A CENTURY Of PUBLIC TEACHE CHARLES A. HARFHE if H i /:r < 9 ^'/?^S^^- n^ c. L 1 B RA R.Y OF THE U N IVERS ITY or ILLINOIS 370.73 H23c cop. 3 liMNf.K I'lXTORY SURV^X ..-^ A CENTURY OF PUBLIC TEACHER EDUCATION The Story of the State Teachers Colleges as They Evolved from the Normal Schools, Told hy CHARLES A. HARPER State TSlormal University Normal, Illinois PUBLISHED BY THE HUGH BIRCH-HORACE MANN FUND FOR THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF TEACHERS COLLEGES, A DEPARTMENT OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. This book is sponsored by the Committee for the Cele- bration of a Century of Public Teacher Education, of the American Association of Teachers Colleges. The Committee, appointed in February 1939, includes: ROSCOE L. W^ST, chairman NEW JERSEY STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, TRENTON, NEW JERSEY KARL BIGELOW COMMISSION ON TEACHER EDUCATION, AMERICAN COUNCIL ON EDUCA- TION, WASHINGTON, D. C. A. L. CRABB GEORGE PEABODY COLLEGE FOR TEACHERS, NASH\'ILLE, TENNESSEE G. W. DIEMER CENTRAL MISSOURI STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, WARRENSBURG, MISSOURI GEORGE W. FRASIER STATE COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, GREELEY, COLORADO CHARLES A. HARPER STATE NORMAL UNIV^ERSITY, NORMAL, ILLINOIS CHARLES W. HUNT STATE NORM.\L SCHOOL, ONEONTA, NEW YORK MARTIN F. o'cONNOR STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, FR.\MINGH.\M, MASSACHUSETTS MARVIN S. PITTMAN SOUTH GEORGIA TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLLEGEBORO, GEORGIA GEORGE A. SELKE STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, ST. CLOUD, MINNESOTA FRANK W. THOMAS STATE COLLEGE, FRESNO, CALIFORNIA Copyright ig^g National Education Association of the United States Order additional copies of this book from the American Association of Teachers Colleges, Roscoe L. West, Chairman, State Teachers College, Trenton, New Jersey, at 50 cents a single copy postpaid. Quantity discounts are 2-9 copies, 10 percent; 10-99 copies, 25 percent; 100 or more copies, 33 J/^ percent. [4] ^23t CONTENTS ^^"^^ * "^ CHAPTER I BEGINNINGS IN MASSACHUSETTS p Education and the People g The Campaign for Normal Schools j^ The Century of Teacher Education Begins 2^ CHAPTER II THE EASTERN NORMAL SCHOOLS, 1839-1860 J7 Normal Schools in New Yor\ jp Henry Barnard in Connecticut and Rhode Island . ... ^9 New Jersey and Pennsylvania 61 CHAPTER III THE WESTERN NORMAL SCHOOLS, 185O-1875 JI Michigan and Illinois 7j Normal Schools Spread West of the Mississippi . ... 86 CHAPTER IV NATURE AND CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE NORMAL SCHOOLS, ^ 1860-1900 gj ^ Nature of the State Normal School 07 ' Contributions of the State Normal School to Teacher Education 112 ^ The Oswego and Herbartian Tidal Waves 121 ^ CHAPTER V [ TRANSITION TO THE STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, I9OO-I926 I2g 1 CHAPTER VI iiTHE TWENTIETH-CENTURY TEACHERS COLLEGE I^I o FOREWORD The end of a century of public teacher education offers a unique opportunity to present the dramatic story of the beginnings of the normal schools and their growth into teachers colleges. It is a far cry from Lexington, where three young ladies reported on July 3, 1839, to the two hundred teachers colleges where more than 100,000 students gather in 1939 to prepare for the important public service of teaching. The short term of a year or less has grown into four, and in some schools five, years of a well-integrated program of cultural and professional education. But the teachers college still looks ahead to more adequate understanding by the public, larger support, finer libraries, better faculties, more capable students, in order that America's chil- dren may be equipped to solve the problems of a modern world and live more richly. We are profoundly indebted to Professor Harper for this contribution of his knowledge, gained thru years of study and research. — Roscoe L. West, Chair- man, Committee of the American Association of Teachers Colleges, for the Celebration of a Century of Public Teacher Education. [7] NORMAL SCHOOLS PRIOR TO I860 Date of Legal Establish- Date Place Principal or ment Opened Located President 1838 July 3 1839 Lexington, Mass. Cyrus W. Peirce Moved Sept. 1844 West Newton, Mass. Cyrus W. Peirce Moved Dec. 15 1853 Framingham, Mass. Eben Stearns 1838 Sept. 4 1839 Barre, Mass. S. P. Newman Moved Sept. 4 1844 Westfield, Mass. D. S. Rowe 1838 Sept. 9 1840 Bridgewater, Mass. Nicholas Tillinghast 1844 Dec. 18 1844 Albany, N. Y. David Perkins Page 1849 May 15 1850 New Britain, Conn. Henry Barnard 1849 Mar. 29 1853 Ypsilanti, Mich. Adonijah S. Welch 1853 Sept. 13 1854 Salem, Mass. Richard Edwards 1854 May 29 1854 Providence, R. I. Dana P. Colburn 1855 Oct. I 1855 Trenton, N. J. William F. Phelps 1857 Oct. 5 1857 N. Bloomington, 111. Charles E. Hovey (later at Normal) 1857 Dec. 1859 Millersville, Pa. James P.Wickersham 1858 Sept. 3 i860 Winona, Minn. John Ogden Note : March d, iSiS^ a law was passed giving Phila- delphia the right to train teachers^ and thirty years later the City Normal School oj Philadelphia was established on February /, 1S48. [8] CHAPTER I BEGINNINGS IN MASSACHUSETTS EDUCATION AND THE PEOPLE ON JULY 3, 1839, the first state-supported school for the exclusive purpose of preparing teachers was opened at Lexington, Massachusetts. This step marks the beginning of an important and distinctive development in American life. The great condition- ing fact in American history is that a continent was to be conquered by man's brain, spirit, and skill. The individual had to be fit to shoulder his part in this mighty task. He had to make and use his own tools, including the necessary institutions. He had to partici- pate intelligently in government as well as in eco- nomic and social institutions. Popular education has always been believed by our people to be the only guarantee for progress along the lines of prosperity, culture, and democracy. The state's place in education was quite well sum- marized by the Honorable William G. Bates of West- field, Massachusetts, when he spoke at Bridgewater in 1846 at the dedication of the first normal-school building which the state of Massachusetts financed. [9] 10 A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION He said that provision for the education of the people of the state at the expense of the state was essential for progress and prosperity; that the people could be educated only in the common [public] schools; and lastly, that the common schools could have an ade- quate teaching force only if the education of their teachers were provided for by the state. In the early colonial days, Massachusetts had placed much emphasis on education. In 1647 a law was en- acted for the purpose of promoting more general education among the common people. This has often been spoken of as the "Old Deluder Law" because the real purpose of the plan is revealed by the first phrase of the enactment: "It being one chief object of that old deluder, Satan, to keep men from the knowledge of the Scriptures . . ." This religious motive for pubhc education served quite well as long as the inhabitants of the state were grouped into a number of little congregations led by their ministers. But by the time of the Revolutionary War the people were becoming less homogeneous, and the sway of theo- cratic rule was slipping. The social, economic, demo- cratic, and national reasons for getting an education were becoming so vital that a new type of subject- matter and procedure in the schools was imperatively needed. BEGINNINGS IN MASSACHUSETTS II Statesmen and educators were pointing out that the success of our American experiment in government depended upon citizens who had been trained from childhood with this aim in view. No one has ever said this better than Daniel Webster: "On the diffusion of education among the people rests the preservation and perpetuation of our free institutions. I apprehend no danger to our country from a foreign foe. Our destruction, should it come at all, will be from an- other quarter. From the inattention of the people to the concerns of government — from their carelessness and negligence — I must confess that I do apprehend some danger. I fear that they may place too implicit a confidence in their public servants, and fail properly to scrutinize their conduct — that in this way they may be the dupes of designing men. . . . Make them in- telligent, and they will be vigilant — give them the means of detecting the wrong, and they will apply the remedy." '^ Then too, another reason why education was as- suming a larger role in American life was the realiza- tion that it helped in attaining material wealth. Indus- trialization, complexity in business organization and methods, scientific achievements, and the growing functions of government were pointing more and more to the fact that success demanded schooling. 12 A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION Therefore, in the thirties of the last century, the people of the United States began to scrutinize their schools to find out if they were meeting the needs of the times. Many of the leaders in Massachusetts looked about them and found a rather discouraging picture. They saw at the top of the educational sys- tem some good colleges largely engaged in giving their students a classical education preparatory for the ministry, law, or medicine. They saw many good academies privately owned and denominationally dominated. They saw here many young folks of the upper social and economic classes receiving a thoro, tho narrow, secondary education. The system thruout was education for the classes and not for the masses. The common schools, where more than 75 percent of the children got their only schooling, were poor indeed. They had deteriorated in the past half cen- tury rather than improved. They were in session three or four months each year, were very poorly attended, and had to rely on nearly anyone available for a teacher. Dr. Humphrey, president of Amherst Col- lege, said at this time that hundreds of districts were obliged to rely upon those with no pretensions to the qualifications requisite for teaching. He commented on the annual reports from school committees from all parts of the commonwealth as follows: "I might BEGINNINGS IN MASSACHUSETTS I3 quote their complaints till sunset, that it is impossible to have good schools for want of good teachers. Many who offer themselves are deficient in everything; in spelling, in reading, in penmanship, in geography, in grammar, and in common arithmetic. The majority would be dismissed and advised to go back to their domestic and rural employments, if competent in- structors could be had." By 1825 there was in many parts of the United States what might be spoken of as a distinct feeling of dissatisfaction v/ith the existing plan and system of teaching. This unrest was signalized by a number of writings and by some experimentation in methods of meeting the problem. In 1823 an energetic Con- gregational minister of Concord, Vermont, opened a private academy for the preparation of teachers. It was much like any other academy of the time except that the Reverend Samuel R. Hall gave a series of lectures on "schoolkeeping" to the prospective teach- ers. He also admitted a few children for the purpose of having a class to be used in his demonstrations of how to teach. It was Hall who wrote the first widely- used text on education to be published in America. His Lectures on School\eeping was used in normal schools in the forties and fifties from Massachusetts to New York, Michigan, and Illinois. His work at 14 A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION Concord attracted much interest in Massachusetts and in 1830 he was called to Phillips Andover Acad- emy to head a normal department. While at Andover his course on the "Art of Teaching" was the cause of many letters and visits by statesmen and school- teachers. Thus he had close contact with most of the men who were agitating for a change in the Massa- chusetts setup. THE CAMPAIGN FOR NORMAL SCHOOLS The year 1825 was an eventful twelve months for the cause of teacher education. In that year three men who had something important enough to say to at- tract the attention of people interested in public wel- fare all over the nation, spoke out. The first of these men in official position was Governor DeWitt Clinton of Erie Canal fame. In his message to the New York legislature, he recommended that it concern itself with the problem of securing a supply of competent teachers. He went on to repeat the widely-used argu- ment that democratic representative government would fail unless the state took a real responsibiHty in educating all the children of all the people. He then pointed out that in order to do this the state must see to it that a supply of trained teachers was available. BEGINNINGS IN MASSACHUSETTS I5 In January of that famous year, the Reverend Thomas H. Gallaudet of Hartford, Connecticut, over the signature "Father" wrote a Plan of a Seminary for the Education of the Instructors of Youth. This plan gained wide pubHcity thruout New England and deserved attention because it was set up in definite proposals. His "Let there be" sentences suggested a Creator making a new world in considerably less than seven days. His propositions were sound and basic to the early development of teacher education. Let us examine some of them: "[i] Let an institution be established in every state for the express purpose of training the profession of the instructors of youth. [2] Let it be so well endowed by the liberality of the public that it may have professors of talent who should devote their lives to the theory and practice of the education of youth. [3] Let the institution be furnished with a library — and also with all the appa- ratus that modern ingenuity has devised to aid in teaching — maps, charts, globes, orreries, etc. [4] Let there be connected with the institution a school in which the theories of the professors might be reduced to practice. Let the students take their turns in the instruction of the experimental school." On the loth and 15th of February 1825, there ap- peared in the Boston Patriot articles bearing the signa- l6 A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION ture "Franklin." These were written by James G. Carter to whom has been given the title of "Father of the American Normal School." His spirited and persistent advocacy did much to secure the final pas- sage of the act authorizing the first state-supported normal school in the United States. Mr. Carter bore down not so much on the nature of the new institu- tion, but upon the state's responsibility in the matter. He insisted that if it were not undertaken for public purposes and at public expense, it would be under- taken by individuals for private purposes. He thought that private institutions for the preparation of teachers would not serve the purpose. He wrote: "An institution for the education of teachers would form a part, and a very important part, of the free-school system. It would be, more- over, precisely that portion of the system which should be under the direction of the state, whether the others are or not. Because we should thus secure at once, a uniform, intelligent, and independent tri- bunal for decisions on the qualifications of teachers. ... It should be emphatically the state's institution. And its results would soon make it the state's favorite and pride." Mr. Carter, being an influential political figure and a member of the Massachusetts legislature, was in a BEGINNINGS IN MASSACHUSETTS I7 position to get things done. One of his notable achieve- ments was to secure the passage of the bill creating the State Board of Education of Massachusetts of which Horace Mann was named first secretary on June 29, 1837. Altho the movement for the establishment of a state-supported institution for the education of teach- ers was a native product and distinctly American in the way it developed in the hundred years after 1839, yet in the period 1825 to 1839 the experiences of other countries had considerable influence in furnishing and strengthening arguments for the movement in the United States. The success of France and Holland and more especially Prussia in establishing normal schools converted many people in this country to the practicability of the plan. One of the most tireless and enthusiastic advocates of the normal-school idea in Massachusetts was the Reverend Charles Brooks. He became a zealous pro- ponent of normal schools from the information he received about the Prussian and French systems. In Prussia by 1819 state control of education culminated in the estabHshment of a system of normal schools which employed the methods of the great educational leader, Pestalozzi. Teaching in the Prussian schools was to be no longer a matter of assigning pages of l8 A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION printed material to be memorized, and then of hold- ing the open book while the child repeated the lesson. Pestalozzi described the process of teaching as direct- ing the child in the unfolding of his latent powers, and emphasized the harmonious development of the individual's faculties into a complete personality. There were many visitors to the Pestalozzian centers at Yverdon, Stanz, and Burgdorf ; and most of them went away ardent advocates of the new possibilities in teaching by properly trained teachers. Mr. Brooks met one of these enthusiasts, Dr. Julius of Hamburg, Germany. In a forty-one day passage from Liverpool to New York, Mr. Brooks and Dr. Julius discussed teacher education. By the time the boat had arrived in New York harbor. Brooks had fallen in love with the normal-school idea and, as he said, it seemed to possess him "like a missionary angel." He was re- solved to do something about state normal schools. He next opened communications with M. Victor Cousin, a French educator who was an authority on European normals. Cousin gave him a great deal of information and, what was more important, gave a slogan to the movement. This slogan which Charles Brooks used so effectively was. As is the teacher, so is the school. His conclusion was, "Hence, we must have schools for the preparation of teachers." BEGINNINGS IN MASSACHUSETTS I9 In 1835 Charles Brooks entered into a spectacular and strenuous speaking campaign. The burden of his speeches was, "Massachusetts needs state normal schools, owned, supported, and governed by the state for the state's services." His first public efFort was on December 5, 1835. At this time he proposed holding a series of conventions of the friends of common schools to agitate the subject of establishing a normal school in the "Old Colony." The first of these con- ventions was held December 7, 1836 and continued in session two days; the second was at Hingham on December 11. In 1836 and 1837 Brooks delivered lectures in more than a dozen Massachusetts towns. He lectured before state legislatures in New Hamp- shire, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, and at a state educational convention in Hartford, Connecticut. He often made eight two-hour talks in a single week. He truly became a fanatic for state-supported normal schools. The cartoonists of the day represented "Cap- tain Brooks" with ferule in hand at the head of a troop of schoolmasters and schoolmistresses, march- ing for a normal school in the clouds. Another person to report on the Prussian system and its relation to the American problem was Calvin E. Stowe of Ohio. Mr. Stowe, husband of Harriet Beecher Stowe, possessed a keen mind and his report 20 A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION to the legislature of Ohio on Elementary Education in Europe is a document worthy of considerable study by modern educators. Mr. Stowe's brilliant argument for normal schools was circulated widely and had its influence in Massachusetts. He outlined a plan for the curriculum, methods, and management of a teacher-education school which looked far into the future of normal-school development. Horace Mann also was deeply influenced by the Prussian system of teaching both children and teachers. All of us are more or less acquainted with the part played by Horace Mann in the normal-school move- ment. He was not only the most enthusiastic and energetic proponent of normal schools, but was also the man who translated public addresses into action. The normal-school idea did not have the backing of a majority of the people of Massachusetts, nor did it have even the backing of a majority of the teachers. Indeed, only a handful believed it was the true solu- tion. But there were powerful personalities in favor who were able to turn the scale in its behalf. No one was as able as Horace Mann to show the gleam of the future goal and to glorify a cause with such optimistic fervor. It was indeed a crusade with him and we must say — hackneyed as the phrase is — that his efforts were truly inspired. He spoke as a seer BEGINNINGS IN MASSACHUSETTS 21 and prophet! Two quotations will bring out the style and clearcut faith of the man. Both of them are from his address at the dedication of the normal- school building at Bridgewater on August 19, 1846. "I believe Normal Schools to be a new instrumental- ity in the advancement of the race. I believe that, without them, Free Schools themselves would be shorn of their strength and their healing power and would at length become mere charity schools and thus die out in fact and in form. Neither the art of printing, nor the trial by jury, nor a free press, nor free suffrage, can long exist, to any beneficial and salutary purpose, without schools for the training of teachers; for, if the character and qualifications of teachers be allowed to degenerate, the Free Schools will become pauper schools, and the pauper schools will produce pauper souls, and the free press will become a false and licentious press, and ignorant voters will become venal voters, and through the medium and guise of republican forms, an oligarchy of profligate and flagitious men will govern the land ; nay, the universal diffusion and ultimate triumph of all-glorious Christianity itself must await the time when knowledge shall be diffused among men through the instrumentality of good schools. Coiled up in this institution, as in a spring, there is a vigor 22 A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION whose uncoiling may wheel the spheres!' The strength and beauty of this last sentence give us some clue of the tremendous power which Horace Mann wielded over the minds and hearts of men. The other quotation from Mann is a short one but it illustrates the vision and power of prophecy of this great educational statesman. This ability to see mean- ings in terms of future development is the major trait of eminence in Horace Mann. "I consider this event as marking an era in the progress of education — which, as we all know, is the progress of civilization — on this western continent and throughout the world. It is the completion of the first normal school- house ever erected in Massachusetts — in the Union — in this hemisphere. It belongs to that class of events which may happen once, but are incapable of being repeated." It would be unfair to the cause of teacher education to omit mention of the support given the normal- school movement by Daniel Webster and by John Quincy Adams. Both of these famous personages spoke at one of the meetings arranged by Charles Brooks. This meeting was at Plymouth in 1838 and was a convention of the "Plymouth County Associa- tion for the Improvement of Common Schools." The question of a normal school was the subject. Daniel BEGINNINGS IN MASSACHUSETTS 23 Webster said among other things that the private schools had injured the pubUc schools, and that the public schools had been impoverished and shorn of their democratic functions. He stated that if he had as many sons as old Priam he would send them all to the public schools. He said further that the plan of a normal school in Plymouth County v^as designed to elevate our common schools, and thus to carry out the noble ideas of our Pilgrim Fathers. Webster proved in this address that he knew a great deal about teaching and also about the defects of the teach- ing of his day in Massachusetts. He said, for instance, "We teach too much by manuals, too little by direct intercourse with the pupil's mind; we have too much of words, too little of things. For example, geology must be taught by excursions in the field. . . . Teach- ers must teach things!" John Quincy Adams in his address expressed his recent but entire conversion to the normal-school idea. He thought it highly appropriate that Plymouth County of Pilgrim fame should be the first to put into effect this important step in the interests of the common people. He said, "We see monarchs expend- ing vast sums, establishing normal schools thruout their realms, and sparing no pains to convey knowl- edge and efficiency to all the children of their poorest 24 A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION subjects. Shall we be outdone by kjngs? Shall mon- archies steal a march on republics in the patronage of that education on which a repubhc is based?" By the year 1838 everything was ready for action in Massachusetts. The State Board of Education had been organized in 1837 and put under the leadership of Horace Mann. In 1838, Edmund Dwight, a friend of Horace Mann and a member of the Board, offered a gift of $10,000 to be used in the cause of teacher education provided a like sum should be appropriated by the state for this purpose. As Mr. Dwight was a noted industrialist and philanthropist of Boston, his offer bore political as well as financial weight. On April 19, a date rich in historical significance both for the nation and for Massachusetts, Governor Edward Everett signed the bill authorizing the estab- lishment of three normal schools, provided suitable buildings, furniture, and equipment could be obtained from towns or other private sources. The $20,000 was to be used for providing faculty and for other instruc- tional expense. It was at length decided to locate one at Lexington in the northeastern part of the state, another in the central part at Barre, and a third in the southeastern part at Bridgewater. The system was to be purely experimental and three years was the time allotted to prove its success or failure. BEGINNINGS IN MASSACHUSETTS 25 While these provisions gave the new schools a fighting chance, they were far from generous. Every- thing was temporary and experimental, reluctant and expectant of failure. Without provisions for books or apparatus, without buildings, and with only $20,000 for the three-year period, three schools for the educa- tion of teachers were to run for a period of three years. With this meager backing the normal schools were expected, by their phenomenal success, to con- vert a generation of doubters or they were to close their doors as admitted failures. The struggle for life on the part of the normals was bitter and they barely survived. However, by the end of the three-year pro- bationary period, they were accepted to the extent that the legislature in 1842 appropriated §6000 for their continuance for another three years. Again in 1845 a number of good Bostonians offered a gift of $5000 for normal-school buildings, provided the state would match this sum. This was done, and in 1846 a normal-school building was erected in Bridgewater. THE CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION BEGINS On July 3, 1839, the first state normal school opened at Lexington. Three rather frightened young ladies presented themselves for the entrance examination, and being found satisfactorily versed in the subjects 26 A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION taught by the ordinary district school, were duly ad- mitted. The building secured, altho much larger and better than the ordinary district school, was of course not in the class of the structures used by the better academies. The Reverend Cyrus Peirce of Nantucket was se- cured as principal just a few days before the opening of school. He was a mild-mannered man whose pa- tience and energy had won for him a considerable reputation as a school teacher. His schools were well- governed and he had learned to control children without the use of the switch or the prize for good conduct. Cyrus Peirce was conscientious and loved the truth. He was such a person as Horace Mann admired, for he was filled with the spirit of great sacrifice for a great cause. He felt himself to be a David, and with a meek stubbornness he knew he would not fail. It is reported that he said to his wife when he was on his journey to Lexington, "Harriet, I would rather die than fail." Horace Mann remarked later that the grim race came out almost a draw. "Cyrus Peirce not only succeeded but came very near dying." He worked as only a zealot can work. He allowed himself but four hours of sleep, shovelled the snow, carried the water, kept the fires supplied, and did all the other janitor work. He prepared every BEGINNINGS IN MASSACHUSETTS 27 lesson fully and thoroly. He gave each recitation as much care as if it were for exhibition before a critical committee. And well he might, for the school did have quite a few important visitors. It was a disappointment to Peirce and Mann that so few students showed up on that memorable first day. The opening had been quite well advertised in the papers and had certainly had the publicity which the great names in Massachusetts politics, business, and philanthropy could give it. Nevertheless, these three young ladies were happy and worked hard and were soon joined by others who in turn caught the spirit of consecration and meek happiness. The normal school did not remain long at Lexing- ton, but was moved to West Newton in September 1844. Here it remained until December 1853 when it again took a jump, this time to Framingham where it has continued to the present. The second normal school in the state opened its doors on September 4, 1839, at Barre. It too became restless and moved to Westfield where it remained. The third school was opened at Bridgewater on September 9, 1840. The Bridgewater Normal School came to have an important role in the continental expansion of the normal-school idea. From its portals came twenty-six 28 A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION normal-school heads who carried the flame of Bridge- water fire to Rhode Island, Maine, Connecticut, Ver- mont, New Jersey, Illinois, Missouri, Mississippi, Minnesota, and California. Such famous names as Richard Edwards, Dana Colburn, Joshua Kendall, Ira Moore, George M. Gage, E. C. Hewett, and Arthur Sumner appear as sons of Bridgewater. These men will help to carry the story of teacher education until the movement blossoms in the Mississippi Val- ley and on the Pacific Coast. Much of this success was due to the character and efforts of the first principal, Nicholas TilUnghast. He was a graduate of West Point and always retained certain soldierly qualities. He rose to the rank of captain in the United States army. After a period of harsh apprenticeship along the swamps of Arkansas River, he became a teacher at the Academy at West Point. Resigning because of ill health, he opened a school in Boston in which he prepared boys for life in general and for West Point in particular. Here he was found by Horace Mann. Tillinghast was very reluctant to undertake the responsibilities of a nor- mal-school principal. Before he entered upon his duties he visited one of the schools in operation and read intensively all the literature on the subject that could be obtained. In September 1840 he faced his BEGINNINGS IN MASSACHUSETTS 29 challenging task and twenty-eight pupils. He re- mained in this position until 1853 and left his stamp not only on Bridgewater but on the whole normal- school movement. His power over his pupils was almost incredible. To say that they believed in him is a feeble statement of fact. This is the more remarkable as the man was cold and forbidding in mien, and in his ordinary school intercourse was far from genial. The main characteristic of his work at Bridgewater was its thoroness and his precise method of analytical inves- tigation. He insisted that there be in the student's mind a compelling reason for what he believed or declared to be the truth. Hence the "everlasting why" became a proverb among his pupils. The training was absolutely honest, and there was a positive hatred of sham and pretense. As Tillinghast himself expressed it, "A real attempt at thoroness is what we want most. The number, and I could almost say, the kind of studies, is of small importance provided we attempt to lead the pupil to habits of exactness, and put him so he can have selfreliance. This is what I think the normal schools should aim at." A fourth state normal school was opened at Salem on September 13, 1854, under the charge of Richard Edwards. We shall hear much more of this man as 30 A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION he grew to the height of his powers in the Mississippi Valley. He was a true product of Bridgewater in his straight-forward honesty and his impatience with triflers. But in breadth of vision, in adaptability, in compelling enthusiasm, and in oratorical ability, he had power all his own. Edwards, after graduating from Bridgewater, spent five years as assistant there, and often during this period had chief oversight of the school owing to the faiUng health and outside duties of the principal. Overcoming much opposi- tion at Salem, Richard Edwards made that school popular. He remained at the head of the Salem Nor- mal for three years, when he accepted a call to St. Louis to become the first principal of the City Normal and High School. What of the work done in these early Massa- chusetts schools as to the quantity and quality ? The curriculum consisted of reading, writing, arithmetic, geography, grammar, speUing, composition, vocal music, drawing, physiology, algebra, geometry, phi- losophy, methods of teaching, and reading of the Scriptures. It consisted mainly of a very thoro treat- ment of those subjects which were to be taught in the district schools. Because the academies and col- leges looked down with contempt on the normals from the aloofness of their classical curriculums, the BEGINNINGS IN MASSACHUSETTS 3I normals took a fierce joy in glorifying the branches of common everyday learning. The quality of the work in arithmetic, grammar, and geography was certainly on the college level as far as difficulty is concerned. The educational value of the study was held to be directly proportional to its difficulty. Ambition, honor, duty, and religious devotion were invoked in the students to uphold the worth of nor- mal training. Evangelism for the common-school elementary subjects was the hall mark of the New England normal-school movement. Principal Cyrus Peirce in 1841 stated in a letter to Henry Barnard a fair estimation of the work of the Massachusetts normals of the forties to the sixties of the nineteenth century. He wrote: "Two things I have aimed at especially in this school: [i] To teach thoroly the principles of the several branches studied, so that the pupils may have a clear and full understanding of them. [2] To teach the pupils, by my own example, as well as by precepts, the best way of teaching the same things effectually to others. . . . Besides delivering to the school a written formal lecture once a week, in which I speak of the quali- fications, motives, and duties of teachers, the dis- cipline, management, and instruction of schools. . . . I am every day, in conversations, or a familiar sort 32 A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION of lectures, taking up and discussing more particu- larly and minutely, some point or points suggested by the exercises or occurrences, it may be, of the day, relating to the internal operations of the school- room, or to physical, moral, or intellectual educa- tion." A distinctive feature of teacher education from the beginning has been the use of an actual school for children by the normal school. In the early days this was called a "model school." In October 1839 such a model school was organized at Lexington, and the other schools followed suit. These early practice schools in Massachusetts were not outstanding suc- cesses. They were established on much too slender a financial foundation and the teaching staff of the normals was much too busy to give proper attention to the practice schools. In every case they languished and died and had to be revived as the experiences of normal schools outside of Massachusetts proved that practice teaching was essential in teacher education. As has been indicated, the normal-school move- ment had powerful backing in Massachusetts, yet there was much indifference and some positive hos- tility. Horace Mann sensed this keenly from the first and met it at every turn. In 1838 he warned the friends of normals that altho a few, and those best BEGINNINGS IN MASSACHUSETTS 33 qualified to judge, held that institutions for the special qualifications of common-school teachers were necessary, yet this could not be said of the ma- jority. He pointed out that any plan for carrying out this object, however wisely framed, would have to encounter not only the prejudices of the ignorant but the active hostility of the selfish. Governor Everett in 1839 again warned an interested and friendly audi- ence at Barre, "The narrowness of means from which the experiment of our normal schools is undertaken, may defeat its success." Certain religious groups, many teachers, most pri- vate educational institutions, and some taxpayers op- posed the new schools most bitterly. The early nor- mals had a difficult time and the hop-and-skip career of two of them in changing location did not add to the feeling of stability and permanence. You will remember that the Lexington school was moved to West Newton in May 1844 and later migrated to Framingham, while the one at Barre was closed in 1842 and reopened in Westfield in 1844. The short course and the fact that most pupils stayed but a short time, possibly only eleven weeks, caused, as Richard Edwards said, the "opposition and contempt of many cultured people." Mr. A. E. Win- ship, an early student at Bridgewater, writes that he 34 A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION entered when the institution was only twenty-three years old, but that he was in the sixty-first class. Nicholas Tillinghast had vigorously protested against Horace Mann's idea that as many as possible should pass thru the doors of the normal even tho they merely received an inoculation. This short time of attendance was not entirely the fault of the schools and their curriculum. The fact was that teaching jobs at $30 a month could be had by those of little training and indeed did not invite a prolonged stay in a normal school. In 1846, the Reverend Heman Humphrey, speaking for the Board of Education, said they were obliged to confess a marked disap- pointment in this respect. He said: "We did sup- pose that fine accommodations, free tuition, and the best instruction, would be sufficient inducements, not only to fill up the schools, but to secure attend- ance for a reasonable length of time. Many have re- mained but a single term, but few have given them- selves time for the whole course, and the normal schools have been held answerable for their deficien- cies. This is unreasonable, as nobody ever pretended that the new system could work miracles — that com- ing in one door and going out the other would make good teachers." At best the length of the course was indeed short. In 1839 the Lexington course was one BEGINNINGS IN MASSACHUSETTS 35 year in length; ten years later it was just one and one- half years; and it was not until i860 that the course was lengthened to two years. As early as 1840 the normal movement was almost crushed in its infancy. Had the attack of that year succeeded, it might have set back public education for a full generation. On March 3, the Committee on Education of the state legislature was directed by the House of Representatives to consider the expediency of doing away with both the Board of Education and the normal schools. On March 7, the majority of the Committee recommended the abolition of both insti- tutions. This proposal was defeated by the legislature by a vote of 246 to 184. The objections of the Committee are worth quot- ing: "The establishment of the Board of Education seems to be the commencement of a system of central- ization and of monopoly of power in a few hands, contrary in every respect to the true spirit of our democratic institutions; and which, unless speedily checked, may lead to unlooked for and dangerous results. . . . Another project, imitated from France and Prussia ... is the estabHshment of normal schools. . . . Academies and high schools cost the Commonwealth nothing; and they are fully ade- quate to furnish a competent supply of teachers. . . . 36 A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION Considering that our district schools are kept, on an average, for only three or four months in the year, it is obviously impossible, and perhaps it is not de- sirable, that the business of keeping these schools should become a distinct and separate profession, w^hich the establishment of Normal Schools seems to anticipate." But that v^as exactly v^hat the normals v^ere be- ginning to do — to make a profession of teaching. They were sending out annually young people who had caught some measure of the vision, enough thoroness in subjectmatter, and enough of the better technics of teaching, to impress communities with their superiority over teachers who had not attended such schools. And so, from Lexington, Bridgewater, Barre, and Salem, there marched on a movement ever close to the common schools and to the common people whom they educate. CHAPTER II THE EASTERN NORMAL SCHOOLS, 1839-1860 THE SAME CAUSES which Operated in the founding of normal schools in Massachusetts were at work thruout the United States in the period 1820-1840. The need for improving the common schools was everywhere felt, and educators and statesmen were taking a lively interest in the abundant literature on new technics and the new type of institutions for the better preparation of teachers. Massachusetts had established normal schools which had weathered the storm of ignorance and selfishness, but they con- tinued to be on the defensive and were narrowing ! their work so as to escape the charge that they were encroaching on the fields of other types of educa- tional institutions. They were asking for a very modest place in the educational sun and were not ready to occupy themselves with new tasks and ex- perimental attitudes on improving and enlarging the scope and functions of state-supported teacher- education institutions. [ 37 ] 38 A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION It was time for the other states to make their con- tributions and add their support to the cause. New York, Connecticut, New Jersey, Rhode Island, and Pennsylvania now step into the picture, with indi- vidual and general additions to the developing mean- ing of state-supported normals. The formulation of the concept of the true place and importance of prac- tice and model schools in connection with normals was one of the achievements of this group of states in the period 1839-1860. Especially notable were the accomplishments of New York, Connecticut, and New Jersey. A closer relationship between the state depart- ments of education and the normal schools was de- veloped in Rhode Island, New York, Connecticut, and Pennsylvania. The definite relationship between normals and the public-school systems of the state was much wider and more significant than the mere cooperation between normals and state departments. Here, too, we find important progress in New York, Connecticut, and New Jersey. The public relations activities of the normals were beginning to exert influence on public opinion and political action. Textbooks coming from normal-school faculties were giving new concepts of teaching to many teachers who had never attended these schools. Arithmetic, EASTERN NORMAL SCHOOLS 1839-60 39 reading, and geography were shorn of their harsh and dull presentation in the new texts. Books on education were produced that not only gave the technics of schoolkeeping but were hinting at a professional approach to educational problems. The normals were moving along in these two decades in a crusade to produce a profession of teach- ing. Teachers institutes under the direction of nor- mal-school principals and faculty were begun and not only helped to professionalize teaching, but also spread the normal-school type of teaching to all corners of the land. Connecticut and New York first formulated definite procedures for a system of teachers institutes. NORMAL SCHOOLS IN NEW YORK As already noted. Governor Clinton of New York was one of the outstanding governors who early called the attention of his legislature and the general public to the need of having definite provisions made by the state to improve instruction in the common schools. Had New York possessed some able cham- pion such as Horace Mann, Brooks, or Carter, who would have supported the idea of separate and special schools for this purpose, this state might well have been the first to establish a normal school. As it hap- 40 A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION pened, however, the educational leadership was preju- diced against starting a new type of school but favored the encouragement of the existing system of acad- emies as better able to handle this function. A report of the New York Regents on teacher education made in 1832 displays this attitude. The Regents justified the estabhshment of training departments in the already flourishing academies. They gravely warned the public that American individualism and theory of laissez-faire were incompatible with institutions which had been successful in centralized France and Prussia. They pointed out that the St. Lawrence Academy at Potsdam and the Canandaigua Academy had teacher-training courses already in successful op- eration. It was revealed, however, that these courses consisted of the regular work of the academies plus a few lectures on the "principles of teaching." The Regents had no doubt that a thousand teachers could be prepared annually for the common schools by the academies. On May 2, 1834, ^^^ legislature of New York passed the act subsidizing the academies in their work of preparing teachers. It was probably the first enact- ment in this nation making definite provision, in- cluding financial assistance, for the education of teachers for the common schools. Section i of the act EASTERN NORMAL SCHOOLS 1839-60 4I provided that the revenue of the state Literature Fund then in the treasury, and the excess of the annual rev- enue of that fund thereafter, be distributed by the Regents of the University to the academies. The Re- gents could distribute the money to any number of academies and the academies were to be subject to visitation and inspection. Section 2 required the trus- tees of the academies receiving any of this money to cause it to be expended in "educating teachers of com- mon schools, in such manner and under such regula- tions as said Regents shall prescribe." The Regents decided to name eight academies, one in each of the state senatorial districts; and to give each academy S400 annually [plus $191 to enlarge the academical library and a sufficient sum to procure necessary ap- paratus]. The number of academies receiving this state aid w^as increased to sixteen in 1841, and the amount given each w^as reduced to $300. In 1842 the Regents required all academies receiving $700 or more for general purposes from the Literature Fund to establish teacher-training departments whether or not they had received the $300 before this date. The academies to receive this original state aid were named in January 1835, and the principals met with the Regents to make out a uniform plan of instruc- tion. Regent John A. Dix, as chairman of the Board, 42 A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION reported January 8, 1835, "a plan for the better edu- cation of teachers of the common schools." This plan served as a guide and curriculum for the academies for a full generation. The subjects to be pursued by the prospective teachers v^ere: [i] English language; [2] w^riting and drawing; [3] arithmetic, mental and v^ritten, and bookkeeping; [4] geography and gen- eral history; [5] history of the United States; [6] geometry, trigonometry, mensuration, and survey- ing; [7] natural philosophy and elements of astron- omy; [8] chemistry and mineralogy; [9] Constitu- tion of the United States and the Constitution of the State of New York; [10] moral and intellectual phi- losophy; and [11] principles of teaching. The texts recommended for the course in principles of teaching were Hall's Lectures on School\eeping, Abbott's Teacher, and Taylor's District School. It was sug- gested that the students should "conduct some part of the recitations, prepare questions on the subjects studied, and give illustrations." Four of the eight academies reported at the end of the first year that no students had been enrolled in the teachers' department. There was a feeling among the academy pupils that those who took the teacher- training course were to be looked down upon so- cially. The system was never highly successful altho EASTERN NORMAL SCHOOLS 1839-60 43 it was continued to some degree in New York until June 1933. The subsidies which had been discon- tinued in 1844 were restored in 1849 and the teacher- training classes of highschools and academies con- tinued to supply rural teachers until very recent times. The Regents tried hard to convince themselves and the public that the plan was working well, but each year they became more and more certain that "teachers' classes" in academies were not a solution compatible with the needs, resources, and dignity of the state of New York. In 1842 Dr. Alonzo Potter of Union College after inspecting the work in the desig- nated academies reported that, altho they were doing satisfactory work, nevertheless a normal school pos- sessed certain advantages which he had not been able to find in the academy system. He recommended as a supplement to the existing arrangements that a state normal school be established at Albany. In 1842 State Superintendent Samuel Young called a convention of deputy superintendents and other important school officials and teachers to meet at Utica. This convention was addressed by Horace Mann, George B. Emerson, Thomas Gallaudet, and Francis Dwight of Albany. These men were outstand- ing exponents of state normal schools and succeeded here in working up considerable spirit for a drive 44 A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION toward this goal. In the next year the institute system of New York was founded. At the first institute con- ducted at Ithaca by J. S. Denman, county superin- tendent of schools, the proposed normal school was the subject of much lively conversation and the usual resolutions. Early in 1844, Representative Calvin T. Hulburd, chairman of the Assembly's Committee on Education, prepared a long report on the necessity for a normal school. He especially emphasized the cen- tral position of the practice school in teacher educa- tion. The bill introduced into the legislature by Rep- resentative Hulburd became a law May 7, 1844, and by it a normal school for "the instruction and practice of teachers of common schools in the science of edu- cation and in the art of teaching" was authorized. The state normal was to be established at Albany and an appropriation of $9600 was made for the first year with $10,000 annually thereafter for Rve years. The Regents and the superintendent of common schools were to form the governing board. The city of Albany went to work to rebuild the old station of the Mohawk and Hudson Railroad to fit the needs of a normal school. Twenty-five students presented themselves the first day and 106 enrolled before the end of the first term. Twice as many students as there were members of the Assembly were to be appointed EASTERN NORMAL SCHOOLS 1839-60 45 by the county and town superintendents at special meetings called for that purpose. Some such arrange- ments were subsequently made by many states when they set up normal schools. This type of provision shows the close connection between these schools and the system of representative government as worked out in the states. , The state of New York in 1850 put into effect a plan of direct subsidy to normal-school students. It was proposed to distribute the amount of $1700 among the 256 pupils in Albany at that time. Each pupil was to be given first, three cents a mile on the distance from his county seat to the city of Albany, and the amount left out of the $1700 was to be divided equally among the student body. A list was drawn up of the amounts students from each county would receive. Thus those from Albany were given its base rate of $2.41; those from Broome, $6.76; Steuben, $8.89; Suffolk, $9.16; Allegany, $10.09; and Cattarau- gus, $11.17. This proposal is important as it illus- trates the fact that New York recognized that the teacher is the special servant of the state, and that his education is a state responsibility because so much public service is to be demanded of him. Upon the recommendation of Horace Mann, David Perkins Page of Newburyport, Massachusetts, was 46 A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION selected to head the new State Normal at Albany. This proved to be a fortunate choice. Altho Page knew quite thoroly the work of Mann and Tillin- ghast, yet he was considerably more than a disciple. He was a creator in educational concepts. He was probably the first man in this country to have a clear- cut notion of the place of the training school in teacher education. He believed that there must be actual practice-teaching over a sufficient period of time and under real schoolroom conditions. He saw the difference between the "model" and the "prac- tice" functions of the laboratory phases of teacher education. At Albany two large rooms were at once fitted up to accommodate the two departments of the training school. Each of these departments was under the immediate supervision of a permanent teacher. The purpose was "to afford each Normal pupil an opportunity of practicing the methods of instruction and discipline inculcated at the Normal School, as well as to ascertain his aptness to teach and discharge the various other duties pertaining to the teacher's responsible office." At the head of the training school in 1846 Page had placed a young man named William F. Phelps who was to carry on Page's ideas. Page also made a w^orthwhile contribution in en- larging the content of educational courses. The usual EASTERN NORMAL SCHOOLS 1839-60 47 lecture given by the normal-school principal on the subject of school teaching did not satisfy him. Profes- sional courses must be developed, he believed, if school teaching was ever to be better than a sorry trade. He anticipated much of the educational theory of the next fifty years. In his work there was still the basic foundation of commonsense in schoolroom prac- tice and an empirical approach to teaching problems, but in addition there was more than a hint of the formulation of basic principles. In 1847 ^^ wrote his Theory and Practice of Teaching, the first great classic in the field of American education. This book for nearly fifty years formed the essential basis for courses in general education in most of the normal schools of the United States. It had a real influence upon the procedure in tens of thousands of public-school class- rooms. Page died January i, 1849, at the age of thirty- eight, his premature death being a manifest loss both to the normal-school causae and that of popular edu- cation. The story of the introduction and popularization of a modified Pestalozzianism by the Oswego Normal is worthy of detailed analysis. Here merely a few facts concerning the founding of the school will be given. In 1853 Edward Austin Sheldon was elected secretary of the Oswego, New York, Board of Education and 48 A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION J the superintendency of schools fell to his charge. A well-organized model school was developed, in which many new ideas were tried out. By 1863 the Oswego system of training teachers had a wide reputation. Sheldon had visited Toronto where he found appa- ratus, charts, pictures, and educational manuals pub- lished in London by the Society for the Promotion of Knowledge. Thru this experience, Sheldon brought Miss Margaret E. M. Jones from the English Home and Colonial Infant Society to take charge of the teachers department in the public schools of Oswego. Hence here in May 1861 is the first of a long line of skilled women critic teachers who have added a char- acteristic feature to state-supported teacher education in America. The legislature of New York on April 7, 1866, passed an act which would make the city training school of Oswego into a state normal school if certain conditions were complied with ; and these conditions having been duly met, the buildings, grounds, and furnishings of the school were accepted by the state March 27, 1867. In 1866 the state of New York established a com- mission to receive bids by communities for the loca- tion of four state normal schools. The four towns to qualify were Brockport, Cortland, Fredonia, and EASTERN NORMAL SCHOOLS 1839-60 49 Potsdam. Buffalo and Geneseo came into the fold by legislative act in 1867, making eight state normals in New York authorized by 1868. HENRY BARNARD IN CONNECTICUT AND RHODE ISLAND The normal-school movement in Connecticut is definitely linked with the name of Henry Barnard. It is difficult to write with moderation about this outstanding educational journalist, statesman, and theorist. He became a national and international figure bound up with a thousand phases of the prog- ress of mankind thru the agency of the public schools. His American Journal of Education is a source of amazement and awe to every student who turns to it as a rich mine of information on the history of edu- cation. It contains an analysis of almost every problem which concerns teachers and school administrators. Here Barnard discusses curriculums, materials of in- struction, libraries, certification of teachers, in-service training of teachers, institutes and associations, super- vision, and public relations. The various types of teacher-education institutions are described, analyzed, and evaluated. The Journals are stocked with admi- rable biographical sketches and stories of human in- terest. 50 A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION Henry Barnard was born in Connecticut, January 24, 181 1, and died there in 1900. Between these dates he had been to many places, observed closely, pond- ered long, and given his fruitful experiences to man- kind. He graduated from Yale in 1830, and from 1833 to 1836 he traveled widely in the United States and in Europe. He met great personages in the literary and educational world and became interested in the improvement of the educational system in gen- eral and teacher preparation in particular. By 1838 he had become a well-informed young lawyer in the Connecticut legislature, and introduced a bill to pro- vide for the better supervision of the common schools. This act, which became a law, created a Board of Commissioners of Common Schools with a secretary who was to ascertain the condition of, increase the interest in, and promote the usefulness of, the com- mon schools. Mr. Barnard, who was chairman of the Committee on Education in the legislature, became the first secretary of the new Board. From 1839 to 1843 Barnard bent his tireless energy to promoting an educational revival in Connecticut. He published the Connecticut Common School Journal as a publicity agent as well as to convey direct information about teaching to the teachers of the state. The history of the normal-school movement EASTERN NORMAL SCHOOLS 1839-60 51 in France, Holland, and Prussia was featured in in- teresting articles. In his first annual report to the General Assembly in May 1939, Barnard pleaded for the establishment of at least one strong public "Semi- nary for Teachers." To stimulate interest in education he arranged a number of "circuits" of public meetings. He addressed large audiences and secured speakers from outside the state. All the arguments against state-supported schools devoted entirely to teacher preparation were answered with tact and ability. In addition he set up an experimental institute at his own expense in 1839. This was the beginning of the institute movement in this country. A class of Hartford County teachers was formed, and lectures and discussions on educa- tional topics filled the air. Eight well-known edu- cators led the discussions and conducted visits to the best schools of Hartford to illustrate their lectures. But the political tide turned in Connecticut and the Commission was abandoned. Barnard "escaped" to Rhode Island where in a little over five years he per- manently launched an efficient educational system. But in Connecticut in the meantime the leaven was working. School visitors reported poor schools and the need of a normal school. Articles appeared with regularity in certain newspapers, keeping the idea UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LIBRARY 52 A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION fresh in the public mind. At length in 1848 after ten years of preparatory public discussion, the legislature appropriated $2500 a year for four years to finance a normal school. None of this money was to be used for buildings or fixtures. Eight trustees were also pro- vided by the act and the state superintendent of schools was added to the board as an ex-officio mem- ber. Provisions were to be made for a model primary school under a permanent teacher. The students, 220 in number, were to be nominated by the "visitors" of each school society. The said school visitors were to nominate two members of each sex and examine them in talents and attainments. From these the trustees were then to select by lot the number allowed to each county. The school was located at New Britain and opened its doors to thirty pupils on May 15, 1850. Henry Barnard w^as its first principal. The citizens of New Britain formed a joint stock company named the New Britain Educational Fund Association and raised the money for the normal- school building. The state militia paraded and the bands played, a collation was served and the school was launched with signs of public support and ap- proval, which was of course largely due to the ten- year campaign of public education initiated in 1838 by Barnard. EASTERN NORMAL SCHOOLS 1839-60 53 The attendance increased rapidly and by the next year the visitors were asked to be most careful in their selection of candidates. Some of the basic considera- tions of selective admission — concerning which much is heard in this year 1939 — were put forth in a set of instructions issued by Barnard to guide the visitors in their selection of candidates for admission. These "hints" were: "We beg of you as far as you can, to send us candidates for admission to the Normal School, who possess [i] purity and strength of moral and religious character, [2] good health, [3] good manners, [4] love of children, [5] a competent share of talent and information, [6] a native tact and talent for teaching and governing others, [7] a love for the occupations of the schoolroom, [8] the common- school spirit, a martyr spirit, [9] some experience in teaching." Barnard recognized that the problem of getting good recruits for the teaching profession was a serious one. He also realized that certain personality traits were as essential to success as was formal edu- cation. Moreover, he saw that an appraisal of per- sonality traits should be made by personal conferences before the student was permitted to enrol. The school terms and the course of study at New Britain were adapted to the direct needs of the Con- necticut school situation and were modified as soon 54 A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION as these conditions allowed for improvement in the school practices. Many school districts employed a man to teach a winter term beginning in October or November, and a young lady to teach a summer term beginning in April or May. Thus the older boys and girls attended school in winter when the farm work was done, and the small children went in the spring months. To meet this situation the winter term at New Britain closed in time for the young ladies to teach the spring and summer schools, and in a like fashion the summer term closed in time for the men to teach the rural winter schools. Each term was divided into two sessions so that a student could at- tend school for a short period of time and yet com- plete a definite amount of work. In the beginning few students came to the normal school for more than one consecutive term. The mini- mum essentials in the way of a curriculum were all that could be offered at first, but definite plans for expansion in offerings were made by Principal Bar- nard. This necessary minimum included: [i] A course of instruction in, and general review of, the studies required by law; also drawing and vocal music. [These last two subjects Mr. Barnard thought should be introduced in the common schools as quickly as possible.] [2] A course of advanced in- EASTERN NORMAL SCHOOLS 1839-60 55 struction for those students able to pursue it properly, including such studies as are believed necessary as preparation for teaching in highschools and higher departments of graded schools. [3] Science of educa- tion and art of teaching; instruction also given in natural science, and especially on the use of apparatus and illustration. [4] Practice teaching of children in the model school. From 1853 to 1859 the school steadily grev^ in at- tendance and popularity. The appropriation was in- creased to $4000 per year at the beginning of this period, and a full three-year course was put into op- eration. The three terms of each year ran from Sep- tember to August, when the vacation period came. Word was already out that normal-school attendance meant twice the salary in teaching positions; hence the school could insist on consecutive terms and ar- range them to fit in with the idea of a school year. The regular three-year curriculum of 1859 was simple and direct. Here it is in condensed form: First Year "Reading, orthography, phonetic analysis; geography and map drawing; English grammar and composition; arithmetic, oral and written; history of the United States; drawing with pencil and crayon; vocal music; declama- tion. 56 A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION Second Year "Rhetorical reading, comprising analysis of the lan- guage, grammar, and style o£ the best English authors; orthography with phonetic and etymological analysis; grammar with analyses of sentences; composition and declamation; algebra, arithmetic reviewed; physiology and hygiene; botany; natural philosophy; astronomy; drawing and music. Third Year "Rhetorical reading, orthography and critical phonetics, etymological analyses; composition and declamation, logic and mental philosophy, and rhetoric; evidences of revealed religion and natural theology; geometry and trigonometry; chemistry, physical geography, and mete- orology; rhetorical analysis of Paradise Lost; drawing and vocal music. Instruction given in French, German, and Latin if desired. Also lessons on the piano or melo- deon can be had without cost." In addition, four terms of practice teaching were required. This program is notable because it is built up on a direct analysis of the teacher's job as it appeared in the better schools of Connecticut at the time. Moreover, it seeks the next immediate step in the improvement of those very public schools. It looks toward the pro- nounced improvement of the teacher in expression — written, oral, musical, and artistic. EASTERN NORMAL SCHOOLS 1839-60 57 The model and practice school was deemed essen- tial in the teacher-education program and was re- quired by the acts setting up the Connecticut Normal School. The training school was established soon after the opening of the normal. It included pupils from four to twenty years of age, and all grades from the primary to senior highschool. There were nearly five hundred children in eight rooms with a principal, and a presiding teacher in each room. The Normal students observed and ten of them engaged in prac- tice teaching for four terms. The schedule of Normal classes was so arranged that practically one-third of the student's time was spent in the practice school. This emphasis on the laboratory phase of teacher edu- cation was continued by D. N. Camp after Barnard had left the state. Before leaving Henry Barnard's work in Connecti- cut, a word should be said concerning his insistence on the concept of the profession of teaching. He strove to build up a real conviction on the part of teachers that education is the only means of promoting peace, order, and progress in society, and that the public school is the chief agency for doing this, and lastly, that the teacher is the prime factor in the whole equa- tion. He taught that teachers should strive to live up to this grave responsibility and watch their profession 58 A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION jealously in order that unworthy, ill-prepared mate- rial should not enter its ranks. From 1843 to 1849, Barnard was employed as state superintendent of schools in Rhode Island. Here he duplicated with even greater organizing skill the pub- licity campaign for normal schools which he had waged in Connecticut. In his report of 1848 he stated: "To this end public meetings have been held, not only in every town, but in every village and neighbor- hood." More than iioo meetings were held and over 1500 addresses were delivered. Some 16,000 pam- phlets and tracts on education were distributed gratui- tously thruout the state. For two years not an almanac was sold in Rhode Island without at least sixteen pages of educational reading material. If you remem- ber how thoroly the New England farmer read his almanac, you will realize that this was the surest way of getting the desired information to the people. As preliminary measures in the securing of a nor- mal school, Barnard converted one district school in each town or county into a model school which young and inexperienced teachers could visit for demonstrations of good teaching. He also sent a few good teachers from school to school in the state to advise with the district school teachers and to give an occasional demonstration lesson. He promoted asso- EASTERN NORMAL SCHOOLS 1839-60 59 ciations and conventions of teachers for the purpose of discussing educational problems. He proposed a plan for two normals, one to be located in the city of Providence, having connections v^ith the public schools for observation and practice and also having a tie-up with Brown University. To this school would come young men "whose previous study and talent fitted them for advanced classes in public schools and for heads of village and city systems." The second normal was to be located in a rural community and was to train young women for the district schools. It was to have industrial and community life features as exemplified in the Training School of Vehrli at Kreuzlingen, Switzerland. In 185 1 teacher preparation instruction was given in Brown University by S. S. Greene, who was named professor of didactics and at the same time was super- intendent of schools in Providence. This work, aside from the regular academic courses in the university, was merely a set of lectures and drill exercises in the common branches. In the autumn of 1852 several citizens of Providence raised money to defray the expenses of a private nor- mal school. Eighty-five pupils attended this school, taught by Greene, William Russell, Arthur Sumner, and Dana P. Colburn. In the fall of 1853 a second 6o A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION class was formed under the same instructors assisted by Professor Arnold Guyot who gave lectures on physical geography. The city of Providence became interested and in March 1854 niade an appropriation for a city normal of which Colburn was appointed principal. This plan, however, was abandoned when the General Assembly of Rhode Island in its session of 1854 virtually adopted this school and converted it into the Rhode Island State Normal. With an annual appropriation of only $3000, the Rhode Island State Normal School opened in the building owned by the Second Universalist Church Society. Dana P. Colburn was in charge, assisted by Arthur Sumner. In 1857 ^^ school was moved to Bristol where the attendance temporarily decreased, being not over a hundred in 1858. Largely because of Colburn's Bridgewater background, he was not en- thusiastic about a practice school and for some time the institution existed without one. The school year was divided into four terms of ten weeks each. A diploma was given at the end of three terms, of which two had to be consecutive. It was stated emphatically that "all of the instruction given here must be with special reference to teaching afterward." The first principal, Dana P. Colburn, had grad- uated from the Bridgewater, Massachusetts, Normal EASTERN NORMAL SCHOOLS 1839-60 61 nd later had been an assistant there. He had the "illinghast concept of thoroness but a much less stern utlook. He resented the excessive hardship which he existing teaching methods placed on children. ie held that good discipline in the schoolroom was Imost entirely a matter of being able to interest the hildren in their studies. This was a fresh new note nd Colburn taught in such a manner that "the exer- ises seemed like play, so full they were of joy aad aughter." He became widely known as a teacher of rithmetic and as the author of the first modern texts Q that subject. His Common School Arithmetic, ntellectual Arithmetic, and Child's Boo\ of Arith- netic were used thruout the United States. In these exts he substituted principles, well-explained and llustrated, for the old arbitrary rules. It may be added hat there was an entire omission of the answers to he problems. This often vexed the lazy teachers. >olburn was also a constant contributor to the Rhode stand School-Master and made of that journal a first- lass educational publication. In 1859 Colburn was :illed in an accident due to a runaway horse. NEW JERSEY AND PENNSYLVANIA The state of New Jersey now enters the picture as . contributor to the definition of the nature of a satis- 62 A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION factory system of teacher education. This concept, embodied in our twentieth century state teachers col- leges, is an evolutionary one and it is the purpose of this book to make an analysis of the elements which have entered into the one hundred years of its de- velopment. The early normal of New Jersey strength- ened the practice school concept of New York and Connecticut and added a forceful increment to the notion of the education a teacher should receive. The New Jersey State Normal and Model School was established by act of the state legislature in 1855, being the ninth state normal in the United States. Ten thousand dollars was appropriated annually for its current expenses, leaving it to the town where the school should be located to provide suitable buildings and fixtures. The school opened October i, 1855, w4th fifteen pupils in rooms temporarily provided in Tren- ton. A new building was completed and ready for occupation on March 17, 1856, and the next year a model-school building was completed. Besides the normal and model departments at Trenton, there was soon established an auxiliary practice school at Bev- erly called the Farnum Preparatory School. This was the gift of Paul Farnum, a social-minded citizen. The buildings and equipment of the early Trenton Normal School illustrate quite well the growing con- EASTERN NORMAL SCHOOLS 1839-60 63 iidence of the American public in the success of nor- mals in meeting the state's problem of securing a supply of trained teachers. The New Jersey Normal School was fortunate in securing William F. Phelps as its first principal. He had been trained at Albany under Page where he had been supervisor of the "experimental school." He re- mained at Trenton for nine years and gave that school the distinctive character which it has maintained. He became president of the Winona Normal School in Minnesota in 1864 and later accepted the presidency of the State Normal of Whitewater, Wisconsin. Phelps expressed his idea of what a normal school should be and do in these words uttered in 1859: "The great object of the American Normal School is to build up a system pre-eminently American; that is, a system which shall be in harmony with the char- acter and genius of the American people. The nor- mals must train up and send forth a succession of apostles, who shall go forth and preach this American idea in its purity and carry it out practically in the everyday life of the school. The normals should be institutions in which every exercise and every influ- ence should be of such a character as to make the best teachers that the ingenuity, that the means, that the mind of men can produce The work of the teacher 64 A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION is to make men; men able to comprehend what their high destiny is, capable of acting their part on the theater of life as men should act." There are two ideas expressed here basic to the philosophy of teacher education. The teacher-educa- tion institutions must be close to the needs of the people and have curriculums and methods planned with full understanding of the meaning and nature of the American democratic life. Secondly, these in- stitutions should include everything which will make the teacher better prepared for the great task of teach- ing others to understand and appreciate the complex world in which we live. The practice phase of teacher education was greatly emphasized by Phelps at Trenton. The model-school building was even more carefully planned than the normal building and was from the first the center of the school. In 1859, when the normal-school teachers were having their first national convention, there sprang up an argument on the importance of the model school in teacher education. The Massachusetts normal-school faculties had not been very successful in using their practice schools and generally believed that time and money would be saved by merely hav- ing the Normal pupils themselves play that they were little children. Indeed this was quite an accepted EASTERN NORMAL SCHOOLS 1839-60 65 practice in many normals. One of the class became the the teacher and indicated to the others that they were to imagine themselves to be youngsters six to eight years old. They were then supposed to react to the student-teaching as they believed such children would react. It must have been good training in dramatics, but it is difficult to see how some of the men of the caliber of Dana Colburn could have defended the practice as a serious educational procedure. At this convention no one spoke with more authority on the necessity of practice teaching than did William Phelps. He said, "The results of our school have set- tled the question for us, of the practicability and necessity of model or experimental schools in connec- tion with instruction in the art of teaching. / loo\ upon them as indispensable. I do not thin\ a normal school is complete without them!" In the Trenton Normal there was insistence that the teacher be a good technician. The student teacher was prepared when she faced the class. Her work was planned, the subjectmatter fully mastered, and the difficulties anticipated. When she entered the room to teach an assigned lesson she "brought only a piece of chalk and a pointer;" the rest she was supposed to have in her head. She took complete charge of the class, maintaining order, correcting mistakes, illus- 66 A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION trating the subject with drawings or experiments, and in all respects acting as if she were the regular teacher. In Pennsylvania a very different system of normals was outlined by the act of 1857. There the normal schools were to be semi-private. The state was merely to grant them aid when they needed it and to set up specifications for the private schools to meet. Exam- inations for diplomas which gave the right to teach in Pennsylvania were in charge of the state superin- tendent of schools. This system became one of the oddities of the teacher-training field. State aid was increasingly given and state supervision was not cor- respondingly increased. Since the amount of state aid depended on the number of pupils, a premium was placed on rounding up the students. This of course did not make for very high entrance requirements or selective admission. The Pennsylvania law of 1857 divided the state into twelve districts, each of which might have a normal school. [This number was increased to thirteen in 1874.] These schools were to be erected and con- trolled by private corporations. A corporation might have as few as thirteen stockholders. Financial mat- ters were to be handled by a board of trustees. The course of study and entrance quaHfications were to be determined by normal-school principals and ap- EASTERN NORMAL SCHOOLS 1839-60 67 proved by the state superintendent of schools. The requirements in the way of equipment to be met before a normal could be designated as a state normal were: ten acres of ground, buildings to accommodate 300 students, a model school having at least loo pupils, and a normal-school faculty of at least six professors. Each normal was to admit one student annually from each school district in its territory at not more than $15 per term, tuition to be paid by the local board of school directors. The student was to teach in his own district at least three years after graduation. After two terms of successful teaching experience, each grad- uate was to be given a permanent license to teach anywhere in the state. Pennsylvania was somewhat normal-school con- scious from the earliest days of the movement. In 1818 the city of Philadelphia had enacted an ordi- nance to establish a "Model School" in order to qual- ify teachers for the sectional schools. One of the pub- lic schools located on Chester Street was accordingly designated as a Model School and put in charge of Joseph Lancaster, whose monitorial system of school organization and instruction became an educational fad. From this time the school did not change mate- rially until 1848 when it was reorganized as a normal school. By 1850 it had 155 pupils and was rejecting 68 A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION a large number of applicants. In fact, on the basis of competitive examinations in orthography, definition of words, English grammar, arithmetic. United States history, and geography, it rejected 42 percent of those applying for admission in 1851. Many academies in Pennsylvania established normal departments and became well-entrenched in popular favor. The Lancaster County Normal Institute was begun April 17, 1855, under the direction of County Super- intendent Wickersham who was well-informed on the normal schools of Massachusetts and New York. All the provisions of the act of 1857 were met and in December 1859, this school at Millersville became the first state normal school of Pennsylvania. It did well from the beginning and its attendance was greater than that of any other eastern normal. The state nor- mal school at Edinboro was recognized in 1861, that of Mansfield in 1862, and the one at Kutztown in 1866. It is interesting to note that not until the early years of the twentieth century did a new school code provide for the purchase of these joint stock institu- tions so that the so-called "state normals" might be actually taken over by the state. The Pennsylvania set-up recognized the work of the private academies just as definitely as did the early system of New York. In Pennsylvania, however, the EASTERN NORMAL SCHOOLS 1839-60 69 idea was to encourage the better academies to dis- continue their earUer functions and convert them- selves into normal schools. The state set up condi- tions of high enough level so that the mere introduc- tion of a course in principles of teaching would not qualify. In New York the result was that the acad- emies continued to be good academies, but were never strong in the normal-school work; the result in Penn- sylvania was that the academies became normal schools, but continued to make a bid for all pupils who had attended the academies. And thus the great movement pushed forward. By i860 the leaders in educational thought in each of the states were awake to the necessity of improving the common schools by improving the quality of teach- ing therein. Most of these leaders were convinced that a separate institution with this distinctive end should be estabhshed. The normal schools supported by state funds were an accepted fact in Massachusetts, New York, Connecticut, Rhode Island, Michigan, Illinois, and Pennsylvania. They had achieved close relations with the entire educational programs of these states and were making noticeable strides in bettering the common schools and in promoting the profession of teaching. The school teacher who taught as a temporary stepping-stone to something better, 70 A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION or the one who taught because he was a failure at everything else, was no longer the one who gave the connotation to the word "teacher." The normals were beginning to face their prob- lems, solution of which was to determine their path up to the present. They were struggling to become truly professional schools and to establish the re- lationship between general education and narrowly professional preparation. They were also trying to differentiate themselves from the secondary schools. From their beginning they had often used academy buildings and modified academy courses. They had been forced to deal with an actual situation in which many active teachers possessed only an elementary- school education; and yet they sensed that no real professional school was a secondary school. And as a result of this conviction, they were beginning to raise the standards for admission, selecting the most able, the most schooled, and the most experienced in teaching of those who knocked at their doors for entrance. The normals were also trying to make their work of college grade. Even in those elementary subjects which they offered because they were the subjects taught in the district schools, there was a tendency to make the work so difficult as to require ability of college level to pass advanced courses. CHAPTER III THE WESTERN NORMAL SCHOOLS, 1850-1875 THE TWENTY-SEVENTH yearly meeting of the American Institute of Instruction was held at Springfield, Massachusetts, in August 1856. The membership of this body came from several states and it had affiliations with educational bodies thru- out Europe. At the close of this session on August 21, 1856, a convention of normal-school teachers was held. Richard Edwards gave the opening address, a tribute to the life of Nicholas Tillinghast who had died in the spring of that year. The next day a per- manent organization of normal teachers was effected, the first inter-state organization in the interest of normal schools. In 1859 at Trenton, New Jersey, occurred the first National Normal School Conven- tion. Principal Phelps of the Trenton Normal wrote in respect to this occasion: "We must make this a large gathering and a profitable one, so that it shall tell upon the progress — the improvement and ex- tension — of normal schools in our country. I think [71] 72 A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION we can and ought to give the normal school a «^- tional character and importance!' This was exactly what happened in the United States in the period 1850-1875 — the normal school became a national affair. When the Michigan State Normal was opened in 1853 as the first western state- supported institution for teacher education, there were only five such institutions in the United States. By 1875 there were seventy normal schools receiv- ing appropriations from states besides nearly a dozen receiving support from counties, and fully that many from cities. On July 3, 1839, there were three students in a state normal school and in 1875 there were over 23,000. By 1875 state normals had been located in twenty-five states from Maine to California and from Louisiana to Minnesota. By 1880, Maine, Min- nesota, and Vermont had three each, Wisconsin four, Missouri ^\'t^ Massachusetts and West Virginia six, New York eight, and Pennsylvania ten. This phe- nomenal growth went hand in hand with provisions for compulsory education of the nation's children, with organization of schools into graded systems, with the growth of state school funds and local tax- ation for schools, with the rapid growth of public highschools, and with the rise of supervision of schools in states, counties, and cities. WESTERN NORMAL SCHOOLS 185O-75 73 When the normal-school movement jumped over the Alleghenies into the Middle West, it found a new type of environment and developed new and important characteristics. These new characteristics may be summed up by the statement that from the beginning the normal schools in the West occupied a much broader field than had been accorded to them in the East. The public-school systems of the western states were just forming and the state nor- mal school took a prominent place as the acknowl- edged leader in the formation of plans and policies of public education. Moreover, in the western states there was not a strongly entrenched system of sec- ondary and higher education such as that existing in most of the older eastern states. Therefore there was not such a constant pressure to limit the work of the normal school to the preparation of elementary teachers as in the East, where the normal schools inevitably attracted those who could not afford to attend private colleges. MICHIGAN AND ILLINOIS The state of Michigan in the forties was just emerging from the frontier stage. It did not have accumulated wealth and its resources were as yet undeveloped, but it had the frontier's optimism and 74 A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION expansive frame of mind. The opening of the Erie Canal and an unusual foreign demand for grain had stimulated agriculture greatly. There was a marked conviction that more intelligent farmers were a prime need of the state. To educate better farmers the common schools in turn needed improvement and the quickest way to bring this about was to prepare teachers as rapidly as possible for the task at hand. As early as 1836, John D. Pierce, superintendent of public instruction, had urged Michigan to make pro- vision for a supply of teachers. He said: "Teachers must be educated unless indeed intellect degenerates in this Western World. The growing demand for agricultural products necessitates the application of agricultural science. The modern farmer must be an educated person." And in 1843, Superintendent Ira Mayhew of Michigan wrote: "Normal schools, de- signed expressly for the education of professional teachers, are indispensable to the perfection of any system of national education." He also emphasized the idea that the future prosperity of Michigan de- pended on a high percentage of literacy among the common folk. To accomplish this, the state must begin the task of educating teachers. "There could be no other starting point!" The Michigan State Normal School was created WESTERN NORMAL SCHOOLS 185O-75 75 by act of the legislature in the spring of 1849. Ten "sections" of salt spring lands were appropriated for a building fund and fifteen for an endowment "to meet the salaries of those to whom the management of the school was entrusted." This was a distinct feature of western normals. Most of these western states had various types of federal land grants within their borders. There were lands given for educa- tion, for seminaries, and for universities. There were salt spring lands and swamp lands which were often to furnish the basis for normal-school incomes. In the beginning of the normal movement in the West, the normal school usually had an equal claim with the state university on the distribution of state lands. The identification of normal training with univer- sity training was seen everywhere in the debates on the question of gifts of state lands. The Board next received propositions for the loca- tion of the institution. The rivalry was keen. All communities seemed to feel that the honor and pros- perity accruing to the city that won the State Normal would be second only to that of the city in which the state government centered. Ypsilanti, Jackson, Marshall, Niles, and Gull Prairie were competitors. Gull Prairie was the object of many facetious com- ments, especially because it gave as one claim for 76 A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION consideration that the "community is enough re- tired to be free from dissipating and immoral in- fluences." Moreover, fearing that its offer might be exceeded by larger towns, Gull Prairie claimed that "Nature or the God of Nature had planned and arranged the place for the special purpose of accom- modating the State Normal School of Michigan." But even this tiny community pledged "sufficient land" and $7364 in cash. Ypsilanti proved to be the highest bidder and received the State Normal School. The town offered a cash subscription of $13,500, temporary rooms for the use of the school, and promised to pay the salary of the principal-teacher of the model school for five years under certain speci- fied conditions. The financial story of Ypsilanti State Normal is one of generous support in these earliest days. The amount of money derived from the sale of the salt spring lands up to 1857 was $73,246.51, about 1200 acres of the land remaining unsold at that time. Interest on this fund was augmented by appropria- tions making by 1866 a total income for the school from the state of approximately S 12,000. The first building was completed on the Ypsilanti campus at a cost of $20,294 ^o^ including the land upon which it stood, and was ready for use in October 1852. WESTERN NORMAL SCHOOLS 185O-75 77 This building burned in 1859 and was rebuilt widi a small supplemental amount added to the insur- ance money by state appropriation. By 1887 the value of the buildings at Ypsilanti was $168,000 exclusive of the land sites. The dedication took place October 5, 1852. From the addresses delivered it is clear that those speaking on behalf of the state of Michigan expected this institution to be the head of the common-school system, and to promote and guide all progress in state public education. After the dedication, the faculty began its work by holding an institute of visiting teachers. This was a fine move in public relations for it gave a sample of what the normal work was to be; and the impression was carried back to over two hundred public schools. The first term of the regular normal school opened on March 29, 1853, and continued for seventeen weeks; the second term opened early in the follow- ing October and continued for twenty-three weeks. The attendance in the Normal School was given as 220 students in 1853 ^^^ reached 427 by i860. By this time Ypsilanti was truly a thriving, popular, and powerful institution for teacher education. The first two principals of the Michigan Normal were interesting and effective leaders. Adonijah yS A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION Strong Welch, principal from 1852 to 1865, was a graduate of the University of Michigan in 1846. He was active in the organization of the State Teachers Association and was its first president. He was a fine institute lecturer and as such became wellknown to the teachers of Michigan. His career after he left Michigan was quite varied. He went to Florida in 1865 and became a force in the carpet-bag regime there, going to the United States Senate in 1867 to fill out a short unexpired term. In 1868 he accepted the presidency of the newly-established Agricultural College of Iowa, a position which he ably filled for nearly fifteen years. After resigning from the presi- dency, he remained in the same school as professor of the history of civilization until his death in 1899. Principal David P. Mayhew was also a colorful figure. He had graduated from Union College in 1837 and had been principal of the Lowville Acad- emy in New York for fifteen years. He taught one year in Cleveland, and served one year as superin- tendent of schools in Columbus, Ohio. He came to Ypsilanti in 1856 as science teacher and principal of the enlarged model school. He became head of the State Normal in 1865 and continued in that office until 1871. He was always anxious to see the Ypsi- lanti Normal on a basis of complete equality with WESTERN NORMAL SCHOOLS 185O-75 79 the State university. His contribution in building up the training school was also noteworthy. In regard to the curriculum in the Ypsilanti Nor- mal we see an almost bewildering shift during the first fifteen years of its history. An effort was being made to find out what society wanted and what was most needed in the common schools. A course largely made up of ancient and modern languages, opened in 1853 to pupils as young as fourteen years with no pledge to teach, threatened to result in only a good highschool or academy program. In 1855 the lower age of admission was raised to eighteen years for men and sixteen for girls, and all were required to take the pledge to teach. It was directed that no new classes be organized in Greek or French and that classes be allowed in Latin and German pro- vided they did not interfere with the "general object and design of the school," nor occupy more than one hour per day of the pupil's time. The curricu- lum was again drastically changed in 1863. At this time a demarcation appears between the normal- training curriculum for elementary teachers and the "Higher Normal Course" designed to prepare teachers for conducting "union," graded, or high schools. The same experimental attitude was shown in respect to the model school, the emphasis shifting 80 A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION back and forth from the model to the practice phase. All of this goes to show how free the normals were to change their work to meet the needs of the state as they understood them. The next western state to establish a state normal was Illinois. The movement in this commonwealth and the type of institution resulting from it are very significant. Here the normal school was enthusias- tically demanded by farmers, educators, statesmen, and politicians. It was set up as the unquestioned head of the state's educational system since there was at this time no state university. It was to prepare teachers for all branches of the common schools, in- cluding highschools. Its graduates were supposed to become educational leaders as well as elementary teachers. It was undoubtedly established as a college for teachers and to indicate its collegiate status it was called "The Illinois State Normal University." To the New Englander the term "Normal Univer- sity" was an incongruous jumble of words, but in Illinois a "Normal University" meant a teacher-prep- aration institution elevated to the collegiate rank. The decade 1850-1860 was one of great expansion and progress in Illinois. The coming of the rail- roads brought a real prosperity and an even greater feeling of destiny. Jesse Fell, county school commis- WESTERN NORMAL SCHOOLS 185O-75 81 sioner and advocate of a bill for state normal schools, wrote in 1852 that Illinois was to be the seat of the "greatest manufactories of the world;" and a promi- nent Illinois politician predicted in 1851 that the state would have a population of ten million by the end of the century. With this optimistic outlook the state legislature by the act of February 18, 1857, estab- lished a State Normal University with the feeling expressed by one of the legislators that all possibility of progress had not died with Father Peirce or existed only at Trenton. "Something more generous and broader than has yet been achieved is possible and we are attempting it." The University and Semi- nary Funds were appropriated as a permanent en- dowment yielding an annual interest of over $10,500. This revenue was not sufficient and in 1861, $65,000 was appropriated to clear up the indebtedness and again, in 1865, $31,000 additional was appropriated. This liberality is in marked contrast to the feeble support given the Massachusetts normal schools in their first years. The site of the Normal University was determined by the usual process of competitive bidding, and as usual the race was hotly contested. The Bloomington offer was $141,000, about half in individual subscrip- tions and half subscribed by the County Court from 82 A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION its assignment of government "swamp lands." The building was located on a fifty-five acre tract con- nected by a narrow neck to an additional campus of 104 acres. The cornerstone of the building was laid September 29, 1857, ^^^ ^^^ structure was com- pleted late in 1861. The building was planned to cost $80,000, but by the time it was finished, the cost had mounted close to $200,000. Principal C. E. Hovey wanted a structure with ample space for six hundred to a thousand students. He wanted not only rooms for the normal and model schools but a place for a gallery of fine arts, a museum of natural history, and "other such adjuncts as might serve the general purpose of a university." When finished it was in- deed the best building of its kind on this conti- nent. It stands today, the oldest building in use for normal-school purposes in the United States. Even today it impresses all observers with its dignity and beauty. The school began in temporary quarters on Octo- ber 5, 1857. The opening of the Normal University was as unpretentious as the general plans had been grandiose. There were only nineteen students present that first morning, tho that number increased to forty-three before the first term was over. By 1869 the attendance in the normal department had grown WESTERN NORMAL SCHOOLS 185O-75 83 to 455 with close to four hundred pupils in the model school. In 1872 in a tabulation of the normal schools of the United States, the Illinois State Normal Uni- versity ranked first in enrollment and first in annual expenditures, tho eighteenth in per capita cost of education. It was soon afterward exceeded in the first two respects — enrollment and financial grants — by the Michigan State Normal at Ypsilanti, the Penn- sylvania State Normal at Millersville, the New York State Normal at Albany, and the Kansas State Nor- mal at Emporia. The curriculum first adopted at the Illinois State Normal University was three years in length. In actual operation few students were able to finish it in less than four years. Principal Hovey in 1857 ^^i^- "The course of study should be so adjusted as to meet the requirements of teachers from the lowest to the highest schools in our state. Our Normal Uni- versity should be so graded and organized as to fit teachers for the primary and smaller schools and also have a more extended and deeper course with a view of preparing teachers for the large schools, city principalships, highschools, and normal schools." The one course established was a compromise, but those who finished it were certain to be able to secure positions as highschool teachers or as grade- 84 A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION school principals. Elementary teachers in the small towns were capable of holding the better positions with one year of normal training. Principal C. E. Hovey was a Vermonter, a man trained in law with a personality of great force and executive ability. He resigned from the prin- cipalship in 1861 to organize and lead a regiment in the Civil War. In September 1862, Richard Edwards became principal of the Illinois Normal University, which position he held for fifteen years. His policies and ideas were continued under his successor, E. C. Hewett, who was president from 1876 to 1900. Thus the school became in a high degree the lengthened shadow of Richard Edwards. He was one of the early graduates of the Bridgewater Normal and had served as assistant under TiUinghast. He was the first principal of the Salem Normal and had gone from there to St. Louis where he became the first head of the city normal. The major personal characteristic of Richard Ed- wards was an intense, tireless, and nervous enthusi- asm. He was a veritable dynamo of impulsive and positive energy. He was an idealist and he surrounded the ordinary working day with a halo of beatitudes. He found a well-equipped plant at Normal and a state expectant of great educational results from the WESTERN NORMAL SCHOOLS 185O-75 85 new institution. It was his job to build a sound edu- cational program. Altho he was a competent educa- tional theorist, yet he felt constrained to keep his ear close to the ground to interpret the demands of the people of Illinois. Every idea and practice inaugu- rated at the Normal University was tested in the crucible of the IlUnois public schools. President Edwards [the title of "Principal" was changed to that of "President" in the middle sixties] was much in demand as a speaker at all types of educational gatherings and he was looked upon by 1870 as the Nestor of normal-school men. He was from time to time invited to take the presidency of twenty-two normals, thirteen denominational col- leges, three state universities, and a score of city su- perintendencies of schools. One offer which tempted him very much was the opportunity of following Horace Mann at Antioch College. President Edward Hale of Cambridge Tn recommending Edwards for this position wrote: "Mr. Edwards is certainly the first educator in the West and probably I ought to say, the first educator in the country. The above state- ment is not mine but made by Dr. Peabody who is not lavish in compliment, and as a good many people think Peabody is the first educator in the country, you may value his opinion. As a conserva- 86 A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION tive statement of fact, there is no doubt that Richard Edwards is the most successful exponent of the theory of the normal school in the United States." NORMAL SCHOOLS SPREAD WEST OF THE MISSISSIPPI In the late fifties and early sixties the Mississippi Valley sprang into a vigorous life. This was the age of the coming of the railroads, the wide introduc- tion of horse-drawn agricultural machinery, the rise of towns, the beginnings of the telegraph, and wide circulation of metropolitan newspapers. It was the time when the broad prairie regions were farmed with profit, and for the first time general farming became a real business in America. In this period the state normal school became a fixture in the edu- cational scheme of practically every western state. The first state normal to be established west of the Mississippi was located at Winona, Minnesota. On August 2, 1858, just three months after the admission of Minnesota to the Union, Governor Henry H. Sibley signed the bill which established the normal-school system of that state. By this act the governor was directed to appoint a Normal Board of Instruction, consisting of a director from each of the six judicial districts of the state. This board WESTERN NORMAL SCHOOLS 185O-75 87 was to establish a state normal school within Rwe years after the passage of the act; within ten years a second normal was to be added; and within fifteen years a third was to be organized. In 1859 the Board established three normal-school districts and accepted the bid of Winona as a site for the first school. On September 3, i860, the Winona Normal School opened its doors under Principal John Ogden, but in March 1862 its work was suspended. It was re- opened in November 1864 and this time began a brilliant career. WilUam F. Phelps was elected prin- cipal and brought to Minnesota the wisdom of his experiences at Albany and Trenton. Professional edu- cation was henceforth a reality in Minnesota. The practice and model school became the true center of the work of teacher education. The well-planned building completed in 1869 at a cost of $134,000 served as a model for at least two other normal- school buildings in other states. The new building was constructed with Phelps' ideas in mind. The plan of the school included both a graded model and a graded practice school. The model schools were to be under the control of, and an integral part of, the normal school. They were entirely inde- pendent of the local school system. Altho the Oswego system was admired and imitated at Winona, yet \ 88 A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION its emphasis on elementary teaching did not cause Winona to forget that its own place was on the college level. Probably as a means of keeping its college ideals, a graduating thesis was required. These theses were written by the seniors on some subject assigned by the principal, and they were deposited "among the archives of the school." In 1869 the Normal School at St. Cloud was estab- lished. Ira Moore, a pupil of Tillinghast at Bridge- water, a graduate of Yale, a former teacher at the Illinois Normal University, and professor of mathe- matics in the University of Minnesota, was employed to launch the new school. Moore went later to be viceprincipal of the San Jose Normal of California and soon after became president of the Los Angeles Normal. The second state west of the Mississippi to found a state normal was Kansas. The Kansas State Normal was located by legislative act at Emporia in 1864. The school was endowed with 38,000 acres of salt lands mostly in the western part of the state and in addition was increasingly well-supported by state appropriations amounting to about $10,000 per year in the decade 1865 to 1875. The school was opened February 15, 1865, and the first building was dedi- cated January 2, 1867. WESTERN NORMAL SCHOOLS 185O-75 89 The first principal of the Emporia State Normal was L. B. Kellogg. He had been selected by the Reverend G. C. Morse, chairman of the executive committee of the Normal Board, after an extended visit to the normals in the East. Mr. Kellogg was then teaching in the model school of the Illinois State Normal University, from which institution he had graduated the year before. Kellogg selected as his assistant principal one of his fellow-alumni, Henry B. Norton of the Illinois Normal class of 1861. In September 1867, in accordance with the law, a model school was established and Mrs. J. W. Gorham, another graduate of the Illinois State Nor- mal University, was secured to act as critic teacher. She was a thoro disciplinarian and a disciple of the methods of Richard Edwards. In Iowa the development of teacher education took a different initial direction. In 1849, while Iowa was yet a territory, a law was passed providing for three normal schools, at Andrews, Oskaloosa, and Mt. Pleasant. There was to be an appropriation an- nually of $500 for each of these three schools, to be paid from the University Fund. Schools were opened at Andrews and Oskaloosa but failed to receive the assistance expected from the state. Hence, they lan- guished and passed out of the picture. 90 A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION The law which established the State University in 1847 contained a provision obligating the University to educate annually fifty teachers for the common schools. In the year following, this provision was modified to the requirement that a Normal depart- ment be maintained in the state university. The Nor- mal department with the other departments of the University opened in September 1855. The Normal pupils were decidedly immature and unprepared to do work of college level. In 1856 Franklin Wells took charge of this department and thoroly reor- ganized it, demanding much older and better pre- pared students. From 1856 to i860 all departments of the University were closed with the exception of the flourishing Normal division. For some years this department had its own corps of teachers, model school, and curriculum. However, by 1866 the prac- tice school was abolished and the Normal students were combined with those taking regular work in the academic classes. The general feeling among schoolmen in Iowa was that this move seriously im- paired the efficiency of the teacher-education pro- gram. The separate organization of a state normal school had to wait until 1876 when the Iowa State Normal at Cedar Falls began its history. Three curriculums WESTERN NORMAL SCHOOLS 185O-75 9I were at once introduced: [i] the Elementary Course, two years in length, prepared elementary-school teachers; [2] the Didactic Course qualified teachers for the best highschools; and [3] the Scientific Course gave the necessary training for superintendents and principals of city schools and highschools. James Cleland Gilchrist was the first principal. He had been a pupil under Horace Mann at Antioch Col- lege and acknowledged his debt to that famous educator for his success in methods of teaching and administration. As Gilchrist had been the president of three normal schools in different parts of the country before he came to Iowa, he was well-pre- pared to give Cedar Falls Normal a running start. It developed great prestige in Iowa and the Middle West, remaining the only state normal of Iowa. As such, it had ample financial support and became one of the largest and best teacher-education insti- tutions in the United States. The story of the beginnings of the normal-school movement in Wisconsin has some resemblance to that of New York and Iowa. By the act of 1857 a board of nine regents to be called the "Board of Regents of Normal Schools" was set up. All the in- come of the Normal fund was to be distributed by the Board to the colleges, universities, and academies 92 A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION [except the State University], following the estab- lishment and maintenance of normal institutes ac- cording to the number of pupils therein instructed. This act was in operation for eight years. The amount distributed varied from $10,000 to $16,000 annually. This Normal fund was derived from the sale of "swamp lands." ^ After 1857, one can discover a marked failure of the scheme. State Superintendent Barry summed up the situation for his state and for other states where the same system was tried. He wrote: "Without wish- ing to disparage in the smallest degree the claims * Swamp lands and salt spring lands figured in the finan- cial support of many early normal schools. By a Congressional Act of 1850, Arkansas and other states were granted large amounts of swamp and overflow lands in order that such lands within their limits might be reclaimed. Land surveys were made in Wisconsin, Illinois, and other states in early spring when the impervious rich prairie soil was covered with shallow pools of surface water. In this way many thousands of acres of the best land in the state were given to the state government under the designation of "swamp land." By the act of 1857, Wisconsin set aside one-fourth- of the swamp land fund as a fund for normal schools. After various changes in the law, by September 1875, the total productive fund for Normals was $976,365, and there were 612,774 acres of swamp lands yet unsold. The income from this fund in 1875 ^^^ $65,711.68. WESTERN NORMAL SCHOOLS 185O-75 93 of our colleges and academies, or to call into ques- tion their usefulness, I unhesitatingly assert that it is utterly impossible for them to furnish the normal instruction required, even tho the entire income of the school fund were to be distributed among them. The experiment has been fairly and faithfully tried in New York and has failed most signally and dis- astrously .... We may save time, money, and the vexation and shame consequent upon defeat, by pro- ceeding at once to the establishment of a state normal school on a wise and liberal basis." In 1862 the Department of Normal Instruction was opened at the State University and it, too, met with indifferent success. State Superintendent Pick- ard condemned it as heartily as his predecessor had the normal work in the academies and colleges. He wrote in 1863: "Many pupils connected with it are not Normal students and have no intention of en- gaging in the work of teaching .... It will be next to impossible to pursue such a course of training in the art of teaching, as is essential to complete profes- sional culture. The model school cannot be engrafted upon the University. . . . We should look to the establishment of not less than four true normal schools." However, the Normal department in the state university lingered on until 1869 when it was 94 A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION merged with the Female College, which in turn was absorbed by the University in 1873. In 1858 Henry Barnard of Connecticut fame was secured as chancellor and professor of normal in- struction by the University of Wisconsin. He came to Wisconsin in the spring of 1859 and proceeded to organize and conduct a series of teachers institutes which brought the message of teacher-education needs to all parts of the commonwealth. In connec- tion with the institutes, several prominent exponents of normal schools were brought in from other states, including John Ogden of Ohio, Fordyce Allen and Charles H. Allen of Pennsylvania, Francis T. Rus- sell and William S. Baker of Connecticut, and C. E. Hovey of Illinois. The Wisconsin institute system be- came, by 1876, an important adjunct of the normal schools. The state was divided into four districts and a Normal professor was given a fulltime assign- ment to one of these districts for a period of four weeks or more each year. This was probably Dr. Barnard's greatest contribution to education in Wis- consin as his other plans did not mature. He left the state in 1861 because of ill health. By 1865 Wisconsin was ready to establish normal schools, and in that year the Board of Regents of Normal Schools was reorganized and its powers and WESTERN NORMAL SCHOOLS 185O-75 95 duties fully defined by law. It was also enacted that the normal-school fund should be applied to estab- lishing, supporting, and maintaining real normal schools. Platteville offered the building and grounds of the academy which was in operation there; and the offer being accepted by the state, the first state normal of Wisconsin was opened there on October 9, 1866. The legislative authorization of 1865 included normal schools at Whitewater and Oshkosh. How- ever, the Whitewater Normal was not opened until April 21, 1868, and the one at Oshkosh was not a going concern until 1871, with the Normal at River Falls following in September of 1875. And so the decade of the sixties saw the ever- increasing growth of the normal-school idea. Cali- fornia, Indiana, Nebraska, West Virginia, and Mary- land added their normal schools with high enthu- siasm and marked success. The South, altho Louisi- ana and South Carolina had started normal schools before the Civil War, had to wait until the seventies to establish a system for teacher education. Here is an interesting southern group in the five years 1870- 1875: Kirksville, Missouri, 1870; Warrensburg, Mis- souri, 1871; Florence, Alabama, 1872; Athens, West Virginia, 1872; Shepherdstown, West Virginia, 1872; Cape Girardeau, Missouri, 1873; Glenville, West 96 A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION Virginia, 1873; and Nashville, Tennessee, 1875. Each of these schools has an important and interesting story and added definitely to the evolution of the process of state-supported teacher preparation. By 1875 the state normal school wsls a recognized and estabUshed fact in American life. While they varied greatly, yet there v^as a definitely crystallized normal-school pattern existing in the educational set-up of the United States. The Normals had also established for themselves the right to be consid- ered the chief agency for the education of teachers of the common schools. And common schools meant all grades of public schools including the highschools. The v^estern normals added a prestige and an aggressiveness which was much needed to counter- balance the humble origin of the movement. The underlying confidence in state-supported normal schools which was held thruout the West led these institutions to put forth exceptional efforts. Their sense of importance and self-worth, combined with their close and definite relationship and respon- sibility to the classroom teachers in the public schools, caused them to face their problems with a frankly experimental and pragmatic viewpoint. CHAPTER IV NATURE AND CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS, 1860-1900 NATURE OF THE STATE NORMAL SCHOOL THE AMERICAN NORMAL SCHOOL in the four dccadcs, 1 860-1900, undoubtedly gained a secure place in public confidence and approval. Its laurels were won by conforming itself to the evident needs of the people. It grew so gradually and yet so steadily into the educational structure of the various states that the same sentiments came to be held toward normals as toward the system of free common schools. The success of the normal-school movement was due to the inherent reasonableness of the idea that teachers need specific training in an institu- tion devoted entirely to that end. Secondly, the nor- mals became established in public favor because it was abundantly evident that former students and graduates of these schools were better teachers than those educated elsewhere. Richard Edwards, in an address in 1876 before the National Educational Association [now NEA], [97] 98 A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION gives a fine estimate of this point: "In spite of many failures, in spite of much conceit and vealiness, in spite of a premature display of crude and undigested methods, in spite of noisy zeal that is not according to knowledge, in spite of a confident certainty about things at best but half known, in spite of these and many other shortcomings, it has nevertheless been true that the young men and women, educated or partly educated in our normal schools, have on the whole proved themselves more efficient as instruc- tors of the young than the average of their compeers." Altho it is possible to describe central tendencies for the normal schools of the United States in this period, yet we must remember that there were many variations including decided extremes of practice. These institutions were established spontaneously in many states and in several of these states the entire educational system was new and unformed. They were founded to meet pressing demands for a supply of teachers to serve in these newly created public- school systems. Organization, curriculums, and man- agement were dependent upon local needs and de- mands. This decentralization of control in educa- tion is a marked characteristic of all American schools, so it is not surprising to find the normals varying from section to section and state to state. STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS 1860-I9OO 99 Moreover, since the normal-trained teacher was at a premium, a great many shabby private normals sprang up. Some of the county and city normals were also of the most elementary character. It is often difficult to find out what was typical, but it is pos- sible to ascertain what was average for the best twenty or so state normals. The leaders in the move- ment, especially in the West, were anxious for some degree of uniformity and for the development and application of standards. This step seemed to be advisable in order to keep the word "normal" clear of damaging connotations due to the cheap imitations of the better state normals which existed in every state. One of the western presidents insisted as early as 1874 that "what we need is a standard that shall be very nearly the same for all the normal schools in the country, so that a teacher trained in one state shall be regarded as competent to teach in every state, and that a diploma given by a normal school of one state shall be valid over the whole United States." The states established the normal schools by legis- lative acts, determined the number and the loca- tions of the institutions, usually contributed to the erection of the first building, financed additional structures completely, and set up some sort of board of control for their government. The location of the 100 A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION schools was done either directly by the legislatures or by commissions or boards. The usual process was one of competitive bidding by interested communi- ties, the theory being that the town with the most interest in receiving a normal school would by this token be the most satisfactory place in which it could function. It has struck many people that this was a very peculiar method of locating an educational institution. These competitive bids nearly always carried with them the donation of a site. The sites in almost every case proved inadequate in size in a short period of time. In many western states the normal school received an endowment from some portion of the public lands which the state had re- ceived from the federal government. It is to be re- gretted that the teacher-education institutions did not receive land grants from the federal government as did the state universities. For the most part the normal schools relied on direct appropriations from the state legislatures. In this, too, they should have imitated the state universities, many of which were able to secure a direct one-half or one mill tax. On the whole, the normals were able to get reasonable appropriations up to 1900, without political effort or log rolling, because of their close identification with the common schools. STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS 1860-I9OO lOI The annual current expense of maintaining a nor- mal school of high character in the middle sixties was about $12,000. The normals at Ypsilanti, Michi- gan; Normal, Illinois; Trenton, New Jersey; and Albany, New York, were expending about this amount for current expenses in 1865. By 1890 the current bill for such schools was in the neighbor- hood of $40,000 per year. On the whole the nor- mals were noted for their economy in operating ex- penses. In 1880 the amount spent for normal schools for each $1000 spent for school purposes in Massa- chusetts was $14.09; in New York, $13.05; in Penn- sylvania, $10.74; in Michigan, $8.02; and in Illinois, $5.78. In 1872 the annual per capita cost of state normal education in the twenty largest normals of the country ranged from $170 to $68, five of the schools running above $100 and five running below $80. The early buildings were cheap and resembled those of the local highschool or academy. However, with the erection of the Illinois State Normal build- ing at a cost of close to $200,000, there came a stand- ard of building that equalled those of the better colleges and state universities. Emporia, Trenton, Albany, Winona, and Terre Haute are only a few normals that possessed adequate buildings by the eighties of the last century. The equipment was 102 A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION usually meager and an adequate library remained a problem for most of them until well into the twen- tieth century. The faculties and presidents of the state normals were about as uneven a group as one can imagine. There was no institution of higher education doing satisfactory work in preparing normal-school teachers and administrators. Many of them, and perhaps the best, were products of the older normals. Bridgewater, Albany, Oswego, and the Illinois Normal, contributed the greatest number. Many of the faculty were trained in the colleges and universities and many were drawn from the successful teachers, principals, and superin- tendents of the pubhc schools. Most of the presidents and a large proportion of the faculty, regardless of their previous preparation, learned the business from a serious study of the needs of the state and of the institution which they served. President John Cook of Illinois State Normal Uni- versity is a splendid example of an outstanding nor- mal-school leader who learned his task from working at it. His formal training had been limited to the Normal University course which he pursued fresh from the district school. President Richard G. Boone of Michigan State Normal was another type. From 1871 to 1876, he STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS 1860-I9OO IO3 taught in the highschool at Frankfort, Indiana, and from 1876 to 1886, he was superintendent of schools at Frankfort. In 1886 he organized the Department of Pedagogy at Indiana University. In the same year he received a Master of Arts degree from DePauw^ University, Indiana, and in 1889, the Ph.D. from the University of Ohio. He v^as elected principal of the Ypsilanti Normal in 1893 and continued as its presi- dent when it took the name of Michigan State Nor- mal College in 1893, which position he held to 1899. There were by the end of the nineteenth century a number of men with doctorates from German uni- versities who may be said to have had the first earned doctor's degrees having a direct bearing on the prob- lems of normal-school teaching. The presidents of the normals had a marked per- sonal influence upon the schools. The normal facul- ties were small, and the internal organization of the schools was not strong; hence the school was to a marked extent what the president made it. The presi- dent taught a regular schedule of classes. He often bore the title of professor of didactics, professor of mental philosophy, or professor of pedagogics. He sometimes supervised student teaching and was often the head of the training school. Power of personality was at a decided premium on the part of presidents 104 A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION and faculty. Most of them worked very hard, had a high sense of duty, and by their example impressed themselves pow^erfuUy upon their students. Faculty members were as a rule quite well-known thruout the state since the demands upon them were heavy for addresses, lecture series, judging of contests, and the like. The presidents of the normals were as a rule keenly aware that the school was the faculty. A normal-school teacher in the eighties and nineties had a splendid opportunity of making a career for himself by good teaching. Presidents went about to other schools looking for energetic and distinctive teachers and did not consider it at all unethical to take them away at higher salaries. President Irwin Shepard of Winona, Minnesota, wrote with pleasant sarcasm to President Cook of Normal, Illinois, when a third Winona teacher had been pirated: "As to our standing as a training school for normal faculties, it seems that the proper preparation in the West for a normal-school teacher is: [i] A course at the Nor- mal University; [2] a course at Ann Arbor, Cornell, or Harvard; [3] possibly from two to four years in Germany and a German Ph.D. from Jena or Halle; [4] then a course of three years of apprenticeship on our Winona faculty." STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS 1860-I9OO IO5 Let US take a glance at the students of the normal school. Thruout this period the trend was toward requiring highschool graduation for admission. In 1890 the New York State Normal College at Albany made its standard highschool graduation, and Massa- chusetts followed in 1894. By 1900 the national aver- age of those matriculating in thirty-eight of the large schools was about 26 percent highschool graduates. The tendency by this time was to have a two-year course for highschool graduates and a four-year course for those with less preparation. The entrance require- ments among the earlier schools were generally: good health, minimum age of sixteen to eighteen years, certificate of good moral character, and an examina- tion on the common branches taught in the district schools. On the face of it, these standards admitted elementary-school graduates just ready for high- school. But this assumption, while true in itself, does not give an accurate picture of the real preparation of the entrant who was not a highschool graduate. In the first place the district school of the sixties and seventies thruout most of the United States was not equivalent to our modern elementary school. The dis- trict school set no limit of age for its pupils, nor did it restrict its curriculum to elementary subjects. In Illinois, Iowa, Missouri, Indiana, and Michigan, the I06 A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION district school was attended by many young men over nineteen years of age who were studying any ad- vanced subjects which the teacher would attempt. The character and preparation of the teacher deter- mined very largely what was to be done with the young men and women who came to the district school. We must also recall that these older pupils of the district schools went immediately into the teaching field after having received a teacher's certifi- cate usually thru an examination given by the county superintendent of schools. In 1874 figures for five western normals show that of their graduates for that year, 87 percent of the men and 78 percent of the women had taught. In three normals for the year 1868, 90 percent of the entering students held teach- ers' certificates. The average age for entering students in one western normal in 1880 was twenty-four years and eleven months; in 1885 it was twenty-two years and six months; and in 1890 it was twenty years and one month. In the eastern normals the average age was much younger. While it is true that in many of the poorer normals the entering students were no more mature and no better educated than our present eighth-grade gradu- ates, yet this is decidedly unfair to the better 60 per- cent of the schools. The entrance examinations were STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS 1860-I9OO IO7 in most instances far from a mere formality and were increased in difficulty as the general level of education rose. Figures for the number rejected average over 26 percent for twenty normals in 1878. As this period progressed, the normals in the East tended more and more to limit themselves to the preparation of elementary teachers, hence their stu- dents were mostly women, and moreover, consider- ably younger than the women students in the normals in other sections. The normals in the West and South maintained an average of 26 percent men. Many Nor- mal students in the period i860 to 1900 were young men who had risen somewhat above their fellows in the district school, had worked thru arithmetic, gram- mar, and geography, and had learned algebra and some natural science. They had secured first-grade teachers' certificates and had taught district schools for four or Rvt years. They were mature intellectually and physically, were self-supporting and came to the normal to fit themselves as quickly as possible for positions in the city as principals or superintendents. The normals with their ideal of rendering the services needed by the state could scarcely afford to reject such young men because their formal education did not exceed that of the district school. The reluctance of many of the normal schools to enforce a rigid I08 A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION Standard of highschool graduation for entrance re- quirements is understood when we consider that many students turned away by this requirement could go immediately into the schoolrooms of the state as licensed teachers. The normal schools were harassed for years by two contradictory lines of attack. On the one hand were those who claimed that anyone who knew a subject could teach it; hence, there was no need for special teachers' schools. On the other hand there were in the early days many sincere friends of the normals who held that only strictly professional courses should be taught in these institutions. They believed that the normals should offer nothing except methods and education courses. The fierce debate regarding pro- fessional and academic courses occupied a great deal of the attention of normal-school men in the two decades from 1850 to 1870. In general, the New Eng- land institutions held that the normals should restrict themselves mainly to courses in methods and educa- tional principles and technics. The western schools insisted that the normal should give its students all the academic materials they would need as teachers in addition to the narrowly professional courses. In 1859, at that first American Normal School Conven- tion, Dr. Wines of St. Louis said: "A normal school STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS 1860-I9OO IO9 is a professional institution aiming to impart to its pupils a thoro preparation for their future profes- sion and this preparation must include an ample and complete knowledge of the branches of learning properly belonging to that profession. Any other theory of the normal school seems to me far too rigid, narrow, partial, pinched, and chilling." This idea came to triumph thruout the whole nation, and by the nineties the teacher-education institutions were no longer frightened at the accusation that they were teaching nearly every sort of subjectmatter. The early normal-school curriculum in Massachu- setts aimed to give the student a short period of in- tensive training something like a protracted teachers institute. This "short course" notion has been a diffi- cult problem all thru the evolution of teacher prepara- tion in America. The western normals, largely be- cause of their kinship to colleges rather than to sec- ondary schools, insisted from their inception upon a relatively long curriculum. Three-year curriculums became the standard for the better schools by 1870. However, because many students came for a short time and then dropped out to teach, few schools had fully organized classes in all offerings in their cata- logs for the senior year. Ypsilanti, Normal, Emporia, and Whitewater are the schools mentioned in 1871 no A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION as having the most complete program offered in the third year. Ypsilanti at this time had a fully developed four-year curriculum. At first the multiplication of curriculums appears merely as a differentiation of the length of time re- quired for the various courses. In many schools there came to be a one-year course, and two-, three-, and four-year courses. It wsls urged that a student ought to have some sort of diploma to show^ for his tv^o years of attendance. Moreover, if there v^ere two-year diplomas, it was felt that many pupils who otherwise would drop out at the end of the first year would make heroic efforts to stay one more year and gradu- ate. Then, too, it worried many presidents and Nor- mal boards that the number of graduates was small. They feared their schools would be judged failures if only about 5 percent of the student body graduated each year. However, by 1900, curriculums were fast appearing based on preparation for different types of school positions and the teaching of special sub- jects. By 1899 there were five general curriculums offered in the Michigan State Normal College: [i] general degree course of two years; [2] specialized degree course of two years; [3] general diploma course of four years; [4] specialized four-year course; and [5] course of one year for college graduates. The STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS 1860-I9OO III catalog stated that teachers were now receiving spe- cial preparation for: [i] rural, ungraded, and village schools; [2] public and private kindergartens; [3] primary work and the lower grades of the elemen- tary schools; [4] upper grades of the graded schools; [5] general grade work; [6] special subjects and departments; [7] supervision of particular branches, such as music and drawing; and [8] general super- vision and administration. By 1900 there existed a wide offering of electives in most normal schools by means of which a student might prepare himself for teaching in special subjects or types of positions. Most of the states came to recognize the work of the normals in their teacher-certification laws. First grade and life certificates to teach were given grad- uates of the schools in certain states, while second grade and Ryt year certificates, etc., were given on the basis of certain normal-school credits. The nor- mals turned out graduates who really taught, altho it was sometimes alleged that the Normal graduates merely received a general education at state expense. Such attacks were met by frequent checking up of graduates on the part of presidents. These surveys showed that the states did get their money's worth when they set out to educate teachers. One normal 112 A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION reported that of 321 graduates for a ten-year period, 302 had taught since graduation. Another school re- ported that 96 percent of its graduates were teaching. In the case of four western normals, 46 percent of the graduates went immediately to other than ele- mentary schools. This is easily understood when we remember that the demand for teachers was so great that in these very schools only 7 percent of the whole number of students who matriculated graduated each year. Students dropped out chiefly because they could secure positions with one year of Normal work. By 1886 it was reported that 56 percent of the Massa- chusetts teachers were normal-trained. The average for fourteen states reporting was 17 percent of the teachers having some normal education. Even in states like Kansas where only 4 percent of the public- school teachers had attended a normal, the normal- school product was immeasurably improving the gen- eral teaching level by example and precept. CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE STATE NORMAL SCHOOL TO TEACHER EDUCATION The picture of the American normal schools in the last third of the nineteenth century that has been presented shows them varied and uneven and even STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS 1860-I9OO II3 inclined to glorify their diversity since it indicated response to local problems. Yet certain definite trends in teacher education were clearly emerging. In the first place the normal schools were transforming teaching into a profession. Much professional litera- ture poured from presidents and faculties, and the stimulation of the success of the normals produced departments of education, and even colleges of edu- cation in the American universities. The colleges and universities resisted this move as long as they could. In a meeting of the New England Association of Colleges in 1889 it was asserted that pedagogical training was a handicap to their work and was "liable to infringe upon and diminish" the true work of the college. The University of Iowa in 1873 established the first permanent chair of pedagogy; the University of Michigan followed with an officially recognized department of education in 1879; Wisconsin Univer- sity came next in 1885; and Indiana University and Cornell University in 1886. Even in these instances the department or school of education suffered con- siderable resistance. Charles De Garmo in 1892 wrote: "Our chairs of pedagogy in American universities are fatally defective, in that they are component but not organic units of university life. They are me- chanically but not organically connected with their 114 A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION own allied subjects . . . The professor of pedagogy is neatly glued on the university as a whole, but he has no group of men with whom he can organize an education department." It is clear that the American colleges and univer- sities did not take seriously the business of profes- sional preparation for teachers until the normals had developed that field. President Kirk of the Kirks- ville, Missouri, Normal said emphatically: "We hear in tones of deep gravity the phrase 'Normal schools developing into fields hitherto occupied by colleges and universities.' This phrase of dubious import has birth in misconception or non-altruistic motive. In the preparation of teachers as a practical proposition so far as our country is concerned, the normal schools were first in the field. Furthermore, it hasn't been long since college and university men began to leave off ridiculing the science and art of teaching." The normal school developed a professional atti- tude toward teaching by stimulating a love for it and a personal interest in children. David Felmley, presi- dent of the Illinois State Normal from 1900 to 1930, wrote: "I cannot help believing that the standing of our calling will rise in the world when our teachers are more largely educated at schools attended by them only. It will give to teachers that sense of re- STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS 1860-I9OO II5 sponsibility and dignity that will gain the respect of the world because they value and respect their own work. In confirmation of this statement it should be noted that the growing recognition of the teacher's work in the United States is exactly parallel with the development of our normal school system." Later, William C. Bagley of Columbia said: "It is in the ability of the individual to adapt himself to the com- munity that he serves that the normal school grad- uate is superior to the college graduate, and that superiority is due ... to the attitude of profession- alism which the atmosphere of the normal school engenders, and to which every detail of its organi- zation must contribute." The second distinctive trend in teacher education which was a notable contribution of the normal school was the idea that teacher-preparation institu- tions must ever remain close to the needs of the public schools and the public at large. The student was drawn from the public schools and sent back to the community from which he had come, to serve the public by raising the common level of efficiency. President Phelps of Trenton State Normal, in 1859 said: "The normal must go down to the common schools and lift them up." The normals were true to this ideal. They first found out what the public Il6 A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION schools were doing and then, without attempting to speak in terms of finality, proceeded to improve upon the existing practices. In speaking of the close co- operation between normals and other agencies of the common-school system, a state superintendent of schools said in 1882: "Normal schools are an organic part of the modern system of popular education for tlie perfection of all its departments. They are the coadjutors of the district officer, county superintend- ent, and state department of education. They are established as a signal service in every quarter of the educational horizon, to report currents and give warning of danger. The university professor may have his chair and from it satisfy a well-established demand, but the normal-school professor must live in his saddle in the field and on the march." The third trend in teacher education which was exhibited from the earliest days of the normal school was the in-service or follow-up work. President Homer Seerley of the Iowa State Teachers College said: "The institution that does not recognize that its mission is not confined to its campus hardly de- serves to be classified as a factor in modern educa- tional endeavor." The normals on the whole kept in remarkably close touch with the teachers of the state and rendered them many services. The teachers STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS 1860-I9OO II7 institutes became a valuable agency for in-service training and their early history is the story of normal school activity. One middlewestern school records that fifty counties were instructed in institutes by faculty members in one year. Another school v^as responsible for 349 institutes in ten years with a total of 503 addresses and thousands of hours of institute instruction. The widespread development of the summer school is another achievement of the normals in the interest of teachers. By 1900 the summer school en- rollment in most of the normals equalled or exceeded their regular enrollment. Correspondence courses and extension classes began a phenomenal growth in the late nineties to add to the services rendered the active teacher. The work of normal faculties in the programs of the various state teachers associa- tions became almost a monopoly by 1880. The fourth trend to be noted is the development of the concept of professionalized subjectmatter. This fundamental idea grew out of the issue of academic training in the normals. Those defending the inclusion of academic materials in the curricu- lum argued that anything in the way of subjectmat- ter necessary in teacher education should be incor- porated. From this position it was easy to go a step Il8 A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION farther and to say that any subjectmatter taught in the normal school should be so pertinent to the life of the people that it would contribute directly to giving the teacher more understanding of her work. The idea was expressed as early as 1867 by President Kellogg of Emporia that while the same subjects might be taught in a normal as were taught in a college, they must be taught with the consciousness that they had some definite place in the education of a prospective teacher. President E. C. Hewett of the Illinois Normal wrote in 1884: "I believe that this work of putting the knowledge of the school studies into the proper form for schoolmasters' use is as truly professional as any work we can do." The fifth trend is the tendency to emphasize the laboratory phases in teacher education. As we have seen, the model and practice schools became the most distinctive trait of the normal school. The training school was recognized as the focal point of the entire process and here all the theory and subjectmatter taught was to find its application and crucial test. From i860 to 1900, there were many kinds of organization among training schools and many systems of supervision of student teaching. It was debated whether or not special critic teachers should supervise the practice teaching or whether STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS 1860-I9OO II9 this should be done by regular faculty members. It was argued as to whether the practice school had better be entirely under the control of the normal or whether practice teaching should be done in con- nection with the regular or city school systems. These questions were not decided, but there seems to have been a general feeling that practice school conditions should duplicate as closely as possible those that the student would meet in the field. It was also pointed out that model and experimental schools should be developed to test and demonstrate new and better technics and teaching materials. The sixth trend, which was apparent as early as 1875 but developed rapidly in the last two decades of the century, was the idea that activities formerly considered purely extra-curriculum on the part of the students should be looked on as part of their preparation for teaching. The tendency to curricu- larize these activities was first found in speech and music events. It was soon evident that the teacher who could "read," direct plays, lead singing, play a musical instrument, and the like, was in greater de- mand as a teacher than one who could do none of these things. Hence these activities were encouraged not alone for their personal worth but for their pro- fessional value. An interesting practice along this 120 A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION line appears in a number of midwestern schools under the name "Rhetoricals." At Cedar Falls, Iowa, and at Normal, Illinois, the practice was highly devel- oped and long continued. At certain hours of the week the students were divided into groups for the purpose of giving everyone some practice in public speaking. These classes were under the charge of regular faculty members, grades were recorded, and passing work required for a number of terms as a prerequisite to graduation. The seventh and last trend which should be em- phasized is perhaps the most important one to be contributed by the state-supported institutions for teacher education. This trend is the pragmatic atti- tude of the normal schools. They were set up to meet certain needs and they might take from any source any method or material which had a direct bearing on their problems. They looked upon them- selves as developing with the shifting scene around them. Principal Alpheus Crosby of the Salem, Massa- chusetts, Normal said in 1859: "Methods must be continually changed as circumstances change; and these change more or less each successive day. The particular course which was glory day before yester- day, and wisdom yesterday, may be folly today, while it will be ruin tomorrow." The American state STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS 1860-I9OO 121 teacher-education institution has demonstrated thru- out its history that it is not bound by tradition and that it does not fear to curricularize any type of experience activity that is needed in order to pre- pare a teacher to function in the modern world. THE OSWEGO AND HERBARTIAN TIDAL WAVES In viewing the contributions of the normal schools from i860 to 1900, we must emphasize two influen- tial waves of educational theory that swept over the United States in this era. From i860 to 1880 the most discussed educational topic before schoolmen was "Object Teaching" or the Oswego method. Be- tween 1890 and 1900 a far more significant move- ment or set of ideas came into American education, known as the Herbartian movement. Perhaps the men who have most definitely influenced educa- tional procedure in every classroom in America were the small group of American Herbartians who had their center in the Illinois State Normal University. The Herbartian ideas permeated the public schools of the United States thru the agency of the state normal schools. Edward A. Sheldon whose work at the Oswego, New York, Normal has been described in Chapter 122 A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION II, undoubtedly did much to define the nature of the practice school entirely apart from the ideas of Pestalozzi. The English modification of the methods of Pestalozzi which Mr. Sheldon popularized at Oswego had been known in this country many years before the Oswego Normal was founded. The work of Sheldon and his associates was to publicize these ideas and translate them into a system of training that could be administered by the American normal school. The major contribution of the movement was to emphasize the bringing of many types of real materials into the schoolroom, thereby teaching thru actual experiences with, and manipulation of, con- crete objects. To say that the object lessons degen- erated into an absurd formalism, is to state the usual about anything new which is important and inter- esting enough to call forth the fanatics and faddists. As early as 1861 Sheldon invited a number of prominent educators to inspect his practice school and report on the type of teaching found there. This was only the beginning of visits from committees of national and state bodies and institutions. A com- mittee of the National Teachers' Association (now NEA) reported favorably on the system in 1865 and thereby started the rush of the normals to try out the Oswego methods. This committee consisted of STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS 1860-I9OO 123 Barnas Sears and S. S. Greene of Rhode Island; J. L. Pickard, superintendent of schools of Boston; David N. Camp of Connecticut; C. S. Pennell of St. Louis; and Richard Edwards of Illinois. This group pro- nounced strongly in favor of the principles behind object teaching but reported many dangers in apply- ing anything like a systematic course of object les- sons. They all condemned the formal lessons con- fined to a few blocks and cards, and over-used common objects. They praised the enduring idea that education of the child must start with what the child knows, working from the well-known to the obscurely known and so onward and upward till the learner can enter the fields of science and abstract thought. They felt it was a notable advance to insist that the school is a place where the child comes into contact with realities, "just such as appeal to his commonsense, as when he roamed at pleasure in the fields." The work at Oswego was so well organized that the students were quickly trained in the technic, tho often emerging with hazy ideas concerning the fun- damental principles. These students were in demand in other normal schools. William F. Phelps served on one of the many committees which came to investi- gate the Oswego Normal. He introduced much of the 124 A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION system at Trenton and later, when he went to Min- nesota to organize the first training school west of the Mississippi, he chose the Oswego school as a model. From Winona the practice spread to other normals of Minnesota and to the Dakotas. In the meantime in New York, Brockport, Potsdam, Gene- seo, Buffalo, Cortland, and New Paltz had borrowed heavily from Sheldon. Graduates of Oswego went to normals at San Jose, California; Kirksville, Missouri; Terre Haute, Indiana; Peru, Nebraska; and New Britain, Connecticut. Modern school teaching really begins in the United States with the tidal wave of reform in educational theory and practice which occurred between 1886 and 1900. This movement is known as Herbartianism. Herbart established a pedagogical seminary at the University of Konigsberg around which he developed a practice school where his ideas might be exempli- fied. In the eighties a group of young American stu- dents went to Germany for advanced work and those who were interested in the problems of school teach- ing found graduate courses in education at Jena, Halle, and Leipzig. Of this American group the most important for education in this country came from Normal, Illinois. The names of Frank M. and Charles A. McMurry, Charles De Garmo, John Hall, C. C. STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS 1860-I9OO I25 Van Liew, and Elmer Brown are close to the head of the list of those who have made definite contribu- tions to actual classroom teaching in our public schools. The American Herbartlan movement was no mere imitation or undiluted importation of ideas and prac- tices. It was more the work of De Garmo, the Mc- Murrys, and Van Liew than it was Rein of Jena or Ziller of Leipzig. Herbart himself lent little more than prestige and vocabulary. In our country the movement was a direct attack upon an entrenched system of method and subjectmatter in the public schools. It preached the doctrine of interest, the organ- ization of subjectmatter around fundamental mean- ings, and the inclusion of vital materials in the cur- riculum, as opposed to textbook slavery and facts taught with dull monotony. Lifeless drill and abstract memorization of adult material was the rule rather than the exception in our public schools before the Herbartians went on their crusade. These enthusi- astic young leaders were in close touch with the public schools; they were teaching prospective teachers in the Illinois Normal. They were practical and realistic and they succeeded in getting their ideas right down into the actual day-by-day work of classroom teachers all over the land. 126 A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION One of the books which has been of most influence upon actual elementary-school teaching is the Method of the Recitation, written by Charles and Frank Mc- Murry and published in 1897. ^^ was fittingly dedi- cated to John W. Cook, president of the Illinois State Normal University. In other writings and in other ways the Normal Herbartians made known their ideas. Assimilation, apperception, correlation, concen- tration, culture epochs, doctrine of interest, and the famous ^Yc formal steps, became bywords in every normal school and teachers institute in the land. It was perhaps the overdoing of some of these ideas that made them go to seed in many classrooms. The ^\t formal steps, for example, became extremely formal and were often carried out to an absurd degree. But these notorious formal steps did focus attention on the possibility of a general method of teaching that was based upon a careful analysis of the act of think- ing. The culture epoch theory, which has long since been discredited, resulted in the enrichment of the curriculum in literature, history, and nature study. Probably the most important idea of the Herbart- ians was the doctrine of interest. This was the obvious reaction against formalism in the schoolroom and against the utter ruthlessness with which large num- bers of teachers were ignoring the fact that the child STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS 1860-I9OO IT] must educate himself thru his own activities. Herbart had said: "Tediousness is the greatest sin of instruc- tion." The McMurrys stressed the double meaning of interest. The child must he interested and he must develop interests. The most searching question at the end of a day or a term should be, they felt, not how much has been learned but how deep, how permanent an interest has been excited. This doctrine went hand in hand with the idea of an enriched curriculum in the work of the Herbartians. One need take only a hasty look at the Addresses and Proceedings of the National Education Associa- tion to see the dominance of Herbartian topics and normal school faculty members in the period 1892 to 1898. These educational leaders either on normal school faculties or with normal school background founded the National Herbart Society in 1892. In the meeting for organization, an executive council of nine members was chosen and Frank McMurry was made secretary and editor of the yearbook. Of these nine members, with the exception of John Dewey, the most influential were from the Illinois State Nor- mal University. In 1902, largely thru the influence of Charles McMurry, the name of the National Her- bart Society was changed to the "National Society for the Scientific Study of Education" and a few years 128 A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION later the term "Scientific" was omitted. Every educa- tor knows the importance of these famous yearbooks. The first five were based on Herbartian themes and these discussions are basic to modern educational theory. That some of the material was speculative and abstract is true, yet it cleared the ground for future building by its emphasis on the philosophy of edu- cation, the nature of the child, the social aspects of moral education and integration. During this period the American normal school developed into a recognized power in the field of education. It became the major factor in producing a profession of teaching and a true science of educa- tion. It grew great by working at the immediate task before it to make the common schools better able to turn out good citizens. Its philosophy was pragmatic and its leadership dynamic. Thus the American nor- mal school entered the twentieth century on the crest of a tidal wave of educational progress which it alone had created. CHAPTER V TRANSITION TO THE STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, 1900-1926 THE DE\^LOPMENT of the normal schools into teachers colleges was merely a phase of the gen- eral expansion of education in the first two decades of the twentieth century. This general educational expansion was due to the increasing complexity of modern life. Its educational aspect is typified by the tremendous growth of the American highschool in the period. As this was the most significant phase of the public-school development it is quite natural that the normals, ever facing the pubUc schools, would react to it by rapidly expanding their facilities to educate highschool teachers. Altho the teachers college seemed a new institution to many people, yet it was an evolution, not a revolution. The normal school, by a natural evolutionary process, adapted itself to changing economic and social situations. The struggle was purely a defensive one. It was a vigorously fought movement to maintain what had been won — that is, the right to serve the public schools [ 129] 130 A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION by the preparation of any and all kinds of teachers needed by these schools. Nothing could be more ab- surd than to assert that the normals were attempting to enter a new and untried field when they obtained the power to confer degrees or changed their names to teachers colleges. The struggle on the part of the teachers colleges was to avoid being side-tracked by the growing power of the state universities and other strong colleges and universities. The basic problems involved in the transition from normals to teachers colleges were: [i] enrichment of the curriculum and the addition of one or two years to the length of the course; [2] securing the necessary financial means and popular support; [3] gaining the legal right to grant degrees; [4] preventing the colleges and uni- versities from forcing them out of the field of pre- paring highschool and special teachers; [5] meeting the problems of standardization; and [6] preserving their identity and distinctive traits as teachers col- leges. This last point is important. The newly recog- nized teachers colleges faced a real crisis in the danger of aping the liberal arts colleges and thereby losing those distinctive characteristics upon which the state teacher-education institutions were origi- nally founded, and upon which their phenomenal success had been built. THE RISE OF THE TEACHERS COLLEGE I3I It has been shown that the normals, especially those of the West, thought of themselves as colleges from their very beginning. They tried to make their work on even the common elementary subjects equal in difficulty and thoroness to the best of college work. The early leaders of the teacher-education movement recognized as a fundamental principle that college work is not such because of the subjects studied but because of the age, attainments, and mental grasp of its students and because of the aim and method of attack. This idea was, and continues to be, of vast importance in keeping the teachers colleges true to their purposes and ideals. Because the normals felt the necessity of placing the child in the center of their program, it became a belief in many quarters that normals were merely schools of "methods" and did not stand for scholarship. Such was far from the case in the better normals. Second only to the ideal of social service was placed the incentive of the pleas- ure which comes from mastery of subjectmatter. The distinguished roll of scholarly and progressive men and women who went out from these institutions is an ample refutation of any charge that the normals did not emphasize mastery of academic subjects. The phenomenal growth of the American high- school was a natural step in the expansion of the 132 A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION public schools and was due to the same economic and social conditions which produced the enlarge- ment and improvement of free elementary schools. The highschool in the West and South was merely an upward reaching of the district school. With the increase in population and wealth, additional sub- jects were taught in the common school. Ancient and medieval history, civil government and political economy, Latin, Greek, French, German, algebra, geometry, astronomy, chemistry, physiology, botany and zoology, rhetoric, and history of English litera- ture were gradually introduced into the schools of some of the larger towns and cities. Classes were organized in these subjects according to the ability of the teachers and the preference of the students. The "high room" was an ungraded addition to the public elementary school. Then came the setting off of the upper grades under the name of "high school" with its adoption of regular courses and curriculums. As early as 1862 a prominent normal-school man had said, "If a poor ragged boy in the streets remains undeveloped because the public school closes its course of education too soon, there is a public loss. ... I consider it decided that the public highschool should be a constant part of the system of public education." The courts decided that common schools THE RISE OF THE TEACHERS COLLEGE I33 meant public schools and highschools were included under the public schools. Most of the normal schools were established "to train teachers for the common schools" and felt that their legal obligation as well as their right demanded that they enlarge their offerings as the demand for highschool teachers increased. The oldest of these schools in the Midwest, West, and South sent fully half their graduates into these advanced positions. The need of a longer period of training for such teachers than that given to elementary teachers was seen at once. Most of the normals invited students to prolong their work a year or so in order to take ad- vanced branches. The necessity was also seen for a broad and rich cultural background for the pros- pective highschool teacher. The enrichment of the curriculum in the American normals from 1870 to 1920 kept pace with the demands of the highschools for well-educated teachers. By the beginning of the twentieth century there were at least four normals in this country that might truly be called full-fledged teachers colleges. By the end of the third decade of this century there were close to one hundred and fifty recognized degree-conferring state teachers col- leges in the United States, and in addition some of these teachers colleges were offering graduate work. 134 A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION The matter of offering degrees has been frequently discussed by normal-school leaders since the early seventies. In 1876 President Richard Edwards of the Illinois State Normal University stated: "There should be a professional degree given by the normal schools to indicate the profession of teaching. So apparent is this proposition — unless the entire system of degrees is wrong — that it seems superfluous to argue it. If the professions of law, medicine, and divinity are distinguished and honored by appro- priate degrees, why should not the coordinate pro- fession — coordinate in dignity, usefulness, and the talent necessary for success — be thus distinguished and honored.?" Again in 1879 President J. C. Gilchrist of the Iowa State Normal summarized the arguments in favor of the "teachers college" degree: "[i] A system of professional degrees will make teachers prominent in society as a learned class. [2] A wise system of de- grees securing some privileges and emoluments will prove a strong incentive in obtaining professional qualifications. [3] A system of degrees for teachers will induce a more perfect development of educa- tional philosophy and pedagogical practice. [4] A system of degrees will make for more permanency in the profession." THE RISE OF THE TEACHERS COLLEGE I35 There was some experimentation in awarding de- grees in the early history of state teacher-prepara- tion institutions. Missouri, Pennsylvania, Kansas, Nebraska, and Iowa either adopted a system prior to 1880 or proposed one. Pennsylvania early adopted a rather complicated system of degrees for normal schools, but these were far from satisfactory even in the opinion of the normal-school graduates and faculties. In March 1874, Missouri normal schools were authorized to confer degrees, and in 1877 the Iowa Board proposed that three degrees crown the work of the three proposed curriculums. The normals first conferring degrees which rep- resented a full four years of college work were those at Albany, New York, and Ypsilanti, Michigan. At a meeting of the Board of Regents on March 13, 1890, the Albany Normal School was changed to the Normal College. It was resolved: "That the exec- utive committee which is empowered by law to administer the affairs of the college be, and hereby is, authorized to confer upon such persons as com- plete the course of instruction successfully, the degree of Bachelor of Pedagogy, and that it be also author- ized to confer the degree of Master of Pedagogy and Doctor of Pedagogy under conditions which may seem to them proper to prescribe." The curriculum 136 A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION was limited at this time to professional subjects, thus defeating the plan of preparing highschool teachers. In 1905 the plan of 1890 became effective by a complete reorganization. At this time all prepara- tion of elementary teachers was discontinued, re- quirements for admission were made "substantially the same as those laid down by other eastern colleges of good standing," a four-year course of studies in liberal arts and pedagogics was established, all stu- dents were required to pursue such subjects as were deemed necessary to a liberal education, and the college was empowered to confer the degrees of B. A. and Pd. B. The Pd. B. degree was to be conferred only upon college graduates after a year of postgraduate study. The collegiate organization of the Michigan State Normal became effective a short time before the Albany system got in working order altho the New York plans of 1890 came before those of Michigan. The Michigan legislature in 1897 in recognition of the existing situation designated the normal, the Michigan State Normal College. A large amount of academic subjectmatter had been included in the Ypsilanti curriculum since the seventies, and at the time the degree privilege was given, there was a fully organized four-year curriculum with highschool THE RISE OF THE TEACHERS COLLEGE 137 graduation as an admission requirement. The first Bachelor of Arts degree, however, was not given until 1905. The privilege of conferring degrees was granted by the legislature to four state normals in Illinois in 1907. The degree to be granted was that of Bachelor of Education. Thus the Middlewest took up the work of converting normals into teachers col- leges and pushed the transition with energy. The West and South followed quickly, but the East was rather badly handicapped as most normals east of the Alleghenies had surrendered to the colleges and universities their right to prepare highschool teachers. The Normal School at Trenton, New Jersey, is a good example of the emergence of eastern normal schools into the ranks of teachers colleges. The Tren- ton Normal confined itself to the preparation of elementary teachers until after the turn of the cen- tury. In the next twenty years it gradually introduced curriculums for educating teachers of physical edu- cation, industrial arts, commercial subjects, and mu- sic — these curriculums being two, and later three, years in length. It was not until 1925 that Trenton was authorized to grant the B. S. degree in education and offered work for secondary teachers in regular academic fields. In 1929 the curriculum for elemen- tary teachers was increased to three years, and again, 138 A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION in 1935, to four years. Meanwhile, its changing status was recognized in 1929 by a change in name to the "State Teachers College and State Normal School at Trenton," and finally, in 1937, the name was changed again to the "New Jersey State Teachers College at Trenton." The new program required better facilities, so in 1929 a new site of 105 acres five miles from the city was purchased, and between 1930 and 1935 buildings and equipment costing three mil- lion dollars were erected. With the impetus from the middle and far West the Department of Normal Schools of the National Education Association in 1908 drew up a Statement of Policy for the Normal Schools which became a veritable platform for transforming normals into teachers colleges. It was here strongly urged that: "Good as the word 'normal' is, it should be dropped from the name of these schools and they should be called Teachers Colleges." The seven resolutions in the statement of policy were : " [ i ] That the state nor- mal schools make highschool graduation, or equi- valent, a basis for admission to the standard normal course. [2] That the normal schools prepare teach- ers for the entire public service — elementary and sec- ondary. [3] That the preparation of the elementary teachers be two years, and of the secondary, four THE RISE OF THE TEACHERS COLLEGE I39 years. [4] That normal schools establish well-organ- ized departments of research work leading to the solution of problems affecting education and life. [5] That while the normal school is not the only agent for the training of teachers, it is the state's chief agent, and as such it should set up standards of teaching, determine ideals, and train men and women whose call is to educational leadership. [6] That the colleges and universities should not dominate the courses of study of the highschools to the end of making them preparatory schools, thereby prevent- ing these schools from being the best expression of the whole people. [7] That the curriculum of the normal school should be broad enough in scope to touch all phases of special preparation demanded by the broadening scope of the public schools." From the nature of these resolutions one can easily deduce that the normals were being challenged and were beginning a defensive campaign. There was at this very time a serious danger that the normal school would be left stranded, high and dry, on the banks of the broadening educational current. Just as the prospect for rich and full service in the field of teacher education had emerged, there came a "squeeze," educationally and financially, to keep the newly-founded teachers colleges from developing in 140 A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION a satisfactory manner. This was due largely to the expansive energy, the aggressive attitude, and the growing popularity and prestige of some of the great colleges and universities. Along in the eighties of the last century, the colleges and universities had at last begun to recognize education as a profession and decided to absorb the preparation of teachers as another phase of their work. The great wealth and prestige of the universities and especially the state universities had been gained in other fields, but they used all their power to monopolize the rapidly developing field of preparing highschool teachers. As a result of this cognizance of the rapid devel- opment of highschools, there arose a movement on the part of the universities to standardize and accredit highschools. Following the example set by the Uni- versity of Michigan they began to reshape the high- school curriculum by changing it from one of a college of the people to a classical preparatory school. In 1896 the North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools was organized, and thru its accrediting activities it began to put pressure on the highschools to accept only teachers trained in the colleges. The relation between the highschools and the colleges became a reciprocal one, it being in many THE RISE OF THE TEACHERS COLLEGE I4I cases a condition of the accrediting that the high- school teachers should have a college degree. The modern teachers college is an answer to the chal- lenge of the North Central Association which made the requirements general and forced the normals to meet their standards or get out of the field of pre- paring highschool teachers. The teachers colleges felt the necessity of granting degrees and accepting standardization. By doing so they saved themselves from being crowded out of one of their legitimate fields of endeavor. The teachers col- leges were saved to a great extent by the determined efforts of some half dozen presidents from the Mid- dlewest. The three outstanding leaders in this fight were Homer H. Seerley of Cedar Falls, Iowa; John Kirk of Kirksville, Missouri; and David Felmley of Normal, Illinois. These three musketeers were ably aided by such men as G. E. Maxwell of Winona, Min- nesota; J. A. H. Keith of Oshkosh, Wisconsin; and Dwight B. Waldo of Kalamazoo, Michigan. This struggle took up the first two decades of the twen- tieth century. The Proceedings of the National Edu- cation Association give us a fair index of the nature of the nationwide discussion on the relative merits of the normal schools and colleges as centers for the preparation of highschool teachers. 142 A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION The main contentions of the teachers-college lead- ers on this point were: [i] Historically and legally the state teachers colleges had the right of way. [2] It is unwise to make a cleavage in the preparation of elementary and highschool teachers. [3] The colleges by scorning "methods," "education," and "practice teaching" turn out poor teachers. [4] The esprit de corps and professional outlook developed in the teach- ers colleges cannot be duplicated in colleges and uni- versities. One of the strongest arguments was that highschool teachers should be trained in the same environment as elementary teachers. It was clearly pointed out that there was already too great a sepa- ration between the highschool and the elementary school. It was also feared that to educate the elemen- tary and secondary teachers in separate schools with different aims, methods, and traditions would result in a serious break in the character of the work as the child passed into the highschool. Moreover, it was pointed out that in order to raise the status of ele- mentary teachers, they should be educated in the same environment as the often better-paid high- school and special teachers. The movement for standardization of the teach- ers colleges is an interesting story. It was first an attempt to conform to standards set up externally by THE RISE OF THE TEACHERS COLLEGE I43 institutions which differed decidedly in kind from the teachers colleges. The colleges existing for an entirely different purpose dictated standards to the teachers colleges and tended to measure them by a yardstick made for the traditional classical liberal- arts college. It seemed that the safest thing the teach- ers colleges could do was to discard their achieve- ments and fall in line quickly by aping the liberal-arts college curriculums and organization. Some of them did just this, contrary to their own best interests, but other teachers colleges refused to conform and began to set up and enforce their own standards. The beginnings of formulating standards for state teacher-education institutions occur in the eighties. Professor W. H. Payne of Michigan University called a meeting of Middlewest normal presidents at Ann Arbor to discuss standards and present their ideas to the Normal School Department of the National Education Association. The reports of the committees of the Normal Department in 1886 and 1889 made information available as to what the average normal- school practices were regarding professional courses, practice teaching, academic work, and general admin- istration. This work, while important in many res- pects, was not very effective in meeting the problems of uniformity. 144 ^ CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION The North Central Council of Normal School Presidents formed in 1902 was the next step. It grew out of informal meetings of the presidents in connec- tion with an interstate normal literary and oratorical contest. The five state normals making up this ora- torical association were Illinois, Wisconsin, Iowa, Missouri, and Kansas. The president of the school holding the yearly contest formed the habit of invit- ing other presidents to discuss problems facing the normals. Such a group meeting at Emporia formed a definite organization. Those present were Wilkin- son of Emporia, Kansas; Cook of DeKalb, Illinois; Clark of Peru, Nebraska; Halsey of Oshkosh, Wis- consin; and Seerley of Iowa. This North Central Council was enlarged by 1912 into the National Coun- cil of Normal School Presidents, which later was merged into the American Association of Teachers Colleges. The old Department of Normal Schools of the National Education Association was combined in 1925 with the American Association of Teachers Colleges. A committee on Surveys and Standards dates back to 1915 and its work was a culmination of much discussion and planning in the above organ- izations. Prior to 1917 there had been a number of surveys made of the state normals in various states. Men were THE RISE OF THE TEACHERS COLLEGE I45 turned loose to prove the conclusion which they had already accepted — that normal schools should pre- pare teachers for the elementary schools, and the colleges and universities should prepare all high- school teachers. The committee of the National Coun- cil was composed of men who were in the thick of the battle to make the teachers colleges respectable in scholarship as well as distinctive in the services ren- dered to the public schools. President Felmley of Illinois suggested that one way to avoid these one- sided surveys was to keep the public thoroly informed about the work of the teachers colleges. Schools were advised that they should be surveying themselves constantly in terms of accepted standards and should give wide publicity to the facts. It was decided to pre- pare Plans and Procedures for a Continuous Self- Survey. The Committee on Surveys and Standards then began its continuous work which succeeded in bringing the teachers colleges into an acceptable posi- tion with the already highly developed accrediting agencies, and also permitted them to begin construc- tive thinking in terms of developing their distinctive qualitative standards. In the transition to the teachers college, with the necessity of getting into harmony with accrediting agencies whose viewpoint was that of the traditional 146 A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION liberal-arts college, there was a real danger that the state teacher-preparation institutions might forget that they were dedicated to a great professional ser- vice. They might forget what they had learned by years of experience and turn out highschool teachers who lectured to fourteen-year-old boys and girls from notes taken in their college academic courses. They, too, might succumb to medieval methods in the class- room and bow to the Frankenstein of college athletics. To secure a properly organized curriculum of col- lege standard they might be tempted to sidetrack the professionalization of subjectmatter to enable their new teachers fresh from the academic graduate classes to teach what they had been taught and to proceed with a disregard for any possible use of the subjects by the common people. There was a great heritage to be saved from the normal-school days, but most important was the normal's ability to give its students the kind of environment and experiences that would make them fit into the life of a teacher. President Felmley stated this idea very well when he said: "The organization of the normal school, its program, its incidental culture and social life, its close personal relations between students and teachers, its modes of class instruction, which are sure to be imi- tated by the young teacher, its less expensive appoint- THE RISE OF THE TEACHERS COLLEGE I47 merits, the simpler and plainer style of living, its ab- sence of social distinctions based upon wealth or membership in exclusive societies — all of these con- ditions tend to produce a type of teacher that readily adjusts himself to highschool conditions." Many of the teachers-college leaders felt that the degree offered by the teachers colleges should be a distinctly professional one. Others felt that since his- torically the arts degrees meant recognition of ability to teach, the teachers colleges could appropriately award the standard degrees. Perhaps the immediate advantage to graduates went with the standard A. B. or B. S. degrees, but much can be said in favor of building meaning into the Bachelor of Education degree. As one teachers college exponent put it: "We should have faith that we can make our own degrees worthwhile, rather than seek to share the prestige that liberal arts colleges have won for B. A. or B. S. or Ph. D. These degrees, while eminently respectable, are colorless." In the meantime the new teachers colleges were improving the academic training of their faculties and evolving four-year curriculums. One of the most important developments in the teachers colleges was the growth of curriculums. The outstanding features of diis expansion were: [i] the introduction of a 148 A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION wide range of elective courses; [2] the coming of the four-year teachers college curriculum; [3] the establishment of large numbers of differentiated cur- riculums; [4] the guidance of a pragmatic viewpoint in the selection and inauguration of new courses and curriculums. The multiplication of courses, the estab- lishment of groups of electives, the natural gravita- tion of elective groups into tentative curriculums, and the stabilization of these — all of this presents a fascinating path of evolution. It was in a measure unplanned, and was guided by the idea of supplying the types of teachers needed in the public schools as rapidly as the demands presented themselves. Spe- cial curriculums on the two-year basis were expanded quite rapidly to fully organized four-year curriculums as the public schools demanded more training for definite fields. The last to make the shift are the curriculums for the preparation of elementary and rural teachers. The two-year curriculum in these fields has not entirely disappeared. The teachers colleges await society's demands, and the trend is definite toward requiring four years of education for all teachers in the public schools. The twentieth-century concept of a teacher was the challenge to the teachers college. As that concept broadened with the increasing complexity of modern THE RISE OF THE TEACHERS COLLEGE I49 life and the ever-growing functions of the school, the teachers colleges, if they were to hold their legal and historical position, had to expand to meet the situ- ation. The American highschool became more and more elaborate. The highschool building and equip- ment became the town's special pride and money was poured into the highschool without stint. Swim- ming pools, gymnasiums, auditoriums, cafeterias, mu- sic and art studios, machine shops, journalistic divi- sions, and many more facilities made life more interesting for the students. But it meant that in order to turn out capable teachers the institutions preparing these teachers required vastly greater facil- ities than were needed when the public school was simpler in its offerings. This problem of expansion offered grave financial difficulties to the teachers colleges. Their work was limited only by their ability to secure adequate ap- propriations from the legislatures. Their case was a strong one, but their public relations program had not developed to an adequate degree. They had not seen that in this modern world where so many voices are lifted and so many groups have something to sell, even the best of causes must be vigorously presented. The fact that the graduates of state universities were of a higher economic stratum than those of the teach- 150 A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION ers colleges often made for greater effectiveness before the state legislature on the part of the state university. In several states there v^as a danger of starving the teachers colleges in order to build up an educational colossus in the state university. This financial problem was to a certain degree the spur that was needed to produce among the teachers colleges a better system of keeping the public informed of their needs and services. The American state teachers college met many crucial tests but emerged in the third decade of the twentieth century as a strong, vigorous institution. Its definite triumph over the forces which wished to restrict and paralyze it, gave it a new pride and a new incentive to further conquests. It was now a recog- nized collegiate institution, the state's chief agent for preparing all teachers needed by the public schools, and was fairly adequately equipped to do something constructive in educating the kind of teachers to guide our troubled world along the path of democratic living. CHAPTER VI THE TWENTIETH-CENTURY TEACHERS COLLEGE THE TEACHERS COLLEGES of today havc measurably solved certain problems and are facing other tasks and opportunities. They have succeeded in erecting physical plants worthy of the dignity and magnitude of their work. A two and one-half million dollar plant is not unusual at the present time, and some are larger than this. The annual income of a modern teachers college should be well over $400 per student. Its campus should be over one hundred acres in size. It should employ nurses and a physician and possibly have a hospital. Its library should contain at least 50,000 well-selected volumes. Thus one could con- tinue, not to paint some future ideals, but to make an actual description of the existing and the attain- able. The teachers-college faculties of today have academic preparation far in advance of that of ten years ago, and are taking marked steps in improving faculty efficiency. In the matter of public-school teaching experience, in formal college courses in education, and in general [151] 152 A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION professional background, the faculties of teachers col- leges have a decided superiority over the faculties of liberal arts colleges and universities. Let us take two examples of the physical plants of state teachers colleges. The Iowa State Teachers Col- lege has over twenty buildings on a 127-acre campus. The principal buildings include an administration building, auditorium, library, science building, voca- tional building, women's gymnasium, men's gymnas- ium, president's home, dormitories for men and dor- mitories for women, commons, general hospital, shops and garage building, campanile, and green- house units. The physical plant of Ball State Teachers College at Muncie, Indiana, is another example of the best. There are ten buildings. The gymnasium was constructed at a cost of about $330,000; the library and assembly hall cost §300,000; the arts building, $450,000; and the science building, §385,000. Space does not permit accounts of even a few samples in respect to faculty numbers and preparation, library and laboratory facilities, curriculum, or finances. The entrance requirements of the teachers colleges have universally arrived at highschool graduation as a minimum and the curriculums are practically all four years in length with a strong trend toward the five-year program. Of the 150 teachers colleges and THE TEACHERS COLLEGE OF TOMORROW 153 normal schools belonging to the American Associa- tion of Teachers Colleges, 31 were offering work for the Master's degree in 1939. From the data supplied by 28 of these 31, it is shown that three had the right to grant the M. A. degree before 1920; three began such a program in the years 1920-1925; nine in the period 1925-1930; three between 1930 and 1935; and, what is most significant of the trend, ten opened this opportunity for work leading to the higher degree between 1935 and 1939. The self-survey and standard- ization movements have been so effective that there is complete harmony with the older accrediting agen- cies set up by the liberal arts colleges, and new self- imposed qualitative standards for teachers colleges are being discussed. The teachers colleges offer education each year to more than 180,000 teachers. Altho fewer in number than the colleges and universities by a ratio of over one to two, they furnish each year about 56 percent of the public-school teachers. The preparation of teachers for the public schools is without question a function of the state, and the teachers college is the central factor in any twentieth-century state program of teacher preparation. The teachers college is today an essential public utility and is ready to meet the heavy demands placed upon it by the public. 154 A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION As has been shown, the twentieth-century teachers colleges oij[er a great variety of curriculums. These curriculums are four years in length and prepare for the great diversity among teaching positions — manual arts, commercial subjects, household economy, kin- dergarten, primary, lower grades, upper grades, all highschool subjects, speech, agriculture, and the like. To meet the demands of the small highschools, pros- pective highschool teachers must have a minor as well as a major field and perhaps even a third teach- ing field. Every teacher should be able to take the lead in the extracurriculum activities of his school. This extracurriculum education is a vital part of teacher preparation. Last year 54 percent of the sen- iors in eight large teachers colleges were preparing to teach in the highschools. Of these seniors 82 per- cent w^ere participating in some organized subject- matter or departmental club work and 56 percent were participating in more than two organized extra- class activities. Extra-class intramural athletics took the largest percent, followed by social organizations, music and literary organizations, forensic work, and student government organizations. The teachers colleges are just beginning to emerge from the paralyzing effects of the old classical, tradi- tional, medieval, liberal-arts curriculum pattern. THE TEACHERS COLLEGE OF TOMORROW I55 There is a definite striving for a new curriculum, new relations to the public schools, and new technics of teaching. A firsthand study of society and its prob- lems and a close scrutiny of the American schools is leading to the creation of new curriculum materials which will prepare teachers for the great task of leadership in a twentieth-century democracy. No thought of growing respectable by becoming arts colleges can deter the modern teachers college from its historic path of pragmatism and its obligation to point out the road of progress for public education. More specifically, the curriculum must arise from the implications of the aims of education; from a searching analysis of the best teaching procedures and materials of instruction; from careful sifting of all the scientific evidence, studies, surveys, and theo- ries in regard to what schools ought to be; from a de- tailed consideration of teacher traits and activities; and most important of all, from the wisest, most far- reaching attempt to understand the nature of our complex and contradictory civilization. The teachers colleges of today are convinced that first and foremost in a teacher's education must be broad culture and an acute awareness of the problems which concern contemporary life. The tremendous forces of produc- tion must be guided by social intelligence and this 156 A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION baffling task can never be accomplished unless our teachers can be made capable of educating a genera- tion of critical-minded, tolerant, optimistic citizens who at least have been given a basic understanding of the social, economic, and political processes which are functioning today. Moreover, with the growth of leisure due to shortened working days, the citizen must be provided with satisfying interests, tastes, and appreciations. He must be interested in life and inter- esting to himself and others. This places a grave re- sponsibility on the teachers college, if it is to graduate young people capable of meeting such challenges. The teachers colleges are introducing new mate- rials and courses to give the future teacher an under- standing of contemporary problems and a broad cul- tural outlook. Quite generally the first two years of preparation are devoted to these ends. This work is professionalized subjectmatter, because it is selected and organized with the ideal teacher in mind. Con- temporary civilization, modern problems, history of civilization, social and economic organization, appre- ciation of art, music appreciation, social conventions, economic and social problems, contemporary issues — these are just a few of the courses that are offered in teachers colleges from coast to coast. They are in the curriculum so that our teachers may be first of THE TEACHERS COLLEGE OF TOMORROW 157 all broadly and critically aware of the surging life about them. One of the distinctive contributions of teachers col- leges is the practice, laboratory, or apprenticeship phases of their work. In theory, the practice school has been the focus of teacher preparation since the days of Barnard, Phelps, and Page. There was con- siderable danger early in the twentieth century, when many teachers colleges were trying to make their peace with the North Central Association, that the practice teaching phase of their work would be un- duly minimized. Fortunately that danger has been measurably averted and the apprentice and laboratory work in the professional education of the teachers college student is now considered the crowning test of the whole process. Theory and practice are be- coming more closely integrated. A close coordination is growing between the work given in regular aca- demic and professional courses with the work done in the practice school. It is perfectly clear that future teachers should spend sufficient time in the practice and demonstration school to master the necessary skills in the use of essential tools of the teaching art. It is believed in modern teachers colleges that stu- dents should be introduced gradually to the varied duties and activities of the teaching art. Observation, 158 A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION apprenticeship, and full responsibility should come in proper sequence. The medical education program without clinical facilities and without interneship would be as unthinkable as teacher education without the practice phases. There has been considerable ex- perimentation and discussion in regard to the relative importance and value of the various phases of this work, but within recent years no serious question has arisen as to the basic necessity of preserving and devel- oping this type of training. There has been much thought given as to the relative worth of on-campus and ofif-campus practice teaching. There have been attempts to standardize the ratio of pupils to practice teachers, and the ratio of critic teachers to practice teachers. Many schemes have been tried to help ini- tiate the student into the real teacher's life. Exchange [schemes have been tried in which the teachers from the public schools have been brought to the teachers- college campus for a week or two, and student teach- ers have gone out and taken complete charge of the public-school job. In this connection there has grown up a considera- ble feeling in the teachers colleges that qualitative judgments might take the place of the time-worn system of credits and grades for courses. After all, the success of the teachers college depends not on THE TEACHERS COLLEGE OF TOMORROW 159 its ability to build up courses with imposing names, nor load its catalog with decorative Doctors' degrees, nor spend annually enough money for books and equipment; but upon its ability to turn out teachers who can do the job. If it is possible to measure in some way the effectiveness of the results of the whole teacher-education process in terms of what the stu- dent can do in teaching children in the public schools, then the teachers colleges can do what they have always liked to do — they can attack directly and im- mediately the task at hand. From the days of Richard Edwards and Henry Barnard, the state teacher-educa- tion schools have had a functional approach and have looked to the attainments of their graduates as the criterion for evaluating the teachers-college program. We may now be approaching the day when the technics of qualitative measurement will be highly enough developed so that the teachers colleges will graduate students when they are able to perform intelligently and skilfully all the duties of teaching, and not after they have accumulated 130 credit hours with an average grade of not less than "C." This leads us to another important trend in the program of the twentieth-century teachers college, and that is the matter of selective admission. It is generally held that students who are to be educated l6o A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION for the teaching profession should be carefully se- lected. This feeling has grown since the beginning of the normal school and various requirements and schemes have been formulated for selective recruit- ing of prospective students. In the old days the en- trance examination was used for this purpose. When the prospective student presented himself for the entrance examination, he v/as personally interviewed by the president and a committee of faculty members. If he appeared to be poor material, the chances were that he would fail the examination and be rejected as a student of the normal school. In many of the better normals the plan was effective and may even today be the solution of the problem of selective ad- mission. Nothing better seems to have been devised than the composite judgment of a faculty committee on the prospective student's probable chance of suc- cess given after personal interviews with the applicant. But this plan went out of use as attendance increased and as graduation from the highschool became the generally accepted standard for admission. It is considered today that the selection of those whom the state will educate for service in its public schools, is a function and obligation of the state teach- ers colleges. There is no teacher shortage at present and there is not likely to be soon; but there is a THE TEACHERS COLLEGE OF TOMORROW l6l shortage of good teachers. The state has a right to expect that the teachers college will wisely pick from the oversupply of applicants those who have the best chances of being worthy of the public invest- ment in their education. This is as important a duty as that of educating the students after admission to the teachers college. The teacher needs of the state should be carefully worked out by the teachers col- leges and the state departments of education. These needs should determine the number of students ad- mitted to the teachers colleges, and the number to be admitted would in turn determine the severitv of the selective process. Many plans of selection have been tried. The trend at present seems to be the application of a variety of admission criteria to each candidate. Past school record, vocational aptitude tests, opinions of former teachers and principals, a battery of tests [intelligence, reading, social studies, English composition, etc.], physical examination, and personal interviews — all of these combined give a composite picture of the can- didate's possibilities in comparison with his fellow applicants. The problem of administration involved in selective admission is considerable, and the solu- tion of the whole matter waits largely upon the devel- opment of administrative technics. l62 A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION In Rhode Island, the first state to do something definite in this matter, the students are admitted on a competitive basis; in New Hampshire, they must be from the upper half of the highschool graduating class and be recommended by the highschool prin- cipal; in South Carolina, they are admitted in order of highest qualifications. In Michigan, candidates must pass tests in speech, intelligence, general achieve- ment, and English; in Missouri, four character refer- ences are required, also physical examination and personal interview of those in the upper half of the highschool class for the past three years. In New Jersey, tests are given in speech, general information, English, and contemporary affairs. The applicant must also pass a physical examination, is given a per- sonal interview, and special aptitude tests if an appli- cant for a special curriculum. Each college takes only a definite number. In Massachusetts, the applicants are examined if their highschool grades are not "A" or ''B!' Highschool principals must send records and ratings of personal characteristics. Candidates are then admitted in order of total scores. More recently other significant plans for selective admission have been tried out. The work of teacher-placement has grown remark- ably in the past few years. Definite programs of guid- THE TEACHERS COLLEGE OF TOMORROW 163 ance and placement are now being scientifically based on the needs of the state for teachers of various types. By establishing a quota system, the teachers colleges may supply approximately the number of teachers needed for work in commerce, social stud- ies, speech, physical education, and so forth. By locat- ing these teachers in the schools where they will fit best and by watching their work, the teachers college may judge the effectiveness of their program of ad- mission as well as preparation. Any sensitivity to the needs of the state and to the success of their own enterprise demands that the teachers colleges establish a plan of follow-up work. The institutions having some such plan are numerous. The close relationship of the teachers colleges to the public schools thruout the history of the state teacher- education movement has enabled the faculties of these schools to be welcome visitors in the schools of the state. It has also enabled the public-school men and women to come often to the campuses and confer with the faculty on problems of school administra- tion, personnel, or classroom teaching. To systema- tize this work and connect it constructively with the placement function seems to be generally the task of the director of placement. However, it is not a matter to be handled by any one officer or bureau, 164 A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION but is a regular service of the school and a part of the responsibility of the entire faculty. This leads us to the important topic of the public- relations program. The teachers college must be brought to the active teachers and the teachers must be brought to the campus. The newer type of exten- sion course aims to establish a close relationship be- tween what the teachers are actually doing in their classroom, and the offerings from the teachers college staff. Definite provision is made in many teachers colleges for the faculty members to visit public schools within their territory, to make contacts with school officers, to advise former students, to estimate the needs of teachers in terms of what changes might be made in the regular work of the teachers college, and in general to keep in touch with the end results of the teacher-education program. The follow-up work may thus quite naturally flow out of the public relations program or perhaps vice versa. But the term, "public relations," implies due pub- licity to the work and needs of the institution. The teachers colleges, because they were state-supported and did not depend on direct gifts from the public, were slow in interesting themselves in public relations that involved others besides the teachers of the state. The private schools learned quite early how essential THE TEACHERS COLLEGE OF TOMORROW 165 it is to keep the public informed as to their achieve- ments. The organization of alumni and the appeal to school loyalty went hand in hand to make the college known and respected. The state support and voca- tional nature of the teachers colleges have made this sort of work rather difficult. However, promising steps have been taken by some institutions in the or- ganization of their alumni and in the creation of a spirit of school loyalty. The services of the newspaper have just recently come to be appreciated by the teachers colleges, and they are now learning that their activities have news value. As a part of the public-relations program, the teachers college now throws open its facilities to many sorts of community enterprises and group meetings. Various state associations find that there are many important connections between their pur- poses and those of schools preparing teachers. They also find that a visit to the campus opens their eyes to the enlarged meaning of the word "teacher," differing greatly from the concept they had of that officer, as obtained from their experiences in the pub- lic schools twenty to forty years ago. All that most teachers colleges need in order to secure public sup- port and cooperation is for the public to visit them and see what they are doing. It is decidedly the pub- l66 A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION lie's business to know how well or poorly the state's money is being spent. The teachers colleges also have done a great deal in bringing highschool students to the campuses. What- ever may be thought of the specific value of high- school contests in music, speech, athletics, typing, and so forth, it is certain that these occasions often give the visiting highschool pupil the desire to attend the institutions in which they are held. Universities and colleges have long conducted such meets, much to their advantage in enrollment figures. The teach- ers colleges are now well-launched in this means of competition for the promising future student. But the competitive groups of highschool students are not the only kind to be invited to the teachers- college campus. Provisions are often made for the reception of groups of highschool seniors who have shown interest in a teaching career. The program of guidance in the highschools has been aided by the teachers-college faculties, and it is an essential obliga- tion of these schools to point out to young people the rewards and limitations of the teaching profession; also personal traits and characteristics which make for success or failure in the vocation of teaching. The task of public relations is a matter of keeping the public informed about the institution and its THE TEACHERS COLLEGE OF TOMORROW 167 activities, not a matter of giving publicity to indi- viduals. Its primary purpose is to improve the educa- tional system of the state by keeping the public en- lightened as to the financial and educational status, needs, and policies of an important public service. The tw^entieth-century teachers college is in a posi- tion to investigate scientifically the educational prob- lems of the state. It is the logical function of such institutions to take the lead in the educational work of the commonwealth. Their past success, their close contact with the public schools, their permanency, and their trained faculty, all invite them to enlarge their work in research, in cooperation with state edu- cation departments, and in general activity in behalf of constructive educational legislation. The attempt to solve the major problems of education has been from the beginning one of the characteristics of state teacher-education institutions and the story of edu- cational leadership in many states has been the story of the efforts of normal-school presidents and facul- ties. Relatively less of this leadership is seen in the first three decades of the twentieth century, but there are indications that a revival in this direction is on its way. One of the newer traits of the teachers college is its growing practice of democracy. The people of the l68 A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION United States at present are unanimous in express- ing their desire to preserve American democracy. We are all examining more thoroly the meaning and sig- nificance of democratic living. Everywhere it is being asserted that the aim of education and its methods must be founded on a closer analysis and application of democratic principles. The public schools are the best possible places for the develop- ment of the democratic pattern. Here individuals of all races, religions, and economic and social strata meet on terms of equality to engage in the coopera- tive enterprise of educating themselves and one an- other. What is more imperative than that this situa- tion be utilized in developing the ideal of the public school into a wise curriculum of democracy ? The teachers colleges are now awakening to the implications of education for democracy. The days of autocratic administration by the president are rapidly passing. Large and well-trained faculties are taking a greater part in determining curriculums, policies, budgets, terms of employment and dismis- sal, and the like. Faculty representative bodies are set up because the whole faculty is an unwieldy body for the purpose of action. The discussion of school problems and their solution by democratic means adds to the morale of the teachers college and aids it THE TEACHERS COLLEGE OF TOMORROW 169 materially in meeting the many demands which modern society places upon it. There is no doubt that the future greatness of the American teachers college depends to a large degree upon the extent to which the faculties are inspired by democratic organization and responsibility to give their full energy and unhampered intelligence to the grave problems involved in preparing teachers capable of meeting the new day in education. This movement toward democracy is also shown in the participation of students in the social control of the school. Altho extra-class activities in the mod- ern teachers college are adequately supervised and coordinated by the faculties, yet they are more and more being conducted and guided by students. This is not difficult because the average teachers-college student is a serious-minded, responsible young per- son. Irregular conduct is frowned upon rather gen- erally as likely to injure the chances of placement for graduates of the school. The reputation of the school for high standards in morals and ethics is a positive commercial asset and the students, as they approach the dignity of seniors, realize this fully. The average teachers-college student is not only seri- ous but conservative, in the best sense of that word. These young people are going out to educate children 170 A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION for life in a democratic society. They must have ex- perience in hving in a school situation that will give every opportunity for the growth of democratic habits of conduct and a true philosophy of demo- cratic education. The rigid externally-imposed dis- cipline of the old normal-school days is being rapidly replaced in the better teachers colleges by a self- imposed discipline, much more adult and much more in conformity with the ideals upon which the teachers colleges were founded. Only a brief outline of the achievements of the first hundred years of state-supported teacher educa- tion has here been attempted. There has been no desire to minimize the contributions of other agencies to the great task of educating teachers, but the occa- sion which brings forth this book is the hundredth anniversary of the establishment of the first state- supported institution for the exclusive purpose of preparing teachers. The major aim here has been to show the state teachers college as a product of an evolutionary process. It arose, in the form of the early Massachusetts normal school, in response to a definitely recognized need of society. It gained in prestige and power as it spread to the Mississippi Valley. Here it was established as a vocational school of collegiate rank. THE TEACHERS COLLEGE OF TOMORROW 171 The state teacher-education schools spread to al- most every state in the Union and established them- selves as an indispensable part of the public-school system. They made teaching a profession and educa- tion a science. They faced the public schools and strove to raise the general level of education for the masses. In the past thirty years they have been generally known as teachers colleges, not because they changed their fundamental nature, but because standardization and the resulting prominence of the degree for highschool teachers forced the normal schools to secure the degree-granting privilege, con- forming in certain particulars to the established col- lege and university standards. The process in some cases was difficult, and for a time there was real danger that their historic course of development would be sidetracked and they would run into a blind alley. But that danger has vanished, and in the past twenty years the state teacher-educa- tion institutions with the newly-established collegiate dignity are again facing the public schools and ac- cepting the tasks they see before them with the same pragmatic philosophy that inspired Cyrus Peirce, Henry Barnard, Richard Edwards, Homer Seerley, John Kirk, and David Felmley. r INDEX Academics, 30-31, 35, 40-43, 66- 69, 70. Adams, John Quincy, 22-24. Admission, selective, 25-26, 53, 70, 105-108, 138, 152-53, 159-62. Alabama normal schools, 95. Albany. See New York normal schools. Allen, Charles H., 94. Allen, Fordyce, 94. American Association of Teachers Colleges, 71, 108-109, 138-39, 143-44, 152-53. American Institute of Instruction, 71. Bagley, William C, 115, Baker, William S., 94, Barnard, Henry, 31, 49-59, 94, I57> 159. 171. Barre. See Massachusetts normal schools. Bates, William G., 9. Boone, Richard G., 102-103. Bridgewater. See Massachusetts normal schools. Brooks, Charles, 17-19, 22. Brown, Elmer, 125. --^ Brown University, 59. California normal schools, 28, 72, 95, 88, 124. Camp, David N., 57, 123, Carter, James G., 16-17. Clinton, De Witt, 14, 39. Colburn, Dana P., 28, 59, 60-61. Colleges and universities, relation to normal schools, 30-31, 73, 80, 109, 130-31, 139-47, 151- 52. Connecticut normal schools, 28, 38, 39. 49-58. New Britain, 52-57, 124. Cook, John, 102, 104, 126. Cornell University, 113. Cousin, Victor, 18. Crosby, Alphcus, 120. Curriculums of normal schools, 30-31, 41-42, 53-56, 79-80, 83- 84, io8-iii, 117-18, 130, 136- 39, 147-48, 154-57- Dakotas, Normal schools in, 124. De Garmo, Charles, 1 13-14, 124- 25. Degrees conferred by teachers col- leges, 130, 133-38, 141, 147, 152-53- Deparments of education and nor- mal schools, 103, 1 13-14. Dewey, John, 127. Dwight, Edmund, 24. D wight, Francis, 43. Edwards, Richard, 28-30, 33, 71, 84-86, 89, 97-98, 123, 134, 159, 171. Emerson, George B., 43. Everett, Edward, 24, 33. European normal schools, 17-18, 19-20, 35, 40, 50-51, 124-25. Extracurriculum activities, educa- tion for, 119-20, 154. Faculties of normal schools, 102- 104, 151-52. Felmley, David, 114-15, 141, 145- 47, 171. Financing of normal schools, 24- 25, 44, 74-77, 81-82, 86-89, 99-101, 130, 151. [173] Gage, George M., 28. Gallaudet, Rev. Thomas H., 15, 43- Gilchrist, J. C., 134. Greene, S. S., 59, 123. Hall, John, 124. Hall, Rev. Samuel R., 13-14, 42. Herbartian movement, 121-28. Hewett, E. C., 28, 84, 118. Highschool, relation to normal school, 70, 73, 129, 131-34, 140-42, 148-49. Hovey, C. E., 83-84, 94. Hulburd, Calvin T., 44. Humphrey, Rev. Heman, 12-13, 34- Illinois normal schools, 28, 69, 80-86, loi, 105. Normal, 81-86, 102, 109, 121, 123-27. Indiana normal schools, 95, loi, 105, 113, 124, 152. Indiana University, 103, 113. Iowa normal schools, 89-91, 105, 135. Cedar Falls, 90-91, 152. Iowa University, 90, 113. Institutes, teachers, 39, 44, 51, 94, 1 16-17. Kansas normal schools, 88-89, i35' Emporia, 83, 88-89, ioi> lOQ- Keith, J. A. H., 141. Kellogg, L. B., 89, 118. Kendall, Joshua, 28. Kirk, John, 114, 141, 171. Lancaster, Joseph, 67. Lexington. See Massachusetts nor- mal schools. Louisiana normal schools, 72, 95. McMurry, Charles and Frank, 124- 27. Maine normal schools, 28, 72. Mann, Horace, 17, 20-22, 24, 26- 28, 32-33, 34, 43, 45, 85. Maryland normal schools, 95. Massachusetts normal schools, 9- 36, 37. 69, 72, loi, 112, 162. Barre, 24, 27, 33. Bridgewater, 9, 21-22, 24, 25, 27-29> 33-34> 36, 61, 84, 88, 102. Lexington, 9, 24, 25-27, 31-35, 36. Salem, 29-30, 36. Maxwell, G. E., 141. Mayhew, David P., 78-79. Mayhew, Ira, 74. Michigan normal schools, 69, 73- 80, loi, 105, 162. Ypsilanti, 72, 74-80, 83, 103, 109-111, 135-37- Michigan University, 113, 140, 143- Minnesota normal schools, 28, 72, 86-88. Winona, 63, 86-88, loi, 124. Mississippi normal schools, 28. Missouri normal schools, 28, 72, 95, 105, 135, 162. Kirksville, 114, 124. Model, practice, or training schools, 15, 32, 46, 57, 58, 64-66, 79-80, 87-88, 118-19, 157-58. Moore, Ira, 28, 88. Education Association, 122-23, 127, 138-39, National 97-98, 141. See also American Asso- ciation of Teachers Colleges. National Normal School Conven- tion, 71, 108-109. Nebraska normal schools, 95, 124, 135- [174] New Britain. See Connecticut nor- mal schools. New England Association of Col- leges, 113. New Hampshire normal schools, 162. New Jersey normal schools, 28, 38, 61-66, 162. Trenton, 62-66, 71, loi, 137- 38. New York normal schools, 38-49, 69, 72, loi, 124. Albany, 44-47, 83, loi, 102, 105, 135-36. Oswego, 47-48, 87-88, 102, 121-24. North Central Association of Col- leges and Secondary Schools, 140-41, 157. Ogden, John, 87, 94. Oswego method of teaching, 121- 24. See also New York normal schools. Page, David Perkins, 45-47, 157. Payne, W. H., 143. Peirce, Cyrus, 26-27, 31-32, 171. Pennell, C. S., 123. Pennsylvania normal schools, 38, 66-69, 72, loi, 135. Millersville, 68, 83. Pestalozzian method of teaching, 17, 18, 47-48, 122. Phelps, William F., 46, 63-65, 71- 72, 87, 1 15-16, 123-24, 157. Pickard, J. L., 123. Pierce, John D., 74, Potter, Alonzo, 43. Public relations program in nor- mal schools, 38, 149-50, 164- 67. Rhode Island normal schools, 28, 38, 51, 58-61, 69, 162. Russell, Francis T., 94. Russell, William, 59. Sears, Barnas, 123. Seerley, Homer, 116, 141, 171. Sheldon, Edward Austin, 47-48, 121-24. Shepard, Irwin, 104. South Carolina normal schools, 95, 162. State departments, relation to nor- mal schools, 38. Stowe, Calvin E., 19-20. Sumner, Arthur, 28, 59-60. Tennessee normal schools, 96. Tillinghast, Nicholas, 28-29, 34, 46, 61, 71, 84, 88. Trenton. See New Jersey normal schools. Van Liew, C. C, 124-25. Vermont normal schools, 13. 28, 72. Waldo, Dwight B., 141. Webster, Daniel, 11, 22-23. Welch, Adonijah Strong, 77-78. Wells, Franklin, 90. West Virginia normal schools, 72, 95-96. Winona. See Minnesota normal schools. Wisconsin normal schools, 6^, 72, 91-95, 109. Wisconsin University, 113. [175] mBH UNIVERSITY OF ILUNOIS-URBAN^ rc°Effi%FPUBUCTS"EOUC.T.ONWA /uta//.