,977.301 5 PHASE II EXCAVATION AND EVALUATION OF SEVEN SITES AT FORT LEONARD WOOD PULASKI Co. MISSOURI compiled by Paul P. Kreisa Public Service Archaeology Program Research Report No. 21 U. OF I . LIBRARY AT URBANA/ CHAMPAIGN BOOKSTACKS FINAL REPORT PHASE II EXCAVATION AND EVALUATION OF SEVEN SITES AT FORT LEONARD WOOD, PULASKI COUNTY, MISSOURI For Submission To: U.S. Army Construction Engineering Research Laboratory Champaign, Illinois 61826-9005 Contract No. DACA88-94-D-0008 Delivery Order No. 0003 Compiled By: Paul P. Kreisa with contributions by: Paul P. Kreisa Brian Adams Cynthia Balek Jacqueline McDowell Gregory R. Walz Steven R. Abler Pennie Copley Stacy Craft William H. Hedman Lisa Mohr Betty Jo Stokes Dr. Thomas J. Riley, Principal Investigator Public Service Archaeology Program Department of Anthropology University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign 109 Davenport Hall 607 South Mathews Avenue Urbana, Illinois 61801 November 1995 ABSTRACT From October 1994 through March 1995 the Public Service Archaeology Program of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign conducted Phase II evaluations at seven prehistoric sites on the Fort Leonard Wood Military Reservation, Missouri, for the United States Army Construction Engineering Research Laboratory (USACERL). The investigations were designed to provide archaeological inventory and management recommendations for sites previously recommended for Phase II National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) eligibility evaluation. Four of the investigated sites are recommended for listing on the NRHP because of the integrity of cultural deposits and their demonstrated ability to yield scientifically significant information. P H ^ 5" TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Page 1. INTRODUCTION (Paul P. Kreisa) 1 2. ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING (Steven R. Ahler) 4 Geology 4 Soils 5 Climate and Climatic Change , • 6 Biotic Resources 7 Cultural Study Units 8 3. CULTURAL OVERVIEW AND REVIEW OF PREVIOUS WORK (Jacqueline M. McDowell and Steven R. Ahler) 10 Cultural Overview 10 Previous Investigations 18 4. RESEARCH GOALS (Steven R. Ahler and Paul P. Kreisa) 23 Chronology and Culture History 23 Differential Use of the Landscape 24 Prehistoric Subsistence 25 Effects of Environmental Conditions on Human Populations 26 Summary 27 5. METHODOLOGY (Jacqueline M. McDowell) 28 Field Methods 28 Laboratory Methods 30 Curation 35 6. RESULTS OF INVESTIGATIONS 36 23PU482 (Paul P. Kreisa) 36 23PU251 (Steven R. Ahler and Stacy Craft) 43 23PU426 (Steven R. Ahler and William H. Hedman) 58 23PU492 (Brian Adams, Steven R. Ahler, Pennie Copley, and Lisa Mohr) 72 23PU288 (Betty Jo Stokes and Steven R. Ahler) 88 23PU457 (Paul P. Kreisa) 102 23PU556 (Paul P. Kreisa) 118 7. RESEARCH RESULTS (Paul P. Kreisa) 131 Chronology and Culture History 131 Prehistoric Landscape Use 133 Subsistence Patterns 136 Effects of Environmental Conditions on Human Populations 137 Conclusions 139 n TABLE OF CONTENTS CONCLUDED Chapter Page 8. SUMMARY OF EVALUATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS (Paul P. Kreisa) . . 140 Summary of Findings 140 Summary of NRHP Recommendations 146 Summary of Research Potential of Sites 146 Summary of Recommendations for Further Work 147 REFERENCES CITED 150 APPENDDC A. LIST OF ARTIFACTS 166 23PU482 168 23PU251 169 23PU426 173 23PU492 179 23PU288 183 23PU457 190 23PU556 198 APPENDIX B. THE GEOMORPHOLOGY OF TWO TERRACE SITES AT FORT LEONARD WOOD (Cynthia Balek) 202 Geomorphic Setting 203 Study Area 204 Soil-Geomorphic Study 206 Particle Size Distribution and Inferred Soil-Geomorphic Processes 207 Terrace Soils and Sediments 208 Soil-Slope Relationships 216 Soil-Landform Stability and Artifact Recovery 217 References Cited 218 APPENDIX C. SITE LOCATION MAPS Bound Separately APPENDIX D. ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF MISSOURI SITE FORMS Bound Separately APPENDIX E. SUPPORTING FIELD AND LABORATORY NOTES AND DOCUMENTATION Bound Separately APPENDIX F. PHOTOGRAPHIC DOCUMENTATION Bound Separately in LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1. Cultural Resource Zones at Fort Leonard Wood 3 2. Topographic Map and Site Plan of 23PU482 38 3. Soil Profiles from 23PU482: a, Test Unit 1; b, Test Unit 2 40 4. Topographic Map and Site Plan of 23PU251 44 5. Soil Profiles from 23PU251: a, Test Unit 1; b, Test Unit 2 48 6. Late Archaic to Woodland Period Projectile Point from 23PU251 54 7. Topographic Map and Site Plan of 23PU426 59 8. Distribution of Surface-Collected Artifacts at 23PU426 62 9. Soil Profiles from 23PU426: a, Test Unit 1; b, Test Unit 2; c, Test Unit 3 63 10. Temporally Diagnostic Projectile Points from 23PU426: a-b, Scallorn Points from Talus Slope; c, Scallorn point from Test Unit 1; d, Kings Corner-Notched Point from Talus Slope; e, Probable Snyders Affords Point from Talus Slope 67 11. Topographic Map and Site Plan of 23PU492 75 12. Soil Profile from 23PU492 76 13. Temporally Diagnostic Projectile Points from 23PU492: a, Arrow point; b, Possible Kings Corner-Notched; c, Kings Corner-Notched 81 14. Topographic Map and Site Plan of 23PU288 90 15. Soil Profiles from 23PU288: a, Test Unit 1; b, Test Unit 2; c, Test Unit 3 92 16. Temporally Diagnostic Projectile Points from 23PU288: a, Scallorn Cluster arrow point; b, Category SS5; c, Stone Square Stemmed 98 17. Topographic Map and Site Plan of 23PU457 103 18. Soil Profile of Test Unit 1 at 23PU457 105 19. Soil Profile of Test Unit 2 at 23PU457 106 20. Soil Profile of Test Unit 3 at 23PU457 107 21. Temporally Diagnostic Artifacts from 23PU457: a, Clear Creek Gouge; b-c, Smith Basal Notched Projectile Points; d, Big Sandy Projectile Point 113 22. Temporally Diagnostic Projectile Points from 23PU457: a, Kings Corner Notched; b, Table Rock Stemmed; c, Untyped Middle Archaic; d, Untyped Early Archaic .... 114 23. Topographic Map and Site Plan of 23PU556 119 24. Soil Profiles from 23PU556: a, Test Unit 1; b, Test Unit 2 121 25. Soil Profiles from 23PU556: a, Test Unit 3; b, Test Unit 4 123 26. Chipped-Stone Artifacts from 23PU556: a, Table Rock Stemmed Base; b, Motley or Crispen Projectile Point; c, Graham Cave Side-Notched Projectile Point; d, End Scraper 128 27. Particle Size Distribution of <2mm Fraction for 23PU556 Terrace Soils 209 28. Particle Size Distribution of <2mm Fraction for 23PU457 Terrace Soils 211 29. Particle Size Distribution of 50-2000mm Sand Fraction for 23PU556 Terrace Soils . . 213 30. Particle Size Distribution of 50-2000mm Sand Fraction for 23PU457 Terrace Soils . . 214 IV LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Summary of Physical and Location Attributes of Tested Sites at Fort Leonard Wood 2 2. Regional Temporal Periods and Local Cultural Manifestations in the Gasconade Drainage 11 3. Selected Characteristics of Major Soil Horizons in Upland Nondepositional Environments (SCS 1975) 31 4. Lithic Debitage and Tool Category Descriptions 33 5. Distribution of Artifacts at 23PU482 41 6. Distribution of Artifacts at 23PU251 50 7. Artifact Density Calculations for 23PU251 52 8. Distribution of Artifacts at 23PU426 by Analytical Unit 66 9. Radiocarbon Assays from 23PU492 and Calendrical Calibrations 78 10. Distribution of Artifacts at 23PU492 79 11. Artifact Density Calculations for 23PU492 80 12. Ceramic Artifacts and Densities Grouped by Analytical Unit at 23PU492 82 13. Composition of the Faunal Assemblage from 23PU492 84 14. Faunal Remains from 23PU492 85 15. Distribution of Artifacts at 23PU288 by Analytical Unit 95 16. Lithic Artifact Density Calculations for 23PU288 97 17. Distribution of Artifacts at 23PU457 109 18. Distribution of Historic Artifacts at 23PU457 110 19. Distribution of Prehistoric Artifacts at 23PU457 Ill 20. Distribution of Artifacts at 23PU556 125 21. Distribution of Artifacts by Test Unit and Level at 23PU556 126 22. Summary of NRHP Evaluation Criteria and Final Evaluations 147 23. Summary of Research Issues Pertinent to NRHP-Eligible Tested Sites 148 24. Description of Soil Profile "B" at 23PU556 210 25. Fine to Coarse Clay Ratios 212 26. Percent Clay, Silt and Sand at 23PU556 and 23PU457 215 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Projects of the scope and size of the Phase II testing of seven sites described herein are completed only with the help of numerous individuals. The initiation of this project was aided by Dr. Richard Edging of Fort Leonard Wood and Ms. Kathy Bowman, then of USACERL. At the University of Illinois, Dr. Thomas Riley served as Principal Investigator for this project, and Dr. Janet Dixon Keller provided support as department head. All of these individuals provided the administrative support so necessary for projects of this nature to be conducted. I would also like to thank Ms. Janice Pankey of the Department of Anthropology for her help with project accounting and Steve Klein for his work with personnel hiring and payroll. The completion of the fieldwork was aided by a number of individuals. The archaeological field team included Dr. Cindy Balek, Todd Brenningmeyer, Pennie Copley, Stacy Craft, Randy Fink, Bill Hedman, Doug Jones, Jacqueline McDowell, Dr. Steven Ahler, Lisa Mohr, Betty Jo Stokes, and Carl Wendt. Base personnel Dr. Richard Edging and Curt Rankin also assisted with logistics during the course of the fieldwork. Once fieldwork was completed, many individuals on the staff at PSAP conducted the laboratory tasks associated with this project. These included Dr. Cindy Balek, Todd Brenningmeyer, Pennie Copley, Stacy Craft, Randy Fink, Bill Hedman, Doug Jones, Jacqueline McDowell, Dr. Steven Ahler, Lisa Mohr and Carl Wendt. Analytical specialists assisting this project were Dr. Cindy Balek (geomorphologist), myself (faunal analyst), and Greg Walz (paleobotanical analyst). Report writing was divided among a number of individuals. Authors of various sections are acknowledged in the Table of Contents. The authors of the various sections are responsible for the interpretations therein. Finally, report production was aided by a number of individuals: Susan Brannock-Gaul produced the computer and line drawings included in this report, Jacqueline McDowell edited the manuscript and put the text into its final version, and Dr. Kevin McGowan provided useful comments on the draft. Kevin also provided administrative and accounting support for this project as well. I thank all of these individuals for their help with this project. They should be pleased that their efforts have aided in furthering the scientific, cultural and historical understanding of the study region. I hope that the content and contributions of this report have made their efforts worthwhile. P.P.K. November 1995 VI CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION In August 1994 the United States Army Construction Engineering Research Laboratory (USACERL) contracted with the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign to conduct Phase II evaluations at seven prehistoric sites in Pulaski County, Missouri, within the Fort Leonard Wood Military Reservation. The project was conducted by personnel from the University of Illinois Public Service Archaeology Program between October 1994 and March 1995. This report details the results of these investigations, evaluates each site in terms of its potential eligibility for inclusion in the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP), and, based on the data obtained from these sites, evaluates our current interpretations of prehistoric settlement and subsistence in the region. The sites investigated are located in two of the four cultural resource zones previously delineated at FOrt Leonard Wood (Table 1 and Figure 1). Phase II evaluations targeted a variety of open sites and rockshelters using similar theoretical approaches and methodologies. The investigations were designed to provide archaeological inventory and management recommendations for seven sites previously recommended for Phase II evaluation of their eligibility for nomination to the NRHP and to address issues of prehistoric settlement, subsistence and chronology. Of the seven sites investigated, four are recommended for listing in the NRHP because of the integrity of cultural deposits and their demonstrated ability to address locally significant research issues. As part of the effort to comply with federal regulations regarding historic preservation, specifically the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966, as amended, and Army Regulation 420^W), Phase II NRHP evaluations have been recommended at numerous sites within Fort Leonard Wood. Large-area Phase I cultural-resource inventories have been conducted at the military reservation since 1981, resulting in identification of over 400 historic and prehistoric sites. Additional evaluation of sites to establish their eligibility for inclusion in the NRHP (Phase II evaluation) has been recommended for over 120 sites. Until recently (e.g., Ahler et al. 1995a; Ahler et al. 1995b; Markman 1993), most archaeological research has been directed toward site inventory rather than Phase II evaluation. The investigations reported here represent a continuing program to conduct Phase II evaluations at the military reservation, and constitute an important aspect of cultural resource management at Fort Leonard Wood. This project also was designed to contribute toward fulfilling some of the basic research goals identified in the Historic Preservation Plan for Fort Leonard Wood (Harland Bartholomew and Associates 1992). Of critical importance was collection of data relevant to prehistoric chronology, subsistence and paleoenvironmental research questions. Radiocarbon and flotation samples were collected and analyzed for each of the seven sites excavated in order to address these research-oriented goals. Because of the higher potential for preservation of botanical and faunal remains, two of these sites are rockshelters. Three additional sites that were selected are from terrace settings, while the remaining two sites are located on upland ridges. The excavated sites were chosen to represent a variety of drainage, landform and site attributes. The sample also includes a broad range of site types, site sizes, and ages. Table 1 summarizes the general characteristics of the seven tested sites. Three sites are located in the Big Piney resource zone, while the remaining four sites are in the Upper Roubidoux resource zone. Open sites are located in a 1 Table 1. Summary of Physical and Location Attributes of Tested Sites at Fort Leonard Wood. Site Site Resource Number Type Zone Size (m 2 ) Landscape Position 23PU251 Open Air Upper Roubidoux 8,000 Terrace 23PU288 Open Air Big Piney 41,600 Ridge Crest 23PU426 Rockshelter Upper Roubidoux 500 Ridge Slope 23PU457 Open Air Big Piney 3,600 Terrace 23PU482 Open Air Upper Roubidoux 3,300 Ridge Crest 23PU492 Rockshelter Upper Roubidoux 35 Ridge Slope 23PU556 Open Air Big Piney 30,000 Terrace variety of landscape positions, and both large and small sites are represented. Large, open-air sites are defined as having surface areas greater than 10,000 m 2 . Rockshelter sites, by definition located on steep bluff slopes, also were selected in both the upper and lower tier of cave/shelters that borders the Roubidoux Creek valley. The archaeological investigations used standard excavation, data recording and analysis techniques employed throughout the Midwest. The field and laboratory methods are detailed in Chapter 5, and include controlled surface collections (if surface visibility permitted); postholing at close intervals to define site stratigraphy, artifact concentrations and site limits; and hand excavation of multiple 1-x-l-m or l-x-2-m test units. All cultural material and records associated with this project have been submitted to USACERL for duration. A listing of these materials can be found in Appendix A. The remainder of this report provides environmental and cultural overviews of the Fort Leonard Wood area, details the research goals and field and laboratory methods used during the execution of this project, and describes and interprets the results of investigations at the seven sites. Chapter 2 is a brief description of the regional environmental setting. Chapter 3 provides a summary of cultural periods and a review and critique of previous work performed in and near Fort Leonard Wood. Chapter 4 provides research orientation and details specific research questions to be addressed using the results of the investigations. Chapter 5 outlines the field and laboratory methods and procedures. Chapter 6 presents the results of the investigations, including site descriptions; descriptions of the investigations conducted and the results; discussion and analyses of the artifact assemblages; interpretation of the results; and recommendations for further work on a site-by-site basis. Chapter 7 addresses the results of the project in terms of the research questions outlined in Chapter 4. Chapter 8 summarizes the results of the project and provides a summary of recommendations for each site. References Cited are followed by appendices, which include a curation list of materials recovered (Appendix A), a discussion of the geomorphology of two terrace sites (Appendix B), site location maps (Appendix C), Archaeological Survey of Missouri Site Forms (Appendix D), copies of all field notes, maps and laboratory analyses, grouped by site (Appendix E), and photographs (Appendix F). Distributed separately due to the sensitive site location information contained therein are Appendices C, D, E, and F. Figure 1. Cultural Resource Zones at Fort Leonard Wood. CHAPTER 2 ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING Fort Leonard Wood is located in south-central Missouri in the northern Ozark Highland region, within the Salem Plateau (eastern) portion of the Missouri Ozarks (Loomis 1937; Miller 1981). Structurally, the Ozark region consists of a broad dome of Cambrian to Pennsylvania sedimentary rock covering an apical core of pre-Cambrian igneous rock. The Salem Plateau is dominated by Ordovician age dolomites and limestones that have been uplifted and subsequently incised and dissolved by groundwater over a long period of time, forming steep-sided, meandering valleys with dendritic drainage patterns (Department of the Army 1980:15; Rafferty 1980:8). Local relief differences often exceed 60 m within a radius of 500 m. The numerous caves, solution cavities, rockshelters, and sinkholes in the region are characteristic of karstic landscapes. These landscape features were formed by groundwater dissolving underlying limestone and dolomite bedrock along bedding planes, fissures or other irregularities (Atwood 1940). These features afforded inhabitants of the region natural shelter from the elements; most larger caves and shelters in the region have evidence of periodic use for several hundred or thousand years. The distribution of caves and rockshelters is not even across the landscape. They tend to be concentrated near larger, more deeply incised watercourses and adjacent side valleys. The presence and distribution of caves and shelters suitable for human occupation has affected prehistoric settlement patterns within the region. Fort Leonard Wood occupies part of the broad dissected uplands between the Big Piney River and Roubidoux Creek (see Figure 1), which form parts of the eastern and western boundaries of the installation, respectively. Both of these streams flow generally northward and are tributaries of the Gasconade River, which is part of the Missouri River drainage. The divide between the Missouri and Mississippi basins lies at the head of these streams, about 40 km south and 25 km east of the installation. Most of the acreage of the installation lies on the upland interfluve between the Big Piney River and Roubidoux Creek. This zone is not as deeply dissected as the areas along the major watercourses and has distinctive geologic, soil and biotic characteristics. Geology The dominant rock series underlying the Fort Leonard Wood area are Ordovician-age dolomites and sandstones. Three Ordovician formations outcrop within the boundaries of the installation, and all dip slightly to the southwest. The Gasconade formation is the oldest, and it is exposed along the Big Piney River, lower Roubidoux Creek and the lower reaches of several larger tributary drainages. The Gasconade formation is mainly composed of cherty dolomite, with a sandstone (Gunter) member near the base. The Gunter member does not outcrop at the surface within the boundaries of the installation. The Gasconade formation is conformably overlain by the Roubidoux formation, another cherty dolomite that also contains significant amounts of sandstone, quartzose sandstone (orthoquartzite) and some fine sediment partings. The Roubidoux formation is exposed at the surface along the floor of upper Roubidoux Creek and on most of the steep valley side slopes along the major and minor watercourses. The youngest formations are the almost-indistinguishable Jefferson City and Cotter formations, which outcrop as decomposed surface residuum on ridge crests in the central upland interfluve area (Anderson 1979; Ray 1985). All of these dolomite formations contain tabular and nodular chert of varying quality which was used for prehistoric manufacture of stone tools. The insoluble chert residuum often forms local gravel deposits in stream courses and cherty soil substrates in valley and side-slope settings. Ray (1985) has described the cherts found in these and other Ozark geologic formations in detail. Unfortunately, much of the chert from the Gasconade, Roubidoux and Jefferson City /Cotter formations is macroscopically indistinguishable in terms of its geologic formation of origin. All three formations contain oolitic and banded cherts and share a similar range of colors, textures and inclusions. These characteristics of the various chert sources have several implications for prehistoric lithic resource studies and analyses of settlement systems in the Fort Leonard Wood area. Perhaps the most salient characteristic of the chert resources is their abundance. Residual chert forms the subsoil of most soil series mapped on side slopes, foot slopes and small valley floodplains, and it is also commonly observed as gravel bar formations in the larger streams. Chert resources necessary for prehistoric stone-tool manufacture are thus abundant and readily accessible almost anywhere on the installation. The quality and size of the chert raw material is variable, but all of the formations discussed above, and thus all of the residual chert sources in the area, potentially contain high-quality chert in medium to large size cobbles. These conditions (chert abundance, chert accessibility and generally high chert quality) affect patterns of lithic resource procurement and those portions of the settlement system linked to procurement strategies. Under these conditions, it is highly likely that activities devoted to procurement of lithic resources will be embedded in other resource collection strategies and will not be the sole target of specific procurement sorties (see Binford 1979, 1982). It is therefore unlikely that sites devoted entirely to lithic quarry and workshop activities will be present. The activities associated with these kinds of sites will be included into other settlement types such as residential camps, field camps or base camps (sensu Binford 1980). A secondary effect of the chert resource characteristics noted above is that it is difficult for the lithic analyst to distinguish among the locally available and abundant chert types (Gasconade, Roubidoux and Jefferson City /Cotter). Differential use of these resources also will be difficult to determine. As a result, it may be more informative to group the Ordovician cherts into a local chert cluster and focus on identifying possible nonlocal lithic resources, the exploitation of which may be temporally or spatially significant. Such nonlocal resources include Burlington, Elsey and light- colored versions of Pierson and Reeds Spring cherts (undifferentiated Osagean cherts, see Ray [1985]), available west of the project area, and St. Francois rhyolite and microcrystalline igneous rocks, available to the east. Nonlocal chert raw materials were identified when possible. Soils Four major soil associations are found in the installation, and these groups correlate closely with major physiographic boundaries (see Wolf 1989). In the flattest portion of the uplands interfluve between the Big Piney River and Roubidoux Creek, the Lebanon-Plato association is found. These silty soils formed in loess deposits and have variable drainage characteristics. The more dissected upland interfluve and the summits and shoulders of larger ridges near the major streams are covered by soils of the Viraton-Clarksville-Doniphan association, composed of deep, well-drained silty to cherty soils. These soils formed in thin loess deposits overlying the cherty Jefferson City /Cotter dolomite residuum. The steep side valleys and bluffs in the major streams are covered by the Clarksville-Gepp association. These soils are thinner, well- to excessively drained and cherty to very cherty. Major stream valleys and some minor valleys are covered by soils of the Nolin-Huntington-Kickapoo association. These are deep, nearly level to gently sloping silty and loamy soils on floodplains and adjacent terraces. The first association named above does not occur in any of the tracts investigated here; the latter three associations are represented. The soil associations described above are further divided into several soil series (Wolf 1989), which are distinct mappable units found in specific physiographic settings that exhibit consistent texture, structure and drainage characteristics among units. The soil associations— and to a lesser extent, the soil series— are generally correlated with specific types of sites. The broad, flat areas in the upland interfluves are likely locations for open, long-term and short-term habitation sites and sites used for specific resource-procurement activities. Large ridge summits near permanent streams are more likely to contain habitation sites than are similar landforms located far from stable water sources. The steeply sloping soils of the Clarksville-Gepp association are likely to contain cairns or cave/rockshelters of varying sizes and potential for human occupation. Large or small open- habitation sites and limited activity sites are likely to be found in floodplains and adjacent terraces covered by the Nolin- Huntington-Kickapoo association. In some soil series (Huntington and Kickapoo), buried sites and surfaces are likely to be encountered. The soil series for each site is discussed in the individual site descriptions. Climate and Climatic Change The climate of the Fort Leonard Wood area can be characterized as typically midcontinental, with warm summers and cool winters (Wolf 1989). Average annual rainfall is about 100 cm, distributed relatively evenly throughout the year. The driest months tend to be August, September and October, and fire hazard increases greatly in the fall. The growing season generally ranges from 156 to 199 days, with the latest freeze occurring between 22 April and 9 May and the earliest freeze between 2 and 17 October of each year. The climatic parameters described above were probably not stable throughout the Holocene. Evidence from pollen, gastropod and mammal sympatry studies in the Midwest indicates that climatic change, rather than stability, has characterized the Holocene. In general, early Holocene climate was cooler and probably wetter than the present regime. The floral and faunal species present were modern in character, but their distribution may have been more patchy and fine-grained than at present. A major climatic shift during the middle Holocene has been recorded worldwide (Bryson et al. 1968; Deevey and Flint 1957; Wendland 1978). This period, known as the Atlantic Episode or Hypsithermal Interval, appears to involve a shift to warmer and possibly drier climatic parameters over much of the Midwest, and appears to last from about 8,500 to 5,000 years ago. The effects of the Hypsithermal are variable, depending on local physiographic and hydrologic parameters, but in general, several related landscape modifications appear to result from Hypsithermal impacts. Groundwater tables appear to have dropped significantly in elevation, resulting in drying of many upland springs and seeps. There is evidence for a shift to less dense ground cover and more xeric vegetation, especially on better- drained slopes and uplands. Decreased vegetation cover resulted in increased upland side-slope erosion and headward erosion of streams. The sediment eroded from uplands resulted in greater floodplain deposition and possibly in a shift in large river regimes from braided multiple channels to a single meandering high-amplitude channel dominated by overbank sheetwash deposition and development of backwater environments. These changes in upland and alluvial vegetation, water tables, landforms, and associated faunal resources may have severely affected how humans used the landscape. In particular, there is evidence for abandonment of drier upland areas in favor of valley margin settings near abundant backwater and riverine resources (Ahler 1984; Brown and Vierra 1983; Jefferies and Butler 1982; Warren 1990), increases in settlement size during the Hypsithermal (Ahler 1984), and changes in settlement strategy from residential mobility of small groups to more logistically organized systems oriented around base camps (Ahler 1984; Brown and Vierra 1983; Jefferies and Butler 1982; Higgins 1990). During the late Holocene, the climate probably attained its present character, with relatively minor fluctuations recorded over the last 5,000 years. Floodplains became stabilized and upland vegetation attained its present character as a mesic forest. Again, changes in human use of the landscape may be correlated with the advent of the late Holocene climatic regime, but the specific nature of such changes has yet to be identified. Biotic Resources Flora The Ozark Highlands exhibit a wide diversity of plant communities, probably because of the topographic, geologic and hydrologic variability within the region (Steyermark 1963). Distinctive plant communities are found on rolling uplands, poorly drained uplands, steep slopes, bottomland terraces, floodplains, near springs and sinkholes, and in ravine bottoms. The heavily dissected nature of the region results in a finely grained mosaic of plant communities (see Harland Bartholomew and Associates 1992). The dominant plant communities in the region are oak-hickory and oak-pine forests with concomitant understory vegetation. The U.S. Forest Service has published species composition and distribution lists for over 40 plant communities found in the adjacent Mark Twain National Forest (Miller 1981). The present vegetation is substantially different from the prehistoric and early historic vegetation regime. Schoolcraft (1853) traveled across the Ozarks in 1818 and noted that large tracts in the Ozarks were either unforested or had stunted tree vegetation. This vegetation pattern may have been culturally promoted by Native Americans setting fires in the autumn to improve hunting conditions (Chapman 1946). An alternative explanation may be the development of nearly impermeable fragipan soils that inhibit root growth on flat and poorly drained uplands (Rafferty 1980). Regardless of the origin of this vegetation pattern, it was common to the region. An upland forest of this character would undoubtedly have affected prehistoric settlement and resource exploitation patterns. In other areas, large tracts of pine forest covered the well-drained uplands, prairies were found on flat uplands, oak-hickory stands were present in high elevations, and cane thickets were abundant in bottomland settings. The present vegetation is dominated by oak forests on uplands and side slopes, with white, post, black, and blackjack oaks most common. The valleys support a greater variety of trees, and sycamore, ash, cottonwood, sugar maple, walnut, butternut, hackberry, red oak, willow oak and pecan are present in minor but consistent proportions. Niquette et al. (1983) note the dominance of oak-hickory forests on Fort Leonard Wood and describe cedar glade communities in scattered upland settings. Niquette et al. (1983) also prepared a list of the common plant species found on the installation, their seasonality and potential economic and medicinal uses. Fauna Faunal species in the Fort Leonard Wood area include those commonly encountered in the North American midcontinent. However, characteristics of the local relief, vegetation and physiography affect the distribution and abundance of the faunal resources. The hydrology of the region is affected by the karstic landscape, and many of the larger side valleys hold only intermittent streams. However, the main watercourses— including the Big Piney River and Roubidoux Creek— are clear and cool, supporting a variety of fish and mussel species. The most common large mammal in the region is the white-tailed deer, and a variety of medium-sized mammals (raccoon, squirrel, mink, muskrat, beaver, red fox, gray fox, skunk, opossum, cottontail rabbit and coyote) also would have been available to prehistoric inhabitants of the region. Terrestrial bird species that were also of potential economic importance include wild turkey, quail and prairie chicken. The Fort Leonard Wood area is not close to a major migratory route, so the seasonal fluctuations of aquatic bird species (ducks, geese, swans, etc.) would probably have had little effect on prehistoric subsistence patterns. Cultural Study Units The natural physiographic area of the Salem Plateau region of the Ozark Highland has unique features and characteristics. These characteristics of the landscape, geology, hydrology, soils, flora, fauna and climate interacted and in turn affected the nature, quantity, and patterns of human occupation within the region. Chapman (1948a, 1975, 1980) utilized the natural divisions within Missouri to provide an environmental context with which to compare the development of long-term cultural traditions. There is often considerable continuity of cultural expressions through time within a given natural region, while differences among regions are often more pronounced. Chapman (1975) included the Fort Leonard Wood area in the Ozark Highland archaeological-physiographic region, with Pulaski County divided between the Lower Osage and Gasconade localities (drainages). Elaborating on the concept of combined cultural and natural areas within Missouri, Weston and Weichman (1987) utilize drainages as the major cultural/natural divisions of the state. Fort Leonard Wood is contained within the Gasconade Study Unit and includes portions of the Big Piney and Upper Gasconade watersheds. These larger study units defined by Chapman and Weston and Weichman provide physical contexts for the study and comparison of cultural developments on a regional scale. Within each study unit, developments and trends are assumed to be generally uniform. The nature and timing of specific cultural changes can be compared across regions to provide data on interregional trends, time- transgressive studies, and panregional symbolism and exchange networks. Within Fort Leonard Wood itself, smaller resource zones have been defined (Edging 1992) for the purpose of more effective cultural resource management. Cultural, drainage, physiographic, and soil series characteristics were used to divide Fort Leonard Wood into five broad zones, each with its corresponding cultural and natural features. The Cantonment zone is located on the northern end of the base on the major upland interfluve between the Big Piney River and Roubidoux Creek. This zone includes the major military facilities and is viewed as having generally low potential for containing intact prehistoric cultural resources due to intensive construction and earth-moving activities. The Interior Uplands resource zone covers the remainder of the large upland interfluve. The potential for prehistoric and historic sites in generally low because of the large distance to permanent water sources. The Lower Roubidoux resource zone includes the Roubidoux Creek valley and adjacent terraces and uplands in the northwest corner of the installation. Caves, rockshelters, cairns, and open sites are common in this resource zone. The Upper Roubidoux resource zone includes an area similar to the Lower Roubidoux zone but is located in the southwest portion of the installation; prehistoric site density is highest in this zone. Finally, the Big Piney resource zone includes the Big Piney River valley and adjacent terraces and bluffs in the northeast corner of the installation. CHAPTER 3 CULTURAL OVERVIEW AND REVIEW OF PREVIOUS WORK This section presents a general outline of prehistoric and historic cultural development in the southern Midwest area and Ozark region that is based largely on earlier discussions (e.g. Ahler et al. 1995a). These data are extracted and summarized from the major regional archaeological syntheses, especially Chapman (1975, 1980), Douthit et al. (1979), Wright (1987), and the prehistoric overview presented in Harland Bartholomew and Associates (1992). Information specific to the Gasconade drainage has been derived from syntheses by McMillan (1965) and Reeder (1988). These data provide an interpretive framework for evaluating previous site evaluation and research excavations conducted at Fort Leonard Wood. Cultural Overview The regional cultural sequence for Missouri is divided into six major periods, some of which are subdivided into early, middle or late subperiods (Chapman 1975, 1980). Table 2 shows temporal ranges for these cultural periods (adapted from Chapman [1975, 1980]; McMillan [1965]; Reeder [1988]). General cultural developmental trends that transcend time periods include increases through time in population density, population aggregation, a focus on locally abundant food resources, the importance of cultivated plants as part of the subsistence system, the regionalization of cultural traditions, social and political complexity, and the importance of panregional ideological and symbolic/cosmological integrative systems. Specific cultural or technological developments are often shared over a wide region and serve as broad, area horizon markers. The Ozarks region also has its own expression of these trends, and specific attributes are briefly discussed when appropriate. Early Man Period (more than 14,000 B.P.) This is the most poorly understood time period in Missouri, and many archaeologists debate its existence. Criteria for positive recognition of sites of this period still need to be established. Recovery of extinct fauna in association with crude stone tools has been proposed, but recent evidence from Paleoindian period sites indicates that the quality of stone tool workmanship was highly variable. No Early Man sites have been reported from the Gasconade drainage, though Chapman (1975) indicates that river terraces and caves/rockshelters are most likely to provide unequivocal evidence of sites of this age. Paleoindian Period (14,000 to 10,500 B.P.) The Paleoindian period represents the earliest unequivocal occupation of the New World by people migrating from northern Asia across the exposed land mass now covered by the Bering Strait. This period is well-documented in portions of the United States, especially the Great Plains, where a series of morphologically and technologically distinct projectile point/knife or hafted biface forms are associated with broad regional traditions. These point styles are lanceolate forms with long, narrow flakes removed from the base, forming a characteristic channel or flute that facilitated hafting onto bone or wood handles. Many of the more refined specimens are made from high-quality nonlocal chert, indicating a high degree of mobility and probably well-developed exchange networks. Paleoindian 10 Table 2. Regional Temporal Periods and Local Cultural Manifestations in the Gasconade Drainage. Major Temporal Period Historic (A.D. 1700-present) Late Mississippian (A.D. 1450-1700) Early Mississippian (A.D. 900-1450) Late Woodland (A.D. 400-900) Middle Woodland (500 B.C. -A.D. 400) Early Woodland (1000-500 B.C.) Late Archaic (3000-1000 B.C.) Middle Archaic (5000-3000 B.C.) Early Archaic (7800-5000 B.C.) Dalton (8500-7800 B.C.) Paleoindian (12,000-8500 B.C.) Early Man (pre-12,000 B.C.) Local Manifestation Euroamerican settlements Late Maramec Springs Phase (A.D. 900-1700) Early Maramec Springs Phase (A.D. 400-900) Spring Creek Complex (?) (A.D. 1^100 ?) No defined local manifestation Sedalia Phase (?) or James River Complex (3000-1000 B.C.) No defined local manifestation Tick Creek Complex (?) Dalton Complex No defined local manifestation No defined local manifestation groups are believed to have been organized into small, highly mobile groups integrated politically and socially into egalitarian bands. Settlement systems were apparently based on residential mobility. Subsistence systems probably were highly generalized, exploiting locally available megafauna and a variety of smaller terrestrial mammal species as well. Patterns of plant use for Paleoindian groups is poorly documented. 11 No major Paleoindian sites are reported for the Gasconade drainage, and no sites of this time period are reported from Fort Leonard Wood or the adjacent Houston-Rolla District of the Mark Twain National Forest. A few isolated surface finds of Paleoindian points are reported in Chapman (1975) for the Gasconade drainage, though none are from Pulaski County. Caves, rockshelters and perched terrace remnants are the most likely landforms on which to find Paleoindian sites with intact stratigraphy. Dalton Period (10,500 to 9,800 B.P.) The transition from late Pleistocene to Holocene environment brought about extinctions of megafauna across North America and development of more modern biotic regimes. Archaeologically, this transition has an apparently short-lived but distinct expression in the Dalton culture (see Goodyear 1982). This manifestation was originally defined in northern Arkansas and southern Missouri (Goodyear 1974; Morse 1973; Morse and Goodyear 1973; Price and Krakker 1975) and is characterized by a chipped-stone tool assemblage that includes the distinctive lanceolate, unfluted Dalton projectile point and its variants, chipped-stone adzes, and spurred end scrapers. Dalton period settlement patterns and systems have been examined in detail in the southern Ozarks and Missouri Bootheel region (Morse 1975, 1977; Schiffer 1975). Settlement patterns apparently include a variety of site types, including base camps occupied for long periods of time, resource extraction camps, smaller generalized residential camps, and special-purpose cemetery sites (Goodyear 1974). This variety of site types in a single settlement system suggests that settlement was more logistically organized (sensu Binford 1980), perhaps oriented around exploitation of seasonally abundant aquatic resources by larger population aggregates. Unfortunately, recovery of actual subsistence remains (faunal or botanical) from Dalton sites is rare, and these settlement models remain largely untested. Several important Dalton components are found in Missouri, including stratified deposits at Rodger's Shelter (Kay 1980), Graham Cave (Klippel 1971; Logan 1952) and Arnold-Research Cave (Shippee 1966). All of these sites yielded fully modern faunal assemblages. Two Dalton sites have been reported from Fort Leonard Wood; 23PU190 (Niquette et al. 1983) and 23PU494 (Ahler and McDowell 1993) are located in the Interior Uplands resource zone. Phase II investigations at Sadie's Cave (23PU235), located along the Big Piney River, yielded evidence of a Dalton component at that site (Ahler et al. 1995a; Ahler et al. 1995b). Early Archaic Period (9,800 to 7,000 B.P.) Sites assigned to this period are more common than for earlier periods. Artifacts diagnostic of the Early Archaic period include a variety of lanceolate (Rice Lanceolate), contracting-stemmed (Hidden Valley), straight-stemmed (Hardin), side-notched (Graham Cave), corner-notched (Thebes, St. Charles, Kirk, Jakie stemmed) and bifurcate-base (Rice Lobed and LeCroy) hatted bifaces that represent both temporal and functional variability. The Ozark highland region contains a number of sites, mostly caves/rockshelters with significant Early Archaic components. These include Jakie Shelter, the Rice site, Standlee Shelter (Table Rock Reservoir), Rodger's Shelter (Pomme de Terre drainage), Miller Cave (Big Piney drainage), and Tick Creek Cave (Gasconade drainage). The suite of hafted bifaces listed above compares favorably with many of the hafted bifaces described by Roberts (1965) and McMillan (1965) in their original description of the Early Archaic Tick Creek Complex. However, Chapman (1975) points out that Middle and Late Archaic materials represented by later point types (Stone Square Stemmed and large sided-notched points) also may have been included in the original 12 Tick Creek Complex assemblage. Based on work in other portions of the Midwest, it is likely that the temporal and functional variability represented by the Tick Creek Complex can be separated into more restricted phases and components through excavation of stratified sites. Early Archaic period sites are usually small and scattered in upland and stream terrace settings. These attributes suggest that populations were composed largely of small, highly mobile residential groups organized into egalitarian bands. Local populations may have coalesced periodically into larger population aggregates to take advantage of seasonally abundant resources, but these were probably episodic events of short duration. Early Archaic subsistence may have included more plant resources than earlier periods, but this may also be a factor of preservation. Several sites at Fort Leonard Wood and the nearby Houston-Rolla Ranger District have yielded Early Archaic points. These include Miller Cave (23PU2), 23PU229 (an upland lithic scatter), 23PU304 (a floodplain lithic scatter), 23PH231 (a multicomponent upland lithic scatter), and 23PU210 (a disturbed stratified cave in the Upper Roubidoux resource zone). At the Kofahl Tract on the Big Piney River upstream from Fort Leonard Wood, four sites yielded Early Archaic points (Fraser et al. 1981). Six Early Archaic sites were identified in the Big Piney and Upper Roubidoux resource zones through recent surveys by the University of Illinois (Ahler and McDowell 1993). Middle Archaic Period (7,000 to 5,000 B.P.) In the Midwest in general, this cultural period is marked by a shift in settlement toward major river valley margins and increasing use of aquatic resources by larger population aggregates (Ahler 1984; Brown and Vierra 1983; Jefferies and Butler 1982; Styles 1986). Hafted bifaces characteristic of this period include large and small side-notched points (Godar, Matanzas, Raddatz, and Big Sandy), small corner-notched points (Jakie stemmed) in the early part of the period, medium to large corner- notched/expanding stem points (Big Creek, Saratoga cluster, Table Rock Stemmed) late in the period, and large straight-stem points (Stone Square Stemmed, Smith/Eva and Karnak). No specific Middle Archaic phase or assemblage complex has been defined for the Gasconade drainage, though McMillan (1965) described several points characteristic of a Middle to Late Archaic complex. New tool types such as the fully grooved axe and ground-stone celt are added to the technological assemblage during this period. Ozark region sites with major Middle Archaic occupations include Rodger's Shelter, Jakie Shelter, the Rice site, Standlee Shelter, and possibly Tick Creek Cave. Based on the recovery of only moderate numbers of Middle Archaic artifacts from sites in the Gasconade drainage (Tick Creek Cave, Goat Bluff Cave and Miller Cave [McMillan 1965; Roberts 1965]), Chapman (1975) proposed that the Gasconade drainage was used mainly for hunting during the Middle Archaic by populations with base camps located outside the drainage. This conclusion may be an artifact of sampling, since Middle Archaic sites apparently are fairly numerous at Fort Leonard Wood. At least 23 sites have yielded Middle Archaic materials (Ahler and McDowell 1993; Markman and Baumann 1993; Moffat et al. 1989; Niquette 1984; Niquette et al. 1983). Examination of Middle Archaic settlement patterns and systems at Fort Leonard Wood will have implications for the broader region. The settlement patterns noted above for the Middle Archaic period are derived from studies that focused mainly on sites near major river valleys such as the Mississippi and Illinois valleys. In part, changes in settlement systems during this period are probably a result of the impact of the Hypsithermal climatic interval on local upland and riverine resource distributions. 13 As noted in Chapter 2, specific local effects of the Hypsithermal interval are highly variable, and it remains to be seen whether the same changes in settlement system will be documented in the largely upland landscape of Fort Leonard Wood. McMillan and Klippel (1981) proposed that the Hypsithermal interval would tend to increase oak mast yields in the central and eastern Ozarks, resulting in greater deer and turkey populations. These factors should promote greater use of the area by humans, and this should be reflected in the archaeological record as increased intensity of site use and more focused use of locally abundant food resources during the Middle Archaic period. Paleoenvironmental research at Fort Leonard Wood, especially excavation of stratified cave/rockshelter sites with bone and plant preservation, provides an ideal vehicle through which to test models of Middle Archaic cultural responses to climatic changes. Late Archaic Period (5,000 to 3,000 B.P.) The Late Archaic period in the Ozarks is marked by continuation in the manufacture of many projectile point styles in use at the end of the Middle Archaic period. Large side-notched types seem to drop out of the assemblage, but the medium and large corner-notched/expanding stem points apparently continue to be made into the first half of the Late Archaic period. New hafted biface types are also added to the assemblage including a variety of corner-notched (e.g., Afton), stemmed (Burkett, Etley) and lanceolate (Sedalia, Wadlow) types. Distinctive nonprojectile point tool types include the triangular, unifacial Clear Fork gouge (possibly used as a woodworking tool) and the rectanguloid, bifacial Sedalia Digger (possibly used for grubbing or digging). A greater variety of ground-stone tools (3/4-groove axes, celts, pestles, manos, bannerstones, plummets) is also present in Late Archaic assemblages, and many of these tools are associated with plant processing. Increased reliance on plants is supported by recovery of some of the earliest domesticated squash and gourd remains in the eastern United States from Late Archaic contexts at Phillips Spring (Chomko 1978; Kay et al. 1980). Chapman maintains that several of these point types, and perhaps the entire Late Archaic adaptive strategy, persist into the Woodland period in the Ozark region. In fact, most of the projectile point types listed above are found in either poorly dated contexts or mixed deposits containing both Woodland and Late Archaic cultural materials. The absence of data on specific point styles recovered from well- dated stratigraphic contexts poses a serious drawback to basic cultural historical interpretations in the Ozarks. Several point types apparently persist for long periods of time, and their cultural affiliations are most conservatively described as "Late Archaic to Woodland". Documentation of specific point types in dated stratigraphic contexts is one of the research goals of the present project (see Chapter 4). Two local Late Archaic cultural manifestations have been proposed for portions of the Ozark highland. The James River complex was defined largely from assemblages in the Table Rock Reservoir (Springfield Plateau portion of the Ozarks) and includes Afton, Smith Basal Notched, Stone Square Stemmed and Table Rock point types. The Sedalia Complex is centered in the lower Missouri and Osage drainages and includes Etley Stemmed and Sedalia Lanceolate point types (Chapman 1975). No Sedalia points or Sedalia Diggers have been recovered from Fort Leonard Wood, and examination of the single Etley point identified by Niquette et al. (1983) indicates that this specimen is not attributable to that type. It is much smaller and the basal morphology is more corner-notched than usually found in Etley points. Apparently, the Fort Leonard Wood Late Archaic sites lack the artifact signatures that are traditionally associated with the Sedalia complex, though the geographic and physiographic position of the fort make it less likely to be associated with the James River complex. Late Archaic components 14 are common on the installation, with at least 20 sites having components assigned to this period (Ahler and McDowell 1993; Markman and Baumann 1993; Moffat et al. 1989; Niquette 1984; Niquette et al. 1983). Early Woodland Period (3,000 to 2,500 B.P.) Traditionally, the beginning of the Woodland period is marked by the appearance of pottery in archaeological assemblages. In many areas, subsistence, settlement and social organization remain essentially unchanged from Late Archaic patterns except for the addition of ceramics to the technological base (see Chapman 1980; Farnsworth and Emerson 1986). Distinctive projectile point styles unique to the Early Woodland period are few in number, and a local expression of Early Woodland adaptation has not been defined in the Gasconade drainage. In addition, pottery types indicative of Early Woodland ceramic technology have not been described in the region. Chapman (1980) has maintained that Late Archaic adaptations, including many of the projectile point styles archaeologists use to identify temporal periods, were maintained in the Ozarks well into first millennium A.D. , which would include the Early and Middle Woodland periods. Clearly, archaeological signatures of both Early and Middle Woodland periods are ephemeral and unclear in the Ozark region. Defining assemblage characteristics of the Early Woodland period and differentiating this period from Late Archaic adaptations constitute one of the main culture-historical goals of Fort Leonard Wood research. Niquette et al. (1983) and Niquette (1984) list nine sites assigned to the Early Woodland period. However, these assignments are based on recovery of Gary and Langtry points, which have a long history of manufacture, beginning in the terminal Archaic (3,500 B.P.) and continuing at least through Middle Woodland times (1,500 B.P.). It may be more accurate to assign sites with these points to a generalized Woodland temporal affiliation rather than to a specific time period. Middle Woodland Period (2,500 to 1,600 B.P.) As with the Early Woodland period, a local Middle Woodland manifestation has not yet been defined for the Ozark region. If the distinctive ceramic styles indicative of participation in the Middle Woodland Hopewell interregional ideological and exchange networks are absent in assemblages, local Middle Woodland expressions are difficult to identify. Other artifact signatures that have been traditionally used as markers of Middle Woodland temporal affiliation include distinctive Snyders Corner-Notched projectile points (often reworked into hafted scrapers) and small lamellar blades (Montet- White 1968). Neither of these lithic Middle Woodland indicators is common in the Gasconade drainage. The lack of evidence for participation in panregional exchange networks has been interpreted by Chapman (1980) and McMillan (1965) as evidence for an absence of permanent Middle Woodland settlement in the Gasconade drainage, or even for general abandonment of the region. Based on work at the Feeler site, Reeder (1982, 1988) defined a Middle Woodland artifact assemblage known as the Spring Creek Complex, with proposed temporal boundaries of A.D. 1-400. Reeder offered an alternative interpretation of Middle Woodland adaptation that included a resident population with an essentially aceramic technological base identified by Kings and Snyders corner-notched projectile points. Thin, grit-tempered pottery similar to Middle Woodland utilitarian wares from other parts of the Midwest has been identified in low frequencies at a few sites in the Gasconade drainage, including sites 15 on Fort Leonard Wood (23PU152 and 23PU210 [Niquette et al. 1983] and 23PU265). Other sites on the fort have been assigned to the Middle Woodland period based on identification of Snyders projectile points or lamellar blades. A well-defined Middle Woodland ceramic expression is certainly elusive in the Gasconade drainage. It is also unclear whether other Middle Woodland cultural patterns common in the Midwest (such as intensive use of native cultigens, two-level settlement hierarchy or social differentiation in mortuary practices) are expressed in any local Middle Woodland period manifestation. More research is needed to define the local Middle Woodland cultural manifestation and its degree of participation in panregional cultural systems. Late Woodland Period (1,600 to 1,100 B.P.) and Mississippian Period (1,100 to 300 B.P.) Late Woodland culture is well-expressed in the Midwest and in the Gasconade drainage. Locally, Late Woodland sites are denoted by the presence of cordmarked or plain limestone/dolomite-tempered ceramic assemblages that are dominated by jar forms. Diagnostic Late Woodland lithic artifacts include Kings Corner-Notched and Rice Side-Notched in the early part of the period and a variety of small arrow points (Crisp Ovate, Sequoyah, Scallorn, Hayes, etc.) in the later part of the period. In addition, there appears to be some degree of social differentiation expressed in mortuary programs— some individuals are interred in rock cairns, usually located on upland prominences overlooking broad stream valleys. The local Late Woodland manifestation is the Maramec Springs Focus (Marshall 1958, 1965), which has been subsequently divided into early and late Maramec Springs phases (Reeder 1988). In the major river valleys of the Midwest and Southeast, the Late Woodland period is followed by a period of cultural and social florescence known as Mississippian. This period is marked by changes in technology and social integration and complexity (hierarchical settlement systems, large town-and- mound complexes, elaborate elite burial ceremonialism, differential access to subsistence resources). The Gasconade drainage apparently does not contain a well-developed Mississippian expression. Instead, the Maramec Springs Late Woodland focus continues, with the addition of a few elements indicative of interaction with Mississippian peoples or peripheral participation in Mississippian ceremonial/ideological/exchange systems, such as occasional shell-tempered pottery, rare incising and punctation on ceramic vessels, and occasional recovery of exotic marine shell artifacts. The Late Woodland period is the best documented period at Fort Leonard Wood and in the Gasconade drainage in general. Maramec Springs phase settlement patterns include extensive villages in both valley and upland ridge crest settings, mortuary cairns along ridge crests, smaller hamlets and extractive camps, and extensive use of caves and rockshelters, probably for specialized activities. Maramec Springs phase sites are common in the Gasconade drainage and on Fort Leonard Wood in particular. Maramec Springs occupations (either early or late) have been identified at over 35 sites on Fort Leonard Wood (Ahler and McDowell 1993; Markman and Baumann 1993; Moffat et al. 1989; Niquette 1984; Niquette et al. 1983); ceramics were recovered from about half of these sites. In addition, 18 cairn sites have been recorded within Fort Leonard Wood. Because of the abundance of Late Woodland sites and the variety of site types and settings, investigation of the settlement and subsistence systems of the Maramec Springs phases is an important research project with implications for regional and interregional archaeological studies. No Mississippian local manifestation has been clearly defined for the Fort Leonard Wood area. While Mississippian influences are apparently represented in some of the late Maramec Springs phase 16 ceramic assemblages, the degree of local interaction and participation in the larger Mississippian cultural system has not been defined. Historic Period (300 B.P. to present) Smith (1993) provides an excellent summary and developmental context for the historic period in the Ozarks and at Fort Leonard Wood in particular. The following summary is extracted from his report; additional information is found in McGrath and Ray (1987). In the eighteenth century, Pulaski County and the Fort Leonard Wood area was inhabited by the Osage Native American tribe, who used the area mainly for hunting rather than permanent habitation. In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries the area also came to be populated by small numbers of Kickapoo, Delaware, Shawnee, and Cherokee, who had been driven westward by expanding Euroamerican and African- American settlement. All remnants of these tribes had been removed from Missouri by about 1830. The first non-Native American settlers in the region were French explorers and lead miners who began traveling through the Ozarks as early as 1719. French settlement in the Ozarks was sparse and its effect on the landscape and archaeological record is minimal. American settlement of the area began around 1800 with the occupation of the area by scattered pioneer hunters, subsistence farmers and lumbermen, with most settlements located in the larger stream valleys. Gradually, more people arrived in the area, but the rugged topography kept population levels low. Most pioneers in the early nineteenth century bypassed the Ozarks in favor of the more abundant and fertile farm territories along major river valleys such as the Missouri, White and Arkansas rivers. Pulaski County was organized in 1833, and increasing numbers of permanent settlers arrived from eastern states. The settlement pattern appears to have been one of detached residences or farmsteads and hamlets scattered along rivers and larger creeks. Actual farming was done in small floodplain plots, with house locations on valley margin footslopes or side slopes. Lumbering, hunting and subsistence farming remained the major occupations. By 1860, population levels were rising, road systems had been constructed, and railroads were helping to develop the lumber industry in the area. Civil War actions in the county resulted in abandonment of many rural farmsteads and general economic decline. Repopulation of the area began again after the Civil War, but the landscape and farmsteads had been deleteriously affected by abandonment. Fueled by construction of a railroad through the county in 1867, population increased greatly and economic concerns began to focus on rural industries, especially lumbering. Railroads also brought material goods into the area, promoting a change from self-sufficient farming/hunting/lumbering households to more consumer-oriented households linked to and more dependent on outside markets and manufactories. Cross-tie production was the major industry for rural upland settlers without access to good river bottom farmland. This occupation was the prevalent rural industry in the county from the 1870s through World War I. The economic and cultural prosperity of the area reached its peak around 1910. Soon after that, overcutting of lumber resources and soil erosion brought economic decline and depopulation to southern Pulaski County. The area was also strongly affected by the Great Depression. The largely self- sufficient farmers and hunters that dominated the Ozark population of the nineteenth century had given 17 way to larger consumer and producer communities with increasingly intimate ties to regional and national economies. Population peaked around 1910, and remained generally steady until about 1940. Several small crossroads communities located within the boundaries of Fort Leonard Wood had been established in the nineteenth century, and continued to flourish during this period. The largest and most economically important was Bloodland; other trading communities included Big Piney, Cookville, Bailey, Moab, Wharton, Wildwood, and Tribune. The 1930s witnessed the increasing emergence of the federal government as an economic and social factor in Pulaski County. Various projects sponsored by the U.S. Department of Agriculture and the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) directly affected economics and population in the Fort Leonard Wood area. The CCC had established numerous camps within the Mark Twain National Forest and the present Fort Leonard Wood boundary. In 1940, the U.S. Army announced the planned purchase of 65,000 acres in southern Pulaski County. This created an immediate massive influx of laborers and support personnel into the area. As many as 30,775 workers camped within a 50-mile radius of the fort (Mayes 1941, in Smith 1993). The economic and social transformation of the area has had a lasting effect on local communities. The resident populations of Bloodland and other small communities located within the fort boundaries were displaced and the former hamlets were razed. Small communities outside the fort (Waynesville, St. Robert) witnessed unprecedented economic and population growth. After World War II, population in the area and military use of the base fluctuated greatly until the base was given permanent status in 1965. Previous Investigations The following summary has been drawn mainly from earlier reports (Ahler et al. 1995a; Ahler and McDowell 1993; Baumann and Markman 1993; Markman and Baumann 1993; Moffat et al. 1989; Niquette 1984; Niquette et al. 1983) and a dissertation (Reeder 1988) of work conducted at Fort Leonard Wood and in adjacent areas. Synopses of these previous investigations are presented below. Previous Work in the Gasconade Drainage The first reference to archaeological sites in the region around Fort Leonard Wood was made early in the nineteenth century by Beck (1975[1823]), who described the remains of a prehistoric village in Pulaski County. Later, in a history of Missouri, Conant (1879) noted the presence of prehistoric remains in caves, rockshelters and mounds in the Gasconade area. This work included the first report on an excavation in this area, a cave site containing human burials. The Goodspeed Publishing Company (1974[1889]) later described mounds also located in Pulaski County. Both Beck and the Goodspeed Publishing Company made reference to stone walls, and the latter noted that some had burials beneath them. Later discussions of mounds, rock cairns, villages, campsites, and caves and rockshelters were made by Bushnell (1904) and Houck (1908). The first scientific investigations in central Missouri were made by Fowke in the early twentieth century (Fowke 1922, 1928). Several of the sites he visited are located on Fort Leonard Wood; namely, Kerr Cave, the Davis caves and Miller Cave. The latter produced artifacts assignable to the Early Archaic through Late Woodland periods, and possibly into the Mississippian period. Fowke, 18 unfortunately, was interested mainly in lithic artifacts and hoped to demonstrate a relationship between early American cultures and the European Paleolithic, ultimately ignoring most other types of artifacts. Later, Fenenga (1938) reported on the ceramics from six caves, including four in Pulaski County. He developed a ceramic classification from the excavated materials, finding two ceramic types: one grit- tempered and one shell-tempered. These were associated with the Woodland and Mississippian cultures, respectively. By the 1940s, little work had been done in the region, and Chapman (1946, 1947, 1948a, 1948b), who was developing a statewide cultural sequence, was faced with a general lack of data. There was little evidence of Paleoindian or Archaic occupation, but he was able to identify a "Late Woodland Highland Aspect" for the area. Beginning in the 1950s, some of the first investigations driven by historic preservation concerns were carried out in the region. Shippee began a survey of the proposed Richland Reservoir in 1957 (Anonymous 1957; McMillan 1965), and Marshall (1963, 1965, 1966) worked on the Meramec River and near the headwaters of the Bourbeuse and Dry Fork rivers. In 1961 McMillan (1963, 1965) conducted a large-area survey of the Gasconade River and its major tributaries. As a result, 160 sites were identified, and test excavations were made at several of them. These sites included villages or campsites, caves/rockshelters, and cairns. It was noted that villages and camps were usually located at the base of bluffs, on second terraces, or near the mouths of hollows and springs. Cairns were most often found on bluff tops over large streams, and major villages were often at the mouth of large tributaries. In addition to these surveys, investigations at individual sites also were made. Descriptions of these can be found in site reports by Delling (1962a, 1962b), McMillan (1962), Price (1964a, 1964b), and Roberts (1965). Roberts, an amateur archaeologist from Waynesville, excavated at Tick Creek Cave, and his work resulted in the first major study of faunal remains from this region (Parmalee 1965). By this time, more documentation of Archaic and Late Woodland sites had been gathered, but still little was known about Middle Woodland or Mississippian occupation of the area. Such a bias was to continue in the 1970s, when the implementation of federal legislation on historic preservation led to an increase in archaeological investigations. In 1975 investigations began along a 20-km corridor in association with a highway project on Route 63. These included the first studies of the smaller tributaries and uplands of the central Gasconade drainage (McGrath 1977). Four of the open-air sites located in this survey were tested by Southwest Missouri State University between 1975 and 1977 (Cooley and Fuller 1977). In 1978 personnel from the University of Missouri at Columbia tested an additional eight sites (Reeder and Oman 1979). Smaller surveys were also conducted, such as those by Butler (1976), Cooley and Fuller (1975, 1976), and Turner and Helm (1979). Additionally, amateurs examined various caves and rockshelters (Jolly and Roberts 1974a, 1974b; Wessel 1974) and expanded some of the Route 63 excavations (Roberts 1978). These investigations also formed the basis of Reeder's (1988) dissertation in which he argued that inhabitants of the Gasconade River basin were not isolated geographically from other groups and that the culture history of the area fits the general midwestern cultural pattern. 19 Large-scale excavations also were conducted at two Late Woodland sites: the Feeler Site, 23MS12 (Reeder 1982, 1988), and the Kimberlin Site, 23CR301 (Geier 1975). The former project included the first paleoethnobotanical analysis for this section of the drainage (Voigt 1982) as well as the first soil- geomorphic study (Johnson 1982). Previous Work in the Fort Leonard Wood Area In the 1980s a series of major surveys was undertaken in the Mark Twain National Forest. Surveys were conducted outside the major valleys and, for the most part, identified small lithic scatters without diagnostic artifacts (Fraser et al. 1981; Klinger and Cande 1985; Perttula et al. 1982; Purrington 1985). The American Resources Group surveyed the 243-ha Kofahl Tract in 1981 (Fraser et al. 1981). Seventeen prehistoric sites, both open-air camps and lithic scatters, were identified. The sites are located on floodplain levees, terraces, alluvial fans, terminal ridge spurs, bluff crests, upland ridge crests, and hollow bottoms. Personnel from Southwest Missouri State University (Purrington 1985) surveyed an additional 1,215 ha and identified 15 limited activity areas, 12 "field camps," 6 cave/rockshelter sites, and 1 stone cairn. Most of these sites are located near large streams, but some are also present in the uplands. Purrington (1985) suggests that prehistoric site density was highest in the Rolla-Houston area of the forest and that this density is indicative of the real site distribution pattern and not a result of sample bias. Perttula et al. (1982) also conducted investigations in a series of tracts and found two small prehistoric sites, 23PU194 and 23PU195. Purrington (1983) also located two sites, 23PU198 and 23PU199, in another survey for the National Forest. Klinger and Cande (1985) surveyed 632 ha and located 10 small lithic scatters on ridge tops. The 1970s also saw the first scientific investigations at Fort Leonard Wood. Garrison (1976) undertook a survey of a 16-ha tract for an air-to-ground weapons range, but no prehistoric sites were located. Purrington and Turner (1981) carried out a survey of a 34-ha landfill tract in an upland area. Two prehistoric lithic scatters, 23PU167 and 23PU168, were identified. Two surveys were also conducted by Major John Hargis (n.d.a, n.d.b) in 1980 and 1981. The first was located on Roubidoux Creek and the second in the Interior Uplands zone. He found 46 prehistoric sites, of which 13 are in the interior uplands. Due to changes in the boundaries of the military reservation, only 42 of these sites are currently located on the installation. The sites include cave/rockshelters, rock cairns, and villages or campsites. In 1981 and 1982, Environment Consultants, Inc. examined scattered tracts across the installation, totaling 2,024 ha (Niquette et al. 1983). Identified and partially evaluated were 53 prehistoric and historic sites. The prehistoric sites include 15 caves or rockshelters, 25 open sites (including two with Dalton points), and 6 rock cairns. The historic sites are three late nineteenth/early twentieth century farms, a church from the same time period, and two military facilities (a bridge and generator). Twenty-five prehistoric sites and one historic site were thought to be eligible for listing in the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP). Another 68 prehistoric sites were identified but not evaluated, and no formal report on these sites was published. Based on review of the Archaeological Survey of Missouri (ASM) forms for these sites, the Late Woodland period is best represented, but Middle and Late Archaic sites are also identified. 20 Niquette (1984) conducted a survey of an additional 1,035 ha in which 22 prehistoric and 11 historic sites were identified. Again, Late Woodland sites predominated, although Late Archaic sites were also well-represented. In the same year, Niquette (1985) also investigated 243 ha of timber sales tracts on steeply sloped terrain. This was considered to be an area with low potential for containing archaeological sites and, not surprisingly, only three isolated finds were recovered. In 1988 the American Resources Group studied 46 separate survey areas in Pulaski County, totaling 974 ha (Moffat et al. 1989). They identified 33 archaeological sites, 8 of which had been previously recorded. Twenty-seven of the sites are prehistoric, and they are mainly open camps and lithic scatters. Also recorded were five rockshelters, a rock cairn, and a cave site. The six historic sites are late nineteenth/early twentieth century residences or farmsteads. Phase II evaluation was recommended for 25 sites. Also identified were 22 isolated finds. The survey results indicate a higher site density on Fort Leonard Wood than in the Mark Twain National Forest as a whole. In 1990 and 1991, American Resources Group conducted further Phase I investigations of selected timber sales and military training areas on Fort Leonard Wood (McNerney 1992; McNerney and Neal 1992). Eight historic and one prehistoric sites were documented during survey of 17 timber sale parcels totaling 684 ha. Two military ordnance training sites and four historic farmsteads were recommended for additional work (McNerney 1992). An additional 705 ha was surveyed in two timber sale parcels and three training areas located in the Interior Uplands and Big Piney resource zones, respectively. Eight prehistoric isolated finds, one historic isolated find, nine isolated historic features, one historic farmstead, and two prehistoric sites were located. One prehistoric site and the historic farmstead were recommended for additional Phase II investigation (McNerney and Neal 1992). In 1992, Markman and Associates conducted Phase I inventory of two large contiguous tracts of 972 ha and 1,943 ha. The larger survey documented 25 historic sites, 20 prehistoric sites and 24 prehistoric isolated finds. Phase II test excavation evaluation was recommended for four prehistoric open sites, and avoidance and preservation was recommended for two cairns and four rockshelters. Phase II evaluation was recommended for four historic sites, and one cemetery was recommended for avoidance and preservation (Markman and Baumann 1993). In the smaller survey, 12 historic farmsteads or residences were documented and two sites were recommended for Phase II NRHP evaluation. No prehistoric sites were recorded (Baumann and Markman 1993). Most recently, the University of Illinois conducted Phase I inventory of 783 ha in scattered tracts at Fort Leonard Wood. Forty-three new sites and 21 previously reported sites were documented (60 prehistoric, three historic, and one with both historic and prehistoric components). Phase II evaluation was recommended for 43 prehistoric sites, one historic site, and the single site with mixed components. Four cairns are recommended for listing in the NRHP, and additional Phase II evaluation was recommended for 20 cave/rockshelter sites and 21 open habitation sites (Ahler and McDowell 1993). Phase II investigations at Fort Leonard Wood have been few in number. The investigations conducted by Niquette et al. (1983) included test excavations at all reported sites. These excavations were usually limited to excavation of a single test unit, cleaning looter pit profiles and documenting the exposed stratigraphy, or occasional excavation of deep backhoe trenches. These activities were considered to constitute formal Phase II evaluation to assess NRHP eligibility criteria, and NRHP nomination forms were completed for the 14 sites included in the proposed Roubidoux Creek Archaeological District. 21 Another Phase II investigation was conducted in 1992 by Markman (1993). These activities were limited to test excavations and damage assessment of Miller Cave (23PU2). Although the cave has been looted repeatedly, the excavations demonstrated that intact Early Archaic deposits were present and that the site should be nominated to the NRHP. The Miller Cave evaluation is the first Phase II work done at Fort Leonard Wood since the 1982-1983 work conducted by Niquette et al. (1983). Most recently, Phase II excavations were conducted at 15 sites during 1992 and 1993 (Ahler et al. 1995a). The project was designed to sample different time periods, resource zones, and site types. Sites include both open-air and rockshelters in the Interior Uplands, Big Piney and Roubidoux resource zones. Most importantly, this project produced a large suite of radiocarbon dates and paleoethnobotanical data. Based on the excavations, 10 of the 15 sites were recommended as eligible for the National Register of Historic Places. Stemming from the recent Phase II excavations of Sadie's Cave (23PU235), Miller Cave (23PU2) and the Miller Cave Petroglyphs (23PU255), intensive research investigations were conducted as part of the Department of Defense Legacy program (Ahler et al. 1995b). The investigations were designed to assess the current state of preservation and scientific potential of the sites and develop appropriate site preservation plans. Five test units were excavated at Sadie's Cave, yielding artifacts, faunal and archaeobotanical remains from the Middle Archaic to Late Woodland periods. Soil coring was employed at Miller Cave in an attempt to identify areas of undisturbed deposits. Historical documentary research and on-site documentation of Miller Cave Petroglyph Site petroglyphs was also conducted. Comparative research indicates that the petroglyphs may date to the Late Woodland period. The results of the investigations were also used to produce a protection plan for the three sites. 22 CHAPTER 4 RESEARCH GOALS This chapter presents a series of general research goals and specific research topics that were addressed through the Phase II investigations. The research goals are variations of research domains proposed in the recently developed Historic Preservation Plan (HPP) for Fort Leonard Wood (Harland Bartholomew and Associates 1992; see also Ahler et al. 1995a), with modifications reflecting the conditions and scope of the present project. Neither the general research goals nor specific research topics proposed below is a comprehensive listing of the research potential of the cultural resources at Fort Leonard Wood. The research goals and topics outlined below were addressed through cultural resource management activities. Specifically, the data were collected as a result of conducting Phase II NRHP eligibility evaluations at selected sites. Research goals are considered broad issues that cannot be definitively and completely addressed through a single project. However, it was hoped that the project could begin to collect data pertinent to these research goals and to address more specific research topics in considerable detail. The research goals defined here include four broad issues: 1) refinement of local chronological and culture historical sequences; 2) investigation of differential use of the landscape; 3) documentation of prehistoric subsistence strategies; and 4) the collection of environmental data to identify potential effects of climatic change on human populations. Each of these research goals is discussed briefly below. Specific research topics are those that can be addressed directly through the data derived from this project. Though this report is designed to stand alone, it is conceived of as the second installment in a multiyear research and evaluation program, the ultimate goals of which are to address both specific research topics and the broader research goals outlined above. The more specific research topics are designed to address limited aspects of the general research goals and are developed in detail in the next section under those topical headings. Chronology and Culture History Without a refined and precise local chronology that is also linked to regional cultural/historical developments, other research goals and questions cannot be meaningfully addressed. This project collected chronological data through two methods-radiocarbon assays and typological comparisons. Both of these methods are necessary for development and refinement of local culture/historical sequences and integration of these local sequences with regional cultural developments. General age and cultural affiliation was determined through typological comparisons of all temporally diagnostic projectile points and ceramic sherds to previously defined types within the region. The provenience context and age or cultural affiliation of each diagnostic artifact was recorded. These data provided general chronological sequences for most sites and stratigraphic components, and enabled us to integrate and compare the local sequences with the regional data from which they were initially derived. Anomalies or inconsistencies were noted, and the contexts of these anomalies received additional attention to eliminate potential situations of artifact contamination or disturbance. 23 Precise age determinations for specific provenience contexts were obtained through radiocarbon assay of carbonized plant remains. Prior to assay, botanical analyses were conducted on samples of suitable mass and material that were to be sent for dating. Fourteen radiocarbon assays were obtained from controlled stratigraphic contexts at four sites, providing direct absolute dates for specific levels, strata and cultural material assemblages, which are sorely needed for construction and refinement of local and regional chronology. Previous assays from Fort Leonard Wood sites include one derived from bone gelatin (collagen?) extracted from human femora at a Late Woodland cairn site, 23PU313. This assay is 1225 ±165 B.P. (Niquette 1984: 166). This sample also assayed 13 C proportion at -18. 1, suggesting a significant amount of maize, may grass or other C 4 plants in the diet of the individual. The only other assay from Fort Leonard Wood prior to our work was derived from conventional dating of wood charcoal from intact deposits at Miller Cave, 23PU2. This assay is 8500±180 B.P., indicating a late Early Archaic age of the deposits, which is consistent with the recovery of a Rice Lobed projectile point from the same level (Markman 1993). Most recently, 17 assays were obtained from carbonized plant remains recovered from Sadie's Cave (Ahler et al. 1995b). The dates run from the later part of the Early Archaic period through the Late Woodland period. The radiocarbon assays and age estimates derived from typological comparisons provide an independent cross-check on the validity of each age assessment method. In some cases it is apparent that the temporally diagnostic cultural material has been transported through cultural or natural means and that these specimens are no longer in their original depositional context. In other cases, the clear trends in the typological sequences suggest that the radiocarbon assay is either in error or that the sample submitted for assay was derived from disturbed contexts. The results of age determination efforts are discussed in detail and compared for each site (Chapter 6). A summary of the chronological data and contributions toward refinement of local cultural sequences are presented in Chapter 7. Specific research topics related to chronology and culture history refinements include: formal description of new projectile point or ceramic types that can be tied to specific date range, cultural affiliations and known stratigraphic contexts; description of local material culture assemblages related to poorly known time periods, especially Early Woodland, Middle Woodland and Late Prehistoric or Mississippian periods; and differentiation of local subphases within the Late Woodland Maramec Springs Phase, based on ceramic typology, lithic typology and assemblage variation. Differential Use of the Landscape Given that there is regional documentation of a general shift in settlement strategies toward increasingly sedentary systems and increasing subsistence reliance on cultigens through time, and given that the Fort Leonard Wood landscape is highly variable in terms of resource distributions and abundance, it is expected that differential use of the landscape can be documented for specific time periods. It is expected that there will be geographic differences among the defined cultural resource zones in terms of the intensity of site use and the types of sites represented. Regardless of time period, sites in the Interior Uplands resource zone should be characterized by low intensity or duration of the periods 24 of site use, while sites in the Big Piney and Upper Roubidoux resource zones should show more intensive or longer duration periods of site use because of the greater density of subsistence resources in the latter cultural resource zones. This general observation may be true, but during time periods characterized by high group mobility (e.g., Dalton horizon and Early Archaic period), the resource zones may show evidence of more equitable use. Specific expectations regarding intensity or duration of site use and differential use of resource zones can be expressed as follows: for time periods characterized by high group mobility (Paleoindian, Dalton and Early Archaic periods), indicators of the intensity or duration of site use, as measured by the density and diversity of artifacts within a given occupational unit, are expected to be roughly equal among all cultural resource zones; and for later periods, because of changes in settlement systems toward more logistical organization and increasing use of plant cultigens, the intensity of site use is expected to be lower for sites in the Interior Upland resource zone than for sites located in the other resource zones; The Fort Leonard Wood landscape is not characterized by uniform resource distribution. Because subsistence resources tend to be clustered in specific physiographic/landscape positions (see Chapter 2), it is likely that within a single time period and within a single cultural resource zone, there will be differences in the nature and intensity of site use. These differences are probably most clearly expressed in the differential use of terrestrial and aquatic resources in upland and valley site settings, respectively. In general, valley settings have greater resource density and diversity than upland settings. Among upland settings, those farther from dissected valley margins have decreasing abundance and diversity of resources. Assuming that the subsistence remains present at a site reflect the proportional abundance and diversity of locally available resources, the following pattern of subsistence remains should be observed. Valley and valley margin sites should have the highest diversity and density of subsistence remains; aquatic remains will be well-represented in these sites, but upland terrestrial resources will be poorly represented. Prehistoric Subsistence The primary goals of our investigation of prehistoric subsistence are collection of material remains and analysis of these remains using appropriate faunal and botanical analytical techniques. Very little systematic investigation of subsistence has been accomplished in the Fort Leonard Wood area. Notable exceptions are the analyses of recovered bone, shell, human skeletal remains, and botanical remains presented in Niquette et al. (1983) and Niquette (1984) and the analysis of bone (Whitehead and Kelly 1993) and botanical remains (Wright 1993) from recent test excavations in Miller Cave, 23PU2 (Markman 1993). Most recently, detailed faunal and paleobotanical analyses have been presented in Ahler et al. (1995a) for a number of rockshelter sites and Ahler et al. (1995b) for Sadie's Cave (23PU235). Bone and shell preservation is generally very good in most of the caves and rockshelters at Fort Leonard Wood, and we expected to recover numerous subsistence remains as well as animal bone indicative of use of these sheltered sites by nonhuman animals. Flotation samples were taken from each of the seven sites. Cave/rockshelter sites generally produce abundant bone, shell and carbonized plant remains while these materials often are not recovered from open sites because of poor preservation conditions. 25 Specific research topics relating to subsistence remains were derived by assuming that subsistence changes at Fort Leonard Wood mirror the subsistence trends noted for the southern Midwest region in general. These trends include: increasing use of aquatic resources through the Archaic period; introduction of cucurbit (squash and gourd) cultigens in the Late Archaic period between 5,000 and 4,000 years ago (see Chomko 1978; Kay et al. 1980); development of a suite of indigenous oily- and starchy-seed cultigens during the Woodland period, including chenopods, amaranth, knotweeds, marsh elder, sunflower, and maygrass (see Asch and Asch 1978; Ford 1977); and introduction of maize as a tropical-derived cultigen in Late Woodland times and eventual dominance of the plant subsistence base during late prehistoric or Mississippian times (after A.D. 1100). Specific research topics developed from these general trends are: Middle Archaic and Late Archaic components should show a greater proportion of aquatic resources than earlier components; cucurbit remains should be found in association with Late Archaic and later components; Woodland components should contain a complex of oily and starchy seeds reflecting increasing reliance on horticulture for subsistence; these seeds should become increasingly abundant through the Woodland period; and maize should be found only in late Late Woodland components, especially the Late Maramec Springs Phase (A.D. 900-1700). Effects of Environmental Conditions on Human Populations Possible effects of climate changes, including the middle Holocene Hypsithermal Interval, on local vegetation, fauna and hydrology have been outlined in Chapter 2. It is assumed that major changes in the distribution or abundance of resources would be reflected in changes in species composition and sediment deposition histories. The record of these changes would be best preserved in stratified open- air valley margin sites and in cave/rockshelter sites. Based on the possible effects of the Hypsithermal Interval outlined earlier, specific signatures indicative of Hypsithermal impact should be present in the assemblages. These signature attributes include the following: there should be evidence for increased side-slope erosion and/or increased deposition rates in valley settings during the Middle Archaic period resulting from vegetation cover deterioration on uplands and dry slopes; the abundance or ubiquity of acorn nuts in Middle Archaic botanical assemblages should increase; this change results from development of optimum conditions for oak forests and "barrens" during the Hypsithermal; and the abundance of deer and turkey remains should increase in Middle Archaic faunal assemblages because of increased oak forest cover and oak mast production; If the climatic changes associated with the Hypsithermal are observed as indicated above, the effects on local resource abundance and distribution would probably have been severe enough to affect human settlement systems. Based on earlier studies in the Truman Reservoir area, McMillan and Klippel (1981) and Wood and McMillan (1976), predict the following changes in settlement systems to result from the effects of the Hypsithermal climatic interval: Middle Archaic components should be found in close proximity to major stream valleys and the abundant resources they contain; upland areas far from permanent streams should show either little use during the Middle Archaic period or should contain sites indicative of focused specialization on extraction of locally abundant resources such as deer, oak mast or turkeys; and a concentration of human population in and near major stream valleys should produce evidence of increasing site size, artifact density and artifact diversity for Middle Archaic components; these changes in site use should correlate with a shift in settlement systems toward more logistical organization and more repetitive and structured use of the landscapes and resources. 26 Summary The general research goals and research topics outlined above cover a wide range of topics and a variety of levels of specificity. One common theme of all of these topics is that they utilize the geographic and temporal variability represented in the sites selected for investigation to address issues of differential site use in various time periods. It is expected that not all of these research topics can be fully addressed through the investigation of this single suite of sites. However, these research topics can continue to be addressed in future excavations. Successive serial investigations of these issues will also aid in developing, testing and refining predictive settlement models that serve as effective cultural resource management tools. 27 CHAPTER 5 METHODOLOGY The Phase II archaeological testing project undertaken by the Public Service Archaeology Program of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign at Fort Leonard Wood consisted of excavation and analysis of seven prehistoric archaeological sites to determine their eligibility for inclusion in the NRHP and to recover material pertinent to other areas of significant regional research issues. This section describes the excavation, laboratory processing and analysis methods used in this project and the underlying substantive and theoretical orientation used to evaluate the potential of these sites for addressing questions important to the prehistory of the area. Sites were selected for investigation based on their indeterminate status for NRHP eligibility and their potential to contain scientifically significant data on prehistoric cultures in the Fort Leonard Wood area. A series of Phase I cultural resource investigations performed on the installation prior to this work (see Chapter 3) had documented 412 sites. Of this total, 123 sites have been recommended for Phase II NRHP evaluation. Only sites with prehistoric components were considered here, and this selection criterion further reduced the sites considered for investigation to 96. Each of these sites was placed into one of five cultural resource zones as defined by the Fort Leonard Wood Cultural Resource Manager (Edging 1992). These cultural resource zones divide the Fort Leonard Wood property into five broad physiographic zones that exhibit differential cultural, hydrologic, soil, floral, and botanical characteristics. The differential expression of the natural resources is assumed to have resulted in differential use of these zones by prehistoric human populations. This initial segmentation of the property into cultural resource zones was viewed as a preliminary effort that would be tested and refined as additional Phase I and Phase II investigations were performed. In selecting sites for NRHP evaluation, an effort was made to select sites from several of the cultural resource zones. Variety was considered to be essential, and sites were selected from two of the five cultural resource zones (Big Piney and Upper Roubidoux zones). Other factors that were considered included representation of sites in a variety of physiographic/topographic settings— bluff crest, bluff base and stream terrace. Effort was made to select both large and small sites, open-air sites and rockshelter sites, and to have representation of several time periods. Finally, logistical considerations such as ease of access and military restrictions were also considered. Using these criteria, the seven sites listed in Table 1 were selected for investigation. Field Methods The field methods used on both open habitation sites and rockshelter sites are similar. However, because of the differences in site size, condition and potential for recovery of organic remains from intact, stratified deposits, field methods for these two types of sites differed in some respects. The general field methods employed are discussed below, with methods differentiated by site type when appropriate. Regardless of the type of site examined, field procedures were geared towards documenting the nature, age and extent of human use of the site and recording the artifacts in relation to their specific geographic, pedologic and behavioral contexts. These data were subsequently analyzed 28 to assess the potential NRHP eligibility of each site and the contribution of these sites to addressing research questions outlined in Chapter 4. The first set of tasks performed on each site were the same, regardless of site type. These activities included: relocation of the site from previous documentary evidence (maps, photographs or descriptions); photographic documentation of the site and its condition prior to excavation; verbal description of the site, its condition, and its surrounding environment, including the present vegetation, topographic position, elevation, and evidence of disturbances; placement of a permanent site datum and establishment of a grid system for the site, usually oriented in cardinal directions; and construction of a detailed map of the site, using either a transit or plane table with alidade, showing intrasite and surrounding topography, surface features, site boundaries, grid orientation, and locations where posthole tests and test units were excavated. Once these tasks were completed or under way, the second stage of activities was initiated. Second-stage tasks were designed to provide preliminary information on artifact distributions, artifact density and the cultural and natural stratigraphy of the site area. Since surface visibility was less than 30 percent at all open-air sites, posthole tests were excavated to determine site boundaries and identify artifact concentrations. A systematic grid of posthole tests were made at all open habitation sites in order to determine depositional characteristics of the soil and obtain preliminary information on cultural and natural stratigraphy. The locations of posthole tests were incorporated into the topographic feature map of the site, as were the location of all temporally diagnostic artifacts recovered from surface collections and hand-excavated test units. Postholes were not excavated in rockshelter sites. Instead, leaf litter and recent debris was cleared by hand from the shelter floor, at least in the shelter mouth area, and all exposed artifacts were piece- plotted in relation to surface features, contours and cave walls. The third stage of activities was hand excavation of between one and four test units at each site. Test unit placement was based on the density of surface materials, surface topography and slope, the results of posthole tests (if conducted), and exposure of internal site stratigraphy in looter pit or other fortuitous profiles. The test units were generally distributed across the site area to examine depositional characteristics and to obtain a representative sample of artifacts. The number and size of the test units varied, depending on the available space and goals of the excavations. At some sites, the primary goal was to obtain a sample of stratified cultural deposits extending to culturally sterile sediment. All sediment was screened through 1/4-inch (6.35-mm) mesh hardware cloth. Every effort was made to continue excavations into culturally sterile sediments. When features were encountered, plan maps of the features were drawn. Features were then cross-sectioned and a vertical profile drawn. Flotation samples, between two and five liters in volume, were taken from at least one-half of each feature. Pollen, soil/sediment and radiocarbon samples were collected when appropriate. Test unit documentation was extensive and detailed. Unit and level forms were prepared for each unit, with plan maps drawn to 1:10 or 1:20 scale at each level and scale drawing profiles of two adjacent vertical walls recorded for each unit. Black-and-white photographs and color slides document each feature and wall profile. Supplementary photographs were taken to document individual excavation levels or intermediate stages of the excavation. The cultural and natural strata discernable in the soil/sediment profiles were drawn and described using standard United States Department of 29 Agriculture (USDA) soil texture, structure, and boundary classifications (USDA, Soil Conservation Service [SCS] 1975). Colors were standardized using Munsell soil color chart chips (Munsell 1975) compared with moist to wet sediment samples. In addition to these sediment attributes, the strata descriptions included in Chapter 6 include thickness ranges (in cm) for each stratum. Table 3 provides characteristics of the major soil horizons used in this study (SCS 1975). The A- E-B soil horizon sequence, from top to bottom, represents a normal soil profile in upland nondepositional settings. Other soil horizons may also be present, representing either cultural transformations of the soil or transitional horizons that are not assignable to these major soil horizons. These include the Ap (plow zone), AB, EB, and BE horizons. The archaeological significance of soil horizons relates to the amount of time required for development of the B horizon in nondepositional environments. In the absence of bioturbation, cultural materials resulting from Holocene occupation in nondepositional site environments should be confined to the A, E and BE horizons. Some cultural material may be found in the uppermost portions of B horizons, especially in poorly developed B horizons, but these artifacts often represent small items that have been moved by bioturbation processes. For practical purposes, once a test hole breaches the well- defined Bt horizon by a few centimeters, there is almost no chance that additional cultural material will be recovered, and excavation can be stopped. Pleistocene-age sediments have probably been encountered by this depth. At some sites, test trenches 20 to 40 cm in depth were excavated into the bottom of test units to determine whether culturally sterile sediments had been reached. In depositional environments, where clay and organic matter may be added to and moved through the sediment profile in greater amounts than in upland settings, the presence of a B horizon in a test hole is not as significant. The test hole may still contain buried soils beneath a developed B horizon. In addition, alluvial sediments may not exhibit a well-developed B horizon. In cave deposits, soil development and horizonation processes are often severely retarded. In these environments, it may be inappropriate to describe sediments in terms of horizon development. A more effective approach is to describe the sediment characteristics, and if soil characteristics such as structure and clay translocation are present, these are described as appropriate. Laboratory Methods All recovered materials were transported to the laboratory facilities at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign where they were washed, labeled, inventoried, analyzed, and packaged for curation. Inventory forms document artifact types, counts and weights for each provenience. All of the sites investigated here were selected because of the potential of their prehistoric components. Historic artifacts were recovered in small numbers from only a few of these sites and were described individually when appropriate. Almost all of the artifacts and materials recovered were from prehistoric contexts, and the tabulations and analyses reflect this situation. All prehistoric material was initially counted and weighed on the preliminary inventory forms (Appendix E), where artifacts were divided into major material classes (lithic, ceramic, bone, plant, etc.). Fire-cracked rock (Taggert 1981; Zurel 1979, 1982) also was segregated as a major material class. The most common material class of prehistoric artifacts is lithic remains. Ceramic, faunal (bone and shell) and botanical remains also were recovered, though 30 Table 3. Selected Characteristics of Major Soil Horizons in Upland Nondepositional Environments (SCS 1975). Horizon Characteristics A This horizon is often dark in color and loamy in texture, and contains the highest concentration of organic matter and mineral plant nutrients. The root mass is concentrated in this horizon, and the structure is often granular or crumby with small peds (individual soil aggregates). E This horizon is marked by concentration of mineral nutrients and removal of soluble organic matter. These processes result in a leached appearance to the soil, with color often gray to white. Texture is often silty. This horizon is most often present when vegetation cover is undisturbed deciduous forest; the horizon may be thin or absent. B This horizon represents a zone in which clay-sized mineral soil particles accumulate and organic material is in low concentration. The best marker of this horizon is its notably more clayey texture, often accompanied by a shift in color to light brown or reddish brown. Bt This horizon is a subdivision of the B horizon which shows translocated clay particles and accumulation of clay, usually in the form of clay skins on peds. Ap This is the plow zone, a culturally modified, artificial soil horizon created by agricultural mixing of sediments. The natural A horizon contributes most to this zone, but often the E and portions of the B horizon are also incorporated into this mixed zone. Color is often dark, and there is usually a very sharp break between the Ap and underlying undisturbed horizons. AB This is a transitional horizon having some attributes of both A and B horizons, and is found intermediately between these horizons. EB or BE This is a transitional horizon having some attributes of both E and B horizons, and is found intermediately between these horizons. BC This is a transitional horizon between an illuviated B horizon and the underlying pedogenically unaltered sediments (C horizon) in fewer numbers than the lithic artifacts. Lithic, ceramic, bone, shell, and botanical remains were subjected to more detailed analyses (see below). Lithic artifacts were divided into a series of debitage types reflecting sequential stages of bifacial tool manufacture and use (Table 4), following lithic technological analysis methods developed by Collins (1975), Crabtree (1972), Johnson (1981), and Johnson and Morrow (1987), and modified by Ahler (1981, 1984, 1986). The debitage types used in this analysis represent a bifacial reduction trajectory, and reflect the observation that almost all formal chipped-stone lithic tools in the assemblage are 31 bifacial. The predominance of bifacial formal tools implies that a bifacial lithic reduction technology was used in their manufacture and that use of a bifacial reduction trajectory for classification of debitage flake types is appropriate. Primary and secondary flakes show evidence of removal from cores in early stages of manufacture by the type of platform and amount of cortex present. Tertiary and bifacial thinning flakes represent later stages of the reduction sequence and are associated with biface shaping, hafting and maintenance. The most common nonbifacial reduction trajectory debitage are broken flakes and angular shatter, both of which may be produced through several types of lithic reduction activities, including bifacial reduction. Other types of debitage that do not fit a bifacial reduction sequence were noted when encountered, though these are rare occurrences. Occasionally small unifacial blades (Montet-White 1968) were observed, which are usually associated with a specialized type of unifacial flake production industry. However, the blade cores and platform rejuvenation flakes associated with a blade industry were not observed. Only limited evidence was found of bipolar flakes, which is not surprising given the abundance, size and generally high quality of chert raw material in the Fort Leonard Wood area. Bipolar industries are usually found in areas with variable-quality chert raw material in the form of small nodules (see Ahler et al. 1988; Binford and Quimby 1963; McPherron 1967). Formally modified lithic artifacts were placed into one of five general descriptive tool categories (hafted bifaces, nonhafted bifaces, cores, unifaces, and ground-stone tools; see Table 4) and separated for detailed analysis. Evidence of use-wear on debitage was noted, but these items were not considered to be formally modified tools. The general descriptive tool categories were further divided into a series of specific tool categories (Table 4), and tallied on separate analysis sheets. The classification attributes for specific tool categories reflect stages of manufacture, evidence of tool curation or expedient tool use, tool morphology, and inferred tool function. Temporally diagnostic artifacts (usually hafted bifaces) were described in more detail on a specially designed analysis form (Appendix E). Assignment of hafted biface specimens to previously named projectile point types and subsequent assessment of age/cultural affiliation was made by comparing each Fort Leonard Wood specimen to illustrations and descriptions of formally described types in the region. Standard references used for projectile point comparisons include Bell (1958, 1960), Chapman (1975, 1980), Justice (1987), Kay (1980), May (1982), Morrow (1984), and Perino (1968, 1971). Attributes of ceramic artifacts were described in detail on ceramic analysis forms. The formal ceramic typology for the region consists presently of only two indigenous described types, Maramec Cordmarked and Maramec Plain, (see Marshall 1958, 1965; McMillan 1965 for formal descriptions of these types). Both of these types have a long history of manufacture and use, and little morphological variability through time has been described. However, the stratigraphic excavations conducted here may provide an opportunity to examine these kinds of variation. Consequently, the ceramic recording form developed for this project was designed to be highly descriptive. Attributes of temper type, temper density and size, surface treatment, cord twist, decoration, vessel portion, vessel form, rim shape and method of manufacture, lip shape and treatment, rim orifice diameter, and thickness were recorded for each sherd, following standard definitions for these attributes (Rice 1987; Shepard 1965). Each sherd also was placed in a ceramic type category for comparative purposes. Description of variation in ceramic attributes through time is one of the research goals of this project (see Chapter 4), and the results of this research are presented in Chapter 7. 32 Table 4. Lithic Debitage and Tool Category Descriptions. Category (Abbreviation) Description Core Primary flake (Prim) Secondary flake (Sec) Tertiary flake (Ter) Bifacial thinning flake (BTF) Broken flake (BF) Block shatter (Shat) Uniface Burin Backed knife Unifacial cutting tool Unifacial perforator Biface Rough biface Thick biface fragment Thin biface fragment Projectile point/ Knife (PPK) Raw material used for tool production, having at least 3 flake scars Flake with large bulb of percussion, flat platform, and >50% cortex on dorsal surface Flake with large bulb of percussion, flat platform, and <50% cortex on dorsal surface Flake with flat, unfaceted platform, no cortex on dorsal surface, and evidence of 2 or more prior flake removals Flake with small, diffuse bulb of percussion, faceted platform, lip at juncture of platform and ventral surface, no cortex, and evidence of 2 or more prior flake removals on dorsal surface Generally flat flake fragments that lack a striking platform and have no cortex Angular pieces that are probably cultural in origin, but lack flake characteristics Formally modified chipped-stone tools with evidence of intentional shape or edge modification by removal of flakes from the margin of one aspect (dorsal or ventral) Uniface with modification on short, thick projecting areas, probably used as chisel-like tools for engraving or scoring hard material. The modification does not extend along the entire margin of the protrusion. Uniface with an intentionally snapped surface opposite an acutely angled modified edge, facilitating hafting or manual prehension Uniface with acute modified edges and some evidence of overall shape modification. These items lack backing modification opposite the working edge Uniface with elongated modified areas with steep retouch along both lateral margins of the elongated area Formally modified chipped-stone tools that show evidence of intentional shape or edge modification by removal of retouch flakes from the margin of both aspects Biface with only minimal modification Biface that has been further reduced but displays sinuous margins and evidence of hard hammer percussion flaking Biface that has been fully thinned but lacks evidence of haft element modification Fully reduced biface with evidence of a haft element. All projectile points are included in a single category, regardless of the style of hafting. Some bifaces show evidence of reworking into another tool form after breakage; these are discussed individually when encountered. 33 Dr. Paul P. Kreisa identified species and elements represented in the faunal assemblage, using the comparative collections of the Zooarchaeology Laboratory at the University of Illinois at Urbana- Champaign and the Illinois State Museum. All material was identified to the most exclusive taxonomic level. The defined analytical unit (arbitrary level or natural/cultural stratum) was used as the unit of analysis. Number of Identified Specimens (NISP) and Minimum Number of Individuals (MNI) are presented for each taxon below the level of family. The derivation of MNI is based on the single most frequently paired element occurring in the sample (Grayson 1984). MNI for each taxon was calculated separately for each unit of analysis. Flotation samples were processed in the laboratory using a Flote-Tech II flotation machine. Light and heavy fractions were separated for analyses. Formally modified lithic items and ceramic artifacts were extracted from the heavy fraction and analyzed with the screened samples from excavation units and features. Faunal remains were scanned for additional species not identified in the screen samples. The primary focus of the flotation fraction analyses was recovery and identification of botanical remains. Both heavy and light fractions yielded botanical remains, and these were supplemented by samples of hand-picked charcoal collected during excavation. Gregory Walz of the University of Illinois performed the botanical analyses. Carbonized plant remains were extracted from both flotation fractions, which were combined and sieved through a 2-mm geologic screen. All fragments > 2.0 mm were segregated into wood charcoal, nutshell and seeds. All nutshell and seeds and a sample of 20 pieces of wood charcoal from each sample were identified to the smallest possible taxon. The smaller fraction (<2.0 mm) was scanned for identifiable seeds and nutshell fragments under lOx to 30x magnification. Taxonomic identification was effected through comparison to specimens illustrated in standard botanical identification texts (Core et al 1979; Martin and Barkley 1961; Montgomery 1977) and to the comparative collections available at the University of Illinois. Strata or levels that are depositionally or pedogenically unique within each test unit were employed as analytical units in intrasite and intersite comparisons of artifact density, artifact distribution, inferred site function, and occupational intensity. In most test units, arbitrary excavation levels did not cross-cut strata, but there are some exceptions, resulting in mixed strata within a single excavation level. In these cases, the level with mixed strata was designated as a separate analytical unit. In general, the analyses of the different material classes were integrated into a summary interpretation, using the analytical units for presentation and comparison of lithic, ceramic, and faunal data. This method of presentation facilitates examination of research questions dealing with diachronic change. Age assessments were made for each analytical unit, collection unit or excavation level using two methods. First, the age or cultural affiliation was determined through comparative typological means for all temporally diagnostic artifacts (projectile points and ceramic sherds). The provenience unit context (level or cultural/natural stratum) of each diagnostic artifact was recorded, and age ranges or estimates were derived by comparing the age estimates of diagnostic artifacts found in each analytical unit. The second method was radiocarbon assay of carbonized plant remains. First, botanical analyses were conducted on samples of suitable mass and material that were to be sent for dating. Six radiocarbon assays were obtained from controlled stratigraphic contexts at two sites, providing direct absolute dates for specific levels, strata and cultural features. Material suitable for radiocarbon assay was not recovered from the remaining sites. 34 Using the age estimates derived from either radiocarbon assay or typological comparisons of temporally diagnostic artifacts, each excavation level or stratum described in the field was assigned to an age range or cultural affiliation, when possible. If no direct indicators of age were available for a given level or stratum, potential age ranges were assigned based on ages of bracketing strata. When no age ranges could be assigned for a either specific stratum or for bracketing strata, the age of the stratum was given as unknown or previous to the defined age of the overlying strata. After analysis of all materials was completed, updated ASM site forms were compiled for all sites. The completed ASM forms are included in Appendix C. Because site location data are confidential, this appendix is bound and distributed separately. Curation All cultural material recovered during this project and all documents relating to the fieldwork and laboratory analysis of these materials are the property of the federal government. University of Illinois personnel have compiled lists of the artifacts recovered from each site (Appendix D). In addition, copies of all photographs, analysis forms and field forms pertaining to these sites are included in Appendices E and F. Qualified researchers interested in viewing the artifacts and documentation should contact USACERL. 35 CHAPTER 6 RESULTS OF INVESTIGATIONS This chapter presents the results of investigations at the seven sites selected for Phase II testing. The results are grouped by cultural resource zone. A short description of the site, its physiographic location and current condition is provided. Following are sections on previous research, description of the investigation results, the analysis of the artifact assemblage, a discussion and interpretation of this data, and NRHP recommendations. Included in this last section are potential research domains that could be addressed through future work for those sites considered to be NRHP eligible. In Chapter 7, the results of investigations are used to address the research goals and questions presented in Chapter 4. Material recovered from specific provenience units is detailed in the material inventory in Appendix A. 23PU482 Site 23PU482 is located within the Upper Roubidoux cultural resource zone (Figure 1), on an upland ridge west of Roubidoux Creek (Figure 1). Site 23PU482 lies between 329 and 332 m asl and consists of an area defined by positive posthole tests and surface collected materials. Disturbance was listed as mainly due to road construction across the southern half of the site area and prior agricultural plowing (Ahler and McDowell 1993). Currently, the site is covered by a secondary growth oak-hickory forest. Site Description Site 23PU482 was recorded with the Archaeological Survey of Missouri as an open habitation, lithic tool and debris scatter in 1993 by the Public Service Archaeology Program (Ahler and McDowell 1993). An Early Archaic occupation of the site was identified based on the recovery of a corner- notched projectile point fragment. The site is located on an upland ridge at the summit of a narrow northeast-trending crest. Surface visibility at 23PU482 was restricted to the road cut through the southern half of the site and its associated bulldozer piles. Secondary growth oak-hickory forest covered the remainder of the site area. Based on the Phase I results, the site area was defined as 80 m east- west by 50 m north-south encompassing about 3,300 m 2 (Ahler and McDowell 1993). The nearest water source is Roubidoux Creek, located 230 m to the southeast and 45 m below the site. Site 23PU482 is in generally good condition, with perhaps only 15 percent of the site area having been disturbed by construction activities. It is also likely, based on soil profiles, that the site has been previously plowed. The uplands within Fort Leonard Wood are typically loess-covered ridges containing silty soils (Wolf 1989). Erosion either on ridge tops or side slopes results in very cherty soils. Soils within the 23PU482 site limits have been mapped as Doniphan very cherty silt loam, 3-9 percent slopes (Wolf 1989). The Doniphan series is described as an upland soil that is well-drained and moderately permeable and that formed in cherty sediments and dolomite residuum. Doniphan soils are located on narrow, convex ridge tops and short shoulder slopes (Wolf 1989). Typically, these soils evidence A and E horizons to a depth of 28 cm below ground surface. Both horizons are cherty silt loams. The 36 following B horizon is a silty clay loam to clay with chert fragments lessening in frequency. Investigations at 23PU482 indicate that a disturbed and truncated soil profile exists on site. Previous Investigations Site 23PU482 was identified by the Public Service Archaeology Program in 1993 (Ahler and McDowell 1993). Site investigation consisted of surface collections made along the road and bulldozer piles and posthole excavations across the breadth of the ridge. The excavations and surface collections yielded 26 artifacts, 22 of which consisted of various lithic-debris categories. The remaining four artifacts include a unifacial spokeshave, two biface fragments, and the haft portion of an Early Archaic corner-notched projectile point. Cultural materials were recovered from below the plow zone, indicating a potential for intact deposits at the site. Site 23PU482 was interpreted to be an Early Archaic residential camp based on the diversity of tool types and the moderate density of artifacts recovered during the Phase I investigations (Ahler and McDowell 1993). These attributes and the potential for intact deposits at the site led to the recommendation that Phase II investigations be conducted to determine its NRHP eligibility. Ahler and McDowell (1993) suggested that the Phase II test excavations focus on confirming the period of occupation, defining the extent of undisturbed deposits, determining the probability of locating intact cultural features, and determining the function of the site in relation to the local settlement system. Phase II investigations were conducted in March 1995 and attempted to address each of these issues while determining the NRHP status of site 23PU482. Results of Investigations Investigations followed the general field strategy detailed in Chapter 5. Activities consisted of a surface reconnaissance along the road and bulldozer piles, the excavation of a grid of postholes encompassing the previously defined site area, the production of a topographic map, and the excavation of two l-x-2-m test units (Figure 2). These investigations resulted in the collection of less than 100 artifacts and the identification of a disturbed soil profile at 23PU482. Surface Collection. A nonsystematic reconnaissance of the road and adjacent bulldozer piles was made. One artifact, a thick biface, was located along the road to the north of the site limits. It is likely that the location of this artifact north of the site is due to road construction or maintenance activities. Posthole Excavations. The posthole excavations consisted of six rows excavated at 10-m intervals. Twenty-one postholes were excavated north of the road while five were excavated south of the road. The first row was located south of the road and was excavated in an east to west direction. This row of postholes evidenced a very eroded soil profile with clayey B horizon soils present at the top of each profile. No artifacts were recovered from any of these postholes. The other five rows of postholes were excavated north of the road in a south to north direction across the site area. Soil profiles from these excavations indicated the presence of a 10-15-cm thick plow zone close to the road with increasingly eroded profiles away from the road to the north. Few artifacts were recovered from these tests, with only seven positive postholes excavated. All of the positive tests contained a single flake artifact, and all but one of the artifacts was found between 0-10 cm below ground surface. The single exception, a secondary flake, was located between 20-30 cm below ground surface in a posthole near the road. 37 oo D m o c cs CO c C3 u, oo O Or O H oa o u, 38 Test Unit 1. This l-x-2-m unit was placed north of the road in the eastern portion of the site (Figure 2). Two full levels were excavated to 20-cm below ground surface and a portion of the unit was excavated to 40 cm below ground surface. Flotation samples were taken from the initial two excavation levels. Three strata were defined (Figure 3, a). The first is a 10-cm thick plow zone consisting of dark grayish brown (10YR4/2) silt loam. Following this is a 5-cm thick horizon of brown (10YR5/3) silt loam. This zone was interpreted as a mixture of a remnant plow zone and E horizon. The final strata defined is a culturally sterile B horizon subsoil. The initial 15 cm is a yellowish-brown (10YR5/4) silt loam, followed by a strong brown (7.5 YR4/6) silty clay loam with abundant gravel. Artifacts from this unit were mainly confined to the initial 15 cm, although a few additional pieces were found to 20 cm below ground surface. No materials were found below 20 cm below ground surface. Test Unit 2. This l-x-2-m test unit also was placed to the north of the road, but to the west and north of Test Unit 1 (Figure 2). Like Test Unit 1, two full levels were excavated to 20 cm below ground surface, and a portion of the unit was excavated to 40 cm below surface. Three soil strata also were identified in Test Unit 2 (Figure 3, b). The initial 10-12 cm is a brown (10YR4/3) silt loam plow zone. Following this is a 10-12 cm light yellowish brown (10YR6/4) silty clay loam that was interpreted as a mixture of a remnant plow zone and E horizon. The final stratum is a strong brown (7.5YR5/8) silty clay B horizon mixed with abundant gravel. Like Test Unit 1, artifacts from this unit were mainly confined to the initial 15 cm, although a few pieces were found to 20 cm below ground surface. No materials were found below 20 cm below ground surface. Discussion. The soil profiles from the posthole and test unit excavations indicate that the site area had been previously plowed and subjected to subsequent erosion. Erosion appears to be greatest along the southern and northern boundaries of the site in areas with greater surface slope. In those areas, little to no A or E horizon soils were encountered. Instead, clayey B horizon soils were found to be at the top of the soil sequence. Within the central part of the site area, corresponding to a flatter portion of the ridge top, posthole and test unit excavations indicate that a truncated soil sequence is present. Ap and E horizons comprise the initial 15-20 cm of deposits within the test units, which is 10-15 cm thinner than the norm for this soil type (Wolf 1989). Based on the suite of profiles investigated from across the site area, it appears that the soil profile at 23PU482 has been deflated and disturbed by previous agricultural activities. Artifact Assemblage A total of 83 artifacts was recovered from the surface collection, posthole and test unit excavations at 23PU482 (Table 5). The artifacts consist entirely of prehistoric lithics, including various flake categories, a single biface fragment, and fire-cracked rock. Most of the material is from the test unit excavations (n=75, 90 percent). Less material was found in the postholes (n=7, 9 percent), while a single artifact was collected from the surface. A greater number of artifacts were found in Test Unit 1 (n=46, 55 percent) than Test Unit 2 (n=29, 35 percent). Surface Assemblage. A single thick biface fragment was found along the road to the south of the previously defined site area (Table 5). This artifact may have been moved off the site area during road construction or maintenance. 39 o o _© "o Q. o c z> CO © co © i_ Q. sz ■c o CM 'c ■*— » CO © ic\j;: CO o l CM O CO -Q 3 CO D ca c .o "to c ro LLI CN •4—* "2 D ■4— » 0 Figure 5. Soil Profiles from 23PU251: a, Test Unit 1; b, Test unit 2. 48 Test Unit 2. This 1-x-l-m unit was placed in the south-central part of the site, about 8 m north of the steep bluff base (Figure 4). Nearby postholes revealed cultural material to depths of 40-50 and 50-55 cm below surface, and this test unit was excavated to obtain information on the depositional and cultural sequences within this area of the site. Test Unit 2 was excavated to 70 cm below ground surface in seven arbitrary levels. Flotation samples were taken from all excavated levels. Few organic remains were recovered. After excavation was stopped at the base of Level 7, a posthole was placed in the bottom of the unit. It was excavated in 10-cm levels to a depth of 170 cm below surface. No underlying Bb horizon similar to that exposed in Test Unit 1 was encountered. Instead, the Bt2 horizon continues to 1 10-120 cm below surface. The sediments then shift to a weak Bt3 horizon which is present to 170 cm below surface. Each 10-cm level of this posthole was screened through 14 -inch mesh. Flakes were found in the 70-80-cm level, the 90-100 cm-level, and the 160-170-cm level. Carbonized nutshell was recovered from the 90-100 cm level and wood charcoal fragments were taken from the 140-150 cm level. Recovery of flakes and carbonized botanical remains from the aggrading Miller terrace sediments suggests that buried components may be present at the site. The carbonized nutshell from the 90-100-cm level was submitted for radiocarbon assay. While this assay will not necessarily determine if the carbonized material is of cultural rather than natural origin, it will provide a date for the accumulation of Miller formation sediments. The soil horizons exposed in Test Unit 2 showed a thickened, weakly developed A horizon resulting from the late Holocene colluvium addition to the terrace surface underlain by weak AB, Btl and Bt2 horizons (Figure 5, b). The A horizon, between 19-22 cm thick, is a dark brown (10YR3/3) blocky silt loam with gravel. It is followed by a dark brown to yellowish brown (10YR3/3 to 4/4) gravelly silt loam AB horizon that is 8-10 cm thick. The third horizon, 12-17 cm thick, is a Btl, is a yellowish brown (10YR4/4) silt loam containing less gravel. The final soil horizon, a minimally 30- cm thick Bt2 horizon, consists of grayish brown to pale brown (10YR5/2 to 6/3) silt loam. Cultural material was moderate in the upper three levels, then slowly decreased. Root casts were common in the Btl and Bt2 horizons, and these may contain bioturbated artifacts. The seven excavated levels from Test Unit 2 were combined on the basis of soil stratigraphy to form four analytical units. Levels 1 and 2 are combined into the uppermost analytical unit, representing the A horizon. Level 3 generally provides a sample of the AB horizon, and Level 4 represents the underlying Btl horizon. The lowest analytical unit includes all material from levels 5-7 (Bt2 horizon). The posthole levels were retained as separate levels and were not combined into the analytical units. Artifact Assemblage A total of 1,132 prehistoric artifacts was collected, including lithic debitage, chipped-stone tools and small amounts of fire-cracked rock (Table 6). No ceramic artifacts and few organic remains were recovered. No artifacts were recovered from the site surface, but postholes yielded 34 artifacts. Test Unit 1 contained 708 artifacts and Test Unit 2 produced 384 prehistoric artifacts. Posthole Assemblage. Aside from broken flakes, tertiary and bifacial thinning flakes are most common, although all flake types are present (Table 6). This debitage profile suggests that a broad range of lithic reduction activities may have taken place, with an emphasis on late-stage biface production, although the small size of the assemblage may bias this interpretation. Posthole Tl/Hl also produced a fragment 49 IT) P Pu en rN ■i— > •*— » o t? 3 X c/2 no s 2 o H Oil U (N o w m N -< r- r- o io en ■* r-H CO •- 1 cs o o o o r- o o o © o o o o o O en *- 1 o o o -^cNooocnOOenr^-* cs t-~ oo no r- ^i- tt -* en oooooooooo r-i OOO-hO-^OOOO ON — -OOOOOOOOO eS (NfNOOOOOOOO OO CN — i o o o o o 00 (N en en no oo oo o oq en CM on r- O o 1^ c4 VO en *— < 00 no es "o < < < oa S j2 g J3 '•w' N»— ' ^-—x N™-' N„^ -w ■« »-i CM en -*t -< — ; >— i OQ OQ OQ OQ S J J J J >o no r- « « w O H V-l o O •i— » o C es C IS xn •a N X) £ C x: o 1 i— X 3 Z is 50 of a unifacial cutting tool, the only modified item recovered from postholes. No temporally diagnostic artifacts were recovered from postholes. Intrasite artifact patterning becomes somewhat clearer when artifact density values for postholes are examined (Table 7). Postholes at Tl/Hl and T5/H1 had the highest density of artifacts, and T5/H1 also exhibited deep cultural deposits. There appear to be systematic differences in artifact density between postholes placed close to the bluff base (Hole 1) and those farther onto the terrace surface (holes 2-3). Eight of ten positive holes are in the Hole 1 rank, indicating that more cultural deposits are located close to the bluff base than on the flat terrace. However, when artifacts occur farther away from the bluff base, the artifact density is similar to the densities for Hole 1 tests in the same transect. Test Unit Assemblages. Both test units contained similar volumes of screened sediment, making comparisons between the two relatively easy. Both test units contained comparable debitage classes as well (Table 6). However, a higher proportion of bifacial thinning flakes was recovered from the test units than from the postholes, which suggests that the low proportions of bifacial thinning flake from postholes is a sampling bias. There appears to be an emphasis on late-stage, lithic reduction and tool maintenance activities within this assemblage, although a wide range of reduction stages is represented. These debitage profiles suggest that the site contains the remains of several episodes of generalized habitation that were incorporated into the aggrading upper surface of the Miller terrace or were incorporated into the upper soil horizon of the terrace after it became stabilized. The diversity and generally high density of debitage is consistent with the use of the site as a locus of generalized domestic habitation, but there is variability represented in the debitage profiles and the distribution of materials in both test units. First, the debitage profile of Test Unit 1 is distinct from that of Test Unit 2. Test Unit 1 shows high proportions of primary flakes, block shatter, cores, and secondary flakes, indicating that early to intermediate stage reduction were an important, but not exclusive, aspect of lithic reduction activities associated with the occupations. However, this profile differs between the levels within Test Unit 1. The debitage profiles for Level 1 and levels 4-5 are similar to those recovered from other areas of the site and similar to other debitage assemblages from Fort Leonard Wood that have been interpreted as representing generalized habitation locales. The debitage profiles shown in levels 1-3 were compared using a Kolmogorov-Smirnov Two- Sample test. The K-S two-sample test (Thomas 1976) is designed to compare two series data that are ordinally ranked using the same scale of comparison. The maximum differences in cumulative proportions at each stage in the ordinal sequence are compared to a critical value, which is calculated from a modified proportional reduction in error formula. If the observed maximum difference in cumulative proportion exceeds the calculated critical value, this indicates that the two series are significantly different in terms of the ordinal scale used in the comparison (in this case, debitage types in the bifacial reduction trajectory and broken flakes). For these comparisons, a level of rejection of 0. 1 was used to calculate the critical value for each test. Analytical units or levels with less than 20 flakes were not compared because of the effects of small sample sizes. The K-S test results indicate that the debitage profiles of all three upper levels in Test Unit 1 are significantly different from each other. Level 1 is dominated by broken flakes, and has increasing 51 Table 7. Artifact Density Calculations for 23PU251. Provenience Number of Artifact density Artifacts Volume (liters) (items/liter) 10 7.5 1.33 1 2.5 0.4 2 5.0 0.4 1 5.0 0.2 10 10.0 1.0 1 2.5 0.4 1 2.5 0.4 2 2.5 0.8 7 10.0 0.7 170 92 1.85 305 90 3.39 153 94 1.63 32 44 0.73 41 44 0.93 7 50 0.14 71 90 0.79 82 90 0.91 68 90 0.76 70 90 0.78 43 90 0.48 40 90 0.44 10 40 0.25 Postholes Tl/Hl T2/H1 T2/H2 T4/H1 T5/H1 T8/H1 Tll/Hl T12/H1 T12/H2 Test Unit 1 Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Level 5 Level 6 Test Unit 2 Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Level 5 Level 6 Level 7 numbers of flakes in sequential reduction stages. The Level 2 assemblage is dominated by secondary and broken flakes, indicating an emphasis on early-stage reduction. The Level 3 assemblage has high proportions of both secondary and bifacial thinning flakes and lower proportions of broken flakes, indicating a mixed early- and late-stage reduction strategy. The fact that all three levels have significantly different debitage profiles suggests that different occupational episodes (and by implication, examples of different uses of the site) may be represented in each level. Moreover, this finding also suggests that the effects of bioturbation have not homogenized the different lithic assemblages. Another finding is that highest artifact density in Test Unit 1 is associated with Level 2. This suggests that there may have been some late Holocene sediment aggradation that incorporated the remains of occasional episodes of human occupation on top of the generally stable Miller formation 52 surface. This artifact distribution may have resulted from a single episode of longer-term occupation during the deposition of the Miller formation sediments, but this interpretation is unlikely because of the age of the projectile point (Late Archaic to Late Woodland) recovered from the bottom of Level 2. Test Unit 1 produced moderate amounts of cultural material, with artifacts abundant in the Level 2 and common in levels 1 and 3. Both the A and AE horizons appear to represent intact cultural strata that contain artifacts in significant quantities. Artifact density decreases sharply in Level 4 (B horizon), but artifacts are still present. The presence of artifacts in the weakly developed B horizon may have resulted from bioturbation from the above levels (many of the artifacts are small in size), or it may indicate occasional use of the site while the Miller formation terrace sediments were aggrading during the middle Holocene. Test Unit 1 produced few modified artifacts. Level 1 had two cores and two fire-cracked rocks. Level 2 was most productive, yielding a generally reduced core, an expanding stem point, and two thin biface fragments. Level 3 produced a thick biface fragment. The expanding- stem/corner-notched point (Figure 6) recovered from the bottom of Level 2, within the AE soil horizon, is similar to those designated as category CN3 points by McMillan (1965) and Roberts (1965). Kay (1980) assigns similar points to his Category 48 (unnamed type). All of these categories date from the Late Archaic and throughout the Woodland period; such an age range is consistent with occupation on the stable surface of the mid-Holocene Miller terrace landform. Similar points have been recovered from dated stratigraphic contexts at Sadie's Cave (23PU235) (Ahler 1995:153-159) and from undated contexts at sites 23PU173, 23PU370 and 23PU368 at Fort Leonard Wood. Test Unit 2 yielded fewer artifacts than did Test Unit 1. A total of 384 was found from all seven levels. However, the distribution of artifacts is very homogeneous among levels, with the Btl and Bt2 horizons yielding moderate amounts of artifacts. This finding suggests that there may have been some colluvial sediment aggradation near the bluff base that was coeval with and augmented the alluvial deposition of the Miller terrace deposits. This situation resulted in incorporation of cultural material into the aggrading Holocene deposits and suggests that intact mid-Holocene occupations may be present in buried contexts within the terrace. The debitage profiles for each level are similar in this test unit, and collectively indicate a generalized reduction sequence with an emphasis on early-stage biface production. Statistical comparison of the composite debitage profile for the unit (sample sizes are individually too small for comparisons) with the debitage profiles for the upper three levels of Test Unit 1 indicates significant differences between the Test Unit 2 composite profile and the profiles of Test Unit 1, Level 1 and Test Unit 1, Level 3. The Test Unit 2 assemblage is not statistically different from the Test Unit 1, Level 2 assemblage. Modified items from Test Unit 2 include a core, two thin biface fragments and a unifacial cutting tool from Level 1; two cores, a thick biface fragment and a scraper from Level 2; and two cores from Level 4. None of the artifacts are temporally diagnostic. The bifaces, like the debitage, indicate both early- and late-stage lithic reduction. Also of interest are the six flakes recovered from the posthole placed in the bottom of Test Unit 2. The three flakes from 70-80 cm below ground surface may represent bioturbated material from 53 Figure 6. Late Archaic to Woodland Period Projectile Point from 23PU251. overlying levels, but additional material was recovered from 90-100 cm (two flakes) and 160-170 cm (one flake) below ground surface. This continued recovery of material deep within the Miller terrace deposits suggests that there may be deeply buried cultural strata contained within the aggrading Miller formation. Botanical Remains Flotation samples collected in the field were processed and analyzed according to the methods described in Chapter 5. Twelve flotation samples were collected from the test units at 23PU251. Four of the samples, totaling more than 22 liters, were collected from Test Unit 1. The remaining eight samples from Test Unit 2 consisted of 86 liters. No archaeobotanical remains were found in the Test Unit 1 flotation samples. Archaeobotanical remains weighing a total of 0.6 g were recovered from levels 1, 2, 4, and 7 of Test Unit 2. All of the remains are very fragmentary and eroded ring-porous hardwood-taxa charcoal. In addition to the flotation samples, two samples of hand-collected botanical remains were extracted during excavation of Test Unit 2. Another consisted of two small fragments of hickory nutshell from the 90-100-cm posthole level in Test Unit 2; these fragments weighed less than 0. 1 g and were sent for Accelerator Mass Spectrometry radiocarbon assay. The remaining sample consisted of unidentifiable 54 wood charcoal fragments recovered from 140-150 cm below ground surface in Test Unit 2; these fragments also weighed less than 0. 1 g. Radiocarbon Assay The sample of charred hickory nutshell from 90-100 cm below ground surface in the Test Unit 2 posthole was submitted for Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) assay to Beta Analytic, Inc. This sample was converted to solid carbon (graphite) by the laboratory and submitted to the Lawrence Livermore Center for Accelerator Mass Spectrometry for assay. The resulting assay produced an uncorrected date of 5920+60 B.P. (Beta-81616/CAMS-19851). This date is well within the time frame for deposition of the Miller formation sediments, which has been assigned a middle Holocene period (Middle Archaic) age by Albertson et al. (1995). The Miller formation sediments were estimated to have begun accumulating by around 8,000 years ago, and a suite of assays placed the end of Miller formation deposition at about 4,500 years ago. This assay is solidly within the time range and is stratigraphically near the middle of the Miller terrace sediments at 23PU251. In addition to providing another date on Miller formation deposits, the pre-4,500 B.P. age indicates that the cultural material contained within the Miller formation accumulated at the same time as the terrace sediments. It is unlikely that the cultural material found in this and overlying levels was transported into these sediments through bioturbation processes. Instead, these materials probably represent relatively intact, culture-bearing strata that accumulated between at least 6,000 and 4,500 years ago in the vicinity of Test Unit 2. Discussion The posthole tests revealed that the site boundaries are generally congruent with the extent of the Miller formation terrace remnant, covering an 8,000 m 2 area measuring about 220 m (east- west) and 20^40 m (north-south) on the south margin of the Roubidoux Creek valley. The posthole documentation also revealed no disturbance by historic agricultural practices. The site is in good to excellent condition, with little impact evident from military training or other historic activities. In addition, flakes were recovered from at least 50 cm below surface in three noncontiguous locations, suggesting that cultural material resulting from occasional use of the site has been incorporated into the aggrading mid-Holocene Miller formation terrace deposits. Based on soil profiles and artifact distributions gleaned from posthole excavations, the geomorphology of the site appears to be consistent with its assignment to the Miller formation (T5) terrace, a middle Holocene terrace deposited between about 8,000 and 4,500 years ago. While no buried midden deposits were noted, several postholes contained a few deeply buried flakes, indicating that human occupation took place on the aggrading terrace surface during its more stable periods; these occupations were subsequently buried by aggrading overbank alluvial deposits. The intact sediments in the Test Unit 1 area date from the Late Archaic to Late Woodland period, based on recovery of a single expanding-stem projectile point from the AE horizon (Level 2). Given that this point was buried about 20 cm below surface on an aggrading middle Holocene terrace, it argues strongly for the point being closer to Late Archaic in age. The documentation of different debitage profiles in the upper three levels of Test Unit 1 suggests that a series of occupations were 55 included in the aggrading terrace edge area, and further suggests that the role of the site in the local settlement system was not uniform through time. Test Unit 2 revealed artifact densities and debitage profiles that are different from those in Test Unit 1. No temporally diagnostic artifacts were recovered from this area, but a radiocarbon date of 5920 B.P. from 90-100 cm below surface indicates that cultural material has been incorporated into the aggrading middle Holocene terrace deposits. Intact, buried cultural zones are present within the site. Moreover, while features were not encountered in the limited test unit exposures, they are likely to be present in buried, stratigraphic contexts within the terrace deposits. Though the stratigraphy in these test units cannot be directly correlated, both stratigraphic sequences can be viewed as containing cultural materials resulting from Middle to Late Archaic period occupation of the aggrading Miller formation terrace surface. Later cultural periods also may be represented, and these remains are likely to be encountered over most of the terrace surface or to be shallowly buried in footslope colluvial sediments. Again, since the area is relatively undisturbed, it is likely that cultural features would be present in these occupations, though none were documented during the present investigations. The site is interpreted as being multicomponent, with the potential for containing distinct and stratigraphically separable components ranging from about 8,000 to 4,500 years ago. Later occupations may be present as well. A Late Woodland occupation at or near the site surface is likely to be present, given the recovery of 1.4 m of stratified Late Woodland deposits in colluvial sediments filling the rockshelter (23PU492) at the south edge of the terrace. Identifying the role that the site played in the local settlement system is somewhat problematical at this time. However, the changes in debitage profiles observed in Test Unit 1 suggests that site function changed through time. The density of cultural material is never very high for any given level or stratigraphic analytical unit, except for Test Unit 1, Level 2, and this finding suggests that the site did not function as a base camp in the local settlement system. Instead, a series of specialized short- term occupations are indicated by the variability in flake types and artifact density between the different components. No ceramic artifacts were found during these investigations. Organic remains were very limited, but it is likely that additional carbonized plant remains are present within the undisturbed strata. Features may contain localized concentrations of botanical remains. Preservation conditions for bone and shell are poor, and these materials are not likely to be recovered in future investigations unless they are present in large quantities in a sealed context such as a pit feature. The above data demonstrate that 23PU251 has been occupied at least intermittently between about 6,000 and at least 4,500 years ago. Intact, buried cultural deposits are present, and there is at least some potential for the recovery of carbonized botanical remains. The cultural occupations are sealed within aggrading middle Holocene terrace deposits, and probably represent the repeated short-term occupation of the site during periods of surface stability. Specific temporal periods of site occupation may be vertically separable, though these limited test excavations yielded only one temporally diagnostic artifact. The cultural and soil stratigraphy appear to have good integrity, and there may be vertical separation of components in areas of the site with higher sedimentation rates (e.g. , the bluff base). It 56 is likely that at least broad temporal periods can be vertically segregated through stratigraphically controlled excavations. The excavations and analyses of artifacts from 23PU251 indicate that the site is multicomponent, with Middle and probably Late Archaic occupations represented. The range of debitage and tool categories suggests that site function was variable through time. However, the low density and diversity of artifacts within the components suggest that it probably did not function as a base camp at any time during its occupational history. Recommendations The presence of intact, culture-bearing strata, low incidence of site disturbance, low to high artifact densities varying by stratigraphic, and hence cultural, association, recovery of at least one temporally diagnostic artifact from intact cultural strata, and the observation of intact, buried cultural strata in a geomorphically active environment are factors indicating that the site contains scientifically and culturally significant data. Though cultural features were not encountered in the test units, they are likely to be present, given that intact, artifact-bearing A, AE and B horizons were observed in at least three separate locations. On the negative side, there is no clear stratigraphic separation of some, although not all, of the components at this time. Bone and shell remains are apparently not preserved, though there is demonstrated potential for recovery of carbonized plant remains from sealed stratigraphic contexts. On balance, this site is viewed as having considerable potential for contributing to increased understanding of local and regional cultural adaptations. Consequently, it is recommended that 23PU251 be considered eligible for inclusion in the NRHP under Criterion D. The potential significance of the site lies in three major research domains. First, it is believed that additional excavations will allow the stratigraphic separation of deposits, which in turn provides an opportunity to build and test local and regional cultural chronological sequences. Additional radiocarbon dates associated with temporally diagnostic artifacts are sorely needed in the Ozark region, and this site contains diagnostic artifacts in sealed stratigraphic contexts that can potentially be associated with datable carbonized wood remains. Second, there are intact, artifact-bearing strata that can be assigned to the middle Holocene (Middle Archaic period), a time span generally thought to be affected by regional climatic conditions that were warmer and possibly drier than the modern climate. Human responses to the environmental impacts of this mid-Holocene drying period (Hypsithermal Interval) may have included population aggregation in favorable landscape settings, development of more logistically organized settlement systems, changes in technological efficiency as a result of decreased group mobility, or changes in dietary preferences. All of these possible human cultural responses to changing environmental conditions can be investigated through analysis of the cultural remains preserved in the intact stratified deposits at 23PU251. Third, the relationship of human occupation episodes to the dynamic middle Holocene landscape can be investigated by combining detailed geomorphological analyses with the artifact analyses. Models of geologic and geomorphic landscape evolution can be integrated with evidence of changes in site function through time. These data can provide refinements of existing models of Ozark human-land interactions proposed by Wood and McMillan (1976), Kay (1980), and McMillan and Klippel (1981). 57 23PU426 (Gravity Blind Site) Site 23PU426 was initially recorded by Markman and Baumann (1993) as a shallow rockshelter located in the Upper Roubidoux cultural resource zone (Figure 1). The site is located about midslope on a south-facing bluff face of an upland ridge that forms part of the Roubidoux Creek valley. The rock overhang runs for 60 m along a ledge with height varying from 2 to 5 m above the floor. A moderate lithic scatter along the ledge, or drip line, was evident. The site area is approximately 500 m 2 and is divided into two units. The area within the drip line measures 200 m 2 while an additional 300 m 2 of talus slope also revealed artifacts. Site Description The rockshelter is situated on a southeast facing, moderately steep slope above an intermittent drainage at 320 m asl (Figure 7). The drainage runs east-southeast and descends the bluff face to join Roubidoux Creek approximately 120 m to the east. A complex of rockshelter sites is in close proximity to 23PU426, including 23PU428 (200 m east) and 23PU432 (300 m east). Site 23PU427, a rock cairn, is located immediately above this complex of shelters, as is a large upland site, 23PU289, which is almost certainly related to these small rockshelters. Soils in the area are mapped as the Gepp-Rock outcrop complex, 35-60 percent slopes. The map unit is on ledges and bluffs on side slopes along rivers and streams. These areas average about 60 percent Gepp soil and 30 percent rock outcrop over the area. Permeability is moderate with Gepp soils, and surface runoff is rapid. The soil profile of the test unit placed on the talus slope conforms generally to that described for Gepp soils (Wolf 1989). The immediate site environment is dominated by oak along with eastern red cedar in areas underlain by Gasconade dolomite. There is little ground cover due to steepness of slope and surface runoff. However, at the time of Phase II investigations there was a considerable layer of forest leaf litter. The shelter appears to have formed as a result of the erosion of crumbly chert and mudstone of the Roubidoux formation between layers of less erodible sandstone/silicified layers. The sandstone/silicified layer above the shelter is about 2 m thick and forms a protective shelf of bare rock that is part of the shelter roof. The floor area consists of a ledge which at its widest measures 6 m across. Beginning at the western end of the shelter, at a juncture with a small southeast-running draw, the floor slopes slightly upward for about 8 m, then levels off for about 13 m, and rises again due to a large rockfall/roof collapse and subsequent sediment aggradation at the roof formed by the collapse. From this apex, about 30 m east of the western end, the shelter becomes shallower and the roof generally lower. The diminishing shelter area continues for another 20 m on a higher level surface, then turns northeastward; the remaining 10 m of shelter is very low and shallow. The shelter floor is generally flat and covered by a mixture of angular cobbles and gravel that have spalled from the shelter roof and back wall due to weathering. Occasional large rockfalls are present. There is also a conspicuous lack of soft sediment beneath the western end of the shelter. Most of the surface appears to be eroded and the rocky surface is probably a lag deposit. Apparently water runs down the back wall of the shelter during periods of high surface runoff. Also, the top of the shelter roof has been washed bare of sediment within 1 to 2 m of the shelter lip. There are numerous artifacts in the drip-line lag deposits, but few on the shelter floor within the drip line. Examination of the talus slope revealed several artifacts on the surface. 58 O 0Li CM C o 15 a, eo t— o n. o a) i- 3 59 Geomorphically, 23PU426 is located about midslope on the steep, south-facing side slope of a large upland ridge overlooking the Roubidoux Creek valley. Above the rim of the shelter, the side slope is shallower but still rises about 20 m above the rockshelter to the crest of a large dissected upland ridge mass. The shelter faces almost due south and is elevated about 25 m above the Roubidoux Creek floodplain. The setting of the shelter on the steep side slope translates to a generally nondepositional sedimentary environment for the site. The resistant sandstone cap that forms the shelter roof has been broken away in several places, which has created local retreats of the drip line and permitted accumulation of small sediment cones on the shelter floor. These sediment cones may contain more deeply stratified deposits than are present on the generally rocky shelter floor. Disturbance at the site appears to be approximately 25-30 percent due to natural erosion at the mouth of the shelter. The site appears to be in good condition otherwise, with no recent human disturbances in the site area. Previous Investigations This site was initially recorded by Markman and Baumann in 1993 as a shallow rockshelter with a multicomponent lithic scatter. At that time a surface collection was conducted and two shovel tests were excavated. A variety of lithic artifacts, including specimens that were identified as both Late Archaic and Late Woodland projectile points, thick and thin biface fragments, a thick scraper, a variety of flake types, and a large (825 g) quartzite halted axe, were collected from the surface. In addition to the lithic artifacts, small amounts of mussel shell and animal bone also were recovered. The two shovel tests were excavated to a depth of about 20 cm before striking a solid pavement of roof fall and residuum. No subsurface features were observed, nor were any artifacts recovered from the shovel probes. No ceramics were found to accompany the assemblage of late prehistoric projectile points. Based on the absence of ceramics at the site, it was interpreted as being a special-purpose or temporary encampment. The occurrence of Late Archaic points suggests that the shelter was used much earlier as well. The quartzite axe and scrapers were interpreted as possible indicators of woodworking and hide preparation, while bone, shell and lithic debris indicated that food preparation and consumption as well as tool manufacture and maintenance took place at 23PU426. These are the types of activities could be expected to take place in a temporary encampment or hunting blind. The small amount of relatively level living space also supports the interpretation of the site as a small encampment used for short periods of time. In addition, it was believed that there would be little chance of encountering stratified deposits because of residuum occurring at 20 cm below ground surface. In spite of this, 23PU426 was recommended for Phase II testing in order to better assess its eligibility for listing in the NRHP. Results of Investigations The current investigations followed the general outline of field methods for sites presented in Chapter 5. These activities included a surface collection of the shelter interior, drip line, and talus slope; construction of a topographic map; and the excavation of three test units. The activities performed and the results of these activities are described in detail below. Initial Reconnaissance and Mapping. The first task performed was the construction of a map showing the topographic context and internal details of the site (Figure 7). At the same time, a controlled surface collection was made. The collection entailed the division of the site area into three zones— the 60 shelter interior, the drip line and the talus slope. These three zones were then divided into 5-m segments beginning at the west end of the shelter and continuing east as far as the shelter limits. Each segment and zone was collected separately and given independent bag numbers. Leaves were cleared from the talus slope for a distance of five to ten meters downslope to expose artifacts on the surface. The highest density of artifacts was in the western half of the shelter in the drip line and talus slope areas (Figure 8). Very few artifacts were recovered in the east half of the site. Subsequent work focused on the west half of the site. The controlled surface collection produced a variety of artifacts including flakes, several large rough bifaces, cores and points. The presence of cores and rough bifaces indicates early-stage reduction activities, which are rare on sites within Fort Leonard Wood. Diagnostic artifacts include projectile points assigned to the Middle-Late Woodland and undesignated late prehistoric periods. All were recovered from the drip line or talus slope zones, indicating little sediment accumulation in these areas. Many of the artifacts recovered from these zones are weathered and have rounded and damaged edges due to transport and redeposition. This observation suggests that many of the artifacts recovered from drip line and talus slope zones may have been transported into the site area through colluvial redeposition. These artifacts probably originated in the large, bluff-crest base camp (23PU289) located upslope from the shelter. Eroded artifacts are also present on the rim above the shelter confirming the redeposition of artifacts downslope. Test Unit 1. Test Unit 1 (1-x-l m) was placed on the steep talus slope in the western third of the site area (Figure 7). It was hoped that an excavation unit in this area would determine whether artifacts on the talus slope are related to the occupation of the rockshelter or whether they had been redeposited from the large base camp site located upslope on the ridge crest. In addition, the depth of deposits on the slope would help assess the potential of the site to contain stratified, earlier deposits than the Woodland-age artifacts recovered from the surface. Four arbitrary and natural levels following the slope of the existing ground surface were excavated to 40 cm below surface in order to reduce the possibility of having levels cross-cut natural soil or cultural horizons. Due to decreasing amounts of cultural material, increasing density of rock and a change in soil characteristics, only the eastern half of the unit was excavated in levels 3 and 4. Flotation samples were extracted from each level. Excavation of Test Unit 1 revealed three pedogenic soil strata (Figure 9, a). These strata form a related A-E-B horizon sequence that is composed of very weakly developed soils that appear to represent a redeposition of eroded slope soils. The A horizon, ranging from the ground surface to 5-12 cm below surface, consisted of a black (10YR2/1) loam. The following E horizon, from 8-17 cm below ground surface, is a very dark gray (10YR3/1) loam. The B horizon is a very dark grayish brown (10YR3/2) blocky and gravelly silt loam. Little evidence was found of eluviation or illuviation within the sediment profile; there is very weak to indistinct soil structure in all strata, and the color remains fairly dark throughout the profile. This finding suggests that most of the sediment on the talus slope accumulated from redeposition of eroded A horizon sediments from upslope. Many of the artifacts within the talus sediments also may have been redeposited. The steep side- slope position is not conducive to the accumulation of deep sediment; instead, the side slope can be viewed as a system in dynamic equilibrium, with sediment being deposited from upslope at about the same rate that erosional processes remove sediment and transport it farther downslope. Sediments are not in place long enough to form well-developed soil horizons. 61 CO CD •^ o (0 CD c r (1) CO o CO o o CO o CD CD LU O CD Q_ '■E < * L ^ to o E CN en — < o U i -i 3 62 Test Unit 1 - North Profile Test Unit 2 - East Profile Test Unit 3 - East Profile 1 4 fc># m 3 \^^ A KEY • Rock ^> Bedrock "••*•• : Cherty cm 20 Figure 9. Soil Profiles from 23PU426: a, Test Unit 1; b, Test Unit 2; c, Test Unit 3. 63 The four excavation levels in Test Unit 1 were combined into three analytical units that represent the various soil horizons documented in the unit. The uppermost analytical unit consists of Level 1 , which corresponds with the weak A horizon. Level 2 represents a mixture of A and E horizon sediment but is primarily E horizon, and levels 3 and 4 were combined into an unmixed sample of B horizon sediments. Test Unit 2. Test Unit 2 (1-x-l m) was placed on the western slope of a small colluvial sediment cone that accumulated below an erosional notch in the sandstone cap in the west part of the shelter (Figure 7). Bone was found on the surface near this location, and it was expected that additional bone and other material classes would be preserved in this area. It was also expected that the colluvial sediment cone would create a deeper sediment profile than was evident in other portions of the shelter. Unfortunately, the sediments in the Test Unit 2 area also proved to be shallow and to contain few artifacts. Only two arbitrary levels were excavated from Test Unit 2 to 20 cm below surface before bedrock was exposed over the entire surface. Flotation samples were extracted from both levels. Excavation of Test Unit 2 revealed a different depositional sequence than that exposed in Test Unit 1 (Figure 9, b). No true horizonation was observed in either of the strata. The upper Stratum 1 deposits consist of a very dark brown (7.5YR2.5/3) compacted sandy clay loam that has been redeposited onto the underlying Stratum 2 sediments. This stratum was present from the ground surface to 10-15 cm below surface. The lower stratum is a 4-15 cm thick layer of dark yellowish brown (10YR4/4) very cherry clay loam that probably represents in-place residuum. Cultural material was sparse in Stratum 1 and generally absent from Stratum 2. Each level excavated in this unit corresponds with the identified strata, resulting in definition of two analytical units. Test Unit 3. Test Unit 3 was placed within the deepest portion of the rockshelter, about 12 m west of Test Unit 2 and five meters north of Test Unit 1 . This portion of the shelter had floor sediments composed of large gravels and cobbles, but further investigation revealed underlying soft sediments. It was hoped that the excavation of this test unit would reveal internal cultural stratigraphy within the shelter that could be assigned to specific temporal ranges. The unit was excavated in a series of three natural and arbitrary levels to 30 cm below surface. Level 1 removed the loose surface rock layer, and levels 2 and 3 removed underlying gravelly soft sediments. These strata consist of an initial gravel layer from ground surface to 2-6 cm below surface followed by a 4-20-cm thick layer of dark grayish brown (10YR4/2) gravelly to sandy loam. The final strata is a yellowish brown (10YR5/6) gravelly sandy loam of which 0-13 cm was excavated. Flotation samples were taken from levels 2 and 3 but not from the initial rock layer. Excavation revealed a depositional sequence that was different from other test units (Figure 9, c). Because of the position under the drip line and lack of vegetation cover, no true soil horizonation was observed in the strata. The upper Stratum 1 deposits consist of a loose gravel and cobble layer that is interpreted as a lag deposit. Any soft sediment that may have been present near the shelter floor has been eroded away, leaving only the less transportable larger gravels. Underlying this rock layer are two gravelly sandy loams. Stratum 2 is darker and moister than Stratum 3 and contains slightly more cultural material. This stratum may represent cultural and natural accumulation of soft sediment in the shelter during the Holocene. The Stratum 3 deposits probably represent mudstone and dolomite residuum that has been mixed with some aggrading Holocene soft sediments. Both strata become increasingly gravelly with depth. The bedrock exposed in this unit consists of cherty and muddy dolomite that has weathered in place to form small exfoliated sheets of crumbling rock. 64 Four analytical units are defined for Test Unit 3. The first analytical unit is Level 1 which represent an upper natural level or erosional lag deposits. The second analytical unit, Level 2, contains a mixture of Stratum 2 and Stratum 3 sediment. At the bottom of Level 2, the differences between strata 2 and 3 were recognized in plan view, and Level 3 was excavated in two separate portions to separate the Stratum 2 (exposed in the south half of the unit) and Stratum 3 deposits (north half), resulting in the definition of the final two analytical units. Artifact Assemblage A total of 1,285 artifacts was collected, including lithic debitage, chipped-stone tools, a prehistoric ceramic, historic material, bone, and shell (Table 8). Test Unit 2 produced only six artifacts in an area of colluvial-sediment accumulation below an erosional notch in the shelter roof, while Test Unit 3 in the western end of the site area under the shelter produced 59 artifacts. The most productive test unit was Test Unit 1 at the juncture of the talus slope and the drip line with 523 artifacts recovered. The surface collection produced 666 artifacts, most coming from the western third of the site area. The assemblages are discussed below by provenience. Controlled Surface Collection. The surface collection revealed artifacts representing a variety of lithic production, maintenance and use activities. These artifacts tended to be concentrated along the drip line and talus slope juncture in the western third of the site area; artifact frequency drops off considerably in the eastern half of the site in all collection zones. This sample of artifacts is generally very weathered. Most common are cores, primary flakes and block shatter, totaling 46 percent of the assemblage, indicating that early-stage lithic reduction activities were common at the site. Secondary and tertiary flakes, totaling 16 percent of the assemblage, indicate that intermediate and later stages of tool maintenance or production were relatively uncommon at 23PU426; bifacial minning flakes were recovered but also in low numbers. This finding suggests that maintenance and production of bifacial tools was not a primary focus of activities conducted at the site. When the formal tools are considered, there are fewer early-stage bifaces present in the assemblage than later- stage thin bifaces or finished tools. This may suggest that formal tools were being manufactured and cached or used at this locale. Recovery of substantial quantities of early-stage lithic reduction debris is rare at Fort Leonard Wood sites. The presence of a consistent suite of such artifacts in both the tool and debitage assemblages indicates that the activities carried out at the site focused on early-stage reduction in addition to the intermediate-stage activities that are usually represented. Late-stage reduction is poorly represented in the surface collections. Five temporally diagnostic projectile points were recovered from 23PU426, and all but one were derived from surface collections on the talus slope. The projectile points on the talus slope indicate occupation during both Middle Woodland and Late Woodland periods. Three specimens (Figure 10, a-c) are small Scallorn arrow points (Bell 1960), which have been assigned to the Late Woodland and late prehistoric periods in the Ozark region. A probable Kings Corner-Notched point (Chapman 1980) is represented by a single specimen from the talus slope surface (Figure 10, d). This specimen shows severe impact-related damage, suggesting that it also was used as a projectile point. This point type has been associated with contexts dating to the Middle Woodland and Late Woodland periods (Chapman 1980; Reeder 1988). 65 c p a c < X vo cn P (X co CN O c _o "■*— < 3 e/3 5 oo 3 «s H VO 1^ oo a VO o H C/3 n ~h vo tj- vo wn m o o — o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o »-h CM o o — < r- ~* «s o o O 00 SO >0 U-) o vo O vo CM ~h -^ O >o <-■ — < — < — — — < M v2 «■> "U > > > > % a 3 3 ^ 3 3 VO (N o o o o o o C4 > •W £ 3 2 H o o o o o o o o o o o o o o © o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o VO O f- O N rf rt - O O i-i o > > > 1 3 3 3 3 vo o 03 o C OS C 2 c/3 N 3 o J— Tj" X) r- c vO Root (k) Rodent Burrow Figure 12. Soil Profile from 23PU492. 76 The 17 excavation levels in Test Unit 1 were combined into five analytical units that represent the various sedimentary strata documented in the unit. Stratum 1, the uppermost analytical unit, consists of levels 1 and 2. Stratum 2 is contained almost entirely within Level 3. Levels 4 through 13 contains only Stratum 3 sediments. Level 14 contains a mixture of Stratum 3 and Stratum 4 sediments, and is treated as a separate analytical unit. Levels 15-17 provide a small sample of unmixed Stratum 4 sediments. These analytical units are employed in all subsequent analyses. However, one of the major research interests for the Fort Leonard Wood Phase II testing projects is to define phases or cultural material assemblages within the Late Woodland sequence. The deep Stratum 3 deposits yielded Late Woodland ceramics from almost all levels, providing considerable vertical separation over a relatively short time period. In the botanical and ceramic analyses presented below, the individual excavation levels are presented separately to try to discern fine-scale changes within the Late Woodland period. Radiocarbon Assays Five carbon samples collected from Test Unit 1 were submitted to Beta Analytic, Inc. for radiocarbon assay. The samples from 23PU492 form a stratigraphic series ranging in depth from 20-30 cm to 160-170 cm. The uppermost sample in the sequence was extracted from hand-picked wood charcoal derived from Level 3, Stratum 3 and weighed 38.5 g. The sample was subject to normal counting time. The second sample in the sequence consisted of 100.4 g of hand-collected bark charcoal from Feature 1 in Stratum 3. It was also subject to normal counting time. The third sample in the sequence consisted of 19. 1 g of wood, bark and nutshell charcoal and was subject to normal counting time. The fourth sample in the sequence consisted of 3.0 g of both hand-collected carbon samples and carbon derived from a flotation sample from Level 14. This level contained a mixture of sediments from strata 3 and 4. It was subjected to extended counting time. The fifth sample was derived from Level 17 in Stratum 4 and was composed of both hand-picked and flotation samples which included charcoal, bark, and nutshell. It weighed 3.4 g and was subjected to extended counting time. It was expected that the samples from strata 2 and 3 would date to the Middle to Late Woodland period, between about A.D. 400-1000 based on the presence of Middle/Late Woodland projectile point types and Late Woodland diagnostic ceramics. Based on depth and a lack of ceramics, the Stratum 4 sample was expected to date to some time within the Archaic period, between approximately 3,000 and 9,000 years ago. The results of the radiocarbon assays are presented in Table 9, along with intercepts and one-sigma ranges of calibrated calendrical dates (Stuiver and Reimer 1993). The assay from Stratum 2 is a modern date, indicating historic use of the site that has partially contaminated the initial two strata and surface deposits. Historic use of the rockshelter was indicated by the presence of metal and whiteware in levels 1 and 2, and this activity clearly resulted in the contamination of the deeper deposits. The Feature 1 assay (970+50 B.P.), is very close to the expected value based upon associated Middle to Late Woodland ceramics. The Level 10 (Stratum 3) assay also falls with the expected time frame of the Middle to Late Woodland periods. The assay is, however, younger than that from Feature 1, suggesting some internal mixing of the Stratum 3 deposits due to bioturbation. This is confirmed by the presence of roots and rodent burrows noted during excavation of Stratum 3. Level 14 produced an assay of 3310+90, placing it within the Late Archaic period. As was expected, the assay indicates that this level consists of mixed Late Woodland and Late Archaic deposits. The Stratum 4 assay (3940+100) falls within the Late Archaic period, as was expected. 77 Table 9. Radiocarbon Assays from 23PU492 and Calendrical Calibrations. Laboratory Number Provenience Date (RCYBP) One-sigma Calendrical Calibration Beta-81617 Level 3, Stratum 2 80+50 Modern Beta-81618 Feature 1 , Stratum 3 970+50 A.D. 1003 (1031,1144,1146) 1155 Beta-81619 Level 10, Stratum 3 1540+60 A.D. 428 (541) 603 Beta-81620 Level 14, Stratum 3/4 3310+90 B.C. 1689 (1599, 1589, 1530) 1456 Beta-81621 Level 17, Stratum 4 3940+100 B.C. 2566 (2465) 2231 Age ranges for the defined stratigraphic units can be partially established, based on he radiocarbon assays and associated artifacts. Stratum 1 has been intensively disturbed by recent, historic activity. Strata 2 and 3 represent Middle to Late Woodland age ceramic-bearing assemblages, with some historic contamination in Stratum 2. Stratum 3/4 contains a mixture of Late Woodland and Late Archaic deposits. While no temporally diagnostic artifacts were derived from Stratum 4, the radiocarbon assay places it within the Late Archaic period. Artifact Assemblage A total of 1,689 artifacts was collected during the Phase II investigations at 23PU492, including lithic debitage, chipped-stone tools, ceramic artifacts, bone, and shell (Table 10). The density of different artifact types varied with strata, suggesting varied functions of the site over time (Table 11). Lithic densities were highest in Stratum 4 (1.88 artifacts/liter), followed by Stratum 3 (0.87 artifacts/liter), which suggests that lithic artifact production/use was more intense during the Late Archaic occupation of the site. Density of mussel shell is highest in strata 2 and 3, suggesting that mollusk processing was an important activity during the Middle and Late Woodland occupation of the shelter. A more detailed discussion of the different artifact categories is presented below. Lithics. Primary flakes and block shatter, indicative of early-stage reduction, are most numerous in the debitage assemblage, although late-stage flake types (tertiary and biface thinning flakes) are nearly as numerous. Shaped tools are dominated by bifaces, including three hafted types. This, together with presence of bifacial thinning flakes in all strata, suggests that the production of hafted knives/projectile points was a chief activity at the site. When the paucity of scraping tools is taken into account, it can be inferred that the site functioned as a hunting stand/butchery location, with little or no hide processing. Four temporally diagnostic projectile points were recovered from 23PU492. All of these reinforce the Late Woodland temporal assignment documented by the ceramics and radiocarbon assays. One minimally modified flake point made from Roubidoux orthoquartzite (Figure 13, a) was recovered from 78 cn OS P CU CO «4— 1 O C _o ■*— » 3 2 o H 4— » C/3 en o3 Li C/3 en •_ 41 cn P3 41 on Li £5 ^ ° *i +— » — cq < u «n eNt--©Nr^ooeNencNmr--oocNoocN''* — ii>mr~-r~ m cn tj- on \o i-h cm cn vo ON OO NO r-enen©©enoocN h ih CN o o r- os cm o oo ©CNi-ncN^OOUnO^ ^h r- o o ^h »— i >2 .5 o Li > l- o e»0 B as o o =4-1 '£ 03 C c IS 3 N 3 o Li x> 0> Xj C3 O 1 i) xj 41 c Li e« Cu 0) X) 79 Table 11. Artifact Density Calculations for 23PU492. Total vol. Stratum Lithics Mussel Bone excavated (count/liter) (g/liter) (g/liter) soil (liters) 1 0.20 0.08 0.001 176.5 2 0.62 0.50 0.02 83.5 3 0.87 0.30 0.04 794.5 3/4 0.43 0.03 0.01 74.75 1.88 0.03 0.04 34.5 Level 3 (Stratum 2) context. This specimen functioned as a projectile point, and most probably as an arrow point. Small, minimally modified flake points are commonly manufactured during the late prehistoric times in the Ozarks and in neighboring regions. Unfortunately, recovery of this point in the historically disturbed sediments of Stratum 2 prevents it from being used to refine local chronological sequences. A basal fragment of a corner-notched or expanding stem point (Figure 3, b) was recovered from Level 6 (Stratum 3). The narrow basal width (21 mm) and inslanting haft element margins suggest that this may be a fragment of a Middle to Late Woodland Kings Corner-Notched point (Chapman 1980). However, this determination is highly tentative because of the poor condition of the point. Of more certain affiliation is the larger, complete corner-notched specimen recovered from Level 10 (Stratum 3) (Figure 13, c). This specimen compares favorably to the Kings Corner-Notched point type, which has been recovered from contexts dating to the Middle Woodland and Late Woodland periods (Chapman 1980; Reeder 1988). Based on its stratigraphic position, this point probably was derived from contexts dating to the early part of the Late Woodland period. The remaining hafted biface (not illustrated) is similar to broad-bladed, Early Archaic corner- notched point types such as Thebes, Kirk and St. Charles. However, similarly shaped points have been recovered from the Falls Hollow Shelter (23PU291), and these specimens appear to be more closely associated with Middle to Late Woodland occupation at that site. The point from 23PU492 lacks heavy basal grinding and the alternately beveled blade that is generally characteristic of Early Archaic points. It has angled corner notches and circular notch-removal scars that are typical of Middle Woodland corner-notch manufacturing techniques. In balance, this point is tentatively classified as a Snyders- like or Affinis Snyders point (Justice 1987; Montet- White 1968; Winters 1967), a point type common in Middle Woodland and Middle to Late Woodland assemblages in the midcontinent. This temporal ssignment is consistent with recovery of the Kings Corner-Notched point, which is also a local Middle Woodland to Late Woodland-age point. 80 Figure 13. Temporally Diagnostic Projectile Points from 23PU492: a, Arrow point; b, Possible Kings Corner-Notched; c, Kings Corner-Notched. Ceramics. Test Unit 1 produced 41 sherds representing a variety of types (Table 12). Most common are Maramec Cordmarked and Plain types, which represent 71 percent of the ceramic assemblage. These types indicate the presence of a Late Woodland occupation at or near the surface (Stratum 1 , levels 1 and 2) and in strata 2 and 3 (levels 3-13). A single Maramec Plain sherd was recovered from Level 14. Since this level produced a radiocarbon date of 33 10 ±90 B.P., placing it within the Late Archaic Period, the presence of the sherd is attributed to postdepositional mixing of Late Woodland and Late Archaic deposits. Twist pattern could be identified for 18 of the cordmarked sherds. Eight of the sherds have an "S" twist while ten have a "Z" twist. The "S" twist is more common within the upper three levels, with five examples present to one "Z" twist. The "Z"-twist sherds are more common between levels 4 and 12, accounting for nine of twelve identified twist patterns. Only a single vessel form could be determined from the rim sherds. The sherd is from a jar with an inslanting rim and a cordmarked, rounded lip. It has an orifice diameter of 24-28 cm. Outslanting rims were identified on three other sherds, although no vessel form could be identified. One of these herds has an estimated orifice of 22 cm. Two have plain rounded lips while another has a plain flattened lip. An additional plain rounded lip was identified on a small rim sherd. 81 Table 12. Ceramic Artifacts and Densities Grouped by Analytical Unit at 23PU492. Dolomite- Dolomite- Analytical Maramec Maramec Rounded Sand Rounded Sand Unit Cord-Marked Plain Cordmarked Plain Total Density Stratum 1 3 3 0.02 Stratum 2 4(1) 1 1 6(1) 0.07 Stratum 3 9(1) 12(3) 5 5 31(4) 0.04 Stratum 3/4 1 1 0.01 Total 16(2) 13(3) 6 6 41(5) Sherds smaller than 1 cm were not included in the analysis. Note: Rim sherds are noted in parentheses. Historic Material. Four historic artifacts were recovered from excavations at 23PU492. Three of these came from Stratum 1. One metal rod was present in Level 1, and two whiteware sherds were found in Level 2. One artifact, a clear glass fragment, was recovered from Stratum 2 in Level 3. Botanical Remains A number of flotation samples were collected from each of the strata identified at 23PU492. The soils were processed using a Dausman Flote-Tech system. In general, the sampling and processing procedures follow those of Asch et al. (1972), Pearsall (1989) and Wagner (1988). Identification of carbonized remains was aided by the use of a dissecting microscope capable of 10.5 to 63 power magnification, with reference to standard references (Core et al. 1979; Kucera 1961; Martin and Barkley 1961; Montgomery 1977; Steyermark 1963; and USD A 1974) as well as a comparative collection of carbonized and fresh botanical specimens of the Department of Anthropology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Wood charcoal was sampled, with 20 randomly selected pieces identified for each sample. All seeds were identified. Four flotation samples were collected from the disturbed strata 1 and 2, totaling 35 liters. Only wood charcoal, consisting of Quercus sp. (oak; n=53) Acer sp. (maple, n=l) and Rhamnus sp. (buckthorn, n=l) fragments was recovered. No nuts or seeds were found in these samples. Eight samples were analyzed from the strata dating to the Middle-Late Woodland period. A total of 68 liters of soil was floated. Both wood charcoal and nutshell was found. The wood charcoal was dominated by oak (n=121), followed by maple (n=17), elm (n=4) and buckthorn (n=2). Nutshell consisted of hickory (n=222) and black walnut (n=ll). No seeds were found in these samples. The flotation sample from the mixed Woodland- Archaic level totaled 8 liters. The wood charcoal contained oak (n=15), elm (n=3) and maple (n=2). Nine pieces of hickory nutshell also were identified. Finally, two samples from the Archaic period levels were collected, totaling 18 liters. Wood charcoal included oak (n=29), maple (n=3) and elm (n=l), while 55 pieces of hickory nutshell was also identified. All 82 of the remains from the flotation samples are representative of the mixed oak-hickory forests found along the bluffs bordering stream valleys in the Fort Leonard Wood region. No evidence of cultigens or preserved seeds was found. Nutshell may represent accidental carbonization of fallen nuts since quantities are low throughout the deposits or the collection of nuts incidental to other activities. Faunal Remains The faunal remains from 23PU492 were analyzed using the comparative skeletal collections of the Department of Anthropology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign and the Illinois State Museum. All elements were identified to the most exclusive taxon possible. Additional data collected include the side of the element, when applicable, whether it had been gnawed by rodents or carnivores, whether burning was evident, and whether it had been humanly modified. The assemblage consists of material obtained from both screening Test Unit 1 soils through 6.4-mm mesh hardware cloth and the light and heavy fractions of the flotation samples. The original excavation levels have been collapsed into more inclusive strata-based analytical units as discussed above. In two instances these strata are correlated with specific temporal periods. Within the assemblage as a whole, 58 percent of the elements were identified solely as vertebrate, with the remaining 42 percent divided between mammals, birds, fish, reptiles and amphibians, and mussels (Table 13). Of the elements identified to class or more exclusive taxa, mammals predominate, contributing 32 percent of the assemblage total. Birds, fish, reptiles, and amphibians are fairly evenly represented in the assemblage, while mussel shell is poorly represented. Slightly over 23 percent (n= 174) of the assemblage was burned, while only a single vertebrate element had carnivore gnaw marks. The mammal assemblage has both the greatest number of elements identified to class or a more exclusive taxa and the greatest taxonomic diversity of all the classes (Table 14). Minimally, nine species are present in the mammal assemblage with both large and small taxa being identified. White- tailed deer is the only large species identified in this assemblage. A number of smaller species are present, including bats, squirrels, mice, moles, Plains pocket gopher, eastern woodrat and groundsquirrel. The mammal assemblage is weighted towards these smaller species that could have been deposited incidentally within the rockshelter. A total of 65 mammal elements (15 percent) was burned, a slightly lower rate than that for the entire assemblage. Reptiles and amphibians are the second-most common class, represented by a minimum of two species (Table 14). These include the softshell turtle and unidentified amphibians. No reptile or amphibian elements were burned. Birds, the third-most common class, consist of a single unidentified perching/songbird element and unidentified bird elements (Table 14). Twelve bird elements, or 52 percent of the assemblage, were burnt. The least common vertebrate class is fish (Table 14). No taxa more exclusive than the class level were identified. Two burned fish elements are present in the assemblage (11 percent). Finally, five unidentified mussel shell fragments were also recovered, three of which were burnt (Table 14). Based on site stratigraphy, associated artifacts and radiocarbon dates, the faunal assemblage was divided into four analytic units. The uppermost unit is from disturbed contexts. This is followed by strata dating to the Middle to Late Woodland period. Following this is a level containing both Woodland and Archaic period materials. The final unit consists of faunal remains dating to the Archaic 83 Table 13. Composition of the Faunal Assemblage from 23PU492. Number of Percent of Number of Percent Identified Identified Unidentified of all Class Elements Elements Elements Total Elements Vertebrate 437 437 58 Mammals 57 84 185 242 32 Birds 1 1 22 23 3 Fish 18 18 2 Herptiles* 10 15 19 29 4 Mussels 5 5 <1 Totals 68 100 686 754 100 period. Middle to Late Woodland period materials dominate the assemblage, followed by the disturbed strata, the Archaic strata and finally the mixed Woodland-Archaic level. Not surprisingly, the trends noted above for the assemblage as a whole are mirrored in the Middle to Late Woodland period assemblage. Mammals are most common, being dominated by smaller species perhaps incidental to the rockshelter. Reptiles and amphibians are next most common, followed by birds, fish and finally mussels. If the small mammals are excluded from consideration, the Middle to Late Woodland period faunal exploitation strategy at 23PU492 can be characterized as concentrating on deer, with minimal use being made of the nearby aquatic habitats. Little can be said given the small samples of the other assemblages. The Middle to Late Woodland assemblage from 23PU492 is similar to many of the other Fort Leonard Wood cave and rockshelter sites from which data are available (Ahler et al. 1995a; Ahler et al. 1995b). Many of the sites from the Upper Roubidoux area, such as 23PU291, 23PU248, 23PU249 and 23PU265, contain sparse assemblages dominated by mammals, especially smaller mammal species. Fish, birds, reptiles, and amphibians, while present, are few in number. In contrast, the Sadie's Cave assemblage (Kreisa 1995) exhibits a greater diversity of species, and includes medium mammals, greater quantities of fish remains, a diversity of bird species and a number of turtle species. The differences between the 23PU492 and Sadie's Cave assemblages may mirror differences between a specialized-use hunting camp at 23PU492 and a more general, perhaps seasonal, base camp at Sadie's Cave during the Middle to Late Woodland periods. Discussion The investigation of 23PU492 accomplished many of its goals. The excavations demonstrated that the site contains materials with which the regional cultural chronology can be evaluated. Both chronologically sensitive artifacts and charcoal used for a number of radiocarbon assays was recovered. Dates derived from both lines of evidence clearly demonstrate that intact Middle-Late Woodland and Late Archaic deposits are present at the site. There is also a potential that earlier Archaic deposits are present at 23PU492 as well. 84 03 4— » o H C3 ■s T3 111 £ < ■4— » •g 1 i3 ■a o o S* -a CD X> •— 3 c/3 C O X H rT cn co T— I C\ v© "- 1 CN oo N ^^ i-H oo r^ i— 1 rt co CM tJ- ^H T-H CM co o rs r4 ts N vo cs o\ m »-h oo r- vo OOOOO^OOO CO O ~h o O O Ov CO m en cs -h o o o o o O CM O O O O O rs CN VO CO 0\ Tf T-H »-h r- CN U~i CO ro r-» CN c, U, 13 CQ c < >> PL, X) H CQ OO OO cn D (X ^ co 6 cm U < o c X3 V2 s in s 2 o E- 05 U Pft E- oo O o U s o •a o 00 < D VO vim VO i- C\ o no >n no OOtOh oo >— i o cm *-< — < vo rj- on 3 « •- « « X co ft i C B w 5»5 3 w « 2; w _ 8 *°0 *NO £j ^ tj- m °* CM 0O Tj- • CO CM CM £2 Tt ON NO NO •* ■* r- CM —i CM NO VO VO — -NO- O CM O CM <-i — OOO •^ CM CO CO -W +-» ■*-» -C «-» •2 cd CCJ CT5 CCJ C fc- t- i- t- P oo oo oo oo W — cm co Tj- ^ » ^ oi m t CM 2 — - £2 CO Tf .- &0 _ - a tj a a _ 2 u 3 3 •- ea x « cs P OO S OO OO 133 33 CO -h CM CO 'ill ~w ^-^ ■*-» •*-» *2 cci cd cd s £5 is is P oo oo oo -w - ^ - «fi "H cm co iU c c« T3 D -a N T3 +-> '^ Li C« c« .a KA "C 5 o BO w$ o i_ Q. tr o c i™iS;J:;i:jg5sSS:S;:SS;s:::: ? : ws:;~:S:::::^:s:;:':::;:i:; • 5SSi!SxP:ai!s ( CD- > LU CD C o N _o c o ■D CD Q. Q. D CD O CO X! CO C/3 o o o m (X, m c3 C P C/3 CO H o CD O s- o CO 00 1— ( CO u> 3 105 Test Unit 2 - North Profile KEY Plow Zone Upper Midden L— J Lower Midden I I Subsoil cm 20 Figure 19. Soil Profile of Test Unit 2 at 23PU457. Test Unit 3. Test Unit 3 was placed in the northeastern portion of the site area where Phase I posthole tests identified deep soil profiles (Figure 17). This unit also measured l-x-2 m in size. Four soil strata were identified in this unit (Figure 20). Similar to the other two test units, the initial layer is a disturbed stratum, probably a plow zone, that is 20 cm thick. This layer consists of yellowish brown (10YR5/4) sandy silt loam. Following this is a 15-18-cm thick, yellowish brown (10YR5/6) sandy silt loam layer. This stratum is interpreted as an intact midden layer. The third stratum, also interpreted as an intact midden layer, is a light yellowish brown (10YR6/4) sandy silt loam. This layer is 13-16 cm thick. The final stratum is the B horizon Sangamon surface. It consists of yellowish red (5YR5/6) silty clay loam. No cultural materials were found in this layer. Discussion. In summary, the excavations identified three distinct zones across the site area. The initial zone has been historically disturbed, most probably as a result of occupation and plowing. Following this is an intact midden that has been subdivided into two zones based on soil color, texture, and amount of chert gravel. Finally, the B horizon Sangamon surface forms a base in all three test units. These profiles evidence similarities with a typical Clarksville soil profile in a number of respects. It is evident that plowing has mixed the A and at least a portion of the E horizon to a depth of about 20 cm below ground surface at this site. Following this is a 15-20-cm intact remnant of the E or a transitional EB horizon. This in turn is followed by a 10-15-cm thick intact midden that appears to correspond with the Clarksville Btl horizon and may represent a pedogenisized Sangamon E horizon. Below this the reddish brown Sangamon B horizon was identified. 106 I Ql *-> CO CD CO *-* 'c D to "IfMfl :: : s; ; ::;:I:;;: llllli : mm i;¥: ^wt . '?'/" \ co: >- IXI CD C o N c c CO CO TJ TJ o 73 ■a 1 CM S 2 I— La o ■ CO CO 01 a. o x> i. 3 f £ Z> _I CO en (N en c O <*> H o o o GO o U ■*— » o in -h - vo ■* t^^iri ON W") Tt- V) — —i OO l/~l O O O CN O o o o o o o o o o o CM o o o (N fS O o — < o o o o o VO o o o o o O — i o o o — ' o o o o (N o o o o o o o o o o O — < O O O —i o o o o o ©^H o o o o o en CM O O 2: u s O O O o o *- — ' © o CM a> C/3 S3 H OQ M N - 00 O CO — < O «n r-- r- »n © r- no *oo JQ « r- r- © mo — 00 ON NO o o T3 fe- es E u fe- es CO *^ CO CO «n CN O tto 00 CO co co r» p- o NO t * CN CN cm m © NO in CN oo ON CN 55 •a 'e o co r- o CO — CO ■<* O 1— 1 6 £ S o u ■*>* *c o o o *s o p o CN n 1/3 O cu n no i i o o CN V) 00 o o CN — ' ^_ r- o co "E a» H s S o S o o o o m NO CM 1 1 1 o o o CN in CN CO o H c/3 .CD 'fe- o 4— » cs o D 6fl 03 ■i— > Q 111 been transported to 23PU457 and were then refined along a reduction sequence to finished tools. Under this scenario reduction directly from a core would have taken place at 23PU457 (hence the presence of cores and primary flakes) but would have been a much less common activity than was the reduction of rough bifaces that were transported to the site from other locales. The tools recovered from 23PU457 are fairly numerous and diverse, and include both expedient tools and formal chipped-stone tools (Table 19). Expedient tools, also known as utilized flakes, have either minimal flaking or evidence edge damage due to use. Eighteen utilized flakes were identified in the assemblage and were made from secondary and tertiary flakes and cores. It is expected that utilized flakes were employed for a number of different tasks, including cutting, scraping and piercing. Formal tools include unifaces (n=8), nonhafted bifaces (n=45) and hafted bifaces or projectile points (n=ll). The unifaces consist of three backed knives, two end scrapers, a perforator/graver and two unidentifiable pieces. All but one of the nonhafted bifaces have been classified as either thick or thin bifaces, indicative more of manufacturing stages than functional tools, as discussed above. The final nonhafted biface has been classified as a Clear Creek Gouge (Figure 21, a). This piece is rectangular in shape, measuring 79 mm long by 39 mm wide and 18 mm thick. Clear Creek Gouges are most often temporally affiliated with the Late Archaic period, although examples have been identified in Early and Middle Archaic assemblages (Chapman 1975). Clear Fork Gouges were used as woodworking tools (Chapman 1975). The hafted bifaces or projectile points include seven specimens that could be placed into specific types or classes and four that were too fragmented to be identified (Table 19). Use- wear analysis has indicated that projectile points were used for a variety of tasks, including cutting, scraping and drilling, in addition to their use as projectiles (Ahler 1971). Temporally, the projectile points from 23PU457 recovered during the Phase II investigations range from the Early Archaic to the Middle Woodland and/or Late Woodland periods. The Phase I investigations also identified a point fragment as potentially dating to the Early Archaic period (Ahler and McDowell 1993). Three projectile points were found in the disturbed upper 20 cm of deposits. These include a Middle to Late Woodland Kings Corner- Notched point that was recovered from Test Unit 3 (Figure 22, a), and a Late Archaic Table Rock Stemmed point (Figure 22, b) and a potential Late Archaic Matanzas point base from Test Unit 2. Projectile points from intact deposits were found in test units 1 and 3. Four hafted bifaces were found in Test Unit 1. These include two Middle Archaic Smith Basal Notched points (Figure 21, b-c), an Early Archaic Big Sandy point (Figure 21, d), and an untyped Middle Archaic point (Figure 22, c). The projectile point from Test Unit 3 is similar to the Middle Archaic Large Side-Notched Cluster (Justice 1987). A final point from Test Unit 3, Level 4 has been tentatively identified as untyped Early Archaic (Figure 22, d). The context of the projectile points provides a basis for determining an internal site chronology for 23PU457. The upper 20 cm of deposits evidence materials from three separate periods of occupation: Historic, Middle to Late Woodland and Late Archaic. In contrast, the undisturbed deposits below 20 cm contain Early Archaic and Middle Archaic projectile points from two different test units. Given the presence of a potential Early Archaic point fragment found during the Phase I survey, it is possible that a portion of the undisturbed midden dates to that time period. An Early Archaic Big Sandy point was found in Test Unit 1, Level 3. Another potential Early Archaic projectile point was recovered in Test Unit 2 between 29^15 cm below surface, although this temporal identification is tentative due to the fragmentary nature of the artifact. This may indicate that the upper intact midden, between approximately 20-35 cm below ground surface, contains a mixed Early Archaic and Middle Archaic 112 Figure 21. Temporally Diagnostic Artifacts from 23PU457: a, Clear Creek Gouge; b-c, Smith Basal Notched Projectile Points; d, Big Sandy Projectile Point. 113 Figure 22. Temporally Diagnostic Projectile Points from 23PU457: a, Kings Corner Notched; b, Table Rock Stemmed; c, Untyped Middle Archaic; d, Untyped Early Archaic. component, while the lower intact midden, between approximately 35-50 cm below ground surface, may represent an Early Archaic component. This interpretation, though, remains tentative due to the lack of diagnostics from the lower midden zone. The final category of tools from 23PU457, ground-stone tools, were made from nonchert materials and were modified by their use. These include hammerstones (n=2), grinding stones (n=2) and an abrader. Hammerstones were used to detach flakes from cores during tool manufacture, which results in crushed and battered edges. Grinding stones were used to grind plant material or pigments, resulting in abnormally smoothed surface with depressions. The abrader is a piece of sandstone that is grooved by use. A final category of nonchert artifacts from 23PU457 is fire-cracked rock. Fire-cracked rock is rather uncommon at other Fort Leonard Wood sites. While present at 23PU457, this artifact category was found in low quantities in all three test units. Fire-cracked rock is a byproduct of heating and is typically associated with the use of hearths or earth ovens. As such, it may indicate the presence of intact hearth features at the site. 114 Flotation Samples A total of 10 flotation samples was collected from 23PU457; three from Test Unit 1, four from Test Unit 2 and three from Test Unit 3. A total of 70 liters of soil was processed, all but nine of which were taken from the upper and lower Archaic period midden zones. Only two of the samples possessed archaeobotanical remains; Test Unit 1, 30^W) cm and Test Unit 2, 40-50 cm below ground surface. Both contained less than 0. 1 g of unidentified hardwood charcoal and less than 0. 1 g of hickory nutshell (Carya sp.). No faunal remains were recovered from the flotation samples. Discussion The Phase II investigation of 23PU457 was designed to confirm the age of occupation, define the extent of intact deposits, assess site function within the local settlement system, and examine the geomorphic/stratigraphic history of the site while determining its eligibility for listing in the NRHP. The investigations described above were able to accomplish each of these goals. The discussion of the geomorphic/stratigraphic history of 23PU457 is presented in Appendix B. , The Phase I investigations indicated that 23PU457 was potentially occupied during the Early Archaic period based on the identification of a fragment of an untyped hafted biface. The Phase II investigations indicate that prehistorically the site was occupied for a much longer period, including the Middle and Late Archaic periods and the Middle or Late Woodland periods. Additional evidence for the Early Archaic occupation of the site is based on the recovery of a Big Sandy and an additional untyped Early Archaic projectile point. In addition, the upper portion of the intact midden deposit was consistently associated with Middle Archaic diagnostics, but the possibility cannot be ruled out that a portion of this midden dates to the Early Archaic period. The plow zone appears to represent a mixture of a number of prehistoric components, including the Middle Archaic, Late Archaic and Middle to Late Woodland periods. The upper 20 cm of deposits also contain a late nineteenth to early twentieth century historic component. The Phase II testing was also able to identify that the Early Archaic and Middle Archaic materials are associated with an intact 30-cm midden deposit in all three test units. Based on the posthole data, these deposits appear to be thickest in the eastern 30-40 m of site area. Deposits thin and become absent closer to the upland ridge slope to the west of the site area. It would appear that the historic use of the site area has disturbed the Late Archaic and Middle to Late Woodland components present at the site. Concerning the function of 23PU457, it can be noted that the artifact assemblage contains a diverse number of artifact types and that artifact density is rather high at the site. The debitage includes the entire range of manufacturing debris associated with a core-reduction model of tool manufacturing. It would appear that cores were being reduced to produce flakes suitable for tool manufacture but also that bifaces were being further modified and resharpened after use. The expedient and formal tools also evidence a wide variety of uses. Technological-morphological classification of these tools indicates that cutting, scraping, perforating or engraving, and woodworking was taking place on site. Plant processing also occurred as evidenced by the presence of ground-stone tools and fire-cracked rock. The diversity of the tool and debris assemblage, indicative of a wide range of activities taking place at 23PU457, suggests that a diverse population inhabited the site. Such an artifact profile is more suggestive of a generalized habitation locale at which a number of activities were being performed than 115 a specialized activity site. While 23PU457 can be characterized as a base camp habitation site, its occupation may have been seasonal. In such a model, populations may disperse into smaller groups or occupy habitation base camps in other areas during particular seasons to exploit specific resources. Unfortunately, the data necessary to address that topic, such as botanical or faunal remains, are poorly preserved at 23PU457. Recommendations The NRHP significance of an archaeological site typically rests upon its ability to yield data that can be used to address significant research issues at the local, state or regional levels. In most instances, this requires intact, datable archaeological deposits on site and data present in these deposits that can be used to address research issues. The Phase II investigations of 23PU457 indicate that it meets these three criteria. Test excavation and posthole stratigraphy has identified an intact midden deposit up to 30 cm thick across the eastern portion of the site area. Associated with this midden in two of three test units are Early and Middle Archaic projectile points. Finally, the archaeological deposits yielded a large amount of artifacts and an assemblage of relative diversity. Given the density of material and the diversity of artifact classes at the site from dated intact deposits, 23PU457 can yield data that can be used to address numerous research issues. Given this, 23PU457 is considered eligible for listing in the National Register of Historic Places. Potential research issues that could be addressed with data from the site are discussed below. First, the site has a demonstrated potential to yield chronological data concerning the Middle Archaic period. It would appear that additional excavation of the intact midden would yield additional diagnostic artifacts. As well, flotation samples have contained small amounts of charcoal that could be used for radiocarbon assay if recovered in sufficient amounts or if assayed using an AMS technique. Both relative and chronometric dating of the site could contribute to a baseline of chronological data for the Early and Middle Archaic periods of the Ozarks. The potential stratigraphic separation of deposits provides an opportunity to build and test local and regional cultural chronological sequences. Additional radiocarbon dates associated with temporally diagnostic artifacts are sorely needed in the Ozark region, and this site contains diagnostic artifacts in stratigraphic contexts that can potentially be associated with datable, carbonized wood remains. Second, with the abundant amount of cultural material present at the site, a more complete understanding of the function of 23PU457 could be obtained. A more accurate interpretation of the function of tools found at the site could be gained by high magnification use- wear analysis. Additional flotation samples may yield a better understanding of the plant resources used by the site inhabitants. Finally, given the presence of intact soil layers, there is the possibility that features may be present at the site. This may be especially true if the fire-cracked rock recovered during the Phase II investigations is associated with hearths or earth ovens. If further excavation identified features, topics such as site plans, the nature of the occupation and hence the function of the site, could be addressed. Third, with additional data such as that discussed above concerning chronology and site function, the role of 23PU457 within the local Middle Archaic settlement system can be further examined. Currently, the site is interpreted as a base camp habitation site. Comparison of site attributes with other large Middle Archaic sites in other physiographic settings may provide information on the overall organization of the Middle Archaic settlement system. Comparison of this site to smaller sites may also provide information on different site types and functions within the Middle Archaic settlement system. 116 Finally, both the intersite and intrasite settlement data from 23PU457 could be used as a comparative base with both earlier and later settlement patterns. This line of research is especially interesting given that the Middle Archaic was a period of warmer and drier climatic conditions known as the Hypsithermal. Based on a change in climatic parameters, it would be expected that Middle Archaic settlement patterns would differ, and the differences may yield information on both specific Middle Archaic adaptations and on adaptations of both earlier and later populations to the region. Human responses to the environmental impacts of this mid-Holocene drying period may have included population aggregation in favorable landscape settings, development of more logistically organized settlement systems, changes in technological efficiency as a result of decreased group mobility, or changes in dietary preferences. All of these possible human cultural responses to changing environmental conditions can be investigated through analysis of the cultural remains preserved in the intact stratified deposits at 23PU457. The relationship of human occupation episodes to the dynamic middle Holocene landscape can be investigated by combining detailed geomorphological analyses with the artifact analyses. Models of geologic and geomorphic landscape evolution can be integrated with evidence of changes in site function through time. These data can provide refinements of existing models of Ozark human-land interactions proposed by Wood and McMillan (1976), Kay (1980), and McMillan and Klippel (1981). Because of its potential to yield information significant to a number of research issues, it is recommended that Site 23PU457 be determined eligible for listing in the National Register of Historic Places. If military activity or construction is scheduled to take place on site, it is recommended that the intact deposits be excavated to mitigate potential adverse effects. Should this take place, the four research issues outlined above can provide a basis for structuring data recovery at the site. 117 23PU556 (Crying Hawk Site) Site 23PU556 is located on a high, pre-Wisconsinan strath terrace on the floodplain of the Big Piney River. This terrace lies on the northeast bank of the Big Piney , at an elevation between 244 and 256 m asl. Soils on the terrace are Claiborne silt loam 5-9 percent slopes (Wolf 1989). Disturbances on the site include road construction along the northern quarter of the site and the use of the terrace as an agricultural field prior to the creation of Fort Leonard Wood. These agricultural activities, along with resultant erosion and road construction, have disturbed over one-half of the site area. Site Description Site 23PU556 was recorded by Fort Leonard Wood base archaeologist Richard Edging as an open- air lithic scatter. The site is located on a northwest- to southeast-trending terrace northeast of the Big Piney River (Figure 23). To the north of the site is the side slope of an uplands ridge. Current ground cover on the site consists of secondary growth oak-hickory deciduous forest, plantation evergreens, grass and weeds. Ground surface visibility is near percent. Artifacts are present across the entire terrace, with the site area measured at 300 m northeast-southwest by 100 m northwest-southeast, or approximately 3 ha in extent. The nearest water source is the Big Piney River, located about 30 m to the southeast. Site 23PU556 is located on a remnant of a high pre-Wisconsinan terrace along the Big Piney River; the terrace presently occurs along a cut bank and may be subject to undercutting. The surface of the high strath northeast/southwest-oriented terrace has a gentle, less than 15 percent, slope to the southeast. Steep valley slopes demarcate the terrace's south and west borders while the east and north borders are defined by more gentle valley walls and colluvial footslope deposits. Terrace sediments consist of gravelly alluvium with the moderately well-expressed pre-Wisconsinan Sangamon soil developed in it. Late Wisconsinan Peoria loess has been biopedogenically incorporated into the top of the Sangamon soil. Soil formation during the Holocene has resulted in the pedogenic overprinting of modern soil characteristics into the top of the Sangamon soil. The soils of the terrace are pedogenisized alluvial or colluvial gravels in a red sandy clay matrix (presumably alluvium) overlain by a pedogenisized yellow brown silt loam material of unknown origin (Albertson et al. 1995). The surficial yellow brown silt loam is a Claiborne silt loam that developed from alluvium or cherty dolomite and sandstone residuum parental materials. Typically, the Claiborne series evidences an A to B horizon transition at about 25 cm below ground surface (Wolf 1989). Chert fragments are more common in the B horizon. According to Albertson et al. (1995), the overlying silt loam material originated from a combination of loess, colluvium, hill-slope sediment, or reworked loess. Underlying this is the red sandy clay Sangamon soil. The preservation of the Sangamon soil in the sediments indicates that the terrace has been a relatively stable landform for more than 50,000 years. Late Pleistocene coluviation along the terrace- bluff interface and the coeval deposition of Peoria loess has resulted in a partial burial of the terrace surface and biopedogenic upbuilding of the pre-Holocene surface. During the Holocene, the terrace was subject to normal erosional processes whose rates did not exceed those of soil-forming processes. The condition of the archaeological deposits at the site varies widely and may be associated with the degree of slope. Test units at the north and south quarters of the site indicate that all archaeological materials present are confined within a possibly deflated plow zone. The test units placed in the center 118 Figure 23. Topographic Map and Site Plan of 23PU556. 119 of the site evidence intact deposits between the plow zone and the B horizon. It is estimated that up to 50 percent of the site may contain intact deposits. Previous Investigations Site 23PU556 was located during a geomorphological investigation conducted along the Big Piney River in 1994. Upon the identification of archaeological materials within the geomorphological trenches, base Cultural Resource Manager Dr. Richard Edging initiated data recovery at the site. The data recovery included the collection of material from the geomorphological trenches, systematic excavation of posthole tests along two northwest/southeast-trending transects across the terrace, and the excavation of a 0.75-m-x-0.75-m test unit near Geomorphology Trench B. Archaeological material from these various sources were recovered between 0-40 cm below ground surface. The posthole excavations indicated that relatively high frequencies of artifacts were present in the central and southern portions of the site. The artifacts recovered during these investigations consist of flakes, fire-cracked rock, ground-stone tools, bifaces, and projectile points. The latter artifacts were dated to the Middle or Late Archaic periods. Based on the diversity of artifact classes found at the site, Edging interpreted it as a seasonal base camp. Based on these results, Edging requested that a Phase II investigation of the site be undertaken to determine its eligibility for inclusion in the National Register of Historic Places. The current investigation was intended to examine the assessment of 23PU556 and to make a recommendation regarding the status of the site for inclusion in the National Register of Historic Places. Results of Investigations Activities undertaken to assess the eligibility of 23PU556 included the excavation of four test units, the production of a topographic map of the site area and the augmentation of Edging's posthole excavation grid across the site area (Figure 23). Posthole Excavations. Four postholes were excavated to supplement those by Edging (Figure 23). Two were placed in the central portion of the site to provide information on soil characteristics and two were placed north of the road to provide a baseline on soils and artifact density. The postholes south of the road suggested fairly deep soil profiles with a plow zone followed by a potentially undisturbed midden above a culturally sterile B horizon. Artifacts were found in both postholes to a maximum of 35 cm below ground surface. The two postholes north of the road failed to yield any cultural materials and evidenced a truncated soil profile. The soil profile consisted of a plow zone followed by a thin to absent midden layer. This indicated that the site limits were located just north of the road. Test Unit 1. This is a l-x-2-m unit placed in the central portion of the site to the northwest of Geomorphology Trench B (Figure 23). This area was selected for testing as postholes excavated nearby had yielded large quantities of material. The test unit was excavated to 45 cm below ground surface and revealed three distinct strata (Figure 24, a). Flotation samples were taken from each of these strata. The initial stratum consisted of a dark grayish brown (10YR4/2.5) silt loam plow zone. Following this disturbed layer, between 20-30 cm below ground surface, is an undisturbed midden deposit. The soils consist of dark yellowish brown (10YR4/4) silt loam. The final levels excavated below 30 cm consisted of a culturally sterile B horizon. These included a Bx layer of yellowish brown (10YR5/6) silt loam 120 Test Unit 1 - East Profile 2 .■■■■■ Test Unit 2 - South Profile V ^ . r v ■ ':^_^j.;£; ; -vj^ 1 :,£:L:H! : ^; : ^ KEY l : : : : : : : 3 Plow Zone HI Midden I I Subsoil cm 20 Figure 24. Soil Profiles from 23PU556: a, Test Unit 1; b, Test Unit 2. 121 followed by a B2B layer of strong brown (10YR4/6) sandy clay loam. An exploratory trench excavated along the east wall of the test unit encountered a 2BT layer at 60 cm below ground surface. This layer consisted of a strong brown (7.5YR5/6) sandy clay loam. All artifacts recovered from Test Unit 1 were located within the initial 30 cm below ground surface. Test Unit 2. This l-x-2-m test unit was located in the northwest quarter of the site, to the northwest of Test Unit 1 (Figure 23). The location was selected for excavation because posthole tests indicated that a high density had been recovered from the vicinity. The unit was excavated to 45 cm below ground surface. Three distinct soil strata were identified during the excavations, with the interpretation of these strata being much the same as for those in Test Unit 1 (Figure 24, b). The initial 20 cm of Test Unit 2 are a brown (10YR5/3) silt loam plow zone. Below this disturbed layer is a 5-cm thick midden remnant. The midden is a very compact yellowish brown (10YR5/4) silt loam. Following this midden layer, to 35 cm below ground surface, is a Bl horizon consisting of a yellowish brown (10YR5/8) silty clay loam which contained few artifacts. The final layer is a brownish yellow (10YR6/8) clay B horizon. No material was recovered from this soil strata. Most artifacts were recovered between 0-30 cm below ground surface, although a few pieces were found to 35 cm below ground surface. Test Unit 3. This 1-x-l-m unit was placed in the southern portion of the site between geomorphology trenches B and C (Figure 23). Like test units 1 and 2, this test unit was located near where posthole excavations had yielded relatively high numbers of artifacts. This unit was excavated to 35 cm below ground surface and revealed, in comparison to test units 1 and 2, a truncated soil profile (Figure 25, a). The initial strata is a 15-cm thick plow zone consisting of light yellowish brown (10YR6/4) silt loam. Almost all artifacts from Test Unit 3 were found within this plow zone. The plow zone was followed by a transitional layer, perhaps a remnant AB horizon, of yellowish brown (10YR5/6) silty clay loam. This layer is 5 cm thick. Following this is a B horizon. It consists of a yellow (10YR7/6) silt loam fragipan. No artifacts were recovered from this stratum. Test Unit 4. Test Unit 4, measuring 1-x-l m, was located north of the road that cuts across 23PU556, in an area that is gently upsloping to the northwest (Figure 23). It was placed in this locale to assess the integrity of deposits in the northern portion of the site. Test Unit 4 was excavated to 30 cm below ground surface, with three strata identified (Figure 25, b). The initial 20 cm are a yellowish brown (10YR5/4) silt loam with sand plow zone. Most of the artifacts recovered from this unit were found in this stratum. Following this is a 5-cm thick Bt horizon consisting of strong brown (7.5YR5/6) silt loam with clay and sand. Few artifacts were found in this stratum. Finally, a strong brown (7.5YR5/8) silty clay B horizon was encountered. No artifacts were recovered from this stratum. Discussion. Soil profiles from the four test units excavated evidence a divergence in soil profiles between the center of the Crying Hawk Site and its peripheries. The units excavated in the center of the site, test units 1 and 2, both contain an approximately 20-cm thick, disturbed plow zone. Beneath the plow zone in both units is a 5-10-cm thick, undisturbed cultural midden deposit. Pedogenically, this deposit is within a B or perhaps transitional AB horizon. This description is essentially similar to that described by Wolf (1989) for Claiborne series soils, which consist of a plow zone and transitional zone to 25 cm below ground surface. Within this portion of the site, the plow zone is somewhat deeper than normal and a cultural deposit is present at the base of the AB soil horizon transition. In contrast, in Test Unit 4 at the north end of the site and Test Unit 3 to the south indicate a lack of intact deposits, with most artifacts present recovered from the plow zone. In those units, a 122 Test Unit 3 - North Profile _^^rr>x:-o R^^ ■■-..■..: 3 Test Unit 4 - South Profile Figure 25. Soil Profiles from 23PU556: a, Test Unit 3; b, Test Unit 4. 123 15-20-cm thick, disturbed plow zone is present, followed by either a thin transitional horizon or a B horizon which did not contain artifacts. Relatively high levels of artifacts were located within the midden layer in both test units 1 and 2, while less material was found in test units 3 and 4. Artifact Assemblage A total of 1,389 artifacts was recovered from the posthole and test unit excavations (Table 20). This total consists of 1,388 prehistoric artifacts and a single historic artifact, a plastic comb fragment, that was found in the plow zone of Test Unit 2. The prehistoric artifacts consist of lithic debris, fire- cracked rock and formal tools. A single piece of burnt mussel shell was also found in the plow zone of Test Unit 2. Five of the artifacts were recovered from posthole excavations, with the remainder from the four test units. Most artifacts were found in Test Unit 2 (56 percent), followed by Test Unit 1 (30 percent) and test units 3 and 4 (7 percent each). Artifact density is greatest in the central area of the site, with densities of 0.56 artifacts/liter and 0.88 artifacts/liter in test units 1 and 2. In contrast, the more peripheral test units 3 and 4 yielded densities of 0.32 artifacts/liter and 0.34 artifacts/liter, respectively. Posthole Assemblage. Five artifacts were recovered from the two postholes excavated south of the road (Table 20). Posthole 1 yielded a tertiary and broken flake at 15-35 cm below ground surface. Posthole 2 had three tertiary flakes from 10-20 cm below ground surface. Test Unit Assemblage. Artifacts recovered from the test units have been categorized as lithic manufacturing debris, utilized flakes, formal hafted and nonhafted bifaces and unifaces, ground-stone tools and fire-cracked rock (Table 20). The lithic debris was placed into specific flake types which were then evaluated against a core-reduction model of tool manufacturing. The 23PU556 assemblage contained about 24 percent (n=257) early- to intermediate-stage manufacturing debris, including primary and secondary flakes, block shatter and cores. Almost 75 percent of the debris (n=780) was placed into later stages of manufacturing or tool resharpening debris such as tertiary and bifacial thinning flakes. Bifaces recovered during excavation also were placed into this trajectory, with the nonhafted bifaces divided into rough or thick bifaces, indicative of early manufacturing stages, and thin bifaces and finished tools, indicative of later manufacturing stages or finished products. In all 22 formal tools were recovered and placed into these two categories (Table 20). The majority consist of later-stage bifaces or finished tools (n= 16, 73 percent), with earlier-stage bifaces comprising the remainder (n=6, 27 percent). These figures for tools correspond with those for the lithic debris; later manufacturing stage items, debris and tools, dominate over material associated with earlier stages of tool manufacture. This ratio, though, may not be inconsistent with a full range of core-reduction activities taking place at the site. Collins (1975) notes that in the core-reduction model, later stage activities tend to produce greater amounts of waste debris than do earlier stage activities. When the distribution of lithic debris types is compared across the four test units, a pattern fairly similar to that evidenced by the entire assemblage emerges for three of the four assemblages (Table 21). Within test units 2, 3 and 4, early- to intermediate-stage waste materials comprise between 26 and 35 percent of all debris classes. The remaining 65 to 74 percent of the debris consists of later-stage materials. Somewhat different is Test Unit 1, which contains smaller amounts of early- to intermediate- debris categories, 16 percent, and higher frequencies of later-stage materials, at 84 percent of the debris 124 v© H m »r> P Oh CO CN C/3 4— > CO "o x. 5/2 4— > 4— » tw o O t" 3 4—1 Oh o 3 XI o cm s H O E- p 4-J C/2 H CO ■4— » "c p 0) E- CM 4-» 'c p c p 4-> C/3 O D •*— » u *— > o .as < BSS^^S^^^S^^^^ On 0O t^ioN^ ^ en r-H fNJ >nooooooooor^oo 5 CN O O ■<— ' en en '-h m >r> ooocNor-oo o W) .OS S3 c x: o o ^ ^ ^ "* ^ O w w^ ro o -h ir> Tf cn CN vo en en o\ en oo ir> en r-- en rt CN o o m oo CN On O O en *© 5 O O O Tt oooooooooo m c/3 i— o U C/2 E >> S3 s >E a3 S— (X ri x; .2 >> T3 l-i c S 00 o -s CD .-H E- CD T3 o Jj-j o rt O 4-1 <*> CO Cu OO E— CQ GQ CQ OQ 4-1 '2 p C/3 o 4— 25 •a o o dJ C o 4—> GO -a c 3 O o o Pi -a n> M O CT3 — u ! 4— "4-* < OSS o — '"" a) -3 00 2 o H 125 — ■ O H O V~> — * Tt \d oo in On i-H i — 1 en no *-h as so s CN CO oo CO o ■!-> s o o o "i o o o o o o u ooho en ■^- on o r» o r- o no O moo O O O O «n B ,«J 5Z PQ m en o NO O O MO OO SO EC CQ mOO O O O O >r> o 2 o o o O ^ O o o o o o On oo o ON o eN — ' O O o o o *- c o o fi °00 l~) O en t* M N I I *- I O O g O fN en H en O o o o <—> 03 O 1) bO Q ^> 126 classes. It is interesting to note, though, that cores are rare to absent from all of the test units. Much like the profile described for the test unit assemblage as a whole, those for the individual test units indicate that while later-stage manufacturing may have been an important lithic reduction activity, all stages are represented in the debris. The individual test unit analysis also suggests that there might be some degree of spatial variation concerning activities within the Crying Hawk site area. The inferred functions of the formal tools do not necessarily indicate that a diverse number of activities was taking place at 23PU556. Formal tools recovered during the Phase II investigations include projectile points, bifaces, and unifacial scrapers (Figure 26). Projectile points have generally been associated with hunting and butchering activities, although their use in a wider array of activities has been documented (Ahler 1971). The bifaces have been treated as representing end products of particular stages in the core-reduction model, although the use of such items for cutting, scraping and other tasks is possible. Scrapers are thought to have been used in woodworking or hide-tanning tasks. Utilized flakes, also known as expedient tools, were not common at 23PU556. Only nine flakes had evidence of being utilized. These include one primary, three secondary and five tertiary flakes. Such pieces could have been used in various cutting or scraping tasks. The five projectile points from 23PU556 were analyzed to discern temporal affiliation (Figure 26). Of these, three were recovered from the plow zone of Test Unit 1, one was found in the plow zone of Test Unit 2, and one was associated with the intact midden deposit in Test Unit 2 (Table 21). The points from the plow zone of Test Unit 1 consist of an unidentifiable stemmed point base, a Motley or Crispen point dating to the Late Archaic through Early Woodland periods (Justice 1984), and a stemmed point base identified as a Table Rock Stemmed point, dating to the Middle and Late Archaic periods (Figure 26, a-b) (Justice 1984). The projectile point from the plow zone of Test Unit 2 is an unidentifiable haft element fragment. The final point, from the midden of Test Unit 2 at 23 cm below ground surface, is similar to the Graham Cave Side-Notched type that dates to the Early Archaic period (Figure 26, c) (Justice 1984). Based on these point identifications, 23PU556 appears to have been occupied, most probably in a noncontinuous manner, throughout the Archaic period. The paucity of diagnostic artifacts associated with the intact deposits makes the dating of the midden difficult, although its placement within the Archaic period is probable. This placement is in general agreement with Edging, who identified projectile points from the surface and geomorphological trenches as dating to the Middle and Late Archaic subperiods. Given the absence of ceramics at the site, it is unlikely that the terrace was prehistorically occupied during the Woodland period. Two other classes of prehistoric artifacts were recovered at 23PU556— ground-stone tools and fire- cracked rock (Tables 20 and 21). Ground-stone tools from 23PU556 include hammerstones, pitted cobbles and grinding stones. The presence of pitted cobbles may indicate the use of a bipolar reduction strategy at the site, although no evidence of this was discerned from the lithic debris. Hammerstones are integral in the lithic-tool manufacturing process. Grinding stones, identified on the basis of abnormally smoothed and flattened surfaces, have typically been interpreted as being used in plant processing. Fire-cracked rock was fairly common at 23PU556, especially when compared with other sites that have been investigated at Fort Leonard Wood. As an artifact class, fire-cracked rock is associated with a variety of heating tasks (e.g., Taggert 1981; Zurel 1979, 1982). Most of the fire- cracked rock found at 23PU556 was found in the disturbed plow zone layers of the four test units. Additionally, test units 1 and 2 contained the greatest density of fire-cracked rock. The presence of this 127 Figure 26. Chipped-Stone Artifacts from 23PU556: a, Table Rock Stemmed Base; b, Motley or Crispen Projectile Point; c, Graham Cave Side-Notched Projectile Point; d, End Scraper. artifact type in the undisturbed midden deposits, especially that of Test Unit 2 (Table 21) indicates that there is a potential for intact hearths or earth oven type features at the site. Finally, a single fragment of burned mussel shell was recovered from the heavy fraction of a flotation sample from Test Unit 2 between 10-20 cm below ground surface (Table 20). Flotation Analysis Five flotation samples were taken from test units 1 and 2 at 23PU556: three samples from Test Unit 1 totaling 20 liters and two samples from Test Unit 2 totaling 17 liters of soil. Flotation samples were not taken from test units 3 and 4 since field evaluation suggested a lack of intact deposits. Archaeobotanical remains were found in the plow zone level of Test Unit 2, consisting of 0.2 g of unidentified hardwood charcoal. Given the stratigraphic location from which the sample was taken, the charcoal may represent modern contamination. No archaeobotanical remains were recovered from the samples associated with the intact midden deposits. 128 Discussion The Phase II investigations at 23PU556 were designed to confirm the period of occupation, define the extent of undisturbed deposits, determine the probability of locating intact cultural features, and determine the function of the site in relation to the local settlement system. To differing extents, all of these goals were met during the investigation of this site. Most important in this regard are the contributions of the geomorphological and artifact analyses conducted during the Phase II investigations. Evidence for the period of occupation for 23PU556 is based on projectile points recovered from the test units, as well as their stratigraphic context. Identifiable projectile points recovered during the Phase II testing include Motley or Crispen, Table Rock Stemmed and Graham Cave Side-Notched projectile points. The initial two types date to the Late Archaic period, although the Motley /Crispen point continued to be made through the Early Woodland period. The Graham Cave point dates to the Early Archaic period. The initial two identifiable points were recovered in the plow zone, while the Early Archaic point was found at 23 cm below surface, just below the plow zone. Geomorphological investigations at the site suggest that the terrace had a relatively stable depositional environment, with rates of deposition similar to those of erosion for the Holocene. Given this type of depositional environment, the chances for stratigraphically separated deposits are poor. A sequence of occupations over thousands of years may be mixed together within a relatively thin midden deposit. Based on this analysis of the projectile points and their context, little more than the placement of this site within the Archaic period can be stated. Most probably, the site was occupied intermittently throughout the Archaic period and perhaps into the Early Woodland period. Later Woodland period occupation is unlikely given the absence of ceramics at the site. The analysis of soil profiles and the context of artifacts indicates that an intact midden is present at the site. The midden is thickest in the central part of the site, between the road and Geomorphology Trench C. Peripheral portions of the site, to the south of Geomorphology Trench C, to the north of the road, and along the edges of the terrace, appear to have been impacted by erosion caused by plowing and lack intact deposits. Based on these results, it is possible that intact, subsurface cultural features may be present at 23PU556 within the central site area. As discussed above, though, geomorphological investigations suggest that the terrace had a relatively stable depositional environment during the Holocene. Given this type of depositional environment, the chances for stratigraphically separated deposits are poor, and indeed, such is the case at 23PU556. A sequence of occupations over thousands of years appears to be mixed together within a relatively thin midden deposit. Finally, based on the Phase II investigations, 23PU556 is interpreted as a seasonally occupied base camp. This interpretation is based on the relatively high density of artifacts at the site and the diversity of the artifact assemblage. The assemblage indicates that activities conducted at the site included plant processing, hunting, butchering, and tool manufacturing, among others. These activities suggest the site was occupied by groups conducting a wide range of activities, most probably exploiting the floodplain resources of the Big Piney River. The weakness in this interpretation stems from the depositional context of the artifacts recovered from the site. If the rate of soil deposition was not such that chronologically distinct artifact assemblages could be stratigraphically separated, as is posited, then the midden deposit consists of a palimpsest of Archaic period occupations. It is apparent that settlement systems and site functions underwent significant changes during the Archaic period, and it is not improbable that the nature of the occupation of 23PU556 changed as well. Unfortunately, the mixed nature the assemblage at the site precludes the investigation of changes in use of the site. Determination 129 of site function, in this instance, may well represent a composite of site functions throughout the Archaic period, representative of no one single occupation in particular. Recommendations The National Register of Historic Places eligibility for 23PU556 is somewhat difficult to evaluate. Erosion along the periphery of the site and its northern and southern ends has impacted deposits, although the center of the site area contains an intact midden layer. Additionally, the chronological control of the intact midden deposits at the site is poor. At present, the midden can only be dated with any certainty to the Archaic period. In addition, flotation samples indicate a low probability for the recovery of botanical or faunal remains, or radiocarbon samples, from this midden. Based on the lack of integrity of the deposits at 23PU556, it is not considered eligible for listing in the NRHP. 130 CHAPTER 7 RESEARCH RESULTS Prior to the initiation of the Phase II archaeological test excavations of seven sites at Fort Leonard Wood, a series of research issues, presented in Chapter 4, were defined. It was hoped that the excavations of the seven sites discussed in the previous chapter would contribute to these research issues. This chapter summarizes and evaluates the potential contributions of this project towards enhancing the understanding of the research issues. Prior to discussing the contributions of the project towards the research issues, three caveats should be mentioned. First, all of the issues defined in Chapter 4 are areas of investigation that call for long- term research and cannot solely be addressed by a single, limited project. Instead, it is anticipated that the project has produced data that can make a contribution towards understanding the issues delineated in Chapter 4. Second, the strategy of site sampling and the limited nature of Phase II test excavations produces an inherent instability in the potential for addressing all of the research issues. Prior to excavation, it is not known what components are present or the integrity of those components. Similarly, it is not known whether botanical or faunal remains will be preserved, nor will charcoal for radiocarbon assay or even diagnostic artifacts necessarily be present. As a result, it is not uncommon that none of the sites selected for excavation adequately yields data on particular research issues. Finally, the lack of data concerning paleoenvironmental change or subsistence practices at many sites hinders the discussion of these issues. Through time, with continued test excavations, larger and more diverse data sets can be accumulated from which these issues can be addressed. With these caveats in mind, the remainder of this chapter discusses the contribution of the current project towards enhancing our understanding of particular research issues. These topics include prehistoric chronologies, use of the landscape, subsistence patterns and potential changes in environmental conditions, especially during the middle Holocene. The impact of the current project on these issues are discussed relative to a number of more specific issues or questions. Chronology and Culture History Three specific issues were defined under this more general heading: the identification of new temporally diagnostic artifact classes that could be used to enhance relative dating of assemblages in the region, description of material culture assemblages for poorly known time periods such as the Early Woodland, Middle Woodland and Mississippian or late prehistoric periods, and the differentiation of subphases within the Late Woodland Maramec Springs Phase. To address each of these topics, well- dated assemblages from controlled stratigraphic contexts were needed. In general, only one site, 23PU492, yielded a suite of radiocarbon dates and associated material-culture assemblages from stratigraphically controlled contexts. An additional charcoal sample from site 23PU251 was assayed, although its cultural context remains poorly documented. Consequently, substantial progress has been made on few of the more specific research issues addressed within this topic. 131 New Temporally Diagnostic Artifact Types Neither projectile points nor ceramics were recovered in large enough samples from stratigraphically controlled, radiocarbon-dated contexts, to allow the definition of new artifact types. Diagnostic artifacts from 23PU492 were recovered which reinforce several associations previously identified. Kings Corner-Notched points were found at 23PU492 associated with Maramec Plain and Maramec Cordmarked ceramics and radiocarbon dates between roughly A.D. 425 and 1150. Also identified at this site in the Middle to Late Woodland deposits was a broad-bladed, corner-notched point similar to Early Archaic points. The point, though, is similar to other broad-bladed, corner- notched types that are consistently associated with Middle Woodland deposits (Reeder 1988). It has here been identified as Snyders Affinis. Ahler (1995) identified the association of similar point styles at 23PU291 and 23PU173 previously. He notes the association of these points with the Kings Corner-Notched points as well, and the assemblage from 23PU492 reinforces this trend. Reeder (1988:197) suggests that this association may be due to a mixing of the two components, although a continuation of use of the forms would account for their presence in Late Woodland contexts with associated Late Woodland pottery as well. Assemblages from Poorly Known Time Periods In one sense, those assemblages that are well-dated, either relatively or by absolute methods, add a body of data on prehistoric time periods in the region. Unfortunately, no data on such poorly known time periods as the Paleo-Indian, Dalton, Early Archaic, Early Woodland or late prehistoric/Mississippian were obtained. More positively, substantial assemblages from a number of environmental settings have been recovered for the Middle Archaic and Late Archaic and Middle to Late Woodland periods. The Middle Archaic and Late Archaic assemblages represent both longer-term habitation and shorter-term, specialized-use locales. The Middle to Late Woodland sites are all representative of shorter-term, specialized-use locales. The implications of these assemblages are discussed in greater detail in a number of the research topics addressed below. Definition of Maramec Springs Subphases Once again, the excavation of 23PU492 provided data on this topic. The presence of Kings Corner-Notched points throughout the sequence at 23PU492 may indicate that it is a poor candidate for defining Late Woodland subphases. One possible avenue for future investigation is a temporally sensitive change from "Z" to "S" twists on cordmarked ceramics. The ceramic assemblage at 23PU492 evidences an increase in the ratio of "S" to "Z" twist sherds. With the small size of the assemblage, this trend could be a product of sampling error. A high proportion of "S "-twist cordage has been noted elsewhere in the Midwest during the Late Woodland period. Examples of such studies include that for the Patrick phase (A.D. 600-800) of the St. Louis area (Kelley et al. 1984; Munson 1971) and Hurley (1975) for the Late Woodland period of Wisconsin. Additional research into this area of ceramic technology change may yield an additional temporal marker with which to differentiate early from late Maramec Springs subphases. Summary While no new temporally diagnostic artifact types were identified during the Phase II testing project, excavations nonetheless did contribute to a growing data base on the region's prehistoric 132 chronology. Well-dated Middle to Late Woodland assemblages were recovered from 23PU492, and these included a number of temporally diagnostic artifact types. Chief among these are Kings Corner- Notched and Snyders Affinis projectile points and plain and cordmarked pottery. Importantly, the Snyders Affinis points are morphologically similar to Late Archaic types, but have been consistently associated with Middle to Late Woodland radiocarbon dates (e.g. Ahler et al. 1995a; Reeder 1988). Perhaps as important as a future research topic is the potential that cordage twists changed orientation, from "Z" to "S" during the Late Woodland period. If this change can be substantiated and dated, it may provide a marker for differentiation of early and late Maramec Springs subphases. Prehistoric Landscape Use This suite of research topics centers on the characterization of prehistoric settlement patterns in an attempt to identify changes in settlement through time. It was posited that such a shift had occurred as settlement systems trended toward increased sedentism and reliance on horticulture, and that shift would be identified in differential use of the landscape. More specific topics included: density and diversity of artifacts should be similar for Paleo-Indian and Early Archaic sites in different resource zones; lower intensity of upland site use for Middle Archaic to late prehistoric periods with a concomitant increased intensity of site use for other resource zones; high density and diversity of subsistence remains at valley and valley margin sites with few upland resources present; and low diversity and density of subsistence remains at upland sites, especially those farthest from permanent sources of water. Certain of these issues cannot be addressed either due to lack of appropriate temporal components, site locations or appropriate data. Paleo-Indian/Early Archaic Patterns As no clearly defined Paleo-Indian, Dalton or Early Archaic assemblages were encountered during the Phase II excavations, this topic cannot be addressed. Site 23PU482 was tentatively dated to the Early Archaic period during the Phase I investigations, although no temporally diagnostic materials were found during the Phase II testing of the site. It is characterized by a low density and diversity of artifacts. Such a pattern was expected for sites dating to these time periods that are located in the uplands. Interestingly, Early Archaic sites 23PU370 and 23PU368, located in the floodplains of Roubidoux Creek and a tributary of the Big Piney River, respectively, evidence similar low figures of artifact density and diversity (Ahler et al. 1995a: 332). Such a pattern of land use would be expected in a foraging strategy settlement system, as has been posited for this time period (Reeder 1988). Middle Archaic/Late Prehistoric Patterns Sites dating to these later time periods, while evidencing subtle differences, can be divided roughly into two site type categories: habitation locales and specialized-use locales. A number of each were investigated during the current project. Examples of habitation sites include 23PU457 and 23PU556, both located on terraces along the Big Piney River. While subsistence remains were poorly preserved at both, the sites do contain a generally high density of material consisting of a diverse number of artifact classes. Such sites, located in floodplain settings close to upland ridges, were positioned to take advantage of both floodplain, river, slope, and upland resources. Specialized-use sites includes both open-air sites and rockshelters. Rockshelters excavated during this project include 23PU426 and 23PU492. The former apparently was used as a lithic-reduction station, perhaps taking advantage of 133 a nearby chert outcrop, while the former was a hunting station from which deer and mussels were hunted and collected. Upland sites such as 23PU288 evidence a greater complexity of use, although this site can still be classified as a special-use locale. Site 23PU288 is located directly above a number of rockshelters on an upland ridge in the Big Piney River valley. Excavations there delineated a number of discrete artifact loci that appear to be correlated with a shelter below. Artifact analyses indicate that a major activity at these areas was bifacial reduction and maintenance. Finally, special-use locales were also found on terraces within the river valleys. Site 23PU251 on Roubidoux Creek, had generally low density and diversity of material, although its precise function is poorly understood at this point. While a lack of temporally controlled data from each of the different site types described above prohibits a comparison of settlement patterns through time, a composite model can be constructed. Earlier researchers have described the late prehistoric settlement pattern as logistically oriented, where base camps are established and parties travel to certain locales to exploit specific resources, such as nuts, deer, fish, or chert (Reeder 1988). The pattern discussed above equates well with this model. Larger habitation sites are located within the stream valleys, often on terraces near the valley edge. This positioning would allow for ease of access to a number of resource zones as well as provide elevation against flooding by the streams. Special-use sites identified to date are associated with hunting and tool manufacture. These special-use sites, as would be expected, are distributed across the landscape in both the uplands and stream valleys. More interesting is the possibility that settlements were organized into specific neighborhoods, such as appears to be the case along the Big Piney River. Discussed within the 23PU288 section in Chapter 5, the area appears to include a Late Woodland neighborhood consisting of habitation sites on the valley floor, mortuary sites, lithic manufacturing sites, and no doubt other such special-use sites in a relatively small radius. Additional excavations among groupings of sites along the Big Piney River or Roubidoux Creek may provide details on additional neighborhoods. Valley /Upland Contrasts The Phase II testing project investigated two upland and five valley sites, spanning a time period from Early Archaic through Late Woodland. The two upland sites evidence a number of contrasts. Site 23PU482 has a low density and diversity of artifacts, perhaps dating to the Early Archaic period. In contrast, 23PU288 dates after the Early Archaic period, with intensive occupation of the site during the Late Woodland period. The site also contains specific areas where intense activities took place. Clearly, while both appear to be special-use locales, the intensity of occupations differ. Much the same can be said concerning the five sites located in stream valleys. Sites 23PU457 and 23PU556 both have high densities and diverse assemblages of artifacts, and appear to be habitation locales. No similar site type has been investigated in the uplands. The three other sites located within the valleys, 23PU426, 23PU492 and 23PU251 all have lower densities and diversities of artifacts. These sites appear to have functioned as hunting stands and lithic reduction locales. These observations suggest that perhaps the greatest dichotomy in terms of prehistoric settlement between the uplands and valleys centers on the location of habitation sites within valleys. Both valleys and upland areas contain special-use locales, although additional investigations may be able to identify differences in special-use sites between the two areas. Such differences should be tied to resource availability. 134 Upland Land-Use Patterns Two upland sites, perhaps better characterized as bluff- or ridge-crest sites, were investigated during the Phase II investigations, 23PU482 and 23PU288. This research topic hypothesizes that upland sites should evidence the lowest density and diversity of subsistence remains, representing seasonal or specialized use of the locale. While neither site yielded adequate subsistence data to directly address this topic, the artifact assemblages from both can be used to address this topic. While the dating of 23PU482 as possibly Early Archaic is tentative, it does evidence a low density and diversity of material culture. The two test units yielded 95 artifacts per cubic meter of soil excavated and seven artifact classes consisting of lithic debris, bifaces and fire-cracked rock. In contrast, greater densities and diversities of artifacts were found at 23PU288. There, two of the units, test units 1 and 2, were dated to the Late to Middle Woodland periods based on the presence of diagnostic projectile points. Aside from Test Unit 4, artifact densities range between 1,000 and 3,000 artifacts per cubic meter of soil. The differences in density and types of artifacts located at that site have been interpreted as due to different activities being conducted within the site limits, perhaps tied to cave and rockshelter sites on the slopes below the upland ridge summit. Both sites appear to represent specialized-use locales tied to settlements located within to stream valleys. As mentioned above, both sites may be better classified as bluff- or ridge-crest sites. The function of such sites are likely to differ from upland sites located in the interior of the base away from the Big Piney and Roubidoux Creek valleys. Few of these upland sites have been investigated beyond Phase I survey to date, although Phase II investigations would allow for their comparison with the ridge-crest sites located along the major drainages. It is likely that substantial differences would be noted between sites in these two physiographic positions. Summary At present, identifying changes in the use of the landscape during prehistory is difficult due to the lack of well-dated Paleo-Indian and Early Archaic components at Fort Leonard Wood. The few Early Archaic components excavated to date appear to be spatially restricted and have low densities and diversity of artifacts, regardless of environmental setting. By the Middle Archaic period, sites, many of which still appear to be somewhat spatially restricted such as 23PU457, have high densities and diversity of artifacts. These sites have been interpreted as habitation base camps. Subsidiary special- use camps, located in stream valleys and upland ridges adjacent to stream valleys, also have been identified. At present, the function of these subsidiary sites is relatively poorly understood, although lithic manufacturing was one activity taking place at such sites. This settlement pattern appears to have amplified during the remainder of prehistory, with numerous special-use site types being identified during the Late Woodland period. These include hunting stands, mortuary areas and lithic reduction locales. Throughout the time between the Middle Archaic and Late Woodland periods, a dichotomy of use between the interior uplands and stream valleys was maintained. Stream valleys contained a number of site types, including habitation and various special-use locales, while uplands apparently only contained special-use locales. Special-use locales were apparently tied to a habitation site in a neighborhood pattern, with most necessary special-use locales positioned within a relatively short distance of the base camp. Continued test excavations at Fort Leonard Wood should provide data on the tempo and characteristics of the change in settlement patterns, as well as evaluate the validity of the neighborhood concept. 135 Subsistence Patterns One of the continuing research issues is the identification of prehistoric subsistence patterns and detailing changes in those patterns through time. Addressing this research issue is highly dependent on the state of preservation of floral and faunal remains at the sites selected for investigation. Following the pattern identified in earlier Phase II investigations at Fort Leonard Wood (e.g., Ahler et al. 1995a) subsistence remains were poorly preserved at all of the open-air sites excavated during the current project. Aside from a few faunal elements from questionable contexts at 23PU426, the excavations at 23PU492 yielded the only substantial data on prehistoric subsistence. This lack of data severely limits the types of comparative analyses that could be performed. Four specific issues were originally delineated; Middle and Late Archaic components should have greater amounts of aquatic remains than would sites dating to earlier periods; cucurbits would be found in Late Archaic, Woodland and Mississippian deposits; Woodland components would contain starchy and oily seeds; and maize would only be found in Late Woodland contexts. Middle Archaic and Late Archaic Use of Aquatic Resources No subsistence remains dating to the Middle Archaic period were recovered during the project. A limited amount of Late Archaic remains were obtained in the lower excavation levels of 23PU492, although few aquatic species were present in the assemblage. This could be due to small sample size or a more specialized use of the site as is evident for the later Middle to Late Woodland component. Cucurbit Usage No cucurbit specimens were found in the Late Archaic or Middle to Late Woodland components at 23PU492. As above, while this could be due to small sample sizes, it is more likely, especially for the Middle to Late Woodland component, to be a function of site use. The later component appears to have functioned as a hunting stand and perhaps shellfish procurement station. The data available suggests that the inhabitants had little concern for collecting or processing plant foods at this site. Woodland Period Starchy /Oily Seed Use No starchy or oily seed specimens were found in the Middle to Late Woodland component at 23PU492. While this could be due to small sample sizes, it is more likely, especially for the Middle to Late Woodland component, to be a function of site use. The later component appears to have functioned as a hunting stand and perhaps shellfish procurement station. The data available suggests that the inhabitants had little concern for collecting or processing plant foods at this site. Maize Use While maize could be predicted to be present at 23PU492, no evidence of this domesticate was found in the Middle to Late Woodland component at that site. While this could be due to small sample sizes, it is more likely, especially for the Middle to Late Woodland component, to be a function of site use. The later component appears to have functioned as a hunting stand and perhaps shellfish procurement station. The data available suggests that the inhabitants had little concern for collecting or processing plant foods at this site. 136 Summary Few data were collected on prehistoric subsistence patterns during this project, due mainly to the poor preservation at six sites and the specialized nature of the occupation at the seventh site, 23PU492. While botanical and faunal preservation was generally good at 23PU492, it appears to have been occupied as a hunting station, emphasizing the taking of white-tailed deer and mussels. Other resources, such as plants, fish, birds, and small mammals, were obtained incidentally to the main focus of activities at this site. In essence, the excavation does document a particular site type within the Late Woodland settlement system. Effects of Environmental Conditions on Human Populations This topic explores the possible effects that the middle Holocene Hypsithermal Interval had on populations in the Fort Leonard Wood region. It is assumed that the warming and drying trend during that period would have affected the local vegetation, fauna and hydrology, forcing resident human populations to adjust to the new environmental parameters. To attempt to study this process, five more specific issues were selected for investigation; evidence for increased side-slope erosion during the Middle Archaic due to deteriorating vegetation cover on uplands and slopes; increase in use of acorns due to the expansion of oak forests during this period; increase in deer and turkey remains in Middle Archaic assemblages due to an increase in the prime habitat for these species; closer proximity of Middle Archaic sites to streams, with upland Middle Archaic sites representing special-use locales; and greater site size, artifact density and artifact diversity at Middle Archaic components in the stream valleys representing a change towards a logistical settlement pattern. Three sites have deposits that can be used to address some of these issues. These include 23PU251, an open-air terrace site on Roubidoux Creek, 23PU457, an open-air terrace site on the Big Piney River and 23PU288, an open-air uplands site on the Big Piney River. As all of these are open-air site, no subsistence-related data were obtained during the excavations. Upland/Side-slope Erosion Geomorphological investigations at 23PU457 and 23PU556, both located on the Big Piney River, indicate that the terrace surfaces on which these sites are situated have been relatively stable during the Holocene (see Balek, Appendix B). Both sites are located adjacent to upland ridges and slopes. In contrast, 23PU251, located on a terrace along Roubidoux Creek, does provide geomorphological evidence for upland and side-slope erosion between ca. 8,000 and 4,500 years ago, or during the Hypsithermal Interval. While the data from these three sites are contradictory, this should not necessarily be surprising. The sites are situated along two different waterways in two different areas of the base. Slightly differing local environmental conditions during the Hypsithermal may have contributed to different geomorphological processes at these sites. Acorn Use No botanical data were collected at the three Middle Archaic components investigated during this project that would allow evaluation of this hypothesis. 137 Deer/Turkey Use No faunal data were collected at the three Middle Archaic components investigated during this project that would allow evaluation of this hypothesis. Proximity of Middle Archaic Sites to Streams This topic deals with the hypothesis that Middle Archaic sites became increasingly concentrated along streams due to warming and drying conditions. Unfortunately, the rather uneven sampling of all resource zones precludes analysis of this topic. The three sites with Middle Archaic components were all located in either stream valleys or on upland ridges adjacent to stream valleys. No sites in the interior uplands away from major sources of water were investigated during this project. Ahler (1995:343-345) accepts the absence of Middle Archaic components at three previously excavated interior upland sites as proof of the increasing concentration of Middle Archaic settlement along streams in the Fort Leonard Wood region. Phase I survey data appear to support this topic. A review of previously published Fort Leonard Wood Phase I survey reports (e.g., Ahler and McDowell 1993; Baumann and Markman 1993; McNerney 1992; McNerney et al. 1992; Markman and Baumann 1993; Niquette 1984, 1985; Niquette et al. 1983) indicates that almost the entirety (18 of 19 Middle Archaic sites) are located either on the bluff-crest overlooking a major stream or within the stream valley. One Middle Archaic site is located within the uplands, although that site is situated on a terrace of a small secondary stream. Middle Archaic Settlement Patterns Three sites within the sample contained Middle Archaic deposits: 23PU251 on a terrace along Roubidoux Creek, 23PU288 on an upland ridge above the Big Piney River and 23PU457, on a terrace of the Big Piney River. Two of three sites represent special-use locales minimally tied into lithic tool manufacturing: 23PU251 and 23PU288. Site 23PU457 appears to represent a habitation locale. Increased site size, artifact density and diversity of Middle Archaic components would evidence a shift toward a more logistical settlement pattern (Binford 1980). Unfortunately, few data are available from Early Archaic sites to assess changes between these two time periods. Tentative support for this pattern was obtained during previous investigations (e.g., Ahler 1995:345-346). Continued efforts should be made in the future to obtain a diverse Early Archaic data base with which to compare the ever- increasing amount of information that is being generated on Middle Archaic sites. Summary This research topic, as a comparative question concerning changes between Early and Middle Archaic settlement patterns, requires data bases spanning both periods and containing preserved faunal and botanical assemblages. Unfortunately, such data bases are unavailable. Subsistence data are absent, and geomorphological studies appear to indicate that slope erosion was localized in the Fort Leonard Wood region during the Hypsithermal Interval. The Middle Archaic sites tested here are closer to streams, although this is an artifact of site selection processes not necessarily reflective of prehistoric settlement patterns. An evaluation of shifts in settlement patterns is difficult given the poor Early Archaic baseline data. While this topic represents an important research focus, additional data are needed, especially dating to the Early Archaic period, to address the impact of the Hypsithermal Interval on human populations in the Fort Leonard Wood region. 138 Conclusions The test excavations of seven sites at Fort Leonard Wood has contributed to local and regional prehistoric research. Regarding the local chronology, the testing has documented the association of particular projectile points with Middle to Late Woodland deposits. Analysis also has identified a potential shift in cordage manufacture that may be temporally sensitive. Contributions to land use patterns, subsistence and Middle Archaic adaptations are more in the realm of defining additional areas of research that are needed prior to a complete evaluation of each of these topics. Expanded data bases are needed, especially regarding questions of settlement pattern change between the Early and Middle Archaic periods. Future testing projects at Fort Leonard Wood can supplement the data on sites from these periods. 139 CHAPTER 8 SUMMARY OF EVALUATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS In August 1994 USACERL contracted with the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign to conduct Phase II evaluations at seven selected prehistoric sites in Pulaski County, Missouri, within the Fort Leonard Wood Military Reservation. The above chapters have detailed the results of these investigations. This chapter summarizes the findings and provides a synopsis of the National Register of Historic Places eligibility evaluations that have been made for each site. The potential contributions of each site to regional research issues are then summarized. Finally, the recommendations that have been made regarding further archaeological work or site preservation efforts at specific sites are reviewed. From these specific recommendations, more general recommendations are derived that should promote more effective management of the cultural resources at Fort Leonard Wood. The sites investigated are located in two of the four cultural resource zones previously delineated on Fort Leonard Wood. The investigations were designed to provide archaeological inventory and management recommendations for a total of seven prehistoric archaeological sites located within the Big Piney and Upper Roubidoux Creek cultural resource zones within Fort Leonard Wood. These sites were chosen to provide a sample of sites from a broad cross section of the physiographic zones within the installation, but they do not necessarily provide a representative sample of the sites that have been recommended for Phase II NRHP evaluation. Summary of Findings Big Piney Cultural Resource Zone 23PU288. Site 23PU288 is an open-air site located in the Big Piney cultural resource zone on a bluff crest north and west of the Big Piney River. This site is associated with the Miller Cave (23PU2) and Sadie's Cave (23PU235) complex. Mapping and surface inspection revealed that recent military disturbance and roadway construction has impacted approximately 30 percent of the site area. However, the posthole tests and excavation units indicate that intact cultural deposits are present across the remainder of the site. The soil profiles document a relatively deep A-E-B horizon sequence in the upper 30-40 cm of sediments, all of which contain cultural material. The projectile points recovered indicate a Middle Archaic to Late Woodland period of occupation at the site. It is of interest that the time periods documented for this site are also well-represented in the nearby Miller Cave and Sadie's Cave sequences. It appears that 23PU288 is temporally linked with the other sites in the Miller Cave Complex, and it is possible that all of these sites represent distinct functional components of a single, integrated settlement complex. The range of debitage and tool categories suggests that the site may have functioned as a series of discrete, short-term habitations in the local settlement system, at least during the Late Woodland period. Artifact density data support the interpretation that site occupation was relatively intense during this time span. The presence of intact, culture-bearing strata and high artifact frequencies in the upper strata, along with the recovery of temporally diagnostic artifacts that link the major artifact-bearing strata to the Middle-Late Woodland periods, are all factors indicating that the site could yield information on significant scientific questions. Though cultural features were not encountered in the test units, they 140 are likely present, given that the A, E and B horizons are largely intact. For these reasons, the site is interpreted as meeting eligibility criteria for inclusion in the NRHP under Criterion D. The research potential and scientific significance of the site relates to two factors. First, Middle to Late Woodland cultural material is abundant in both the A and E horizons, and cultural material continues to be recovered from lower strata. It is possible that additional work could establish temporal/cultural contexts for the other strata as well. Second, even if temporal and cultural contexts cannot be established for the lower horizons, the A and E horizons contain a substantial Woodland occupation. The materials recovered from this stratum can be compared to materials recovered from Middle to Late Woodland components in other physiographic settings and other cultural resource zones within Fort Leonard Wood. These comparative data are useful for reconstructing settlement and subsistence patterns and functional relationships among contemporary sites, especially with the other sites in the Miller Cave Complex. 23PU457. Site 23PU457 is located on a high, pre-Wisconsinan strath terrace on the floodplain of the Big Piney River. The terrace lies between the river, to its east, and a steeply sloped upland ridge, to its west. The Phase II testing also identified that the Early Archaic and Middle Archaic materials are associated with an intact, 30-cm midden deposit in all three test units. Based on the posthole data, these deposits appear to be thickest in the eastern 30-40 m of site area. Deposits thin and disappear closer to the upland ridge slope to the west of the site area. It would appear that the historic use of the site area has disturbed the Late Archaic and Middle to Late Woodland components present at the site. Prehistorically the site was occupied during the Middle and Late Archaic periods and the Middle or Late Woodland periods. Evidence for the Early Archaic occupation of the site is based on the recovery of a Big Sandy and an untyped Early Archaic projectile point. The upper portion of the intact midden deposit was consistently associated with Middle Archaic diagnostics, but the possibility cannot be ruled out that a portion of this midden dates to the Early Archaic period. The plow zone appears to represent a mixture of a number of prehistoric components, including the Middle Archaic, Late Archaic and Middle to Late Woodland periods. The upper 20 cm of deposits also contain a late nineteenth to early twentieth century historic component. The artifact assemblage contains a diverse number of artifact types and that artifact density is rather high at the site. The debitage includes the entire range of manufacturing debris associated with a core-reduction model of tool manufacturing. The diversity of the tool and debris assemblage, indicative of a wide range of activities taking place at 23PU457, suggests that a diverse population inhabited the site. Such an artifact profile is more suggestive of a generalized habitation locale at which a number of activities were being performed than a specialized activity site. The Phase II investigations of 23PU457 indicate that it meets the criteria established for inclusion in the NRHP. Test excavation and posthole stratigraphy have identified an intact midden deposit up to 30 cm thick across the eastern portion of the site area. Associated with this midden in two of three test units are Early and Middle Archaic projectile points. The archaeological deposits yielded a large amount of artifacts and an assemblage of relative diversity. Given the density of material and the diversity of artifact classes at the site from dated intact deposits, 23PU457 can yield data that can be used to address numerous research issues. First, the site has a demonstrated potential to yield chronological data concerning the Early and Middle Archaic period. It would appear that additional excavation of the intact midden would yield additional diagnostic artifacts. As well, flotation samples have contained small amounts of charcoal that could be used for radiocarbon assay if recovered in sufficient amounts or if assayed using an AMS technique. Both relative and chronometric dating of the site could contribute to a baseline of chronological data for the Early and Middle Archaic periods of 141 the Ozarks. Second, with the abundant amount of artifactual material present at the site, a more complete understanding of the function of 23PU457 could be obtained. Third, with additional data such as that discussed above concerning chronology and site function, the role of 23PU457 within the local Early and Middle Archaic settlement system can be further examined. Comparison of this site to smaller sites also may provide information on different site types and functions within the Middle Archaic settlement system. Finally, both the intersite and intrasite settlement data from 23PU457 could be used as a comparative base with both earlier and later settlement patterns. This line of research is especially interesting given that the Middle Archaic was a period of warmer and drier climatic conditions known as the Hypsithermal. Models of geologic and geomorphic landscape evolution can be integrated with evidence of changes in site function through time. These data can provide refinements of existing models of Ozark human-land interactions proposed by Wood and McMillan (1976), Kay (1980), and McMillan and Klippel (1981). 23PU556. Site 23PU556 is located on a high, pre-Wisconsinan strath terrace within the Big Piney cultural resource zone, on the floodplain of the Big Piney River. Four test units were excavated at this site. Soil profiles from the four test units evidence a divergence in soil profiles between the center of the Crying Hawk site and its peripheries. The units excavated in the center of the site, test units 1 and 2, both contain an approximately 20-cm thick, disturbed plow zone. Beneath the plow zone in both units is a 5-10-cm thick, undisturbed cultural midden deposit. Pedogenically, this deposit is within a B or perhaps transitional AB horizon. This description is essentially similar to that described by Wolf (1989) for Claiborne series soils, which consists of a plow zone and transitional zone to 25 cm below ground surface. Within this portion of the site, the plow zone is somewhat deeper than normal and a cultural deposit is present at the base of the AB soil horizon transition. In contrast, Test Unit 4 at the north end of the site and Test Unit 3 to the south indicate a lack of intact deposits, with most artifacts present recovered from the plow zone. In those units, a 15-20-cm thick, disturbed plow zone is present, followed by either a thin transitional horizon or a B horizon which did not contain artifacts. Relatively high levels of artifacts were located within the midden layer in both test units 1 and 2, while less material was found in test units 3 and 4. Artifacts recovered from the test units have been categorized as lithic manufacturing debris, utilized flakes, formal hafted and nonhafted bifaces and unifaces, ground-stone tools and fire-cracked rock. The 23PU556 assemblage contains few early- to intermediate-stage manufacturing debris. Almost 75 percent of the debris was placed into later stages of manufacturing or tool resharpening debris such as tertiary and bifacial thinning flakes. Based on projectile point identifications, 23PU556 appears to have been occupied, most probably in a noncontinuous manner, throughout the Archaic period. Given the absence of ceramics at the site, it is unlikely that the terrace was occupied during the Woodland period. Based on the Phase II investigations, 23PU556 is interpreted as a seasonally occupied habitation base camp. This interpretation is based on the relatively high density of artifacts at the site and the diversity of the artifact assemblage. The assemblage indicates that activities conducted at the site included plant processing, hunting, butchering, and tool manufacturing, among others. These activities suggest the site was occupied by groups conducting a wide range of activities. The National Register of Historic Places eligibility for 23PU556 is somewhat difficult to evaluate. Erosion along the periphery of the site and its northern and southern ends has impacted deposits, although the center of the site area contains an intact midden layer. Additionally, the chronological control of the intact midden deposits at the site is poor. At present, the midden can only be dated with any certainty to the Archaic period. The geomorphological research indicates that the site is situated 142 within an essentially non-depositional environment, and the deposits verify this interpretation by the cultural/temporal mixing of the archaeological deposits. The site is therefore considered not eligible due to the lack of integrity of deposits. Accordingly, no further work is recommended at this site. Upper Roubidoux Cultural Resource Zone 23PU251. Site 23PU251 is located on a narrow east/west-oriented remnant of a mid-Holocene terrace on the left (downstream) bank of Roubidoux Creek in the Upper Roubidoux cultural resource zone. Based on soil profiles and artifact distributions from posthole excavations, the geomorphology of the site appears to be consistent with its assignment to the Miller formation (T5) terrace, a middle Holocene terrace deposited between about 8,000 and 4,500 years ago. A radiocarbon date of 5920 B.P. from 90-100 cm below surface of Test Unit 2 indicates that cultural material has been incorporated into the aggrading middle Holocene terrace deposits. Intact, buried cultural zones are present within the site. Moreover, while features were not encountered in the limited test unit exposures, they are likely to be present in buried, stratigraphic contexts within the terrace deposits. The intact sediments in the area of Test Unit 1 date from the Late Archaic to Late Woodland period, based on recovery of a single, expanding-stem projectile point from the AE horizon (Level 2). The documentation of different debitage profiles in the between test units 1 and 2 and in the upper three levels of Test Unit 1 suggests that a series of occupations were included in the aggrading terrace edge area, and further suggests that the role of the site in the local settlement system was not uniform through time. The density of cultural material is never very high for any given level or stratigraphic analytical unit, except for Test Unit 1, Level 2, and this finding suggests that the site did not function as a base camp in the local settlement system. Instead, a series of specialized, short-term occupations are indicated by the variability in flake types and artifact density. The presence of intact, culture-bearing strata, low incidence of site disturbance, moderate to high artifact densities, recovery of at least one temporally diagnostic artifact from intact cultural strata, and the observation of intact, buried cultural strata in a geomorphically active environment are factors indicating that the site contains scientifically and culturally significant data. This site is viewed as having considerable potential for contributing to increased understanding of local and regional cultural adaptations. Consequently, it is recommended that 23PU251 be considered eligible for inclusion in the NRHP under Criterion D. The potential significance of the site lies in three major research domains. First, the potential stratigraphic separation of deposits provides an opportunity to build and test local and regional cultural chronological sequences. Second, there are intact, artifact-bearing strata that can be assigned to the middle Holocene (Middle Archaic period), a time span generally thought to be affected by regional climatic conditions that were warmer and possibly drier than the modern climate. Possible human cultural responses to changing environmental conditions can be investigated through analysis of the cultural remains preserved in the intact, stratified deposits at 23PU251. Third, the relationship of human occupation episodes to the dynamic middle Holocene landscape can be investigated by combining detailed geomorphological analyses with the artifact analyses. These data can provide refinements of existing models of Ozark human-land interactions proposed by Wood and McMillan (1976), Kay (1980), and McMillan and Klippel (1981). 23PU426. Site 23PU426 was initially recorded by Markman and Baumann (1993) as a shallow rockshelter located in the Upper Roubidoux cultural resource zone. The site is located about midslope on a south-facing bluff face of an upland ridge that forms part of the Roubidoux Creek valley. Mapping and surface collections reveal that little historic military or looter disturbance has impacted 23PU426. 143 However, natural forces such as erosion and sediment/artifact redeposition have adversely affected the integrity of the site. Excavation of test units revealed that the talus slope in front of the shelter contains the heaviest accumulation of artifacts. Documentation of numerous artifacts on the talus slope that appear to have sustained damage from colluvial transport suggests that there has been some augmentation of the artifact assemblage through redeposition of artifacts from 23PU289, a large base camp on the bluff crest above 23PU426. Unfortunately, the stratigraphic sequence within the shelter was quite shallow, and no temporally diagnostic artifacts were recovered from these contexts. All artifacts recovered during Phase II investigations are assigned to the Middle Woodland to late prehistoric time span. Debitage and modified items indicate early-stage reduction activities are more common at 23PU426 than at previously tested sites in Fort Leonard Wood. There are also several formal tools present at the site, indicative of the discard of finished tools, although the artifacts suggests a relatively low-energy input into tool manufacture. Tools in early stages of manufacture are common, and these may well represent expediently produced items. Collectively these data indicate that the lithic reduction activities performed at 23PU426 involved manufacture and discard of relatively low-energy, expedient tools but probably not the manufacture or maintenance of projectile weaponry. This is interpreted as indicative of short-term use of the site for hunting and possibly butchering. No long-term occupation is indicated by either the density of artifacts or their diversity. Instead, the site probably contains the remains of multiple, short-term occupations that took place during the Woodland and late prehistoric periods. The recovery of temporally diagnostic artifacts which link the occupation of the site to defined time ranges and the recovery of a suite of artifacts indicative of the specialized use of the site are all factors that enhance the scientific significance of the site. However, the cultural deposits lack integrity. In addition, few artifacts were recovered from intact deposits within the shelter, and it is unlikely that deeper stratified deposits are present. These latter factors argue against the scientific significance of the site with respect to its ability to address significant research questions. On balance, the Gravity Blind Site is not considered eligible for listing in the NRHP, largely because of the loss of integrity of the cultural deposits though natural processes of erosion and redeposition. Accordingly, the site is not recommended for listing in the NRHP, and no further work is recommended. 23PU482. Site 23PU482 is located within the Upper Roubidoux cultural resource zone, on an upland ridge west of Roubidoux Creek. The site area is bisected east to west by a road. Phase II investigations included the excavation of postholes and two test units. No intact deposits are present south of the road. North of the road, there appears to be small areas which contain thin deposits of a somewhat intact E horizon. The E horizon may be 5-10 cm thick, and is generally present in a small area just north of the road. The site periphery and far northern portion of the site area appear to be eroded. Based on the spatially restricted area of intact deposits, the chance of intact features being present at 23PU482 is small. No temporally diagnostic materials were recovered during the Phase II investigations. Based on the Phase I data, the site appears to date to the Early Archaic period. The artifact assemblage from the Phase II investigations is fairly homogenous in nature; few artifact classes are present. In general, the artifacts indicate that only tool manufacture and perhaps maintenance were conducted at the site, although it is likely that a few other activities also took place there. Tool manufacturing centered on intermediate- to later-stage biface reduction. It would appear that 23PU482 represents an Early Archaic habitation locale that was occupied for short durations. Such a locale may have been seasonally occupied during which specific resources were utilized. 144 Site 23PU482 has been impacted by agricultural plowing and road construction and maintenance. The Phase II investigations of the site indicate that these previous impacts has substantially disturbed what was probably originally an ephemeral and sparse deposit. Based on these impacts and the sparsity of cultural material recovered during the Phase II investigations, it is recommended that 23PU482 is not eligible for listing in the National Register of Historic Places. 23PU492. Site 23PU492 is a rockshelter located south of a small terrace at the base of a north-facing bluff overlooking Roubidoux Creek in the Upper Roubidoux cultural resource zone. Investigations included making a topographic map and site plan and the excavation of a single test unit. A total of 17 excavation levels in Test Unit 1 was excavated, with four strata being defined. Stratum 1, the uppermost analytical unit, consists of levels 1 and 2. Stratum 2 is contained almost entirely within Level 3. Both are historically disturbed levels. Levels 4 through 13 contain only Stratum 3 sediments. These levels date to the Middle to Late Woodland periods. Feature 1 was identified in this stratum along the eastern wall of the unit. It is circular with an estimated radius of perhaps 15-20 cm and is 15 cm deep. The soil matrix of Feature 1 consisted mainly of charcoal, suggesting a function as either a hearth or the refuse from a hearth. Level 14 contains a mixture of Stratum 3 and Stratum 4 sediments. Levels 15-17 provide a small sample of unmixed Stratum 4 sediments dating to the Late Archaic period. Radiocarbon assays from strata 2 and 3 date to the Middle to Late Woodland Periods, between about A.D. 400-1150. The Stratum 4 sample dates within the Late Archaic period, approximately 4,000 years ago. The artifact, faunal and botanical assemblages demonstrate site function. Test Unit 1 indicates that cultural material is probably abundant to common throughout the rockshelter, and bone, shell, and carbonized plant remains are moderately to well-preserved. Site activities associated with the lithic artifacts are difficult to reconstruct, as only two unifacial scraper fragments and one biface fragment were recovered from this stratum. The scraper fragments suggest that animal-hide processing may have been performed during the Late Archaic occupation of the site, which in turn suggests that the shelter functioned as a hunting stand and animal processing site. During the Middle to Late Woodland occupations represented by strata 2 and 3, hunting and mussel processing appears to have been an important activity. While the site also functioned as a hunting stand during these periods, there is little evidence of intensive game processing. The faunal remains also indicate an emphasis on white-tailed deer procurement, with few fish, bird or reptile/amphibian remains being found. Taxa from these classes, as well as smaller mammals, were probably taken incidentally to the main focus on deer exploitation. The botanical assemblage contains no cultigens or seeds, with few nutshell recovered. This lends further support to the contention that plant collection and processing was incidental to the main hunting-related activity undertaken at this site. The presence of intact, stratified culture-bearing deposits, documentation of an intact feature, the recovery of temporally diagnostic artifacts which link the strata to defined time ranges, and the recovery of a diverse range artifacts that allow the potential assessment of changes in site function through time are all factors that demonstrate that the site contains significant scientific information in intact cultural contexts. Additional cultural features are likely to be present, and the amount of previous disturbance to the site is low. For these reasons, the site is interpreted as meeting eligibility criteria for inclusion in the NRHP. The presence of abundant charcoal and bone/shell remains provide raw data for analysis of changes in prehistoric subsistence patterns. The same material classes can be analyzed to determine if there were changes in environmental parameters within the period of occupation at the site. The site also has a demonstrated potential to yield chronological data concerning the Middle-Late Woodland and Archaic periods. It would appear that additional excavation of the intact midden would yield additional diagnostic artifacts and charcoal that could be used for radiocarbon assay. 145 Summary of NRHP Recommendations Each of the discussions of the individual sites in Chapter 6 includes a section on National Register of Historic Places recommendations. Based on criteria established by the Advisory Council on Historic Preservation, the sites were evaluated in terms of their eligibility for inclusion in the National Register of Historic Places. Since all of the sites under consideration here are prehistoric in age, Criterion D is applicable to the evaluation process. Evidence for significance is based on an evaluation of whether a site has yielded or is likely to yield information important in prehistory or history. Important information is defined in terms of existing local and regional research concerns. The research issues pertinent to Fort Leonard Wood have been discussed and presented in other contexts (see Chapter 4; Harland Bartholomew and Associates 1992), and the research potential of each site relative to these and other issues has been discussed in Chapter 7. Several specific attributes have been used to determine whether a given site is scientifically significant. All attributes have been consistently applied to all sites investigated here, in order to generate comparable NRHP eligibility evaluations. The attributes considered pertinent to determining significance are: presence of intact, culture-bearing strata; presence of intact cultural features; recovery of temporally diagnostic artifacts from intact strata, allowing date ranges to be ascribed to site occupations; recovery of faunal remains or botanical remains from intact, culture-bearing strata, and; determination that the site represents a rare or locally poorly represented site type or site function. The evaluation of each site with respect to these attributes has been summarized in Table 22. The criteria used in the evaluations have no specific ordinal ranking in terms of which is more important to evaluating a site's significance. However, in practical terms, direct observation of intact cultural strata or features and the recovery of temporally diagnostic artifacts from these intact deposits are weighted more highly than other criteria. This is done for the simple reason that if intact cultural strata or features are present, and these strata can be assigned to specific time ranges, the spectrum of potential research questions is much greater than if these criteria are not met. Because of the importance of these criteria, and because the investigations were often not spatially extensive, it was thought that evaluation of the sites should not be reduced to simple presence or absence of the criteria listed above. In several cases, lines of evidence indicate that intact features, strata, or datable artifacts are likely to be present somewhere on the site, even though they have not been directly observed during the Phase II investigations. In these cases, the attribute in question has been evaluated as "Probable" (P) instead of either present (+) or absent (-) in the body of Table 22. Based on these attributes, it is recommended that four of the seven tested sites meet the eligibility criteria for nomination to the National Register of Historic Places under Criterion D (23PU251, 23PU288, 23PU457, and 23PU492). Three of the sites (23PU556, 23PU426 and 23PU482) do not meet the eligibility criteria, and no further work is recommended. Summary of Research Potential of Sites Also included with each site has been a brief discussion of the potential research issues that could be addressed should additional excavations or analyses be required. This section presents a synopsis 146 Table 22. Summary of NRHP Evaluation Criteria and Final Evaluations. Intact Intact Faunal or Rare Site Cultural Cultural Dated Botanical Type or NRHP Site Strata Features Strata Remains Function Evaluation Big Piney 23PU288 + P + + Eligible 23PU457 + P + Eligible 23PU556 - P + - - Not Eligible Upper Roubidoux 23PU251 + P + + Eligible 23PU426 + Not Eligible 23PU482 Not Eligible 23PU492 + + + + + Eligible of these issues and a summary of which sites can make potentially meaningful contributions toward resolution of these research issues. Table 23 presents this information in tabular form. The research issues discussed here are not exhaustive of the potential of these sites. Their inclusion is based on direct observation of site attributes (such as stratigraphy, faunal or botanical preservation and recovery of temporally diagnostic artifacts) that are indicative of the general potential of the site for making significant scientific contributions, and recovery of artifacts from particular contexts that focus the potential of the sites on more specific research issues. Eight research issues have been identified in this listing. Summary of Recommendations for Future Work Various recommendations were made regarding the course of additional work that might be performed at the five sites considered to be eligible for listing in the NRHP. Two of the sites were interpreted as not meeting eligibility criteria for inclusion in the National Register of Historic Places. For these sites, no additional work was recommended. Regardless of which options are chosen for specific sites, the most important aspect of these recommendations is that the military command structure be informed of the significance of these sites and their location on the landscape. In this way, military planners will then be in a position to avoid site impacts prior to implementation of road, bivouac or other construction projects. Given the relatively large amount of damage that has already been sustained at many archaeological sites on Fort 147 Table 23. Summary of Research Issues Pertinent to NRHP-Eligible Tested Sites. ? ? X X X X X X X X X X X X R esearch issue 23PU288 23PU457 23PU251 23PU492 Refining chronology and culture history X X X X Variation in Late Woodland settlement systems and X ? ? X site functions Adaptations within the Late Woodland period X Subsistence patterns Paleoenvironmental reconstruction and climatic changes Geoarchaeology X Mid-Holocene human adaptations Internal site structure X Leonard Wood through various activities, the most preferable cultural resource management option is site preservation through avoidance. Other potential impacts also pose a serious threat to some of the cultural resources at the installation. Probably the most serious nonmilitary threats to the integrity of sites at Fort Leonard Wood are vandalism and artifact looting. To combat the effects of site vandalism, several site protection measures are possible. These include advising the military structure of site locations, and possibly enlisting their aid in site-protection activities; site monitoring by the Historic Properties Manager, his staff, or other qualified personnel; education of the public through talks at local archaeological or civic organizations; construction of fences to restrict access to cave sites; obscuring trails or constructing road gates so that public access to some sites and culturally sensitive area within the base are more restricted; and reconsidering policies that allow unrestricted public access to portions of the base that contain large, open sites that are viewed as scientifically important. As another deterrent to vandalism, it is recommended active investigation of vandalized or looted sites under the auspices of the existing Archaeological Resources Protection Act (ARPA) legislation be taken. If specific individuals can be linked to vandalism or looting events, these individuals can be prosecuted under the provisions of ARPA. If the perceived economic gains that promote people to loot sites are balanced by real legal and economic risks, there should be a decrease in the amount of vandalism and site looting. Though this course of action is costly in terms of the amount of time 148 and effort required for ARPA documentation and prosecution, the potential benefits of increased public awareness and greater protection for significant sites may be worth the effort. If efforts to reduce vandalism and protect sites prove ineffective, or if military construction projects will result in unavoidable adverse impacts to any of these significant sites, then data recovery plans should be implemented for the affected site(s). 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Interested researchers should contact that agency regarding access to the collection. 167 Provenience Count Category Weight (g) 23PU482 Surface Nonhafted Thick Biface 54.5 Posthole 1-2, 0-10 cm Posthole 3-1, 0-10 cm Posthole 3-4, 0-10 cm Posthole 4-2, 0-10 cm Posthole 4-2, 20-30 cm Posthole 6-2, 0-10 cm Posthole 6-4, 0-5 cm TU 1, 0-10 cm 1 2 8 3 15 Tertiary Flake Broken Flake Tertiary Flake Broken Flake Secondary Flake Bifacial Thinning Flake Secondary Flake Primary Flake Secondary Flakes Tertiary Flakes Bifacial Thinning Flakes Broken Flakes 0.4 0.1 0.2 5.3 5.0 3.5 5.4 1.2 0.9 2.9 1.5 11.8 TU 1, 10-20 cm TU 2, 0-10 cm TU 2, 10-20 cm TU 1, 0-10 cm, Flotation, >2 mm TU 1, 10-20 cm, Flotation, >2 mm 2 Tertiary Flakes 3 Bifacial Thinning Flakes 9 Broken Flakes Secondary Flakes Tertiary Flakes Bifacial Thinning Flakes Broken Flakes Fire Cracked Rock Tertiary Flakes Bifacial Thinning Flake Thick Biface Prehistoric Ceramic Tertiary Flakes Tertiary Flake 0.3 0.8 2.1 1.8 2.7 4.1 1.1 20.3 1.4 1.0 17.1 19.4 0.8 0.1 168 Provenience Count Category Weight (g) Surface 1 Primary Flake Posthole 1-1, 0-10 cm 3 Broken Flakes 1 Uniface Posthole 1-1, 10-20 cm 1 Core - 1 2(1) Secondary Flake Broken Flakes Posthole 1-3, 10-20 cm 1 Tertiary Flake Posthole 2-1, 50-60 cm 1 Broken Flake Posthole 2-2, 30-40 cm 1 Broken Flake Posthole 4-1, 30-40 cm 1 Broken Flake Posthole 5-1, 0-10 cm 2 Broken Flakes Posthole 5-1, 20-30 cm 1 Broken Flake Posthole 5-1, 40-50 cm 3 Broken Flakes Posthole 5-1, 50-55 cm 2 Broken Flakes 2 Block Shatter Posthole 8-1, 30-40 cm 1 Tertiary Flakes Posthole 11-1, 0-10 cm 1 Broken Flake Posthole 12-1, 10-20 cm 1 1 Bifacial Thinning Flake Broken Flake Posthole 12-2, 10-20 cm 2 Broken Flakes Posthole 12-2, 20-30 cm 2 Broken Flakes Posthole 12-2, 30-40 cm 1 Bifacial Thinning Flake 1 Broken Flake Posthole 12-2, 40-50 cm 1 Bifacial Thinning Flake TU 1, 0-10 cm 2 Cores 2 10 10 17 79 Primary Flakes Secondary Flakes Tertiary Flakes Bifacial Thinning Flakes Broken Flakes 31 Block Shatter 2 Fire-cracked Rock 6.1 4.0 89.2 19.5 0.5 2.8 0.5 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.4 1.0 18.7 1.0 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.4 50.2 2.4 37.1 3.1 3.5 10.3 93.0 91.5 169 Provenience Count Category Weight (g) TU 1, 10-20 cm 1 Core 4.7 54 Secondary Flakes 36.3 24 Tertiary Flakes 15.7 18 Bifacial Thinning Flakes 6.7 142 Broken Flakes 45.7 . 63 Block Shatter 59.4 1 Hafted Biface 9.4 2 Nonhafted Bifaces 11.3 TU 1, 20-30 cm 1 Primary Flake 16.2 38 Secondary Flakes 9.6 9 Tertiary Flakes 2.3 26 Bifacial Thinning Flakes 18.5 50 Broken Flakes 37.6 28 Block Shatter 79.5 1 Nonhafted Biface 2.0 TU 1, 30-40 cm 8 Secondary Flakes 4.9 4 Tertiary Flakes 1.0 2 Bifacial Thinning Flakes 0.5 10 Broken Flakes 2.0 8 Block Shatter 15.8 TU 1, 40-50 cm 1 Primary Flake 6.8 3 Tertiary Flakes 3.1 1 Bifacial Thinning Flake 1.0 12 Broken Flakes 6.3 24 Block Shatter 20.6 TU 1, 50-65 cm 1 Tertiary Flake 0.1 6 Broken Flakes 3.8 TU 2, 0-10 cm 1 Core 10.6 1 Primary Flake 0.6 4(1) Secondary Flakes 18.6 11 Tertiary Flakes 10.4 1 Bifacial Thinning Flake 0.1 34 Broken Flakes 15.0 16 Block Shatter 177.8 1 Uniface 19.2 2 Hafted Bifaces 15.2 TU 2, 10-20 cm 2 Cores 65.2 1 Primary Flake 0.1 170 Provenience Count Category Weight (g) 12.5 1.9 1.2 20.0 170.4 3.2 0.6 22.9 9.5 0.9 4.2 136.5 224.0 24.5 0.5 5.5 1.5 7.1 102.6 0.6 12.6 5.4 0.3 9.7 29.0 41.9 6.5 0.8 10.8 5.5 15.7 0.3 0.6 2.4 11.6 0.3 TU 2, 10-20 cm cont. 14 7 4 22 30 2 Secondary Flakes Tertiary Flakes Bifacial Thinning Flakes Broken Flakes Block Shatter Nonhafted Bifaces TU 2, 20-30 cm 1 7(2) 7(1) 1 13 39 Primary Flake Secondary Flakes Tertiary Flakes Bifacial Thinning Flake Broken Flakes Block Shatter TU 2, 30-40 cm 2 2 1 7 6 20 31 Cores Primary Flakes Secondary Flake Tertiary Flakes Bifacial Thinning Flakes Broken Flakes Block Shatter TU 2, 40-49 cm 2 4 4 2 22 9 Primary Flakes Secondary Flakes Tertiary Flakes Bifacial Thinning Flakes Broken Flakes Block Shatter TU 2, 49-60 cm 1 4 4 6 16 8 Primary Flake Secondary Flakes Tertiary Flakes Bifacial Thinning Flakes Broken Flakes Block Shatter TU 2, 60-69 cm 1 2 4 3 Tertiary Flake Bifacial Thinning Flakes Broken Flakes Block Shatter TU2, Posthole, NVi, 70-80 cm 3 Broken Flakes 171 Provenience Count Category Weight (g) TU2, Posthole, NVi, 1 Bifacial Thinning Flake 0.1 90-100 cm 1 Broken Flake 0.6 TU 2, Posthole, 160-170 cm 1 Broken Flake 0.4 172 Provenience Count Category Weight (g) 23PU426 0-5 m E, Talus Slope 0-5 m E, Drip Line 5-10 m E, Talus Slope 5-10 m E, Drip Line 5-10 m E, Under Shelter 2 Cores 3 7 4 2 5 Primary Flakes Secondary Flakes Tertiary Flakes Bifacial Thinning Flakes Broken Flakes 1 Blade 3 Block Shatter 1 Hafted Biface 3 Nonhafted Bifaces 3 Cores 16 7 5 5 Primary Flakes Secondary Flakes Tertiary Flakes Broken Flakes 3 Block Shatter 1 Uniface 3 Core 4 12 11 2 8 Primary Flakes Secondary Flakes Tertiary Flakes Bifacial Thinning Flakes Broken Flakes 8 Block Shatter 2 Unifaces 1 Nonhafted Biface 3 Cores 16 16 5 Secondary Flakes Tertiary Flakes Bifacial Thinning Flakes 29 Broken Flakes 11 Block Shatter 1 Uniface 2 Hafted Bifaces 4 Nonhafted Bifaces 3 Cores 1 Broken Flake 48.9 19.5 35.2 8.3 2.3 7.6 6.1 8.7 0.4 39.7 94.6 33.1 19.7 1.8 11.7 11.1 47.8 184.3 13.1 128.2 29.2 0.8 48.5 60.3 46.1 1.1 92.7 49.9 17.5 2.3 26.0 86.5 24.0 13.9 155.4 110.1 1.4 10-15 m E, Talus Slope Cores 357.3 173 Provenience Count Category Weight (g) 10-15 m E, cont. Talus Slope 11 6 3 6 Secondary Flakes Tertiary Flakes Bifacial Thinning Flakes Broken Flakes 3 Block Shatter 1 Uniface 2 Hafted Bifaces 3 Nonhafted Bifaces 10-15 m E, Surface Drip Line, 2 10 45 6 58 Primary Flakes Secondary Flakes Tertiary Flakes Bifacial Thinning Flakes Broken Flakes 9 Block Shatter 10-15 mE, Drip Line 6 Cores 2 8 8 1 6 Primary Flakes Secondary Flakes Tertiary Flakes Bifacial Thinning Flake Broken Flakes 4 Block Shatter 2 Unifaces 3 Nonhafted Bifaces 10-15 m E, Under Shelter 4 Cores 2 8 17 4 12 Primary Flakes Secondary Flakes Tertiary Flakes Bifacial Thinning Flakes Broken Flakes 5 Block Shatter 4 Nonhafted Bifaces 15-20 m E, Talus Slope 1 Core 2 3 5 3 Primary Flakes Secondary Flakes Tertiary Flakes Broken Flakes 1 Block Shatter 1 Uniface 15-20 m E, Drip Line Cores 91.4 28.8 9.7 22.3 20.3 5.0 5.2 112.2 1.4 7.4 25.1 2.1 37.5 6.4 39.8 5.6 74.0 49.5 0.5 10.8 87.9 96.8 10.6 91.7 4.7 23.9 29.2 3.4 15.0 22.0 11.7 8.9 7.0 4.6 7.5 11.9 1.4 9.5 176.3 174 Provenience Count Category Weight (g) 2 Primary Flakes 6.4 8 Secondary Flakes 15.3 15-20 m E, Drip Line 7 Tertiary Flakes 5.8 cont. 1 Bifacial Thinning Flake 0.8 10 Broken Flakes 36.0 8 Block Shatter 73.7 - 2 Nonhafted Bifaces 2.7 15-20 m E, Under Shelter 3 Secondary Flakes 9.5 2 Tertiary Flakes 1.8 1(D Broken Flake 3.4 1 Nonhafted Biface 7.2 20-25 m E, Talus Slope 8 Cores 303.8 10 Secondary Flakes 85.7 7(1) Tertiary Flakes 32.4 3 Broken Flakes 7.5 4 Block Shatter 11.6 2 Unifaces 68.4 1 Nonhafted Biface 6.3 • 1(1) Natural Flake 32.8 20-25 m E, Drip Line 2 Cores 87.8 2 Primary Flakes 35.3 3 Secondary Flakes 42.4 1 Bifacial Thinning Flake 0.1 3 Block Shatter 15.4 1 Ground-Stone Tool 723.9 1 Metal Disk 20-25 m E, Under Shelter 3(1) Tertiary Flakes 1.2 2 Broken Flakes 9.5 2 Block Shatter 2.7 25-30 m E, Talus Slope 1 Core 103.1 3 Primary Flakes 26.4 6 Secondary Flakes 62.5 2 Tertiary Flakes 4.2 1 Bifacial Thinning Flake 2.5 1 Broken Flake 7.0 4 Block Shatter 16.2 1 Nonhafted Biface 2.6 1 Limestone-Tempered Plain Sherd 9.1 175 Provenience Count Category Weight (g) 25-30 m E, Drip Line 25-30 m E, Under Shelter 30-35 m E, Talus Slope 35-40 m E, Talus Slope 40-45 m E, Talus Slope 45-50 m E, Talus Slope 50-58 m E, Talus Slope 50-58 m E, Drip Line TU 1, Surface TU 1,0-10 cm 1 2(1) Tertiary Flake Broken Flakes 6 Block Shatter 1 1 3(1) 2 Primary Flake Secondary Flake Tertiary Flakes Block Shatter 1 Uniface 2 Cores 2 2 1 2 Primary Flakes Secondary Flakes Tertiary Flake Block Shatter 1 2 Secondary Flake Broken Flakes 1 Uniface 1(1) Broken Flake 1 2 2 Primary Flake Tertiary Flakes Broken Flakes 2 Block Shatter 1 Metal Fragment 1 Broken Flake 1 Block Shatter 2 1 Secondary Flakes Nonhafted Biface 5 Cores 2 23 64 39 156 Primary Flakes Secondary Flakes Tertiary Flakes Bifacial Thinning Flakes Broken Flakes 68 Block Shatter 2 Unifaces 1 Hafted Biface 2.6 6.6 17.7 2.5 7.0 9.0 9.1 9.3 100.7 4.6 7.7 7.8 7.0 1.0 2.0 14.4 3.7 0.8 3.1 2.7 1.9 2.0 0.3 3.7 109.7 144.0 0.5 63.1 71.7 14.5 112.9 141.2 22.3 0.5 176 Provenience Count Category Weight (g) TU 1, Level 2, NVfc TU 1, Level 2, NVt cont. TU 1, Level 2, E horizon TU 1, Level 3, EVi 6 Nonhafted Bifaces 1 Core 1 9 9 1 12 Primary Flake Secondary Flakes Tertiary Flakes Bifacial Thinning Flake Broken Flakes 6 Block Shatter 1 Hafted Biface 2 Cores 3 13 17 3 21 Primary Flakes Secondary Flakes Tertiary Flakes Bifacial Thinning Flakes Broken Flakes 5 Block Shatter 2 Nonhafted Bifaces 8 12 30(1) Secondary Flakes Tertiary Flakes Broken Flakes 5 Block Shatter 66.2 76.9 1.3 21.9 6.4 0.1 14.1 6.6 2.2 28.1 1.4 100.6 9.3 1.1 15.3 1.5 9.7 3.3 2.1 34.8 5.1 TU 1, Level 4 TU 2, 0-10 cm 1 Bifacial Thinning Flake 1 Secondary Flake 1 Tertiary Flake 2 Broken Flakes 0.4 0.4 0.6 0.5 TU 3, 0-4 cm 2 Primary Flakes 4 Secondary Flakes 10(1) Tertiary Flakes 2 Bifacial Thinning Flakes 6 Block Shatter 2.4 4.1 27.4 2.1 12.7 TU 3, 4-15 1 Primary Flake 1 Secondary Flake 2 Tertiary Flakes 1 Bifacial Thinning Flake 4 Broken Flakes 1.3 3.2 0.2 0.5 4.3 TU 3, NVi, 15-26 1 Bifacial Thinning Flake 1 Broken Flake 0.4 0.5 177 Provenience Count Category Weight (g) 4.7 6.1 4.5 TU 3, SI/2, 15-26 4 Tertiary Flakes 11 Broken Flakes 7 Block Shatter 178 Provenience Count Category Weight (g) 23PU492 TU 1, 0-9 cm 2(1) Secondary Flakes 2.6 1 Blade 1.4 3 Block Shatter 2.2 1 Thin Biface 1.1 1 Maramec Cordmarked Sherd 0.8 TU 1, 9-20 cm 5 Secondary Flakes 8.6 9 Tertiary Flakes 6.5 1 Bifacial Thinning Flake 0.3 5 Broken Flakes 1.6 6 Block Shatter 11.7 2 Biface Fragments 3.9 . 2 Maramec Cordmarked Sherds 4.8 TU 1,20-30 cm 9 Secondary Flakes 8.0 13(1) Tertiary Flakes 19.0 2 Bifacial Thinning Flakes 0.4 9 Broken Flakes 7.6 1 Blade 5.1 14 Block Shatter 10.7 1 Scallorn Point 0.3 3 Nonhafted Biface 64.7 4 Maramec Cordmarked Sherds 1 Dolomite/Pebble-Tempered Sherd 1 Dolomite/Sand-Tempered Sherd 1 Unidentified Small Sherd 43.7 TU 1, 30-41 cm 1 Secondary Flake 1.7 5 Tertiary Flakes 4.6 3 Bifacial Thinning Flakes 0.3 21 Broken Flakes 7.3 24 Block Shatter 44.3 TU 1,41-50 cm 2 Cores 133.8 11 Secondary Flakes 10.5 18 Tertiary Flakes 9.6 5 Bifacial Thinning Flakes 2.5 15 Broken Flakes 9.3 4 Block Shatter 3.7 3 Hafted Bifaces 18.1 6 Maramec Plain Sherds 2 Dolomite/Sand-Tempered Plain Sherds 1 Maramec Cordmarked Sherd 179 Provenience Count Category Weight (g) 1 Smoothed Cordmarked Sherd TU 1, 41-50 cm cont. 1 Dolomite/Sand-Tempered Cordmarked Sherd 4 Unidentified Small Sherds 129.2 TU 1, 50-62 cm 1 Primary Flake 0.2 9 Secondary Flakes 25.7 12 Tertiary Flakes 5.1 12 Bifacial Thinning Flakes 2.8 27 Broken Flakes 11.4 37 Block Shatter 86.1 1 Halted Biface 1.0 4 Maramec Plain Sherds 2 Dolomite/Sand-Tempered Plain Sherds 44.4 TU 2, 62-72 cm 1 Secondary Flake 1.0 8 Tertiary Flakes 13.2 4 Bifacial Thinning Flakes 2.2 21 Broken Flakes 15.0 12 Block Shatter 15.6 1 Nonhafted Biface 1.2 2 Maramec Plain Sherds 1 Maramec Cordmarked Sherd 1 Unidentified Small Sherd 13.4 TU 1, 72-80 cm 7 Secondary Flakes 61.1 16 Tertiary Flakes 14.2 10 Bifacial Thinning Flakes 2.1 28 Broken Flakes 31.3 19 Block Shatter 27.5 1 Nonhafted Biface 71.9 1 Dolomite/Sand-Tempered Plain Sherd 2.5 TU 1, 80-90 cm 5 Primary Flakes 10.9 7 Secondary Flakes 10.0 6 Tertiary Flakes 2.6 11 Bifacial Thinning Flakes 1.9 26 Broken Flakes 14.6 16 Block Shatter 20.7 2 Nonhafted Bifaces 12.1 1 Maramec Plain Sherd 1 Maramec Cordmarked Sherd 88.7 TU 1, 90-101 cm 1 Core 40.2 5 Secondary Flakes 3.8 180 Provenience Count Category Weight (g) TU 1, 90-101 cmcont. TU 1, 101-110 cm TU 1, 110-120 cm TU 1, EVz, 120-131 cm TU 1, 131-140 cm TU 1, 140-150 cm 8 Tertiary Flakes 9.5 8 Bifacial Thinning Flakes 2.7 30 Broken Flakes 19.4 32 Block Shatter 16.3 1 Kings Corner Notched Point 19.8 1 Core 3.1 2 Primary Flakes 5.6 7 Tertiary Flakes 23.0 3 Bifacial Thinning Flakes 3.2 45 Broken Flakes 29.2 20 Block Shatter 33.6 1 Uniface 13.2 2 Nonhafted Bifaces 19.2 1 Core 21.2 1 Primary Flake 1.6 1 Secondary Flake 3.9 4 Tertiary Flakes 27.7 6 Bifacial Thinning Flakes 4.7 16 Broken Flakes 32.9 6 Block Shatter 3.0 3 Maramec Cordmarked Sherds 3 Dolomite/Sand-Tempered Cordmarked Sherds 1 Dolomite/Sand-Tempered Plain Sherd 1 Unidentified Small Sherd 94.5 1 Primary Flake 7.0 9 Secondary Flakes 6.5 17 Tertiary Flakes 4.9 4 Bifacial Thinning Flakes 3.8 10 Broken Flakes 3.8 12 Block Shatter 4.6 1 Nonhafted Biface 5.0 2 Secondary Flakes 2.4 1 Tertiary Flake 0.4 2 Bifacial Thinning Flakes 1.8 11 Broken Flakes 3.5 15 Block Shatter 35.3 1 Nonhafted Biface 18.0 1 Maramec Plain Sherd 1.3 1 Primary Flake 181 2.1 Provenience Count Category Weight (g) TU 1, 140-150 cm cont. TU 1, 150-160 cm TU 1, 160-169 cm TU 1, Level 7, Pedestal TU 1, Levels 7/8 under rock TU 1, Stratum 3, Side Wall 3 Secondary Flakes 0.3 9 Tertiary Flakes 2.7 2 Bifacial Thinning Flakes 0.4 3 Broken Flakes 0.3 2 Bipolar Flakes 0.7 12 Block Shatter 7.2 1 Uniface 0.6 2 Fire-cracked Rock 240.7 1 Tertiary Flake 0.1 4 Broken Flakes 1.2 7 Block Shatter 9.7 1 Core 24.5 4 Secondary Flakes 2.7 3 Tertiary Flakes 0.6 1 Bifacial Thinning Flake 0.1 3 Broken Flakes 0.2 1 Bipolar Flake 0.2 9(1) Block Shatter 4.5 1 Uniface 4.0 1 Secondary Flake 0.6 2 Bifacial Thinning Flakes 0.7 2 Broken Flakes 0.3 1 Core 55.8 1 Bifacial Thinning Flake 2.2 3 Broken Flakes 1.9 1 Block Shatter 1.4 1 Primary Flake 0.1 4 Tertiary Flakes 0.8 1 Broken Flake 0.1 4 Block Shatter 4.1 1 Maramec Cordmarked Sherd 8.0 182 Provenience Count Category Weight (g) Posthole 1-1, 10-20 cm 1 Bifacial Thinning Flake Posthole 1-2, 0-10 cm Posthole 1-2, 10-20 cm 1 1 Broken Flake Broken Flake Posthole 1-3, 0-10 cm Posthole 1-3, 10-20 cm Posthole 1-3, 20-30 cm 4 4 1 1 2 2 1 2 1 1 Secondary Flakes Tertiary Flakes Bifacial Thinning Flake Broken Flake Secondary Flakes Bifacial Thinning Flakes Broken Flake Secondary Flakes Tertiary Flake Broken Flake Posthole 1-5, 20-25 cm Posthole 1-5, 25-40 cm 1 1 Tertiary Flake Tertiary Flake Posthole 1-6, 10-20 cm 1 Nonhafted Biface Posthole 1-7, 10-20 cm Posthole 1-7, 20-30 cm 2 1 1 1 Broken Flakes Tertiary Flake Bifacial Thinning Flake Broken Flake Posthole 1-8, 0-10 cm 1 1 Broken Flake Blade Posthole 1-9, 0-10 cm Posthole 1-9, 10-20 cm 3 1 Tertiary Flakes Broken Flake Posthole 1-10, 10-20 cm 1 3 Secondary Flake Broken Flakes Posthole 1-11, 0-10 cm Posthole 1-11, 10-20 cm 3 1 1 1 1 Broken Flakes Nonhafted Biface Tertiary Flake Bifacial Thinning Flake Broken Flake Posthole 1-12, 0-10 cm Posthole 1-12, 10-20 cm 1 1 Bifacial Thinning Flake Tertiary Flake 0.1 1.2 0.2 6.0 1.3 0.2 0.3 4.4 0.4 0.2 0.8 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.6 0.5 0.6 0.9 0.2 0.1 0.3 1.3 4.3 0.2 0.6 1.0 1.0 0.7 0.2 0.3 0.9 0.3 0.2 183 Provenience Count Category Weight (g) Posthole 1-14, 0-10 cm Posthole 1-14, 10-20 cm Posthole 1-14, 20-30 cm Posthole 1-15, 0-10 cm Posthole 1-15, 10-20 cm Posthole 1-15, 20-25 cm Posthole 1-16, 0-10 cm Posthole 1-16, 10-20 cm Posthole 1-16, 20-30 cm Posthole 1-17, 0-10 cm Posthole 1-17, 20-30 cm Posthole 1-18, 10-20 cm Posthole 1-19, 10-20 cm Posthole 1-21, 0-10 cm Posthole 1-21, 10-20 cm Posthole 1-21, 20-30 cm Posthole 2-1, 0-10 cm Posthole 2-1, 10-20 cm Posthole 2-2, 0-10 cm 1 Broken Flake 1 Tertiary Flake 1 Bifacial Thinning Flake 2 Broken Flakes 1 Bifacial Thinning Flake 3 Broken Flakes 1 Secondary Flake 1 Tertiary Flake 1 Tertiary Flake 3 Bifacial Thinning Flakes 3 Broken Flakes 2 Secondary Flakes 1 Tertiary Flake 2 Bifacial Thinning Flakes 10 Broken Flakes 3 Bifacial Thinning Flakes 2 Broken Flakes Bifacial Thinning Flake Broken Flake Broken Flake Broken Flake Tertiary Flake Secondary Flake Tertiary Flake Broken Flake Bifacial Thinning Flake Tertiary Flake Broken Flake Tertiary Flake Broken Flake Block Shatter Tertiary Flake 7 Broken Flakes 2 Block Shatter 1 Broken Flake 0.9 1.3 0.3 2.5 0.5 0.4 0.9 2.5 1.0 0.8 0.9 0.7 0.2 0.4 1.7 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.2 0.6 0.8 0.5 2.9 1.3 0.4 0.1 0.1 0.3 2.6 1.9 0.1 0.7 0.9 0.6 0.2 184 Provenience Count Category Weight (g) Posthole 3-2, 0-10 cm Posthole 3-3, 0-10 cm Posthole 4-1, 0-10 cm Posthole 4-1, 10-20 cm Posthole 4-1, 20-30 cm Posthole 4-2, 0-10 cm Posthole 4-2, 10-20 cm Posthole 4-3, 0-10 cm Posthole 4-5, 0-10 cm Posthole 5-4, 10-20 cm Posthole 6-1, 0-10 cm Posthole 6-1, 10-20 cm Posthole 6-2, 0-10 cm Posthole 6-2, 10-20 cm 5 Broken Flakes 1 Broken Flake Posthole 6-2, 20-30 cm Posthole 6-3, 0-10 cm Posthole 6-3, 10-20 cm Tertiary Flake Bifacial Thinning Flake Broken Flakes Bifacial Thinning Flake Bifacial Thinning Flake Block Shatter Tertiary Flake Bifacial Thinning Flakes Broken Flake Bifacial Thinning Flake Broken Flakes Nonhafted Biface Bifacial Thinning Flake Broken Flake Tertiary Flake Tertiary Flake Bifacial Thinning Flake Broken Flakes Block Shatter Secondary Flake Tertiary Flake Bifacial Thinning Flake Broken Flake Secondary Flake Tertiary Flake Bifacial Thinning Flake Broken Flakes Block Shatter Tertiary Flake Bifacial Thinning Flake Broken Flakes 1 Tertiary Flake 2 Broken Flakes 0.9 4.8 0.4 0.1 2.3 1.5 0.1 0.6 0.2 1.6 0.3 0.2 0.7 0.5 2.5 0.2 2.1 0.4 0.5 7.7 0.7 0.3 1.3 1.3 0.1 3.3 1.9 0.2 0.9 1.0 0.3 0.4 1.6 0.3 0.2 185 Provenience Count Category Weight (g) Posthole 6-3, 20-30 cm 1 1 Bifacial Thinning Flake Broken Flake 0.3 0.2 Posthole7-l, 0-10 cm Posthole 7-1, 10-20 cm Posthole 7-1, 20-30 cm 1 2 1 Broken Flake Broken Flakes Broken Flake 0.2 0.3 0.1 Posthole 7-2, 0-10 cm Posthole 7-2, 10-20 cm Posthole 7-2, 20-30 cm 4 1 1 Broken Flakes Broken Flake Broken Flake 1.2 0.1 0.1 Posthole 7-3, 0-10 cm Posthole 7-3, 10-20 cm 1 1 1 2 2 Secondary Flake Tertiary Flake Secondary Flake Tertiary Flakes Broken Flakes 0.1 0.2 0.4 1.2 0.2 Posthole 7-5, 0-10 cm 1 1 Bifacial Thinning Flake Block Shatter 0.2 0.6 TU 1, Level 1 6 11 20 57(2) 15 1 3 2 Secondary Flakes Tertiary Flakes Bifacial Thinning Flakes Broken Flakes Block Shatter Uniface Nonhafted Bifaces Fire-cracked Rock (Discarded) 4.4 6.5 13.5 36.2 25.6 65.2 17.6 115.5 TU 1, Level 2 3 19 36(3) 20 190 30 1 4 Primary Flakes Secondary Flakes Tertiary Flakes Bifacial Thinning Flakes Broken Flakes Block Shatter Hafted Biface Nonhafted Biface 2.1 4.9 6.8 7.4 59.8 8.2 0.9 4.2 TU 1, Level 3 1 7 10 24 75 8 Primary Flake Secondary Flakes Tertiary Flakes Bifacial Thinning Flakes Broken Flakes Block Shatter 0.2 2.5 7.1 7.7 22.7 17.2 186 Provenience Count Category Weight (g) 1 Nonhafted Biface 3.9 TU 1, Level 4 3 Bifacial Thinning Flakes 0.1 8 Broken Flakes 2.0 TU 1, Level 4 cont. 1 Block Shatter 0.2 2 Nonhafted Bifaces 0.8 TU 1, S. Wall Scraping 3(1) Tertiary Flakes 2.1 1 Bifacial Thinning Flake 0.2 ■ 3 Broken Flakes 0.5 2 Block Shatter 9.9 TU 1, E. Wall Scraping 1 Tertiary Flake 0.1 ' 6 Broken Flakes 3.8 2 Block Shatter 0.8 1 Hafted Biface 1.0 TU 2, Level 1 4 Primary Flakes 3.9 32 Secondary Flakes 24.4 52 Tertiary Flakes 38.7 46 Bifacial Thinning Flakes 16.2 167 Broken Flakes 62.2 46 Block Shatter 60.2 4 Hafted Bifaces 10.8 9 Nonhafted Bifaces 41.1 TU 2, Level 2 2 Cores 1,400.5 9 Primary Flakes 18.7 28 Secondary Flakes 34.4 48(2) Tertiary Flakes 23.7 27 Bifacial Thinning Flakes 13.7 150 Broken Flakes 51.4 65 Block Shatter 88.7 6 Hafted Bifaces 147.0 1 Nonhafted Biface 0.7 3 Ground-Stone Tools 1,160.9 7 Fire-cracked Rock 867.8 TU 2, Level 3 1 Core 50.4 6 Primary Flakes 54.0 24 Secondary Flakes 37.8 56(1) Tertiary Flakes 40.4 60 Bifacial Thinning Flakes 17.6 195 Broken Flakes 61.9 187 Provenience Count Category Weight (g) TU 2, Level 4 TU 3, Level 1 TU 3, Level 2 TU 3, Level 3 TU 3, Level 4 2(1) Blades 39 Block Shatter 3 Hafted Bifaces 8 Nonhafted Bifaces 1 Ground-Stone Tool 6 Primary Flakes 13(1) Secondary Flakes 23 Tertiary Flakes 24 Bifacial Thinning Flakes 64(1) Broken Flakes 23 Block Shatter 2 Nonhafted Bifaces 1 Fire-cracked Rock 1 Primary Flake 16 Secondary Flakes 24 Tertiary Flakes 30 Bifacial Thinning Flakes 90 Broken Flakes 19 Block Shatter 1 Uniface 7 Nonhafted Bifaces 2 Primary Flakes 6 Secondary Flakes 14 Tertiary Flakes 25 Bifacial Thinning Flakes 78 Broken Flakes 14 Block Shatter 5 Nonhafted Bifaces 6 Secondary Flakes 7 Tertiary Flakes 15 Bifacial Thinning Flakes 41 Broken Flakes 9 Block Shatter 1 Nonhafted Biface 1 Fire-cracked Rock (Discarded) 1 Primary Flake 1 Secondary Flake 2 Tertiary Flakes 13 Bifacial Thinning Flakes 4.2 39.4 24.0 31.7 903.1 12.9 7.6 14.3 8.4 18.3 21.8 6.5 205.5 0.6 18.2 13.6 17.6 58.2 17.0 4.4 27.6 0.8 14.7 15.1 15.0 33.7 23.5 10.5 2.7 3.9 3.4 11.8 8.8 2.2 184.3 0.1 0.9 0.4 6.7 188 Provenience Count Category Weight (g) 24(1) 5 1 Broken Flakes Block Shatter Nonhafted Biface TU 4, Level 1 TU 4, Level 1 cont. 2 1 6 4 Secondary Flakes Bifacial Thinning Flake Broken Flakes Block Shatter TU 4, Level 2 1 2 6 3 Secondary Flake Tertiary Flakes Broken Flakes Block Shatter TU 4, Level 3 1 8 Secondary Flake Broken Flakes 9.3 3.3 2.0 3.9 0.3 3.1 2.8 0.5 0.6 1.0 2.0 0.7 3.3 189 Provenience Count Category Weight (g) Posthole 1 N-S, 0-10 cm 5(2) Tertiary Flakes 4 Broken Flakes 7 Block Shatter Posthole 1 N-S, 10-20 cm 1 Secondary Flake 3 Broken Flakes 2 Block Shatter Posthole 1 N-S, 20-30 cm 2 Secondary Flakes 4 Tertiary Flakes 2 Bifacial Thinning Flakes 3 Broken Flakes 1 Block Shatter Posthole 2 N-S, 0-10 cm 1 Tertiary Flake Posthole 2 N-S, 10-20 cm 1 Tertiary Flake 1 Broken Flake Posthole 3 N-S, 0-10 cm 2 Tertiary Flakes Posthole 3 N-S, 30-40 cm 1 Tertiary Flake 1 Broken Flake Posthole 4 N-S, 0-10 cm 1 Secondary Flake 2 Tertiary Flakes 2 Broken Flakes Posthole 4 N-S, 10-20 cm 2 Secondary Flakes 7 Tertiary Flakes 2 Bifacial Thinning Flakes 7 Broken Flakes 2 Block Shatter Posthole 4 N-S, 20-30 cm 3 Tertiary Flakes 2 Broken Flakes 1 Block Shatter Posthole 4 N-S, 30-40 cm 1 Primary Flake 3 Secondary Flakes 19 Tertiary Flakes 1 Broken Flake 2 Block Shatter Posthole 4 N-S, 40-50 cm 2 Secondary Flakes 6 Tertiary Flakes 2 Broken Flakes 1 Block Shatter Posthole 4 N-S, 50-53 cm 1 Primary Flake Posthole 5 N-S, 0-10 cm 1 Tertiary Flake 1 Bifacial Thinning Flake 20.8 1.6 5.4 0.2 1.3 1.2 1.0 5.0 0.5 1.8 1.0 5.6 7.4 1.0 2.8 2.1 0.9 0.4 1.0 0.5 0.5 5.9 1.0 1.9 3.6 2.4 1.8 0.5 0.2 2.4 9.9 0.4 28.1 2.1 1.2 0.8 0.5 .2 0.2 1.2 190 Provenience Count Category Weight (g) Posthole 1 E-W, 0-10 cm 1 Secondary Flake 1.4 1 Tertiary Flake 1.4 Posthole 1 E-W, 10-20 cm 3 Tertiary Flakes 0.4 Posthole 2 E-W, 0-10 cm 2 Secondary Flakes 0.7 1 Tertiary Flake 0.2 = 1 Broken Flake 0.8 6 Block Shatter 8.8 1 Nonhafted Rough Biface 9.3 Posthole 2 E-W, 10-20 cm 5 Tertiary Flakes 1.4 1 Block Shatter 0.9 Posthole 2 E-W, 20-30 cm 10 Tertiary Flakes 2.4 3 Block Shatter 2.1 Posthole 3 E-W, 0-10 cm 1 Secondary Flake 0.7 TU 1,0-10 cm 3 Cores 25.6 32 Primary Flakes 79.4 70(1) Secondary Flakes 75.5 660(8) Tertiary Flakes 340.3 63 Bifacial Thinning Flakes 50.3 26 Broken Flakes 28.8 67 Block Shatter 36.3 4 Unifaces 26.1 5 Nonhafted Bifaces 17.6 1 Hafted Biface 3.7 3 Undecorated Whiteware 1 Undecorated Porcelain 1 Undecorated Ironstone 2 Machine-Made Nails 4 Wire-Cut Nails 1 Bottle Cap 2 Liquor Bottle Bases 3 Burnt Glass Fragments 2 Glass Tumbler Fragments 1 Glass Pitcher Handle 1 Window Glass Fragment 8 Lamp Glass Fragments TU 1, 10-20 cm 1 Primary Flake 13.1 5 Secondary Flakes 16.7 43 Tertiary Flakes 19.1 19 Bifacial Thinning Flakes 18.6 27 Broken Flakes 10.9 191 Provenience Count Category Weight (g) 6 Thin Biface Fragments 19.7 TU 1, 10-20 cm cont. 2 Undecorated Whiteware 2 Glass Bottle Fragments 1 Table Glass Fragment (Pitcher?) 1 Burnt Glass Fragment 1 Lamp Glass Fragment 1 Unidentified Metal Fragment TU 1, 20-30 cm 4 Cores 630.9 14 Primary Flakes 61.4 48 Secondary Flakes 79.8 303 Tertiary Flakes 116.7 79 Bifacial Thinning Flakes 51.2 140 Broken Flakes 83.0 97 Block Shatter 92.9 1 Uniface 72.6 2 Smith Basal Notched Points 76.3 1 Big Sandy Notched Point 3 Nonhafted Bifaces 61.8 1 Sandstone Grinding Stone 458.1 6 Fire-cracked Rock 1,027.8 2 Hammerstones 1,261.4 TU 1, 20-30 cm 7 Tertiary Flakes 1.5 Flotation, >2 mm 1 Bifacial Thinning Flake 0.1 4 Broken Flakes 0.9 TU 1,30-40 cm 3 Secondary Flakes 13.0 69 Tertiary Flakes 22.0 17 Bifacial Thinning Flakes 6.7 14 Broken Flakes 6.4 1 Unifacial End Scraper 1.5 1 Sandstone Grinding Stone 508.1 TU 1, 30-40 cm 3 Bifacial Thinning Flakes 0.1 Flotation, >2 mm 1 Broken Flake 0.1 TU 1, 40-50 cm 3 Primary Flakes 6.4 1 Secondary Flake 20.1 31 Tertiary Flakes 9.1 4 Bifacial Thinning Flakes 2.0 9 Broken Flakes 6.0 11 Block Shatter 5.6 2 Nonhafted Bifaces 23.0 192 Provenience Count Category Weight (g) TU 1, 40-50 cm 1 Bifacial Thinning Flake 0.1 Flotation, >2 mm 3 Broken Flakes 0.2 TU 1, 50-60 cm 3 Tertiary Flakes 0.6 1 Bifacial Thinning Flake 1.7 TU 2, NV 2 , 0-10 cm 6 Primary Flakes 30.9 17 Secondary Flakes 21.4 85 Tertiary Flakes 47.2 14 Bifacial Thinning Flakes 12.6 92 Broken Flakes 35.4 27 Block Shatter 84.8 1 Nonhafted Biface 24.5 1 Machine-Made Nail 1 Wire-Cut Nail 1 Metal Snap Button TU 1, NVz, 10-20 cm 8 Primary Flakes 29.9 14 Secondary Flakes 30.5 46 Tertiary Flakes 24.2 13 Bifacial Thinning Flakes 12.3 35 Broken Flakes 21.3 9 Block Shatter 24.9 1 Late Archaic Stemmed Point 2.1 1 Nonhafted Biface 7.6 1 Fire-cracked Rock 5.1 TU 2, NVz, 20-30 cm 2 Cores 160.2 3 Primary Flakes 2.5 13 Secondary Flakes 13.2 58 Tertiary Flakes 35.4 17 Bifacial Thinning Flakes 23.1 56 Broken Flakes 27.8 1 Blade 0.7 2 Nonhafted Bifaces 90.0 1 Abrader 63.6 TU2, NVi, 30-40 cm 4 Cores 79.6 8 Primary Flakes 16.0 15 Secondary Flakes 21.6 82(1) Tertiary Flakes 78.5 6 Bifacial Thinning Flakes 4.3 25 Broken Flakes 15.8 193 Provenience Count Category Weight (g) 51.4 28.8 12.8 8.4 2.7 9.2 2.1 6.5 0.3 325.8 17.6 27.6 43.5 13.0 26.1 23.8 0.8 8.2 577.7 21.3 53.5 71.2 22.7 41.0 121.0 2.2 18.6 0.4 1.1 1.1 0.4 2.3 72.2 8.4 72.2 57.3 18.4 48.2 7 Block Shatter TU2, NVi, 30-40 cm cont. 3 Nonhafted Bifaces TU2, NV 2 , 40-50 cm 3 Primary Flakes 16 Tertiary Flakes 4 Bifacial Thinning Flakes 16 Broken Flakes 3 Block Shatter 1 Nonhafted Biface TU2, NVi, 50-60 cm 2 Broken Flakes TU2, SV2,0-6cm 2 Cores 11 Primary Flakes 14 Secondary Flakes 90 Tertiary Flakes 18 Bifacial Thinning Flakes 63(2) Broken Flakes 29 Block Shatter 1 Late Archaic Point Base 1 Nonhafted Biface 1 Hammerstone? TU2, SV*, 6-19 cm 7 Primary Flakes 21 Secondary Flakes 144 Tertiary Flakes 29 Bifacial Thinning Flakes 68 Broken Flakes 22(1) Block Shatter 1 End Scraper 5 Nonhafted Bifaces TU2, Sy 2 ,6-19cm 1 Secondary Flake Flotation, >2 mm 19 Tertiary Flakes 3 Bifacial Thinning Flakes 3 Broken Flakes 1 Nonhafted Biface TU2, S%, 19-29 cm 1 Core 4 Primary Flakes 16 Secondary Flakes 109 Tertiary Flakes 22 Bifacial Thinning Flakes 116 Broken Flakes 194 Provenience Count Category Weight (g) 25 Block Shatter 54.6 2 Nonhafted Bifaces 28.5 TU 2, SVi, 19-29 cm 11 Tertiary Flakes 2.3 Flotation, >2 mm 3 Broken Flakes 0.6 TU 2, S%, 29-45 cm 1 Primary Flake 3.8 2 Secondary Flakes 1.3 23 Tertiary Flakes 21.3 11 Bifacial Thinning Flakes 18.9 18 Broken Flakes 12.1 7 Block Shatter 52.1 1 Early Archaic Point Fragment 4.9 TU 2, S%, 29-45 cm 10 Tertiary Flakes 3.4 Flotation, >2 mm 3 Broken Flakes 1.4 TU 2, S%, 45-50 cm 3 Primary Flakes 6.7 1 Secondary Flake 1.0 22 Tertiary Flakes 12.8 5 Bifacial Thinning Flakes 0.7 7 Broken Flakes 9.6 2 Block Shatter 2.1 TU 2, S%, 45-50 cm 3 Tertiary Flakes 0.3 Flotation, >2 mm 1 Broken Flake 0.2 TU 3, 0-10 cm 2 Cores 849.1 9 Secondary Flakes 17.3 92 Tertiary Flakes 72.3 35 Bifacial Thinning Flakes 46.1 94 Broken Flakes 45.4 12 Block Shatter 36.0 1 Nonhafted Biface 1.3 1 Sandstone Grinding Stone? 168.0 1 Fire-cracked Rock 177.0 1 Machine-Cut Nail 1 Burnt Glass Fragment TU 3, 10-20 cm 9(1) Cores 228.5 28 Primary Flakes 34.5 33 Secondary Flakes 55.7 453(3) Tertiary Flakes 234.0 42 Bifacial Thinning Flakes 38.9 195 Provenience Count Category Weight (g) 93 Broken Flakes 57.0 1 Blade 3.5 124 Block Shatter 189.4 1 Lowe Cluster Point TU 3, 10-20 cm cont. 1 Unidentified Point Fragment 8.6 7 Nonhafted Bifaces 78.1 5 Fire-cracked Rock 308.6 1 Bottle Glass Fragment 2 Window Glass Fragments 1 Machine-Cut Nail 1 Wire-Cut Nail 1 Flat, Circular, Embossed Metal Piece TU 3, 20-30 cm 5 Cores 1,189.2 10 Primary Flakes 42.2 10 Secondary Flakes 19.4 80 Tertiary Flakes 50.1 42 Bifacial Thinning Flakes 33.4 63 Broken Flakes 30.5 11 Block Shatter 34.7 1 Uniface 13.7 1 Large Side Notched Cluster Point 8.1 3 Nonhafted Bifaces 85.5 1 Fire-cracked Rock 44.2 TU 3, 30-40 cm 1 Core 82.0 4 Secondary Flakes 4.0 30 Tertiary Flakes 17.1 7 Bifacial Thinning Flakes 4.3 14 Broken Flakes 14.8 4 Block Shatter 3.3 TU 3, 30-40 cm 7 Tertiary Flakes 0.5 Flotation, >2 mm 2 Bifacial Thinning Flakes 0.8 3 Broken Flakes 0.4 TU 3, 40-50 cm 1 Core 38.6 1 Secondary Flake 2.3 13 Tertiary Flakes 8.1 3 Bifacial Thinning Flakes 1.0 9 Broken Flakes 5.7 2 Block Shatter 13.6 TU 3, 40-50 cm 2 Tertiary Flakes 196 0.4 Provenience Count Category Weight (g) Flotation, >2 mm 3 Bifacial Thinning Flakes 3.1 1 Broken Flake 0.2 TU 3, 50-60 cm 2 Tertiary Flakes 0.6 1 Broken Flake 0.1 197 Provenience Count Category Weight (g) 23PU556 Posthole 1, 15-35 cm 1 1 Tertiary Flake Broken Flake Posthole 2, 10-20 cm 3 Tertiary Flakes TU 1, SV4, 0-10 cm 31 6 23 4 1 1 10 Tertiary Flakes Bifacial Thinning Flakes Broken Flakes Block Shatter Nonhafted Biface Pitted Cobble Fire-cracked Rock TU 1, SV 2 , 0-10 cm Flotation, >2 mm 4 1 6 Tertiary Flakes Bifacial Thinning Flake Broken Flakes TU 1, SV2, 10-18 cm 1 32 10 18 3 1 2 2 Secondary Flake Tertiary Flakes Bifacial Thinning Flakes Broken Flakes Block Shatter Unidentified Point Base Nonhafted Bifaces Fire-cracked Rock TU 1, SV 2 , 10-18 cm Flotation, >2 mm 3 2 7 Tertiary Flakes Bifacial Thinning Flakes Broken Flakes TU 1, S%, 18-32 cm 1 31 3 16 7 1 Secondary Flake Tertiary Flakes Bifacial Thinning Flakes Broken Flakes Block Shatter Nonhafted Biface TU 1, Sl/ 2 , 18-32 cm Flotation, >2 mm 2 1 Tertiary Flakes Nonhafted Biface TU 1, SV2, 32-45 cm 1 Tertiary Flake TU 1, NVi, 0-10 cm 1 Primary Flake 198 0.1 0.3 1.0 8.0 1.4 5.3 10.2 78.4 409.5 326.8 0.5 3.8 0.4 0.3 17.1 5.7 8.3 17.8 4.8 5.6 155.6 0.2 0.1 0.9 13.4 5.4 1.0 3.6 6.4 9.3 0.1 1.0 0.2 2.6 Provenience Count Category Weight (g) 12(1) Secondary Flakes 10.0 TU 1, Nfc, 0-10 cm 51(1) Tertiary Flakes 15.0 cont. 11 Bifacial Thinning Flakes 20.3 48 Broken Flakes 30.3 10 Block Shatter 22.7 . 1 Motley Point? 4.9 23 Fire-cracked Rock 861.7 TU 1, NVi, 10-20 cm 10 Tertiary Flakes 4.5 7 Broken Flakes 2.5 - 2 Block Shatter 3.7 1 Table Rock Stemmed Point 3.1 2 Nonhafted Bifaces 22.0 3 Fire-cracked Rock 81.0 TU 1, NV2, 20-30 cm 9 Tertiary Flakes 1.9 2 Bifacial Thinning Flakes 1.7 10 Broken Flakes 6.1 1 Block Shatter 23.1 1 Nonhafted Biface 25.9 1 Sandstone Grinding Stone 50.2 1 Fire-cracked Rock 59.7 TU2, WV2,0-10cm 4(1) Secondary Flakes 13.2 9 Tertiary Flakes 2.2 1 Bifacial Thinning Flake 0.2 13 Broken Flakes 2.6 2 Block Shatter 0.6 2 Fire-cracked Rock 824.4 TU2, WV2, 10-20 cm 6(1) Primary Flakes 7.1 21 Secondary Flakes 31.0 109(2) Tertiary Flakes 78.2 8 Bifacial Thinning Flakes 1.8 33 Broken Flakes 9.0 47 Block Shatter 43.5 1 Unidentified Point Base 0.6 4 Nonhafted Bifaces 29.7 2 Grinding Stone Fragments 270.9 7 Fire-cracked Rock 375.8 TU2, WV 2 , 20-30 cm 3 Primary Flakes 11.0 11 Secondary Flakes 10.5 32 Tertiary Flakes 9.3 199 Provenience Count Category Weight (g) 5 Bifacial Thinning Flakes 2.3 29 Broken Flakes 6.7 TU2, WV2, 20-30 cm 10 Block Shatter 6.4 cont. 1 End Scraper 5.9 1 Graham Cave Side Notched Point 5.4 9 Fire-cracked Rock 471.8 TU2, WVi, 30-40 cm 1 Secondary Flake 0.6 4 Tertiary Flakes 0.6 1 Broken Flake 0.1 2 Block Shatter 2.3 TU2, EV2, 0-15 cm 4 Primary Flakes 45.6 9 Secondary Flakes 12.7 118 Tertiary Flakes 65.9 6 Bifacial Thinning Flakes 3.3 49 Broken Flakes 27.2 31 Block Shatter 24.9 4 Fire-cracked Rock 239.5 1 Hammerstone 117.5 1 Comb TU2, EVi, 15-22 cm 6 Secondary Flakes 3.8 45(1) Tertiary Flakes 19.6 3 Bifacial Thinning Flakes 0.9 7 Broken Flakes 1.5 1 Blade 0.3 9 Block Shatter 10.6 2 Nonhafted Bifaces 31.6 1 Fire-cracked Rock 5.5 TU 2, EVi, 15-22 cm 17 Tertiary Flakes 0.6 Flotation, >2 mm 12 Broken Flakes 0.4 3 Block Shatter 1.6 TU2,EV 2 ,22-32cm 11 Tertiary Flakes 5.2 1 Broken Flake 0.1 1 Block Shatter 0.2 TU 2, EVi, 22-32 cm 2 Tertiary Flakes 0.2 Flotation, >2 mm 1 Broken Flake 0.2 TU 3, 0-10 cm 2 Secondary Flakes 5.1 13 Tertiary Flakes 9.4 200 Provenience Count Category Weight (g) 0.9 3.4 27.0 TU 3, 0-10 cm cont. 4 Fire-cracked Rock 123.1 TU 3, 10-20 cm 1 Primary Flake 3.1 4.0 10.7 0.7 6.5 15.2 5.3 46.1 TU 3, 20-30 cm 3 Tertiary Flakes 0.9 0.1 1.1 TU 4, 0-10 cm 1 Secondary Flake 0.6 5.3 0.6 2.7 20.6 37.2 TU 4, 10-20 cm 1 Core 14.9 1.6 2.2 11.3 1.9 1.0 92.6 96.8 185.4 TU 4, 20-30 cm 6 Tertiary Flakes 2.4 0.2 0.9 3 17 Bifacial Thinning Flakes Broken Flakes 9 Block Shatter 4 Fire-cracked Rock 1 1 17 1 12 Primary Flake Secondary Flake Tertiary Flakes Bifacial Thinning Flakes Broken Flakes 6 Block Shatter 2 Nonhafted Bifaces 3 Fire-cracked Rock 3 1 2 Tertiary Flakes Bifacial Thinning Flake Broken Flakes 1 11 2 7 Secondary Flake Tertiary Flakes Bifacial Thinning Flakes Broken Flakes 7 Block Shatter 1 Fire-cracked Rock 1 Core 2 5(1) 27(1) 5 3 Primary Flakes Secondary Flakes Tertiary Flakes Bifacial Thinning Flakes Broken Flakes 11 Block Shatter 4 Fire-cracked Rock 2 Sandstone 6 1 Tertiary Flakes Bifacial Thinning Flake 5 Broken Flakes 201 APPENDIX B THE GEOMORPHOLOGY OF TWO TERRACE SITES AT FORT LEONARD WOOD THE GEOMORPHOLOGY OF TWO TERRACE SITES AT FORT LEONARD WOOD The geoarchaeology of two prehistoric sites (23PU556 and 23PU457) on similar-aged terraces along the Big Piney River is discussed. The Big Piney River is a north-flowing tributary of the Gasconade River, which in turn is a north-flowing tributary of the Missouri River. The Archaic period archeological sites are located on remnants of a Pleistocene-aged strath terrace. Geomorphic Setting Physiography Fort Leonard Wood, Pulaski County, Missouri, is located in the unglaciated Ozark Plateaus region of the Interior Highlands physiographic province. The Ozark Plateaus consist of a Precambrian dome surrounded by dipping Paleozoic strata (Madole et al. 1991). This area is in the Salem Plateau section of the Ozark Plateaus and is underlain by Ordovician dolomites and sandstones. Three major rock formations outcrop in the area. Described from youngest to oldest they are as follow. Cherty Jefferson City dolomite underlies the plateau surface at higher elevations. Roubidoux dolomite, with locally abundant sandstone (Allen et al. 1975), outcrops along the valleys, forming gentle upper slopes and steep backslopes where overlain by Jefferson City. Gasconade dolomite outcrops along the base of the Big Piney River valley (Albertson et al. 1995). The Gasconade formation is a very cherty dolomite whose weathered product, a chert-rich residuum, is found on the slopes and bed of almost every major stream and tributary channel (Ritter 1988) including Big Piney River tributaries in the Fort Leonard Wood area. The Big Piney River exhibits many characteristics typical of streams in the Ozark Plateaus. Streams are commonly entrenched 30-150 m (100-500 ft) below the surrounding upland (Hershey 1895; Tarr 1924) and the Big Piney River is entrenched some 90 m (300 ft) below the adjacent upland in the study area. Stream entrenchment has produced narrow, steep-sided valleys with little to no floodplain. The valleys display a distinct meandering pattern. Hershey (1895) and Tarr (1924) attribute entrenchment to fluvial downcutting during late or post-Tertiary uplift. They hypothesize that prior to uplift, the Ozark Plateau was a peneplain with meandering streams and the rate of subsequent uplift did not exceed the rate of downcutting. The present-day channel patterns are thus thought to reflect the pre-uplift stream patterns. Preserved within many of the Ozark river valleys are high strath terraces which Hershey (1895) attributes to downcutting during Tertiary/Quaternary uplift. Altitudinally, the strath terraces average 15-18 m (50-60 ft) above stream level but can reach 30 m (100 ft). Apparently, the strath terraces are not lithologically controlled. As described by Hershey, the terrace sediments are 3-3.5 m (10-12 ft) thick and consist of gravels embedded in a red clayey matrix, although a finer facies without gravels also occurs. Remnants of several terrace surfaces, ranging in age from Pleistocene to Recent, are preserved along the Big Piney River. The terraces are best preserved on the inside of meanders although they do occur along present-day cut banks. The highest terrace is a strath terrace that lies 7.5-18 m (25-60 ft) above the present stream and has been correlated to an Illinoian-Sangamonian-aged (140,000 to 203 50,000 year old) high terrace in the nearby Pomme de Terre River valley (Albertson et al. 1994); sites 23PU556 and 23PU457 are located on remnants of this high pre-Wisconsinan terrace. Brackenridge (1981), who studied the Pomme de Terre River terraces, attributed their formation to climatically induced changes in river regime. "Climatic terraces" according to Bull (1990) form during cooler and/or wetter climates when an increase in stream discharge causes an increase in stream power (i.e., in those variables that favor downcutting) and should be correlated within and between watersheds; the Big Piney River terraces have been correlated to similar terraces in the Pomme de Terre valley (Albertson et al. 1994). The fact that the Big Piney River high terrace is paired (i.e. , it occurs on both sides of the valley) further suggests a climatic, if not tectonic, origin. Episodes of Landscape Instability Several Pleistocene to Holocene erosional events are evident in the Ozark Plateaus. Evidence for erosion in the Fort Leonard Wood area is locally seen in valley fill-terrace deposits. Only late Pleistocene (Wisconsinan) and Holocene erosional-depositional events will be discussed because they have a direct bearing on the archeological sites discussed here. Two Holocene-aged erosional events are represented by silt-rich alluviums in the Pomme de Terre and Big Piney River valleys (Albertson et al. 1994). The older of the two Holocene alluvial deposits dates from 10,500 to 1,500 years B.P. in the Pomme de Terre valley and is composed of the silt-rich, yellow brown Rodgers Alluvium (Brackenridge 1981; Johnson et al. 1981). Based on its color and texture, Rodgers Alluvium is interpreted to be composed of Late Wisconsinan Peoria Loess eroded from the uplands and to represent a period of valley aggradation. Modern floodplain alluvium, named Pippens Alluvium in the Pomme de Terre valley, is a dark brown silt-rich deposit dating from 1,500 years B.P. to present. The dark alluvium owes its origin to upland erosion of A horizon material occurring partly in response to human cultivation and deforestation practices beginning in the Late Archaic or Early Woodland periods (Johnson et al. 1981). According to Johnson et al. (1981), the erosional-depositional events that produced the Rodgers and Pippens alluvium occurred throughout Missouri and adjacent states as evidenced by the widespread occurrence of these deposits. Study Area Sites 23PU556 and 23PU457 occur on remnants of a high terrace along cut banks of the Big Piney River; they lie between 7.5-26 m (25-85 ft) above the present stream level. The terrace on which 23PU556 is located is a prominent northwest/southeast-oriented landform whose surface slopes less than 15 percent to the southeast. Geomorphically, fairly steep valley slopes demarcate the terrace and a colluvial footslope deposit marks the terrace/bluff boundary. The terrace remnant of 23PU457 is a small northeast/southwest-oriented landform that is delimited on the east by the Big Piney River, on the north and south by intermittent tributaries and on the west by colluvial footslope deposits. This smaller terrace surface is more dissected than the 23PU556 terrace surface. 204 High Terrace Sediments and Soils Sediments of the high terrace consist of pedogenesized alluvial gravels in a red sandy clay matrix (presumably alluvium) overlain by a pedogenesized yellow brown silt loam material of questionable origin (Albertson et al. 1994). The paleosol developed in the gravelly terrace sediments is well-expressed and possesses a prominent Eb and Bb horizon 1 ; it is herein correlated to the Sangamon Soil based on the assumed terrace age (greater than 50,000 years). The Sangamon A horizon as observed in the terrace sediments is not a distinct horizon and has either been eroded or has been diagenetically altered. The surficial yellow brown silt loam material, hereafter called "silty material", contains some rock fragments and has the modern soil, Claiborne silt loam, developed in its top (Wolf 1989). The parent material for the Claiborne soil is typically alluvium or cherty dolomite and sandstone residuum. The contact between the silty material and subjacent gravelly alluvium can appear abrupt but is pedologically conformable. While it is evident that the Sangamon Eb and Bb horizons are developed in gravelly alluvial terrace sediments, the origin of the overlying silty material with the modern soil developed in its top is more problematical, and according to Albertson et al. (1994) it is either loess, colluvium, hillslope sediment, reworked loess, or a combination of the four. Each type of deposit can be used to infer landform stability and the nature of cultural horizons or materials. Sediment Origin and Inferred Site Stability If the yellow brown silty material is a geologic deposit (i.e., loess, colluvium, hillslope sediment, reworked loess), it implies that the terrace surface was subjected to a period of accelerated erosion prior to deposition of the silty material and that the Sangamon A horizon was truncated. If the silty material is loess 2 , then erosion was pre-late Wisconsinan in age (pre-25,000 years ago). Because Peoria Loess deposition predates earliest human occupation, intact Paleo-Indian to historic cultural remains might be expected to be preserved on the high terraces. 1 Soil horizons in the gravelly reddish alluvium will be differentiated from those in the overlying yellow brown silty material by the nongenetic symbol "b", for buried, instead of Arabic numerals which presuppose a change in parent material. 2 According to Johnson et al. (1981) and Madole et al. (1991) thin Peoria Loess derived from the Missouri valley blankets the uplands for some distance south of the Missouri River. Johnson and colleagues found 2.5 m of Peoria Loess locally preserved on the flat uplands in the Pomme de Terre River basin and Albertson et al. (1994) report 45-85 cm (18-34 in) of loess on the stable uplands in the Fort Leonard Wood area. The loess in the fort area is herein correlated to the late Wisconsinan Peoria Loess. Peoria Loess deposition occurred between 25,000 and 13,000 years ago (in southwestern Illinois) (McKay 1979) and is herein assumed to have been deposited in the fort area during the same time interval. 205 A colluvial origin for the silty material implies a late Pleistocene to mid-Holocene 3 period of landscape instability. Thus, pre-middle Holocene artifacts might be buried beneath colluvium, with depth of burial being greatest at the bluff/terrace interface where colluvium is normally thickest. A hillslope sediment origin for the silty material implies an unstable surface wherein erosional-depositional processes have dominated. Under these conditions, artifacts might be expected to be stratified according to age with depth of artifact burial increasing downslope as the overlying hillslope sediment thickens downslope. Artifacts on upper slope positions would be subjected to erosion and possible redeposition downslope. A reworked loess origin for the silty material implies post-late Wisconsinan or Holocene erosion of loess from upper slope positions and its redeposition downslope, onto the terrace surface. Holocene erosion between 10,500 and 1,500 B.P. might have caused artifacts from upslope to be redeposited on the terrace. Soil-Geomorphic Study Determining the stability or instability of a landform, especially the terraces during the Holocene, is of utmost importance in assessing vertical and horizontal stability of the archeological sites. It is assumed that if the terraces were "stable" surfaces (i.e., not subjected to accelerated erosion or to noticeable accretion) throughout the Holocene, then intact Paleo-Indian through historic archeological sites may be preserved on these and other remnants of the high terrace. For this reason, a detailed soil-geomorphic study of the two terraces was conducted to better understand the archaeology within a pedologic-geomorphic context. Field Methods Soil samples from site 23PU556 were collected at three locations ("A", "B", Test Unit 1) along a northwest/southeast-transect that roughly parallels the longitudinal axis of the terrace surface. Soil samples at "A" were collected with a postholer at the terrace/bluff interface on what appears to be a colluvial apron. Soil samples at "B" were collected from a road cut and those at Test Unit 1 from excavation Test Unit 1. Soil samples from 23PU457 were collected from Test Units 1 and 2. At least one bulk (less than 200 g) soil sample was collected from each test unit level and/or soil horizon; profiles were described in the field. The soil samples were transported to the Soils and Geomorphology Laboratories in the Geography Department at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign where they were air-dried and analyzed for particle size distribution. Colluviationin the Pomme de Terre valley dates from late Pleistocene through mid-Holocene (Madole et al. 1991). 206 Laboratory Methods The entire bulk soil sample was crushed in a mortar and pestle and passed through a 2-mm sieve. The weight of the material passing through the sieve (less than 2-mm fraction) was calculated, as was that of the material that did not pass through the sieve (greater than 2-mm fraction); the two weights were summed to yield the total bulk soil sample weight. The percentage of particles greater than 2-mm for each bulk sample was calculated by dividing the weight of the greater than 2-mm fraction by the total bulk soil sample weight. Following the procedure recommended by the Soil Survey Staff (1972), with modifications (F.C. Caspall, Western Illinois University Paleogeography Laboratory), 20 g of the less than 2-mm fraction from each bulk sample were pretreated with 30 percent hydrogen peroxide to remove organics followed by dispersal for 18 hours with sodium metaphosphate buffered with sodium carbonate. The samples were then mixed in an electric milk shaker for five minutes. After mixing, the sample was passed through a #300-mesh (50-/im) sieve prior to pipetting to collect the sand fraction. The latter was oven-dried, then placed into a set of nested sieves and vibrated for five minutes in a Cenco shaker at a setting of eight. Particle size distribution of the silts and coarse clay were determined by the pipette method and the fine clay (less than .2 /*m) was separated by centrifuge. The United States Department of Agriculture particle size classification was used to differentiate fine fractions (less than .2 /mi fine clay, .2-2 jum coarse clay, 2-20 /*m fine/medium silt, and 20-50 /im coarse silt) whereas the Wentworth scale was used for the 50-2000 /im sand fractions. The sands were sieved at one-half phi intervals except for the 50-63 /mi fraction which is less than one-half phi apart. Sedimentological Parameters Particle size data of selected soil samples were plotted as cumulative frequency curves on semilogarithmic paper in micrometers to derive the mean particle size, or graphic mean of Folk (1980). The graphic mean is calculated on the phi scale, therefore, the data were converted from micrometers to phi values during the calculations using Folk's phi-millimeter conversion graph. The resultant calculated phi values were then converted back to micrometers using the conversion graph to yield the mean particle size in micrometers. Particle Size Distribution and Inferred Soil-Geomorphic Processes Particle size data are often used to discriminate pedologic from geomorphic processes in soil genesis. Many researchers believe that in situ pedogenic processes can be assessed by the depth distribution of the fine clay fraction inasmuch as eluviation-illuviation leads to increases in fine clay content in soil B horizons. Chittleborough et al. (1984) showed that eluvial-illuvial processes produced a marked decrease in the fine to coarse clay ratio in the A and E horizons and a marked increase in the B horizon. Malo et al. (1974) found that the mean particle size (jim) of the less than 2-mm fraction decreased with depth in the solum due to pedogenic processes. Hillslope (erosional-depositional) processes produce lateral differences in particle size distribution. For example, Malo and others (1974) found that the A horizon displays a downslope decrease in the mean particle size (jim) of the less than 2-mm fraction. This is thought to reflect lateral sorting of 207 particles due to hillslope processes. Malo and others also found that the percent of clay in the A horizon increased downs lope whereas the percent of sand decreased due to sedimentologic processes. On slopes associated with open drainage systems, Ruhe and Walker (1968) concluded that the coarse to medium (20-50 /im/2-20 fim) silt ratio in the A horizon was a function of slope gradient and distance from the summit; steeper slopes possessed higher ratios and where the gradient was constant the ratio increased with increased distance from the summit. Parent material uniformity can be assessed by detailed depth functions of the sand fractions. In Peoria Loess-Sangamon Soil-Illinoian till sequences in western Illinois, Balek (1995) found that the percentages of individual sand fractions calculated on a clay and silt-free basis showed characteristic depth functions for each sediment type. The sand fractions in the Peoria Loess were characterized by nonuniform distributions with depth whereas the Sangamon Soil and Illinoian till possessed identically uniform sand distributions with depth, suggesting that the Sangamon Soil was developed in the till. Terrace Soils and Sediments Soils and sediments vary systematically across both terrace surfaces. At 23PU556 the modern soil at "A" is developed in a gravelly (greater than 10 percent) colluvium at the terrace/bluff interface (Figure 27). Downslope from "A", the modern soil is developed in the less gravelly (less than two percent) silty material that ranges from less than 20 cm thick at Test Unit 4 to 60 cm at "B" (Table 24). Downslope from profile "B", the thickness of the silty material decreases to 30 cm at Test Unit 2 and 45 cm at Test Unit 1. Posthole and test-unit excavation data from 23PU457 show that the modern soil is developed in more than 40 cm of silty material on the less dissected parts of the terrace; the silty material is thickest (50 cm) on the north side of the terrace and thins (35 cm) toward the south. However, where headward erosion and concave slopes occur, as along the south part of the terrace, the silty material has been eroded and the modern soil, where preserved, is developed in gravelly terrace material. The modern soil, where developed in the silty material on both terraces, possesses weakly to moderately expressed horizons. The A horizon is less than 16 cm thick and occurs entirely within the plow zone. The E horizon has either been incorporated into the plow zone and is no longer a distinct horizon or it is mixed with the A or B horizon. The B horizon generally exhibits weak structural development and little to no morphological (silans, cutans, organs) or mechanical (textural) evidence of illuviation; consequently, it lacks a distinct clay bulge (Figures 27 and 28). Also, fine to coarse clay ratios (Table 25), which can be indicative of illuvial processes, do not "peak" in the subsoil. Subsoils with illuvial clay bulges are commonly characterized by peaks in fine clay content and in fine to coarse clay ratios owing to preferential movement of fine clay-sized particles from upper to lower horizons. Fine clay content and fine to coarse clay ratios progressively increase with depth through the silty material and peak in the underlying Sangamon Bb horizon developed in gravelly alluvium (Figures 27 and 28; Table 25). These trends suggest that the silty material is an eluvial A horizon overlying the illuvial Sangamon B horizon developed in the reddish gravelly alluvium; this implies that the silty material is the preserved Sangamon A horizon. The interpretation that the yellow brown silty material is the Sangamon A horizon is further substantiated by relatively uniform depth functions of individual sand fractions within each profile 208 5" 3" 3" .q ZZ' C c m sS Q. i- CM C\l n. < CD CO m o o *~ - riOOOZ-OS ■*■? ,— o^ dOS-02 — i 3 ro o lo — o « 1 a> 5 rtoz-z ! '"o - - riz-j- 1s> 1 o 1 1 1 o o o o o o ■ ,— cm co -^- lo co h» 5" * — ^ 5^ (luo) meted 3 -° * ^ m ^3 ■o T -Q T E Q. < < LU UJ m m is m (%Z)q»a/q39 r: lo co S? £ CM O c o CD fioooz-os O CD Q. rtos-02 3 CD .- CD * o rl .Q = 3 LO E CD >. CD O rij-3- _l ai > co iiZ'> C5 1 1 1 1 o e D c r> 1 o o o § O O O O CM 1 CO 00 o ^ cd oo i- i- i- 1— T CO (iuo) mctea C\T oo s- -^ i- o *J °> c\i CM t- J3, lo. c-- — Q. < m < id LU m O O ,- flOOOJ-OS 5? __ CD dog-OS _> < « = 3 o lo — CO E 2 riOZ-2 o i 1 o ° o o CM CO (LUO) Mid3Q 209 Table 24. Description of Soil Profile "B" at 23PU556. Depth Horizon Description (cm) 0-10 A(p) Light gray brown silt loam, moderate fine granular structure, friable, <2% rocks, clear smooth boundary. 10-18 EA Pale brown silt loam, common white silans, weak platy structure, friable, < 1 % rocks, clear smooth boundary. 18-30 B Yellow brown and pale brown silt loam, weak very fine subangular blocky structure, < 1 % rocks, transitional boundary. 30-60 Bt Yellow brown silt loam, common light gray mottles and streaks, moderate very fine and fine subangular blocky structure, < 1 % rocks, diffuse boundary. Mixed light gray and orange brown loam, few dark brown cutans, weak fine subangular blocky structure, < 1 % rocks, clear wavy boundary. Mixed yellow brown and reddish brown loam, common dark reddish brown cutans, common fine to coarse light gray mottles and streaks, weak fine subangular blocky structure, <7% rocks, gradual wavy boundary. Mixed reddish brown and yellow brown clay loam, common dark red brown cutans, common fine to coarse white mottles, moderate fine subangular blocky structure, 25 % rocks, clear smooth boundary. Strong reddish brown clay loam, common light gray and yellow brown mottles, common dark reddish brown cutans, moderate fine subangular blocky structure, 2 % rocks, diffuse boundary. Strong reddish brown clay loam, common light gray and yellow brown mottles, few dark reddish brown cutans, moderate fine subangular blocky structure, <2% rocks. (Figures 29 and 30). The sand fraction is typically pedologically more stable than finer fractions and is thus a better indicator of parent material uniformity. Because the sand fractions are relatively constant with depth, it suggests that the sand fraction in the silty material is related to the sand fraction in the underlying reddish alluvium and that the two materials are genetically related. The silty material or Sangamon A horizon at profiles "B" and Test Unit 1 23PU556 and at Test Units 1 and 2 of 23PU457 generally has a higher total silt content than the underlying Sangamon subsoil developed in reddish alluvium (Table 26). This higher silt content is most likely due to pedogenic incorporation of late Wisconsinan Peoria Loess. Balek (1995) found that pedogenic incorporation of a middle Wisconsinan loess into the Sangamon Soil in western Illinois significantly increased the silt content of the Sangamon upper solum relative to the subsoil and Illinoian till parent material. Because the silty material has a high silt content throughout its depth (up to 50 cm depth), it attests to the efficacy of vertical biopedogenic processes in mixing and homogenizing the silt (loess) fraction. Given 210 60-70 Bt/ EBb 70-120 BEb/ Btlb 120-140 Btlb 140-180 Bt2b 180-200 Bt3b O T CO CN o~- m C > -i ■2 E 3 o _ A 3? Q. < HI < m UJ m m UJ m o o rt0003-09 rtOS-OJ o m~ ri02-J AZ-Z rij> 1 n~ 1 1 CD >> CO O (UJO) md8Q o GO m P cu en O) O CM r-^ Q. < T" s - CI) c > re «* -i (A m E i- j o in •* oq r\ 2. co 3L Si S (luo) Midaa o o V o c o 3 CD N GO "o •t-H -*— > s- 03 Oh OO CN 43 3 211 Table 25. Fine to Coarse Clay Ratios. 23PU556 23PU457 Horizon "A" "B" Test Unit 1 Horizon Test Unit 1 Test Unit 2 A 0.00 0.48 0.38 A 0.00 0.31 B 0.69 1.09 1.13 B 0.39 0.27 BEb* 1.89 1.57 Bb* 0.84 0.52 Note: An asterisk indicates Sangamon Soil. that Peoria Loess accretion occurred over a 12,000 year period and that the Sangamon A horizon (silty material) on the terraces averages 40-50 cm thick, it suggests a mixing rate of 3.7 cm per 1,000 years, which is less than the estimated rates given for ants and earthworms in temperate regions of the world. 4 In addition to increasing total silt content, pedogenic incorporation of Peoria Loess into the Sangamon A horizon resulted in assimilative profile upbuilding. Balek (1995) found that assimilative profile upbuilding of the Sangamon Soil in western Illinois due to pedogenic incorporation of middle Wisconsinan loess may have increased Sangamon surface elevation by several centimeters. Pedogenic incorporation of younger, less-weathered material (loess) would have a "rejuvenating" effect on soil characteristics such that the original Sangamon A horizon may look less like a weathered soil horizon and more like a younger, less weathered deposit. The Sangamon A horizon was further altered following Peoria Loess deposition by the pedogenic overprinting of modern soil characteristics. The interpretation that the modern soil is developed in a loess-enriched Sangamon A horizon may explain in part the lack of a pronounced clay bulge in the modern B horizon inasmuch as the Sangamon A horizon is an eluvial horizon and would be inherently deficient in clay-sized particles. Relatively weak modern profile features may also be partly due to historic plowing and/or to the effects of tree throw. Uprooting of trees appears to be common in the Fort Leonard Wood area forests and their activity disrupts soil horizonation processes by mixing material from lower horizons with material at the surface (Johnson and Watson-Stegner 1987; Lutz and Griswold 1939). 4 According to various studies, ants can generate a surface cover that is 40-1000 mm thick in 1000 years (Humphreys and Mitchell 1988), 2.5 cm thick in 250 years (Lyford 1963), or 1.1 m thick in 5000 years (Johnson 1993). Darwin (1881) noted that earthworm mounding activity resulted in burial of surface objects to depths of 10- 12.5 cm in 6.5 years and 17.5 cm in 29 years. 212 .Q UJ CD 3 jo £ i a. < m m SI m o T- — o> - o y a> ' "O^^ A ■ o — 1 ^l 1 1 1 1 1 ED JS E O o 00 i O O ..Vloi^ooooot- ocoowMoinOi-o^ intDoo'-'-cMcoinS'i-T- N

CO N OO JO _*o "j— » 03 Oh On 213 (aio) mdaa CO c o o O i- o i^ooooo-^to inMninoi-oi-N najw-wniosi-'' CO CD ^ ■ ' ' ' ' I O O ..Tmt-^ooooot- oneoNMJ)WOT-o^ intoeO'-'-wniosi-i- «JJ3 otj a>M_ rax: ._ ,.*: (ujo) qjdaa o CO /-> "* m 0> r» IT) P cu ■a P Oh m c ■a OO 03 O 1) Pu r- D a, en T3 •a C« C/3 o O x: o C/3 C o s oo c o3 C/5 C/5 O c c/a B 5/3 < 8 215 Soil-Slope Relationships The influence of hillslope processes on soil development is assessed by lateral trends in particle size distribution. The soil profiles analyzed from 23PU556 can be said to represent members of a toposequence, herein defined as a sequence of soils occurring along the same slope; soil profiles analyzed from 23PU457 do not occur along the same slope and probably do not represent atoposequence. Profile "A" at 23PU556 represents the steep upper slope member of the toposequence where erosional processes are favored and profiles at "B" and Test Unit 1 occur on more gentle slopes where erosional-depositional and pedogenic processes may be equally favored. 5 Test Unit 1 at 23PU457 occurs on a less dissected part of the terrace than Test Unit 2. Hillslope processes on 23PU556 terrace have produced downslope trends in the mean particle size of the less than 2-mm fraction, in the coarse to medium silt ratio, and in the percent of total sand in the A horizons that are characteristic of sedimentological sorting. Mean particle size in the A horizon decreases downslope suggesting that finer grained particles are undergoing selective lateral transport to lower slope positions. At 23PU556, mean particle size is 32 fim at location "A", 33 /-im at location "B" and 27.5 urn in Test Unit 1. This trend is consistent with the observations of Malo et al. (1974) that hillslope sorting processes (e.g., rainsplash, rainwash, eolian, colluvial, etc.) cause preferential downslope movement of fine-grained particles. Mean grain size in the A horizons of soils at test units 1 (29 fim) and 2 (28.5 fim) on the 23PU457 terrace do not vary. This may be a sampling problem inasmuch as the two profiles are not thought to be members of a toposequence and hence may not be representative of downslope lateral trends. Although mean particle size generally decreases downslope at 23PU556, the percent of clay in the A horizon varies little throughout the toposequence (Table 26). In contrast, the percent of total sand in the A horizon varies with topography, decreasing downslope (Table 25). Because clay content varies little across the toposequence, the downslope decrease in mean particle size and sand content at 23PU556 must be due to changes in the silt fraction. Percent of total silt in the A horizon increases downslope (Table 26) as do coarse to medium silt ratios; at location "A", location "B" and Test Unit 1, the silt ratios are .52, .52 and .55 respectively. According to Rune and Walker (1968) hillslope processes produce higher silt ratios on steeper slopes or with increased distance from the summit on slopes of constant gradient. The higher silt ratio seen in the A horizon of the soil at Test Unit 1 at 23PU556 is due either to preferential enrichment in coarse silt or to preferential depletion (erosion) of medium silt. At 23PU457, the A horizon at Test Unit 2 has a noticeably higher clay content than that at Test Unit 1 (Table 26), suggesting that clay-sized particles may be undergoing preferential downslope transport. Likewise, the percent of sand in the A horizon increases on the lower surface (Test Unit 2) and is probably due to preferential erosion of silt-sized particles. Erosion of finer silt fractions at Test Unit 2 is indicated by a higher coarse to medium silt ratio (.46) relative to that at Test Unit 1 (.44), where dissection is less pronounced. 5 Caution is given to comparisons made between the soil at profile "A" with those at "B" and Test Unit 1 because at "A" the parent material is loess-enriched colluvium whereas at "B" and Test Unit 1 it is loess-enriched Sangamon A horizon developed in terrace sediments. 216 Soil-Landform Stability and Artifact Recovery Although slope processes were (and still are) transporting particles across the terrace surfaces, the presence of soil horizons indicates that pedogenic processes were (are) as important as geomorphic processes in soil-landform development. It is concluded that the terraces were relatively geomorphically "stable" throughout most of the Pleistocene and Holocene (except during Peoria Loess deposition). The surfaces do not appear to have been subjected to accelerated erosion with truncation of soils or sediments. Instead, particle-size data suggests that the rate of lateral slope processes did not greatly exceed the rate of vertical biopedogenic processes. Although the terrace surfaces may have been geomorphically "stable" during the Holocene, it is recognized that the soils are pedologically "unstable" insomuch as internal soil disturbances due to tree uprooting and mound building by soil fauna create a dynamic medium through which artifacts discarded on the surface are readily displaced downward. Earthworms and ants selectively bring fine particles from depth to the surface in the form of mounds; this results in burial of particles (artifacts) too large to be transported to the depth of major biologic activity, which is commonly to the top of the B horizon (Humphreys and Mitchell 1988; Lyford 1963). Bioturbation processes have been called upon to explain vertical displacement of artifacts at sites in Africa (Cahen and Moeyersons 1977; Brink 1985), in Europe (Darwin 1881; Villa 1982) and in North America (Stein 1983; Bocek 1986; Johnson 1989). Artifacts at 23PU556 are generally restricted to the upper part of the soil with depth of burial a function of depth to the B2 horizon. Depth to the B2 horizon increases downslope from 18 cm at Test Unit 4 to 30 cm at Test Unit 3. The general restriction of most artifacts to the upper solum, regardless of the depth to the B2 horizon, is consistent for biologically buried materials. Artifacts at 23PU457 were recovered mainly from the upper 30 cm of soil in test units 1-3; this depth generally marks the top of the B horizon. A few flakes were found at lower depths in the gravelly Sangamon Eb horizon but their presence can be explained by bioturbation processes. Large, modern root cavities and animal burrows, through which artifacts could be displaced, were observed in the Sangamon Eb horizon, as were a few earthworms and cicada larvae, indicating that some floral and faunal activity extended to this horizon. 217 References Cited Albertson, P.E., D. Mienert, and G. Butler 1994 Geomorphic Investigation of Fort Leonard Wood. Technical Report GL-94. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg. Allen, W.H., R.A. Ward, and D.L. Rath 1975 General Geologic History of the Ozark "Dome". In Quaternary Paleoenvironmental History of the Western Missouri Ozarks. 23rd Annual Meeting Midwest Friends of the Pleistocene Field Guide, pp. 13-26. Balek, C.L. 1995 A Reassessment of the Genesis of the Sangamon Stone Line and Texture Contrast Profile in McDonough County, Western Illinois. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Geography, University of Illinois, Urbana. Bocek, B. 1986 Rodent Ecology and Burrowing Behavior: Predicted Effects on Archaeological Site Formation. American Antiquity 51:589-603. Brackenridge, G.R. 1981 Late Quaternary Floodplain Sedimentation Along the Pomme de Terre River, Southern Missouri. Quaternary Research 15:62-76. Brink, A.B.A. 1985 Engineering Geology of Southern Africa. Building Publications, Pretoria, South Africa. Bull, W.B. 1990 Stream-Terrace Genesis: Implications for Soil Development. Geomorphology 3:351-367. Cahen, D., and J. Moeyersons 1977 Subsurface Movements of Stone Artefacts and Their Implications for the Prehistory of Central Africa. Nature 266:812-815. Caspall, F.C. 1984 Unpublished laboratory notes. Department of Geography, Paleogeography Laboratory, Western Illinois University, Macomb. Chittleborough, D.J., P.H. Walker, and J.M. Oades 1984 Textural Differentiation in Chronosequences from Eastern Australia, II. Evidence from Particle-Size Distribution. Geoderma 32:203-226. Darwin, C. 1881 The Formation of Vegetable Mould Through the Action of Worms, with Observations on Their Habits. Appleton and Company, New York. 218 Folk, R.L. 1980 Petrology of Sedimentary Rocks. Hemphill Publishing Company, Austin, Texas. Hershey, O.H. 1895 River Valleys of the Ozark Plateau. The American Geologist 16:338-357. Humphreys, G.S., and P.B. Mitchell 1988 Bioturabation: An Important Pedological and Geomorphological Process. Abstracts vol. 1, p. 265. 26th Congress of the International Geographical Union, Sydney, Australia. Johnson, D.L. 1989 Subsurface Stone Lines, Stone Zones, Artifact-Manuport Layers, and Biomantles Produced by Bioturbation via Pocket Gophers (Thomomys bottae). American Antiquity 54:370-389. Johnson, D.L. 1993 Biomechanical Processes and the Gaia Paradigm in a Unified Pedogeomorphic and Pedoarcheologic Framework: Dynamic Denudation. In Proceedings of the First International Conference on Pedo-Archaology, edited by J.E. Foss, M.W. Morris, and M.E. Timpson. Prehistory Press, Madison, Wisconsin. Johnson, D.L., and D. Watson-Stegner 1987 Evolution Model of Pedogenesis. Soil Science 143:349-366. Johnson, D.L., D. Watson-Stegner, and P.R. Wilcock 1981 Aspects of the Soil Geomorphology of the Lower Pomme de Terre River Valley, Missouri, and Surrounding Region. In Prehistoric Cultural Continuity in the Missouri Ozarks: The Truman Reservoir Mitigation Project, pp. 591-760. Specialized Studies, vol. Ill, part III: Environmental Studies No. 2. Lutz, H.J., and F.S. Griswold 1939 The Influence of Tree Roots on Soil Morphology. American Journal of Science 237:389^KX). Lyford, W.H. 1963 Importance of Ants to Brown Podzolic Soil Genesis in New England. Harvard Forest Paper No. 7. Petersham, Massechusetts. Madole, R.F., C.R. Ferring, M.J. Guccione, S.A. Hall, W.C. Johnson, and C.J. Sorenson 1991 Quaternary Geology of the Osage Plains and Interior Highlands. In Quaternary Nonglacial Geology: Conterminous U.S., edited by R.B. Morrison, pp. 503-546. The Geology of North America, vol. K-2. Geological Society of America, Boulder, Colorado. Malo, D.D., B.K. Worcester, D.K. Cassel, and K.D. Matzdorf 1974 Soil-Landscape Relationships in a Closed Drainage System. Soil Science Society of America Proceedings 38:813-818. 219 McKay, E.D. 1979 Wisconsinan Loess Stratigraphy of Illinois. In Wisconsinan, Sangamonian, and Illinoian Stratigraphy in Central Illinois, pp. 37-67. Illinois Geological Survey Guidebook 14. Ritter, D.F. 1988 Floodplain Erosion and Deposition During the December 1982 Floods in Southeast Missouri. In Flood Geomorphology, edited by V.R. Baker, R.C. Kochel, and P.C. Patton, pp. 243-259. John Wiley and Sons, New York. Ruhe, R.V., and P.H. Walker 1968 Hillslope Models and Soil Formation, I. Open Systems. International Congress of Soil Science, Transactions 9th IV:55 1-560. Adelaide, Australia. Soil Survey Staff 1972 Soil Survey Laboratory Methods and Procedures for Collecting Soil Samples. Soil Survey Investigations Report No. 1. United States Department of Agriculture, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. Stein, J.K. 1983 Earthworm Activity: A Source of Potential Disturbance of Archaeological Sediments. American Antiquity 48:277-289. Tarr, W.A. 1924 Intrenched and Incised Meanders of Some Streams on the Northern Slope of the Ozark Plateau in Missouri. Journal of Geology 32:583-600. Villa, P. 1982 Conjoinable Pieces and Site Formation Processes. American Antiquity 47:276-290. Wolf, D.W. 1989 Soil Survey of Pulaski County, Missouri. United States Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service, Washington, D.C. 220 UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS-URBANA 3 0112 032882869