labor union jurisdictions were being 
 determined. Such questions were raised because of the new materials and methods 
 devised for the special purposes of the Fair, for which there were no union prece- 
 dents. To have these settled before the critical periods of construction arrived ob- 
 viated disputes and stoppage of work which would have been disastrous. 
 
 When exhibitors moved in, new labor problems developed over their installa- 
 tions. Some exhibitors were employers of union labor and others were not. Many 
 who had had difficulties in building previous exhibits expected trouble and did 
 not believe that the Exposition could maintain the policy of using union labor 
 itself and still protect exhibitors in following whatever were their customary poli- 
 cies, 'a ,/.)(1-ji, 
 
 One of the most interesting strikes, although of short duration, was that of 
 structural steel workers on the Sky Ride towers, shortly before the opening of the 
 Exposition. It was unusual in that the strike was settled and the workers ordered 
 back at the instigation of the national officers, without any action by Exposition 
 officials. The quick setdement testified to the cooperation organized labor gave 
 throughout the construction and operation periods. 
 
 A committee of the directors of exhibits, works and operations was formed to 
 anticipate and prevent strikes in the final months. Colonel H. B. Hackett, well 
 known in both labor and professional circles, became a member of the staff with 
 the sole duty of avoiding or solving labor difficulties. 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF FAIR BUILDINGS 239
 
 Full precautions were always taken to secure a maximum of workman safety 
 and favorable working conditions. Such a low accident record resulted that the 
 Fair had the pick of skilled men, even on hazardous jobs. 
 
 Some place or another, almost every question that arises in labor disputes came 
 up. The sense of responsibility shown by the unions, especially by the American 
 Federation of Labor, and the considerate treatment of these problems by the con- 
 tractors, the exhibitors, and the concessionaires, made the relations between 
 union labor and A Century of Progress a model. 
 
 Progress in construction was gready accelerated above normal for several rea- 
 sons. First, there was a surplus of materials, men and equipment. Second, the 
 light-weight units and factory-made or prefabricated pieces cut erecting time. 
 Third, the site itself was not only unusually accessible, but after the initial draw- 
 backs were overcome, materials and equipment could be easily moved throughout 
 the grounds. Fourth, the length and narrowness of the site was for once an ad- 
 vantage in that it enabled many operations to proceed simultaneously unhindered, 
 by one another. Fifth, practically all projects, especially the large ones, got under 
 way early enough to take whatever time was needed to do the job well. Last, but 
 by no means least, the various inspections by fire, code, and other authorities 
 were made promptly and expeditiously. 
 
 In the building schedule more than thirty structures had been completed or 
 were under way at the end of 1932; the building work was two months ahead of 
 schedule. Of the other stricdy Exposition work much of the water-supply dis- 
 tribution system was underground, and a 30-million gallons per day pumping 
 station had been constructed. The sanitary and storm sewers were virtually com- 
 pleted, and the pumplog conduits for electric cables were in. 
 
 Substantially, the work remaining to be done consisted of finishing operations, 
 the construction of merchandising stands, comfort stations and other small struc- 
 tures. In brief, construction operations were entering the final stage at the begin- 
 ning of 1933, and all had been accomplished substantially without overtime work 
 charges. 
 
 In spite of this there was a frantic push at the end. The opening was moved 
 up five days. During May, there was such a continual downpour of rain that the 
 landscaping could not go on, hands instead of machines had to dig miles of tele- 
 phone trenches, the paint was washed off, the roofs leaked under the deluge, and 
 all work was delayed. It was a perspiring, weary force that lifted their faces to 
 the sun on the morning of May 27, 1933, but a jubilant one because its work was 
 done and ready for the opening two hours ahead. 
 
 i 
 
 240 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 Chapter 2^ 
 
 ELECTRICAL SYSTEM 
 
 The throngs of visitors who nightly gathered in the Court of the Hall of 
 Science to applaud the famous "Arcturus ceremony" were thrilled by their 
 thought that the Exposition lights were turned on by the rays from a star, 
 40-light years from the earth. They had little, or no, knowledge that the 
 "phenomenon" they came to see was made possible by the solution of one of the 
 numerous phases of the Fair's electrical supply problem. 
 
 In respect to its utilities the Exposition was akin to a large city, but compacted 
 within a small area with consequent abnormalities developing unique problems 
 requiring, in many cases, unusual solutions. Some were related to the unpre- 
 dictable movements of Exposition population; others to variable demands for 
 illumination. The presentation of exhibits added tremendously to the electrical 
 load and the windowless buildings required electrical energy outside the normal 
 hours of darkness. 
 
 The big problem was to supply enough energy for a maximum consumption 
 twelve to fifteen hours a day, seven days a week, with a reliability of service 
 equal to that provided for a municipal distributing system. 
 
 The early studies were centered on endeavoring to estimate the amount of 
 energy that would be required. A list of classes of needs was compiled and certain 
 assumptions made, of power needed for each category. In every instance, these 
 estimates carried an item to cover unanticipated demands. 
 
 Inside the exhibit buildings, 2 watts per square foot was set for direct booth 
 lighting, and an equivalent foot-candle power for all indirect lighting. Added 
 to this was the power load for ventilation and emergency lighting, and two 
 
 ELECTRICAL SYSTEM 241
 
 watts per square foot for exhibitors' purposes. Actually, the exhibitors' require- 
 ments varied from 4 to 50 watts per square foot, and it was later necessary 
 to increase all feeders on all buildings to meet their needs. 
 
 Concessions were set up at 6 watts per square foot. Display windows were 
 provided with 150 watts per linear foot of glass, while one-half watt per square 
 foot was allowed for storage spaces, outside walks, and similar areas. 
 
 Exterior building illumination was fixed at 2 watts per square foot; the 
 requirements for the amusement area were set at 1800 kilowatts; and a total 
 of 1000 kilowatts was added for special decorative effects, such as fountains. 
 Because it had not been projected, the Sky-Ride was not included in the original 
 design, but was later added at 2000 kilowatts. 
 
 It was fully realized that the original estimated requirements would represent 
 simply a start. It was recognized that as plans for the Exposition's own buildings 
 advanced, and as exhibits and concessions were contracted for, many items 
 must necessarily be refigured, perhaps time after time. But here, at least, was 
 an estimate that would enable proceeding with the design of the basic system. 
 As soon as the preliminary estimates were completed, there began again the 
 eternal game of pushing work to early completion and, at the same time, holding 
 it back until the factors which should mould it could definitely resolve 
 themselves. 
 
 As far as it proved possible, without having a definite knowledge of what 
 funds would be available for decoration, exterior illumination of buildings was 
 designed at the same time the architectural plans were prepared. It was possible 
 to use the actual connected load in designs where neon tubes and applique light- 
 ing were required. 
 
 Standardization of Details 
 
 Throughout the course of design, the standardization of details was especially 
 emphasized. Special materials were designed only in cases where the standards 
 were too expensive or unadaptable. A high degree of standardization was 
 attained in the construction itself, where full advantage was taken of labor- 
 saving tools and methods. Open-cleat wiring was used in protected places; 
 emergency lighting was installed in conduit; and there were no restrictions on 
 raceways for feeder distribution, on small wireway for sign lighting, or on 
 bench work. 
 
 Motors, power, and exterior lighting were installed in metallic conduit or 
 raceways. The result was a large saving in the cost of electrical work, since 
 ordinary installations could be changed into factory construction. The larger 
 portion of the work was done at a bench, rather than at the place of installation. 
 
 It early became evident that, instead of installing a power station, it would be 
 more practical to purchase electrical energy from the Commonwealth Edison Co. 
 which supplied the metropolitan area. Current was fed at twelve thousand volts 
 from the company's station in Soldier Field and four thousand volts from the 
 station at 31st Street. 
 
 242 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 The Fair paid for the high tension feeders to the substations. The original 
 cost of the installation of the main transformer equipment, and rental of the 
 equipment, while met by the Commonwealth Edison, was charged to the Fair 
 at the rate of 58 mills per kilowatt hour until the construction and rental 
 cost were amortized. The Exposition constructed the building for housing 
 the main and secondary switching equipment, and built the distribution system 
 throughout the grounds. It contracted for the necessary switching equipment with 
 the Commonwealth Edison Co. on a rental basis, the equipment to be returned 
 to the company at the conclusion of the Fair. 
 
 As power and light would be required in all portions of the buildings, it 
 was decided to use a 4-wire, 3-phase, "Y"-system. The lead sheath was used 
 for the neutral return in the 4000-volt underground system; and an insulated 
 wire for the neutral return in the 120-volt system within the buildings, and for 
 the secondary underground system. 
 
 The general distribution system was designed as a 12,000-volt feeder to the 
 substation in Soldier Field, transformed to 4,000 volts, switched with solenoid 
 operated oil switches, an underground 4,000-volt feeder distribution system to all 
 transformer vaults north of 31st Street; two 4,000-volt feeders from the Common- 
 wealth Edison 39th Street sub-station to property at 31st Street, and these two 
 feeders underground for feeding the south end of the Fair; and a tie between 
 the two systems, feeders No. 2 and No. 43, for emergency use at 31st Street. 
 
 There was an underground secondary system for feeding all concessions and 
 isolated buildings which were not large enough for individual transformer 
 vaults. Transformer vaults were located in buildings and on the grounds so as 
 to give a minimum of feeder lengths. 
 
 Wooden Pump Logs 
 
 After comparison of cost of several types of duct construction, and in view of the 
 high probability of uneven settlement of the made land, it was decided to use a 
 four-inch wooden pump log in approximately 10-foot lengths as cable ducts. 
 Wood manholes were used in all places except where located in roadways. Duct 
 lines were planned under planted areas of grass plots where they would be the 
 most accessible and where the sprinkling would keep the duct lines wet with a 
 consequent better conduction of heat. Eleven feeders extended from the sub- 
 stations to various portions of the grounds, with emergency switching equipment 
 to assure feeding either from Soldier Field or from 31st Street. 
 
 The feeders to the island area were installed under the planking of the 16th 
 Street bridge, the duct lines being secured to the steel work. All high tension 
 cables terminated in the transformer vaults, of which there were 53 ranging 
 from 75 KVA to 21 KVA. These were of standard design and fireproof 
 construction, with a ventilating system so arranged that the fans would stop and 
 louvers close in case of fire. 
 
 The switchboard rooms were adjacent to the transformer vaults and had 
 standard equipment. At the top or bottom of the switchboards a cabinet, or 
 
 ELECTRICAL SYSTEM 243
 
 large raceway, was installed for the distribution circuits leaving the board. The 
 connection between switches and the raceway above the board was in conduit. 
 The connection from switches to busses was open type of wiring back of 
 the board. 
 
 The feeder circuits inside the buildings were designed to give the least 
 amount of circuit wiring. Raceways were used for all main feeder circuits. 
 These raceways held 16 2/0 cables in 4 circuits of 4 cables each. The circuits 
 were separated by 3/16" asbestos boards. The raceway was designed for center 
 hangers and outlet boxes were fabricated onto the raceways in the manufacturing 
 plant every few feet to reduce the runs of the secondary wiring system. 
 
 Raceways were standardized in design. Fuse boxes could be affixed at any 
 point, and sufficient bolt holes were provided that the raceways could be 
 conveniendy attached to joists irrespective of the spacing between the joists. 
 Cables were standardized at 2/0 stranded cables covered with one layer of paper, 
 rubber and braid. The layer of paper between the copper and rubber made the 
 cleaning of cable for joints and taps much cheaper. 
 
 The feeders for small buildings, concession stands, etc., were distributed 
 underground in 4 in. pump log, using as standard, 4/0 rubber and lead cables. 
 Hand holes were provided at frequent intervals for taps, and the pump log 
 was cut for taps where the run was too long to a hand hole. 
 
 The feeders for the road and path lighting were laid in a shallow trench 
 and covered with earth. Lead-sheathed cables were used for the phases, and 
 braid-covered for the neutral. All cables were painted different colors to help in 
 phasing. All circuits were for three-phase service. Where cables were installed 
 under the roads and paths, pump log conduit was used for protection. Generally, 
 switches were not provided at cut-out centers, and centers consisted of fuse 
 cabinets where the branch circuits were fused. Secondary circuits usually were 
 fused at twenty-ampere capacity. All cut-out centers were standardized 
 at four-circuit porcelain fuse blocks installed in a 5x9 in. sheet metal box 
 secured to the raceway; larger branch circuits by porcelain blocks and cartridge 
 fuses, the boxes supported by the raceway. The isolated and large fuse centers 
 were constructed of porcelain fuse blocks, ranging in size from four circuits 
 to sixteen circuits, installed in sheet metal cabinets. The larger size fuse panels 
 were generally provided with main safety type disconnecting switches. 
 
 The circuit wiring of all buildings was standardized as follows: 1) Power 
 wiring in conduit; 2) Emergency wiring in conduit; 3) Exterior wiring in 
 conduit; 4) All other wiring was open<leat wiring in protected places and 
 metallic raceway or conduit in unprotected places. 
 
 The open cleat wiring was installed by using porcelain cleats fastened to the 
 steel structure by a specially designed holder that could be readily snapped into 
 position. The pigtails were made of a standard length that would allow for a 
 variation in fixture spacing, and were easily erected. In all pigtails, and in 
 places where the wire was liable to come into contact with the building, the 
 wire was covered with loom. 
 
 244 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 Emergency System 
 
 The buildings being constructed without windows and skylights necessitated 
 the employment of an emergency lighting system to prevent a panic in the event 
 the electrical supply should fail or be interrupted for a time. This emergency 
 lighting system was required to be from a separate electrical supply and capable 
 of supplying light for a sufficient length of time to clear the buildings of visitors. 
 It was decided to provide a system of lights of such an intensity as to be safe for 
 walking, these lights to maintain their brilliancy for twenty minutes. The 
 source of energy was to be other than the regular feeder system. Two systems 
 were considered: an independent feeder system to supply emergency lighting, 
 or battery sets located in all buildings. Batteries were selected, because of the 
 lesser cost. 
 
 The emergency lighting system as constructed, consisted of independent cir- 
 cuits with all wiring in conduit, an energy supply of standard 13 or 15 plate 
 automobile batteries, automatic throw-over switches and tungar battery chargers. 
 
 The original high tension 12,000-volt system was designed for a maximum 
 demand of 18,000 KVA. Two months before the Exposition opened, it became 
 evident that this must be increased to 24,000 KVA. An additional feeder was 
 installed at the substation. After the Fair opened, still another feeder was 
 added. Fortunately, the transformer vaults had been constructed large enough 
 to accommodate the unanticipated load. Due to the unexpected increase in 
 requirements of exhibitors and concessionaires, the feeder systems of practically 
 every building had to be increased. 
 
 During the construction period, the interruptions to service were remarkably 
 few. The largest number occurred while changing from temporary to permanent 
 connections and during the rearrangement of circuits. Cable injuries caused by 
 the planting and excavating work occasioned others. Some of the interruptions 
 were of a peculiar nature and it is remarkable that no one was hurt. In one 
 instance, a workman sawed partially through a 4,000 volt feeder, burning out a 
 large section of his saw. In another case, a hand ax cut through a pump log 
 and into the feeder. 
 
 From an engineering standpoint, the electrical supply system was one of the 
 Fair's outstanding successes for which the fine cooperation among the architects, 
 engineers, manufacturers, contractors, and labor unions was largely responsible. 
 This, perhaps can be more fully appreciated when it is realized that at no time 
 before the Fair opening could this system be thoroughly tested. On the opening 
 day of the Exposition, for the first time, a capacity load went out over the cables. 
 
 The Telephone Service 
 
 The installation and operation of a telephone system for A Century of 
 Progress presented numerous unusual problems. The greatest complication 
 perhaps arose from the fact that although the service had to be as effective 
 
 ELECTRICAL SYSTEM 245
 
 at all times as that in the business section of the city, it was to be relatively 
 temporary, and the traffic load would of necessity vary greatly from time to 
 time, and could not be accurately estimated. 
 
 Also, in addition to regular telephone service for Exposition officials and 
 employees, the wire installations had to handle fire and police protection, traffic, 
 telegraph, and wire services for broadcasting. Although exhibitors and conces- 
 sionaires desired their own telephone service, and the telephone company 
 installed pay booths for visitors and the general public, the cable installation, 
 and the placing of the telephones at all times had to be done according to one 
 general plan, developed by the Exposition engineers. 
 
 When work began on the Administration Building, the telephone problem was 
 created, and first steps were taken toward the development of a comprehensive 
 system. The system started with the installation of a two-position private 
 exchange board, with an ultimate capacity of two hundred dial terminals and 
 twenty manual lines. By June, 1932, the facilities were taxed to capacity and 
 additional installations began. 
 
 Despite the careful surveys by engineers for the Exposition and the telephone 
 company, the telephone traffic was constantly proving to be far in excess of 
 anything that had been anticipated. Four times before the opening date walls 
 and ceilings of the Administration Building were ripped open to permit additional 
 installations. As each new building was finished, telephones and private switch 
 boards were installed, and they in turn, as they proved insufficient, necessitated 
 additional facilities. 
 
 The running of the cables presented another problem. It was essential that 
 they be protected, to permit uninterrupted service, but, at the same time, routine 
 methods of installation were not practical because the expense could not be 
 justified for a relatively temporary service. It finally was decided to place the 
 larger cables on the iron fence running the length of the grounds, through 
 buildings, and in conduits. Smaller cables were laid in trenches, covered with 
 boards and then with dirt. 
 
 The entire program demanded close cooperation between the installers and 
 landscapers. A further complication arose Just prior to the opening date when 
 days of pouring rain made a muddy morass of many of the pathways alongside 
 the streets. This hindered cable laying to such an extent that there was a 
 temporary breakdown of telephone service. Special lines were strung, and service 
 was resumed. On opening day there was litde difficulty as installation of the 
 regular system was nearly completed. 
 
 Soon after the opening, every building on the grounds had adequate service 
 to central company switchboards, and had direct connection with every other 
 building, including police stations, fire stations, fire departments, hospitals, 
 and public pay stations which were scattered at strategic spots over the grounds. 
 In addition, the system included fire and police alarm boxes at regular intervals 
 along the Exposition streets. 
 
 246 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 Public Address System 
 
 It was desirable to have a sound distribution system to broadcast throughout 
 :he grounds, ceremonies, music, police and fire calls in code, and emergency 
 mnouncements to employees and visitors. After the system had been installed 
 t was interconnected with the large broadcasting companies' systems, so the 
 arograms originating in their studios could be spread over the grounds, or, the 
 ■everse, programs originating in the grounds could be sent out over the networks. 
 
 The 1933 public address system consisted of forty-three locations and one 
 tiundred and eighteen speakers operated by fifty-seven 24-watt amplifiers 
 :ontrolled from one main control room at the Hall of Science and two sub-control 
 rooms at the south end of the grounds. The speakers at the south end were 
 too distant to operate properly without a booster control panel. The two 
 >ub-panels had one channel and dual turntables and the main control room 
 bad three channels, making it possible to broadcast five programs simultaneously. 
 
 It was the largest system built up to that time, having an approximate 
 Dutput of fourteen hundred watts, and considerable thought and experimenting 
 had to be done to locate the speakers so it would be possible to cover the grounds 
 without any blank areas and without overlapping. 
 
 Fire Alarm System 
 
 Fire prevention and protection went hand-in-hand with building construction. 
 The insurance agents and the Chicago Board of Underwriters were especially 
 helpful in suggestions and in the design and testing of materials. The Aero 
 System of automatic fire protection was adopted. It was believed superior 
 to the automatic water system because it offered the opportunity of discovery 
 of fire as soon as possible; it located the fire and restricted its damage to a 
 small area, and at the same time did the least damage to exhibits. 
 
 Hose risers were installed in such positions that all portions of a building 
 could be reached with a one and one-half inch hose not exceeding seventy-five 
 feet in length. Automatic fire alarm boxes were installed on the exterior of 
 all buildings. 
 
 Fire protection equipment during the construction period, consisted of water 
 barrels and pails distributed throughout the buildings. In the Hall of Science, 
 which was built a year before the Fair opened, three electrically driven fire 
 pumps were installed. These pumps were connected to the Aero system in such 
 a manner that the system would start the pump in operation. 
 
 A liberal supply of hand extinguishers and water extinguishers were distributed 
 throughout the various buildings, and Aero boxes of the A.D.T. system were 
 installed in prominent places outside of buildings. 
 
 No account of operations is complete without mention of C. H. Thurman. 
 Working out from the General Manager's office, he helped to establish every 
 department. This experience indicated his selection as Chief of the Public 
 Protection Division. To his ever-watchful care and good judgment may be 
 charged the unusual record made in that field. 
 
 ELECTRICAL SYSTEM 247
 
 Chapter 26 
 
 WATER SUPPLY 
 
 When construction commenced, water was so immediately imperative for such 
 a variety of purposes — toilets, fire protection, drinking, cleaning, landscaping, 
 building — that its supply was one of the first technical studies made. With the 
 lake paralleling the grounds, and a complete city system just over the railroad 
 tracks, yet with none that could be used, it brought to mind the lament of 
 the Ancient Mariner, "Water, water everywhere and not a drop to drink." 
 
 In designing the water system, these factors were taken as the controlling ones; 
 
 First, the initial cost should be held at the absolute minimum. The use of 
 expensive materials of usual durability was considered entirely unjustifiable 
 for a project of such short life. Second, refinements of the project, such as 
 filtration of water, while desirable, could be omitted because, if included, it 
 must inevitably be at the expense of some other project either more necessary, 
 or more valuable. Third, provisions governing it were not to be based on 
 peak requirements which might be reached on only one or two occasions during 
 the entire summer. 
 
 The amount of water needed was necessarily an assumption. Because this 
 problem was so basic, its treatment will be given in some detail. Its solution 
 depended upon attendance, the distribution of that attendance around the clock 
 and on sections of the grounds, and upon the proportionate quantities required 
 for its various uses. 
 
 In selecting answers to these questions, ordinary municipal experience was 
 of litde assistance, because cities are buUt to last, and have known customers with 
 known wants. Pertinent data from other fairs was set up. Especially helpful 
 
 248 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 Looking North from 31st Street. 
 
 Dome of Travel and Transport Building. 

 
 Towards Lake Michigan from West Skyridc Tower. 
 
 Chrysler Featured a Testing Ground.
 
 here was the assistance so ably and cordially given by the officials of the Canadian 
 National Exposition, at Toronto. 
 
 The uses were classed as domestic, operation, exhibition, and fire protection. 
 The domestic group was that used for drinking, in the kitchens, and for toilets. 
 It was obvious that the domestic use would vary with the attendance, for what- 
 ever hours the grounds were open to visitors. The largest single item in this 
 classification was toilets — 2,843 were installed, and also a total of 30 drinking 
 fountains which were circular structures with fifteen individual fixtures each. 
 It was estimated that each person on the grounds would use twenty gallons 
 daily. Culinary purposes, determined largely by data supplied by Chicago 
 restaurants, increased the per capita use by five gallons, giving a maximum 
 rate of 11.6 million gallons per day for the domestic group, with the peak demand 
 between 5:00 and 6:00 p.m. 
 
 Operation uses, in direct contrast to the domestic, would be little affected by 
 attendance, being actually at their heaviest during the hours when the grounds 
 were closed. This group would be dependent on the weather and the extent 
 of cleaning, sprinkling, street flushing and stock watering. It was considered 
 that the daily application of water between 11:00 p.m. and 9:00 a.m. of 54 inch 
 over all "grass areas" and Vz inch over walks and roads would be sufficient. 
 This was figured at 2.35 million gallons per day. Other uses were classed as 
 miscellaneous, and assumed at 1.73 million gallons per day, and continuous 
 over the entire day. 
 
 Quota for Exhibit Group 
 
 The exhibit group use would be the most constant, but uncertain until every 
 individual exhibit was designed. Use for this group was fixed at 4.3 million 
 gallons per day, to be practically constant in open hours. This assumption was 
 made on the basis of ^ gallon per minute for each 250 square feet of the total 
 of one million square feet exhibit space probably requiring water. Only a very 
 small allowance was made for "display water", which included fountains and 
 other decorative features, as this would be either re-circulated or pumped direct 
 from the lagoon. 
 
 Five thousand gallons per minute was allowed arbitrarily for fire-fighting, 
 making a total of 26 million gallons per day as the estimated pumpage rate. The 
 water requirements for sanitary sewage flow were placed at nearly 18 million 
 gallons per day, with a 6:00 p.m. peak. This allowed discharge through storm 
 sewers into the lake of excess and spent water used for sprinkling, street flushing, 
 and part of the miscellaneous uses and overflows from display fountains. 
 Infiltration and leakage were placed at a half million gallons a day. 
 
 Storm sewers were planned on the basis of a storm equalled or exceeded four 
 times a year. No effort was made to assure adequate drainage for a severe storm. 
 Since exhibit buildings had no basements and grading was well done, there 
 was litde or no danger of flooding buildings. The soundness of this conclusion 
 was amply proved during operation, even though one Boy Scout contingent can 
 
 WATER SUPPLY 249
 
 testify to a hurried removal of their beds into the Hall of Social Science in the 
 middle of a stormy night, when their camp was drowned out for a few hours. 
 
 Solutions crystallized with decisions on construction. As an area became ear- 
 marked for certain purposes its water needs were plotted, with an allowance of 
 10 to 30% added to cover uncertain factors, dependent on the size of the area 
 and its fire hazards. 
 
 Water could be drawn from the lake through an independent intake, by 
 connection with a city intake tunnel, or from the city mains. After preparing 
 estimates for almost a dozen projects and consulting the city authorities, it 
 was decided to use a city intake tunnel, chlorination, and distribution through 
 a single system of mains. The City Council passed an ordinance authorizing 
 the Fair to tap the tunnel from Four Mile Crib. The tunnel is 65 feet below 
 lake level, with the water surface in the shaft standing at 10 or 12 feet below 
 lake level during pumping. The connection to the Fair's pumping station was 
 made with a 36-inch suction pipe. 
 
 The water pumping station was located at 11th Street and Park Row, adjacent 
 to the Illinois Central Railroad, and about a half-mile from the Fair grounds. 
 Three motor-driven centrifugal pump units, each with a capacity of 10,000,000 
 gallons per day, were chosen as the size and type of pump best suited for use. 
 The personnel of the station consisted of four operating engineers and a chief 
 engineer. 
 
 Water was delivered into the distribution system at 75-pounds pressure. The 
 high pressure not only permitted the use of relatively small pipe sizes (from 24 
 to 6-inch), but also provided sufficient pressure to permit a number of direct 
 hose streams without the use of pumpers in case of fire. In designing the 
 distribution system it was assumed that during periods of maximum normal use, 
 plus the full allowance for fire-fighting at the extremities of the system, the 
 hydrant pressure should not be reduced below 20 pounds. 
 
 A single 30-inch main extended from the pumping station to a connection with 
 the distribution system proper just north of Soldier Field and west of the Hall 
 of Science. This main was carried across the Eleventh Street viaduct over the 
 Illinois Central tracks by means of brackets attached to the viaduct girders. 
 Where exposed it was insulated against freezing. 
 
 Layout of Water System 
 
 The water was distributed throughout the grounds by means of mains ranging 
 in size from 24 to 6 inches. A single large main extended the full length of the 
 grounds on the mainland, and another on the island. Branches and loops of 
 smaller size served the individual buildings, building groups and fire hydrants. 
 A 16-inch main across the 16th Street Bridge, a 14-inch main across the 22nd 
 Street Bridge, and a 6-inch main across the 12th Street Bridge connected the 
 system on the island with that on the mainland. 
 
 These loops were so arranged that breaks on the distribution stem would not 
 stop service. Wherever possible, the loops were carried through the buildings, 
 
 250 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 where they served not only as reinforcement to the general systm but also as 
 a part of the building supply. 
 
 Connections were made at a number of points to existing water mains. These 
 mains were of limited capacity, but they furnished water for construction 
 purposes, and were available for emergency use in case of temporary shutdown 
 of the main supply. 
 
 Underground mains were constructed of spiral electrically welded steel pipe. 
 Thicknesses ranged from 6-gauge (0.203 in.) for the 30-inch size to 10-gauge 
 (0.141 in.) for pipes 14 inches in diameter and smaller. All tees and crosses 
 were of heavier material than the pipe, and so banded as to be of equivalent 
 strength. Sleeve couplings were used on all straight runs, with flanged connections 
 at valves. 
 
 Six-inch tee openings with blank flanges were provided at frequent intervals 
 to facilitate the installation of additional loops, hydrants and service connections. 
 Hydrant connections were valved at the point of take-off from the main and were 
 6-inch, class B, cast-iron pipe. Hydrants were of the Chicago type, with one 
 4V2-inch pumper connection and two 2 '/4 -inch hose connections. About 100 
 hydrants were provided, so distributed as to give maximum protection to all 
 buildings and building groups. 
 
 In general, the mains were laid relatively shallow, the cover ranging from 
 2^2 to 4 feet. A field test of 100 lb was applied to each section of the system, 
 immediately after laying and before the trench was back-filled. Concrete anchor- 
 ages were placed at all bends and tees and proved adequate under test to resist 
 any tendency toward failure of the line from kicking out under pressure. 
 
 Special protection was provided to prevent collapse of the pipe from external 
 loads at all roadway crossings. Although extreme precaution was taken in 
 laying the steel water piping, difficulties, through rusting, were still encountered 
 because of the corrosive acid action of the cinder-filled ground and plastic clay. 
 All structures were kept above the lake level insofar as practicable, with the 
 consequence that there was litde trouble with ground-water. For the most part, 
 skeleton sheeting in trenches was sufficient. 
 
 City Sewers Accessible 
 
 The removal of the sanitary sewage was effected by discharging it into two 
 existing city sewers opposite the Fair grounds west of the Illinois Central right- 
 of-way. The only alternative would have been the carrying of all sewage to the 
 south end of the area and there discharging it into an existing 20-ft sewer 
 in 39th Street, and cost estimates showed this would be a more expensive method. 
 
 These sewers of sufficient capacity were found to be accessible at 35th and 22nd 
 Streets, and two separate systems utilizing these as outlets were developed. 
 Sewage from south of 31st Street was led to a pumping station south of the 
 Travel and Transport Building and there pumped through a 14-inch force 
 main under the Illinois Central tracks to the 35th Street sewer. Sewage from 
 north of 31st Street, including the island, was led to a pumping station south 
 
 WATER SUPPLY 251
 
 and west of the General Exhibits Building and there pumped through a 22-inch 
 force main under the railroad tracks to the 22nd Street sewer. 
 
 This northerly system also included two other pumping stations, one on the 
 island, which pumped the sewage through a force main across the 23rd Street 
 bridge, and a booster station about 1,600 feet south of 23rd Street, which elevated 
 the sewage from the relatively low areas to the south and discharged it into a 
 higher sewer flowing northward. 
 
 Both vitrified and concrete pipe were used, the sewer sizes ranging from 8 to 
 to 42 inches for the northerly system, and from 8 to 21 inches for the southerly. 
 With no basement service to be provided, portions of the lines were laid with as 
 little as 2 ft. cover over the pipe. The maximum depth of cut was 18 ft., occur- 
 ring on the 42-inch line leading to the main pumping station of the northerly 
 system. 
 
 The four sewage pumping stations were of similar design. Each comprised 
 a wet well of limited size and a dry well in which were set three vertical 
 electrically driven centrifugal sewage pumps. Each pump had a capacity equal 
 to one half the estimated maximum hourly sewage flow tributary to the station, 
 so that in case one pump was out of service the other two could meet all pumping 
 requirements. Operation was automatic and controlled by float switches. The 
 pumping stations were constructed of reinforced concrete and were of minimum 
 dimensions. Force mains were constructed of spiral electrically-welded steel 
 pipe, except for the cast-iron crossings under the Illinois Central tracks. 
 
 In the matter of storm sewers it was decided to serve individual areas with 
 relatively small drainage systems that discharged into the lake at convenient 
 and frequent intervals. The catch basins and manholes for the storm sewers 
 were for the most part constructed of concrete-block masonry, though a few 
 were made of brick. The sewers themselves were of either vitrified tile or con- 
 crete, laid with cement joints. Wherever feasible, existing stormwater sewers of 
 the South Park System were utilized. 
 
 All materials were purchased by the Exposition in large quantities at favorable 
 prices, and furnished to the contractors at the site of work. 
 
 252 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 Chapter zy 
 
 CHANCES FOR 1934 
 
 A Century of Progress broke numerous traditions and established many prec- 
 edents, but none more far reaching than to continue for a second year in 1934. 
 All previous major American fairs had operated for one year only, and without 
 exception had finished with large deficits. There is a definite connection between 
 these two facts, but it is not conclusive, for while the second year's operation 
 made it possible for A Century of Progress to pay all obligations in full, subse- 
 quent American fairs which emulated the two-year example were not so suc- 
 cessful. 
 
 All through the 1933 operating season stern instructions were given to all staff 
 members not to consider the possibility of a repeat performance, and all dis- 
 cussions of the subject were taboo, even at closed staff meetings. During the 
 stringency of the depression, with cash funds at a low ebb, it was logical to 
 reason that any intimation that the Fair would be held a second year would cause 
 many to postpone their visit until "times were better." It was sufficiently difficult 
 to overcome the natural inertia to travel without adding a valid reason for delay. 
 Then, if the first year were not a popular success there would be neither incentive 
 for nor capability of doing a repeat performance. 
 
 But the season of 1933 was a glorious success: more people had attended than 
 at any previous celebration, the exhibitors were well satisfied, most concessions 
 had been profitable, some fabulously so, and every activity of the City of Chicago 
 had benefited by the millions of fresh money that had been transfused into its 
 financial arteries. Yet there was no popular demand for a continuation for the 
 simple reason that since it had never been done, it was not considered possible. 
 
 CHANCES FOR 1934 253
 
 The decision was made suddenly and unexpectedly near the middle of October. 
 While many pros and cons could have been advanced, there were two controlling 
 reasons. First, the Fair had been operating at a substantial daily profit and it was 
 believed that while the attendance would be somewhat smaller, the income would 
 be larger due to more favorable contracts and the increased efficiency of experi- 
 ence, and thus there would be a worthwhile net gain. Second, there had been a 
 grim determination to repay the Gold Bonds in full. Many people had made 
 great personal sacrifices to purchase them, and loyal guarantors were already 
 under severe strains from the depression then in its fourth year. By October, 
 1933, 50 percent had been paid on the Bonds and there were nearly two million 
 dollars in cash on hand, enough to accomplish the demolition and pay a few 
 more percent, but still a long way from the fulfilment of what was considered 
 a deep moral obligation. When all was said and done, it was the second motive 
 that was decisive, for there was a great popular demand to run a third year, and 
 the reasons were just as cogent, but the incentive was gone — the Bonds had been 
 paid in full. 
 
 But it was not that easy. A tangled web of legal and financial threads had to be 
 unraveled. All contracts, legislative acts and even the Trust Indenture had con- 
 templated only one year, and had been so worded. So with an enthusiasm that 
 concealed their fatigue, the staff faced its new task with a determination to make 
 it work. 
 
 Legal and Financial Problems 
 
 The Illinois Legislature voted an enabling act, permitting the Commissioners 
 of the South Park District to authorize a new contract for the holding of a new 
 fair. This they promptly did in their customary spirit of cooperation. It was a 
 moot question as to whether it was to be a continuation of the 1933 version, or 
 an entirely new enterprise, until a Court decision determined it to be the latter. 
 This was an imp>ortant decision in favor of the Fair, as it permitted the elimina- 
 tion of some objectionable features, and the adjustment of others. Contracts for 
 the 1933 Fair were terminated, and the negotiation of new contracts for 1934 
 begun. More liberal terms could be granted old exhibitors, as the buildings had 
 been amortized, and they took quick advantage of the $2.50 per square foot charge 
 in comparison to the $10.00 charge of the year before. The Exposition had kept 
 definite records of the take of concessionaires, and was able to judge with accuracy 
 the proper percentage for its share. This in general was far more favorable to 
 the Fair than during the preceding year. Also its full share could be taken from 
 the start, as concession structures and equipment were generally intact and already 
 amortized. 
 
 The most serious problem arose in connection with the Gold Notes. The guar- 
 antees given in 1929 provided for the payment of interest and principal on a note 
 issue, the proceeds of which were to be used for an Exposition to be held in 1933. 
 The question then naturally presented itself — would the guarantees be valid for 
 an Exposition held in 1934. Time was of the essence, and did not permit of the 
 
 254 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 lengthy proceedings required in an adjudication by the courts. In order to be 
 released from a contingent liability, a number of guarantors had purchased notes 
 to the extent of their guarantee, had these notes stamped "not guaranteed" and 
 were released from further obligation. However, there were many notes out- 
 standing held by original purchasers and contractors which were still fully guar- 
 anteed. The holders of notes released from guarantees were asked to subordinate 
 their notes to permit the others to be paid in full before they received any further 
 payments. Approximately 80% of the notes released from their guarantee and 
 held by the guarantors were thus subordinated. This was a splendid act on their 
 part, for they were the ones who had already done so much for the Fair. But 
 their generosity and trust were finally rewarded and they were paid in full. Those 
 who have done the most are generally the ones willing to do more. 
 
 Publicity for ig^4 
 
 That there would be public interest in a repeat performance was undoubted, 
 but in the final analysis this represented only a small percentage of the people 
 necessary to make the second year a success. The millions who had not come the 
 first year, those who lived far away, the vast throng who were at best apathetic 
 and, most important of all, those who had been constant visitors in 1933 had 
 to be motivated to act. A well planned campaign was instituted to sell the idea of 
 a new Fair, and to overcome the feeling "It's the same old Fair, I saw it last 
 year." And a new Fair it was, for radical changes, additions and eliminations 
 were made all over the grounds. 
 
 It was realized that the publicity would be more difficult, as much of the news 
 value of the Fair had been lost, and some antagonism had developed outside of 
 Chicago among agencies who felt that the city had had its share and should let 
 the tourist spend his money elsewhere in 1934. 
 
 Efforts were permitted to subside until mid-January so as not to wear out an 
 already threadbare welcome. But from then on they were persistently and re- 
 lentlessly pushed every day on a well-planned and orderly basis. Much had been 
 learned the year before and advantage was taken of it. Special events were 
 stressed. The policy of no-pald-advertising was continued. Stunts off of the Fair 
 grounds, such as airplane flights, were discontinued. 
 
 Newspapers, magazines, broadcasters, and newsreels responded and the nation- 
 wide publicity actually exceeded that of the first year. 
 
 New Construction 
 
 Winterizing the Fair grounds proceeded apace, with structures and utilities 
 buttoned down and covered to protect them from the rigors of a winter they had 
 not been designed to withstand. When spring came, damage was found to be 
 negligible, and all efforts were bent to making a new Fair for '34. 
 
 Over sixty acres of exhibits and concessions were moved to new locations. The 
 Midway was lifted bodily from its position south of 23rd Street and moved to 
 Northerly Island. The Army Camp was similarly moved. The south gate was 
 
 CHANCES FOR 1934 255
 
 changed from 37th Street to the top of the hill at 35th Street providing parking. 
 
 The area around the shores of the Lagoon was cleared of such things as the 
 submarine and the show boat, and of small structures, to give a better view of 
 the water area which was to be featured. Over fifty major buildings and groups 
 of buildings were demolished, many of which were eliminated, and others recon- 
 structed elsewhere. 
 
 Roads and walks were resurfaced, the entire Fair repainted in lighter shades 
 and the illumination gready intensified by the addition of dramatic and fantastic 
 lighting fixtures. 
 
 From end to end the Fair was refurbished so on the day of the second opening, 
 it shone in its pristine glory — truly a new Fair. The Sky Ride underwent major 
 construction changes, as the element of safety was involved, and there was a 
 determination not to mar the first year's record of no serious injury to a single 
 visitor. Wings of a Century had been a great success, and was enlarged and im- 
 proved. The Mayan Temple, the Children's Playground, and all entrances under- 
 went a face lifting. Two new outdoor theaters were constructed, one at the Hall 
 of Science Court for Scientific Demonstrations, including a daily continuation of 
 the Arcturus ceremony, and the Lagoon Stage, built in the lake before a grand- 
 stand seating 8,000 people for band concerts and circus performances. The 
 Standard Oil Company's Live Animal Show at the south end of the grounds 
 played to standing room only. 
 
 Many industrialists who had questioned the value of the first Fair, or who were 
 openly dubious of its ability to transpire at all, came in eagerly for the second 
 year. Principal among these was the Ford Motor Company which constructed 
 an entirely new building at a cost of $3,000,000. It contained so much that was 
 novel and highly interesting that it would have well justified a trip to the Fair 
 just to see it. Adjacent to the building was a beautiful garden through which 
 visitors were taken for rides over "Roads of the World." Here was located the 
 band shell where the Detroit Symphony Orchestra gave daily performances, to 
 the delight of music-loving millions. 
 
 It is always difficult for management to get a true expression of opinion from 
 the public. When the head waiter asks you whether you enjoyed your meal, you 
 generally say "yes" whether you did or not, as it is distasteful to get into a need- 
 less argument. On the other hand, some slight irritation may call forth a tirade 
 of abuse before there is a chance to cool off. Many efforts were made to obtain 
 accurate and honest statements of what Fair-goers liked or didn't like. One of 
 the most successful was by the Pullman Company which asked its conductors to 
 inquire casually of travellers leaving Chicago if they had been to the Fair and 
 what they liked. Since they did not suspect their answers would be relayed back, 
 they spoke without restraint. The courtesy of the guides and attendants received 
 the most favorable comments, and pay toilets the most unfavorable. The latter 
 was an unwilling necessity of the first year, as money was not available to install 
 them. But it was number one on the list of things to be corrected the second 
 year, when all toilets were free. 
 
 256 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 Design and Construction Division 
 
 For the 1934 Exposition, the approval of the design and construction of build- 
 ings and all other installations of exhibitors and concessionaires was handled by 
 the Permit Section. While the procedure was similar to that of 1933, experience 
 had indicated some refinement and additions. It is given in detail here, not only 
 for those who may have occasion to use it, but because it is believed the necessary 
 complication of the procedure will be of interest to all. 
 
 Bulletins were issued and distributed giving all possible information on regula- 
 tions, procedure, utility charges and other items of interest to anyone engaged in 
 construction, installation and maintenance of exhibits and concessions. Contact 
 men held all conferences with the exhibitors and concessionaires, directing and 
 counseling them and making the necessary arrangements for their operations. 
 
 Before final approval was given on any project, the required drawings were 
 routed to the following sections of the Exposition for comment as follows: 
 
 1. Contract Section 
 
 Verification of contract and space 
 Report on payments due on space 
 
 2. Co-ordinates 
 
 Building locations checked on master map, and on ground 
 
 3. Concessions or Exhibits Department 
 
 General approval of scheme 
 
 Interference with contract agreements with others 
 
 Duplication of type of exhibit or concession or excess, such as restaurant 
 
 seating 
 
 4. Design Section 
 
 Approval of design of each structure, installation, furniture, awnings, 
 ground layout, etc. 
 
 5. Signs 
 
 Throughout the pre-fair period and to the very end of the Fair, it was 
 necessary to maintain and enforce rigid regulations on the size, number 
 and character of signs allowed. Exhibitors, concessionaires and sign 
 builders brought greater pressure to bear for the erection of unauthorized 
 signs than for any other feature. 
 
 6. Color 
 
 Must comply with the general color scheme 
 
 7. Landscaping 
 
 For proper varieties and maintenance 
 
 8. Electrical 
 
 Electrical plans checked for compliance with rules and regulations 
 
 All other plans checked for interference with underground electrical 
 
 ducts and cables 
 
 9. Other Utilities, Gas, Water, Sewerage 
 
 Checked on same basis as electrical 
 
 CHANCES FOR 1934 257
 
 10. Sound Equipment 
 
 Restriction of use of sound equipment was as important as that on signs 
 and caused nearly as much trouble 
 
 11. Ventilation 
 
 12. Construction 
 
 Examination by General Construction Department 
 
 13. Approval of Contractor 
 
 General responsibility 
 Insurance coverage 
 
 14. Comptroller 
 
 Approval of entrance turnstiles or other means of revenue control. 
 
 15. Health 
 
 Approval of plumbing 
 
 Facilities for handling and for the distribution of food 
 
 16. Legal 
 
 17. Rules and Regulations and Building Code 
 
 The examiner checked all plans for compliance with requirements on 
 construction and submitted all individual buildings and special problems 
 to the Building Commissioners of the South Park Board. 
 
 The Villages 
 
 The Belgian Village located on the high ground just south of 23rd Street had 
 been one of the high lights of the 1933 Fair, both artistically and financially. It 
 was a faithful reproduction of its counterpart in Europe. Molds had been made 
 from the surfaces of actual buildings and cast in plaster here. With its colorful 
 costumes and street scenes, the public loved it. Inspired by this success, 1934 
 suffered a plethora of villages. Individually they were well done and merited 
 far better patronage than they received, but there were just so many of them that 
 the fair-goers became surfeited. One can just eat so many of even the best of 
 chocolates. Among the newcomers were the Swiss Village, Shanghai, Dutch 
 Village, Hawaii, Italian Village, Tunisia, Spanish Village, Bowery, Merrie Eng- 
 land, Black Forest, and Irish Village. They offered native food, folk dances, shops, 
 exhibitions of native handicrafts, various entertainments. In spite of the competi- 
 tion, several made outstanding hits; the Black Forest with its professional ice- 
 skating, Merrie England with its Shakesperian plays and the Colonial Village 
 with its authentic settings and beautiful dances. 
 
 The Lagoons 
 
 During the day, the lagoon with its bright blue water, the panchromatic 
 reflections of the buildings, and its gay passenger boats plying back and forth, 
 was a thing of inspiring beauty. But at night it was a black hole separating the 
 Island from the mainland. In 1934 this was changed, and the Lagoon became a 
 sea of light. Brilliantly illuminated buildings were built in the center of the 
 lake from the 16th Street bridge. The 23rd Street bridge was filled with interest- 
 
 258 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 ing shops, and the Swift Band Shell, featuring the Chicago Symphony Orchestra. 
 A tremendous bank of searchlights flooded the sky over the lagoon from the 12th 
 Street bridge, but topping it all was the magical effect of the Grand Fountain 
 and its aurora of floodlights which filled the north lagoon. Brilliant flames played 
 upon the skyward bound waters, submarine lights colored the moving pools with 
 constant changes in colors and patterns. It was eye-filling and breath-taking in its 
 beauty. Tired and foot-sore, the crowds stood entranced as the sixty-eight thou- 
 sand gallons of water a minute rushed to their seventy-five foot height, golden, 
 crimson, blue and purple — great shafts of dewy colored lights. 
 
 The Fair of '34 had the same measure of success as its predecessor. It had every- 
 thing of value from the first year, with all the improvements and additions 
 learned by that experience. The attendance fully justified the effort. Bonds and 
 all obligations were paid in full. When the end came, all were thankful, but 
 happy and satisfied. A precedent had been established, a chance taken, and a goal 
 achieved. 
 
 CHANCES FOR 1934 259
 
 Chapter 28 
 
 DEMOLITION 
 
 Built with toil and sweat but with the raptures of creation, demolished with 
 effort and pain, but with the knowledge of a worthy task well done, A Century 
 of Progress, from a challenging reality, moved on into the realm of beautiful 
 memories. 
 
 It is a happy thing to build. It is sad to destroy. But if demolition must come, 
 it is better to make a clean sweep, to leave no dilapidated structures to mourn 
 over their by-gone glory, no ruins which mean nothing but decay. 
 
 A Century of Progress had built a Fair. With its concessionaires and special 
 exhibitors, it had covered four hundred and twenty four acres of lake front. It 
 had built roads, planted trees, made gardens and laid blankets of greensward. 
 Now all this had to go. And attention was turned to this phase of the Exposition 
 with the same energy and punctiliousness as had marked the constructive days. 
 
 T/ie Last Night 
 
 A remarkable phenomenon in mass psychology occurred on closing night of 
 1934. A half million people decided to do the same thing at the same time. They 
 did this without premeditation, without leadership and with only the kind of 
 intercommunication which prompts all pigeons in a flock to turn the same way 
 simultaneously. They decided to take home a souvenir, a memento, a keepsake 
 of the Fair they loved so much, and which in a few minutes would pass forever. 
 So they literally began to take the Fair apart. It was done without malice, it was 
 not done by hoodlums, it was perfectly understandable, but the devastation was 
 unbelievable. 
 
 260 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 The closing night of the year before was a cold November 11th, and when, at 
 welve o'clock, the gates officially closed, there was hardly a soul on the ground. 
 Ul had gone home leaving untouched the Fair which was to open again next 
 Ipring. But it was different in 1934, the Fair really was over, and it was Hal- 
 oween. Until eleven-thirty at night the enormous crowd packing the grounds 
 lad behaved just as they had on all the days preceding. Then as if by magic, 
 iver three and one half miles of Fair front, pandemonium broke loose. Every- 
 hing that could be moved was taken; signs, some with letters six feet tall, light 
 ixtures, benches, chairs, ornamental facades, curtains, anything which they could 
 )ick up, reach or climb to. Of the sixty-five huge pennants along the Avenue of 
 •"lags, not a shred remained. Guards at the gates made those leaving deposit all 
 )ulky objects on the ground, and nearly an acre was covered. "Great Birnam 
 vood shall come to Dunsinane." Hundreds of small trees and shrubs were pulled 
 ip by the roots and carried as far as the gates where they were reluctantly left, 
 rhere was literally a small forest around each exit the next morning. 
 
 The most interesting part of the whole proceeding was the fact that the destruc- 
 ion was done by well-meaning peaceful citizens who were simply caught in a 
 nass hysteria and gave vent to a hitherto submerged destructive instinct. And, 
 ifter all, who is to blame them for wanting to show a souvenir of their beloved 
 "air to their grandchildren many years later.'' 
 
 No better evidence of the fine esprit de corps of the staff of A Century of 
 'rogress was given than by the redcoated police on the last night of the Fair. At 
 nidnight their job was over forever; they had given a fine account of themselves 
 loring the operation and could be assured of top references; demolition of the 
 )uildings and grounds would start the next morning. Despite a full knowledge 
 )f all this, the entire force fought for hours to save the Fair from the vandalism 
 )f the closing night crowd. They could not bear to see wantonly destroyed that 
 vhich they had guarded so carefully for two years. It was with a fierce protective 
 nstinct that they moved against overwhelming numbers. Nearly every man on 
 he force required first aid treatment at the hospital before the break of dawn. 
 
 Removal of Exhibits and Concessions 
 
 All guides, guards, police, and cashiers in good standing were given their uni- 
 iorms with their last pay check. Likewise, all costumes worn by actors in The 
 W^ings of A Century were presented to them. Basic Science Exhibits, films, and 
 antern slides used for advertising purposes and other property of this nature were 
 donated to museums or other public institutions upon request. Some items were 
 :laimed by the South Park Commissioners under the terms of their basic contract. 
 
 Before the Fair closed its gates on that October evening in 1934, plans were 
 already under way for clearing the buildings of exhibits, for the razing of struc- 
 tures and the restoration of the grounds to their original condition. There was a 
 bit of grim humor in this last provision, for it would not have been possible to 
 restore the grounds to the state in which the Fair found them, unless cart loads 
 
 DEMOLITION 261
 
 of rubbish had been hauled in, old shacks erected along the water front and many 
 valuable utilities torn up. 
 
 The ordinances which authorized the use of South Park land for the purposes 
 of the Exposition provided that at the close of the Exposition A Century of 
 Progress should remove all structures not specifically taken over by the Park 
 Commissioners and should restore the site to approximately its erstwhile condi- 
 tion. Under the contracts with the Exposition, concessionaires and exhibitors who 
 had erected structures, were obliged to remove them, and bonds had been 
 furnished to insure this action. Also, it was obligatory upon them to remove all 
 their exhibits and equipment. By the close of 1934 most of the exhibitors and 
 concessionaires had completed this work, and the South Park had designated the 
 buildings which it wished to retain. The Fair could now begin its task of demoli- 
 tion. 
 
 As early as August, 1934, an order was issued by the General Manager creating 
 a Demolition Division to take care of the post-Fair activities. The work of this 
 division fell naturally into five sections: Industrial Exhibits, Concessions, World's 
 Fair Concessions, Governmental and Scientific Exhibits and Works. 
 
 On September 15, notices were sent out to all exhibitors and concessionaires 
 giving full information relative to demolition requirements and procedure. Ap- 
 plication forms for removal of exhibits and concessions accompanied the notices 
 and all were urged to make their applications early. Upon receipt of the signed 
 applications they were sent to the offices from which their clearances were neces- 
 sary — exhibits or concessions, customs, comptroller and legal. Adjustment of 
 these bills and other matters were included in the final settlements. Permits were 
 cleared by the offices affected and sent to the Works Section for check and signa- 
 ture and then to the Area Office of issuance. Arrangements were made with some 
 exhibitors and concessionaires to permit leaving structural parts in place upon 
 payment of the estimated cost of demolition. 
 
 This work proceeded so rapidly and smoothly that nearly all removal permits 
 were issued within two days following the close of the Exposition. The Area 
 Offices were busy for about ten days, as they had to issue sub-removal permits for 
 all loads of material leaving through the Exposition gates. 
 
 Inspections were made of the exhibit and concession spaces as they were rapidly 
 emptied and final clearance sheets were prepared and furnished to the exhibitors 
 and concessionaires and to the Exposition contractual records office. The demoli- 
 tion of structures belonging to exhibitors or concessionaires did not move so 
 rapidly, for a curious and interesting reason. The contracts of these groups in 
 general provided for complete demolition before February 1, 1935. However, 
 many were reluctant to proceed with their demolition as there was considerable 
 agitation about holding some kind of an Exposition or amusement center on the 
 grounds in 1935. If this were to transpire, they felt, naturally, that their structures 
 might be of some value. 
 
 The Chicago Park District, which had sixty days following the close of the 
 Exposition to decide what Exposition structures it wished to retain, reached a 
 
 262 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 decision the latter part of December to retain only a few structures, useful for 
 park purposes. However, a committee was appointed to consider plans for future 
 possible expositions and so the owners of special structures were still more loath 
 to begin demolition. Since the Exposition itself was not required to have the 
 structures removed until July 1, 1935, extensions of time were given to those who 
 seemed to have good reasons for such requests. 
 
 The demolition of the concessions owned and operated by A Century of 
 Progress proceeded apace. On November 7, 1934, the Lama Temple was boarded 
 up, the inside watch service withdrawn, and keys sent to the Archaeological Trust 
 which was to inherit it. The Enchanted Island was soon a thing of the past. 
 Equipment and props from The Wings of A Century were disposed of with 
 equal rapidity. Fort Dearborn was to remain on the grounds. 
 
 Disposal of Exhibit Material 
 
 Other work of the Demolition Section included the return of all governmental 
 and scientific exhibits, and the return of property which had been loaned to the 
 Exposition. By November 15, practically all governments and states had com- 
 pleted removal, except for those exhibits containing goods received under A 
 Century of Progress Customs Bond. In these cases, the necessity for making in- 
 ventories delayed the final customs clearance. Although the majority of exhibits 
 loaned to A Century of Progress were housed in the Hall of Science there were 
 others in the Hall of Social Science, the Maya Temple, the Travel and Transport 
 Building, Wings of A Century, Fort Dearborn and Enchanted Island. Experience 
 indicated that parts of scientific exhibits were considered most desirable souvenirs 
 so extra precautions were taken for the safety of these exhibits. In one case, some 
 prehistoric figurines belonging to the Oriental Institute of the University of Chi- 
 cago on exhibit in the Hall of Social Science, and most valuable and irreplace- 
 able, were returned to their owner on the day before the close of the Exposition. 
 These precautions resulted in practically no loss or damage within the buildings 
 on closing night. 
 
 As donor of the greatest number of exhibits, and as legatee of the science ex- 
 hibits belonging to A Century of Progress, the Chicago Museum of Science and 
 Industry was furnished space in the north wing of the second floor of the Hall of 
 Science as a receiving and clearing room for its exhibits. The Museum was also 
 furnished space in the Travel and Transport Building to take care of exhibits 
 coming to it from the southern part of the grounds. Many of these exhibits are 
 now in operation at that institution. 
 
 Experience in returning borrowed material emphasized the desirability of 
 having an effective system of keeping track of each item from the moment of its 
 arrival until it is again in the hands of the lender. It should be established in 
 its entirety before anything is borrowed. At the close of the Fair there were over 
 4000 items of borrowed material on hand, valued at approximately $375,000.00. 
 
 General specifications and conditions for a contract for removal of all Exposi- 
 tion owned structures were prepared prompdy at the Exposition's close, but bids 
 
 DEMOLITION 263
 
 were not invited until the Park District had reached a decision as to which struc- 
 tures it wished to retain. Bids were opened on January 25, 1935, and the contract 
 awarded to the Barker, Goldman, Lubin Company of Springfield, 111. It provided 
 that the contractor would remove all Exposition structures listed in the specifica- 
 tions, that foundations were to be removed to a depth of four feet below ground 
 level and that all materials were to become the property of the contractor. It was 
 provided that the contract be completed before October 1, 1935 and that the con- 
 tractor pay to the Exposition the sum of $28,000.00. 
 
 Sale of Miscellaneous Property 
 
 While the material of which the buildings were fabricated became the property 
 of the contractor, the Fair had a vast number of miscellaneous items which were 
 to be liquidated. In order to save time and money, this material was mostly sold 
 in large lots and many were doomed to disappointment when they learned that 
 retail sales of some particular items would not be made. A Salvage Sales Section 
 was set up to prepare inventories of all exposition property to be sold, to reply to 
 the many people soliciting gifts or wishing to make purchases, to establish mailing 
 lists and to prepare schedules, by lots, of property for sale. It was decided that 
 the property of the Exposition would be sold by soliciting sealed bids for lots, 
 made up so as best to meet the need of the prospective buyers. Locations were 
 established for salvage sales displays, arrangements were made for the reception 
 of prospective purchasers, and systems were developed for the checking of all lots 
 as they were released to buyers. 
 
 The sales were in general for cash to the highest bidder by sealed proposal. 
 Successful bidders were required to comply with the conditions and terms of 
 sale which required among other things that the property bought be accepted "as 
 is, where is, and if is." Every attempt was made to give true and fair information 
 but bidders were warned to inspect the property and base their bids on their 
 personal observations. Displays of salvage items were set up at various points in 
 the Exposition ground. The requirements for marking bids, for opening, filing, 
 and recording them and for care and disposition of deposits followed United 
 States Government methods in general. 
 
 Certain articles, such as folding chairs, benches, mushroom lamps and waste 
 paper containers did not lend themselves well to sealed bid procedure as many 
 prospective buyers wanted only one or two of each. For such articles standard 
 prices were fixed, samples were placed on display and buyers were permitted to 
 purchase on the cash and carry plan. 
 
 The variety of articles finally assembled was both amazing and amusing. From 
 bicycles to vases, from quantities of calcium chloride to playground equipment, 
 from drying ovens to search lights, — all the multitudinous and varied equipment 
 used in so stupendous an undertaking as the Exposition was sold. There were 
 boots and books, galvanometers and gardener's tools, lockers and lime, phono- 
 graphs and padlocks, raincoats and rheostats, ticket boxes and trucks, valves and 
 Wings of A Century props to say nothing of office equipment, floor coverings, 
 tools, and electrical equipment. The total receipts from these were approximately 
 
 264 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 $80,000. This work was carried out with dispatch, efficiency and profits to the 
 Exposition due to the close supervision which Commander (later Admiral) 
 Nuber gave to the task. 
 
 Removal of Sky Ride Towers 
 
 The most dramatic incident in connection with demolition was the removal of 
 the Sky-Ride towers. As long as they stood, straight and unyielding above the 
 wrecks of buildings, observers could still see something of the Fair. It was not 
 until the first of these towers came crashing to the ground, that the public finally 
 realized that the visible exposition was gone. "The razing of the west tower," 
 wrote a Chicago reporter, "was an achievement of engineering calculation. The 
 628-foot-high lattice work of steel fell at the ordained time, in the determined 
 direction, within a foot of the stakes set out for its striking area." 
 
 "The reverberating report of 120 pounds of dynamite blasting apart the con- 
 nections of the two main cables with the anchorage to the west of the tower at 
 5:55 A.M. gave notice that the instant had come to crash the tower. Simul- 
 taneously with the detonation the doomed structure tilted towards the east; the 
 rigid steel cables between the towers flexed. For a bit of time it seemed as if the 
 graceful structure would topple over as an entire tower. Then came a shrieking, 
 screaming chorus of rending steel; the tower parted just above the 200 foot level 
 where the rocket cars once parked for passengers on the aerial railway. The 
 reacting cables jerked the upper 400 feet of tower eastward, and then, almost 
 instantly, two thunderous crashes roared the end of the Sky-Ride." 
 
 Due to its proximity to the Outer Drive, great secrecy was enforced as to the 
 time of the demolition. All news and photo agencies were notified well in advance 
 and were on hand, but the public was conspicuous by its absence. This was well, 
 for it was inevitable that large pieces of steel would be blown great distances. 
 However, the public was disappointed, so it was arranged to make the felling of 
 the East tower a spectacle. Thermit, to burn through the structural members, was 
 to be used instead of dynamite. On a warm afternoon in the presence of the last 
 great gathering in the Lagoon Theatre, the tower slowly crumpled and dropped 
 to the north. Sic transit gloria mtindi. 
 
 Finale 
 
 In the Administration Building offices, a skeleton staff was busy clearing up the 
 record section, handling passes, receiving, distributing and sending mail, handling 
 telephone and telegraph services, operating the restaurant, and maintaining the 
 building, and supervising scavenger and rubbish service. The executive office was 
 in the last throes of demolition, legal matters, finances, insurance, and the thou- 
 sand and one other details which had to be put into the limbo of completed things 
 before the affairs of A Century of Progress could be finally closed. The Adminis- 
 tration Building was closed on February 28, 1935, and the offices for final dis- 
 solution moved to 640 Michigan Ave. 
 
 The demolition of the buildings sped along at a rapid pace and was finished in 
 February 1936, a little more than a year after the bid was accepted. The demoli- 
 
 DEMOLITION 265
 
 tion contract did not provide for the removal of underground utilities such as 
 water and sewer pipes, nor did it include tearing out roads and walks constructed 
 by the Fair, the replacement or repair of original roadways and the re-sodding of 
 large areas, though these and many other items were included in the Exposition's 
 obligation to the Chicago Park District to restore the grounds to the condition in 
 which they were received by the Fair. In carrying out its trust as a municipal 
 body, the Park District would have demanded that this be done with extreme 
 thoroughness. However, the Park District had under consideration plans for 
 many changes in that portion of the Park area occupied by the Fair, especially 
 in the layout of the highways and the landscaping. It would have been most 
 uneconomic to restore large areas only to have the Park tear them up in a few 
 months to provide for their contemplated new development. It was proposed to 
 Mr. Robert J. Dunham, President of the Park Board, that the Exposition pay a 
 sum of money equal to the costs of restoration, and be relieved of its obligation 
 for other than demolition and removal of structures. By Ordinance passed by the 
 Chicago Park District on July 2, 1935, this proposal was accepted, and payment 
 was made in the sum of $275,000. It left the Park Commissioners free to carry 
 out their plans, in accordance with present needs, and A Century of Progress was 
 relieved of what, under the terms of the agreement, would have been a heavy 
 burden, requiring an expensive field force for another year. 
 
 The ultimate result of this Ordinance, and the completion of the work of 
 demolition under contract was that on February 25, 1936, the Park District 
 accepted the entire area used by A Century of Progress and directed the return of 
 the collateral remaining in its hands. 
 
 At this writing the only trace of A Century of Progress is the column presented 
 by the Italian Government to commemorate Balbo's epic flight. The Lama temple 
 was removed to the New York Fair of 1939. Fort Dearborn partially burned and 
 the remains were demolished. The Administration Building served the needs of 
 the Park District until their own fine new headquarters was built, then it was 
 torn down. 
 
 At the planning stages of all fairs, there is the moot question of permanent 
 versus temporary buildings. At A Century of Progress the decision was firmly 
 against any structures remaining after the close. A library, an auditorium, or 
 public building is usually the bait to entice public money and the sop for con- 
 tributions from taxpaying bodies. As fine as they may be, they are usually at the 
 expense of the beauty and unity of the architectural composition. A fair is a 
 carnival, a Mardi Gras, a fantasia, marvelous for a short time, but not to live with 
 indefinitely. Even the architects are quite willing that their most brilliant crea- 
 tions pass with the setting for which they were designed. Permanent buildings 
 place the designers on the horns of the dilemma, either to pull their punches on 
 the temporary buildings so they harmonize with the others or else to accept an 
 incongruous mixture. And of all errors perhaps the worst is to permit a semi- 
 permanent structure to remain in a state of gradual dissolution becoming a hazard 
 and an eye-sore to all. 
 
 266 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 Chapter 2^ 
 
 A GUIDE FOR FUTURE FAIRS 
 
 Each fair is unique with problems peculiarly its own, and decisions must be 
 based on a determination and evaluation of each factor affecting the particular 
 fair under consideration. That which was an oustanding success in one location 
 might be a failure elsewhere and that which failed might succeed in another place. 
 Geographic layout, climate, economic conditions of the times, competition, cul- 
 tural background, and industrial potentialities of the locality may differ radically 
 at different places and, after a substantial time interval, at the same place. The 
 advice of out-of-town experts should be considered seriously, but accepted with 
 discretion, for while their suggestions might be sound under the set of conditions 
 with which they are acquainted, they might not be applicable when all the other 
 factors of a particular situation must be considered. 
 
 The term "fair," as it is used in this chapter, is generic. While the discus- 
 sion is mainly applicable to major expositions and worlds fairs, much that is cov- 
 ered will apply to State and County fairs, permanent exhibitions, trade shows, 
 industrial or science museums, historic shrines, and corporation exhibits on their 
 own premises. 
 
 A fair must first of all provide high entertainment value. In addition, however, 
 it should have spiritual, patriotic, technical, cultural and educational values, so 
 that the visitor may leave with a sense of reward and of personal benefit or uplift. 
 It should have a theme and philosophy and a reason for being, such as an anni- 
 versary. Otherwise, it will be merely another amusement park. Salient reasons 
 for a fair are to enhance the reputation of the locality in which it is held, to pro- 
 vide entertainment and education to the local community, to bring visitors with 
 
 A GUIDE FOR FUTURE FAIRS 267
 
 fresh capital who would not otherwise come, and to display products, processes, 
 and handicrafts. 
 
 If the fair is not of a magnitude or quality to attract widespread attention, it 
 will not bring new money into the area and will not merit the continued support 
 of those whose local business interests are affected. Though it will be a local 
 success, it will merely recirculate money already in the community. 
 
 The things that do not happen at a fair may be as essential to its success as those 
 that do happen. The fair that can operate without fires, structural failures, serious 
 accidents, hold-ups, counterfeiting of tickets, peculation among employees, and 
 scandal, is fortunate indeed. 
 
 Much that is covered in this chapter seems obvious and enumerates merely the 
 practices normally followed by sound businessmen. Strangely enough, show busi- 
 ness seems to distort the thinking of ordinarily conservative people. The most 
 serious failures in fairs of the past have been occasioned by a refusal to follow the 
 same principles that would have been adhered to in other fields. Despite its 
 glamor, excitement, and hurley-burley, a fair is a straight business proposition, 
 the precepts of which cannot be brushed aside because of its ephemeral nature or 
 because of civic pride, of shortness of time, of pressure of influential outside inter- 
 ests, or of a feeling that show business has different standards. 
 
 Over-enthusiasm, or an unwarranted optimism on the part of the Board of 
 Governors or the management, which results in exaggerated predictions of attend- 
 ance and income and authorizes excessive expenditures prior to the opening, has 
 been disastrous to many fairs. Adherence to basic economic principles is the surest 
 means to a successful financial outcome. 
 
 Seasoned executives provide better management than even experienced show- 
 men. However, most successful businessmen are accustomed to heading organiza- 
 tions of trained employees who after long years of experience have risen through 
 the ranks, where routines are so well established that most important areas of 
 operations function automatically, and where there is the stabilizing influence of 
 tradition. They will find an utterly different situation when they assume the 
 management of a fair. The first efforts are by inexperienced people groping for 
 answers to unknown problems. When the plans are completed, there is the 
 feverish activity to finish the fair on time, with hundreds of different activities to 
 be so coordinated that they all reach a given point at the same time. On opening 
 day this part of the work is finished. Then new and untried personnel, such as 
 guides and cashiers, with but a few days of previous training, are brought in, and 
 the older employees are transferred to the new jobs incident to operation. Here 
 an entirely new phase of learning begins, for dealing with the public in masses 
 presents a problem peculiarly its own. Finally there comes demolition and the 
 disbanding of the organization. Each of these phases presents situations so differ- 
 ent from the normal operation of an executive in a going concern that he must 
 continually adjust his thinking to conditions at variance with his previous experi- 
 ence. This will require imagination, realistic judgments, versatility, wide experi- 
 
 268 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 ence, inexhaustible patience, and a complete disregard of clock-hours, if he is to 
 meet successfully his challenge. 
 
 The enthusiasm and loyalty of the staff is one of the most important assets of a 
 fair. Those who have rendered this type of service during the construction period 
 should be utilized to the fullest during the operating period, for their knowledge 
 and experience and the confidence top management has in their ability are prime 
 requisites in the hectic days when the public swarm the grounds. An architect 
 may be put in charge of concessions, a lawyer in charge of special events, and a 
 construction superintendent in charge of the Midway. As far afield as these new 
 duties may be from their previous experience, they are better able to pick up these 
 new assignments than others brought in from the outside. It has been amply 
 demonstrated that most men who are capable of outstanding performance in one 
 job will render comparable service in another, no matter how diverse. 
 
 Management 
 
 The fair management should be free of any direct interference from individual 
 members of the Board or the Commission. While there should always be intimate 
 and free contact among them, a sharing of problems and the seeking of advice, 
 management should not be forced to accept directives which may be the personal 
 opinion of one member only. Likewise, the management should firmly resist the 
 dictation of pressure groups, officials, and individuals not members of the Board. 
 Directives which control the decisions of management should come only by official 
 action of the Board of Governors or their authorized representative. 
 
 Management should not ask or accept personal favors from politicians, conces- 
 sionaires, contractors or others, for they may exact exorbitant returns at the ex- 
 pense of the fair, which management is paid to protect. Even personal safety may 
 be involved if subsequent demands are refused. They will respect integrity and 
 are not likely to make improper requests for themselves if they are convinced 
 that none of their competitors is receiving special concessions or privileges. An 
 assurance of honest administration is the best guarantee of cooperation. Similarly, 
 management should have no traffic with those whose motives are to exploit rather 
 than to help. If management does not indulge in politics, it is able to resist 
 political pressure. 
 
 Well-meaning and influential individuals or groups may urge plans or ideas 
 that do not fit into the scheme or the financial ability of the fair. It requires con- 
 siderable tact to hold their interest and friendship while denying their requests. 
 The results of acquiescence through a desire to please can be just as disastrous to 
 the fair as those inspired by less pure motives. This is particularly difficult with 
 requests to make charitable solicitations on the grounds or to permit the establish- 
 ment of booths for the promotion of responsible non-profit agencies working in 
 the public service. Unless they have a definite bearing on the welfare of the ex- 
 position, these requests should be denied, for if one group is granted these privi- 
 leges, the pressure from others may become insistent and so many admitted to the 
 grounds as to become a nuisance to visitors. 
 
 A GUIDE FOR FUTURE FAIRS 269
 
 All staff members should be directed to report immediately to management any 
 offer of bribe, tip, or present no matter how inconsequential. Since many concerns 
 consider such presents merely a legitimate method of showing appreciation for 
 business, the first offer should be returned politely with the caution that no fur- 
 ther business would be tendered that company if such offers should be repeated. 
 
 Some contractors have submerged in their bids for work a sum to be given in- 
 spectors, purchasing agents, receiving agents or higher-ups. Obviously, this comes 
 ultimately out of the fair's treasury. When such bidders become finally convinced 
 that no such handouts are expected of them, their bids may drop accordingly. All 
 staff members should be fully conversant with this policy and the reasons for it, 
 and any offenders dismissed immediately upon verification of the facts. 
 
 There are courtesy presents which are given out of sheer friendship with no in- 
 tent to influence decisions or to seek favorable considerations. It is equally im- 
 portant that such gifts be reported to the management for a decision on their pro- 
 priety. 
 
 Loyalty and the respect of subordinates can be neither ordered nor purchased. 
 It must be won by the actions of those higher up. It is essential that top manage- 
 ment be scrupulous in avoiding any practice which inures to their own benefit at 
 the expense of the fair, or even the appearance of it for the entire staff is simply 
 the lengthened shadow of those at the top, and any laxness will quickly permeate 
 the whole organization. 
 
 All positions on the staff should be given on the basis of fitness only. Nothing 
 is more destructive to morale than a general feeling that opportunity and promo- 
 tion will go to those with pull, or that those with connections will not be required 
 to pull their fair share of the load. The maximum services of staff members can- 
 not be purchased by salary alone. They must have engendered in them a burning 
 enthusiasm to make the fair a success. It must be a game with a championship at 
 stake. 
 
 Management must not vacillate on decisions. Time is of the essence, and even a 
 simple plan driven through with determination has a better chance of success 
 than one of meticulous detail constantly changed as each new idea suggests itself. 
 Likewise, there should not be divided authority for important decisions, lest a 
 refusal given by one executive prompt the applicant to seek an affirmative response 
 from another. Precious time is saved and respect engendered when it is realized 
 that decisions will not be reversed by going in the back door. 
 
 Financial Policies 
 
 All major American expositions, with the exception of A Century of Progress 
 have ended with a substantial deficit, taking the edge from an otherwise successful 
 operation. Most local fairs have required an annual subsidy from a tax-collecting 
 body. It is believed that with correct fiscal policies and a strong management that 
 will adhere to them, most fairs should be able to pay for themselves. 
 
 Do not spend for construction and operation more than a conservative estimate 
 of probable income, allowing an ample margin of safety for unforeseen contingen- 
 
 270 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 cies. Make no commitments until there is cash on hand to pay for them. Quality, 
 intriguing appeal, and specific interest are far more important than size. Account- 
 ing should be cleared daily during the operating period to be certain that the daily 
 "nut," or operating expense, is well within the daily income. 
 
 Keep prices low and uniform. Changing of admission prices for special occa- 
 sions or at various times of the day should be considered with caution, as it is 
 confusing to many and irritates those who must pay the full price. It frequently 
 advertises the desperate need for more customers as a successful show does not cut 
 prices. The largest net returns will come from large capacity and a small charge. 
 Limit passes to officials and those with business on the grounds. Passes issued 
 promiscuously not only entail a loss of income but discourage paying customers 
 and engender disrespect. 
 
 The bulk of attendance and hence financial returns comes from the low income 
 family group, so each activity should be designed for the general public. Many 
 fairs have made the mistake of catering attractions and restaurants to an upper 
 bracket group who are of the cultural and financial status of top management. 
 This group adds little to the financial success of a fair, for they represent but a 
 small percentage of the total attendance, and frequendy expect special privileges. 
 However, distinguished groups and celebrities add prestige to the fair, are im- 
 pressive to the general public and heighten the morale of the staff. Their attend- 
 ance should be sought and their presence heralded. 
 
 Eternal vigilance, even in the smallest matters, is the price of successful opera- 
 tion. Sound business thinking and realistic arithmetic should be applied to all 
 untried schemes promising large profits. Be prepared for unforeseen expenses just 
 before opening, for last-minute rushes involving overtime may reach almost un- 
 believable proportions. Complete each project as far in advance as possible and do 
 not begin new ones unless they can be completed before opening day. It is of 
 paramount importance that the fair be completely finished when the gates open. 
 Otherwise, the early visitors will advise others, "Wait until later in the season 
 when everything is finished." 
 
 Favorable word-of-mouth publicity is the most productive advertisement and it 
 increases in geometric proportion through the season. Hence, it is vital that the 
 first-comers receive a good impression. 
 
 Revise the budget as frequently as necessity demands, but keep all expenditures 
 rigidly within the last budget established. 
 
 Keep the operating staff at a minimum; a few good people are worth a dozen 
 mediocre ones. As the staff grows, expense pyramids out of proportion. Use the 
 services of existing agencies wherever possible. This includes such services as 
 auditors, architects, exhibit builders, refuse collectors, travel agencies and many 
 others. 
 
 There is an optimum amount that may be spent for decorative features such as 
 sculpture and landscaping, and more will not produce commensurate results. 
 Excessive areas of gardens and landscaping around exposition buildings separate 
 
 A GUIDE FOR FUTURE FAIRS 271
 
 them so widely as to make access difl&cult and cause unnecessarily long walks dur- 
 ing days of rain or extremely hot weather. 
 
 When subsidies are received from governmental agencies, the expenditure of 
 which is controlled by commissioners other than the fair management, and arc 
 merged with other funds received from private interests such as subscriptions to 
 bonds or the sale of exhibit space, there must be a clear understanding between 
 the two parties. Since, frequently, the funds from these two sources cannot be 
 distinguished in general expenditures, there may be a tendency on the part of the 
 governmental commissioners to dictate not only how their part should be spent, 
 but all other funds of the exposition. 
 
 To assure the success of a fair, there must be more than ample money and 
 competent management. It must have the enthusiastic and effective support of 
 public officials, trade associations, business interests and the press. The conditions 
 under which management operates may be determinative. Basic contracts and 
 agreements, such as the lease for the property occupied and the trust indentures 
 for the bond issue, enabling acts, and civic ordinances must be broad and equitable. 
 Once they are set the fair management will have no further control over them, 
 and if they have undesirable features or provisions the fair may be in continuous 
 jeopardy. 
 
 The financial success of the fair will depend on realistic planning, scrupulous 
 economy, productive attractions, a single authority controlling expenditures and a 
 strong and unhampered management willing to sacrifice personal convenience and 
 forego other obligations during the period of the fair. 
 
 Protection 
 
 The function of a legal department is to prevent rather than to win lawsuits. 
 The normal procedures of legal action are so lengthy that decisions may not be 
 reached until long after the fair is over. A pending case, particularly an injunction, 
 may restrict essential operations during the period in which the fair is open. Legi- 
 timate claims should be settled out-of-court promptly and equitably. Other claims 
 should be fought to the bitter end. When this practice becomes known as an 
 established policy, it will discourage racket suits. 
 
 Fire and accident prevention are first essentials. Every precaution should be 
 taken against fire, for while adequate insurance is mandatory, claims may not be 
 received until after the exposition is over. Even if paid immediately after the fire, 
 there will be no time during the operation of the exposition to reconstruct a de- 
 stroyed major structure, and its charred ruins on the grounds will be an eye-sore 
 and detract from the carnival spirit of the crowd. Public liability insurance will 
 protect the fair against personal damage suits, but the fair must exercise vigilance 
 in all of its construction and operation to prevent injury to visitors. The grounds 
 must be so well protected that small children and unaccompanied women will feel 
 safe at all times. Sanitary and health regulations must be rigidly enforced. 
 
 272 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 Ground Operation 
 
 The grounds should be kept scrupulously clean at all times, for whatever added 
 initial expense is involved is an eventual economy. The public tends to respect 
 that which is beautiful and orderly while having no hesitancy in contributing to 
 litter or defacement of structures. Cleanliness and orderliness are more effective 
 in controlling the actions of a mass of people than are signs, fences, or police. 
 
 The police, guides, and demonstrators are actually the hosts of the fair rather 
 than top management, for these are normally the only ones with whom the public 
 has intimate contact. They should be selected for their courteous manners and 
 trained to serve the public politely and kindly at all times. They can be one of the 
 fair's greatest assets. No discourtesy to the public from staff members should be 
 tolerated. 
 
 All regulations should be for the benefit of the public rather than for the con- 
 venience of the staff. The reasons for certain rules to which the public may object, 
 but which are necessary for their general convenience, should be made known to 
 members of the staff so that adequate explanations may be given to complainants. 
 If an order, directive, or regulation cannot be complied with or enforced, it had 
 better be left unissued. It is a sound policy not to make rules or issue orders unless 
 management itself is willing to obey them, willing to check that they are obeyed, 
 and willing to take disciplinary measures if they are not. 
 
 There should be ample toilet facilities, adequate shelter in case of rain, and 
 extensive parking facilities with ease of access. 
 
 The volume of loudspeakers should be adjusted to confine the sound to the 
 area of an exhibit or concession. No garish or blatant advertising signs should be 
 permitted, and there should be rigid specifications as to their allowable size and 
 character. Any deviation from these is an invitation to further encroachments on 
 good taste and a demand from competitors for similar or greater concessions, and 
 soon the situation will be out of hand. 
 
 No vehicles except those for emergency service should be permitted on the main 
 thoroughfares during the period the fair is open to the public. Fair visitors are not 
 alert to traffic dangers, as they would be on a public street, and they resent 
 special privileges not accorded them. The intramural transportation should, if 
 possible, be located off of the main pedestrian arteries. 
 
 Publicity 
 
 While favorable word-of-mouth publicity is perhaps the most valuable, all media 
 of mass communication must be utilized to the fullest. Local newspapers, radio 
 stations, and trade publications may be counted upon to give enthusiastic support. 
 To achieve nation-wide newspaper coverage, network broadcasting, or the na- 
 tional magazines, the fair must make news of an unusual or spectacular nature. 
 There is no more important function of the publicity office than to dig in every 
 nook and corner of the fair for news, for even loyal local news publications cannot 
 be expected to bore their readers with "puffs" not backed by substantial facts. 
 
 A GUIDE FOR FUTURE FAIRS 273
 
 It is dangerous to use any paid advertising, since no fair has the financial re- 
 sources to cover all desirable media and those who are left out may feel no urge to 
 print even newsworthy items. 
 
 Full courtesies of the grounds should be extended to reporters and adequate 
 facilities provided for cameramen. The latter frequently work under difficult con- 
 ditions, and in their desire to get good camera angles may disrupt performances or 
 annoy distinguished guests. If proper provisions are made in advance, most of 
 these difficulties can be obviated, and the fair will receive the benefit of good pic- 
 ture coverage. 
 
 Releases should be confined to facts, so that confidence may be engendered in 
 news offices and in the public. Exuberant press-agentry, fantastic promises of 
 wonders that never materialize, exaggerated claims and lavish superlatives engen- 
 der a lack of faith in promises of things which actually transpire and a let-down 
 feeling by visitors who do not find what they had been led to expect. Benjamin 
 Franklin wisely said, "A mild statement carries the greatest conviction." 
 
 Predictions should be on the conservative side. When a reporter asks for a 
 quote on probable attendance for the next day and management reasonably ex- 
 pects 100,000, it is better to say 75,000. Then if the actual attendance is 85,000 
 the next day's news item says "crowds exceed fair's expectations". But if 100,000 
 had been forecast and only 85,000 came, the same item says "fair management dis- 
 appointed in low attendance". The psychological effect of these two statements on 
 the public is obvious. 
 
 Concessiofis 
 
 Concessions, including food, drinks, souvenirs, rides, shows, spectacles, and 
 transportation, present some of the most important problems for which the fair 
 management must find satisfactory solutions. They produce the bulk of the oper- 
 ating income, they attract large numbers of care-free visitors, but they are the 
 source of many headaches. The financial responsibility of all concessionaires 
 should be carefully checked by management, as previously successful operators 
 may be forced to seek outside financial aid under disadvantageous conditions. 
 They frequently extend their construction costs beyond their resources and are in 
 financial difficulty before the gates open. This is aggravated by the fact that the 
 early days of an exposition are generally ones of low attendance, and concession- 
 aires may have further difficulty in meeting their daily operating expenses. The 
 history of fairs is replete with the closing of concessions due to lack of funds after 
 the first month of operation. This presents a serious problem to management, as 
 vacant stalls on the Midway have a depressing effect on the crowd and refinancing 
 may entail further losses. The bulk of fair attendance comes during the vacation 
 period, between the Fourth of July and Labor Day, and there must be sufficient 
 resources to tide concessions over until the big money period. 
 
 It is wise to give as many concessions as possible to long-established firms 
 rather than those newly organized, frequently with unseen backers, for the pur- 
 
 274 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 pose of the fair. The former have reputations to maintain after the fair and arc 
 less likely to make a quick dollar at the expense of the public. This is particularly 
 true of concessions for food and drink. Fewer shops will close if concessions arc 
 given to experienced and reputable oi>crators in preference to amateurs or pro- 
 moters. 
 
 All concessions should be under the sole jurisdiction of the management, as it is 
 essential that uniform rules and regulations apply to all. All contracts with con- 
 cessionaires should contain a clause whereby management can take summary ac- 
 tion against offenders for violating rules of the fair, or of good taste, or for cheat- 
 ing the public in the so-called "games of skill". The concession should be immedi- 
 ately closed and the operator excluded from the grounds if the violation is suffi- 
 cicndy serious. Right to take such drastic steps should be provided in the contract, 
 as there is no time during a fair for injunctions and court action. It is the re- 
 sponsibility of the management to take whatever action is best for the reputation 
 of the fair and the convenience of its visitors and not to be inspired by the profit 
 motive alone. Many things that would be profitable must be foregone and others, 
 such as raincoats and film, must be provided even if at a loss. 
 
 Since the income from concessions is so important a factor in the fair's financial 
 outcome, the fair must exercise every opportunity to keep concessionaires happy 
 and prosperous. The contracts should be just and equitable and may even provide 
 that the fair does not take its percentage during the early days of operation, mak- 
 ing it up by a higher percentage during the more prosperous days to come. Full 
 cooperation and an understanding of a concessionaire's difficulties will be mutu- 
 ally profitable. On the other hand, management must be careful not to let itself 
 be pressured out of legitimate returns. 
 
 The fair management must guard against competing with itself. The audience 
 may be divided, but the operating costs are not. Attractions should be grouped 
 around the largest money maker to assure a large group of people in the immedi- 
 ate area just before show time. This may be further facilitated by timing the exit 
 from minor shows to just before the beginning of the major one. 
 
 Certain limitations on sales should be considered, though these will vary under 
 different conditions. They may include: no hawking through the grounds; no 
 selling except from established booths; no sale of programs or soft drinks during a 
 show; and no selling of products other than for the convenience of visitors. Res- 
 taurants present many problems, such as number of locations, number of seats in 
 each, and the quality and price of food. Due to the high cost of installation, the 
 difficulty of servicing, and the short period of operation, amortizing the original 
 investment without excessive food charges presents a dilemma. This may be par- 
 tially offset by a subsidy for the exclusive use of certain beverages. The good im- 
 pression made on a visitor by a splendid overall fair can be dissipated by poor 
 quality food or a ten-cent overcharge. 
 
 While new and unique attractions should be cultivated, the fair must not look 
 askance at proven attractions, — in other words, "corn". This word has assumed 
 a derogatory connotation, but actually it means that which the mass of people 
 
 A GUIDE FOR FUTURE FAIRS 275
 
 have known and loved over the years. It is down to the grass roots; it is time- 
 proven, or else it would not be "corny". But the oldest of these is new to each 
 succeeding generation, and human nature does not change. 
 
 Exhibitio7i Techniques 
 
 A variety of basic exhibition techniques exists from which the exhibit designer 
 can select those which best serve his purpose. In developing an exhibition area, a 
 combination of a number of basic techniques, as expressed in individual exhibits, 
 is usually indicated to give variety and to serve various purposes and to appeal to 
 the many levels and tastes of visitors. No one technique is superior in all in- 
 stances. Each should be used only when its particular characteristics will con- 
 tribute to the solution of the problem at hand or to the general effectiveness of the 
 exhibit area. 
 
 The following is a check list of exhibit techniques: 
 
 Diorama 
 
 Life size model 
 
 Scale model 
 
 Full size standard equipment 
 
 Heroic size model 
 
 Habitat group 
 
 Photograph 
 
 Translite 
 
 Phantom photograph 
 
 Stand-up theatre presentation 
 
 Wall display 
 
 Poster technique 
 
 Historical object 
 
 Mural 
 
 Three-dimensional mural 
 
 Microscopic slides 
 
 Photo-micrograph 
 
 Micro-projection 
 
 Motion picture 
 
 Three-dimensional motion picture 
 
 Three-dimensional projected photo 
 
 Stereoscopic photograph 
 
 Acturama 
 
 Replica 
 
 Full size reconstruction 
 
 Case display 
 
 Cast of object 
 
 Process installation 
 
 Slide projection — Balopticon — 
 
 Admatic 
 Strip film 
 
 Theater presentation 
 Comic strip technique 
 Topographic model 
 Turn table case display 
 Laboratory experiment set-up 
 Transparent mirror case display 
 Charts, diagrams, drawings 
 Flow chart 
 Guessing game 
 Scene-in-action 
 Sectionalized mechanism 
 Operating models and equipment 
 Question and answer board 
 
 The foregoing basic techniques can be combined within an individual exhibit to 
 produce an infinite variety of combinations as called for by the particular factors 
 present in any exhibition problem. 
 
 Exhibits based on many of the foregoing techniques may be either static or 
 operating. If operating, they may be in continuous operation, demonstrator oper- 
 ated, or visitor operated. If visitor or demonstrator operated, they may be power 
 driven, or manually driven. If power driven, they may be controlled by means of 
 
 276 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 push buttons, throw switches, time switches, foot-operated switches, photo-electric 
 cell controls, capacitance effects, body temperature effects, etc. If manually driven, 
 they may be operated by means of hand cranks, foot pedals, levers, endless belts. 
 Automatic counters give concrete evidence of the extent of visitor use and interest. 
 
 Exhibits based on many of the foregoing techniques or combinations thereof, 
 operating or static, may in addition be combined with an oral presentation. Such 
 an oral presentation may be made by a demonstrator or an amplifying device, 
 using a disc record, a wire or tape recording, or a sound track on film. Such 
 devices may also be synchronized with special lighting effects, operational con- 
 trols, or action within the exhibit. 
 
 Labels or descriptive legends may be printed, hand-lettered, cast in bronze or 
 plaster, etched in glass or plastic, engraved in plaster, wood, metal or plastic. Cut 
 out letters from a variety of materials may be applied to any surface or placed on 
 a light shelf in silhouette. 
 
 In order to focus attention on particularly important parts of any exhibit, many 
 techniques are available including the use of color, special lighting, arrows, cords, 
 ribbons, numbers, and signs to direct the viewer's attention. 
 
 The foregoing refers in general to the individual exhibit. In most cases, how- 
 ever, a number of individual exhibits are combined to produce an exhibition area. 
 In designing such an area, three matters which relate directly to exhibition tech- 
 niques are involved: architectural design, lighting and color. 
 
 Proper architectural setting is essential to give an exhibit importance, but it 
 should be subordinate to the exhibit itself. While each exhibit group should have 
 an architectural entity, it should be different in design from adjoining groups, 
 giving a change of pace and delineating the area. TraflBc layout is of extreme im- 
 portance, and ample space should be provided in front of important exhibits for 
 demonstration to groups. 
 
 In general, the public will not stand more than a few minutes, nor sit more 
 than ten minutes, unless there is a demonstration or attraction of high interest to 
 hold their attention. 
 
 Architectural design, like art in any form, is largely subjective. There are, 
 nevertheless, many matters of taste, general appearance, and appropriateness, 
 which are commonly agreed upon. In this phase of exhibit development the 
 services of a professional designer or architect are essential. In addition to purely 
 esthetic matters, the exhibit designer's function is to produce educational or sales 
 effectiveness. Mediocre material well presented is more effective than superb 
 material poorly presented. 
 
 The designer's problem is to produce an architectural design which will accom- 
 plish the exhibitor's purpose. This involves the arrangement, shape and size of 
 the individual components which comprise the exhibition area; the contour, 
 placement, and appearance of walls and partitions; the selection and design of 
 floor coverings; the design of ceilings, lighting troughs, domes, wells, bays, 
 alcoves, railings, cases, signs, labels; and all other physical features of the exhibi- 
 tion area. Tie-in or contrast with surrounding exhibits is a factor to be considered. 
 
 A GUIDE FOR FUTURE FAIRS 277
 
 The lighting of an exhibition area is of paramount importance to its effective- 
 ness. In general, the best practice is to subdue general room illumination and to 
 apply the light in generous quantities to specific points. This focuses the atten- 
 tion of the visitor and provides intriguing drama. Sequential lighting may be 
 used to carry the visitor's attention from one point to the next. 
 
 Color in an exhibit area is useful in providing a generally pleasant atmosphere 
 inducing the visitor to remain in the area. Color is also useful in defining a given 
 exhibit space. When a distinctive color scheme is used the visitor knows that as 
 long as he is within the confines of that color scheme, he is dealing with a given 
 subject. 
 
 Cost is not a good criterion of effectiveness, as many an inexpensive exhibit has 
 attracted continuous crowds, while an adjacent one costing many times as much 
 has been passed by unnoticed. Likewise, quality rather than size is the measure of 
 a good exhibit. 
 
 Presenting a story. The effective exhibit does not deal with unrelated, isolated 
 objects. It tells the story in a logical sequential way. Virtually anyone will find 
 interest in such a wcU-told story whether it is on a subject with which he would 
 normally be concerned or not. If the subject is technical, scientific or industrial, 
 the sequence should begin with the least fundamentals, for while they may be 
 simple or obvious to one versed in the subject, these preliminary steps are essential 
 lest those unacquainted with the subject matter be left mystified. It may then 
 proceed step by step to the finished product. 
 
 There should be predominating features in the exhibit that the public will 
 desire to see, and not merely those things which the exhibitor wants them to see. 
 For instance, a certain technical exhibit might not sound interesting to the public, 
 but they might be brought into the area by a spectacular or intriguing display 
 not part of the main theme and then, on being exposed to the technical features, 
 have their interest aroused and remain to study the whole exhibit. 
 
 The most technical of demonstrations will be understood by groups of different 
 educational backgrounds if the consecutive steps in the development are logically 
 presented. Sequences should contain exhibits of high value to all age and educa- 
 tional groups, and, if possible, have elements of dramatic, nostalgic, or emotional 
 appeal. General interest is best reached when the individual can see an applica- 
 tion to his own life or welfare. Motion of itself is not essential, but it is usually 
 the easiest way to tell a story. 
 
 The following points may be included in the exhibit story: (a) basic science 
 (b) invention; (c) development; (d) present day manufacture and use; (e) social 
 implications. 
 
 Extensive collections of similar objects or products are usually of interest only 
 to the specialist, the research student, or possibly the maker or the curator who 
 assembled them. A few outstanding specimens, or those obviously different, have 
 greater appeal to the average visitor. Too many objects or products should not 
 be encompassed from a single viewpoint. It is better to focus attention on one, or 
 at least a few, at a time. Saw tooth cases, wing-walls, or alcoves, help to accom- 
 
 278 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 plish this purpose. Overcrowding is to be guarded against in any circumstance. 
 
 Providing a lure. Exhibits are in competition with each other for the visitor's 
 time and attention. Any exhibit, to be effective, must attract visitors to it. While 
 this may be accomplished in a variety of ways, a common and effective technique 
 is to place a colorful, interesting, or otherwise alluring object, symbolic of the 
 subject being covered, in such a position that it will be seen by as many people as 
 possible outside the exhibit area. 
 
 Variety. A highly effective means toward lessening or eliminating mental and 
 physical fatigue is the utilization of variety. This involves the elimination of 
 standardization in lighting fixtures, floor coverings, wall treatments, color, design, 
 labeling, etc. Variety, or a change of pace from one exhibit area to another, results 
 in greater effectiveness for all exhibits through the elimination of the mentally 
 numbing effect of "sameness." 
 
 Allowing the visitor to participate. Visitors enjoy becoming personally identi- 
 fied with any presentation. If a machine is operable, it is well to let the visitor 
 operate it — preferably physically or manually. Pushing an electric button is better 
 visitor participation than none, but it has lost much of the appeal it once had. The 
 push-button saves electric current and wear on the exhibit, but it does not provide 
 the visitor with the desired opportunity to use his muscles or brain. If a full-size 
 reconstruction or a habitat group is shown, let the visitor walk into it. He then 
 becomes a part of the scene, and it is far more realistic than if viewed through 
 plate glass. Safety, of course, is highly important in visitor participation and 
 should be amply provided. 
 
 Demonstration. The combination of demonstrator and exhibit is usually more 
 effective than either alone. The demonstrator provides a descriptive narration 
 longer than the average visitor will read in a label, emphasizes points of interest, 
 and is available to answer technical questions, and to provide a friendly, human 
 association. When visitors are in groups, as from schools, he holds them together. 
 He may also perform a series of scientific experiments or product demonstrations 
 from a "Punch and Judy" type of booth. 
 
 The demonstrator's effectiveness is influenced considerably by the exhibit de- 
 sign. It is important to provide space for the demonstrator to stand somewhat 
 above the floor-level, facing his audience, in a quiet area, not on a main traffic 
 artery, and with good demonstration equipment readily at hand. A good ampli- 
 fying system may be provided. 
 
 Aiming the exhibit at the audience. If an exhibit is pitched at a level above 
 the capabilities of the audience, it will be understood by only a few. If the 
 learner has not learned, the teacher has not taught. This is not only a philosoph- 
 ical thought; it is directly related to exhibition techniques. The most technical 
 subjects can be presented effectively if the proper techniques are selected. The 
 exhibit designer's basic approach should be the assumption that the visitor, no 
 matter how well versed he may be on other subjects, is uninformed on the subject 
 at hand. 
 
 Repetition. Facts are not absorbed and retained by the "once-over-lightly" 
 
 A GUIDE FOR FUTURE FAIRS 279
 
 method. They are learned through constant association, repetition and recall. In 
 presenting a difficult subject to an uninformed audience, it is desirable to utilize 
 repetition. Tell them what you are going to say; say it, then tell them what you 
 have said. But use an entirely different wording in each case to avoid the appear- 
 ance of duplication, to avoid monotony and fatigue, and to provide interest and 
 intrigue. 
 
 Appeal to a variety of senses. An exhibit should appeal to as many of the 
 senses as possible. Sight alone is not nearly so effective as an appeal to sight and 
 hearing, which in turn is not so effective, as an appeal to sight, hearing and touch. 
 Occasionally an exhibit lends itself to the senses of smell and taste. 
 
 Maintenance. An exhibit which is out of order or from which parts are missing 
 is not accomplishing its purpose. Exhibits should be designed in such a manner 
 as to be exceedingly rugged. Operating exhibits should have over-size motors, 
 and a factor of safety in moving parts far greater than normal design. An en- 
 thusiastic audience subjects them to an unbelievable amount of abuse. Easy access 
 should be provided in and behind exhibits for cleaning, lubricating, repair, adjust- 
 ment, replacement and relamping. An "out of order" sign destroys their value, 
 no matter how attractive they looked on opening day. When an individual me- 
 chanical exhibit forms a focal point of an exhibition area it should be built in 
 whole or in part in duplicate so that it may be replaced immediately in event of 
 failure. In designing exhibits, provision should be made for protection from 
 thievery and vandalism. It must be assumed that the public is acquisitive as well 
 as inquisitive. Protective devices range from the glass or other enclosure to alarms 
 which will sound when an exhibit part is removed or a restricted area is entered. 
 These alarms may consist of electrically wired carpets, wires, or lead foil which 
 when broken cause a bell to ring, or photo electric cell installations. 
 
 Long service with a minimum of maintenance and freedom from "shut down" 
 is indicative of good exhibit design. 
 
 Lamps. For lighting exhibits standard lamps should be used wherever possible. 
 For economy of operation and for less heat dissipation, fluorescent and cold 
 cathode lamps are favored. When fluorescent lights are used, high power factor 
 auxiliaries should be specified. Lights should be provided in work space behind 
 exhibits with a switch located at the access door. Where switches not intended 
 for public use are installed in public space, a key switch should be used so only 
 an authorized attendant can set the exhibit in operation. All circuits except those 
 for lighting should have a starting switch within sight of the equipment con- 
 trolled and, if practical, within sight of its moving parts. Motor circuits should 
 have running and short circuit protection. 
 
 Fumes. Exhibits liberating much heat, fumes, poisonous or disagreeable gases, 
 should be provided with special exhausts to the outside atmosphere. 
 
 Glass. Glass in counters or flat top cases should be /4 inch plate glass where 
 the minimum dimension of the glass is 30 inches or less. Where the minimum 
 dimension of the glass is more than 30 inches, % inch plate glass should be used. 
 In cases containing valuable exhibit material, safety glass provides protection. 
 
 280 
 
 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 All walls, railings, or other portions of exhibit installations subject to extensive 
 use or contact should be surfaced in such a way as to eliminate maintenance. 
 Railings should be of aluminum, stainless steel, plastic, or other material that will 
 not require painting. Paint will wear off quickly and is to be avoided. Areas 
 surrounding push buttons or switches used by visitors should be covered with 
 plastic or other material which will not show dirt and finger marks. Such protec- 
 tive covering should extend 10" in all directions from the push button. A recessed 
 toe space or kick plate which will not scar should be provided at the base of all 
 exhibit cases. 
 
 Exhibits should be designed to accommodate the natural flow of visitor traffic. 
 Sharp corners and abrupt reversals are to be avoided. Ample work space should 
 also be provided behind the exhibits to maintain them properly. Exhibit cases 
 should be dustproof and made so that they are easily opened from the back. Real 
 or actual objects are preferable to models or mock-ups. In working exhibits, parts 
 not essential or visible may be removed (such as pistons in display engines). 
 
 Credit labels should be for identification and informative purposes and not for 
 claims or advertising. Exhibit labels should be written for the public and not to 
 amaze other curators or experts on the subject. Labels should use simple English 
 with sequential steps, and have clear type and good lighting. Whenever substitu- 
 tion or replica is used in place of the original, it should be so stated in the label. 
 
 "Good Luc}(' 
 
 A fair is show business with all its glamour, excitement, and uncertainties. 
 Even those with long experience are never certain of public acceptance and the 
 nervousness of producers on opening night is traditional. The reaction of the 
 public is so complex and may be so radically affected either way by a circum- 
 stance which seems trivial that their response is difficult to predict. David Belasco, 
 one of the greatest producers of all time and still a by-word for his many suc- 
 cesses on Broadway, had his failures which the public quickly forgot. D, W. 
 Griffith, who produced the immortal "Birth of a Nation", had a disappointing box 
 office for his next picture "Intolerance" — though perhaps it had the most elaborate 
 sets ever designed. A more recent picture "It Happened One Night", though 
 simply produced and released without fanfare, proved a phenomenal success 
 undoubtedly beyond the expectation of those who wrote, directed, or played in it. 
 
 Those who take an active part in the operation of a major fair are likely to look 
 back upon it as one of the most interesting and exciting experiences of their lives, 
 but are quite content to let others run the next one. So, to those in the future who 
 plan, build, and operate a fair, the author wishes good weather and a happy 
 ending. 
 
 A GUIDE FOR FUTURE FAIRS 281
 
 Appendix I 
 
 OFFICERS 
 
 Rufus C. Dawes President 
 
 Lenox R. Lohr Vice President and General Manager 
 
 Charles S. Peterson Vice President 
 
 Daniel H. Burnham Secretary and later Vice President 
 
 P. J. Byrne Secretary 
 
 George Woodruff Treasurer 
 
 EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 
 
 Rufus C. Dawes, Chairman 
 
 Britton I. Budd 
 
 Francis X. Busch 
 
 Major General Abel Davis 
 
 Paul H. Davis 
 
 Mrs. Kellogg Fairbank 
 
 D. F. Kelly 
 
 Lenox R. Lohr 
 Amos C. Miller 
 Dr. F. R. Moulton 
 Charles S. Peterson 
 Dr. Wm. Allen Pusey 
 George Woodruff 
 
 282 
 
 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 BOARD OF TRUSTEES 
 
 INCLUDING DECEASED AND RESIGNED MEMBERS 
 
 Max Adler 
 
 Arthur Andersen 
 
 P. D. Armour 
 
 Floyd L. Bateman 
 
 Mrs. Jacob Baur 
 
 Vincent Bendix 
 
 Herman Black 
 
 Mrs. Tiffany Blake 
 
 Maj. Gen. Preston Brown 
 
 Homer J. Buckley 
 
 Britton I. Budd 
 
 Dr. Herman N. Bundesen 
 
 Daniel H. Burnham 
 
 Francis X. Busch 
 
 Rush C. Buder 
 
 Charles C. Carnahan 
 
 John Alden Carpenter 
 
 Mrs. John Alden Carpenter 
 
 Robert O. Carr 
 
 Harry W. Chase 
 
 Edward F. Carry 
 
 Anton J. Cermak 
 
 Harlcy L. Clarke 
 
 Adm. Wat T. Cluverius 
 
 Mrs. R. T. Crane, Jr. 
 
 D. A. Crawford 
 
 Mrs. E. I. Cudahy 
 
 Mrs. Joseph M. Cudahy 
 
 John F. Cuneo 
 
 Arthur W. Cutten 
 
 Anthony Czarnecki 
 
 Maj. Gen. Abel Davis 
 
 Paul H. Davis 
 
 Hon. Charles G. Dawes 
 
 Rufus C. Dawes ^ 
 
 Mrs. Rufus C. Dawes 
 
 Charles S. Dewey 
 
 George W. Dixon 
 
 T. E. Donnelley 
 
 L. A. Downs 
 
 Max Epstein 
 
 Mrs. Kellogg Fairbank 
 
 Maj. Gen. Milton J. Foreman 
 
 Oscar G. Foreman 
 
 George F. Getz 
 
 Charles F. Glore 
 
 James E. Gorman 
 
 Homer Guck 
 
 Herman H. Hetder 
 
 Sangston Hettler 
 
 Ralph J. Hines 
 
 Edward N. Hurley 
 
 Robert M. Hutchins 
 
 Samuel Insull 
 
 Samuel Insull, Jr. 
 
 Maj. Gen. Roy D. Keehn 
 
 William V. Kelley 
 
 D. F. Kelly 
 
 Hon. Edward J. Kelly 
 
 Col. Frank Knox 
 
 Ernest J. Kruetgen 
 
 Robert P. Lamont 
 
 Albert Lasker 
 
 Mrs. James Hamilton Lewis 
 
 Lenox R. Lohr 
 
 Mrs. Andrew MacLeish 
 
 Mrs. David Mayer 
 
 Chaunccy McCormick 
 
 APPENDIX I 283
 
 Mrs. Chauncey McCormick 
 Col. Robert R. McCormick 
 
 Mrs. Robert R. McCormick 
 
 Mrs. Rockefeller McCormick 
 
 Donald R. McLennan 
 
 Mrs. Arthur Meeker 
 
 Amos C. Miller 
 
 John J. Mitchell, Jr. 
 
 Mrs. James W. Morrison 
 
 F. R. Moulton 
 
 Agnes Nestor 
 
 George F. Nixon 
 
 Victor A. Olander 
 
 Birger Osland 
 Potter Palmer 
 Mrs. Potter Palmer 
 Maj. Gen. Frank Parker 
 Col. Stuyvesant Peabody 
 Charles S. Peterson 
 George Pick 
 Dr. Wm. Allen Puscy 
 George A. Ranney 
 George M. Reynolds 
 Theodore W. Robinson 
 
 Julius Rosenwald 
 
 Fred W. Sargent 
 
 Walter Dill Scott 
 
 Charles W. Seabury 
 
 John C. Shaffer 
 
 Arch W. Shaw 
 
 Mrs. Albert G. Simms 
 
 Col. Albert A. Sprague 
 
 Eugene M. Stevens 
 
 Maj. Felix J. Streyckmans 
 
 Walter A. Strong 
 
 Bernard E. Sunny 
 
 Mrs. Charles H. Swift 
 
 Edward F. Swift 
 
 Orville J. Taylor 
 
 S. E. Thomason 
 
 Melvin A. Traylor 
 
 Mrs. Frederic W. Upham 
 
 Frank O. Wetmore 
 
 B. M. Winston 
 
 Brig. Gen. Robert E. Wood 
 
 Matthew Woll 
 
 William Wrigley, Jr. 
 George Woodruff 
 
 HONORARY TRUSTEES 
 
 C. K. G. Billings 
 Mrs. Daniel H. Burnham, Sr. 
 William J. Chalmers 
 Mark L. Crawford 
 
 H. O. Edmonds 
 John V. Farwell 
 Ernest R. Graham 
 Cyrus H. McCormick 
 
 284 
 
 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 GUARANTORS OF COLD NOTES 
 
 American Bond & Mortgage Co. 
 
 Arthur Andersen 
 
 Mrs. Bertha D. Baur 
 
 Floyd L. Bateman 
 
 Vincent Bendix 
 
 E. H. Bennett 
 
 Frank B. Black 
 
 P. D. Block 
 
 L. E. Block 
 
 Avery Brundage 
 
 Britton I. Budd 
 
 Walter Buettner Jr. 
 
 D. H. Burnham ,, ^'^ 
 
 John Burnham & Company 
 
 H. M. Byllesby & Company 
 
 J. R. Cardwell 
 
 Charles C. Carnahan 
 
 George R. Carr 
 
 C. S. Castle 
 
 Philip R. Clarke 
 
 Aaron Colnon 
 
 Charles G. Cushing 
 
 Major General Abel Davis 
 
 Paul H. Davis Company 
 
 Colonel Charles Cuder Dawes 
 
 Hon. Charles G. Dawes 
 
 Henry M. Dawes 
 
 Rufus C. Dawes 
 
 Dawes Bros. Inc. 
 
 George W. Dixon 
 
 George B. Dryden 
 
 George A. Eddy 
 
 I. C. Elston Jr. 
 
 The Fair, By D. F. Kelly 
 
 Bernard J. Fallon 
 
 Evening American Publishing Co. 
 
 J. Russell Forgan 
 
 H. J. Friedman 
 
 Addison L. Gardner Jr. 
 
 C. F. Glore 
 
 Sol H. Goldberg 
 
 George Griffiths 
 
 Francis H. Hardy 
 
 A. W. Harris 
 
 Oscar Heineman 
 
 Edward Hines Lumber Co. 
 
 Ralph J. Hines 
 
 James M. Hopkins 
 
 Harry Boyd Hurd 
 
 Illinois Printing & Publishing Co. 
 (by Homer Guck, President) 
 
 Samuel InsuU — acting for: 
 
 Commonwealth Edison Company 
 The Peoples Gas, Light & Coke Co. 
 Chicago Rapid Transit Company 
 Public Service Company of North- 
 ern Illinois 
 Chicago, North Shore & Milwau- 
 kee R. R. Co. 
 Western United Gas & Electric Co. 
 Middle West Utilities Company 
 Midland Utilities Company 
 
 Henry P. Isham 
 
 Major General Roy D. Keehn 
 
 A. B, Leach & Company 
 
 Arthur T. Leonard 
 
 Albert D. Lasker 
 
 Frank G. Logan 
 
 Clayton Mark 
 
 F. H. Massman 
 
 Hiram H. Maynard 
 
 APPENDIX I 285
 
 / 
 
 Metropolitan Gas & Electric Co. 
 Miami Realty Trust 
 
 (by Chauncey McCormick) 
 Amos C. Miller 
 L. E. Myers 
 
 Colonel Robert R. McCormick ■_ 
 Donald R. McLennan ^ 
 T. J. McNulty 
 James Norris 
 John W. O'Leary 
 Birger Osland 
 Joseph E. Otis 
 Joseph E. Otis Jr. 
 H. E. Otte 
 Christian P. Paschen 
 Henry Paschen 
 Charles S. Pearce 
 A. E. Peirce 
 Charles S. Peterson 
 George Pick 
 C. H. Poppenhusen 
 Pure Oil Company 
 Dr. Wm. Allen Pusey 
 F. H. Rawson 
 Theodore Rcgensteincr 
 Victor A. Rice 
 T. W. Robinson 
 Fred H. Scheel 
 Charles H. Schweppe 
 Lawrence W. Scudder 
 John C. Shaffer 
 Arch W. Shaw 
 James Simpson 
 Stevens Hotel Company 
 Silas H. Strawn 
 Charles R. Street 
 E. N. Strom 
 
 Bernard E. Sunny 
 
 Oscar H. Swan 
 
 Swift Bros, (by Edward F. Swift) 
 
 Lucius Teter 
 
 Eugene V. R. Thayer 
 
 F. A. Thulin 
 
 Union Gas & Electric Company 
 
 N. H. VanSicklen Co. 
 
 Rawleigh Warner 
 
 Harry C. Watts 
 
 George V. Weinhoeber 
 
 Albert H. Wetten 
 
 Harry A. Wheeler 
 
 Samuel White 
 
 John P. Wilson 
 
 Brig. General Robert E. Wood 
 
 George Woodruff 
 vWm. Wrigley Jr. Co. 
 
 Knowlton Ames Sr. 
 
 Herman Black 
 
 Leonard A. Busby 
 
 R. Floyd Clinch 
 
 Richard J. Collins 
 
 D. M. Cummings 
 
 S. M. Felton 
 
 Oscar G. Foreman 
 
 M. E. Greenebaum 
 
 Richard C. Hall 
 
 Edward N. Hurley 
 
 Theodore C. Keller 
 
 H. H. Porter 
 vyjulius Rosenwald 
 
 Walter A. Strong 
 
 Clement Studebaker Jr. 
 
 John E. Wilder 
 
 R. E. Wilsey 
 
 Walter H. Wilson 
 
 286 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 Appendix II 
 
 SOUTH PARK ORDINANCE 
 
 WHEREAS, An Act of the General Assembly of the State of Illinois entitled, 
 "An Act in relation to The Chicago World's Fair Centennial Celebration," 
 approved June 18, 1929, provides, "That in case the site or sites for the holding 
 of the said Chicago World's Fair Centennial Celebration, as finally located and 
 fixed by the authorities in charge thereof, shall include lands, whether sub- 
 merged or otherwise, the tide or control of which is in any Park Commission 
 for public park purposes, then and in that event the use of such lands for the 
 purposes of said Chicago World's Fair Centennial Celebration shall be condi- 
 tioned upon the consent and approval of such Park Commissioners, and it shall 
 be competent, and express authority for that purpose is hereby granted to the 
 Park Commissioners having the control and management of such public park 
 lands, whether submerged or otherwise, to allow the use of the same, or any 
 part thereof, for the purposes of said Chicago World's Fair Centennial Celebra- 
 tion upon such terms and conditions, including admission fees to be charged 
 by said Chicago World's Fair Centennial Celebration, as may be agreed upon 
 between the said Park Commissioners and the authorities having the manage- 
 ment of said Exposition;" and, 
 
 WHEREAS, the Chicago World's Fair Centennial Celebration, the name of 
 which was later officially changed to "A Century of Progress," and a corporation 
 not for pecuniary profit, known as "A Century of Progress," was organized 
 under the laws of the State of Illinois for the purpose and object of preparing 
 and holding a World's Fair in the City of Chicago in the year 1933, has located 
 and fixed as the site for holding said Fair, certain parts of the Park lands under 
 
 APPENDIX II 287
 
 the jurisdiction of the South Park Commissioners; now, therefore, 
 Be It Ordained by the South Par\ Commissioners: 
 
 Section 1. Permission and authority are hereby granted under the terms and 
 conditions hereinafter set forth to "A Century of Progress," hereinafter desig- 
 nated "The Corporation," to use all or such portions of land and water areas and 
 structures therein which are under the jurisdiction of the South Park Commis- 
 sioners, hereinafter designated "The Commissioners," and which lie along and 
 adjacent to the shore of Lake Michigan and east of the grounds and right of 
 way occupied by the Illinois Central Railroad in the City of Chicago between 
 Roosevelt Road, extended, on the north, and Thirty-ninth Street, extended, on 
 the south, as may be required for the purpose of constructing, bringing into 
 being and operating a World's Fair, together with such other operations as 
 may be customary or necessary in developing and operating such a Fair, all as 
 shown on plan entitled "World's Fair Plan," dated February 1, 1930, and 
 marked "Exhibit A" and hereto attached. For convenience the area indicated 
 in this paragraph and shown in the plan will hereinafter be designated as the 
 "Premises." 
 
 Section 2. The said Corporation, at any time after the acceptance of this 
 ordinance and the approval of the bonds to be given by said Corporation as 
 hereinafter set forth and on sixty (60) days' notice to the Commissioners, shall 
 have the right to enter upon said "Premises" and take possession of all parts 
 thereof, except such portions thereof as are hereinafter expressly reserved, and 
 may make such changes in and such use of said "Premises" or any part thereof 
 as may be necessary for the purposes of such Fair, or necessary preparations there- 
 for; subject, however, to all of the provisions of Section 3 hereof and provided 
 that said sixty (60) days' notice to the Commissioners may be waived in whole 
 or in part by said Commissioners. 
 
 Section 3. The said Corporation shall have the right to enclose by fence or 
 fences such portions of said "Premises" as it may desire, subject, however, to 
 the approval of the Commissioners, provided, however, that satisfactory means 
 of ingress and egress to and from such portions of the "Premises" as are not so 
 enclosed shall be open to the general public; and provided, further, that the 
 bathing beaches at the foot of Twelfth Street and the foot of Thirty-first Street, 
 and suitable entrances thereto shall remain open to the general public until 
 the day following Labor Day of 1932. Said Corporation shall and it hereby 
 agrees that it will build at its own expense a roadway 100 feet in width 
 immediately east of and adjoining the right of way of the Illinois Central Rail- 
 road Company in the territory from Twelfth Street, or Roosevelt Road, extended, 
 to Thirty-ninth Street, extended. In the construction of this roadway the Corpo- 
 ration may take advantage of such portions and widths of roadway as have 
 already been constructed by the Commissioners in the above mentioned territory. 
 This roadway shall be built according to the plans and specifications approved 
 by the South Park Commissioners and shall be properly illuminated by an 
 electric lighting system in accordance with the Commissioners' standards, and 
 
 288 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 all the electrical work to be done in accordance with the specifications approved 
 by the Commissioners. The construction of this roadway shall include the 
 necessary connections to and with existing structures, either overhead or depressed, 
 so as to make the same conveniently accessible to the traveling public. The 
 Corporation shall and it hereby agrees to build an additional by-pass, approach 
 or roadway at Twenty-third Street viaduct, sufficient in size to accommodate 
 not less than four lanes of traffic. All the above enumerated road construction 
 work shall be commenced and concluded during the year 1930. Nothing herein 
 contained shall prohibit the Corporation from taking necessary measures to 
 prevent the encroachment of persons and/or vehicles upon such portions of 
 the "Premises" as may be in actual use during the preparation for said Fair. 
 
 Section 4. The said Corporation shall have the right, subject to existing 
 contracts and obligations to which the Commissioners are a party, or such 
 amendments thereto as may be consummated, to use the Adler Planetarium 
 and Soldier Field, including exhibit spaces therein, as parts of the World's 
 Fair to the same extent and in the same manner as buildings erected for and 
 by the said Corporation and to charge special fees for entrance to either or 
 both of said structures, and to enclose them by a fence or fences, as provided 
 in Section 3; provided, however, that the said Adler Planetarium and Soldier 
 Field shall remain under the jurisdiction of the Commissioners as at present, 
 and that existing entrances to said structures shall not be closed until January 1, 
 1933, and provided further that the Corporation shall pay to the Commissioners 
 on or before the tenth day of each month ten per cent of the gross proceeds 
 received during the preceding month, derived from special fees charged by the 
 Corporation for entrance to either or both of said structures over and above the 
 fees paid for admissions to the grounds of the exposition, in which fees the 
 Commissioners have no interest. The Corporation agrees that during the time 
 Soldier Field and the Adler Planetarium are under its control it will employ 
 at its own expense such employees of the Commissioners as are necessary in 
 the opinion of said Commissioners to maintain and operate said Soldier Field 
 and Adler Planetarium at the standard established by the Commissioners before 
 turning the same over to the Corporation; such employees to include members 
 of the staff of the Commissioners, electricians, plumbers, carpenters, tuck- 
 pointers, and such others as may be essential. It is expressly understood and 
 agreed that possession of the Adler Planetarium and Soldier Field, the sub- 
 station at Thirty-ninth Street and pumping station at Twelfth Street are to 
 remain in the possession and control of the Commissioners, and the Corporation 
 shall have no right to the possession thereof until the opening day of the Fair. 
 Provided, however, that nothing herein contained shall prohibit the Corporation 
 under such agreement as may hereafter be made for that purpose, from entering 
 said Adler Planetarium, Soldier Field and the station at Twelfth Street for such 
 purposes connected with the preparation of the exposition as may be necessary. 
 Section 5. The Commissioners hereby consent to the use of the Field Museum 
 of Natural History, the Art Institute of Chicago and the Shedd Aquarium by 
 
 APPENDIX il 289
 
 the Corporation, during the continuance of the Fair, provided the Boards of 
 Directors or other operating management of said Museum, Institute and Aqua- 
 rium shall also consent to the use of such structures, and the Corporation will 
 procure and deliver to the Commissioners the written consent of each of said 
 above named institutions in proper form; provided, the necessary legislation 
 for that purpose may be enacted by the legislature of the State of Illinois. 
 
 Section 6. Such buildings and portions of the "Premises" only as are herein 
 expressly reserved to the Commissioners shall be under the care and supervision 
 of the Commissioners, and all other portions of the "Premises" shall be under 
 the care, supervision and control of the Corporation, and the Corporation 
 shall be responsible and hereby assumes full responsibility for the care, safety 
 and maintenance of any buildings, work or construction of every kind or of any 
 property of said Corporation and of persons and property upon all such portions 
 of said "Premises" as are in possession and control of said Corporation for and 
 during the construction of buildings and other preparations for the operations 
 in connection with said Fair and for and during dismantling operations; until 
 such time as all of the "Premises" taken over by the Corporation under the terms 
 of this ordinance shall be returned to and accepted by the Commissioners. 
 
 Section 7. The Corporation may, at its own expense, before the opening of 
 the Fair, build a revetment on the west side of the northerly island and the 
 cast side of the mainland, running from the existing causeway on the north 
 to the line of Sixteenth street, extended, on the south, each revetment to 
 extend into the water approximately one hundred and fifty (150) feet, thereby 
 contracting the present lagoon substantially three hundred (300) feet in width. 
 In the event that the Corporation constructs such revetments it hereby agrees 
 to fill in behind both revetments with material, which, in the judgment of the 
 Commissioners is suitable for the purpose, all of which will be at the expense 
 of the Corporation. In the event that the Corporation docs not construct such 
 revetments, nothing herein contained shall be construed to prevent the Commis- 
 sioners from constructing such revetments and filling in behind the same before 
 the opening of the Fair. 
 
 Section 8. Subject always to the superior governmental control of the Commis- 
 sioners over any and all portions of the "Premises" to be taken over by the 
 Corporation hereunder, the corporation by the acceptance hereof agrees to provide 
 for the adequate police, fire and health protection to the public in the portions of 
 the "Premises" taken over by it while under its control, but nothing herein con- 
 tained shall be construed as depriving the Commissioners or its officers or em- 
 ployees from going upon any part of said "Premises" or going into any structures 
 erected thereon, for the purpose of enforcing any ordinance of the Commissioners 
 or laws of the State of Illinois. 
 
 Section 9. During the time that the said Corporation shall have control, 
 management and policing of any portion or portions of the said "Premises" as 
 hereinbefore provided, the said Corporation shall pay all costs for the care, 
 
 290 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 maintenance and protection of such portion or portions of said "Premises" and 
 of all buildings, structures, roads, walks, sewage and water systems, plantations 
 and other works therein and the Commissioners shall be at no expense whatso- 
 ever in regard thereto; provided, however, that a reasonable number of the 
 employees of the Commissioners and the members of the South Park Commission 
 shall have access at all times to any area turned over to the Corporation in order 
 that the Commissioners may make reasonable inspection and may be assured 
 that due care is being taken of such works enumerated above as are turned 
 over to the Corporation, and that any operations of the Corporation affecting 
 such works are properly carried out. The Commissioners further agree to 
 permit the Corporation to make any necessary use of or connection with the 
 utilities installed by the Commissioners, provided that such connections must 
 be specifically approved by the Commissioners and the work done thereunder 
 inspected by the Commissioners at the expense of the Corporation, and a 
 complete report, with suitable plats, plans and descriptions, shall be made to 
 the Commissioners within fifteen (15) days after the completion of each connec- 
 tion. Nothing in this section contained shall be construed to obligate the Corpo- 
 ration to repair damage, if any, caused by the ravages of the waters of Lake 
 Michigan, except such structures, if any, as may be built by the Corporation 
 in, upon, or over the waters of Lake Michigan, and such structures, if any 
 be built, shall at the conclusion of the Fair, be either removed by and at the 
 expense of the Corporation, or retained for park purposes, as may be determined 
 by the South Park Commissioners, 
 
 Section 10. Immediately after the closing of the Fair on or about November 
 1, 1933, the Commissioners may designate such buildings, utilities, structures, 
 plantations and other works erected or constructed at the expense of the 
 Corporation, other than concession buildings, as said Commissioners may desire 
 to retain for park purposes, and all such designated buildings, structures, utilities, 
 plantations or other works shall be surrendered by the Corporation to the 
 Commissioners within ninety (90) days after being so designated, without cost 
 to the Commissioners, All buildings, structures, utilities, plantations or other 
 works erected or constructed for the purpose of the Fair not so designated by 
 the Commissioners shall be removed by the Corporation at its own expense; and 
 the areas turned over to the control of the Corporation by the Commissioners, 
 with all buildings, structures, utilities or other works, the property of the 
 Commissioners in those areas, shall be restored by the Corporation, at its own 
 expense, to approximately the same condition in which such area was prior to 
 the Corporation taking over the same. In the event that such restoration is 
 impossible, in the judgment of the Commissioners, the Corporation shall pay 
 to the Commissioners a sum of money, to be agreed upon, in lieu of such 
 restoration. It is further agreed that if on July 1, 1935, any portion or portions 
 of the "Premises" have not been restored by the Corporation to a condition 
 equal to that in which it was when turned over by the Commissioners to the con- 
 trol of the Corporation, or otherwise disposed of as hereinbefore provided, the said 
 
 APPENDIX II 291
 
 Commissioners may enter such areas and proceed to such restoration at the expense 
 of the Corporation. 
 
 The plan entitled "General Plan of Improvement in Grant Park and Lake 
 Front Extension between Roosevelt Road and Thirty-ninth Street," dated January 
 1, 1930, and marked "Exhibit B," in eight sheets (file number M-6-2990) 
 attached hereto, shows buildings, structures, utilities and other works existing 
 on the "Premises" on January 1, 1930; and this plan, with such amendments 
 thereto as may be necessary, to show any additional work done on any portion 
 of the "Premises" before such portion is turned over to the control of the 
 Corporation, shall form the basis of all matters of dispute which may arise in 
 restoration work as to the condition of the "Premises" when taken over by 
 the Corporation. 
 
 Section 11. The Commissioners agree that the Corporation may charge a 
 general admission fee to the grounds of "A Century of Progress" exposition 
 to be held in 1933 and that the Corporation may, if it so desires, open a 
 portion or portions of said exposition "Premises" as such portions become avail- 
 able during such parts of the years 1931, 1932 and 1933, as it may desire and 
 that said Corporation may charge an admission fee to any such portion or 
 portions so opened to public inspection. 
 
 Section 12. The use of said "Premises" for the holding of a Fair by the said 
 Corporation is granted for the purposes of said Fair upon the further express 
 condition that said "Premises" shall be used during the periods above mentioned 
 only for the purposes of said Fair and subject to the foregoing terms and 
 conditions. The acceptance of this ordinance by said Corporation shall constitute 
 on its part an agreement to fully comply with all of the terms and conditions 
 thereof. 
 
 Section 13. The Corporation by the acceptance hereof agrees at its own expense 
 to carry fire insurance on all structures now erected or hereafter to be erected 
 on the "Premises," the property of the Commissioners, during the period that 
 the Corporation shall have control of said structures in such companies and in 
 such amounts as shall be approved by the Commissioners, the policies on which 
 shall be made payable to the Commissioners, and said policies shall be deposited 
 with the Secretary of the Commissioners, and said Corporation by the acceptance 
 hereof further agrees to carry insurance at its own expense to protect the Com- 
 missioners from any claim for damage to person or property in or upon any 
 portion of the "Premises," the control of which is by the terms of this ordinance 
 transferred to the Corporation, the amount of said insurance and the companies 
 to write the same, to be subject to the approval of the Commissioners, and the 
 said policies to be deposited with the Secretary of the Commissioners, and the 
 Corporation further agrees to carry at its own expense insurance in such amount 
 and in such companies as shall be approved by the Commissioners for the purpose 
 of indemnifying and protecting any person or persons for damage to his or 
 her person or property by reason of any negligent act or omission to act of the 
 Corporation, its officers, servants, agents, contractors, sub-contractors on any of 
 
 292 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 the "Premises" transferred by the Commissioners to the Corporation by the 
 terms hereof, said policies to be delivered into the possession of the Secretary 
 of the Commissioners for the benefit of any such person or persons having a 
 right of action against the Corporation or the Commissioners. And the Corpora- 
 tion further agrees to hold the Commissioners harmless from and against any 
 and all liabilities, claims or demands which may be brought against said Corpora- 
 tion or said Commissioners, or both of them, by reason of, arising from, growing 
 out of, or resulting from the carelessness, negligence or default of said Corpora- 
 tion, its agents, employees, or servants in connection with the preparations for 
 or the conduct of the Fair and said Corporation agrees at its own expense to 
 defend the said Commissioners against any and all claims, suits or demands 
 which may be so brought against the Commissioners, and further agrees at its 
 own expense prior to the taking possession of the said "Premises" to furnish 
 the Commissioners a satisfactory bond in a sufficient sum as hereinafter set forth 
 to indemnify the Commissioners against any and all liabilities, judgments, costs, 
 loss, damage or expense which may be sustained by said Commissioners by 
 reason of, arising from, or growing out of the contractual relation hereby 
 established, and conditioned also for the prompt performance by the Corporation 
 of all the work to be performed by it in the restoration of the premises as required 
 in section ten hereof. 
 
 Section 14. It is expressly understood and agreed between the Corporation 
 and the Commissioners that any and all concessions, grants or permits granted 
 or issued by the Corporation to any person, firm or corporation for exposition 
 purposes shall terminate with the closing of the Fair, 
 
 Section 15. All buildings, structures or other works erected on the "Premises" 
 by the Corporation or by any person, firm or corporation acting under a permit 
 or authority from the Corporation, shall be constructed in accordance with 
 the Statutes governing the construction of buildings in this State, and it shall 
 be the duty of the Corporation to enforce the observance of the same. 
 
 Section 16. All the provisions of this ordinance shall be incorporated in and 
 become a part of all contracts entered into between the Corporation and all 
 persons, firms or corporations to whom such Corporation may grant concessions 
 during the period of the Fair, or all such concessions and contracts with con- 
 cessioners, shall recite that such contracts and concessions are subject to all the 
 terms, conditions and limitations of this ordinance. 
 
 Section 17. In the event that any person, firm or corporation to whom the 
 Corporation has granted a concession shall undertake the construction of a 
 building or other structure which, in the opinion of the Commissioners, would 
 be considered a permanent structure, the South Park Commissioners hereby 
 reserve the right to reject the plans for the construction of such building, and 
 refuse to allow the construction of the same. The term "permanent structure" 
 shall be construed to mean a building or buildings with foundation and walls of 
 such material, size and character as to indicate the construction of a building 
 designed to outlive the period of the Fair and to stand for a number of years. 
 
 APPENDIX II 293
 
 Section 18. Within thirty (30) days after the acceptance in writing of this 
 ordinance by the Corporation, said Corporation shall file with the Commissioners 
 a bond in the penal sum of $250,000 in form and with surety to be approved 
 by the Commissioners, said bond to be conditioned for the construction and 
 operation of a Fair to cost not less than five millions of dollars, for the faithful 
 performance of all the terms and conditions herein prescribed and also to 
 indemnify and save harmless the Commissioners against all damage on account 
 of the use of said grounds for the purpose of said Fair or the passage of this 
 ordinance. Said bonds shall provide that one year from the date of said bond 
 the penalty thereof shall automatically be increased to five hundred thousand 
 ($500,000) dollars and two years from the same date the penalty thereof shall 
 automatically be further increased to one million ($1,000,000) dollars, and 
 shall remain at that amount until the close of the exposition, after which time 
 it shall be reduced by such amounts and at such times as may be agreed upon 
 with the Commissioners. 
 
 Section 19. In consideration of all the rights, grants and privileges in this 
 ordinance contained by the South Park Commissioners to the Corporation, the 
 Corporation hereby agrees that after the close of the Fair and the payment by 
 the Corporation of all its outstanding bonds, obligations and liabilities, of every 
 kind and nature, including the discharge of all obligations in this ordinance 
 herein above assumed, or in any amendment thereto, the Corporation will pay 
 to the Commissioners, twenty-five (25%) percent of all surplus funds remaining 
 in the hands of the Corporation. 
 
 Section 20. This ordinance shall be accepted in writing by said Corporation 
 within thirty (30) days after its passage; otherwise it shall be null and void. 
 
 STATE OF ILLINOIS 1 
 
 COUNTY OF COOK 
 
 SOUTH PARK COMMISSIONERS 
 
 
 294 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 NDEX 
 
 Adams, Myron E., 8 
 
 Adler Planetarium, 43, 51, 55, 120, 171 
 
 Administration Building, 42, 61, 68, 72, 
 75, 83, 95, 103, 123, 124, 180, 190, 
 197, 203, 206, 208, 214, 226, 246, 265, 
 266 
 
 Agriculture Building; See Foods and Agri- 
 culture Building, also Dairy Building 
 
 Albert, Dr. Allen D., 13, 61 
 
 American Association for the Advance- 
 ment of Science, 125 
 
 American College of Surgeons, 122 
 
 American Radiator Company Building, 87, 
 99 
 
 American Telephone & Telegraph Exhibit, 
 129 
 
 Amusement Areas, 168-169, 255-256 
 
 Andersen, Arthur, 202 
 
 Archaeological Trust, 263 
 
 Architectural Commission, 13, 61-63, 75, 
 82, 91, 95 
 
 Araurus Ceremony, 126, 191, 197-198, 
 241, 256 
 
 Armour Building, 109, 131 
 
 Army, United States, cooperation of, 149- 
 150 
 
 Art Exhibits, 159-162, 200 
 children's, 143 
 
 Art Insutute of Chicago, 43, 51, 159-162, 
 200 
 
 Ashendon, Edward J., 124 
 
 Atlantic & Pacific Tea Company, 131 
 
 Auditing Committee, 14 
 
 Avenue of Flags, 94, 107, 120, 197, (pic- 
 ture, 24, 184) 
 
 B 
 
 Balbo, General Italo, 156-157, 158, 198, 
 
 266 
 Ball, Captain C. W., 149 
 Baltimore & Ohio Railway Exhibit, 129 
 Barclay, George, 5, 213 
 Barclay, R. E., 106 
 Barker-Goldman-Lubin Company, 42 
 Bartley, E. Ross, 26, 213 
 Basic Science Division, 120, 125, 193 
 Bateman, F. L., 10, 12 
 Baylor, Dr. F. W., 210 
 Beckman, William H., 214 
 Belgian Village, 87, 158, 175, 258 
 Bell, J. Franklin, 5, 128, 129 
 Bendix, Vincent, 235 
 Bennett, Edward H., 13, 61 
 Bennett, Helen, 5, 145 
 Benot, Maude, 120 
 
 INDEX 295
 
 Bitting, A. W., 128 
 
 Black Forest Village, 177, 258, (picture 
 
 153) 
 Blum, Dr. Franz, 236 
 Board of Trustees, 12, 62, 187, 283-284 
 Boggs, Colonel Frank C, 29, 215 
 Bowery, 178-179, 258 
 Brophy, C. E., 203 
 Brown, Arthur, Jr., 13, 61 
 Budd, Britton I., 13, 23 
 Buffalo Museum of Science, 123 
 Building Code, 24 
 Building & Grounds Committee, 14 
 Buckley, Homer J., 213 
 Bundesen, Dr. Herman, 189 
 Burgess, Dr. George K., 118 
 Burnham, Daniel H., 11, 12, 24, 27, 61, 
 
 63 
 Burnham Hubert, 13, 61 
 Burnham Park, 62 
 Busch, Francis X., 214 
 Business Research Bureau, 23 
 Byrne, Patrick J., 27, 187 
 
 C 
 
 Cactus Pergola, 95 
 
 Carey, Dr. Eben J., 120, 122, 189 
 
 Chicago 
 
 benefits of fair to, 2 
 
 advantages as an exposition city, 8 
 Carnahan, C. C, 214 
 Carnahan & Slusser, 214 
 Causey, Colonel William B., 148 
 Chicago Association of Commerce, 1 5 
 Chicago Committee on Nationalities, 155 
 Chicago Historical Society, 174, 234 
 Chicago Medical Society, 122 
 Chicago Plan Commission, 43, 55 
 Chicago Park District, 42, 262, 266; See 
 
 also South Park Commission 
 Chicago Symphony Orchestra, 138 
 Chinese Village, 158, 175-176, 178, 258 
 Chrysler Building, 80, 99, 137, (picture 
 
 248) 
 Clayton, John, 213 
 Clow, W. E., 8 
 Code Commission, 54 
 Cole, Dr. Fay-Cooper, 145, 236 
 Cole, Sir Henry, 153 
 Colonial Village, 178, 258 
 
 Commercial Club, 8 
 
 Commonwealth Edison Company, 102 
 
 Communications Building; See Radio and 
 
 Communications Building 
 Comptroller's Department, 23, 27, 28, 195, 
 
 202-204, 258; See also Finance 
 Concessions, 35-36, 163-170 
 
 income from, 40 
 
 legal questions concerning, 220-221 
 
 policies for, 164-166, 274 
 Concessions Department, 23, 26 
 Concessionaires' Association, 27 
 Construction, 58, 226-240, 255-256 
 Corbett, Harvey Wiley, 13, 61 
 Couney, Dr. M. A., 169 
 Creighton, Comm.ander John M., 149 
 Crcrar Library, 125 
 Cret, Paul Philippe, 13, 61, 71, 122 
 Crew, Dr. Henry, 119, 126 
 Croneis, Dr. Carey, 120 
 Crystal Palace, London Exposition of 
 
 1882, 101 
 Cuneo, John F., 3 
 Cuneo Press, 3, 136 
 Cunningham, Robert M., 209, 221 
 Czarnecki, Anthony, 149 
 
 Dairy Building, 131; See also Foods and 
 
 Agriculture Building 
 Daniels, Captain M. S., 26, 149 
 Davis, Abel, 13, 30 
 
 Dawes, General Charles G., 9, 31, 32, 146 
 Dawes, Rufus C, 3-4, 11, 12, 13, 61, 152, 
 
 214 
 Demolition, 260-266 
 Dcver, W. E., 214 
 Dever, Mayor William E., 8 
 Depression, effects of, 33, 35, 55, 70, 123 
 Dietrich, Carl, 123 
 Dioramas, 124, 276 
 Dixon, George W., 14 
 Donoghue, George T., 42, 54 
 Dunham, Robert J., 42, 266 
 Dunn, Gano, 118 
 Dunne, Edward F., 148 
 Dutch Village, 177, 258 
 
 Educational Exhibit Committee, 143 
 
 296 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 Egyptian Pavilion, 157 
 
 Eitel, Robert, 27 
 
 Elearical Building, 70, 80, 83, 87, 96, 98, 
 
 106, 112, 129-130, 135 
 
 (piaure 217) 
 English Village, 176, 258 
 Ettelson, Samuel A., 214 
 Exhibits 
 
 art, 159-162 
 
 contracts for, 218-220 
 
 Federal Government, 146-150 
 
 foreign, 153-158 
 
 income from, 40 
 
 industrial, 127-139 
 
 philosophy of, 116-117 
 
 sale of space for, 34-35 
 
 science, 116-126 
 
 social sicence, 140-145 
 
 state, 150-153 
 
 techniques of, 123-125, 127-128, 276- 
 281 
 Exhibitors' Association, 27 
 Exhibits Department, 23, 26 
 
 F 
 
 Farley, James A., 199 
 
 Farrier, Clarence W., 24, 27, 70 
 
 Farwell, S. P., 23 
 
 Federal Building; See United States Gov- 
 ernment Building 
 
 Feldstein, Janice R., 5 
 
 Field Museum of Natural History, 51, 55, 
 144 
 
 Financing, 11, 12, 25-26, 30-49, 68-69, 
 254-255; See also Comptroller's De- 
 partment 
 bond issue, 55 
 budget, 33-34, 39 
 General Finance Committee, 13-14 
 Gold Notes, 25, 30, 31, 32, 34, 37, 38, 
 
 39, 40, 41, 204, 254, 285-286 
 membership plan, 12-13 
 policies, 270-272 
 revenue control, 202-211 
 
 Fire Proteaion, 188, 238, 247, 272 
 
 Firestone Building, 98, 99, 137-138, 
 (piaure 57) 
 
 Fitch, Charles Walton, 26 
 
 Foods and Agriculture Building, 34, 35, 
 56, 69, 70, 80, 97, 130, 148; See also 
 Dairy Building 
 
 Ford Building, 80, 109, 137, 200, 
 (picture 121) 
 
 Fordney, Major C. L., 149 
 
 Foreign Participation, 153-158 
 
 Foreman, Oscar G., 12, 14 
 
 Fort Dearborn, 43, 68, 149, 173-174, 181, 
 
 182-183, 234-235, 263 
 Fox, Gordon, 221 
 Fox, Dr. Philip, 120 
 Friedlander, Leo, 97 
 Fulcher, Dr. G. S., 119 
 
 Gardens, 88-90, 92; See also Landscaping 
 Geiffert, Alfred, Jr., 61, 83 
 General American Tank Car Exhibit, 129 
 General Electric Company, 104, 129, 135 
 General Exhibits Building, 34, 35, 65, 69, 
 
 70, 80, 112, 130, 136, 229, (picture 57) 
 General Manager, 15, 22, 23, 25, 28, 29, 
 
 34, 181, 203, 204, 215, 268-269 
 General Motors Building, 80, 88, 136-137, 
 
 (picture 120) 
 General Service Department, 23-24, 181, 
 
 204; See also Operations Department 
 Glore, Charles F., 12, 13 
 Gorham, Sidney S., 183 
 Gorman, J. E., 10 
 Grant Park, 51, 55, 185 
 Gregg, Norman, 26 
 Greyhound Corporation, 184, (picture 
 
 120) 
 Grove, B. L., 214 
 Guide Service, 191-193 
 Gutenberg Press, Gutenberg Bible, 136 
 
 H 
 
 Hackett, Colonel H. B., 239 
 
 Hale, Dr. George E., 117 
 
 Hall of Religion, 141-142, 201 
 
 Hall of Science, 65, 68, 69, 70, 71, 75, 
 79, 80, 83, 88, 96, 106, 112, 115, 120, 
 122, 123, 125, 126, 129, 148, 157, 181, 
 183, 197, 199, 201, 227, 247, 263, 
 (pictures 24, 56, 57, 185) 
 
 Hall of Social Science, 80, 87, 97, 148, 
 263, (pictures 56, 88) 
 
 Hawaiian Village, 177, 258 
 
 Health Protection, 189-190, 258 
 
 Hedin, Dr. Sven, 235 
 
 Hermann, Grover M., 77 
 
 Hodgins, George, 25 
 
 Holabird, John A., 13, 61 
 
 INDEX 297
 
 Holland, Maurice, 119 
 
 Home Planning Hall, 80, 130, 132-135, 
 
 226 
 Hood, Raymond Mathewson, 13, 61 
 Horticultural Building, 87, 89-90, 99, 
 
 (picture 152) 
 Hoover, Herbert, 146-147, 199 
 Hull, Cordell, 148 
 Hungerford, Edward, 171 
 Hurley, Edward N., 8, 9, 10 
 Hurley Report, 51 
 
 I 
 
 lanelli, Alfonso, 97 
 Illinois 
 
 participation of, See States 
 
 Host House, 198 
 
 Public Welfare Department, 143 
 Illinois Bell Telephone Company, 135 
 Illinois Central Railroad, 51, 54 
 
 advantages to Fair of location near, 59 
 Illions, Harry, 168 
 Illumination, 58, 59, 66, 80, 101-110 
 
 Advisory Committee on, 102 
 
 electrical system, 241-247 
 
 signs, 99-100 
 Indian Village, 140-I4l, 144 
 Insull, Samuel, 10, 32 
 Insurance, 209-211, 221 
 
 International Convention on Expositions, 
 154 
 
 International Telephone & Telegraph Ex- 
 hibit, 129 
 Irish Village, 176-177, 258 
 Irvine, Major Elroy S. J., 149, 183 
 Irwin, Janet E., 5 
 Italian Village, 156-158. 177, 258 
 
 James, Dr. James Alton, 182 
 Japanese Building, 157 
 Jehol, Golden Pavilion of; See Latna Tem- 
 ple 
 Jewett, Dr. Frank B., 118 
 Josset, Raoul, 97 
 Junior League of Chicago, 174 
 
 K 
 
 Kaufman & Fabry Company, 3 
 Keck, Colonel Morris M., 150 
 Keller, Rep. Kent E., 148 
 Kellogg, Dr. Vernon, 118 
 
 Kelly, D. F., 8, 10 
 Kelly, Edward J., 42, 54 
 Kerr, Milton P., 26, 27 
 
 L 
 
 Labor, relations with, 239-240; See also 
 
 Personnel 
 Lachaise, Gaston, 96 
 Lagoon Theater, 109, 199, 258 
 Lake Front Site, advantages of, 50, 51 
 Lama Temple of Jehol, 43, 149, 173-174, 
 
 183, 235, 263, 266 
 Landscaping, 58, 82-92, 257, 271; See 
 
 also Gardens 
 Latham, Carl, 214 
 Lawrie, Lee, 95, 96 
 Legal Committee, 13, 52 
 Legal Matters, 214-225, 254, 272 
 Legislation, enabling, 52, 62, 148, 254 
 Leonard, Mrs. Arthur T., 148 
 Lewis, Sen. James Hamilton, 148 
 Lewis, Dr. J. Volney, 120 
 Lighting, See Illumination 
 Lloyd, E. W., 102 
 
 M 
 
 MacMaster, Daniel M., 5 
 
 Mannerud, John C, 24, 27 
 
 Marconi, Guglielmo, 199 
 
 Marsh & McLennan, Inc., 209-210, 221 
 
 Maya Temple, 144, 193, 235, 256, 263 
 
 Mayo Foundation, 123 
 
 McConnell, J. L., 110 
 
 McCormick, Chauncey, 10, 12, 14, 159 
 
 McCormick, Ruth Hanna, 10, 12 
 
 McDowell, Malcolm, 4 
 
 McGrew, Martha Steele, 5, 29 
 
 Medical Exhibit, 115, 121-122 
 
 Meyer, Alvin, 95 
 
 Mexican Village, 157, 177 
 
 Midget Village, 179 
 
 Midway, See Amusement Areas: (picture 
 
 217) 
 Miller, Amos C, 11, 12, 214 
 Millis, Carl, 97 
 
 Moroccan Village, 87, 175-176 
 Morrison, P. J., 213 
 Moulton, Forrest Ray, 164 
 Museum of Science & Industry, 43, 123, 
 
 157, 263 
 
 298 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 Music, 200-201 
 Muskat, Dr. I. E., 119 
 
 N 
 
 National Poultry' Council, 131 
 
 National Research Council, 14, 15, 117- 
 
 118, 140, 141, 212 
 Navy, United States, cooperation of, 149 
 New, Harry S., 148 
 Newspapers, 20-21; See also Publicity, 
 
 Promotion 
 Northerly Island, 50, 55-56, 80, 82. 87 
 Norton, John, 98 
 Nuber, Commander H. D., 27, 149, 265 
 
 
 
 Old Heidelberg, 27 
 
 •"Oasis," 177-178 
 
 Odum, Dr. Howard W., 145 
 
 O'Neill, Dorothy, 4 
 
 Operations Department, 23-24, 27, 28, 
 
 181-201 
 Organization Committee, 10, 11 
 Oriental Institute (University of Chicago), 
 
 143 
 Otis, Joseph E., 13 
 Otley, R. C, 203 
 Otter, William, 221 
 Owen, Ruth Bryan, 199 
 Owings, N. A., 70, 173 
 
 P 
 
 Paris Exposition of 1851, 101 
 
 Paris Exposition of 1889, 172, 233 
 
 Passes, issuance of, 187-188 
 
 Peabody, Stuyvesant, 13, 31, 213 
 
 Pearson, Dr. J. F. W., 119 
 
 Perkins, Frances, 199 
 
 Personnel 
 
 seleaion of, 16 
 
 policies, 17-18, 19-25, 268-271 
 
 Peterson, Charles S., 9, 11, 12 
 
 Phi Delta Kappa, 143 
 
 Philadelphia Sesquicentennial Exposition 
 of 1926, 9 
 
 Pick, George, 13 
 
 Police, 52, 58, 182, 193, 206-207, 272 
 
 Promotion Department, 23, 26, 213; See 
 also Publicity Department 
 
 Publicity Department, 197, 212-213, 255, 
 271-274; See also Promotion Depart- 
 ment 
 
 Pupin, Dr. Michael, 117 
 
 Purchase Ofi&ce, 25 
 
 Pusey, Dr. William Allen, 118, 122, 189 
 
 R 
 
 Radio and Communications Building, 87, 
 
 96,97 
 Rainey, Speaker Henry T., 148 
 Randolph, Colonel Robert I., 27 
 Raymond, W. H., 26 
 Redd, Captain Robert E., 194 
 Reed, John Ross, 171 
 Reilly, John A., 200 
 Religion 
 
 Committee on Progress Through Re- 
 ligion, 14, l4l 
 
 See also Hall of Religion 
 Roberts, Captain F. H., 119, 149 
 Rock Island Railroad Exhibit, 129 
 Roosevelt, Franklin D., 148, 199 
 Roper, Daniel G., 148 
 Rosenwald, Julius, 32 
 Rubin, Viaor, 213 
 Ryan, W. D'Arcy, 104 
 
 S 
 
 San Francisco Fair of 1915, 22, 73, 101, 
 
 105 
 Schmitt, Herbert W., 83 
 Schuyler, Daniel, Jr., 13 
 Science Exhibits, 116-126; See also Basic 
 
 Science Division, Hall of Science 
 Science Advisory Council, 118, 119, 120, 
 
 123, 127, 128, 129 
 Scientific Publications, Committee on, 125 
 Sconce, Harvey, 128 
 Sculpture, 95-97, (picture 56) 
 Seabury, Charles Ward, 221 
 Sears Roebuck Building, 138, (picture 
 
 216) 
 
 Secretary's Department, 23, 27, 195 
 
 Sewell, Colonel John S., 26 
 
 Shaw, Robert P., 119 
 
 Shedd Aquarium, 51, 55, 58 
 
 Sinclair Refining Company Exhibit, 138 
 
 Skidmore, Louis, 70, 114, 173 
 
 Sky-Ride, 29, 71, 72, 100, 106, 108, 120, 
 
 149, 151, 171-173, 233-234, 239, 256, 
 
 265, (pictures 25, 89) 
 
 Slusser, Thomas H., 215 
 Smietanka, Julius, 214 
 
 INDEX 299
 
 Smith, Alfred E., 199 
 
 Smith, U. Grant, 150 
 
 Smithsonian Institution, 43 
 
 Sniffen, Edward H., 27 
 
 Social Science Division, 140; See also 
 
 Hall of Social Science 
 Social Science Research Council, 14 1 
 Soldier Field, 51, 58, 168, 185 
 Sousa, John Philip, 200 
 South Park Commission, 43, 52, 53, 120, 
 
 171, 187, 238, 254, 261-262; See also 
 
 Chicago Park District 
 South Park Ordinance, 52-54, 57, 62, 287- 
 
 294 
 Spanish Village, 178, 258 
 Special Events Division, 152 
 Sprague, Albert A., 8, 12, 13 
 Stahl, Charles, 104 
 States Building, 70, 80, 97, 147, 150-153 
 
 participation of states, 88-89, 90, 150- 
 153 
 
 Court of States, 107, 147, 199 
 Stephens, Sen. Hubert D., 148 
 Stewart, Bishop George Craig, 182 
 Stewart, John, 24 
 Stock, Frederick A., 138 
 Storrs, John H., 96, 97 
 Streets of Paris, 175-176 
 Streets of Shanghai; See Chinese Village 
 Streyckmans, Major Felix, 155 
 Stuart, H. L., 13 
 Studebaker, Clement, Jr., 13 
 Sunny, B. E., 10, 12 
 Swedish Pavilion, 97 
 Swift & Company Exhibit, 131, 138, 200, 
 
 259 
 Swiss Village, 178, 258 
 
 Taft, Lorado, 97 
 Teegan, Otto, 76 
 Thompson, Mayor William Hale, 9, 10, 
 
 11 
 Thurman, C. H., 247 
 Tickets, 207-208 
 Tieken, Helen (Mrs. M. P. Geraghty) 
 
 171 
 Tielson, E. D., 102 
 Tomlin, Jay, 25 
 Tower of Water and Light, 71, 72 
 
 Traffic Committee, 183 
 
 Traffic Plan, 57, 58, 183-187, 273 
 
 Transportation Section, 154 
 
 Travelers' Aid, 190 
 
 Travel and Transport Building, 55, 65, 68, 
 72, 75, 80, 83, 112, 129, 136, 148, 155, 
 156, 183, 226, 229, 231, 263, (picture 
 248) 
 
 Tunisian Village, 178, 258 
 
 Tveter, Martin, 27, 203 
 
 U 
 
 United States Bureau of Education, 143 
 
 United States Government 
 sponsorship by, 15, 146-150 
 Building, 80, 97, 146, (picture 88) 
 
 University of Chicago Press, 125 
 
 Urban, Joseph, 61, 74, 75, 76, 78, 79, 104 
 
 Van Deventer, Col. Christopher, 150 
 
 Vitale, Ferruccio, 61, 82, 83 
 
 Villages, 175-179; See also Belgian, Black 
 Forest, Chinese, Colonial, Dutch, Eng- 
 lish, Hauaiian, Indian, Irish, Italian, 
 Mexican, Moroccan, Spanish, Swiss, Tu- 
 misian, and pictures 152, 153, 185 
 
 Vogelgesang, Shepard, 79 
 
 W 
 
 Walker, Ralph T., 13, 61, 64, 71 
 
 Wallace, Henry A., 148 
 
 Water Supply, 248-252 
 
 Ways and Means Committee, 8-9 
 
 Wesenberg, Myrtle V., 25 
 
 Western Union Hall, 135 
 
 Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing 
 
 Company, 104, 129 
 Wigglesworth, Major Robert, 192 
 Williams & Wilkins Co., 125 
 Wings of a Century, 149. 171-172, 173, 
 
 256, 261, 263, 264 
 
 Woodruff, George, 12, 13, 32, 203 
 Woodruff, Louise, 96 
 Works Department, 23-24, 67, 95, 204 
 World's Columbian Exposition of 1893, 2, 
 
 8, 10, 36, 63, 73, 95, 101, 172, 197, 
 
 200, 233 
 
 Yerkes Observatory, 43 
 
 300 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS
 
 J