w 
 
 
 ^v
 
 WHY THE SHOE PINCHES 
 
 A GONTRBUTIOM TO APPLIED AMTOM.
 
 EDINBURGH: PRINTED BY THOMAS CONST/ BJ.'E. 
 
 FOR 
 
 EDMONSTON AND DOUGLAS. 
 
 rONDON . . . HAMILTON. ADAMS. 6t GO. 
 CAMBRIDGE . MACMILIAN & CO. 
 DUBLIN . . . "W. ROBERTSON. 
 GLASGO"^ . . JAMES MACLEHOSS.
 
 '^XGtxxxBitB Kvttt p0rlas» 
 
 WHY THE SHOE PINCHES 
 
 A CONTRIBUTION TO APPLIED ANATOM 
 
 BY HERMANN METER, M.D., 
 
 paoFissoa os akatoaiy i:j the u:<ivtK.aiTT of zukigh. 
 
 S^rntrslattb from l^c (Jitrman bo 
 JOHN STIRLING CRAIG, L.R.C.P.E., L.RC.S.E. 
 
 EDINBURGH: 
 EDMONSTON AND DOUGLAS. 
 
 MDCCCLXl.
 
 PREFACE BY THE TEANSLATOR 
 
 The subject of the following pages may at first sight 
 appear trivial, but I make no apology for having trans- 
 lated what so eminent an anatomist as Professor Meyer 
 has thought fit to write. 
 
 Our ideas as to what is elegant and proper in re- 
 gard to the feet being so radically bad, I have no hope 
 that the promulgation of the proper shape of the shoe 
 will have any sensible influence in reforming the fashions 
 of the day. 
 
 There are, however, many who, having outlived the 
 vanities of fashion, sigh for a little comfort did they only 
 know where to find it ; who for years have been exerting 
 their ingenuity, and trying in vain, by means of lasts 
 made for their feet, and various other expedients, to 
 attain to the simple luxury of a comfortably fitting shoe, 
 and these I am sure will feel thankful for the informa- 
 tion now afibrded them. 
 
 Parents, too, may be induced to see that the feet of 
 their children are not made deformities before they are 
 fully developed ; and I believe that a great boon w^ould 
 be conferred by the introduction of the proposed shape of
 
 VUl PREFACE BY THE TRANSLATOR. 
 
 accidents, and like causes, weakened parts are more sus- 
 ceptible to its influence," and then mentions cases in 
 which first attacks, instead of appearing in the usual seat 
 were limited to the knee or other parts that had suffered 
 from previous injuries. At page 354 he remarks, that 
 " the metatarso-phalangeal joint is one which is subject 
 to pressure and injury from having to support the weight 
 of the body," and he adds, thereby affording impartial 
 evidence as to the evil effects of an improperly shaped 
 shoe, that he has, in many individuals who had never 
 experienced any symptoms of gout, " very commonly 
 found distinct evidence of injury on the surface of the 
 cartilage, both of the head of the metatarsal bone and of 
 the cup-like cavity of the phalanx/' All this clearly 
 points to a weakened part, and the merit of our author is 
 in directing attention to the true cause of its production, 
 for the metatarso-phalangeal joint is not, as Dr. Garrod 
 says, actually injured by having to support the weight of 
 the body, but by its having to do so in a constrained and 
 unnatural position. 
 
 I may add, what must be well known to most profes- 
 sional readers, that Professor Meyer is the most recent 
 and approved authority on the structure and mechanical 
 adaptations of the foot and lower limbs. His researches 
 on standing, Das aufrecht Stehen, {Erster und zweiter 
 Beitrdge zur Mechanik des Menschlichen Knochengerustes), 
 and on the knee-joint, Die Mechanik des Kniegelenks, ap-
 
 PREFACE BY THE TRANSLATOR. IX 
 
 peared in Muller's Archiv in 1853, and have since been 
 incorporated in the Lehrhuch der physiologischen Ana- 
 to7nie, published by our author in 1856, where also will 
 be found his account of the mechanism of the foot (p. 
 133 et seq.) Knowing, from statements made in his public 
 lectures, and also from his recommending to his students 
 the study of Professor Meyer's Physiological Anatomy, 
 the high value set on these researches by Professor Goodsir 
 of Edinburgh, I have submitted my proof-sheets to him, 
 and am glad to be able to make use of his name as a 
 guarantee for the correctness of my rendering of Professor 
 Meyer's anatomico-physiological details; and I take this 
 opportunity of acknowledging my obligations to my friend 
 and former teacher for much valuable advice, and espe- 
 cially for the following expression of his opinion, which he 
 has kindly permitted me to insert here : — 
 
 " The simplicity of the principles inculcated in Pro- 
 fessor H. Meyer's work on " The Correct Form of Shoes" 
 impresses the intelligent reader with confidence in their 
 importance and applicability. Their simplicity consists 
 in their scientific character. The author of the work has 
 largely contributed to that recent rapid advance of ana- 
 tomy and j^h^^siology w^hich is due to the employment of 
 more direct and refined methods of investig-ation. Bv 
 liis researches, more particularly into the structure and 
 actions of the lower limbs, he has given to our concep- 
 tions in this department of the science a precision which
 
 X PREFACE BY THE TRANSLATOR 
 
 could only have been attained by the physico-mathoma- 
 tical method of investigation which he employed. The 
 value of his results can only be properly estimated by the 
 anatomist and physiologist ; but his practical application 
 of certain of them in the work which you have rendered 
 so successfully in English, cannot fail to be fully appre- 
 ciated by the general reader/' 
 
 In conclusion, I have to thank Professor Meyer for his 
 courteous consent to my undertaking this translation, and 
 for the additions with which he was kind enough to 
 favour me. I have also to express my obligations to his 
 publishers, Messrs. Meyer and Zeller of Zurich, for allow- 
 ing me to have the woodcuts used in the original 
 
 Stratford-on-Avon, July 1860.
 
 PREFACE BY THE AUTHOR. 
 
 The greater part of the following pages appeared, in 
 the spring of 1857, in the second volume of the "Monat- 
 schrift des wissenschaftliclien Yereinschrift in Zurich," 
 under the title of " Procrustes ante Portas ! Ein Cultur- 
 geschichtliches Zeitbild/' As its title indicates, this paper 
 was a pretty sharp satire on the many deformities which, 
 through vanity or ignorance, have been thoughtlessly or 
 intentionally inflicted on our bodies. On various occasions 
 I have briefly alluded to evils of this kind, and dwelt more 
 particularly on the errors in the usual form of the coverings 
 of our feet, at the same time giving hints how a more 
 suitable shoe might be obtained without prejudice to the 
 ever-primary consideration of elegance. My attention 
 had been directed to the subject in the follow^ing manner: 
 On the one hand my experiments on the mechanism of 
 w^alking, published elsewhere, led me to remark how 
 utterly bad our foot-clothing is ; and on the other, my 
 position as a teacher of anatomy gave me abundant op- 
 portunities of observino^ the almost incredible deformities
 
 XI 1 PREFACE. 
 
 of the human foot, resulting from the pressure of the shoe. 
 Several well-marked cases having come under my notice 
 in rather rapid succession, I wrote the paper above alluded 
 to, to make known, once for all, my opinions on the 
 subject. 
 
 The matter excited much attention amongst those who 
 had the opportunity of seeing this paper, and many me- 
 dical men recognised, with great interest, the importance 
 of the question involved. From the most varied sources 
 I have since been urgently requested to recast this essay 
 in a separate form, so that its contents might become 
 known to a still wider circle of readers. 
 
 I confess having hesitated somewhat to comply with 
 these demands. My scruples were overcome, however, 
 by a consideration of the great importance of the subject, 
 and I yielded the more readily that anatomists so distin- 
 guished as Peter Camper and Sommering had preceded 
 me with similar lucubrations, — the former with his paper 
 " On the Best Shoe," and the latter with a treatise " On 
 Stays." Moreover, it especially behoves anatomists to 
 sjDeak out on such subjects, since, from the nature of 
 their studies, they have at hand the proper material for 
 settling such questions. 
 
 The subject treated of by Sommering concerns only 
 one half of mankind ; and of this half, only those who 
 are sufficientlv foolish voluntarilv to sacrifice comfort, 
 health, and beautv to an absurd fashion
 
 PREFACE. Xlll 
 
 In the case of the shoe, however, all mankind are 
 equally interested ; and the ventilation of the subject is 
 the more important that we submit in ignorance only, 
 and do not voluntarily subject ourselves to those injuries 
 to health, and, it may be added, to temper, directly and 
 indirectly inflicted by badly-shaped shoes. 
 
 Camper, writing on this subject in the last century, 
 very truly remarks — "All horse-doctors and horse-fanciers 
 are interested in the shoeing of their horses, numerous 
 papers appear thereon, and shall we not concern ourselves 
 about the foot-gear of man ? " 
 
 Camper's suggestions attracted considerable attention, 
 but his plans found little or no encouragement, because 
 they were so very impracticable, and, above all, because 
 of the very clumsy form of shoe he recommended. 
 
 May my little work be found more practical! I have, 
 at all events, tried to produce a form in unison with the 
 claims of elegance, and various trials have proved that my 
 plans may be carried out with success. 
 
 HERMANN MEYER. 
 ZuEiCH, December 1857.
 
 WHY THE SHOE PINCHES. 
 
 What the Object of a Covering for the Foot is, and 
 what Conditions this has to fidfil. 
 
 We put on shoes for precisely the same reason that we 
 wear clothes on other parts of our bodies, namely, that 
 w^e may be protected from injurious external influences. 
 
 The influences from which we desire to be protected 
 are roughness of the ground on the one hand, and cold 
 and wet on the other. 
 
 When the roughness of the ground only is to be pro- 
 vided against, the sandal — consisting of a sole of stifl' 
 leather or wood, fastened by thongs or bands so as com- 
 pletely to cover the underpart of the foot — is sufficient. 
 
 But if protection from cold and wet be also desired, the 
 sole has generally added to it a covering for the whole 
 foot, and part of the leg. This covering may be made of 
 various stuffs, but usually consists of soft leather. When 
 thus combined with the sole, the upper leather further 
 serves to keep the sole firmly fixed under the foot, and 
 thus does away with the need of bands and thongs. Such
 
 1 6 SHOES AND THEIR WEARERS. 
 
 combinations of upper locatlier cand sole are called boots, 
 shoes, etc. 
 
 A shoe, then, has to afford protection against unequal 
 and rough ground, as weW as against cold and wet. This 
 is the object of a covering for the feet. 
 
 A covering for the foot has, however, to fulfil this object 
 in a manner that will give rise to no disadvantage, the 
 existence of which would essentially diminish the benefits 
 of protection. The remedy would in this case be worse 
 than the evil. Here, however, Fashion, so unfortunately 
 mixed up in all our clothing-relations, steps in and must 
 even have her say on the shape of the shoe. So long as 
 the influence of fashion is confined to the cut and ampli- 
 tude of the coat, the form and colour of the hat, and the 
 like, the only harm that accrues is the probable produc- 
 tion of a somewhat ludicrous effect. It signifies little, so 
 far as health is concerned, whether a man wears a gray 
 coat or a brown one, but it is of some importance whether 
 the shoes he wears be broad or narrow, rounded or pointed, 
 long or short. The shape of the shoe has too much influ- 
 ence on health and comfort to be left to the dictates of 
 fashion. 
 
 The influence of fashion on the shape of the shoe pro- 
 duces the most baneful efi'ects on the mechanism of the 
 foot and on its soundness, and thus materially affects our 
 moving about, and our consequent ability to take a suffi- 
 cient amount of open-air exercise.
 
 INFLUENCE OF FASHION. 17 
 
 It is quite clear tliat the foot must get inside the shoe, 
 and if the shoe differ in shape from the foot, it is no less 
 plain that the foot, being the more pliable, must of neces- 
 sity adapt itself to the shape of the shoe. If, then, fashion 
 prescribes an arbitrary form of shoe, she goes far beyond 
 her province, and in reality arrogates to herself the right 
 of determining the shape of the foot. 
 
 But the foo' is a part of the body, and must not be 
 changed by fashion; for our body is a gift, and its several 
 parts are beautifully adapted for the purposes for which 
 they were intended. If, therefore, we in any way change 
 its normal form, not only do we not imj^rove, but we 
 actually disfigure it. Of this truth many a lady must be 
 painfully aware who has not been able to resist the temp- 
 tation to lace herself into what is called a "fine fissure \" 
 and he too must know it who has permitted his feet to be 
 remodelled by fashionable boots. 
 
 "We do not indeed at first sight fully perceive the arro- 
 gant absurdity of which fashion is guilty in going so far 
 as to determine the shape of our feet, because we are not 
 alive to the fact that the case is peculiar to the feet. We 
 only see it influencing the shape of the shoe, and come to 
 the conclusion that it may regulate this as well as the 
 cut of the coat. To this prevalent opinion we yield, 
 regardless of the influence on the shape of the shoe, and 
 thereby on i\\efoot. As well indeed might Fashion one 
 day come to the conclusion that fingers are inelegant, and
 
 18 SHOES AND THEIE WEARERS. 
 
 decree that henceforth the hand be squeezed into a conical 
 leather bag ; — as well indeed might she in one of her 
 freaks forbid the display of our arms, and bind them 
 firmly to our bodies like those of children in swaddling- 
 clothes. 
 
 The shoe ought to protect the foot, but it has no busi- 
 ness to distort its shape. 
 
 Shoemakers should be aware of this, and try to make 
 the covering of the foot a suitable one. The best of them, 
 however, are grievously ill- qualified for this task if they 
 are ignorant of the principles on which they ought to pro- 
 ceed in the construction of shoes really fit to serve their 
 purpose, or if, from thoughtlessness or timidity, they 
 stick fast to the pernicious forms in general use. To 
 those amongst their number who think for themselves, 
 and who understand their business, the following hints 
 on the proper construction of the shoe will be welcome. 
 
 A shoe which will really be a help to walking, and not, 
 as is too often the case, a hindrance, should be adapted 
 to the shape of the foot, and this must accordingly first 
 occupy our attention. 
 
 On the Structure of the Foot. 
 
 The foot consists of six-and-twenty bones, very beau- 
 tifully arranged, and admitting of more or less motion on 
 one another.
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE FOOT. 
 
 19 
 
 Fourteen of these bones belong to the toes, the remain- 
 in 2' twelve enter into the formation of the tarsus and 
 metatarsus. 
 
 The metatarsal bones are the five 
 long bones (a). "With the forepart of 
 these the toes form joints. The re- 
 maining seven are the tarsal bones, 
 and one of these, the astragalus (h), is 
 embraced on each side b}^ a projection 
 (malleolus) from the bones of the leg, 
 thus forming the ankle-joint. 
 
 If the inner aspect of the foot is 
 Fig. 1. examined, we find that it is an arch, 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 resting in front on the anterior heads of the five meta- 
 tarsal bones (a), but principally on that of the great toe, 
 and, on the calcaneum or heel (6) beliind. The astragalus 
 (c) forms the key-stone of the arch. 
 
 The arch is enabled to retain its form by means of strong- 
 ligaments or bands passing from one bone to the others; 
 and, thus held closely together, sustains the superincum- 
 bent weight of the body without giving way. 
 
 When we rest on the foot, as in standing, the arch is
 
 20 SHOES AND THEIR WEARERS. 
 
 flattened by the pressure from above; and, consequently, 
 becomes lengthened. When, however, the foot is allowed 
 to hang free, the curvature of the arch is increased. At 
 every step in walking also, when the foot is raised from 
 the ground, the curvature immediately becomes greater 
 through the action of the muscles. 
 
 The toes lie in front of the metatarsus, and are con- 
 nected with it by joints. Each of the smaller toes has 
 two joints, — the great toe only one. 
 
 The great toe plays by far the most important part in 
 walking; because, when the foot is raised from the ground 
 with the intention of throwing it forwards, we first raise 
 the heel, then rest for a second on the great toe, and in 
 lifting this from the ground the point of it receives a 
 pressure which impels the body forwards. Thus, in 
 raising the foot, the whole of the sole is gradually as 
 it were " unrolled '' up to the point of the great toe, 
 which again receives an impetus by contact with the 
 ground. The great toe ought therefore to have such a 
 position as will admit of its being unrolled in the manner 
 described ; that is to say, it must so lie that the line of 
 its axis, wdien carried backwards, will emerge at the 
 centre of the heel ; and this is its position in the 
 healthy foot. The sole of an almost sound foot is 
 given in Figure 3, and the true position of the great 
 toe is indicated by the dotted line. This relation is 
 still better brought out in Figure 4, which represents
 
 MECHANISM OF THE FOOT. 
 
 21 
 
 the well-preserved foot of a child about two years old. 
 The line drawn through both figures is that in which the 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 
 foot unrolls itself from the ground. The smaller toes, 
 however, are by no means without their uses. In stand- 
 ing they rest on the ground, and give lateral support 
 to the foot ; while, in walking, they are bent in a pecu- 
 liar manner, so that they are firmly pressed against the 
 ground, — and here, too, they support the foot laterally. 
 The first joint is strongly bent upwards, while the second 
 is hollow above. This peculiar curvature enables the 
 toes in a measure to lay hold of the ground as with 
 birds' claws.
 
 22 SHOES AND THEIR WEARERS. 
 
 On tJ'?. Construction of the Sole of the Shoe in the 
 ordinary way. 
 
 Ill proceeding to make a shoe to order, the shoemaker 
 measures the foot at various points ; but of all the 
 measurements he takes, none have a decided influence on 
 the shape of the sole except the length, and perhaps the 
 circumference of the foot at the root of the toes. 
 
 The length, however, is in all cases the more important, 
 and in proceeding to plan out the sole, it is laid out in a 
 straight line, a little is added to it, and the sole receives 
 one of two shapes, according as the shoe is intended to 
 flt the right or left foot, or either foot indiscriminately. 
 
 If the shoe is intended to be used for either foot, the 
 line alluded to forms the centre round which the outline 
 of the sole is symmetrically constructed, as in the ac- 
 companying Figures 5 and 6. The straight boundary 
 line in front of the heel forms a right angle with the 
 middle line. 
 
 If, however, as is more usual, the shoes are made for 
 the right and left foot respectively, the outline of the 
 sole corresponding to one foot only (Fig. 7), then the 
 construction of the sole and heel is precisely the same 
 as before ; and the only difference is in that inter- 
 mediate part called by shoemakers "the waist.'' The 
 outer line of this waist is curved outwards, especially in
 
 THE ORDINARY SOLE. 
 
 23 
 
 its anterior part ; whilst the inner line also takes an 
 outward direction. The " waist " between the heel and 
 the sole is thus curved outwards, whilst in a straight 
 
 Fig. 5 
 
 Fig. 6. 
 
 Fig. 7. 
 
 Fig. 8. 
 
 shoe it is perfectly symmetrical. The straight line in 
 front of the heel forms a right angle with the beginning 
 of the curve. The two kinds of sole, although apparently 
 different, are essentially the same, as is made clear by 
 reference to the adjoining Figure (8), in which the one 
 sole is laid over the other. 
 
 The point of the sole may be made broad or narrow, as 
 fashion dictates.
 
 2^ SHOES AND THEIR WEARERS. 
 
 Holu Shoes loitli Soles constructed in this ivay press 
 the Foot out of Shape. 
 
 If we compare the sole of the usual construction with 
 the actual form of the foot, it will be found that, apart 
 from its smallness, it has deviated entirely from the form 
 of the foot, as will readily be seen by comparing the soles 
 represented above with Figures 3 and 4. 
 
 In making this comparison, we also perceive how the 
 foot is injuriously acted on, since it must be forced, by 
 the upper leather, into a shape corresponding to the out- 
 line of the sole. This cannot be avoided, indeed, for the 
 toes are squeezed together from both sides, and the pres- 
 sure is necessarily greatest where the shoe is narrowest. 
 If we examine more particularly as to how the position of 
 the toes is in this way affected, we find that the following 
 changes take place. 
 
 From the outside the four smaller toes receive a pres- 
 sure which forces them against each other, and also against 
 the root of the great toe, which is thus pushed inwards.* 
 The point of the great toe is besides pressed outwards, 
 and the middle line, or axis, of the toe thus becomes 
 oblique. This obliquity of the great toe thus results from 
 the inward pressure on the root by means of the smaller 
 toes, and the outward pressure on the point directly in- 
 flicted by the upper leather. 
 
 * The terms outwards and imoards, here and throughout, when used in 
 reference to the foot, have relation to the middle line of the body, and not to 
 that of the loot.
 
 DISTOETIONS OF THE FOOT. 
 
 25 
 
 The distortion which thus arises in the foot is verv 
 important, for the almost rectangular triangle in which 
 the toes naturally lie, is converted into an isosceles acute- 
 angled triangle, and in this the toes are expected to find 
 place. It is well if they can do so side by side, but this 
 treatment is constantly giving rise to the most mischievous 
 distortions, at first only manifested while the shoe is worn, 
 but eventually becoming permanent. The accompanying 
 outline (Fig. 9) represents a foot disfigured in this way ; 
 
 Fig. 9. 
 
 Fig. 10. 
 
 \<::;4 
 
 Fig. 11, 
 
 it was drawn from nature, and with the exception of this 
 distortion is perfectly sound ; it is the foot of a com- 
 paratively young woman. Figure 10 exhibits tlic out- 
 line of this sole laid over the sole of a correspond in u- 
 shoe ; whilst Figure 1 1 represents the skeleton of a foot 
 reduced to this condition.
 
 26 
 
 SHOES AND THEIR WEARERS. 
 
 Very frequently, however, the toes cannot find place 
 side by side, but, cramped for room, are pushed over 
 one another, and this position gradually becomes habi- 
 tual. The adjoining Figures, 12 and 13, taken from other- 
 wise perfectly sound feet, are examples of this. The 
 second toe is here pressed upwards above the great toe, 
 and is thus only partially seen in looking at the sole 
 of the foot. But we also occasionally find one of the 
 other toes displaced, and I have frequently observed 
 the small toe lying transversely across the backs of the 
 others 
 
 Fig. 12. 
 
 Fig. 13. 
 
 Fig. li. 
 
 In both cases it very constantly happens that, in addi- 
 tion, one or more of the smaller toes are compelled to lie 
 bent up, so that the first joint resembles a knob. This 
 defect also becomes permanent.
 
 TEEADING ON ONE SIDE. ^11 
 
 It is clear that all these evils must become much 
 greater if, in addition to its otherwise unsuitable shape, 
 the shoe is made too short, since in this case the point of 
 the great toe receives an additional backward pressure, 
 which forces it still more against the smaller toes, and 
 displaces its root still further inwards. 
 
 Such very marked distortions as are represented in 
 the figures above are certainly not very frequent, yet 
 they occur much oftener than we should expect. Tliat 
 even apparently healthy feet are not quite free from traces 
 of these deformities is exemplified by Fig. 14, which at 
 the first glance seems to be perfectly sound; on trying to 
 draw on it the line seen in Figs. 3 and 4, we shall discover, 
 however, that even here the great toe is directed obliquely 
 outwards. 
 
 Hoiu the Shoe gets Trodden on one side. 
 
 The first consequence of the existence of such an un- 
 natural relation between the sole of the shoe and the sole 
 of the foot, is that the foot, especially while on the ground 
 in >valking and standing, exerts a counter-pressure on its 
 covering. The upper leather is thus to a certain extent 
 compelled to take the natural form of the foot. 
 
 With dry and hard upper leathers this modelling pro- 
 cess is slow and gradual, but with flexible materials the 
 change takes place rapidly. Aware of this, we never put
 
 28 SHOES AND THEIR WEARERS. 
 
 on our best shoes in rainy weather, because they would 
 very soon lose all pretensions to elegance byacquiring the 
 form of the foot, which as we have seen is very different 
 from the shape of a fashionable shoe. 
 
 Since, then, the structure of the foot is such that the 
 point of the great toe, the middle of its root, and the cen- 
 tral point of the heel, lie in one straight line, it is natural 
 that the upper leather should assume a shape in which 
 the reciprocal relation of these three points can be main- 
 tained ; and this shape is actually obtained in one of the 
 two following ways : — 
 
 Either the point of the great toe pushes itself into a 
 continuation of the line which can be drawn through the 
 centre of the heel and its own root, and in this case the 
 upper leather is pressed over the inner edge of the front 
 of the sole : 
 
 Or (and this is more usual) the heel moves its centre 
 into the line which can be drawn through the length of 
 the great toe, and then the upper leather is forced over 
 the inner edge of the heeh 
 
 In either case the shoes are said to be trodden on one 
 side ; and about this we grumble, while in truth this 
 treading on one side is in reality a treading straight, the 
 result of a victory gained by ill-used nature over unnatural 
 constraint. 
 
 These two methods of treading on one side are the only 
 examples of it which occur in walking v/ith sound and
 
 PREVENTIVE MEASURES. 29 
 
 properly-formed feet ; and hence they are frequently met 
 with. That wearing down of the posterior edge of the 
 heel which is so common, is caused, not by treading on 
 one side, but by putting the heel to the ground first. 
 
 On tlie Prevention of Treading on One Side, hy changing 
 the Shoe from one Foot to the other. 
 
 Some recommend, with a view to the prevention of 
 treading on one side, especially in the case of children, 
 whose feet, retaining their normal form, readily twist 
 their shoes about, that there should be a frequent change 
 of shoes from the right foot to the left, and vice versa ; 
 and certainly the disfigurement of the shoe, by treading 
 to one side, is thus prevented. 
 
 The foot has now, however, assigned to it the very seri- 
 ous task of treading the shoe to both sides, for it is clear 
 that it is continually being opposed to the powerful pres- 
 sure of the upper leather, which at every moment is being 
 forced into another shape. 
 
 The changing of the shoe from one foot to another is 
 thus one of the most baneful abuses to which a foot can 
 possibly be subjected ; and in the case of children (to 
 whom these remarks only apply) with feet, the develop- 
 ment of which is still incomplete, the influence must bo 
 doubly injurious.
 
 30 SHOES AND THEIR WEARERS. 
 
 Hoio an imijroper form of Sole wjures tJie Foot. 
 
 The consequences resulting to the foot itself from an 
 improper form of sole, ane not limited to the fact that 
 the deformity becomes permanent, but are of a still more 
 serious and important nature. 
 
 These more important evils are caused partly by the 
 pressure to which the toes are exposed, and partly by 
 the bad usage to which the distorted foot is necessarily 
 subjected in walking. 
 
 The pressure of the upper leather first affects the small 
 toe, and pushes it from before backward, bending it up on 
 itself, and in this position it has not only to sustain tlie 
 pressure of the upper leather generally, but also the pres- 
 sure of the great transverse wrinkle which forms on it at 
 the roots of the toes. Besides, as joints are exceedingly 
 sensitive to external forces, it naturally happens that the 
 joints of this toe frequently become subject to inflamma- 
 tion, giving rise to much pain and difiiculty in making 
 use of the foot, and at last leading to anchylosis (union 
 of the bones forming the joint). The damage thus done 
 to the efficiency of the foot is indeed not only very im- 
 portant, but before this point is reached much suffering 
 must be endured, and we ought not, unnecessarily, to 
 bring on ourselves any mutilation, be it ever so slight. 
 
 It is on the great toe, however, that by far the greatest 
 and most serious evil is produced by an improper form of
 
 IN-GROWING NAILS. 
 
 61 
 
 shoe, and the influence is first felt on those two points 
 which primarily receive the pressure or its immediate 
 consequences, i.e., on the point and root. 
 
 At the point of the great toe the pressure falls in the 
 first instance on the nail, and on it therefore its greatest 
 effects are experienced. This pressure principally affects 
 the anterior part of the inner edge of the nail, and must, 
 since it forces this part outwards (towards the smallei 
 toes), displace the whole nail from its natural position. 
 It first becomes oblique in its direction, and is then forced 
 over the margin of the skin which ought to cover it on 
 the side next the small toes, and thus slight inflamma- 
 tions (Fig. 16, a) are constantly excited in the displaced 
 fold of skin, giving rise to more or less pain. 
 
 Fig. 15. 
 
 Fig. 16. 
 
 At the same time the matrix of the nail fixed under 
 the skin (Figs. 15 and 16, b) is forced more firmly into 
 the skin, whilst exactly on the point into which it is so 
 pressed, there is constant pressure of the upper leather 
 from above, and the nail can thus only be disposed of by
 
 o2 SHOES AND THEIR WEARERS. 
 
 being rolled up on itself. This pressure, moreover, acts 
 on the whole inner margin of the nail, which must there- 
 fore also be rolled up on itself. The whole inner margin 
 is in this way bent downwards, and in consequenco of 
 such distortion the skin, in standing and walking, is con- 
 tinually pressing against the sharp edge of the nail, and 
 is thus kept in a state of constant irritation. As the 
 evil proceeds, the margin of the nail passes more and 
 more round, and presses more sharply into the skin, until 
 it reaches that state in which it becomes painful when- 
 ever a shoe is put on, because not only is the nail now 
 driven into the skin by the pressure from under, in walk- 
 ing and standing, but precisely the same effect is brought 
 about by the pressure of the upper leather, even wlien 
 the foot is hanging quite free. 
 
 Fig. 17. Fig. 18. 
 
 In this manner the skin which is contiguous to the 
 bent-up margin of the nail is always irritated and pain- 
 ful, especially after prolonged walking; by degrees it 
 gets into a state of chronic inflammation, and may even- 
 tually become ulcerated, producing what is popularly 
 known as " proud flesh.'' We have here the figure of a 
 " growing-in nail," an ailment which not onlv interferes
 
 CHILBLAINS AND GOUT. S3 
 
 greatly with the use of the foot, but too often requires for 
 its relief medical and even operative interference. 
 
 Not less important are the evils arising at the root of 
 the great toe from the same cause. It has already been 
 stated that the pressure of the upper leather pushes the 
 point of tlie great toe against the smaller toes. The 
 joint at the metatarsal bone thus becomes bent aside 
 (Fig. 11), so that it forms a protuberance on the inner 
 side of the foot. If the point of the toe is now pressed 
 against the ground in walking, this protuberance must 
 be made still greater, and so pressed more forcibly against 
 the upper leather. At the same time, moreover, the great 
 transverse wrinkle in the upper leather — the result of the 
 bending of the toes — presses directly on the same point ; 
 and the protuberance at the root of the toe is thus con- 
 stantly subjected to a twofold and very injurious pressure. 
 In these circumstances it is by no means wonderful that 
 this joint becomes subject to continual inflammation, 
 which, by extending to the bones, must, in this situation, 
 produce permanent and painful swellings, which become 
 in their turn, and even from slight causes, the source of 
 inflammations and new growths of bone. 
 
 In this manner arise those unseemly and painful swell- 
 ings at the root of the great toe, which, either from 
 mistaking their true nature or from wilful deception, are 
 called chilblains or gout, just as the one or the other term 
 appears the more interesting. In many cases, moreover,
 
 34i 
 
 SHOES AND THEIR WEARERS. 
 
 Fig. 19. 
 
 this kind of inflammation of the bones, and 
 their investing membrane, may lead to the 
 formation of matter, and eventually to the 
 disease known as caries or ulceration of the 
 bone.* 
 
 Such are the principal injuries to the foot 
 resulting from the pressure of ill-constructed 
 shoes, and they are of sufficient importance 
 to induce me to confine my remarks to them 
 alone. I shall therefore only veiy briefly 
 allude to the constant irritation which the pressure of 
 such a shoe occasions to the skin, giving rise to the pro- 
 verbially sensitive corns, and to those painful thickenings 
 of the skin usually known as bunions. 
 
 I must, however, explain at somewhat greater length 
 how the improper form of the shoe becomes one of the 
 chief causes oi flat-foot. 
 
 Flat-foot is occasioned by the loosening of the liga- 
 ments that knit the foot firmly together, and by the con- 
 sequent sinking of the arch, the inner aspect of the 
 foot no longer presents the natural hollow in the sole. 
 The causes of such loosening of the ligaments are numer- 
 
 * In connexion with this I ^\ish to explain, that I hy no means desire to 
 question the existence of such inflammations of this joint as are commonly 
 attributed to gout ; in by far the greater number of cases, however, inflam- 
 mation of the metatarso-phalangeal joint of the great toe is traumatic, as 
 above described ; and even with regard to the occurrence of gout;/ inflamma- 
 tions, the causes above alluded to give an ob\^ous reason for the formation, 
 at the points indicated, of a locus minon's re-iistentice.
 
 EFFECTS OF BADLY-MADE SHOES. S5 
 
 ous ; but by far the most frequent, and one readily in- 
 duced by the ordinary shoe, is weight improperly directed 
 on the arch. If, for example, a shoe happens to be 
 trodden on one side, and especially, as is most commonly 
 the case, if it be so at the heel, then the heel has no 
 support except from the inner margin of the sole, which 
 is thus worn away, and the heel-piece becomes oblique, 
 or, in other words, lower at one side than the other. In 
 walking and standing on such a heel-piece, the whole 
 external margin of the foot is raised, and the inner, which 
 naturally supports the arch, is so depressed as gradually 
 to lose its convexity ; and thus flat-foot is induced. 
 
 Groiuing-in nails, unseemly protuberances at the base 
 of the great toe (goutj chilblains), corns, bunions, and 
 fiat-foot, are thus the immediate consequences of that 
 unsuitable form of the shoe in established use. 
 
 Eoiu the Shoemaher, luith the best intentions, renders 
 still ivorse the condition of the disfigured Foot. 
 
 "When about to make a shoe for a foot already crippled, 
 the shoemaker believes that he succeeds perfectly if he 
 makes it exactly to fit the foot. This, however, is a gross 
 fallacy; by so doing he renders the existing evils still 
 greater. 
 
 A foot with its great toe lying obliquely is necessarily 
 shorter than it would be with the toe in its proper posi-
 
 36 SHOES AND THEIR WEARERS. 
 
 tion, and if the shoemaker calculates the length of the 
 sole bj that of the measured length of the foot, he makes 
 the shoe too short. In such a shoe there is no possibility 
 of the great toe ever attaining its true position ; on the 
 contrary, it is still more firmly fixed in its false direction, 
 and all the consequent evils are thus intensified. 
 
 In order that the shoe may not pinch, the shoemaker 
 is also in the habit, with the very best intentions, of 
 making the upper leather very roomy towards the inside 
 opposite the projecting ball of the great toe. This expe- 
 dient, however, as will readily be perceived, has the great 
 disadvantage of aiFording still greater facility for the 
 further displacement of the root of the great toe. 
 
 Thus when the shoemaker flatters himself that he has 
 made a very comfortable and particularly good fit, it turns 
 out that he has actually increased the distorting pressure 
 on the great toe, and thus favoured the exciting cause of 
 the whole mischief. 
 
 On very hroad Shoes, and on taking Measure by meaTis 
 of an outline of the Foot. 
 
 Numerous examples have already shown us that the 
 ordinary covering of the foot has many disadvantages ; 
 many attempts have accordingly been made to overcome 
 these evils in one of these two ways : — 
 
 1. By making the shoe very broad ;
 
 ON BROAD SOLES. 
 
 
 2. By taking measure by means of drawing tlie outline 
 of the foot on a sheet of paper. 
 
 Both methods are quite insufficient, as may readily be 
 proved. 
 
 The results arising from a very broad shoe, in which, 
 in addition to a correspondingly wide upper-leather, the 
 sole is made unusually broad in front, can only bo 
 clearly understood by reference to the adjoining woodcut. 
 In this we have a straight sole- without 
 any pointing before ; but even with a sole 
 of this kind the great toe cannot find a 
 place in its true position, that is to say, in 
 the line a h. It still remains pressed ob- 
 liquely outwards, passing indeed in the 
 line c d. Slices of such a breadth of sole, 
 which according to the current belief are 
 faultless, are doubtless better, but are 
 scarcely more suited to their purpose than 
 shoes of the ordinary make. (Compare 
 Figure 7, in which the line c d is likewise 
 drawn, showing the position given to the 
 great toe in the shoe.) 
 
 The second method, that of measuring the foot by 
 drawing its outline on a sheet of paper, is especially clear 
 to the shoemaker's mind, because his employer, by in- 
 structions given beforehand, has completely cut himself 
 off from all ground of complaint. " The shoe is made 
 
 Fig. 20
 
 38 SHOES AND THEIR WEARERS. 
 
 exactly to the foot," says the slioemaker, and his victim 
 also readily consoles himself with this reflection, and 
 attributes his long-endured infirmity of feet to every 
 cause but the right one. In this expedient there is 
 also, however, much deception, the very foundation on 
 which it rests being quite untenable. It proceeds on 
 the principle that there are primary differences in the 
 structure of feet ; this is an error. All feet are perfectly 
 alike in the principles of their mechanical construction, 
 and the only difterences in our healthy feet are those 
 arising from varying length and breadth. In the original 
 form of the foot we never meet with those essential differ- 
 ences, designated by shoemakers straight or bent feet, 
 and still less with such variations as arise from the posi- 
 tion in which the great toe lies, or from the thickness of 
 the ball at its root. Variations of the latter description 
 only indicate how far the form of the foot has passed 
 towards the shape of the shoe ; in other words, to what 
 extent the foot has become deformed by shoes worn at a 
 former period. 
 
 For healthy feet, therefore, a drawing is superfluous ; 
 it is sufficient to have the length and breadth, and — most 
 important of all — a knowledge of the structure of the 
 healthy foot. To the management of feet already dis- 
 torted I shall return hereafter. 
 
 The true form of the foot, moreover, is never attained 
 by such a drawing. It is usually taken from a foot
 
 USES OF A DRAWING OF THE FOOT. 39 
 
 enveloped in a tightly fitting stocking, and in this case 
 the direction of the great toe is always oblique, because, 
 from the constant pressure of the shoe, this obliquity 
 comes to be assumed so readily, that the very moderate 
 force exerted by a stocking is quite sufficient to bring it 
 about. The foot is consequently drawn with the toes 
 unnaturally pressed together. A drawing taken from 
 the nude, with a knowledge of the anatomy of the foot, 
 is the only one that will give the correct form of the sole 
 of any foot. 
 
 But while a drawing of the naked foot is unnecessary, 
 it might still be of some advantage, and might be used 
 to some purpose by a shoemaker who knows and is willing 
 to apply the true principles on which a sole ought to be 
 constructed, for it would do away with the necessity of 
 sundry individual measurements, and give him exact 
 copies of minor defects which must always be taken into 
 consideration in the construction of the shoe. Most shoe- 
 makers, however, use such drawings in order to find out 
 how they will be able most conveniently to squeeze the 
 foot into the smallest possible compass ; and as long as 
 the shoemaker persists in this endeavour, as long as he 
 recognises as his chief aim the symmetrical squeezing of 
 a foot round the axis of its sole, so long will the most 
 exact copy of a sole afford no guarantee to the employer, 
 that he will get a more comfortable or even a better 
 fitting shoe than that in ordinary use.
 
 40 
 
 SHOES AND THEIR WEARERS. 
 
 Tlie suppos'^d advantages of these drawings rest then, 
 in a great measure, on a delusion ; and no less deceptive 
 is the idea that a shoe with a broad sole must fit, simplj 
 because the sole is broad. 
 
 A 
 
 How a proper Sole may he designed for either Foot. 
 
 After what has been stated concerning the structure of 
 the foot, and the evils arising from an improperly-shaped 
 sole, the principles on which a proper one ought to be 
 constructed may be arrived at without difficulty. 
 
 The main point to be attended to is, that the great toe 
 shall have its normal position, so that those functions 
 which are proper to it may be called into play in walking. 
 It must, therefore, as has already been pointed out, lie in 
 such a position as that its axis, when car- 
 ried backwards, shall pass through tlie centre 
 of the heel In a straight line, therefore, in 
 which the centre of the heel and the axis 
 of the great toe are included, we have the 
 primary line necessary to designing the en- 
 tire sole, and a proper sole may now be 
 formed in the following manner : — 
 
 The length of the foot from the back of 
 the heel to the point of the great toe is 
 laid down in a straight line, a h. The half 
 of the breadth of the heel c d, should then 
 be marked off on this line, and the centre of 
 
 hr 
 
 ^y 
 
 ..-^ 
 
 iPi 
 
 Fig. 21
 
 DESIGN POR A PROPER SOLE. 41 
 
 the heel is thus ascertained. The length from the point 
 of the great toe to the point where the hollow of the foot 
 commences, that is to say, to the posterior margin of 
 the ball of the great toe (e f), about two-fifths of the whole 
 length of the foot, is now to be measured and marked off in 
 its proper place on the primary straight line, and thus the 
 broadest part of the foot is found. At this place a line 
 should be drawn cutting the longitudinal straight line at 
 right angles, and on this transverse line the greatest breadth 
 of the foot is to be marked, so that just so much of the foot 
 lies on one side of the long line as corresponds to half the 
 breadth of the great toe {f g), the rest of the whole 
 breadth of foot falling on the other side {fli) The 
 longitudinal line is now carried a little farther forward, 
 and then parallel to it the injier margin {g i) of the 
 anterior sole is to be drawn, and for this purpose we 
 begin at the inner termination of the transverse line 
 which indicates the greatest breadth of the foot. 
 
 All the points essential to the construction of a proper 
 sole have thus been obtained, namely, the inner margin 
 of the anterior sole, the posterior boundary of the heel, 
 and the greatest projection of the little toe. Around thesf 
 points a sole may readily be constructed, as may be seen 
 from the annexed drawing (Fig. 21), in which the out- 
 lines of the sole are filled up with dotted lines. To a shoe- 
 maker of good taste, it will not be at all dlfiicult to infuse 
 into the design a certain amount of elegance. By way of 
 
 4)
 
 42 
 
 SHOES AND THEIR "WEARERS. 
 
 example I submit the adjoining Figure (22), the outline 
 of a sole designed from the points just indicated bj Mr, 
 Weber, a shoemaker in Zurich ; and in order to show the 
 difference between a sole of this kind and one of the 
 usual construction, I add the outline of one of the latter 
 description (Fig. 23), which was cut out by the same 
 
 Fig. 22. Fig. 2a 
 
 artiste for the same foot, the deviations of the proper sole 
 being distinguished by dotted lines. 
 
 In designing a sole, a drawing of the sole of the foot 
 may be very useful to a shoemaker who knows and is 
 willing to apply the true principles of his art, as he will 
 thereby be saved the trouble of taking numerous indivi- 
 dual measurements.
 
 THE PKOPER SHAPE OF THE SOLE. 
 
 4y 
 
 To recapitulate what we have already said : A sole is of 
 the proper construction when a line (see Fig. 22 c cZ), drawn 
 at half the breadth of the great toe distant from, and par- 
 allel to, the inner margin of that toe, shall, when carried 
 backwards, pass through the centre of the heel. In the 
 usual form of a sole this line passes out of the inner mar- 
 gin of the heel (see Fig. 7). If, then, the preservation of 
 the primary straight line is, as has been already shown, 
 the principal point in the formation of a proper sole, it 
 
 I^'iG- 24. Fig. 25. 
 
 follows, that if it be thought desirable to have pointed 
 shoes, the pointing must be effected from the outer side, 
 as indicated in the annexed Figure (24). 
 
 In a pair of shoes made on these principles, placed side
 
 44 SHOES AND THEIR WEARERS. 
 
 by side with the heels in contact, the inner margins of 
 the front part of the foot are also brought close together. 
 (Fig. 25.) 
 
 Hoiu Soles are to he constructed for Feet in which the 
 Great Toe has already been pressed ohliquely outwards. 
 
 We have just seen how the sole should be constructed 
 for feet not very decidedly distorted by the ordinary form 
 of sole, that is, in those cases in which in the naked foot 
 the great toe still readily assumes its proper direction. 
 The question now arises, How is this to be done for feet 
 in which, when naked, the toe retains a false direction ? 
 
 The answer is simple : The sole ought to be cut exactly 
 as if the great toe were in its proper position. The 
 grounds for this are clear. For, if the sole be made to 
 suit the foot, the ordinary shape is simply reproduced, 
 since the deformity has arisen precisely through the foot 
 accommodating itself to the shape of the shoe. The con- 
 tinuation of the injurious efiects would thus be insured, 
 and they might perhaps even be increased. If, on the 
 other hand, the sole be made of the proper shape, it be- 
 comes possible for the great toe to assume its normal 
 position, and thus restore the foot to its true form. When 
 the projection at the root of the great toe is already con- 
 siderable, the breadth of the shoe might even be some- 
 what lessened at this point, in order that a gentle pressure
 
 SOLES FOR INJURED FEET. 
 
 45 
 
 on this region might support the great toe in its change 
 to the right direction. 
 
 Whether, and how far, this expedient might be advis- 
 able in very well-marked distortions and swellings ought, 
 in every individual case, to be decided by an experienced 
 
 surgeon. 
 
 I must now explain more particularly how the sole is 
 to be constructed in such a case of permanent obliquit}' 
 of the great toe, because a certain point must here be 
 carefully attended to. 
 
 That is to say, the length of the foot is not to be taken 
 in one measurement, for if so taken, the sole will be inevit- 
 ably too short, but it must be taken in 
 two parts, the first being the length from 
 the heel to the joint at the root of the 
 great toe, and the second the length from 
 this joint to the point of the great toe. 
 These two measurements must then be 
 added to each other and laid down in a 
 straight line, and the result will be the 
 primary longitudinal line of the foot, 
 which is employed in the further model- 
 ling of the sole exactly as directed in 
 the previous section. Suppose, for ex- 
 ample, that the sole of the foot for which 
 a shoe is to be made has the furm of the adjoining Figure, 
 the length 6 a is to be measured first, and then that of 
 
 Fig. 26.
 
 46 SHOES AND THEIR WEARERS. 
 
 ac ; the latter should then be carried out in continuation 
 (a d) of the line 6 a which will now extend to e, and h e 
 will then represent the true length of the foot in question. 
 
 Are High Heels of any Use ? 
 
 It is usual in all shoes of even moderate strength to 
 make the heel a little higher by means of what is called 
 a heel-piece. 
 
 These heel-pieces are generally of some little use, 
 especially in dirty weather, and we cannot wholly deny 
 their right to existence. But, at the same time, they 
 ought to be as low as possible, and heels an inch thick, 
 as is at present very commonly the case, have very seri- 
 ous disadvantages indeed. 
 
 The weight of the body is by this means thrown in a 
 disproportionate ratio on the toes, the joints of which are 
 consequently overstrained. Moreover, with a high heel 
 the sole is so oblique in its direction that the foot must 
 constantly be gliding forwards and forcibly pressing the 
 toes into the point of the shoe. The toes therefore, even 
 when the shoe is sufficiently long, are subjected to the 
 same injuries and disfigurations as if it were too short, 
 and the effects are doubly hurtful, when the form of the 
 sole is also incorrect. 
 
 High heels, especially if they are also very small, are
 
 THE UPPER LEATHER. 47 
 
 peculiarly liable to wear obliquely, and so the shoe gets 
 trodden on one side ; they must therefore be peculiarly 
 favourable to the origin of flat-foot. 
 
 High and small heels are therefore quite unsuitable. 
 The heel-piece ought to be as low and broad as possible. 
 
 The Upper Leather — Boots or Shoes ? 
 
 "With regard to the upper leather, there is on the whole 
 little to be said, since its shape is in a great measure de- 
 termined by that of the sole, so that with a properly con- 
 structed sole the upper leather must also be essentially 
 correct. It need only be observed, that the material 
 should be as pliant as possible, and that it is well adapted 
 to its purpose, when sufficient width is allowed over the 
 toes to enable them to move freely in walking and with- 
 out constant pressure being exerted on their first joints. 
 
 [Especial care must therefore be taken to have the 
 upper leather so wide at the inner margin of the foot as 
 to admit of the great toe resuming its natural position, 
 which is now made possible by the shape of the sole.]* 
 
 "We now come to another important question, namely, 
 where and how is the fastening of the shoe, or boot, to be 
 effected ? 
 
 * This sentence is not in the original, and is here inserted by desire of the 
 author.
 
 48 SHOES AND THEIR WEARERS. 
 
 Very light low shoes, such as dancing shoes and slip- 
 pers, the upper leathers of which are alone sufficient to 
 keep them firmly on the foot, do no hann by the mode of 
 their fastenings, but it is insufficient, and a more efficient 
 contrivance is required for the ordinary boot or shoe. 
 
 The boot is fastened by firmly encircling the foot at 
 the instep. The whole foot is so wedged in between 
 upper leather and sole, that, as is well known, the pulling 
 ofi'of a boot very frequently necessitates the use of a boot- 
 jack. 
 
 It is impossible that the foot can be thus tightly 
 clasped without producing a constant pressure on the 
 instep. What then are the consequences of this ? 
 
 We have already seen that the foot forms an arch, the 
 efficiency of which in a special manner depends on the 
 tensity of its ligaments being maintained. If, then, an 
 unnatural and flattening pressure be constantly exercised 
 on this arch, the binding ligaments get slackened and 
 the arch falls down ; and a broken-down arch, as we have 
 already seen, causes flat-foot. The pressure of the upper 
 leather on the instep must therefore, and particularly in 
 the case of narrow boots, favour the origin of this defor- 
 mity. The same cause must further interfere with loco- 
 motion, for at every step the increased arching of the 
 instep, which takes place the moment that the foot is set 
 to the ground, is resisted by the upper leather, and an 
 iniurious influence is thus exercised on the action of some
 
 THE FASTENING. 49 
 
 of the muscles used in walking, and which run from the 
 anterior aspect of the lower leg to the back of the foot. 
 
 A boot is thus by the nature of its fastenings rendered 
 a very unsuitable covering for the foot. When we con- 
 sider, then, how very generally boots are worn, and worn, 
 as a rule, with very high, small heels and badly-shaped 
 soles, we need feel no surprise that flat-foot, bent-up toes, 
 " chilblains,'' grown-in nails, corns, bunions, etc., are so 
 common. 
 
 Notwithstanding this fault on the part of boots, we 
 must bear in mind that this kind of covering is almost 
 indispensable for wading through water and walking in 
 snow. Only let care be always taken that boots made for 
 such purposes be not too closely fitting over the instep. 
 
 Shoes or half-boots, in which the fastening is effected 
 by means of laces, are better than boots, inasmuch as a 
 lace can never be pulled so tight as the upper leather may 
 be, for it often takes the whole strength and weight of a 
 man's body to enable him to squeeze his foot into a boot. 
 
 The best kind of fastening, however, is that which is 
 carried somewhat above the ankles, especially if it be pos- 
 sessed of a certain amount of elasticity. The fastenings 
 of half-boots, by means of pieces of elastic let into them, 
 are therefore very suitable when not too tight. With such 
 a fastening the arch of the foot is in no way impeded in 
 its action, and the movements of walking are thus effected 
 in the easiest and most unconstrained manner possible.
 
 50 SHOES AND THEIR WEARERS. 
 
 [It must, however, by no means be inferred, that the 
 upper leather should not fit the foot with accuracy. It 
 is absolutely necessary indeed that it should do so for the 
 protection of the toes in going down hill. And what has 
 just been said must only be considered as a warning 
 against the too tight, and consequently hurtful, closing so 
 common in boots.]* 
 
 Ansiuers to Objections, 
 
 Various objections will doubtless be made to the kind 
 of sole proposed in these pages, and the curved form will 
 be especially found fault with, for it will be said that one 
 cannot be elegantly chausse in such shoes. 
 
 Objections of this kind indeed have been already 
 suggested. 
 
 To such remarks I have to reply, that the objector must 
 first define his notion of the word elegant. 
 
 One set of people consider elegant s^nd fashionable as 
 equivalents. I need only remind these, that Fashion has 
 already had many changes, and that she brings about new 
 ones every day. It is perfectly possible, then, that she 
 may one day take up the proposed form, and from that 
 
 * Thib paragraph alao is added in this translation at the request of the 
 author.
 
 POSSIBLE OBJECTIONS ANSWERED. 51 
 
 moment it will become elegant. A shape may come into 
 fashion — and be thought elegant too — provided only a 
 considerable number of persons approve of and adopt it. 
 
 Others say such a shoe cannot be elegant, because the 
 feet appear to be too much turned inwards. This idea is 
 a pure hallucination : the proposed form of shoe admits 
 of the foot having its own proper shape, while in reality 
 the ordinary form frequently renders the actual turning 
 in of the foot quite necessary for the relief of pain expe- 
 rienced at the root of the great toe. 
 
 Others again, taking their stand on a sense of the beau- 
 tiful, declare the curved sole anything but beautiful, and 
 therefore inelegant. I would only ask such people if 
 they consider a naturally-formed foot less beautiful than 
 a crippled one, and if they consider a shoe that always 
 sits well less agreeable to look at than one trodden to one 
 side. 
 
 Another set object to it as being too conspicuous. To 
 these I can only say, that anything will cease to be con- 
 spicuous when it comes into general use. The proposed 
 form, however, is not after all so very remarkable in 
 appearance, several persons having already adopted it 
 without attracting undue attention. On the other hand, 
 a crippled foot is conspicuous, and very unpleasantly con- 
 spicuous too. 
 
 But even if the proposed form of shoe be somewhat 
 peculiar, as a set-off it has the advantage of always sitting
 
 52 SHOES AND THEIR WEARERS. 
 
 well, of affording the greatest possible comfort in walking, 
 of keeping the foot in good shape and condition, and even 
 of giving a chance of recovery to an already injured foot. 
 And in deciding for or against it, these advantages must, 
 among other things, be taken into account.
 
 EXPLANATION OF WOODCUTS. 
 
 Fig. Pagb 
 
 1 19 Bony framework of a healthy foot, seen from above, — a a, meta- 
 
 tarsal bones, — b, astragalus, — cc, phalanges of toes, — dd, the 
 tarsus of which the astragalus forms a part. 
 
 2 19 The inner aspect of the foot, showing the arched construction 
 
 of the whole foot, — a, head of metatarsal bone of great toe, — h, 
 calcaneum, — c, astragalus. 
 
 3 21 View of a sole as yet in its natural state. 
 
 4 21 Sole of the foot of a child two years old. 
 
 (In both of these Figures (3 and 4) the continuation of the axis 
 of the great toe is seen to pass through the centre of the heel.) 
 
 5 23 A symmetrical (straight) sole, hke those usually made for 
 
 ladies' shoes. 
 
 6 23 A sole of the same kind for a man's foot. 
 
 7 23 An unsymmetrical sole (made to fit one foot only) of the ordi- 
 
 nary make, — c d, the line in which the axis of the great toe lies 
 in a sole of this kind. 
 
 8 23 ■ The two outlines (Figs. 6 and 7) laid on one another, showing 
 
 that the only diflFerence between these two soles is in the direc- 
 . lion of the "u'aisf" between the heel and the anterior part of the 
 foot. 
 
 9 25 Sole of the foot of a girl twenty-two years old, distorted by the 
 
 pressure of the shoe, but otherwise healthy. 
 10 25 The same sole with the outline of a straight sole laid over it, 
 
 showing how such distortions are produced by the form of the 
 foot accommodating itself to that of the shoe.
 
 54 EXPLANATION OF WOODCUTS. 
 
 Fig. Pagb 
 
 f 
 
 1 ] 25 View of the skeleton of a foot so deformed, from above. The 
 
 joints of the toes look shorter here than in the healthy foot 
 (Fig. 1), because, on account of the toes being curved, they are 
 apparently diminished in length, 
 
 12 26 Sole of a woman about twenty; the second toe is pressed up- 
 
 wards and is therefore not visible. 
 
 13 26 Sole of the foot of a girl somewhat younger; the second toe is 
 
 not seen here either, and the rest of the toes are also pressed 
 into an opposite and wrong direction. 
 
 14 26 Apparently healthy sole of a young man nineteen years of age, 
 
 in which, however, a felse direction of the great toe may be ob- 
 served. 
 
 Note. — ^The two Figures 12 and 13, as well as Figures 3 and 9, 
 I owe to Dr. Albrecht Clans, who was kind enough to sketch 
 them from bodies lately coming before him as anatomical 
 subjects; I have to thank the same gentleman for the 
 drawings of Figures 4 and 14. It would have been easy 
 to increase very considerably the number and varieties of 
 examples of deformities 
 
 15 31 The nail of the great toe in its healthy state. The dotted line 
 
 shows the extent to which the nail is connected nnder the skin. 
 
 16 31 The nail of the great toe pushed oblicjuely on one side, — a, 
 
 inflamed margin of the fold of skin pressed outwards, — h in this 
 and the immediately preceding Figure is explained in the text. 
 
 17 32 Transverse section through the distal phalanx of the great toe 
 
 with a healthy naiL. 
 
 18 32 Transverse section of the anterior joint of the great toQ with 
 
 the outer edge of the nail bent up, ('*growing-in nail.") 
 
 19 34 Bones of a foot in which the joint at the root of the 'great toe is 
 
 very much distorted inwards, inflammatory exudations forming 
 bony prominences are also apparent ; seen from above. 
 
 20 37 Sole of a shoe unusually broad in the fore part, showing that 
 
 in a sole of this kind also the great toe has a false position, that 
 is to say, va.cd instead of a b, 
 
 21 40 Design for the construction of a proper sole. Explanation in 
 
 text
 
 EXPLANATION OF WOODCUTS. 00 
 
 Fig. Page 
 
 22 42 The proper sole for a slioe, indicating the line in which the 
 
 great toe lies, — c d. The line marked o 6 is that round which 
 the shoe is constructed in the usual method. (Compare Figures 
 5, 6, and 7.) 
 
 23 42 The proper sole (Fig. 22) laid, for the sake of comparison, on 
 
 the symmetrical sole of the ordinary shape (Fig. 7). 
 
 24 43 The proper sole pointed at the toes. 
 
 25 43 Eight and left soles of the proper construction placed side hy 
 
 side. 
 
 26 45 Method of constructing the proper kind of soles in cases where 
 
 the great toe has heen pressed obliquely out of its true position. 
 Description in text.
 
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