AAILT ESSAY oust (glassification of Words Into of Speech. The Universal Law of all Languages applied to the English Tongue. \ By B. DUPONT. 4 - Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1898, by B. duPONT, in the office of Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D. C. U. S. A. + PREFACE. If a person will take the trouble tc\$kamine several gram¬ mars by different authors, he will find the definitions of the Parts of Speech all somewhat vague, some ridiculous, none clear and accurate, and no two grammars exactly alike on this point. Here are some of them : “ An Adjective is a word which may limit the application of a noun to that which has the quality, the quantity, or the relation which the Adjective denotes (note, of course this does not apply to nouns that do not admit of limitation, such as proper nouns).” The same author on the preceding page gives this definition : “An adjective is a word that may be used with a Noun to describe, to delimit, or to indicate that for which the Noun stands.” The paragraph following is as follows : “ This may also be expressed by saying that an adjective is a word used with a Noun or Pronoun to denote some attribute of quantity, quality, or relation which marks that for which the Noun or Pronoun stands.” “ Note, beware of the absurdity of saying that an Adjective denotes the quality of a Noun.” “When we speak of a red rose, the Adjective red does not denote the quality of the name rose, but of the thing for which the name stands.” “ The blunder is very obvious, but is committed in most English grammars.” The first definition says nothing of Pronouns, while the third does. The first definition uses quantity, quality, and relation as limiting the noun ; the second adds describing, delimiting, and indicating; the third, like the first, uses relation, without defin¬ ing what relation, and, as all things are related in some man¬ ner, it leaves the definition as applicable to a Verb as to an Adjective. The writer of this essay would have expected to have found the warning not to say “an Adjective denotes the quality of T 5 4 a Noun,” as being absurd, the reason given and the Sample, in a corrnc paper under heading of “Height of Absurdity.” The absurd blunder so comical is that a grammarian should over¬ look the very, very ushal occurrence of communicating the idea of a thing by using its name. Another definition: “A Verb is that part of speech by which we make an assertion,” and the author immediately adds “it is the keystone of the arch of speech.” To rebut this definition here is a sentence, and it is left to the reader to deny its asserting power, and to find the verb in it: “A locomotive in existence now, and in a state of motion on the rails.” As to the key¬ stone it is absurd, as every sentence can be constructed to com¬ municate the same ideas without the use of a Verb. The writer finds nearly all definitions like those given above. He cannot refrain from giving one more : “A preposition is an indefinable word.” This author was at least frank, and did much better than many authors who give a definition applicable to several other parts of speech, thereby mystifying the student and deceiving himself. Again the writer finds wrong words and bad sentences declared right, because a classic author has used them, which is no reason at all. Is a bad tool a good tool because a good mechanic has used it? It appears to the writer that grammarians have taken each word, building iaws of grammar very much like the old alchemists did with matter, without any fundamental law to guide them. It is well to remember that language is a means of communi¬ cating ideas, and one person perceives what another means ; and if a word is omitted, where a misunderstanding cannot occur, the end is achieved. Again, where a phrase is used that is in itself wrong, but still any construction of it but one would be absurd, it conveys the ideas desired all the same, and, therefore, for brevity’s sake it is allowable. 1 5 In introducing a new law of language, it often shows expres¬ sions that are correct and unmistakable as to meaning, but which look odd because we are unfamiliar with them. The classification given below is much simpler and clearer to the writer’s mind. Whether it will be to others he does not know. Before entering on the subject-matter of this essay it may be well to give a synopsis of grammar, in order that the reader may clearly know the subject under discussion. The following synopsis is the best the writer knows : FIRST.—Definition, which attaches to a given sound a given idea, or ideas, thereby changing the sound to a word. It is the office of a dictionarian to list words and give their meanings. SECOND.—Phonetics, which comprises the rules of uttering words, including their accent. THIRD.—Orthography, which attaches written signs, letters, to each sound, thereby forming written words. FOURTH.—Parts of Speech. After knowing words (that is, sounds that each has one or more ideas attached to it), it is necessary to classify them in accordance with their meaning and use. FIFTH.—Syntax. The rules of arranging words (ideas, parts of speech) to communicate thought, as a mason arranges stones to produce a building. SIXTH.—Oratory. The utterance of words in a manner to be most pleasing to, and effective on, the hearer, and consistent with thought. SEVENTH.—Prosody. The arrangement of words in verse, metre, or rhyme, consistent with the thought. EIGHTH.—Etymology. The history of each word, and how they have changed the spelling and meaning during their existence. It will be observed that the subject-matter of this essay relates to the fourth division. Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2017 with funding from University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign Alternates https://archive.org/details/essayonclassificOOdupo PART I. CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS INTO PARTS OF SPEECH. All true words express one or more ideas ; we classify them in accordance with their ideas as to number and meaning. The parts of speech are : Nouns, Numerals, Positionals, Temporals, Adjectives, Verbs, Adverbs, Pronouns, Frasals, Interjections. We will take them up in order. DEFINITION OF A NOUN. As stated before, all words express one or more ideas. Every idea can be conceived of alone. zA Ciypun is the name of whatever may be conceived of alone as a whole. zA Proper zNpoun is the name of an individual person, place, or thing, that is of an individual Noun. If we conceive of a “ man,” although a very complicated being, we conceive of him alone as a whole, unconnected with anything else, and so with all entities. If we conceive of whiteness or goodness, they are uncon¬ nected with anything else. What is white or good is not expressed ; so with all qualities. 8 If we conceive of motion or thought, they are unconnected with anything else, what is moving or thinking is not expressed ; so with all activities. If we conceive of a crowd, herd, etc., it is alone as a whole that we conceive of it. An entity (from an atom to the Lord) can only be described by qualities or activities. The three above classes of Nouns, namely, entities, qualities, and activities, as far as the human mind has developed, are found in complete dictionaries. The following three classes of Nouns are not found in the dictionaries, because they are very seldom used, and when required a substitute is employed. They are : First, Nouns of Number. We coin them by adding “ ness” to them. We can conceive of halfness, oneness, tenness, etc., unconnected with anything else, just as well as we can conceive of whiteness or motion. Second, Nouns of Position. We coin them by adding “ness” to them. We can conceive of nearness (proximity), belowness? aboveness, etc., without any knowledge of what things are near, above, or below, just as we conceive of whiteness, etc. Third , Nouns of Time. We coin them by adding^ “ ness.” We can conceive of pastness, futureness (futurity), nowness, etc., without knowing what events occurred in said times. We have endeavoured to show that every conception can be conceived of alone, and the names of all conceptions conceived of alone are Nouns. Every other part of speech must contain more than one idea. REMARKS. We have seen that nouns express one idea alone. 9 Every other word must express more than one idea, and those ideas must be noun ideas joined together in one word. Their use is to connect Nouns together, to build a sentence, as mortar, glue, nails, etc., connect stone, brick, lumber, etc., together, to build a house ; each producing very different results from the original material used. This is done by the use of eight classes of words. They are: Numerals, Positionals, Temporals, Adjectives, Verbs, Adverbs, Pronouns, Frasals. The first six of these classes are inflections regular or irregular of nouns (many nouns are not in the dictionary). We will take them up in order. DEFINITION OF NUMERALS. Numerals. The Nouns are halfness, oneness, lenness, etc., the numerals, having dropped the “ ness,” then contain the two ideas, one of its Noun, the other that the idea of its noun is attached to other Noun or Nouns, thereby signifying the number of said Nouns, they are definite and indefinite. In the multiplica¬ tion table we say ten times ten are one hundred ; as ten and one hundred are numerals signifying that some other Nouns have their numbers, we can only analyze this by supposing Nouns are understood, as ten times ten apples are one hundred apples. If we used the Nouns, the sentence would be “ ten times tennes§ IO be one hundredness,” nothing understood. Pair and dozen are names of numbers. Here follows a partial list of numerals. Cardinal numbers. Decimal numbers. Fractional numbers. A Indefinite one An Indefinite one Another Any other, one more, not the same one Any Both Each Every one of two or more individuals. Either One out of two Enough Every Few Many, more, most Neither No Not any None Other Not this Only Or Other out of two Plenty Several Single Some The Definite one Whether One of two or more, which one of two DEFINITION OF POSITIONALS. Positionals. As we have seen, nearness, aboveness, etc., are the Nouns. We drop the “ness,” and near, etc., contains two ideas—that of its Noun and that it is joined to other Nouns, signi¬ fying the relations of position of the other Nouns. If we say “the nearness (proximity) of those trees in the forest is remark¬ able,” the sense is the same as “the trees in the forest are remarkably near together.” In one sentence the Noun is em¬ ployed, in the other the positional is used. Here follows a partial list of positionals : Ordinal numbers. aboard betwixt about beyond above* by (near) across down apart after east far against almost farther forward along amid from further amidst here among amongst astern in into just (almost) around near at next athwart nigh away back north of (from) backward off before on behind out below over beneath past beside round 12 together toward towards between thither through throughout south there until west with without underneath unto within where up upon wherein whereat whereto whither. DEFINITION OF TEMPORALS. Temporals.. We have seen the Nouns pastness, nowness^ futureness, etc. If we say “the past brought pleasant recollec¬ tions,” we must understand “the past time brought pleasant recollections.” If we said “pastness brought present recollec¬ tions,” we use the Noun; but past, being a temporal, signifies some other Noun was in the past—as past thoughts. We have dropped the “ ness” from the noun and have the temporal. The word “ be,” a noun in its true meaning, is used only in a few philosophical axioms, which show that every conception must be, and therefore it is unnecessary to use it after any Noun to indicate that the Noun be. In consequence the so-called Verb “to be” in all its forms has come only to signify time or con¬ tinuance of time, except in a few cases where it means become. Here follows a partial list of Temporals: Inflections of Verbs, present tense meaning present time. Special word Do, present tense meaning present time. Inflections of Verbs, past tense meaning past time. Special word Did, past tense meaning past time. 13 Examples: Add present added past do add present did add past differ present {^ } past (Note: Better explained when Verbs are treated of). As “to be ’* and ‘‘to have’’ (not meaning to hold or possess) have lost their meaning, except as to time, we give them in this list : being, continuance be, occurring at any time am, art, is, are occurring at present time % was, wast, were, occurring at past time have, hast, has, had, been, occurring and completed in past tense. When we separate the temporal from the inflected Verb, it gives an idea of continuance. Example : I write or I wrote have no idea of continuance ; but I am writing, or 1 was writing, carry the idea the writing would continue. Other temporals are: will, and will be, meaning future time (not the words meaning determination), and after seldom already since always soon ago still anon then before till bye and bye to-day during to-morrow early until ere when ever (during) while formerly late, now, often, yet 14 DEFINITION OF ADJECTIVES.