THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LIBRARY From the library of Thomas Jonathan Burrill Vice President of the University i Presented "by Mrs. Burrill in 1917 220.5 K5Z Digitized by the Internet Archive https://archive.org/details/keytobibleencyclOOhigg Kev to ti^Kiblc IHfanii^©© (2)1? BOBILI^ WITH 16 FULL PAGE COL- ORED PICTURES FROM PHOTOGRAPHS. 100 FULL PAGE HALF-TONES FROM PHOTOGRAPHS, REPRO- DUCTIONS OF PAINTINGS BY THE WORLD'S GREAT- EST ARTISTS, AND OVER 400 TEXT ILLUSTRATIONS CHICAGO: M. A. DONOHUE & Co. Copyright, 1908, By HIGGINS AND HANDY M. A. DONOHUE & CO., Chicago ABBREVIATIONS A.D Anno Domini (Latin) =: in the year of our Lord. Am Amos (O. T.). anc ancient. Apoe Apocrypha. Ann Annals of Tacitus, a Koman historian. Ant Antiquities. A.U.C anno urbis conditce = in the year of the building of the city, Eome. A. V Authorized Version. B. & D Hist, of Bel and the Dragon (Apoe.).. Bar Barueh (Apoe.). B.C Before Christ. B.R Biblical Eesearches, by Dr. Eobinson. Cant Canticles or Song of Solomon (0. T.). cf conferer (French) - compare. eh. and chs. ... chapter and chapters, respectively. 1 Chr 1st Book of Chronicles (O. T.). 2 Chr 2d Book of Chronicles (O. T.). Cic. in Verr ... Cicero 's oration against Verres. cir Circa (Latin) = about. Col Ep. to the C'olossians (N. T.). Comm Commentary. eomp compare. 1 Cor 1st Ep. to the Corinthians (N. T.). 2 Cor 2d Ep. to the Corinthians (N. T.). Dan Daniel (O. T.). Deut Deuteronomy (0. T.). Diet Dictionary. E East. Ecel Ecclesiastes (0. T.). Ecelus Eeclesiasticus (Apoe.). ed edition. e. g exempli gratia (Latin) = for example. Eph Ep. to the Ephesians (N. T.). 1 Esdr. . .■ 1st Book of Esdras (Apoe). 2 Esdr 2d Book of Esdras (Apoe.). Esth Esther. Euseb Eusebius, a Greek historian, who died A. D. 340. Ex Exodus (O. T.). Ezek Ezekiel (O. T.). Ezr Ezra. f following (verse or page). ''fern feminine. ff following (verses or pages). Gal Ep. to the Galatians (N. T.). Gen. . . Genesis (0. T.). Gr Greek. Hab Habakkuk (O. T.). Hag Haggai (0. T.). Heb Hebrews or Ep. to the Hebrews (N. T.). Hist History. Hor. Sat Satires of Horace, a Roman poet, B. C. 65-8. Ho9 Hosea (0. T.). lb. or ibid ibidem (Latin) =r in the same place. i. e id eat (Latin) = that is. in loc in loco (Latin) = in the place or on the passage cited. Is Isaiah (0. T.). •Jud .Judith (Apoe). Jer .Jeremiah (O. T.). Jon Jonah (O. T.). Jos .Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews. Jos. B. J Josephus, Bellum. Judaicum — Jewish War. Josh Joshua (0. Tj). Judg Judges. Juven. Sat. . . . Satires of Juvenal, a Roman poet. Lam 1st Book of Kings (O. T.). 1 K 2d Book of Kings (O. T.). 2 K Lamentations of Jeremiah (0. T.). I. c loco citato (Latin) = at the place cited. II. cc locis citatis (Latin) = at the places cited. Lev Leviticus_(0. T.). Lib liber (Latin) = book. Linn Linnajus, the Swedish naturalist. lit literal, or literally. LXX The Seventy, i. e., the Septuagiut. 1 Mace 1st Book of Maccabees (Apoe). 2 Mace 2d Book of Maccabees (Apoe). 3 Mace 3d Book of Maccabees (Apoe). 4 Mace 4th Book of Maccabees (Apoe). Mai Malachi (0. T.). marg margin or marginal. Matt Gospel according to Matthew. Mic Micah (0. T.). MS Manuscript. MSS Manuscripts. Nah Nahum (0. T.). Neh Nehemiah (0. T.). N.T New Testament. Num Numbers (O. T.). Obad Obadiah (0. T.). 0;T Old Testament. p., pp page and pages, respectively. Pers Persian. 1 Pet 1st Ep. of Peter (N. T.). 2 Pet 2d Ep. of Peter (N. T.). Philip Ep. to the Philippiaus (N. T.). Phil Ep. to Philemon (N. T.). Polyb Polybius, a Greek historian, B. C. 205- 123. Prov Proverbs (0. T.). Ptol Ptolemy. R Rabbi (before a Jewish name). Rawl Rawlinson. ^ Rev Revelation or Apocalypse (N. T.). Rom Ep. to the Romans (N. T.). S South. 1 Sam 1st Book of Samuel (0. T.). 2 Sam 2d Book of Samuel (O. T.). sc scilicet (Latin) = that is to say. sq. or seq sequcns (Latin) = following (verse). seqq sequentia (Latin) = following (verses). Sus History of Susanna (Apoe). Syr Syria or Syriae Tac Tacitus, a Roman historian, A. D. 56-135. 1 Thess 1st Ep. to the Thessalonians (N. T.). 2 Thess 2d Ep. to the Thessalonians (N. T.). 1 Tim 1st Ep. to Timothy (N. T.). 2 Tim 2d Ep. to Timothy (N. T.). Tit Ep. to Titus (N. T.). Tob Tobit (Apoe). ver., vs verse, verses. viz videlicet (Latin) = namely. vol volume. Vulg Vulgate. W West. Wisd Wisdom (Apoe). Zech Zechariah (O. T.). Zeph Zephaniah (O. T.). § denotes section or subdivision of chapter. -: denotes equivalent to. Words in brackets and printed in small capitals, thus to those articles in the Key. [Talmud], refer the reader, for further information. LIST OF WRITERS ALFORD, REV. HENRY, D.D., Dean of Canterbury. BAILEY, REV. HENRY, B.D., Warden of St. Augustine's, Coll. Canterbury. BARRY, REV. ALFRED, B. 1)., Principal of Cheltenham College. BEVAN, REV. WILLIAM L„ M.A., Vicar of Hay, Brecknockshire. BLAKESLEY, REV. JOSEPH W., B.D., Canon of Canterbury. BONAR, REV. HORATIUS, D.D., Kelso, N. B., Author of "The Land of Promise," &c. BROWN, REV. THOMAS E., M.A., Vice-Principal of King William's Coll., Isle of Man.' BROWNE, REV. ROBERT W., M.A., Archdeacon of Bath. BROWNE, REV. E. HAROLD, D.D., Lord Bishop of Ely. BULLOCK, REV. WILLIAM T., M.A., Sec. of the Soc. for the Propagation of the Gospel. CLARK, REV. SAMUEL, M.A., Vicar of Bredwardine with Brobury, Herefordshire. COOK, REV. F. C, M.A., Canon of Exeter. COTTON, REV. GEORGE E. L., D.D., Lord Bishop of Calcutta. DAVIES, REV. J. LLEWELYN, M.A., Rector of Christ Church, Marylebone. DAY, REV. GEORGE E., D.D., Prof, of Biblical Theology, Yale Coll., New Haven. DEUTSCH, EMANUEL, M.R.A.S., University of Berlin and British Museum. DRAKE, REV. WILLIAM, M.A., Hon. Canon of Worcester. EDDRUP, REV. EDWARD P., M.A., Principal of the Theological College, Salisbury. ELLICOTT, REV. CHARLES J., D.D., Lord Bishop of Gloucester and Bristol. ELWIN, REV. WHITWELL, B.A., Rector of Booton, Norfolk. FARRAR, REV. FREDERICK W., M.A., Assistant Master of Harrow School. FELTON, C. C, LL.D., Prof, of Greek Lit., Harv. Univ., Cambridge, Mass. FERGUSON, JAMES, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Royal Institution of British Architects. FFOULKES, EDMUND S., M.A., Late Fellow of Jesus Coll., Oxford. FITZGERALD, REV. WILLIAM, D.D., Lord Bishop of Klllaloe. GARDEN, REV. FRANCIS, M. A., Subdean of the Chapel Royal. GOTCH, F. W., LL.D., Hebrew Examiner, University of London. GROVE, GEORGE, Crystal Palace. Sydenham. HACKETT, REV. HORATIO B., D.D., Prof, of -Bib. Literature, Theo'l Sem., Newton, Ms. HAWKINS, REV. ERNEST, B.D., Canon of Westminster. HAYMAN, REV. HENRY, M.A., Head Master of Grammar School, Cheltenham. HERVEY, LORD ARTHUR C, M.A., Author of "Genealogies of our Lord Jesus Christ." HESSEY, REV. JAMES A., D.C.L., Head Master of Merchant Tailors' School. HOOKER, JOSEPH D., M.D., F.R.S., Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. HORNBY, REV. J. J., M.A., Principal of Bishop Cosin's Hall. HOUGHTON, REV. WILLIAM, M.A., Rector of Preston, Salop. HOWSON, REV. JOHN S., D.D., Joint-Author of "Life and Epistles of St. Paul." HUXTABLE, REV. EDGAR, M.A., Subdean of Wells. JONES, REV. W. BASH, M.A., Prebendary of York and St. David's. LAYARD, AUSTEN H., D.C.L., M.P., Author of "Nineveh and Its Remains," &c. LEATHES, REV. STANLEY, M.A., M.R.S.L., Professor of Hebrew, King's College, London. LIGHTFOOT, REV. JOSEPH B., D.D., Hulsean Professor of Divinity, Cambridge, England MARKS, REV. D. W., Professor of Hebrew, University College, London. MEYRICK, REV. FREDERICK, M.A., Her Majesty's Inspector of Schools. OPPERT, PROF. JULES, Author of "Chronology of Babylon," Paris. ORGER, REV. EDWARD R., M.A., Fellow of St. Augustine's College, Canterbury. ORMEROD, REV. THOMAS J., M.A., Archdeacon of Suffolk. PEROWNE, REV. JOHN ,L S., B.D., Vice Principal of St. David's College, Lampeter. PEROWNE, REV. THOS. T., B.D., Fellow and Tutor, Corpus Christi College, Cambridge. PHILLOTT, REV. H. W., M.A., Rector of Staunton-on-Wye. PLUMTRE, REV. EDWARD H., M.A., Professor of Divinity, King's College, London. POOLE, E. STANLEY, M.R.A.S., South Kensington Museum. POOLE, R. STUART, M.R.S.L., Author of "Horse Aegyptiacae," &c. PORTER, REV. J. LESLIE, M.A., Author of "Handbook of Syria and Palestine." PRITCHARD, REV. CHAS., M.A., F.R.S., Late Fellow of St. John's Coll., Cambridge, England. RAWLINSON, REV. GEORGE, M;A., Author of "Great Monarchies of Anc. World." ROSE, REV. HENRY J., B.D., Rector of Houghton Conquest, Bedfordshire. SELWYN, REV. WILLIAM W., B.D., Margaret Professor of Divinity, Cambridge, England, SMITH, REV. D. T., D.D., Prof, of Sac. Lit., Theo'l Sem., Bangor, Me. SMITH, WILLIAM, LL.D., Classical Examiner, LTniversity of London. STANLEY, REV. ARTHUR P., D.D., Dean of Westminster. STOWE, REV. CALVIN E., D.D., Late Prof, of Sac. Lit., Theo'l Sem., Andover, Mass. THOMPSON, REV. JOSEPH P., D.D., Author of "Egypt, Past and Present," N. Y. City. THOMSON, REV. WILLIAM, D.D., Lord Archbishop of York. THRUPP, REV. JOSEPH F., M.A., Vicar of Barrington. TREGELLES, SAMUEL P., LL.D., Author "Acc. of the Printed Text of the Or. N. T." TRISTRAM, REV. H. B., M.A., F.L.S., Author of "The Land of Israel." TWISTLETON, HOxN. EDW., M.A., Late Fellow of Baliol Coll., Oxford. VENABLES, REV. EDMUND, M.A., Bonchurch. Isle of Wight. WESTCOTT, REV. BROOKE F., M.A., Author of "Introduc'n to the Study of the Gospels. ' WORDSWORTH, REV. CHRISTOPHER, D.D., Archdeacon of Westminster. WRIGHT, WILLIAM ALDIS, M.A., Librarian of Trinity Coll., Cambridge. England. LIST OF FULL PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS COLORED ENGRAVINGS FROM PAINTINGS AND PHOTOGRAPHS Site of Solomon's Temple. Jerusalem. — Frontispiece. FACING PAGE Abraham's Tree Mamreh 24 Bethlehem, The Market Place 192 Capernaum, The Ruins of 224 Damascus, Wall over which St. Paul Es- caped 320 David, Street of the Tower of 64 Dead Sea, The 288 Galilee, General View- of 352 FACING PAGE Gethsemanee, The Garden of 408 Jerusalem, The Place of Weeping 256 Jordan River, Place of Baptism 384 Lydda, General View of 136 Mary Magdalene, Birthplace of 160 Mount of Olives and Gethsemanee 96 Mussulmans Praying 424 Peasants Grinding Corn 128 REPRODUCTIONS FROM GREAT PAINTINGS FACING PAGE Abel. Death of Rosa 12 Abraham, Accompanied by the Angel of the Covenant Schirmer 14 Abraham, Dismissing Hagar Barbieri 18 Abraham's Sacrifice Rembrandt 20 Adam, Creation of Michel Angelo 28 Ananias and Paul Restout 338 '"And God Said Let There Be Light". Martin 108 "And God Called the Dry Land Earth". . . Raphael of Urbino 116 "And the Sea Gave Up the Dead, etc.". . . . Lord Leighton 364 Balaam Prophesieth of the Star of Jacob. . , Flandrin 40 Crucifixion, The \'an Dyck 72 David and Saul Normand 84 Deluge, The Schorn 324 Ecce Homo! Behold the Man Cisceri 340 Esther Denouncing Haman Normand 100 Eve, Creation of Watts 104 For of Such is the Kingdom of Heaven . . . Eastlake 204 Jacob and Rachel, The Meeting of . . . .Rosa 142 Jacob Wrestling with the Angel .. Gebhardt 140 Jephthah Millais 146 Jesus and the Fallen Woman Titian 200 Jesus, Ascension of Van der Werff 216 Jesus Healing the Sick Van Dyck 280 Jesus Sleeping in the Tempest. .De la Croix 212 Jesus Tempted in the Wilderness. . .Morelli 196 Jews, Taken Captive into Babylon Bendemann 36 FACING PAGE John, St., Writing His Gospel Barbieri 228 Last Supper, The Maggiore 332 Lot and His Daughters Martin 248 Luke, St Barbieri 252 Madonna. and Child, The. Raphael of Urbino 180 Mark, St Barbieri 260 Mary Magdalene in the House of Simon, the Pharisee Caliari 264 Moses and Pharaoh's Daughter . . . Veronese 296 Moses Breaking the Tables of the Law. . . . Rembrandt 238 Moses Draws Water from a Rock Raphael of Urbino 300 Matthew, St Rembrandt 268 Matthew, The Calling of Hemessen 276 Paul, The Apostle 334 Red Sea, The Passage of.. Raphael of Urbino 356 Rizpah Riviere 366 Ruth, Gleaning in the. Field of Boaz Bruck-La Jos 370 Samson Solomon 398 Saviour, Finding in Temple Hunt 188 Saviour, The Titian 184 Shepherds, The Arrival of Lerolle 172 Sixth Seal, Opening of Danby 360 Solomon. Judgment of Dyce 388 Suf¥er Little Children to Come Unto Me. . . Roederstein 328 Vashti Deposed Normand 420 Widow's Mite, The .de Vos 292 Wife of Jeroboam and Ahijah 428 LIST OF FULL PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS— CONTINUED PHOTOGRAPHS FACING PAGE P)edouins Drawing Water 412 Bedouins of the Jordan DistHct 236 Bedouin Women Carrying Children 68 Bethel, General View of.... 44 Beyrout, Town and Harbor of 46 Beyrout, with Lebanon in the Distance 244 Bread, Peasant Women Making 50 Camels Halting in the Desert 52 Carmel, Mount 56 David's Well, General View of 88 Gate, The Damascus 76 Gate, The Jaffa 232 Hebron, General View of ;...I20 Holy Sepulchre, Front of 168 Israelite, An, of Jerusalem 124 Jaffa, From the Garden 220 Jericho, General View of ' 148 Jerusalem, View from Mount of Olives 436 FACING PAGE Jews, Types of 156 Lazarus, Tomb of 242 Lebanon, The Cedars of 60 Minaret of the Bride, The 82 Meal, Peasants Taking a .284 Nazareth, View 'from Cana 308 Nazareth, View from the East 312 Patriarchs, Tombs of . . . ; 402 Rachel, Tomb of .348 Samaria, General View of 372 Siloam, Village of 380 Solomon, Pools of 344 Stone Cutters of Jerusalem 1^2 Street Called Straight, The 78 Tabor, Mount 402 Tiberias, View from Fortress 396 Virgin's Fountain 316 Women in Street Costume 92 A ABEL Aa'ron (a teacher, or lofty), the son of Am- ram and Jochebed, and the elder brother of Moses and ^Miriam (Num. xxvi. 59, xxxiii. 39). B. C. 1573. He was a Levite, and is first mentioned in Ex. iv. 14, as one who could "'speak well." He was appointed by Jehovah to be the Interpreter and "Mouth" (Ex. iv. 16) of his brother Moses, who was "slow of speech ;" and accordingly he was not only the organ of communica- tion with the Israelites and with Pharaoh (Ex. iv. 30, vii. 2), but also the actual instru- ment of working most of the miracles of the Exodus. (See Ex. vii. 19, &c.) Thus on the way to Mount Sinai, during the battle with Amalek, Aaron is mentioned with Hur, as stay- ing up the weary hands of Moses, when they were lifted up' for the victory of Israel to bear the rod of God. (See Ex. xvii. 9.) Through all this period he is mentioned as de- pendent upon his brother, and deriving all his authority from hirn. Left, on Moses' depart- ure, to guide the people, Aaron is tried for a moment on his own responsibility, and he fails from a weak inability to withstand the de- mand of the people for visible '"gods to go be- fore them." Possibly it seemed to him pru- dent to make an image of Jehovah, in the well- known form of Egyptian idolatry (Apis or !Mnevis). He repented of his sin, and Moses gained forgiveness for him (Deut. ix. 20). — Aaron was now consecrated by Moses to the new office of the high-priesthood. From this time the history of Aaron is almost entirely that of the priesthood, and its chief feature is the great rebellion of Korah and the Le- vites. The murmuring of Aaron and Miriam against Moses clearly proceeded from their trust, the one in his priesthood, the other in her prophetic inspiration, as equal commis- sions from God (Num. xii. 2). On all other occasions he is spoken of as acting with Moses in the guidance of the people. Leaning as he seems to have done wholly on him, it is not strange that he should have shared his sin at Meribah, and its punishment [Moses] (Num. XX. 10-12). Aaron's death seems to have fol- lowed very speedily. It took place on Mount Hor, after the transference of his robes and office to Eleazar (Num. xx. 28). This mount is still . called the "Mountain of Aaron." [Hor.] —The wife of Aaron was Elisheba (Ex. vi. 23) ; and the two sons who survived him, Eleazar and Ithamar. The high-priesthood descended to the former, and to his descend- ants until the time of Eli, who, although of the house of Ithamar, received the high-priest- hood, and transmitted it to his children ; with them it continued till the accession of Solo- mon, who took it from Abiathar, and restored it to Zadok (of the house of Eleazar). [Abi- athar.] Ab (father), an' element in the composition of many proper names, of which Abba is a Chaldaic form, the syllable affixed giving the emphatic force of the definite article. Ap- plied to God by Jesus Christ (Mark xiv. 36), and by St. Paul (Rom. viii. 15; Gal. iv. 6). Ab. [Months.] Ab'ana, one of the "rivers of Damascus" (2 K. V. 12). The Barada and the Awaj are now the chief streams of Damascus, the former rep- resenting the Abana and the latter the Phar- par of the text. The Barada rises in the Anti- libanus, at about 23 miles from the city, after River Abana (now Rarada) and Damascus. flowing through which it runs across the plain, till it loses itself in the lake or marsh Bahret el-Kibliych. Ab'arim, a mountain or range of highlands on the east of the Jordan, in the land of Moab, facing Jericho, and forming the eastern wall of the Jordan valley at that part. Its most ele- vated spot was "the Mount Nebo, 'head' of 'the' Pisgah," from which Moses viewed the Promised Land before his death. These moun- tains are mentioned in Num. xxvii. 12, xxxiii. 47, 48, and Deut. xxxii. 49. Aljed'nego (i. e. servant of Nego, perhaps the same as Nebo), the Chaldfean name given to Azariah, one of the three friends of Daniel, miraculously saved from the fiery furnace (Dan. iii.). A'bel, the name of several places in Pales- tine, probably signifies a meadow. A'bel (i. e. breath, vapor, transitoriness, probably so called from the shortness of his life), the second son of Adam, murdered by his brother Cain (Gen. iv. 1-16). Jehovah showed respect for Abel's ofifering, but not ABIASAPH ABNER, for that of Cain, because, according to the Epistle to the Hebrews (xi. 4), Abel "by faith offered a more excellent sacrifice than Cain." The expression "sin," i. e. sin-offering, "lieth at the door." (Gen. iv. 7), seems to imply that the need of sacrifices of blood to obtain for- giveness was already revealed. Our Lord spoke of Abel as the first martyr (Matt, xxiii. 35) ; so did the early church subsequently. The traditional site of his murder and his grave are pointed out near Damascus. Abi'asaph (Ex. vi. 24), otherwise written Ebi'asaph (i Chr. vi. 23, 37, ix. 19), the head of one of the families of the Korhites (a house of the Kohathites). Among the remarkable descendants of Abiasaph, according to the text of I Chr. vi. 33-37, were Samuel the prophet and Elkanah his father (i Sam. i. i), and Heman the singer. Abi'athar, high-priest and fourth in descent from Eli, who was of the line of Ithamar, the younger son of Aaron. Abiathar was the only one of all the sons of Ahimelech the high- priest who escaped the slaughter inflicted upon his father's house by Saul, in revenge for his having inquired of the Lord for David, and giv- en him the shew-bread to eat (i Sam, xxii.). Abiathar having become high-priest fled to David, and was thus enabled to inquire of the Lord for him (i Sam. xxiii. 9, xxx. 7; 2 Sam. ii. I, V. 19, &c.). When, however, Adonijah set himself up for David's successor on the throne, in opposition to Solomon, Abiathar sided with him, while Zadok was on Solomon's side. For this Abiathar was deprived of the high-priesthood, and we are told that "Zadok the priest did the king put in the room of Abi- athar" (i K. ii. 27, 35), thus fulfilling the prophecy of i Sam. ii. 30. — Zadok was descend- ed from Eleazar, the elder son of Aaron. He is first mentioned in i Chr. xii. 28, and is said to have joined David while he reigned in He- bron. From this time we read, both in the books of Samuel and Chronicles, of "Zadok and Abiathar the priests." There were, hence- forth, two high-priests in the reign of David, and till the deposition of Abiathar by Solo- mon, when Zadok became the sole high-priest. A'biel. I. Father of Kish, and consequently grandfather of Saul (i Sam. ix. i), as well as of Abner, Saul's commander-in-chief (i Sam. xiv. 51). 2. One of David's mighty men (i Chr. xi. 32). In 2 Sam. xxiii. 31 he is called Abi-albon. Ab'igail. i. The beautiful wife of Nabal, a wealthy owner of goats and sheep in Car- mel. When David's messengers were slighted by Nabal, Abigail supplied David and his fol- lowers with provisions, and succeeded in ap- peasing his anger. Ten days after this Nabal died, and David sent for Abigail and made her his wife (i Sam. xxv. 14, &c.). By her he had a son, called Chileab in 2 Sam. iii. 3; but Daniel in i Chr. iii. i. 2. A sister of David, married to Jether the Ishmaelite, and mother, by him, of Amasa (i Chr. ii. 17). The state- ment in 2 Sam. xvii. 25 that the mother of Amasa was an Israelite is doubtless a tran- scriber's error. Abi'jah or Abi'jam. Son and successor of Rehoboam on the throne of Judah (i K. xiv. 31; 2 Chr. xii. 16). He is called Abijah in Chronicles, Abijam in -Kings. He began to reign in B. C. 959, and reigned three years. He endeavored to recover the kingdom of the Ten Tribes, and made war on Jeroboam. He was successful in battle, and took several of the cities of Israel. Abile'ne (Luke iii. i), a tetrarchy of which the capital was Abila, a city situated on the eastern slope of Antilibanus, in a district fer- tilized by the river Barada. The city was 18 miles from Damascus, and stood in a remark- able gorge called Suk Wady Barada, where the river breaks down through the mountain towards the plain of Damascus. Abim'elech (father of the king), the name of several Philistine kings, was probably a common title of these kings, like that of Pha- raoh among the Egyptians, and that of Caesar and Augustus among the Romans. Ablution. [Purification.] Ab'ner. Son of Ner, who was the brother of Kish (i Chr. ix. 36), the father "of Saul (B. C. 1063). Abner, therefore, was Saul's first cousin, and was made by him com- mander-in-chief of his army (i Sam. xiv. 51, xvii. 57, xxvi. 3-14). After the death of Saul David was proclaimed king of Judah in Hebron ; and some time subsequently Abner proclaimed Ishbosheth, Saul's son, as king of Israel, at Mahanaim beyond Jordan. War soon broke out between the two rival kings, and "a very sore battle" was fought at Gibeon between the men of Israel under Abner, and the men of Judah under Joab, son of Zeruiah, David's sister (i Chr. ii. 16). Abner had mar- ried Rizpah, Saul's concubine, and this, ac- cording to the views of Oriental courts, might be so interpreted as to imply a design upon the throne. Rightly or wrongly, Ishbosheth so understood it, and he even ventured to re- proach Abner with it. Abner, incensed at his ingratitude, opened negotiations with. David, by whom he was most favorably received at Hebron. He then undertook to procure his recognition throughout Israel ; but after leav- ing his presence for the purpose was enticed 10 ABOMINATION OF DESOLATION ABRAHAM OR ABRAM back by Joab, and treacherously murdered by him and his brother Abishai, at the gate of the city, partly, no doubt, from fear lest so distinguished a convert to their cause should gain too high a place in David's favor, but ostensibly in retaliation for the death of Asahel. This murder caused the greatest sor- row and indignation to David ; but as the as- sassins were too powerful to be punished, he contented himself with showing every public token of respect to Abner's memory, by fol- lowing the bier and pouring forth a simple dirge over the slain (2 Sam. iii. 33, 34). Abomination of Desolation, mentioned by our Savior as a sign of the approaching de- struction of Jerusalem, with reference to Dan. ix. 27, xi. 31, xii. II. The Jews considered the prophecy of Daniel as fulfilled in the profana- tion of the Temple under Antiochus Epipha- nes, when the Israelites themselves erected an idolatrous altar upon the sacred altar, and offered sacrifice thereon. This altar is de- scribed as ''an abomination of desolation" (i Mace. i. 54, vi. 7). The prophecy, however, referred ultimately to the destruction of Jeru- salem by the Romans, and consequently the "abomination" must describe some occurrence connected with that event. It appears most probable that the profanities of the Zealots constituted the abomination, which was the sign of impending ruin. The introduction of the Roman standards into the Temple, regard- ed by many as the "desolation," took place after the destruction of the city. A'braham or A'bram (father of a multitude), as his name appears in the eailier portion of the history, was the son of Terah, and founder of the great Hebrew nation (B. C. 1996-1822). His family, a branch of the descendants of Shem, was settled in Ur of the Chaldees, be- yond the Euphrates. Terah had two other sons, Nahor and Haran. Haran died before his father in Ur of the Chaldees, leaving a son Lot; and Terah, taking with him Abram, with Sarai his wife, and his grandson Lot, emigrated to Haran in Mesopotamia, where he died. On the death of his father, Abram, then in the 75th year of his age, with Sarai and Lot, pursued his course to the land of Canaan, whither he was directed by divine command (Gen. xii. 5), when he received the general promise that he should become the founder of a great nation, and that all the families of the earth should be blessed in him. He passed through the heart of the country by the great highway to Shechem, and pitched his tent beneath the terebinth of Moreh (Gen. xii. 6). Here he received in vision from Jeho- vah the further revelation that this was the land which his descendants should inherit (xii. 7J. The next halting-place of the wanderer was on a mountain between Bethel and Ai (Gen. xii. 8). But the country was suffering from famine, and Abram, finding neither pas- ture for his cattle nor food for his household, journeyed still southwards to the rich corn- lands of Egypt. Abram left Egypt with great possess'ions, and, accompanied by Lot, re- turned by the south of Palestine to his former encampment between Bethel and Ai. The in- creased wealth of the two kinsmen was the ultimate cause of their separation. The soil was not fertile enough to support them both ; their herdsmen quarreled; and, to avoid dis- sensions in a country where they were sur- rounded by enemies, Abram proposed that each should follow his own fortune. Lot chose the fertile plain of the Jordan, rich and well watered as the garden of Jehovah ; while Abram quitted the hill-fastness between Bethel and Ai, and pitched his tent among the oak- groves of Mamre, close to Hebron (Gen. xiii.). The chiefs of the bribes who peopled the plain of the Jordan had been subdued in a previous irruption of northern warriors, and for twelve years had been the tributaries of Chedorlao- mer, king of Elam. Their rebellion brought down upon Palestine and the neighboring countries a fresh flood of invaders from the north-east, who joined battle with the revolted chieftains in the vale of Siddim. The king of Sodom and his confederates were defeated, their cities plundered, and a host of captives accompanied the victorious army of Chedor- laomer. Among them were Lot and his fam- ily. Abram, then confederate with Mamre the Amorite and his brethren, heard the tid- ings from a fugitive, and hastily arming his trusty slaves, started in pursuit. He followed the track of the conquerors along the Jordan valley, came up with them by Dan, and in a night attack completely routed their host, and checked for a time the stream of northern im- migration. The captives and plunder were all recovered, and Abram was greeted on his return by the king of Sodom, and by Melchiz- edek, king of Salem, priest of the Most High God, who mysteriously appears upon the scene to bless the patriarch, and receive from him a tenth of the spoil (Gen. xiv.). After this, the thrice-repeated promise that his descend- ants should become a mighty nation and pos- sess the land in which he was a stranger, was confirmed with all the solemnity of a religious ceremony. (Gen. xv.). Ten years had passed since, in obedience to the divine command, he had left his father's house, and the fulfillment of the promise was apparently more distant I ABRAHAM OR ABRAM ABSALOM than at first. At the suggestion of Sarai, who despaired of having children of her own, he took as- his concubine Hagar, her Egyptian maid, who bore him Ishmael in the 86th year of his age (Gen. xvi.). [Hagar; Ishmael.] But this was not the accomplishment of the promise. Thirteen years elapsed, during which Abram still dwelt in Hebron, when the last step in the revelation was made, that the son- of Sarai, and not Ishmael, should inherit both the temporal and spiritual blessings. The cov- enant was renewed, and the rite of circumci- sion established as its sign. This most im- portant crisis in Abram's life is marked by the significant change of his name to Abraham, "father of a multitude ;" while his wife's from Sarai became Sarah. In his 99th year Abra- ham was circumcised, in accordance with the divine command, together with Ishmael and all the males of his household, as well the slaves born in his house as those purchased from the foreigner (Gen. xvii.). The promise that Sarah should have a son was repeated in the remarkable scene described in ch. xviii. Three men stood before Abraham as he sat in his tent door in the heat of the day. The patri- arch, with true eastern hospitality, welcomed the strangers, and bade them rest and refresh themselves. The meal ended, they foretold the birth of Isaac, and went on their way to Sodom. Abraham accompanied them, and is represented as an interlocutor in a dialogue with Jehovah, in which he pleaded in vain to avert the vengeance threatened to the devoted cities of the plain (xviii. 17-33). -^t length Isaac, the long-looked-for child, was born. His birth was welcomed by all the rejoicings which could greet the advent of one whose future was of such rich promise. Sarah's jealousy, aroused by the mockery of Ishmael at the "great ban- quet" which Abraham made to celebrate the weaning of her son (Gen. xxi. 9), demanded that, with his mother Hagar, he should be driven out (Gen. xxi. 10). The patriarch re- luctantly consented, consoled by the fresh promise that Ishmael too should become a great nation. But the severest trial of his faith was yet to come. For a long period the history is almost silent. At length he receives the strange command to take Isaac, his only son, and offer him for a burnt-ofifering at an appointed place. Such a bidding, in direct op- position to the promptings of nature and the divine mandate against the shedding of human blood, Abraham hesitated not to obey. His faith, hitherto unshaken, supported him in this final trial, "accounting that God was able to raise up his son, even from the dead, from whence also he received him in a figure" (Heb. xi. 19). The sacrifice was stayed by the angel of Jehovah, the promise of spiritual blessing for the first time repeated, and Abraham with his son returned to Beersheba, and for a time dwelt there (Gen. xxii.). But we find him after a few years in his original residence at Hebron, for there Sarah died (Gen. xxiii. 2), and was buried in the cave of Machpelah, which Abraham purchased of Ephron the Hit- tite, for the exorbitant price of 400 shekels of silver. The mosque at Hebron is believed to stand upon the site of the sepulchral cave. The remaining years of Abraham's life are marked by but few incidents. After Isaac's marriage with Rebekah, and his removal to Lahai-roi, Abraham took to wife Keturah, by whom he had six children, Zimran, Jokshan, Medan, Midian, Ishbok, and Shuah, who be- came the ancestors of nomadic tribes inhabit- Absalom's Pillar. ing the countries south and south-east of Pal- estine. Abraham lived to see the gradual ac- complishment of the promise in the birth of his grandchildren Jacob and Esau, and wit- nessed their growth to manhood (Gen. xxv. 26). At the goodly age of 175 he was "gath- ered to his people," and laid beside Sarah in the tomb of Machpelah by his sons Isaac and Ishmael (Gen. xxv. 7-10). Ab'salom (father of peace), third son of Da- vid by Maachah, daughter of Talmar, king of Geshur, a Syrian district adjoining the north- east frontier of the Holy Land (B. C. 1050). Absalom had a sister, Tamar, who was violated by her half-brother Amnon, David's eldest son by Ahinoam the Jezreelitess. The natural avenger of such an outrage would be Tamar's full brother Absalom. He brooded over the wrong for two years, and then invited all the princes to a sheep-shearing feast at his estate in Baal-hazor, on the borders of Ephraim and Benjamin. Here he ordered his servants to 12 THE DKATII OF ABEL. SALVATOJJE ROSA. AFTER THE PAINTING IN THE DORIA GALLERY, ROME. THE LIBRARY OF THE ABSALOM'S PILLAR ACTS OF THE APOSTLES murder Amnon, and then fled for safety to his grandfather's court at Geshur, where he re- mained for three years. At the end of that time he was brought back by an artifice of Joab. David, however, would not see Absalom for two more years ; but at length Joab brought about a reconciliation. Absalom now began at once to prepare for rebellion. He tried to supplant his father by courting popularity, also maintained a splendid retinue (2 Sam. xv. i), and was admired for his personal beauty and the luxuriant growth of his hair, on grounds similar to those which had made Saul acceptable (i Sam. x. 23). It is probable too that the great tribe of Judah had taken some offense at David's government, perhaps from finding themselves completely merged in one unifed Israel. But whatever the causes may have been, Absalom raised the standard of re- volt at Hebron, the old capital of Judah, now supplanted by Jerusalem. The revolt was at first completely successful ; David fled from his capital over the Jordan to Mahanaim in Gilead. Absalom occupied Jerusalem, and by the advice of Ahithophel took possession of David's harem, in which he had left ten con- cubines. This was considered to imply a for- mal assumption of all his father's royal rights (comp. the conduct of Adonijah, i K. ii. 13 ff.), and was also a fulfillment of Nathan's proph- ecy (2 Sam. xii. 11). But David had left friends who watched over his interests. The vigorous counsels of Ahithophel were after- wards rejected through the crafty advice of Hushai, who insinuated himself into Absalom's confidence to work his ruin, and Ahithophel himself, seeing his ambitious hopes frustrated, went home to Giloh, and committed suicide. At last, after being solemnly anointed king at Jerusalem (xix. 10), Absalom crossed the Jor- dan to attack his father, who by this time had rallied round him a considerable force, whereas had Ahithophel's advice been followed, he would probably have been crushed at once. A decisive battle was fought in Gilead, in the wood of Ephraim. Here Absalom's forces were totally defeated, and as he himself was escaping, his long hair was entangled in the branches of a terebinth, where he was left hanging while the mule on which he was rid- ing ran away from under him. He was des- patched by Joab in spite of the prohibition of David, who, loving him to the last, had desired that his life might be spared. He was buried in a great pit in the forest, and the conquerors threw stones over his grave, an .old proof of bitter hostility (Josh. vii. 26). Absalom's Pillar, or Place, a monument or tomb which Absalom built during his lifetime in the valley of the Kedron, at the foot of Mount Olivet, near Jerusalem (2 Sam. xviii, 18, comp. with xiv. 27), for his three sons, and where he probably expected to be buried. The tomb there now, and called by Absalom's name, was probably built at a later date. Acel'dama, "the field of blood;" the name given by the Jews of Jerusalem to a field near Jerusalem purchased by Judas with the money which he received for the betrayal of Christ, Aceldama. and so called from his violent death therein (Acts i. 19). The "field of blood" is now shown on the steep southern face of the valley or ravine of Hinnom. Acha'ia signifies, in the N. T., a Roman province, which included the whole of the Pelo- ponnesus and the greater part of Hellas proper with the adjacent islands. This province, with that of Macedonia, comprehended the whole of Greece ; hence Achaia and Macedonia are frequently mentioned together in the N. T. to indicate all Greece (Acts xviii. 12, xix. 21 ; Rom. XV. 26, xvi. 5 ; i Cor. xvi. 15 ; 2 Cor. ii. i, ix. 2, xi. 10; I Thess. i. 7, 8). In the time of the Emperor Claudius it was governed by a Proconsul, translated in the A. V. "deputy" of Achaia (Acts xviii. 12). Acts of the Apostles, a second treatise by the author of the third Gospel, traditionally known as Luke. The book commences with an inscription to one Theophilus, who was probably a man of birth and station. But its design must not be supposed to be limited to the edification of Theophilus. whose name is prefixed only, as was customary then as now, by way of dedication. The readers were evi- dently intended to be members of the Chris- tian Church, whether Jews or Gentiles; for its contents are such as are of the utmost conse- quence to the whole Church. They are the fulfillment of the promise of the Father by the descent of the Holy Spirit, and the results of that outpouring, by the dispersion of the 13 ADAM ADAM Gospel among Jews and Gentiles. Under these leading heads all the personal and subordinate details may be ranged. Immediately after the Ascension, St. Peter, the first of the Twelve, designated by our Lord as the Rock on whom the Church was to be built, the holder of the keys of the kingdom, becomes the prime actor under God in the founding of the Church. He is the center of the first great group of sayings and doings. The opening of the door to Jews (ch. ii.) and Gentiles (ch. x.) is his office, and by him, in good time, is accomplished. But none of the existing twelve Apostles were, humanly speaking, fitted to preach the Gospel to the cultivated Gentile world. To be by di- vine grace the spiritual conqueror of Asia and Europe, God raised up another instrument, from among the highly educated and zealous Pharisees. The preparation of Saul of Tarsus for the work to be done, the progress, in his hand, of that work, his journeyings, preachings, and perils, his stripes and imprisonments, his testifying in Jerusalem and being brought to testify in Rome, — these are the subjects of the latter half of the book, of which the. great cen- tral figure is the Apostle Paul. It seems most probable that the place of writing was Rome, and the time about two years from the date of St. Paul's arrival there, as related in ch. xxviii. 30. This would give us for the publication the year 63 A. D., according to the most probable assignment of the date of the arrival of St. Paul at Rome. Ad'am (red earth), the name given in Scrip- ture to the first man. It apparently has refer- ence to the ground from which he was formed, which is called in Hebrew Adamah. The idea of redness of color seems to be inherent in either word. The creation of man was the work of the sixth day. His formation was the ultimate object of the Creator. It was with reference to him that all things were designed. He was to be the "roof and crown" of the whole fabric of the world. In the first nine chapters of Genesis there appear to be three distinct histories relating more or less to the life of Adam. The first extends from Gen. i. I to ii. 3, the second from ii. 4 to iv. 26, the third from v. i to the end of ix. The word at the commencement of the two latter narra- tives, which is rendered there and elsewhere generations, may also be rendered history. The object of the first of these narratives is to record the creatipn ; that of the second to give an account of paradise, the original sin of man, and the immediate posterity of Adam ; the third contains mainly the history of Noah, referring, it would seem, to Adam and his descendants principally in relation to that patriarch. The name Adam was not confined to the father of the human race, but, like homo, was applica- ble to woman as well as man, so that we find it said in Gen. v. 2, "male and female created He them, and called their name Adam in the day when they were created." The man Adam was placed in a garden which the Lord God had planted "eastward in Eden" for the pur- pose of dressing it and keeping it. [Eden.] Adam wa's permitted to eat of the fruit of every tree in the garden but one, which was called the "tree of the knowledge of good and evil." The prohibition to taste the fruit of this tree was enforced by the menace of death. There was also another tree which was called "the tree of life." Some suppose it to have acted as a kind of medicine, and that by the continual use of it our first parents, not created immortal, were preserved from death. While Adam was in the garden of Eden, the beasts of the field and the fowls of the air were brought to him to be named, and whatsoever he called every living creature that was the name thereof. Thus the power of fitly desig- nating objects of sense was possessed by the first man, a faculty which is generally consid- ered as indicating mature and extensive intel- lectual resources. Upon the failure of a com- panion suitable for Adam among the creatures thus brought to him to be named, the Lord God caused a deep sleep to fall upon him, and took one of his ribs from him, which He fash- ioned into a woman and brought her to the man. At this time they are both described as being naked without the consciousness of shame. Such is the Scripture account of Adam prior to the Fall. The first man is a true man, with the powers of a man and the innocence of a child. Pie is moreover spoken of by St. Paul as being "the figure of Him that was to come," the second Adam, Christ Jesus (Rom. V. 14). By the subtlety of the serpent, the woman who was given to be with Adam, was beguiled into a violation of the one command which had been imposed upon them. She took of the fruit of the forbidden tree and gave it to her husband. The propriety of its name was immediately shown in the results which followed ; self-consciousness was the first-fruits of sin ; their eyes were opened and they knew that they were naked. Though the curse of Adam's rebellion of necessity fell upon him, yet the very prohibition to eat of the tree of life after his transgression was probably a man- ifestation of Divine mercy, because the great- est malediction of all would have been to have the gift of indestructible life superadded to a state of wretchedness and sin. Adam is stated to have lived 930 years. His sons mentioned 14 ABRAHAM, ACCOMPANIED BY THE ANGEL OF THE COVENANT, PLEADS WITH THE ALMIGHTY FOR SODAM AND GOMORRAH. JOHANN WILHELM SCIIIRMER. AFTER THE ORIGINAL PICTTIRE. THE IE?M1 OF TP . ADAMANT ADORATION in Scripture are Cain, Abel and Seth ; it is im- plied, however, that he had others. Adamant, the translation of the Hebrew word Shamir in Ez. iii. 9 and Zach. vii. 12. In Jer. xvii. i it is translated "diamond." In these three passages the word is the representative of some stone of excessive hardness, and is used metaphorically. Since the Hebrews appear to have been unacquainted with the true diamond, it is very probable, from the expression in Ez. iii. 9, of "adamant harder than flint," that by Shamir is intended Emery, a variety of Corun- dum, a mineral inferior only to the diamond in hardness. Emery is extensively used for pol- ishing and cutting gems and other hard sub- stances. Ad'der. This word is used for any poison- ous snake and is applied in this general sense by the translators of the A. V. They use in a similar way the synonymous term asp. The word adder occurs five times in the text of the A. V. (see below), and three times in the margin as synon^^mous with cockatrice, viz.. Is. xi. 8, xiv. 29, lix. 5. It represents four Hebrew words: i. 'Acshiib is found only in Ps. cxl. 3, "They have sharpened their tongues like a serpent, adders' poison is under their lips." The latter half of this verse is quoted by St. Paul from the LXX. in Rom. iii. 13. 'Acshiib may be represented by the Toxicoa of Egypt and North Africa. 2. Pethen. [Asp.] 3. Tsepha, or Tsiphoni, occurs five times in the Hebrew Bible. In Prov. xxiii. 32 it is Horned Cerastes (Adder). translated adder, and in Is. xi. 8, xiv. 29, lix. 5, Jer. viii. 17, it is rendered cockatrice. From Jeremiah we learn that it was of a hostile na- ture, and from the parallelism of Is. xi. 8 it appears that the Tsiphoni was considered even more dreadful than the Pethen. 4. Shephiphon occurs only in Gen. xlix. 17, where it is used to characterize the tribe of Dan; "Dan shall be a serpent by the way, an adder in the path, that biteth the horse's heels, so that his rider shall fall backward." The habit of lurking in the sand and biting at the horse's heels, here alluded to, suits the character of a well-known species of venomous snake, and helps to iden- tify it with the celebrated horned viper, the asp of Cleopatra, which is found abundantly in the dry sandy deserts of Egypt, Syria and Arabia. The Cerastes is extremely venomous ; Bruce compelled a specimen to scratch eighteen pigeons upon the thigh as quickly as possible, and they all died in nearly the same interval of time. Adoni'jah (my Lord is Jehovah j. i. The fourth son of David by Haggith, born at He- bron, while his father was king of Judah (2 Sam. iii. 4). After the death of his three brothers, Amnon, Chileab, and Absalom, he became the eldest son ; and when his father's strength was visibly declining, put forward his pretensions to the crown. His name and influ- ence secured a large number of followers among the captains of the royal army belong- ing to the tribe of Judah (comp. i K. i. 9, 25) ; and these, together with all the princes, ex- cept Solomon, were entertained by Adonijah at a great sacrificial feast held "by the stone Zoheleth, which is by Enrogel." [Enrogel.] David being apprised of these proceedings immediately caused Solomon to be proclaimed king. This decisive measure struck terror into the opposite party, and Adonijah fled to sanc- tuary, but was pardoned by Solomon on con- dition that he should "show himself a worthy man," with the threat that "if wickedness were found in him he should die" (i. 52). The death of David quickly followed on these events ; and Adonijah begged Bathsheba, who as "king's mother" would now have special dignity and influence [Asa], to procure Solomon's consent to his marriage with Abishag, who had been the wife of David in his old age (i K. i. 3). This was regarded as equivalent to a fresh at- tempt on the throne [Absalom ; Abner] ; and therefore Solomon ordered him to be put to death by Benaiah, in accordance with the terms of his previous pardon. 2. A Levite in the reign of Jehoshaphat (2 Chr. xvii. 8). 3. (Neh. X. 16.) [Adonikam.] Adoration. The acts and postures by which the Hebrews expressed adoration bear a great similarity to those still in use among Oriental nations. To rise up and suddenly prostrate the body was the most simple method ; but, generally speaking, the prostration was con- ducted in a more formal manner, the person falling upon the knee and then gradually in- clining the body imtil the forehead touched the ground. Such prostration was usual in the worship of Jehovah (Gen. xvii. 3; Ps. xcv. 6). But it was by no means exclusively used for that purpose ; it was the formal mode of receiving visitors (Gen. xviii. 2), of doing obeisance to one of superior station (2 Sam. 5 ADULTERY AGE, OLD xiv. 4), and of showing respect to equals (i K. ii. 19;. Occasionally it was repeated three times (i Sam. xx. 41), and even seven times (Gen. xxxiii. 3). It was accompanied by such acts as a kiss (Ex. xviii. 7), laying hold of the knees or feet of the person to whom the adora- tion was paid (Matt, xxviii. 9), and kissing the ground on which he stood (Ps. Ixxii. 9; Mic. vii. 17). Similar adoration was paid to idols (i K. xix. 18) ; sometimes however prostration was omitted, and the act consisted simply in kissing the hand to the object of reverence (Job xxxi. 27), and in kissing the statue itself (Hos. xiii. 2). Adultery. The parties to this crime were a married woman and a man who was not her husband. The toleration of polygamy, indeed, renders it nearly impossible to make criminal a similar offense committed by a married man with a woman not his wife. The Mosaic pen- alty was that both guilty parties should be stoned, and it applied as well to the betrothed as to the married woman, provided she were free (Deut. xxii. 22-24). A bondwoman so of- fending was to be scourged, and the man was to make a trespass offering (Lev. xix. 20-22). At a later time, and when, owing to Gentile example, the marriage tie became a looser bond of union, public feeling in regard to adultery changed, and the penalty of death was seldom or never inflicted. Thus, in the case of the woman brought under our Lord's notice (John viii. ), it is likely that no one then thought of stoning her in fact, though there remained the written law ready for the purpose of the cav- iler. It is likely also that a divorce, in which the adultress lost her dower and rights of main- tenance, &c., was the usual remedy, suggested by a wish to avoid scandal and the excitement of commiseration for crime. The expression in St. Matthew (i. 19) "to make her a public ex- ample," probably means to bring the case be- fore the local Sanhedrim, which was the usvial course, but which Joseph did not propose to take, preferring repudiation, because that could be managed privately. The famous trial by the waters of jealousy (Num. v. 11-29), probably an ancient custom, which Moses found deeply seated, and which is said to be paralleled by a form of ordeal called the "red water" in Western Africa. The forms of He- brew justice tended to limit' the application of this test. When adultery ceased to be capital, as no. doubt it did, and divorce became a mat- ter of mere convenience, it would be absurd to suppose that this trial was continued. And when adultery became common, it would have been impious to expect the miracle which it supposed. A'gag, possibly the title of the kings of Ama- lek, like Pharaoh of Egypt. One king of this name is mentioned in Num. xxiv. 7, and an- other in I Sam. xv, 8, 9, 20, 32. The latter was the king of the Amalekites, whom Saul spared, together with the best of the spoil, although it was the well-known will of Jehovah that the Amalekites should be extirpated (Ex. xvii. 14; Deut. XXV. 17). For this act of disobedience Samuel was commissioned to declare to Saul his rejection, and he himself sent for Agag and cut him in pieces. [Samuel.] Agate is mentioned four times in the text of the A. V. ; viz. in Ex. xxviii. 19, xxxix. 12 ; Is. liv. 12; Ez. xxvii. 16. In the two former pas- sages it is spoken of as forming the second stone in the third row of the high priest's breastplate ; in each of the two latter places a different stone is intended. [Ruby.] — Our English word agate derives its name from the Achates, on the banks of which, according to Theophrastus and Pliny, it was first found; but as agates are met with in almost every country, this stone was doubtless from the ear- liest time known to the Orientals. It is a sili- cious stone of the quartz family. Age, Old. In early stages of civilization, when experience is the only source of practical knowledge, old age has its special value, and consequently its special honors. A further motive was superadded in the case of the Jew, who was taught to consider old age as a re- ward for piety, and a signal token of God's fa- vor. For these reasons the aged occupied a prominent place in the social and political sys- tem of the Jews. In private life they were looked up to as the depositaries of knowledge (Job. XV. 10) ; the young were ordered to rise up in their presence (Lev. xix. 32); they al- lowed them to give their opinion first (Job xxxii. 4) ; they were taught to regard gray hairs as a "crown of glory" and as the "beauty of old men" (Prov. xvi. 31, xx. 29). The at- tainment of old age was regarded as a special blessing (Job v. 26), not only on account of the prolonged enjoyment of life to the indi- vidual, but also because it indicated peaceful and prosperous times (Zech. viii. 4; i Mace, xiv. 9; Is. Ixv. 20). In public affairs age car- ried weight with it, especially in the infancy of the state; it formed under Moses the main qualification of those who acted as the repre- sentatives of the people in all matters of diffi- culty and deliberation. The old men or Elders thus became a class, and the title gradually ceased to convey the notion of age, and was used in an official sense, like Patres, Senatores, and other similar terms. [Eiders.] Still it would be but natural that such an office was 16 AGRICULTURE generally held by men of advanced age (i K. xii. 8). Agricultxire. This, though prominent in the scriptural narrative concerning Adam, Cain, and Noah, was Httle cared for by the patri- archs. The pastoral life was the means of keeping the sacred race, whilst yet a family, distinct from mixture and locally unattached, especially whilst in Eg>'pt. When, grown into a nation they conquered their future seats, ag- riculture supplied a similar check on the for- eign intercourse and speedy demoralization, especially as regards idolatry, which commerce Threshing Instrument — Side View would have caused. Thus agriculture became the basis of the Mosaic commonwealth. Taken in connection with the inalienable character of inheritances, it gave each man and each fam- ily a stake in the soil, and nurtured a hardy patriotism. "The land is Mine" (Lev. xxv. 23) was a dictum >vhich made agriculture likewise the basis of the theocratic relation. Thus every family felt its own life with intense keenness, and had its divine tenure which it was to guard from alienation. The prohibition of cul- ture in the sabbatical year formed, under this aspect, a kind of rent reserved by the Divine Owner. Landmarks were deemed sacred (Deut. xix. 14), and the inalienability of the heritage was insured by its reversion to the owner in the year of jubilee ; so that only so many years of occupancy could be sold (Lev^ xxv. 8-16, 23-35). The prophet Isaiah (v. 8) denounces the contempt of such restrictions by wealthy grandees, who sought to "add field to field," erasing families and depopulating dis- tricts. The abundance of water in Palestine, from natural sources, made it a contrast to rainless Egypt (Deut. viii. 7, xi. 8-12). Rain was coni- monly expected soon after the autumnal equi- nox. The common scriptural expressions of the "early" and the "latter rain" (Deut, xi. 14; Jer. V. 24 ; Hos. vi. 3 ; Zech. x, i ; Jam, v. 7) are scarcely confirmed by modern experience, the season of rains being imbroken, though perhaps the fall is more strongly marked at the beginning and the end of it. The cereal crops of constant mention are wheat and barley, and more rarely rye and mil- let (?), Of the two former, together with the AGRICULTURE vine, olive, and fig, the use of irrigation, the plough and the harrow, mention is made in the book of Job (xxxi. 40 ; xv. 33 ; xxiv. 6 ; xxix, 19 ; xxxix. 10). Two kinds of cumin (the black variety called "fitches," Is. xxviii. 27), and such podded plants as beans and lentils, may be named among the staple produce. The plough was probably very light, one yoke of oxen usually sufficient to draw it. Mountains and steep places were hoed (Is. vii. 25). New ground and fallows, the use of which latter was familiar to the Jews (Jer. iv. 3; Hos.- X. 12), were cleared of stones and of thorns (Is. v. 2) early in the year, sowing or gathering from "among thorns" being a proverb for slovenly husbandry (Job v. 5 ; Prov, xxiv. 30, 31). Sowing also took place without previous ploughing, the seed, as in the parable of the sower, being scattered broadcast, and ploughed in afterwards. The soil was then brushed over with a light har- row, often of thorn bushes. In highly irri- gated spots the seed was trampled in by cattle (Is. xxxii. 20), as in Egypt by goats. The more formal routine of heavy western soils must not be made the standard of such a naturally fine tilth as that of Palestine gen- erally. During the rains, if not too heavy, or between their two periods, would be the best time for these opertaions ; thus 70 days before the passover was the time prescribed for sowing for the "wave-sheaf," and prob- Threshing Instrument — Upper View ably, therefore, for that of barley generally. The oxen were urged on by a goad like a spear (Judg. iii. 31). The custom of watch- ing ripening crops and threshing floors against theft, or damage, is probabily ancient. Thus Boaz slept on the floor (Ruth iii. 4, 7). Barley ripened a week or two before wheat, and as fine harvest weather was certain (Prov. xxvi. i; i Sam, xii. 17; Am. iv. 7), the crop chiefly varied with the quantity of timely rain. The proportion of harvest gath- ered to seed sown was often vast ; a hundred fold is mentioned, but in such a way as to 7 AGRICULTURE AHASUERUS signify that it was a limit rarely attained (Gen. xxvi. 12; Matt. xiii. 8). Sowing a field with divers seeds was forbidden (Deut. xxii. 9). The wheat, &c., were reaped by the sickle, or pulled up by the roots. They were bound in sheaves — a process prominent in Scripture. The sheaves or heaps were carted (Am. ii. 13) to the floor — a circular spot of hard ground, probably, as now, from 50 to 80 or 100 feet in diameter. Such floors were prob- ably permanent, and became well known spots (Gen. 1. 10, 11; 2 Sam. xxiv.- 16, 18). On these the oxen, &c, forbidden to be muz- zled (Deut. XXV. 4), trampled out the grain, as we find represented on the Egyptian monu- ments. At a later time the Jews used a threshing sledge called morag (Is. xli. 15; 2 Sam. xxiv. 22; i Chr. xxi. 23), probably re- sembling the noreg, still employed in Egypt —a stage with three rollers ridged with iron, which, aided by the driver's weight, crushed out, often injuring, the grain, as well as cut or tore the straw, which thus became fit for fodder. Lighter grains were beaten out with a stick (Is. xxviii. 27). The use of animal manure is proved frequently by such recur- ring expressions as "dung on the face of the earth, field," &c. (Ps. Ixxxiii. 10; 2 K. ix. 37; Jer. viii. 2, &c.). The "shovel" and "fan" (Is. xxx. 24), the precise difference of which is doubtful, indi- cate the process of winnowing — a conspicu- Eastern Threshing Floor. ous part of ancient husbandry (Ps. xxxv. 5 ; Job xxi. 18; Is. xvii. 13), and important, owing to the slovenly threshing. Evening was the favorite time (Ruth ii. 2), when there was mostly a breeze. The "fan" (Matt. iii. 12) was perhaps a broad shovel which threw the grain up against the wind. The last proc- ess was the shaking in a sieve to separate dirt and refuse (Am. ix. 9). Fields and floors were not commonly en- closed ; vineyards mostly were, with a tower and other buildings (Num. xxii. 24; Ps. Ixxx, 13; Is. V. 5; Matt. xxi. 33; comp. Judg. vi. II). Banks of mud from ditches were also used. — With regard to occupancy, a tenant might pay a fixed money rent (Cant. viii. 11), or a stipulated share of the fruits (2 Sam. ix. 10; Matt. xxi. 34), often a half or a third; but local custom was the only rule. A passer- by might eat any quantity of corn or grapes, but not reap or carry off fruit (Deut. xxiii. 24, 25; Matt. xii. i). — The rights of the corner to be left, and of gleaning [Gleaning], formed the poor man's claim on the soil for support. For his benefit, too, a sheaf forgotten in car- rying to the floor was to be left ; so also with regard to the vineyard and the olive-grove (Lev. xix. 9, 10; Deut. xxiv. 19). Besides, there seems a probability that every third year a second tithe, besides the priests', was paid for the poor (Deut. xiv. 28, xxvi. 12 ; Am, iv. 4 ; Tob. i. 7). Agrip'pa. [Herod.] A'hab. Son of Omri, seventh king of Israel, reigned B. C. 919-896. Fie married Jezebel, daughter of Ethbaal, king of Tyre ; and, in obedience to her wishes, caused a tem- ple to be built to Baal in Samaria itself, and an oracular grove to be consecrated to Astarte. (See I K. xviii. 19.) How the worship of God was restored, and the idolatrous priests slain, in consequence of a "sore famine in Samaria," is related under Elijah. Ahasue'rus (lion-king), the name of one Median and two Persian kings mentioned in the O. T. I. In Dan. ix. i, Ahasuerus is said to be the father of Darius the Mede. [Darius.] This first Ahasuerus is Cyaxares, the conqueror of Nineveh. 2. In Ezr. iv. 6, the enemies of the Jews, after the death of Cyrus, desirous to frustrate the building of Jerusalem, send accusations against them to Ahasuerus, king of Persia. This must be Cambyses. He was plainly called after his grandfather, who was not of royal race, and therefore it is very likely that he also assumed the kingly name or title of Cyaxares, which had been born by his most illustrious ancestor. 3. The third is the Ahasuerus of the book of Esther. Having divorced his queen Vashti for refusing to appear in public at a banquet, he married, four years afterwards, the Jewess Esther, cousin and ward of Mordecai. Five years after this, Haman, one of his counsel- lors, having been slighted by Mordecai, pre- vailed upon the king to order the destruction of all the Jews in the empire. But before the day appointed for the massacre, Esther and Mordecai overthrew the influence which Ha- man had exercised, and so completely changed 18 I I THE Ua^^ARY or m AHIMAAZ ALEXANDER III. his feelings in the matter that they induced him to put Haman to death, and to give the Jews the right of self-defense. This they used so vigorously that they killed several thou- sands of their opponents. This Ahasuerus is probably Xerxes (the names being identical) ; and this conclusion is fortified by the resem- blance of character, and by certain chrono- logical indications. As Xerxes scourged the sea, and put to death the engi;neers of his bridge because their work was injured by a storm, so Ahasuerus repudiated his queen Vashti because she would not violate the decorum of her sex, and ordered the massacre of the whole Jewish people to gratify the malice of Haman. In the third year of the reign of Xerxes was held an assembly to ar- range the Grecian war. In the third year of Ahasuerus was held a great feast and assem- bly in Shushan the palace (Esth. i. 3). In the seventh year of his reign Xerxes returned defeated from Greece, and consoled himself by the pleasures of the harem. In the seventh year of his reign "fair young virgins were sought" for Ahasuerus, and he replaced Vashti by marrying Esther. The tribute he "laid upon the land and upon the isles of the sea" (Esth. x. i) may well have been the result of the expenditure and ruin of the Grecian expedition. - Ahim'aaz (brother of Auger), son of Zadok, the high-priest in David's reign, and cele- brated for his swiftness of foot. During Ab- salom's rebellion he carried to David the im- Alabaster Vases. Inscription on the centre vessel denotes tlie quantity it holds. portant intelligence that Ahithophel had coun- selled an immediate attack upon David and his followers, and that, consequently, the king must cross the Jordan without the least, delay (2 Sam. XV. 24-37, ^vii. 15-22). Shortly after- wards he was the first to bring to the king the good news of Absalom's defeat, suppress- ing his knowledge of the death of his son. which was announced soon afterwards by an- other (2 Sam. xviii. 19-33). Alabaster occurs in the N. T. only in the notice of the alabaster-box of ointment which a woman brought to our Lord when He sat 1 at meat in the house of Simon the leper at Bethany, the contents of which she poured on the head of the Saviour (Matt. xxvi. 7; Mark xiv. 3; Luke vii. 37). The ancients consid- ered alabaster to be the best material in which to preserve their ointments. In Mark xiv. 3, the woman who brought "the alabaster-box of ointment of spikenard" is said to break the box before pouring out the ointment, which probably only means breaking the seal which kept the essence of the perfume from evapo- rating. Alexan'der III. (helper of men), king of Macedon, surnamed The Great, the son of Philip and Olympias, was born at Pella, B. C. 356, and succeeded his father B. C. 336. Two years afterwards he crossed the Hellespont (B. C. 334) to carry out the plans of his father, and execute the mission of Greece to the civilized world. The battle of the Grani- cus was followed by the subjugation of west- ern Asia; and in the following year the fate of the East was decided at Issus (B. C. 333). Tyre and Gaza were the only cities in west- ern Syria which offered Alexander any resist- ance, and these were, reduced and treated with unusual severity (B. C. 332). Egypt next submitted to him; and in B. C. 331 he founded Alexandria, which remains to the present day the most characteristic monument of his life and work. In the same year he finally de- feated Darius at Gaugamela ; and in B. C. 330 his unhappy rival was murdered by Bes- sus, satrap of Bactria. The next two years were occupied by Alexander in the consoli- dation of his Persian conquests and the re- duction of Bactria. In B. C. 327 he crossed the Indus, penetrated to the Hydaspes, and was there forced by the discontent of his army to turn westward. He reached Susa, B. C. 325, and proceeded to Babylon, B. C. 324, which he chose as the capital of his em- pire. In the next year (B. C. 323) he died there in the midst of his gigantic plans; and those who inherited his conquests left his de- signs unachieved and unattempted (cf. Dan. vii. 6, viii. 5, xi. 3). The famous tradition of the visit of Alexander to Jerusalem during his Phoenician campaign, which is related by Josephus, has been a fruitful source of con- troversy. The Jews, it is said, had provoked his anger by refusing to transfer their alle- giance to him when summoned to do so dur- ing the siege of Tyre, and after the reduc- 19 ALEXANDER ALGUM OR ALMUG TREES tion of Tyre and Gaza he turned towards Jerusalem. Jaddua (Jaddus) the high-priest (Neh. xii. ii, 22) went out to meet him, clad in his robes of hyacinth and gold, and accom- panied by a train of priests and citizens ar- rayed in white. Alexander was so moved by the solemn spectacle that he did reverence to the holy name inscribed upon the tiara of the high-priest ; and when Parmenio expressed surprise, he replied that "he had seen the god whom Jaddua represented in a dream at Dium, Coin of Lysimachus, King of Thrace, representing head of Alexander the Great as a young Jupiter Ammon. encouraging him to cross over into Asia, and promising him success." After this it is said that he visited Jerusalem, offered sacrifice there, heard the prophecies of Daniel which foretold his victory, and conferred important privileges upon the Jews. In the prophetic visions of Daniel the emblem by which Alex- ander is typified (a he-goat) suggests the no- tions of strength and speed; and the Universal extent (Dan. viii. 5, . . . from the west on the face of the whole earth) and marvellous rapidity of his conquests (Dan. 1. c, he touched not the ground) are brought forward as the characteristics of his power, which was di- rected by the strongest personal impetuosity (Dan. viii. 6, in the fury of his power). He ruled with great dominion, and did according to his will (xi. 3), "and there was none that could deliver . . . out of his hand" (viii. 7). Alexan'der. i. Son of Simon the Cyrenian, who was compelled to bear the cross for our Lord (Mark xv. 21). 2. One of the kindred of Annas the high-priest (Acts iv. 6). 3. A Jew at Ephesus, whom his countrymen put forward during the tumult raised by Demet- rius the silversmith (Acts xix. 33), to plead their cause with the mob. 4. An Ephesian Christian, reprobated by St. Paul in i Tim. i. 20, as having, together with one Hymen- aeus, put from his faith and a good conscience, and so made shipwreck concerning the faith. This may be the same with 5. Alexander the coppersmith, mentioned by the same apostle (2 Tim. iv. 14) as having done him many mischiefs. Alexan'dria (3 Mace. iii. I ; Acts xviii. 24, vi. 9), the Hellenic, Roman, and Christian capital of Egypt, was founded by Alexander the Great, B. C. 332, who himself traced the ground-plan of the city. The work thus begun was continued after the death of Alexander by the Ptolemies. Under the despotism of the later Ptolemies the trade of Alexandria de- clined, but its population and wealth were enormous. Its importance as one of the chief corn-ports of Rome secured for it the general favor of the first emperors. Its population was mixed from the first. According to Jose- phus, Alexander himself assigned to the Jews a place in his new city. Their numbers and importance were rapidly increased under the Ptolemies by fresh immigrations and untiring industry. The Scptuagint translation was made for their benefit, under the first or sec- ond Ptolemy. Philo estimates the number of the Alexandrine Jews in his time at little less than 1,000,000; and adds, that two of the five districts of Alexandria were called "Jewish districts," and that many Jews lived scattered in the remaining three. Julius Caesar and Augustus confirmed to them the privileges which they had enjoyed before, and they retained them, with various interrup- tions, during the tumults and persecutions of later reigns. According to the common legend, St. Mark first "preached the Gospel in Egypt, and founded the first Church in Alexandria." At the beginning of the second century the number of Christians at Alexan- The Almug. dria must have been very large, and the great leaders of Gnosticism who arose there (Basili- des, Valentinus) exhibit an exaggeration of the tendency of the Church. Alexan'drians, the Jewish colonists of Alex- andria, who were admitted to the privileges of citizenship, and had a synagogue at Jeru- salem (Acts vi. 9). Algum or Almug Trees; the former occur- ing in 2 Chr. ii. 8, ix. 10, 11, the latter in I K. x. II, 12. There can be no question OF m ALLEGORY ALLON that these words are identieal. From i K. X. II, 12; 2 Chr. ix. ID, II, we learn that the alniug was brought in great plenty from Ophir for Solomon's Temple and house, and for the construction of musical instruments. It is probable that this tree is the red sandal wood, which is a native of India and Ceylon. The wood is very heavy, hard, and fine grained, and of a beautiful garnet color. Allegory, a figure of speech, which has been defined by Bishop Marsh, in accordance with its etymology, as "a representation of one thing which is intended to excite the repre- sentation of another thing;" the first repre- sentation being consistent with itself, but requiring, or capable of admitting, a moral or spiritual interpretation over and above its lit- eral sense. In every allegory there is a two- fold sense ; the immediate or historic, which is understood from the words, and the ulti- mate, which is concerned with the things sig- nified by the words. The allegorical interpre- tation is not of the words, but of the things signified by them ; and not only may, but actually does, coexist with the literal inter- pretation is every allegory, whether the nar- rative in which it is conveyed be of things possible or real. An illustration of this may be seen in Gal. iv. 24, where the apostle gives an allegorical interpretation to the historical narrative of Hagar and Sarah ; not treating that narrative as an allegory in itself, as our A. V. would lead us to suppose, but drawing from it a deeper sense than is conveyed by the immediate representation. Allelu'ia, so written in Rev. xix. 6, foil., or more properly Hallelujah, "praise ye Jeho- vah," as it is found in the margin of Ps. civ. 35, cv. 45, cvi., cxi. l, cxii. i, cxiii. i (comp. Ps. cxiii. 9, cxv. 18, cxvi. 19, cxvii. 2). The literal meaning of "Hallelujah" suffi- ciently indicates the character of the Psalms in which it occurs, as hymns of praise and thanksgiving. Alliances. On the first establishment of the Hebrews in Palestine no connections were formed between them and the surrounding nations. But with the extension of their power under the kings, they were brought more into contact with foreigners, and alliances became essential to the security of their commerce. Solomon concluded two important treaties exclusively for commercial purposes; the first with Hiram, king of Tyre, originally with the yiew of obtaining materials and workmen for the erection of the Temple, and afterwards for the supply of ship-builders and sailors (i K. V. 2-12, ix. 27) : the second with a Pha- raoh, king of Egypt ; by this he secured a monopoly of the trade in horses and other products of that country (i K. x. 28, 29). After the division of the kingdom the alliances were of an of¥ensive and defensive nature. When war broke out between Amaziah and Jeroboam II. a coalition was formed between Rezin, king of Syria, and Pekah on the one side, and Ahaz and Tiglath-pileser, king of Assyria, on the other (2 K. xvi. 5-9). By this means an opening was afforded to the advances of the Assyrian power ; and the king- doms of Israel and Judah, as they were suc- cessively attacked, sought the alliance of the Egyptians, who were strongly interested in maintaining the independence of the Jews as a barrier against the encroachments of the Assyrian power (2 K. xvii. 4, xix. 9, 36; Is. XXX. 2). On the restoration of independence Judas Maccaheus sought an alliance with the Romans as a counterpoise to the neighboring state of Syria (i Mace. viii.). Treaties of a friendly nature were at the same period con- cluded with the Lacedaemonians (i Mace. xii. 2, xiv. 20). — The formation of an alliance was attended with various religious rites : a vic- tim was slain and divided into two parts, be- tween which the contracting parties passed (Gen. XV. 10). That this custom was main- tained to a late period appears from Jer. xxxiv. 18-20. Generally speaking, the oath alone is mentioned in the contracting of alliances, either between nations (Josh. ix. 15) or indi- viduals (Gen. xxv. 28, xxxi. 53 ; i Sam. xx. 17; 2 K. xi. 4). The event was celebrated by a feast (Gen. 1. c. ; Ex. xxiv. 11 ; 2 Sam. iii. 12, 20). Salt, as symbolical of fidelity, was used on these occasions. Occasionally a pillar or a heap of stones was set up as a memorial of the alliance (Gen. xxxi. 52). Presents were also sent by the party soliciting the alliance (i K. XV. 18; Is. XXX. 6; I Mace. xv. 18). The fidelity of the Jews to their engagements was conspicuous at all periods of their history (Josh. ix. 18), and any breach of covenant was visited with very severe punishment (2 Sam. xxi. i; Ez. xvii. 16). Al'lon, a large, strong tree of some descrip- tion, probably an oak. The word is found in two names in the topography of Palestine. 1. Allon, more accurately Elon, a place named among the cities of Naphtali (Josh. xix. 33). Probably the more correct construction is to take it with the following word, i. e., "the oak by Zaanannim," or "the oak of the loading of tents," as if deriving its name from some nomad tribe frequenting the spot. [Elon.] 2. Al'lon-ba'chuth ("oak of weeping"), the tree under which Rebekah's nurse, Deborah, was buried (Gen. xxxv. 8). 21 ALMOND TREE ALTAR Almond-Tree ; Almond; This word is found in Gen. xliii. ii; Ex. xxv. 33, 34, xxxvii. 19, 20; Num. xvii. 8; Eccles. xii. 5; Jer. i. 11, in the text of the A. V. The ahnond-tree is a native of Asia and North Africa, but it is cul- tivated in the milder parts of Europe. The height of the tree is about 12 or 14 feet; the flowers are pink, and arranged for the most part in pairs ; the leaves are long, ovate, with a serrated margin, and an acute point. The covering of the fruit is downy and succulent, enclosing the hard shell which contains the kernel. It is curious to observe, in connec- tion with the almond-bowls of the golden can- dlestick, that, in the language of lapidaries, Almonds are pieces of rock-crystal, even now used in adorning branch-candlesticks. Almond. Alms. The duty of alms-giving, especially in kind, consisting chiefly in portions to be left designedly from produce of the field, the vineyard, and the oliveyard (Lev. xix. 9, 10, xxiii. 22; Deut. xv.* ll, xxiv. 19, xxvi. 2-13; Ruth ii. 2), is strictly enjoined by the Law. Every third year also (Deut. xiv. 28) each proprietor was directed to share the tithe of his produce with "the Levite, the stranger, the fatherless, and the widow." The theo- logical estimate of alms-giving among the Jews is indicated in the following passages :- — Job xxxi. 17; Prov. x. 2, xi. 4; Esth. ix. 22; Ps. cxii. 9; Acts ix. 36, the case of Dorcas; X. 2, of Cornelius ; to which may be added, Tob. iv. ID, II, xiv. 10, 11; and Ecclus. iii. 30, xl. 24. And the Talmudists went so far as to interpret righteousness by alms-giving in such passages as Gen. xviii. 19; Is. liv. 14; Ps. xvii. 15. — The Pharisees were zealous in alms-giving, but too ostentatious in their mode of performance, for which our Lord finds fault with them (Matt. vi. 2). — The duty of reliev- ing the poor was not neglected by the Chris- tians (Matt. vi. 1-4; Luke xiv. 13; Acts xx. 35; Gal. ii. 10). Every Christian was ex- horted to lay by on the first day of each week some portion of his profits, to be applied to the wants of the needy (Acts xi. 30; Rom. XV. 25-27; I Cor. xvi. 1-4). It was also con- sidered a duty specially incumbent on widows to devote themselves to such ministrations (i Tim. V. 10). Almug-Trees. [Algum-Trees.] Aloes, Lign Aloes, the name of a costly and sweet-smelling wood which is mentioned in Num. xxiv. 6; Ps. xiv. 8; Prov. vii. 17; Cant, iv. 14; John xix. 39. It is usually identified with a tree which supplies the aloes-wood of Lign Aloes. commerce, much valued on account of its aro- matic qualities for purposes of fumigation and for incense. The tree grows to the height of 120 feet, being 12 feet in girth. Al'pha, the first letter of the Greek alpha- bet, as Omega is the last. Its significance is plainly indicated in the context. "I am Alpha and Omega, the beginning and the end. 0) the first and the last" (Rev. i. 8, 11, xxi. 6, xxii. 13), which may be compared with Is. xli. 4. Both Greeks and Hebrews employed the letters of the alphabet as numerals. Alphabet. [Writing.] Altar. (A.) The first altar of which we have any account is that built by Noah when he left the ark (Gen. viii. 20). In the early times altars were usually built in certain spots hallowed by religious associations, e. g., where God appeared (Gen. xii. 7, xiii. 18, xxvi. 25, XXXV. i). Generally, of course, they were erected for the offering of sacrifice; but in some instances they appear to have been only memorials. Altars were most probably origi- nally made of earth. In later times they were frequently built on high places, especially in idolatrous worship (Deut. xii. 2). (B.) The Law of Moses directed that two altars should be made, the one the Altar of Burnt-offering 22 ALTAR AMALEKITES (called also simply the Altar), and the other the Altar of Incense, i. The Altar of Burnt- offering. It differed in construction at dif- ferent times, (i.) In the Tabernacle (Ex. xxvii. I ff. xxxviii. I ff.) it was comparatively small and portable. In shape it was square. It was five cubits in length, the same in breadth, and three cubits high. It was made of planks of shittim (or acacia) wood overlaid with brass. The interior was hollow (Ex. xxvii. 8). At the four corners were four pro- jections called horns, made, like the altar it- self, of shittim-wood, overlaid with brass (Ex. xxvii. 2). They probably projected upwards; and to them the victim was bound when about to be sacrificed (Ps. cxviii. 27). On the occa- sion of the consecration of the priests (Ex. xxix. 12) and the offering of the sin-offering (Lev. iv. 7 ff.) the blood of the victim was sprinkled on the horns of the altar. Round the altar, midway between the top and bot- (A. V. "com- tom, ran a projecting ledge Altar. pass"), on which perhaps the priests stood when they officiated. To the outer edge of this, again, a grating or net-work of brass was affixed, and reached to the bottom of the altar, which thus presented the appearance of being larger below than above. At the four cor- ners of the net-work were four brazen rings, into which were inserted the staves by which the altar was carried. These staves were of the same material as the altar itself. As the priests were forbidden to ascend the altar by steps (Ex. XX. 26), it has been conjectured that a slope of earth led gradually up to the ledge from which they officiated. The place of the altar was at "the door of the taber- nacle of the congregation" (Ex. xl. 29). In Solomon's Temple the altar was considerably larger in its dimensions. Like the former, it was square ; but the length and breadth were now twenty cubits, and the height ten (2 Chr. iv. i). It differed, too, in the material of which it was made, being entirely of brass (1 K. viii, 64; 2 Chr, vii. 7). It had no grat- ing: and instead of a single gradual slope, the ascent to it was probably made by three suc- cessive platforms, to each of which it has been supposed that steps led. The altar erected by Herod in front of the Temple was 15 cubits in height, and breadth and length of equal dimensions, viz. 50 cubits ; it was built four- square, with horn-like corners projecting from it ; and on the south side a gentle accliv- ity led up to it. According to Lev. vi. 12, 13, a perpetual fire was to be kept burning on the altar. This was the symbol and token of the perpetual worship of Jehovah. The Altar of Incense, called also the golden altar to distinguish it from the Altar of Burnt-offer- ing, which was called the brazen altar (Ex. xxxviii. 30). (a.) That in the Tabernacle was made of acacia-wood, overlaid with pure gold. In shape it was square, being a cubit in length and breadth, and 2 cubits in height. Like the Altar of Burnt-oifering, it had horns at the four corners, which were of one piece with the rest of the altar. This altar stood in the Holy Place, "before the veil that is by the ark of the testimony" (Ex. xxx. 6, xl. 5). (b.) The Altar in Solomon's Temple was similar (l K. vii. 48; I Chr. xxviii. 18), but was made of cedar overlaid with gold. Am'alek, son of Eliphaz by his concubine Timnah, grandson of Esau, and chieftain ("duke" A. V.) of Edom (Gen. xxxvi. 12, 16; I Chr. i. 36). Am'alekites, a nomadic tribe, which occu- pied the peninsula of Sinai and the wilderness intervening between the southern hill-ranges of Palestine and the border of Egypt (Num. xiii. 29; I Sam. xv. 7; xxvii. 8). Arabian his- torians represent them as originally dwelling on the shores of the Persian Gulf, whence they were pressed westwards by the growth of the Assyrian empire, and spread over a portion of Arabia at a period antecedent to its occupation by the descendants of Joktan. The physical character of the district which the Amalekites occupied necessitated a no- madic life, which they adopted to its fullest extent, taking their families with them even on their military expeditions (Judg. vi. 5). Their wealth consisted in flocks and herds. Mention is made of a "town" (i Sam. xv. 5), but their towns could have been little more than stations, or nomadic enclosures. The kings or chieftains were perhaps distinguished by the hereditary title Agag (Num. xxiv. 7; I Sam. XV. 8). The Amalekites first came in contact with the Israelites at Rephidim, but were signally defeated (Ex. xvii.). In union with the Canaanites they again attacked the Israelites on the borders of Palestine, and de- 23 AMBASSADOR AMMON feated them near Hormah (Num. xiv, 45). Saul undertook an expedition against them, over- running their whole district from Havilah to Shur, and inflicting an immense loss upon them (i Sam. xv.). Their power was thence- forth broken, and they degenerated into a horde of banditti. Their destruction was com- pleted by David (i Sam. xxvii., xxx.). Ambassador. The earliest examples of am- bassadors employed occur in the cases of Edom, Moab, and the Amorites (Num. xx. 14, xxi. 21; Judg. xi. 17-19), afterwards in that of the fraudulent Gibeonites (Josh. ix. 4, &c.), and in the instances of civil strife mentioned Judg. xi. 12, and xx. 12. They are alluded to more frequently during and after the con- tact of the great adjacent monarchies of Syria, Babylon, &c., with those of Judah and Israel, as in the invasion of Sennacherib. They were usually men of high rank. In the case quoted the chief captain, the chief cup-bearer, and chief of the eunuchs, were met by delegates of similar dignity from Hezekiah (2 K. xviii. 17, 18; see also Is. xxx. 4). Ambassadors are found to have been employed, not only on oc- casions of hostile challenge or insolent men- ace (2 K. xiv. 8; I K. xx. 2, 6), but of friendly compliment, of request for alliance or other aid, of submissive deprecation, and of curious inquiry (2 K. xiv. 8, xvi. 7, xviii. 14; 2 Chr. xxxii. 31). Amber occurs onl)^ in Ez. i. 4, 27, viii. 2. It is usually supposed that a metal is referred to, and not the fossil resin called amber. Amen, literally, "trtie ;" and, used as a sub- stantive, "that which is true," "truth" (Is. Ixv. 16) ; a word used in strong asseverations, fix- ing as it were the stamp of truth upon the assertion which it accompanied, and making it binding' as an oath (comp. Num. v. 22). According to the Rabbins, "Amen" involved the ideas of swearing, acceptance, and truth- fulness. In the synagogues and private houses it was customary for the people or members of the family who were present to say "Amen" to the prayers which were oflfered by the min- ister or the master of the house, and the cus- tom remained in the early Christian Church (Matt. vi. 13; I Cor. xiv. 16). And not only public prayers, but those offered in private, and doxologies were appropriately concluded with "Amen" (Rom. ix. 5, xi. 36, xv. 33, xvi. 27; 2 Cor. xiii. 13, &c.). Amethyst. Mention is made of this precious stone, which formed the third in the third row of the high-priest's breastplate, in Ex. xxviii. 19, xxix. 12), "And the third row a ligure, an agate, and an amethyst." It occurs also in the N. T. (Rev. xxi. 20) as the twelfth stone which garnished the foundations of the wall of the heavenly Jerusalem. ' Commenta- tors generally are agreed that the amethyst is the stone indicated by the -Hebfew word, an opinion which is abundantly supported by the ancient versions. Am'mon, Am'monites, Children of Ammon, a people descended from Ben-Ammi, the son of Lot by his younger daughter (Gen. xix. 38; comp. Ps. Ixxxiii. 7, 8), as Moab was by the elder; and dating from the destruction of- Sodom. The near relation between the two peoples indicated in the story of their origin continued throughout their existence (comp. Judg. X. 6; 2 Chr. xx. i; Zeph. ii. 8, &c.). Indeed, so close was their union, and so near their identity, that each would appear to be occasionally spoken of under the name of the other. Unlike Moab, the precise position of the territory of the Ammonites is not ascer- tainable. In the earliest mention of them (Deut. ii. 20) they are said to have destroyed the Rephaini; whom they called the Zamzum- mim, and to have dwelt in their place, Jabbok being their border (Num. xxi. 24; Deut. ii. Rabbath Amnion, Capital of the Ammonites. 37, iii. 16). "Land" or "country" is, however, but rarely ascribed to them, nor is there any reference to those habits and circumstances of civilization which so constantly recur in the allusions to Moab (Is. xv., xvi.; Jer. xlviii.). On the contrary, we find everywhere traces of the fierce habits of marauders in their incursions (i Sam. xi. 2; Am. i. 13), and a very high degree of crafty cruelty to their foes (Jer. xli. 6, 7; Jud. vii. 11, 12). It ap- pears that Moab was the settled and civil- ized half of the nation of Lot, and that Am- mon formed its predatory and Bedouin sec- tion. On the west of Jordan they never ob- tained a footing. The hatred in which th€ 24 ADRAIIAM S TIti:r:. MAMKEII. FUOM A I'lK iTuGRAPH. AMON AM PH IPO LIS Ammonites were held by Israel is stated to have arisen partly from their opposition, or, rather, their denial of assistance (Deut. xxiii. 4) to the Israelities on their approach to Ca- naan. But whatever its origin, the animosity continued in force to the latest date. The last appearances of the Ammonites in the bib- lical narrative are in the books of Judith (v., vi., vii.) and of the ]\Iaccabees (i Mace. v. 6, 30-43), and it has been already remarked that their chief characteristics — close alliance with Moab, hatred of Irsael, and cunning cruelty — are maintained to the end. The tribe was gov- erned by a king (Judg. xi. 12, &c. ; i Sam. xii. 12; 2 Sam. x. i; Jer. xl. 14) and by "princes" (2 Sam. x. 3 ; i Chr. xix. 3). It has been conjectured that Nahash (i Sam. xi. I ; 2 Sam. x. 2) was the official title of the king, as Pharaoh was of the Egyptian mon- archs ; but this is without any sure founda- tion. The divinity of the tribe was Molech. generally named in the O. T. under the altered form of Milcom — "the abomination of the children of Amnion;" and occasionally as Mal- cham. In more than one passage under the word rendered ''their king" in the A. V. an allusion is intended to this idol. [Molech.] Am'non. l. Eldest son of David by Ahin- oam the Jezreelitess, born in Hebron while his father's royalty was only acknowledged in Judah. He dishonored his half-sister Tamar, and was in consequence murdered by her brother (2 Sam. xiii. 1-29). 2. Son of Shimon (l Chr. iv. 20). A'mon, or Amen (the mysterious), an Egyptian divinity, whose name occurs in that of No Amon (Nah. iii. 8), in A. V. "populous No," or Thebes, also called No. [No.] The Greeks called this divinity Ammon. The an- cient Egyptian name is Amen. Amen was one of the eight gods of the first order, and chief of the triad of Thebes. He was wor- shipped at that city as Amen-Ra, or "Amen the sun." Amorite, the Amorites, i. e. the dwellers on the summits — mountaineers — one of the chief nations who possessed the land of Ca- naan before its conquest by the Israelites. In the genealogical table of Gen. x. "the Amor- ite" is given as the fourth son of Canaan, with "Zidon, Heth [Hittite], the Jebusite," &c. As dwelling on the elevated portions of the country, they are contrasted with the Ca- naanites. who were the dwellers in the low- lands: and the two thus formed the main broad divisions of the Holy Land (Num. xiii. 29; and see Josh. v. j, x. 6, xi. 3; Deut. i. 7, 20, "mountain of the A.;" 44). In the very earliest times (Gen. xiv. 7) they are occupy- 25 ing the barren heights west of the Dead Sea, at the place which afterwards bore the name of Engedi. From this point they stretched west to Hebron, where Abram was then dwell- ing under the "oak-grove" of the three broth- ers, Aner, Esheol, and Mamre (Gen. xiv. 13; comp. xiii. 18). At the date of the invasion of the country, Sihon, their then king, had taken the rich pasture-land south of the Jab- bok, and had driven the Moabites, its former Amon. possessors, across the wide chasm of the Arnon (Num. xxi. 13, 26), which thencefor- ward formed the boundary between the two hostile peoples (Num. xxi. 13). This rich tract, bounded by the Jabbok on the north, the Arnon on the south, Jordan on the west, and "the wilderness" on the east (Judg. xi. 21, 22), was, perhaps, in the most special sense the "land of the Amorites" (Num. xix. 31 ; Josh. xii. 2, 3, xiii. 9; Judg. xi. 21, 22) ; but their possessions are distinctly stated to have extended to the very foot of Hermon (Deut. iii. 8, iv. 48), embracing "all Gilead and all Bashan" (iii. 10), with the Jordan valley on the east of the river (iv. 49). After the con- quest of Canaan nothing is heard in the Bible of the Amorites, except the occasional men- tion of their name among the early inhabit- ants of the country. Amphip'olis, a city of Macedonia, through which Paul and Silas passed on their way from Philippi to Thessalonica (Acts xvii. ij. It was distant 33 Roman miles from Philippi. It stood upon an eminence on the left or eastern bank of the River Strymon, just be- low its egress from the lake Cercinitis, and AMULETS ANDREW at the distance of about three miles from the sea. Its site is now occupied by a village called Neokhorio, in Turkish Jeni-Keni, or "New Town."' View of Amphipolis. Amulets were ornaments, gems, scrolls, &c., worn as preservatives against the power of enchantments, and generally inscribed with mystic forms or characters. The word does not occur in the A. V., but the "earrings" in Gen. XXXV. 4 were obviously connected with idolatrous worship, and were probably amu- lets taken from the bodies of the slain Shech- emites. They are subsequently mentioned among the spoils of Midian (Judg. viii. 24). Again, in Hos. ii. 13, "decking herself with ear- rings" is mentioned as one of the signs of the "days of Baalim." The "earrings" in Is. iii. 20 were also amulets. An'akim, a race of giants, descendants of Arba (Josh. xv. 13, xxi. 11), dwelling in the southern part of Canaan, and particularly at Hebron, which from their progenitor received the name of "city of Arba." Besides the gen- eral designation Anakim, they are variously called sons of Anak (Num. xiii, 33), descend- ants of Anak (Num. xiii. 22), and sons of Anakim (Deut. i. 28). These designations serve to show that we must regard Anak as the name of the race rather than that of an individual, and this is confirmed by what is said of Arba, their progenitor, that he "was a great man among the Anakim" (Josh. xiv. 15). The race appears to have been divided into three tribes or families, bearing the names Sheshai, Ahiman, and Talmai. Though the warlike appearance of the Anakim had struck the Israelities with terror in the time of Moses (Num. xiii. 28; Deut. ix. 2), they were nevertheless dispossessed by Joshua, and utterly driven from the land, except a small remnant that found refuge in the Philis- tine cities, Gaza, Gath, and Ashdod (Josh. xi. 21, 22). Their chief city Hebron became the possession of Caleb, who is said to have driven out from it the three sons of Anak mentioned above, that is the three families or tribes of the Anakim (Josh. xv. 14; Judg. i. 22). After this time they vanish from history. ■ Anani'as. l. A high-priest in Acts xxiii. 2-5, xxiv. I. He was the son of Nebedaues, succeeded Joseph son of Camydus, and pre- ceded Ismael son of Phabi. He was nomi- nated to the office by Herod, king of Chalcis, in A. D. 48; was deposed shortly before Felix left the province, and assassinated by the sicarii at the beginning of the last Jewish war. 2. A disciple at Jerusalem, husband of Sap- phira (Acts v. l-il). Having sold his goods for the benefit of the church, he kept back a part of the price, bringing to the apostles the remainder, as if it were the whole, his wife also being privy to the scheme. St. Peter denounced the fraud, and Ananias fell down and expired. 3. A Jewish disciple at Damas- cus (Acts ix. 10-17), of high repute (Acts xxii. 12), who sought out Saul during the period of blindness and dejection which fol- lowed his conversion, and announced to him his future commission as a preacher of the Gospel. Tradition makes him to have been afterwards bishop of Damascus, and to have died by martyrdom. Anath'ema, which literally means a thing suspended, is the equivalent of the Hebrew word signifying a thing or person devoted. Any object so devoted to Jehovah was irre- deemable: if an inanimate object, it was to be given to the priests (Num. xviii. 14) ; if a living creature, or even a man, it was to be slain (Lev. xxvii. 28, 29). The word anath- ema frequently occurs in St. Paul's writings, and is generally translated "accursed." Many expositors have regarded his use of it as a technical term for judicial excommunication. That the word was so vised in the early Church there can be no doubt, but an examination of the passages in -which it occurs shows that it had acquired a more general sense as ex- pressive of strong feeling (Rom. ix. 3) or of dislike and condemnation (i Cor. xii. 3, xvi. 22 ; Gal. i. 9). An'drew, one among the first called of the Apostles of our Lord (John i. 40; Matt. iv. 18) ; brother (whether elder or younger is uncertain) of Simon Peter (ibid.). He was of Bethsaida, and had been a disciple of John the Baptist. On .hearing Jesus a second time designated by him as the Lamb of God, he left his former master, and, in company with another of John's disciples, attached himself to our Lord. By his means his brother Simon was brought to Jesus (John i. 41). The ap- 26 ANGELS ANISE parent discrepancy in Matt. ix. i8 ff., Mark i. 1 6 ff., where" the two appear to have been called together, is no real one ; St. John re- lating the first introduction of the brothers to Jesus, the other Evangelists their formal call to follow Him in his ministr}'. In the catalogue of the Apostles, Andrew appears, in Matt. X. 2, Luke vi. 14, second, next after his brother Peter; but in Mark iii. 16, Acts i. 13, fourth, next after the three, Peter, James, and John, and in company with Philip. And this appears to have been his real place of dignity among the Apostles. The traditions about him are various. Eusebius makes him preach in Scythia ; Jerome and Theodoret in Achaia (Greece) ; Nicephorus in Asia Minor and Thrace. He is said to have been crucified at Patrae in Achaia. Some ancient writers speak of an apocryphal Acts of Andrew. Angels. By the word "angels" (i. e. "mes- sengers" of God) we ordinarily understand a race of spiritual beings, of a nature exalted far above that of man, although infinitely re- moved from that of God, whose office is "to do Him service in heaven, and by His ap- pointment to succor and defend men on earth." I. Scriptural use of the word. — There are many passages in which the expression "the angel of God," "the angel of Jehovah," is certainly used for a manifestation of God himself. It is to be observed, also, that, side by side with these expressions, we read of God's being manifested in the form of man ; as to Abraham at ]\Iamre (Gen. xviii. 2, 22, comp. xix. i), to Jacob at Penuel (Gen. xxxii. 24, 30), to Joshua at Gilgal (Josh. v. 13, 15), &c. Besides this, which is the highest appli- cation of the word "angel," we find the phrase used of any messengers of God, such as tli^ prophets (Is. xlii. 19; Hag. i. 13; Mai. iii. i), the priests (Mai. ii. 7), and the rulers of the Christian churches (Rev. i. 20). II. Nature of angels. — Little is said of their nature as distinct from their office. They are termed "spirits" (as in Pleb. i. 14) ; but it is not as- serted that the angelic nature is incorporeal. The contrary seems expressly implied by the words in which our Lord declares, that, after the Resurrection, men shall be "like the an- gels" (Luke XX. 36) ; because (Phil. iii. 21) their bodies, as well as their spirits, shall have been made entirely like His. The angels are revealed to us as beings, such as man might be and will be when the power of sin and death is removed, partaking in their measure of the attributes of God, Truth, Purity, and Love, because always beholding His face CMatt. xviii. 10), and therefore being "made like Him" (i John iii. 2). This, of course, implies finiteness, and therefore (in the strict sense) "imperfection" of nature, and constant progress, both moral and intellectual, through all eternity. Such imperfection, contrasted with the infinity of God, is expressly ascribed to them in Job. iv. 18; Matt. xxiv. 36; i Pet. i. 12. The finiteness of nature implies capac- ity of temptation; and accordingly we hear of "fallen angels." Of the nature of their temp- tation and the circumstances of their fall, we know absolutely nothing. All that is certain is, that they "left their first estate," and that they are now "angels of the devil" (Matt. XXV. 41; Rev. xii. 7, 9), partaking therefore of the falsehood, uncleanness, and hatred, which are" his peculiar characteristics (John viii. 44). On the other hand, the title espe- cially assigned to the angels of God, that of the "holy ones" (see Dan. iv. 13, 23, viii. 13; Matt. XXV. 31), is precisely the one which is given to those men who are renewed in Christ's image, but which belongs to them in actuality and in perfection only hereafter. (Comp. Heb. ii. 10, v. 9, xii. 23.) III. Office Anise. of the angels. — Of their office in heaven, we have only vague prophetic glimpses (as in I K. xxii. 19; Is. vi. 1-3; Dan. vii. 9, 10; Rev. vi. II, &c.), which show us nothing but a never-ceasing adoration. They are represent- ed as being, in the widest sense, agents of God's Providence, natural and supernatural, to the body and to the soul. In one word, they are Christ's ministers of grace now, as they shall be of judgment hereafter (Matt, xiii. 39, 41, 49, xvi. 27, xxiv. 31, &c.). That there are degrees of angelic nature, fallen and unfallen, and special titles and agencies be-' longing to each, is clearly declared by St. Paul (Eph. i. 21; Rom. viii. 38), but what their general nature is, it is useless to speculate. Anise. This word occurs only in Matt, xxiil. 27 ANKLET 23. It is by no means a matter of certainty v/hether the anise or the dill is here intended, though the probability is more in favor of the latter plant. Anise is an annual plant grow- ing to the height of one foot, and carries a white flower. It grows wild in Egypt, in Syria, Palestine and all parts of the Levant. The Romans chewed the seeds in order to keep up^ an agreeable moisture in the mouth and to sweeten the breath, while some Orien- tals still do the same. Dill, a somewhat simi- lar plant, is an annual, bearing small aromatic seeds, used also for cookery and medicine. Anklet. This word does not occur in the A. v., but anklets are referred to in Is. iii. 16, 18, 20. They were fastened to the ankle- band of each leg, were as common as brace- lets and armlets, and made of much the same materials; the pleasant jingling and tinkling which they made as they knocked against each other, was no doubt one of the reasons why they were admired ("the bravery of their tinkling ornaments"). They are still worn in the East. Anointing, in Holy Scripture, is either I. Ma- terial, with oil, or II. Spiritual, with the Holy Ghost. I. Material. — i. Ordinary. Anointing the body or head with oil was a common practice with the Jews, as with other Oriental nations (Deut. xxviii. 40; Ruth iii. 3, Mic. vi. 15). Abstinence from it was a sign of mourn- ing (2 Sam. xiv. 2; Dan. x. 3; Matt. vi. 17). Anointing the head with oil or ointment seems also to have been a mark of respect some- times paid by a host to his guests (Luke vii. 46 and Ps. xxiii. 5). 2. Official. — It was a rite of inauguration into each of the three typical offices of the Jewish commonwealth. (a) Prophets were occasionally anointed to their office (i K. xix. 16), and are called mes- siahs, or anointed (i Chr. xvi. 22; Ps. cv. 15). (b) Priests, at the first institution of the Le- vitical priesthood, were all anointed to their offices, the sons of Aaron as well as Aaron himself (Ex. xl. 15; Num. iii. 3); but after- wards, anointed seems not to have been re- peated at the consecration of ordinary priests, but to have been especially reserved for the high-priest (Ex. xxix. 29; Lev. xvi. 32); so that "the priest that is anointed" (Lev. iv. 3) is generally thought to mean the high-priest. (c) Kings. Anointing was the principal and divinely appointed ceremony in the inaugura- tion of the Jewish kings (i Sam. ix. 16, x. i ; I K. i. 34, 39). The rite was sometimes per- formed more than once. David was thrice anointed to be king. After the separation into two kingdoms, the kings both of Judah and of Israel seem still to have been anointed (2 ANTICHRIST K. ix. 3, xi. 12. (d) Inanimate objects also were anointed with oil in token of their being set apart for religious service. Thus Jacob anointed a pillar at Bethel (Gen. xxxi. 13) ; and at the introduction of the Mosaic econ- omy, the tabernacle and all its furniture were consecrated by anointing (Ex. xxx. 26-28). 3. Ecclesiastical. Anointing with oil in the name of the Lord is prescribed by St. James to be used, together with prayer, by the elders of the church, for the recovery of the sick (James v. 14). Analogous to this is the anoint- ing with oil practiced by the twelve (Mark vi. 13). II. Spiritual. — i. In the O. T. a Deliverer is promised under the title of Mes- siah, or Anointed (Ps. ii. 2-; Dan. ix. 25, 26) ; and the nature of his anointing is described to be spiritual, with the Holy Ghost (Is. Ixi. i; see Luke iv. 18). In the N. T. Jesus of Nazareth is shown to be the Messiah, or Christ, or Anointed of the O. T. (John i. 41 ; Acts ix. 22, xvii. 2, 3, xviii. 4, 28) ; and the his- torical fact of his being anointed with the Holy Ghost is asserted and recorded (John i. 32, 33; Acts iv. 27, X. 38). 2. Spiritual anoint- ing with the Holy Ghost is conferred also upon Christians by God (2 Cor. i. 21), and they are described as having an unction from the Holy One, by which they know all things (l John ii. 20, 27). Ant. This insect is mentioned twice in the O. T. : in Prov. vi. 6, xxx. 25. In the former of these passages the diligence of this insect is instanced by the wise man as an example worthy of imitation ; in the second passage the ant's wisdom is especially alluded to, for these insects, "though they be little on the earth, are exceeding wise." It is well known that the ancient Greeks and Romans believed that the ant stored up food, which it collected in the summer, ready for the winter's con- sumption ; but this is an error. The European species of ants are all dormant in the winter, and consequently require no food; and the observations of modern naturalists seem almost conclusive that no ants lay up for future consumption. Antichrist. This term is employed by the Apostle John alone, and is defined by him in a manner which leaves no doubt as to its intrinsic meaning. With regard to its appli- cation there is less certainty. In the first pas- sage (i John ii. 18) in which it occurs the apostle makes direct reference to the false Christs, whose corning, it had been foretold, should mark the last days. "Little children, it is the last time: and as ye have heard that the Antichrist cometh, even now have there been many Antichrists ; whereby we know that 28 0 .' TVc ANTIOCH APOCRYPHA it is the last time." The allusion to Matt, xxiv. 24 was clearly in the mind of the Syriac translator, who rendered Antichrist by "the false Christ." In ver. 22 we find, "he is the Antichrist that denieth the Father and the Son ;" and still more positively, "every spirit that confesseth not that Jesus Christ is come in the flesh" is of Antichrist (comp. 2 John 7). The Antichrists, against which he warned the churches of Asia Minor as being already in the world, had been of their own number; "they went out from us, but they were not of us" (i John ii. 19) ; and the manner in which they are referred to implies that the name was already familiar to those to whom the epistle was addressed, through the apos- tle's oral teaching (2 Thess. ii. 5). The com- ing of Antichrist was believed to be foretold in the "vile person" of Daniel's prophecy (xi. 21), which received its first accomplishment in Antiochus Epiphanes, bu^ of which the complete fulfilment was reserved for the last times. He is identified with "the man of sin, the son of perdition" (2 Thess. ii. 3), who should be revealed when he "who now let- teth" was removed ; that is, according to the belief of the primitive church, when the Ro- man order of things ceased to be. This inter- pretation brings Antichrist into close connec- tion with the gigantic power of evil, symbol- ized by the "beast" (Rev. xiii.), who received his power from the dragon (i. e. the devil, the serpent of Genesis), continued for forty and two months, and was invested with the kingdom of the ten kings who destroyed the harlot Babylon (Rev. xvii. 12, 17), the city of seven hills. The destruction of Babylon is to be followed by the rule of Antichrist for a short period (Rev. xvii. 10), to be in his turn overthrown in "the battle of that great day of God Almighty" (Rev. xvi. 14) with the false prophet and all his followers (Rev. xix.). An'tioch. In Syria. The capital of the Greek kings of Syria, and afterwards the resi- dence of the Roman governors of the prov- ince which bore the same name. This metrop- olis was situated where the chain of Leba- non, running northwards, and the chain of Taurus, running eastwards, are brought to an abrupt meeting. Here the Orontes breaks through the mountains ; and Antioch was placed at a bend of the river, partly on an island, partly on the level which forms the left bank, and partly on the steep and craggy ascent of Mount Silpius, which rose abruptly on the south. In the immediate neighborhood 'vas Daphne, the celebrated sanctuary of Apollo (2 Mace. iv. 33) ; whence the city was sometimes called Antioch by Daphne, to dis- tinguish it from other cities of the same name. — No city, after Jerusalem, is so intimately connected with the history of the apostolic church. — The chief interest of Antioch, how- ever, is connected with the progress of Chris- tianity among the heathen. Here the first Gentile church was founded (Acts xi. 20, 21) ; here the disciples of Jesus Christ were first called Christians (xi. 26). It was from An- tioch that Paul started on his three mission- ary journeys. The city was founded in the year 300 B. C, by Seleucus Nicator. Jews were settled there from the first in large num- bers, were governed by their own ethnarch, and allowed to have the same political privi- leges with the Greeks. Antioch grew under the successive Seleucid kings, till it became a city of great extent and of remarkable beauty. Some of the most magnificent buildings were on the island. One feature, which seems to have been characteristic of the great Syrian cities, — a vast street with colonnades, intersecting the whole from end to end, — was added by Antiochus Epiphanes. By Pompey it was made a free city, and such it continued till the time of Antoninus Pius. The early Emperors raised there some large and important structures, such as aqueducts, amphitheatres, and baths. Herod the Great contributed a road and a colonnade. 2. In Pisidia (Acts xiii. 14, xiv. 19, 21 ; 2 Tim. iii. 11;, on the borders of Phrygia, corresponds to Yalobatch, which is distant from Ak-sher six hours over the mountains. This city, like the Syrian Antioch, was founded by Seleu- cus Nicator. Under the Romans it became a colonia, and was also called Csesarea. Apes are mentioned in i K. x. 22, and 2 Chr. ix. 21. There can be little doubt but that the apes were brought from the same country which supplied ivory and peacocks, both of which are common in Ceylon ; and Sir E. Ten- nent has drawn attention to the fact that the Tamil names for apes, ivory, and peacocks are identical with the Hebrew. Apoc'alypse. [Revelation.] Apoc'rypha. The collection of Books to which this term is popularly applied includes the following (the order given is that in which they stand in the English version) : I. i Esdras; II. 2 Esdras ; III. Tobit ; IV. Judith; V. The rest of the chapters of the Book of Esther, which are found neither in the Hebrew nor in the Chaldee ; VI. The Wisdom of Solo- mon ; VII. The Wisdom of Jesus, the Son of Sirach, or Ecclesiasticus ; VIII. Baruch ; IX. The Song of the Three Holy Children ; X. The History of Susanna; XI. The History of 29 APOLLYON APOSTLE the Destruction of Bel and the Dragon ; XII. The Prayer of Manasses, King of Judah ; XIII. I Maccabees; XIV. 2 Maccabees. The primary meaning of Apocrypha, "hidden, secret," seems, towards the close of the sec- ond century, to have been associated with the signification "spurious," and ultimately to have settled down into the latter. Aporiyon, or, as it is literally in the margiii of the A. V. of Rev. ix. 11, "a destroyer," is the rendering of the Hebrew word Abaddon, "the angel of the bottomless pit." The angel Apollyon is further described as the king of the locusts which rose from the smoke of the bottomless pit at the sounding of the fifth trumpet. From the occurrence of the word in Ps. Ixxxviii. 11, the Rabbins have made Abaddon the nethermost of the two regions into which they divide the lower world. But that in Rev. ix. 11, Abbadon is the angel and not the abyss, is perfectly evident in the Greek. There is no authority for connecting it with "the destroyer" alluded to in i Cor. X. 10. Apostle (one sent forth), in the N. T., origi- nally the official name of those Twelve of the disciples whom Jesus chose to send forth first to preach the Gospel, and to be with Him dur- ing the course of his ministry on earth. The word also appears to have been used in a non- ofificial sense to designate a much wider circle of Christian messengers and teachers. (See 2 Cor. viii. 23 ; Phil. ii. 25.) It is only of those who were officially designated Apostles, that we treat in this article. The original qualifi- cation of an Apostle, as stated by St. Peter, on the occasion of electing a successor to the traitor Judas, was, that he should have been personally acquainted with the whole minis- terial course of our Lord, from his baptism by John till the day when he was taken up into Heaven. The Apostles were from the lower ranks of life, simple and uneducated ; some of them were relate.d to Jesus according to the flesh ; some had previously been disci- ples of John the Baptist. Our Lord chose them early in his public career, though it is uncertain precisely at what time. Some of them had certainly partly attached themselves to Him before ; but after their call as Apostles they appear to have been continuously with Him, or in his service. They seem to have been all on an equality, both during and after the ministry of Christ on earth. Early in our Lord's ministry. He sent them out two and two to preach repentance and perform miracles in his name (Matt. x. ; Luke ix.). Thus their mission was of the nature of a solemn call to the children of Israel, to whom it was confined (Matt. x. 5, 6). The Apostles were early warned by their Master of the sol- emn nature and the danger of their calling (Matt. x. 17). They accompanied Him in his journeys of teaching and to the Jewish feasts, saw his wonderful works, heard his discourses addressed to the people, and made inquiries of Him on religious matters. They recognized Him as the Christ of God (Matt. xvi. 16; Luke ix. 20), and ascribed to Him supernatural power (Luke ix. 54) ; but in the recognition, of the spiritual teaching and mission of Christ, they made very slow progress, held back as they were by weakness of apprehension and by national prejudices. Even at the removal of our Lord from the earth, they were yet Aveak in their knowledge (Luke xxiv. 21 ; John xvi. 12), though he had for so long been care- fully preparing and instructing them. And when that happened of .which He had so often forewarned them — his apprehension by the chief priests and Pharisees — they all forsook Him and fled (Matt. xxvi. 56). They left his burial to one who was not of their number and to the women, and were only convinced of his resurrection on the very plainest proofs furnished by himself. On the Feast of Pente- cost, ten days after our Lord's ascension, the Holy Spirit came down on the assembled church (Acts ii.) ; and from that time the Apostles became altogether different men, giving witness with power of the life and death and resurrection of Jesus as He had de- clared they should (Luke xxiv. 48; Acts i. 8, 22, ii. 32, iii. 15, V. 32, xiii, 31). First of all the mother-church at Jerusalem grew up under their hands (Acts iii.-vii.), and their superior dignity and power were universally acknowl- edged by the rulers and the people (Acts v. 12 ff.). Even the persecution which arose about Stephen, and put the first check on the spread of the Gospel in Judaea, does not seem to have brought peril to the Apostles (Acts viii. i). Their first mission out of Jerusalem was to Samaria (Acts viii. 5-25), where the Lord himself had, during his ministry, sown the seed of the Gospel. Here ends, properly speaking (or rather perhaps with the general visitation hinted at in Acts ix. 31), the first period of the Apostles' agency, during which its center is Jerusalem, and the prominent figure is that of St. Peter. — The center of the second period of the apostolic agency is An- tioch, where a church soon was built up, con- sisting of Jews and Gentiles ; and the central figure of this and of the subsequent period is St. Paul. The third apostolic period is marked by the almost entire disappearance of the Twelve from the sacred narrative, and the 30 APPEAL ARABIA exclusive agency of St. Paul, the great apostle of the Gentiles. Of the missionary work of the rest of the Twelve, we know absolutely nothing from the sacred narrative. — As re- gards the apostolic oflfice, it seems to have been pre-eminently that of founding the churches, and upholding them by supernatural power specially bestowed for that purpose. It ceased, as a matter of course, with its first holders; all continuation of it, from the very conditions of its existence (cf. i Cor. ix. i), being impossible. Appeal. The principle of appeal was rec- ognized by the Mosaic law in the establish- ment of a central court under the presidency of the judge or ruler for the time being, before which all cases too difficult for the local courts were to be tried (Deut. xvii. 8, 9). According to the above regulation, the appeal lay in the time of the Judges to the judge (Judg. iv. 5), and under the monarchy to the king, who ap- pears to have deputed certain persons to in- quire into the facts of the case, and record his decision thereon (2 Sam. xv. 3). Jehoshaphat delegated his judicial authority to a court per- manently established for the purpose (2 Chr. xix. 8). These courts were re-established by Ezra (Ezr. vii. 25). After the institution of the Sanhedrim the final appeal lay to them. St. Paul, as a Roman citizen, exercised a right of appeal from the jurisdiction of the local court at Jerusalem to the emperor (Acts xxv. 11). Since the procedure in the Jewish courts at- that period was of a mixed and undefined character, he availed himself of his undoubted privilege to be tried by the pure Roman law. Apple-Tree, Apple. Mention of the apple- tree occurs in the A. V. in Cant. ii. 3, viii. 5, and Joel i. 12. The fruit of this tree is al- luded to in Prov. xxv. 11, and Cant. ii. 5, vii. 8. It is a difficult matter to say what is the spe- cific tree denoted by the Hebrew word tap- ptiach. Most modern writers maintain that it is either the quince or the citron. The quince has some plausible arguments in its fa- vor. Its fragrance was held in high esteem by the ancients. The quince was sacred to Venus. On the other hand, Dr. Royle says: "The rich color, fragrant odor and handsome appearance of the citron, whether in flower or in fruit, are particularly suited to the pas- sages of Scripture mentioned above." But neither the quince nor the citron nor the apple appears fully to answer to all the Scriptural allusions. The orange would answer all the demands of the Scriptural passages, and or- ange-trees are found in Palestine ; but there does not appear sufficient evidence that this tree was known in the earlier times to the in- habitants of Palestine. The c^uestion of iden- tification, therefore, must still be left an open one. Ara'bia, a country known in the O. T. under two designations. — i. The East Country (Gen. xxv. 6) ; or perhaps the East (Gen. x. 30; Num. xxiii. 7 ; Is. ii. 6) ; and Land of the Sons of the East (Gen. xxix. i) ;Gentile name, Sons of the East (Judg. vi. 3, vii. 12; i K. iv. 30; Job i. 3; Is. xi. 14; Jer. xlix. 28; Ez. xxv. 4). From these passages it appears that the Land of the East and Sons of the East indicate, primarily, the country east of Palestine, and the tribes descended from Ishmael and from Keturah ;• and that this original signification may have become gradually extended to Arabia and its inhabitants generally, though without any strict limitation. 2. 'Arab and 'Arab, whence Arabia (2 Chr. ix. 14; Is. xxi. 13; Jer. xxv. 24; Ez. xxvii. 21). This name seems to have the same geographical reference as the former Arab Chieftain. name to the country and tribes east of the Jor- dan, and chiefly north of the Arabian penin- sula. — Arabia may be divided into Arabia Proper, containing the whole peninsula as far as the limits of the northern deserts; Northern Arabia,, constituting the great desert of Ara- bia ; and Western Arabia, the desert of Petra and the peninsula of Sinai, or the country that has been called Arabia Petrsea. I. Arabia Proper, or the Arabian peninsula, consists of high tableland, declining towards the north ; its most elevated portions being the chain of mountains running nearly parallel to the Red .Sea, and the territory east of the southern part of this chain. So far as the interior has been explored, it consists of mountainous and desert tracts, relieved by large districts under cultivation, well peopled, watered by wells and streams, and enjoying periodical rains. The most fertile tracts are those on the south- 3 I ARABIA ARABIA west and south. II. Northern Arabia, or the of Kahtar (Joktan). This was the Biblical Arabian Desert, is a high, undulating, parched plain, of which -the Euphrates forms the nat- ural boundary from the Persian Gulf to the frontier of Syria, whence it is bounded by the latter country and the desert of Petra on the north-west and west, the peninsula of Ara- bia forming its southern limit. It has few oases, the water of the wells is generally either brackish or unpotable, and it is visited by the sand-wind called Samoom. The inhabitants were known to the ancients as "dwellers in tents" (comp. Is. xiii. 20; Jer. xlix. 31; Ezek. xxxviii. II); and they extended from Baby- lonia on the east (comp. Num. xxiii. 7; 2 Chr. xxi. 16; Is. ii. 6, xiii. 20), to the borders of Egypt on the west. These tribes, principally descended from Ishmael and Keturah, have always led a wandering and pastoral life. They conducted a considerable trade of mer- chandise of Arabia and India from the shores of the Persian Gulf (Ez. xxvii. 20-24), whence a chain of oases still forms caravan-stations; and they likewise traded from the western por- tions of the -peninsula. The latter traffic ap- pears to be frequently mentioned in connec- tion with Ishmaelites, Keturahites, and other Arabian peoples (Gen. xxxvii. 25, 28; i K. x. 15, 25; 2 Chr. ix. 14, 24; Is. Ix. 6; Jer. vi. 20) ; it seems, however, to have been chiefly in the hands of the inhabitants of Idumaea. III. Western Arabia includes the peninsula of Si- nai [Sinai], and the desert of Petra, corre- sponding generally with the limits of Arabia Petrsea. The latter name is probably derived from that of its chief city ; not from its stony character. It was in the earliest times inhab- ited by a people whose genealogy is not men- tioned in the Bible, the Horites or Horim (Gen. xiv. 6, xxxvi. 20, 21, 22, 29, 30; Deut. ii. 12, 22). [Horites.] But it was mostly peo- pled by descendants of Esau, and was gener- ally known as the land of Edom, or Idumsea [Edom] ; as well as by its older appellation, the desert of Seir, or Mount Seir. [Seir.] The common origin of the Idumseans from Esau and Ishmael is found in the marriage of the former with a daughter of the latter (Gen. xxviii. 9, xxxvi. 3). The Nabathseans suc- ceeded to the Idumaeans. The descendants of Joktan occupied the principal portions of the south and south-west of the peninsula, with colonies in the interior. In Genesis (x. 30) it is said, "and their dwelling was from Mesha, as thou goest unto Sephar, a mount of the East (Kedem)." The principal Joktanite king- dom, and the chief state of ancient Arabia, was that of the Yemen, founded (according to the Arabs) by Yaarub, the son (or descendant) kingdom of Sheba. Its rulers, and most of its people, were descendants of Seba (—Sheba), whence the classical Sabaei. The dominant family was apparently that of Himyer, son (or descendant) of Seba. A member of this fam- ily founded the more modern kingdom of the Himyerites. Native tradition seems to prove that the latter appellation represented the for- mer only shortly before the Christian era. The rule of the Himyerites (whence the Homeritae of classical authors) probably extended over the Yement, Pladramawt, and Mahreh. Their kingdom lasted until A. D, 525, v/hen it fell before an Abyssinian invasion. The other chief Joktanite kingdom was that of the Hijaz, founded by Jurhum, the brother of Yaarub, who left the Yemen and settled in the neigh- borhood of Mekkeh. This kingdom, situate in a less fertile district than the Yemen, and engaged in conflict with aboriginal tribes, never attained the importance of that of the south. 2. The Ishmaelites appear to have en- tered the peninsula from the north-west. That they have spread over the whole of it (with the exception of one or two districts of the south coast), and that the modern nation is predominantly Ishmaelite, is asserted by the Arabs. They extended northwards from the Hijaz into the Arabian desert, where they mixed with Keturahites and other Abrahamic peoples; moving westwards to Idumsea, where they mixed with Edomites, &c. The tribes sprung from Ishmael have always been gov- erned by petty chiefs or heads of families (sheykhs and emeers) ; they have generally followed a patriarchal life, and have not orig- inated kingdoms, though they have in some instances succeeded to those of the Joktanites, the principal one of these being that of El- Heereh. With reference to the Ishmaelites generally, there is doubt as to the wide exten- sion given to them by Arab tradition. 3. Of the descendants of Keturah the Arabs say little. They appear to have settled chiefly north of the peninsula in Desert Arabia, from Palestine to the Persian Gulf. 4. In Northern and Western Arabia are other peoples, which, from their geographical position and mode of life, are sometimes classed with the Arabs. Of these are Amalek, the descendants of Esau, &c. — The most ancient idolatry of the Arabs we must conclude to have been fetishism, of which there are striking proofs in the sacred trees and stones of historical times, and in the worship of the heavenly bodies, or Sabseism. Magianism, an importation from Chaldsea and Persia, must be reckoned among the religions of the Pagan Arabs ; but it never had very nu- 32 ARABIANS ARARAT merous followers. Christianity was introduced into Southern Arabia towards the close of the 2d century, and about a century later it had made great progress. It flourished chiefly in the Yemen, where many churches were built. Judaism was propagated in Arabia, principally by Karaites, at the captivity, but it was intro- duced before that time ; it became very preva- lent in the Yemen, and in the Hijaz, especially at Kheybar and El-Medeenah, where there are said to be still tribes of Jewish extraction. — Arabic, the language of Arabia, is the most developed and the richest of Shemitic lan- guages, and the only one of which we have an extensive literature ; it is, therefore, of great importance to the study of Hebrew. Of its early phases we know nothing; while we have archaic monuments of the Himyeritic (the ancient language of Southern Arabia), though we cannot fix their precise ages. It is prob- able that in the 14th or 13th cent. B. C. the Shemitic languages differed much less than in after times. But it appears from 2 K, xviii. 26 that in the 8th cent. B. C. only the educated classes among the Jews understood Aramaic. — The manners and customs of the Arabs are of great value in illustrating the Bible. No one can mix with this people without being con- stantly and forcibly reminded either of the early patriarchs or of the settled Israelites. We may instance their pastoral life, their hos- pitality, their universal respect for age (comp. Lev. xix. 32), their familiar deference (comp. 2 K. v. 13), their superstitious regard for the beard. References in the Bible to the Arabs themselves are still more clearly illvtstrated by the manners of the modern people, in their predatory expeditions, their mode of warfare, their caravan journeys, &c. Ara'bians, the nomadic tribes inhabiting the country to the east and south of Palestine, who in the early times of Hebrew history were known as Ishmaelites and descendants of Ke- turah. A'ram. The name by which the Hebrews designated, generally, the country lying to the north-east of Palestine ; the great mass of that high table-land which, rising with sudden abruptness from the Jordan and the very mar- gin of the Lake of Gennesareth, stretches, at an elevation of no less than 2,000 feet above the level of the sea, to the banks of the Eu- phrates itself, contrasting strongly with the low land bordering on the Mediterranean, the "land of Canaan," or the low country (Gen. xxxi. 18, xxxiii. 18, &c.). Throughout the A. V. the word is, with only a very few excep- tions, rendered, as in the Vulgate and LXX., Syria. Its earliest occurrence in the book of Genesis is in the form of Aram-naharaim, i. e. the "highland of or between the two rivers" (Gen. XXIV. 10, A. V. "Mesopotamia"), but in several succeeding chapters, and in other parts of the Pentateuch, the word is used without any addition, to designate a dweller in Aram- naharaim. Ar'arat (high or holy ground), a moun- tainous district of Asia mentioned in the Bible in connection with the following events: — (i.) As the resting-place of the Ark after the Del- uge (Gen. viii. 4) ; (2.) as the asylum of the Mount Ararat. sons of Sennacherib (2 K. xix. 37; Is. xxxvii. 38; A. V. has "the land of Armenia") ; (3.) as the ally, and probably the neighbor, of Minni and Ashchenaz (Jer. li. 27). [Armenia.] The name Ararat was unknown to the geographers of Greece and Rome, as it still is to the Ar- menians of the present day ; but that it was an indigenous and an ancient name for a portion of Armenia appears from the statement of Moses of Chorene, who gives Araratia as the designation of the central province. In its Biblical sense it is descriptive generally of the Armenian highlands — the lofty plateau which overlooks the plain of the Araxes on the N., and of Mesopotamia on the S. Various opin- ions have been put forth as to the spot where the Ark rested, as described in Gen. viii. 4; but Berosus the Chaldsean, contemporary with Alexander the Great, fixes the spot on the mountains of Kurdistan. Tradition still points to the Jebel Judi as the scene of the event. Europeans have given the name Ararat exclu- sively to the mountain which is called Massis by the Armenians, Agri-Dagh, i. e. Steep Mountain, by the Turks, and Kuh-i-Nuh, i. e. Noah's Mountain, by the Persians. It rises immediately out of the plain of the Araxes, and terminates in two conical peaks, named the Great and Less Ararat, about seven miles 33 ARCHITECTURE ARK OF THE COVENANT distant from each other; the former of which attains an elevation of 17,260 feet above the level of the sea and about 14,000 above the plain of the Araxes, while the latter is lower by 4,000 feet. The summit of the higher is covered with eternal snow for about 3,000 feet. It is of volcanic origin. Arguri, the only vil- lage known to have been built on its slopes, was the spot where, according to tradition, Noah planted his vineyard. Lower down, in the plain of Araxes, is Nachdjevan, where the patriarch is reputed to have been buried. The Armenian plateau stands equidistant from the Euxine and the Caspian seas on the N., and between the Persian Gulf and the Mediter- ranean on the S. Viewed with reference to the dispersion of the nations, Armenia is the true center of the world ; and at the present day Ararat is the -great boundary-stone be- tween the empires of Russia, Turkey and Per- sia. Architecture. The book of Genesis (iv. 17, 20, 22) appears to divide mankind into great characteristic sections, viz., the "dwellers in tents" and the "dwellers in cities." To the race of Shem is attributed (Gen. x. 11, 12, 22, xi. 2-9) the foundation of those cities in the plain of Shinar, Babylon, Nineveh and others ; of one of which, Resen, the epithet "great" suf- ficiently marks its importance in the time of the writer. It is in connection with Egypt that the Israelites appear first as builders of cities, compelled to labor at the buildings of the Egyptian monarchs. Pithom and Raamses are said to have been built by them (Ex. i. 11). They were by occupation shepherds, and by habit dwellers in tents (Gen. xlvii. 3). They had therefore originally, speaking properly, no architecture. From the time of the occupation of Canaan they became dwellers in towns and in houses of stone (Lev. xiv. 34, 45; i K. vii. 10) ; but these were not in all, nor indeed in most, cases built by themselves (Deut. vi. 10 ; Num. xiii. 19). The peaceful reign and vast wealth of Solomon gave great impulse to archi- tecture ; for besides the Temple and his other great works, he built fortresses and cities in various places, among which Baalath and Tad- mor are in all probability represented by Baal- bec and Palmyra (i K. ix. 15, 24). Among the succeeding kings of Israel and of Judah, more than one is recorded as a builder; Asa (i K. XV. 23), Baasha (xv. 17), Omri (xvi. 24), Ahab (xvi. 32, xxii. 39), Hezekiah (2 K. xx. 20; 2 Chr. xxxii. 27-30), Jehoash, and Josiah (2 K. xii. II, 12, xxii. 6) ; ^nd, lastly, Jehoia- kim, whose winter palace is mentioned (Jer. xxii. 14, xxxvi. 22; see also Am. iii. 15). On the return from captivity the chief care of the rulers was to rebuild the Temple and the walls of Jerusalem in a substantial manner, with stone, and with timber from Lebanon (Ezr. iii. 8, V. 8; Neh. ii. 8, iii.). But the reigns of Herod and his successors were especially re- markable for their great architectural works. Not only was the Temple restored, but the fortifications and other public buildings oi Je- rusalem were enlarged and embellished (Luke xxi. 5). The town of Csesarea was built on the site of Strato's Tower; Samaria was en- larged, and received the name of Sebaste. Of the original splendor of these great works no doubt can be entertained ; but of their style and appearance we can only conjecture that they were formed on Greek and Roman mod- els. The enormous stones employed in the As- syrian, Persepolitan and Egyptian buildings find a parallel in the substructions of Baal- bec and in the huge blocks which still re- main at Jerusalem, relics of the buildings either of Solomon or of Herod. But few mon- uments are known to exist in Palestine by which we can form an accurate idea of its buildings, and even of those which do remain no trustworthy examination has yet been made. It is probable, however, that the res- ervoirs known under the names of the Pools of Solomon and Hezekiah contain some por- tions at least of the original fabrics. Ark, Noah's. [Noah.] Ark of the Covenant. The first piece of the tabernacle's furniture, for which precise direc- tions were delivered (Ex. xxv.). — I. It appears to have been an oblong chest of shittim (acacia) wood, 23/2 cubits long, by 1 3^ broad and deep. Within and without gold was over- laid on the wood, and on the upper side or lid, which was edged roundabout with gold, the mercy seat was placed. The ark was fitted with rings, one at each of the four corners, and through each of these were passed staves of the same wood similarly overlaid, by which it was carried by the Kohathites (Num. vii. 9, X. 21). The ends of the staves were visible without the veil in the holy place of the Tem- ple of Solomon i K. viii. 8). The ark, when transported, was enveloped in the "veil" of the dismantled tabernacle, in the curtain of badgers' skins, and in a blue cloth over all, and was therefore not seen (Num. iv. 5, 20). — II. Its purpose or object was to contain inviolate the Divine autograph of the two tables, that "covenant" from which it derived its title. It was also probably a reliquary for the pot of manna and the rod of Aaron. Occupying the most holy spot of the sanctuary, it tended to exclude any idol from the center of worship. It was also the support of the mercy seat, ma- 34 ARMAGEDDON ARMS, ARMOR terially symbolizing, perhaps, the '"covenant" as that on which "mercy" rested. — III. The chief facts in the earher history of the ark (see Josh. iii. and vi.) need not be recited. Before David's time its abode was frequently shifted. It sojourned among several, probably Levitical, families (l Sam. vii. i ; 2 Sam. vi. 3, 11 ; i Chr. xiii. 13, XV. 24, 25) in the border villages of Eastern Judah, and did not take its place in the tabernacle, but dwelt in curtains, i. e. in a separate tent pitched for it in Jerusalem by David. Its bringing up by David thither was a national festival. Subsequently the Temple, when completed, received, in the installation of Ark of the Covenant. the ark in its shrine, the signal of its inaugura- tion by the eflfulgence of Divine glory instantly manifested. When idolatry became more shameless in the kingdom of Judah, Manasseh placed a "carved image" in the "house of God," and probably removed the ark- to make way for it. This may account for the subsequent statement that it was reinstated by Josiah (2 Chr. xxxiii. 7, xxxv. 3). It was probably taken captive or destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar (2 Esdr. x. 22). Prideaux's argument that there must have been an ark in the second Temple is of no weight against express testimony, such as that of Josephus. Armaged'don, "the hill, or city of Megiddo" (Rev. xvi. 16). The scene of the struggle of good and evil is suggested by that battle-field, the plain of Esdraelon, which was famous for two great victories, of Barak over the Canaan- ites, and of Gideon over the Midianites ; and for two great disasters, the death of Saul and of Josiah. Arme'nia is nowhere mentioned under that name in the original Hebrew, though it occurs in the English version (2 K. xix. 37) for Ara- rat. Armenia is that lofty plateau whence the rivers Euphrates, Tigris, Araxes and Acamp- sis pour down their waters in different direc- tions ; the first two to the Persian Gulf, the last two respectively to the Caspian and Euxine seas. It may be termed the nucleus of the mountain system of Western Asia ; from the center of the plateau rise two lofty chains of mountains, which run from E. to W., con- verging towards the Caspian, sea, but parallel to each other towards the W. The slight ac- quaintance which the Hebrews had with this country was probably derived from the Phoe- nicians. There are signs of their knowledge having been progressive. Isaiah, in his proph- ecies regarding Babylon, speaks of the hosts as coming from the "mountains" (xiii. 4), while Jeremiah employs the specific names Ararat and Minni (li. 27). Ezekiel, apparently better acquainted with the country, uses a name which was familiar to its own inhabitants, To- garmah. Armlet, an ornament universal in the East, especially among women ; used by princes as one of the insignia of royalty, and by distin- guished persons in general. The word is not used in the A. V., as even in 2 Sam. i. 10 they render it by "the bracelet on his arm." Some- times only one was worn, on the right arm (Eccles. xxi, 21). , From Cant. viii. 6 it ap- pears that the signet sometimes consisted of a jewel on the armlet. These ornaments were used by most ancient princes. They are fre- quent on the sculptures of Persepolis and Nin- eveh, and were worn by the kings of Persia. Soldier in full armor. Arms, Armor. The subject naturally divides itself into: I. Offensive weapons — Arms. II. Defensive weapons — Armor. — I. Ofifensive weapons, i. Apparently the earliest known 35 ARMS, ARMOR ARMY and most widely used was the Sword. Very little can be gathered as to its shape, size, ma- terial or mode of use. Perhaps if anything is to be inferred it is that the Chereb is both a lighter and a shorter weapon than the modern sword. It was carried in a sheath (i Sam. xvii. 51 ; 2 Sam. xx. 8; i Chr, xxi. 27), slung by a girdle (i Sam. xxv. 13) and resting upon the thigh (Ps. xlv. 3; Judg. iii. 16), or upon the Egyptian Battle-axes. hips (2 Sam. xx. 8). Doubtless it was of met- al, from the allusion to its brightness and "glit- tering ;" but from Josh. V. 2, 3 we may perhaps infer that in early times the material was flint. 2. Next to the sword was the Spear ; and of this weapon we meet with at least three distinct kinds, a. The largest kind, such as the weap- on of Goliath (i Sam. xvii. 7, 45 ; 2 Sam. xxi. 19; I Chr. XX. 5), and also of other giants (2 Sam. xxiii. 21 ; i Chr. xi. 23) and mighty war- riors (2 Sam. ii. 23, xxiii. 18; i Chr. xi. 11, 20). b. Apparently lighter than the preceding was the "Javelin." When not in action it was car- Egyptian Archer. ried on the back of the warrior (i Sam. xvii. 6, A. V. "target"), c. Another kind of spear occurs in Num. xxv. 7, and i K. xviii. 28, and frequently in the later books, as in i Chr. xii. 8 ("buckler"), 2 Chr. xi. 12. d. It was prob- ably a lighter missile or "dart." See 2 Chr. xxiii. 10, xxxii. 5 ("darts") ; Neh. iv. 17, 23 (see margin); Job xxxiii. 18, xxxvi. 12; Joel ii. 8. 3. Of missile weapons of oflfense the chief was undoubtedly the Bow. It is met with in the earliest stages of the history, in use both for the chase (Gen, xxi. 20, xxvii. 3) and war (xlvii. 22). From an allusion in Job vi. 4, ar- rows would seem to have been sometimes poi- soned ; and Ps. cxx. 4 may point to a practice of using arrows with some burning material attached to them. 4. The Sling is first men- tioned in Judg. XX. 16. This simple weapon with which David killed the giant Philistine was the natural attendant of a shepherd. Later in the monarchy, slingers formed part of the regular army (2 K. iii. 25). II. Armor, i. The Breastplate, enumerated in the descrip- tion of the arms of Goliath, a "coat of mail," literally a "breastplate of scales" (i Sam, xvii. 5), This word has furnished one of the names of Mount Hermon (see Deut. iii. 9), 2. The habergeon is mentioned but twice — a reference to the gown of the high-priest (Ex. xxviii. 32, xxxix. 23). It was probably a quilted shirt or doublet. 3. The Helmet is referred to in i Sam. xvii. 5; 2 Chr. xxvi. 14; Ezek. xxvii. 10. 4. Greaves, or defenses for the feet made of Assyrian Helmets. " brass, are named in i Sam. xvii. 6, only. 5. Two kinds of Shield are distinguishable, a. The large shield, encompassing (Ps. v. 12) the whole person. When not in actual conflict it was carried before the warrior (i Sam. xvii. 7, 41). b. Of smaller dimensions was the buckler or target, probably for use in hand-to-hand fight I K. x. 16 47; 2 Chr. ix. 15, 16). Army. i. Jewish Army. — The military or- ganization of the Jews commenced with their departure from the land of Egypt, and was adapted to the nature of the expedition on whtch they then entered. Every man above 20 years of age was a soldier (Num. i. 3) ; each tribe formed a regiment with its own banner and its own leader (Num. ii. 2, x. 14) ; their positions in the camp or on the march were accurately fixed (Num. ii.) ; the whole army started and stopped at a given signal (Num. x. 5, 6) ; thus they came up out of Egypt ready for the fight (Ex. xiii. 18). On the approach of an enemy, a conscription was made from the general body under the direction of a mus- ter-master (Deut. XX. 5; 2 K. xxv. 19), by 36 THE LIBRARY 0 - T"" ARMY ASA whom also the officers were appointed (Deut. XX. 9). The army was then divided into thou- sands and hundreds under their respective cap- tains (Num. xxxi. 14), and still further into families (Xum. ii. 34; 2 Chr. xxv. 5, xxvi. 12), the family being regarded as the unit in Jewish polity. With the kings arose the custom of maintaining a body-guard, which formed the nucleus of a standing army. Thus Saul had a band of 3,000 select warriors (i Sam. xiii. 2, xiv. 52, xxiv. 2), and David, before his acces- sion to the throne, 600 (l Sam. xxiii. 13, xxv. 13). This band he retained after he became king, and added the Cherethites and Pelethites (2 Sam. XV. 18, XX. 7), together with another class, Shalishim, officers of high rank, the chief of whom (2 K. vii. 2 ; i Chr. xii. 18) was im- mediately about the king's person. David fur- ther organized a national militia, divided into twelve regiments imder their respective offi- cers, each of which was called out for one month in the year (i Chr. xxvii. i); at the head of the army when in active service he appointed a commander-in-chief (i Sam. xiv. 50). -Hitherto the army had consisted entirely of infantry (i Sam. iv. 10, xv. 4), the use of horses having been restrained by divine com- mand (Deut. xvii. 16) ; but we find that as the foreign relations of the kingdom extended, much importance was attached to them. David had reserved a hundred chariots from the spoils Roman Captain or Centurion. of the Syrians (2 Sam. viii. 4) ; these probably served as the foundation of the force which Solomon afterwards enlarged through his alli- ance with Egypt (i K. X. 26, 28, 29). It does not appear that the system established by Da- vid was maintained by the kings of Judah ; but in Israel the proximity of the hostile kingdom of Syria necessitated the maintenance of a standing army. The militia was occasionally called out in time of peace (2 Chr. xiv. 8, xxv. 5, xxvi. 11); but such cases were exceptional. On the other hand the body-guard appears to have been regularly kept up (i K. xiv. 28; 2 K. xi. 4, 11). Occasional reference is made to war- chariots (2 K. viii. 21) ; but in Hezekiah's reign no force of the kind could be maintained, and the Jews were obliged to seek the aid of Eg)-pt for horses and chariots (2 K. xviii. 23, 24; Is. xxxi. i). The maintenance and equip- ment of the soldiers at the public expense dates from the establishment of a standing army. It is doubtful whether the soldier ever received pay even under the kings. The numerical strength of the Jewish army cannot be ascer- tained with any degree of accuracy ; the num- bers, as given in the text, are manifestly in- correct, and the discrepancies in the various statements irreconcilable. II. Roman Army. — The Roman army was divided into legions, the number of which va- ried considerably, each under six tribuni ("chief captains," Acts xxi. 31), who command- ed by turns. The legion was subdivided into ten cohorts ("band," Acts x. i), the cohort into three maniples, and the maniple into two cen- turies, containing originally 100 men, as the name implies, but subsequently from 50 to 100 men, according to the strength of the legion. There were thus 60 centuries in a legion, each under the command oi a centurion (Acts x. i, 22; Matt. viii. 5, xxvii. 54). In addition to the legionary cohorts, independent cohorts of vol- unteers served under the Roman standards. One of these cohorts was named the Italian (Acts X. i), as consisting of volunteers from Italy. The cohort named "Augustus" (Acts xxvii. i) may have consisted of the volunteers from Sebaste. Others, however, think that it was a cohors Augusta, similar to the legio Au- gusta. The headquarters of the Roman forces in Judiea were at Caesarea. A'sa (physician, or cure), i. Son of Abijah, and third king of Judah (B. C. 956-916). In his zeal against heathenism he did not spare his grandmother Maachah, who occupied the special dignity of "King's Mother," to which great importance was attached in the Jewish court. Asa burnt the symbol of her religion (i K. XV. 13), and threw its ashes into the brook Kidron, and then deposed Maachah from her dignity. He also placed in the Temple certain gifts which his father had dedicated, and re- newed the great altar which the idolatrous priests apparently had desecrated (2 Chr. xv. 8). Besides this, he fortified cities on his fron- tiers, and raised an army, amounting, according to 2 Chr. xiv. 8, to 580,000 men, a number prob- ably exaggerated by an error of the copyist. During Asa's reign, Zerah, at the head of an ASH ASIA enormous host (2 Chr. xiv. 9), attacked Mare- shah. There he was utterly defeated, and driven back with immense loss to Gerar. The peace which followed this victory was broken by the attempt of Baasha of Israel to fortify Ramah. To stop this Asa purchased the lielp of Benhadad I., king of Damascus, by a large payment of treasure, forced Baasha to aban- don his purpose, and destroyed the works which he had begun at Ramah. In his old age Asa suffered from the gout. He died greatly beloved and honored in the 41st year of his reign. 2. Ancestor of- Berechiah, a Levite who resided in one of the villages of the Netophat- ites after the return from Babylon (i Chr. ix. 16). Ash occurs only in Is. xliv. 14. It is impos- sible to determine what is the tree denoted by the Hebrew word ; the LXX and the Vulg. understand some species of pine-tree. Perhaps the larch may be intended. Ash'dod, or Azo'tus (Acts viii. 40), one of the five confederate cities of the Philistines, Aslidod. situated about 30 miles from the southern fron- tier of Palestine, 3 from the Mediterranean Sea, and nearly midway between Gaza and Joppa. It was assigned to the tribe of Judah (Josh. XV. 47), but was never subdued by the Israelites. Its chief importance arose from its position on the high road from Palestine to Egypt. It is now an insignificant village, with no memorials of its ancient importance, but is still called Esdud. Ash'er, Apoc. and N. T. A'ser, the 8th son of Jacob, by Zilpah, Leah's handmaid (Gen. XXX. 13). The general position of his tribe was on the sea-shore from Carmel northwards, with Manasseh on the south, Zebulun and Is- sachar on the south-east, and Naphtali on the north-east. The boundaries and towns are given in Josh. xix. 24-31, xvii. 10, 11, and Judg. i. 31, 32. They possessed the maritime portion of the rich plain of Esdraelon, probably for a distance of 8 or 10 miles from the shore. This territory contained some of the richest soil in all Palestine ; and to this fact, as well as to their proximity to the Phoenicians, the degen- eracy of the tribe may be attributed (Judg. i. 31. V. 17). Ashes. The ashes on the altar of burnt-of- fering were gathered into a cavity in its sur- face. On the days of the three solemn festi- vals the ashes were- not removed, but the ac- cumulation was taken away afterwards in the morning, the priests casting lots for the office. The ashes of a red heifer burnt entire, accord- ing to regulations prescribed in Num. xix., had the ceremonial efificacy of purifying the un- clean (Heb. ix. 13), but of polluting the clean. [Sacrifice.] Ashes about the person, especially on the head, were used as a sign of sorrow. [Mourning.] Ash'kelon, As'kelon, Apoc. As'calon, one of the five cities of the lords of the Philistines (Josh. xiii. 3; I Sam. vi. 17), but less often mentioned and apparently less known to the Jews than the other four. Samson went down from Timnath to Ashkelon (Judg. xiv. 19), as if to a remote place whence his exploit was not likely to be heard of. In the post-biblical times Ashkelon rose to considerable impor- tance. Near the town were the temple and sacred lake of Derceto, the Syrian Venus. The soil around was remarkable for its fertility. Ascalon played a memorable part in the strug- gles of the Crusades. Ash'taroth, and once As'taroth, a city on the E. of Jordan, in Bashan, in the kingdom of Og, doubtless so called from being a seat of the worship of the goddess of the same name. It is generally mentioned as a description or definition of Og (Deut. i. 4; Josh. ix. 10, xii. 4, xiii. 12). The only trace of the name yet recovered in these interesting districts is Tell- Ashterah, or Asherah, and of this nothing more than the name is known. Ash'toreth, the principal female diyinity of the Phoenicians, called Ishtar by the Assyrians, and Astarte by the Greeks and Romans. She was by some ancient writers identified with the moon. But, on the other hand, the Assyr- ian Ishtar was not the moon-goddess, but the planet Venus ; and Astarte was by many iden- tified with the goddess V enus (or Aphrodite) as well as with the planet of that name. It is certain that the worship of Astarte became identified with that of Venus, and that this worship was connected with the most impure rites is apparent from the close connection of this goddess with Asherah (i K. xi. 5, 33; 2 K. xxiii. 13). Asia. The passages in the N. T., where this 38 ASP ASSYRIA •Mord occurs, are the following: Acts ii. 9, vi. 9, xvi. 6, xix. 10, 22, 26, 27, XX. 4, 16, 18, xxi. 27, xxvii. 2; Rom. xvi. 5; I Cor. xvi. 19; 2 Cor. i. 8; 2 Tim. i. 15; i Pet. i. i ; Rev. i. 4, 11. In all these it may be confidently stated that the Ashtoreth. word is used for a Roman province which em- braced the western part of the peninsula of Asia Minor, and of which Ephesus was the capital. Asp (pethen). The Hebrew word occurs in the six following passages : Deut. xxxii. 33 ; Job XX. 14, 16; Ps. Iviii. 5, xci. 13; Is. xi. 8). It is expressed in the passages from the Psalms by adder in the text of the A. V., and by asp in the margin ; elsewhere the text of the A. 7. has asp as the representative of the orig- inal word pethen. That some kind of poison- ous serpent is denoted by the Hebrew word is clear from the passages quoted above. We further learn from Ps. Iviii. 5 that the pethen was a snake upon which the serpent-charmers practiced their art. From Is. xi. 8 it would appear that the pethen was a dweller in holes of walls, &c. As the Egyptian cobra is more frequently than any other sj acies the subject upon which the serpent-char lers of the Bible lands practice their art, and as it is fond of concealing itself in walls anc in holes (Is. xi. 8), it appears to have the be; claim to repre- sent the pethen. Ass. The ass in Eastern countries is a very diflferent animal from what he is in Western Europe. The most noble and honorable amongst the Jews were wont to be mounted on asses; and in this manner our Lord him- self made his triumphant entry into Jerusalem (Matt. xxi. 2). Balaam rode on a she-ass. The asses of Kish which Saul sought were she- asses. The Shunammite (2 K. iv. 22, 24) rode on one when she went to seek Elisha. They were she-asses which formed the special care of one of David's officers (i Chr. xxvii. 30). The species known to the ancient Jews inhabits the deserts of Syria, Mesopotamia, and the north- ern part of Arabia. Mr. Layard remarks that in fleetness the wild ass equals the gazelle, and to overtake them is a feat which only one or two of the most celebrated mares have been known to accomplish. Assyr'ia, Assh'ur, was a great and powerful country lying on the Tigris (Gen. ii. 14), the capital of which was Nineveh (Gen. x. 11, &c.). It derived its name apparently from Asshur, the son of Shem (Gen. x. 22), who in later times was worshiped by the Assyrians as their chief god. The boundaries of Assyria differed greatly at different periods. Probably in the earliest times it was confined to a small , tract of low country, lying chiefly on the left bank of the Tigris. Gradually its limits were extended, until it came to be regarded as com- prising the whole region between the Arme- nian mountains (lat. 37° 30') upoii the north, and upon the south the country about Bagh- dad (lat. 33° 30'). Eastward its boundary was the high range of'Zagros, or mountains of Kurdistan ; westward, it was, according to the views of some, bounded by the Mesopotamian desert, while, according to others, it reached the Euphrates. — The classical geographers di- vided Assyria into a number of regions, which appear to be chiefly named from cities, as Ar- belitis from Arbela ; Calacene (or Calachine) from Calah or Halah (Gen. x. 11 ; 2 K. xvii. 6) ; Apolloniatis from Appolonia ; Sittacene from Sittace, &c. Adiabene, however, the richest region of all, derived its appellation from the Zab (Diab) river on which it lay. The chief cities of Assyria in the time of its greatness appear to have been the following: Nineveh, Eastern Ass. which is marked by the mounds opposite Mo- sul (Nebi-Yunus and Kouyunjik) ; Calah or Halah, now Nimrud ; Asshur, now Kileh Sher- ghat ; Sargina, or Dur-Sargina, now Khorsa- bad ; Arbela, still Arbil ; Opis, at the junction of the Diyaleh with the Tigris; and Sittace, a 39 ASSYRIA ATHENS little farther down the latter river, if this place should not rather be reckoned to Babylonia. — Scripture informs us that Assyria was peopled from Uabylon (Gen. x. ii), and both classical tradition and the monuments of the country agree in this representation. — As a country, As- syria was evidently known to Moses (Gen. ii. 14, XXV. 18; Num. xxiv. 22, 24); but it does not appear in Jewish history as a kingdom till the reign of Menahem (about B. C. 770). Herodotus relates that the Assyrians were "lords of Asia" for 520 years, till the Median kingdom was formed, B. C. 708. He would thus, it appears, have assigned to the founda- tion of the Assyrian empire a date not very greatly anterior to B. C. 1228. This is, per- haps, the utmost that can be determined with any approach to certainty. — The Mesopota- mian researches have rendered it apparent that the original seat of government was not at Nineveh, but at Kileh-Sherghat, on the right bank of the Tigris. The kings proved to have reigned there are fourteen in number, divisible into three groups, and their reigns are thought to have covered a space of nearly 350 years, from B. C. 1273 to B. C. 930. The most re- markable monarch of the series was called Tig- lath-pileser. He appears to have been king to- wards the close of the twelfth century, and thus to have been contemporary with Samuel. The later kings of the series are only known to us as the ancestors of two great monarchs, Sardanapalus the first, and his son, Shalman- eser, or Shalmanubar, a still greater conquer- or. His son and grandson followed in his steps, but scarcely equaled his glory. The latter is thought to be identical with the Bibli- cal Pul, Phul or Phalock. [Pul.]— The fall of Assyria, long previously prophesied by Isaiah (x. 5-19), was effected by the growing strength and boldness of the Medes. If we may trust Herodotus, the first Median attack on Nineveh took place about the year B. C. 633. For some time their efforts were unsuc- cessful ; but after a while, having won over the Babylonians to their side, they became superior to the Assyrians in the field, and about B. C. 625, or a little earlier, laid final siege to the capital. Fulfillment of Prophecy. — The prophecies of Nahum and Zephaniah (ii. 13-15) against Assyria were probably delivered short- ly before the catastrophe. In accordance with Nahum's announcement (iii. 19) we find that Assyria never succeeded in maintaining a dis- tinct nationality. General Character of the Empire. — The Assyrian monarchs bore sway over a number of petty kings through the en- tire extent of their dominions. These native princes were feudatories of the Great Mon- arch, of whom they held their crown by the double tenure of homage and tribute. It is not quite certain how far Assyria require,d a religious conformity from the subject people. Her religion was a gross and complex polythe- ism, comprising the worship of thirteen prin- cipal and numerous minor divinities, at the head of all of whom stood the chief god, Assh- ur, who seems to be the deified patriarch of the nation (Gen. x. 22). The inscriptions ap- pear to state that in all countries over which the Assyrians established their supremacy they set up "the laws of Asshur," and "altars to the Great Gods." Civilization of the Assyr- ians. — The civilization of the Assyrians was derived originally from the Babylonians. They were a Shemitic race, originally resident in Babylonia (which at that time was Cushite), and thus acquainted with the Babylonian in- ventions and discoveries, who ascended the valley of the Tigris and established in the tract immediately below the Armenian moun- tains a separate and distinct nationality. Still, as their civilization developed, it became in many respects peculiar. Their art is of home growth. But they were still in the most im- portant points barbarians. Their government was rude and inartificial ; their religion coarse and sensual ; and their conduct of war cruel. As'taroth, Deut. i. 4. [Ashtaroth.] Astar'te. [Ashtoreth.] Athenians, natives of Athens (Acts xvii. 21). Ath'ens, the capital of Attica, and the chief seat of Grecian learning and civilization during the golden period of the history of Greece. St. Paul visited it in his journey from Mace- donia, and appears to have remained there some time (Acts xvii. 14-34; comp. i Thess. iii. i). In order to understand the localities mentioned in the narrative it is necessary to give a brief account of the topography of the city. Athens is situated about three miles from the sea-coast, in the central plain of At- tica. In this plain rise several eminences. Of these the most prominent is a lofty insulated mountain, with a conical peaked summit, now called the Hill of St. George, and which bore in ancient times the name of Lycabettus. This mountain, which was not included within the ancient walls, lies to the north-east of Athens, and forms the most striking feature in the environs of the city. It is to Athens what Ve- suvius is to Naples, or Arthur's Seat to Edin- burgh. South-west of Lycabettus there are four hills of moderate height, all of which formed part of the city. Of these the nearest to Lycabettus, and at the distance of a mile from the latter, was the Acropolis, or citadel of Athens, a square craggy rock rising abrupt- 40 THE imm ATHENS ATHENS ly about 150 feet, with a flat summit of about 1,000 feet long from east to west, by 500 feet broad from north to south. Immediately west of the Acropolis is a second hill of irregular form, the Areopagus (Mars Hill). To the south- west there rises a third hill, the Pnyx, on which the assemblies of the citizens were held ; and to the south of the latter is a fourth hill, known as the IMuseum. On the eastern and Erechtheum. Parthenon. Tuikish Tower. Modern City. Temple of Theseus. Southwestern part of Modern City. ATHENS. western sides of the city there run two small streams, which are nearly exhausted before they reach the sea, by the heats of summer and by the channels for artificial irrigation. That on the east is the Ilissus, which flowed through the southern quarter of the city; that on the west is the Cephisus. South of the city was seen the Saronic gulf, with the harbors of Athens. — Athens is said to have derived its name from the prominence given to the wor- ship of the goddess Athena (Minerva) by its king Erechtheus. The inhabitants were pre- viously called Cecropidae, from Cecrops, who, according to tradition, was the original found- er of the city. This at first occupied only the hill or rock which afterwards became the Acropolis; but gradually the buildings spread over the ground at the southern foot of this hill. It was not till the time of Pisistratus and his sons (B. C. 560-514) that the city began to assume any degree of splendor. The most remarkable building of these despots was the. gigantic temple of the Olympian Zeus or Ju- piter. Xerxes reduced the ancient city almost to a heap of ashes. After the departure of the Persians its reconstruction on a much larger scale was commenced under the superintend- ence of Themistocles, whose first care was to provide for its safety by the erection of walls. The Acropolis now formed the center of the city, round which the new walls described an irregular circle of about 60 stadia or 7^/2 miles in circumference. But the views of Themisto- cles were not confined to the mere defense of Athens- he contemplated making her a great naval power, and for this purpose adequate docks and arsenals were required. Previously the Athenians -had used as their only harbor the 'open roadstead of Phalerum, on the east- ern side of the Phaleric bay, where the sea- shore is nearest to Athens. But Themistocles transferred the naval station of the Athenians to the peninsula of Piraeus, which is distant about 43/2 miles from Athens, and contains three natural harbors. It was not till the ad- ministration of Pericles that the walls were built which connected Athens with her ports. Under the administration of Pericles Athens was adorned with numerous public buildings, which existed in all their glory when St. Paul visited the city. The Acropolis was the center of the architectural splendor of Athens. After the Persian wars the hall had ceased to be in- habited, and was appropriated to the worship of Athena and to the other guardian deities of the city. It was covered with the temples of gods and heroes ; and thus its platform present- ed not only a sanctuary, but a museum, con- taining the finest productions of the architect and the sculptor, in which the whiteness of the marble was relieved by brilliant colors, and rendered still more dazzling by the transparent clearness of the Athenian atmosphere. The Temple of Victory at Athens. only approach to it was from the Agora on its western side. At the top of a magnificent flight of marble steps, 70 feet broad, stood the Propylaea, constructed under the auspices of Pericles, and which served as a suitable en- trance to the exquisite works within. The Propylaea were themselves one of the master- pieces of Athenian art. They were entirely of Pentelic marble, and covered the whole of the 41 ATHENS ATHENS western end of the Acropolis, having a breadth of i68 feet. On passing through the Propylaea all the glories of the Acropolis became visible. The chief building was the Parthenon (i. e. House of the Virgin), the most perfect pro- duction of Grecian architecture. It derived its name from its being the temple of Athena Parthenos, or Athena the Virgin, the invinci- ,ble goddess of war. It stood on the highest part of the Acropolis, near its center. It was entirely of Pentelic marble, on a rustic base- ment of ordinary limestone, and its architec- ture, which was of the Doric order, was of the purest kind. It was adorned with the most exquisite sculptures, executed by various art- ists under the direction of Phidias. A large number of these sculptures were brought to England by Lord Elgin, of whom they were purchased by the nation and deposited in the British Museum. But the chief wonder of the Parthenon was the colossal statue of the Vir- gin Goddess executed by Phidias himself. The Acropolis was adorned with another colossal figure of Athena, in bronze, also the work of Phidias. It stood in the open air, nearly op- posite the Propylaea. With its pedestal it must have been about 70 feet high, and con- sequently towered above the roof of the Par- thenon, so that the point of its spear and the crest of its helmet were visible off the promon- tory of Sunium to ships approaching Athens. Another magnificent building on the Acropolis was the Erechtheum, or temple of Erechtheus. It was one of the finest models of the Ionic order, as the Parthenon was of the Doric. It stood to the north of the latter building, and close to the northern wall of the Acropolis. Among the remarkable places in other parts of the city we may mention, first, the Dionysiac theater, which occupied the slope at the south- eastern extremity of the Acropolis. The mid- dle of it was excavated out of the rock, and the rows of seats ascended in curves one above another, the diameter increasing with the height. It was no doubt sufficiently large to accommodate the whole body of Athenian citi- zens, as well as the strangers who flocked to Athens during the Dionysiac festival, but its dimensions cannot now be accurately ascer- tained. It had no roof, but the spectators were probably protected from the sun by an awn- ing, and from their elevated seats they had a distinct view of the sea and of the peaked hills of Salamis in the horizon. Above them rose the Parthenon and the other buildings of the Acropolis, so that they sat under the shadow of the ancestral gods of the country. The Areopagus, or Hill of Ares (Mars), is de- scribed elsewhere [Mars' Hill.] The Pnyx, or place for holding the public assemblies of the Athenians, stood on the side of a low rocky hill, at the distance of about a quarter of a mile from the Areopagus. Between the Pnyx on the west, the Areopagus on the north, and the Acropolis on the east, and closely adjoining the base of these hills, stood the Agora or "Market," where St. Paul disputed daily. In a direction from north-west to south-east a street called the Ceramicus ran diagonally through the Agora, entering it through the val- ley between the Pnyx and the Areopagus. The street was named after a district of the city, which was divided into two parts, the Inner and Outer Ceramicus. The former lay within the city walls, and included the Agora. The Outer Ceramicus, which formed a hand- some suburb on the north-west of the city, was the burial-place of all persons honored with a public funeral. Through it ran the road to the gymnasium and gardens of the Acad- emy, which were situated about a mile from the walls. The Academy was the place where Plato and his disciples taught. On each side of this road were monuments to illustrious Athenians, especially those who had fallen in battle. East of the city, and outside the walls, was the Lyceum, a gymnasium dedicated to Apollo Lyceus, and celebrated as the place in which Axistotle taught. — The remark of the sacred historian respecting the inquisitive char- acter of the Athenians (Acts xvii. 21) is at- tested by the unanimous voice of antiquity. Demosthenes rebukes his countrymen for their love of constantly .going about in the market and asking one another. What news? Their natural liveliness was partly owing to the pur- ity and clearness of the atmosphere of Attica, which also allowed them to pass much of their time in the open air. The transparent clear- ness of the atmosphere is noticed by Euripides (Medea, 829), who describes the Athenians as "delicately marching through most pellucid air." Modern travelers have not failed to no- tice the same peculiarity. Thus Dean Stan- ley speaks "of the transparent clearness, the brilliant coloring of an Athenian sky; of the flood of fire with which the marble columns, the mountains and the sea are all bathed and penetrated by an illumination of an Athenian sunset." — St. Paul began his address at Athens by speaking of their "carefulness in religion," which is translated in the A, V. "too supersti- tious," an imfortunate mistranslation, as Cony- beare and Howson remark, "because it entirely destroys the graceful courtesy of St. Paul's opening address, and represents him as begin- ning his speech l)y offending his audience." The Athenian carefulness in religion is con- 42 ] ATONEMENT firmed by the ancient writers. Thus Pausanias says that the Athenians surpassed all other states in the attention which they paid to the worship of the gods ; and hence the city was crowded in every direction with temples, altars and other sacred buildings. The altar "to the Unknown God," which St. Paul mentions, has been spoken of elsewhere. Of the Christian church founded by St. Paul at Athens, accord- ing to ecclesiastical tradition, Dionysius the Areopagite was the first bishop. [Dionysius.] Atonement, The Day of. I. The great day of national humiliation, and the only one com- manded in the Mosaic law. [Fasts.] The mode of its observance is described in Lev. xvi., and the conduct of the people is emphat ically enjoined in Lev. xxiii. 26-32. IL It was kept on the tenth day of Tisri, that is, from the evening of the ninth to the evening of the tenth of that month, five days before the Feast of Tabernacles. [Festivals.] IIL It was kept by the people as a high solemn sabbath. On this occasion only the high-priest was permit- ted to enter into the Holy of Holies. Having bathed his person and dressed himself entirely in the holy white linen garments, he brought forward a young bullock for a sin-offering, pur chased at his own cost, on account of himself and his family, and two young goats for a sin- ofTering with a ram for a burnt-offering, which were paid for out of the public treasury, on account of the people. He then presented the two goats before the Lord at the door of the tabernacle and cast lots upon them. On one lot "For Jehovah" was inscribed, and on the other "For Azazel." He next sacrificed the young bullock as a sin-offering for himself and his family. Taking with him some of the blood of the bullock, he filled a censer with burning coals from the brazen altar, took a handful of incense, and entered into the most holy place. He then threw the incense upon the coals and enveloped the mercy-seat in a cloud of smoke. Then, dipping his finger into the blood, he sprinkled it seven times before the mercy-seat eastward. The goat upon which the lot "For Jehovah" had fallen was then slain and the high-priest sprinkled its blood before the mercy-seat in the same manner as he had done that of the bullock. Going out from the Holy of Holies he purified the holy place, sprinkling some of the blood of both the victims on the altar of incense. At this time no one besides the high-priest was suffered to be present in the holy place. The purifi- cation of the Holy of Holies, and of the holy place, being thus completed, the high-priest laid his hands upon the head of the goat on which the lot "For Azazel" had fallen, and AUGUSTUS C^SAR confessed over it all the sins of the people. The goat was then led, by a man chosen for the purpose, into the wilderness, into "a land not inhabited," and was there let loose. The high- priest after this returned into the holy place, bathed himself again, put on his usual gar- ments of office, and offered the two rams as burnt-offerings, one for himself and one for the people. He also burnt upon the altar the fat of the two sin-offerings, while their flesh was carried away and burned outside the camp. They who took away the flesh and the man who had led away the goat had to bathe their persons and wash their clothes as soon as their service was performed. The accessory burnt- offerings mentioned (Num. xxix. 7-1 1) were a young bullock, a ram, seven lambs, and a young goat. — In considering the meaning of the particular rites of the day, three points ap- pear to be of a very distinctive character, i. The white garments of the high-priest. 2. His entrance mto the Holy of Holies. 3. The scape- goat. The writer of the Epistle to the He- brews (ix. 7-25) teaches us to apply the first two particulars. The high-priest himself, with his person cleansed and dressed in white gar- ments, was the best outward type which a liv- ing man could present in his own person of that pure and holy One who was to purify His people and to cleanse them from their sins. But respecting the meaning of the scape- goat, we have no such light to guide us, and the subject is one of great doubt and diffi- culty. It has been generally considered that it was dismissed to signify the carrying away of the sins of the people, as it were, out of the sight of Jehovah. If we keep in view that the two goats are spoken of as parts of one and the same sin-offering, we shall not have much difficulty in seeing that they form to- gether but one symbolical expression ; the slain goat setting forth the act of sacrifice, in giving up its own life for others "to Jehovah ;" and the goat which carried ofif its load of sin "for complete removal," as signifying the cleans- ing influence of faith in that sacrifice. Augus'tus Caes'ar, the first Roman emperor. He was born A. U. C. 691, B. C. 63. His father was Caius Octavius ; his mother Atia, daughter of Julia, the sister of C. Julius Caesar. He was principally educated by his great-uncle Julius Csesar, and was made his heir. After his murder, the young Octavius, then Caius Julius Csesar Octavianus, was taken into the Triumvirate with Antony and Lepidus, and, after the removal of the latter, divided the empire with Antony. The struggle for the supreme power was terminated in favor of Octavianus by the battle of Actium, B. C. 31. 43 i AVEN BABEL On this victory he was saluted Imperator by the senate, who conferred on him the title Augustus (B. C. 27). The first link binding him to N. T. history is his treatment of Herod after the battle of Actium. That prince, who had espoused Antony's side, found himself par- doned, taken into favor and confirmed, nay, even increased in his power. After Herod's death, in A. D. 4, Augustus divided his domin- ions almost exactly according to his dying directions, among his sons. Augustus died in Nola in Campania, August 19, A. U. C. 767, A. D. 14, in his 76th year ; but long before his death he had associated Tiberius with him in the empire. A'ven. I. The "plain of Aven" is mentioned by Amos (i. 5) in his denunciation of Syria and the country to the N. of Palestine. It has not been identified with certainty. 2. In Hos. X. 8 the word is clearly an abbreviation Ruins of Baalbek (now called Aven). of Bethaven, that is. Bethel (comp. iv. 15, &c.). 3. The sacred city of Heliopolis or On, in Egypt (Ezr. XXX. 17). Awl, a tool of which we do not know the ancient form. The only notice of it is in con- nection with the custom of boring the ear of the slave (Ex. xxi. 6; Deut. xv. 17). Axe. Consisted of a head of iron (cf. Is. x. 34), fastened, with thongs or otherwise, upon a handle of wood, and so liable to sHp oflf (Deut. xix. 5 ; 2 K. vi. 5). It was used for fell- ing trees (Deut. xx. 19), and also for shaping the wood when felled, perhaps like the mod- ern adze (i K. vi. 7). The "battle-axe" was probably, as its root indicates, a heavy mace or maul, like that which gave his surname to Charles Martel. B Ba'al, the supreme male divinity of the Phoenician and Canaanitish nations, as Ash- toreth was their supreme female divinity. Both names have the peculiarity of being used in the plural, and it seems certain that these plurals designate not statues of the divinities, but dififerent modifications of the divinities themselves. The plural Baalim is found fre- quently alone. The word Baal is in Hebrew a common noun of frequent occurrence, hav- ing the meaning Lord, not so much, however, in the sense of Ruler as of Master, Owner, Possessor. There can be no doubt of the very liigh antiquity of the worship of Baal. We find it established amongst the Moabites and their allies the Midianites in the time of Moses (Num. xxii. 41), and through these nations the Israelites were seduced to the worship of this god under the particular form of Baal-Peor (Num. XXV. 3-18; Deut. iv. 3). In the times of the kings the worship of Baal spread greatly, and together with that of Asherah became the religion of the court and people of the ten tribes (i K. xvi. 31-33, xviii. 19, 22). And though this idolatry was occasionally put down (2 K. iii. 2, x. 28), it appears never to have been permanently abolished among them (2 K. xvii. 16). In the kingdom of Judah also Baal-worship extensively prevailed. The wor- ship of Baal amongst the Jews seems to have been appointed with much pomp and cere- monial. Temples were erected to him (i K. xvi. 32; 2 K. xi. 18) ; his images were set up (2 K. X. 26) ; his altars were very numerous (Jer. xi. 13), were erected particularly on lofty eminences (i K. xviii. 20), and on the roofs of houses (Jer. xxxii. 29) ; there were priests in great numbers (i K. xviii. 19), and of vari- ous classes (2 K. x. 19); the worshippers ap- pear to have been arrayed in appropriate robes (2 K. x. 22) ; the worship was performed by burning incense (Jer. vii. 9) and offering burnt sacrifices, which occasionally consisted of human victims (Jer. xix. 5). The officiat- ing priests danced with frantic shouts around the altar, and cut themselves with knives to excite the attention and compassion of the god (i K. xviii. 26-28). Throughout all the Phoenician colonies we continually find traces of the worship of this god ; nor need we hesi- tate to regard the Babylonian Bel (Is. xlvi. i). or Belus as essentially identical with Baal, though perhaps under some modified form. Among the compounds of Baal which appear in the O. T. is Ba'al-be'rith (Judg. viii. 33, ix. 4). The name signifies the Covenant-Baal, the god who comes into covenant with the worshippers. Ba'bel (confusion), Bab'ylon (Greek form of Babel), is properly the capital city of the country which is called, in Genesis, Shinar, 44 THE mnni 0- V" BABEL BABEL •and in the later books Chaldaea, or the land of the Chaldaeans. The architectural remains discovered in Southern Babylonian, taken in conjunction with the monumental records, seem to indicate that it was not at first the capital, nor, indeed, a town of very great im- portance. The first rise of the Chaldaean power was in the region close upon the Per- sian Gulf ; thence the nation spread northwards up the course of the rivers, and the seat of gov- ernment moved in the same direction, being finally fixed at Babylon, perhaps not earlier than B. C. 1700. — The descriptions of Babylon which have come down to us in classical writ- ers are derived chiefly from two sources, the works of Herodotus and of Ctesias. Accord- ing to the former, the city, which was built on both sides of the Euphrates, formed a vast square, enclosed within a double line of high walls, the extent of the outer circuit being 480 stades, or about 56 miles. The entire area included would thus have been about 200 square miles. The houses, which were fre- quently three or four stories high, were laid out in straight streets crossing each other at right angles. In each division of the town there was a fortress or stronghold, consisting, in the one case, of the royal palace ; in the other, of the great temple of Belus. The two portions of the city were united by a bridge, composed of a series of stone piers with movable platforms of wood stretching from one pier to another. According to Ctesias, the circuit of the city was not 480 but 360 stades, — which is a little under 42 miles. It lay, he says, on both sides of the Euphrates, and the two parts were connected by a stone bridge five stades (above 1,000 yards) long, and 30 feet broad, of the kind described by Herodotus. At either extremity of the bridge was a loyal palace, that in the eastern city being the most magnificent of the two. The two palaces were joined, not only by the bridge, but by a tunnel under the river ! Ctesias' account pi the temple of Belus has not come down to us. In examining the truth of these descriptions, wc shall most conven- iently commence from the outer circuit of the town. All the ancient writers appear to agree in the fact of a district of vast size, more or less inhabited, having been enclosed within lofty walls, and included under the name of Babylon. With respect to the exact extent of the circuit they differ. The estimate of Herodotus and of Pliny is 480 stades, of Strabo 385, of Q. Curtius 368, of Clitarchus 365, and of Ctesias 360 stades. It is evident that here we have merely the moderate varia- tions to be expected in independent measure- 45 ments, except in the first of the numbers. Per- haps the true explanation is that Herodotus spoke of the outer wall, which could be traced in his time. Taking the lowest estimate of the extent of the circuit, we shall have for the space within the rampart an area of above 100 square miles ; nearly five times the size of London 1 It is evident that this vast space cannot have been entirely covered with houses. With regard to the height and breadth of the walls there is nearly as much difference of statement as with regard to their extent. The gates and walls are alike mentioned in Scripture; the height of the one and the breadth of the other being specially noticed (Jer. li. 58; comp. 1. 15, and li. 53). — About five miles above Hilah, on the opposite or left bank of the Euphrates, occurs a series of artificial mounds of enormous size. They con- sist chiefly of three great masses of building, — the high pile of unbaked brickwork, called by Rich "Mujellibe," but which is known to the Arabs as "Babil;" the building denomi- nated the "Kasr" or palace; and a lofty mound, upon which stands the modern tomb of Amramibn-'Alb. On the west, or right bank, the remains are very slight and scanty. Scat- tered over the country on both sides of the Euphrates are a number of remarkable mounds, usually standing single, which are plainly of the same date with the great mass of ruins upon the river bank. The most re- markable fact connected with the magnifi- cence of Babylon is the poorness of the ma- terial with which such wonderful results were produced. With bricks made from the soil of the country, in many parts an excellent clay, and at first only "slime for mortar" (Gen. xi. 3), were constructed edifices of so vast a size that they still remain among the most enor- mous ruins in the world. — Scripture represents the "beginning of the kingdom" as belonging to the time of Nimrod, the grandson of Ham (Gen. X. 6-10). The most ancient inscriptions appear to show that the primitive inhabitants of the country were really Cushite, i. e. iden- tical in race with the early inhabitants of Southern Arabia and of Ethiopia. The early annals of Babylon are filled by Berosus, the native historian, with three dynasties ; one of 49 Chaldean kings, who reigned 458 years ; another of 9 Arab kings, who reigned 245 years ; and a third of 49 Assyrian monarchs, who held dominion for 526 years. The line of Babylonian kings becomes exactly known to us from the year B. C. 747. The "Canon of Ptolemy" gives us the succession of Babv- lonian monarchs, with the exact length of the reign of each, from the year B. C. 747, when BABEL, TOWER OF BADGER-SKINS Nabonassar mounted the throne, to B. C. 331, when the last Persian king was dethroned by Alexander. Of the earlier kings of the Canon, the only one worthy of notice is Mardocem- palus (B. C. 721), the Merodach-Baladan of Scripture, but it is not till we come to Nabo- polassar, the father of Nebuchadnezzar, that a new era in the history of Babylon com- mences. On the fall of Nineveh (B. C. 625) Babylon became not only an independent kingdom, but an empire. The city was taken by surprise (B. C. 539), as Jeremiah had prophesied (li. 31), by an army of Medes and Persians under Cyrus, as intimated 170 years earlier by Isaiah (xxi, 1-9), and, as Jeremiah had also foreshown (li. 39), during a festival. According to the book of Daniel, it would seem as if Babylon was taken, not by Cyrus, king of Persia, but by a Median king, named Darius (v. 31). There is, however, sufficient indication that "Darius the Mede" was not the real conqueror, but a monarch with a cer- tain delegated authority (see Dan. v. 31, and ix. i). With the conquest by Cyrus com- menced the decay and ruin of Babylon, though it continued a royal residence through the entire period of the Persian empire. The defenses and public buildings suffered griev- ously from neglect during the long period of peace which followed the reign of Xerxes. After the death of Alexander the Great, the removal of the seat of empire to Antioch under the Seleucidae gave the finishing blow to the prosperity of the place. Since then Babylon has been a quarry from which all the tribes in the vicinity have derived the bricks with which they have built their cities. The "great city," "the beauty of the Chaldees' excellency," has thus emphatically "become heaps" (Jer. li.37)- Ba'bel, Tower of. The "tower of Babel" is only mentioned once in Scripture (Gen. xi. 4, 5), and then as incomplete. It was built of bricks, and the "slime" used for mortar was probably bitumen. Such authorities as we possess represent the building as destroyed soon after its erection. When the Jews, how- ever, were carried captive into Babylonia, they were struck with the vast magnitude and peculiar character of certain of the Babylonian temples, in one or other of which they thought to recognize the very tower itself. The pre- dominant opinion was in favor of the great temple of Nebo at Borsippa, the modern Birs- Nimrud. But the Birs-Nimrud, though it ca-n not be the tower of Babel itself, may well be taken to show the probable shape and charac- ter of the edifice. This building appears to have been a sort of oblique pyramid built in seven receding stages. "Upon a platform of crude brick, raised a few feet above the level of the alluvial plain, was built of burnt brick the first or basement stage, — an exact square, 272 feet each way, and 26 feet in perpendicular height. Upon this stage was erected a second, 230 feet each way, and likewise 26 feet high ; which, however, was not placed exactly in the middle of the first, but considerably nearer to the south-western end, which constituted the back of the building. The other stages were arranged similarly ; the third being 188 feet, and again 26 feet high ; the fourth, 146 feet square, and 15 feet high; the fifth 104 feet square, and the same height as the fourth ; the sixth 62 feet square, and again the same height; and the seventh 20 feet square, and once more the same height. On the seventh stage there was probably placed the ark or Birs-Nimrud. tabernacle, which seems to have been again 15 feet high, and must have nearly, if not en- tirely, covered the top of the seventh story. The entire original height, allowing three feet for the platform, would thus have been 156 feet, or, without the platform, 153 feet. The whole formed a sort of oblique pyramid, the gentler slope facing the N. E., and the steeper inclining to the S. W. On the N. E. side was the grand entrance, and here stood the vesti- bule, a separate building, the debris from which having joined those from the temple itself, fill up the intermediate space, and very remarkably prolong the mound in this direc- tion" (Rawlinson's "Herodotus," vol. ii. pp. 582-3). Badger-Skins. There is much obscurity as to the meaning of the word tachash rendered 46 THE mmt j BAG "badger' in our A. V. (Ex. xxv. 5, xxxv, 7, &c.) ; the ancient versions seem nearly all agreed that it denotes, not an animal, but a color, either black or sky-blue. The badger is not found in the Bible lands. The Arabic duchash, or tuchash, denotes a dolphin, but in all probability is not restricted in its appli- cation, but may refer to either a seal or a cetacean. The skin of the Halicore, from its hardness, would be well suited for making soles for shoes (Ez. xvi. 10), and it is worthy of remark that the Arabs near Cape Mussen- dum employ the skins of these animals for a similar purpose. The Halicore Tabernaculi is found in the Red Sea, and on the coral banks of the Abyssinian coast. Perhaps, however, tachash may denote a seal, the skin of which animal would suit all the demands of the Scriptural allusions. Bag is the rendering of several words in the Old and New Testaments, i. Cliaritim, the "bags" in which Naaman bound up the two talents of silver for Gehazi (2 K. v. 23). The word only occurs besides in Is. iii. 22, and there denotes the reticules carried by the Hebrew ladies. 2. Cis, a bag for carrying weights (Deut. xxv. 13; Prov. xvi. 11; Mic. vi. 11), also used as a purse (Prov. i. 14; Is. xlvi. 6). 3. Celi, in Gen. xlii. 25, is the "sack" in which Jacob's sons carried the corn which they brought from Egypt, and in I Sam. ix. 7, xxi. 5, it denotes a bag, or wallet, for carry- ing food. The shepherd's "bag" which David had seems to have been worn by him as neces- sary to his calling, and was probably, from a comparison of Zech. xi. 15, 16 (where A. V. "instruments" is the same word), for the pur- pose of carrying the lambs which were un- able to walk or were lost, and contained ma- terials for healing such as were sick and bind- ing up those that were broken (comp. Ez. xxxiv. 4, 16). 4. Tsepor, properly a "bundle" (Gen. xlii. 35; i Sam. xxv. 29), appears to have been used by travellers for carrying money during a long journey (Prov. vii. 20; Hag. i. 6; comp. Luke xii. 33). The "bag" which Judas carried was probably a small box or chest (John xii. 6, xiii. 29). The Greek word is the same as that used in the LXX. for "chest" in 2 Chr. xxiv. 8, 10, 11. Ba'laam, the son of Beor, a man endowed with the gift of prophecy (Num. xxii. 5). He belonged to the Midianites, and perhaps as the prophet of his people possessed the same authority that Moses did among the Israelites. At any rate, he is mentioned in conjunction with the five kings of Midian, apparently as a persoTj of the same rank (Num. xxxi. 8; cf. xxxi. 16). He seems to have lived at Pethor, ' BANQUETS which is said at Deut. xxiii. 4 to have been a city of Mesopotamia. He himself speaks of being "brought from Aram out of the moun- tains of the East" (Num. xxiii. 7). Balaam is one of those instances which meet us in Scripture of persons dwelling among heathens but possessing a certain knowledge of the one true God. When the Israelites were encamped in the plains of Moab, Balak, the king of ]Moab, sent for Balaam to curse him. Balaam was prohibited by God from going. The king of ]\Ioab, however, sent again for him. The prophet again refused, but was at length allowed to go. Balaam therefore proceeded on his journey with the messengers of Balak. But God's anger was kindled at this manifes- tation of determined self-will, and the angel of the Lord stood in the way for an adversary against him. "The dumb ass, speaking with man's voice, forbade the madness of the prophet" (2 Pet. ii. 16). Balaam predicted a magnificent career for the people whom he was called to curse, but he nevertheless sug- gested to the Moabites the expedient of seduc- ing them to commit fornication. The effect of this is recorded in ch. xxv. A battle was afterwards fought against the Midianites, in which Balaam sided with them and was slain by the sword of the people whom he had en- deavored to curse (Num. xxxi. 8). Baldness. There are two kinds of bald- ness, viz. artificial and natural. The latter seems to have been uncommon, since it ex- posed people to public derision, and is per- petually alluded to as a mark of squalor and misery (2 K. ii. 23 ; Is. iii. 24, xv. 2 ; Jer. xlvii. 5; Ez. vii. 18, &c.). In Lev. xiii. 29, &c., very careful directions are given to distinguish "the plague upon the head and beard" from mere natural baldness, which is pronounced to be clean, ver. 40. Artificial baldness marked the conclusion of a Nazarite's vow (Acts xviii. 18; Num. vi. 9), and was a sign of mourning. Balm occurs in Gen. xxxvii. 25, xliii. 11; Jer. viii. 22, xlvi. 11, li. 8; and Ez. xxvii. 17. It is impossible to identify it with any cer- tainty. It may represent the gum of the Pis- tacia lentiscus, or that of the Balsamodendron opobalsamum. It is now called the Balm of Gilead, the tree or shrub being indigenous in the mountains around Mecca. [Spices.] Banquets, among the Hebrews, were not only a means of social enjoyment, but were a part of the observance of religious festivity. At the three solemn festivals the family also had its domestic feast (Deut. xvi. 11). Prob- ably both males and females went up (i Sam. i. 9) together, to hold the festival. Sacri- fices, both • ordinary and extraordinary (Ex. 47 i 'i BAPTISM BARLEY xxxiv. 15; Judg. xvi. 23), included a banquet, and Eli's sons made this latter the prominent part. Birthday-banquets are only mentioned in the cases of Pharaoh and Herod (Gen. xl. 20; Matt. xiv. 6). The usual time of the ban- Balm of Gilead. quet was the evening, and to begin early was a mark of excess (Is. v. il; Eccl. x. 16). The most essential materials of the banqueting- room, next to the viands and wine, which last was often drugged with spices (Prov. ix. 2; Cant. viii. 2), were perfumed unguents,- gar- lands or loose flowers, white or brilliant robes ; after these, exhibitions of music, singers and dancers, riddles, jesting and merriment (Is. xxviii. I ; Wisd. ii. 7 ; 2 Sam. xix. 35 ; Is. xxv. 6, V. 12; Judg. xiv. 12; Neh. viii. 10; Eccl. x. 19; Matt. xxii. 11 ; Am. vi. 5, 6; Luke xv. 25). The posture at table in early times was sit- ting (i Sam. xvi. 11, xx. 5, 18), and the guests were ranged in order of dignity (Gen. xliii. 33 ; I Sam. ix. 22) : the words which imply the recumbent posture belong to the N. T. The separation of the women's banquet was not a Jewish custom (Esth. i. 9). Baptism. It is well known that ablution or bathing was common in most ancient na- tions as a preparation for prayers and sacri- fice or as expiatory of sin. There is a natural connection in the mind between the thought of physical and that of spiritual pollution. In warm countries this connection is probably even closer than in colder climates ; and hence the frequency of ablution in the religious rites throughout the East. The history of Israel and the Law of Moses abound with such illus- trations (Gen. xxxv. 2; Ex. xix. 10; Lev. xv., xvii. 15, xxii. 4, 6, xvi. 26, 28; Num. xix. 10). The baptism of John.— There has been some uncertainty as to the nature of John's bap- tism and its spiritual significance. It appears to have been a kind of transition from the Jewish baptism to the Christian. The dis- tinction between John's baptism and Christian baptism appears in the case of Apollos (Acts xviii. 26, 27), and of the disciples of Ephesus, mentioned Acts xix. 1-6. We cannot but draw from this history the inference that in Chris- tian baptism there was a deeper spiritual sig- nificance. The baptism of Jesus. — Plainly the most important action of John as a baptist was his baptism of Jesus, which was His for- mal setting apart for His ministry, and was a most important portion of His consecration to be the High-Priest of God. He was just en- tering on the age of thirty (Luke iii. 23), the age at which the Levites began their ministry and the rabbis their teaching. Baptism of the Disciples of Christ. — Whether our Lord ever baptized has been doubted. The only passage which may distinctly bear on the question is John iv. I, 2, where it is said "that Jesus made and baptized more disciples than John, though Jesus Himself baptized not, but His disciples." The command to baptize was co-extensive with the command to preach the Gospel. All nations were to be evangelized ; and they were to be made disciples, admitted into the fellowship of Christ's religion, by baptism (Matt, xxviii. 19). The language of the New Testament and of the primitive fathers suf- ficiently points to immersion as the common mode of baptism. But in the case of the family of the jailer at Philippi (Acts xvi. 33), and of the three thousand converted at Pentecost (Acts ii.), it seems hardly likely that immer- sion should have been possible. Moreover, the ancient Church, which mostly adopted im- mersion, was satisfied with effusion in case of clinical baptism — the baptism of the sick and dying. Barab'bas, a robber (John xviii. 40), who had committed murder in an insurrection (Mark xv. 7; Luke xxiii. 19) in Jerusalem, and was lying in prison at the time of the trial of Jesus before Pilate. Barbarian. "Every one not a Greek is a barbarian" is the common Greek definition, and in this strict sense' the word is used in Rom. i. 14, "I am debtor both to Greeks and barbarians." It often retains this primitive meaning, as in i Cor. xiv. il (of one using an unknown tongue), and Acts xxviii. 2, 4 (of the Maltese, who spoke a Punic dialect). Barley was grown by the Hebrews (Lev. xxvii. 16; Deut. viii. 8; Ruth ii. 17, &c.), who used it for baking into bread, chiefly amongst the poor (Judg. vii. 13; 2 K. iv. 42; John vi. 9, 13) ; for making into bread by mixing it with wheat, beans, lentils, millet, &c. (Ez. iv. 48 BARNABAS BASIN 9) ; and as fodder for horses (i K. iv. 28). The barley harvest (Ruth i. 22, ii. 23 ; 2 Sam. xxi. 9, 10) takes place in Palestine in March and April and in the hilly districts as late as May ; but the period, of course, varies according to the locali- ties where the corn grows. It always precedes the wheat harvest, in some places by a week, in others by fully three weeks. In Egypt the barley is about a month earlier than the wheat ; whence its total destruction by the hail-storm (Ex. ix. 31). Barley was sown at any time between November and March, according to the season. Barley bread is even to this day little esteemed in Palestine. This fact is im- portant, as serving to elucidate some passages in Scripture. Bar'nabas, a name signifying "son of proph- ecy," or "exhortation" (or, but not so prob- ably, "consolation," as A. V.), given by the Apostles (Acts iv. 36) to Joseph (or Joses), a Levite of the island of Cyprus, who was early a disciple of Christ. In Acts ix. 27, we find him introducing the newly converted Saul to the Apostles at Jerusalem, in a way which seems to imply previous acquaintance between the two. On tidings coming to the church at Jerusalem that men of Cyprus and Cyrene had been preaching to Gentiles at Antioch, Barnabas was sent thither (Acts xi. 19-26), and went to Tarsus to seek Saul, as one spe- cially raised up to preach to the Gentiles (Acts xxvi. 17). Having brought him to Antioch, he was sent with him to Jerusalem with relief for the brethren in Judaea (Acts xi. 30). On their return, they (Acts xiii. 2) were ordained by the church for the missionary work, and sent forth (A. D. 45). From this time Bar- nabas and Paul enjoy the title of dignity of Apostles. The Epistle attributed to Barna- bas is believed to have been written early in the second century. Barthoromew, one of the Twelve Apostles of Christ (Matt. x. 3; Mark iii. 18; Luke vi. 14; Acts i. 13). It has been not improbably conjectured that he is identical with Nathan- ael (John i. 45 fiE.). He is said to have preached the Gospel in India, that is, prob- ably, Arabia Felix, and, according to some, in Armenia. Bartimae'us, a blind beggar of Jericho who (Mark x. 46 £f.) sat by the wayside begging as our Lord passed out of Jericho on His last journey to Jerusalem. Ba'ruch. Son of Neriah, the friend (Jer. xxxii. 12), amanuensis (Jer. xxxvi. 4-32), and faithful attendant of Jeremiah (Jer. xxxvi. 10 flf. ; B. C. 603), in the discharge of his pro- phetic office. He was of a noble family (comp. Jer. li. 59; Bar. i. i), and of distinguished ac- quirements ; and his brother Seraiah held an honorable office in the court of Zedekiah (Jer. li. 59). His enemies accused him of influenc- ing Jeremiah in favor of the Chaldaeans (Jer. xliii. 3; cf. xxxvii. 13); and he was thrown into prison with that prophet, where he re- mained till the capture of Jerusalem, B. C. 586. By the permission of Nebuchadnezzar he remained with Jeremiah at Mizpeh (Jos. Ant. x. 9, §1) ; but was afterwards forced to go down to Egypt (Jer. xliii. 6). Nothing is known certainly of the close of his life. Baruch, The Book of. It exists at present in Greek, and in several translations which were made from the Greek. Of the two Old Latin versions which remain, that which is incorporated in the Vulgate is generally lit- eral ; the other is more free. The book was held in little esteem among the Jews. From the time of Irenaeus it was frequently quoted both in the East and in the West, and gener- ally as the work of Jeremiah. At the Council of Trent Baruch was admitted into the Romish Canon. Ba'shan, a district on the east of Jordan. It is sometimes spoken of as the "land of Bashan" (i Chr. v. 11; and comp. Num. xxi. 33, xxxii. 33), and sometimes as "all Bashan" (Deut. iii. 10, 13; Josh. xii. 5, xiii. 12, 30), but mostly commonly without any addition. It was taken by the children of Israel after their conquest of the land of Sihon from Arnon to Jabbok. Basin. Among the smaller vessels for the Tabernacle or Temple service, many must have been required to receive from the sacri- ficial victims the blood to be sprinkled for purification. The form and material of these vessels can only be conjectured from the anal- ogy of ancient Assyrian and Egyptian speci- mens of works of the same kind. The "basin" from which our Lord washed the disciples' BASKET BEARD feet was probably deeper and larger than the hand-basin for sprinkling. Basket. The Hebrew terms used in the de- scription of this article are as follows: (i) Sal, so called from the twigs of which it was originally made, specially used for holding bread (Gen. xl. i6 f¥. ; Ex. xxix. 3, 23; Lev. viii. 2, 26, 31; Num. vi. 15, 17, 19). (2) Sal- silloth, a word of kindred origin, applied to the basket used in gathering grapes (Jer. vi. 9). (3) Tene, in which the first-fruits of the harvest were presented (Deut. xxvi. 2, 4). We may infer that it was used for household pur- poses, perhaps to bring the corn to the mill. (4) Celub, so called from its similarity to a bird cage or trap, probably in regard to its Egyptian Baskets. having a lid : it was used for carrying fruit (Am. viii. I, 2). (5) Dud, used for carrying fruit (Jer. xxiv. i, 2), as well as on a larger scale for carrying clay to the brickyard (Ps. Ixxxi. 6; pots, A. V.), or for holding bulky articles (2 K. x. 7). In the N. T. baskets are described under three different terms. Bastard. Among those who were excluded from entering the congregation, even to the tenth generation, was the mamzer (A. V. bastard), who was classed in this respect with the Ammonite and Moabite (Deut. xxiii. 2). The term is not, however, applied to any ille- gitimate offspring, born out of wedlock, but is restricted by the Rabbins to the issue of any connection within the degrees prohibited by the Law. Bat. Many travellers have noticed the im- mense numbers of bats that are found in cav- erns in the East, and Mr. Layard says that on the occasion of a visit to a cavern these noisome beasts compelled him to retreat. Bath. This was a prescribed part of the Jewish ritual of purification in cases of acci- dent, leprous or ordinary uncleanness (Lev. XV., xvi. 28, xxii. 6; Num. xix. 7, 19; 2 Sam. xi. 2, 4; 2 K,. V. 10) ; as also after mourning, which always implied (^efilement (Ruth iii. 3; 2 Sam. xii. 20). With bathing, anointing was cus- tomarily joined; the climate making both these essential alike to health and pleasure, to which 1 uxury added the use of perfumes (Susan. 17; Jud. x. 3; Esth. ii. 12). The "pools," such as that of Siloam and Hezekiah (Neh._ iii. 15, 16; 2 K. xx. 20; Is. xxii. 11 ; John ix. 7), often sheltered by porticos (John V. 2), are the first indications we have of pub- lic bathing accommodation. Battle-axe, Jer. li. 20. Beans (2 Sam. xvii. 28; Ezr. iv. 9). Beans are cultivated in Palestine, which produces many of the leguminous order of plants, such as lentils, kidney-beans, vetches, &c. Beans are in blossom in January ; they have been noticed in flower at Lydda on the 23d, and at Sidon and Acre even earlier; they continue in flower till March. Bear (i Sam. xvii. 34, 2 Sam. xvii. 8). The Syrian bear (Ursus Syriacus), which is with- out doubt the animal mentioned in the Bible, is still found on the higher mountains of Pal- estine. During the summer months these bears keep to the snowy parts of Lebanon, but descend in winter to the villages and gar- dens ; it is probable also that at this period in former days they extended their visits to other parts of Palestine. Syrian Bear. Beard. W estern Asiatics have always cher- ished the beard as the badge of the dignity of manhood, and attached to it the importance of a feature. The Egyptians, on the contrary, for the most part shaved the hair of the face and head, though we find some instances to the contrary. It is impossible to decide with certainty the meaning of the precept (Lev. xix. 27, xxi. 5) regarding the "corners of the beard." Probably the Jews retained the hair on the sides of the face between the ear and the eye, which the Arabs and others shaved away. The beard is the object of an oath, and that on which blessings or shame are spoken of as resting. The custom was and is to shave or pluck it and the hair out in mourning (Is. 1. 6, xv. 2; Jer. xH. 5, xlviii. 37; Ezr. ix. 3; Bar. vi. 31); to neglect it is sea- sons of permanent affliction (2 Sam. xix. 24), and to regard any insult to it as the last out- rage which enmity can -inflict (2 Sam. x. 4). 50 •J i BED BEERSHEBA The beard was the object of salutation (2 Sam. XX. 9). The dressing, trimming, anoint- ing, &c., of the beard was performed with much ceremony by persons of wealth and rank (Ps. cxxxiii. 2). The removal of the beard was a part of the ceremonial treatment proper to a leper (Lev. xiv. 9). Bed and Bed-chamber. We may distinguish in the Jewish bed five principal parts: i. The mattress, which was limited to a mere mat, Bed and Head-rest. or one or more quilts. 2. The covering, a quilt finer than those used in i. In summer a thin blanket or the outer garment worn by day (i Sam. xix. 13) sufficed. Hence the law provided that it should not be kept in pledge after sunset, that the poor man might not lack his needful covering (Deut. xxiv. 13). 3. The only material mentioned for this is that which occurs in i Sam. xix. 13, and the word used is of doubtful meaning, but seems to signify some fabric woven or plaited of goat's hair. It is clear, however, that it was something hastily adopted to serve as a pillow, and is not decisive of the ordinary use. Such pil- lows are common to this day in the East, formed of sheep's fleece or goat's skin, with a stuffing of cotton, &c. 4. The bedstead was not always necessary, the divan, or platform along the side or end of an Oriental room, sufficing as a support for the bedding. Yet some slight and portable frame seems implied among the senses of- the word, which is used for a "bier" (2 Sam. iii. 31), and for the ordi- nary bed (2 K. iv. 10), for the litter on which a sick person might be carried (i Sam. xix. 15), for Jacob's bed of sickness (Gen. xlvii. 31), and for the couch on which guests re- clined at a banquet (Esth. i. 6). 5. The orna- mental portions were pillars and a canopy (Jud. xiii. 9), ivory carvings, gold and silver, and probably mosaic work, purple and fine linen (Esth. i. 6; Cant. iii. 9, 10). The ordi- nary furniture of a bed-chamber in private life is given in 2 K. iv. 10. The "bed-chamber" in the Temple where Joash was hidden was probably a store-chamber for keeping beds (2 K. xi. 2; 2 Chr. xxii. 11). The position of the parts of the palace seems marked in the pass- ages, Ex. viii. 3, 2 K. vi. 12. Bee, Deut. i. 44 ; Judg. xiv. 8 ; Ps. cxviii. 12; Is. vii. 18. That Palestine abounded in bees is evident from the description of that land by Moses, for it was a land "flowing with milk and honey;" nor is there any reason for supposing that this expression is to be understood otherwise than in its literal sense. English naturalists know little of the species of bees that are found in Palestine. Mr. F. Smith, our best authority on the Hymenop- tera, is inclined to believe that the honey-bee of Palestine is distinct from the honey-bee (A. mellifica) of this country. There can be no doubt that the attacks of bees in Eastern countries are more to be dreaded than they are in more temperate climates. Swarms in the East are far larger than they are with us, and, on account of the heat of the climate, one can readily imagine that their stings must give rise to very dangerous symptoms. Beel'zebul, the title of a heathen deity, to whom the Jews ascribed the sovereignty of the evil spirits (Matt. X. 25, xii. 24.1 Mark iii. 22; Luke xi. 15 fif.). The correct reading is without doubt Beelzebul, and not Beelzebub, as given in the Syriac, the Vulgate and some other versions. Beer'-sheba (well of the lion), the name of one of the old places in Palestine, which formed the southern limit of the country. There are two accounts of the origin of the name. i. According to the first, the well was •Beor-sheba. dug by Abraham, and the name given, because there he and Abimelech the king of the Philis- tines "sware" both of them (Gen. xxi. 31). 2. The other narrative ascribes the origin of the name to an occurrence almost precisely similar, in which both Abimelech, the king of the Philistines, and Phichol, his chief cap- bed-chamber in the most remote and secret! tain, are again concerned, with the difference 51 BEHEMOTH BELSHAZZAR that the person on the Hebrew side of the transaction is Isaac instead of Abraham (Gen. xxvi. 31-33). There are at present on the spot two principal wells, and five smaller ones. The curb-stones round the mouth of both wells are worn into deep grooves by the action of the ropes of so many centuries, and "look as if frilled or fluted all round." Beefsheba was given to the tribe of Simeon (xix. 2 ; i Chr. iv. 28). In the time of Jerome it was still a considerable place ; and later it is men- tioned as an episcopal city under the Bishop of Jerusalem. Be'hemoth. There can be little or no doubt that by this word (Job xl. 15-24) the hippo- potamus is intended, since all the details de- scriptive of the behemoth accord entirely with the ascertained habits of that animal. Since in the first part of Jehovah's discourse (Job xxxviii., xxxix.) land animals and birds are Hippopotamus. mentioned, it suits the general purpose of that discourse better to suppose that aquatic or amphibious creatures are spoken of in the last half of it: and since the leviathan, by almost universal consent, denotes the crocodile, the behemoth seems clearly to point to the hippo- potamus, his associate in the Nile. The de- scription of the animal's lying under "the shady trees," amongst the "reeds" and willows, is peculiarly appropriate. Be'lial. The translators of our A. V., fol- lowing the Vulgate, have frequently treated this word as a proper name, and given it in the form Belial, in accordance with 2 Cor. vi. 15. There can be no question, however, that the word is not to be regarded as a proper name in the O. T. ; its meaning is worthless- ness, and hence recklessness, lawlessness. The expression son or man of Belial must be under- stood as meaning simply a worthless, lawless fellow. Tlie term as used in 2 Cor. vi. 15 is generally understood as an appellative of Satan, as the personification of all that was bad. Bellows. The word occurs only in Jer. vi. 29, "The bellows aj"e burned ;" where their use is to heat a smelting furnace. A picture of two different kinds of bellows, both of highly ingenious construction, may be found in Wilkinson, Anc. Egypt, iii. 338. "They consisted," he says, "of a leather, secured and fitted into a frame, from which a long pipe extended for carrying the wind to the fire. They were worked by the feet, the operator standing upon them, with one under each foot, and pressing them alternately while he pulled up each exhausted skin with a string he held in his hand. In one instance we observe from the painting, that when the man left the bel- lows they were raised as if inflated with air; and this would imply a knowledge of the valve. The pipes, even in the time of Thot- mes II. [supposed to be] the contemporary of Moses, appear to have been simply of reed, tipped with a metal point to resist the action of the fire." Bells. In Ex. xxviii. 33 the bells alluded to were the golden ones, according to the Rabbis 72 in number, round the hem of the high- priest's ephod. The object of them was "that his sound might be heard when he went in unto the holy place, and when he came out, that he die not" (Ex. xxviii. 34; Ecclus. xlv. 9). To this day bells are frequently attached, for the sake of their pleasant sound, to the anklets of women. The little girls of Cairo wear strings of them round their feet. In Zech. xiv. 20, "bells of the horses" is probably a wrong rendering. It is more probable that they are not bells, but concave or flat pieces of brass, which were sometimes attached to horses for the sake of ornament. Belshaz'zar, the last king of Babylon. Ac- cording to the well-known narrative in Dan. v., he was slain during a splendid feast in his palace. Similarly, Xenophon tells us that Babylon was taken by Cyrus in the night, while the inhabitants were engaged in feast- ing and revelry, and that the king was killed. On the other hand, the narratives of Berosus in Josephus and of Herodotus differ from the above account in some important particulars. Berosus calls the last king of Babylon Nabon- nedus or Nabonadius, and says that jn the 17th year of his reign Cyrus took Babylon, the king having retired to the neighboring city of Borsippus or Borsippa. According to He- rodotus the last king was called Labynetus. These discrepancies have lately been cleared up by the discoveries of Sir Henry Rawlinson. 52 THE \mm 0? THE BENJAMIN From the inscriptions it appears that the eld- est son of Xabonnedus was called Bel-shar- ezar, contracted into Belshazzar, and admitted by his father to a share in the government. So that Belshazzar, as joint king with his father, may have been governor of Babylon when the city was attacked by the combined forces of the !Medes and Persians, and may have perished in the assault which followed; while Xabonnedus leading a force to the relief of the place was defeated, and obliged to take refuge in Borsippa. In Dan. v. 2, Nebuchad- nezzar is called the father of Belshazzar. This, of course, need only mean grandfather or an- cestor. Rawlinson connects Belshazzar with Nebuchadnezzar through his mother; but Marcus Niebuhr considers Belshazzar to be another name for Evil-merodach, the son of Nebuchadnezzar. On Rawlinson's view, Bel- shazzar died B. C. 538; on Niebuhr's, B. C. 559- Ben'jamin (son of the right-hand, for- tunate). The yongest of the children of Jacob. His birth took place on the road between Bethel and Bethlehem, a short distance from the latter, and his mother Rachel died in the act of givig him birth, named him with her last breath Ben-oni, "son of my sorrow." This was by Jacob changed into Benjamin (Gen. XXXV. 16-18). Until the journeys of Jacob's sons and of Jacob himself into Egypt we hear nothing of Benjamin. Henceforward the his- tory of Benjamin is the history of the tribe. And up to the time of the entrance on the Promised Land that history is as meagre as it is afterwards full and interesting. The con- trast between the warlike character of the tribe and the peaceful image of its progenitor comes out in many scattered notices. Ben jamin was the only tribe which seems to have pursued archery to any purpose, and their skill in the bow (i Sam. xx. 20, 36; 2 Sam. i 22; I Chr. viii. 40, xii. 2; 2 Chr. xvii. 17) and the sling (Judg. xx. 16) is celebrated. The dreadful deed recorded in Judg. xix., though repelled by the whole country, was unhesi tatingly adopted and defended by Benjamin with an obstinacy and spirit truly extraordi nary. That frightful transaction was indeed a crisis in the history of the tribe: the six hundred who took refuge in the cliff Rimmon were the only survivors. A long interval must have elapsed between so abject a condition and the culminating point at which we next meet with the tribe. Several circumstances may have conduced to its restoration to that place which it was now to assume. Ramah (i Sam. ix. 12, &c.), Mizpeh (i Sam. vii. 5), Bethel, and Gibeon (i K. iii. 4) were all in BethaNy the land of Benjamin. The people who re- sorted to these sanctuaries must gradually have been accustomed to associate the tribe with power and sanctity. The struggles and contests which followed the death of Saul arose from the natural unwillingness of the tribe to relinquish its position at the head of the nation, especially in favor of Judah, and we do not hear of any cordial cooperation or firm union between the two tribes until the disruption of the kingdoms. Henceforward the history of Benjamin becomes merged in that of the southern kingdom. Ben-o'ni, the name which the dying Rachel gave to her newly-born son, but which by his father was changed into Benjamin (Gen. XXXV. 18). Ber'achah, Valley of, a valley in which Jehoshaphat and his people assembled to "bless" Jehovah after the overthrow of the hosts of Moabites, Ammonites, and Mehunim, who had come against them, and which from that fact acquired its name of "the valley of blessing" (2 Chr. xx. 26). Berni'ce and Bereni'ce, the eldest daughter of Herod Agrippa I. (Acts xii. i, &c.). She was first married to her uncle Herod, king of Chalcis, and after his death (A. D. 48) she lived under circumstances of great suspicion with her own brother, Agrippa II., in connec- tion with whom she is mentioned (Acts xxv. 13, 23, xxvi. 30) as having visited Festus on his appointment as Procurator of Judaea. Beryl (tarshish). It is generally supposed that the tarshish derives its name from the place so called. The ancient chr3^solite or the modern yellow topaz appears to have a better claim than any other gem to represent the tarshish of the Hebrew Bible, certainly a bet- ter claim than the beryl of the A. V., a render- ing which appears to be unsupported by any kind of evidence. Beth, the most general word for a house or habitation. — Beth is more frequently em- ployed in compound names of places than any other word. Beth-eked, the "shearing house" (2 K. x. 12), lay between Jezreel and Samaria, according to Jerome 15 miles from the town of Legio, and in the plain of Esdraelon. Betli- haggan, "the garden-house" (2 K. ix. 27), is doubtless the same place as Engannin, "spring of gardens." Beth'any (house of dates), a village which, scanty as are the notices of it contained in Scripture, is more intimately associated in our minds than perhaps any other place with the most familiar acts and ^scenes of the last days of the life of Christ. It was situated "at" the Mount of Olives (Mark xi. i; Luke xix. 29), 53 BETHEL BETHLEHEM about fifteen stadia from Jerusalem (John xi. i8), or on near the usual road from Jericho to the city. Bethany is now known by a name derived from Lazarus, — el-'Azariyeh or Laza- rieh. It lies on the eastern slope of the Mount of Olives, fully a mile beyond the summit, and not very far from the point at which the road to Jericho begins its more sudden descent towards the Jordan valley. Beth-any has been commonly explained "House of Dates," but it more probably signifies "House of Misery." Beth' el (the house of God). i. A well- known city and holy place of central Pales- tine. Of the origin of the name of Bethel there are two accounts extant: i. It was bestowed on the spot by Jacob under the awe inspired by the nocturnal vision of God, when on his journey from his father's house at Beersheba to seek his wife in Haran (Gen. xxviii. 19). 2. But, according to the other account, Bethel received its name on the occasion of a blessing bestowed by God upon Jacob after his return from Padanaram ; at which time also (accord- ing to this narrative) the name of Israel -was given him (Gen. xxxv. 14, 15). — Early as is the date involved in these narratives, yet, if we are to accept the precise definition of Gen. xii. 8, the name of Bethel would appear to have existed at this spot even before the ar- rival of Abram in Canaan (Gen. xii. 8, xiii. 3, 4). I'n one thing, however, the above narra- tives all agree, — in omitting any mention of town or buildings at Bethel at that early period, and in drawing a marked distinction between the "city" of Luz and the consecrated "place" in its neighborhood (comp. Gen. xxxv. 7). The appropriation of the name of Bethel to the city appears not to have been made till still later, when it was taken by the tribe of Ephraim ; after which the name of Luz oc- curs no more (Judg. i. 22-26). — After the con- quest Bethel is frequently heard of. In the troubled times when there was no king in Israel, it was to Bethel that the people went up in their distress to ask counsel of God (Judg. XX. 18, 26, 31 ; xxi. 2: A. V. "house of God"). Here was the ark of the covenant under the charge of Phinehas, the grandson of Aaron (xx. 26-28, xxi. 4). Later we find it named as one of the holy cities to which Sam- uel went in circuit (i Sam. vii. 16). Here Jeroboam placed one of the two calves of gold. Towards the end of Jeroboam's life Bethel fell into the hands of Judah (2 Chr. xiii. ig). Elijah visited Bethel, and we hear of "sons of the prophets" as residents there (2 K. ii. 2, 3), two facts apparently incompatible with the active existence of the calf-worship. But, after the destruction of the Baal worship by Jehu, Bethel comes once more into view (2 K. X. 29). After the desolation of the north- ern kingdom by the king of Assyria, Bethel still remained an abode of priests (2 K. xvii. 28. 27). Bethesda (house of mercy, or the flowering Traditional Pool of Bethesda. water), the Hebrew name of a reservoir or tank, with five "porches," close upon the sheep-gate or "market" in Jerusalem (John V. 2). The porches — i. e. cloisters or colon- nades — were extensive enough to accommo- date a large number of sick and infirm people, whose custom it was to wait there for the "troubling of the water." The large reservoir Birket Israil, within the walls of the city, close by the St. Stephen's Gate, and under the north- east wall of the Haram area, is generally con- sidered to be the modern representative of Bethesda. Bethlehem from the Chapel of the Nativity. Beth'lehem (house of bread). One of the oldest towns in Palestine, already in existence at the time of Jacob's return to the country. Its earliest name was Ephrath or Ephratah (see Gen. xxxv. 16, 19, xlviii. 7), and it is not till long after the occupation of the country by the Israelites that we meet with it under its new name of Bethlehem. After the con- 54 BETHSAIDA BIBLE quest Bethlehem appears under its own name LJethlehem-judah (Judg. xvii. 7; i Sam. xvii. 12; Ruth i. I, 2). The Book of Ruth is a page from the domestic history of Bethle- hem : the names, almost the very persons, of the Bethlehemites are there brought before us ; we are allowed to assist at their most peculiar customs, and to witness the very springs of those events which have conferred immortal- ity on the name of the place. The elevation of David to the kingdom does not appear to have altected the fortunes of his native town. — The few remaining casual notices of Bethle- hem in the Old Testament may be quickly enumerated. It was fortified by Rehoboam (2 Chr. xi. 6). By the time of the captivity, the Inn of Chimham by Bethlehem appears to have become the recognized point of de- parture for travellers to Egypt (Jer. xli. 17). — In the New Testament Bethlehem retains its distinctive title of Bethlehem-judah (Matt. ii. I, 5), and once, in the announcement of the Angels, the "city of David" (Luke ii. 4; comp. John vii. 42). The passages just quoted, and the few which follow, exhaust the references to it in the N. T. (Matt. ii. 6, 8, 16; Luke ii. 15). The modern town of Beit-lahm lies to the E. of the main road from Jerusalem to Hebron, 6 miles from the former. The popu- lation is about 3,000 souls, entirely Christians. Chapel of the Nativity, Bethlehem. Beth-sa'ida (house of fish), i. "Bethsaida of Galilee" (John xii. 21), a city which was the native place of Andrew, Peter, and Philip (John i. 44, xii. 21), in the land of Gennesa- reth (Mark vi. 45; comp. 53), and therefore on the west side of the lake. Dr. Robinson places Bethsaida at 'Ain et-Tabigah, a short distance north of Khan Minyeh, which he identifies with Capernaum. 2. By comparing the narratives in Mark vi. 31-53, and Luke ix. 10-17, it appears certain that the Bethsaida at which the 5,000 were fed must have been a second place of the same name on the east of the lake. Such a place there was at the north- eastern extremity, formerly a village, but re- built and adorned by Philip the Tetrarch, and raised to the dignity of a town under the name of Julias, after the. daughter of the emperor. Here in a magnificent tomb Philip was buried. Of this Bethsaida we have certainly one and propably two mentions in the Gospels : i. That Site of Bethsaida. named above, of the feeding of the 5,000 (Luke ix. 10). 2. The other, most probably, is Mark viii. 22. Betrothing. [Marriage.] Beu'lah, "married," the name whi:h the land of Israel is to bear, when "the land shall be married" (Is. Ixii. 4). Bible. I. When the Books of the Old Tes- tament were formed into a Canon [Canon] it was natural to give a general name to the col- lection. The earliest instance of such a title occurs in Daniel, who refers to "the books" (Dan. ix. 2) in a manner which seems to mark the prophetic writings as already col- lected into one whole. The word Bible, or The Book, has been given to the collected books of the Old and New Testaments. The writers of the New Testament call the books of the Old Testament either The Scripture (Acts viii. 32; Gal. iii. 22; 2 Tim. iii. 16), or The Scriptures (Matt. xxi. 42; Luke xxiv. 27), or The Holy Scriptures (2 Tim. iii. 15). Of the Latin equivalents, which were adopted by different writers (Instrumentum, Testamen- tum), the latter met with the most general acceptance, and perpetuated itself in the lan- guages of modern Europe, whence the terms Old Testament and New Testament, though the Greek word properly signifies "Covenant" rather than "Testament." But the application of the word Bible to the collected books of the Old and New Testaments is not to be traced further back than the fifth century of our era. II. The existence of a collection 55 Bible BIBLE of sacred books recognized as authoritative leads naturally to a more or less systematic arrangement. The Prologue to Ecclesiasticus mentions "the law of the prophets and the other Books." In the N. T. there is the same kind of recognition. "The Law and the Prophets" is the shorter (Matt. xi. 13, xxii. 40; Acts xiii. 15, &c.) ; "the Law, the Prophets, and the Psalms" (Luke xxiv. 44), the fuller statement of the division popularly recognized. The arrangement of the books of the Hebrew txet under these three heads requires, however, a further notice, i. The Law, containing Gen- esis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuter- onomy, naturally continued to occupy the po- sition which it must have held from the first as the most ancient and authoritative portion. In the Hebrew classification the titles were taken from the initial words, or prominent words in the initial verse ; in that of the LXX. they were intended to be significant of the sub- ject of each book. 2. The next group presents a more singular combination. The arrange- ment stands as follows : , fjoshua Elder J Judges j 1 & 2 Samuel ll & 2 Kings Prophets. Later Greater 1 Isaiah ■j .Teremiah lEzekiel Txhe twelve Lesser -i minor LProphets — the Hebrew titles of these books correspond- ing to those of the English Bibles. 3. Last in order came the group known to the Jews as Cethubim, including the remaining books of the Hebrew Canon, arranged in the following order, and with subordinate divisions : (a) Psalms, Proverbs, Job. (b) The Song of Songs, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, Esther — the five rolls, (c) Daniel, Ezra, Nehemiah, i and 2 Chronicles. The history of the arrangement of the Books of the New Testament presents some variations, not without interest, as indi- cating differences of feeling or modes of thought. The four Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles uniformly stand first. They are so far to the New what the Pentateuch was to the Old Testament. The position of the Acts as an intermediate book, the sequel to the Gospels, the prelude to the Epistles, was obviously a natural one. After this we meet with some striking dififerences. The order in the Alexandrian, Vatican and Ephraem MSS. (A B C) gives precedence to the Catholic Epistles, and this would appear to have been characteristic of the Eastern Churches. The Western Church, on the other hand, as rep- resented by Jerome, Augustine and their suc- cessors, gave priority of position to the Pauline Epistles. Ihe Apocalypse, as might be ex- pected from the peculiar character of its con- tents, occupied a position by itself. III. Divi- sion into Chapters and Verses. — The Hebrew of the Old Testament. It is hardly possible to conceive of the liturgical use of the books of the Old Testament without some kind of recognized division. The references, how- ever, in Mark xii. 26 and Luke xx. 37, Rom. xi. 2, and Acts viii. 32, indicate a division which had become familiar, and show that some at least of the sections were known popularly by the titles taken from their subjects. In like manner the existence of a cycle of lessons is indicated by Luke iv. 17; Acts xiii. 15, xv. 21 ; 2 Cor. iii. 14. The Talmudic division is on the following plan : The Law was in the first instance divided into fifty-four Parshioths, or sections, so as to provide a lesson for each Sab- bath in the Jewish intercalary year. Coexist- ng with this there was a subdivision into lesser Parshioth. A different terminology was em- ployed for the Elder and Later Prophets, and the division was less uniform. The name of the sections in this case was Haphtaroth. Of the traditional divisions of the Hebrew Bible, however, that which has exercised most influ- ence in the received arrangement of the text was the subdivision of the larger sections into verses (Pesukim). These do not appear to have been used till the post-Talmudic recen- sion of the text by the Masoretes of the 9th century! The chief facts that remain to be stated as to the verse division of the Old Testa- ment are that it was adopted by Stephens in his edition of the Vulgate, 1555, and by Frellon in that of 1556; that it appeared for the first time in an English translation, in the Geneva Bible of 1560, and was thence transferred to the Bishops' Bible of 1568, and the Authorized Version of 161 1. With the New Testament, the division into chapters adopted by Hugh de St. Cher superseded those that had been in use previously, appeared in the early editions of the Vulgate, was transferred to the English Bible by Coverdale, and so became universal. As to the division into verses, the absence of an authoritative standard left more scope to the individual discretion of editors or printers, and the activity of the two Stephenses caused that which they adopted in their numerous editions of the Greek Testament and Vulgate 56 THE ur^n Of IHB BIRDS BLINDNESS to be generally received. In the Preface to the Concordance, pubhshed by Henry Ste- phens, 1594, he gives an account of the origin of this division. The whole work was accom- plished '"inter equitandum" on his journey from Paris to Lyons. While it was in prog- ress men doubted of its success. No sooner was it known than it met with universal ac- ceptance. The edition in wdiich this division was first adopted was published in 1551. It was used for the English version published in Geneva in 1560, and from that time, with slight variations in detail, has been univer- sally recognized. Birds. [Sparrow.] Birthdays. The custom of observing birth- days is very ancient (Gen. xl. 20; Jer. xx. 15) ; and in Job i. 4, &c., we read that Job's sons "feasted every one his day." In Persia they were celebrated with peculiar honors and ban- quets, and in Egypt the king's birthdays were kept with great pomp. It is very probable that in Matt. xiv. 6 the feast to commemorate Her- od's accession is intended, for we know that such feasts were common and were called "the day of the king" (Hos. vii. 5). Birthright. The advantages accruing to the eldest son were not definitely fixed in patri- archal times. Great respect was paid to him in the household, and, as the family widened into a tribe, this grew into a sustained author- ity, undefined, save by custom, in all matters of common interest. Thus the "princes" of the congregation had probably rights of primogen- iture (Num. vii. 2, xxi. 18, xxv. 14). A "double portion" of the paternal propery was allotted by the Mosaic law (Deut. xxi. 15-17). The first-born of the king was his successor by law (2 Chr. xxi. 3) ; David, however, by divine ap- pointment, excluded Adonijah in favor of Solo- mon. Bishop. This word, applied in the N. T. to the officers of the Church who were charged with certain functions of superintendence, had been in use before as a title of office. When the organization of the Christian churches in Gentile cities involved the assignment of the work of pastoral superintendence to a distinct order, the title bishop presented itself as at once convenient and familiar, and was there- fore adopted as readily as the word elder had been in the mother church of Jerusalem. The duties of the bishop-elders appear to have been as follows: i. General superintendence over the spiritual well-being of the flock (i Pet. v. 2). 2. Tbe work of teaching, both publicly and privately (i Thess. v. 12; Tit. i. 9; i Tim. V. 17). 3. The work of visiting the sick ap- pears in Jam. v. 14 as assigned to the elders of the Church. 4. Among other sects of char- ity, that of receiving strangers occupied a con- spicuous place (I Tim. iii. 2; Tit. i. 8). The mode in which these officers of the Church were supported or remunerated varied prob- ably in different cities. Collectively at Jeru- salem, and probably in other churches, the body of bishop-elders took part in deliberations (Acts XV. 6-22, xxi. 18), addressed other churches (ibid. xv. 23), were joined with the apostles in the work of ordaining by the lay- ing on of hands (2 Tim. i. 6). III. It is clear from what has been said that episcopal func- tions in the modern sense of the words, as implying a special superintendence over the ministers of the Church, belonged only to the apostles and those whom they invested with their authority. Bitter Herbs. The Israelites were com- manded to eat the Paschal lamb "with unleav- ened bread and with bitter herbs" (Ex. xii. 8). These may well be understood to denote va- rious sorts of bitter plants, such particularly as belong to the cruciferae, as some of the bet- ter cresses, or to the chicory group of the com- positae, the hawkweeds, and sow-thistles, and wild lettuces which grow abundantly in the Peninsula of Sinai, in Palestine and in Egypt. Bittern. The Hebrew word has been the subject of various interpretations. Philologi- cal arguments appear to be rather in favor of the "hedgehog" or "porcupine," for the He- brew word appears to be identical with the Arabic word for the hedgehog; but zoologi- cally the hedgehog or porcupine is quite out of the question. The word occurs in Is. xiv. 23, xxxiv. II ; Zeph. ii. 14, and we are inclined to believe that the A. V. is correct. The bit- tern belongs to the heron family of birds. Blasphemy, in its technical English sense, signifies the speaking evil of God, and in this sense it is found Ps. Ixxiv. 18 ; Is. lii. 5 ; Rom. ii. 24, &c. But according to its derivation it may mean any species of calumny and abuse ; see I K. xxi. 10; Acts xviii. 6; Jude 9, &c. Blasphemy was punished with stoning, which was inflicted on the son of Shelomith (Lev. xxiv. 11). On this charge both our Lord and St. Stephen were condemned to death by the Jews. It only remains to speak of "the blas- phemy against the Holy Ghost," which has iDcen so fruitful a theme for speculation and controversy (Matt. xii. 32; Mark iii. 28). It consisted in attributing to the power of Satan those vmquestionable miracles which Jesus per- formed by "the finger of God," and the power of the Holy Spirit. Blindness is extremely common in the East from many causes. Blind beggars figure re- 57 BLOOD BOTTLE peatedly in the N. T. (Matt. xii. 22), and "opening the eyes of the blind" is mentioned in prophecy as a peculiar attribute of the Mes- siah (Is. xxix. 18, &c.). The Jews were spe- cially charged to treat the blind with compas- sion and care (Lev. xix. 14; Deut. xxvii. 18). 'Blindness willfully inflicted for political or other purposes is alluded to in Scripture (i Sam. xi. 2; Jer. xxxix. 7). Blood. To blood is ascribed in Scripture the mysterious sacredness which belongs to life, and God reserves it to Himself when allowing man the dominion over and the use of the lower animals for food. Thus reserved, it acquires a double power: i. that of sacrificial atonement; and 2. that of becoming a curse when wantonly shed, unless duly expiated (Gen. ix. 4; Lev. vii. 26, xvii. 11-13). Blood, Revenger of. It was, and even still is, a common practice among nations of ptitri- archal habits, that the nearest of kin should, as a matter of duty, avenge the death of a mur- dered relative. Compensation for murder is allowed by the Koran. Among the Bedouins, and other Arab tribes, should the offer of Skin Dottles. blood-money be refused, the "Thar," or law of blood, comes into operation, and any person within the fifth degree of blood from the homi- cide may be legally killed by any one within the same degree of consanguinity to the vic- tim. The right to blood-revenge is never lost, except as annulled by compensation ; it des- cends to the latest generation. The law of Moses was very precise in its directions on the subject of Retaliation, i. The wilful murder- er was to be put to death without permission of compensation. The nearest relative of the deceased became the authorized avenger of blood (Num. xxxv. 19). 2. The law of retalia- tion was not to extend beyond the immediate offender (Deut. xxiv. 16; 2 K. xiv. 6; 2 Chr. XXV. 4'; Jer. xxxi. 29, 30; Ezek. xviii. 20). 3. The involuntary shedder of blood was permit- ted to take flight to one of six Levitical cities, specially appointed as cities of refuge (Num. xxxv. 22, 23: Deut. xix. 4-6). Boar, [Swine.] Bo'az. A wealthy Bethlehemite, kinsman to Elimclech, the husband of Naomi. He mar- ried Ruth, and redeemed the estates of her de- ceased husband Mahlon (iv. i, fif.). Boaz is mentioned in the genealogy of Christ (Matt, i. 5), but there is great difficulty in assigning his date. Boil, [Medicine.] Bondage. [Slavery,] Book. [Writing.] Booty consisted of captives of both sexes, Arab Water-carrier. cattle, and whatever a captured city might con- tain, especially metallic treasures. Within the limits of Canaan no captives were to be made (Deut. XX. 14 and 16) ; beyond these limits, in case of warlike resistance, all the women and children were to be made captives, and the men put to death. The law of booty is given in Num. xxxi. 26-47. regarded the army David added a regulation that the baggage guard should share equally with the troops engaged (i Sam. xxx. 24, 25). Bottle. I. The skin bottle; 2. the bottle of earthen or glass ware, both of them capable Eastern Tear-bottles. of being closed from the air. I. The Arabs keep their water, milk and other liquors in leathern bottles. These are made of goatskins. When the animal is killed they cut off its feet and its head, and they draw it in this manner out of the skin, without opening its belly. The great leathern bottles are made of the skin of a he-goat, and the small ones, that serve 58 BOX-TREE BRICK instead of a bottle of water on the road, are made of kid's skin. The effect of external heat upon a skin bottle is indicated in Ps. cxix. 83, "a bottle in the smoke," and of expansion prodviced by fermentation in Matt. ix. 17, "new wine in old bottles." 2. Vessels of metal, earthen or glass ware for liquids were in use among the Greeks, Eg\'ptians, Etruscans and Assyrians, and also no doubt among the Jews, especially in later times. Thus Jer. xix. i, "a potter's earthen bottle." The Jews probably borrowed their manufactures in this particular from Egypt. Box-tree. The Heb. teasshiir occurs in Is. xli. 19, Ix. 13. The Talmudical and Jewish writers generally are of opinion that the box- tree is intended. Box-wood are alluded to in 2 Esdr. xiv. 24. writing tablets BRACELETS. 1. Gold Egyptian Bracelets. 2. Silver Bracelet. .3. Bronze, with bell attached, from the mummy of a girl. 4. Iron, with Coruclia sotting. 5. Brace- let of cowries. Bracelet, [see Armlet.] Bracelets of fine twisted Venetian gold are still common in Egypt. In Gen. xxxviii. i8, 25, the word ren- dered "bracelet" means probably "a string by which a seal-ring was suspended." Men as .well as women wore bracelets, as we see from Cant. V. 14. Layard says of the Assyrian kings: "The arms were encircled by armlets, and the wrists by bracelets." Bramble [Thorns]. Brass. In most places of the O. T. the cor- rect translation would be copper, although it may sometimes possibly mean bronze, a com- pound of copper and tin. Indeed, a simple metal was obviously intended, as we see from Dcut. viii. 9, xxxii. 25, and Job xxviii. 2. Cop- per was known at a very early period (Gen. iv. 22). Bread. The preparation of bread as an article of food dates from a very early period ; the ear- liest undoubted instance of its use is found in Gen. xviii. 6. The corn or grain employed was of various sorts ; the best bread was made of wheat, which after being ground produced the "flour" or "meal" (Judg. vi. 19; i Sam. i. 24; I K. iv. 22, xvii. 12, 14), and when sifted the "fine flour" (Ex. xxix. 2; Gen. xviii. 6) usually employed in the sacred offerings (Ex. xxix. 40; Lev. ii. I ; Ez. xlvi. 14), and in the meals of the wealthy (i K. iv. 22; 2 K. vii. i; Ez. xvi. 13, 19; Rev. xviii. 13). "Barley" was used only by the very poor (John vi. 9, 13), or in times of scarcity (Ruth iii. 15, compared with i. i ; 2 K. iv. 38, 42; Rev. vi. 6). "Spelt" was also used both in Egypt (Ex. ix. 32) and Palestine (Is. xxviii. 25; Ez. iv. .9; i K. xix. 6). The bread taken by persons on a journey (Gen. xlv. 23 ; Josh. ix. 12) was probably a kind of bis- cuit. The process of making bread was as follows : The flour was first mixed with water, or perhaps milk ; it was then kneaded with the hands (in Egypt with the feet also) in a small wooden bowl or "kneading trough" until it became dough (Ex. xii. 34, 39; 2 Sam. xiii. 3; Jer. vii. 18; Hos. vii. 4). When the kneading was completed, leaven was generally added [Leaven] ; but when the time for preparation was short, it was omitted, and unleavened cakes, hastily baked, were eaten, as is still the prevalent custom among the Bedouins (Gen. xviii. 6, xix. 3; Ex. xii. 39; Judg. vi. 19; i Sam. xxviii. 24). The leavened mass was allowed to stand for some time (Matt. xiii. 33 ; Luke xiii. 21). The dough was then divided into round cakes (Ex. xxix. 23; Judg. vii. 13, viii. 5; I Sam. x. 3; Prov. vi. 26), not unlike flat stones in shape and appearance (Matt. vii. 9; comp. iv. 3), about a span in diameter and a finger's breadth in thickness. In the towns where professional bakers resided there were no doubt fixed ovens, in shape and size resem- bling those in use among ourselves ; but more usually each householcF possessed a portable Egyptian Loaves and Seed Bread. oven, consisting of a stone or metal jar, about three feet high, which was heated inwardly with wood (i K. xvii. 12; Is. xliv. 15; Jer. vii. 18) or dried grass and flower-stalks (Matt, vi. 20). Breastplate. [Arms.] Brethren of Jesus. [James.] Brick. Herodotus (i. 179), describing the mode of building the walls of Babylon, says that the clay dug out of the ditch was made into bricks as soon as it was carried up, and 59 BRIDE BURIAL burnt in kilns. The bricks were cemented with hot bitumen, and at every thirtieth row crates of reeds were stuffed in (comp. Gen. xi. 3). The Babylonian bricks were more commonly burnt in kilns than those used at Nineveh, which are chiefly sun-dried like the Egyptian. They are usually from 12 to 13 in. square and 33^ in. thick. They thus possess more of the character of tiles (Ez. iv, i). The Israelites, in common with other captives, were employed by the Egyptian monarchs in making bricks and in building (Ex. i. 14, v. 7). Egyptian bricks were not generally dried in kilns, but in the sun. When made of the Nile mud they required straw to prevent cracking ; and crude brick walls had frequently the additional se- curity of a layer of reeds and sticks, placed at intervals to act as binders. A brick pyra- mid is mentioned by Herodotus (ii. 136) ' as the work of King Asychis. The Jews learned the art of brick-making in Egypt, and we find the use of the brick-kiln in David's time (2 Brick-making in Egypt. Sam. xii. 31), and a complaint made by Isaiah that the people built altars of brick instead of tmhewn stone as the law directed (Is. Ixv. 3 ; Ex. XX. 25). [See Straw.] Bride, Bridegroom, [Marriage.] Bridge. The only mention of a bridge in the Canonical Scriptures is indirectly in the proper name Geshur, a district in Bashan, N. E. of the sea of Galilee. At this place a bridge still exists, called the bridge of the sons of Jacob. Judas Maccabaeus is said to have in- tended to make a bridge in order to besiege the town of Casphor or Caspis, situate near a lake (2 Mace. xii. 13). The Romans were the first constructors of arched bridges. The bridge connecting the Temple with the upper city, of which Josephus speaks, seems to have been an arched viaduct. Brimstone. The Hebrew word is connected with gopher, "gopher-wood," A. V. Gen. vi. 14, and probably signified in the first instance the gum or resin that exuded from that tree ; hence it was transferred to all inflammable substances, and especially to sulphur, which is found in considerable quantities on the shores of the Dead Sea (Gen. xix. 24). Brother. The Hebrew word is used in va- rious senses in the O. T., as: i. Any kinsman, and not a mere brother; e. g. nephew (Gen. xiv. 16, xiii. 8), husband (Cant. iv. ,9). 2. One of the same tribe (2 Sam. , xix. 13). 3. Of the same people (Ex. ii. 14), or even of a cognate people (Num. xx. 14). 4. An ally (Am. i. 9). 5. Any friend (Job, v, 15), 6. One of the same office (i K. ix. 13), 7. A fellow-man (Lev. xix. 17). 8. Metaphorically of any similarity, as in Job xxx. 19. Bull, Bullock, terms used synonymously with ox, oxen, in the A. V., as the representa- tives of several Hebrew words. Bakar, the most common, is properly a generic name for horned cattle when of full age and fit for the plough. Accordingly it is variously rendered bullock (Is. Ixv. 25), cow (Ez. iv. 15), oxen (Gen. xii. 16). In Is. li. 20 the "wild bull" ("wild ox" in Deut. xiv. 5) was possibly one of the larger species of antelopes, and took its name from its swiftness. Dr. Robinson men- tions large herds of black and almost hairless buffaloes as still existing in Palestine, and these may be the animal indicated. Burial, Sepulchres, [Tombs.] On this sub- ject we have to notice: i. the place of burial, its site and shape ; 2. the mode of burial ; 3. the prevalent notions regarding this duty. i. A natural cave enlarged and adapted by exca- vation, or an artificial imitation of one, was the standard type of sepulchre. This was what the structure of the Jewish soil supplied or suggested. Sepulchres, when the owner's means permitted it, were commonly prepared beforehand, and stood often in gardens, by roadsides, or even adjoining houses. Kings and prophets alone were probably buried with- in towns (i K. ii. 10, xvi. 6, 28 ; 2 K. x. 35, xiii. 9; 2 Chr. xvi. 14, xxviii. 27; i Sam. xxv. i, xxviii. 3). Sarah's tomb and Rachel's seem to have been chosen merely from the accident of the place of death ; but the successive inter- ments at the former (Gen. xlix. 31) are a chronicle of the strong family feeling among the Jews. Cities soon became populous and demanded cemeteries (Ez. xxxix. 15), which were placed without the walls. Sepulchres were marked sometimes by pillars, as that of Rachel, or by pyramids, as those of the As- moneans at Modin. Such as were not other- wise noticeable were scrupulously "whited" (Matt, xxiii. 27) once a year, after the rains before the passover, to warn passersby of de- filement. 2. "The manner of the Jews" in- cluded the use of spices, wher^ they could com- 60 THE LIBRARY OF THE I ^ BURNT-OFFERING CAESAREA mand the means. Thus Asa lay in a "bed of spices" (2 Chr. xvi. ii). A portion of these were burnt in honor of the deceased, and to this use was probably destined part of the loo pounds' weight of "myrrh and aloes" in our Lord's case. In no instance, save that of Saul and his sons, w^ere the bodies burned ; and even then the bones were interred, and reexhumed for solemn entombment. It was the ofifice of the next of kin to perform and preside over the whole funereal office ; but a company of public buriers, originating in an exceptional necessity (Ez. xxxix 12-14), become, it seems, customary in the times of the N. T. (Acts V. 6, 10). The bier, the word for which in the O. T. is the same as that rendered '"bed," was borne by the nearest relatives. The grave- clothes were probably of the fashion worn in life, but swathed and fastened with bandages, and the head covered separately. 3. The prec- edent of Jacob's and Joseph's remains being returned to the land of Canaan was followed, in wish at least, by every pious Jew. Follow- ing a similar notion, some of the Rabbins taught that only in that land could those who w§re buried obtain a share in the resurrection which was to usher in Messiah's reign on earth. Tombs were, in popular belief, led by the same teaching, invested with traditions. Burnt-offering. The word is applied to the offering which was wholly consumed by fire on the altar, and the whole of which, except the refuse ashes, "ascended" in the smoke to God. The burnt-ofifering is first named in Gen. viii. 20 as offered after the Flood. Throughout the whole of the Book of Genesis (see xv. 9, 17, xxii. 2, 7,- 8, 13) it appears to be the only sac- rifice referred to ; afterwards it became distin- guished as one of the regular, classes of sacri- fice under the Mosaic law. The meaning of the whole burnt-offering was that which is the original idea of all sacrifice, the offering by the sacrificer of himself, soul and body, to God, the submission of his will to the will of the Lord. The ceremonies of the burnt-offering are given in detail in the Book of Leviticus. There were, as public burnt-offerings: ist. The daily burnt- offering (Ex. xxix. 38-42; Num. xviii. 3-8). 2dly. The Sabbath burnt-offering (Num. xxviii. 9, 19). 3dly. The offering at the new moon, at the three great festivals, the great Day of Atonement, and feast of trumpets. (See Num. xxviii. ii-xxix. 39). Private burnt-offerings were appointed at the consecration of priests (Ex. xxxix. 15 ; Lev. viii. 18, ix. 12) , at the puri- fication of women (Lev. xii. 6, 8), at the cleans- ing of lepers (Lev. xiv. 19), and removal of other ceremonial uncleanliness (xv. 15, 30), on any accidental breach of the Nazaritic vow, 6 or at its conclusion (Num. vi.; comp. Acts xxi. 26), &c. But freewill burnt-offerings were of- fered and accepted by God on any solemn oc- casions (Num. vii. ; i K. viii. 64). Bush. The Hebrew word seneh occurs only in those passages which refer to Jehovah's ap- pearance to Moses "in the flame of fire in the bush" (Ex. iii. 2, 3, 4; Deut. xxxiii. 16). Cel- sius has argued in favor of the bramble or blackberry bush. Sprengel identifies the seneh with what he terms the Rubus sanctus, and says it grows abundantly near Sinai. It is quite impossible to say what kind of thorn bush is intended. Bushel. [Measures.] Butter, curdled milk (Gen. xviii. 8; Deut. xxxii. 14; Judg. V. 25; Job. xx. 17). Milk is generally offered to travelers in Palestine in a curdled or sour state, "lebben," thick, almost like butter. Hasselquist describes the method of making butter employed by the Arab wom- en : "They made butter in a leather bag, hung on three poles, erected for the purpose, and in the form of a cone, and drawn to and fro by two women." C. Cab. [Measure.] Cae'sar, always in the N. T. the Roman em- peror, the sovereign of Judaea (John xix. 12, 15 ; Acts xvii. 7). Caesare'a (Acts viii. 40, ix. 30, x. i, 24, xi. II, xii. 19, xviii. 22, xxi. 8, 16, xxiii..23, 33, xxv. Ruins at Caesarea. I, 4, 6, 13) was situated on the coast of Pales- tine, on tlie line of the great road from Tyre to Egypt, and about half way between Joppo and Dora. The distance from Jerusalem was about 70 miles; Josephus states it in round numbers as 600 stadia. It was the official residence of the Herodian kings, and of Festus, Felix and the other Roman procurators of Judaea. Ceas- I CAESAREA PHILLIPPI CALVARY area continued to be a city of some importance even in the time of the Crusades. Caesare'a Phillip'pi is mentioned only in the two first Gospels (Matt. xvi. i8; Mark viii. 27) and in accounts of the same transactions. It was at the easternmost and most important of the two recognized sources of the Jordan, the other being at Tel-el-Kadi. The spring rises, and the city was built, on a limestone terrace in a valley at the base of Mount Hermon. View of the Valley of Caesarea Philippi. Caesarea Philippi has no O. T. history, though it has been not unreasonably identified with Baal-Gad. There is no difficulty in identifying it with the Panium of Josephus. Cage. The term so rendered in Jer. v. 27 is more properly a trap, in which decoy birds were placed (comp. Ecclus. xi. 30). In Rev. xviii. 2 the Greek' term means a prison. Cain (possession). The historical facts in the life of Cain, as recorded in Gen. iv., are briefly these : He was the eldest son of Adam and Eve ; he followed the business of agricul- ture ; in a fit of jealousy, roused by the rejec- tion of his own sacrifice and the acceptance of Abel's, he committed the crime of murder, for which he was expelled from Eden, and led the life of an exile ; he settled in the land of Nod, and built a city which he named after his son Enoch ; his descendants are enumerated, to- gether with the inventions for which they were remarkable. Caldron, a vessel for boiling flesh, either for ceremonial or domestic use (2 Chr. xxxv. 13; I Sam. ii. 14; Mic. iii. 3; Job xli. 20). Ca'leb (capable), i. According to I Chr. ii. 9, 18, 19, 42, 50, the son of Hezron, the son of Pharez, the son of Judah, and the father of Hur by Ephrath of Ephratah, and consequent- ly grandfather of Caleb the spy. 2. Son of Jephunneh, by which patronymic the illustrious spy is usually designated (Num. xiii. 6, and ten other places), with the addition of that of "the Kenezite," or "son of Kenaz," in Num. xxxii. 12; Josh. xiv. 6, 14. Caleb is first men- tioned in the list of the rulers or princes who were sent to search the land of Canaan in the second year of the Exodus. He and Oshea or Joshua the son of Nun were the only two of the whole number who encouraged the people to enter in boldly to the land and take posses- sion of it. Forty-five years afterwards Caleb came to Joshua and claimed possession of the land of the Anakims, Kirjath-Arba, or Hebron, and the neighboring hill country (Josh. xiv.). This was immediately granted to him, and the following chapter relates how he took posses- sion of Hebron, driving out the three sons of Anak; and how he offered Achsah his daugh- ter in marriage to whoever would take Kirjath- Sepher, i. e. Debir; and how when Othnielj his younger brother, had performed the feat, he not only gave him his daughter to wife, but with her the upper and nether springs of water which she asked for. It is probable that Caleb was a foreigner by birth ; a proselyte, incorpo- rated into the tribe of Judah. Calf. In Ex. xxxii. 4 we are told that Aaron, constrained by the people in the absence of Moses, made a molten calf of the golden ear- rings of the people, to represent the Elohim which brought Israel out of Egypt. Probably it was a wooden figure laminated with gold, a process which is known to have existed in Egypt. "A gilded ox covered with a pall" was an emblem of Osiris (Wilkinson, iv. 335). To punish the apostasy Moses burnt the calf, and then grinding it to powder scattered it over the water, which he made the people drink. The process which he used is difficult of ex- planation. Bochart and Rosenmiiller think that he merely cut, ground and filed the gold to powder. It has always been a great dis- pute respecting this calf and those of Jero- boam, whether I. the Jews intended them for some Egyptian god, or II. for a mere cherubic symbol of Jehovah. Of the various sacred cows of Egypt, those of Isis, of Athor, and of the three kinds of sacred bulls. Apis, Basis and Mnevis, Sir G. Wilkinson fixes on the latter as the prototype of the golden calf. It seems to us more likely that in this calf-worship the Jews merely "Likened their Maker to the graved ox," or, in other words, adopted a well- understood cherubic emblem. The calf at Dan was carried away by Tiglath-Pileser, and that of Bethel ten years after by his son Shalman- eser. Cal'vary, a word occurring in the A. V. only in Luke xxiii. 33, and there arising from the 62 CAMEL CAMPHIRE translators' having literally adopted the word caJvaria, i. e. a bare skull, the Vulgate render- ing is nothing but the Greek for Golgotha. The popular expression "Mount Calvary"' is not warranted by any statement in the accounts of the place of our Lord's crucifixion. Camel. It is clear from Gen. xii. i6 that camels were early known to the Egyptians, Camels. though no representation of this animal has. yet been discovered in the paintings or hiero- glyphics. The Ethiopians had "camels in abundance" (2 Chr. xiv. 15) ; the queen of Sheba came to Jerusalem "with camels that bare spices and gold and precious stones" (i K. X. 2) ; the men of Kedar and of Hazor pos- sessed camels (Jer. xlix. 29, 32) ; David took away the camels from the Geshurites and the Amalekites (i Sam. xxvii. 2, xxx. 17) ; forty Camphire. camels' burden of good things were sent to Elisha by Benhadad, king of Syria, from Da- mascus (2 K. viii. 9) ; the Ishmaelites traf- ficked with Egypt in the precious gums of Gil- ead, carried on the backs of camels (Gen. xxxvii. 25) ; the Midianites and the Amalek- ites possessed camels "as the sand by the sea- side for multitude" (Judg. vii. 12) ; Job had three thousand camels before his affliction (Job i. 3), and six thousand afterwards (xlii. 12). The camel was used for riding (Gen. xxiv. 64; I Sam. xxx. 17) ; as a beast of burden gener- ally (Gen. xxxvii. 25; 2 K. viii. 9; I K. x. 2, &c.) ; and for draught purposes (Is. xxi. 7). From I Sam. xxx. 17 we learn that camels were used in war. The species of camel which was in common use amongst the Jews and the heathen nations of Palestine was the Ara- bian or one-humped camel (Camelus Arabi- cus). The dromedary is a swifter animal than the baggage-camel, and is used chiefly for riding purposes ; it is merely a finer breed than the other: the Arabs call it the Heirie. Kefr — Kenna — Ca'na in Galilee. The speed of the dromedary has been greatly exaggerated, the Arabs -asserting that it is swifter than the horse ; eight or nine miles an hour is the utmost it is able to perform ; this pace, however, it is able to keep up for hours together. Camp. [Encampments.] Camphire. There can be no doubt that "camphire" is an incorrect rendering of the Hebrew term, which occurs in the sense of 63 CANA OF GALILEE CANON OF SCRIPTURE some aromatic substance only in Cant. i. 14, iv. 13. The margin in both passages has "cypress." The whole shrub is from four to six feet high. Ca'na of Galilee, once Cana in Galilee, a village or town not far from Capernaum, mem- orable as the scene of Christ's first miracle (John ii. I, II, iv. 46) as well as of a subse- quent one (iv. 46, 54), and also as the native place of the Apostle Nathanael (xxi. 2). The traditional site is at Kefr Kenna, a small vil- lage about 43/2 miles north-west of Nazareth. The rival site is a village situated farther north, about 5 miles north of Sef¥urieh (Sep- phoris) and 9 of Nazareth, near the present Jefat, the Jotapata of the Jewish wars. This village still bears the name of Kana-el-jelil. Ca'naan, The Land of, lit. "Lowland," a name denoting the country west of the Jor- dan and Dead Sea, and between those waters and the Mediterranean ; specially opposed to the "land of Gilead," that is, the high table- land on the east of the Jordan. It is only in later notices, such as Zeph. ii. 5, and Matt. XV. 22, that we find it applied to the low mari- time plains of Philistia and Phoenicia (comp. Mark vii. 26). Ca'naanites, The, a word used in two senses : I. a tribe which inhabited a particular locality of the land west of the Jordan before the con- quest ; and 2. the people who inhabited gen- erally the whole of that country, i. For the tribe of "the Canaanites" only — the dwellers in the lowland. The whole of the country west of Jordan was a "lowland" as compared with the loftier and more extended tracts on the east : but there was a part of this western country which was still more emphatically a "lowland." "The Canaanite dv/ells by the sea, and by the side of Jordan" (Num. xiii. 29). In Gen. x. 18-20 the seats of the Canaanite tribe are given as on the sea-shore and in the Jordan Valley (comp. Josh xi. 3). 2. Ap- plied as a general name to the non-Israelite inhabitants of the land, as we have already seen was the case with "Canaan." Instances of this are, Gen. xii. 6; Num. xxi. 3; Judg. i. 10; and Gen. xiii. 12. See also Gen. xxiv. 3, 37, comp. xxviii. 2, 6; Ex. xiii. 11, comp. 5. Like the Phoenicians, the Canaanites were probably given to commerce ; and thus the name became probably in later times an occa- sional synonym for a merchant (Job xli. 6; Prov. xxxi. 24; comp. Is. xxiii. 8, li ; Hos. xii. 7; Zeph. i. 11. Candlestick, which Moses was commanded to make for the tabernacle, is described, Ex. xxv. 31-37; xxxvii. 17-24. It is called in Lev. xxiv. 4, "the pure," and in Ecclus. xxvi. 17, "the holy candlestick." The candlestick was placed on the south side of the first apart- ment of the tabernacle, opppsite the table of shew-bread (Ex. xxv. 37), and was lighted every evening and dressed every morning (Ex. xxvii. 20, 21, XXX. 8; comp. i Sam. iii. 2). Each lamp was supplied with cotton, and half a log of the purest olive-oil (about two wine- glasses), which was sufficient to keep them burning during a long night. In Solomon's Temple, instead of this candlestick, there were ten golden candlesticks, similarly embossed, five on the right and five on the left (i K. vii. 49; 2 Chr. iv. 7). Golden Candlestick. Cane. [Reed.] Cankerworm. [Locust.] Canon of Scripture, The, may be generally described as "the collection of books which form the original and authoritative written rule of the faith and practice of the Christian Church. The word Canon, in classical Greek, is properly a straight rod, as the rod of a shield, or that used in weaving, or a car- penter's rule. The first direct application of the term Canon to the Scriptures seems to be in the verses of Amphilochius (c. 380 A. D.), where the word indicates the rule by which the contents of the Bible must be determined, and thus secondarily an index of the constitu- ent books. Among Latin writers it is com- monly found from the time of Jerome and Augustine, and there usage of the word, which is wider than that of Greek writers, is the source of its modern acceptation. The un- canonical books were described simply as "those without," or "those uncanonized." The Apocryphal books which were supposed to oc- cupy an intermediate position were called "books read," or "ecclesiastical," though the latter title was also applied to the canonical Scriptures. Popular belief assigned to Ezra and "the great synagogue" the task of collect- ing and promulgating the Scriptures as part 64 J I CANTICLES of their work in organizing the Jewish Church. Doubts have been thrown upon this belief, but it is in every way consistent with the his- tory of Judaism and with the internal evidence of the books themselves. After the Mac- cabaean persecution the history of the forma- tion of the Canon is merged in the history of its contents. The Old Testament appears from that time as a whole. The complete Canon of the New Testament, as commonly received at present, was ratified at the third Council of Carthage (A. D. 397), and from that time was accepted throughout the Latin Church. Re- specting the books of which the Canon is com- posed, see the article Bible. Canticles, Song of Songs, i. e. the most beau- tiful of songs, entitled in the A. V. The Song of Solomon. By the Hebrew title it is ascribed to Solomon; and so in all the versions, and by the majority of Jewish and Christian writ- ers, ancient and modern. A few of the Tal- mudical writers assigned it to the age of Heze- kiah. More recent criticism, however, has called in question this deep-rooted and well- accredited tradition, but on the whole it seems unnecessary to depart from the plain mean- ing of the Hebrew title. Supposing the date fixed to the reign of Solomon, there is great difficulty in determining at what period of that monarch's life the poem was written. It may be -called a drama, as it contains the dra*matic evolution of a simple love-story. The schools of interpretation may be divided into three : — the mystical, or typical ; the allegorical ; and the literal. The mystical interpretation is properly an offshoot of the allegorical, and probably owes its origin to the necessity which was felt of supplying a literal basis for the speculation of the allegorists. This basis is either the marriage of Solomon with Pharaoh's daughter, or his marriage with an Israelitish woman, the Shulamite. The mystical inter- pretation makes its first appearance in Origen, who wrote a voluminous commentary upon the Canticles. Notwithstanding the attempts which have been made to discover the prin- ciple of interpretation in the LXX. (Cant, iv. 8), Jesus, son of Sirach (xlvii. 14-17; Wisd. viii. 2), and Josephus (c. Apion. i. § 8), it is impossible to trace it with any certainty fur- ther back than the Talmud. According to the Talmud, the beloved is taken to be God; the loved one, or bride, is the congregation of Israel. In the Christian Church, the Talmudi- cal interpretation, imported by Origen, was all but universally received. — According to the most generally received interpretation of the modern literalists, the Song is intended to dis- play the victory of humble and constant love CAPTIVITIES OF THE JEWS over the temptations of wealth and royalty. — The book has been rejected from the Canon by some critics; but in no case has its rejec- tion been defended on external grounds. It is found in the LXX., and in the translations of Aquilla, Symmachus, and Theodotion. It is contained in the catalogue given in the Tal- mud, and in the catalogue of Melito ; and, in short, we have the same evidence for its canonicity as that which is commonly adduced for the canonicity of any book of the O. T. Caper'naum was on the western shore of the Sea of Galilee (Matt. iv. 13; comp. John vi. 24), and, if recent discoveries are to be trusted, was of sufficient importance to give to that Sea, in whole or in part, the name of the "Lake of Capernaum." It was in the "land of Gennesaret" (Matt. xiv. 34, comp. John vi. 17, 21, 24). It was of sufficient size to be always called a "city" (Matt. ix. i ; Mark i. 33) ; had its own synagogue, in which our Lord frequently taught (John vi. 59; Mark i. 21 ; Luke iv. 33, 38) — a synagogue built by the centurion of the detachment of Roman site of Tell HOm (Capernaum). soldiers which appears to have been quartered in the place (Luke vii. i, comp. 8; Matt. viii. 8). But besides the garrison there was also a customs' station, where the dues were gath- ered both by stationary (Matt. ix. 9; Mark ii. 14; Luke V. 27) and by itinerant (Matt. xvii. 24) officers. The only interest attaching to Capernaum is as the residence of our Lord and his Apostles, the scene of so many miracles and "gracious words." At Nazareth He was "brought up," but Capernaum was emphatic- ally His "own city;" it was when He returned thither that He is said to have been "at home" (Mark ii. i). Captivities of the Jews. The present article is confined to the forcible deportation of the Jews from their native land, and their forcible detention, under the Assyrian or Babylonian kings. The kingdom of Israel was invaded by 65 i CAPTIVITIES OF THE JEWS CART three or four successive kings of Assyria. Pul or Sardanapalus, according to Rawlinson, im- posed a tribute (B. C. 771 or 762 Rawl.) upon Menahem (r Chr. v. 26, and 2 K. xv. 19). Tig- lath-Pileser carried away (B. C. 740) the trans- Jordanic tribes (i Chr. v. 26) and the in- habitants of Galilee (2 K. xv. 29, comp. Is. ix. i) to Assyria. Shalmaneser twice invaded (2 K. xvii. 3, 5) the kingdom which remained to Hoshea, took Samaria (B. C. 721) after a siege of three years, and carried Israel away into Assyria. Sennacherib (B. C. 713) is stated to have carried into Assyria 200,000 captives from the Jewish cities which he took (2 K. xviii. 13). Nebuchadnezzar, in the first half of his reign (B. C. 606-562), repeatedly in- vaded Judaea, besieged Jerusalem, carried away the inhabitants to Babylon, and de- stroyed the Temple. Two distinct deporta- tions are mentioned in 2 K. xxiv. 14 (including 10,000 persons) and xxv. 11. One in 2 Chr. xxxvi. 20. Three in Jer. Hi. 28-30, including 4600 persons, and one in Dan. i. 3. The two principal deportations were, (i) that which took place B. C. 598, when Jehoiachin with all the nobles, soMiers, and artificers was carried away ; and (2) that which followed the de- struction of the Temple and the capture of Zedekiah B. C. 588. The 70 years of captivity predicted by Jeremiah (xxv. 12) are dated by Prideaux from B. C. 606. The captivity of Ezekiel dates from B. C. 598, when that prophet, like Mordecai the uncle of Esther (Esth. ii. 6), accompanied Jehoiachin. The captives were treated not as slaves but as colonists. The Babylonian captivity was brought to a close by the decree (Ezr. i. 2) of Cyrus (B. C. 536), and the return of a portion of the nation under Sheshbazzar or Zerub- babel (B. C. 535), Ezra (B. C. 458), and Nehemiah (B. C. 445). The number who re- turned upon the decree of B. C. 536 was 42,360, besides servants. Those who were left in Assyria (Esth. viii. 9, 11), and kept up their national distinctions, were known as The Dis- persion (John vii. 35; i Pet. i. i; James i. i). Many attempts have been made to discover the ten tribes existing as a distinct community. But though history bears no witness of their present distinct existence, it enables us to track the footsteps of the departing race in four directions after the time of the Captivity, (i.) Some returned and mixed with the Jews (Luke ii. 36; Phil. iii. 5, &c.). (2.) Some were left in Samaria, mingled with the Samaritans (Ezr. vi. 21 ; John iv. 12), and became bitter enemies of the Jews. (3.) Many remained in Assyria, and were recognized as an integral part of the Dispersion (see Acts ii. 9, xxvi. 7). (4.) Most, probably, apostatized in Assyria, adopted the usages and idolatry of the nations among whom they were planted, and bdcame wholly swallowed up in them. Carbuncle. A general term to denote any bright sparkling gem, but it is impossible to determine its real meaning. The gem of Ex. xxviii. 17, xxxix. 10; Ez. xxviii. 13, is sup- posed to be the smaragdus or emerald. Car'mel. i. A mountain which forms one of the most striking and characteristic features of the country of Palestine. As if to accentu- ate rnore distinctly the bay which forms the one indentation in the coast, this noble ridge, the only headland of lower and central Pales- tine, forms its southern boundary, running out with a bold blul¥ promontory all but into the very waves of the Mediterranean. There seem to be grounds for believing that from very early times it was considered as a sacred spot. In later times we know that its reputation was not confined to Palestine. But that which has made the name of Carmel most familiar to the modern world its its intimate connection with the history of the two great prophets of Israel — Elijah and Elisha. It is now commonly called Egyptian Cart with Two Wheels. Mar Elyas ; Kurmel being occasionally, but only seldom, heard. 2. A town in the moun- tainous country of Judah (Josh. xv. 55), fa- miliar to us as the residence of Nabal (i Sam. xxv. 2, 5, 7, 40). Carriage. This word occurs only six times in the text of the A. V., and signifies what we now call "baggage." In the margin of i Sam. xvii. 20, and xxvi. 5-7 — and there only — "car- riage" is employed in the sense of a wagon or cart. Cart, Gen. xlv. 19-27; Num. vii. 3, 7, 8, a vehicle drawn by cattle (2 Sam. vi. 6), to be distinguished from the chariot drawn by horses. Carts and wagons were either open or covered (Num. vii. 3, and were used for con- veyance of persons (Gen. xlv. 19), burdens (i Sam. vi. 7, 8), or produce (Am. ii. 13). The only cart used in Western Asia has two wheels of solid wood. But in the monuments of an- 66 1 CARVING CENSER cient Egypt representations are found of carts with two wheels, having four or six spokes, used for carrying produce, and of one used for rehgious purposes having four wheels with eight spokes. Carving. The arts of carving and engrav- ing were much in request in the construction both of the Tabernacle and the Temple (Ex. xxxi, 5, XXXV. 33; I K. vi. 18, 35; Ps. Ixxiv. 6), as well as in the ornamentation of the priestly dresses (Ex. xxviii. 9-36; Zech. iii. 9; 2 Chr. ii, 6, 14). Castle. [Fortifications.] Cas'tor and Pollux (Acts xxviii. 11). The twin sons of Jupiter and Leda were regarded as the tutelary divinities of sailors. They ap- peared in heaven as the constellation Gemini. In art they were sometimes represented simply as stars hovering over a ship, but more fre- quently as young men on horseback, with conical caps and stars above them. Such fig- ures were probably painted or sculptured at the bow of the ship. Cats occur only in Baruch vi. 22. The con- text of the passage appears to point to the domesticated animal. Perhaps the people of Babylon originally procured the cat from Egypt. Cattle Cave. [Bull.] The chalky limestone of which the rocks of Syria and Palestine chiefly consist presents, as in the case in all limestone for- mations, a vast number of caverns and natural fissures, many of which have also been arti- ficially enlarged and adapted to various pur- poses both of shelter and defence. The most remarkable caves noticed in Scripture are : I. That in which Lot dwelt after the destruc- tion of Sodom (Gen. xix. 30). 2. The cave of Machpelah (xxiii. 17). 3. Cave of Makkedah (Josh. X. 10). 4. Cave of Adullam (i Sam. xxii. i). 5. Cave of Engedi (xxiv. 3). 6. Oba- diah's cave (i K. xviii. 4). 7. Elijah's cave in Horeb (xix. 9). 8, 9. The rock sepulchres of Lazarus, and of our Lord (John xi. 38; Matt, xxvii. 60). Cedar. The Heb. word erez, invariably ren- dered "cedar" by the A. V., stands for that tree in most of the passages where the word occurs. The erez, or "firmly rooted and strong tree," from an Arabic root which has this sig- nification, is particularly the name of the cedar of Lebanon (Cedrus Libani) ; but that the word is used in a wider sense to denote other trees of the Coniferae is clear from some Scriptural passages where it occurs. For in- stance, the "cedar wood" mentioned in Lev. xiv. 6 can hardly be the wood of the Lebanon cedars, seeing that the Cedrus Libani could never have grown in the peninsula of Sinai. There is another passage (Ez. xxvii. 5), in which perhaps erez denotes some fir ; in all probability the Pinus Halepensis, which grows in Lebanon, and is better fitted for furnish- ing ship-masts than the wood of the Cedrus Libani. The Cedrus Libani, Pinus Halepensis, and Juniperus excelsa, were probably all in- cluded under the term erez ; though there can be no doubt that by this name is more espe- cially denoted the cedar of Lebanon, as being the firmest and grandest of the conifers. As far as is at present known, the cedar of Leba- non is confined in Syria to one valley of the Lebanon range, viz., that of the Kedisha river, which flows from near the highest point of the range westward to the Mediterranean, and enters the sea at the port of Tripoli. The The Cedar. grove is at the very upper part of the valley, about 15 miles from the sea, 6,500 feet above that level, and its position is moreover above that of all other arboreous vegetation. Ceiling, The descriptions of Scripture (i K. vi. 9, 15, vii. 3; 2 Chr. iii. 5, 9; Jer. xxii. 14; Hag. i. 4), and of Josephus, show that the ceil- ings of the Temple and the palaces of the Jew- ish kings were formed of cedar planks applied to the beams or joints crossing from wall to wall, probably with sunk panels, edged and ornamented with gold, and carved with incised or other patterns, sometimes painted (Jer. xxii. 14). Censer. A small portable vessel of metal htted to receive burning coals from the altar, and on which the incense for burning was sprinkled (2 Chr. xxvi. 18; Luke i. 9). The only distinct precepts regarding the use of the censer are found in Num. iv. 14, and in Lev. xvi. 12. Solomon prepared "censers of pure gold" as part of the same furniture (i K. vii. 50; 2 Chr. iv. 22). Possibly their general use may have been to take up coals from the brazen altar, and convey the incense while 67 CENSUS CHALDEA burning to the "golden altar," or "altar of in- cense," on which it was to be offered morning and evening (Ex. xxx. 7, 8). So Uzziah, when he was intending "to burn incense upon the altar of incense," took "a censer in his hand" (2 Chr. xxvi. 16, 19). The word rendered "censer" in Hebr. ix. 4 probably means the "altar of incense." Censer. Census. [Taxing.] Centurion. [Army.] Chaff, The Heb. words rendered chaff in A. V. do not seem to have precisely the same meaning : chashash=dry grass, hay ; and oc- curs twice only in O. T., viz., Is. v. 24, xxxiii. II. Mots is chaff separated by winnowing from the grain — the husk of the wheat. The carrying away of chaff by the wind is an ordi- nary Scriptural image of the destruction of the Egyptian Censers. wicked, and of their powerlessness to resist God's judgments (Ps. i. 4; Is. xviii. 13; Hos. xiii. 3 ; Zeph. ii. 2). Chain. Chains were used, I, as badges of office; 2. for ornament; 3. for confining prison- ers. I. The gold chain placed about Joseph's neck (Gen. xli. 42), and that promised to Dan- iel (Dan. V. 7), are instances of the first use. In Ez. xvi. II, the chain is mentioned as the symbol of sovereignty. 2. Chains for orna- mental purposes were worn by men as well as women in many countries both of Europe and Asia, and probably this was the case among the Hebrews (Prov. i. 9). The necklace con- sisted of pearls, corals, &c., threaded on a string. Besides the necklace, other chains were worn (Jud. x. 4), hanging down as far as the waist, or even lower. Some were adorned with pieces of metal, shaped in the form of the moon ("round tires like the moon," A. V.; Is. iii. 18). The Midianites adorned the necks of their camels with it (Judg. viii. 21, 26). To other chains were sus- pended various trinkets — as scent-bottles (Is. iii. 20) and mirrors (Is. iii. 23). Step-chains were attached to the ankle-rings, which short- ened the step and produced a mincing gait (I^. iii. 16, 18). 3. The means adopted for con- fining prisoners among the Jews were fetters similar to our handcuffs (Judg. xvi. 21 ; 2 Sam. iii. 34; 2 K. XXV. 7; Jer. xxxix. 7). Among the Romans, the prisoner was handcuffed to one, and occasionally to two guards (Acts xii. 6, 7, xxi. 33). Chalcedony, only in Rev. xxi. 19. The name is applied in modern mineralogy to one of the varieties of agate. There can, however, be lit- tle doubt that the stone to which Theophrastus refers, as being found in the island opposite Chalcedon and used as a solder, must have been the green transparent carbonate of cop- per, or our copper emerald. Chalde'a, more correctly Chaldaea, properly only the most southern portion of Babylonia, is used in Scripture to signify that vast -al- luvial plain which has been formed by the deposits of the Euphrates and the Tigris. This extraordinary flat, unbroken except by the works of man, extends a distance of 400 miles along the course of the rivers, and is on an average about 100 miles in width. The vast plains of Babylon were nourished by a complicated system of canals and water- courses, which spread over the surface of the country like a network. The wants of a teem- ing population were supplied by a rich soil, not less bountiful than "on the banks of the Egyptian Nile. All that remains of that an- cient civilization — that "glory of kingdoms," — "the praise of the whole earth"— is recog- nizable in the numerous mouldering heaps of brick and rubbish which overspread the sur- face of the plain. Instead of the luxurious fields, the groves and gardens, nothing now meets the eye but an arid waste — the dense population of former times is vanished, and no 68 THE l""'^'^^ Or m CHALDEANS CHAMBERLAIN man dwells there. The true Chaldaea is al- ways in the geographies a distinct region, being the most southern portion of Babylonia, lying chiefly (if not solely) on the right bank of the Euphrates. Babylonia above this is separated into two districts, called respectively Amordacia and Auranitis. The former is the name of the central territory round Babylon itself; the latter is applied to the regions to- wards the north, where Babylonia borders on Assyria. Cities — Babylonia was celebrated at all times for the number and antiquity of its cities. The most important of those which ha\€ been identified are Borsippa (Birs-Nim- rud). Sippara or Sepharvaim (Alosaib), Cutha (Ibrahim), Calneh (Xiflfer), Erech (Warka), Ur (^lugheir), Chilmad (Kalwadha), Laran- cha (Senkereh), Is (Hit), Duraba (Akkerkuf) ; but besides these there were a multitude of others, the sites of which have not been de- termined. The extraordinary fertility of the Chaldaean soil has been noticed by various writers. It is said to be the only country in the world where wheat grows wild. Herod- otus declared (i. 193) that grain commonly re- turned 200-fold to the sower, and occasionally 30G-fold. The palm was undoubtedly one of the principal objects of cultivation. The soil Kiiins of Mugheir, Proboble Site of Ur of the Chaldees. is rich, but there is now little cultivation, the inhabitants subsisting chiefly upon dates. More than half the country is left dry and waste from , the want of a proper system of irrigation ; while the remaining half is to a great extent covered with marshes, owing to the same neglect. Chalde'ans, or Chal'dees, appear in Scrip- ture, until the time of the Captivity, as the people of the country which has Babylon for its capital, and which is itself termed Shinar; but in the Rook of Daniel, while this meaning is still found (v. 30, and ix. i), a new sense shows itself. The Chaldeans arc classed with the magicians and astronomers; and evidently form a sort of priest class, who have a pecul- iar "tongue" and "learning" (i. 4), and are consulted by the king on religious subjects. The same variety appears in profane writers. It appears that the Chaldeans (Kaldai or Kaldi) were in the earliest times merely one' out of the many Cushite tribes inhabiting the great alluvial plain known afterwards as Chal- daea or Babylonia. Their special seat was probably that southern portion of the country which is found to have so late retained the name of Chaldaea. Here was Ur "of the Chal- dees," the modern Mugheir, which lies south of the Euphrates, near its junction with the Shat-el-Hie. In process of time, as the Kaldi grew in power, their name gradually prevailed over those of the other tribes inhabiting the country ; and by the era of the Jewish cap- tivity it had begun to be used generally for all the inhabitants of Babylonia. It had come by this time to have two senses, both ethnic : in the one it was the special appellative of a particular race to whom it had belonged from the remotest times, in the other it designated the nation at large in which this race was pre- dominant. It has been observed above that the Kaldi proper were a Cushite race. This is proved by the remains of their language, which closely resembles the Gallo or ancient language of Ethiopia. Now it appears by the inscriptions that while, both in Assyria and in later Babylonia, the Shemitic type of speech prevailed for civil purposes, the ancient Cush- ite dialect was retained as a learned language for scientific and religious literature. This is no doubt the "learning" and the "tongue" ot which reference is made in the Book of Daniel (i. 4). The Chaldeans were really the learned class ; they were priests, magicians, or astron- omers, and in the last of the three capacities they probably ef¥ected discoveries of great im- portance. In later times they seem to have degenerated into mere fortune-tellers. Chaldees. [Chaldeans.] Chalk Stones. [Lime.] Chamberlain. Erastus, "the chamberlain" of the city of Corinth, was one of those whose salutations to the Roman Christians are given at the end of the Ep. addressed to them (Rom. xvi. 23). The office which he held was appar- ently that of public treasurer, or arcarius, as the Vulgate renders his title. The3e arcarii were inferior magistrates, who had the charge of the public chest (area publica), and were under the authority of the senate. They kept the accounts of the public revenues. The office held by Blastus, "the king's chamber- lain," was entirely different from this (Acts xii. 20). It was a post of honor which in- 69 CHAMELEON volved great intimacy and influence with the king. The margin of our version gives "that was over the king's bedchamber." For Cham- berlain as used in the O. T., see Eunuch. Chameleon, the translation of the Hebrew coach, which occurs in the sense of some kind of unclean animal in Lev. xi. 30. Others sup- pose it to be the lizard, known by the name of the "Monitor of the Nile," a large strong rep- Cbameleon. tile common in Egypt and other parts of Africa. Chamois, the translation of the Hebrew zemer in Deut. xiv. 5. But the translation is incorrect; for there is no evidence that the chamois has ever been seen in Palestine or the Lebanon. It is probable that some mountain sheep is intended. Charger, a shallow vessel for receiving water or blood, also for presenting offerings of fine flour with oil (Num. vii. 79). The daugh- ter of Herodias brought the head of St. John the Baptist in a charger (Mtt. xiv. 9) : prob- ably a trencher or platter. [Basin.] CHARIOT his own chariot to meet his father on his en- trance into Egypt from Canaan (xlvi. 29), In the funeral procession of Jacob chariots also formed a part, possibly by way of escort or as a guard of honor (1. 9). The next mention of Egyptian chariots is for a warlike purpose. (Ex. xiv. 7). In this point of view chariots among some nations of antiquity, as elephants among others, may be regarded as filling the place of heavy artillery in modern times, so that the military power of a nation might be estimated by the number of its chariots. Thus Pharaoh in pursuing Israel took with him 600 chariots. The Canaanites of the valleys of Palestine were enabled to resist the Israelites successfully in consequence of the number of their chariots of iron, i. e. perhaps armed with iron scythes (Josh. xvii. 18; Judg. i. 19). Jabin, king of Canaan, had 900 chariots (Judg. The Charger. Chariot, a vehicle used either for warlike or peaceful purposes, but most commonly the former. Of the latter use the following only are the probable instances as regards the Jews, I K. xviii. 44, and as regards other nations, Gen. xli. 43, xlvi. 29; 2 K. v. 9; Acts viii. 28 The earliest mention of chariots in Scripture is in Egypt, where Joseph, as a mark of dis- tmction, was placed in Pharaoh's second char- iot (Gen. 3^i. 43), and later when he went in IV. Egyptian Chariot. 3). The Philistines in Saul's time had 30,000 (i Sam. xiii. 5). David took from Hadadezer, king of Zobah, 1,000 chariots (2 Sam. viii. 4), and from the Syrians a little later 700 (x. 18), who, in order to recover their ground, collected 32,000 chariots (i Chr. xix. 7). Up to this time the Israehtes possessed few or no chariots, partly no doubt in conse- quence of the theocratic prohibition against multiplying horses, for fear of intercourse with Egypt, and the regal despotism implied in the possession of them (Deut. xvii. 16; I Sam. viii. 11, 12). But to some extent David (2 Sam. viii. 4), and in a much greater degree Solomon, broke through the prohibition. He raised, therefore, and maintained a force of 1,400 chariots (i K. x. 25) by taxation on cer- tain cities agreeably to Eastern custom in such matters (i K. ix. 19, x. 25). From this time chariots were regarded as among the most important arms of war, though the sup- plies of them and of horses appear to have been mainly drawn from Egypt (l K. xxii. 34; 2 K. ix. 16, 21, xiii. 7, 14, xviii. 24, xxiii. 30; Is. xxxi. i). -Most commonly two persons, and sometimes three, rode in the chariot, of whom the third was employed to carry the 70 CHEESE state umbrella (2 K. ix. 20, 24; i K. xxii. 34; Acts viii. 38). A second chariot usually accom- panied the king to battle, to be used in case of necessity (2 Chr. xxv. 34). The prophets al- lude frequently to chariots as typical of power (Ps. XX. 7, civ. 3; Jer. li. 21 ; Zech. vi. i). In the N. T., the only mention made of a chariot, except in Rev. ix 9, is in the case of the Ethi- opian or Abyssinian eunuch of Queen Candace (Acts viii. 28, 29. 38). Jewish chariots were no doubt imitated from Egyptian models, if not actually imported from Egypt. Cheese is mentioned only three times in the Bible, and on each occasion under a diflferent name in the Hebrew (Job. x. 10; i Sam. xvii. 18; 2 Sam. xvii. 29). It is difficult to decide how far these terms correspond with our no- tion of cheese ; for they simply express vari- ous degrees of coagulation. It may be ob- served that cheese is not at the present day common am.ong the Bedouin Arabs, butter being decidedly preferred ; but there is a sub- stance, closely corresponding to those men- tioned in I Sam. xvii. ; 2 Sam. xvii., consisting of coagulated buttermilk, which is dried until it becomes quite hard, and is then ground: the Arabs eat it mixed with butter. Che'rith, The Brook, the torrent-bed or wady in which Elijah hid himself during the early part of the three years' drought (l K. xvii. 3, 5). The position of the Cherith has been much disputed. The argument from probability is in favor of the Cherith being on the east of Jordan, and the name may possibly be discovered there. Cher'ub, apparently a place in Babylonia from which some persons of doubtful extrac- tion returned to Judaea with Zerub-babel (Ezr. ii. 59 ; Neh. vii. 61). Cher'ub, Cher'ubim. The symbolical figure so called was a composite creature-form which finds a parallel in the religious insignia of Assyria, Egypt, and Persia, e. g. the sphinx, the winged bulls and lions of Ninevah, &c. The Hebrew idea seems to limit the number of the cherubim. A pair (Ex. xxv. 18, &c.) were placed on the mercy-seat of the ark : a pair of colossal size overshadowed it in Solo- mon's Temple with the canopy of their con- tiguously extended wings. Ezekiel, i. 4-14, speaks of four, and similarly the apocalyptic "beasts" (Rev. iv. 6) are four. — So at the front or east of Eden were posted "the cher- ubim," as though the whole of some recog- nized number. The cherubim are placed be- neath the actual presence of Jehovah, whose moving throne they appear to draw (Gen. iii. 24; Ez. i. 5, 25, 26, X. I, 2, 6, 7; Is. vi. 2, 3, 6). The glory symbolizing that presence which CHILDREN eye cannot see rests or rides on them, or one of them, thence dismounts to the temple thresh- old, and then departs and mounts again (Ez. X. 4, 18; comp. ix. 3; Ps. xviii. lo). There is in them an entire absence of human sympathy, and even on the mercy-seat they probably ap- peared not merely as admiring and wondering (i Pet. i. 12), but as guardians of the covenant and avengers of its breach. Those on the ark were to be placed with wings stretched forth, one at each end of the mercy-seat, and to be made "of the mercy-seat." They are called the cherubim of glory (Heb. ix. 5), as on them the glory, when visible, rested. They were anointed with the holy oil, like the ark itself, and the other sacred furniture. Their wings were to be stretched upwards, and their faces "towards each other and towards the mercy- seat." It is remarkable that with such precise directions as to their position, attitude, and material, nothing, save that they were winged, is said concerning their shape. On the whole it seems likely that the word "cherub" meant not only the composite creature-form, of which the man, lion, ox, and eagle were the elements, but, further, some peculiar and mystical form which Ezekiel, being a priest, would know and recognize as "the face of a cherub" (Ez. x. 14), but which was kept secret from all oth- ers ; and such probably were those on the ark, though those on the hangings and panels might be of the popular device. What this peculiar cherubic form was is perhaps an im- penetrable mystery. It might well be the sym- bol of Him whom none could behold and live. For as symbols of Divine attributes, e. g. omnipotence and omniscience, not as repre- sentations of actual beings, the cherubim should be regarded. Chest. By this word are translated in the A. V. two distinct Hebrew terms: i. aron ; this is invariably used for the Ark of the Covenant, and with two exceptions, for that only. The two exceptions alluded to are (a) the "coffin" in which the bones of Joseph were carried from Egypt (Gen. 1. 26) ; and (b) the "chest" in which Jehoiada the priest collected the alms for the repairs of the Temple (2 K. xii. 9, 10; 2 Chr. xxiv. 8-1 1). Chestnut-tree (Heb. 'armon : Gen. xxx. 37; Ezek. xxxi. 8) ; it is spoken of as one of the glories of Assyria, for which the "plane-tree" ought probably to have been substituted. The context of the passages where the word oc- curs indicates some tree which thrives best in low and rather moist situations, whereas the chestnut-tree is a tree which prefers dry and hilly ground. Children. The blessing of offspring, but 71 CHITTIM CHRONICLES especially of the male sex, is highly valued among all Eastern nations, while the absence is regarded as one of the severest punishments (Gen. xvi. 2; Deut. vii. 14; i Sam. i. 6; 2 Sam. vi. 23; 2 K. iv. 14; Is. xlvii. 9; Jer. xx. 15; Ps. cxxvii. 3, 5). As soon as the child was born, it was washed in a bath, rubbed with salt, and wrapped in swaddling clothes. On the 8th day the rite of circumcision, in the case of a boy, was performed, and a name given. At the end of a certain time the mother was to make an offering of purification of a lamb as a burnt-offering, and a pigeon or turtle-dove as a sin-offering, or, in case of poverty, two doves or pigeons, one ?>f a burnt offering, the other as a sin-offering ( .ev. xii. 1-8; Luke ii. 22). The period of ni 1 ling appears to have been sometimes prolon, d to three years (Is. xlix. 15; 2 Mace. vii. Nurses were em- ployed in cases of neccisity (Ex. ii. 9; Gen. xxiv. 59, XXXV. 8; i Sam. iv. 4; 2 K. xi. 2 ; 2 Chr. xxii. 11). The time of weaning was an occasion of rejoicing (Gen. xxi. 8). Both boys and girls in their early years were under the care of the women (Prov. xxxi. i). After- wards the boys were taken by the father under his charge. Those in wealthy families had tutors or governors, who were sometimes eunuchs (Num. xi. 12; 2 K. x. i, 5; Is. xiix. 23; Gal. iii. 24; Esth. ii. 7). Daughters usually remained in the women's apartments till mar- riage (Lev. xxi. 9; Num. xii. 14; I Sam. ix. ii ; Prov. xxxi. 19, 23; Ecclus. vii. 25; xlii. 9; 2 Mace. iii. 19). The authority of parents, espe- cially of the father, over children was very great, as was also the reverence enjoined by the law to be paid to parents. The inheritance was divided equally between all the sons ex- cept the eldest, who received a double portion (Deut. xxi. 17; Gen. xxv. 31 ; xlix. 3; i Chr. v. 1", 2; Judg. xi. 2, 7). Daughters had by right portion in the inheritance ; but if a man had no son, his inheritance passed to his daugh- ters, who were forbidden to marry out of their father's tribe (Num. xxvii. i, 8, xxxvi. 2, 8). Chit'tim, Kit'tim, a family or race descended from Javan (Gen. x. 4; i Chr. i. 7; A. B. Kit- tim), closely related to the Dodanim, and re- motely to the other descendants of Javan. Chittim is frequently noticed in Scripture : Balaam predicts that a fleet should thence pro- ceed for the destruction >: f Assyria (Num. xxiv. 24) : in Is. xxiii. J( ic.ephus considered Cyprus as the original seat cf the Chittim, ad- ducing as evidence the nan; of its principal town, Citium. Chora'zin, one of the cities in which our Lord's mighty works were done, but named only in His denunciation (Matt. xi. 21 ; Luke x. 13). St. Jerome describes it as on the shore of the lake, two miles from Capernaum, but its modern site is uncertain. Christ. [Jesus.] Christian. The disciples, we are told (Acts xi. 26), were first called Christians at Antioch on the Orontes, somewhere about A. D. 43. The name, and the place where it was con- ferred, are both significant. They were known to each other as brethren of one family, as disciples of the same Master, as believers in the same faith, and as distinguished by the same endeavors after holiness and consecra- tion of life ; and so were called brethren (Acts XV. I, 23; I Cor. vii. 12), disciples (Acts ix. 26, xi. 29), believers (Acts v. 14), saints (Rom. viii. 27, XV. 25). The name "Christian," then, which, in the only other cases where it appears in the N. T. (Acts xxvi. 28; i Pet. iv. 16), is used contemptuously, could not have been ap- plied by the early disciples to themselves, nor could it have come to them from their own Ruins of Kerazeh (Choiazin). nation the Jews ; it must, therefore, have been imposed upon them by the Gentile world. There is no reason to suppose that the name "Christian" of itself was intended as a term of scurrility or abuse, though it would naturally be used with contempt. Chronicles, First and Second Books of, the name originally given to the record made by the appointed histographers in the kingdoms of Israel and Judah. In the LXX. these books are called Paralipomena (i. e. things omitted), which is understood as meaning that they are supplementary to the books of Kings. The constant tradition of the Jews is that these books were for the most part compiled by Ezra. One of the greatest difficulties con- nected with the captivity and the return must have been the maintenance of that genealog- ical distribution of the lands which yet was a vital point of the Jewish economy. Another 72 THE li'^^ftfit OHHE 1 CHRONICLES difficulty intimateh' connected with theTormer was the maintenance of the temple services at Jerusalem. But Zerubbabel, and after him Ezra and Nehemiah, labored most earnestly to restore the temple and the public worship of God there to the condition it had been in under the kings of Judah, and to re-infuse something of national life and spirit into the heart of the people, and to make them feel that they were still the inheritors of God's covenanted mer- cies, and that the captivity had only tem- porarily interrupted, not dried out, the stream of God's favor to their nation. Now nothing could more effectually aid these pious and patriotic designs than setting before the peo- ple a compendious history of the kingdom of David, which should embrace a full account of its prosperity, should trace the sins which led to its overthrow, should carry the thread through the period of the captivity, and con- tinue it as it were unbroken on the other side ; and those passages in their former history would be especially important which exhib- ited their greatest and best kings as en- gaged in building or restoring the temple, in reforming all corruptions in religion, and zeal- ously regulating the services of the house of God. As regards the kingdom of Israel or Samaria, seeing it had utterly and hopelessly passed away, and that the existing inhabitants were among the bitterest "adversaries of Judah and Benjamin," it would naturally engage very little of the compiler's attention. These con- siderations explain exactly the plan and scope of that historical work which consists of the two books of Chronicles and the book of Ezra. For after having the first eight chapters given the genealogical divisions and settlements of the various tribes, the compiler marks dis- tinctly his own age and his own purpose, by informing us in ch. ix. I of the disturbance of those settlements by the Babylonish captivity, and in the following verses, of the partial res- toration of them at the return from Babylon (2-24) ; and that this list refers to the families who had returned from Babylon is clear, not only from the context, but from its reinsertion, Neh. xi. 3-22, with additional matter evidently extracted from the public archives, and relat- ing to times subsequent to the return from Babylon, extending to Neh. xii. 27, where Nehemiah's narrative is again resumed in con- tinuance with Neh. xi. 2. Having thus shown the re-establishment of the returned families, each in their own inheritance according to the houses of their fathers, the compiler proceeds to the other part of his plan, which is to give a continuous history of the kingdom of Judah from David to his own times, introduced by CHURCH the closing scene of Saul's life (ch. x.), which introduction is itself prefaced by a genealogy of the house of Saul (ix. 35-44). As regards the materials used by Ezra, they are not diffi- cult to discover. The genealogies are obvi- ously transcribed from some register, in which were preserved the genealogies of the tribes and families drawn up at different times ; while the history is mainly drawn from the same documents as those used in the Books of Kings. [Kings, Books of.] Chronology. By this term we understand the technical and historical chronology of the Jews and their ancestors from the earliest time to the close of the New Testament Canon, i. Technical Chronology. — The technical part of Hebrew chronology presents great difficulties, ii. Historical Chronolog)". — The historical part of Hebrew chronology is not less difficult than the technical. The information in the Bible is indeed direct rather than inferential, although there is very important evidence of the latter kind, but the present state of the numbers makes absolute certainty in many cases impos- sible. Three principal systems of Biblical Chronology have been founded, which may be termed the Long System, the Short, and the Rabbinical. There is a fourth, which, although an ofifshoot in part of the last, can scarcely be termed biblical, inasmuch as it depends for the most part upon theories, not only inde- pendent of, but repugnant to the Bible : this last is at present peculiar to Baron Bunsen. The principal advocates of the Long Chronol- ogy are Jackson, Hales, and Des-Vignoles. Of the Short Chronology Ussher may be consid- ered as the most able advocate. The Rabbini- cal Chronology accepts the biblical numbers, but makes the most arbitrary corrections. For the date of the Exodus it has been virtually accepted by Bunsen, Lepsius, and Lord A. Hervey. The numbers given by the LXX. for the antediluvian patriarchs would place the creation of Adam 2262 yrs. before the end of the Flood, or B. C. cir. 5361 or 5421. Church. The derivation of the word Church is uncertain. It is generally said to be derived from the Greek kuriakon, "belonging to the Lord." But the derivation has been too hastily assumed. It is probably connected with kirk, the Latin circus, circulus, the Greek kuklos. Ecclesia, the Greek Word for Church, orig- inally meant an assembly called out by the magistrate, or by legitimate authority. It was in this last sense that the word was adopted and applied by the writers of the N. T. to the Christian congregation. In the one Gospel of St. Matthew the Church is spoken of no less than thirty-six times as "the kingdom." Other 73 CINNAMON CISTERN descriptions or titles are hardly found in the Evangelists. It is Christ's household (Matt. X. 25), the salt and light of the world (v. 13, 15), Christ's flock (Matt. xxvi. 31; John x. i), its members are the branches growing on Christ the Vine (John xv.) ; but the general description of it, not metaphorically but di- rectly, is, that it is a kingdom (Matt. xvi. 19). From the Gospel then, we learn that Christ was about to establish His heavenly kingdom on earth, which was to be the substitute for the Jewish church and kingdom, now doomed to destruction (Matt. xxi. 43). The Day of Pentecost is the birth-day of the Chris- tian Church. Before they had been individual followers of Jesus, now they . became his mys- tical body, animated by His Spirit. The Church, then, at this period was a body of bap- tized men and women who believed in Jesus as the Christ, and in the revelation made by Him, who were united by having the same faith, hope, and animating Spirit of love, the same Sacraments, and the same spiritual in- visible Head. On the evening of the Day of Pentecost, the 3140 members of which it con- sisted were — (i) Apostles; (2) previous Dis- ciples; (3) converts. In Acts ii. 41 we have indirectly exhibited the essential conditions of church communion. They are (i) Baptism, baptism implying on the part of the recipient repentance and faith; (2) Apostolic Doctrine; (3) Fellowship with the Apostles; (4) the Lord's Supper; (5) Public Worship. The real Church consists of all who belong to the Lord Jesus Christ as his disciples, and are one in love, in character, in hope, in Christ as the head of all, though as the body of Christ it consists of many parts. Cinnamon, a well-known aromatic substance, the rind of a tree growing in Ceylon. It is mentioned in Ex. xxx. 23 as one of the com- ponent parts of the holy anointing oil, which Moses was commanded to prepare — in Prov. vii. 17 as a perfume for the bed — and in Cant, iv. 14 as one of the plants of the garden which is the image of the spouse. In^Rev. xviii. 13 it is enumerated among the merchandise of the great Babylon. It was imported into Judaea by the Plioenicians or by the Arabians, and is now found in Sumatra, Borneo, China, &c., but chiefly, and. of the best quality, in the S. W. part of Ceylon. Circumcision was peculiarly, though not ex- clusively, a Jewish rite. It was enjoined upon Abraham, the father of the nation, by God, at the institution, and as the token, of the Cove- nant, which assured to him and his descend- ants the promise of the Messiah (Gen. xvii.). It was thus made a necessarv condition of Jewish nationality. Every male child was to be circumcised when eight days old (Lev. xii. 3) on pain of death. The biblical notice of the rite describes it as distinctively Jewish ; so that in the N. T. "the circumcision" and "the uncir- cumcision" are frequently used as synonymes for the Jews and the Gentiles. Circumcision certainly belonged to the Jews as it did to no other people, by virtue of its divine institution, of the religious privileges which were attached to it, and of the strict regulations which en- forced its observance. Moreover, the O. T, history incidentally discloses the fact that many, if not all, of the nations with whom they came in contact were uncircumcised. The origin of the custom amongst one large section of those Gentiles who follow it, is to be found in the biblical record of the circumcision of Ishmael (Gen. xvii. 25). Though Mohammed did not enjoin circumcision in the Koran, he was circumcised himself, according to the cus- tom of his country ; and circumcision is now as common amongst the Mohammedans as amongst the Jews. The process of restoring a circumcised person to his natural condition by a surgical operation was sometimes undergone. Some of the Jews in the time of Antiochus Epiphanes, wishing to assimilate themselves to the heathen around them, "made themselves uncircumcised" (i Mace. i. 15). Against hav- ing recourse to this practice, from an excessive anti-Judaistic tendency, St. Paul cautions the Corinthians (i Cor. vii. 18). The attitude which Christianity, at its introduction, as- sumed towards circumcision was one of abso- lute hostility, so far as the necessity of the rite to salvation, or its possession of any religious or moral worth was concerned (Acts xv. ; Gal. V. 2). The Abyssinian Christians still prac- tise circumcision as a national custom. Cistern, a receptacle for water, either con- ducted from an -external spring, or proceeding from rain-fall. The dryness of the summer months between May and September, in Syria, and the scarcity of springs in many parts of the country, make it necessary to collect in reservoirs and cisterns the rain-water, of which abundance falls in the intermediate period. The largest sort of public tanks or reservoirs is usually called in A. V. "pool," while for the smaller and more private it is convenient to reserve the name cistern. Both pools and cisterns are frequent throughout the whole of Syria and Palestine. On the long for- gotten way from Jericho to Bethel, "broken cisterns" of high antiquity are found at regular intervals. Jerusalem depends mainly for water upon its cisterns, of which almost every pri- vate house possesses one or more, excavated 74 CITHERN CLEOPATRA in the rock on which the city is built. The cis- terns have usually a round opening at the top, sometimes built up with stonework above and furnished with a curb and a wheel for the bucket (Eccl. xii. 6), so that they have ex- ternally much the appearance of an ordinary well. The water is conducted into them from the roofs of the houses during the rainy sea- son, and with care remains sweet during the whole summer and autumn. In this manner most of the larger houses and public buildings are supplied. Empty cisterns were sometimes used as prisons and places of confinement. Joseph was cast into a "pit" (Gen. xxxvii. 22), and his "dungeon" in Egypt is called by the "same name (xli. 14). Jeremiah was thrown into a miry though empty cistern, whose depth is indicated by the cords used to let him down (Jer. xx.wiii. 6). Cithern (i Alacc. iv. 54), a musical instru- ment, resembling a guitar, most probably of Greek origin, employed by the Chaldeans, and introduced by the Hebrews into Palestine on their return thither after the Babylonian cap- tivity. Cities. I. 'Ar, and also Tr: 2. Kirjath; probably the most ancient name for city, but seldom used in prose as a general name for town. The classification of the human race into dwellers in towns and nomade wanderers (Gen. iv. 20, 22) seems to be intimated by the etymological sense of both words, as places of security against an enemy, distinguished from the unwalled village or hamlet, whose resist- ance is more easily overcome by the marauding tribes of the desert. The earliest notice in Scripture of city-building is of Enoch by Cain, in the land of his exile (Gen. iv. 17). After the confusion of tongues, the descendants of Nimrod founded Babel, Erech, Accad, and Calneh, in the land of Shinar, and Asshur, a branch from the same stock, built Nineveh, Rehoboth-by-the-river, Calah, and Resen, the last being "a great city." The earliest descrip- tion of a city, properly so called, is that of Sodom (Gen. xix. 1-22). Hebron is said to have been built seven years before Zoan (Tanis) in Egypt, and is thus the only Syrian town which presents the elements of a date for its foundation (Num. xiii. 22). Even be- fore the time of Abraham there were cities in Egypt (Gen. xii. 14, 15; Num. xiii. 22), and the Israelites, during their sojourn there, were employed in building or fortifying the "treas- ure cities" of Pithom and Raamses (Ex. i. 11). Meanwhile the settled inhabitants of Syria on both sides of the Jordan had grown in power and in number of "fenced cities," which were occupied and perhaps partly rebuilt or forti- fied after the conquest. Cities of Refuge, six Levitical cities specially chosen for refuge to the involuntary homicide until released from banishment by the death of the high-priest (Num. xxxv. 6, 13, 15; Josh. XX. 2, 7, 9). There were three on each side of Jordan. Citizenship. The use of this term in Scrip- ture has exclusive reference to the usages of the Roman empire. The privilege of Roman citizenship was originally acquired in various ways, as by purchase (Acts xxii. 28), by mili- tary services, by favor, or by manumission. The right once obtained descended to a man's children (Acts xxii. 28). Among^the privileges attached to citizenship, we may note that a man could not be bound or imprisoned with- out a formal trial (Acts. xxii. 29), still less be scourged (Acts xvi. 37; Cic. in Verr. v. 63, 66). Another privilege attaching to citizenship was the appeal from a provincial tribunal to the emperor at Rome (Acts xxv. 11). Citron. [Apple-tree.] Clay. As the sediment of water remaining in pits or in streets, the word is used frequently in O. T. (Is. Ivii. 20; Jer. xxxviii. 6; Ps. xviii. 42), and in N. T. (John ix. 6), a mixture of sand or dust with spittle. It is also found in the sense of potter's clay (Is. xli. 25). The great seat of the pottery of the present day in Palestine is Gaza, where are made the vessels in dark blue clay so frequently met with. An- other use of clay was for sealing (Job. xxxviii. 14). Wine jars in Egypt were sometimes sealed with clay ; mummy pits were sealed with the same substance, and remains of clay are still found adhering to the stone door- jambs. Our Lord's tomb may have been thus sealed (Matt, xxvii. 66), as also the earthen vessel containing the evidences of Jeremiah's purchase (Jer. xxxii. 14). The seal used for public documents was rolled on the moist clay, and the tablet was then placed in the fire and baked. The practice of sealing doors with clay to facilitate detection in case of malprac- tice is still common in the East. Cleopa'tra. i. The "wife of Ptolemy" (Esth. xi. i) was probably the granddaughter of Antiochus, and wife of Ptol. VI. Philometor. 2. A daughter of Ptol. VI. Philometor and Cleopatra (i), who was married first to Alex- ander Balas B. C. 150 (i Mace. x. 58), and afterwards given by her father to Demetrius Nicator when he invaded Syria (i Mace. xi. 12). During the captivity of Demetrius in Parthia, Cleopatra married his brother An- tiochus VII. Sidetes. She afterwards murdered Scleucus, her eldest son by Demetrius ; and at 75 CLOTHING COLOSSE length was herself poisoned B. C. 120 by a draught which she had prepared for her sec- ond son Antiochus VIII. Clothing. [Dress.] Cloud. The shelter given, and refreshment of rain promised, by clouds, give them their peculiar prominence in Oriental imagery, and the individual cloud in an ordinary cloudless region becomes well defined and is dwelt upon like the individual tree in the bare landscape. When a cloud appears, rain is ordinarily ap- prehended, and thus the "cloud without rain" becomes a proverb for the man of promise without performance (Prov. xvi. 15; Is. xviii. 4, XXV. 5; Jude 12; comp. Prov. xxv. 14). The cloud is a figure of transitoriness (Job xxx. 15; Hos. vi. 4), and of whatever intercepts divine favor or human supplication (Lam. ii. i, iii. 44). Being the least substantial of visible forms, it is the one amongst material things which suggests most easily spiritual being. Hence it is the recognized machinery by which supernatural appearances are introduced (Is. xix. i; Ez. i. 4; Rev. i. 7). A bright cloud, at any rate at times, visited and rested on the Mercy Seat (Ex. xxix. 42, 43; i K. viii, 10, 11 ; 2 Chr. V. 14; Ez. xliii. 4), and was by later writers named Shechinah. Cloud, Pillar of. This was the active form of the symbolical glory-cloud, betokening God's presence to lead His chosen host, or to inquire and visit offences, as the luminous cloud of the sanctuary exhibited the same un- der an aspect of repose. The cloud, which be- came a pillar when the host moved, seems to have rested at other times on the tabernacle, whence God is said to have "come down in the pillar" (Num. xii. 5; so Ex. xxxiii. 9, 10). It preceded the host, apparently resting on the ark which led the way (Ex. xiii. 21, xl. 36, &c. ; Num. ix. 15-23, x. 34). Coal. In A. V. this word represents no less than five different Heb. words. The fuel meant in the above passages is probably charcoal, and not coal in our sense of the word. Coat. [Dress.] Cock. In the N. T. the "cock" is mentioned in reference to St. Peter's denial of our Lord, and indirectly in the word "cock-crowing" (Matt. xxvi. 34; Mark xiv. 30, xiii, 35, &c.). We know that the domestic cock and hen were early known to the ancient Greeks and Ro- mans, and as no mention is made in the O. T. of these birds, and no figures of them occur on the Egyptian monuments, they probably came into Judaea with the Romans, who, as is well known, prized these birds both as articles of food and for cock-fighting. Cockatrice. [Adder.] Cockle occurs only in Job xxxi. 40. We are inclined to believe that the Hebrew words de- notes any bad weeds or fruit, and may in Job signify bad or smutted barley. Coffin. [Burial.] Collar, For the proper sense of this term, as it occurs in Judg. viii. 26, see Earrings. College, The. In 2 K. xxii. 14 it is said in the A. V. that Huldah the prophetess "dwelt in Jerusalem in the college," or, as the margin has it, "in the second part." The same part of the city is undoubtedly alluded to in Zeph. i. 10 (A. V. "the second"). It is probable that the "lower city," built on the hill Akra, was intended. Colony, a designation of Philippi, in Acts xvi. 12. After the battle of Actium, Augustus assigned to his veterans those parts of Italy which had espoused the cause of Antony, and transported many of the expelled inhabitants to Philippi, Dyrrachium, and other cities. In this way Philippi was made a Roman colony with the "Jus Italicum." Colors. The terms relative to color, oc- curring in the Bible, may be arranged in two classes, the first including those applied to the description of natural objects, the second those artificial mixtures which were employed in dyeing or painting. The natural colors noticed Colos'se. in the Bible are white, black, red, yellow, and green. The only fundamental color of which the Hebrews appear to have had a clear con- ception was red ; and even this is not very often noticed. They had therefore no scientific knowledge of colors, and we cannot but think that the attempt to explain such passages as Rev. iv. 3 by the rules of philosophical truth, must fail. Colos'se (more properly Colos'sae), a city in the upper part of the basin of the Maeander, on one of its affluents named the Lycus. Hier- apolis and Laodicaea were in its immediate 76 THE LIBRARY OF THE COLOSSIANS CONCUBINE neighborhood (Col. ii. i, iv. 13, 15, 16; see Rev. i. II, iii. 14). Colossae fell as these other two cities rose in importance. It was situated close to the great road which led from Ephesus to the Euphrates. Hence our impulse would be to conclude that St. Paul passed this way, and founded or confirmed the Colossian Church on his third missionary journey (Acts xviii. 23, xix. l). Colossians. The Epistle to the, was written by the Apostle St. Paul during his first captiv- ity at Rome (Acts xxviii. 16) and apparently in that portion of it (Col. iv. 3, 4) when the Apostle's imprisonment had not assumed the more severe character which seems to be re- flected in the Epistle to the Philippians (ch. i. 20, 21, 30, ii. 27), and which not improbably succeeded the death of Burrus in A. D. 62, and the decline of the influence of Seneca. This epistle was addressed to the Christians of the city of Colossae, and was delivered to them by Tychicus, whom the Apostle had sent both to them (ch. iv. 7, 8), and to the church of Ephesus (ch. vi. 21), to inquire into their state and to administer exhortation and comfort. The epistle seems to have been called forth by the information St. Paul had received from Epaphras (ch. iv. 12; Philem. 23) and from Onesimus, both of whom appear to have been natives of Colossae. The main object of the epistle is to warn the Colossians against a spirit of semi-Judaistic and semi-Oriental phi- losophy which was corrupting the simplicity of their belief, and was noticeably tending to obscure the eternal glory and dignity of Christ. The striking similarity between many portions of this epistle and of that of the Ephesians may be accounted for, (i) by the proximity in time at which the two epistles were writ- ten; (2) by the high probability that in two cities of Asia within a moderate distance from one another, there would be many doctrinal prejudices, and many social relations, that would call forth and need precisely the same language of warning and exhortation. The shorter and perhaps jtiore vividly expressed Epistle to the Colossians seems to have been first written, and to have suggested the more comprehensive, more systematic, but less indi- vidualizing, epistle to the church of Ephesus. Commerce. From the time that men began to live in cities, trade, in some shape, must have been carried on to supply the town-dwell- ers with necessaries; but it is also clear that international trade must have existed, and af- fected to some extent even the pastoral nomade races, for we find that Abraham was rich, not only in cattle, but in silver, gold, and gold and silver plate and ornaments (Gen. xiii. 2, xxiv. 22, 53). Among trading nations mentioned in Scripture, Egypt holds in very early times a prominent position, though her external trade was carried on, not by her own citizens, but by foreigners, — chiefly of the nomade races. The internal trade of the Jews, as well as the ex- ternal, was much promoted, as was the case also in Egypt, by the festivals, which brought large numbers of persons to Jerusalem, and caused great outlay in victims for sacrifices and in incense (i K. viii. 63). The places of public market were, then as now, chiefly the open spaces near the gates, to which goods were brought for sale by those who came from the outside (Neh. xiii. 15, 16; Zeph. i. 10). The traders in later times were allowed to intrude into the temple, in the outer courts, of which victims were publicly sold for the sacrifices (Zech. xiv. 21 ; Matt. xxi. 12; John ii. 14). Concubine. The difference , between wife and concubine was less marked among the Hebrews than among us, owing to the absence of moral stigma. The concubine's condition was a definite one, and quite independent of the fact of there being another woman having the rights of wife towards the same man. The difference probably lay in the absence of the right of the bill of divorce, without which the wife could not be repudiated. With regard to the children of wife and concubine, there was no such difference as our illegitimacy im- plies ; the latter were a supplementary family to the former ; their names occur in the patri- archal genealogies (Gen. xxii. 24; i Chr. i. 22), and their position and provision would depend on the father's v.'ill (Gen. xxv. 6). The state of concubinage is assumed and provided for by the law of Moses. A concubine would gen- erally be either, (i) a Hebrew girl bought of her father; (2) a Gentile captive taken in war; (3) a foreign slave bought; or (4) a Canaanitish woman, bond or free. The rights of (i) and (2) were protected by law (Ex. xxi. 7; Deut. xxi. 10-14), (3) was unrecog- nized, and (4) prohibited. Free Hebrew women also might become concubines. So Gideon's concubine seems to have been of a family of rank and influence in Shechem, and such was probably the state of the Levite's concubine (Judg. xx.). The rava.ges of war among the male sex, or the impoverishment of families, might often induce this condition. The case (i) was not a hard lot (Ex. xxi.). The provisions relating to (2) are merciful and considerate to a rare degree. In the books of Samuel and Kings the concubines mentioned belong to the king, and their condition and number cease to be a guide to the general prac- tice. A new king stepped into the rights of 77 CONDUIT COPPER his predecessor, and by Solomon's time the custom had approximated to that of a Persian harem (2 Sam. xii. 8, xvi. 21 ; i K. ii. 22). To seize on royal concubines for his use was thus a usurper's first act. Such was probably the intent of Abner's act (2 Sam. iii. 7), and simi- larly the request on behalf of Adonijah was construed (i K. ii. 21-24). Conduit. Although no notice is given either by Scripture or by Josephus of any connection between the pools of Solomon beyond Bethle- hem and a supply of water for Jerusalem, it seems unlikely that so large a work as the pools should be constructed merely for irrigat- ing his gardens (Eccl. ii. 6), and tradition, both oral and as represented by Talmudical writers, ascribes to Solomon the formation of the orig- inal aqueduct by which water was brought to Jerusalem. Coney, a gregarious animal of the class Pachydermata, which is found in Palestine, living in the caves and clefts of the rocks, and has been erroneously identified with the Rab- bit or Coney. In Lev. xi. 5 and in Deut. xiv. 7 it is declared to be unclean, because it chews the cud, but does not divide the hoof. In Ps. civ. 18 we are told "the rocks are a refuge for the coneys," and in Prov. xxx. 26, that "the The Coney. coneys are but a feeble folk, yet make they their houses in the rocks." The Hyrax satis- fies exactly the expressions in the two last passages. Its color is gray or brown on the back, white on the belly; it is like the alpine marmot, scarcely of the size of the domestic cat, having long hair, a very short tail, and round ears. It is found on the Lebanon and in the Jordan and Dead Sea valleys. Congregation. This describes the Hebrew people in its collective capacity under its pe- culiar aspect as a holy community, held to- gether by religious rather than political bonds. Sometimes it is used in a broad sense as in- clusive of foreign settlers (Ex. xii. 19) ; but more properly, as exclusively appropriate to the Hebrew element of the population (Num. XV. 15). Every circumcised Hebrew was a member of the congregation, and took part in its proceedings, probably from the time that he bore arms. The congregation occupied an important position under the Theocracy, as the comitia or national parliament, invested with legislative and judicial powers; each house, family, and tribe being represented by its head or father. The number of these rep- resentatives being inconveniently large for or- dinary business, a further selection was i-nade by Moses of 70, who formed a species of stand- ing committee (Num. xi. 16). Occasionally indeed the whole body of the people was as- sembled at the door of the tabernacle, hence usually called the tabernacle of the congrega- tion (Num. x. 3). The people were strictly bound by the acts of their representatives, even in cases where they disapproved of them (Josh. ix. 18). After the occupation of the land of Canaan, the congregation was assem- bled only on matters of the highest import- ance. In the later periods of Jewish history the congregation was represented by the San- hedrim. Consecration. [Priest.] Convocation. This term is applied invaria- bly to meetings of a religious character, in contradistinction to congregation. With one exception (Is. i. 13), the word is peculiar to the Pentateuch, Cooking. As meat did not form an article of ordinary diet among tfie Jews, the art of :ooking was not carried to any perfection. Few animals were slaughtered except for purposes of hospitality or festivity. The proceedings on such occasions appear to have been as fol- lows : On the arrival of a guest, the animal, either a kid, lamb, or calf, was killed (Gen. xviii. 7; Luke xv. 23), its throat being cut so that the blood might be poured out (Lev. vii. 26) ; it was then flayed and was ready either for roasting or boiling ; in the former case the animal was preserved entire (Ex. xii. 46), and roasted either over a fire (Ex. xii. 8) of wood (Is. xliv. 16), or perhaps in an oven, consist- ing simply of a hole dug in the earth, well heated, and covered up. Boiling, however, was the more usual method of cooking. Copper, Heb. Nechosheth, in the A. V. al- ways rendered "brass," except in Ezr. viii. 27, and Jer. xv. 12. This metal is usually found as pyrites (sulphuret of copper and iron), malachite (carb. of copper), or in the state of oxide, and occasionally in a native state, princi- pally in the New World. It was almost ex- clusively used by the ancients for common purposes ; for which its elastic and ductile na- ture rendered it practically available. We read in the Bible of copper, possessed in countless abundance (2 Chr. iv. 18), and used for every kind of instrument; as chains (Judg. xvi. 21), THE STREET CALLED STRAIGHT, DAMASCUS. FROM A PHOTOGRAPH. THE LIBRARY OF T!?E CORAL CORINTH pillars (i K. vii. 15-21), lavers, the great one being called "the copper sea" (2 K. xxv. 13; I Chr. xviii. 8), and the other temple vessels. These were made in the foundry, with the as- sistance of Hiram, a Phoenician (i K. vii. 13), although the Jews were not ignorant of metal- lurgy' (Ez. xxii. 18; Deut. iv. 20, &c.), and ap- pear to have worked their own mines (Deut. viii. 9; Is. li. i). The only place in the A. V. where "copper" is mentioned is Ez. viii. 27 (cf. I Esd. viii. 57). These vessels may have been of orichalcum like the Persian or Indian vases found among the treasures of Darius. Coral occurs only as the somewhat doubtful rendering of the Hebrew ramoth, in Job xxviii. 18, and in Ez. xxvii. 16. But "coral" has de- cidedly the best claim of any other substances to represent ramoth. With regard to the esti- mation in which coral was held by the Jews and other Orientals, it must be remembered that coral varies in price with us. Pliny says that the Indians valued coral as the Romans valued pearls. The Coriander. Cord, The materials of which cord was made varied according to the strength re- quired ; the strongest rope was probably made of strips of camel hide, as still used by the Bedouins. The finer sorts were made of flax (Is. xix. 9), and probably of reeds and rushes. In the N. T. the term is applied to the whip which our Saviour made (John ii. 15), and to the ropes of a ship (Acts xxvii. 32). Coriander is found in Egypt, Persia, and India, and has a round tall stalk; it bears um- belliferous white or reddish flowers, from which arise glolnilar, grayish, spicy seed-corns, marked with fine striae. It is mentioned twice in the Bible (Ex. xvi. 31 ; Num. xi. 7). Corinth. This city is alike remarkable for its distinctive geographical position, its emi- nence in Greek and Roman history, and its close connection with the early spread of Chris- tianity. Geographically its situation was so marked, that the name of its Isthmus has been given to every narrow neck of land' between two seas. But, besides this, the site of Corinth is distinguished by another conspicuous phy- sical feature — viz. the Acrocorinthus, a vast Acrocorinthus, Corintb. citadel of rock, which rises abruptly to the height of 2,000 feet above the level of the" sea, and the summit of which is so extensive that it once contained a whole town. The situation of Corinth, and the possession of its eastern and western harbors (Cenchreae and Le- chaeum), are the secrets of its history. In the latest passages of Greek history Corinth held a conspicuous place. It is not the true Greek Corinth with which we have to do in the life of St. Paul, but the Corinth which was rebuilt and established as a Roman colony. The distinction between the two must be care- fully remembered. The new city was hardly less distinguished than the old, and it acquired a fresh importance as the metropolis of the Roman province of Achaia. Corinth was a place of great mental activity, as well as of commercial and manufacturing enterprise. Its wealth was so celebrated as to be proverbial ; so were the vice and profligacy of its inhabi- tants. The worship of Venus here was at- Coin of Corinth. tended with shameful licentiousness. All these points are indirectly illustrated by passages in the two epistles to the Corinthians. Corinth is still an episcopal see. The city has now shrunk to a wretched village, on the old site, and bear- 79 CORINTHIANS CORINTHIANS ing the old name, which, however, is corrupted into Gortho. The Posidonium, or sanctuary of Neptune, the scene, of the Isthmian games, from which St. Paul borrows some of his most striking imagery in I Cor. and other epistles, was a short distance to the N. E. of Corinth, at the narrowest part of the Isthmus, near the harbor of Schoenus (now Kalamaki) on the Saronic gulf. The exact site of the temple is doubtful ; but to the south are the remains of the stadium, where the foot-races were run (i Cor. ix. 24) ; to the east are those of the the- atre, which was probably the scene of the pug- ilistic contests (ib. 26) : and abundant on the shore are the small green pine-trees which gave the fading wreath (ib. 25) to the victors in the games. Corinthians, First Epistle to the, was writ- ten by the Apostle St. Paul toward the close of his nearly three years' stay at Ephesus (Acts xix. 10, XX. 31), which, we learn from i Cor. xvi. 8, probably terminated with the Pentecost of A. D. 57 or 58. The bearers were probably (according to the common subscrip- tion) Stephanus, Fortunatus, and Achaicus, who had been recently sent to the Apostle, and who, in the conclusion of this epistle (ch. xvi. 17) are especially commended to the hon- orable regard of the church of Corinth. This varied and highly characteristic letter was ad- dressed not to any party, but to the whole body of the large (Acts xviii. 8, 10), Judaeo- Corinth. Gentile (Acts xviii. 4) church of Corinth, and appears to have been called forth by the in- formation the Apostle had received of the di- visions that were existing in the Corinthian church. The Corinthian church was planted by the Apostle himself (i Cor. iii. 6), in his second missionary journey (Acts xviii. i, sq.). He abode in the city a year and a half (ch. xviii. 11). A short time after the Apostle had left the city the eloquent Jew of Alexandria, Apollos, went to Corinth (Acts xix, i). This circumstance of the visit of Apollos appears to have formed the commencement of a grad- ual division into two parties, the followers of St. Paul, and the followers of Apollos (comp. ch. iv. 6). These divisions, however, were to Remains of Ruined Temple at Corinth. be multiplied ; for, as it would seem, shortly after the departure of Apollos, Judaizing teach- ers, supplied probably with letters of commen- dation (2 Cor. ii. i) from the church of Jerusa- lem, appear to have come to Corinth and to have preached the Gospel in a spirit of direct antagonism to St. Paul personally. To this third party we may perhaps add a fourth, that, under the name of "the followers of Christ" (ch. i. 12), sought at first to separate them- selves from the factious adherence to particu- lar teachers, but eventually were driven by antagonism into positions equally sectarian and inimical to the unity of the church. At this momentous period, before parties had be- come consolidated, and had distinctly with- drawn from communion with one another, the Apostle writes : and in the outset of the epis- tle (ch. i.-iv. 21) we have his noble and im- passioned protest against this fourfold rend- ing of the robe of Christ. 2. The number of epistles written by St. Paul to the Corinthian church will probably remain a subject of con- troversy to the end of time. The well-known words (ch. v. 9) do certainly seem to point to some former epistolary communication to the church of Corinth. The whole context seems in favor of this view, though the Greek com- mentators are of the contrary opinion, and no notice has been taken of the lost epistle by any writers of antiquity. Corinthians, Second Epistle to the, was writ- ten a few months subsequently to the first, in CORMORANT CORNER-STONE the same year, — about the autumn of A. D. 57 or 58, a short time previous to the Apostle's three months' stay in Achaia (Acts xx. 3). The epistle was occasioned by the information which the Apostle had received from Titus, and also, as it would certainly seem probable, from Timothy, of the reception of the first epistle. This information, as it would seem from our present epistle, was mainly favor- able; the better part of the church were re- turning back to their spiritual allegiance to their founder (ch. i. 13, 14, vii. 9, 15, 16), but there was still a faction against the Apostle personally (ch. x. i, 10), and more strenuously denied his claim to Apostleship. The contents of this epistle are thus very varied, but may be divided into three parts: ist, the Apostle's account of the character of his spiritual labors, accompanied with notices of his affectionate feelings towards his converts (ch. i.-vii.) ; 2dly, directions about the collections (ch. viii., ix.) ; 3dly, defence of his own Apostolical character (ch. x.-xiii. 10). The principal historical dif- ficulty connected with the epistle relates to Tbc Cormorant. the number of visits made by the Apostle to the church of Corinth. The words of this epistle (ch. xii. 14, xiii. i, 2) seem distinctly to imply that St. Paul had visited Corinth twice before the time at which he now writes. St. Luke, however, only mentions one visit prior to that time (Acts xviii. i, sq.) ; for the visit recorded in Acts xx. 2, 3, is confessedly subse- quent. We must assume that the Apostle made a visit to Corinth which St. Luke did not record, probably during the period of his three years' residence at Ephesus. Cormorant. The name of an uncleail bird (Lev. xi. 17; Deut. xiv. 17). The word has been variously rendered. The etymology points to some plunging bird : the common 8 cormorant is unknown in the eastern Mediter- ranean ; another species is found S. of the Red Sea, but none on the W. coast of Palestine. Corn. The most common kinds were wheat, barley, spelt (A. V. Ex. ix. 32, and Is. xxviii. 25, "rie" ; Ez. iv. 9, "fitches"), and millet; oats are mentioned only by rabbinical writers. Corn- crops are still reckoned at twentyfold what was sown, and were anciently much more. "Seven ears on one stalk" (Gen. xli. 22) is no unusual phenomenon in Egypt at this day. The many-eared stalk is also common in the wheat of Palestine, and it is of course of the bearded kind. Wheat (see 2 Sam. iv. 6) was stored in the house for domestic purposes. It is at present often kept in a dry well, and perhaps the "ground corn" of 2 Sam. xvii. 19 was meant to imply that the well was so used. From Solomon's time (2 Chr. ii. 10, 15), as agricvilture became developed under a settled government, Palestine was a corn-exporting country, and her grain was largely taken by her commercial neighbor Tyre (Ez. xxvii. 17; comp. Am. viii. 5). "Plenty of corn" was part of Jacob's blessing (G^n. xxviii. 28; comp. Ps. Ixv. 13). _ Corne'lius, a Roman centurion of the Italian cohort stationed in Caesarea (Acts x. i, &c.), a man full of good works and alms-deeds. With his household he was baptized by St. Peter, and thus Cornelius became the first- fruits of the Gentile world to Christ. Corner. The "corner" of the field was not allowed (Lev. xix. 9) to be wholly reaped. It formed a right of the poor to carry off what was so left, and this was a part of the mainte- nance from the soil to which that class were entitled. . On the principles of the Mosaic polity every Hebrew family had a hold on a certain fixed estate, and could by no ordinary and casual calamity be wholly beggared. Hence its indigent members had the claims of kindred on the "corners," &c., of the field which their landed brethren reaped. In the later period of the prophets their constant com- plaints concerning the defrauding the poor (Is. x. 2; Am. V. II, viii. 6) seem to show that such laws had lost their practical force. Still later, under the Scribes, minute legislation fixed one sixtieth as the portion of a field which was to be left for the legal "corner." The proportion being thus fixed, all the grain might be reaped, and enough to satisfy the regulation subse- quently separated from the whole crop. This "corner" was, like the gleaning, tithe-free. Corner-stone, a quoin of corner-stone, of great importance in binding together the sides of a building. The phrase "corner-stone" is sometimes used to denote any principal per- il CORNET CRANE Son, as the princes of Egypt (Is. xix. 13), and is thus appHed to our Lord (Is. xxviii. 16; Matt. xxi. 42; I Pet. ii. 6, 7). Cornet, a loud-sounding instrument', made of the horn of a rani or of a chamois (some- times of an ox), and used by the ancient He- brews for signals, for announcing the "Jubilee" (Lev. XXV. 9), for proclaiming the new year, for the purposes of war (Jer. iv. 5, 19; comp. Job. xxxix. 25), as well as for the sentinels placed at the watch-towers to give notice of the approach of an enemy (Ez. xxxiii. 4, 5). The sounding of the cornet was the distin- guishing ritual feature of the festival appointed by Moses to be held on the first day of the seventh month under the denomination of "a day of blowing trumpets" (Num. xxix. i), or "memorial of blowing of trumpets" (Lev. xxiii. 24).. [Trumpets, Feasts of.] Cos or Co'os (now Stanchio or Stanko). This small island of the Grecian Archipelago has several interesting points of connection with the Jews. It is specified as one of the places which contained Jewish residents (i Mace. XV. 23). Julius Caesar issued an edict in favor of the Jews of Cos. Herod the Great conferred many favors on the island. St. Paul, on the return from his third missionary jour- ney, passed the night here, after sailing from Miletus. The chief town (of the same name) was on the N. E. near a promontory called Scandarium ; and perhaps it is to the town that reference is made in the Acts (xxi. i). Cotton, Cotton is now both grown and manufactured in various parts of Syria and Palestine ; but there is no proof that, till the}^ came in contact with Persia, the Hebrews gen- erally knew of it as a distinct fabric from linen. [Linen.] Couch. [Bed.] Council. I. The great council of the San- hedrim, which sat at Jerusalem. [Sanhedrum.] Covenant. Primarily "a cutting," with ref- erence to the custom of cutting or dividing animals in two, and passing between the parts in ratifying a covenant (Gen. xv. ; Jer. xxxiv. 18, 19). In its Biblical meaning of a compact or agreement between two parties, the word is used — I. Improperly, of a covenant between God and man. Man not being in any way in the position of an independent covenanting party, the phrase is evidently used by way of accommodation. Strictly speaking, such a covenant is quite unconditional, and amounts to a promise (Gal. iii. 15, f¥.) or act of mere favor (Ps. Ixxxix. 28). Thus the assurance given by God after the Flood, that a like judgment should not be repeated, and that the recurrence of the seasons, and of day and night, should not cease, is called a covenant (Gen. ix. ; Jer. xxxiii. 20). Consistently with this representation of God's dealings with man under the form of a covenant, such covenant is said to be confirmed, in conformity to hu- man custom, by an oath (Deut. iv. 31 ; Ps. Ixxxix. 3), to be sanctioned by curses to fall upon the uitfaithful (Deut. xxix. 21), and to be accompanied by a sign, such as the rainbow (Gen. ix.), circumcision (Gen. xvii.), or the Sabbath (Ex. xxxi. 16, 17). 2. Properly, of a covenant between man and man, i. e., a solemn compact or agreement, either between tribes or nations (1 Sam. xi. i; Josh. ix. 6, 15), or between individuals (Gen. xxxi. 44), by which each party bound himself to fulfil certain con- ditions, and was assured of receiving certain advantages. In making such a covenant God was solemnly invoked as witness (Gen. xxxi. 50), and an oath was sworn (Gen. xxi. 31). A sign or witness of the covenant was sometimes framed, such as a gift (Gen. xxi. 30), or a pil- lar, or heap of stones erected (Gen. xxxi. 52). The marriage compact is called "the covenant The Crane. of God" (Prov. ii. 17; see Mai. ii. 14). The word covenant came to be applied to a sure ordinance, such as that of the shew-bread (Lev. xxiv. 8) ; and is used figuratively in such expressions as a covenant with death (Is. xxviii. 18), or with the wild beasts (Hos. ii. 18). . Cow. [Bull.] Crane. There can be little doubt that the A. V. is incorrect in rendering sus by "crane," which bird is probably intended by the Hebrew word 'agiir, translated "swallow," by the A. V. [Swallow.] Mention is made of the sus in Hezekiah's prayer (Is. xxxviii. 14), "Like a sus or an 'agiar so did I twitter;" and again in 82 THE LIBRARY CRETE CROSS Jer. viii. 7 these two words occur in the same order, from which passage we learn that both birds were migratory. According to the testi- mony of most of the ancient versions, siis de- notes a "swallow." Crete, the modern Candia. This large island, which closes in the Greek Archipelago on the S., extends through a distance of 140 miles be- tween its extreme points of Cape Salmone (Acts xxvii. 7") on t^c E. and Cape Criumeto- Tiew of Crete. pon beyond Phoenice or Phoenix (ilj. 12) on the W. Though extremely bold and mountain- ous, this island has very fruitful valleys, and in early times it was celebrated for its hundred cities. It seems likely that a very early ac- quaintance existed between the Cretans and the Jews. There is no doubt that Jews were settled in the island in considerable numbers during the period between the death of Alex- ander the Great and the final destruction of Jerusalem. Gortyna seems to have been their chief residence (i Mace. xv. 23). Thus the special mention of Cretans (Acts ii. 11) among those who were at Jerusalem at the great Pentecost is just what we should expect. No notice is given in the Acts of any more direct evangelization of Crete ; and no absolute proof can be adduced that St. Paul was ever there before his voyage from Caesarea to Puteoli. The circumstances of St. Paul's recorded visit were briefly as follows: The wind being con- trary when he was off Cnidus (Acts xxvii. 7), the ship was forced to run down to Cape Sal- mone, and thence under the lee of Crete to Fair Havens, which was near a city called Lasaea (ver. 8). Thence, after some delay, an attempt was made, on the wind becoming favorable, to reach Phoenice for the purpose of wintering there (ver. 12). The next point of connection between St. Paul and this island is found in the Epistle to Titus. It is evident from Tit. i. 5, that the Apostle himself was here at no long interval of time before he wrote the letter. In the course of the letter (Tit. i. 12) St. Paul adduces from Epimenides, a Cretan sage and poet, a quotation in which the vices of his countrymen are described in dark colors. The truth of their statement is abundantly confirmed by other ancient writers. Cross. As the emblem of a slave's death and a murderer's punishment, the cross was naturally looked upon with the profoundest horror. But after the celebrated vision of Con- stantine, he ordered his friends to make a cross of gold and gems, such as he had seen, and "the towering eagles resigned the flags unto the cross," and "the tree of cursing and shame" "sat upon the sceptres and was engraved and signed on the foreheads of kings" (Jer. Taylor, Life of Christ, iii. xv. i). The new standards were called by the name Labarum, and may Three Forms of the Cross. be seen on the coins of Constantine the Great and his nearer successors. The Latin cross, on which our Lord sufifered, was in the form of the letter T, and had an upright above the cross- bar, on which the "title" was placed. There was a projection from the central stem, on which the body of the sufferer rested. This was to prevent the weight of the body from tearing away the hands. Whether there was also a support to the feet (as we see in pic- tures), is doubtful. An inscription was gen- erally placed above" the criminal's head, briefly expressing his guilt, and generally was carried before him. It was covered with white gypsum, and the letters were black. It is a question whether tying or binding to the cross was the more common method. That our Lord was nailed, according to prophecy, is cer- tain (John XX. 25, 27, &c. ; Zech. xii. 10; Ps. xxii. 16). It is, however, extremely probable that both methods were used at once. The cross on which our Saviour suffered is said to have been discovered in A, D. 326, and to CROWN CRUCIFIXION this day the supposed title, or rather fragments of it, are shown to the people once a year in the Church of Sta. Croce in Gerusalemme at Rome. It was not till the 6th century that the emblem of the cross became the image of the crucifix. As a symbol the use of it was fre- quent in the early Church. It was not till the 2d century that any particular efficacy was attached to it. [Crucifixion.] Crown. This ornament, which is both an- cient and universal, probably originated from the fillets used to prevent the hair from being dishevelled by the wind. Such fillets are still common, and they may be seen on the sculp- tures of Persepolis, Nineveh, and Egypt ; they gradually developed into turbans, which by the addition of ornamental or precious mate- rials assumed the dignity of mitres or- crowns. Both the ordinary priests and the high-priest wore them. Tlae common "bonnet" (Ex. xxviii. 37, xxix, 6, &c.), formed a part of linen fillet or crown. The mitre of the high-priest (used also of a regal crown, Ez. xxi. 26) was much more splendid (Ex. xxviii, 36; Lev. viii. 9). It had a second fillet of blue lace, and over CROWNS. 1, Crown of Upper Egypt ; 2, Crown of Upper and Lower Egypt United ; 3, Assyrian Crown from Ninevah Moun- tains ; 4, Laurel Crown ; 5, Crown of Herod the Great ; 6, Crown of Aretas, King of Arabia. it a golden diadem (Ex. xxix. 6). The gold band was tied behind with blue lace (em- broidered with flowers), and being two fingers broad, bore the inscription "Holiness to the Lord" (comp. Rev. xvii. 5). There are many words in Scripture denoting a crown besides those mentioned : the head-dress of bride- grooms (Is. Ixi. 10; Bar. v. 2; Ez. xxiv. 17), and of women (Is. iii. 20) ; a head-dress of great splendor (Is. xxviii. 5) ; a wreath of flow- ers (Prov. i. 9, iv. 9) ; and a common tiara or turban (Job. xxix. 14; Is. iii. 23). The gen- eral word is 'atarah, and we must attach to it the notion of a costly turban irradiated w\th pearls and gems of priceless value, which often form aigrettes for feathers, as in the crowns of modern Asiatic sovereigns. Such was prob- ably the crown, which with its precious stones weighed (or rather "was worth") a talent, taken by David from the king of Ammon at Rabbah, and used as the state crown of Judah (2 Sam. xii. 30). In Rev. xii. 3, xix. 12, allusion is made to "many crowns" worn in token of extended dominion. The laurel, pine, or pars- ley crowns given to victors in the- great games of Greece are finely alluded to by St. Paul (i Cor. ix. 25; 2 Tim. ii. 5, &c.). Crown of Thorns, Matt, xxvii. 29. Our Lord was crowned with thorns in mockery by the Roman soldiers. The object seems to have been insult, and not the infliction of pain, as has generally been supposed. The Rhamnus or Spina Christi, although abundant in the neighborhood of Jerusalem, cannot be the plant intended, because its thorns are so strong and large that it could not have been woven into a wreath. Had the acacia been intended, as some suppose, the phrase would have been different. Obviously some small flexile thorny shrub is meant; perhaps Cap- paris spinoza. Crucifixion was in use among the Egyptians (Gen. xl. 19), the Carthaginians, the Persians (Esth. vii. 10), the Assyrians, Scythians, In- dians, Germans, and from the earliest times" among the Greeks and Romans. Whether this mode of execution was known to the ancient Jews is a matter of dispute. Probably the Jews borrowed it from the Romans. It was unani- mously considered the most horrible form of death. Among the Romans also the degrada- tion was a part of the infliction, and the pun- ishment if applied to freemen was only used in the case of the vilest criminals. Our Lord was condemned to it by the popular cry of the Jews (Matt, xxvii. 23) on the charge of sedition against Caesar (Luke xxiii. 2), al- though the Sanhedrim had previously con- demned him on the totally distinct charge of blasphemy. The scarlet robe, -crown of thorns, and other insults to which our Lord was sub- jected were illegal, and arose from the sponta- neus petulance of the brutal soldiery. But the punishment properly commenced with scourg- ing, after the criminal had been stripped. It was inflicted not with the comparatively mild rods, but the more terrible scourge (2 Cor. xi. 24, 25), which was not used by the Jews (Deut. XXV. 3). Into these scourges the sol- diers often stuck nails, pieces of bone, &c., to heighten the pain, which was often so intense that the sufferer died under it. In our Lord's case, however, this infliction seems neither to have been the legal scourging after sentence, nor yet the examination by torture (Acts xxii. 84 THE l!B"ARy OF m 1 CRUSE CUPBEARER 24), but rather a scourging before the sen- tence, to excite pity and procure immunity irom further punishment (Luke xxiii. 22; John xix. i). The criminal carried his own cross, or at any rate a part of it. The place of execu- tion was outside the city (i K. xxi. 13; Acts vii. 58; Heb. xiii. 12), often in some public road or other conspicuous place. Arrived at the place of execution, the sufferer was stripped nakecj, the dress being the perquisite of the soldiers (Matt, xxvii. 35). The cross was then driven into the ground, so that the feet of the condemned were a foot or two above the earth, and he was lifted upon it, or else stretched upon it on the ground, and then lifted with it. Before the nailing or binding took place, a medicated cup was given out of kindness to confuse the senses and deaden the pangs of the sufferer (Prov. xxxi. 6), usually "of wine min- gled with myrrh," because myrrh was sopo- rific. Our Lord refused it, -that his senses might be clear (ISIatt. xxvii. 34; Mark xv. 23). He was crucified between two "thieves" or "malefactors," according to prophecy (Is. liii. 12) ; and was watched, according to custom, by a party of four soldiers (John xix. 23) with their centurion (^latt. xxvii. 66), whose ex- press office was to prevent the stealing of the body. This was necessary from the lingering character of the death, which sometimes did not supervene even for three days, and was at last the result of gradual benumbing and starvation. But for this guard, the persons might have been taken down and recovered, as was actually done in the case of a friend of Josephus. Fracture of the legs was especially adopted by the Jews to hasten death (John xix. 31). But the unusual rapidity of our Lord's death was due to the depth of His pre- vious agonies, or may be sufficiently accounted for simply from peculiarities of constitution. Pilate expressly satisfied himself of the actual death by questioning the centurion (Mark xv. 44). In most cases the body was suffered to rot on the cross by the action of sun and rain, or to be devoured by birds and beasts. Sepul- ture was generally, therefore, forbidden ; but in consequence of Deut. xxi. 22, 23, an express national exception was made in favor of the Jews (Matt, xxvii. 58). This accursed and awful mode of punishment was happily abol- ished by Constantine. Cruse, a vessel for holding water, such as was carried by Saul when on his night expe- dition after David (i Sam. xxvi. 11, 12, 16), and by Elijah (i K. xix. 6). Crystal, the representative in the A. V. of two Hebrew words, i. Zeciicith occurs only in Job. xxviii. 17, where "glass" probably is intended. 2. Kerach occurs in numerous pass- ages in the O. T. to denote "ice," "frost," &c. ; but once only (Ez. i. 22), as is generally under- stood, to signify "crystal." The ancients sup- posed rock-crystal to be merely ice congealed by intense cold. The similarity of appearance between ice and crystal caused, no doubt, the identity of the terms to express these sub- stances. The Greek word occurs in Rev. iv. 6, xxi. I. It may mean either "ice" or "crystal." Cubit. [Measures.] Cuckoo. There does not appear to be any authority for this translation of the A. V.; the Heb. word occurs twice only (Lev. xi. 16; Deut. xiv. 15), as the name of some unclean bird, and may probably indicate some of the larger petrels, which abound in the east of the Mediterranean. Cucumbers. This word occurs, in Num. xi. 5, as one of the good things of Egypt for which the Israelites longed. There is no doubt as to the meaning of the Hebrew. Egypt pro- duces excellent cucumbers. This plant grows in the fertile earth around Cairo after the in- undation of the Nile, and not elsewhere in Egypt. Great quantities are grown in Pales- tine : on visiting the Arab school in Jeru- salem, says Mr. Tristrane, I observed that the dinner which the children brought with them to school consisted, without exception, of a piece of barley-cake and a raw cucumber, which they eat rind and all. The "lodge in a garden of cucumbers" (Is. i. 8) is a rude tem- porary shelter, erected in the open grounds where vines, cucumbers, gourds, &c., are grown, in which some lonely man or boy is set to watch, either to guard the plants from robbers, or to scarce away the foxes and jack- als from the vines. Cup. The cups of the Jews, whether of metal or earthenware, were possibly borrowed, in point of shape and design, from Egypt and from the Phoenicians, who were celebrated in that branch of workmanship. Egyptian cups were of various shapes, either with handles or without them. In Solomon's time all his drinking vessels were of gold, none of silver (i K. X. 21). Babylon is compared to a golden cup (Jer. li. 7). The great laver, or "sea," was made with a rim like the rim of a cup (Cos), "with flowers of lilies" (i K. vii. 26), a form which the Persepolitan cups resemble. The cups of the N. T. were often no doubt formed on Greek and Roman models. They were sometimes of gold (Rev. xvii. 4). Cupbearer. An officer of high rank with Egyptian, Persian, Assyrian, as well as Jewish monarchs (i K. x. 5). The chief cupbearer, or butler, to the king of Egypt was the means 85 CURTAINS CYPRUS of raising Joseph to his high position (Gen. xl. I, 21, xli. 9). Rabshakeh appears from his name to have filled a like office in the Assy- rian court (2 K. xviii. 17). Nehemiah was cupbearer to Artaxerxes Longimanus, king of Persia (Neh. i. 11, ii. i). Curtains. The Hebrew terms translated in the A. V. by this word mean : i. The ten "cur- tains" of fine linen, and also the eleven of goats' hair, which covered the Tabernacle of Moses (Ex. xxvi. 1-13; xxxvi. 8-17). 2. The "hanging" for the doorway of the tabernacle, Ex. xxvi. 36, &c., and also for the gate of the court round the tabernacle, Ex. xxvii. 16, &c. Cush, a Benjamite mentioned only in the title to Ps. vii. He was probably a follower of Saul, the head of his tribe. Cush, the name of a son of Ham, apparently the eldest, and of a. territory or territories oc- cupied by his descendants. The Cushites appear to have spread along tracts extending from the higher Nile to the Euphrates and Tigris. History affords many traces of this relation of Babylonia, Arabia, and Ethiopia. Zerah the Cushite (A. V. "Ethiopian"), who was defeated by Asa, was most probably a king of Egypt, certainly the leader of an Egyp- tian army. Cutting off from the People. [Excommuni- cation.] Cuttings [in the Flesh]. The prohibition (Lev. xix. 28) against marks or cuttings in the flesh for the dead must be taken in con- nection with the parallel passages (Lev. xxi. 5; Deut. xiv. i), in which shaving the head with the same view is equally forbidden. But there is another usage contemplated more re- motely by the prohibition, viz., that of print- ing marks, tattooing, to indicate allegiance to a deity, in the same manner as soldiers and slaves bore tattooed marks to indicate alle- giance or adscription. This is evidently allud- ed to in the Revelation of St. John (xiii. 16, xvii. 5, xix. 20), and, though in a contrary di- rection, by Ezekiel (ix. 4), by St. Paul (Gal. vi. 17), in the Revelation (vii. 3), and perhaps by Isaiah (xliv. 5) and Zechariah (xiii. 6). Cymbal, Cymbals, a percussive musical in- strument. Two kinds of cymbals are men- tioned in Ps. cl. 5, "loud cymbals" or casta- gnettes, and "high-sounding cymbals." The former consisted of four small plates of brass or of some other hard metal ; two plates were attached to each hand of the performer, and were struck together to produce a great noise. The latter consisted of two larger plates, one held in each hand, and struck together as an accompaniment to other instruments. The use of cymbals was not necessarily restricted to the worship of the Temple or to sacred occa- sions : they were employed for military pur- poses, and also by Hebrew women as a musi- cal accompaniment to their national dances. Both kinds of cymbals are still common in the East in military music, and Niebuhr often re- fers to them in his travels. The "bells" of Zech. xiv. 20 were probably concave pieces or plates of brass which the people of Palestine and Syria attached to horses by way of orna- ment. Cypress (Heb. tirzah). The Heb. word is found only in Is. xliv. 14. We are quite unable to assign any definite rendering to it. The true cypress is a native of the Taurus. The He- brew word points to some tree with a hard grain, and this is all that can be positively said of it. Cy'prus. This island was in early times in close commercial connection with Phoenicia ; and there is little doubt that it is referred to in such pasages of the O. T. as Ez. xxvii. 6. [Chittim.] Possibly Jews may have settled in Cyprus before the time of Alexander. Soon after his time they were numerous in the island, as is distinctly implied in i Mace. xv. 23. The first notice of it in the N. T. is in Acts iv. 36, where it is mentioned as the native place of Barnabas. In Acts xi. 19, 20, it ap- Cypru!?. pears prominently in connection with the ear- liest spreading of Christianity, and is again mentioned in connection with the missionary journeys of St. Paul (Acts xiii. 4-13, xv. 39, xxi. 3), and with his voyage to Rome (xxvii. 4). The island became a Roman province (B. C. 58) under circumstances discreditable to Rome, At first its administration was joined with that of Cilicia, but after the battle of Actium it was separately governed. In the first division it was made an imperial prov- 86 CYRENE DAMASCUS ince ; but the emperor afterwards gave it up to the Senate. The proconsul appears to have resided at Paphos, on the west of the island. Cyre'ne, the principal city of that part of northern Africa which was anciently called Cyrenaica. This district was separated from the territory of Carthage on the one hand, and that of Egypt on the other, and corresponding with the modern Tripoli. Though on the Afri- can coast, it was a Greek city ; and the Jews were settled there in large numbers. The Greek colonization of this part of Africa under Battus began as early as B. C. 631. After the death of Alexander the Great, it became a de- pendency of Egypt. Jewish dwellers in Cyre- naica were in Jerusalem at Pentecost (Acts ii. 10). They even gave their name to one of the synagogues in Jerusalem (ib. vi. 9). Chris- tian converts from Cyrene were among those who contributed actively to the formation of the first Gentile church at Antioch (xi. 20). Lucius of Cyrene (xiii. i) is traditionally said to have been the first bishop of his native dis- trict. Coin of Cyrene. Cy'rus (the Sun), founder of the Persian empire (see Dan. vi. 28, X. i, 13; 2 Chr. xxxvi. 22, 23), was, according to the common legend, the son of Mandane, the daughter of Astyages, the last king of Media, and Cambyses, a Per- sian of the royal family of the Achaemenidae. \Mien he grew up to manhood his courage and genius placed him at the head of the Persians. The tyranny of Astyages had at that time alienated a large faction of the Medes, and Cyrus headed a revolt which ended in the de- feat and capture of the Median king, B. C. 559, near Pasargadae. After consolidating the em- pire which he thus gained, Cyrus entered on that career of conquest which has made him the hero of the east. In B. C. 546 ( ?) he de- feated Croesus, and the kingdom of Lydia was the prize of his success. I3abylon fell before his army, and the ancient dominions of As- syria were added to his empire (B. C. 538). Afterwards he attacked the Massagetae, and according to Herodotus fell in a battle again.st them B. C. 529. D Da'gon, apparently the masculine (i Sam. v. 3, 4) correlative of Atargatis, was the national god of the Philistines. The most famous tem-. pies of Dagon were at Gaza (Judg. xvi. 21-30) and Ashdod (i Sam. v. 5, 6; i Chr. x. 10). The latter temple was destroyed by Jonathan in the Maccabaean wars (i Mace. x. 83, 84, xi. 4). Traces of the worship of Dagon likewise ap- pear in the names Caphar-Dagon (near Jam- The Fish God. nia), and Beth-Dagon in Judah (Josh. xv. 41) and Asher (Josh. xix. 27). Dagon was repre- sented with the face and hands of a man and the tail of a fish (i Sam. v. 5). The fish-like form was a natural emblem of fruitfulness, and as such was likely to be adopted by seafaring tribes in the representation of their gods. Dalma'tia, a mountainous district on the eastern coast of "the Adriatic Sea, extending from the river Naro in the S. to the Savus in the N. St. Paul sent Titus there (2 Tim. iv. 10), and he himself had preached the Gospel in its immediate neighborhood (Rom. xv. 19). Damas'cus, one of the most ancient and most important of the cities of Syria. It is situated in a plain of vast size and of extreme fertility, which lies east of the great chain of Anti-Libanus, on the edge of the desert. This fertile plain, which is nearly circular, and about 30 miles in diameter, is due to the river The Eiist Gate of Damascus. Barada, which is probably the "Abana" of Scripture. Two other streams, the Wady Hel- bon upon the north, and the Awaj upon the south, which flows direct from Hermon, in- crease the fertility of the Damascene plain, and 87 DAMASCUS DAN contend for the honor of representing the "Pharpar" of Scripture. According to Jose- phiis, Damascus was founded by Uz, the son of Aram, and grandson of Shem. It is first mentioned in Scripture in connection with Abraham (Gen. xiv. 15), whose steward was a native of the place (xv. 2). Nothing more is The Great Mosque at Damascus. known of Damascus until the time of David, when "the Symans of Damascus came to suc- cor Hadadezer, king of Zobah," with whom David was at war (2 Sam. viii. 5; l Chr. xviii. 5). At one time David became completely master of the whole territory, which he garri- soned with Israelites (2 Sam. viii. 6). Damas- cus has always been a great centre for trade. It would appear from Ez. xxvii. that Damascus took manufactured goods from the Phoeni- cians, and supplied them in exchange with Wall of Damascus. wool and wine. But the passage trade of Da- mascus has probably been at all times more important than its direct commerce. Certain localities in Damascus are shown as the site of those Scriptural events which especially in- terest us in its history. Dan (A Judge). The fifth son of Jacob, and the first of Bilhah, Rachel's maid (Gen. xxx. 6). The origin of the name is given in the exclamation of Rachel — "God hath judged me . . . and given me a son ; therefore she called his name Dan," i. e. "judge." The records of Dan are unusually meagre. Only one son is attributed to him (Gen. xlvi. 23) ; but his tribe was, with the exception of Judah, the most numerous of all. In the division of the Prom- ised Land, Dan was the last of the tribes to receive his portion, and that portion was the smallest of the twelve (Josh. xix. 48). But notwithstanding its smallness it had eminent natural advantages. On the north and east it was completely embraced by its two brother- tribes, Ephraim and Benjamin, while on the The Street called Straight. (Damascus.) south-east and south it joined Judah, and was thus surrounded by the three most powerful states of the whole confederacy. It was one of the most fertile in the whole of Palestine. But this rich district, the corn-field and the garden of the whole south of Palestine, was too valuable to be given up without a struggle by its original possessors. The Amorites ac- cordingly "force^d the children of Dan into the mountain" (Judg. i. 34), and they had another portion granted them (Judg. 18). In the "security" and "quiet" (Judg. xviii. 7, 10) of their rich northern possession the Danites en- joyed the leisure and repose which had been denied them in their original seat. In the time DANITES DANIEL of David, Dan still kept its place among the tribes (l Chr. xii. 35). Asher is omitted, but the "prince of the tribe of Dan" is mentioned in the list of I Chr. xxvii. 22. But from this time forward the name as applied to the tribe vanishes ; it is kept alive only by the northern city. In the genealogies of i Chr. ii.-xii., Dan is omitted entirely. Lastly, Dan is omitted from the list of those who were sealed by the Angel in the vision of St. John (Rev. vii. 5-7). 2. The well-known city, so familiar as the most northern landmark of Palestine, in the common expression "from Dan even to Beer- sheba." The name of the place was originally Laish or Leshem (Josh. xix. 47). After the establishment of the Danites at Dan it became the acknowledged extremity of the country. The Tell el-Kadi, a mound from the foot of which gushes out one of the largest fountains in the world, the main source of the Jordan, is very probably the site of the town and cita- del of Dan. 3. Apparently the name of a city, associated with Javan as one of the places in Southern Arabia from which the Phoeni- cians obtained wrought iron, cassia, and cala- mus (Ex. xxvii. 19). Dan'ites, The. The descendants of Dan, and members of his tribe (Judg. xiii. 2, xviii. i, II ; I Chr. xii. 35). Dance. The dance is spoken of in Holy Scripture universally as symbolical of some rejoicing, and is often coupled, for the sake of contrast, with mourning, as in Eccl. iii. 4 (comp. Ps. xxx. 11; Matt. xi. 17). In the ear- lier period it is found combined with some song or refrain (Ex. xv. 20, xxxii. 18, 19; I Sam. xxi. 11) ; and with the tambourine (A. V. "timbrel"), more especially in those impulsive outbursts of popular feeling which cannot find sufficient vent in voice or in gesture singly. Dancing formed a part of the religious cere- monies of the Egyptians, and was also com- mon in private entertainments. The "feast unto the Lord," which Moses proposed to Pha- raoh to hold, was really a dance. Women, however, among the Hebrevvs made the dance their especial means of expressing their feel- ings, and so welcomed their husbands or friends on their return from battle. The "eat- ing and drinking and dancing" of the Amal- ekites is recorded, as is the people's "rising up to play," with a tacit censure. The He- brews, however, save in such moments of temptation, seem to have left dancing to the women. In the earlier period of the Judges the dances of the virgins in Shiloh (Judg. xxi. 19-23) were certainly part of a religious fes- tivity. Dancing also had its place among merely festive amusements, apart from any ' 89 religious character (Jer. xxxi. 4, 13; Lam. v. 15; Mark vi. 22; Luke xv. 25). Dance. A musical instrument of percus- sion, supposed to have been used by the He- brews at an early period of their history. Dan'iel (Judgment of God), i. The second son of David by Abigail the Carmelitess (i Chr. iii. i). In 2 Sam. iii. 3, he is called Chileab. 2. The fourth of "the greater prophets." Noth- ing is known of his parentage or family. He appears, however, to have been of royal or noble descent (Dan. i. 3), and to have pos- sessed considerable personal endowments (Dan. i. 4). He was taken to Babylon in "the third year of Jehoiakim" (B. C. 604), and trained for the king's service with his three companions. Like Joseph in earlier times, he gained the favor of his guardian, and was di- vinely supported in his resolve to abstain from the "king's meat" for fear of defilement (Dan. i. 8-16). At the close of his three years' disci- pline (Dan. i. 5, 18), Daniel had an opportu- nity of exercising his peculiar gift (Dan. i. 17) of interpreting dreams, on the occasion of Ne- buchadnezzar's decree against the Magi (Dan. ii. 14, f¥.). In consequence of his success he was made "ruler of the whole province of Babylon," and "chief of the governors over all the wise men of Babylon" (ii. 48). He after- wards interpreted the second dream of Ne- buchadnezzar (iv. 8-27), and the handwriting on the wall which disturbed the feast of Bel- shazzar (v. 10-28). At the accession of Darius he was made first of the "three presidents" of the empire (Dan. vi. 2), and was delivered from the lions' den, into which he had been cast for his faithfulness to the rites of his faith (vi. 10-23; cf. Bel and Dr. 29-42). At the accession of Cyrus he still retained his pros- perity (vi. 28; cf. i. 21 ; Bel and Dr. 2) ; though he does not appear to have remained at Baby- lon (cf. Dan. i. 21), and in "the third year of Cyrus" (B. C. 534) he saw his last recorded vision on the banks of the Tigris (x. I, 4). In the prophecies of Ezekiel mention is made of Daniel as a pattern of righteousness (xiv. 14, 20) and wisdqm (xxviii. 3). The narrative in Dan. i. II implies that Daniel was conspicu- ously distinguished for purity and knowledge at a very early age. 3. A descendant of Itha- mar, who returned with Ezra (Ezr. viii. 2). 4. A priest who sealed the covenant drawn up by Nehemiah B. C. 445 (Neh. x. 6). He is perhaps the same as No. 3. Dan'iel, The Book of, is the earliest example of apocalyptic literature, and in this aspect it stands at the head of a series of writings in which the deepest thoughts of the Jewish DANIEL DARIUS people found expression after the close of the prophetic era. Daniel is composed partly in the vernacular Aramaic (Chaldee), and partly in the sacred Hebrew. The introduction (i.-ii. 4 a) is written in Hebrew. The personal in- troduction of Daniel as the writer of the text (viii. l) is marked by the resumption of the Hebrew, which continues to the close of the book (viii.-xii.). The book may be divided into three parts. The first chapter forms an introduction. The next six chapters (ii.-vii.) give a general view of the progressive history of the powers of the world, and of the prin- ciples of the divine government as seen in events of the life of Daniel. The remainder of the book (viii.-xii.) traces in minuter de- tail the fortunes of the people of God, as typi- cal of the fortunes of the Church in all ages. The unity of the book in its present form, not- withstanding the difiference of language, is generally acknowledged. Still there is a re- markable difiference in its internal character. In the first seven chapters Daniel is spoken of historically (i. 6-21, ii. 14-49, iv. 8-27, v. 13-29, vi. 2-28, vii. I, 2) : in the last five he appears personally- as the writer (vii. 15-28, viii. i-ix. 22, X. 1-9, xii. 5). The cause of the dif¥erence of person is commonly supposed to lie in the nature of the case. It is, however, more probable that the peculiarity arose from the manner in which the book assumed its final shape. The book exercised a great influ- ence upon the Christian Church. Apart from the general type of Apocalyptic composition which the Apostolic writers derived from Dan- iel (2 Thess. ii. ; Rev. passim : cf. Matt. xxvi. 64, xxi. 44?), the New Testament incidentally acknowledges each of the characteristic ele- ments of the book, its miracles (Hebr. xi. 33, 34), its predictions (Matt. xxiv. 15), and its doctrine of angels (Luke i. 19, 26). At a still earlier time the same influence may be traced in the Apocrypha. The authenticity of the book has been attacked in modern times, and its composition ascribed to the times of the Maccabees : but in doctrine the book is closely connected with the writings of the Exile, and forms a last step in the development of the ideas of Messiah (vii. 13, &c.), of the resur- rection (xii. 2, 3), of the ministry of angels (viii. 16, xii. I, &c.), of personal devotion (vi. ID, II, i. 8), which formed the basis of later speculations, but received no essential addi- tion in the interval before the coming of our Lord. Generally it may be said that while the book presents in many respects a startling and exceptional character, yet it is far more difficult to explain its composition in the Mac- cabaean period than to connect the peculiari- ties which it exhibits with the exigencies of the Return. Daniel, Apocryphal Additions to. The Greek translations of Daniel, like that of Esther, con- tains several pieces which are not found in the original text. The most important of these additions are contained in the Apocrypha of the English Bible under the titles of The Song of the Three Holy Children, The History of Susannah, and The History of . . . Bel and the Dragon. The first of these pieces is incor- porated into the narrative of Daniel. Three confessors were thrown into the furnace (Dan. iii. 23), Azarias is represented -praying to God for deliverance (Song of Three Children, 3- 22) ; and in answer the angel of the Lord shields them from the fire which consumes their enemies (23-27), whereupon "the three, as out of one mouth," raise a triumphant song (29-68), of which a chief part (35-66) has been used as a hymn in the Christian Church since the 4th century. The two other pieces appear more distinctly as appendices, and ofifer no semblance of forming part of the original text. The History of Susannah (or The Judg- ment of Daniel) is generally found at the be- ginning of the book, though it also occurs after the I2th chapter. The History of Bel and the Dragon is placed at the end of the book. The character of these additions indicates the hand of an Alexandrine writer; and it is not unlikely that the translator of Daniel wrought up tra- ditions which were already current, and ap- pended them to his work. Dari'us, the name of several kings of Media and Persia, i. Darius the Mede (Dan. xi. i, vi. i), "the son of Ahasuerus" (ix. i), who succeeded to the Babylonian kingdom on the death of Belshazzar, being then sixty-two years old (Dan. v. 31; xi. i). Only one year of his reign is mentioned (Dan. ix. i, xi. i); but that was of great importance for the Jews. Daniel was advanced by the king to the high- est dignity (Dan. vi. I, if.), probably in con- sequence of his former services (cf. Dan. v. 17) ; and after his miraculous deliverance Darius issued a decree enjoining throughout his dominions "reverence for the God of Dan- iel" (Dan. vi. 25, ff.). The extreme obscurity of the Babylonian annals has given occasion to different hypotheses as to the name under which Darius the Mede is known in history; but he is probably the same as "Astyages," the last king of the Medes. 2. Darius, the son of Hystaspes, the founder of the Perso-Arian dynasty. Upon the usurpation of the Magian Smerdis, he conspired with six other Persian chiefs to overthrow the impostor, and on the success of the plot was placed upon the throne, 90 DARKNESS DAVID B. C. 521. His designs of foreign conquest were interrupted by a revolt of the Babylo- nians. After the subjugation of Babylon, Darius turned his arms against Scythia, Libya, and India. The defeat of Marathon (B. C. 490) only roused him to prepare vigorously for that decisive struggle with the West which was now inevitable. His plans were again thwarted by rebellion. With regard to the Jews, Darius Hystaspes pursued the same pol- icy as Cyrus, and restored to them the privi- leges which they had lost (Ezr. v. i, &c. ; vi. i, &c.). 3. Darius the Persian (Xeh. xii. 22) may be identified with Darius II. Xothus (Ochus), king of Persia B. C. 424-3 to 405'-4, if the whole passage in question was written by Xchemiah. If, however, the register was continued to a later time, as is not improba- ble, the occurrence of the name Jaddua (vv. II, 22) points to Darius III. Codomannus, the antagonist of Alexander, and last king of Persia, B. C. 336-330 (i Mace. i. 1). Darkness is spoken of as encompassing the actual presence of God, as that out of which he speaks, the envelope, as it were, of Divine glory (Ex. xx. 21 ; i K. viii. 12). The plague of Darkness in Eg\'pt has been ascribed by various commentators to non - miraculous agency, but no sufficient account of its intense degree, long duration, and limited area, as pro- ceeding from any physical cause, has been given. The darkness "over all the land" (Matt, xxvii. 45) attending the crucifixion has been similarly attributed to an eclipse. Phlegon of Tralles indeed mentions an eclipse of intense darkness, which began at noon, and was com- bined, he says, in Bithynia, with an earth- quake, which in the uncertain state of our chronology more or less nearly synchronizes with the event. Darkness is also, as in the expression "land of darkness," used for the state- of the dead (Job x. 21, 22) ; and fre- f|uently figuratively, for ignorance and unbe- lief, as the privation of spiritual light (John i. 5, iii. 19). Dates, 2 Chr. xxxi. 5, marg. [Palm Tree.] Daughter, i. The word is used in Scripture not only for daughter, but for granddaughter or other female descendant, much in the same way and like extent with "son" (Gen. xxiv. 48, xxxi. 43). 2. The female inhabitants of a place, a country, or the females of a particular race are called daughters (Gen. vi. 2, xxvii. 46, xxviii. 6, xxxvi. 2; Num. xxv. i; Deut. xxiii. 17; Is. iii. 16; Jer. xlvi. it, xlix. 2, 3, 4; Luke xxiii. 28). 3. The same notion of descent explains the phrase "daughters of music," i. e. singing birds (Eccl. xii. 4), and the use of the word for branches of a tree (Gen. xlix. 22), the pupil of the eye (Lam. ii. 18; Ps. xvii. 8), ana the expression "daughter of 90 years," to de- note the age of Sarah (Gen. xvii. 17). '4. It is also used of cities in general (Is. x. 32, xxiii. 12; Jer. vi. 2, 26; Zech. ix. 9). 5. But more specifically of dependent towns or hamlets, while to the principal city the correlative "mother" is applied (Num. xxi. 25; Josh. xvii. II, 16; Judg. i. 27; I Chr. vii. 28; 2 Sam. XX. 19). David (well-beloved), the son of Jesse. His life may be divided into three portions : — I. His youth before his introduction to the court of Saul. II. His relations with Saul. III. His reign. — I. The early life of David contains in many important respects the antecedents of his future career, i. David was the youngest son, probably the youngest child, of a family of ten, and was born in Bethlehem, B. C. 1085. His mother's name is unknown. His father, Jesse, was of a great age when David was still young (i Sam. xvii. 12). The first time that The Tomb of David. David appears in history at once admits us to the whole family circle. There was a prac- tice once a year at Bethlehem, proliably at the first new moon of the year, of holding a sacri- ficial feast, at which Jesse, as the chief pro- prietor of the place, would preside (i Sam. xx. 6), with the elders of the town. At this or such like feast (xvi. i) suddenly appeared the great prophet Samuel, driving a heifer before him, and having in his hand a horn of the consecrated oil of the Tabernacle. The heifer was killed. The party were waiting to begin the feast. Samuel stood with his horn to pour forth the oil, as if for an invitation to begin (comp. ix. 22). He was restrained by divine intimation as son after son passed by. Eliab, the eldest, by "his height" and "his counte- nance," seemed the natural counterpart of Saul, whose rival, unknown to them, the 91 DAVID DAVID prophet came to select. But the day was gone when kings were chosen because they were head and shoulders taller than the rest. "Sam- uel said unto Jesse, Are these all thy chil- dren? And he said, There remaineth yet the youngest, and behold he keepeth the sheep." This is our first and most characteristic intro- duction to the future king. The boy was brought in. We are enabled to fix his appear- ance at once in our minds. He was of short stature, with red or auburn hair, such as is not unfrequently seen in his countrymen of the East at the present day. In later life he wore a beard. His bright eyes are especially men- tioned (xvi. 12), and generally he was remark- able for the grace of his figure and counte- nance ("fair of eyes," "comely," "goodly," xvi. 12, 18, xvii. 42), well made, and of immense strength and agility. His swiftness and activ- ity made him (like his nephew Asahel) like a wild gazelle, his feet like hart's feet, and his arms strong enough to break a bow of steel (Ps. xviii. 33, 34). His next introduction to the history is when the body-guard of Saul were discussing with their master where the best minstrel could be found to chase away his madness by music, one of the young men in the guard suggested David. In the success- ful effort of David's harp we have the first glimpse into that genius for music and poetry which was afterv/ards consecrated in the Psalms. 2. One incident alone in his solitary shepherd life has come down to us — his con- flict with the lion and the bear in defense of his father's flocks (i Sam. xvii. 34, 35). But it did not stand alone. He was already known to Saul's guards for his martial exploits, proba- bly against the Philistines (xvi. 18), and, when he suddenly appeared in the camp, his elder brother immediately guessed that he had left the sheep in his ardor to see the battle (xvii. 28). A Philistine of gigantic stature, and clothed in complete a;rmor, insults the com- paratively defenceless Israelites, amongst whom the king alone appears to be well armed (xvii. 38; comp. xiii. 20). No one can be found to take up the challenge. At this junc- ture David appears in the camp. Then he hears the challenge, now made for the fortieth time — sees the dismay of his countrymen — hears the reward proposed by the king — is in- troduced to Saul and undertakes the combat. His victory over the gigantic Philistine is ren- dered more conspicuous by his own diminu- tive stature, and by the simple weapons with which it was accomplished — not the armor of Saul, which he naturally found too large, but the shepherd's sling, which he always carried with him, and the five polished pebbles which he picked up as he went from the watercourse of the valley, and put in his shepherd's wallet. Two trophies long remained of the battle — one, the huge sword of the Philistine, which was hung up behind the ephod in the Taber- nacle at Nob (i Sam. xxi. 9) ; the other, the head, which he bore away himself, and which was either laid up at Nob, or subsequently at Jerusalem. — II. Relations with Saul. We now enter on a new aspect of David's life. The victory over Goliath had been a turning point of his career. Saul inquired his parent- age, and took him finally to his court. Jona- than was inspired by the romantic friendship which bound the two youths together to the end of their lives. The triumphant songs of the Israelitish women, and the fame which David thus acquired, laid the foundation of that unhappy jealousy of Saul towards him, which poisoned his whole future relations to David. His position in Saul's court appears to have been first armor-bearer (xvi. 21, xviii. 2), then captain over a thousand — the sub- .division of a tribe (xviii. 13), and finally, on his marriage with Michal, the king's second daughter, was raised to the high office of cap- tain of the king's body-guard, second only, if not equal, to Abner, the captain of the host, and Jonathan, the heir apparent. David was now chiefly known for his successful exploits against the Philistines, by one of which he won his wife, and drove back the Philistine power with a blow from which it only rallied at the disastrous close of Saul's reign. But the successive snares laid by Saul to entrap him, and the open violence into which the king's madness twice broke out, at last con- vinced him that his life was no longer safe. He had two faithful allies, however, in the court — the son of Saul, his friend Jonathan— the daughter of Saul, his wife Michal. Warned by the one, and assisted by the other, he es- caped by night, and was from thenceforward a fugitive. He first fled to Naioth (or the pas- tures) of Ramah, to Samuel. This is the first recorded occasion of his meeting with Samuel since the original interview during his boy- hood at Bethlehem. His stay at the court of Achish was short. Discovered possibly by "the sword of Goliath," his presence revived the national enmity of the Philistines against their former conqueror, and he only "escaped by feigning madness (l Sam. xvi. 13). His first retreat was the cave of Adullam, probably the large cavern, not far from Bethlehem, now called Khureitun. From its vicinity to Bethle- hem, he was joined there by his whole family, now feeling themselves insecure from Saul's iury (xxii. i). His next move was to a strong- 92 THE lIS^fcRt Cr- THE DAVID DAVID hold, either the mountain, afterwards called Herodium, close to Adullam, or the fastness called by Josephus jMasada, the Grecized form of the Hebrew word !Matzed (i Sam. xxii. 4, 5; I Chr. xii. 16), in the neighborhood of En- gedi. He was joined here by two separate bands. One, a little body of eleven fierce Gadite mountaineers, who swam the Jordan in flood-time to reach him (i Chr. xii. 8). An- other was a detachment of men from Judah and Benjamin under his nephew Amasai, who henceforth attached himself to David's for- tunes (i Chr. xii. 16-18). (a) At the warning of Gad, he fled to the forest of Hareth, and then again fell in with the Philistines, and again, apparently advised by Gad (xxiii. 4), made a descent on their foraging parties, and relieved Keilah, in which he took up his abode. By this time the 400 who had joined him at Adullam (xxii. 2) had swelled to 600 (xxiii. 13). (b) The situation of David was now changed by the appearance of Saul himself on the scene. Apparently the danger was too great for the little army to keep together. They escaped from Keilah, and dispersed, "whither- soever they could go," among the fastnesses of Judah. Saul literally hunts him like a part- ridge, the treacherous Ziphites beating the bushes before him, and 3000 men stationed to catch even the print of his footsteps on the hills (i Sam. xxiii. 14, 22, xxiv. 1 1, xxvi. 2, 20). His marriage with Ahinoam from Jezreel, also in the same neighborhood (Josh. xv. 56), seems to have taken place a short time before (i Sam. XXV. 43, xxvii. 3; 2 Sam. iii. 2). Wearied with his wandering life, he at last crosses the Philistine frontier, not, as before, in the capacity of a fugitive, but the chief of a powerful band — his 600 men now grown into an organized force, with their wives and fami- lies around them (xxvii. 3, 4). After the man- ner of Eastern potentates, Achish gave him, for his support, a city — Ziklag, on the fron- tier of Philistia (xxvii. 6). There we meet with the first note of time in David's life. He was settled there for a year and four months (xxvii. 7), and a body of Benjamite archers and slingers, twenty-two of whom are spe- cially named, joined him from the very tribe of his rival (1 Chr. xii. 1-7). Finally comes the fatal news of the battle at Gilboa. The reception of the tidings of the death of Saul and of Jonathan, the solemn mourning, the vent of his indignation against the bearer of the message, the pathetic lamentation that fol- lowed, will close the second period of David's life (2 Sam. i. 1-27). III. — David's reign, (i.) As king of Judah at Hebron, 75^ years (2 Sam. ii. i-v. 5). Here David was first formally anoint- ed king (2 Sam. ii. 4). To Judah his dominion was nominally confined. Gradually his power increased, and during the two years which fol- lowed the elevation of Ishbosheth a series of skirmishes took place between the two king- doms. Then rapidly followed, though without David's consent, the successive murders of Abner and of Ishbosheth (2 Sam. iii. 30, iv. 5). The throne, so long waiting for him, was now vacant, and the united voice of the whole peo- ple at once called him to occupy it. A solemn league was made between him and his people (2 Sam. v. 3). For the third time David was anointed king, and a festival of three days celebrated the joyful event (i Chr. xii. 39). His little band had now swelled into "a great host, like the host of God" (i Chr. xii. 22). The command of it, which had formerly rested on David alone, he now devolved on his nephew Joab (2 Sam. ii. 28). (II.) Reign over all Israel, 33 years (2 Sam. v. 5 to i K. ii. 11). David immediately after becoming king seized Jerusalem. The royal residence was instantly fixed there — fortifications were added by the king, and it was known by the special name of the "city of David." The ark was now removed from its obscurity at Kir- jath-jearim with marked solemnity. The erec- tion of the new capital at Jerusalem introduces us to a new era in David's life and in the his- tory of the monarchy. He became a king on the scale of the great Oriental sovereigns of Egypt and Persia, with a regular administra- tion and organization of court and camp ; and he also founded an imperial dominion which for the first time realized the prophetic de- scription of the bounds of the chosen people (Gen. XV. 18-21). Within ten years from the capture of Jerusalem, he had reduced to a state of permanent subjection the Philistines on the west (2 Sam. viii. i) ; the Moabites on the east (2 Sam. viii. 2), by the exploits of Be- naiah (2 Sam. xxiii. 20) ; the Syrians on the north-east as far as the Euphrates (2 Sam. viii. 3) ; the Edomites (2 Sam. viii. 14), on the south ; and finally the Ammonites, who had broken their ancient alliance, and made one grand resistance to the advance of his empire (2 Sam. x. 1-19, xii. 26-31). Three great calamities may be selected as marking the beginning, middle, and close of David's otherwise prosperous reign ; which appears to be intimated in the question of Gad (2 Sam. xxiv. 13), "a three years' famine, a three months' flight, or a three days' pestilence." (a) Of these, the first (the three years' fam- ine) introduces us to the last notices of Da- vid's relations with the house of Saul (b) The second group of incidents contains the tragedy 93 DAVID DAY of David's life, which grew in all its parts out of the polygamy, with its evil conse- quences, into which he had plunged on becom- ing king. Underneath the splendor of his last glorious campaign against the Ammonites, was a dark story, known probably at that time only to a very few ; the double crime of adultery with Bathsheba, and of the virtual murder of Uriah. But the clouds from this time gathered over David's fortunes, and hence- forward "the sword never departed from his house" (2 Sam. xii. 10). The outrage on his daughter Tamar; the murder of his eldest son Amnon ; and then the revolt of his best-be- loved Absalom, brought on the crisis which once more sent him forth a wanderer, as in the days when he fled from Saul. The final battle of Absalom's rebellion was fought in the "for- est of Ephraim," which terminated in the acci- dent leading to the death of Absalom, and David again reigned in undisturbed peace at Jerusalem (2 Sam. xx. 1-22). (c) The closing period of David's life, with the exception of one great calamity, may be considered as a gradual preparation for the reign of his suc- cessor. This calamity was the three days' pestilence which visited Jerusalem at the warning of the prophet Gad. The occasion which led to this warning was the census of the people taken by Joab at the king's orders (2 Sam. xxix. 1-9; i Chr. xxi. 1-7, xxvii. 23, 24). Joab's repugnance to the measure was such that he refused altogether to number Levi and Benjamin (i Chr. xxi. 6). The plague and its cessation were commemorated down to the latest times of the Jewish nation. Outside the walls of Jerusalem, Araunah or Ornan, a wealthy Jebusite — perhaps even the ancient king of Jebus (2 Sam. xxiv. 23) — possessed a threshing-floor; there he and his sons were en- gaged in threshing the corn gathered in from the harvest (i Chr. xxi. 20). At this spot an awful vision appeared, such as is described in the later days of Jerusalem, of the Angel of the Lord stretching out a drawn sword be- tween earth and sky over the devoted city. The scene of such an apparition at such a mo- ment was at once marked out for a sanctuary. David demanded, and Araunah willingly granted, the site : the altar was erected on the rock of the threshing-floor ; the place was called by the name of "Moriah" (2 Chr. iii. i) ; and for the first time a holy place, sanctified by a vision of the Divine presence, was recog- nized in Jerusalem. It was this spot which afterwards became the altar of the Temple, and therefore the centre of the national wor- ship, with but slight interruption for more than 1000 years, and it is even contended that the same spot is the rock, still regarded with almost idolatrous veneration, in the centre of the Mussulman "Dome of the Rock." A formi- dable conspiracy to interrupt the succession broke out in the last days of David's reign, but the plot was stifled, and Solomon's inaugura- tion took place under his father's auspices (i K. i. 1-53). By this time David's infirmities had grown upon him. His last song is pre- served — a striking union of the ideal of a just ruler which he had placed before him, and of the difficulties which he had felt in realizing it (2 Sam. xxiii. 1-7). His last words, as re- corded, to his successor, are general exhorta- tions to his duty, combined with warnings against Joab and Shimei, and charges to re- member the children of Barzillai (i K. ii. 1-9). He died, according to Josephus, at the age of 70, and "was buried in the city of David." After the return from the captivity, "the sepul- chres of David" were still pointed out "be- tween Siloah and the house of the mighty men," or "the guardhouse" (Neh. iii. 16). His tomb, which became the general sepulchre of the kings of Judah, was pointed out in the latest times of the Jewish people. The edifice shown as such from the Crusades to the pres- ent day is on the southern hill of modern Jeru- salem, commonly called Mount Zion, under the so-called "Coenaculum ;" but it cannot be identified with the tomb of David, which was emphatically within the walls. David, City of. [Jerusalem.] Day. The variable length of the natural day at different seasons led in the very earliest times to the adoption of the civil day (or one revolution of the sun) as a standard of time. The commencement of the civil day varies in different nations : the Babylonians reckoned it from sunrise to sunrise ; the Umbrians from noon to noon ; the Romans from midnight to midnight ; the Athenians and others from sun- set to sunset. The Hebrews naturally adopted the latter reckoning (Lev. xxiii. 32, "from even to even shall ye celebrate your sabbath") from Gen. i. 5, "the evening and the morning were the first day." The Jews are supposed, like the modern Arabs, to have adopted from an early period minute specifications of the parts of the natural day. Roughly indeed they were content to divide it into "morning, evening and noonday" (Ps. Iv. 17) ; but when they wished for greater accuracy they pointed to six unequal parts, each of which was again sub- divided. These are held to have been: i. "The dawn." 2. "Sunrise." 3. "Heat of the day," about 9 o'clock. 4. "The two noons" (Gen. xliii. 16; Deut. xxviii. 29). 5. "The cool (lit. wind) of the day," before sunset (Gen. 94 DEACON DEBORAH iii. 8) ; so called by the Persians to this day. 6. "Evening." The phrase "between the two evenings" (Ex. xvi. 12, xxx. 8), being the time marked for slaying the paschal Iamb and offer- ing the evening sacrifice (Ex. xii. 6, xxix. 39), led to a dispute between the Karaites and Sa- maritans on the one hand, and the Pharisees on the other. The former took it to mean betwefn sunset and full darkness (Deut. xvi. 6) ; the Rabbinists explained it as the time be- tween the beginning and end of sunset. Before the captivity the Jews divided the night into three watches (Ps. Ixii. 6, xc. 4), viz. the first watch, lasting till midnight (Lam. ii. 19, A. V. "the beginning of the watches") ; the "Middle watch," lasting till cockcrow (Judg. vii. 19) ; and the morning watch, lasting till sunrise (Ex. xiv. 24). These divisions were probably connected with the Levitical duties in' the Temple service. The Jews, however, say (in spite of their own definition), "a watch is the third part of the night," that they always had four night-watches '(comp. Neh. ix. 3), but that the fourth was counted as a part of the morning. In the N. T. we have allusions to four watches, a division borrowed from the Greeks and Romans. These were, i. from twi- light till 9 o'clock (Mark xi. 11 ; John xx. 19) ; 2. midnight, from 9 till 12 o'clock (]\Iark xiii. 35) ; 3. till 3 in the morning (Mark xiii. 35; 3 Mace. v. 23) ; 4. till daybreak (John xviii. 28). The word held to mean "hour" is first found in Dan. iii. 6, 15, v. 5. Perhaps the Jews, like the Greeks, learnt from the Babylonians the division of the day into 12 parts. In our Lord's time the division was common (John xi. 9). Deacon. The office described by this title appears in the N. T. as correlative of Bishop. [Bishop.] The two are mentioned together in Phil. i. I ; I Tim. iii. 2, 8. Like most words of similar import, it appears to have been first used in its generic sense, implying subordinate activity (i Cor. iii. 5; 2 Cor. vi. 4), and after- wards to have gained a more defined connota- tion, as applied to a distinct body of men in the Christian society. The narrative of Acts vi. is commonly referred to as giving an ac- count of the institution of this office. The Apostles, in order to meet the complaints of the Hellenistic Jews, that their widows were neglected in the daily ministration, call on the body of believers to choose seven men "full of the Holy Ghost and of wisdom," whom they "may appoint over this business." As the constitution of the Jewish synagogue had its elders or pastors, so also it had its subordinate officers (Luke iv. 20), whose work it was to give the reader the rolls containing the les- sons for the day, to clean the synagogue, to open and close it at the right times. The moral qualifications described in i Tim. iii., as necessary for the office of a deacon, are sub- stantially the same as those of the bishop. The deacons, however, were not required to be "given to hospitality," nor to be "apt to teach." It was enough for them to "hold the mystery of the faith in a pure conscience." They were not to gain their living by disreputable occu- pations. On offering themselves for their work they were to be subject to a strict scru- tiny (i Tim. iii. 10), and if this ended satis- factorily were to enter on it. From the anal- ogy of the synagogue, and from the scanty notices of the N. T., we may think of the dea- cons or "young men" in the Church of Jeru- salem as preparing the rooms in which the disciples met, taking part in the distribution of alms out of the common fund, at first with no direct supervision, then under that of the Seven, and afterwards under the elders, main- taining order at the daily meetings of the dis- ciples to break bread, baptizing new converts, distributing the bread and the wine of the Lord's Supper, which the Apostle or his rep- resentative had blessed. It does not appear to have belonged to the office of a deacon to teach publicly in the Church. Deaconess. The word is found in Rom. xvi. I (A. V. "servant"), associated with a female name, and this has led to the conclusion that there existed in the Apostolic age, as there undoubtedly did a little later, an order of women bearing that title, and exercising in relation to their own sex functions which were analogous to those of the deacons. On this hypothesis it has been inferred that the women mentioned in Rom. xvi. 6, 12, belonged to such an order. The rules given as to the conduct of women in i Tim. iii. 11, Tit. ii. 3, have in like manner been referred to them, and they have been identified even with the "widows" of I Tim. v. 3-10. Dead Sea. This name nowhere occurs in the Bible, and appears not to have existed until the 2d century after Christ. In the O. T. the lake is called "the Salt Sea," and "the Sea of the Plain," and under the former of these names it is described. Deb'orah (a bee), i. The nurse of Rebekah (Gen. XXXV. i). Deborah accompanied Re- bekah from the house of Bethuel (Gen. xxiv. 59), and is only mentioned by name on the occasion of her burial, under the oak-tree of Bethel, which was called in her honor Allon- Bachuth. 2. A prophetess who judged Israel (Judg. iv., v.). She lived under the palm-tree of Deborah, between Ramah and Bethel in 95 DEBTOR DEMONIACS Mount Ephraim (Judg. iv. 5), which, as palm- trees were rare in , Palestine, "is mentioned as a well-known and solitary landmark, and was probably the same spot as that called (Judg. XX. 33) Baal-Tamar, or the sanctuary of the palm" (Stanley, S. and P. 146). She was prob- ably a woman of Ephraim, although, from the expression in Judg. v. 13, some suppose her to have belonged to Issachar. Lapidoth was probably her husband, and not Barak, as some say. She was not so much a judge as one gifted with prophetic command (Judg. iv. 6, 14, V. 7), and by virtue of her inspiration "a mother in Israel." Jabin's tyranny was pe- culiarly felt in the northern tribes, who were near his capital and under her jurisdiction, viz. Zebulon, Naphtali, and Issachar: hence, when she summoned Barak to the deliverance, it was on them that the brunt of the battle fell. Under her direction Barak encamped on Ihe board summit of Tabor. Deborah's prophecy was fulfilled (Judg. iv. 9), and the enemy's general perished among the "oaks of the wan- derers (Zaanaim)," in the tent of the Bedouin Kenite's wife (Judg. iv. 21) in the northern mountains. Deborah's title of "prophetess" in- cludes the notion of inspired poetry, as in Ex. XV. 20 ; and iai this sense the glorious trium- phal ode (Judg. V.) well vindicates her claim to the office. Debtor. [Loan.] Dedication, Feast of the, the festival insti- tuted to commemorate the purging of the Temple and the rebuilding of the altar after Judas Maccabaeus had driven out the Syrians, B. C. 164. It is named only once in the Canon- ical Scriptures, John x. 22. Its institution is recorded i Mace. iv. 52-59. It commenced on the 25th of Chisleu, the anniversary of the pol- lution of the Temple by Antiochus Epiphanes, B. C. 167. Like the great Mosaic feasts, it lasted eight days, but it did not require attend- ance at Jerusalem. It was an occasion of much festivity. The writer of 2 Mace, tells us that it was celebrated in nearly the same manner as the Feast of Tabernacles, with the carrying of branches of trees, and with much singing (x. 6, 7). Josephus states that the festival was called "Lights." In the Temple at Jerusalem the "Hallel" was sung every day of the feast. Deer. [Fallow-Deer.] Degrees, Songs of, a title given to fifteen Psalms, from cxx. to cxxxiv. inclusive. Four of them are attributed to David, one is ascribed to the pen of Solomon, and the other ten give no indication of their author. With respect to the term rendered in the A. V. "degrees," a great diversity of opinion prevails, but the most probable opinion is that they were pil- grim songs, sung by the people as they went up to Jerusalem. Del'ilah, a woman who dwelt in the valley of Sorek, beloved by Samson (Judg. xvi. 4-18). There seems to be little doubt that she was a Philistine courtesan [Samson.] Deluge [Noah.] Demon. Its usage in classical Greek is vari- ous. In Homer, where the gods are but super- natural men, it is used interchangeably with "god ;" afterwards in Hesiod, when the idea of the gods had become more exalted and less fa- miliar, the "demons" are spoken of as inter- mediate beings, the messengers of the gods to men. In the Gospels generally, in' James ii. 19, and in Rev. xvi. 14, the demons are spoken of as spiritual beings, at enmity with God, and having power to afflict man, not only with dis- ease, but, as is marked by the frequent epithet "unclean," with spiritual pollution also. They "believe" the power of God "and tremble" (James ii. 19) ; they recognize the Lord as the Son of God (Matt. viii. 29; Luke iv. 41), and acknowledge the power of His name, used in exorcism, in the place of the name of Jehovah, by His appointed messengers (Acts xix. 15) ; and look forward in terror to the judgment to come (Matt. viii. 29). The description is pre- cisely that of a nature akin to the angelic in knowledge and powers, but with the emphatic addition of the idea of positive and active wick- edness. Demoniacs. This word is frequently used in the N. T., and applied to persons suffering under the possession of a demon or evil spirit, such possession generally showing itself visibly in bodily disease or mental derangement. It has been maintained by many persons that our Lord and the Evangelists, in referring to demoniacal possession, spoke only in accom- modation to the general belief of the Jews, without any assertion as to its truth or its falsity. It is concluded that, since the symp- toms of the affliction were frequently those of bodily disease (as dumbness. Matt. ix. 32; blindness, Matt. xii. 22 ; epilepsy, Mark ix. 17- 27), or those seen in cases of ordinary insanity (as in Matt. viii. 28; Mark v. 1-5), and since also the phrase "to have a devil is constantly used in connection with, and as apparently equivalent to, "to be mad" (see John vii. 20, viii. 48, x. 20, and perhaps Matt. xi. 18 ; Luke vii. 33), the demoniacs were merely persons suffering under unusual diseases of body and mind. But demoniacs are frequently distin- guished from those afflicted with bodily sick- ness (see Mark i. 32, xvi. 17, 18; Luke vi. 17, 18), even, it would seem, from the epileptic (Matt. iv. 24) ; the same outward signs are 96 i DENARIUS DEUTERONOMY sometimes referred to possession, sometimes merely to disease (comp. INIatt. iv. 24, with xvii. 15; Matt. xii. 22, with Mark vii. 32, &c.) ; the demons are represented as speaking in their own persons with superhuman knowledge, and acknowledging our Lord to be, not as the Jews generally called him, son of David, but Son of God (Matt. viii. 29; Mark i. 24, v. 7; Luke iv. 41, &c.). All these things speak of a personal power of evil. Nor does our Lord speak of demons as personal spirits of evil to the mul- titude alone, but in His secret conversations w'ith His disciples,' declaring the means and conditions by which power over them could be exercised (Matt. xvii. 21). Twice also He distinctly connects demoniacal possession with the power of the evil one ; once in Luke x. 18, to the seventy disciples, where He speaks of His power and theirs over demoniacs as a "fall of Satan," and again in Matt. xii. 25-30, when He was accused of casting out demons through Beelzebub, and, instead of giving any hint that the possessed were not really under any direct and personal power of evil. He uses an argument, as to the division of Satan against himself, which, if possession be unreal, becomes inconclusive and almost insincere. Lastly, the single fact recorded of the entrance of the demons at Gadara (Mark v. 10-14) into the herd of swine, and the effect which that entrance caused, is sufficient to overthrow the notion that our Lord and the Evangelists do not assert or imply any objective reality of possession. We are led, therefore, to the ordi- nary and literal interpretation of these pas- sagei', that there are evil spirits, subjects of the Evil One, who, in the days of the Lord Himself and His Apostles especially, were per- mitted by God to exercise a direct influence over the souls and bodies of certain men. This influence is clearly distinguished from the ordinary power of corruption and temptation, wielded by Satan through the permission of God. The distinguishing feature of possession is the complete or incomplete loss of the suf- ferer's reason or power of will ; his actions, his words, and almost his thoughts are mastered by the evil spirit (Mark i. 24, v. 7; Acts xix. 15), till his personality seems to be destroyed, or, if not destroyed, so overborne as to produce the consciousness of a twofold will within him, like that sometimes felt in a dream. Dena'rius, A. V. "penny (Matt, xviii. 28, xx. 2, 9, 13, xxii. 19; Mark vi. 57, xii. 15, xiv. 5; Luke vii. 41, x. 35, xx. 24; John vi. 7, xii. 5; Rev. vi. 6)^ a Roman silver coin, in the time of our Saviour and the Apostles. It took its name frorn its being first equal to ten "asses," a number afterwards increased to sixteen. It was the principal silver coin of the Roman commonwealth. From the parable of the labor- ers in the vineyard it would seem that a dena- rius was then the ordinary pay for a day's labor (Matt. xxi. 2, 4, 7, 9, 10, 13). Desert, a word which is sparingly employed in the A. V. to translate four Hebrew terms, of which three are essentially dil¥crent in sig- nification. A "desert," in the sense which is ordinarily attached tb the word, is a vast, burning, sandy plain, alike destitute of trees and of water. Here, it is simply necessary to show that the words rendered in the A. V. by "desert," when used, in the historical books, denoted definite localities ; and that those localities do not answer to the common con- ception of a "desert." i. Arabah. This word means that every depressed and enclosed re- gion — the deepest and the hottest chasm in the world — the sunken valley north and south of the Dead Sea, but more particularly the for- mer. [Arabah.] Arabah in the sense of the Jordan Valley is translated by the word "des- ert" only in Ez. xlvii. 8. In a more general sense of waste, deserted country — a meaning easily suggested by the idea of excessive heat contained in the root — "Desert," as the render- ing of Arabah, occurs in the prophets and poetical books; as Is. xxxv. i, 6, xl. 3, xii. 19, li. 3 ; Jer. ii. 6, v. 6, xvii. 6, 1. 12 ; but this gen- eral sense is never found in- the historical books. 2. Midbar. This word, which our translators have most frequntly rendered by "desert," is accurately the "pasture ground." It is most frequently used for those tracts of waste land which lie beyond the cultivated ground in the immediate neighborhood of the towns and villages of Palestine, and which are a very familiar feature to the traveller in that country. In the poetical books "desert" is found as the translation of Midbar in Deut. xxxii. 10; Job xxiv. 5; Is. xxi. i; Jer. xxv. 24. 3. Charbah appears to have the forct of dry- ness, and thence of desolation, it does not occur in any historical passages. It is ren- dered "desert" in Ps. cii. 6; Is. xlviii. 21 ; Ezek. xiii. 4. The term commonly employed for it in the A. V. is "waste places" or "desolation." 4. Jeshimon, with the definite article, appar- ently denotes the waste tracts on both sides of the Dead Sea. In all these cases it is treated as a proper name in the A. V. Without the article it occurs in a few passages of poetry ; in the following of which it is rendered "des- ert." Ps. Ixxxviii. 40, cvi. 14; Is. xliii. 19, 20. Deuteronomy — which means "the repetition of the law" — consists chiefly of three dis- courses delivered by Moses shortly before his death. Subjoined to these discourses are the 97 DEVIL DIAL Song of Moses, the Blessing of Moses, and the story of his death. I. The first discourse (i. i-iv. 40). After a brief historical introduction the speaker recapitulates the chief events of the last 40 years in the wilderness, and espe- cially those events which had the most imme- diate bearing on the entry of the people into the promised land. To this discourse is ap- pended a brief notice of the severing of the three cities of refuge on the east side of the Jordan (iv. 41-43). II. The second discourse is introduced like the first by an explanation of the circumstances under which it was de- livered (iv. 44-49). It extends from chap. v. i-xxvi. 19, and contains a recapitulation, with some modifications and additions of the Law already given on Mount Sinai. III. In the third discourse (xxvii. i-xxx. 20), the Elders of Israel are associated with Moses. The peo- ple are commanded to set up stones upon Mount Ebal, and on them to write "all the words of this law." Then follow the several curses to be pronounced by the Levites on Ebal (xxvii. 14-26), and the blessings on Gerizim (xxviii. 1-14). IV. The delivery of the Law as written by Moses (for its still fur- ther preservation) to the custody of the Lev- ites, and a charge to the people to hear it read once every seven years (xxxi.) : the Song of Moses spoken in the ears of the people (xxxi. 30-xxxii. 44) : and the blessings of the twelve tribes (xxxiii.). V. The Book closes (xxxiv.) with an account of the death of Moses, which is first announced to him in xxxii. 48-52. It has been maintained by many modern critics that Deuteronomy is of later origin than the other four books of the Pentateuch ; but the book bears witness to its own authorship (xxxi. 19), and is expressly cited in the N. T. as the work of Moses (Matt. xix. 7, 8; Mark x. 3; Acts iii. 22, vii. 37). The last chapter, con- taining an account of the death of Moses, was of course added by a later hand, and perhaps formed originally the beginning of the book of Joshua. [Pentateuch.] Devil. The name describes Satan as slan- dering God to man, and man to God. The former work is, of course, a part- of his great work of temptation to evil ; and is not only exemplified but illustrated as to its general nature and tendency by the narrative of- Gen. iii. The ef¥ect is to stir up the spirit of free- dom in a man to seek a fancied independence ; and it is but a slight step further to impute falsehood or cruelty to God. The other work, the slandering or accusing man before God, is, as it must necessarily be, unintelligible to us. The essence of this accusation is the im- putation of selfish motives (Job i. 9, 10), and its refutation is placed in the self-sacrifice of those "who loved not their own lives unto death." [Satan; Demon.] Dew. This in the summer is so copious in Palesane that it supplies to some extent the absence of rain (Ecclus. xviii. 16, xliii. 22), and becomes important to the agriculturist. As a proof of this copiousness the well-known sign of Gideon (Judg. vi. 37, 39, 40) may be adduced. Thus it is coupled in the divine blessing with rain, or mentioned as a prime source of fertility (Gen. xxvii. 28; Deut. xxxiii. 13; Zech. viii. 12), and its -withdrawal is at- tributed to a curse (2 Sam. i. 21 ; i K. xvii. i ; Hag. i. 10). Diadem. What the "diadem" of the Jews was we know not. That of other nations of antiquity was a fillgj: of silk, two inches broad, bound round the head and tied behind, the in- vention of which is attributed to Liber. Its color was generally white ; sometimes, how- ever, it was of blue, like that of Darius ; and it was sown with pearls or other gems (Zech. ix. 16), and enriched with gold (Rev. ix. 7). It was peculiarly the mark of Oriental sover- Ancient Dials. eigns (i Mace. xiii. 32). A crown was used by the kings of Israel, even in battle (2 Sam. i. 10) ; but in all probability this was not the State crown (2 Sam. xii. 30), although used in the coronation of Joash (2 K. xi. 12). In Esth. i. II, ii. 17, we have cether for the tur- ban worn by the Persian king, queen, or other eminent persons to whom it was conceded as a special favor (viii. 15). The diadem of the king differed from that of others in having an erect triangular peak. The words in Ez. xxiii. mean long and flowing turbans of gorgeous colors. Dial. The word ma'aloth is the same as that rendered "steps" in A. V. (Ex. xx. 26; I K. x. 19), and "degrees" in A. V. (2 K. xx. 9, 10, II ; Is. xxxviii. 8), where, to give a con- sistent rendering, we should read with the margin the "degrees" rather than the "dial" of Ahaz. In the absence of any materials for determining the shape and structure of the solar instrument, which certainly appears in- tended, the best course is to follow the most strictly natural meaning of the words, and to 98 DIAMOND DISH consider that the ma'aoth were really stairs, and that the shadow (perhaps of some column or obelisk on the top) fell on a greater or smaller number of them according as the sun was low or high. The terrace of a palace might easily be thus ornamented. • Diamond (Heb. yahalom), a precious stone, the third in the second row on the breastplate of the high-priest (Ex. xxviii. i8, xxxix. ii), and mentioned by Ezekiel xxviii. 13) among the precious stones of the king of Tyre. Some suppose yahalom to be the ''emerald." Re- specting Shamir, which is translated "dia- mond" in Jer. xvii. i, see under Adamant. Dian'a. This Latin word, properly denoting a Roman divinity, is the representative of the Greek Artemis, the tutelary goddess of the Ephesians, who plays so important a part in the narrative of Acts xix. The Ephesian Diana was, however, regarded as invested with very different attributes, and is rather to be identi- fied with Astarte and other female divinities of the East. The head wore a mural crown, each hand held a bar of metal, and the lower part ended in a rude block covered with fig- Diana of the I'Jphesians. ures of animals and mystic inscriptions. This idol was regarded as an object of peculiar sanctity, and was believed to have fallen down from heaven (Acts xix. 35). The cry of the mob (Acts xix. 28), "Great is Diana of the Ephe- sians!" and the strong expression in ver. 27, "whom all Asia and the world worshippeth," may be abundantly illustrated from a variety of sources. The term "great" was evidently a title of honor recognized as belonging to the Ephesian goddess. We find it in inscrip- tions. Di'nah, the daughter of Jacob by Leah (Gen. XXX. 21). She accompanied her father from Mesopotamia to Canaan, and, having ventured among the inhabitants, was violated by Shechem the son of Hamor, the chieftain Temple of Diana of the Ephesians. of the territory in which her father had set- tled (Gen. xxxix.). Shechem proposed to make the usual reparation by paying a sum to the father and marrying her (Gen. xxxiv. 12). But in this case the suitor was an alien, and the crown of the ofifence consisted in its hav- ing been committed by an alien against the favored people of God ; he had "wrought folly in Israel" (xxxiv. 7). The proposals of Hamor, who acted as his deputy, were framed on the recognition of the hitherto complete separation of the two peoples ; he proposed the fusion of the two by the establishment of the rights of intermarriage and commerce. The sons of Jacob, bent upon revenge, availed thems'elves of the eagerness, which Shechem showed, to effect their purpose ; they de- manded, as a condition of the proposed union, the circumcision of the Shechemites. They therefore assented ; and on the third day, when the pain and fever resulting from the operation were at the highest, Simeon and Levi, own brothers to Dinah, attacked them unexpectedly, slew all the males, and plun- dered their city. Dionys'ius the Areopagite (Acts xvii. 34), an eminent Athenian, converted to Christian- ity by the preaching of St. Paul. He is said to have been first bishop of Athens. The writ- ings which were once attributed to him are now confessed to be the production of some neo-Platonists of the 6th century. Disciple. [Schools.] Diseases. [Medicine.] Dish. [Basin ; Charger.] In ancient Egypt, and also in Judaea, guests at the table handled their food with the fingers. The same is the case in modern Egypt. Each person breaks ofif a small piece of bread, dips it in the dish, and then conveys it to his mouth, together with a small portion of the meat or other con- 99 DISPERSION tents of the dish. To pick out a delicate mor- sel and hand it to a friend is esteemed a com- pliment, and to refuse such an offering is con- trary to good manners. Judas dipping his hand in the same dish with our Lord was showing especial friendliness and intimacy. Dispersion, The Jews of the, or simply The Dispersion, was the general title applied to those Jews who remained settled in foreign countries after the return from the Babylonian exile, and during the period of the second Temple. At the beginning of the Christian era the Dispersion was divided into three great sections, the Babylonian, the Syrian, the Egyptian. From Babylon the Jews spread throughout Persia, Media, and Parthia. Large settlements of Jews were established in Cy- prus, in the islands of the Aegaean, and on the western coast of Asia Minor. The Jews of the Syrian provinces gradually formed a closer connection with their new homes, and together with the Greek language adopted in many respects Greek ideas. This Helleniz- ing tendency, however, found its most free de- velopment at Alexandria. The Jewish settle- ments established there by Alexander and Ptolemy I. became the source of the African dispersion, which spread over the north coast of Africa, and perhaps inland to Abyssinia. At Cyrene and Berenice (Tripoli) the Jewish inhabitants formed a considerable portion of the population. The Jewish settlements in Rome were consequent upon the occupation of Jerusalem by Pompey, B. C. 63. The captives and emigrants whom he brought with him were located in the trans-Tiberine quarter. In the reign of Claudius the Jews become objects of suspicion from their immense numbers; and the internal disputes led to their banishment from the city (Acts xviii. 2). This expulsion, if general, can only have been temporary, for in a few years the Jews at Rome were numer- ous (Acts xxviii. 17, f¥.). The influence of the Dispersion on the rapid promulgation of Chris- tianity can scarcely be overrated. The course of the apostolic preaching followed in a reg- ular progress the line of Jewish settlemenbs. The mixed assembly from which the first con- verts were gathered on the day of Pentecost represented each Division of the Dispersion Acts ii. 9-1 1 ; (i) Parthians . . . Mesopotamia; (2) Judaea (i. e. Syria) . . . Pamphylia ; (3) Egypt . . . Greece; (4) Romans . . . ), and these converts naturally prepared the way for the apostles in the interval which preceded the beginning of the separate apostolic missions. St. James and St. Peter wrote to the Jews of the Dispersion (Jam. i. i ; i Pet. i.- 1). Divination has been universal in all ages, DIVORCE and all nations alike civilized and savage. Nu- merous forms of divination are mentioned, such as divination by rods (Hos, iv, 12; divina- tion by arrows (Ez. xxi. 21) ; divination by cups (Gen. vliv. 5) ; consultation of Teraphim (Zech. x. 2; Ez. xxi. 21; i Sam. xv. 23) [Terapaim] ; divination by the liver (Ez. xxi. 21); divination by dreams (Deut. xiii. 2, 3; Judg. vii. 13 ; Jer. xxiii. 32) ; consultation of oracles (Is. xli. 21-24, vliv, 7). Moses forbade every species of divination because a prying into the future clouds the mind with supersti- tion, and because it would have been an in- centive to idolatry: indeed the frequent de- nunciations of the sin in the prophets tend to prove that these forbidden arts presented pe- culiar temptations to apostate Israel, But God supplied his people with substitutes for div- ination, which would have rendered it super- fluous, and left them in no doubt as to his will in circumstances of danger, had they contin- ued faithful. It was only when they were un- faithful that the revelation was withdrawn (i Sam. xxviii. 6; 2 Sam. ii. i, v. 23, &c.). Super- stition not unfrequently goes hand in hand with scepticism, and hence, amid the general infidelity prevalent through the Roman empire at our Lord's coming, imposture was rampant ; as a glance at the pages of Tacitus will suffice to prove. Hence the lucrative trades of such men as Simon Magus (Acts viii. 9), Bar-jesus (Acts viii. 6, 8), the slave with the spirit of Python (Acts xvi. 16), the vagabond Jews, exorcists (Luke xi. 19; Acts xix. 13), and oth- ers (2 Tim. iii. 13; Rev. xix. 20, &c.), as well as the notorious dealers in magical books at Ephesus (Acts xix. 19). Divorce. The law. regulating this subject is found Deut. xxiv. 1-4, and the cases in which the right of a husband to divorce his wife was lost, are stated ib. xxii. 19, 29. .The ground of divorce is a point on which the Jewish doctors of the period of the N. T. widely differed; the school of Shammai seeming to limit it to a moral delinquency in the woman, whilst that of Hillel extended it to trifling causes, e. g., if the wife burnt the food she was cooking for her husband. The Pharisees wished perhaps to embroil our Saviour with these rival schools by their question (Matt. xix. 3) ; by His an- swer to which, as well as by His previous maxim (v. 31), he declares that but for their hardened state of heart, such questions would have no place. Yet from the distinction made, "but I say unto you," v. 31, 32, it seems to follow, that he regarded all the lesser causes than "fornication" as standing on too weak ground, and declined the question of how to interpret the words of Moses. 100 THE I"' ftRt fir TH^ DOG DRAGON Dog, an animal frequently mentioned in Scripture. It was used by the Hebrews as a watch for their houses (Is. Ivi. lo), and for guarding their flocks (Job xxx. i). Then also, as now, troops of hungry and semi-wild dogs used to wander about the fields and streets of the cities, devouring dead bodies and other offal (l K. xiv. II, xvi. 4, xxi. 19, 23, xxii. 38; 2 K. ix. 10, 36; Jer. xv. 3; Ps. lix. 6, 14), and thus became such objects of dislike that fierce and cruel enemies are poetically styled dogs in Syrian Dog. Ps. xxii. 16, 20. Moreover the dog being an unclean animal (Is. Ixvi. 3), the terms dog, dead dog, dog's head, were used as terms of reproach, or of humility in speaking of one's self (i Sam. xxiv. 14; 2 Sam. iii. 8, ix. 8, xvi. 9; 2 K. viii. 13). Stanley micntions that he saw on the very site of Jezreel the descend- ants of the dogs that devoured Jezebel, prowl- ing on the mounds without the walls for offal and carrion thrown out to them to consume. Doors. [Gates.] Dove. Dove. The first mention of this bird occurs in Gen. viii. The dove's rapidity of flight is alluded to in Ps. Iv. 6; the beauty of its plumage in Ps. Ixviii. 13; its dwelling in the rocks and valleys in Jer. xlviii 28, and Ez. vii. 16; its mournful voice in Is. xxxviii. 14, lix. II ; Nah. ii. 7; its harmlessness in Matt. x. 16; its simplicity in Hos. vii. 1 1, and its amative- ness in Cant. i. 15, ii. 14. Doves are kept in a domesticated state in many parts of the East. In Persia pigeon-houses are erected at a dis- tance from the dwellings, for the purpose of collecting the dung as manure. There is prob- ably an allusion to such a custom in Is. Ix. 8. Dove's Dung. Various explanations have been given of the passage in 2 K. vi. 25, which describes the famine of Samaria to have been so excessive, that "an ass's head was sold for fourscore pieces of silver, and the fourth part of a cab of dove's dung for five pieces of sil- ver," Bochart has labored to show that it denotes a species of vicer, "chick-pea," which he says the Arabs call us.nan, and sometimes improperly "dove's or sparrow's dung." It can scarcely be believed that even in the worst horrors of a siege a substance so vile as is implied by the literal rendering should have been used for food. star of Bethlehem. (Dove's Dung.) Dowry. [Marriage.] Drachm (2 Mace. iv. 19, x. 20, xii. 43 ; Luke XV. 8, 9), a Greek silver coin, varying in weight on account of the use of different talents. In Luke (A. V. "piece of silver") denarii seem to be intended. [Money; Silver, Piece of.] Dragon. The translators of the A. V., ap- parently following the Vulgate, have rendered by the same word "dragon" the two Hebrew words Tan and Tannin, which appear to be quite distinct in meaning. I. The former is used, always in the plural, in Job xxx. 29 ; Is. xxxiv. 13, xliii. 20; in Is. xiii. 22; in Jer. x. 22, xlix. 33; in Ps. xliv. 19; and in Jer. ix. 11, xiv. 6, li. 37 ; Mic. i. 8. It is always applied t6 some creatures inhabiting the desert, and we should conclude from this that it refers rather to some wild beast than to a serpent. The Syriac renders it by a word which, according to Pococke, means a "jackal." II. The word tannin seems to refer to any great monster, whether of the land or the sea, being indeed lOI DRAM DREAMS more usually applied to some kind of serpent or reptile, but not exclusively restricted to that sense. When we examine special passages we find the word used in Gen. i. 21, of the great sea-monsters, the representatives of the inhab- itants of the deep. On the other hand, in Ex. vii. 9, 10, 12, Deut. xxxii. 33, Ps. xci. 13, it refers to land-serpents of a powerful and deadly kind. In the N. T. it is only found in the Apocalypse (Rev. xii. 3, 4, 7, 9, 16, 17, &c.), as applied metaphorically to "the old ser- pent, called the Devil, and Satan," the descrip- tion of the "dragon" being dictated by the symbolical meaning of the image rather than by any reference to any actually existing crea- ture. The reason of this scriptural symbol is to be sought not only in the union of gigantic power with craft and malignity, of which the serpent is the natural emblem, but in the rec- ord of the serpent's agency in the temptation (Gen. iii.). Dram. [Daric] Dreams. The Scripture declares, that the influence of the Spirit of God upon the soul extends to its sleeping as well as its waking thoughts. But, in accordance with the prin- ciple enunciated by St. Paul in- i Cor. xiv. 15, dreams in which the understanding is asleep, are placed below the visions of prophecy, in which the understanding plays its part. It is true that the book of Job, standing as it does on the basis of "natural religion," dwells on dreams and "visions in deep sleep," as the chosen method of God's revelation of Himself to man (see Job. iv. 13, vii. 14, xxxiii. 15). But in Num. xii. 6; Deut. xiii. i, 3, 5; Jer. xxvii. 9; Joel ii. 28, &c., dreamers of dreams, whether true or false, are placed below "prophets," and even below "diviners ;" and similarly in the climax of I Sam. xxviii. 6, we read that "Je- hovah answered Saul not, neither by dreams, nor by Urim [by symbol], nor by prophets." Under the Christian dispensation, while we read frequently of trances and visions, dreams are never referred to as vehicles of divine rev- elation. In exact accordance with this prin- ciple are the actual records of the dreams sent by God. The greater number of such dreams were granted, for prediction or for warning, to those who were aliens to the Jewish covenant. And, where dreams are recorded as means of God's revelation to His chosen servants, they are almost always referred to the periods of their earliest and most imperfect knowledge of Him. Dress. This subject includes the following particulars: i. Materials. 2. Color and dec- oration. 3. Name, form, and mode of wear- ing the various articles. 4. Special usages re- lating thereto, i. The earliest and simplest robe was made out of the leaves of a tree, por- tions of which" were sewn together, so as to form an apron (Gen. iii. 7). After the fall, the skins of animals supplied a more durable ma- terial (Gen. iii. 21). The "mantle" worn by Elijah appears to have been the skin of a sheep or some other animal with the wool left on. Pelisses of sheepskin still form an ordinary article of dress in the East. The art of weav- ing hair was known to the Hebrews at an early period (Ex. xxvi. 7; xxxv. 6); the sackcloth used by mourners was of this material. John the Baptist's robe was of camel's hair (Matt, iii. 4). Wool, we may presume, was intro- duced at a very early period, the flocks of the Fringed Garment. pastoral families being kept partly for their wool (Gen. xxxviii. 12) : it was at all times largely employed, particularly for the outer garments (Lev. xiii. 47; Deut. xxii. 11; &c.). It is probable that the acquaintance of the He- brews with linen, and perhaps cotton, dates from the period of the captivity in Egypt, when they were instructed in the manufacture (i Chr. iv. 21). Silk was not introduced imtil a very late period. (Rev. xviii. 12). 2. Color and decoration. — The prevailing color of the Hebrew dress was the natural white of the materials employed. It is uncertain when the art of dyeing became known to the Hebrews; the dress worn by Joseph (Gen. xxxvii. 3, 23) is variously taken to be either a "coat of divers colors," or a tunic furnished with sleeves and reaching down to the ankles. The latter is probably the correct sense. The notice of scarlet thread (Gen. xxxviii. 28) implies some acquaintance with 102 DREAMS DREAMS dyeing. The Egyptians had carried the art of weaving and embroidery to a high state of per- fection, and from them the Hebrews learned various methods of producing decorated stuffs. The elements of ornamentation were — (i) weaving with threads previously dyed (Ex. XXXV. 25) ; (2) the introduction of gold thread or wire (Ex. xxvii. 6, ff.) ; (3) the addition of figures. Robes decorated with gold (Ps. xlv. 13), and at a later period with silver thread (cf. Acts xii. 21), were worn by royal person- ages ; other kinds of embroidered robes were worn by the wealthy both of Tyre (Ez. xvi. 13) and Palestine (Judg. v. 30; Ps. xlv. 14). (3) The names, forms, and mode of wearing the robes. The general characteristics of Oriental dress have indeed preserved a remarkable uni- formity in all ages: the modern Arab dresses much as the ancient Hebrew did. The costume of the men and women was very similar; there was sufficient difference, however, to mark the sex, and it was strictly forbidden to a woman to wear the appendages, such as the staff, sig- net-ring, and other ornam.ents, or, according to Josephus, the weapons, of a man ; as well as ' to a man to wear the outer robe of a woman (Deut. xxii. 5). We shall first describe the robes which were common to the two sexes, and then those which were peculiar to women, (i.) The cethoneth was the most es- sential article of dress. It was a closely-fitting garment, resembling in form and use our shirt, though unfortunately translated coat in the A. \'. The material of which it was made was either wool, cotton, or linen. The primitive cethoneth was without sleeves and reached only to the knee. Another kind reached to the wrists and ankles. It was in either case kept close to the body by a girdle, and the fold formed by the overlapping of the robe served as an inner pocket. A person wearing the cethoneth alone was described as naked, A. V. (2.) The sadin appears to have been a wrap- per of fine linen, which might be used in vari- ous ways, but especially as a nightshirt (Mark xiv. 51). (3.) The meil was an upper or sec- ond tunic, the difference being that it was longer than the first. As an article of ordi- nary dress it was born by kings (i Sam. xxiv. 4), prophets (i Sam. xxviii. 14), nobles (Job i. 20), and youths (i Sam. ii. 19). It may, however, be doubted whether the term is used in its specific sense in these passages, and not rather for any robe that chanced to be worn over the cethoneth. Where two tunics are mentioned (Luke iii. 11) as being worn at the same time, the second would be a meil ; trav- ellers generally wore two, but the practice was forbidden to the disciples (Matt, x. 10; Luke ix. 3). The dress of the middle and upper classes in modern Egypt illustrated the customs of the Plebrews. (4.) The ordinary outer garment consisted of a quadrangular piece of woollen cloth, probably resembling in shape a Scotch plaid. The size and texture would vary with the means of the wearer. The Hebrew terms referring to it are — simlah, sometimes put for clothes generally (Gen. XXXV. 2, xxxvii. 34; Ex. iii. 22, xxii. 9; IDeut. x. 18; Is. iii. 7, iv. i) ; beged, which is more usual in speaking of robes of a handsome and substantial character (Gen. xxvii. 15, xli. 42; Ex. xxviii. 2 ; I K. xxii, 10; 2 Chr. xviii. 9; Is, Ixiii, i) ; cesuth, appropriate to passages where covering or protection is the prominent idea (Ex. xxii. 26; Job xxvi. 6, xxxi. 19) ; and lastly lebiish, usual in poetry, but specially applied to a warrior's cloak (2 Sam. xx. 8), priests' vestments (2 K. x. 32), and royal apparel (Esth. vi. II, viii. 15). Another term, mad, is specifically applied to a long cloak (Judg. ii. 16; 2 Sam. xx. 8), and to the priest's coat (Lev, vi. 10). The beged might be worn in various ways, either wrapped round the body, or worn over the shoulders, like a shawl, with the ends or "skirts" hanging down in front, or it might be thrown over the head, so as to conceal the face (2 Sam. xv. 30; Esth. vi. 12), The ends were skirted with a fringe and bound with a dark purple ribbon (Num. xv. 38) : it was confined at the waist by a girdle,, and the fold, formed by the overlapping of the robe, served as a pocket. The dress of the women differed from that of the men in regard to the outer garment, the cethoneth being worn equally by both sexes (Cant. v. 3). The names of their distinctive robes were as follows: (i) mitpachath (veil, wimple, A. V.), a kind of shawl (Ruth iii. 15; Is. iii. 22) ; (2) ma'ataphan (mantle, A. V.), another kind of shawl (Is. iii. 22) ; (3) tsaiph (veil, A. V.), probably a light summer dress of handsome appearance and of ample dimensions; (4) radid (veil, A. V.), a similar robe (Is. iii. 23; Cant. v. 7); (5) pethigi (stomacher, A. V.), a term of doubtful origin, but probably significant of a gay holi- day dress (Is. iii. 24) ; (6) gilyonim (Is. iii. 23) , also a doubtful word, probably means, as in the A. V., glasses. The garments of fe- males were terminated by an ample border of fringe (skirts, A. V.), which concealed the feet (Is. xlvii. 2; Jer. xiii. 22). The travelling cloak referred to by St. Paul (2 Tim. iv. 13) is generally identified with the Roman paenula, of which it may be a corruption. It is, how- ever, otherwise explained as a travelling-case for carrying clothes or books. 4. Special usages relating to dress. — The length of the 103 DRINK EAGLE dress rendered it inconvenient for active exer- cise ; hence the outer garments were either left in the hovjse by a person working close by (Matt. xxiv. i8) or were thrown off when the occasion arose (Mark x. 50; John xiii. 4; Acts vii. 58), or, if this was not possible, as in the case of a person travelling, they were girded up (i K. xviii. 46; 2 K. iv. 29; ix. i ; i Pet. i. 13) ; on entering a house the upper garment was probably laid aside, and resumed on going out (Acts xii. 8). In a sitting posture, the garments concealed the feet ; this was held to be an act of reverence (Is. vi. 2). The number of suits possessed by the Hebrew was consid- erable : a single suit consisted of an under and upper garment. The presentation of a : >be in many instances amounted to installatict or in- vestiture (Gen. xli. 42; Esth. viii. 15; I . xxii. 21) ; on the other hand, taking it away amounted to dismissal from office (2 M cc. iv. 38). The production of the best robe was a mark of special honor in a household (Luke XV. 22). The number of robes thus received or kept in store for presents was very large, and formed one of the main elements of wealth in the East (Job xxii. 16; Matt. vi. 19; James V. 2), so that to have clothing=to be wealthy and powerful (Is. iii. 6, 7). On grand occa- sions the entertainer offered becoming robes to his guests. The business of making clothes devolved upon women in a family (Prov. xxxi. 22 ; Acts ix. 39) ; little art was required in what we may term the tailoring department ; the garments came forth from the most part ready made from the loom, so that the weaver supplanted the tailor. Drink, Strong. The Hebrew term shecar, in its etymological sense, applies to any bev- erage that had intoxicating qualities. We may infer from Cant. viii. 2 that the Hebrews were in the habit of expressing the juice of other fruits besides the grape for the purpose of making wine ; the pomegranate, which is there noticed, was probably one out of many fruits so used. With regard to the application of the term in later times we have the explicit statement of Jerome, as well as other sources of information, from which we may state that the following beverages were known to the Jews: I. Beer, which was largely consumed in Egypt under the name of bythus, anc was thence introduced into Palestine. It was 1 lade of barley; certain herbs, such as lupinf and skirret, were used as substitutes for hop; , 2. Cider, which is noticed in the Mishna as a pie- wine. 3. Honey-wine, of v/hich there were two sorts, one consisting of a mixture of wine, honey, and pepper; the other a decoction of the juice of the grape, termed debash (honey) by the Hebrews, and dibs by the modern Syri- ans. 4. Date-wine, which was also manufac- tured in Egypt. It was made by mashing the fruit in water in certain proportions. 5. Vari- ous other fruits and vegetables are enumerated by Pliny as supplying materials for factitious or home-made wine, such as figs, millet, the carob fruit, &c. It is not improbable that the Hebrews applied raisins to this purpose in the simple manner followed by the Arabians, viz., by putting them in jars of water and burying them in the ground until fermentation takes place. Dromedary. [Camel.] Dulcimer, a musical instrument, mentioned in Dan. iii. 5, 15, probably the bagpipe. The same instrument is still in use among peasants in the N. W. of Asia and in Southern Europe, where it is known by the similar name Sam- pogna or Zampogna. Dung. The uses of dung were twofold, as manure, and as fuel. The manure consisted either of straw steeped in liquid manure (Is. XXV. 10), or the sweepings (Is. v. 25) of the streets and roads, which were carefully re- moved from about the houses and collected in heaps outside the walls of the towns at fixed spots (hence the dung-gate aL Jerusalem Neh. ii. 13), and thence removed in due course to the fields. The mode of applying manure to trees was by digging holes about their roots and inserting it (Luke'xiii. 8), as still practised in Southern Italy. In the case of sacrifices the dung was burnt outside the camp (Ex. xxix. 14; Lev. iv. II, viii. 17; Num. xix. 5): hence the extreme opprobrium of the threat in Mai. ii. 3. Particular directions were laid down in the law to enforce cleanliness with regard to human ordure (Deut. xxiii. 12, ff.) : it was the grossest insult to turn a man's house into a receptacle for it (2 K. x. 27; Ezr. vi. ii; Dan. ii. 5, iii. 29, "dunghill," A. V.) ; public estab- lishments of that nature are still found in the large towns of the East. — The difficulty of procuring fuel in Syria, Arabia, and Egypt, has made dung in all ages valuable as a substitute : it was probably used for heating ovens and for baking cakes (Ez. iv. 12, 15), and equable heat which it produced adapting it peculiarly for the latter operation. Cow's and camel's dung is still used for a similar purpose by the Bedouins. Dungeon. [Prison.] Dust. [Mourning.] E. Eagle. The Hebrew word, which occurs frequently in the O. T., may denote a partic- ular species of the Falconidae, as in Lev. xi. 104 0? r.vf 'TV fir n. Earrings EARTHQUAKE 13; Deut. xiv. 12, where the nesher is distin- guished from the ossifrage (osprey, and other raptatorial birds ; but the term is used also to express the griffon vulture in two or three pas- sages. At least four distinct kinds of eagles have been observed in Palestine, viz., the golden eagle, the spotted eagle, the commonest species in the rocky districts, the imperial eagle, and the very common, which preys on the numerous reptilia of Palestine. The Heb. nesher may stand for any of these different species, though perhaps more particular refer- ence to the golden and imperial eagles and the griffon vulture may be intended. The fig- ure of an eagle is now and has been long a favorite military ensign. The Persians so employed it ; a fact which illustrates the pass- age in Is. xlvi. II. The same bird was similar- ly employed by the Assyrians and the Ro- mans. Earrings. The material of which earrings were made was generall}- gold (Ex. xxxii. 2), and their form circular. They were worn by women and by youth of both sexes (Ex. 1. c). It had been inferred from the passage quoted, and from Judg. viii. 24, that they were not worn by men : these passages are, however, by Egyptian Earrings. no means conclusive. The earring appears to have been regarded with superstitious rev- erence as an amulet. On this account they were surrendered along with the idols by Jacob's household (Gen. xxxv. 4). Chardin describes earrings, with talismanic figures and characters on them, as still existing in the East. Jewels were sometimes attached to the rings. The size of the earrings still worn in eastern countries far exceeds what is usual among ourselves; hence they formed a hand- some present (Job. xlii. 11), or offering to the service of God (Num. xxxi. 50). Earth, The term is used in two widely dif- ferent senses: (i) for the material of which the earth's surface is composed; (2) as the name of the planet on which man dwells. The Hebrew language discriminates between these two by the use of separate terms, Adamah for the former, Erets for the latter. I. Adamah is the earth in the sense of soil or ground, par- 10 ticularly as being- susceptible of cultivation. The earth supplied the elementary substance of which man's body was formed, and the terms adam and adamah are brought into jux- taposition, implying an etymological connec- tion (Gen. ii. 7). II. Erets is applied in a more or less extended sense: i. to the whole world (Gen. i. i) ; 2. to land as opposed to sea (Gen. i. 10) ; 3. to a country (Gen. xxi. 32) ; 4. to a plot, of ground (Gen. xxiii. 15) ; and 5. to the ground on which a man stands (Gen. xxxiii. 3). The two former senses alone concern us, the first involving an inquiry into the opinions of the Hebrews on Cosmogony, the second on Geography. I. Cosmogony, i. The earth was regarded not only as the central point of the universe, but as the universe itself, every other body — the heavens, sun, moon, and stars — being subsidiary to, and, as it were, the com- plement of the earth. 2. The earth was re- garded in a twofold aspect ; in relation to God, as the manifestation of His infinite attributes ; in relation to man, as the scene of his abode. 1. The Plebrew cosmogony is based upon the leading principle that the universe exists, not independently of God, nor yet co-existent with God, nor yet in opposition to Him, as a hostile element, but dependently upon Him, subse- quently to Him, and in subjection to Him. 2. Creation was regarded as a progressive work — a gradual development from the inferior to the superior orders of things. II. Geog- raphy. There seem to be traces of the same ideas as prevailed among the Greeks, that the world was a disk (Is. xl. 22), bordered by the ocean, with Jerusalem as its centre, like Del- phi, as the navel, or, according to another view, the highest point of the world. As to the size of the earth, the Hebrews had but a very indefinite notion. Earthenware. [Pottery.] Earthquake. Earthquakes, more or less vio- lent, are of frequent occurrence in Palestine, as might be expected from the numerous traces of volcanic agency visible in the features of that country. The recorded instances, how- ever, are but few; the most remarkable oc- curred in the reign of Uzziah (Am. i. i ; Zech. xiv. 5), which Josephus connected with the sacrilege and consequent punishment of that monarch (2 Chr. xxvi. 16, If.). From Zech. xiv. 4, we are led to infer that a great convul- sion took place at this time in the Mount of Olives, the mountain being split so as to leave a valley between its summits. Josephus re- cords something of the sort, but his account is by no means clear. We cannot but think that the two accounts have the same foundation, and that the Mount of Olives Was really af- 5 EAST ECLIPSE OF THE SUN lected by the earthquake. An earthquake oc- curred at the time of our Saviour's crucifix- ion (Matt, xxvii. 51-54), which may be deemed miraculous rather from the conjunction of cir- cumstances than from the nature of the phe- nomenon itself. Earthquakes are not unfre- quently accompanied by fissures of the earth's surface ; instances of this are recorded in con- nection with the destruction of Korah and his company (Num. xvi. 32), and at the time of our Lord's death (Matt, xxxvii. 51) ; the for- mer may be paralleled by a similar occurrence at Oppido in Calabria A. D. 1783, where the earth opened to the extent of 500, and a depth of more than 200 feet. East. The Hebrew terms, descriptive of the east, dififer in idea, and, to a certain extent, in application; (i) kedem properly means that which is before or in front of a person, and was applied to the east from the custom of turning in that direction when describing the points of the compass, before, behind, the right, and the left, representing respectively E., W., S., and N. (Job xxiii. 8, 9) ; (2) miz- rach means the place of the sun's rising. Bear- ing in mind this etymological distinction, it is natural that kedem should be used when the four quarters of the world are described (as in Gen. xiii. 14, xxviii. 14 ; Job xxiii, 8, 9 ; Ez. xlvii. 18, f¥.), and mizrach when the east is only dis- tinguished from the west (Josh. xi. 3 ; Ps. 1. I, ciii. 12, cxiii. 3; Zech. viii. 7), or from some other one quarter (Dan. viii. 9, xi. 44; Am. viii. 12) ; exceptions to this usage occur in Ps. cvii, 3, and Is. xliii. 5 ; each, however, admit- ting of explanation. Again, kedem is used in a strictly geographical sense to describe a spot or country immediately before another in an easterly direction ; hence it occurs in such pas- sages as Gen. ii. 8, iii. 24, xi. 2, xiii. 11, xxv. 6; and hence the subsequent application of the term, as a proper name (Gen. xxv. 6, eastward, unto the land of Kedem), to the lands lying immediately eastward of Palestine, viz., Ara- bia, Mesopotamia, and Babylonia ; on the other hand mizrach is used of the far east with a less definite signification (Is. xli. 2, 25, xliii. 5, xlvi. 11). Easter. The occurrence of this word in the A. V. of Acts xii. 4, is chiefly noticeable as an example of the want of consistency in the translators. In the earlier English versions Easter had been frequently used as the trans- lation of pascha. At the last revision Passover was substituted in all passages but this. [Passover.] Eb'en-e'zer ("the stone of help"), a stone set up by Samuel after a signal defeat of the Philistines, as a memorial of the "help" re- ceived on the occasion from Jehovah (i Sam. vii. 12). Its position is carefully defined as be- tween Mizpeh and Shen. Ebony occurs only in Ez. xxvii. 15, as one of the valuable commodities imported into Tyre by the men of Dedan. The best kind of ebony is yielded by a tree which grows in Ceylon and Southern India. Ecclesias'tes. The title of this book is in Hebrew Koheleth, a feminine noun, signifying one who speaks publicly in an assembly, and hence rendered in the Septuagint by Ecclesi- astes, which is adopted in the English version. Koheleth is the name by which Solomon speaks of himself throughout the book. "The words of the preacher (Heb. Koheleth) the son of David, king of Jerusalem" (i. i). The apparent anamoly of the feminine termination indicates that the abstract noun has been transferred from the office to the person hold- ing it. The Book is that which it professes to be, — the confession of a man of wide expe- rience looking back upon his past life and look- ing out upon the disorders and calamities which surround him. The writer is a man who has sinned in giving way to selfishness and sensuality, who has paid the penalty of that sin in satiety and weariness of life, but who has through all this been under the dis- cipline of a divine education, and has learnt from it the lesson which God meant to teach him. It is tolerably clear that the recurring burden of "Vanity of vanities" and the teach- ing which recommends a life of calm enjoy- ment, mark, whenever they occur, a kind of halting-place in the succession of thoughts. Ecclesias'ticus, one of the books of the Apocrypha, is the title given in the Latin Ver- sion to the book which is called in the Sep- tuagint The Wisdom of Jesus the Son of Sirach. The word designates the character of the writing, as publicly used in the service of the Church. The writer describes himself as Jesus (i. e. Jeshua) the son of Sirach, of Jeru- salem (i. 27), but we know nothing of the author. The language in which the book was originally composed was Hebrew, i. e. perhaps the Aramean dialect; and the Greek transla- tion incorporated in the LXX. was made by the grandson of the author in Egypt "in the reign of Euergetes," perhaps Ptolemy VII. Physcon, who also bore the surname of Euer- getes (B. C. 170-117). Eclipse of the Sun. No historical notice of an eclipse occurs in the Bible, but there are passages in the prophets which contain mani- fest allusion to this phenomenon (Am. viii. 9; Mic. iii. 6; Zech. xi«v. 6; Joel ii. 10, 31, iii. 15). Some of these notices probably refer to 106 EDEN eclipses that occurred about the time of the respective compositions : thus the date of Amos coincides with a total eclipse, which occurred Feb. 9, B. C. 784, and was visible at Jerusalem shortly after noon ; that of Micah wit4i the eclipse of June 5, B. C. 716. A passing notice in Jer. xv. 9 coincides in date with the eclipse of Sept. 30, B. C. 610, so well known from Herodotus's account (i. 74, 103). The dark- ness that overspread the world at the cruci- fixion cannot with reason be attributed to an eclipse, as the moon w^as at the full at the time of the Passover. E'den (pleasure), i. The first residence of man, called in the Septuagint Paradise. The latter is a word of Persian origin, and de- scribes an extensive tract of pleasure land, somewhat like an English park ; and the use of it suggests a wider view of man's first abode than a garden. The description of Eden is as follows: — "And the Lord God planted a garden in Eden eastward. . . . And a river goeth forth from Eden to water the garden; and from thence it is divided and becomes four heads (or arms). The name of the first is Pison : that is it which compasseth the whole land of Havilah, where is the gold. And the gold of that land is good : there is the bdellium and the onyx stone. And the name of the sec- ond river is Gihon; that is it which compasseth the whole land of Cush. And the name of the third river is Hiddekel ; that is it which flow- eth before Assyria. And the fourth river, that is Euphrates" (Gen; ii. 8-14). In the eastern portion then of the region of Eden was the garden planted. The Hiddekel is the Tigris ; but with regard to the Pison and Gihon, a great variety of opinion exists. Many ancient writers, as Josephus, identified the Pison with the Ganges, and the Gihon with the Nile. Others, guided by the position of the two known rivers, identify the two unknown ones with the Phasis and Araxes, which also have their sources in the highlands of Armenia. Others, again, have transferred the site to the sources of the Oxus and Jaxartes, and place it in Bactria ; others, again, in the valley of Cash- mere. Such speculations may be multiplied ad infinitum, and have sometimes assumed the wildest character. 2, One of the marts which supplied the luxury of Tyre with richly em- broidered stufifs. It is associated with Haran, Sheba, and Asshur. In 2 K. xix. 12, and Is. xxxvii. 12, "the sons of Eden" are mentioned with Gozan, Haran, and Rezeph, as victims of the Assyrian greed of conquest. In the absence I of positive evidence, probability seems to point to the N. W. of Mesopotamia as the locality of Eden. 3. Beth-Eden, "house of pleasure ;" I EDEN probably the name of a country residence of the kings of Damascus (Am. i. 5). E'dom, Idume'a, or Idumae'a. The name Edom was given to Esau, the first-born son of Isaac, and twin brother of Jacob, when he sold his birthright to the latter for a meal of lentil pottage. The country which the Lord subse- quently gave to Esau was hence called the "field of Edom" (Gen. xxxii. 3), or "land of Edom" (Gen. xxxvi. 16; Num. xxxiii. 37), and his descendants were called the Edomites. Edom was previously called Mount Seir (Gen. xxxii. 3, xxxvi. 8), from Seir the progenitor of the Horites (Gen. xiv. 6, xxxvi. 20-22). It em- braced the narrow mountainous tract (about 100 miles long by 20 broad) extending along the eastern side of the Arabah from the north- ern end of the gulf of Elath to near the south- ilom. ern end of the Dead Sea. It was separated from Moab on the N. by the "brook Zered" (Deut. ii. 13, 14, 18), probably the modern Wady-el-Ahsy. The ancient capital of Edom was Bozrah (Buseireh) near the northern border (Gen. xxxvi. 33; Is. xxxiv. 6, Ixiii. i; Jer. xlix. 13, 22). But Sela (Petra) appears to have been the principal stronghold in the days of Amaziah (B. C.) 838; (2 K. xiv. 7) : Elath and Eziongeber were the sea-ports (2 Sam. viii. 14; I K. ix. 26). Esau's bitter hatred to his brother Jacob for fraudulently obtaining his blessing appears to have been inherited by his latest posterity. The Edomites per- emptorily refused to permit the Israelites to pass through their land (Num. xx. 18-21). For a period of 400 years we hear no more of the Edomites. They were then attacked and de- feated by Saul (i Sam. xiv. 47). Some forty years later David overthrew their army in the "Valley of Salt," and his general, Joab, follow- ing up the victory, destroyed nearly the whole male population (i K. xi. 15, 16), and placed' Jewish garrisons in all the strongholds of Edom (2 Sam. viii. 13, 14). In the reign of 107 EDEN EGYPT Jehosliaphat (B. C. 914) the Eclomites at- tempted to invade Israel in conjunction with Amnion and Moab, but were miraculously de- stroyed in the valley of Berachah (2 Chr. xx. 22). A few years later they revolted against Jehoram, elected a king, and for half a century retained their independence (2 Chr. xxi. 8). They were then attacked by Amaziah, and Sela their great stronghold was captured (2 K. xiv. 7; 2 Chr. xxv. 11, 12). Yet the Israelites were never able again completely to subdue them (2 Chr. xxviii. 17). When Nebuchad- nezzar besieged Jerusalem the Edomites joined him, and took an active part in the plunder of the city and slaughter of the Jews. Their cruelty at that time seems to be specially referred to in the 137th Psalm. It was on ac- count of these acts of cruelty committed upon the Jews in the day of their calamity that the Edomites were so fearfully denounced by the later prophets (Is. xxxiv. 5-8, Ixiii. 1-4; Jer. xlix. 17; Lam. iv. 21; Ez. xxv. 13, 14; Am. i. II, 12; Obad. 10, sq.). On the conquest of Judah, the Edomites were permitted to settle in southern Palestine. For more than four centuries they continued to prosper. But dur» ing the warlike rule of the Maccabees they were again completely subdued, and even forced to conform to Jewish laws and rites, and submit to the government of Jewish pre- fects. The Edomites were now incorporated with the Jewish nation. From this time the Tombs at Petra in Edom. Edomites, as a separate people, disappear from the page of history. — Little is known of their religion ; but that little shows them to have been idolaters (2 Chr. xxv. 14, 15, 20). Their habits were singular. The Horites, their predecessors in Mount Seir, were, as their name implies, troglodytes, or dwellers in caves; and the Edomites seem to have adopted their dwellings as well as their country. Everywhere we meet with caves and grottos hewn in the soft sandstone strata. E'domites. [Edom.] Egypt (land of the copts) a country oc- cupying the northeastern angle of Africa. Its limits appear always to have been very nearly the same. In Ezekiel (xxix. 10, xxx. 6) the whole country is spoken of as extending from Migdol to Syene, which indicates the same limits to the east and the south as at present. The Spliinx, Egypt. Names. — The common name of Egypt in the Bible is "Mizraim," or more fully "the land of Mizraim." The Arabic name of Egypt, Mizr, signifies "red mud." Egypt is also called in the Bible "the land of Ham" (Ps. cv. 23, 27; comp. Ixxviii. 51),' a name most proba- bly referring to Ham the son of Noah ; and "Rahab," the proud or insolent; both these ap- pear to be poetical appellations. The common ancient Egyptian name of the country is writ- ten in hieroglyphics KEM, which was perhaps pronounced Chem. The general appearance of the country cannot have greatly changed since the days of Moses. The Delta was always a vast level plain, although of old more perfectly watered than now by the branches of the Nile and numerous canals, while the narrow valley of Upper Egypt must have suf- fered still less alteration. Anciently, however, the rushes must have been abundant; whereas now they have almost disappeared, except in the lakes. The whole country is remarkable for its extreme fertility, which especially strikes the beholder when the rich green of the fields is contrasted with the utterly bare yel- low mountains or the sand-strewn rocky desert on either side. The climate is equable and healthy. Rain is not very unfrequent on the northern coast, but inland very rare. Cultiva- tion nowhere depends upon it. This absence 108 THE m^^^ HUM*' EGYPT EGYPT of rain is mentioned in Deut. (xi. lO, ii) as rendering artificial irrigation necessary, unlike the case of Palestine, and in Zech. (xiv. i8) as peculiar to the country. Egypt has been vis- ited in all ages by severe pestilences. Famines are frequent, and one in the middle ages seems to have been even more severe than that of Joseph. The inundation of the Nile fertilizes and sustains the country, and makes the river its chief blessing. The Nile was on this ac- count anciently worshipped. The rise begins in Egypt about the summer solstice, and the inundation commences about two months later. The greatest height is attained about or somewhat after the autumnal equinox. The inundation lasts about three months. The ancient prosperity of Egypt is attested by the Eible as well as by the numerous monuments of the country. As early as the age of the Great Pyramid it must have been densely populated. The contrast of the present state of Egypt to its former prosperity is more to be ascribed to political than to physical causes. Egypt is naturally an agricultural country. As far back as the days of Abraham, we find that when the produce failed in Palestine, Egypt was the natural resource. In the time of Joseph it was evidently the granary, at least during Front oi i'tmple at Aboo Simbel, Nubia. famines, of the nations around. The inunda- tion, as taking the place of rain, has always rendered the system of agriculture peculiar ; and the artificial irrigation during the time of low Nile is necessarily on the same principle. Vines were extensively cultivated. Of other fruit-trees, the date-palm was the most com- mon and valuable. The gardens resembled the fields, being watered in the same manner by irrigation. On the tenure of land much light is thrown by the history of Joseph. Before the famine each city and large village had its field (Gen. xli. 48) ; but Joseph gained for Pharaoh all the land, except that of the priests, in ex- change for food, and required for the right thus obtained a fifth of the produce, which be- came a law (xlvii. 20-26). The basis of the religion was Nigritian fetichism, the lowest kind of nature-worship, differing in different parts of the country, and hence obviously in- Pyramids of Gizeh, Egypt. digenous. Upon this were ingrafted, first, cos- mic worship, mixed up with traces of primeval revelation, as in Babylonia; and then, a system of personifications of moral and intellectual ab- stractions. There were three orders of gods — the eight great gods, the twelve lesser, and the Osirian group. There was no prominent hero- worship, although deceased kings and other mdividuals otten received divine honors. The great doctrines of the immortality of the soul, man's responsibility, and future rewards and punishments, were taught. There are some notices of the Egyptian army in the O. T. They show, like the monuments, that its most important branch was the chariot-force. The Pharaoh of the Exodus led 600 chosen chariots besides his whole chariot-force in pursuit of the Israelites. The warriors fighting in chariots are probably the "horsemen" mentioned in the relation of this event and elsewhere, for in Egyptian they are called the "horse" or "cavalry." The sculptures and paintings of the tombs give us a very full insight into the domestic life of the ancient Egyptians. What most strikes us in their manners is the high position occupied by women, and the entire absence of the harem system of seclusion. Marriage appears to have been universal, at least with the richer class; and if polygamy were tolerated it was rarely practised. There 109 EGYPT ELDER were no castes, although great classes were very distinct. The Egyptian feasts, and the dances, music, and feats which accompanied them, for the diversion of the guests, as well as the common games, were probably intro- duced among the Hebrews in the most lux- urious days of the kingdoms of Israel and Judah. The account of the noontide dinner of Joseph (Gen. xliii. i6, 31-34) agrees with the 'representations of the monuments. The funeral ceremonies were far more important than any events of the Egyptian life, as the tomb was regarded as the only true home. We find fre- quent reference in the Bible to the magicians of Egypt (Gen. xli. 8; Ex. vii. 11, &c.). The monuments do not recognize any such art, and we must conclude that magic was secretly 'practised, not because it was thought to be unlawful, but in order to give it importance. The industrial arts held an important place in the occupations of the Eyyptians. The work- ers in fine flax and the weavers of white linen are mentioned in a manner that shows they were among the chief contributors to the riches of the country (Is. xix. 9). The fine linen of Egypt found its way to Palestine (Prov. vii. 16). Pottery was a great branch of the native manufactures, and appears to have furnished employment to the Hebrews during the bond- age (Ps. Ixxxi. 6, Ixviii. 13; comp. Ex. i. 14). With respect to the difficult question of the period of the sojourn of the Israelites in Egypt, the following remarks may suffice. The chronology of Egypt is now so far settled that the accession of the eighteenth dynasty may be regarded as fixed to within a few years of B. C. 1525. The era of the Exodus, in the system of Ussher, is B. C. 1491. The obvious conclusion agrees with the statement of Manetho, that Moses left Egypt under Amosis, the first king of the eighteenth dynasty. The same king, as we have already seen, expelled the Shepherd Kings ; and there is, in fact, no doubt that the great power of the eighteenth dynasty was connected with this expulsion. In this change of dynasty many writers see a natural explana- tion of the "new king who knew not Joseph." If this view is correct, Joseph would have come into Egypt under one of the later kings of the Shepherd dynasty. But, plausible as this theory is, the uncertainty in which Scrip- tural chronology is involved prevents us from coming to any definite conclusion. Le.psius and other eminent Egyptologers place the ar- rival of the Israelites under the eighteenth dynasty, and the "Exodus under the nineteenth, in the year 1314 B. C. Pie identifies the chief oppressor, from whom Moses fled, with the great king of the nineteenth dynasty, Rameses II., and the Pharaoh of the Exodus with his son and successor Menptah, or Phthahmen. Mr. Poole, however, takes an entirely opposite view, and places not only the ^rival of the Israelites in Egypt, but also the Exodus, with- in the dynasties of the Shepherd kings. It seems impossible to come to any definite con- clusion upon the subject. The difficulty of a solution is still further increased by the un- certainty as to the length of the sojourn of the Israelites in Egypt, whether it was 215 years, according to the Septuagint, or 430 years, ac- cording to the Hebrew. Egyptian, Egyptians. Natives of Egypt. Elder. The term elder or old man, as the Hebrew literally imports, was one of extensive use, as an official title, among the Hebrews and the surrounding nations. It had reference to various offices (Gen. xxiv. 2, 1. 7; 2 Sam. xii. 17; Ez. xxvii. 9). As betokening a political office, it applied not only to the Hebrews, but also to the Egyptians (Gen. 1. 7), the Moabites and Midianites (Num. xxii. 7). Wherever a patriarchal system is in force, the office of the elder will be found, as the keystone of the social and political fabric ; it is so at the pres- ent day among the Arabs, where the Sheikh (= the old man) is the highest authority in the tribe. The earliest notice of the elders act- ing in concert as a political body is at the time of the Exodus. They were the representatives of the people, so much so that elders and people are occasionally used as equivalent terms (comp. Josh. xxiv. i with 2, 19, 21 ; i Sam. viii. 4 with 7, 10, 19). Their authority was undefined, and extended to all matters concerning the public weal. When the tribes became settled the elders were distinguished by different titles according as they were act- ing as national representatives, as district gov- ernors over the several tribes (Deut. xxxi. 28; 2 Sam. xix. 11), or as local magistrates in the provincial towns, whose duty it was to sit in the gate and administer justice (Deut. xix. 12; Ruth iv. 9, II ; I K. xxi. 8). Their number and influence may be inferred from i Sam. xxx. 26, fif. They retained their position under all the political changes which the Jews underwent : under the Judges (Judg. ii. 7; i Sam. iv. 3); under the kings (2 Sam. xvii. 4) ; during the captivity (Jer. xxix. i ; Ez. viii. l) ; subse- quently to the return (Ezr. v. 5, vi. 7, 14, x. 8, 14) ; under the Maccabees, when they were de- scribed sometimes as the senate (i Mace. xii. 6; 2 Mace. i. 10, iv. 44, xi. 27), sometimes by their ordinary title (i Mace. vii. 33, xi. 23, xii. 35) ; and, lastly, at the commencement of the Christian era, when they are noticed as a dis- tinct body from the Sanhedrim. 1 10 ELEAZAR ELIJAH Elea'zar. Third son of Aaron, by Elisheba, daughter of Amminadab. After the death of Nadab and Abihu without children (Lev. x. i ; Num. iii. 4), Eleazar was appointed chief over the principal Levites (Num. iii. 32). With his brother Ithamar he ministered as a priest dur- ing their father's lifetime, and immediately before his death was invested on Mount Hor with the sacred garments, as the successor of Aaron in the office of high-priest (Num. XX. 28). Elephant. The word does not occur in the text of the canonical Scriptures of the A. V., but is found as the marginal reading to Behe- moth, in Job xl. 15. "Elephant's teeth" is the marginal reading for "ivory" in I K. x. 22; 2 Chr. ix. 41. Elephants, however, are repeat- edly mentioned in the ist and 2d books of Maccabees, as being used in warfare (l Alacc. vi.). E'li (ascension) was descended from Aaron through Ithamar, the youngest of his two sur- viving sons (Lev. x. i, 2, 12; comp. i K. ii. 27 with 2 Sam. viii. 17; i Chr. xxiv. 3). As the history makes no mention of any high-priest of the line of Ithamar before Eli, he is gener- ally supposed to have been the first of that line who held the office. From him, his sons hav- ing died before him, it appears to have passed to his grandson, Ahitub (i Sam. xiv. 3), and it certainly remained in his family till Abiathar, the grandson of Ahitub, was "thrust out from being priest unto the Lord" by Solomon for his share in Adonijah's rebellion (i K. ii. 26, 27; i. 7), and the high-priesthood passed back again to the family of Eleazar in the person of Zadok (i K. ii. 35). Its return to the elder branch was one part of the punishment which had been denounced against Eli during his life- time, for his culpable negligence "(i Sam. ii. 22-25) when his sons by their rapacity and licentiousness profaned the priesthood, and brought the rites of religion into abhorrence among the people (i Sam. ii. 27-36, with i K. ii. 27). Notwithstanding this one great blem- ish, the character of Eli is marked by eminent piety, as shown by his meek submission to the divine judgment (i Sam. iii. 18), and his su- preme regard for the ark of God (iv. 18). In addition to the office of high-priest he held that of judge, being the immediate predecessor of his pupil Samuel (i Sam. vii. 6, 15-17), the last of the judges. He died at the advanced age of 98 years (i Sam. iv. 15), overcome by the disastrous intelligence that the ark of God had been taken in battle by the Philistines, who had also slain his sons Hophni and Phinehas. Elie'zer. i. Abraham's chief servant, called II by him "Eliezer of Damascus" (Gen. xv. 2), There is an apparent contradiction in the A. v., for it does not appear how, if he was "of Damascus," he could be "born in Abraham's house" (ver. 3). But the phrase "son of my house," only imports that he was one of Abra- ham's household, not that he was born in his house. It was, most likely, this same Eliezer who is described in Gen. xxiv. 2. Eli'jah (my God is Jehovah) has been well entitled "the grandest and the most romantic character that Israel ever produced." "Elijah the Tishbite of the inhabitants of Gilead," is literally all that' is given us to know of his parentage and locality. Of his appearance as he "stood before" Ahab (B. C. 910), with the suddenness of motion to this day character- istic of the Bedouins from his native hills, we can perhaps realize something from the touches, few, but strong, of the narrative. His chief characteristic was his hair, long and thick, and hanging down his back. His ordinary clothing consisted of a girdle of skin round his loins, which he tightened when about to move quickly (i K. xviii. 46). But in ad- dition to this he occasionally wore the "man- tle," or cape, of sheepskin, which has supplied us with one of our most familiar figures of speech, i. What we may call the first Act in his life embraces between three and four years — three years and six months for the duration of the drought, according to the state- ments of the New Testament (Luke iv. 25; James v. 17), and three or four months more for the journey to Horeb, and the return to Gilead (i K. xvii. i-xix. 21). His introduction is of the most startling description : he sud- denly appears before Ahab and proclaims the vengeance of Jehovah for the apostasy of the king. What immediate action followed on this we are not told ; but it is plain that Elijah had to fly before some threatened vengeance either of the king, or more probably of the queen (comp. xix. 2). Perhaps it was at this juncture that Jezebel "cut off the prophets of Jehovah" (i K. xviii. 4). He was directed to the brook Cherith. There in the hollow of the torrent- bed he remained, supported in the miraculous manner with which we are all familiar, till the failing of the brook obliged him to forsake it. His next refuge was at Zarephath, a Phoe- nician town lying between Tyre and Sidon. The widow woman in whose house he lived seems, however, to have been an Israelite, and no Baal-worshipper, if we may take her adjuration by "Jehovah thy God" as an indica- tion. Here Elijah performed the miracles of prolonging the oil and the meal ; and restored the son of the widow to life after his apparent I ELIJAH death. In this, or some other retreat, an inter- val of more than two years must have elapsed. The drought continued, and at last the full horrors of famine, caused by the failure of the crops, descended on Samaria. Again Elijah appears before Ahab. There are few more sublime stories in history than this. On the one hand the solitar)' servant of Jehovah, ac- companied by his one attendant; with his wild shaggy hair, his scanty garb and sheepskin cloak, but with calm dignity of demeanor and the minutest regularity of procedure, repairing the ruined altar of Jehovah with twelve stones — on the other hand the ^50 prophets of Baal and Ashtaroth, doubtless in all the splendor of their vestments (2 K. x. 22), with the wild din of their vain repetitions and the maddened fury of their disappointed hopes, and the silent people surrounding all. The conclusion of the long day need only be glanced at. The fire of Jehovah consuming both sacrifice and altar — the prophets of Baal killed, it would seem by Elijah's own hand (xviii. 40) — the king, with an apathy almost unintelligible, eating and drinking in the very midst of the carnage of his own adherents — the rising storm — the ride across the plain to Jezreel, a distance of at least 16 miles; the prophet, with true Arab endurance, running before the chariot, but also with true Arab instinct stopping short of the city, and going no farther than the "entrance of Jezreel." So far the triumph had been com- plete; but the spirit of Jezebel was not to be so easily overcome, and her first act is a vow of vengeance against the author of this de- struction. Elijah takes refuge in flight. The danger was great, and the refuge must be dis- tant. The first stage on the journey was Beer- sheba. Here Elijah halted. In the morning came the "word of Jehovah" — the question, "What doest thou here, Elijah?" In answer to this invitation the prophet opens his griefs. He is directed to leave the cavern and stand on the mountain in the open air, face to face with Jehovah. Then, as before with Moses (Ex. xxxiv. 6), "The Lord passed by," passed in all the terror of His most appalling mani- festations ; and penetrating the dead silence which followed these, came the mysterious symbol — the "still small voice." Three com- mands were laid on him — three changes were to be made. Of these three commands the two first were reserved for Elisha to accomplish, the last 'only was executed by Elijah himself. His first search was for Elisha. Elisha, whom he finds ploughing at the time, and Elijah "passed over to him" — possibly crossed the river; — and cast his mantle, the well-known sheepskin cloak, upon him, as if, by that I ELIJAH familiar action, claiming himi for his son. 2. Ahab and Jezebel now probably believed that their threats had been effectual, and that they had seen the last of their tormentor. But after the murder of Naboth, Elijah, who had received an intimation from Jehovah of what was taking place,* Elijah again suddenly appears before the king. And then follows the curse, in terms fearful to any Oriental — peculiarly terrible to a Jew — and most of all significant to a suc- cessor of the apostate princes of the northern kingdom. The whole of Elijah's denunciation may possibly be recovered by putting together the words recalled by Jehu, 2 K. ix. 26, 36, 37, and those given in i K. xxi. 19-25. 3. A space of three or four years now elapses (comp. i K. xxii. I, 51, 2 K. i, 17) before we again catch a glimpse of Elijah. Ahaziah has met with a fatal accident, and is on his death-bed (2 K. i. I, 2; I K. xxii. 51). In his extremity, he sends to an oracle or shrine of Baal at the Philistine town of Ekron, to ascertain the issue of his illness. But as on the former occasions, Elijah suddenly appears on the path of the messen- gers, without preface or inquiry utters his mes- sage of death, and as rapidly disappears. But this check only roused the wrath of Ahaziah. A captain was despatched, with a party of fifty, to take Elijah prisoner. "And there came down fire from heaven and consumed him and his fifty." A second party was sent, only to meet the same fate. The altered tone of the leader of a third party brought Elijah down. But the king gained nothing. The message was delivered to his face in the same words as it had been to the messengers, and Elijah was allowed to go harmless. 4. It must have been shortly after the death of Ahaziah that Elijah made a communication with the south- ern kingdom. When Jehoram the son of Jehoshaphat began "to walk in the ways of the kings of Israel," Elijah sent him a letter de- nouncing his evil doings, and predicting his death (2 Chr. xxi. 12-15). I* was at Gilgal — probably on the western edge of the hills of Ephraim — that the prophet received the divine intimation that his departure was at hand. He was at the time with Elisha, who seems now to have become his constant companion, and whom he endeavors to persuade to remain be- hind while he goes on an errand of Jehovah. But Elisha will not so easily give up his mas- ter. "And it came to pass as they still went on and talked, that, behold, a chariot of fire and horses of fire, and parted them both asun- der, and Elijah went up by the whirlwind into the skies." — And here ends all the direct in- formation which is vouchshafed to us of the life and work of this great prophet. How deep 12 ELISHA ELISHA was the impression which he made on the mmd of the nation may be judged of from the nxed belief which many centuries after pre- vailed that Elijah would gain appear for the relief and restoration of his country. But on the other hand, the deep impression which Elijah had thus made on his nation only renders more remarkable the departure which the image conveyed by the later references to him evinces, from that so sharply presented in the records of his actual life. With the excep- tion of the eulogiums contained in the cata- logues of worthies in the book of Jesus the son of Sirach (xlviii.) and i Mace. ii. 58, and the passing allusion in Luke ix. 54, none of these later references allude to his works of destruc- tion or of portent. They all set forth a very different side of his character to that brought out in the historical narrative. They speak of his being a man of like passions with ourselves (James v. 17) ; of his kindness to the widow of Sarepta (Luke iy. 25) ; of his "restoring all things" (Matt. xvii. ll) ; "turning the hearts of the fathers to the children, and the dis- obedient to the wisdom of' the just" (Mai. iv. 5, 6; Luke i. 17). 2. A priest of the sons of Harim, who had married a foreign wife (Ezr. x. 21). Eli'sha (God his salvation), son of Shaphat of Abel-meholah ; the attendant and disciple of Elijah, and subsequently his successor as prophet of the kingdom of Israel. The earliest mention of his name is in the com- mand to Elijah in the cave at Horeb (i K. xix. 16, 17). Elijah, on his way from Sinai to Damascus by the Jordan valley, lights on his successor engaged in the labors of the field. To cross to him, to throw over his shoulders the rough mantle — a token at once of investi- ture with the prophet's office, and of adoption as a son — delayed merely to give the farewell kiss to his father and mother, and preside at a parting feast with his people, and then fol- lowed the great prophet on his northward road. Seven or eight years must have passed between the call of Elisha and the removal of his master, and during the whole of that time we hear nothing of him. But when that period had elapsed he reappears, to become the most prominent figure in the history of his country during the rest of his long life. In almost every respect Elisha presents the most com- plete contrast to Elijah. Elijah was a true Bedouin child of the desert. If he enters a city it is only to deliver his message of fire and be gone. Elisha, on the other hand, is a civilized man, an inhabitant of cities. And as with his manners so with his appearance. The touches of the narrative are very slight ; but we can gather that his dress was the ordinary garment of an Israelite, the beged, probably similar in fo.rm to the long abbeyeh of the modern Syrians (2 K. ii. 12), that his hair was worn trimmed behind, in contrast to the dis- ordered locks of Elijah (ii. 23), and that he used a walking-staff (iv. 29) of the kind ordinarily carried by grave or aged citizens (Zech. viii. 4). The call of Elisha seems to have taken place about four years before the death of Ahab. He died in the reign of Joash, the grandson of Jehu. This em- braces a period of not less than 65 years, for certainly 55 of which he held the office of "prophet in Israel" (2 K. v. 8). After the de- parture of his master, Elisha returned to dwell at Jericho (2 K. ii. 18). The town had been lately rebuilt (i K. xvi. 34), and was the resi- dence of a body of the "sons of the prophets" (2 K. ii. 5, 15). One of the springs of Jericho was noxious at the time of Elisha's, visit. At the request of the men of Jericho he remedied this "evil. He took salt in a new vessel, and cast it into the water at its source in the name of Jehovah. We next meet with Elisha at Bethel, in the heart of the country, on his way from Jericho to Mount Carmel (2 K. ii. 23). The mocking children scoff at the new comer as he walks by — "Go up, roundhead! go up, roundhead!" For once Elisha assumed the sternness of his master. He turned upon them and cursed them in the name of Jehovah, and we all know the catastrophe which followed. Elisha extricates Jehoram king of Israel, and the kings of Judah and Edom, from their diffi- culty in the campaign against Moab, arising from want of water (iii. 4-27). This incident probably took place at the S. E. end of the Dead Sea. The widow of one of the sons of the prophets is in debt, and her two sons are about to be taken from her and sold as slaves. She has no property but a pot of oil. This Elisha causes (in his absence, iv. 5) to multi- ply, until the widow has filled with it all the vessels which she could borrow. The next oc- currence is at Shunem and Mount Carmel (iv. 8-37). The story divides itself into two parts, separated from each other by several years. Elisha, probably on his way between Car- mel and the Jordan valley, calls accidentally at Shunem. Here he is hospitably entertained by a woman of substance, apparently at that time ignorant of the character of her guest, whose son dies and is brought to life again by Elisha (2 Kings iv. 42-44), then at Gilgal he purifies the deadly pottage (2 Kings iv. 38- 41) and multiplies the loaves (2 Kings iv. 42-44). The simple records of these domestic incidents amongst the sons of the prophets are 13 EMBALMING EMBALMING now interrupted by an occurrence of a more important character (v. 1-27). The chief cap- tain of the army of Syria was afflicted with leprosy (v. 27), and is sent by an Israelite maid to the prophet Elisha, who directs him to dip seven times in the Jordan, which he does and is healed (2 Kings v. 1-14), while Naaman's servant, Gehazi, he strikes with leprosy for his unfaithfulness (ch. v., 20-27). Again the scene changes. It is probably at Jericho that Elisha causes the iron axe to swim (2 Kings vi. 1-7). A band of Syrian marauders are sent to seize him, but are struck blind, and he misleads them to Samaria, where they find themselves in the presence of the Israelite king and his troops (2 Kings vi. 8-23). During the famine in Samaria (2 Kings vi. 24-33, he prophesied incredible plenty (ch. vii. 1-2), which was soon fulfilled (ch. vii. 3-20). We next find the prophet at Damascus. Ben- hadad the king is sick, and sends to Elisha by Hazael to know the result. Elisha prophesies the king's death, and announces to Hazael that he is to succeed to the throne (2 Kings viii. 7-15). Finally this prophet of God, after having filled the position for sixty years, is found on his death-bed in his own house (2 Kings xiii. 14-19). The power of the prophet, however, does not terminate with his death. Even in the tomb he restores the dead to life (ch. xiii. 21). Embalming, the process by which dead bodies are preserved from putrefaction and decay. It was most general among the Mummy-Cases. Egyptians, and it is in connection with this people that the two instances which we meet with in the O. T. are mentioned (Gen. 1. 2, 26). Of the Egyptian method of embalming there remain two minute accounts, which have a general kind of agreement, though they differ in details. Herodotus (ii. 86-89) describes three modes, varying in completeness and ex- pense, and practised by persons regularly trained to the profession who were initiated into the mysteries of the art by their an- cestors. The embalmers first removed part of the brain through the nostrils, by means of a Different Forms of Mummy-Cases. 1, 2, 4, 9, of Wood; 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, of Stone; 10, of Burnt Earthenware. crooked iron, and destroyed the rest by inject- ing caustic drugs. An incision was then made along the flank with a sharp Ethiopian stone, and the whole of the intestines removed. The cavity was rinsed out with palm-wine, and afterwards scoured with pounded perfumes. It was then filled with pure myrrh pounded, cassia, and other aromatics, except frankin- cense. This done, the body was sewn up and steeped in natron for seventy days. When the seventy days were accomplished, the embalm- ers washed the corpse and swathed it in bandages of linen, cut in strips and srheared with gum. They then gave it up to the rela- tives of the deceased, who provided for it a wooden case, made in the shape of a man, in which the dead was placed, and deposited in an erect position against the wall of the sepulchral chamber. The second mode of embalming cost about 20 minae. In this case no incision was made in the body, nor were the intestines removed, but cedar-oil was in- jected into the stomach by the rectum. The oil was prevented from escaping, and the body was then steeped in natron for the appointed number of days. On the last day the oil was withdrawn, and carried off with it the stomach and intestines in a state of solution, while the flesh was consumed by the natron, and noth- ing was left but the skin and bones. The body in this state was returned to the relatives of 114 EMBROIDERER ENOCH, THE BOOK OF the deceased. The third mode, which was adopted by the poorer classes, and cost but lit- tle, consisted in rinsing out the intestines with syrmaea, an infusion of senna and cassia, and steeping the body for the usual number of days in natron. It does not appear that em- balming, properly so-called, was practised by the Hebrews. Embroiderer. In Exodus the embroiderer is contrasted with the "cunning workman." Various explanations have been ofi"ered as to the distinction between them, ^but most of these overlook the distinction marked in the Bible itself, viz. that the rokem wove simply a variegated texture, without gold thread or fig- ures, and that the chosheb interwove gold thread or figures into the variegated texture. The art of embroidery by the loom was exten- sively practised among the nations of an- tiquity. In addition to the Egyptians, the Babylonians were celebrated for it ; but em- broidery in the proper sense of the term, i. e. with the needle, was a Phrygian invention of later date (Plin. viii. 48). Emmaus. Emerald, a precious stone, first in the sec- ond row on the breastplate of the high-priest (Ex. xxviii. 18, xxxix. 11), imported to Tyre from Syria (Ez. xxvii. 16), used as a seal or signet (Ecclus. xxxii. 6), as an ornament of clothing and bedding (Ez. xxviii. 13; Jud. x. 21), and spoken of as one of the foundations of Jerusalem (Rev. xxi. 19; Tob. xiii. 16). The rainbow round the throne is compared to Emerald in Rev. iv. 3. Em'maus, the village to which the two dis- ciples were going when our Lord appeared to them on the way, on the day of His resurrec- tion (Luke xxiv. 13). Luke makes its distance from Jerusalem sixty stadia (A. V. "threescore furlongs"), or about 7^/2 miles; and Josephus mentions "a village called Emmaus" at the II same distance. The site of Emmaus remains yet to be identified. Engine, a term exclusively applied to mili- tary afifairs in the Bible. The engines to which the term is applied in 2 Chr. xxvi. 15 were de- signed to propel various missiles from the walls of a besieged town : one, with which the Hebrews were acquainted, was the battering- ram, described in Ez. xxvi. 9, and still more precisely in Ez. iv. 2, xxi. 22. Engraver. His chief business was cutting names or devices on rings and seals ; the only notices of engraving are in connection with the high-priest's dress — the two onyx-stones, the twelve jewels, and the mitre-plate having in- scriptions on them (Ex. xxviii. 11, 21, 36). E'noch (dedicated), i. The eldest son of Cain (Gen. iv. 17), who called the city which he built after his name (18). 2. The son of Jared and father of Methuselah (Gen. v. 21, fif. ; Luke iii. 28). In the Epistle of Jude (24) he is described as "the seventh from Adam;" and the number is probably noticed as convey- ing the idea of divine completion and rest, while Enoch was himself a type of perfected humanity. After the birth of Methuselah it is said (Gen. v. 22-24) that Enoch "walked with God three hundred years . . . and he was not ; for God took him." The phrase "walked with God" is elsewhere only used of Noah (Gen. vi. 9; cf. Gen. xvii. i, &c.), and is to be explained of a prophetic life spent in immediate converse with the spiritual world. In the Epistle to the Hebrews the spring and issue of Enoch's life are clearly marked. — Both the Latin and Greek fathers commonly coupled Enoch and Elijah as historic witnesses of the possibility of a resurrection of the body and of a true human existence in glory ; and the voice of early ec- clesiastical tradition is almost unanimous in regarding them as "the two witnesses" (Rev. xi. 3, ff.) who should fall before "the beast." Enoch, The Book of. The first trace of its existence is generally found in the Epistle of St. Jude (14, 15), but the words of the Apostle leave it uncertain whether he derived his quo- tation from tradition or from writing, though the wide spread of the book in the second cen- tury seems almost decisive in favor of the lat- ter supposition. Considerable fragments are preserved in the Chronographia of Georgius Syncellus (about 792 A. D.), and these with the scanty notices of earlier writers constituted- the sole remains of the book known in Europe till the close of the last century. Meanwhile, however, a report was current that the entire book was preserved in Abyssinia ; and at length, in 1773, Bruce brought with him on his return from Egypt three MSS. containing the 5 ENSIGN EPHESUS complete Ethiopic translation. The Ethiopic translation was made from the Greek, and probably towards the middle or close of the fourth century. But it is uncertain whether the Greek text was the original, or itself a translation from the Hebrew. In its present shape the book consists of a series of revela- tions supposed to have been given to Enoch and Noah, which extend to the most varied aspects of nature and life, and are designed to of?er a comprehensive vindication of the action of Providence. Notwithstanding the quota- tion in St. Jude, and the wide circulation of the book itself, the apocalypse of Enoch was uniformly and distinctly separated from the canonical Scriptures. Ensign (nes; in the A. V. generally "en- sign," sometimes "standard ;" degel, "stand- ard," with the exception of Cant. ii. 4, "ban- ner ; 6th, "ensign"). The distinction between these three Hebrew terms is sufficiently marked by their respective vises : nes is a sig- nal : degel a military standard for a large di- Roman Standards. vision of an army ; and 6th, the same for a small one. Neither of them, however, ex- presses the idea which "standard" conveys to our minds, viz. a flag; the standards in use among the Hebrews probably resembled those of the Egyptians and Assyrians — a figure or device of some kind elevated on a pole. (l.) The notices of the nes or "ensign" are most frequent ; it consisted of some well-understood signal which was exhibited on the top of a pole from a bare mountain top (Is. xiii. 2; xviii. 3). What the nature of the signal was, we have no means of stating. The important point to be observed is, that the nes was an occasional sig- nal, and not a military standard. (2.) The term degel is used to describe the standards which were given to each of the four divisions of the Israelite army at the time of the Exodus (Num. i. 52, ii. 2, ff., x. 14, fif.). The character of the Hebrew military standards is quite a matter of conjecture; they probably resembled the Egyptian, which consisted of a sacred emblem, such as an animal, a boat, or the king's name. Ephesians, The Epistle to the, was written by the Apostle St. Paul during his first cap- The Ephesian Temple of Diana (Restored). tivity at Rome (Acts xxviii. 16), apparently immediately after he had written the Epistle to the Colossians [Colossians, Ep. to], and dur- ing that period (perhaps the early part of A. D. 62) when his imprisonment had not as- sumed the severer character which seems to have marked its close. This epistle was ad- dressed to the Christian church at Ephesus. [Ephesus.] Its contents may be divided into two portions, the first mainly doctrinal (ch. i.-iii.), the second hortatory and practical. The Apostle reminds his converts that they had been redeemed from sin by grace, and not by Ancient Eplicsus. Theatre in the Foreground. works, and he exhorts them to walk worthy of this calling, and to keep the unity of the Spirit. Eph'esus, the capital of the Roman province of Asia, and an illustrious city in the district of Ionia, nearly opposite the island of Samos. St. Paul's life furnishes illustrations of the 116 EPHESUS mercantile relations of Ephesus with Achaia on the W., Macedonia on the N., and Syria on the E. As to the relations of Ephesus to the inland regions of the continent, these also are prominently brought before us in the Apostle's travels. The "upper coasts" (Acts xix. i) through which he passed, when about to take up his residence in the city, were the Phrygian table-lands of the interior. Two great roads at least, in the Roman times, led eastward from Ephesus ; one through the passes of Tmolus to Sardis (Rev. iii. i) and thence to Galatia and the-N. E., the other round the ex- tremity of Pactyas to Magnesia, and so up the valley of the Maeander to Iconium, whence the communication was direct to the Euphrates and to the Syrian Antioch. There seem to have been Sardian and Magnesian gates on the E. side of Ephesus corresponding to these roads respectively. There were also coast- roads leading northwards to Smyrna and southwards to Miletus. By the latter of these it is probable that the Ephesian elders travelled when summoned to meet Paul at the latter city (Acts XX. 17, 18). Conspicuous at the head of the harbor of Ephesus was the great temple of Diana or Artemis, the tutelary divinity of the city. This building was raised on immense substructions, in consequence of the swampy nature of the ground. The earlier temple, which had been begun before the Persian war, was burnt down in the night when Alexander the Great was born ; and another structure, raised by the enthusiastic co-operation of all the inhabitants of "Asia," had taken its place. The magnificence of this sanctuary was a proverb throughout the civilized world. Ephesus itself was a "free city," and had its own assemblies and its own magistrates. The senate is mentioned by Josephus ; and St. Luke, in the narrative before us, speaks of "the people" and of its customary assemblies (ver. 39, A. V. "a lawful assembly"). We even find conspicuous mention made of one of the most important municipal ofificers of Ephesus, the "Town-Clerk" or keeper of the records, whom we know from other sources to have been a person of great influence and responsibility. It is remarkable how all those political and re- ligious characteristics of Ephesus, which ap- pear in the sacred narrative, are illustrated by inscriptions and coins. The coins of Ephesus are full of allusions to the worship of Diana in various aspects. The Jews were established there in considerable numbers (Acts ii. 9, vi. 9). It is here, and here only, that we find dis- ciples of John the Baptist explicitly mentioned after the ascension of Christ (Acts xviii. 25, xix. 3). The case of Apollos (xviii. 24) is an II EPHRAIM exemplification further of- the Intercourse be- tween this place and Alexandria. The first seeds of Christian truth were possibly sown at Ephesus immediately after the Great Pente- cost (Acts ii.). In St. Paul's stay of more than two years (xix. 8, 10, xx. 31), which formed the most important passage of his third cir- cuit, and during which he labored, first in the synagogue (xix. 8), and then in the school of Tyrannus (ver. 9), and also in private houses (xx. 20), and during which he wrote the First Epistle to the Corinthians, we have the period of the chief evangelization of this shore of the Aegean. The whole place is now utterly desolate, with the exception of the small Turkish village at Ayasaluk. The ruins are of vast extent. Ephod, a sacred vestment originally appro- priate to the high-priest (Ex. xxviii. 4), but afterwards worn by ordinary priests (i Sam. xxii. 18), and deemed characteristic of the office (i Sam. ii. 28, xiv. 3; Hos. iii. 4). For a description of the robe itself see High-Priest. The importance of the Ephod as the receptacle of the breastplate led to its adoption in the idolatrous forms of worship instituted in the time of the Judges (Judg. viii. 27, xvii. 5, xviii. 14, ff-). E'phraim (double fruitfulness), the second son of Joseph by his wife Asenath. The first indication we have of that ascendency over his elder brother Manasseh, which at a later period the tribe of Ephraim so unmistakably pos- sessed, is in the blessing of the children by Jacob, Gen. xlviii. Ephraim would appear at that time to have been about 21 years old. He was born before the beginning of the seven years of famine, towards the latter part of which Jacob had come to Egypt, 17 years be- fore his death (Gen. xlvii. 28). Before Joseph's death Ephraim's family had reached the third generation (Gen. 1. 23), and it must have been about this time that the afifray mentioned in I Chr. vii. 21 occurred. To this early period too must probably be referred the circum- stance alluded to in Ps. Ixxviii. 9. It is at the time of the sending of the spies to the Prom- ised Land that we are first introduced to the great hero to whom the tribe owed much of its subsequent greatness. Under Joshua the tribe must have taken a high position in the nation, to judge from the tone which the Ephraimites assumed on occasions shortly subsequent to the conquest. The boundaries of the portion of Ephraim are given in Josh. xvi. i-io. The south boundary was coincident for part of its length with the north boundary of Benjamin. It extended from the Jordan on the E., at the reach opposite Jericho, to the Mediterranean 7 EPHRAIM ESAU on the W., probably about Joppa. On the N. of Ephraim and Manasseh were the tribes of Asher, Zebulun, and Issachar. The territory thus allotted to the "house of Joseph" may be roughly estimated at 55 miles from E. to W. by 70 from N. to S. Of this district the northern half was occupied by the great tribe we are now considering. This was the Har-Ephraim, the "Mount Ephraim," a district which seems to extend as far south as Ramah and Bethel (i Sam. i. I, vii. 17; 2 Chr. xiii. 4, 19, compared with XV. 8), places but a few miles north of Jerusalem, and within the limits of Benjamin. After the revolt of Jeroboam, the history of Ephraim is the history of the kingdom of Israel, since not only did the tribe become a kingdom, but the kingdom embraced little besides the tribe. This is not surprising, and quite susceptible of explanation. North of Ephraim the country appears never to have been really taken possession of by the Israel- ites. And in addition to this original defect there is much in the physical formation and circumstances of the upper portion of Pales- tine to explain why those tribes never took any active part in the kingdom. But on the other hand the position of Ephraim was alto- gether different. It was one at once of great richness and great security. Her fertile plains and well watered valleys could only be reached by -a laborious ascent through steep and nar- row ravines, all but impassable for an army. There is no record of any attack on the cen- tral kingdom, either from the Jordan valley or the maritime plain. On the north side, from the plain of Esdraelon, it was more ac- cessible, and it was from this side that the final invasion appears to have been made. E'phraim, a city "in the district near the wilderness" to which our Lord retired with his disciples when threatened with violence by the priests (John xi. 54). Perhaps Ophrah and Ephraim are identical, and their modern rep- resentative is et-Taiyibeh. It is situated 4 or 5 miles east of Bethel, and 16 from Jerusalem. Epicure'ans, The, derived their name from Epicurus (342-271 B. C), a philosopher of Attic descent, whose "Garden" at Athens rivalled in popularity the "Porch" and the "Academy." The doctrines of Epicurus found wide acceptance in Asia Minor and Alexandria, and they gained a brilliant advocate at Rome in Lucretius (95-50 B. C). The object of Epicurus was to find in philosophy a practical guide to happiness. True pleasure and not ab- solute truth was the end at which he aimed; experience and not reason the test on which he relied. It is obvious that a system thus framed would degenerate by a natural descent II into mere materialism ; and in this form Epi- curism was the popular philosophy at the be- ginning of the Christian era. When St. Paul addressed "Epicureans and Stoics" (Acts xvii. 18) at Athens, the philosophy of life was prac- tically reduced to the teaching of those two antagonistic schools. Epistle, The epistles of the N. T. in their outward form are such as might be expected from men who were brought into contact with Greek and Roman customs, themselves be- longing to a different race, and so reproducing the imported style with only partial accuracy. They begin (the Epistle to the Hebrews and i John excepted) with the names of the writer, and of those to whom the Epistle is addressed. Then follows the formula of salutation. Then the letter itself commences, in the first person, the singular and plural being used indiscrim- inately. When the substance of the letter has been completed, come the individual messages. The conclusion in this case was probably modified by the fact that the letters were dic- tated to an amanuensis. When he had done his work, the Apostle took up the pen or reed, and added, in his own large characters (Gal. vi. 11) the authenticating autograph. In one instance, Rom. xvi. 22, the amanuensis in his own name adds his salutation. E'sau (hairy), the oldest son of Isaac, and twin-brother of Jacob. The singular appear- ance of the child at his birth originated the name (Esau means hairy, Gen. xxv. 25), This was not the only remarkable circumstance connected with the birth of the infant. Even in the womb the twin-brothers struggled to- gether (xxv. 22). Esau's robust frame and "rough" aspect were the types of a wild and daring nature. The peculiarities of his char- acter soon began to develop themselves. He was, in fact, a thorough Bedouin, a "son of the desert," who delighted to roam free as the wind of heaven, and who was impatient of the restraints of civilized or settled life. His old father, by a caprice of afifection not uncom- mon, loved his wilful, vagrant boy; and his keen relish for savory food being gratified by Esau's venison, he liked him all the better for his skill in hunting (xxv. 28). An event oc- curred which exhibited the reckless character of Esau on the one hand, and the selfish, grasp- ing nature of his brother on the other. Jacob takes advantage of his brother's distress to rob him of that which was dear as life itself to an Eastern patriarch. Esau married at the age of 40, and contrary to the wish of his parents. His wives were both Canaanites; and they "were bitterness of spirit unto Isaac and to Rebekah" (Gen. xxvi. 34, 35)- The next 8 ESDRAELON ESSENES episode in the history of Esau and Jacob is still more painful than the former. Jacob, through the craft of his mother, is again suc- cessful, and secures irrevocably the covenant blessing. Esau vows vengeance. But he knew not a mother's watchful care. By a charac- teristic piece of domestic policy Rebekah suc- ceeded both in exciting Isaac's anger against Esau, and obtaining his consent to Jacob's departure. When Esau heard that his father had commanded Jacob to take a wife of the daughters of his kinsman Laban, he also re- solved to try whether by a new alliance he could propitiate his parents. He accordingly married his cousin ^lahalath, the daughter of Ishmael (xxviii. 8, 9). This marriage appears to have brought him into connection with the Ishmaelitish tribes beyond the valley of Arabah. He soon afterwards established him- self in Mount Seir; still retaining, however. Plain of Esdraelon. (Jezreel.) some interest in his father's property in South- ern Palestine. He was residing in Mount Seir when Jacob returned from Padan-aram, and had then become so rich and powerful that the imjjressions of his brother's early offences seem to have been almost completely effaced. It does not appear that the brothers again met until the death of their father about 20 years afterwards. They united in laying Isaac's body in the cave of Machpelah. Of Esau's subse- quent history nothing is known ; for that of his descendants see Edom. EsdraeTon, This name is merely the Greek form of the Hebrew word Jezreel. It occurs in this exact shape only twice in the A. V. (Jud. iii. 9, iv. 6). In Jud. iii. 3 it is Esdraelom, and in i. 8 Esdrelom, with the addition of "the great plain." In the O. T. the plain is called the Valley of Jezreel ; by Josephus "the great II plain." The name is derived from the old royal city of Jezreel, which occupied a commanding site, near the eastern extremity of the plain, on a spur of Motmt Gilboa. Es'dras, First Book of, the first in order of the Apocryphal books in the English Bible. It was never known to exist in Hebrew, and formed no part of the Hebrew Canon. As re- gards the contents of the book, and the author or authors of it — the first chapter is a transcript of the two last chapters of 2 Chr. for the most part verbatim, and only in one or two parts slightly abridged and paraphrased. Chapters iii., iv., and v. to the end of v. 6, are the original portions of the book, and the rest is a transcript more or less exact of the book of Ezra, with the chapters transposed and quite otherwise arranged, and a portion of Nehe- miah. Hence a twofold design in the compiler is discernible. One to introduce and give Scriptural sanction to the legend about Zerub- babel ; the other to explain the great obscuri- ties of the book of Ezra, in which, however, he has signally failed. As regards the time and place when the compilation was made, the original portion is that which alone affords much clew. This seems to indicate that the writer was. thoroughly conversant with Hebrew, even if he did not write the book in that language. He was well acquainted too with the books of Esther and Daniel (i Esdr. iii. I, 2, sqq.), and other books of Scripture (ib. 20, 21, 39, 41, &c., and 45 compared with Ps. cxxxvii. 7). But that he did not live under the Persian kings, appears by the undis- criminating way in which he uses promiscu- ously the phrase Medes and Persians, or, Persians and Medes, according as he happened to be imitating the language of Daniel or of the book of Esther. Es'dras, The Second Book of, in the English Version of the Apocrypha, and so called by the author (2 Esdr. i. i). The original title, "the Apocalypse of Ezra," is far more ap- propriate. Chapters iii.-xiv. consist of a series of angelic revelations and visions in which Ezra is instructed in some of the great myster- ies of the moral world, and assured of the final triumph of the righteous. The date of the book is uncertain, but there can be no doubt that it is a genuine product of Jewish thought. The Apocalypse was probably written in Egypt; the opening and closing chapters cer- tainly were. Essenes', a Jewish sect, who, according to the description of Josephus, combined the ascetic virtues of the Pythagoreans and Stoics with a spiritual knowledge of the Divine Law. It seems probable that the name signifies 9 ESTHER ETHIOPIAN WOMAN "seer," or "the silent, the mysterious." As a sect the Essenes were distinguished by an aspiration after ideal purity rather than by any special code of doctrines. From the Mac- cabean age there was a continuous cfifort among the stricter Jews to attain an absolute standard of holiness. Each class of devotees was looked upon as practically impure by their successors, who carried the laws of purity still further; and the Essenes stand at the extreme limit of the mystic asceticism which was thus gradually reduced to shape. To the Pharisees they stood nearly in the same relation as that in which the Pharisees themselves stood with regard to the mass of the people. There were isolated communities of Essenes, which were regulated by strict rules, analogous to those of the monastic institutions of a later date. All things were held in common, without distinc- tion of property ; and special provision was made for the relief of the poor. Self-denial, temperance, and labor — especially agriculture — were the marks of the outward life of the Essenes; purity and divine communion the objects of their aspiration. Slavery, war, and commerce were alike forbidden. Their best known settlements were on the N. W. shore of the Dead Sea. Es'ther, the Persian name of Hadassah, daughter of Abihail, the son of Shimei, the son of Kish, a Benjamite. Esther was a beautiful Jewish maiden, whose ancestor Kish had been among the captives led away from Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar when Jehoiachin was taken captive. She was an orphan without father or mother, and had been brought up by her cousin Mordecai, who had an office in the household "of Ahasuerus king of Persia, and dwelt at "Shushan the palace." When Vashti was dismissed from being queen, and all the fairest virgins of the kingdom had been col- lected at Shushan for the king to make choice of a successor to her from among them, the choice fell upon Esther. The king was not a'ware, however, of her race and parentage ; and so, on the representation of Haman the Agagite that the Jews scattered through his empire were a pernicious race, he gave him full power and authority to kill them all, young and old, women and children, and take posses- sion of their property. The means taken by Esther to avert this great calamity from her people and her kindred are fully related in the book of Esther. Es'ther, Book of, one of the latest of the canonical books of Scripture, having been writ- ten late in the reign of Xerxes, or early in that of his son Artaxcrxes Longimanus. The author is not known, but may very probably have been Mordecai himself. Those who ascribe it to Ezra, or the men of the Great Synagogue,- may have merely meant that Ezra edited and added it to the canon of Scripture, which he probably did. The book of Esther is placed among the hagiographa by the Jews, and in that first portion of them which they call "the five rolls." It is sometimes emphatically called Megillah ("roll") without other distinction, and is read through by the Jews in their syna- gogues at the feast of Purim. It has often been remarked as a peculiarity of this book that the name of God does not once occur in it. The style of writing is remarkably chaste and simple. It does not in the least savor of romance. The Hebrew is very like that of Ezra and parts of the Chronicles; generally pure, but mixed with some words of Persian origin, and some of Chaldaic affinity. In short it is just what one would expect to find in a work of the age to which the book of Esther professes to belong. As regards the Septuagint version of the book, it consists of the canonical Esther with various interpolations prefixed, in- terspersed, and added at the close. Though, however, the interpolations of the Greek copy are thus manifest, they make a consistent and intelligible story. But the Apocryphal addi- tions as they are inserted in some editions of the Latin Vulgate, and in the English Bible, are incomprehensible. Ethio'pia. The country which the Greeks and Romans described as "Aethiopia" and the Hebrews as "Gush" lay to the S. of Egypt, and embraced, in its most extended sense, the mod- ern Nubia, Sennaar, Kordofan, and northern Abyssinia, and in its more definite sense the kingdom of Meroe. Syene marked the division between Ethiopia and Egypt (Ez. xxix. lo). The Hebrews do not appear to have had much practical acquaintance with Ethiopia itself, though the Ethiopians were well known to them through their intercourse with Egypt. The inhabitants of Ethiopia were a Hamitic race (Gen. x. 6). They were divided into various tribes, of which the Sabaeans were the most powerful. The history of Ethiopia is closely interwoven with that of Egypt. The two countries were not unfrequently united under the rule of the same sovereign. Shortly before our Saviour's birth a native dynasty of females, holding the ofificial title of Candace (Plin. vi. 35), held sway in Ethiopia, and even resisted the advance of the Roman arms. One of these is the queen noticed in Acts viii. 27. Ethio'pian Woman. The wife of Moses is so described in Num. xii. i. She is elsewhere said to have been the daughter of a Midianite, and in consequence of this some have sup- 120 THE W^^^^^ OF TH^ ETHIOPIANS EVANGELIST posed that the allusion is to another wife whom Moses married after the death of Zip- porah. Ethio'pians, properly "Cush" or "Ethiopia" in two passages (Is. xx. 4; Jer. xlvi. 3). Else- where "Cushites," or inhabitants of Ethiopia (2 Chr. xii. 3, xiv. 12 [ii], 13 [12], xvi. 8, xxi. 16: Dan. xi. 43; Am. ix. 7; Zeph. ii. 12). Eunuch. The law (Deut. xxiii. i ; comp. Lev. xxii. 24) is repugnant to thus treating any Israelite. The origination of the practice is ascribed to Semiramis, and is no doubt as early, or nearly so, as Eastern despotism itself. The complete assimilation of the kingdom of Israel, and latterly of Judah, to the neighbor- ing models of despotism, is traceable in the rank and prominence of eunuchs (2 K. viii. 6, ix. 32, xxiii. II, XXV. 19; Is. Ivi. 3, 4; Jer. xxix. 2, xxxiv. 19, xxxviii. 7, xli. 16, lii. 25). They mostly appear in one of two relations, either village of Anah on the Euphrates. military, as "set over the men of war," greater trustworthiness possibly counterbalancing in- ferior courage and military vigor, or asso- ciated, as we mostly recognize them, with women and children. We find the Assyrian Rab-Saris, or chief eunuch (2 K. xviii. 17), em- ployed together with other high officials as am- bassador. It is probable that Daniel and his companions were thus treated, in fulfilment of 2 K. XX. 17, 18; Is. xxxix. 7; comp. Dan. i. 3, 7. The court of Herod of course had its eunuchs, as had also that of Queen Candace (Acts viii. 27). Euphra'tes is probably a word of Aryan origin, signifying "the good and abounding river." It is most frequently denoted in the Bible by the term "the river." The Euphrates is the largest, the longest, and by far the most important of the rivers of Western Asia. It rises from two chief sources in the Armenian mountains, and flows into the Persian Gulf. The entire course is 1780 miles, and of this dis- tance more than 'two thirds (1200 miles) is navigable for boats. The width of the river is greatest at the distance of 700 or 800 miles from its mouth — that is to say, from its junc- tion with the Khabour to the village of Werai. It there averages 400 yards. The annual in- undation of the Euphrates is caused by the melting of the snows in the Armenian high- lands. It occurs in the month of May. The great hydraulic works ascribed to Nebuchad- nezzar had for their chief object to control the inundation. The Euphrates is first mentioned in Scripture as one of the four rivers of Eden (Gen. ii. 14). Its celebrity is there sufficiently indicated by the absence of any explanatory phrase, such as accompanies the names of the other streams. We next hear of it in the covenant made with Abraham (Gen. xv. 18), where the whole country from "the great river, the river Euphrates," to the river of Egypt is promised to the chosen race. During the reigns of David and Solomon the dominion of Israel actually attained to the full extent both ways of the original promise, the Euphrates forming the boundary of their em- pire to the N. E., and the river of Egypt to the S. W. This wide-spread territory was lost upon the disruption of the empire under Reho- boam ; and no more is heard in Scripture of the Euphrates until the expedition of Necho against the Babylonians in the reign of Josiah. The river still brings down as much water as of old, but the precious element is wasted by the neglect of man ; the various watercourses along which it was in former times conveyed are dry ; the main channel has shrunk ; and the water stagnates in unwholesome marshes. Evangelist ineans "the publisher of glad tid- ings," and therefore seems common to the work of the Christian ministry generally; yet in Eph. iv. 11, the "evangelists" appear on the one hand after the "apostles" and "prophets:" on the other before the "pastors" and "teach- ers." This passage accordingly would lead us to think of them as standing between the two other groups — sent forth as missionary preach- ers of the Gospel by the first, and as such pre- paring the way for the labors of the second. The same inference would seem to follow the occurrence of the word as applied to Philip in Acts xxi. 8. It follows from what has been said that the calling of the Evangelist is the proclamation of the glad tidings to those who have not known them, rather than the instruc- tion and pastoral care of those who have be- lieved and been baptized. It follows also that the name denotes a work rather than an order. The Evangelist might or might not be a 121 EVE EXCOMMUNICATION Bishop-Elder or a deacon. The Apostles, so far as they evangelized (Acts viii. 25, xiv. 7; I Cor. i. 17), might claim the title, though there were many Evangelists who were not Apostles. If the Gospel was a written book, and the office of the Evangelists was to read or distribute it, then the writers of such books were pre-eminently the Evangelists. In later liturgical language the word was applied to the reader of the Gospel for the day. Eve, the name given in Scripture to the first woman. The account of Eve's creation is found at Gen. ii. 21, 22. Perhaps that which we are chiefly intended to learn from the nar- rative is the foundation upon which the union between man and wife is built, viz., identity of nature and oneness of origin. Through the subtlety of the serpent, Eve was beguiled into a violation of the one commandment which had been imposed upon her and Adam. The Scripture account of Eve closes with the birth of Seth. Excommunication (expulsion from com- munion). Jewish Excommunication. The Jewish system of excommunication was three- fold. For a first offence a delinquent was sub- jected to the penalty of Niddui. The twenty- four offences for which it was inflicted are various, and range in heinousness from the offence of keeping a fierce dog to that of tak- ing God's name in vain. The offender was first cited to appear in court ; and if he refused to appear or to make amends, his sentence was pronounced. The term of this punishment was thirty days ; and it was extended to a second and to a third thirty days when necessary. If at the end of that time the offender was still contumacious, he was subjected to the second excommunication, termed Cherem, a word meaning something devoted to God (Lev. xxvii. 21, 28; Ex. xxii. 20 [19]; Num. xviii. 14). Severer penalties were now attached. The sentence was delivered by a court of ten, and was accompanied by a solemn maledic- tion. Lastly followed Shammatha, which was an entire cutting off from the congregation. The punishment of excommunication is not appointed by the Law of Moses. It is founded on the natural right of self-protection which all societies enjoy. The case of Korah, Da- than, and Abiram (Num. xvi.), the curse de- nounced on Meroz (Judg. v. 23), the commis- sion and proclamation of Ezra (vii. 26, x. 8), and the reformation of Nehemiah (xiii. 25), are appealed to by the Talmudists as prece- dents by which their proceedings are regu- lated. In the New Testament, Jewish excom- munication is brought prominently before us in the case of the man that was born blind (John ix.). The expressions here used refer, no doubt, to the first form of excommunica- tion, or Niddui. In Luke vi. 22, it has been thought that our Lord referred specifically to the three forms of Jewish excommunication : "Blessed are ye when men shall hate you, and when they shall separate you from their com- pany, and shall reproach you, and cast out your name as evil, for the Son of Man's sake." Excommunication, as exercised by the Chris- tian Church, is not merely founded on the nat- ural right, possessed by all societies, nor merely on the example of the Jewish Church and nation. It was instituted by our Lord (Matt, xviii. 15, 18), and it was practised and commanded by St. Paul (i Tim. i. 20; i Cor. v. II ; Tit. iii. 10). In the Epistles we find St. Paul frequently claiming the right to exercise discipline over his converts (comp. 2 Cor. i. 23, xiii. 10). In two cases we find him exer- cising this authority to the extent of cutting off offenders from the Church. There are two passages still more important to our subject (Gal. i. 8, 9; I Cor. xvi. 22). It has been sup- posed that these two expressions, "let him be Anathema," "let him be Anathema Mara- natha," refer respectively to the two later stages of Jewish excommunication — the cherem and the shammatha. The Nature of Excommunication is made more evident by the acts of St. Paul than by any investigation of Jewish practice or of the etymology of words. We thus find, (i) that it is a spiritual penalty, involving no temporal punishment, except accidentally; (2) that it consists in separation from the communion of the Church ; (3) that its object is the good of the sufferer (i Cor. V. 5), and the protection of the sound members of the Church (2 Tim. iii. 17) ; (4) that its subjects are those who are guilty of heresy (i Tim. i. 20), or gross immorality (i Cor. V. i) ; (5) that it is inflicted by the authority of the Church at large (Matt, xviii. 18), wielded by the highest ecclesiastical offi- cer (i Cor. V. 3; Tit. iii. 10) ; (6) that this offi- cer's sentence is promulgated by the congrega- tion to which the offender belongs (i Cor. v. 4), in deference to his superior judgment and command (2 Cor. ii. 9), and in spite of any opposition on the part of a minority (ib. 6) ; (7) that the exclusion may be of indefinite duration, or for a period; (8) that its duration may be abridged at the discretion and by the indulgence of the person who has imposed the penalty (ib. 8) ; (9) that penitence is the con- dition on which restoration to communion is granted (ib. 7) ; (10) that the sentence is to be publicly reversed as it was publicly promul- gated (ib, 10). 122 EXILE EZEKIEL Exile. [Captivity.] Ex'odus (that is, going out [of Eg>'pt]), the second book of the Law or Pentateuch. It ma}' be divided into two principal parts: 1. Historical, i. i-xviii. 27; and II. Legislative, xi.x. i-xl. 38. The former of these may be sub- divided into, (i.) the preparation for the deliv- erance of Israel from their bondage in Egypt; (2.) the accomplishment of tlvat deliverance. I. (i.) The first section (i. i-xii. 36) contains an account of the following particulars : The great increase of Jacob's posterity in the land of Egypt, and their oppression under a new dynasty, which occupied the throne after the death of Joseph (ch. i.) ; the birth, education, and flight of Moses (ii.) ; his solemn call to be the deliverer of his people (iii. i-iv. 17), and his return to Egypt in consequence (iv. 18-31) ; his first ineffectual attempt to prevail upon Pharoah to let the Israelites go, which only resulted in an increase of their burdens (v. 1-21); a further preparation of Moses and Aaron for their office, together with the ac- count of their genealogies (v. 22-vii. 7) ; the successive signs and wonders, by means of which the deliverance of Israel from the land of bondage is at length accomplished, and the institution of the Passover (vii. 8-xii. 36). (2.) A narrative of evente from the departure out of Eg>'pt to the arrival of the Israelites at Mount Sinai. II. The solemn establishment of the Theocracy on ?\Iount Sinai. This book, in short, gives a sketch of the early history of Israel- as a nation : and the history has three clearly marked stages. First we see a nation enslaved ; next a nation .redeemed ; lastly a nation set apart, and through the blending of its religious and political life consecrated to the service of God. Ex'odus, The, of the Israelites from Egypt. On the date of this event see Egypt, p. 108. The history of the Exodus itself commences with the close of that of the Ten Plagues. [Plagues of Egypt.] In the night in which, at midnight, the firstborn were slain (Ex. xii. 29), Pharaoh urged the departure of the Israelites (ver. 31, 32). They at once set forth from Ra- nieses (ver. 37, 39), apparently during the night (ver. 42), but towards morning, on the 15th day of the first month (Num. xxxiii. 3). They made three journeys and encamped by the Red Sea. Here Pharaoh overtook them, and the great miracle occurred by which they were saved, while the pursuer and his army were destroyed. [Red Sea, Passage of.] Exorcist. The use of the term exorcists in Acts xix. 13 confirms what we know .from other sources as to the common practice of exorcism amongst the Jews. That some, at least, of them not only pretended to, but pos- sessed, the power of exorcising, appears by our Lord's admission when he asks the Pharisees, *Tf I by Beelzebub cast out devils, by whom do your disciples cast them out?" (Matt. xii. 27.) What means were employed by real exorcists we are not informed. David, by playing skilfully on a harp, procured the temporary departure of the evil spirit which troubled Saul (i Sam. xvi. 23). It was the profane use of the name of Jesus as a mere charm or spell which led to the disastrous issue recorded in the Acts of the Apostles (xix. 13-16). The power of casting out devils was bestowed by Christ while on earth upon the Apostles (Matt. x. 8) and the seventy disciples (Luke X. 17-19, and was, according to His promise (Mark xvi. 17), exercised by believers after His Ascension (Acts xvi. 18) ; but to the Christian miracle, whether as performed by our Lord himself or by His followers, the N. T. writers never apply the terms "exorcise" or "exorcist." Expiation. [Sacrifice.] Eze'kiel (the strength of God), one of the four greater prophets, was the son of a priest named Buzi, and was taken captive in the cap- tivity of Jehoiachin, eleven years before the destruction of Jerusalem. He was a member of a community of Jewish exiles who settled on the banks of the Chebar, a "river" or stream of Babylonia. It was by this river 'in the land of the Chaldaeans" that God's message first reached him (i. 3). His call took place "in the fifth year of king Jehoiachin's captivity," B. C. 595 (i. 2), "in the thirtieth year, in the fourth month." The latter expression is uncertain. It- now seems generally agreed that it was the 30th year from the new era of Nabopolassar, father of Nebuchadnezzar, who began to reign B. C. 625. The use of this Chaldee epoch is the more appropriate as the prophet wrote in Babylonia, and he gives a Jewish chronology in ver. 2. The decision of the question is the less important because in all other places Ezekiel dates from the year of Jehoiachin's captivity (xxix. 17, xxx. 29, et passim). We learn from an incidental allusion (xxiv. 18) — the only reference which he makes to his per- sonal history — that he was. married, and had a house (xiii. i) in- his place of exile, and lost his wife by a sudden and unforeseen stroke. He lived in the highest consideration among his companions in exile, and their elders consulted him on all occasions (viii. i, xi. 25, xiv. i, xx. I, &c.). The last date he mentions is the 27th year of the captivity (xxix. 17), so that his mission extended over twenty-two years, dur- ing part of which period Daniel was probably 123 EZRA EZRA, BOOK OF living, and already famous (Ez. xiv. 14, xxviii. 3). He is said to have been murdered in Babylon by some Jewish prince whom he had convicted of idolatry, and to have been buried in the tomb of Shem and Arphaxad, on the banks of the Euphrates. The tomb, said to have been built by Jehoiachin, was shown a few days' journey from Bagdad. Ezekiel was distinguished by his stern and inflexible energy of will and character ; and we also observe a devoted adherence to the rites and ceremonies of his national religion. The depth of his mat- ter, and the marvellous nature of his visions, make him occasionally obscure. The book is divided into two great parts — of which the de- struction of Jerusalem is the turning-point ; chapters i.-xxiv. contain predictions delivered before that event, and xxv.-xlviii. after it, as we see from xxvi. 2. Again, chapters i.-xxxii. are mainly occupied with correction, denuncia- tion, and reproof, while the remainder deal chiefly in consolation and promise. A paren- thetical section in the middle of the book (xxv.-xxxii.) contains a group of prophecies against seven foreign nations, the septenary arrangement being apparently intentional. There are no direct quotations from Ezekiel in the New Testament, but in the Apocalypse there are many parallels and obvious allusions to the later chapters (xl.-xlviii.). Ez'ra (help), called Esdras in the Apocry- pha, the famous Scribe and Priest, descended from Hilkiah the high-priest in Josiah's reign, from whose younger son Azariah sprung Seraiah, Ezra's father, quite a different person from Seraiah the high-priest (Ezr. vii. i). All that is really known of Ezra is contained in the four last chapters of the book of Ezra and in Neh. viii. and xii. 26. From these passages we learn that he was a learned and pious priest residing at Babylon in the time of Artaxerxes Longimanus. The origin of his influence with the king does not appear, but in the seventh year of his reign, in spite of the unfavorable report which had been sent by Rehum and Shimshai, he obtained leave to go to Jerusalem, and to take with him a company of Israelites, together with priests, Levites, singers, porters, and Nethinim. The journey of Ezra and his companions from Babylon to Jerusalem took just four months; and they brought up with them a large free-will offering of gold and sil- ver, and silver vessels. It appears that his great design was to effect a religious reforma- tion among the Palestine Jews, and to bring them back to the observation of the Law of Moses, from which they had grievously de- clined. His first step, accordingly, was to enforce a separation from their wives upon all who had made heathen marriages, in which number were many priests and Levites, as well as other Israelites. This was effected in little more than six months after his arrival at Jerusalem. With the detailed account of this important transaction Ezra's autobiography ends abruptly, and we hear nothing more of him till, 13 years afterwards, in the 20th of Artaxerxes, we find him again at Jerusalem with Nehemiah "the Tirshatha." It seems probable that after he had ef¥ected the above- named reformation, and had appointed com- petent judges and magistrates, with authority to maintain it, he himself returned to the king of Persia. The functions he executed under Nehemiah's government were purely of a priestly and ecclesiastical character. But in such he filled the first place. As Ezra is not mentioned after Nehemiah's departure for Babylon in the 32d Artaxerxes, and as every- thing fell into confusion during Nehemiah's absence (Neh. xiii.), it is not unlikely that Ezra may have died or returned to Babylon before that year. There was a Jewish tradi- tion that he was buried in Persia. The prin- cipal works ascribed to him by the Jews are: I. The institution of the Great Synagogue. 2. The settling the canon of Scripture, and restor- ing, correcting, and editing the whole sacred volume. 3. The introduction of the Chaldee character instead of the old Hebrew or Samaritan. 4. The authorship of the books of Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, and, some add, Esther ; and, many of the Jews say, also of the- books of Ezekiel, Daniel, and the twelve prophets. 5. The establishment of synagogues. Ez'ra, Book of, is a continuation of the books of Chronicles. Like these books, it con- sists of the contemporary historical journals kept from time to time, which were afterwards strung together, and either abridged or added to, as the case required, by a later hand. That later hand, in the book of Ezra, was doubtless Ezra's own, as appears by the four last chap- ters, as well as by other matter inserted in the previous chapters. The chief portion of the last chapter of 2 Chr. and Ezr. i. was probably written by Daniel. As regards Ezr. ii., and as far as iii. i, it is found (with the exception of clerical errors) in the 7th ch. of Nehemiah, where it belongs beyond a shadow of doubt. The next portion extends from iii. 2 to the end of ch. vi. With the exception of one large ex- planatory addition by Ezra, extending from iv. 6 to 23, this portion is the work of a writer contemporary with Zerubbabel and Jeshua, and an eye-witness of the rebuilding of the Temple in the beginning of the reign of Darius Hystaspis. That it was the prophet Haggai 124 AN ISRAELITE OF JERUSALEM, FROM A rilOTOGUAPH. ; i 1 1 THE m OF THE FABLE FAN becomes tolerably sure when we observe fur- ther the remarkable coincidences in style. Ezr. iv. 6-23 is a parenthetic addition by a much later hand, and as the passage most clearly shows, made in the reign of Artaxerxes Longi- manus. The compiler who inserted ch.. ii., a document drawn up in the rfeign of Artaxerxes to illustrate the return of the captives under Zerubbabel, here inserts a notice of two his- torical facts — of which one occurred in the reign of Xerxes, and the other in the reign of Artaxerxes — 'to illustrate the opposition of- fered by the heathen to the rebuilding of the Temple in the reign of Cyrus and Cambyses. The last four chapters, beginning with ch. vii., are Ezra's own, and continue the history after a gap of fifty-eight years — from the sixth of Darius to the seventh of Artaxerxes. It is written partly in Hebrew, and partly in Chal- dee. The Chaldee begins at iv. 8, and con- tinues to the end of^vi. 18. The letter or de- cree of Artaxerxes, vii. 12-26, is also given in the original Chaldee. The period covered by the book is eighty years, from the first of Cyrus, B. C. 536, to the beginning of the eighth of Artaxerxes, B. C. 456. F. Fable. Of the fable, as distinguished from the parable [Parable], we have but two exam- ples in the Bible, (i) that of the trees choosing their king, addressed by Jotham to the men of Shechem (Judg. ix. 8-15) ; (2) that of the cedar of Lebanon and the thistle, as the an- swer of Jehoash to the challenge of Amaziah (2 K. xiv. 9). The fables of false teachers claiming to belong to the Christian church, al- luded to by writers of the N. T. (i Tim. i. 4, iv. 7; Tit. i. 14; 2 Pet. i. 16), do not appear to have had the character of fables, properly so called. Fairs, a word which occurs only in Ez. xxvii., and there no less than seven times (ver. 12, 14, 16, 19, 22, 27, 33) : in the last of these verses it is rendered "wares," and this we be- lieve to be the true meaning of the word throughout. Famine. In the whole of Syria and Arabia, the fruits of the earth must ever be dependent on rain ; the watersheds having few large springs, and the small rivers not being suffi- cient for the irrigation of even the level lands. If therefore the heavy rains of November and December fail, the sustenance of the people is cut off in the parching drought of harvest-time, when the country is almost devoid of moisture. Eg>'pt, again, owes all its fertility to its mighty river, whose annual rise inundates nearly the whole land. The causes of dearth and famine l: in Egypt are occasioned by defective inunda- tion, preceded and accompanied and followed by prevalent easterly and southerly winds. The first famine recorded in the Bible is that of Abraham after he had pitched his tent on the east of Bethel (Gen. xii. 10). We may con- clude that this famine was extensive, although this is not quite proved by the fact of Abra- ham's going to Egypt ; for on the occasion of the second famine, in the days of Isaac, this patriarch found refuge with Abimelech king of the Philistines in Gerar (Gen. xxvi. i, sq.). We hear no more of times of scarcity until the great famine of Egypt which "was over all the face of the earth." We have mentioned the chief causes of famines in Egypt : this instance differs in the providential recurrence of seven years of plenty, whereby Joseph was enabled to provide against the coming dearth, and to supply not only the population of Egypt with corn, but those of the surrounding countries Winnowing- Fans. (Gen. xli. 53-57). The modern history of Egypt throws some curious light on these an- cient records of famines ; and instances of their recurrence may be cited to assist us in under- standing their course and extent. The most remarkable famine was that of the reign of the Fatimee Khaleefeh, El-Mustansir billah, which is the only instance on record of one of seven years' duration in Egypt since the tinie of Joseph (A. H. 457-464, A. D. 1064- 1071). Vehement drought and pestilence con- tinued for seven consecutive years, so that the people ate corpses, and animals that died of themselves. The famine of Samaria resem- bled it in many particulars ; and that very briefly recorded in 2 K. viii. i, 2, afifords an- other instance of one of seven years. In Ara- bia, famines are of frequent occurrence. Fan, a winnowing-shovel, with which grain was thrown up against the wind to be cleansed from the chaff and straw (Is. xxx. 24; Matt. FARTHING FATHER iii. 12). A large wooden fork is used at the present day. Farthing. Two names of coins in the N. T. are rendered in the A. V. by this word. Quadrans (Matt. v. 26; Mark xii. 42), a corn- current in Palestine in the time of our Lord. It was equivalent to two lepta (A. V. "mites"). The name quadrans was originally given to the quarter of the Roman as, or piece of three unciae, therefore also called teruncius. Fasts. I. One fast only was appointed by the law, that on the day of Atonement. There is no mention of any other periodical fast in the O. T., except in Zech. vii. 1-7, viii. 19. From these passages it appears that the Jews, during their captivity, observed four annual fasts, in the fourth, fifth, seventh, and tenth months. Zechariah simply distinguishes the fasts by the months in which they were ob- served; but the Mishna and St. Jerome give statements of certain historical events which they were intended to commemorate. The number of annual fasts in the present Jewish Calendar has been multiplied to twenty-eight. 'II. Public fasts were occasionally proclaimed to express national humiliation, and to sup- A Farthing. plicate divine favor. In the case of public danger, the proclamation appears to have been accompanied with the blowing of trumpets (Joel ii. 1-15). The following instances are recorded of strictly national fasts: Samuel gathered "all Israel" to Mizpeh and pro- claimed a fast (i Sam. vii. 6) ; Jehoshaphat ap- pointed one "throughout all Judah" when he was preparing for war against Moab and Am- mor (2 Chr. xx. 3) ; in the reign of Jehoiakim, one was proclaimed for "all the people in Jeru- salem and all who came thither out of the cities of Judah," when the prophecy of Jere- miah was publicly read by Baruch (Jer. xxxvi. 6-10; cf. Baruch i. 5); three days after the feast of Tabernacles, when the second temple was completed, "the children of Israel assem- bled with fasting and with sackclothes and earth upon them" to hear the law read, and to confess their sins (Neh. ix. i). There are references to general fasts in the Prophets (Joel i. 14, ii. 15; Is. Iviii.), and two are no- ticed in the books of the Maccabees (i Mace, iii. 46, 47; 2 Mace. xiii. 10-12). III. Private occasional fasts are recognized in one passage of the law (Num. xxx. 13). The instances given of individuals fasting under the influen'ce of grief, vexation, or anxiety, are numerous. IV. In the N. T. the only references to the Jewish fasts are the mention of "the Fast" in Acts xxvii. 9 (generally understood to denote the Day of Atonement), and the allusions to the weekly fasts (Matt. ix. 14; Mark ii. 18; Luke V. 33, xviii. 12; Acts x. 30). These fasts originated some time after the captivity. They were observed on the second and fifth days of the week, which, being appointed as the days for public fasts, seem to have been selected for these private voluntary fasts. V. The Jewish fasts were observed with various degrees of strictness. Sometimes there was entire absti- nence from food (Esth. iv. i6, &c.). On other occasions, there appears to have been only a restriction to a very plain diet (Dan. x. 3). Those who fasted frequently dressed in sack- cloth or rent their clothes, put ashes on their head and went barefoot (i K. xxi. 27; Neh. ix. i; Ps. xxxv. 13). VI. The sacrifice of the personal will, which gives to fasting all its value, is expressed in the old term used in the law, afflicting the soul. Fat. The Hebrews distinguished between the suet or pure fat of an animal, and the fat which was intermixed with the lean (Neh. viii. 10). Certain restrictions were imposed upon them in reference to the former ; some parts of the suet, viz., about the stomach, the en- trails, the kidneys and the tail of a sheep, which grows to an excessive size in many east- ern countries, and produces a large quantity of rich fat, were forbidden to be eaten in the case of animals offered to Jehovah in sacrifice (Lev. iii. 3, 9, 17, vii. 3, 23). The ground of the pro- hibition was that the fat was the richest part of the animal, and therefore belonged to Him (iii. 16). The presentation of the fat as the richest part of the animal was agreeable to the dictates of natural feeling, and was the ordinary practice even of heathen nations. The burning of the fat of sacrifices was particularly specified in each kind of offering. Father. The position and authority of the father as the head of the family are expressly assumed and sanctioned in Scripture, as a like- ness of that of the Almighty over His crea- tures. It lies of course at the root of that so- called patriarchal government (Gen. iii. 16; i Cor. xi. 3), which was introductory to the more definite systems which followed, and which in part, but not wholly, superseded it. The fa- ther's blessing was regarded as conferring special benefit, but his malediction special in- jury, on those on whom it fell (Gen. ix. 25, 27; xxvii. 27-40; xlviii. 15, 20; xlix) ; and so also 126 FATHOM FIG, FIG-TREE the sin of the parent was held to afifect, in cer- tain cases, the welfare of his descendants (2 K. V. 27). The command to honor parents is noticed by St. Paul as the only one of the Decalogue which bore a distinct promise (Ex. XX. 12; Eph. vi. 2), and disrespect towards them was condemned by the Law as one of the worst of crimes (Ex. xxi. 15, 17; i Tim. i. 9). It is to this well recognized theory of parental authority and supremacy that the very various uses of the term "father" in Scrip- ture are due. "Fathers" is used in the sense of seniors (Acts vii. 2, xxii. i), and of parents in general, or ancestors (Dan. v. 2 ; Jer. xxvii. 7 : Matt, xxiii. 30, 32). Fathom. [Measures.] Feasts. [Festivals.] Fenced Cities. The broad distinction be- tween a city and a village in Biblical language consisted in the possession of walls. The city had walls, the village was unwalled, or had only a watchman's tower, to which the vil- lagers resorted in times of danger. A three- fold distinction is thus obtained — i. cities; 2. unwalled villages ; 3. villages with castles or The Gecko. towers (i Chr. xxvii. 25). The fortifications of the cities of Palestine, regularly "fenced," consisted of one or more walls crowned with battlemented parapets, having towers at reg- ular intervals (2 Chr. xxxii. 5; Jer. xxxi. 38), on which in later times engines of war were placed, and watch was kept by day and night in time of war (2 Chr. xxvi. 9, 15 ; Judg. ix. 45 ; 2 K. ix. 'I7). Ferret. One of the unclean creeping things mentioned in Lev. xi. 30. The animal referred to was probably a reptile of the lizard tribe (the gecko). The Rabbinical writers seem to have identified this animal with the hedgehog. Festivals. I. The religious times ordained in the Law fall under three heads: (i.) Those formally connected with the institution of the Sabbath ; (2.) The historical or great festivals; (3.)The Day of Atonement*, (i.) Immediately connected with the institution of the Sabbath are: (a) The weekly Sabbath itself, (b) The seventh new moon or Feast of Trumpets, (c) The Sabbatical Year, (d) The Year of Jubi- lee. (2.) The great feasts are : (a) The Pass- over, (b) The Feast of Pentecost, of Weeks, of Wheat-harvest, or, of the First-fruits, (c) The Feast of Tabernacles, or of Ingathering. On each of these occasions every male Israel- ite was commanded "to appear before the Lord," that is, to attend in the court of the tabernacle or the temple, and to make his ofifering with a joyful heart (Deut. xxvii. 7; Neh. viii. 9-12). The attendance of women was voluntary, but the zealous often went up to the Passover. On all the days of Holy Con- vocation there was to be an entire suspension of ordinary labor of all kinds (Ex. xii. 16; Lev. xvi. 29, xxiii. 21, 24, 25, 35). But on the intervening da3^s of the longer festivals work might be carried on. Besides their religious purpose, the great festivals must have had an- important bearing on the maintenance of a feeling of national unity. Fever (kaddachath, dalleketh, charchur; Lev. xxvi. 16; Deut. xxviii. 22). These words, from various roots, signifying heat or inflam- mation, are rendered in the A. V. by various words suggestive of fever, or a feverish affec- tion. The third word may perhaps be erysipe- las. Intermittent fever and dysentery, the lat- ter often fatal, are ordinary Arabian diseases. Field. The Hebrew sadeh is applied to any cultivated ground, and in some instances in marked opposition to the neighboring wilder- ness. On the other hand the sadeh is fre- quently contrasted with what is enclosed, whether a vineyard, a garden, or a walled town. In many passages the term implies what is remote from a house (Gen. iv. 8, xxiv. 63; Deut. xxii. 25) or settled habitation, as in the case of Esau (Gen. xxv. 27). The separate plots of ground were marked ofif by stones, which might easily be removed (Deut. xix. 14, xxvii. 17; cf. Job xxiv. 2; Prov. xxii. 28, xxiii. 10) ; the absence of fences rendered the fields liable to damage from straying cattle (Ex. xxii. 5) or fire (ver. 6; 2 Sam. xiv. 30) ; hence the necessity of constantly watching flocks and herds. From the absence of en- closures, cultivated land of any size might be termed a field. It should be observed that the expressions "fruitful field" (Is. x. 18, xxix. 17, xxxii. 15, 16), and "plentiful field" (Is. xvi. 10; Jer. xlviii. 33), are not connected with sadeh, but with carmel, meaning a park or wellkept wood, as distinct from a wilderness or a forest. Fig, Fig-tree. The fig-tree is very common in Palestine (Deut. viii. 8). Mount Olivet was famous for its fig-trees in ancient times, and they are still found there. "To sit under one's own vine and one's, own fig-tree" became a proverbial expression among the Jews to de- 127 FIR FIRST-BORN note peace and prosperity (i K. iv. 25; Mic. iv. 4; Zech. iii. 10). Fir. As the term "cedar" is in all probabil- ity applicable to more than one tree, so also "fir" in the A. V. represents probably one or other of the following trees: i. Scotch fir; 2. Larch ; 3. cypress, all which are at this day found in the Lebanon. Fire is represented as the symbol of Jeho- Flgs. hovah's presence, and the instrument of his power, in the way either of approval or of de- struction (Ex. iii. 2, xiv. 19, &c.). Parallel with this application of fire and with its sym- bolical meaning are to be noted the similar use for sacrificial purposes and the respect paid to it, or to the heavenly bodies as symbols of deity, which prevailed among so many nations of antiquity, and of which the traces are not even now extinct : e. g. the Sabaean and Magian systems of worship, and their alleged connection with Abraham ; the occasional re- lapse of the Jews themselves into sun, or its corrupted form of fire-worship (Is. xxvii. 9; Deut. xvii. 3, &c.), the worship or deification of heavenly bodies or of fire, prevailing to some extent, as among the Persians, so also even in Egypt. Fire for sacred purposes ob- tained elsewhere than from the altar was called "strange fire," and for the use of such Nadab and Abihu were punished by death by fire from God (Lev. x. i, 2; Num. iii. 4, xxvi. 61). Firkin. [Weights and Measures.] Firmament. The Hebrew rakia, so trans- lated, is generally regarded as expressive of simple expansion, and is so rendered in the margin of the A. V. (Gen. i. 6). The root means to expand by beating, whether by the hand, the foot, or any instrument. It is espe- I cially used for beating out metals into thin plates (Ex. xxxix. 3 ; Num. xvi. 39). The sense of solidity, therefore, is combined with the ideas of expansion and tenuity in the term. The same idea of solidity runs through all the references to the rakia. In Ex. xxiv. 10, it is represented as a solid floor. So again, in Ez. i. 22-26, the "firmament" is the floor on which the throne of the Most High is placed. Fur- ther, the office of the rakia in the economy of the world demanded strength and substance. It was to serve as a division between the waters above and the waters below (Gen. i. 7). In keeping with this view the rakia was pro- vided with "windows" (Gen. vii. 11; Is. xxiv. 18; Mai. iii. 10) and "doors" (Ps. Ixxviii. 23), through which the rain and the snow might descend. A secondary purpose which the rakia served was to support the heavenly bod- ies, sun, moon, and stars (Gen. i. 14), in which they were fixed as nails, and from which, con- secjuently, they might be said to drop ofif (Is. xiv. 12, xxxiv. 4; Matt. xxiv. 29). Fig Tree. First-born. Under the Law, in memory of ' the Exodus, the eldest son was regarded as devoted to God, and was in every case to be redeemed by an ofifering not exceeding 5 shek- els, within one month from birth. If he died before the expiration of 30 days, the Jewish doctors held the father excused, but liable to the payment if he outlived that time (Ex. xiii. 12-15, 29; Num. viii. 17, xviii. 15, 16; Lev. xxvii. 6). The eldest son received a double portion of the father's inheritance (Deut. xxi. i FIRST-FRUITS FLAGON I 17), but not of the mother's. Under the mon- archy, the eldest son usually, but not always, as appears in the case of Solomon, succeeded his father in the kingdom (i K. i. 30, ii. 22). The male first-born of animals was also de- voted to God (Ex. xiii. 2, 12, 13, xxii. 29, xxxiv. 19, 20). Unclean animals were to be redeemed with the addition of one-fifth of the value, or else put to death ; or, if not redeemed, to be sold, and the price given to the priests (Lev. xxvii. 13, 27, 28). First-fruits, i. The Law ordered in general, that the first of all ripe fruits and of liquors, or, as it is twice expressed, the first of first- fruits, should be offered in God's house (Ex. xxii. 29, xxiii. 19, xxxiv. 27). 2. On the mor- row after the Passover sabbath, i. e. on the i6th of Xisan, a sheaf of new corn was to be brought to the priest and waved before the altar, in acknowledgment of the gift of fruit- fulness (Lev. xxiii. 5, 6, 10, 12, ii. 12). 3. At the expiration of 7 weeks from this time, i. e. at the Feast of Pentecost, an oblation was to be made of 2 loaves of leavened bread made from the new flour, which were to be waved in like manner with the Passover sheaf (Ex. xxxiv. 22; Lev. xxiii. 15, 17; Num. xxviii. 26). 4. The feast of ingathering, i. e. the Feast of Tabernacles in the 7th month, was itself an acknowledgment of the fruits of the harvest (Ex. xxiii. 16, xxxiv. 22; Lev. xxiii. 39). These four sorts of offerings were national. Besides them, the two following were of an individual kind. 5. A cake of the first dough that was baked, was to be offered as a heave-offering (Num. XV. 19, 21). 6. The first-fruits of the land were to be brought in a basket to the holy place of God's choice, and there presented to the priest, who was to set the basket down before the altar (Deut. xxvi. 2-1 1). The offer- ings were the perquisite of the priests (Num. xviii. 11; Deut. xviii. 4). Nehemiah, at the Return from Captivity, took pains to reorgan- ize the offerings of first-fruits of both kinds, and to appoint places to receive them (Neh. x. 35' 37> xii. 44). Fish. The Hebrews recognized fish as one of the great divisions of the animal kingdom, and, as such, give them a place in the account of the creation (Gen. i. 21, 28), as well as in other passages where an exhaustive descrip- tion of living creatures is intended .(Gen. ix. 2; Ex. XX. 4; Deut. iv. 18; i K. iv. 33). The Mosaic law (Lev. xi. 9, 10) pronounced un- clean such fish as were devoid of fins and scales : these were and are regarded as un- wholesome in Egypt. Among the Philistines, Dagon was represented by a figure, half man and half fish (i Sam. v. 4). On this account the worship of fish is expressly prohibited (Deut. iv. 18). In Palestine, the Sea of Gali- lee was and still is remarkably well stored with fish. Jerusalem derived its supply chiefly from the Mediterranean (comp. Ez. xlvii. 10). The existence of a regular fish-market is implied in the notice of the fish-gate, which was prob- ably contiguous to it (2 Chr. xxxiii. 14; Neh. iii. 3, xii. 39; Zeph. i. 10). Numerous allusions to the art of fishing occur in the Bible. The most usual method of catching fish was by the use of the net, either the casting net (Hab. i. 15; Ez. xxvi. 5, 14, xlvii. 10), probably re- sembling the one used in Egypt, as shown in Wilkinson (iii. 55), or the draw or drag net (Is. xix. 8; Hab. i. 15), which was larger, and required the use of a boat : the latter was probably most used on the Sea of Galilee, as the number of boats kept on it was very con- siderable. Angling was a favorite pursuit of An Egyptian Landing-net. (Wilkinson.) the wealthy in Egypt, as well as followed by the poor who could not afford a net. ' A still more scientific method was with the trident or the spear, as practised in Egypt in taking the crocodile (Job xli. 7) or the hippopotamus. Flag, the representative in the A. V. of the two Heb. words achfi and suph. I. Achu, a word, according to Jerome, of Egyptian origin, and denoting "any green and coarse herbage, such as rushes and reeds, which grows in marshy places." It seems probable that some specific plant is denoted in Job viii. 11. The word occurs once again in Gen. xli. 2, 18, where it is said that the seven well-favored kine came up out of the river and fed in an achu. It is perhaps the Cyperus esculentus. 2. Sijph (Ex. ii. 3, 5; Is. xix. 6) appears to be used in a very wide sense to denote "weeds of any kind." Flagon, a word employed in the A. V. to render two distinct Hebrew terms: i. Ashi- shah (2 Sam. vi. 19; i Chr. xvi. 3; Cant. ii. 5; Hos. iii. i). -It really means a cake of pressed raisins. 2. Nebel (Is. xxii. 24) is commonly used for a bottle or vessel, originally prob- 129 1 FLAX FOOD ably a skin, but in later times a piece of pot- tery (Is. XXX. 14). Flax. Two words are used for this plant in the O. T., or rather the same word slightly modified. Eliminating all the places where the words are used for the article manufac- tured in the thread, the piece, or the made up garment, we reduce them to two (Ex. ix. 31 ; Josh. ii. 6). It seems probable that the culti- vation of flax for the purpose of the manufac- ture of linen was by no means confined to Egypt ; but that originating in India it spread over Asia at a very early period of antiquity. That it was grown in Palestine even before the conquest of that country by the Israelites appears from Josh. ii. 6. The various proc- esses employed in preparing the flax for manu- facture into cloth are indicated: i. The drying process. 2. The peeling of the stalks, and separation of the fibres. 3. The hackling (Is. Flax. xix. 9). That flax was one of the most impor- tant crops in Palestine appears from Hos. ii. 5, 9- Flea, an insect twice only mentioned in Scripture, viz., in i Sam. xxiv. 14, xxvi. 20. Fleas are abundant in the East, and afford the subject of many proverbial expressions. Flesh. [Food.] Flint. The Heb. challamish is rendered flint in Deut. viii. 15, xxxii, 13; Ps. cxiv. 8; and Is. 1. 7. In Job xxviii. 9 the same word is ren- dered rock in the text, and flint in the margin. In Ez. iii. 9 the English word "flint" occurs in the same sense, but there it represents the Heb. Tzor. Flood. [Noah.] Floor. [Pavement.] Flour. [Bread.] Flute (i K. i. 4, marg. [Pipe]), a musical instrument mentioned amongst others (Dan. ' iii. 5, 7, 10, 15) as used at the worship of the golden image which Nebuchadnezzar had set up. Fly, Flies. Arob ("swarms of flies," "divers s6rts of flies," A. V.), the name of the insect, or insects, which God sent to punish Pharaoh ; see Ex. viii. 21-31; Ps. Ixxviii. 45, cv. 31. As the arob are said to have filled the houses of the Egyptians, it seems not improbable that common flies are more especially intended. Food. The diet of Eastern nations has been in all ages light and simple. As compared with our own habits, the chief points of con- trast are the small amount of animal food con- sumed, the variety of articles used as accom- paniments to bread, the substitution of milk in various forms for our liquors, and the com- bination of what we should deem heterogene- ous elements in the same dish, or the same meal. The chief point of agreement is the large consumption of bread, the importance of which in the eyes of the Hebrew is testified by the use of the term lechem (originally food of any kind) specifically for bread, as well as by the expression "staf¥ of bread" (Lev. xxvi. 26; Ps. cv. 16; Ez. iv. 16, xiv. 13). Simpler preparations of corn were, however, common ; sometimes the fresh green ears were eaten in a natural state, the husks beink rubbed off by the hand (Lev. xxiii. 14; Deut. xxiii. 25; 2 K. iv. 42; Matt. xii. i; Luke vi. i) ; more fre- quently, however, the grains, after being care- fully picked, were roasted in a pan over a fire (Lev. ii. 14), and eaten as "parched corn," in which form they were an ordinary article of diet, particularly among laborers, or others who had not the means of dressing food (Lev. xxiii. 14; Ruth ii. 14; i Sam. xvii. 17, xxv. 18; 2 Sam. xvii. 28) : this practice is still very usual in the East. Sometimes the grain was bruised (A. V. "beaten," Lev. ii. 14, 16), and then dried in the sun ; it was eaten either mixed with oil (Lev. ii .15), or made into a soft cake (A. V. "dough;" Num. xv. 20; Neh. x. 37; Ez. xliv. 30). The Hebrews used a great variety of articles (John xxi. 5) to give a relish to bread. Sometimes salt was so used (Job vi. 6), as we learn from the pa^ssage just quoted; -sometimes the bread was dipped into the sour wine (A. V. "vinegar") which the laborers drank (Ruth ii. 14) ; or, where meat was eaten, into the gravy, which was either served up separately for the purpose, as by Gideon (Judg. vi. 19), or placed in the middle of the meat-dish, as done by the Arabs. TMilk and its preparations hold a conspicuous place in East- ern diet, as affording substantial nourishment ; sometimes it was produced in a fresh state 130 FOOD (Gen. xviii. 8), but more generally in the form of the modern leban, i. e. sour milk (A. V. "butter ;" Gen. xviii. 8 ; Judg. v. 25 ; 2 Sam. xvii. 29). Fruit was another source of sub- sistence: figs stand first in point of impor- tance ; they were generally dried and pressed into cakes. Grapes were generally eaten in a dried state as raisins. Fruit-cake forms a part of the daily food of the Arabians. Of vege- tables we have most frequent notice of lentiis (Gen. XXV. 34; 2 Sam. xvii. 28, xxiii. li; Ez. iv. 9), which are still largely used by the Bedouins in travelling; beans (2 Sam. xvii. 28; Ez. iv. 9), leeks, onions, and garlic, which were and still are of a superior quality in Egypt (Num. xi. 5). The modern Arabians consume but few vegetables: radishes and letks are most in use, and are eaten raw with bread. In addition to these classes we have to notice some other important articles of food: in the first place, honey, whether the natural product of the bee (i Sam. xiv. 25; Matt. iii. 4), which abounds in most parts of Arabia, or of the other natural and artificial productions included under that head, espe- cially the dibs of the Syrians and Arabians, i. e. grape-juice boiled down, which is still ex- tensively used in the East; the latter is sup- posed to be referred to in Gen. xliii. li, and Ez. xxvii. 17. With regard to oil, it does not appear to have been used to the extent we might have anticipated. Eggs are not often noticed, but were evidently known as articles of food (Is. X. 14, lix. 5; Luke xi. 12). The Orientals have been at all times sparing in the use of animal food: not only does the exces- sive heat of the climate render it both un- wholesome to eat much meat, and expensive from the necessity of immediately consuming a whole animal, but beyond this the ritual reg- ulations of the Mosaic law in ancient, as of the Koran in modern times, have tended to the same result. The prohibition expressed against consuming the blood of any animal (Gen. ix. 4) was more fully developed in the Levitical law, and enforced by the penalty of death (Lev. iii. 17, vii. 26, xix. 26; Deut. xii. 16; I Sam. xiv. 32, ff . ; Ez. xliv. 7, 15). Certain por- tions of the fat of sacrifices were also forbid- den (Lev. iii. 9, 10), as being set apart for the altar (Lev. iii. 16, vii. 25, cf . ; i Sam. ii. 16, ff. ; 2 Chr. vii. 7). In addition to the above, Jews were forbidden to eat the flesh of animals, por- tions of which had been offered to idols. All beasts and birds classed as unclean (Lev. xi. I, flf. ; Deut. xiv. 4, f¥.) were also prohibited. Under these restrictions the Hebrews were permitted the free use of animal food : gen- erally speaking they only availed themselves 13 FOWL of it in the exercise of hospitality (Gen. xviii. 7), or at festivals of a religious (Ex. xii. 8), public (i K. i. 9; I Chr. xii. 40), or private character (Gen. xxvii. 4; Luke xv. 23) ; it was only in royal households that there was a daily consumption of meat (i K. iv. 23; Neh. v. 18). The animals killed for meat were — calves (Gen. xviii. 7 ; I Sam. xxviii. 24; Am. vi. 4) ; lambs (2 Sam. xii. 4; Am. vi. 4); oxen, not above three years of age (i K. i. 9; Prov. xv. 17; Is. xxii. 13; Matt. xxii. 4); kids (Gen. xxvii. 9; Judg. vi. 19; i Sam. xvi. 20) ; harts, roebucks, and fallow-deer (i K. iv. 23) ; birds of various kinds ; fish, with the exception of such as were without scales and fins (Lev. xi. 9; Deut. xiv. 9). Locusts, of which certain species only were esteemed clean (Lev. xi. 22), were occasionally eaten (Matt. iii. 4), but con- sidered as poor fare. Forehead. The practice of veiling the face in public for women of the higher classes, espe- cially married women, in the East, sufficiently stigmatizes with reproach the unveiled face of women of bad character (Gen. xxiv. 65 ; Jer. iii. 3). The custom among many Oriental nations both of coloring the face and forehead, and of impressing on the body marks indica- tive of devotion to some special deity or re- ligious sect is mentioned elsewhere. The "jewels for the forehead," mentioned by Ezekiel (xvi. 12), and in margin of A. V. (Gen. xxiv. 22), were in all probability nose-rings (Is. iii. 21). Fountain. Among the attractive features presented by the Land of Promise to the nation migrating from Egypt by way of the desert, none would be more striking than the natural gush of waters from the ground. The springs of Palestine, though short-lived, are remarkable for their abundance and beauty, especially those which fall into the Jordan and its lakes throughout its whole course. The spring or fountain of living water, the "eye" of the landscape, is distinguished in all Oriental languages from the artificially sunk and enclosed well. Jerusalem appears to have possessed either more than one perennial spring, or one issuing by more than one outlet. In Oriental cities generally public fountains are frequent. Traces of sucla fountains at Jerusalem may perhaps be found in the names En-Rogel (2 Sam. xvii. 17), the "Dragon-well" or fountain, and the "gate of the fountain" (Neh. ii. 13, 14). Fowl. Several distinct Hebrew and Greek words are thus rendered in the A. V. of the Bible. Of these the most common is 'oph, which is usually a collective term for all kinds of birds. In i K. iv. 23, among the daily pro- I FOX FRONTLETS visions for Solomon's table, "fatted fowl" are included. In the N. T. the word translated "fowls" is most frequently that which com- prehends all kinds of birds (including ravens, Luke xii. 24). [Sparrow.] Fox (Heb. shii'al). Probably the "jackal" is the animal signified in almost all the passages in the O. T. where the Hebrew term Syrian Fox. occurs. The shii'alim of Judg. xv. 4 are evi- dently "jackals," and not "foxes," for the former animal is gregarious, whereas the lat- ter is solitary in its habits. With respect to the jackals and foxes of Palestine, there is no doubt that the common jackal of the country is the Canis aureus, which may be heard every night in the villages. A vulpine animal, under the name of Canis Syriacus, occurs in Leba- non. The Egyptian Vulpes Niloticus, and doubtless the common fox of our own country, are Palestine species. Frankincense, a vegetable resin, brittle, glit- tering, and of a bitter taste, used for the pur- pose of sacrificial fumigation (Ex. xxx. 34-36). It is obtained by successive incisions in the bark of a tree called the arbor thuris, the first of which yields the purest and whitest kind ; while the produce of the after incisions is spot- ted with yellow, and as it becomes old loses its whiteness altogether. The Hebrews im- ported their frankincense from Arabia (Is. Ix. 6; Jer. vi. 20), and more particularly from Saba ; but it is remarkable that at present the Arabian Libanum, or Olibanum is of a very inferior kind, and that the finest frankincense imported into Turkey comes through Arabia from the islands of the Indian Archipelago. Frog. The mention of this reptile in the O. T. is confined to the passage in Ex. viii. 2-7, &c., in which the plague of frogs is described, and to Ps. Ixxviii. 45, cv. 30. In the N. T. the word occurs once only, in Rev. xvi. 13. There is no question as to the animal meant. The only known species of frog which occurs at present in Egypt is the edible frog of the con- tinent. Frontlets, or Phylacteries (Ex. xiii. 16; Deut. vi. 8, xi. i8; Matt, xxiii. 5). These "frontlets" or "phylacteries" were strips of parchment, on which were written four pas- sages of Scripture (Ex. xiii. 2-10, 11-17; Deut. vi. 4-9, 13-23) in an ink prepared for the pur- pose. They were then rolled up in a case of black calfskin, which was attached to a stififer piece of leather, having a thong one finger broad, and one and a half cubits long. They were placed at the bend of the left arm. Those worn on the forehead were written on four strips of parchment, and put into four little cells within a square case, on which a Greek letter was written. The square had two thongs, on which Hebrew letters were inscribed. That phylacteries were used as amulets is certain, and was very natural. The expression "they make broad their phylacteries" (Matt, xxiii. 5) refers not so much to the phylactery itself, which seems to have been of a prescribed breath, as to the case in which the parchment was kept, which the Pharisees, among their other pretentious customs (Mark vii. 3, 4; Frankincense. Luke v. 33, &c.), made as conspicuous as they could. It is said that the Pharisees wore them always, whereas the common people only used them at prayers. The modern Jews only wear them at morning prayers, and sometimes at noon. In our Lord's time they were worn by all Jews, except the Karaites, women, and slaves. Boys, at the age of thirteen years and a day, were bound to wear them. The Karaites 132 THE IIB^^ARY ' Of THE FUNERALS GALATIA explained Deut. vi. 8; Ex. xiii. 9, &c., as a figurative command to remember the law, as is certainly the case in similar passages (Prov. iii. 3, vi. 21, vii. 3; Cant. viii. 6, &c.). It seems clear to us that the scope of these injunctions favors the Karaite interpretation. Funerals. [Burial.] Furlong. [Measures.]^ Furnace. Various kinds of furnaces are no- ticed in the Bible, such as a smelting or cal- cining furnace (Gen. xix. 28; Ex. ix. 8, 10, xix. 18), especially a lime-kiln (Is. xxxiii. 12; Am. ii. ij : a refining furnace (Prov. xvii. 3, xxvii. 21 : Ez. xxii. 18, ff.) ; a large furnace built like a brick-kiln (Dan. iii. 22. 23) ; the potter's fur- nace (Ecclus. xxvii. 5) ; the blacksmith's fur- nace (Ecclus. xxxviii. 28). The Persians were in the habit of using the furnace as a means of inflicting punishment (Dan. 1. c. ; Jer. xxi^. 22; 2 Mace. vii. 5; Hos. vii. 7). Ga'briel. The word, which is not in itself (distinctive, but merely a description of the angelic office, is used as a proper name or title in Dan. viii. 16, ix. 21, and in Luke i. 19, 26. In the ordinary traditions, Jewish and Chris- tian, Gabriel is spoken of as one of the arch- angels. In Scripture he is set forth only as the representative of the angelic nature in its ministration of comfort and syirfpathy to man. Gad (a troop), Jacob's seventh son, the first- born of Zilpah, Leah's maid, and whole-brother to Asher (Gen. xxx.* 11-13, xlvi. 16, 18). The country allotted to Gad appears, speaking roughly, to have lain chiefly about the centre of the land east of Jordan. The south of that district — from the Arnon ' (Wady Mojeb), about half way down the Dead Sea, to Hesh- bon, nearly due east of Jerusalem — was occu- pied by Reuben, and at or about Heshbon the possessions of Gad commenced. They em- braced half Gilead, as the oldest record spe- cially states (Deut. iii. 12), or half the land of the children of Amnion (Josh. xiii. 25), probably the mountainous district which is in- tersected by the torrent Jabbok, including, as its most northern town, the ancient sanctuary of Mahanaim. On the east the furthest land- mark given is "Aroer, that faces Rabbah," the present Amman (Josh. xiii. 25). West was the Jordan (27). Such was the territory al- lotted to the Gadites, but there is no doubt that they soon extended themselves beyond these limits. The official records of the reign of Jothani of Judah (i Chr. v. 11, 16) show them to have been at that time established over the whole of Gilead, and in possession of Bashan as far as Salcah, and very far both to the north and the east of the iDorder given them originally, while the Manassites were pushed still further northwards to Mount Her- mon (i Chr. v. 23). The character of the tribe is throughout strongly marked — fierce and warlike — "strong men of might, men of war for the battle, that could handle shield and buckler, their faces the faces of lions, and like roes upon the mountains for swiftness." Gad was carried into captivity by Tiglath-Pileser (i Chr. V. 26), and in the time of Jeremiah the cities of the tribe seem to have been inhabited by the Ammonites. Gad'ara, a strong city situated near the river Hieromax, east of the Sea of Galilee, over against Scythopolis and Tiberias, and sixteen Roman miles distant from each of those places. Gadara derives its greatest interest from having been the scene of our Lord's mir- acle in healing the demoniacs (Matt. viii. 28- 34; Mark v. 1-21 ; Luke viii. 26-40). The whole circumstances of the narrative are strikingly illustrated by the features of the country. The most interesting remains of Gadara are its tombs, which dot the clififs for a considerable distance round the city. Gala'tia is literally the "Gallia" of the East. The Roman province of Galatia may be rough- ly described as the central region of the penin- sula of Asia Minor, with the provinces of Asia on the west, Cappadocia on the east, Pam- phylia and Cilicia on the south, and Bithynia and Pontus on the north. These Eastern Gauls preserved much of their ancient character, and something of their ancient language. The prevailing speech, however, of the district was Greek. The inscriptions found at Ancyra are Greek, and St. Paul wrote his Epistle in Greek. It is difficult at first sight to determine in what sense the word Galatia is used by the writers of the N. T., or whether always in the same sense. In the Acts of the Apostles the jour- neys of St. Paul through the district are men- tioned in very general terms. On a^l accounts 133 GALATIANS GALL it seems most probable that Galatia is used by St. Luke as an ethnographical term, and not for the Roman province of that name. Galatians, The Epistle to the, was written by the Apostle St. Paul not long after his jour- ney through Galatia and Phrygia (Acts xviii. 23), and probably in the early portion of his two years and a half stay at Ephesus, which terminated with the Pentecost of A. D. 57 or 58. The Epistle appears to have been called forth by the machinations of Judaizing teach- ers, who, shortly before the date of its com- position, had endeavored to seduce the churches of this province into a recognition of circumcision (v. 2, 11, 12; vi. 12, sq.), and had openly sought to depreciate the apostolic claims of St. Paul (comp. i. i, 11). The scope and contents of the Epistle are thus — (i) apol- ogetic (i., ii.) and polemical (iii., iv.) ; and (2) horatory and practical (v., vi.) ; the positions and demonstrations of the former portion being used with great power and persuasiveness in the exhortations of the latter. Two historical questions require a brief notice: • i. The num- ber of visits made by St. Paul to the churches of Galatia previous to his writing the Epistle. These seem certainly to have been two. The Apostle founded the churches of Galatia in the visit recorded Acts xvi. 6, during his second missionary journey, about A. D. 51, and re- visited them at the period and on the occasion mentioned Acts xviii. 23, when he went through the country of Galatia and Phrygia. On this occasion it would seem probable that he found the leaven of Judaism beginning to work in the churches of Galatia. 2. Closely allied with the preceding question is that of the date, and the place from which the Epistle was written. It was probably written about the same time as the Epistle to Romans at Corinth, during the three month-s that the Apostle staid there (Acts xx. 2, 3), apparently the winter of A. D. 57 or 58. Gal'llee (circuit). This name, which in the Roman age was applied to a large province, seems to have been originally confined to a little "circuit" of country round Kedesh-Naph- tali, in which were situated the twenty towns given by Solomon to Hiram, king of Tyre, as payment for his work in conveying timber from Lebanon to Jerusalem (Josh. xx. 7; i K. ix. 11). They were then, or subsequently, oc- cupied by strangers, and for this reason Isaiah gives to the district the name "Galilee of the Gentiles" (Is. ix. i). It is probable that the strangers increased in number, and became during the captivity the great body of the inhabitants ; extending themselves also over the surrounding country, they gave to their new territories the old name, until at length Galilee became one of the largest provinces of Palestine. In the time of our Lord all Pales- tine was divided into three provinces, Judaea, Samaria, and Galilee (Acts ix. 31 ; Luke xvii. 11; Joseph. B. J. iii. 3). The latter included the whole northern section of the country, in- cluding the ancient territories of Issachar, Zebulun, Asher, and Naphtali. On the west it was bounded by the territory of Ptolemais, which probably included the whole plain of Akka' to the foot of Carmel. The southern border ran along the base of Carmel and of the hills of Samaria to Mount Gilboa, and then descended the valley of Jezreel by Scythop- olis to the Jordan. The river Jordan, the Sea of Galilee, and the upper Jordan to the foun- tain at Dan, formed the eastern border; and the northern ran from Dan westward across the mountain ridge till it touched the territory of the Phoenicians. Galilee was divided into two sections, "Lower" and "Upper." Lower Galilee included the great plain of Esdraelon with its offshoots, which run down to the Jor- dan and the Lake of Tiberias ; and the whole of the hill country adjoining it on the north to the foot of the mountain-range. It was thus one of the richest and most beautiful sec- tions of Palestine. Galilee was the scene of the greater part of our Lord's private life and public acts. His early years were spent at Nazareth ; and when He entered on His great work He made Capernaum His home (Matt, iv. 13, ix. i). It is a remarkable fact that the first three Gospels are chiefly taken up with our Lord's ministrations in this province, while the Gospel of John dwells more upon those in Judaea. The nature of our Lord's parables and illustrations was greatly influ- enced by the peculiar features and products of the country. The Apostles were all either Galileans by birth or residence (Acts i. il). After the destruction of Jerusalem, Galilee be- came the chief seat of Jewish schools of learn- ing, and the residence of their most celebrated Rabbins. Galilee, Sea of. [Gennesareth.] Gall. From Deut. xxix. 18, and Lam. iii. 19, compared with Hos. x. 4, it is evident that the Hebrew term denotes some bitter, and perhaps poisonous plant. Other writers have supposed, and with some reason (from Deut. xxxii. 32), that some berry-bearing plant must be in- tended. Gesenius understands "poppies." The capsules of the Papaveraceae may well give the name of rosh ("head") to the plant in ques- tion, just as we speak of poppy heads. The various species of this family spring up quickly in corn-fields, and the juice is extremely bitter. 134 GALLEY GARDEN A steeped solution of poppy heads may be "the water of gall" of Jer. viii. 14. The pas- sages in the Gospels which relate the circum- stance of the Roman soldiers offering our Lord, just before his crucifixion, "vinegar min- gled with gall," according to St. Matthew (xxvii. 34), and '"wine mingled with myrrh," according to St. Mark's account (ji . 23), re- quire some consideration. "Matth< n, in his usual way, designates the drink theologically : always keeping his eye on the prophecies of the O. T., he speaks of gall and vi'iegar for the purpose of rendering the fulfilment of the Psalms more manifest. Mark again (xv. 23), according to his way, looks rather at the out- ward quality of the drink." "Gall" is not to be understood in any other sense than as ex- pressing the bitter nature of the draught. Not- withstanding the almost concurrent opinion of ancient and modern commentators that the '"wine mingled with myrrh" was offered to our Lord as an anodyne, we cannot readily come to the same conclusion. Had the soldiers in- tended a mitigation of suffering, they would doubtless have offered a draught drugged with some substance having narcotic properties. The drink in question was probably a mere ordinary beverage of the Romans. Galley. [Ship.] Gallows. [Punishment.] Games. Among the Greeks the rage for theatrical exhibitions was such that every city of any size possessed its theatre and stadium. At i!,pnesus an annual contest was held in honor of Diana. It is probable that St. Paul was present when these games were proceed- ing. A direct reference to the exhibitions that took place on such occasions is made in i Cor. xv. 32. St. Paul's Epistles abound with allu- sions to the Greek contests, borrowed prob- ably from the Isthmian games, at which he may well have been present during his first visit to Corinth. These contests (2 li/n. iv. 7; I Tim. vi. 12) were divided into two c' asses, the pancratium, consisting of boxin • and wrestling, and the pentathlon, consist ig of leaping, running, quoiting, hurling the '.pear, and wrestling. The competitors (i Cor. ix. 25 ; 2 Tim. ii. 5) required a long and severe course of previous training (i Tim. iv. 8), dur- ing which a particular diet was enforced (l Cor. ix. 25, 27). St. Paul alludes to two only out of the five contests, boxing and running, more frequently to the latter. In boxing (cf. I Cor. ix. 26) the hands and arms were bound with the cestus, a band of leather studded with nails. Garden. Gardens in the East, as the He- brew word indicates, are enclosures, on the outskirts of towns, planted with various trees and shrubs. From the allusions in the Bible we learn that they were surrounded by hedges of tliorn (Is. v. 5), or walls of stone (Prov. xxiv. 31). For further protection lodges (Is. i. 8; Lam. ii. 6) or watchtowers (Mark xii. i) were, built in them, in which sat the keeper (Job xxvii. 18) to drive away the wild beasts and robbers, as is the case to this day. The gardens of the Hebrews were planted with flowers "and aromatic shrubs (Cant. vi. 2, iv. 16), besides olives, fig-trees, nuts, or walnuts (Cant. vi. 11), pomegranates, and others for domestic use (Ex. xxiii. 11; Jer. xxix. 5; Am. ix. 14). Gardens of herbs, or kitchen-gardens, are mentioned in Deut. xi. 10, and i K. xxi. 2. Cucumbers were grown in them (Is. i. 8; Bar. vi. 70), and probably also melons, leeks, onions, and garlic, which are spoken of (Num. xi. 5) as the productions of a neighboring country. The rose-garden in Jerusalem, said to have been situated westward of the temple mount, is remarkable as having been one of the few gardens, which, from the time of the prophets, existed within the city walls. But of all the gardens of Palestine none is pos- sessed of associations more sacred and imper- ishable than the garden of Gethsemane, beside the oil-presses on the slopes of Olivet. In a climate like that of Palestine the neighborhood of water was an important consideration in selecting the site of a garden. To the old Hebrew poets "a well-watered garden," or "a tree planted by the waters," was an emblem of luxuriant fertility and material prosperity (Is. Iviii. II ; Jer. xvii. 8, xxxi. 12). From a neigh- boring stream or cistern were supplied the channels or conduits by which the gardens were intersected, and the water was thus con- veyed to all parts (Ps. i. 3; Eccl. ii. 6; Ecclus. xxiv. 30). The Hebrews made use of gardens as places of burial (John xix. 41). Manasseh and his son Anion were buried in the garden of their palace, the garden of Uzza (2 K. xxi. 18, 26). The retirement of gardens rendered them favorite places for devotion (Matt. xxvi. 36; John xviii. i; cf. Gen. xxiv. 63). In the degenerate times of the monarchy they were selected as the scenes of idolatrous worship (Is. i. 29, Ixv. 3, Ixvi. 17), and images of the idols were probably erected in them. The tra- ditional gardens and pools of Solomon, sup- posed to be alluded to in Eccl. ii. 5. 6, are shown in the Wady Urtas (i. e. Hortus), about an hour and a quarter to the south of Bethlehem. The "king's garden," mentioned in 2 K. xxv. 4; Neh. iii. 15; Jer. xxxix. 4, Hi. 7, was near the pool of Siloam, at the mouth of the Tyropoeon, north of Bir Eyub, and was GARMENT GENEALOGY formed by the meeting of the valleys of Jehoshaphat and Ben Hinnom. Garment. [Dress.] Gate. The gates and gateways of eastern cities anciently held, and still hold, an impor- tant part, not only in the defence but in the public economy of the place. They are thus sometimes taken as representing the city itself (Gen. xxii. 17, xxiv. 60; Deut. xii. 12; Judg. v. 8; Ruth iv. 10; Ps. Ixxxvii. 2, cxxii, 2). Among the special purposes for which they were used may be mentioned: i. As places of public resort (Gen. xix. i, xxiii. 10, xxxiv. 20, 24; I Sam. iv. 18, &c.). 2. Places for public deliber- ation, administration of justice, or of audience for kings and rulers, or ambassadors (Deut. xvi. 18, xxi. 19, XXV. 7; Josh. xx. 4; Judg. ix. 35, &c.). 3. Public markets (2 K, vii. i). In heathen towns the open spaces near the gates appear to have been sometimes used as places for sacrifice (Acts xiv. 13; comp. 2 K. xxiii. 8). Regarded therefore as positions of great importance the gates of cities were carefully guarded and closed at nightfall (Deut. iii. 5 ; Josh. ii. 5, 7; Judg. ix. 40, 44). They con- tained chambers over the gateway (2 Sam. xviii. 24). The doors themselves of the larger gates mentioned in Scripture were two-leaved, plated with metal, closed with locks and fas- tened with metal bars (Deut. iii. 5 ; Ps. cvii. 16; Is. xlv. I, 2). Gates not defended by iron were of course liable to be set on fire by an enemy (Judg. ix. 52). The gateways of royal palaces and even of private houses were often richly ornamented. Sentences from the Law were inscribed on and above the gates (Deut. vi. 9; Is. liv. 12; Rev. xxi. 21).. The gates of Solomon's Temple were very massive and costly, being overlaid with gold and carvings (i K. vi. 34, 35; 2 K. xviii. 16). Those of the Holy Place were of olive-wood, two-leaved, and overlaid with gold ; those of the temple of fir (i K. vi. 31, 32, 34; Ez. xli. 23, 24). The figurative gates of pearl and precious stones (Is. liv. 12; Rev. xxi. 21) may be regarded as having their types in the massive stone doors which are found in some of the ancient houses in Syria. These are of single slabs several inches thick, sometimes 10 feet high, and turn on stone pivots above. The parts of the door- way were the threshold (Judg. xix. 27) ; the side-posts, the lintel (Ex. xii. 7). In the Tem- ple, Levites, and in houses of the wealthier classes, and in palaces, persons were especially appointed to keep the door (Jer. xxxv. 4; 2 K. xii. 9, XXV. 18, &c.). Oath, one of the five royal cities of the Phil- istines (Josh. xiii. 3; I Sam. vi. 17); and the native place of the giant Goliath (i Sam. xvii. I 4, 23). It i& familiar to the Bible student as the scene of one of the most romantic incidents in the life of king David (i Sam. xxi. 10-15.) Ga'za (properly Azzah), one of the five chief cities of the Philistines. It is remarkable for its continuous existence and ■ importance from the very earliest times. In Gen. x. 19 it appears, even before the call of Abraham, as a "border" city of the Canaanites. In the con- quest of Joshua the territory of Gaza is men- tioned as one which he was not able to sub- due (Josh. X. 41, xi. 22, xiii. 3). It was as- signed to the tribe of Judah (Josh. xv. 47), and that tribe did obtain possession of it (Judg. i. 18); but they did not hold it long; for soon afterwards we find it in the hands of the Philistines (Judg. iii. 3, xiii. i, xvi. i, 21) ; indeed it seems to have been their capi- tal ; and apparently continued through the times of Samuel, Saul, and David to be a Philistine city (i Sam. vi. 17, xiv. 52, xxxi. i ; 2 Sam. xxi. 15). Solornon became master of "Azzah" (i K. iv. 24). But in after times the Gaza. same trouble with the Philistines recurred (2 Chr. xxi. 16, xxvi. 6, xxviii. 18). The passage where Gaza is mentioned in the N. T. (Acts viii. 26) is full of interest. It is the account of the baptism of the Ethiopian eunuch on his return from Jerusalem to Egypt. Gehen'na. [Hinnom.] Gems. [Stones, Precious.] Genealogy. In Hebrew the term for genealogy or pedigree is "the book of the generations" ; and because the oldest histories were usually drawn up on a genealogical basis, the expression often extended to the whole history, as is the case with the Gospel of St. Matthew, where "the book of the generation of Jesus Christ" includes the whole history contained in that Gospel. The promise of the land of Canaan to the seed of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob successively, and the separation of 36 i GENEALOGY GENEALOGY OF JESUS CHRISt the Israelites from the Gentile world ; the ex- pectation of Messiah as to spring from the tribe of Jiidah ; the exclusively hereditary priesthood of Aaron with its dignity and emoluments ; the long succession of kings in the line of David; and the whole division and occupation of the land upon genealogical prin- ciples by the tribes, families, and houses of fathers, gave a deeper importance to the science of genealogy^ among the Jews than per- haps any other nation. When Zerubbabel brought back the captivity from Babylon, one of his first cares seems to have been to take a census of those that returned, and to settle them according to their genealogies. Passing on to the time of the birth of Christ, we have a striking incidental proof of the continuance of the Jewish genealogical economy in the fact that when Augustus ordered the census of the empire to be taken, the Jews in the province of Syria immediately went each one to his own city. The Jewish genealogical records continued to be kept till near the de- struction of Jerusalem. Bvit there can be lit- tle doubt that the registers of the Jewish tribes and families perished at the destruction of Jerusalem, and not before. It remains to be said that just- notions of the nature of the Jewish genealogical records are of great im- portance with a view to the right interpreta- tion of Scripture. Let it only be remembered that these records have respect to political and territorial divisions, as much as to strictly genealogical descent, and it will at once be seen how erroneous a conclusion it may be, that all who are called "sons" of such or such a patriarch, or chief father, must necessarily be his very children. If any one family or house became extinct, some other would suc- ceed to its place, called after its own chief father. Hence of course a census of any tribe drawn up at a later period, would exhibit dif- ferent divisions from one drawn up at an earlier. The same principle must be borne in mind in interpreting any particular genealogy. Again, when a pedigree was abbreviated, it would naturally specify such generations as would indicate from what chief houses the person descended. But then as regards the chronological use of the Scripture genealogies, it follows from the above view that great cau- tion is necessary in using them as measures of time, though they are invaluable for this purpose whenever we can be sure that they are complete. The Jewish genealogies have two forms, one giving the generations in a descending, the other in an ascending scale. Examples of the descending form may be seen in Ruth iv. 18-22, or i Chr. iii. Of the ascend- ing, I Chr. vi. 33-43 (A. V.) ; Ezr. vii. 1-5. Fe- males are named in genealogies when there is anything remarkable about them, or when any right or property is transmitted through them. See Gen. xi. 29, xxii. 23, xxv. 1-4, xxxv. 22-26; Ex. vi. 23 ; Num. xxvi. 33 ; i Chr. ii. 4, 19, 50, 35. &c. Genealogy of Jesus Christ. The New Testa- ment gives us the genealogy of but one per- son, that of our Saviour. The following propo- sitions will explain the true construction of these genealogies: — i. They are both the gen- ealogies of Joseph i. e. of Jesus Christ as the reputed and legal son of Joseph and Mary. 2. The genealogy of St. Matthew is Joseph's gen- ealogy as legal successor to the throne of David. St. Luke's is Joseph's private gen- ealog}-, exhibiting his real birth, as David's son, and thus showing why he was heir to Solomon's crown. The simple principle that one evangelist exhibits that genealogy which contained the successive heirs to David's and Solomon's throne, while the other exhibits the paternal stem of him who was the heir, ex- plains all the anomalies of the two pedigrees, their agreements as well as their discrepancies, and the circumstance of there being two at all. 3.* Mary, the mother of Jesus, was in all prob- ability the daughter of Jacob, and first, cousin to Joseph her husband. But besides these main difficulties, as they have been thought to be, there are- several others which cannot be passed over in any account, however con- cise, of the genealogies of Christ. The most startling is the total discrepancy between them both and that of Zerubbabel in the O. T. (i Chr. iii. 19-24). In this last, of seven sons of Zerubbabel not one bears the name, or any- thing like the name, of Rhesa or Abiud ; and of the next generation not one bears the name, or anything like the name, of Eliakim or Joanna, which are in the corresponding gen- eration in Matthew and Luke. Rhesa is in fact not a name at all, but it is the Chaldee title of the princes of the captivity. It is very probable therefore that this title should have been placed against the name of Zerubbabel by some early Christian Jew, and thence crept into the text. If this be so, St. Luke will then give Joanna as the son of Zerubbabel. But Joanna is the very same name as Hananiah, the son of Zerubbabel according to i Chr. iii. 19. [Hananiah.] In St. Matthew this genera- tion is omitted. In the next generation we identify Matthew's Ab-jud . (Abiud) with Luke's Juda, and both with Hodaiah of l Chr. iii. 24, by the simple process of supposing the Shemaiah of i Chr. iii. 22 to be the same per- son as the Shimei of ver. 19. Another 137 GENERATION GENESIS difficulty is the apparent deficiency in the num- ber of the last tessaro-decade, which seems to contain only 13 names; but the explanation of this is, that either in the process of transla- tion, or otherwise, the names of Jehoiakim and Jehoiachin have got confused and expressed by the one name Jechonias. The last difficulty of sufficient importance to be mentioned here is a chronological one. In both the genealogies there are but three names between Salmon and David — Boaz, Obed, Jesse. But, accord- ing to the common chronology, from the en- trance into Canaan (when Salmon was come to man's estate) to the birth of David was 405 years, or from that to 500 years and upwards. Now for about an equal period, from Solomon to Jehoiachin, St. Luke's genealogy contains 20 names. Obviously therefore either the chronology or the genealogy is wrong. It must suffice here to assert that the shortening the interval between the Exodus and David by about 200 years, which brings it to the length indicated by the genealogies, does in the most remarkable manner bring Israelitish history into harmony with Egyptian, with the tradi- tional Jewish date of the Exodus, with the fragment of Edomitish history preserved in Gen. xxxvi. 31-39, and with the internal evi- dence of the Israelitish history itself. Generation. In the long-lived Patriarchal age a generation seems to have been computed at 100 years (Gen. xv. 16; comp. 13, and Ex. xii. 40) ; but subsequently the reckoning was the same which has been adopted by other civilized nations, viz., from thirty to forty years (Job xlii. 16). For generation in the sense of a definite period of time, see Gen. xv. 16; Deut. xxiii. 3, 4, 8, &c. As an indefinite period of time : — for time past, see Deut. xxxii. 7'; Is. Iviii. 12; for time future, see Ps. xlv. 17, Ixxii. 5, &c. Generation is also used to signify the men of an age, or time, as contemporaries (Gen. vi. 9; Is. liii. 8) ; posterity, especially in legal formulae (Lev. iii. 17, &c.) ; fathers, or ancestors (Ps. xlix. 19). Genes'areth. [Gennesaret.] Gen'esis, the first book of the Law or Penta- teuch, so called from its title in the Septuagint, that is, Creation. Respecting its integrity and author, see Pentateuch. The book of Genesis (with the first chapters of Exodus) describes the steps which led to the establishment of the Theocracy. It is a part of the writer's plan to tell us what the Divine preparation of the world was, in order to show, first, the signifi- cance of the call of Abraham, and next, the true nature of the Jewish theocracy. He begins with the creation of the world, because the God who created the world and the God who I revealed Himself to the fathers is the same God. The book of Genesis has thus a char- acter at once special and universal. It em- braces the world ; it speaks of God as the God of the whole human race. But as the intro- duction to Jewish history, it makes the uni- versal interest subordinate to the national. Five principal persons are the pillars, so to speak, on which the whole superstructure rests: Adam, Noah, Abraham, Isaac and Jacob. I. Adam. The creation of the world, and the earliest history of mankind (ch. i.-iii.). As yet no divergence of the different families of man. II. Noah. The history of Adam's descendants to the death of Noah (iv.-ix.). Here we have (i) the line of Cain branching ofif while the history follows the fortunes of Seth, whose descendants are (2) traced in genealogical suc- cession, and in an unbroken line as far as Noah, and (3) the history of Noah himself (vi.-ix.), continued to his death. III. Abraham. Noah's posterity till the death of Abraham (x.-xxv. 18). Here we have (i) the peopling of the whole earth by the descendants of Noah's three sons (xi. 1-9). The history of two of these is then dropped, and (2) the line of Shem only pursued (xi. 10-32) as far as Terah and Abraham, where the genealogical table breaks of¥. (3) Abraham is now the prominent figure (xii.-xxv. 18). But as Terah had two other sons, Nahor and Haran (xi. 27), some notices respecting their families are added. Lot's migration with Abraham into the land of Canaan is mentioned, as well as the fact that he was the father of Moab and Am- nion (xix. 37, 38), nations whose later history was intimately connected with that of the pos- terity of Abraham. Nahor remained in Mesopotamia, but his family is briefly enumer- ated (xxii. 20-24), chiefly no doubt for Rebekah's sake, who was afterwards the wife of Isaac. Of Abraham's own children, there branches ofif first the line by Ishmael (xxi. 9, &c.), and next the children by Keturah ; and the genealogical notices of these two branches of his posterity are apparently brought to- gether (xxv. 1-6, and xxv. 12-18), in order that, being here severally dismissed at the end of Abraham's life, the main stream of the nar- rative may flow in the channel of Isaac's for- tunes. IV. Isaac. Isaac's life (xxv. 19-xxxv. 29), a life in itself retiring and uneventful. But in his sons the final separation takes place, leaving the field clear for the great story of the chosen seed. Even when Nahor's family comes on the scene, as it does in ch. xxix., we hear only so much of it as is necessary to throw light on Jacob's history. V. Jacob. The history of Jacob and Joseph (xxxvi. i). Here, 38 GENNESARET GETHESMANE after Isaac's death, we have (i) the genealogy of Esau (xxxvi.), who then drops out of the narrative, in order that (2) the history of the Patriarchs may be carried on without inter- mission to the death of Joseph (xxxvii.-i). It will be seen that a specific plan is preserved throughout. The main purpose is never for- gotten. God's relation to Israel holds the first place in the writer's mind. It is this which it is his object to convey. The history of that chosen seed, who were the heirs of the promise and the guardians of the -Divine oracles, is the only history which interprets man's relation to God. By its light all others shine, and may be read when the time shall come. Meanwhile, as the different families drop ofif here and there from the principal stock, their course is briefly indicated. Beyond all doubt, then, we may trace in the book of Genesis a systematic plan. Gennes'aret, Land of. After the miracle of feeding the five thousand, our Lord and His disciples crossed the Lake of Gennesaret and Gennesaret from Klian Minyeh. came to the other side, at a place which is called "the land of Gennesaret" (Matt. xiv. 34; Mark vi. 53). It is generally believed that this term was applied to the fertile crescent-shaped plain on the western shore of the lake, ex- tending from Khan Minyeh on the north to the steep hill behind Mejdcl on the south, and called by the Arabs el-Ghuweir, "the little Ghor." Mr. Porter gives the length as three miles, and the greatest breadth as about one mile. Additional interest is given to the land of Gennesaret, or el-Ghuweir, by the proba- bility that its scenery suggested the parable of the Sower. Gennes'aret, Sea of, called in the O. T. "the Sea of Chinnereth," or "Cinneroth" (Num. xxxiv. II; Josh. xii. 3), from a town of that name which stood on or near its shore (Josh, xix. 35). At its north-western angle was a beautiful and fertile plain called "Gennesaret" (Matt. xiv. 34; Mark vi. 53), from which the name of the lake was taken. The lake is also called in the N. T. "the sea of Galilee," from the province of Galilee which bordered on its western side (Matt. iv. 18; Mark vii. 31; John vi. i) ; and "the sea of Tiberias," from the cele- brated city (John vi. i). Most of our Lord's public life was spent in the environs of the Sea of Gennesaret. This region was then the most densely peopled in all Palestine. No less than nine cities stood on the very shores of the lake. The sea of Gennesaret is of an oval shape, about thirteen geographical miles long, and six broad. The river Jordan enters it at its northern end, and passes out at its southern end. In fact the bed of the lake is just a lower section of the great Jordan valley. Its most remarkable feature is its deep depression, being no less than 700 feet below the level of the ocean. The scenery is bleak and monotonous. The great depression makes the climate of the shores almost tropical. This is very sensibly felt by the traveller in going down from the plains of Galilee. In summer the heat is in- tense and even in early spring the air has something of an Egyptian balminess. The water of the lake is sweet, cool, and trans- parent ; and as the beach is everywhere pebbly it has a beautiful sparkling look. It abounds in fish now as in ancient times. Gentiles. In the O. T. the Heb. word signi- fies the nations, the surrounding nations, for- eigners as opposed to Israel (Neh. v. 8), and was used with an invidious meaning. In the N. T. it is used as equivalent to Greek. But the A. V. is not consistent in its translation of the word Hellen, sometimes rendering it by "Greek" (Acts xiv. i, xvii. 4; Rom. i. 16, x. 12), sometimes by "Gentile" (Rom. ii. 9, 10, iii. 9; I Cor. x. 32). The latter use of the word seems to have arisen from the almost universal adoption of the Greek language. Ger'izim. According to the traditions of the Samaritans it was here that Abraham sacri- ficed Isaac. Careful observers of the spot dis- credit it and believe Monah to be the spot (Gen. xxxiii. 18-20). Here was likewise his well (John iv. 6), and the tomb of his son Joseph (Josh. xxiv. 32), both of which are still shown. Gethsem'ane, a small "farm" (A. V. "place ;" Matt. xxvi. 36; Mark xiv. 32), situated across the brook Kedron (John xviii. i), probably at the foot of Mount Olivet (Luke xxii. 39), to the N. W., and about or of a mile English from the walls of Jerusalem. There was a "garden," or rather orchard, at- tached to it, to which the olive, fig, and pome- 139 GEZER GIDEON granate doubtless invited resort by their hos- pitable shade. And we know from the Evangelists Luke (xxii. 39) and John (xviii. 2) that our Lord ofttimes resorted thither with his disciples. But Gethscmane has not come down to us as a scene of mirth ; its inexhausti- ble associations are the of¥spring of a single event — the Agony^ of the Son of God on the evening preceding His Passion. ' A garden, with eight venerable olive-trees, and a grotto to the north, detached from it, and in closer connection with the church of the Sepulchre of the Virgin, are pointed out as the Gethse- mane. Against the contemporafy antiquity of the olive-trees it has been urged that Titus cut down all the trees about Jerusalem. The probability would seem to be that they were Mount Gerizim and Shechem. planted by Christian hands to mark the spot; unless, like the sacred olive of the Acropolis, they may have reproduced themselves. Gez'er, an ancient city of Canaan, whose king, Horam, or Elam, coming to the assist- ance of Lachish, was killed with all his people by Joshua (Josh. x. 33, xii. 12). It formed one of the landmarks on the south boundary of Ephraim, between the lower Beth-horon and the Mediterranean (xvi. 3), the western limit of the tribe (i Chr. vii. 28). Giants, i. They are first spoken of in Gen. vi. 4, under the name Nephilim. We are told in Gen. vi. 1-4 that "there were Nephilim in the earth," and that afterwards the "sons of God" mingling with the beautiful "daughters of men" produced a race of violent and inso- lent Gibborim (A. V. "mighty men"). But who were the parents of these giants? who are "the sons of God ?" They were most probably the pious Sethites, though the prevalent opinion both in the Jewish and early Christian Church is that they were angels. It was proba- bly this ancient view which gave rise to the spurious Book of Enoch, and the notion quoted from it by St. Jude (6), and alluded to by St. Peter (2 Pet. ii. 4). 2. The Rephaim, a name which frequently occurs. The earliest men- tion of them is the record of their defeat by Chedorlaomer and some allied kings at Ashte- roth Karnaim (Gen. xiv. 5). Extirpated, how- ever, from the east of Palestine, they long found a home in the west (2 Sam. xxi. 18, sq. ; I Chr. XX. 4). It is probable that they had pos- sessed districts west of the Jordan in early times, since the "Valley of Rephaim" (2 Sam. V. 18; I Chr. xi. 15; Is. xvii. 5), a rich valley S. W. of Jerusalem, derived its name from them. They were probably an aboriginal people of which the Emim, Anakim, and Zuzim were branches. Gib'eon, one of the four cities of the Hivites, the inhabitants of which made a league with Joshua (ix. 3-15), and thus escaped the fate of Jericho and Ai (comp. xi. 19). Gibeon lay within the territory of Benjamin (xviii. 25), and with its "suburbs" was allotted to the priests (xxi. 17), of whom it became after- wards a principal station. It retains its ancient name almost intact, El-Jib. Its distance from Jerusalem by the main road is as nearly as possible 63/2 miles; but there is a more direct road reducing it to 5 miles. Gib'eonites, The, the people of Gibeon, and perhaps also of the three cities associated with Gibeon (Josh. ix. 17) — Hivites ; and who, on the discovery of the stratagem by which they had obtained the protection of the Israelites, were condemned to be perpetual bondmen, hewers of wood and drawers of water for the congregation, and for the house of God and altar of Jehovah (Josh. ix. 23, 27). Saul ap- pears to have broken this covenant, and in a fit of enthusiasm or patriotism to have killed some, and devised a general massacre of the rest (2 Sam. xxi. i, 2, 5). This was expiated many years after by giving up seven men of Saul's descendants to the Gibeonites, who hung them or crucified them "before Jehovah" — as a kind of sacrifice — in Gibeah, Saul's own town (4, 6, 9). Gid'eon (he that cuts down), a Manassite, youngest son of Joash of the Abiezrites, an undistinguished family who lived at Ophrah, a town probably on the west of Jordan (Judg. vi. 15). He was the fifth recorded Judge of Israel, and for many reasons the greatest of them all. When we first hear of him he was 140 JACOn WRESTLING WITH THE ANGEL. EDUARD VON GEBHARDT. AFTER THE OEIGINAL PAINTING. THE n^'^ARY OF THE GILEAD GILGAL grown up and had sons (Judg. vi. ii, viii. 20), and from the apostrophe of the angel (vi. 12) we may conchide that he had already dis- tinguished himself in w^ar against the roving bands of nomadic robbers who had oppressed Israel for seven years, and whose countless multitudes (compared to locusts from their ter- rible devastations, vi. 5) annually destroyed all the produce of Canaan, except such as could be concealed in mountain-fastnesses (vi. 2). It was probably during this disastrous period that the emigration of Elimelech took place (Ruth i. i, 2). When the angel appeared, Gideon was threshing wheat with a flail in the winepress, to conceal it from the predatory tyrants. His call to be a deliverer, and his de- struction of Baal's altar, are related in Judg. vi. After this begins the second act of Gideon's life. Clothed by the Spirit of God (Judg. vi. 34; comp. i Chr. xii. 18; Luke xxiv. 49), he blew a trumpet, and was joined by Zebulun, Xaphtali, and even the reluctant Asher. Streifgthened by a double sign from God, he reduced his army of 32,000 by the usual proclamation (Deut. xx. 8; comp. i j\Iacc. iii. 56). By a second test at "the spring of trembling" he again reduced the number of his followers to 300 (Judg. vii. 5, sq.). The midnight attack upon the Midianites, their panic, and the rout and slaughter that fol- lowed, are told in Judg. vii. The memory of this splendid deliverance took deep root in the national traditions (i Sam. xii. 11 ; Ps. Ixxxiii. 11; Is. ix. 4, x. 26; Heb. xi. 32). After this there was a peace of 40 years, and we see Gideon in peaceful possession of his well- earned honors, and surrounded by the dignity of a numerous household (viii. 29-31). It is not improbable that, like Saul, he had owed a part of his popularity to his princely appear- ance (Judg. viii. 18). In this third stage of his life occur alike his most noble and his most questionable acts, viz., the refusal of the monarchy on theocratic grounds, and the irregular consecration of a jewelled ephod formed out of the rich spoils of IMidian which proved to the Israelites a temptation to idolatry, although it was doubtless intended for use in the worship of Jehovah. Gil'ead. i. A mountainous region bounded on the west by the Jordan, on the north by Bashan, on the cast by the Arabian plateau, and on the south by Aloab and Ammon (Gen. xxxi. 21 ; Deut. iii. 12-17). It is sometimes called "Mount Gilead" (Gen. xxxi. 25), some- times "the land of Gilead" (Num. xxxii. i)'; and sometimes simply "Gilead" (Ps. Ix. 7; Gen. xxxvii. 25) ; but a comparison of the sev- eral passages shows that they all mean the same thing. The name Gilead, as is usual in Palestine, describes the physical aspect of the country. It signifies "a hard rocky region." The statements in Gen. xxxi. 48, are not op- posed to this etymology. The old name of the district was Gilead, but by a slight change in the pronunciation, the radical letters being re- Gilead. tained, the meaning was made beautifully ap- plicable to the "heap of stones" Jacob and Laban had built up — "the heap of witness." Those acquainted with the modern Arabs and their literature will see how intensely such a play upon the word would be appreciated by them. The mountains of Gilead have a real elevation of from two to three thousand feet ; but their apparent elevation on the western side is much greater, owing to the depression of the Jordan valley, which averages about 1000 feet. Their outline is singularly uniform, Mountains of Gilboa. resembling a massive wall running along the horizon. The name Galaad occurs several times in the history of the Maccabees (i Mace. V. 9, sq.). 2. Possibly the name of a mountain west of the Jordan, near Jezreel (Judg. vii. 3). Gil'gal. The site of the first camp of the 141 GIRDLE GOD Israelites on the west of the Jordan, the place at which they passed the first night after crossing the river, and where the twelve stones were set up vvhich had been taken from the bed of the stream (Josh. iv. 19, 20, comp. 3) ; where also they kept their first passover in the land of Canaan (v. 10). It was in the "end of the east of Jericho" (A. V. "in the east border of Jericho") apparently on a hillock or rising ground (v. 3, comp. 9), in the Arboth-Jericho (A. V. "the plains"), that is, the hot depressed district of the Ghor which lay between the town and the Jordan (v. 10). Girdle, an essential article of dress in the East, and worn both by men and women. The common girdle was made of leather (2 K. i. 8; Matt. iii. 4), like that worn by the Bedouins of the present day. A finer girdle was made of linen (Jer. xiii. i ; Ez. xvi. 10), embroidered with silk, and sometimes with gold and silver thread (Dan. x. 5; Rev. i. 13, xv. 6), and fre- quently studded with gold and precious stones or pearls. The girdle of women was generally looser than that of the men, and was worn about the hips, except when they were actively engaged (Prov. xxxi. 17). The military girdle was worn about the waist ; the sword or dag- ger was suspended from it (Judg. iii. 16; 2 Sam. XX. 8; Ps. xlv. 3). Hence girding up the loins denotes preparation for battle or for active exertion. They were used as pockets, as among the Arabs still, and as purses, one end of the girdle being folded back for the purpose (Matt. x. 9; Mark vi. 8). Glass. The Heb. word occurs only in Job xxviii. 17, where in A. V. it is rendered "crys- tal." In spite of the absence of specific allu- sion to glass in the sacred writings, the Hebrews must have been aware of the inven- tion. From paintings representing the process of glass-blowing which have been discovered at Beni-hassan, and in tombs at other places, we know that the invention is at least as re- mote as the age of Osirtasen the first (perhaps a contemporary of Joseph), 3500 years ago. Fragments too of wine-vases as old as the Exodus have been discovered in Egypt. The art was also known to the ancient Assyrians. In the N. T. glass is alluded to as an emblem of brightness (Rev. iv. 6, xv. 2, xxi. 18). Gleaning. The gleaning of fruit trees, as well as of corn fields, was reserved for the poor. [Corner.] Goad (Judg. iii. 31; i Sam. xiii. 21). But the Hebrew word in the latter passage proba- bly means the point of the plough-share. The former word does probabJy refer to the goad, the long handle of which might be used as a formidable weapon. The instrument, as still used in the countries of Southern Europe and Western Asia, consists of a rod about eight feet long, brought to a sharp point and some- times cased with iron at the head. Goat. There appear to be two or three varieties of the common goat at present bred in Palestine and Syria, but whether they are identical with those which were reared by the ancient Hebrews it is not possible to say. The most marked varieties are the Syrian goat, and the Angora goat, with fine long hair. As to the "wild goats" (i Sam. xxiv. 2; Job xxxix. I, and Ps. civ. 18) it is not at all improbable that some species of ibex is denoted. Goat, Scape. [Atonement, Day of.] God. Throughout the Hebrew Scriptures two chief names are used for the one true divine Being — Elohim, commonly translated God in our version, and Jehovah, translated Syrian Goat. Lord. Elohim' is the plural of Eloah (in Arabic Allah), a form which occurs only in poetry and a few passages of later Hebrew (Neh. ix. 17; 2 Chr. xxxii. 15). It is also formed with the pronominal suffixes, as Eloi. my God, with the dependent genitive, and with an epithet, in which case it is often used in the short form El (a word signifying strength), as in El-Shaddai, God Almighty, the name by which God was specially known to the patriarchs (Gen. xvii. i, xxviii. 3; Ex. vi. 3). The etymology is uncertain, but it is generally agreed that the primary idea is that of strength, power to efifect ; and that it prop- erly describes God in that character in which He is exhibited to all men in His works, as the creator, sustained, and supreme governor of the world. Hence it is used to denote any being believed in and worshipped as God ; but in the sense of a heathen deity, or a divine 142 OF THE GOD GOD being spoken of indefinitely, the singular is most often used, and the plural is employed, with the strict idea of number, for the col- lective objects of polytheistic worship, the gods, the gods of the heathen. It is also used for any being that strikes an observer as god- like (i Sam. xxviii. 13), and for kings, judges, and others endowed with authority from God (Ps. Ixxxii. I, 6, viii. 6, xcvii. 7, &c. ; Ex. xxi. 6, xxii. 7, 8). The short form El is used for a hero, or mighty man, as Nebuchadnezzar (Ezek. xxxi. 11), a sense derived at once from the meaning of strength. The plural form of Elohim has given rise to much discussion. The fanciful idea, that it referred to the Trinity of Persons in the Godhead, hardly finds now a supporter among scholars. It is either what grammarians call the plural of majesty, or it denotes the fulness of divine strength, the sum of the powers displayed by God. Jehovah denotes specifically the one true God, whose people the Jews were, and who made them the guardians of His truth. The name is never applied to a false god, nor to any other being, except One, the Angel-Jehovah, who is there- by marked as one with God, and who appears again in the New Covenant as "God mani- fested in the flesh." Thus much is clear; but all else is beset with difficulties. At a time too early to be traced, the Jews abstained from pronouncing the name, for fear of its irrever- ent use. The custom is said to have been founded on a strained interpretation of Lev. xxiv. 16; and the phrase there used, "The Name" (Shema), is substituted by the Rabbis for the unutterable word. They also call it "the name of four letters," "the great and ter- rible name," "the peculiar name," "the sepa- rate -name." In reading the Scriptures, they substituted for it the word Adonai (Lord). Our translators have, however, used Jehovah in four passages (Ex. vi. 3; Psalm Ixxxiii. 18; Is. xii. 2, xxvi. 4), and in the compounds, Jehovah-Jireh, Jehovah-Nissi, and Jehovah- Shalom (Jehovah shall see, Jehovah is my Banner, Jehovah is Peace, Gen. xxii. 14 ; Ex. xvii. 15; Judges vi. 24); while the similar phrases Jehovah-Tsidkenu and Jehovah-Sham- mah are translated, "the Lord our righteous- ness," and "the Lord is there" (Jer. xxiii. 6, xxxiii. 16; Ezek. xlviii. 35). In one passage the abbreviated form Jah is retained (Psalm Ixviii. 4). The substitution of the word Lord is most unhappy ; for, while it in no way repre- sents the meaning of the sacred name, the mind has constantly to guard against a con- fusion with its lower uses, and above all, the direct personal bearing of the name on the revelation of God through the whole course of Jewish history is kept injuriously out of sight. The key to the meaning of the name is un- questionably given in God's revelation of Himself to Moses by the phrase "I am that I am," in connection with the statement, that He was now first revealed by his name Jeho- vah (Ex. iii. 14, vi. 3). Without entering here upon questions of Hebrew philology, we must be content to take as established the etymo- logical connection of the name Jehovah with the Hebrew substantive verb, with the in- ference that it expresses the essential, eternal, unchangeable Being of Jehovah. But more, it is not the expression only, or chiefly, of an absolute truth : it is a practical revelation of God, in His essential, unchangeable relation to His chosen people, the basis of His Cove- nant. This is both implied on the occasion on which it is revealed to Moses, and in the fifteenth verse of Ex.^, iii. And here we find the solution of a difficulty raised by Ex. vi. 3, as if it meant that the name Jehovah had not been known to the patriarchs. There is abundant evidence to the contrary. As early as the time of Seth, "men began to call on the name of Jehovah" (Gen. iv. 25). The name is used by the patriarchs themselves (Gen. xviii. 14; xxiv. 40; xxvi. 28; xxviii. 21). It is the basis of titles, like Jehovah-Jireh, and of proper names, like Moriah and Jochebed. In- deed, the same reasoning would prove that the patriarchs did not know God as Elohim, but exclusively as El-Shaddai. But, in fact, the word name is used here, as elsewhere, for the attributes of God. He was about, for the first time, fully to reveal that aspect of His character which the name implied. [Jehovah.] Gold, the most valuable of metals, from its color, lustre, weight, ductility, and other use- ful properties. Hence i.t is used as an emblem of purity (Job xxiii. 10) and nobility (Lam. iv. i). Gold was known from the very earliest times (Gen. ii. 11). It was at first chiefly used for ornaments, &c. (Gen. xxiv. 22). Coined money was not known to the ancients till a comparatively late period and on the Egyptian tombs gold is represented as being weighed in rings for commercial purposes. (Comp. Gen. xliii. 21). Gold was extremely abundant in ancient times (i Chr. xxii. 14; 2 Chr. i. 15, ix. 9; Nah. ii. 9; Dan. iii. i) ; but this did not depreciate its value, because of the enormous quantities consumed by the wealthy in furniture, &c. (l K. vi. 22, x. passim; Cant. iii. 9, 10; Esth. i. 6; Jer. x. 9). The chief countries mentioned as producing gold are Arabia, Sheba, and Ophir (i K. ix. 28, x. i; Job xxviii. 16). Other gold-bearing countries were Uphaz (Jer. x. 9; Dan. x. 5) 143 GOLGOTHA GOSPELS and Parvahn (2 Chr. iii. 6). Metallurgic processes are mentioned in Ps. Ixvi. 10; Prov. xvii. 3, xxvii. 21 ; and in Is. xlvi. 6, the trade of goldsmith (cf. Judg. xvii. 4) is alluded to in connection with the overlaying of idols with gold-lcaf. Gorgotha, the Hebrew name of the spot at which our Lord was crucified (Matt, xxvii. 33; Mark xv. 22; John xix. 17). By these three Evangelists it is interpreted to mean the "place of a skull." St. Luke's words are really as follows — "the place which is called 'a skull' " — not, as in the other Gospels, "of a skull," thus employing the Greek term exactly as they do the Hebrew one. Two explanations of the name are given: (i) that it was a spot where executions ordinarily took place, and therefore abounded in skulls. Or (2) it may come from the look or form of the spot itself, bald, round, and skull-like, and therefore a mound or hillock, in accordance with the com- mon phrase — for which there is no direct authority — "Mount Calvary." Whichever of these is the correct explanation, Golgotha seems to have been a known spot. Goli'ath, a famous giant of Gath, who "morning and evening for forty days" defied the armies of Israel (i Sam. xvii.). His height was "six cubits and a span," which, taking the cubit at 21 inches, would make him 10^ feet high. The scene of his combat with David was the Valley of the Terebinth, between Shochoh and Arekah, probably among the western passes of Benjamin, although a con- fused modern tradition has given the name of Ain Jahlood (spring of Goliath) to the spring of Harod (Judg. vii. i). In 2 Sani. xxi. 19, we find that another Goliath of Gath was slain by Elhanan, also a Bethlehemite. Gomor'rah, in the N. T. written Gomor'rha, one of the five "cities of the plain," or "vale of Siddim," that under their respective kings joined battle there with Chedorlaomer (Gen. xiv. 2-8) and his allies, by whom they were discomfited till Abraham came to the rescue. Four out of the five were afterwards destroyed by the Lord with fire from heaven (Gen. xix. 23-29). One of them only, Zoar or Bela, which was its original name, was spared at the re- quest of Lot, in order that he might take refuge there. Of these Gomorrah seems to have been only second to Sodom in import- ance, as well as in the wickedness that led to their overthrow. What that atrocity was may be gathered from Gen. xix. 4-8. Their geo- graphical position is discussed under Sodom. Gopher Wood. Only once in Gen. vi. 14. Two principal conjectures have been pro- posed: — I. That the "trees of Gopher" are any trees of the resinous kind, such as pine, fir, &c. 2. That Gopher is cypress. Go'shen, the name of a part of Egypt where the Israelites dwelt for the whole period of their sojourn in that country. The results of an examination of Biblical evidence are that the land of Goshen lay between the eastern part of the ancient Delta and the western border of Palestine, that it was scarcely a part of Egypt Proper, was inhabited by other for- eigners besides the Israelites; that it was a pasture land, especially suited to a shepherd- people, and sufficient for the Israelites, who there prospered, and were separate from the main body of the Egyptians. Gospels. The name Gospel (from god and spell, Angl. Sax. good message or news) is ap- plied to the four inspired histories of the life and teaching of Christ contained in the New Testament, of which separate accounts are given in their place. They were all composed during the latter half of the first century: those of St. Matthew and St. Mark some years before the destruction of Jerusalem ; that of St. Luke probably about A. D. 64; and that of St. John towards the close of tlie century. Be- fore the end of the second century, there is abundant evidence that the four Gospels, as one collection, were generally used and ac- cepted. As a matter of literary history, noth- ing can be better established than the genuine- ness of the Gospels. On comparing these four books one with another, a peculiar difficulty claims attention, which has had much to do with the controversy as to their genuineness. In the fourth Gospel the narrative coincides with that of the other three in a few passages only. Putting aside the account of the Pas- sion, there are only three facts which John relates in common with the other Evangelists. Two of these are, the feeding of the five thou- sand, and the storm on the Sea of Galilee (ch. vi.). The third is the anointing of His feet by Mary. Whilst the others present the life of Jesus in Galilee, John follows him into Judaea ; nor should we know, but for him, that our Lord had journeyed to Jerusalem at the pre- scribed feasts. The received explanation is the only satisfactory one, namely, that John, writing last, at the close of the first century, had seen the other Gospels, and purposely abstained from writing anew what they had sufficiently recorded. — In the other three Gos- pels there is a great amount of agreement. If we suppose the history that they contain to be divided into sections, in 42 of these all the three narratives coincide, 12 more are given by Matthew and Mark only, 5 by Mark and Luke only, and 14 by Matthew and Luke. To these 144 GOSPELS GOVERNOR must be added 5 peculiar to Matthew, 2 to Mark, and 9 to Luke; and the enumeration is complete. But this applies only to general coincidence as to the facts narrated: the amount . of verbal coincidence, that is, the passages either verbally the same, or coin- ciding in the use of many of the same words, is much smaller. Various theories have been proposed to account for this phenomenon, (i.) The first and most obvious suggestion would be, that the narrators made use of each other's work. Accordingly many have endeavored to ascertain which Gospel is to be regarded as the first ; which is copied from the first ; and which is the last, and copied from the other two. But the theory in its crude form is in itself most improbable ; and the wonder is that so much time and learning have been devoted to it. It assumes that an Evangelist has taken up the work of his predecessor, and, without substantial alteration, has made a few changes in form, a few additions and retrenchments, and then has allowed the whole to go forth under his name. (2.) The supposition of a common original from which the three Gos- pels were drawn, each with more or less modi- fication, would naturally occur to those who rejected the notion that the Evangelists had copied from each other. But if all the Evangel- ists had agreed to draw from a common original, it must have been widely if not uni- versally accepted in the Church ; and yet there is no record of its existence. If the work was of high authority, it would have been pre- served, or at least mentioned; if of lower authority, it could not have become the basis of three canonical Gospels. (3.) There is another supposition to account for these facts. It is probable that none of the Gospels was written until many years after the day of Pentecost on which the Holy Spirit descended on the assembled disciples. From that day commenced at Jerusalem the work of preach- ing the Gospel and converting the world. Now their preaching must have been, from the nature of the case, in great part historical ; it must have been based upon an account of the life and acts of Jesus of Nazareth. Nor is there anything unnatural in the supposition that the Apostles intentionally uttered their witness in the same order, and even, for the most part, in the same form of words. It is supposed, then, that the portions of the three Gospels which harmonize most exactly owe their agreement to the fact that the apostolic preaching had already clothed itself in a set- tled or usual form of words, to which the writers inclined to conform without feeling bound to do so ; and the differences which occur, often in the closest proximity to the harmonies, arise from the feeling of inde- pendence with which each wrote what he had seen and heard, or, in the case of Mark and Luke, what apostolic witnesses had told him. Gourd. The -plant which afforded shade to the prophet Jonah before Nineveh, is the castor-oil plant, which, formerly a native of Asia, is now naturalized in America, Africa, and the south of Europe. This plant varies considerably in size, being in India a tree, but in England seldom attaining a greater height than three or four feet. The leaves are large and palmate, with serrated lobes, and would form an excellent shelter for the sun-stricken prophet. The seeds contain the oil so well known under the name of "castor-oil," which has for ages been in high repute as a medicine. 2. With regard to the "wild gourds" of 2 K. iv. 39, which one of "the sons of the prophets" Wild Gourd. gathered ignorantly, supposing them to be good for food, there can be no doubt that it is a species of the gourd tribe, which contains some plants of a very bitter and dangerous character. As several kinds, such as melons, pumpkins, &c., are favorite articles of refresh- ing food amongst the Orientals, we can easily understand the cause of the mistake. Governor. In the Auth. Ver. this one English word is the representative of no less than ten Hebrew and four Greek words, i. The chief of a tribe or family. 2. A ruler in his capacity of lawgiver and dispenser of jus- tice. 3. A ruler considered especially as hav- ing power over the property and persons of his subjects (Josh. xii. 2; Ps. cv. 20; Gen. xxiv. 2). The "governors of the people," in 2 Chr. xxiii. 20, appear to have been the king's body-guard (cf. 2 K. xi. 19). 4. A prominent personage, whatever his capacity. It is ap- 14.S GRAPE GROVE plied to a king as the military and civil chief of his people (2 Sam. v. 2, vi. 21 ; i Chr. xxix. 22), to the general of an army (2 Chr. xxxii. 21), and to the head of a tribe (2 Chr. xix. 11). It denotes an ofificer of high rank in the palace, the lord high chamberlain (2 Chr. xxviii. 7). It is applied in i K. x. 15 to the petty chieftains who were tributary to Solomon (2 Chr. ix. 14) ; to the military commander of the Syrians (i K. XX. 24), the Assyrians (2 K. xviii. 24, xxiii. 6), the Chaldeans (Jer. li. 23), and the Medes (Jer. li. 38). Under the Persian vice- roys, during the Babylonian captivity, the land of the Hebrews appears to have been portioned out among "governors" inferior in rank to the satraps (Ezr. viii. 36), like the other provinces which were under the do- minion of the Persian king (Neh. ii. 7, 9). It is impossible to determine the precise limits of their authority, or the functions which they had to perform. It appears from Ezr. vi. 8 that these governors were intrusted with the collection of the king's taxes ; and from Neh. v. 18, xii. 26, that they were supported by a contribution levied upon the people, which was technically termed "the bread of the gov- ernor" (comp. Ezr. iv. 14). They were proba- bly assisted in discharging their official duties by a council (Ezr. iv. 7, vi. 6). The "governor" beyond the river had a judgment-seat at Jeru- salem, from which probably he administered justice when making a progress through his province (Neh. iii. 7). Grape. [Vine.] Grass. This is the ordinary rendering of the Hebrew word (i K. xviii. 5 ; Job xl. 5 ; Ps. civ. 14; Is. XV. 6). As the herbage rapidly fades under the parching heat of the sun of Pales- tine, it has afforded to the sacred writers an image of the fleeting nature of human fortunes (Job viii. 12; Ps. xxxvii. 2), and also of the brevity of human life (Is. xl. 6, 7; Ps. xc. 5). Grasshopper. [Locust.] Grave. [Burial.] Greece, Greeks, Grecians. The histories of Greece and Palestine are little connected with each other. In Gen. x. 2-5 Moses mentions the descendants of Javan as peopling the isles of the Gentiles ; and when the Hebrews came into contact with the lonians of Asia Minor, and recognized them as the long-lost islanders of the western migration, it was natural that they should mark the similarity of sound be- tween Javan and lones. Accordingly the O. T. word which is Grecia, in A. V. Greece, Greeks, &c., is in Hebrew Javan (Joel iii. 6; Dan. viii. 21) : the Hebrew, however, is some- times retained (Is. Ixvi. 19; Ez. xxvii. 13). The Greeks and Hebrews met for the first time in the slave-market. The medium of communica- tion seems to have been the Tyrian slave-mer- chants. About B. C. 800 Joel speaks of the Tyrians as selling the children of Judah to the Grecians (Joel iii. 6) ; and in Ez. xxvii. 13 the Greeks are mentioned as bartering their brazen vessels for slaves. Prophetical notice of Greece occurs in Dan. viii. 21, &c., where the history of Alexander and his successors is rapidly sketched. Zechariah (ix. 13) foretells the triumphs of the Maccabees against the Graeco-Syrian empire, while Isaiah looks for- ward to the conversion of the Greeks amongst other Gentiles, through the instrumentality of Jewish missionaries (Ixvi. 19). In i Mace. xii. 5-23 we have an account of an embassy and letter sent by the Lacedaemonians to the Jews. The most remarkable feature in the transac- tion is the claim which the Lacedaemonians prefer to kindred with the Jews, and which Areus professes to establish by reference to a book. The name of the country, Greece, oc- curs once in N. T. (Acts xx. 2), as opposed to Macedonia. [Gentiles.] Grinding. [Mill.] Grove. A word used in the A. V., with two exceptions, to translate the mysterious Hebrew term Asherah, which is not a grove, but probably an idol or image of some kind. It is also probable that there was a con- nection between this symbol or image, whatever it was, and the sacred symbolic tree, the representation of which occurs so fre- quently on Assyrian sculptures. 2. The two exceptions noticed above are Gen. xxi. 33., and I Sam. xxii. 6 (margin). In the religions of the ancient heathen world groves play a prominent part. In the old times altars only were erected to the gods. It was thought wrong to shut up the gods within walls, and hence trees were the first temples; and from the earliest times groves are men- tioned in connection with religious worship' (Gen. xii. 6, 7, xiii. 18; Deut. xi. 30; A. V. "plain"). The groves were generally found connected with temples, and often had the right of affording an asylum. Some have sup- posed that even the Jewish Temple had an enclosure planted with palm and cedar (Ps. xcii. 12, 13) and olive (Ps. Iii. 8), as the mosque which stands on its site now has. This is more than doubtful ; but we know that a celebrated oak stood by the -sanctuary at Shechem (Josh. xxiv. 26; Judg. ix. 6). There are in Scripture many memorable trees : e. g. Allon-bachuth (Gen. xxxv. 8), the tamarisk in Gibeah (i Sam. xxii. 6), the terebinth in Shechem (J^'sh. xxiv. 26) under which the law was set up, the palm-tree of Deborah (Judg. 46 THE \mm OF THE ftm^ff-r^iTv ftp nim^H GUEST HAIR iv. 5), the terebinth of enchantments (Judg. ix. 37), the terebinth of wanderers (Judg. iv. 11), and others (i Sam. xiv. 2, x. 3, sometimes "plain" in A. V.).^ This observation of par- ticular trees was among the heathen extended to a regular worship of them. Guest. [Hospitality.] • H. Hab'akkuk, the eighth in order of the minor prophets. Of the facts of the prophet's life we have no certain information. He probably de- livered his prophecy about the 12th or 13th year of Josiah (B. C. 630 or 629). The prophet commences by announcing his office and im- portant mission (i. i). He bewails the corrup- tion and social disorganization by which he is surrounded, and cries to Jehovah for help (i. 2-4). Next follows the reply of the Deity, threatening swift vengeance (i. 5-1 1). The prophet, transferring himself to the near future foreshadowed in the divine threaten- ings, sees the rapacity and boastful impiety of the Chaldean hosts, but, confident that God has only employed them as the instruments of correction, assumes (ii. l) an attitude of hopeful expectancy, and waits to see the issue. He receives the divine command to write in an enduring form the vision of God's retribu- tive justice, as revealed to his prophetic eye (ii. 2, 3). The doom of the Chaldeans is first foretold in general terms (ii. 4-6), and the an- nouncement is followed by a series of de- nunciations pronounced upon them by the nations who had suffered from their oppres- sion (ii. 6-20). The strophical arrangement of these "woes" is a remarkable feature of the prophecy. The whole concludes with the mag- nificent Psalm in chap, iii., a composition un- rivalled for boldness of conception, sublimity of thought, and majesty of diction. Ha'gar (flight), an Egyptian woman, the handmaid, or slave, of Sarah (Gen. xvi. i), whom the latter gave as a concubine to Abra- ham, after he had dwelt ten years in the land of Canaati and had no children by Sarah (xvi. 2 and 3). That she was a bond-woman is stated both in the O. T. and in the N. T., in the latter as part of her typical character. It is recorded that "when she saw that she had conceived, her mistress was despised in her eyes" (4), and Sarah, with the anger, we may suppose, of a free woman rather than of a wife, reproached Abraham for the results of her own act. Hagar fled, turning her steps to- wards her native land through the great wil- derness traversed by the Egyptian road. By the fountain in the way' to Shur, the angel of the Lord found her, charged her to return and submit herself under the hands of her mis- tress, and delivered the remarkable prophecy respecting her unborn child recorded in ver. 10-12. On her return, she gave birth to Ishmael, and Abraham was then eighty-six years old. Mention is not again made of Hagar in the history of Abraham until the feast at the weaning of Isaac, when "Sarah saw the son of Hagar the Egyptian, which she had borne unto Abraham, mocking;" and in exact sequence with the first flight of Hagar, we now read of_ her expulsion. The verisimilitude, oriental exactness, and simple beauty of this story are internal evidences at- testing its truth, apart from all other evidence. The name of Hagar occurs elsewhere only when she takes a wife to Ishmael (xxi. 21) ; and in the genealogy (xxv. 12). St. Paul re- fers to her as the type of the old covenant, likening her to Mount Sinai, the Mount of the Law (Gal. iv. 22 seqq.). Hag'gai, the tenth in order of the Minor Prophets, and first of those who prophesied after the Captivity. With regard to his tribe and parentage both history and tradition are alike silent. Beards, Egyptian (top row) ; of Other Nations (bottom row). Hair. The Hebrews were fully alive to the importance of the hair as an element of per- sonal beauty, whether as seen in the "curled locks, black as a raven," of youth (Cant. v. 11), or in the "crown of glory" that encircled the head of old age (Prov. xvi. 31). Long hair was admired in the case of young men ; it is especially noticed in the description of Absa- lom's person (2 Sam. xiv. 26). The care re- quisite to keep the hair in order in such cases must have been very great, and hence the practice of wearing long hair was unusual, and only resorted to as an act of religious ob- servance. In times of affliction the hair was altogether cut ofif (Is. iii. 17, 24, xv. 2; Jer. vii. 29). Tearing the hair (Ezr. ix. 3) and letting it go dishevelled were similar tokens of grief. The usual and favorite color of the hair was black (Cant. v. il), as is indicated in the com- 147 HALL HANDICRAFT parisons to a "flock of goats" and the "tents of Kedar" (Cant. iv. i, i. 5) : a similar hue is probably intended by the purple of Cant. vii. 5. The approach of age was marked by a sprinkling (Hos. vii. 9) of gray hairs, which soon overspread the whole head (Gen. xlii. 38, xliv. 29; I K. ii. 6, 9; Prov. xvi. 31, xx. 29). Pure white hair was deemed characteristic of the Divine Majesty (Dan. vii. 9; Rev. i. 14). The chief beauty of the hair consisted in curls, whether of a natural or artificial character. With regard to the mode of dressing the hair, we have no very precise information ; the terms used are of a general character, as of Jezebel (2 K. ix. 30), of Judith (x. 3). The terms used in the N. T. (i Tim. ii. 9 ; i Pet. iii. 3) are also of a general character. The ar- rangement of Samson's hair into seven locks, or more properly braids (Judg. xvi. 13, 19) in- volves the practice of plaiting, which was also familiar to the Egyptians and Greeks. The locks were probably kept in their place by a fillet, as in Egypt. The Hebrews, like other nations of antiquity, anointed the hair pro- fusely with ointments, which were generally compounded of various aromatic ingredients (Ruth iii. 3; 2 Sam. xiv. 2; Ps. xxiii. 5, xlv. 7, xcii. 10; Eccl. ix. 8; Is. iii. 24) ; more especially on occasion of festivities or hospitality (Matt, vi. 17, xxvi. 7; Luke vii. 46). It appears to have been the custom of the Jews in our Saviour's time to swear by the hair (Matt. v. 36), much as the Egyptian women still swear by the side-lock, and the men by their beards. Hall, used of the court of the high-priest's house (Luke xxii. 55). In Matt, xxvii. 27, and Mark xv. 16, "hall" is synonymous with "prae- torium," which in John xviii. 28 is in A. V. "judgment-hall." Hallelujah. [Alleluia.] Ham (hot; sunburnt), i. The name of one of the three sons of Noah, apparently the sec- ond in age. It probably signifies "warm" or "hot." This meaning is confirmed by that of the Egyptian word Kem (Egypt), the Egyptian equivalent of Ham, which signifies "black," probably implying warmth as well as blackness. Of the history of Ham nothing is related except his irreverence to his father, and the curse which that patriarch pro- nounced. The sons of Ham are stated to have been "Cush and Mizraim and Phut and Canaan" (Gen.'x. 6; comp. i Chr. i. 8). The name of Ham alone, of the three sons of Noah, is known to have been given to a country. Egypt is recognized as the "land of Ham" in the Bible (Ps. Ixxviii. 51, cv. 23, cvi. 22). The three most illustrious Hamite nations — the Cushitcs, the Phoenicians, and the Egyptians — were greatly mixed with foreign peoples. There are some common characteristics, how- ever, which appear to connect the different branches of the Hamite family, and to dis- tinguish them from the children of Japheth and Shem. Their architecture has a solid grandeur that we look for in vain elsewhere. Handicraft. (Acts xviii. 3, xix. 25 ; Rev. xviii. 22). In the present article brief notices only can be given of such handicraft trades as are mentioned in Scripture, i. The prepara- tion of iron for use either in war, in agricul- ture, or for domestic purposes, was doubtless one of the earliest applications of labor ; and together with iron, working in brass, or rather copper alloyed with tin, bronze, is mentioned in the same passage as practised in antedi- luvian times (Gen. iv. 22). In the construc- tion of the Tabernacle, copper, but no iron, ap* pears to have been used, though the use of iron was at the same period well known to the Carpenter's Shop at Nazareth. Jews, both from their own use of it and from their Egyptian education, whilst the Canaanite inhabitants of Palestine and Syria were in full possession of its use both for warlike and do- mestic purposes (Ex. xx. 25, xxv. 3, xxvii. 19; Num. XXXV. 16; Deut. iii. 11, iv. 20, viii. 9; Josh. viii. 31, xvii. 16, 18). After the estab- lishment of the Jews in Canaan, the occupa- tion of a smith became recognized as a distinct employment (l Sam. xiii. 19). The smith's work and its results are often mentioned in Scripture (2 Sam. xii. 31; i K. vi. 7; 2 Chr. xxvi. 14; Is. xliv. 12, liv. 16). The worker in gold and silver must have found employment l)Oth among the Hebrews and the neighboring nations in very early times, as appears from the ornaments sent by Abraham to Rebekah (Gen. xxiv. 22, 53, xxxv. 4, xxxviii. 18; Deut. vii. 23). But whatever skill the Hebrews pos- sessed it is quite clear that they must have 148 THE imm OF THE HANDICRAFT HANDICRAFT learned much from Egypt and its "iron fur- naces," both in metal-work and in the arts of setting and polishing precious stones. Various processes of the goldsmith's work are illus- trated by Egyptian monuments. After the conquest frequent notices are found both of moulded and wrought metal, including solder- ing, which last had long been known in Egypt ; but the Phoenicians appear to have possessed greater skill than the Jews in these arts, at- least in Solomon's time (Judg. viii. 24, 27, xvii. 4; I K. vii. 13, 45, 46; Is. xli. 7; Wisd. xv. 4; Ecclus. xxxviii. 28; Bar. vi. 50, 55, 57). 2. The work of the carpenter is often mentioned in Scripture (Gen. vi. 14; xxxvii. ; Is. xliv. 12). In the palace built by David for himself the workmen employed were chiefly Phoenicians sent by Hiram (2 Sam. v. 11; i Chr. xiv. i), as most probably were those, or at least the principal of those, who were employed by Solomon in his works (i K. v. 6). But in the repairs of the Temple, executed under Joash king of Judah, and also in the rebuilding under Zerubbabel, no mentibn is made of for- eign workmen, though in the latter case the timber is expressly said to have been brought Egyptian Blow-pipe, and small Fireplace with Check to confine and reflect the heat. by sea to Joppa by Zidoriians (2 K. xii. 11; 2 Chr. xxiv. 12; Ezra iii. 7). That the Jewish carpenters must have been able to carve with some skill is evident from Is. xli. 7, xliv. 13. In the N. T. the occupation of a carpenter is mentioned in connection with Joseph the hus- band of the Virgin ^lary, and ascribed to our Lord himself by way of reproach (Mark vi. 3; Matt. xiii. 55). 3. The masons employed by David and Solomon, at least the chief of them, were Phoenicians (i K. v. 18; Ez. xxvii. 9). The large stones* used in Solomon's Temple are said by Josephus to have been fitted to- gether exactly without either mortar or clamps, but the foundation stones to have been fastened with lead. For ordinary build- ing, mortar was used ; sometimes, perhaps, bitumen, as was the case at Babylon (Gen. xi. 3). The lirne, clay, and straw of which mortar is generally composed in the East, re- quire it to be very carefully mixe*d and united so as to resist wet. The wall "daubed with untempered mortar" of Ezekiel (xiii. 10) was perhaps a sort of cob-wall of mud or clay without lime, which would give way under heavy rain. The use of whitewash on tombs is remarked by our Lord (Matt, xxiii. 27). Houses infected with leprosy were required by the Law to be re-plastered (Lev. xiv. 40- 45). 4. Akin to the craft of the carpenter is that- of ship and boat-building, which must have been exercised to some extent for the fishing-vessels on the lake of Gennesaret (Matt, viii. 23; ix. I ; John xxi. 3, 8). Soloman built, at Ezion-Geber, ships for his foreign trade, which were manned by Phoenician crews, an experiment which Jehosnapjiat endeavored in vain to renew (i K. ix. 26, 27, xxii. 48; 2 Chr. XX. 36, 37). 5. The perfumes used in the re- ligious services, and in later times in the funeral rites of monarchs, imply knowledge and practice in the art of the "apothecaries," who appear to have formed a guild or asso- ciation (Ex. XXX. 25, 35; Neh. iii. 8; 2 Chr. xvi. 14; Eccl, vii. i, x. i; Ecclus. xxxviii. 8). 6. The arts of spinning and weaving both wckdI and linen were carried on in early times, as they are still usually among the Bedouins, by women. One of the excellences attributed to the good housewife is her skill and industry in these arts (Ex. xxxv. 25, 26; Lev. xix. 19; Deut. xxii. 11 ; 2 K. xxiii. 7; Ez. xvi. 16; Prov. xxxi. 13, 24). The loom with its beam (i Sam. xvii. 7), pin (Judg. xvi. 14), and shuttle (Job vii. 6), was perhaps introduced later, but as early as David's time (i Sam. xvii. 7). Together with weaving we read also of em- broidery, in which gold and silver threads were interwoven with the body of the stuff, sometimes in figure patterns, or with precious stones set in the needle-work (Ex. xxvi. i, xxviii, 4, xxxix. 6-13). 7. Besides these arts, those of dyeing and of dressing cloth were practised in Palestine, and those also of tan- ning and dressing leather (Josh. ii. 15-18; 2 K. i. 8; Matt. iii. 4; Acts ix. 43). Shoemakers, barbers, and tailors are mentioned in the Mishna (Pesach, iv. 6) ; the barber, or his occupation, by Ezekiel (v. i; Lev. xiv. 8; Num. vi. 5), and the tailor, plasterers, glaziers, and glass vessels, painters, and goldworkers are mentioned in the Mishna (Chel. viii. 9, xxix. 3, 4, XXX. i). Tent-makers are noticed in the Acts (xviii. 3), and frequent allusion is made to the trade of the potters. 8. Bakers are noticed in Scripture (Jer. xxxvii. 21 ; Hos. vii. 4) ; and the well-known valley Tyropoeon probably derived its name from the occupation of the cheese-makers, its inhabitans. Butch- ers, not Jewish, are spoken of i Cor. x. 25. 49 HANDKERCHIEF HAWK Handkerchief, Napkin, Apron. The two former of these terms, as used in the A. V. The sudarium is noticed in the N. T. as a wrapper to fold up money (Luke xix. 20) — as a cloth bound about the head of a corpse (John xi. 44, XX. 7) — and lastly as an article of dress that could be easily removed (Acts xix. 12), probably a handkerchief worn on the head like the keffish of the Bedouins. Hanging, Hangings, (i.) The "hanging" was a curtain or "covering" to close an en- trance; one was placed before the door -of the Tabernacle (Ex. xxvi. 36, 37, xxxix. 38). (2.) The "hangings" were used for covering the walls of the court of the Tabernacle, just as tapestry was in modern times (Ex. xxvii. 9, XXXV. 17, xxxviii. 9; Num. iii. 26, iv. 26). Hare occurs only in Lev. xi. 6 and Deut. xiv. 7, amongst the animals disallowed as food by the Mosaic law. It was erroneously thought by the ancient Jews to have chewed the cud. They were no doubt misled by the Hare of Mount Sinai. habit these animals have of moving the jaw about. Ha'reth, The Forest of, in which David took refuge, after, at the instigation of the prophet Gad, he had quitted the "hold" or fastness of the cave of Adullam (i Sam. xxii. 5). Harlot. That this class of persons existed in the earliest states of society is clear from Gen. xxxviii. 15. Rahab (Josh. ii. i) is said by the Chaldee paraph., to have been an inn- keeper, but if there were such persons, con- sidering what we know of Canaanitish morals (Lev. xviii. 27), we may conclude that they would, if women, have been of this class. The "harlots" are classed with "publicans," as those who lay under the ban of society in the N. T. (Matt. xxi. 32). Harp. Heb, Kinnor. The Kinnor was the na- tional instrument of the Hebrews, and was well known throughout Asia. Moses assigns its in- vention to the antediluvian period (Gen. iv. 1 21). Josephus records that the kinnor had ten strings, and that it was played on with the plectrum ; but this is in contradiction to what is set forth in the ist book of Sainuel (xvi. 23, xviii. 10), that David played on the kinnor with his hand. Probably there was a Egyptian Harp. smaller and a larger kinnor, and these may have been played in dif¥erent ways (i Sam. X. 5). Harrow. The word so rendered (2 Sam. xii. 31) I Chr. XX. 3, is probably a threshing- fnachine. The verb rendered "to harrow" (Is. xxviii. 24; Job xxxix. 10; Hos. x. ll) ex- presses apparently the breaking of the clods, and is so far analogous to our harrowing, but whether done by any such machine as we call a "harrow," is very doubtful. Hart. The hart is reckoned among the clean animals (Deut. xii. 15, xiv. 5, xv. 22), and seems, from the passages quoted, as well Tlie Hart. as from i K. iv. 23, to have been commonly killed for food. The Heb. masc. noun ayyal denotes, there can be doubt, . soine species of Cervidae (deer tribe), either the Dama vul- garis, fallow-deer, or the Cervus Barbarus, the Barbary deer. Hawk, the translation of the Hebrew nets HAY HEAVEN (Lev. xi. i6; Deut. xiv. 15; Job xxxix. 26). The word is doubtless generic, as appears from the expression in Deut. and Lev. "after his kind," and includes various species of the Falconidae. \\'ith respect to the passage in Job (1. c), which appears to allude to the migratory habits of hawks, it is curious' to observe that of the ten or twelve lesser rap- tors of Palestine, nearly all are summer migrants. The kestrel remains all the year, but the others are as migrants from the south. Hay (Heb. chatsir), the rendering of the A. V. in Prov. xxvii. 25, and Is. xv. 6, of the above-named Heb. term, which occurs fre- quently in the O. T., and denotes "grass" of any kind. Harmer, quoting from a MS. paper of Sir J. Chardin, states that hay is not made anj-where in the East, and that the "hay" of the A. V. is therefore an error of translation. It is quite probable that the modern Orientals do not make hay in our sense of the term ; but it is certain that the ancients did mow their Kestrel or Ilawk. grass, and probably made use of the dry ma- terial. See Ps. xxxvii. 2. We may remark that there is an express Hebrew term for "dry grass" or "hay," viz. chashash, which, in the only two places where the word occurs (Is. v. 24, xxxiii. II) is rendered "chaf?" in the A. V. Haz'ael, (whom God sees) a king of Damascus, who reigned from about B. C. 886 to B. C. 840. He appears to have been previously a person in a high position at the court of Benhadad, and was sent by his master to Elisha, to inquire if he would re- cover from the malady under which he was suffering. Elisha's answer led to the murder of Benhadad by his ambitious servant, who forthwith mounted the throne (2 K. viii. 7-15). He was soon engaged in hostilities with Ahaziah king of Judah, and Jehoram king of Israel, for the possession of the city of Ramoth-Gilead (ibid. viii. 28). Towards the close of the reign of Jehu, Hazacl led the Syrians against the Israelites (about B. C. 860), whom he "smote in all their coasts" (2 K. X. 32), thus accomplishing the prophecy of Elisha (ibid. viii. 12). At the close of his life, having taken Gath (ibid. xii. 17 ; comp. Am. vi. 2), he proceeded to attack Jerusalem (2 Chr. xxiv. 24), and was about to assault the city, when Joash bribed him to retire (2 K. xii. 18). Hazael appears to have died about the year B. C. 840 (ibid. xiii. 24), hav- ing reigned 46 years. Hazel. The Hebrew term luz occurs only in Gen. xxx. 37. Authorities are divided be- tween the hazel and the almond tree, as rep- resenting the luz. The latter is most prob- ably correct. Head-dress. The Hebrews do not 'appear to have regarded a covering for the head as an essential article of dress. The earliest no- tice we have of such a thing is in connec- tion with the sacerdotal vestments (Ex. xxviii. 40). We may infer that it was not ordinarily worn in the mosaic age. Even in after times it seems to have been reserved especially for purposes of ornament ; thus the Tsaniph is noticed as being worn by nobles (Job xxix. 14), ladies (Is. iii. 23), and kings (Is. Ixii. 3), while the Peer was an article of holiday dress (Is. Ixi. 3, A. V. "beauty;" Ez. xxiv. 17, 23), and was worn at weddings (Is. Ixi. 10). The ordinary head-dress of the Bedouin consists of the Keffish, a square handkerchief, gen- erally of red and yellow cotton, or cotton and silk, folded so that three of the corners hang down over the back and shoulders, leaving the face exposed, and bound round the head by a cord. It is not improbable that a similar cov- ering was used by the Hebrews on certain occasions. The Assyrian head-dress is de- scribed in Ez. xxiii. 15, under the terms "exceeding in dyed attire." The word rendered "hats" in Dan. iii. 21, properly ap- plies to a cloak. Hearth. One way of baking much prac- tised in the East is to place the dough on an iron plate, either laid on, or supporting on legs above the vessel sunk in the ground, which forms the oven. The cakes baked "on the hearth" (Gen. xviii. 6) were probably baked in the existing Bedouin manner, on hot stones covered with ashes. The "hearth" of king Jehoiakim's winter palace (Jer. xxxvi. 23) was possibly a pan or brazier of charcoal. Heathen. [Gentiles.] Heaven. There are four Hebrew words 151 HEBREW HEBRON* thus rendered in the O. T., which we may brielly notice. I, Raki'a (A. V. firmament). [Firmament.] 2. Shamayim. This is the word used in the expression "the heaven and the earth," or "the upper and lower regions" (Gen. i. i). 3. Marom, used for heaven in Ps. xviii. 16; Jer. xxv. 30; Is. xxiv. 18. Prop- erly speaking it means a mountain, as in Ps. cii. 19; Ez. xvii. 23. 4. Shechakim, "expanses" with reference to the extent of. heaven (Deut. xxxiii. 26; Job. xxxv. 5). St. Paul's expres- sion "third heaven" (2 Cor. xii. 2) has led to much conjecture. Grotius said that the Jews divided the. heaven into three parts,- -viz., I, the air or atmosphere, where clouds gather; 2, the firmament, in which the sun, moon, and stars are fixed ; 3, the upper heaven, the abode of God and his angels. He'brew. This word first occurs as given to Abraham by the Canaanites (Gen. xiv. 13) because he had crossed the Euphrates. The term Israelite was used by the Jews of them- selves among themselves, the term Hebrew was the name by which they were known to foreigners. The latter was accepted by the Jews in their external relations ; and after the general substitution of the word Jew, it still found a place in that marked and special fea- ture of national contradistinction, the lan- guage. All the Books of the Old Testament are written in the Hebrew language, with the exception of the following passages — Dan. ii. 4-vii. ; Ez. iv. 8-vi. 18, and vii. 12-26; Jer. x. II— which are in Chaldee. Both Hebrew and Chaldee are sister dialects of a great family of languages, to which the name of Semitic is usually given, from the real or supposed descent of the people speaking them from the patriarch Shem. Hebrews, Epistle to the. There has been a wide difference of opinion respecting the authorship of this Epistle. The superscrip- tion, the ordinary source of information, is wanting; but there is no reason to doubt that at first, everywhere, except in North Africa, St. Paul was regarded as an author. Clement of Alexandria ascribed to St. Luke the trans- lation of the Epistle into Greek from a Hebrew original of St. Paul. Origen believed that the thoughts were St. Paul's, the lan- guage and composition St. Luke's or Clem- ent's of Rome. Tertullian names Barnabas as the reputed author according to the North African tradition. Luther's conjecture that Apollos was the author has been adopted by many. The Epistle was probably addressed to the Jews in Jerusalem and Palestine. The argument of the Epistle is such as could be used with most effect to a church consisting exclusively of Jews by birth, personally familiar with and attached to the Temple- service. It was evidently written before the destruction of Jerusalem in A. D. 10. The whole argument, and specially the passages viii. 4 and sq., ix. 6 and sq., and xiii. 10 and sq., imply that the Temple was standing, and that its usual course of Divine service was carried on without interruption. The date which best agrees with the traditionary ac- count of the authorship and destination of the Epistle is A. D. 63, about the end of St. Paul's imprisonment at Rome, or a year after Al- binus succeeded Festyus as Procurator. With respect to the scope of the Epistle, it should be recollected that, while the numerous Chris- tian churches scattered throughout Judaea (Acts ix. 31 ; Gal. i. 22) were continually ex- posed to the persecution from the Jews (i Thess. ii. 14), there was in Jerusalem one additional weapon in the hands of the pre- dominant oppressors of the Christians. The magnificent national Temple might be shut against the Hebrew Christian ; and even if this affliction were not often laid upon him, yet there was a secret burden which he bore within him, the knowledge that the end of all the beauty and awfulness of Zion was rapidly approaching. What could take the place of the Temple, and that which was behind the veil, and the Levitical sacrifices, and the Holy City, when they should cease to exist? What compensation could Christianity offer him for the loss which was pressing the Hebrew Christian more and more? The writer of this Epistle meets the Hebrew Chris- tians on their own ground. His answer is — "Your new faith gives you Christ, and, in Christ, all you seek, all your fathers sought. In Christ the Son of God you have an all- sufficient Mediator, nearer than angels to the Father, eminent above Moses as a benefactor, more sympathizing and more prevailing than the High-priest as an intercessor : His sab- bath awaits you in heaven; to His covenant the old was intended to be subservient; His atonement is the eternal reality of which sac- rifices are but the passing shadow; His city heavenly, not made with hands. Having Him, believe in Him with all your heart, with a faith in the unseen future, strong as that of the saints of old, patient under present, and prepared for coming woe, full of energy and hope, and holiness, and love." Such was the teaching of the Epistle to the Hebrews. He'bron. A city of Judah (Josh. xv. 54) ; situated among the mountains (Josh. xx. 7), 20 Roman miles south of Jerusalem, and the same distance north of Beersheba. Hebron is 152 HEIFER HELL one of the most ancient cities in the world still existing; and in this respect it is the rival of Damascus. It was built, says a sacred writer, "seven years, before Zoan in Egypt" (Xnm. xiii. 22) ; and was a well-known town when Abraham entered Canaan 3780 years ago (Gen. xiii. 18). Its original name was Kirjath-Arba (Judg. i. 10), "the city of Arba ;" so called from Arba, the father of Anak, and progenitor of the giant Anakim (Josh. xxi. 14, XV. 13, 14). The chief interest of this city arises from its having been the scene of some of the most striking events in the lives of the patriarchs. Sarah died at Hebron ; and Abra- ham then bought from Ephron the Hittite the field and cave of ]\Iachpelah, to serve as a family tomb (Gen. xxiii. 2-20). The cave is still there ; and the massive walls of the Haram or mosque, within which it lies, fo^m the most remarkable object in the whole city. Hebron. Abraham is called by Mohammedans el- Khulil, "the Friend," i. e. of God, and this is the modern name of Hebron. Hebron now contains about 5000 inhabitants, of whom some 50 families are Jews. It is picturesquely situated in a narrow valley, surrounded by rocky hills. About a mile from the town, up the valley, is one of the largest oak-trees in Palestine. This, say some, is the very tree beneath which Abraham pitched his tent, and it still bears the name. Heifer, The Hebrew language has no ex- pression that exactly corresponds to our heifer. The heifer or young cow was not commonly used for ploughing, but only for treading out the corn (Hos. x. 11; but see Judg. xiv. 18), when it ran about without any head-stall (Deut. xxv. 4) ; hence the expres- sion an "unbroken heifer" (Hos. iv. 16; A. V. "backsliding"), to which Israel is compared. Heir. The Hebrew institutions relative to inheritance were of a very simple character. Under the Patriarchal system the property was divided among the sons of the legitimate wives (Gen. xxi. 10, xxiv. 36, xxv. 5), a larger portion being assigned to one, generally the eldest, on whom devolved the duty of main- taining the females of the family. The sons of concubines were portioned off with presents (Gen. xxv. 6). At a later period the exclusion of the sons of concubines was rigidly enforced (Judg. xi. I, ff). Daughters had no share in the patrimony (Gen. xxi. 14), but received a marriage portion. The Mosaic law regulated the succession to real property thus: it was to be divided among the sons, the eldest re- ceiving a double portion (Deut. xxi. 17), the others equal shares ; if there were no sons, it went to the daughters (Num. xxvii. 8), on the condition that they did not marry out of their own tribe (Num. xxxvi. 6, ff. ; Tob. vi. 12, vii. 13), otherwise the patrimony was forfeited. If there were no daughters, it went to the brother of the deceased ; if no brother, to the paternal uncle ; and, failing these, to the next of kin (Num. xxvii. 9-1 1). Hell. This is the word generally and un- fortunately used by our translators to render the Hebrew Sheol. It would perhaps have been better to retain the Hebrew word Sheol, or else render it always by "the grave" or "the pit." It is deep (Job xi. 8) and dark (Job xi. 21, 22) in the centre of the earth (Num. xvi. 30; Deut. xxxii. 22), having within it depths on depths (Prov. ix. 18), and fas- tened with gates (Is. xxxviii. 10) and bars (Job. xvii. 16). In this cavernous realm are the souls of dead men, the Rephaim and ill spirits (Ps. Ixxxvi. 13, Ixxxix. 48; Prov. xxiii. 14; Ez. xxxi. 17, xxxii. 21). It is clear that in many passages of the O. T. Sheol can only mean "the grave," and is so rendered in the A. V. (see, for example, Gen. xxxvii. 35, xiii. 38; I Sam. ii. 6; Job xiv. 13). In other pass- ages, however, it seems to involve a notion of punishment, and is therefore rendered in the A. V. by the word "Hell." But in many cases this translation misleads the reader. It is obvious, for instance, that Job xi. 8 ; Ps. cxxxix. 8; Am. ix. 2 (where "hell" is used as the antithesis of "heaven"), merely illustrate the Jewish notions of the locality of Shoel in the bowels of the earth. In the N. T. the word Hades, like Shoel, sometimes means merely "the grave" (Rev. xx. 13; Acts ii. 31; I Cor. XV. 55), or in general "the unseen world." It is in this sense that the creeds 153 HELMET HERMON say of our Lord, "He went down into hell," meaning the state of the dead in general, with- out any restriction of happiness or misery, a doctrine certainly, though only virtually, ex- pressed in Scripture (Eph. iv. 9; Acts ii. 25- 31). Elsewhere in the N. T. Hades is used of a place of torment (Luke xvi. 23; 2 Pet. ii. 4; Matt. xi. 23, &c. Consequently it has been the prevalent, almost the universal, notion that Hades is an intermediate state between death and resurrection, divided into two parts, one the abode of the blessed, and the other of the lost. In holding this view, main reliance is placed on the parable of Dives and Lazarus ; but it is impossible to ground the proof of an important theological doctrine on a passage which confessedly abounds in Jewish meta- phors. The word most frequently used in the N. T. for the place of future punishment is Gehenna or Gehenna of fire. [Gehenna.] Helmet. [Arms.] Hem of Garment. The importance which the later Jews, especially the Pharisees (Matt, xxiii. 5), attached to the hem or fringe of their garments was founded upon the regula- tion in Num. xv. 38, 39, which gave a sym- bolical meaning to it. Hemlock. The Hebrew rosh is rendered "hemlock" in two passages (Hos. x. 4; Am. vi. 12), but elsewhere "gall." [Gall.] Hen, The hen is nowhere noticed in the Bible except in Matt, xxiii. 37; Luke xiii. 34. That a bird so common in Palestine should receive such slight notice, is certainly singu- lar. Herald. The only notice of this officer in the O. T. occurs in Dan. iii. 4. The term "herald," might be substituted for "preacher" in I Tim. ii. 7 ; 2 Tim. i. 11 ; 2 Pet. ii. 5. Herd, Herdsman. The herd was greatly re- garded both in the patriarchal and Mosaic period. The ox was the most precious stock next to the horse and mule. The herd yielded the most esteemed sacrifice (Num. vii. 3; Ps. Ixix. 31 ; Is. Ixvi. 3) ; also flesh meat, and milk, chiefly converted, probably, into butter and cheese (Deut. xxx. ii. 14; 2 Sam. xvii. 29). The full-grown ox is hardly ever slaughtered in Syria ; but, both for sacrificial and convivial purposes, the young animal was preferred (Ex. xxix. i). The agricultural and general usefulness of the ox, in ploughing, threshing, and as a beast of burden (i Chr. xii. 40; Is. xlvi. i), made such a slaughtering seem waste- ful. Herdsmen, &c., in Egypt were a low, perhaps the lowest caste ; but of the abun- dance of cattle in Egypt, and of the care there bestowed on them, there is no doubt (Gen. xlvii. 6, 17; Ex. ix. 4, 20). So the plague of hail was sent to smite especially the cattle (Ps. Ixxviii. 48), the first-born of which also were smitten (Ex. xii. 29). The Israelites de- parting stipulated for (Ex. x. 26) and took "much cattle" with them (xii. 38). Cattle formed thus one of the traditions of the Israelitish nation in its greatest period, and became almost a part of that greatness. The occupation of herdsman was honorable in early times (Gen. xlvii. 6; i Sam. xi. 5 ; i Chr. xxvii. 29, xxviii. i). Saul himself resumed it in the interval of his cares as king ; also Doeg was certainly high in his confidence (i Sam. xxi. 7). Pharaoh made some of Joseph's brethren "rulers over his cattle." David's herd-master were among his chief officers of state. The prophet Amos at first followed this occupation (Am. i. i, vii. 14). He'rmon, a mountain on the northeastern border of Palestine (Deut. iii. 8, Josh. xii. i), over against Lebanon (Josh. xi. 17), adjoining Mount Hermon. the plateau of Basban (i Chr. v. 23). It stands at the southern end, and is the cul- minating point of the anti-Libanus range ; it towers high above the ancient border city of Dan and the fountains of the Jordan, and is the most conspicuous and beautiful mountain in Palestine or Syria. This mountain was the great landmark of the Israelites. It was as- sociated with their northern border almost as intimately as the sea was with the western. Hermon has three summits, situated like the angles of a triangle, and about a quarter of a mile from each other. This may account for the expression in Ps. xlii. 7 (6), "I will re- member thee from the land of the Jordan and the Hermons." In two passages of Scripture this mountain is called Baal-hermon (Judg. iii. 3; I Chr. v. 23), possibly because Baal was there worshipped. The height of Hermon has never been measured, though it has often been 54 1 HEROD HERODIANS estimated. It may safely be reckoned at 10,000 feet. ■ Herod (hero-like). This family, though of Idumaean origin, and thus aliens by race, were Jews in faith. I. Herod the Great was the second son of Antipater, an Idumaean, who was appointed Procurator of Judaea by Julius Caesar, B. C. 47. At the time of his father's elevation, though only fifteen years old, he received the government of Galilee, and shortly afterwards that of Coele-Syria. When Antony came to Syria, B. C. 41, he ap- pointed Herod and his elder brother Phasael Coin of Herod Antipas. tetrarchs of Judaea. Herod was forced to abandon Judaea next year by an invasion of the Parthians, who supported the claims of Antigonus, the representative of the Asmo- naean dynasty, and fled to Rome (B. C. 40). At Rome he was well received by Anthony and Octavian, and was appointed by the sen- ate king of Judaea to the exclusion of the (Hasmonean line. In the course of a few years, by the help of the Romans, he took Jerusalem (B. C. 37), and completely estab- lished his authority throughout his dominions. The terrible acts of bloodshed which Herod perpetrated in his own family were accom- panied by others among his subjects equally terrible, from the number who fell victims to them. According to the well-known story, he ordered the nobles whom he had called to him in his last moments to be executed im- mediately after his decease, that so at least his death might be attended by universal mourning. It was at the time of his fatal Coin of Herod Agrippa I. illness that he must have caused the slaughter of the infants at Bethlehem (Matt. ii. 16-18). He adorned Jerusalem with many splendid monuments of his taste and magnificence. The Temple, which he rebuilt with scrupulous care, was the greatest of those works. The restoration was begun B. C. 20, and the Temple itself was completed in a year and a half. But fresh additions were constantly made in succeeding years, so that it was said that the Temple was I "built in forty and six years" (John ii. 20), a phrase which expresses the whole period from the commencement of Herod's work to the completion of the latest addition then made. II. Herod Antipas was the son of Herod the Great by Malthace, a Samaritan. He first married a daughter of Aretas, "king of Arabia Petraea," but after some time he made overtures of marriage to Herodias, the wife of his half-brother Herod Philip. Aretas, indignant at the insult of¥ered to his daughter, found a pretext for invading the territory of Herod, and defeated him with great loss. This defeat, according to the famous passage in Josephus, was attributed by many to the mur- der of John the Baptist, which had been com- mitted by Antipas shortly before, under the in- fluence of Herodias (Matt. xiv. 4, f¥. ; Mark vi. 17, ff. ; Luke iii. 19). At a later time the ambition of Herodias proved the cause of her husband's ruin. She urged him to go to Rome to gain the title of king (cf. Mark vi. 14) ; but he was opposed at the court of Caligula by the emissaries of Agrippa, and condemned to perpetual banishment at Lugdunum, A. D. 39. Coin of Titus and Herod Agrippa II. Herodias voluntarily shared his punishment, and he died in exile. Pilate took occasion from our Lord's residence in Galilee to send Him for examination (Luke xxiii. 6, fif.) to Herod Antipas, who came up to Jerusalem to celebrate the Passover. The city of Tiberias, which Antipas founded and named in honor of the emperor, was the most conspicuous monument of his long reign. Hero'dians. In the account which is given by St. Matthew (xxii. 15, f¥.) and St. Mark (xii. 13, ff.) of the last efforts made by dif- ferent sections of the Jews to obtain from our Lord Himself the materials for His accusa- tion, a party under the name of Herodians is represented as acting in concert with the Pharisees (Matt. xxii. 16; Mark xii. 13; comp. also iii. 6, viii. 15). There were probably many who saw in the power of the Herodian family the pledge of the preservation of their national existence in the face of Roman am- bition. Two distinct classes might thus unite in supporting what was a domestic tyranny as contrasted with absolute dependence on Rome: those who saw in the Herods a pro- 55 I 1 HERODIAS HEZEKIAH tection against direct heathen rule, and those who were inclined to look with satisfaction upon such a compromise between the ancient faith and heathen civilization, as Herod the Great and his successors had endeavored to realize, as the true and highest consummation of Jewish hopes. Hero'dias, daughter of Aristobulus, one of the sons of Mariamme and Herod the Great, and consequently sister of Agrippa I. She first married Herod Philip I. ; then she eloped from him to marry Herod Antipas, her step- uncle, who had been long married to, and was still living with, the daughter of Aeneas or Aretas, king of Arabia. The consequences both of the crime, and of the reproof which it incurred, are well known. Aretas made war upon Herod for the injury done to his daugh- ter, and routed him with the loss of his whole army. The head of John the Baptist was granted to the request of Herodias (Matt. xiv. 8-1 1 ; Mark vi. 24-28). According to Josephus the execution took place in a fortress called Machaerus, looking down upon the Dead Sea from the south. She accompanied Antipas into exile to Lugdunum. Heron. The Hebrew anaphah appears as the name of an unclean bird in Lev. xi. 19, Deut. xiv. 18. It was probably a generic name for a well-known class of birds. The only point on which any two commentators seem to agree is, that it is not the heron. On ety- mological grounds, Gesenius considers the name applicable to some irritable bird, per- haps the goose. Hezeki'ah I. (the might of Jehovah). Twelfth king of Judah, son of the apostate Ahaz and Abi (or Abijah), ascended the throne at the age of 25 B, C. 726. Hezekiah was one of the three most perfect kings of Judah (2 K. xviiir 5; Ecclus. xlix. 4). His first act was to purge, and repair, and reopen with splendid sacrifices and perfect cere- monial, the Temple. A still more decisive act was the destruction of a brazen serpent, said to have been the one used by Moses in the miraculous healing of the Israelites (Num. xxi. 9), which had become an object of adora- tion. When the kingdom of Israel had fallen, Hezekiah extended his pious endeavors to Ephraim and Manasseh ; and by inviting the scattered inhabitants to a peculiar Passover, kindled their indignation also against the idolatrous practices which still continued among them. This Passover was, from the necessities of the case, celebrated at an un- usual, though not illegal (Num. ix. 10, 11) time ; and by an excess of Levitical zeal it was continued for the unprecedented period of fourteen days (2 Chr. xxix., xxx., xxxi). At the head of a repentant and united people, Hezekiah ventured to assume the aggressive against the Philistines; and in a series of vic- tories not only rewon the cities which his father had lost (2 Chr. xxviii. 18), but even dispossessed them of their own cities, except Gaza (2 K. xviii. 8) and Gath. He refused to acknowledge the supremacy of Assyria (2 K. xviii. 7). Instant war was averted by the heroic and long-continued resistance of the Tyrians under their king Eluloeus, and Hezekiah used every available means to strengthen his position, and render his capital impregnable (2 K. xx. 20; 2 Chr. xxxii. 3-5, 30; Is. xxii. 8-1 1, xxxiii. 18). It was probably at this dangerous crisis that we find him sick and sending for Isaiah, who prophesies death as the result (2 K. xx. i). God had compas- sion on his anguish, and heard his prayer. Isaiah was ordered to promise the king im- mediate recovery, and a fresh lease of life, ratifying the promise by a sign, and curing the boil by a plaster of figs. Various ambas- sadors came with letters and gifts to con- gratulate Hezekiah on his recovery (2 Chr. xxxii. 23), and among them an embassy from Merodach-Baladan (or Berodach, 2 K. xx. 12), the viceroy of Babylon. Community of in- terest made Hezekiah receive the overtures of Babylon with unconcealed gratification ; and, perhaps, to enhance the opinion of "his own importance as an ally, he displayed to the messengers the princely treasures which he and his predecessors had accumulated. If ostentation were his motive it received a ter- rible rebuke, and he was informed by Isaiah that from the then tottering and subordinate province of Babylon, and not from the mighty Assyria, would come the ruin and captivity of Judah (Is. xxxix. 5). Sargon was suc- ceeded (B. C. 702) by his son Sennacherib, whose two invasions occupy the greater part of the Scripture records concerning the reign of Hezekiah. The first of these took place in the third year of Sennacherib (B. C. 702), and occupies only three verses (2 K. xviii. 13-16), though the route of the advancing Assyrians may be traced in Is. x. 5, xi. Re- specting the commencement of the second in- vasion we have full details in 2 K. xviii. 17, sq. ; 2 Chr. xxxii. 9, sq. ; Is. xxxvi. Senna- cherib sent against Jerusalem an army under two officers and his cupbearer the orator Rab- shakeh, with a blasphemous and insulting summons to surrender. Hezekiah's ministers were thrown into anguish and dismay, but Isaiah hurled back threatening for threatening with unrivalled eloquence and force,' promis- 156 THE Ifp'-.fjy OF THE HIGH PLACES HIGH-PRIEST ing to disperse the enemy (2 K. xix. 6, 7). Accordingly "that night the Angel of the Lord went out and smote in the camp of the Assyri- ans 185,000 men." Hezekiah only lived to enjoy for about one year more his well-earned peace and glory. He slept with his fathers after a reign of twenty-nine years, in the 56th year of his age (B. C. 697). 2. Son of Ne- ariah, one of the descendants of the royal famil}^ of Judah (i Chr. iii. 23). 3. The same name, though rendered in the A. V. Hizkiah, is founded in Zeph. i, i. 4. Ater-of-Hezekiah, [Ater.] High Places. From the earliest times it was the custom among all nations to erect altars and places of worship on lofty and con- spicuous spots. To this general custom we find constant allusion in the Bible (Is. Ixv. 7 ; Jer. iii. 6; Ez. vi. 13, xviii. 6; Hos. iv. 13), and it is especially attributed to the Moabites (Is. XV. 2, xvi. 12; Jer. xlviii. 35). Even Abraham built an altar to the Lord on a mountain near Bethel (xii. 7, 8; cf. xxii. 2-4, xxxi. 54). Not- withstanding this it was implicitly forbidden by the law of Moses (Deut. xii. 11-14), which also gave the strictest injunction to destroy these monuments of Canaanitish idolatry (Lev. xxvi. 30; Num. xxxiii. 52; Deut. xxxiii. 29). The command was a prospective one, and was not to come into force until such time as the tribes were settled in the promised land. Thus we find that both Gideon and Manoah built altars on high places by Divine command (Judg. vi. 25, 26, xiii. 16-23), and it is quite clear, from the tone of the 'book of Judges that the law on the subject was either totally forgotten or practically obsolete. It is more surprising to find this law absolutely ignored at a much later period, when there was no intelligible reason for its violation — as by Samuel at Mizpeh (i Sam. vii. 10) and at Bethlehem (xvi. 5) ; by Saul at Gilgal (xiii. 9) and at Ajalon (? xiv. 35) ; by David (i Chr. xxi. 26) ; by Elijah on Mount Carmel (i K. xviii. 30) ; and by other prophets (i Sam. x. 5). The explanations which are given are sufficiently unsatisfactory ; but it is at any rate certain that the worship in high places was organized and all but universal through- out Judea, not only during (i K. iii. 2-4), but even after the time of Solomon. At last Heze- kiah set himself in good earnest to the sup- pression of this prevalent corruption (2 K. xviii. 4, 22), both in Judah and Israel (2 Chr. xxxi. 1), although, so rapid was the growth of the evil, that even his sweeping reforma- tion required to be finally consummated by Josiah (2 K. xxiii.), and that too in Jerusalem and its immediate neighborhood (2 Chr. xxiv. 3). After the time of Josiah we find no fur- ther mention of these Jehovistic high places. High-priest, i. The fir-st distinct separa- tion of Aaron to the office of the priesthood, which previously belonged to the first-born, was that recorded Ex. xxviii. We find from the very first the following characteristic at- tributes of Aaron and the high-priests his suc- cessors, as distinguished from the other priests: (i) Aaron alone was anointed (Lev. viii. 12), whence one of the distinctive epi- thets of the high-priest was "the anointed priest" (Lev. iv. 3, 5, 16, xxi. 10; see Num. xxxv. 25). This appears also from Ex. xxix. 29, 30. The anointing of the sons of Aaron, i. e. the common priests, seems to have been confined to sprinkling their garments with the anointing oil (Ex. xxix. 21, xxviii. 41, &c.). The anointing of the high-priest is alluded to in Ps. cxxxiii. 2. (2) Aaron had peculiar functions. To him alone it appertained, and he alone was permitted, to enter the Holy of Holies, which he did once a year, High Priest. on the great day of atonement, when he sprinkled the blood of the sin-ofifering on the mercy-seat, and burnt incense within the veil (Lev. xvi.). (3) The high-priest had a pecu- liar place in the law of the manslayer, and his taking sanctuary in the cities of refuge. The man-sjayer might not leave the city of refuge during the lifetime of the existing high- priest who was anointed with the holy oil (Num. xxxv. 25, 28). It was also forbidden to the high-priest to follow a funeral, or rend his clothes for the dead, according to the precedent in Lev. x. 6. The Rabbins speak very frequently of one second in dignity to the high-priest, whom they call the Sagan, and who often acted in the high-priest's room. He is the same who in the O. T. is called "the second priest" (2 K. xxiii. 4, xxv. 18). Thus too it is explained of Annas and Caia- phas (Luke iii. 2), that Annas was Sagan. 157 HILLEL HITTITES Ananias is also thought by some to have been Sagan, acting for the high-priest (Acts xxiii. 2). — It does not appear by whose authority the high-priests were appointed to their office before there were kings of Israel. But as we find it invariably done by the civil power in later times, it is probable, that in the times preceding the monarchy, it was by the elders, or Sanhedrim. It should be added, that the usual age for entering upon the functions of the priesthood, according to 2 Chr, xxxi. 17, is considered to have been 20 years, though a priest or high-priest was not actually incapaci- tated if he had attained to puberty. Again, according to Lev. xxi., no one that had a blemish could officiate at the altar. Hil'lel, a native of Pirathon in Mount Eph- raim, father of Abdon, one of the judges of Israel (Judg. xii. 13, 15). Hills. The structure and characteristics of the hills of Palestine will be most conveni- ently noticed in the general description of the features of the country. But it may not be unprofitable to call attention here to the vari- ous Hebrew terms for which the word "hill" has been employed in the Auth. Version. I. Gibeah, from a root which seems to have the force of curvature or humpishness. A word involving this idea is peculiarly applic- able to the rounded hills of Palestine. 2. But our translators have also employed the same English word for the very different term har, which has a much more extended sense than gibeah, meaning a whole district rather than an individual eminence, and to which our word "mountain" answers with tolerable accuracy. For instance, in Ex. xxiv. 4, the "hill" is the same which is elsewhere in the same chapter (12, 13, 18, &c.) and book consistently and accurately rendered "mount" and "mountain." "The country of the hills," in Deut. i. 7 ; Josh, ix. I, X. 40, xi. 16, is the elevated district of Judah, Benjamin and Ephraim, which is cor- rectly called "the mountain" in the earliest descriptions of Palestine (Num. xiii. 29), and in many subsequent passages. 3. On one oc- casion the word Ma'aleh, better "ascent," is rendered "hill" (i Sam. ix. 11). 4. In the N. T. the word "hill" is employed to render the Greek word Bouvos ; but on one occasion it is used for ogos, elsewhere "mountain," so as to obscure the connection between the two parts of the same narrative (Luke ix. 37). Hind, the female of the common stag. It is frequently noticed in the poetical parts of Scripture as emblematic of activity (Gen. xlix. 21 ; 2 Sam. xxii. 34; Ps. xviii. 33; Hab. iii. 19), gentleness (Prov. v. 19), feminine modesty (Cant. ii. 7, iii. 5), earnest longing (Ps. xlii. i), and maternal aflfection (Jer. xiv. 5). Its shy- ness and remoteness from the haunts of men are also alluded to (Job. xxxix. i), and its timidity, causing it to cast its young at the sound of thunder (Ps. xxix. 9). Hinge. Both ancient Egyptian and mod- ern Oriental doors were and are hung by means of pivots turning in sockets both on the upper and lower sides (i K. vii. 50).- In Syria, and especially the Hauran, there are many ancient doors consisting of stone slabs with pivots carved out of the same piece, in- serted in sockets above and below, and fixed during the building of the house. The allu- sion in Prov. xxvi. 14 is thus clearly explained. Hin'nom, Valley of, otherwise called "the valley of the son" or "children of Hinnom," a deep and narrow ravine, with steep rocky sides to the S. and W. of Jerusalem, separat- ing Mount Zion to the N. from the "Hill of Evil Counsel," and the sloping rocky plateau of the "plain of Rephaim" to the S. The earliest mention of the Valley of Hinnom is in Josh. XV. 8, xviii. 16, where the boundary- line between the tribes of Judah and Benja- min is described, as passing along the bed of the ravine. On the southern brow, overlook- ing the valley at its eastern extremity, Sol- omon erected high places for Molech (l K. xi. 7), whose horrid rites were revived from time to time in the same vicinity by the later idolatrous kings. Ahaz and Manasseh made their children "pass through the fire" in this valley (2 K. xvi. 3 ; 2 Chr. xxviii. 3, xxxiii. 6)', and the fiendish custom of infant sacrifice to the fire-gods seems to have been kept up in Tophet, at its S. E. extremity, for a consider- able period (Jer. vii. 31; 2 K. xxx. 10). To put an end to these abominations the place was polluted by Josiah, who rendered it cere- monially unclean by spreading over it human bones, and other corruptions (2 K. xxiii. 10, 13, 14-; 2 Chr. xxxiv. 4, 5), from which time it appears to have become the common cess- pool of the city, into which its sewage was conducted, to be carried ofif by the waters of the Kidron, as well as a lay-stall, where all its solid filth was collected. From its ceremonial defilement, and from the detested and abomin- able fire of Molech, if not from the supposed ever-burning funeral piles, the later Jews ap- plied the name of this valley Ge Hinnom, Gehenna, to denote the place of eternal tor- ment. In this sense the word is used by our Lord (Matt. v. 29, x, 28, xxiii. 15; Mark ix. 43 ; Luke xii. 5). Hit'tites, The, the nation descended from Cheth (A. V. "Heth"), the second son of Canaan. Abraham bought from the "Children 58 HIVITES HOR of Heth," the field and the cave of Machpelah, belonging to Ephron the Hittite. They were then settled at the town which was after- wards, under its new name of Hebron, to become one of the most famous cities of Pales- tine, then bearing the name of Kirjath-arba (Gen. xxiii. 19, xxv. 9). When the Israelites entered the Promised Land, we find the Hit- tites taking their part against the invader, in equal alliance with the other Capaanite tribes (Josh. ix. I, xi. 3, &c.). Henceforward the notices of the Hittites are very few and faint. We meet with two individuals, both attached to the person of David, (i) "Ahimelech the Hittite" (i Sam. xxvi. 6). (2) "Uriah the Hittite," one of "the thirty" of David's body- guard (2 Sam. xxiii. 39; i Chr. xi. 41). Hivites, The. In the genealogical tables of Genesis, "the Hivite" is named as one of the descendants — the sixth in order — of Canaan, the son of Ham (Gen. x. 17; i Chr. i. 15). We first encounter the actual people of the Hivites at the time of Jacob's return to Canaan. Shechem was then in their possession, Hamor the Hivite being the "prince of the land" (Gen. xxxiv. 2). We next meet with the Hivites during the conquest of Canaan (Josh, ix. 7, xi. 19). The main body of the Hivites were at this time living on the northern con- fines of western Palestine — "under Hermon, in the land of Mizpeh"' (Josh. xi. 3) — "in Mount Lebanon, from Mount Baal-Hermon to the entering of Hamath" (Judg. iii. 3 ; comp. 2 Sam. xxiv. 7). Holofer'nes,- or, more correctly, Olofernes, was, according to the book of Judith, a gen- eral of Nebuchadnezzar, king of the Assyrians (Jud. ii. 4), who was slain by the Jewish heroine Judith during the siege of Bethulia. Homer. [Measures.] Honey. The Hebrew dcbash, in the first place, applies to the product of the bee, to which we exclusively give the name of honey. All travelers agree in describing Palestine as a land "flowing with milk and honey" (Ex. iii. 8) ; bees being abundant even in the re- mote parts of the wilderness, where they de- posit-^heir honey in the crevices of the rocks or in hollow trees. In some parts of northern Arabia the hills are so well stocked with bees, that no sooner are hives placed than they are occupied. In the second place the term dehash applies to a decoction of the juice of the grape, which is still called dibs, and which forms an article of commerce in the East ; it was this, and not ordinary bee-honey, which Jacob sent to Joseph (Gen. xliii. 11), and which the Tyrians purchased from Palestine (Ez. xxvii. 17). A third kind has been described by some writers as "vegetable" honey, by which is meant the exudations of certain trees and shrubs, found in the peninsula of Sinai, or the stunted oaks of Luristan and Mesopotamia. The honey which Jonathan ate in the wood (i Sam. xiv. 25), and the "wild honey" which supported John the Baptist (Matt. iii. 4), have been referred to this species. But it was prob- ably the honey of the wild bees. Hook, Hooks. Various kinds of hooks are noticed in the Bible, of which the following are the most important: i. Fishing hooks (Am. iv. 2; Job xli. 2; Is. xix. 8; Hab. i. 15). 2. Properly a ring (A. V. "thorn"), placed through the mouth of a large fish and attached by a cord to a stake for the purpose of keep- ing it alive in the water (Job xli. 2) ; the word meaning the cord is rendered "hook" in the A. V. 3. A ring, such as in our country is placed through the nose of a bull, and similarly used in the East for leading about lions (Ez. xix. 4, where the A. V. has "with chains"). Flesh-Hooks. camels, and other animals. A similar method was adopted for leading prisoners, as in the case of Manasseh, who was led with rings (2 Chr. xxxiii. 11; A. V. "in the thorns"). An illustration of this practice is found in a bass- relief discovered at Khorsabad (Layard, ii. 376). 4. The hooks of the pillars of the Taber- nacle. (Ex. xxvi. 32, 37, xxvii. 10, fif., xxxviii. 13, fif. 5. A vine-dresser's pruning-hook (Is. ii. 4, xviii. 5; Mic. iv. 3 ; Joel iii. 10). 6. A flesh- hook for getting up the joints of meat out of the boiling-pot (Ex. xxvii. 3; I Sam. ii. 13, 14). 7. Probably "hooks" used for the purpose of hanging up animals to flay them (Ez. xl. 43). Hor, Mount, i. The mountain on which Aaron died (Num. xx. 25, 27). The word Hor is probably an archaic form of Har, the usual Hebrew term for "mountain." It was "on the boundary line" (Num. xx. 23) or "at the edge" (xxxiii. 37) of the land of Edom. It was the halting-place of the people next after Kadesh (xx. 22, xxxiii. 37), and they quitted it for Zalmonah (xxxiii. 41) in the road to the Red Sea (xxi. 4). It was during the encampment at Kadesh that Aaron was gathered to his fathers. It is situated on the eastern side of 159 HORN HORSE the great valley of the Arabah, the highest and most conspicuous of the whole range of the sandstone mountains of Edom, having close beneath it on its eastern side the mysterious city of Petra. The tradition has existed from the earliest date. It is now the Jebel Nebi- Hariin, "the mountain of the Prophet Aaron." Its height is 4800 feet above the Mediter- ranean, that is to say, about 1700 feet above the town of Petra, 4000 above the level of the Arabah, and more than 6000 above the Dead Sea. The mountain is marked far and near by its double top, which rises like a huge castellated building from a lower base, and is surmounted by a circular dome of the tomb of Aaron, a distinct white spot on the dark red surface of the mountain. The chief inter- est of Mount Hor consists in the prospect from its summit — the last view of Aaron — that view which was to him what Pisgah was tO' his brother. 2. A mountain, entirely distinct from the preceding, named in Num. xxxiv. 7, 8, only, as one of the marks of the northern boundary of the land which the children of Israel were about to conquer. This "Mount Hor" is the great chain of Lebanon itself. I^orn. The word "horn" is often used meta- phorically to signify strength and honor. Of strength the horn of the unicorn was the most / Mount Hor. frequent representative (Deut. xxxiii. 17, &c.), but not always; comp. i K. xxii. 11, where probably horns of iron, worn defiantly and symbolically on the head, are intended. Among the Druses upon Mount Lebanon the married women wear silver horns on their heads. In the sense of honor, the word horn stands for the abstract (my horn, Job xvi. 15; all the horns of Israel, Lam. ii. 3), and so for the supreme authority. It also stands for the con- crete, whence it comes to mean king, kingdom (Dan. viii. 2, &c. ; Zech. i, 18). Out of either or both of these two last metaphors sprang the idea of representing gods with horns. Hornet. In Scripture the hornet is referred to only as the means which Jehovah employed for the extirpation of the Canaanites (Ex. xxiii. 28; Deut. vii. 20; Josh. xxiv. 12; Wisd. xii. 8). Some commentators regard the word as used in its literal sense, but it more proba- bly expresses under a vivid image the con- sternation with which Jehovah would inspire Horns worn as Head-ornaments. the enemies of the Israelites, as declared in Deut. ii. 25, Josh. ii. 11. Horse. The most striking feature in the Biblical notices of the horse is the exclusive application of it to warlike operations ; in no instance is that useful animal employed for the purpose of ordinary locomotion or agri- culture, if we except Is. xxviii. 28, where we learn that horses (A. V. "horsemen") were employed in threshing, not, however, in that case put in the gears, but simply driven about wildly over the strewed grain. The animated description of the horse in Job xxxix. 19-25 ap- plies solely to the war-horse. The Hebrews in the patriarchal age, as a pastoral race, did not stand in need of the services of the horse, and for a long period after their settlement in Canaan they dispensed with it, partly in con- sequence of the hilly nature of the country, which only admitted of the use of chariots in certain localities (Judg. i. 19), arud partly in consequence of the .prohibition in Deut. xvii. 16, which would be held to apply at all periods. David first established a force of cavalry and chariots after the defeat of Hadadezer (2 Sam. viii. 4). But the great supply of horses was subsequently ef¥ected by Solomon through his connection with Egypt (i K. iv. 26). Solomon also establish-ed a very active trade in horses, which were brought by dealers out of Egypt and resold at a profit to the Hittites, who lived between Palestine and the Euphrates (i K. x. 60 1 HOSANNA HOUR 28, 29). In the countries adjacent to Pales- tine, the use of the horse was much more fre- quent. It was introduced into Egj'^pt proba- bl}^ by the Hyksos, as it is not represented on the monuments before the i8th dynasty. The Jewish kings sought the assistance of the Egj'ptians against the Assyrians in this re- spect (Is, xxxi. I, xxxvi. 8; Ez. xvii. 15). But the cavalry of the Assyrians and other eastern nations was regarded as most formidable; the horses themselves were highly bred, as the Assyrian sculptures still testify, and fully merited the praise bestowed on them by Habakkuk (i. 8). With regard to the trap- pings and management of the horse we have little information ; the bridle was placed over the horse's nose (Is. xxx. 28), and a bit or curb is also mentioned (2 K. xix. 28 ; Ps. xxxii. 9 ; Prov. xxvi. 3 ; Is. xxxvii. 29 ; in the A. V. it is incorrectly given "bridle," with the excep- tion of Ps. xxxii.). The harness of the Assyrian horses was profusely decorated, the bits being gilt (i Esdr. iii. 6), and the bridle adorned with tassels ; on the neck was a collar ter- minating in a bell, as described by Zechariah (xiv. 20). Saddles were not used until a late period. The horses were not shod, and there- fore hoofs as hard "as flint" (Is. v. 28) were regarded as a great merit. The chariot-horses were covered with embroidered trappings (Ez. xxvii. 20). Horses and chariots were vised also in idolatrous processions, as noticed in regard to the sun (2 K. xxiii. 11). Hosan'na ("Save; we pray"), the cry of the multitudes as they thronged in our Lord's triumphal procession into Jerusalem (Matt, xxi. 9, 15; ^Mark xi. 9, 10; John xii. 13). The Psalm from which it was taken, the 11 8th, was one with which they were familiar from being accustomed to recite the 25th and 26th verses at the Feast of Tabernacles. On that occasion the Hallel, consisting of Psalms cxiii.-cxviii., was chanted by one of the priests, and at cer- tain intervals the multitudes joined in the re- sponses, waving their branches of willow and palm, and shouting as they waved them, Hal- lelujah, or Hosanna, or "O Lord, I beseech thee, send now prosperity" (Ps. cxviii. 25). Hose'a (salvation), son of Beeri, and first of the Minor Prophets. The title of the book gives for the beginning of Hosea's ministry the reign of Uzziah, king of Judah, but limits this vague definition by reference to Jeroboam II., king of Israel; it therefore yields a date not later than B. C. 783. The pictures of social and political life which Hosea draws so forci- bly are rather applicable to the interregnum which followed the death of Jeroboam (782- 772), and to the reign of the succeeding kings. It seems almost certain that very few of his prophecies were written until after the death of Jeroboam (783), and probably the life, or rather the prophetic career, of Hosea extended from 784 to 725, a period of fifty-nine years. The prophecies of Hosea were delivered in the kingdom of Israel. The prophecies were probably collected by Hosea himself towards the end of his career. Hospitality. Hospitality was regarded by most nations of the ancient world as one of the chief virtues. Among the Arabs we find the best illustrations of the old Bible narratives, and among them see traits that might beseem their ancestor Abraham. The laws respecting strangers (Lev. xix. 33, 34) and the poor (Lev. xxv. 14, seq. ; Deut. xv. 7), and concerning re- demption (Lev. xxv. 23, seqq.), &c., are framed in accordance with the spirit of hospitality ; and the strength of the national feeling regard- ing it is shown in the incidental mentions of its practice. In the Law, compassion to strangers is constantly enforced by the words "for ye were strangers in the land of Egypt" (Lev. xix. 34). And before the Law, Abra- ham's entertainment of the angels (Gen. xviii. I, seqq.) and Lot's (xix. i), are in exact agree- ment with its precepts, and with modern usage (comp. Ex. ii. 20; Judg. xiii. 15, xix. 17, 20, 21). In the N. T. hospitality is yet more markedly enjoined ; and in the more civilized state of society which then prevailed, its exer- cise became more a social virtue than a neces- sity of patriarchal life. The good Samaritan stands for all ages as an example of Christian hospitality, embodying the command to love one's neighbor as himself. Hour. The ancient Hebrews were probably unacquainted with the division of the natural day into 24 parts; but they afterwards par- celled out the period between sunrise and sun- set into a series of divisions distinguished by the sun's course. The early Jews appear to have divided the day into four parts (Neh. ix. 3), and the night into three watches (Judg. vii. 19), and even in the N. T. we find a trace of this division in Matt. xx. 1-5. The Greeks adopted the division of the day into 12 hours from the Babylonians. At what period the Jews became first acquainted with this way of reckoning time is unknown, but it is generally supposed that they too learnt it from the Babylonians during the captivity. In what- ever way originated, it was known to the Egyptians at a very early period. They had 12 hours of the day and of the night. There are two kinds of hours, viz. (i.) the astronomi- cal or equinoctial hour, i. e. the 24th part of a civil day, and (2.) the natural hour, i-. e. the 161 HOUSE HOUSE I2th part of the natural day, or of the time between sunrise and sunset. These are the hours meant in the N. T. (John xi. 9, &c.), and it must be remembered that they per- petually vary in length, so as to be very dif- ferent at different times of the year. For the purposes of prayer the old division of the day into 4 portions was continued in the Temple service, as we see from Acts ii. 15, iii. i, x. 9. XJpper Room. House. The houses of the rural poor in Egypt, as well as in most parts of Syria, Arabia, and Persia, are for the most part mere huts of mud, or sunburnt bricks. In some parts of Palestine and Arabia stone is used, and in certain districts caves in the rock are used as dwellings (Amos v. 11). The houses are usually of one story only, viz., the ground floor, and often contain only one apartment. Sometimes a small court for the cattle is at- tached ; and in some cases the cattle are Court of an Eastern House. housed in the same building, or the people live on a raised platform, and the cattle round them on the ground (i Sam. xxviii. 24). The windows are small apertures high up in the walls, sometimes grated with wood. The roofs are commonly but not always flat, and are usually formed of a plaster of mud and straw laid upon boughs or rafters ; and upon the flat roofs, tents or "booths" of boughs or rushes I are often raised to be used as sleeping-places in summer. The difference between the poor- est houses and those of the class next above them is greater than between these and the houses of the first rank. The prevailing plan of Eastern houses of this class presents, as, was the case in ancient Egypt, a front of wall, whose blank and mean appearance is usually relieved only by the door and a few latticed and projecting windows. Within this is a court or courts with apartments opening into them. Over the door is a projecting window with a lattice more or less elaborately wrought, which, except in times of public cele- brations, is usually closed (2 K. ix. 30). An awning is sometimes drawn over the court, and the floor strewed with carpets on festive occasions. The stairs to the upper apartments are in Syria usually in a corner of the court. Around part, if not the whole, of the court is a veranda, often nine or ten feet deep, over Outer Staircase of an Eastern House. which, when there is more than one floor, runs a second gallery of like depth with a balustrade. Bearing in mind that the recep- tion room is raised above the level of the court, we may, in explaining the circumstances of the miracle of the paralytic (Mark ii. 3; Luke V. 18), suppose, I, either that our Lord was standing under the veranda, and the people in front in the court. The bearers of the sick man ascended the stairs to the roof of the house, and taking off a portion of the boarded covering of the veranda, or removing the awn- ing, in the former case let down the bed through the veranda roof, or in the latter, down by way of the roof, and deposited it be- fore the Saviour. 2. Another explanation pre- sents itself in considering the room where the company were assembled as the "upper room," and the roof opened for the bed to be the true roof of the house. 3. And one still more sim- ple is found in regarding the house as one of the rude dwellings now to be seen near the 62 HOUSE HUR Sea of Galilee, a mere room lo or 12 feet high, and as many or more square, with no opening except the door. The roof, used as a sleeping- place, is reached by a ladder from the outside, and the bearers of the paralytic, unable to ap- proach the door, would thus have ascended the roof, and having uncovered it, let him down into the room where our Lord was. When there is no second floor, but more than one court, the women's apartments, hareem, harem, or haram, are usually in the second court ; otherv*-ise they form a separate building within the general enclosure, or are above on the first floor. When there is an upper story, the Ka'ah forms the most important apart- ment, and thus probably answers to the "upper room," which was often the "guest-chamber" (Luke xxii. 12; Acts i. 13, ix. 37, xx. 8). The windows of the upper rooms often project one or two feet, and form a kiosk or latticed cham- ber. Such may have been "the chamber in the wall" (2 K. iv. 10, 11). The "lattice," through which Ahaziah fell, perhaps belonged to an upper chamber of this kind (2 K. i. 2), Eastern Battlemented House. as also the "third loft," from which Eutychus fell (Acts xx. 9; comp. Jer. xxii. 13). There are usually no special bedrooms in Eastern houses. The outer doors are closed with a wooden lock, but in some cases the apartments are divided from each other by curtains only. There are no chimneys, but fire is made when required with charcoal in a chafing-dish ; or a fire of wood might be kindled in the open court of the house (Luke xxii. 55). Some houses in Cairo have an apartment, open in front to the court, with two or more arches, and a railing; and a pillar to support the wall above. It was in a chamber of this kind, probably one of the largest size to be found in a palace, that our Lord was being arraigned before the high- priest, at the time when the denial of Him by St. Peter took place. He "turned and looked" on Peter as he stood by the fire in the court (Luke xxii. 56, 61; John xviii. 24), whilst He himself was in the "hall of judgment." In no point do Oriental domestic habits differ more from European than in the use of the roof. Its flat surface is made useful for various house- hold purposes, as drying corn, hanging up linen, and preparing figs and raisins. The roofs are used as places of recreation in the evening, and often as sleeping-places at night (2 Sam. xi. 2, xvi. 22; Dan. iv. 29; i Sam. ix. 25, 26; Job xxvii. 18; Prov. xxi. 9). They were also used as places for devotion, and even idolatrous worship (Jer. xxxii. 29, xix. 13 ; 2 K. xxiii. 12; Zeph. i. 5; Acts x. 9). At the time of the Feast of Tabernacles booths were erected by the Jews on the tops of their houses. Protection of the roof by parapets was enjoined by the law (Deut. xxii. 8). Spe- cial apartments were devoted in larger houses to winter and summer uses (Jer. xxxvi. 22; Am. iii. 15). The ivory house of Ahab was probably a palace largely ornamented with in- laid ivory. The circumstance of Samson's pulling down the house by means of the pil- lars, may be explained by the fact of the com- pany being assembled on tiers of balconies above each other, supported by central pillars on the basement ; when these were pulled down the whole of the upper floors would fall also (Judg. xvi. 26). Hunting. Hunting, as a matter of necessity, whether for -the extermination of dangerous beasts, or for procuring sustenance, betokens a rude and semi-civilized state ; as an amuse- ment, it betokens an advanced state. The Hebrews, as a pastoral and agricultural people, were not given to the sports of the field; the density of the population, the earnestness of their character, and the tenddVicy of their ritual regulations, particularly those affecting food, all combined to discourage the practice of hunting. The manner of catching animals was either by digging a pitfall, or secondly by a trap, which was set under ground (Job xviii. 10), in the run of the animal (Prov. xxii. 5), and caught it by the leg (Job. xviii. 9) ; or lastly by the use of the net, of which there were various kinds, as for the gazelle (Is. li. 20, -A. V. "wild bull") and other animals of that class. Hur. I. A man who is mentioned with Moses and Aaron on the occasion of the battle with Amalek at Rcphidim (Ex. xvii. 10), when with Aaron he stayed up the hands of Moses (12), He is mentioned again in xxiv. 14, as being, with Aaron, left in charge of the people by Moses during his ascent of Sinai. The Jew- ish tradition is that he was the husband of 63 HUSBAND IDOL Miriam. 2. The "son of Hur" — Ben-Hur — was commissariat officer for Solomon in Mount Ephraim (i K. iv. 8). Husband. [Marriage.] Husks. The word rendered in the A. V. "husks" (Luke XV. 16) describes really the fruit of a particular kind of tree. This tree is very commonly met with in Syria and Egypt ; it produces pods, shaped like a horn, varying in length from 6 to 10 inches, and about a finger's breadth, or rather more. Hyaena. Authorities are at variance as to whether the term tzabvi'a in Jer. xii. 9 means a "hyaena," as the LXX. has it, or a "speckled bird," as in the A. V. The only other instance in which it occurs is as a proper name, Zeboim (i Sam. xiii., "the valley of hyaenas," Aquila; Neh. xi. 34). The hyaena was common in ancient as in modern Egypt, and is constantly depicted upon monuments ; it must therefore have been well known to the Jews. Hymn. Among the later Jews the word hymn was more or less vague in its applica- tion, and capable of being used as occasion should arise. To Christians the Hymn has always been something dififerent from the Psalm ; a different conception in thought, a different type in composition. There is some dispute about the hymn sung by our Lord and his Apostles on the occasion of the Last Sup- Husks of Swine. per ; but even supposing it to have been the Hallel, or Paschal Hymn, consisting of Pss. cxiii.-cxviii., it is obvious that the word hymn is in this case applied not to an individual psalm, but to a number of psalms chanted suc- cessively, and all together forming a kind of devotional exercise which is not unaptly called a hymn. In the jail at Philippi, Paul and Silas "sang hymns" (A. V. "praises") unto God, and so loud was their song that their fellow- prisoners heard them. This must have been what we mean by singing, and not merely reci- tation. It was in fact a veritable singing of hymns. And it is remarkable that the noun hymn is only used in reference to the services of the Greeks, and in the same passages is clearly distinguished from, the psalm (Eph. v. 19, Col. iii. 16), "psalms," and hymns, and spiritual songs." Hyssop. (Heb. czob.) The ezob was used to sprinkle the doorposts of the Israelites in Egypt with the blood of the paschal lamb (Ex. Hysena. xii. 22) ; it was employed in the purification of lepers and lepious houses (Lev. xiv. 4, 51), and in the sacrifice of the red heifer (Num. xix. 6). In consequence of its detergent quali- ties, or from its being associated with the purificatory services, the Psalmist makes use of the expression, "purge me with ezob" (Ps. li. 7). It is described in i K. iv. 33 as growing on or near walls. Bochart decides in favor of marjoram, or some plant Jike it, and to this conclusion, it must be admitted, all ancient tradition points. Idol, Image. No less than twenty-one dif- ferent Hebrew words have been rendered in the A. V. either by idol or image, including a class of abstract terms, which, with a deep moral significance, express the degradation as- sociated with it, and stand out as a protest of the language against the enormities of idolatry. Such are, i. Aven, rendered elsewhere "nought," "vanity," "iniquity," "wickedness," "sorrow," &c., and once only "idol" (Is. Ixvi. 3). 2. Elil is thought by some to have a sense akin to that of "falsehood." In strong con- trast with Jehovah it appears in. Ps. xc. 5, 64 IDOL IDOLATRY xcvii. 7. 3. £mah, "horror," or "terror," and hence an object of horror or terror (Jer. 1. 38), in reference either to the hideousness of the idols or to the gross character of their worship. 4. Bosheth, "shame," or "shameful thing" (A. V. Jer. xi. 13; Hos. ix. 10), applied to Baal or Baal-Peor, as characterizing the obscenity of his worship, &c. Among the earliest objects Egyptian Idols. of worship, regarded as symbols of deity, were, the meteoric stones which the ancients be- lieved to have been the images of the gods sent down from heaven. From these they transferred their regard to rough unhewn blocks, to stone columns or pillars of wood, in which the divinity worshipped was supposed to dwell, and which were consecrated, like the sacred stone at Delphi, by being anointed with oil, and crowned with wool on solemn days. Such customs are remarkable illustrations of the solemn consecration by Jacob of the stone at Bethel, as showing the religious reverence with which these memorials were regarded. Of The Idol Juggernaut. the forms assumed by the idolatrous images we have not many traces in the Bible. Dagon, the fish-god of the Philistines, was a human figure terminating in a fish; and that the Syrian deities were represented in later times in a symbolical human shape we know for cer- tainty. The Hebrews imitated their neighbors in this respect as in others (Is. xliv. 13; Wisd. xiii. 13). When the process of adorning the image was completed, it was placed in a tem- ple or shrine appointed for it (Epist. Jer. 12, 19; Wisd. xiii. 15; i Cor. viii. 10). From these temples the idols were sometimes carried in procession (Epist. Jer. 4, 26) on festival days. Their priests were maintained from the idol treasury, and feasted upon the meats which were appointed for the idols' use (Bel and the. Dragon, 3, 13). Idolatry, strictly speaking, denotes the wor- ship of deity in a visible form, whether the images to which homage is paid are symbolical representations of the true God or of the false divinities which have been made the objects of worship in His stead. The first undoubted allusion to idolatry or idolatrous customs in The Hindoo Idol Pulliar. the Bible is in the account of Rachel's stealing her father's teraphim (Gen. xxxi. 19), a relic of the worship of other gods, whom the an- cestors of the Israelites served "on the other side of the river, in old time" (Josh. xxiv. 2). These he consulted as oracles (Gen. xxx. 27, A. V. "learned by experience"), though with- out entirely losing sight of the God of Abra- ham and the God of Nahor, to whom he ap- pealed when occasion offered (Gen. xxxi. 53), while he was ready, in the presence of Jacob, to acknowledge the benefits conferred upon him by Jehovah (Gen. xxx. 27). Such, indeed, was the character of most of "the idolatrous worship of the Israelites. Like the Cuthean colonists in Samaria, who "feared Jehovah and served their own gods" (2 K. xvii. 33), they blended in a strange manner a theoretical be- lief in the true God with the external reverence which they were led to pay to the idols of the nations by whom they were surrounded. Dur- 165 IDOLATRY IMMANUEL ing their long residence in Egypt, the country of symbolism, they defiled themselves with the idols of the land, and it was long before the taint was removed (Josh. xxiv. 14; Ez. xx. 7). To these gods Moses, as the herald of Jehovah, flung down the gauntlet of defiance, and the plagues of Egypt smote their symbols (Num. xxxiii. 4). Yet, with the memory of their de- liverance fresh in their minds, their leader absent, the Israelites clamored for some visi- ble shape in which they might worship the God who had brought them out of Egypt (Ex. xxxii.). Aaron lent himself to the popular cry, and chose as the symbol of deity one with which they had long been familiar — the calf — embodiment of Apis, and emblem of the pro- ductive power of nature. For a while the erec- tion of the tabernacle, and the establishment of the worship which accompanied it, satisfied that craving for an outward sign which the Israelites constantly exhibited. Under Samuel's administration a fast was held, and purificatory rites performed, to mark the public renuncia- tion of idolatry (i Sam. vii. 3-6). But in the reign of Solomon all this was forgotten. Each of his many foreign wives brought with her the gods of her own nation; and the gods of Amnion, Moab, and Zidon were openly wor- shipped. Rehoboam, the son of an Ammonite mother, perpetuated the worst features of Solomon's idolatry (i K. xiv. 22-24) ; and in his feign was made the great schism in the national religion; ,when Jeroboam, fresh from his recollections of the Apis worship of Egypt, erected golden calves at Bethel and at Dan, and by this crafty state-policy severed forever the kingdoms of Judah and Israel ( i K. xii. 26- 33). The successors of Jeroboam followed in his steps, till Ahab, who married a Zidonian princess, at her instigation (i K. xxi. 25) built a temple and altar to Baal, and revived all the abominations of the Amorites (i K. xxi. 26). Compared with the worship of Baal, the wor- ship of the calves was a venial offence, proba- bly because it was morally less detestable and also less anti-national (i K. xii. 28; 2 K. x. 28-31). Henceforth Baal-worship became so completely identified with the northern king- dom that it is described as walking in the way or statutes of the kings of Israel (2 K. xvi. 3, xvii. 8), as distinguished from the sin of Jeroboam. The conquest of the ten tribes by Shalmaneser was for them the last scene of the drama of abominations which had been en- acted uninterruptedly for upwards of 250 years. The first act of Hezekiah on ascending the throne was the restoration and purifica- tion of the temple, which had been dismantled and closed during the latter part of his father's life (2 Chr. xxviii. 24, xxix. 3). The icono- clastic spirit was not confined to Judah and Benjamin, but spread throughout Ephraim and Manasseh (2 Chr. xxxi. i), and to all ex- ternal appearance idolatry was extirpated. But the reform extended little below the surface (Is. xxix. 13). With the death of Josiah ended the last effort to revive among the people a purer ritual, if not a purer faith. The lamp of David, which had long shed but a strug- gling ray, flickered for a while and then went out in the darkness of Babylonian captivity. But foreign exile was powerless to eradicate the deep inbred tendency to idolatry. One of the first difficulties with which Ezra had to contend was the haste with which his country- men took them foreign wives of the people of the land, and followed them in all their abominations (Ezr. ix.). The conquests of Alexander in Asia caused Greek influence to be extensively felt, and Greek idolatry to be first tolerated, and then practised, by the Jews (i Mace. i. 43-50, 54). The attempt of Antio- chus to establish this form of worship was vigorously resisted by Mattathias (i Mace. ii. 23-26). The erection of synagogues has been assigned as a reason for the comparative pur- ity of the Jewish worship after the captivity, while another cause has been discovered in the hatred for images acquired by the Jews in their intercourse with the Persians. If one main object of the Hebrew polity was to teach the unity of God, the extermination of idolatry was but a subordinate end. Jehovah, the God of the Israelites, was the civil head of the State. He was the theocratic king of the peo- ple, who had delivered them from bondage, and to whom they had taken a willing oath of allegiance. Idolatry, therefore, to an Israelite was a state ofifence (i Sam. xv. 23), a political crime of the gravest character, high treason against the majesty of his king. But it was much more than all this. While the idolatry of foreign nations is stigmatized merely as an abomination in the sight of God, which called for his vengeance, the sin of the Israelites is regarded as of more glal-ing enormity and greater moral guilt. In the figurative language of the prophets, the relation between Jehovah and his people is represented as a marriage bond (Is. liv. 5; Jer. iii. 14), and the worship of false gods with all its accompaniments (Lev. XX. 56) becomes then the greatest of social wrongs (Hos. ii. ; Jer. iii., &c.). The first and second commandments are directed against idolatry of every form. Imman'uel, that is, God with us, the symbolical name given by the prophet Isaiah to the child who was announced to Ahaz and 166 INCENSE INN the people of Judah, as the sign which God would give of their deliverance from their enemies (Is. vii. 14). It is applied by the Apostle Matthew to the Messiah, born of the Virgin (Matt. i. 23). It would therefore ap- pear that the immediate reference of the prophet was to some contemporary occur- rence, but that his words received their true and full accomplishment in the birth of the Messiah. Incense. The incense employed in the ser- vice of the tabernacle was compotmded of the perfumes stacte, onycha, galbanum, and pure frankincense. All incense which was not made of these ingredients was forbidden to be oflfered (Ex. xxx. 9). Aaron, as high-priest, was originally appointed to offer incense, but in the daily service of the second temple the office devolved upon the inferior priests, from Altar of Incense. among whom one was chosen by lot (Luke i. 9), each morning and evening. The times of offering incense were specified in the instruc- tions first given to Moses (Ex. xxx. 7, 8). The morning incense was offered when the lamps were trimmed in the Holy place, and before the sacrifice, when the watchman set for the purpose announced the break of day. When the lamps were lighted "between the even- ings," after the evening sacrifice and before the drink-offerings were offered, incense was again burnt on the golden altar, which "be- longed to the oracle" (i K. vi. 22), and stood before the veil which separated the Holy place from the Holy of Holies, the throne of God (Rev. viii. 4). When the priest entered the Holy place with the incense, all the people were removed from the temple, and from be- tween the porch and the altar (cf. Luke i. 10). Profound silence was observed among the con- gregation who were praying without (cf. Rev. viii. i), and at a signal from the prefect the priest cast the incense on the fire, and bowing reverently towards the Holy of Holies retired slowly backwards, not prolonging his prayer that he might not alarm the congregation, or cause them to fear that he had been struck dead for offering unvi^orthily (Lev. xvi. 13; Luke i. 21). On the day of atonement the ser- vice was different. The offering of incense has formed a part of the religious ceremonies of most ancient nations. It was an element in the idolatrous worship of the Isrealites (Jer. xi. 12, 17, xlviii. 35; 2 Chr. xxxiv. 25). Look- ing upon incense in connection with the other ceremonial observances of the Mosaic ritual, it would rather seem to be symbolical, not of prayer itself, but of that which makes prayer acceptable, the intercession of Christ. In Rev. viii. 3, 4, the incense is spoken of as something distinct from, though offered with the prayers of all the saints (cf. Luke i. 10) ; and in Rev. v. 8 it is the golden vials, and not the odors or incense, which are said to be the prayers of saints. India. The name of India does not occur in the Bible before the book of Esther, where it is noticed as the limit of the territories of Ahasuerus in the east, as Ethiopia was in the west (i. i; viii. 9). The India of the book of Esther is not the peninsula of Hindostan, but the country surrounding the Indus, the Punjab, and perhaps Scinde. In i Mace. viii. 8, India is reckoned among the countries which Eumenes, king of Pergamus, received out of the former possessions of Antiochus the Great. A more authentic notice of the coun- try occurs in i Mace. xi. 37. But though the name of India occurs so seldom, the people and productions of that country must have been tolerably well known to the Jews. There is undoubted evidence that an active trade was carried on . between India and Western Asia. The trade opened by Solomon with Ophir through the Red Sea consisted chiefly of Indian articles. The connection thus estab- lished with India led to the opinion that the Indians were included under the ethnological title of Cush (Gen. x. 6). Inheritance. [Heir.] Ink, Inkhorn. [Writing.] Inn. The Hebrew word (malon) thus rendered literally signifies "a lodging-place for the night." Inns, in our sense of the term, were, as they still are, unknown in the East, where hospitality is religiously practised. The khans, or caravanserais, are the representatives of European inns, and these were established but gradually. It is doubtful whether there is 67 IRON ISAAC any allusion to them in the Old Testament. The halting-place of a caravan was selected originally on account of its proximity to water or pasture, by which the travellers pitched their tents, and passed the night. Such was imdoubtedly the "inn" at which occurred the incident in the life of Moses, narrated in Ex. iv. 24 (comp. Gen. xlii. 27). On the more fre- quented routes, remote from towns (Jer. ix. 2), caravanserais were in course of time erected, often at the expense of the wealthy. The following description of one of those on the road from Bagdad to Babylon will sufifice for all : "It is a large and substantial square building, in the distance resembling a fortress, being surrounded with a lofty wall, and flanked by round towers to defend the inmates in case of attack. Passing through a strong gateway, the guest enters a large court, the sides of which are divided into numerous arched compartments, open in front, for the accommodation of separate parties, and for the reception of goods. In the centre is a spacious raised platform, used for sleeping upon at night, or for the devotions of the faith- ful during the day. Between the outer wall and the compartments are wide vaulted arcades, extending round the entire building, where the beasts of burden are placed. Upon the roof of the arcades is an excellent terrace, and over the gateway an elevated tower containing two rooms — one of which is open at the sides, per- mitting the occupants to enjoy every breath of air that passes across the heated plain. The terrace is tolerably clean ; but the court and stabling below are ankle-deep in chopped straw and filth." (Loftus, Chaldea, p. 13.) Iron is mentioned with brass as the earliest of known metals (Gen. iv. 22). As it is rarely found in its native state, but generally in com- bination with oxygen, the knowledge of the art of forging iron, which is attributed to Tubal Cain, argues an acquaintance with the diffi- culties which attend the smelting of this metal. The natural wealth of the soil of Canaan is in- dicated by describing it as "a land whose stones are iron" (Deut. viii. 9). The book of Job contains passages which indicate that iron was a metal well known. Of the manner of procuring it, we learn that "iron is taken from dust" (xxviii. 2). The "furnace of iron" (Deut. iv. 28; I K. viii. 51) is a figure which vividly expresses hard bondage as represented by the severe labor which attended the operation of smelting. Sheet-iron was used for cooking utensils (Ez. iv. 3; cf. Lev. vii. 9). That it was plentiful in the time of David appears from I Chr. xxii. 3. The market of Tyre was supplied with bright or polished iron by the merchants of Dan and Javan (Ez. xxvii. 19). The Chalybes of the Pontus were celebrated as workers in iron in very ancient times. The produce of their labor is supposed to be alluded to in Jer. xv. 12, as being of superior quality. It was for a long time supposed that the Egyptians were ignorant of the use of iron, and that the allusions in the Pentateuch were anachronisms, as no traces of it have been found in their monuments; but in the - sep- ulchres at Thebes butchers are represented as sharpening their knives on a round bar of metal attached to their aprons, which from its blue color is presumed to be steel. One iron mine only has been discovered in Egypt, which was worked by the ancients. It is at Ham- mami, between the Nile and the Red Sea ; the iron found by Mr. Burton was in the form of specular and red ore. That no articles of iron should have been found is readily accounted for by the fact that it is easily destroyed by moistUrre and exposure to the air. Specimens of Assyrian iron-work overlaid with bronze were discovered by Mr. Layard, and are now in the British Museum. Iron weapons of various kinds were found at Nimroud, but fell to pieces on exposure to the air. There is con- siderable doubt whether the ancients were acquainted with cast-iron. The rendering given by the LXX. of Job xl. 18 seems to imply that some method nearly like that of casting was known, and is supported by a passage in Diodorus (v. 13). In Ecclus. xxxviii. 28- we have a picture of the interior of an iron-smith's (Is. xliv. 12) workshop. I'saac (laughter), the son whom Sarah, in accordance \vith the Divine promise, bore to Abraham, in the hundredth year of his age, at Gerar (B. C. 1897). In his infancy he became the object of Ishmael's jealousy; and in his youth the victim, in intention, of Abraham's great sacrificial act of faith. When forty years old he married Rebekah his cousin, by whom, when he was sixty, he had two sons, Esau and Jacob. In his seventy-fifth year he and his brother Ishmae.l buried their father Abraham in the cave of Machpelah. From this abode by the well Lahai-roi, in the South Country, Isaac was driven by a famine to Gerar. Here he acquired great wealth by his flocks, but was re- peatedly dispossessed by the Philistines of the wells which he sank at convenient stations. At Beersheba Jehovah appeared to him by night and blessed him, and he built an altar there: there, too, like Abraham, he received a visit from the Philistine king Abimelech, with whom he made a covenant of peace. After the deceit by which Jacob acquired his father's blessing, Isaac sent his son to seek a wife in 68 THE FRONT OF THE HOLY SEI'ULCHUE. JERUSALEM. FROM A PHOTOGRAPH. ISAIAH ISAIAH Padanaram ; and all that we know of him dur- ing the last forty-three years of his life is, that he saw that son, with a large and prosperous family, return to him at Hebron (xxxv. 27) be- fore he died there at the age, of 180 years.- He was buried by his two sons in the cave of Machpelah. In the N. T. reference is made to the oflfering of Isaac (Heb. xi. 17 ; and James ii. 21) and to his blessing his sons (Heb. xi. 20). In reference to the offering up of Isaac by Abraham, the primary doctrines taught are those of sacrifice and substitution, as the means appointed by God for taking away sin ; and, as co-ordinate with tHese, the need of the obedience of faith, on the part of man. to receive the benefit (Heb. xi. 17). A confusion is often made between Isaac and the victim actually offered. Isaac himself is gen- erally viewed as a type of the Son of God, offered for the sins of men ; but Isaac, himself one of the sinful race for whom atonement was to be made, — Isaac, who did not actually suffer death, — was no fit type of Him who "was slain, the just for the unjust." But the animal, not of the human race, which God pro- vided and Abraham offered, was in the whole history of sacrifice the recognized type of "the Lamb of God, that taketh away the sins of the world." Isaac is the type of humanity itself, devoted to death for sin, and submitting to the sentence. Isa'iah, the prophet, son of Amoz. The Hebrew name, our shortened form of which occurs with other persons [see Jesaiah, Jeshaiah], signifies Salvation of Jahu (a shortened form of Jehovah). He prophesied concerning Judah and Jerusalem in the days of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah, kings of Judah (Is. i. i). Isaiah must have been an old man at the close of Hezekiah's reign. The ordinary chronology gives 758 B. C. for the date of Jotham's accession, and 698 for that of Hezekiah's death. This gives us a period of sixty years. And since his ministry com- menced before Uzziah's death (how long we know not), supposing him to have been no more than twenty years old when he began to prophesy, he would have been eighty or ninety at Manasseh's accession. Rabbinical tradition says that Isaiah was sawn asunder in a trunk of a tree by order of Manasseh, to which it is supposed that reference is made in Hebrews xi. 37. I. Chs. i.-v. contain Isaiah's prophecies in the reigns of Uzziah and Jotham. Ch. i. is very general in its contents. Chs. ii.-iv. are one prophesying, — the leading thought of which is, that the present prosperity of Judah should be destroyed for her sins, to make room for the real glory of piety and virtue ; while ch. V. forms a distinct discourse, whose main purport is that Israel, God's vineyard, shall be brought to desolation. Ch. vi. describes an ecstatic vision that fell upon the prophet in the year of Uzziah's death. Ch. vi., vii., deliv- ered in the reign of Ahaz, when he was threat- ened by the forces of Pekah, king of Israel, and Rezin, king of Syria. As a sign that Judah was not yet to perish, he announces the birth of the child Immanuel, who should "know to refuse the evil and choose the good," before the land of the two hostile kings should be left desolate. Ch. viii.-ix. 7. As the Assy- rian empire began more and more to threaten the Plebrew commonwealth with utter over- throw, the prediction of the Messiah, the Re- storer of Israel, becomes more positive and clear. The king was bent upon an alliance with Assyria. This Isaiah steadfastly opposes. — Ch. ix. 8-x. 4 is a prophecy delivered at this time against the kingdom of Israel (ix. 8-x. 4). Ch. x. 5-xii. 6 is one of the most highly wrought passages in the whole book, and was probably one single prophecy. It stands wholly disconnected with the preceding in the circumstances which if presupposes ; and to what period to assign it is not easy to de- termine. Ch. xiii.-xxiii. contain chiefly a col- lection of utterances, each of which is styled a "burden." (a.) The first (xiii. i-xiv. 27) is against Babylon. The ode of triumph (xiv. 3-23) in this burden is among the most poeti- cal passages in all literature, (b.) The short and pregnant "burden" against Philistia (xiv. 29-32), in the year that Ahaz died, was oc- casioned by the revolt of the Philistines from Judah, and their successful inroad recorded in 2 Chr. xxviii. 18. (c.) The "burden of Moab" (xv., xvi.) is remarkable for the elegiac strain in which the prophet bewails the disasters of INIoab, and for the dramatic character of xvi. 1-6. (d.) Ch. xvii., xviii. This prophecy is headed "the burden of Damascus ;" and yet after ver. 3 the attention is withdrawn 'from Damascus and turned to Israel, and then to Ethiopia, (e.) In the "burden of Egypt" (xix.) the prophet prophesies the utter help- lessness of Egypt under God's judgments, probably to counteract the tendency which led both Judah and Israel to look towards Egypt for succor against Assyria, (f.) In the midst o'f these "burdens" stands a passage which presents Isaiah in a new aspect, an aspect in which he appears in this instance only. The more emphatically to enforce the warning al- ready conveyed in the "burden of Egypt,' Isaiah was commanded to appear in the streets and temple of Jerusalem stripped of his sack- cloth mantle, and wearing his vest only, with [69 ISAIAH ISHMAEL his feet also bare, (g.) In "the burden of the desert of the sea," a poetical designation of Babylonia (xxi. i-io), the images in which the fall of Babylon is indicated are sketched with Aeschylean grandeur, (h.) "The burden of Dumah," and "of Arabia" (xxi. 11-17), relate apparently to some Assyrian invasion, (i.) In "the burden of the valley of vision" (xxii. 1-14) it is doubtless Jerusalem that is thus designated. The scene presented is that of Jerusalem during an invasion, (k.) The passage in xxii. 15-25 is singular in Isaiah as a prophesying against an individual. Shebna was one of the king's highest functionaries, and seems to have been leader of a party op- posed to Jehovah (ver. 25). (1.) The last "burden" is against Tyre (xxiii.). Her utter destruction is not predicted by Isaiah as it afterwards was by Ezekiel. Ch. xxiv.-xxvii. form one prophecy, essentially connected with the preceding ten "burdens" (xiii.-xxiii.), of which it is in efiFect a general summary. In xxv., after commemorating the destruction of all oppressors, the prophet gives us in vers. 6-9 a most glowing description of Messianic bless- ings. In xxvi., vers. 12-18 describe the new happy state of God's people as God's work wholly. In xxvii. i, "Leviathan the fleeing serpent and Leviathan the twisting serpent, and the dragon in the sea," are perhaps Nineveh and Babylon — two phases of the same Asshur — and Egypt (comp. ver. 13) ; all, however, symbolizing adverse powers of evil. Ch. xxiii.-xxxv. predicts the Assyrian invasion. The prophet protests against the policy of courting the help of Egypt against Assyria (xxx. 1-17, xxxi. 1-3). Ch. xxxvii.-xxxix. At length the season so often, though no doubt obscurely foretold, arrived. The Assyrian was near, with forces apparently irresistible. In the universal consternation which ensued, all the hope of the state centered upon Isaiah ; the highest functionaries of the state — Shebna too — wait upon him in the name of their sov- ereign. The short answer which Jehovah gave through him was, that the Assyrian king should hear intelligence which should send him back to his own land, there to perish. How the deliverance was to be effected, Isaiah was not commissioned to tell ; but the very next night (2 K. xix. 35) brought the appalling ful- filment. II. The last 27 chapters form a separate prophecy, and are supposed by many critics to have been written in the time of the Babylonian captivity, and are therefore ascribed to a "later Isaiah." It is evident that the point of time and situation from which the prophet here speaks is that of the captivity in Babylon (comp. e. g. Ixiv. 10, 11); but ihis may be adopted on a principle which appears to characterize "vision," viz., that the prophet sees the future as if present. This second part falls into three sections, each, as it happens, consisting of nine chapters ; the two first end with the refrain, "There is no peace, saith Jehovah (or "my God"), to the wicked;" and the third with the same thought amplified, (i.) The first section (xl.-xlviii.) has for its main topic the comforting assurance of the deliver- ance from Babylon by Koresh (Cyrus) who is even named twice (xli. 2, 3, 25, xliv. 28, xlv. 1-4, 13, xlvi. II, xlviii. 14, 15). It is character- istic of sacred prophecy in general that the "vision" of a great deliverance leads the seer to glance at the great deliverance to come through Jesus Christ. This principle of asso- ciation prevails in the second part taken as a whole ; but in the first section, taken apart, it appears as yet imperfectly. (2.) The second section (xlix.-lvii.) is distinguished from the first by several features. The person of Cyrus as well as his name, and the specification of Babylon, disappear altogether. Return from exile is indeed spoken of repeatedly and at length (xlix. 9-26, li. 9, Hi. 12, Iv. 12, 13, Ivii. 14) ; but in such general terms as admit of being applied to the spiritual and Messianic, as well as to the literal restoration. (3.) In the third section (Iviii.-lxvi.), as Cyrus nowhere appears, so neither does "Jehovah's servant" occur so frequently to view as in the second. The only delineation of the latter is in Ixi. 1-3 and in Ixiii. 1-6, 9. He no longer appears as suffering, but only as saving and avenging Zion. The section is mainly occupied with various practical exhortations founded upon the views of the future already set forth. Iscar'iot. [Judas Iscariot.] Ish'mael (whom god hears). The son of Abraham by Hagar the Egyptian, his con- cubine ; born when Abraham was fourscore and six years old (Gen. xvi. 15, 16). Ishmael was the first-born of his father. He was born in Abraham's house, when he dwelt in the plain of Mamre ; and on the institution of the covenant of circumcision, Xvas circumcised, he being then thirteen years old (xvii. 25). With the institution of the covenant, God renewed his promise respecting Ishmael. He does not again appear in the narrative until the wean- ing of Isaac. The latter was born when Abra- ham was a hundred years old (xxi. 5), and as the weaning, according to Eastern usage, probably took place when the child was be- tween two and three 'years old, Ishmael him- self must have been then between fifteen and sixteen years of age. At the great feast made in celebration of the weaning, "Sarah saw the 170 ISHMAELITE ISRAEL, KINGDOM OF son of Hagar the Egyptian, which she had borne unto Abraham, mocking," and urged Abraham to cast out him and his mother. The patriarch, comforted by God's renewed prom- ise that of Ishmael He would make a nation, sent them both away, and they departed and wandered in the wilderness of Beersheba. It is doubtful whether the wanderers halted by the well, or at once continued their way to the "wilderness of Paran," where, we are told in the next verse to that just quoted, he dwelt, and where "his mother took him a wife out of the land of Egypt" (Gen. xxi. 9-21). This wife of Ishmael was the mother of his twelve sons, and daughter. Of the later life of Ishmael we know little. He was present with Isaac at the burial of Abraham. He died at the age of 137 years - (xxv. 17, 18). The sons of Ishmael peopled the north and west of the Arabian peninsula, and eventually formed the chief element of the Arab nation. Their language, which is generally acknowledged to have been the Arabic commonly so called, has been adopted with insignificant exceptions through- out Arabia. The term Ishmaelite occurs on three occasions: Gen. xxxvii. 25, 27, 28; xxxix. I ; Jifdg. viii. 24 ; Ps. Ixxxiii. 6. Ishmaelite. [Ishmael.] Isle. Tlie radical sense of the Hebrew word seems to be "habitable places," as opposed to water, and in this sense it occurs in Is. xlii. 15. Hence it means secondarily any maritime dis- trict, whether belonging to a continent or to an island: thus it is used of the shore of the Mediterranean (Is. xx. 6, xxiii. 2, 6), and of the coasts of Elishah (vEz. xxvii. 7), i. e. of Greece and Asia Minor. Is'i^el. I. The name given (Gen. xxxii. 28) to Jacob after his wrestling with the Angel (Hos. xii. 4) at Peniel. Gesenius interprets Israel "soldier of God." 2. It became the na- tional name of the twelve tribes collectively. They are so called in Ex, iii. 16 and after- wards. 3. It is used in a narrower sense, ex- cluding Judah, in i Sam. xi. 8 ; 2 Sam. xx. i; I K. xii. 16. Thenceforth it was assumed and accepted as the name of the Northern King- dom. 4. After the Babylonian captivity, the returned exiles resumed the name Israel as the designation of their nation. The name Israel is also used to denote laymen, as distin- guished from Priests, Levites, and other min- isters (Ezr. vi. 16, ix. i, x. 25; Neh. xi. 3, &c.). Israel, Kingdom of. i. The prophet Ahijah of Shiloh, who was commissioned in the lat- ter days of Solomon to announce the division of the kingdom, left one tribe (Judah) to the house of David, and assigned ten to Jeroboam '/i K. xi. 31, 35). These were probably Jo- 17 seph (=Ephraim and Manasseh), Issachar, Zebulun, Ashcr, Naphtali, Benjamin, Dan, Simeon, Gad, and Reuben'; Levi being inten- tionally omitted. Eventually the greater part of Benjamin and probably . the whole of Simeon and Dan, were included as if by com- mon consent in the kingdom of Judah. With respect to the conquests of David, Moab ap- pears to have been attached to the kingdom of Israel (2 K. iii. 4; so much of Syria as re- mained subject to Solomon (see i K. xi. 24) would probably be claimed by his successor in the northern kingdom ; and Ammon, though connected with Rehoboam as his mother's na- tive land (2 Chr. xii. 13), and though after- wards tributary to Judah (2 Chr. xxvii. 5), was at one time allied (2 Chr. xxi. i), we know not how closely or how early, with Moab. The sea-coast between Accho and Japho remained in the possession of Israel. 2. The population of the kingdom is not expressly stated ; and in drawing any inference from the numbers of fighting men, we must bear in mind that the numbers in the Hebrew text are strongly suspected to have been subjected to extensive, perhaps systematic, corruption. Jeroboam brought into the field an army of 800,000 men (2 Chr. xiii. 3). If in B. C. 957 there were actually under arms 800,000 men of that age in Israel, the whole population may perhaps have amounted to at least three millions and a half. 3. Shechem was the first capital of the new kingdom (i K. xii. 25), venerable for its traditions, and beautiful in its situation. Sub- sequently Tirzah became the royaj residence, if not the capital, of Jeroboarn (i K. xiv. 17) and of his successors (xv. 33, xvi. 8, 17, 12). Samaria, uniting in itself the qualities of beauty and fertility, and a commanding posi- tion, was. chosen by Omri (i K. xvi. 24), and remained the capital of the kingdom until it had given the last proof of its strength by sus- taining for three years the onset of the hosts of Assyria. ^Jezreel was probably only a royal residence of some of the Israelitish kings. 4. The kingdom of Israel lasted 254 years, from C. 975 to B. C. 721, about two-thirds of the duration of its more compact neighbor Judah. The detailed history of the kingdom will be found under the names of its nineteen kings. A summary view may be taken in four pe- riods: (a) B. C. 975-929. Jeroboam had not sufificient force of character in himself to make a lasting impression on his people. A king, but not a founder of a dynasty, he aimed at nothing beyond securing his present elevation. The army soon learned its power to dictate to the isolated monarch and disunited people. Baasha, in the midst of the army at Gibbethon, ISRAEL, KINGDOM OF slew the son and successor of Jeroboam; Zimri, a captain of chariots, slew the son and successor of Baasha; Omri, the captain of the host, was chosen to punish Zimri ; and after a civil war of four years he prevailed over Tibni, the choice of half the people, (b) B. C. 929- 884. For forty-five years Israel was governed by the house of Omri. That sagacious king pitched on the strong hill of Samaria as the site of his capital. The princes of his house cultivated an alliance with the kings of Judah, which was cemented by the marriage of Jehoram and Athaliah. The adoption of Baal- worship led to a reaction in the nation, to the moral triumph of the prophets in the person of Elijah, and to the extinction of the house of Ahab in obedience to the bidding of Elisha. (c) B. C- 884-772. Unparalleled triumphs, but deeper humiliation, awaited the kingdom of Israel under the dynasty of Jehu. Hazael, the ablest king of Damascus, reduced Jehoahaz to the condition of a vassal, and triumphed for a time over both the disunited Hebrew king- doms. Almost the first sign of the restoration of their strength was a war between them ; and Jehoash, the grandson of Jehu, entered Jeru- salem as the conqueror of Amaziah. Jehoash also turned the tide of war against the Syrians ; and Jeroboam II., the most powerful of all the kings of Israel, captured Damascus, and re- covered the whole ancient frontier from Hamath to the Dead Sea. This short-lived greatness expired with the last king of Jehu's line, (d) B. C. 772-721. Military violence, it would seem, broke off the hereditary succes- sion after the obscure and probably convulsed reign of Zachariah. An unsuccessful usurper, Shallum, is followed by the cruel Menahem, who, being unable to make head against the first attack of Assyria under Pul, became the agent of that monarch for the oppressive tax- ation of his subjects. Yet his power at home was sufficient- to insure for his son and suc- cessor Pekahiah a ten years' reign, cut short by a bold usurper, Pekah. Abandoning the northern and trans-Jordanic regions to the en- croaching power of Assyria under Tiglath- Pileser, he was very near subjugating Judah, with the help of Damascus, now the coequal ally of Israel. But. Assyria interposing sum- marily put an end to the independence of Da- mascus, and perhaps was the indirect cause of the assassination of the baffled Pekah. The irresolute Hoshea, the next and last usurper, became tributary to his invader, Shalmaneser, betrayed the Assyrian to the rival monarchy of Egypt, and was punished by the loss of his liberty, and by the capture, after a three years' siege, of his strong capital, Samaria. Some JACINTH gleanings of the ten tribes yet remained in the land after so many years of religious decline, moral debasement, national degradation, an- archy, bloodshed, and deportation. Even these were gathered up by the conqueror, and car- ried to Assyria, never again, as a distinct peo- ple, to occupy their portion of that goodly and pleasant land which their forefathers won un- der Joshua from the heathen. Is'raelite. In 2 Sam. xvii. 25, Ithra, the fa- ther of Amasa, is called "an Israelite," while in I Chr. ii. 17 he appears as "Jether the Ish- maelite." The latter is undoubtedly the true reading. Italian Band, [Army.] It'aly. This word is used in the N. T. (Acts xviii. 2, xxvii. i; Heb. xiii. 24), in the usual sense of the period, i. e. in its true geographi- cal sense, as denoting the wliole natural penin- sula between the Alps and the Straits of Mes- sina. Ivory. The word shen literally signifies the "tooth" of any animal, and hence more espe- cially denotes the substance of the projecting tusks of elephants. It is remarkable that no word in Biblical Hebrew denotes an elephant, unless the latter portion of the compound shenhabbim be supposed to have this mean- ing. Gesenius derives it from th& Sanscrit ibhas, "an elephant." The skilled workmen of Hiram, king of Tyre, fashioned the great ivory throne of Solomon, and overlaid it with pure gold (i K. X. 18; 2 Chr. ix. 17). The ivory thus employed was supplied by the caravans of Dedan (Is. xxi. 13; Ez. xxvii. 15), or was brought with apes and peacocks by the navy of Tarshish (i K. x. 22). The "ivory house" of Ahab (i K. xxii. 39) was probably a palace, the walls of which were panelled with ivory, like the palace of Menelaus, described by Ho- mer (Odys. iv. 73). Beds inlaid or veneered with ivory were in use among the Hebrews (Am. vi, 4), J. Jab'bok, a stream which intersects the mountain-range of Gilead (comp. Josh. xii. 2 and 5), and falls into the Jordan about mid- way between the sea of Galilee and the Dead Sea. It was anciently the border of the chil- dren of Ammon (Num. xxi. 24; Deut. ii. 37, iii. 16). It was on the south bank of the Jab- bok the interview too place between Jacob and Esau (Gen. xxxii. 22) ; and this river afterward^ became, towards its western part, the boundary between the kingdoms of Sihon and Og (Josh. xii. 2, 5). Its modern name is Wady Zurka. Jacinth, a precious stone, forming one of the 172 OF m JACOB foundations of the walls of the new Jerusa- lem (Rev. xxi. 20). It seems to be identical with the Hebrew leshem (A. V. "ligure," Ex. xxviii. 19). The jacinth or hyacinth is a red variety of zircon, which is found in square prisms, of a white, gray, red, reddish-brown, yellow, or pale-green color. The expression in Rev. ix. 17, "of jacinth," applied to the breast- plate, is descriptive simply of a hyacinthine, i. e. dark-purple color. Ja'cob (supplanted), the second son of Isaac and Rebekah. He was born with Esau, when Isaac was 59 and Abraham 159 years old, probably at the well Lahai-roi. His his- tory is related in the latter half of the boot of Genesis. He bought the birthright from his brother Esau ; and afterwards, at his moth- er's instigation, acquired the blessing intended for Esau, by practising a well-known deceit on Isaac. Hitherto the two sons shared the wanderings of Isaac in the South Country ; but now Jacob, in his 78th year, was sent from the family home, to avoid his brother, and to seek a wife among his kindred in Padan-aram. As he passed through Bethel, God appeared to him. After the lapse of 21 years he returned from Padan-aram with two wives, two con- cubines, eleven sons, and a daughter, and large property. He escaped from the angry pursuit of Laban, from a meeting with Esau, and from the vengeance of the Canaanites provoked by the murder of Shechem ; and in each of those three emergencies he was aided and strength- .Tabbok (Wa'Jy Ziukaj. ened by the interposition of God, and in sign of the grace won by a night of wrestling with God his name was changed at Jabbok into Israel. Deborah and Rachel died before he reached Hebron ; and it was at Hebron, in the I22d year of his age, that he and Esau buried their father Isaac. Joseph, the favorite son of Jacob, was sold into Egypt eleven years be- fore the death of Isaac; and Jacob had prob- ably exceeded his 130th year when he went JAEL thither, being encouraged in a divine vision as he passed for the last time through Beersheba. He was presented to Pharaoh, and dwelt for seventeen years in Rameses and Goshen. After giving his solemn blessing to Ephraim and IManasseh, and his ,ovvn sons one by one, and charging the ten to complete their recon- ciliation with Joseph, he died in his 147th year. His body was embalmed, carried with great care and pomp into the land of Canaan, and deposited with his fathers, and his wife Leah," in the cave of Machpelah. — The example of Jacob is quoted by the first and the last of the Jacob's Well at Shechem. minor prophets. Hosea-, in the latter days of the kingdom, seeks (xii. 3, 4, 12) to convert the descendants of Jacob from their state of alienation from God, by recalling to their memory the repeated acts of God's favor shown to their ancestor. And Malachi (i. 2) strengthens the desponding hearts of the re- turned exiles by assuring them that the love which God bestowed upon Jacob was not with- held from them. Besides the frequent men- tion of his name in conjunction with those of the other two patriarchs, there are distinct ref- erences to events in the life of Jacob in four books of the N. T. In Rom. ix. 11-13, St. Paul adduces the history of Jacob's birth to prove that the favor of God is independent of the order of natural descent. In Heb. xii. 16, and xi. 21, the transfer of the birthright and Jacob's dying benediction are referred to. His vision at Bethel, and his possession of land at Shechem are cited in St. John i. 51, and iv. 5, 12. And St. Stephen, in his speech (Acts vii. 12, 16), mentions the famine which was the means of restoring Jacob to his lost son in Egypt, and the burial of the patriarch in Shechem. Ja'el, the wife of Heber the Kenite. In the headlong rout which followed the defeat of the Canaanites by Barak, Sisera, abandoning 73 JAMES his chariot the more easily to avoid notice, fled unattended, and in an opposite direction from that taken by his army, to the tent of the Kenite chieftainess. He accepted Jael's invi- tation to enter, and she flung a mantle over him as he lay v^^earily on the floor. When thirst prevented sleep, and he asked for water, she brought him buttermilk in her choicest vessel, thus ratifying with the semblance of ofificious zeal the sacred bond of Eastern hos- pitality. At last, with a feeling of perfect se- curity, the weary general resigned himself to the deep sleep of misery and fatigue. Then it was that Jael took in her left hand one of the great wooden pins which fastened down the cords of the tent, and in her right hand the mallet used to drive it into the ground, and with one terrible blow dashed it through Sisera's temples deep into the earth (Judg. v. 27). She then waited to meet the pursuing Barak, and led him into her tent that she might in his presence claim the glory of the deed ! Many have supposed that by this act she ful- filled the saying of Deborah, that God would sell Sisera into the hand of a woman (Judg. iv. 9) ; and hence they have supposed that Jael was actuated by some divine and hidden influence. But the Bible gives no hint of such an inspiration. James (the Greek form of Jacob). I. James the son of Zebedee, one of the Twelve Apos- tles. We first hear of him in A. D. 27, when Zebedee, a fisherman (Mark i. 20), was out on the Sea of Galilee with his two sons, James and John, and some boatmen. He was en- gaged in his customary occupation of fishing, and near him was another boat belonging to Simon and Andrew, with whom he and his sons_were in partnership. Finding themselves unsuccessful, the occupants of both boats came ashore, and began to wash their nets. At this time the new Teacher appeared upon the beach. At His call they left all, and be- came, once and forever, His disciples, here- after to catch men. For a full year we lose sight of St. James. He is then, in the spring of 28, called to the apostleship with his eleven brethren (Matt. x. 2; Mark iii. 14; Luke vi. 13; Acts i. 13). In the list of th« Apostles given us by St. Mark, and in the book of Acts, his name occurs next to that of Simon Peter: in the Gospels of St. Matthew and St. Luke it comes third. It is worthy of notice that with one exception (Luke ix. 28), the name of James is put before that of John, and that John is twice described as "the brother of James" (Mark v. 37; Matt. xvii. i). This would appear to imply that at this time James, either from age or character, took a higher po- JAMES THE LESS sition than his brother. It would seem to have been at the time of the appointment of the twelve Apostles that the name of Boanerges- was given to the sons of Zebedee. — The "Sons of Thunder" had a burning and impetuous spirit, which twice exhibits itself in its un- chastened form (Luke ix. 54; Mark x. 37). The first occasion on which this natural char- acter manifests itself in St. James and his brother is at the commencement of our Lord's last journey to Jerusalem in the year 30. He was passing through Samaria, and "sent mes- sengers before his face" into a certain village, "to make ready for him" (Luke ix. 52), i. e. in all probability to announce him as the Mes- siah. The Samaritans; with their old jealousy strong upon them, refused to receive him ; and in their exasperation James and John entreated their Master to follow the example of Elijah, and call down fire to consume them. At the end of the same journey a similar spirit ap- pears again (Mark x. 35). On the night be- fore the Crucifixion he was present at the Agony in the Garden. On the day of the As- cension he is mentioned as persevering with the rest of the Apostles and disciples in. prayer (Acts i. 13). Shortly before the day of the Passover, in the year 44, he was put to death by Herod Agrippa I. James the Less, son of Alphaeus or Clopas, and brother of our Lord (see above), was called to the- Apostolate, together with his younger brother Jude, in the spring of the year 28. It is not likely (though far from im- possible) that James and Jude took part with their brothers and sisters, and the Virgin Mary, in trying "to lay hold on" Jesus in the autumn of the same year (Mark iii. 21) ; and it is likely, though not certain, that it is of the other brothers and sisters, without these two, that St. John says, "Neither did His brethren believe on Him" (John vii. 5), in the autumn of A. D. 29. We hear no more of James till after the Crucifixion and the Resurrection. At some time in the forty days that intervened between the Resurrection and the Ascension the Lord appeared to him. This is not related by the Evangelists, but it is mentioned by St. Paul (i Cor. XV. 7). Again we lose sight of James for ten years, and when he appears once more it is in a far higher position than any that he has yet held. In the year 37 occurred the conversion of Saul. Three years after his conversion he paid his first visit to Jerusalem, but the Christians recollected what they had suffered at his hands, and feared to have any- thing to do with him. Barnabas, at this time of far higher reputation than himself, took him by the hand, and introduced him to Peter and 174 JAMES, GENERAL EPISTLE OP James (Acts ix. 27; Gal. i. 18, 19), and by their authority he was admitted into the society of the Christians, and allowed to associate freely with them during the fifteen days of his stay. Here we find James on a level with Peter, and with him deciding on the admission of St. Paul into fellowship with the Church at Jerusalem ; and from henceforth we always find him equal, or in his own department superior, to the very chiefest Apostles, Peter, John, and Paul. For by this time he had been appointed to preside over the infant Church in its most important centre, in a position equivalent to that of Bishop. This pre-eminence is evident throughout the after history of the Apostles, whether we read it in the Acts, in the Epistles, or in Ecclesiastical writers (Acts xii. 17, xv. 13, 19, xxi. 18; Gal. ii. 9). According to tra- dition, James was thrown down from the Temple by the Scribes and Pharisees ; he was then stoned and his brains dashed out by a fuller's club. James, The General Epistle of. The author* of this Epistle was in all probability James the son of Alphaeus, and our Lord's brother. It was written from Jerusalem, which St. James does not seem to have ever left. Its main ob- ject is not to teach doctrine, but to improve morality. St. James is the moral teacher of the N. T. He wrote for the Jewish Christians whether in Jerusalem or abroad, to warn them against the sins to which as Jews they were most liable, and to console and exhort them under the sufferings to which as Christians they were most exposed. It has been main- tained that the passage ii. 14-26 is a formal opposition to St. Paul's doctrine of Justifica- tion by Faith ; but if we consider the meaning of the two Apostles, we see at once that there is no contradiction either intended or possible St. Paul was opposing the Judaizing party, which claimed to earn acceptance by good works, whether the works of the- Mosaic law, or works of piety done by themselves. In op- position to these, St. Paul lays down the great truth that acceptance cannot be earned by man at all, but is the free gift of God to the Chris- tian man, for the sake of the merits of Jesus Christ, appropriated by each individual, and made his own by the instrumentality of faith. St. James, on the other hand, was opposing the old Jewish tenet that to be a child of Abraham was all in all ; that godliness 'was not neces- sary, so that the belief was correct. Jasper, a precious stone frequently noticed in Scripture. It was the last of the twelve inserted in the high-priest's breastplate (Ex. xxviii. 20, xxxix. 13), and the first of the twelve used in the foundations of the new Je- JEHORAM rusalem (Rev. xxi. 19). The characteristics of the stone,, as far as they are specified in Scripture (Rev. xxi. 11), are, that it was "most precious," and "like crystal :" we may also in- fer from Rev. iv. 3, that it was a stone of bril- liant and transparent light. The stone which we name "jasper" does not accord with this description. There can be no doubt that the diamond would more adequately answer to the description in the book of Revelation. Javelin. [Arms.] Jeb'usites, The, were descended from the third son of Canaan (Gen. x. 16; I Chr. i. 14). The actual people first appear in the inval- uable report of the spies (Num. xiii. 29). When Jabin organized his rising against Joshua he sent amongst others "to the Amorite, the Hittite, the Perizzite, and the Jebusite in the mountain" (Josh. xi. 3). A motintain-tribe they were, and a mountain- tribe they remained. "Jebas, which is Jeru- salem," lost its king in the slaughter of Beth- horon (Josh. x. i, 5, 26; comp. xii. 10), was sacked and burned by the men of Judah (Judg. i. 21), and its citadel finally scaled and occu- pied by David (2 Sam. v. 6). After this they emerge from the darkness but once, in the per- son of Araunah the Jebvisite, "Araunah the king," who appears before us in true kingly dignity in his well-known transaction with David (2 Sam. xxiv. 23; i Chr. xix. 23). Jeho'ram (whom God has exalted), i. Son of Ahab king of Israel, who succeeded his brother Ahaziah, B. C. 896, and died B. C. 884. The alliance between the kingdoms of Israel and Judah, commenced by his father and Jehoshaphat, was very close throughout the reign. We first find him associated with Jehoshaphat and the king of Edom, at that time a tributary of the kingdom of Judah, in a war against the Moabites. The three armies were in the utmost danger of perishing for want of water. The piety of Jehoshaphat sug- gested' an inquiry of some prophet of Jehovah, and Elisha, at that time and since the latter part of Ahab's reign Elijah's attendant (2 K. iii. 11; I K. xix. 19-21), was found with the host. From him Jehoram received a severe rebuke, and was bid to inquire of the prophets of his father and mother, the prophets of Baal. Nevertheless for Jehoshaphat's sake Elisha in- quired of Jeliovah, and received the promise of an abundant supply of water, and of a great victory over tlie Moabites; a promise which was immediately fulfilled. The Moabites were put to the rout. A little later, when war broke out between Syria and Israel, we find Elisha befriending Jehoram. What happened after this to change the relations between the king 75 JEHOSHAPHAT JEHOSHAPHAT, VALLEY OF and the prophet we can only conjecture. B+it it seems probable that when the Syrian inroads ceased, and he felt less dependent upon the aid of the prophet, he relapsed into idolatry, and was rebuked by Elisha, and threatened with a return of the calamities from which he had escaped. The providential interposition by which both Elisha's life was saved and the city delivered, is narrated 2 K. vii., and Jehoram appears to have returned to friendly feeling towards Elisha (2 K. viii. 4). It was very soon after the above events that Elisha went to Damascus, and predicted the revolt of Hazael, and his accession to the throne of Syria in the room of Ben-hadad. Jehoram seems to have thought the revolution in Syria, which immediately followed Elisha's predic- tion, a good opportunity to pursue his father's favorite project of recovering Ramoth-Gilead from the Syrians. He accordingly made an al- liance with his nephew Ahaziah, who had just succeeded Joram on the throne of Judah, and the two kings proceeded to occupy Ramoth- Gilead by force. The expedition was an unfor- tunate one. Jehoram was wounded jn battle, and obliged to return to Jezreel to be healed of his wounds (2 K. viii. 29, ix. 14, 15), leaving his army under Jehu to hold Ramoth- Gilead against Hazael. Jehu, however, and the army under his command, revolted from their allegiance to Jehoram (2 K. ix.), and hastily marching to Jezreel, surprised Jeho- ram, wounded and defenceless as he was. Jehoram, going out to meet him, fell pierced by an arrow from Jehu's bow on the very plot of ground which Ahab had wrested from Naboth the Jezreelite ; thus fulfilling to the letter the prophecy of Elijah (i K. xxi. 21, 29). With the life of Jehoram ended the dynasty of Omri. Jehosh'aphat (whom Jehovah judges), i. King of Judah, son of Asa, succeeded to the throne B. C. 914, when he was 35 years old, and reigned 25 years. His history is to be found among the events recorded in i K. xv. 24; 2 K. viii. 16, or in a continuous narrative in 2 Chr. xvii. i-xxi. 3. He was contemporary with Ahab, Ahaziah, and Jehoram. At first he strengthened himself against Israel by fortify- ing and garrisoning the cities of Judah and the Ephraimite conquests of Asia. But soon afterwards the two Hebrew kings, perhaps ap- l)reciating their common danger from Damas- cus and the tribes on their eastern frontier, formed an alliance. Jehoshaphat's eldest son Jehoram married Athaliah, the daughter of Ahab and Jezebel. In his own kingdom Jehoshaphat ever showed himself a zealous follower of the commandments of God : he tried, it would seem not quite successfully, to put down the high places and groves in which the people of Judah burnt incense. Riches and honors increased around him. He received tribute from the Philistines and Arabians; and kept up a large standing army in Jerusalem. It was probably about the i6th year of his reign (B. C. 898) when he went to Samaria to visit Ahab, and to become his ally in the great battle of Ramoth-Gilead. From thence Jehoshaphat returned to Jerusalem in peace ; and went himself through the people "from Beersheba to Mount Ephraim," reclaiming them to the law of God. Turning his attention to foreign commerce, he built at Ezion-geber, with the help of Ahaziah, a navy designed to go to Tarshish ; but it was wrecked at Ezion- geber. Before the close of his reign he was engaged in two additional wars. He was miracuously delivered from a threatened at- tack of the people of Ammon, Moab, and Seir. Valley of Jehosliapbat. Tomb of Absalom. Tomb of St. James. Tomb of Zechariah. After this, perhaps, must be dated the war which Jeho,shaphat, in conjunction with Jeho- ram king of Israel and the king of Edom, car- ried on against the rebellious king of Moab (2 K. iii.). In his declining years the admin- istration of affairs was placed (probably B. C. 891) in the hands of his son Jehoram. Jehosh'aphat, Valley of, a valley mentioned by Joel only, as the spot in which, after the return of Judah and Jerusalem from captivity, Jehovah would gather all the heathen (Joel iii. 2), and would there sit and judge them for their misdeeds to Israel (iii. 12). The prophet seems to have glanced back at that triumphant day when king Jehoshaphat, the greatest king the nation had seen since Solomon, led out his people to a valley in the wilderness of Tekoah, and was there blessed with such a victory over the hordes of his enemies as was without 176 JEHOVAH JEHU a parallel in the national records (2 Chr. xx.).j The scene of "Jehovah's judgment" has been' localized, and the name has come down to us attached to that deep ravine which separates Jerusalem from the Blount of Olives, through which at one time the Kedron forced its stream. At what period the name was first applied to this spot is not known. There is no trace of it in the Bible or in Josephus. In both the only name used for this gorge is Kid- ron (X. T. Cedron). We first encounter its new title in the middle of the 4th century in the Onomasticon of Eusebius and Jerome, and in the Commentary of the latter Father on Joel. Since that time the name has been rec- ognized and adopted by travelers of all ages and faiths. Both ^Moslems and Jews believe that the last judgment is to take place there. Jehovah. The true pronunciation of this name, by which God was known to the He- brews, has been entirely lost, the Jews them- selves scrupulously avoiding every mention of it, and substituting in its stead one or other of the words with whose proper vowel-points it may happen to be written. This custom, which had its origin in reverence, and has al- most degenerated into a superstition, was founded upon an erroneous rendering of Lev. xxiv. 16, from which it was inferred that the mere utterance of the name constituted a cap- ital offence. According to Jewish tradition, it was pronounced but once a year by the high- priest on the day of Atonement when he en- tered the Holy of Holies ; but on this point there is some doubt. On the authority of Maimonides we learn that it ceased with Simeon the Just. But even after the destruc- tion of the second Temple instances are met with of individuals who were in possession of the mysterious secret. That the Hebrews learned the word from the Egyptians is a the- ory which has found some advocates. There can be but little doubt that the process in reality was reversed, and that in this case the Hebrews were, not the borrowers, but the lenders. We have indisputable evidence that it existed among them, whatever may have been its origin, many centuries before it is found in other records ; of the contrary we have no evidence whatever. One argument for the Egyptian origin of Jehovah may be no- ticed. It is found in the circumstance that Pharaoh changed the name of Eliakim to Jehoiakim (2 K. xxiii. 34), which it is asserted is not in accordance with the practice of con- querors towards the conquered, unless the Egyptian king imposed upon the king of Judah the name of one of his own gods. But the same reasoning would prove that the origin of the word was Babylonian, for the king of Babylon changed the name of Mattaniah to Zedekiah (2 K. xxiv, 17). But many, aban- doning as untenable the theory of an Egyp- tian origin, have sought to trace the name among the Phoenicians and Canaanitish tribes. From the occurrence of Jehovah as a compound in the proper names of many who were not Hebrews, Hamaker contends that it must have been known among heathen people. But such knowledge, if it existed, was no more than might have been obtained by their necessary contact with the Hebrews. The names of Uriah the Hittite, of Araunah or Aranjah the Jebusite, of Tobiah the Ammonite, and of the Canaanitish town Bizjothjah, may be all ex- plained without having recourse to Hamaker's hypothesis. Most of the authorities on the opposite side have taken for the basis of their explanations, and the different methods of punctuation which they propose, the passage in Ex. iii. 14, to which we must naturally look for a solution of the question. When Moses received his commission to be the deliverer of Israel, the Almighty, who appeared in the burning bush, communicated to him the name which he should give as the credentials of his mission : "And God said unto Moses, I am that I am ; and he said, Thus shalt thou say unto the children of Israel, I am hath sent me unto you." That this passage is intended to indicate the etymology of Jehovah, as un- derstood by the Hebrews, no one has ventured to doubt. While Elohim exhibits God dis- played in his power as the creator and gov- ernor of the physical universe, the name Jehovah designates his nature as He stands in relation to man, as the only almighty, true, personal, holy Being, a spirit, and "the father of spirits" (Num. xvi. 22; comp. John iv. 24), who revealed himself to his people, made a covenant with them, and became their law- giver, and to whom all honor and worship are due. Jehu (the living). The founder of the fifth dynasty of the kingdom of Israel, son of Jehoshaphat (2 K. ix. 2). His first appear- ance in history is when he heard the warning of Elijah against the murderer of Naboth (2 K. ix. 25). In the reigns of Ahaziah and Jeho- ram, he had risen to importance. He was, under the last-named king, captain of the host in the siege of Ramoth-Gilead. Whilst in the midst of the officers of the besieging army a youth suddenly entered, of wild appearance (2 K. ix. 11), and uncovered a vial of the sacred oil which he had brought with him, poured it over Jehu's head, and after announcing to him the message from Elisha, that he was ap- 177 JEHU JEREMIAH pointed to be king of Israel and destroyer of the house of Ahab, rushed out of the house and disappeared. In a moment the enthusiasm of the army took fire, and ordained him king. He then cut off all communication between Ramoth-Gilead and Jezreel. From the tower of.Jezreel a watchman saw the cloud of dust (A. V. "Company") and announced his com- ing (2 K. ix. 17). It was not till he had al- most reached the city, and was identified by the watchman, that alarm was taken. Jehu seized his opportunity, and shot Jehoram through the heart (ix. 24). Jehu himself ad- vanced to the gates of Jezreel and fulfilled the divine warning on Jezebel as already on Jehoram. He then entered on a work of ex- termination hitherto unparalleled in the his- tory of the Jewish monarchy. All the descend- ants of Ahab that remained in Jezreel, together The Black Obelisk Inscribed -with the Names of Jehu and Ilazael. with the officers of the court, and hierarchy of Astarte, were swept away. His next step was to secure Samaria. There was to be a new inauguration of the worship of Baal. A sol- emn assembly, sacred vestments, innumerable victims, were ready. The vast temple at Samaria raised by Ahab (i K. xvi. 32) was crowded from end to end. The chief sacrifice was offered, as if in the excess of his zeal, by Jehu himself. As soon as it was ascertained that all, •and none but, the idolaters were there, the signal was given to eighty trusted guards, and a sweeping massacre removed at one blow the whole heathen population of the kingdom of Israel. This is the last public act recorded of Jehu. The remaining twenty-seven years of his long reign are passed over in a few words, in which two points only are material: I — He did not destroy the calf-worship of Jero- boam : — The trans- Jordanic tribes suffered much from the ravages of Hazeal (2 K. x. 29- 33). He was buried in state in Samaria, and was succeeded by his son Jehoahaz (2 K. x. 35). His name is the first of the Israelite kings which appears in the Assyrian monu- ments. Jeph'thah (whom God sets free), a judge, about B. C. 1143-1137, His history is con- tained in Judg. xi. i-xii. 8. He was a Gileadite, the son of Gilead and a conculiine. Driven by the legitimate sons from his father's inher- itance, he went to Tob, and became the head of a company of freebooters in a debatable land probably belonging to Ammon (2 Sam. x. 6). His fame as a bold and successful captain was carried back to his native Gilead ; and when the time was ripe for throwing off the yoke of Ammon, Jephthah consented to be- come their captain, on the condition (solemnly ratified before the . Lord in Mizpeh) that in the event of his success against Amnion he should still remain as their acknowledged head. He collected warriors throughout Gilead and Manasseh, the provinces which acknowledged his authority ; and then he vowed his vow unto the Lord. The Ammon- ites were routed with great slaughter. But as the conqueror returned to Mizpeh there came out to meet him a procession of damsels with dances and timbrels, and among them — the first person from his own house — his daugh- ter and only child. "Alas! my daughter, thou hast brought me very low," was the greeting of the heart-stricken father. But the high- minded maiden is ready for any personal suf- fering in the hour of her father's triumph. Only she asks for a respite of two months to withdraw to her native mountains, and in their recesses to weep with her virgin-friends over the early disappointment of her life. When that time was ended she returned to her father, and "he did unto her his vow." But Jephthah had not long leisure, even if he were disposed, for the indulgence of domestic grief. The proud tribe of Ephraim challenged his right to go to war, as he had done without their con- currence, against Ammon. He first defeated them, then intercepted the fugitives at the fords of Jordan, and there put forty-two thou- sand to the sword. He judged Israel six years and died. It is generally conjectured that his jurisdiction was limited to the trans-Jordanic region. That the daughter of Jephthah was really offered up to God in sacrifice, is a con- clusion which it seems impossible to avoid. Jeremi'ah (whom Jehovah has appointed) was "the son of Hilkiah of the priests that JEREMIAH JERICHO were in Anathoth" (Jer. i. i), and was a child in the reign of Josiah, B. C. 638-608 (i. 6). In his youth he was called to the prophetic office, but we have hardly any mention of him during the eighteen years between his call and Josiah's death, or during the short reign of Jehoahaz. Under Jehoiakim, B. C. 607-597, he opposed the Egyptian party, then dominant in Jerusa- lem, and maintained that the only way of safety lay in accepting the supremacy of the Chaldeans. He was accordingly accused of treachery, and men claiming to be prophets had their "word of Jehovah" to set against his (xiv. 13, xxiii. 7). As the danger from the Chaldeans became more threatening, the per- secution against Jeremiah grew hotter (xviii.). The people sought his life ; his voice rose up in the prayer that God would deliver and avenge him. That thought he soon repro- duced in act as well as word. Standing in the valley of Ben-Hinnom, he broke the earthen vessel he carried in his hands, and prophesied to the people that the whole city should be defiled with the dead, ^s that valley had been, within their memory, by Josiah (xix. 10-13). The boldness of the speech and act drew upon him immediate punishment. The years that followed brought no change for the better. Famine and drought were added to the mis- eries of the people (xiv. i), but false prophets still deceived them with assurances of plenty ; and Jeremiah was looked on with dislike, as "a prophet of evil," and "every one cursed" him (xv. 10). He was set, however, "as a fenced brazen wall" (xv. 20), and went on with his work, reproving king and nobles and people. The danger which Jeremiah had so long foretold at last came near. First Jehoia- kim, and afterwards his successor Jehoiachin, were carried into exile (2 K. xxiv.) ; but Zede- kiah (B. C. 597-586), who was appointed by Nebuchadnezzar, does not exhibit the same obstinate resistance. The approach of an Egyptian army, and the consequent departure of the Chaldeans, made the position of Jere- miah full of danger ; and he sought to ef¥ect his escape, but he was seized and thrown into a dungeon (xxxvii. 16). The return of the Chaldean army filled both king and people with dismay (xxxii. i) ; and the risk now was, that they would pass from their presumptuous confidence to the opposite extreme, and sink down in despair, with no faith in God and no hope for the future. The prophet was taught how 40 meet that danger also. In his prison, while the Chaldeans were ravaging the coun- try, he bought, with all requisite formalities, the field at Anathoth which his kinsman Ha- nameel wished to get rid of (xxxii. 6-9). His faith in the promises of God did not fail him. At last the blow came. The city was taken, the Temple burnt. The king and his princes shared the fate of Jehoiachin. The prophet gave utterance to his sorrow in the Lamenta- tions. After the capture of Jerusalem, B. C. 586, the Chaldean party in Judah had now the prospect of better things. We find a special charge given to Nebuzaradan (xxxix. 11 to protect the person of Jeremiah ; and, after being carried as far as Ramah with the crowd of captives (xl. i), he was set free, and Gedeliah made governor over the cities of Judah. The feeling of the Chaldeans towards him was shown yet more strongly in the offer made him by Nebuzaradan (xl. 4, 6). For a short time there was an interval of peace (xl. 9-12), soon broken, however, by the murder of Gedaliah by Ishmael and his associates. The prophet escaped from the massacre ; and the people, under Johanan, who had taken the command on the death of Gedaliah, turned to him for counsel. His warnings and assur- ances were in vain, and did but dfaw on him and Baruch the old charge of treachery (xliii. 3). The people followed their own counsel, and in order to escape the vengeance of Nebu- chadnezzar for the murder of Gedaliah, they determined to take refuge in Egypt. They carried with them Jeremiah and his faithful friend and amanuensis Baruch. In Egypt, in the city of Tahpanhes, we have the last clear glimpses of the Prophet's life. His words are sharper and stronger than ever. He does not shrink, even there, from speaking of the Chal- dean king once more as "the servant of Jeho- vah" (xliii. 10). After this all is uncertain, but he probably died in Egypt. [Lamenta- tions of Jeremiah.] Jer'icho (place of fragrance), a city of high antiquity, situated in a plain traversed by the Jordan, and exactly over against where that river was crossed by the Israelites under Joshua (Josh. iii. 16). It had a king. Its walls were so considerable that houses were built upon them (ii. 15), and its gates were shut, as throughout the East still, "when it was dark" (v. 5). The spoil that was found in it betokened its affluence. Jericho is fifst men- tioned as the city to which the two spies were sent by Joshua from Shittim ; they were lodged in the house of Rahab the harlot upon the wall, and departed, having first jTromised to save her and all that were found in her house from destruction (ii. 1-21). As it had been left by Joshua it was bestowed by him upon the tribe of Benjamin (Josh, xviii. 21), and from this time a long interval elapses before Jericho appears again upon the scene. The solemn 179 JERICHO manner in which its second foundation under Hiel the Bethelite is recorded (i K. xvi. 34) implies that up to that time its site had been uninhabited. Once rebuilt, Jericho rose again slowly into consequence. In its immediate vicinity the sons of the prophets sought retire- ment from the world ; Elisha "healed the spring of the waters ;" and over against it, beyond Jordan, Elijah "went up by a whirl- wind into heaven" (2 K. ii. 1-22). In its plains Zedekiah fell into the hands of the Chaldeans (2 K. XXV. 5; Jer. xxxix. 5). In the return under Zerubbabel the "children of Jericho," 345 in number, are comprised (Ez. iii. 34; Neh. vii. 36). Under Herod the Great it again became an important place. He built a fort there, which he called "Cyprus" in honor of his mother, a tower which he called in honor of his brother Phasaelis ; and a number of new palaces, which he named after his friends. He even founded a jiew town, higher up the plain, which he called, like the tower, Phasaelis. If he did not make Jericho his habitual residence, he at least retired thither to die, and it was in the amphitheatre of Jericho that the news of his death was announced to the assembled sol- diers and people by Salome. Soon afterwards the palace was burnt, and the town plundered by one Simon, slave to Herod ; but Archelaus rebuilt the former sumptuously, and founded a new town' on the plain, that bore his own name ; and, most important of all, diverted water from a village called Neaera, to irrigate Jerkho. the plain which he had planted with palms. Thus Jericho was once more "a city of palms" when our Lord visited it. Here He restored sight to the blind (Matt. xx. 30; Mark x. 46; Luke xviii. 35). Here the descendant of Ra- hab did not disdain the hospitality of Zac- chaeus the publican. Finally, between Jeru- I JEROBOAM salem and Jericho was laid the scene of his story of the good Samaritan. The city was destroyed by Vespasian. The site of ancient (the first) Jericho is placed by Dr. Robinson in the immediate neighborhood of the fountain of Elisha ; and that of the second (the city of the N. T. and of Josephus) at the opening of Fountain of Elisha at Jericho. the Wady Kelt (Cherith), half an hour from the fountain. Jerobo'am (whose people are many). The first king of the divided kingdom of Israel (B. C. 975-954), was the son of an Ephraimite of the name of Nebat. He was employed by Solomon in the fortifications of Millo under- neath the citadel of Zion, and was raised to the rank of superintendent over the taxes and labors exacted from the tribe of Ephraim (i K. xi. 28). He made the most of his position, and at last was perceived by Solomon to be aiming at the monarchy. He was leaving Je- rusalem, when he encountered Ahijah, "the prophet," who gave Jeroboam the assurance that on condition of his obedience to His laws, God would establish for him a kingdom and dynasty equal to that of David (i K. xi. 29- 40). The attempts of Solomon to cut short Jeroboam's designs occasioned his flight into Egypt. There he remained during the rest of Solomon's reign. On Solomon's death, he demanded Shishak's permission to return.. The Egyptian king seems, in his reluctance, to have offered any gift which Jeroboam chose, as a reason for his remaining, and the conse- quence was the marriage with Ano, the elder sister of the Egyptian queen, Tahpenes, and of another princess who had married the Edomite chief Hadad. A year elapsed, and a son, Abijah (or Abijam), was born. Then Jeroboam again requested permission to de- part, Avhich was granted; and on his return to Shechem took place the conference with Reho- boam, and the final revolt [Rehoboam] ; which ended in the elevation of Jeroboam to the 80 m HI OF ihE JERUSALEM JERUSALEM throne of the northern kingdom. From this moment one fatal error undermined his dynasty and tarnished his name as the first king of Israel. He feared that the yearly pilgrimages to Jerusalem would undo all the work which he effected, and he took the bold step of ren- dering it asunder. He caused a golden figure of Mnevis, the sacred calf of Heliopolis, to be set up, with the address, "Behold thy God which brought thee up out of the land of Egypt." It was while dedicating the altar at Bethel that a prophet from Judah suddenly appeared, who denounced the altar, and fore- told its desecration by Josiah, and violent overthrow. The king, stretching out his hand to arrest the prophet, felt it withered and paralyzed, and only at the prophet's prayer saw it restored, and acknowledged his divine mission. Jeroboam was at constant war with the house of Judah, but the only act distinctly recorded is a battle with Abijah, son of Reho- boam, in which he was defeated. The calam- ity was severely felt; he never recovered the blow, and soon after died, in the 22d year of his reign (2 Chr. xiii. 20), and was buried in his ancestral sepulchre (i K. xiv. 20). Jeru'salem (the habitation of peace). Jeru- salem stands in latitude 31° 46' 35" North, and longitude 35° 18' 30" East of Greenwich. It is 32 miles distant from the sea, and 18 from the Jordan; 20 from Hebron, and 36 from Samaria. "In several respects," says Dean Stanley, "its situation is singular among the cities of Palestine. Its elevation is remarkable ; occasioned not from its being on the summit of one of the numerous hills of Judaea, like most of the towns and villages, but because it is on the edge of one of the highest table-lands of the country. Hebron indeed is higher still by some hundred feet, and from the south, ac- cordingly (even from Bethlehem), the ap- proach to Jerusalem is by a slight descent. But from any other side the ascent is per- petual ; and to the traveller approaching the city from the E. or W. it must always have presented the appearance beyond any other capital of the then known world — we may say beyond any important city that has ever existed on the earth — of a mountain city; breathing, as compared with the sultry plains of Jordan, a mountain air ; enthroned, as com- pared with Jericho or Damascus, Gaza or Tyre, on a mountain fastness." The elevation of Jerusalem is a subject of constant reference and exultation by the Jewish writers. Their fervid poetry abounds with allusions to its height, to the ascent thither of the tribes from all parts of the country. It was the habitation of Jehovah, from which "He looked upon all I the inhabitants of the world" (Ps. xxxiii. 14) : its kings were "higher than the kings of the earth" (Ps. Ixxxix. 27). Jerusalem, if not actually in the centre of Palestine, was yet vir- tually so. "It was on the ridge, the broadest and most strongly marked ridge of the back- bone of the complicated hills which extend through the whole country from the Plain of Esdraelon to the Desert. It was the water- shed between the streams, or rather the tor- rent beds, which find their way eastward to the Jordan, and those which pass westward to the Mediterranean. There appear to have been but two main approaches to the city. I. From the Jordan valley by Jericho and the Mount of Olives. This was the route commonly taken from the north and east of the country — as from Galilee by our Lord (Luke xvii. 11, xviii. 35, xix. I, 29, 45, &c.), from Damascus by Pompey, to Mahanaim by David (2 Sam. xv., xvi.). It was also the route from places in the central districts of the coun- try, as Samaria (2 Chr. xxviii. 15). The latter part of the approach, over the Mount of Olives, as generally followed at the present day, is identical with what it was, at least in one memorable instance, in the time of Christ. 2. From the great maritime plain of Philistia and Sharon. This road led by the two Beth- 81 JERUSALEM JERUSALEM horons up to the high ground at Gibeon, whence it turned south, and came to Jerusalem by Ramah and Gibeah, and over the ridge north of the city. To convey an idea of the position of Jerusalem, we may say roughly, that the city occupies the southern termination of a table-land, which is cut ofif from the coun- try round it on its west, south, and east sides, by ravines more than usually deep and precipitous. These ravines leave the level of the table-land, the one on the west and the other on the north-east of the city, and fall rapidly until they form a junction below its south-east corner. The eastern one — the Val- ley of the Kedron, commonly called the Valley of Jehoshaphat, runs nearly straight from north to south. But the western one — the Valley of Hinnom — runs south for a time, and then takes a sudden bend to the east until it meets the Valley of Jehoshaphat, after which the two rush off as one to the Dead Sea. How sudden is their descent may be gathered from the fact, that the level at the point of junction — about a mile and a quarter from the start- ing-point of each — is more than 600 feet below that of the upper plateau from which they commenced their descent. Thus, while on the north there is no material difference between the general level of the country outside the walls, and that of the highest parts of the city ; on the other three sides, so steep is the fall of the ravines, so trench-like their character, and so close do they keep to the promontory, at whose feet they run, as to leave on the be- holder almost the impression of the ditch at Interior of the Greek Church of the Holy Sepulchre. the foot of a fortress, rather than of valleys formed by nature. The first or old wall began on the north at the tower called Hippicus, the ruins now called Kasr Jalud at the N. W. angle of the present city, and, extending to the Xystus, joined the council house, and ended at I the west cloister of the Temple. Its southern direction is described as passing the gate of the Essenes (probably the modern Jaffa gate), and, bending above the fountain of Siloam, it reached Ophel, and was joined to the eastern cloister of the Temple. The second wall began at the gate Gennath, in the old wall, probably Church of the Holy Sepulchre, Jerusalem. near the Hippicus, and passed round the north- ern quarter of the city, enclosing the great valley of the Tyropoeon, which leads up to the Damascus gate ; and then, proceeding south- ward, joined the fortress Antonia. The direc- tion of this second wall was identical with that of the modern wall ; and some part at least of the northern portion of the western part of the Haram area is probably built on its site. The third wall was built by King Herod Agrippa, and w-as intended to enclose the suburbs which had grown out on the northern sides of the city, which before this had been left ex- posed. It began at the Hippicus, and reached as far as the tower Psephinus, till it came op- posite the monument of Queen Helena of Adiabene ; it then passed by the sepulchral monuments of the kings — a well-known lo- cality — and turning south at the monument of the Fuller, joined the old wall at the valley called the valley of Kedron. After describing these walls, Josephus adds that the whole cir- cumference of the city was 33 stadia, or nearly four English miles, which is as near as may be the extent indicated by the localities. He then adds that the number of towers in the old wall was 60, the middle wall 40, and the new wall 99. Streets, Houses, &c. — Of the nature of these in the ancient city we have only the most scattered notices. Streets, properly so called, there were (Jer. v. i, xi. 13, &c.), but the name of only one, "the bakers' street" (Jer. xxxvii. 2i), is preserved to us. To the houses we have even less clew ; but there is no reason to suppose that in either liouses or streets the JERUSALEM ancient Jerusalem differed very materially from the modern. No doubt the ancient city did not exhibit that air of mouldering dilapida- tion which is now so prominent there. The whole of the slopes south of the Haram area (the ancient Ophel), and the modern Zion, and the west side of the valley oi Jehoshaphat, present the appearance of gigantic mounds of rubbish. In this point at least the ancient city stood in favorable contrast with the modern, but in many others the resemblance must have been strong. Population. — Taking the area of the city enclosed by the two old walls at 750,- 000 yards and that enclosed by the wall of Agrippa at 1,500,000, we have 2,250,000 yards for the whole. Taking the population of the old city at the probable number of one person to 50 yards we have 15,000, and at the extreme limit of 30 yards we should have 25,000 in- habitants for the old city. And at 100 yards to each individual in the new city about 15,000 moie; so that the population of Jerusalem, in Pool of Ilezekiab, Inside the Jaffa Gate. its days of greatest prosperity, may have amqunted to from 30,000 to 45,000 souls, but could hardly ever have reached 50,000 ; and as- suming that in times of festival one half were added to this amount, which is an extreme estimate, there may have been 60,000 or 70,000 in the city when Titus came up against it. Environs of the City. — The various spots in the neighborhood of the city are . described under their own names, and to them the reader is accordingly referred. The Annals of the City. In considering the annals of the city of Jerusalem, nothing strikes one so forcibly as the number and severity of the sieges which it underwent. We catch our earliest glimpse of it in the brief notice of the ist chapter of Judges, which describes how the "children of Judah smote it with the edge of the sword, and set the city on fire ;" and almost the latest mention of it in the New Testament is con- tained in the solemn warnings in which Christ JERUSALEM foretold how Jerusalem should be "compassed with armies" (Luke xxi. 20), and the "abom- ination of desolation" be seen standing in the Holy Place (Matt. xxiv. 15). In the fifteen centuries which elapsed between those two points the city was besieged no fewer than Zion. seventeen times; twice it was razed to the ground ; and on two other occasions its walls were levelled. In this respect it stands with- out a parallel in any city, ancient or modern. The first siege appears to have taken place almost immediately after the death of Joshua (cir. 1400 B. C). Judah and Simeon "fought against it and took it, and smote it with the edge of the sword, and set the city on fire" (Judg. i. 8). To this brief notice Josephus makes a material addition. He tells us that Jaffa Gate and David's Tower, Jerusalem. the part which was taken at last, and in which the slaughter was made, was the lower city ; but that the upper city was so strong, that they relinquished the attempt and moved off to Hebron. As long as the upper city re- mained in the hands of the Jebusites they prac- 183 JERUSALEM JERUSALEM tically had possession of the whole, and a Jebusite city in fact it remained for a long period after this. The Benjamites followed the men of Judah to Jerusalem, but with no better result (Judg. i. 21). And this lasted during the whole period of the Judges, the reign of Saul, and the reign of David at Heb- ron. David advanced against the place at the head of a formidable army. No doubt he ap- The Golden Gate of Jerusalem. proached the city from the south. As before, the lower city was immediately taken — and as before, the citadel held out. The undaunted Jebusites, believing in the impregnability of their fortress, manned the battlements "with lame and blind." But they little understood the temper of the king or of those he com- manded. David's anger was thoroughly roused by the insult, and he at once proclaimed to his host that the first man who would scale the rocky side of the fortress and kill a Jebusite should be made chief captain of the host. A crowd of warriors rushed forward to the at- tempt, but Joab's superior agility gained him the day, and the citadel, the fastness of Zion, was taken (1046 B. C). It is the first time that that memorable name appears in history. The fortress, which now became the capital of the kingdom, received the name of "the city of David;" and David fortified its whole cir- cuit round about from Millo, while Joab re- paired the rest of the city. (2 Sam. v. 6-9; i Chr. xi. 4-8.) Until the time of Soromon we hear of no additions to the city. His three great works were the Temple, with its east wall and cloister, his own Palace, and the Wall of Jerusalem. One of the first acts of the new king was to make the walls larger. But on the completion of the Temple he again turned his attention to the walls, and both increased their height and constructed very large towers along them. Another work of I his in Jerusalem was the repair or fortification of Millo (i K. ix. 15, 24). The city was taken by the Philistines and Arabians in the reign of Jehoram (B. C. 886), and by the Israelites in the reign of Amaziah (B. C. 826). It was thrice taken by Nebuchadnezzar, in the years B. C. 607, 597, and 586, in the last of which it was utterly destroyed. Its restoration com- menced under Cyrus (B. C. 538), and was completed under Artaxerxes I., who issued commissions for this purpose to Ezra (B. C. 457) and Nehemiah (B. C. 445). In B. C. 332 it was captured by Alexander the Great. Under the Ptolemies and the Seleucidae the town was prosperous, until Antiochus Epiphanes sacked it (B. C. 170). In consequence of his tyranny, the Jews rose under the Maccabees, and Jerusalem became again independent, and re- tained its position until its capture by the Romans under Pompey (B. C. 63). The Tem- ple was subsequently plundered by Crassus (B. C. 54), and the city by the Parthians (E. C. 40). Herod took up his residence there as soon as he was appointed sovereign, and re- stored the Temple with great magnificence. On the death of Herod it became the residence of the Roman procurators, who occupied the fortress of Antonia. The greatest siege that it sustained, however, was at the hands of th'^ Romans under Titus, when it held out nearly five months, and when the town was com- pletely destroyed (A. D. 70). Hadrian restored it as a Roman colony (A. D. 135), and among St. Stephen's Gate, Jerusalem. other buildings erected a temple of Jupiter Capitolinus on the site of the Temple. He gave to it the name of Aelia Capitolma, thus combining his own family name with that of the Capitoline Jupiter. The emperor Con- stantine established the Christian characteV by the erection of a church on the supposed site of the holy sepulchre (A. D. 336). Of the buildings which Constantine or his mother, 84 TIIK SAVIOUI!. TIZIAXO VECELLIO (TITIAN). AFTER THE PAINTING IN THE IMTTI I'AIACE. FI,f)i;ENCE. THE l««"^AflY OF THE JERUSALEM JESSE Helena, erected, Mr. Fergusson maintains that two of tliem now remain, — the one the Anastasis, a circular building erected over the tomb itself; the other the "Golden Gateway," which was the propylea described by Eusebius as leading to the atrium of the basilica. Justinian added several churches and hospitals (about A. D. 532). It was taken by the Persians under Chosroes II. in A. D. 614. After a struggle of fourteen years the imperial arms were again victorious, and in 628 Heraclius entered Jerusalem on foot. The dominion of the Christians in the Holy City was now rap- idly drawing to a close. In A. D. 637 the patriarch Sophronius surrendered to the Khalif Omar in person. With the fall of the Abassides street in Jerusalem. the Holy City passed into the hands of the Fatimite dynasty, under whom the sufferings of the Christians in Jerusalem reached their height. About the year 1084 it was bestowed upon Ortok, chief of a Turkman horde under his command. From this time till 1091 Ortok was emir of the city, and on his death it was held as a kind of fiief by his sons Ilghazy and Sukman, whose severity to the Christians be- came the proximate cause of the Crusades. It was taken by the Crusaders in 1099, and for eighty-eight years Jerusalem remained in the hands- of the Christians. In 1187 it was re- taken by Saladin after a siege of several weeks. In 1277 Jerusalem was nominally annexed to the kingdom of Sicily. In 15 17 it passed under the sway of the Ottoman Sultan Selim I., whose successor Suliman built the present walls of the city in 1542. Mohammed Aly, the Pasha of Egypt, took possession of it in 1832; Coin to Commemorate the Capture of Judea, A. T '/O and in 1840. after the bombardment o£ Acv it was again restored to the Sultan. Jes'se (wealthy), the father of Bdv^id, was. the son of Obed, who again was the iniit of the union of Boaz and the Moabitess, Ruth. Nor was Ruth's the only foreign blood that ran in his veins ; for his great-grandinother was no less a person than Rahab the Canaanite, of Jericho (Matt. i. 5). Jesse'd genealogy is twice given in full in the O. T., viz. Ruth iv. 18-22, and I Chr. ii. 5-12. He is commonly designated as "Jesse the Rethlehemite" (i Sam. xvi. i, 18). The Way of the Cross, Jerusalem. So he is called by his son David, then fresh from home (xvii. 58) ; but his full title is "the Ephrathite of Bethlehem Judah" (xvii. 12). He is an "old man" when we first meet with him (i Sam. xvii. 12), with eight sons (xvi. 10, xvii. 12), residing at Bethlehem (xvi. 4, 5). Jesse's wealth seems to have consisted of a flock of 185 1 JESUITES sheep and goats, which were under the care of David (xvi. 1 1, xvii. 34, 35). When David's rupture with Saul had finally driven him from the court, and he was in the cave of Adullam, "his brethren and all his father's house" joined him (xxii. i). Anxious for their safety, he took his father and his mother into the country of Moab, and deposited them with the king, and there they disappear from our view in the records of Scripture. Jes'uites, The. A family of the tribe of Asher (Num. xxvi. 44). Je'sus. I. The Greek form of the name Joshua or Jeshua, a contraction of Jehoshua, that is, "help of Jehovah" or "Saviour" (Num. xiii. 16). 2. Joshua, son of Nun (vii. 45; Heb. iv. 8). [Jehoshua.] Je'sus Christ. I. Name. The name Jesus signifies Saviour. The name of Christ signifies Anointed. Priests were anointed among the Jews, as their inauguration to their office (i Chr. xvi. 22; Ps. cv. 15), and kings also (2 Mace. i. 24; Ecclus. xlvi. 19). In the New Testament the name Christ is used as equiva- lent to Messiah (John i. 41), the name given to the long-promised Prophet and King whom the Jews had been taught by their prophets to expect (Acts xix. 4; Matt. xi. 3). The use of this name, as applied to the Lord, has always a reference to the promises of the Prophets. The name of Jesus is the proper name of our Lord, and that of Christ is added to identify Him with the promised Messiah. IL Birth and Early Life. According to the received chronology, which is in fact that of Dionysius Exiguus in the 6th century, the Birth of Christ occurred in the year of Rome 754 (A. D. i) ; but from other considerations it is probable that the Nativity took place some time before the month of April, 750 (A. D. 4), and if it happened only a few months before Herod's death, then its date would be four years earlier than the Dionysian reckoning. The salutation addressed by the Angel to Mary His mother, "Hail! thou that art highly favored," was the prelude to a new act of divine creation. Mary received the announcement of a miracle, the full import of which she could not have vmder- stood, with the submission of one who knew that the message came from God ; and the Angel departed from her. The prophet Micah had foretold (v. 2) that the future king should be born in Bethlehem of Judaea, the place where the house of David had its origin ; but Mary dwelt in Nazareth. Augustus, however, had ordered a general census of the Roman empire. From the well-known passage of St. Luke (ii. 2) it appears that the taxing was not completed till the time of Quirinus (Cyrenius), JESUS CHRIST some years later; and how far it was carried now, cannot be determined : all that we learn is, that it brought Joseph, who was of the house of David, from his home to Bethlehem, where the Lord was born. As there was no room in the inn, a manger was the cradle in which Christ the Lord was laid. But signs were not wanting of the greatness of the event that seemed so unimportant. Lowly shepherds were the witnesses of the wonder that ac- companied the lowly Saviour's birth ; an angel proclaimed to them "good tidings of great joy;" and then the exceeding joy that was in heaven amongst the angels about this mystery of love broke through the silence of night with the words, "Glory to God in the highest, and on earth peace, good will toward men" (Luke ii. 8-20). The child Jesus is circumcised in due time, is brought to the Temple, and the mother makes the offering for her purification. Simeon and Anna, taught from God that the object of their earnest longings w^as before them, prophesied of His divine work: the one rejoic- ing that his eyes had seen the salvation of God, and the other speaking of Him "to all that looked for redemption in Jerusalem" (Luke ii. 28-38). Thus recognized amongst His own people, the Saviour was not without witness amongst the heathen. "Wise men from the East" — that is, Persian magi of the Zend re- ligion, in which the idea of a Zoziosh or Re- deemer was clearly known — guided miracu- lously by a star or meteor created for the pur- pose, came and sought out the Saviour to pay him homage. A little child made the great Herod quake upon his throne. When he knew that the magi were come to hail their king and Lord, and did not stop at his palace, but passed on to a humbler roof, and when he found that they would not return to betray this child to him, he put to death all the children in Bethlehem that were under two years old. Joseph, warned by a dream, flees to Egypt with the young child, beyond the reach of Herod's arm. After the death of Herod, in less than a year, Jesus returned with his par- ents to their own land, and went to Nazareth, . where they abode. Except as to one event, the Evangelists are silent upon the succeeding years of our Lord's life down to the commence- ment of His ministry. When He was twelve years old He was found in the Temple, hear- ing the doctors and asking them questions (Luke ii. 40-52). We are shown this one fact that we may know that at the time when the Jews considered childhood to be passing into youth, Jesus was already aware of His mis- sion, and consciously preparing for it, although years passed before its actual commencement. 186 JESUS CHRIST Thirty years had elapsed from the birth of our Lord to the opening of His ministry. In that time great changes had come over the chosen people. Herod the Great had united under him almost all the original kingdom of David ; after the death of that prince it was dismem- bered forever. It was in the fifteenth year of Tiberius the Emperor, reckoning from his joint rule with Augustus (Jan. U. C. 765, A. D. 12), and not from his sole rule (Aug. U. C. 767, A. D. 14), that John the Baptist began to teach. He was the last representative of the prophets of the old covenant ; and his work was twofold — to enforce repentance and the terrors of the old law, and to revive the almost forgotten expectation of the Messiah (Matt, iii. l-io; ]\Iark i. 1-8; Luke iii. 1-18). The career of John seems to have been verj^ short. Jesus came to Jordan with the rest to receive baptism at John's hands: first, in order that the sacrament by which all were hereafter to be admitted into His kingdom might not want His example to justify its use (Matt. iii. 15) ; next, that John might have an assurance that his course as the herald of Christ was now completed by his appearance (John i. 33) ; and last, that some public token might be given that He was indeed the Anointed of God (Heb. V. 5). Immediately after this inauguration of His ministry Jesus was led up of the Spirit into the wilderness to be tempted of the devil (Matt. iv. i-ii; Mark i. 12, 13; Luke iv. 1-13). The three temptations are addressed to the three forms in which the disease of sin makes its appearance on the soul — to the solace of sense, and the love of praise, and the desire of gain (i John ii. 16). III. The Lord's Min- istry. Before entering upon the history of our Lord's ministry, there are two points that demand a few remarks: (i.) the scene of the ministry; (ii.) its duration, (i.) The scene of the ministry. — As to the scene of the ministry of Christ, no less than as to its duration, the three Evangelists seem at first sight to be at variance with the fourth. Matthew, Mark, and Luke record only our Lord's doings in Galilee ; if we put aside a few days before the Passion, we find that they never mention His visiting Jerusalem. John, on the other hand, whilst he records some acts in Galilee, devotes the chief part of his Gospel to the transactions in Judaea. But when the supplemental character of John's Gospel is borne in mind there is lit- tle difficulty in explaining this. The three Evangelists do not profess to give a chronology of the ministry, but rather a picture of it: notes of time are not frequent in their narra- tive. And as they chiefly confined themselves to Galilee, where the Redeemer's chief acts JESUS CHRIST were done, they might naturally omit to men- tion the feasts, which, being passed by our Lord at Jerusalem, added nothing to the ma- terials for His Galilean ministry, (ii.) Dura- tion of the ministry. — It is impossible to de- termine exactly from the Gospels the number of years during which the Redeemer exercised His ministry before the Passion : but the doubt lies between two and three, i. First year of the ministry was U. C. 780 A. D. 27), and the Baptism of our Lord took place either in the beginning of that year or the end of the year preceding. Our Lord has now passed through the ordeal of temptation, and His ministry is begun. At Bethabara, to which He returns, disciples begin to be drawn to- wards Him ; Andrew and another, probably John, the sole narrator of the fact, see Jesus, and hear the Baptist's testimony concerning Him. Andrew brings Simon Peter to see Him also; and he receives from the Lord the name of Cephas. Then Philip and Nathanael are brought into contact with our Lord. The two disciples last named saw Him as He was about to set out for Galilee, on the third day of His sojourn at Bethabara. The third day after this interview Jesus is at Cana in Galilee, and works His first miracle, by making the water wine (John i. 29, 35, 43; ii. i). He now betakes Himself to Capernaum, and after a sojourn there of "not many days," sets out for Jerusalem to the Passover, which was to be the beginning of His ministry in Judaea (John ii. 12, 13). .The cleansing of the Temple is as- sociated by St. John with this first Passover (ii. 12-22), and a similar cleansing is assigned to the last Passover by the other Evangelists. These two cannot be confounded without throwing discredit on the historical character of one narrative or the other ; the notes of time are too precise. The expulsion of the traders was not likely to produce a permanent effect, and at the end of three years Jesus found the tumult and the traffic defiling the court of the Temple as they had done when He visited it before. After a sojourn at Jeru- salem of uncertain duration, Jesus went to the Jordan with His disciples ; and they there baptized in His name. The Bap- tist was now at Aenon near Salim ; and the jealousy of his disciples against Jesus drew from John an avowal of his position, which is remarkable for its humility (John iii. 27-30). How long this sojourn in Judaea lasted is uncertain. In the way to Galilee Jesus passed by the shortest route, through Samaria. In the time of our Lord the Samari- tans were hated by the Jews even more than if they had been Gentiles. Yet even in Samaria 187 JESUS CHRIST were souls to be saved ; and Jesus would not shake off even that dust from His feet. He came in His journey to Sichem, which the Jews in mockery had changed to Sychar. Wearied and athirst He sat on the side of Jacob's well. A woman from the neighbor- ing town came to draw from the well, and was astonished that a Jew should address her as a neighbor, with a request for water. The conversation that ensued might be taken for an example of the mode in which Christ leads to Himself the souls of men. In this remarkable dialogue are many things to ponder over. The living water which Christ would give ; the an- nouncement of a change in the worship of Jew and Samaritan ; lastly, the confession that He who speaks is truly the Messiah, are all note- worthy. Jesus now returned to Galilee, and came to Nazareth, His own city. In the Syna- gogue He expounded to the people a passage from Isaiah (Ixi. i), telling them that its ful- filment was now at hand in His person. The same truth that had filled the Samaritans with gratitude, wrought up to fury the men of Nazareth, who would have destroyed Him if He had not escaped out of their hands (Luke iv. 16-30). He came now to Capernaum. On his way hither, when He had reached Cana, He healed the son of one of the courtiers of Herod Antipas (John iv. 46-54), who "himself believed, and his whole house." This was the second Galilean miracle. At Capernaum He wrought many miracles for them that needed. Here two disciples who had known him be- fore, namely, Simon Peter and Andrew, were called from their fishing to become "fishers of men" (Matt. iv. 19), and the two sons_ of Zebedee received the same summons. After healing on the Sabbath a demoniac in the Synagogue, He returned the same day to Simon's house, and healed the mother-in-law of Simon, who was sick of a fever. At sunset, the multitude, now fully aroused by what they had heard, brought their sick to Simon's door to get them healed. He did not refuse His succor, and healed them all (Mark i. 29-34). He now, after showering down on Capernaum so many cures, turned His thoughts to the rest of Galilee, where other "lost sheep" were scat- tered : "Let us go into the next towns that I may preach there also, for therefore came I forth" (Mark i. 38). The journey through Galilee, on v^hich He now entered, must have been a general circuit of that country. 2. Sec- ond year of the ministry. — Jesus went up to Jerusalem to "a feast of the Jews," which was probably the Passover. At the pool Bethesda (= house of mercy), which was near the sheep-gate (Neh. iii. i) on the north-east side JESUS CHRIST of the Temple, Jesus saw many infirm persons waiting their turn for the healing virtues of the water (John v. 1-18). Among them was a man who had an infirmity thirty-eight years: Jesus made him whole by a word, bidding him take up his bed and walk. The miracle was done on the Sabbath ; and the Jews, who acted against Jesus, rebuked the man for carrying his bed. It was a labor, and as such forbidden (Jer. xvii. 21). In our Lord's justification of Himself, "My Father worketh hitherto, and I work" (John v. 17), there is an unequivocal claim to the divine nature. In placing the ordi- nation or calling of the Twelve Apostles just before the Sermon on the Mount, we are under the guidance of St. Luke (vi. 13, 17). But this more solemn separation for their work by no means marks the time of their first approach to Jesus. That which takes place here is the appointment of twelve disciples to be a dis- tinct body, under the name of Apostles. They are not sent forth to preach until later in the same year. The number twelve must have ref- erence to the number of the Jewish tribes : it is a number selected on account of its symbol- ical meaning, for the work confided to them might have been wrought by more or fewer. The Sermon on the Mount, although it is meant for all the disciples, seems to have a special reference to the chosen Twelve (Matt. V. 11). About this time it was that John the Baptist, long a prisoner with little hope of re- lease, sent his disciples to Jesus with the ques- tion, "Art thou He that should come, or do we look for another?" In all the Gospels there is no more touching incident. The great privilege of John's life was that he was appointed to recognize and bear witness to the Messiah (John i. 31). After languishing a year in a dungeon, after learning that even yet Jesus had made no steps towards the establishment of His kingdom of the Jews, and that His fol- lowing consisted of only twelve poor Galileans, doubts began to cloud over his spirit. Was the kingdom of Messiah as near as he had thought? Was Jesus not the Messiah, but some forerun- ner of that Deliverer, as he himself had been? There is no unbelief; he does not suppose that Jesus has deceived ; when the doubts arise, it is to Jesus that he submits them. But it was not without great depression and perplexity that he put the question, "Art thou He that should come?" The scope of the answer given lies in its recalling John to the grounds of his former confidence. Now commences the sec- ond circuit of Galilee (Luke viii. 1-3), to which belong the parables in Matt, xiii.-; the visit of our Lord's mother and brethren (Luke viii. 19-21), and the account of His reception OF THE ! JESUS CHRIST at Nazareth (Mark vi. i-6)_. During this time the twelve have journeyed Avith Him. But now a third circuit in Galilee is recorded, which probably occurred during the last three months of this year (Matt. ix. 35, 38) ; and during this circuit, after reminding them how great is the harvest and how pressing the need of laborers, He carries the training of the dis- ciples one step further by sending them forth by themselves to teach (Matt, x., xi.). They went forth two and two ; and our Lord con- tinued His own circuit (Matt. xi. i), with what companions does not appear. After a journey of perhaps two months' duration the twelve returned to Jesus, and gave an account of their ministry. The third Passover was now' drawing near; but the Lord did not go up to it. He wished to commune with His Apostles privately upon their work, and, we may suppose, to add to the instruction they had already received from Him (Mark vi. 30, 31). He therefore went with them from the neighborhood of Capernaum to a moimtain on the eastern shore of the Sea of Tiberias, near Bethsaida Julias, not far from the head of the sea. Great multitudes pursued them ; and here the Lord, moved to compassion by the hunger and weariness of the people, wrought for them one of His most remarkable miracles. Out of five barley loaves and two small fishes. He produced food for five thousand men be- sides women and children. After the miracle the disciples crossed the sea, and Jesus retired alone to a mountain to commune with the Father. They were toiling at the oar, for the wind was contrary, when, as the night drew towards morning, they saw Jesus walking to them on the sea, having passed the whole night on the mountain. They were amazed and terrified. He came into the ship and the wind ceased. When they reached the shore of Gennesaret the whole people show^ed their faith in Him as a Healer of disease (Mark vi. 53-56) ; and He performed very many miracles on them. Yet on the next day the great dis- course just alluded to was uttered, and "from that time many of His disciples went back, and walked no more w^ith Him" (John vi. 66). 3. Third year of the ministry. — Hearing per- haps that Jesus was not coming to the feast, Scribes and Pharisees from Jerusalem went down to see Him at Capernaum (Matt. xv. i). Leaving the neighborhood of Capernaum our Lord now travels to the north-west of Galilee, to the region of Tyre and Sidon. It does not appear that He retired into this heathen coun- try for the purpose of ministering; more probably it was a retreat from the machina- tions of the Jews (Matt, xv. 21-28; Mark vii. JESUS CHRIST 24-30). Returning thence He passed round by the north of the Sea of Galilee to the region of Decapolis on its eastern side (Mark vii. 31-37). In this district he performed many miracles, and especially the restoration of a deaf man who had an impediment in his speech, remarkable for the seeming effort with which He wrought it. To these suc- ceeded the feeding of the four thousand with the seven loaves (Matt. xv. 32). He now crossed the Lake of Magdala, where the Pharisees and Sadducees asked and were re- fused a "sign." After they had departed Jesus crossed the lake with his disciples. At Beth- saida Julias, He restored sight to a blind man ; and here, as in a former case, the form and preparation which He adopted are to be re- marked (Mark viii. 22-26). The ministry in Galilee is now drawing to its close. Through the length and breadth of that country Jesus has proclaimed the kingdom of Christ, and has shown by mighty works that He is the Christ that was to come. Many thousands had actually been benefited by the miracles ; and yet of all these there were only twelve that really clave to Him, and one of them was Judas the traitor. Jesus teaches that, in comparison with the higher life, the life of the soul, the life of the body is value- less (Matt. xvi. 21-28; Mark viii. 31-38; Luke ix. 22-27). The Transfiguration, which took place just a week after this conversation, is to be understood in connection with it. The minds of the twelve were greatly disturbed at what they had heard. Now, if ever, they needed support for their perplexed spirits, and this their loving Master failed not to give them. He takes with Him three chosen dis- ciples, Peter, John, and James, who formed as it were a smaller circle nearer to Jesus than the rest, into a high mountain apart by them- selves. There are no means of determining the position of the mountain. The three dis- ciples were taken up with Him, who should afterwards be the three witnesses of His agony in the garden of Gethsemane : those who saw His glory in the holy mount would be sustained by the remembrance of it when they beheld His lowest humiliation. Once more did Jesus foretell His sufferings on their way back to Capernaum (Mark ix. 30-32). Third year, from the Feast of Tabernacles. — The Feast of Tabernacles was now approaching. His brethren set out for the feast without Him, and He abode in Galilee for a few days longer (John vii. 2-10), Afterwards He set out, taking the more direct but less frequented route by Samaria. St. Luke alone records, in connection with this journey, the sending 89 JESUS CHRIST JESUS CHRIST forth of the seventy disciples. This event is to be regarded in a different light from that of the twelve. The seventy had received no spe- cial education from our Lord, and their com- mission v^as of a temporary kind. The num- ber has reference to the Gentiles, as twelve had to the Jews; and the scene of the work, Samaria, reminds us that this is a movement directed towards the stranger. After healing the ten lepers in ^Samaria, He came about the midst of the feast to Jerusalem. The Phar- isees and rulers sought to take Him ; some of the people, however, believed in Him, but concealed their opinion for fear of the rulers. To this division of opinion we may attribute the failure of the repeated attempts on the part of the Sanhedrim to take One who was- openly teaching in the Temple (John vii. 11-53: see esp. ver. 30, 32, 44, 45, 46). The officers were partly afraid to seize in the pres- ence of the people the favorite Teacher, and partly were themselves awed and attracted by Him. The history of the woman taken in adultery belongs to this time. To this place belongs the account, given by John alone, of the healing of one who was born blind, and the consequences of it (John ix. 1-41, x. 1-21). The well-known parable of the good shepherd is an answer to the calumny of the Pharisees, that He was an impostor and breaker of the law : "This man is not of God, because he keepeth not the Sabbath-day" (ix. 16). Some of the most striking parables, preserved only by Luke, belong to this period. The parables of the good Samaritan, the prodigal son, the unjust stew- ard, the rich man and Lazarus, and the Phari- see and publican, all peculiar to this Gospel, belong to the present section. The instructive account of Mary and Martha and the miracle of the ten lepers belong to this portion of the nar- rative. Besides these, scattered sayings that oc- cur in St. Matthew are here repeated in a new connection. The account of the bringing of young children to Jesus unites again the three Evangelists (Matt. xix. 13-15; Mark x. 13-16; Luke xviii. 15-17). On the way to Jerusalem through Peraea, to the Feast of Dedication, Jesus again puts before the minds of the twelve what they are never now to forget — the suf- ferings that await Him. They "understood none of these things," for they could not recon- cile this foreboding of suffering with the signs and announcements of the coming of His king- dom (Matt. XX. 17-19; Mark x. 32-34; Luke xviii. 31-34). Jesus once more recalls the principle that the child-like disposition is that which He approves (Matt. xx. 20-28; Mark x. 35-45). The healing of the two blind men at Jericho is chiefly remarkable among the mira- cles from the difficulty which has arisen in har- monizing the accounts. Matthew speaks of two blind men, and of the occasion as the de- parture from Jericho; Mark of one, whom he names, and of their arrival at Jericho ; and Luke agrees with him. This point has received much discussion ; but the view of Lightfoot finds favor with many eminent expositors, that there were two blind men, and both were healed under similar circumstances, except that Bartimaeus was on one side of the city, and was healed by Jesus as he entered, and the other was healed on the other side as they de- parted (Matt. XX. 29-34; Mark x. 46-52; Luke xviii. 35-43)- The c.alling of Zacchaeus has more than a mere personal interest. He was a publican, one of a class hated and despised by the Jews. But he was one who sought to serve God. From such did Jesus wish to call His disciples, whether they were publicans or not (Luke xix. i-io). We have reached now the Feast of Dedication ; but, as has been said, the exact place of the events in St. Luke about this part of the ministry has not been conclusively determined. After being present at the feast, Jesus returned to Bethabara beyond Jordan, where John had formerly baptized, and abode there. How long He remained here does not appear. It was probably for some weeks. The sore need of a family in Bethany, who were what men call the intimate friends of our Lord, called Him thence. Lazarus was sick, and his sisters sent word of it to Jesus, whose power they well knew. It was not till Lazarus had been four days in the grave that the Saviour appeared on the scene. But with the power of God He breaks the fetters of brass in which Lazarus was held by death, and at His word the man on whom corruption had already be- gun to do its work, came forth alive and whole (John xi. 1-45). A miracle so public, for Bethany was close to Jerusalem, and the fam- ily of Lazarus well known to many people in the mother-city, could not escape the notice of the Sanhedrim. A meeting of this Council was called without loss of time, and the matter dis- cussed. We now approach the final stage of the history, and every word and act tend towards the great act of sufYering. Each day is marked by its own events or instructions. Our Lord entered into Bethany on Friday the 8th of Nisan, the eve of the Sabbath, and re- mained over the Sabbath. — Saturday, the 9th of Nisan (April ist). As He was at supper in the house of one Simon, surnamed "the leper," a relation of Lazarus, who was at table with Him, Mary, full of gratitude for the wonder- ful raising of her brother from the dead, took a vessel containing a quantity of pure oint- 190 JESUS CHRIST JESUS CHRIST ment of spikenard, and anointed the feet of Jesus, and wiped His feet with her hair, and anointed his head likewise. — Passion Week. Sunday the loth day of Nisan (April 2d). When He arrives at the Mount of Olives He commands two of His disciples to go into the village near at hand, where they would find an ass and a colt tied with her. With these beasts, impressed as for the service of a king. He was to enter into Jerusalem. The disciples spread upon the ass their ragged cloaks for Him to sit on. And the multitudes cried aloud before Him in the words of the Ii8th Psalm, "Hosan- na, Save now ! blessed is He that cometh in the name of the Lord." All the city was moved. Blind and lame came to the Temple when He arrived there and were healed. After working miracles in the Temple He returned to Beth- any. The loth of Xisan was the day for the separation of the paschal lamb (Ex. xii. 3). Jesus, the Lamb of God, entered Jerusalem and the Temple on this day, and although none but He knew that He was the Paschal Lamb, the coincidence is not undesigned (Matt. xxi. i-li, 14-17; Mark xi. i-il; Luke xix. 29-44; John xii. 12-19). — Monday the nth of Nisan (April 3d). The next day Jesus returned to Jerusalem, again to take advantage of the mood of the people to instruct them. On the way He approached one of the many fig-trees which grew in that quarter, and found that it was full of foliage, but without fruit. He said, "No man eat fruit of thee hereafter forever!" and the fig-tree withered away (Matt. xxi. 18, 19; Mark xi. 12-14). Proceeding now to the Temple, He cleared its court of the crowd of traders that gathered there (Matt. xxi. 12, 13; Mark xi. 15-19; Luke xix. 45-48). In the even- ing he returned again to Bethany. — Tuesday the I2th of Nisan (April 4th). On this the third day of Passion week Jesus went into Jerusalem as before, and visited the Temple. The Sanhedrim came to Him to call Him to ac- count for the clearing of the Temple. "By what authority doest thou these things?" The Lord answered this question by another. They refused to answer, and Jesus refused in like manner to answer them. To this time belong the parables of the two sons (Matt. xxi. 23-32 : Mark xi. 2']-ii ; Luke xx. 1-8), of the wicked husbandman, and of the wedding garment (Matt. xxi. 33-46, xxii. 1-14; Mark xii. 1-12; Luke XX. 9-19). Another great discourse be- longs to this day, which, more than any other, presents Jesus as the great Prophet of His people. On leaving the Temple His disciples drew attention to the beauty of its structure, its "goodly stones and gifts," their remarks probably arising from the threats of destruc- tion which had so lately been uttered by Jesus. Their Master answered that not one stone of the noble pile should be left upon another. When they reached the Mount of Olives, the disciples, or rather the first four (Mark), speaking, for the rest, asked Him when this destruction should be accomplished. To un- derstand the answer it must be borne in mind that Jesus warned them that He was not giv- ing them an historical account such as would enable them to anticipate the events. "Of that day and hour knoweth no man, no, not the angels of heaven, but my Father only." Exact data of time are to be purposely withheld from them. The conclusion which Jesus drew from his own awful warning was, that they were not to attempt to fix the date of his return. The lesson of the parable of the Ten Virgins is the same (Matt. xxiv. 44, xxv. 13). And the parable of the Talents, here repeated in a modified form, teaches how precious to souls are the uses of time (xxrv. 14-30). In conclud- ing this momentous discourse, our Lord puts aside the destruction of Jerusalem, and dis- plays to our eyes the picture of the final judg- ment (Matt. xxv. 31-46). With these weighty words ends the third day. — (Wednesday the 13th of Nisan (April 5th). This day was passed in retirement with the Apostles. . Satan had put it into the mind of one of them to be- tray Him ; and Judas Iscariot made a covenant to betray Him to the chief priests for thirty pieces of silver (Matt. xxvi. 14-16;' Mark xiv. 10, II ; Luke xxii. 1-6). — Thursday the 14th of Nisan (April 6th). On "the first day of un- leavened bread," the disciples asked their Mas- ter where they were to eat the Passover. He directed Peter and John to go into Jerusalem, and to follow a man whom they should see bearing a pitcher of water, and to demand of him, in their Master's name, the use of the guest-chamber in his house for this purpose. All happened as Jesus had told them, and in the evening they assembled to celebrate, for the last time, the paschal meal. It was custo- mary to drink at the paschal supper four cups of wine mixed with water ; and this answered to the first of them. There now arose a con- tention among the disciples which of them should be the greatest; perhaps in connection with the places which they had tdken at this feast (Luke). After a solemn warning against pride and ambition Jesus performed an act which, as one of the last of His life, must ever have been remembered by the witnesses as a great lesson of humility. He rose from the table, poured water into a basin, girded him- self with a towel, and proceeded to wash the disciples' feet (John). After all had been 191 JESUS CHRIST washed, the Saviour explained to them the meaning of what He had done. "If I, your Lord and Master, have washed your feet, ye also ought to wash one another's feet. For I have given you an example, that ye should do as I have done to you" (Matt. xxvi. 17-20; Mark xiv. 12-17; Luke xxii. 7-30; John xiii, 1-20). From this act of love it does not seem that even the traitor Judas was excluded. But his treason was thoroughly known ; and now Jesus denounces it. One of them should betray Him. The traitor having gone straight to his wicked object, the end of the Sa,viour's ministry seemed already at hand. He gave them the new commandment, to love one an- other, as though it were a last bequest to them (Matt. xxvi. 21-25 ; Mark xiv. 18-21 ; Luke xxii. 21- 23; John xiii, 21-35). Towards the close of the meal Jesus instituted the sacrament of the Lord's Supper (Matt. xxvi. 26-29; Mark xiv. 22- 25; Luke xxii. 19, 20; i Cor. xi. 23-25). The denial of Peter is now foretold, and to no one would such an announcement be more incred- ible than to Peter himself (Matt. xxvi. 31-35; Mark xiv. 27-31; Luke xxii. 31-38; John xiii. 36-38). That great final discourse, which John alone has recorded, is now delivered. Al- though in the middle of it there is a mention of departure (John xiv. 31), this per'iiaps only implies that they prepared to go ; and then the whole discourse was delivered in the house before they proceeded to Gethsemane (John xiv. -xvii.). — Friday the 15th of Nisan (April 7th), including part of the eve of it. "When they had sung a hymn," they went out into the Mount of Olives. Jesus takes only his three proved companions, Peter, James, and John, and passes with them farther into the garden, leaving the rest seated, probably near the en- trance. No pen can attempt to describe what passed that night in that secluded spot. He tells them, "My soul .is exceeding sorrowful, even unto death ; tarry ye here and watch with me," and then leaving even the three He goes further, and in solitude wrestles with an incon- ceivable trial. The words of Mark are still more expressive — "He began to be ' sore amazed, and to be very heavy" (xiv. 33). The disciples have sunk to sleep. It was in search of consolation that He came back to them. The disciple who had been so ready to ask, "Why cannot I follow thee now?" must hear an- other question, that rebukes his former confi- dence — "Couldest not thou watch one hour?" A second time He departs and wrestles in prayer with the Father. A second time He re- turns and finds them sleeping. The same scene is repeated yet a third time; and then all is concluded. Henceforth they may sleep 192 JESUS CHRIST and take their rest; never more shall they be asked to watch one hour with Jesus, for His ministry in the flesh is at an end. This scene is in complete contrast to the Transfiguration (Matt. xxvi. 36-46; Mark xiv. 32-42; Luke xxii. 39-46; John xviii. 1). Judas now appeared to complete his work. In the doubtful light of torches, a kiss from him was the sign to the officers whom they should take. Peter, whose name is first given in John's Gospel, drew a sword and smote a servant of the high- priest and cut ofif his ear ; but his Lord re- fused such succor, and healed the wounded man. All the disciples forsook Him and fled (Matt. xxvi. 47-56; Mark xiv. 43-52; Luke xxii. 47-53; John xviii. 2-12). There is some diffi- culty in arranging the events that immediately follow, so as to embrace all the four accounts. On the capture of Jesus he was first taken to the house of Annas, the father-in-law of Caiaphas the high-priest. The house of the high-priest consisted probably, like other Eastern houses, o*f an open central court with chambers round it. Into this court a gate admitted them, at which a woman stood to open. As Peter passed in, the portress took note of him ; and afterwards, at the fire which had been lighted, asked him, "Art not thou also one of this man's disciples?" (John). All the zeal and boldness of Peter seem to have deserted him. He had come as in secret; he is determined so to remain, and he denies his Master! Feeling now the danger of his situa- tion, he went out into the porch, and there some one, or, looking at all the accounts, prob- ably several persons, asked him the question a second time, and he denied more strongly. About an hour after, when he had returned into the court, the same question was put to him a third time, with the same result. Then the cock crew ; and Jesus, who was within sight, probably in some open room communi- cating with the court, "turned and looked upon Peter. And Peter remembered the word of the Lord, how He had said unto him. Be- fore the cock crow, thou shalt deny Me thrice. And Peter went out and wept bitterly" (Matt, xxvi. 57, 58,69-75 ; Mark xiv. 53, 54,66-72 ; Luke xxii. 54-62; John xviii. 13, 18, 24-27). The first interrogatory to which our Lord was subject (John xviii. 19-24) was addressed to Him by Caiaphas, probably before the Sanhedrim had time to assemble. At the dawn of day the Sanherdrim, summoned by the high-priest in the course of the night, assembled and brought their band of false witnesses, whom they must have had ready before. These gave their testi- mony, but even before this unjust tribunal it could not stand, it was so full of contradic- JESUS CHRIST JESUS CHRIST tions. At last two false witnesses came, and their testimony was very like the truth. Even these tvi-o fell into contradictions. The high- priest now with a solemn adjuration asks Him whether He is the Christ the Son of God. He answers that He is, and foretells His return in glory and power at the la,st day. This is enough for their purpose. They pronounce him guilty of a crime for which death should be the punishment (John xviii. 19-24; Luke xxii. 63-71; Matt. xxvi. 59-68; Mark xiv. 55- 65). Although they had pronounced Jesus to be guilty of death, the Sanhedrim possessed no power to carry out such a sentence. As soon as it was day they took Him to Pilate, the Roman procurator. Pilate, hearing that Jesus was an offender under their law, was about to give them leave to treat Him accord- ingly ; and this would have made it quite safe to execute Him. From the first Jesus found favor in the eyes of Pilate, and he pronounced that he found no fault in Him. Not so easily were the Jews to be cheated of their prey. They heaped up accusations against Him as a disturber of the public peace (Luke xxiii. 5). Pilate was no match for their vehemence. Finding that Jesus was a Galilean, he sent Him to Herod to be dealt with ; but Herod, after cruel mockery and persecution, sent Him back to Pilate. After the examination by He'rod, and the return of Jesus, Pilate pro- posed to release Him, as it w-as usual .on the feast-day to release a prisoner to the Jews out of grace. Pilate knew well that the priests and rulers would object to this; but it was a covert appeal to the people. The multitude, persuaded by the priests, preferred another prisoner, called Barabbas. Now came the scouraging, and the blows and insults of the soldiers, who, uttering truth when they were only reviling, crowned Him and addressed Him as King of the Jews. According to John, Pilate now- made one more effort for His re- lease. He still sought to release Jesus: but the last argument, which had been in the minds of both sides all along, was now openly applied to him : "If thou let this man go, thou art not Caesar's friend." This decided the question. He delivered Jesus to be crucified (]\Iatt. xxvii. 15-30; Mark xv. 6-19; Luke xxiii. 17-25; John xviii. 39, 40, xix. 1-16). John mentions that this occurred about the sixth hour, reckoning probably from midnight. In Mark, the Jewish reckoning from six in the morning is followed. One Per- son alone has been calm amidst the excite- ments of that night of horrors. On Him is now laid the weight of His cross, or at least of the transverse beam of it ; and, with this pressing Him down, they proceed out of the city to Golgotha or Calvary, a place the site of which is now uncertain. As He began to droop, His persecutors, unwilling to defile themselves with the accursed burden, lay hold of Simon of Cyrene and compel him to carry the cross after Jesus. After offering Him wine and myrrh, they crucified Him between two thieves. Nothing was wanting to His humiliation ; a thief had been preferred before Him, and two thieves share His punishment. Pilate set over Him in - three languages the inscription, "Jesus, the King of the Jews." The chief priests took exception to this, that it did not denounce Him as falsely calling Himself by that name, but Pilate refused to alter it. One of the two thieves underwent a change of heart even on the cross: he reviled at first (Alatt.) ; and then, at the sight of the con- stancy of Jesus, repented (Li:ke) (Matt, xxvii.; Mark xv. ; Luke xxiii.; John xix.). In the depths of His Bodily' suffering, Jesus calmly commended to John (?), who stood near, the care of Mary, his mother. "Behold thy son ! behold thy mother." From the sixth hour to the ninth there was darkness over the whole land. At the ninth hour (3 p. m.) Jesus vittered with a loud voice the opening words of the 22d Psalm, all the in- spired words of which referred to the suffer- ing Messiah. One of those present dipped a sponge in the common sour wine of the sol- diers and put it on a reed to moisten the suf- ferer's lips. Again he cried with a loud voice, "It is finished" (John), "Father, into thy hands I commend my spirit" (Luke), and gave up the ghost (Matt, xxvii. 31-56; Mark xv. 20-41 ; Luke xxiii. 33-49; John xix. 17-30). On the death of Jesus the veil which covered the most Holy Place of the Temple, the place of the more especial presence of Jehovah, was rent in twain. There was a great earthquake. Many who were dead rose from their graves, although they returned to the dust again after this great token of Christ's quickening power had been given to many (Matt.). The Jews, very zealous for the Sabbath in the midst of their murderous work, begged Pilate that he would put an end to the punishment by break- ing the legs of the criminals that they might be taken down and buried before the Sabbath, for which they were preparing (Deut. xxi. 23 ; Joseph, B. J. iv. 5, § 2). Those who were to execute this duty found that Jesus was dead and the thieves still living. The death of the Lord before the others was, no doubt, partly the consequence of the previous mental suffer- ing which He had undergone, and partlv be- cause His will to die lessened the natural re- 193 JESUS CHRIST sistance of the frame to dissolution. Joseph of Armathea, a member of the Council, but a secret disciple of Jesus, came to Pilate to beg the body of Jesus, that he might bury it. Nicodemus assisted in this work of love, and they anointed the body and laid it in Joseph's new tomb (Matt, xxvii. 50-61 ; Mark xv. 37-47; Luke xxiii. 46-56; John xix. 30-42). — Saturday the i6th of Nisan (April 8th). The chief priests and Pharisees, with Pilate's permission, set a watch over the tomb, "lest His disciples come by night and steal Him away, and say unto the people. He is risen from the dead." (Matt, xxvii. 62-66). — Sunday the 17th of Nisan (April 9th). The Sabbath ended at six on the evening of Nisan i6th. Early the next morning the resurrection of Jesus took place. The exact hour of the resurrection is not men- tioned by any of the Evangelists. Of the great mystery itself, the resumption of life by Him who was truly dead, we see but little. The women, who had stood by the cross of Jesus, had prepared spices on the evening before, perhaps to complete the embalming of our Lord's body, already performed in haste by Joseph and Nicodemus. They came very early on the first day of the week to the Sepulchre. When they arrive they find the stone rolled away, and Jesus no longer in the Sepulchre. He had arisen from the dead. Mary Magda- lene at this point goes back in haste ; and at once, believing that the body has been re- moved by men, tells Peter and John that the Lord has been taken away. The other women, however, go into the Sepulchre, and they see an angel (Matt. Mark). The two angels, mentioned by St. Luke, are probably two sep- arate appearances to dififerent members of the group ; for he alone mentions an indefinite number of women. They now leave the Sepulchre, and go in haste to make known the news to the Apostles. As they were go- ing, "Jesus met them, saying, All hail." T4ie eleven do not believe the account when they receive it. In the meantime Peter and John came to the Sepulchre. They ran, in their eagerness, and John arrived first and looked in ; Peter afterwards came up, and it is char- acteristic that the awe which had prevented the other disciple from going in appears to have been unfelt by Peter, who entered at once, and found the grave-clothes lying, but not Him who had worn them. This fact must have suggested that the removal was not the work of human hands. They then returned, wondering at what they had seen. Mary Magdalene, however, remained weeping at the tomb, and she too saw the two angels in the tomb, though Peter and John did not. They JEW address her, and she answers, still, however, without any suspicion that the Lord is risen. As she turns away she sees Jesus, but in the tumult of her feelings does not even recognize Him at His first address. But He calls her by name, and then she joyfully recognizes her Master. The third appearance of our Lord was to Peter (Luke, Paul) ; the fourth to the two disciples going to Emmaus in the evening (Mark, Luke) ; the fifth in the same evening to the eleven as they sat at meat (Mark, Luke, John). All of these occurred on the first day of the week, the very day of the Resurrec- tion. Exactly a week after, He appeared to the Apostles, and gave Thomas a convincing proof of His resurrection (Jonn) ; this was the sixth appearance. The seventh was in Galilee, where seven of the Apostles were assembled, some of them probably about to return to their old trade of fishing (John). The eighth was to the eleven (Matt.), and probably to five hundred brethren assembled with them (Paul) on a mountain in Galilee. The ninth was to James (Paul) ; and the last to the Apostles at Jerusalem just before the Ascension (Acts). Je'thro was priest or prince of Midian, both offices probably being combined in one per- son. Moses spent the forty years of his exile from Egypt with him, and married his daugh- ter Zipporah. By the advice of Jethro, Moses appointed deputies to judge the congregation and share the burden of government with him- self (Ex. xviii.). On account of his local knowledge he was entreated to remain with the Israelites throughout their journey to Canaan (Num. x. 31, 33). It is said in Ex. ii. 18 that the priest of Midian whose daughter Moses married was Reuel ! afterwards at ch. iii. I he is called Jethro, as also in ch. xviii. ; but in Num. x. 29 "Hobab the son of Raguel the Midianite" is apparently called Moses' father-in-law (comp. Judg. iv. 11). Some commentators take Jethro and Reuel to be identical, and call Hobab the brother-in-law of Moses. Jew. This name was properly applied to a member of the kingdom of Judah after the separation of the ten tribes. The term first makes its appearance just before the captivity of the ten tribes (2 K. xvi. 6). After the Re- turn the word received a larger application. Partly from the predominance of the members of the old kingdom of Judah among those who returned to Palestine, partly from the identifi- cation of Judah with the religious ideas and hopes of the people, all the members of the new state were called Jews (Judaeans),and the name was extended to the remnants of the race scattered throughout the nations. 194 JEWEL Jew'el, [Precious stones]. Jez'ebel (chaste), wife of Ahab, king of Is- rael, and mother of Athaliah, queen of Judah, and Ahaziah and Joram, kings of Israel. She was a Phoenician princess, daughter of "Eth- baal king of the Zidonians." In her hands her husband became a mere puppet (i K. xxi. 25). The first effect of her influence was the im- mediate establishment of the Phoenician wor- ship on a grand scale in the court of Ahab. At her table were supported no less than 450 prophets of Baal, and 400 of Astarte (i K. xvi. 31, 32. xviii. 19). The prophets of Jehovah, who up to this time had found their chief refuge in the northern kingdom, were attacked by her orders and put to the sword ( i K. xviii. 13: 2 K. ix. 7). She survived Ahab for 14 years, and as queen-mother (after the Oriental custom), was a great personage in the court of her sons; and, as such, became the special mark for the vengeance of Jehu. She was looking out from the window of the palace, which stood by the gate of the city, as Jehu ap- proached. The new king looked up from his chariot. Two or three eunuchs of the royal harem showed their faces at the windows, and at his command dashed the ancient princess down from the chamber. She fell immediately in front of the conqueror's chariot. The mer- ciless destroyer passed on ; and the last re- mains of life were tramped out by the horses' hoofs. Jez'reel, I. A city situated in the plain , of the same name between Gilboa and Little Her- mon, now generally called Esdraelon. [Es- draelon.] It "appears in Josh. xix. 18, but its historical importance dates from the reign of Ahab, who chose it for his chief residence. The situation of the modern village of Zcrin still remains to show the fitness of his choice. In the neighborhood, or within the town probab- ly, were a temple and grove of Astarte, with an establishment of 400 priests supported by Jezebel (i K. xvi. 33; 2 K. x. ii). The palace of Ahab (l K. xxi. i, xviii. 46), probably con- taining his "ivory house" (i K. xxii. 39), was on the eastern side of the city, forming part of the city wall (comp. i K. xxi. i ; 2 K. ix. 25, 30, 33). The seraglio, in which Jezebel lived, was on the city wall, and had a high window fac- ing eastward (2 K. ix. 30). Close by, if not forming part of this seraglio, was a watch- tower, on which a sentinel stood, to give no- tice of arrivals from the disturbed district be- yond the Jordan (2 K. ix. 17). An ancient square tower which stands among the hovels of the modern village may be its representa- tive. The gateway of the city on the east was also the gateway of the palace (2 K. ix. 34). JOHN THE APOSTLE Whether the vineyard of Naboth was here or at Samaria is a doubtful question. Still in the same eastern direction are two springs, one 12 minutes from the town, the other 20 minutes. The latter probably both from its size and sit- uation, was known as "The Spring of Jezreel" (mistranslated A.V."a fountain," (i Sam.xxix. I.). With the fall of the house of Ahab the glory of Jezreel departed. 2. A town in Judah, in the neighborhood of the southern Carmel (Josh. XV. 56). Here David in his wanderings took Ahinoam the Israelitess for his first wife (i Sam. xxvii. 3, xxx. 5.) 3. The eldest son of the prophet Hosea (Hos. i. 4). Job, the patriarch, the name of one of the books of the O. T. His residence in the land of Uz, which took its name from a son of Aram (Gen. x. 23), or Nahor (Gen. xxii. 21), marks him as belonging to a branch of the Aramaean race, which had settled in the lower part of Mesopotamia (probably to the south or south-east of Palestine, in Idumaean Arabia), adjacent to the Sabaeans and Chaldaeans. The opinions of Job and his friends are thus pecu- liarly interesting as exhibiting an aspect of the patriarchal religion outside of the family of Abraham, and as yet uninfluenced by the leg- islation of Moses. The form of worship be- longs essentially to the early patriarchal type ; with little of ceremonial ritual, without a sep- arate priesthood, it is thoroughly domestic in form and spirit. Job is represented as a chief- tain of immense wealth and high rank, blame- less in all the relations of life, and the object of the book in which his sufferings are depicted is to show the effects of calamity in its worst and most awtul form upon a truly religious spirit. Historical character of the work. — ■ Three distinct theories have been maintained at various times ; some believing the book to be strictly historical ; others a religious fiction ; others a composition based upon facts. By some the authorship of the work was attrib- uted to Moses. The fact of Job's existence, and the substantial truth of the narrative, were not likely to be denied by Hebrews or Chris- tians, considering the terms in which the patriarch is named in the 14th of Ezekiel and in the Epistle of St. James (v. 11). Luther first suggested the theory, which, in some form or other, is now most generally received. He says, "I look upon the book of Job as a true history, yet I do not believe that all took place just as it is written, but that an ingenious, pious, and learned man brought it into its present form." , John the Apostle was the son of Zebedee, a fisherman on the Lake of Galilee, and of Sa- lome, and brother of James, also an apostle. 195 JOHN THE APOSTLE JOHN THE BAPTIST He was probably younger than his brother, whose name commonly precedes his (Matt. iv. 21, X. 3, xvii. I &c.), younger than his friend Peter, possibly also than his Master. His call, and that of his brother, to be first dis- ciples and then apostles of our Lord, are re- lated under James. Peter and James and John come within the innermost circle of their Lord's friends. Peter is throughout the leader of that band ; to John belongs the yet more memorable distinction of being the disciple whom Jesus loved. He hardly sustains the popular notion, fostered by the received types of Christian art, of a nature gentle, yielding, feminine. The name Boanerges (Mark iii. 17) implies a vehemence, zeal, intensity, which gave to those who had it the might of Sons of Thunder. [James.] The three are with Him when none else are, in the chamber of death (Mark v. 37), in the glory of the transfigura- tion (Matt. xvii. i), when he forewarns them of the destruction of the Holy City (Mark xiii. 3, Andrew, in this instance, with them), in the agony of Gethsemane. When the betrayal is accomplished, Peter and John, after the first moment of confusion, follow afar of¥, while the others simply seek safety in a hasty flight (John xviii. 15). The personal acquaintance which existed between John and Caiaphas en- abled him to gain access both for himself and Peter, but the latter remains in the porch, with the officers and servants, while John him- self apparently is admitted to the council- chamber, and follows Jesus thence, even to the praetorium of the Roman Procurator (John xviii. 16, 19, 28). Thence he followed, accom- panied probably by his own mother, Mary the mother of Jesus, and Mary Magdalene, to the place of crucifixion. The Teacher who had been to him as a brother leaves to him a brother's duty. He is to be as a son to the mother who is left desolate (John xix. 26, 27). The sabbath that followed was spent, it would appear, in the same company. He receives Peter, in spite of his denial, on the old terms of friendship. It is to them that Mary Magda- lene first runs with the tidings of the emptied sepulchre (John xx. 2) ; they are the first to go together to see what the strange words meant. Not without some bearing on their respective characters is the fact that John is the more impetuous, running on most eagerly to the rock-tomb ; Peter, the least restrained by awe, the first to enter in and look (John xx. 4-6). For at least eight days they continued in Jerusalem (John xx. 26). Then, in the in- terval between the resurr"fection and the ascen- sion, we find them still together on the sea of Galilee (John xxi. i). Here too there is a characteristic difference. John is the first to recognize in the dim form seen in the morning twilight the presence of his risen Lord ; Peter the first to plunge into the water and swim to- wards the shore where He stood calling to them (John xxi. 7). The last words of the Gospel reveal to us the deep afifection which united the two friends. It is not enough for Peter to know his own future. That at once suggests the question, "And what shall this man do?" (John xxi. 21). The history of the Acts shows the same union. They are of course together at the ascension and on the day of Pentecost. Together they enter the Temple as worshippers (Acts iii. i) and pro- test against the threats of the Sanhedrim (iv. 13). The persecution which was pushed on by Saul of Tarsus did not drive him or any of the apostles from their post (viii. i). The sharper though shorter persecution which fol- lowed under Herod Agrippa brought a great sorrow to him in the martyrdom of his brother (Acts xii. 2). His friend was driven to seek safety in flight. Fifteen years after St. Paul's first visit he was still at Jerusalem, and helped to take part in the settlement of the great con- troversy between the Jewish and the Gentile Christians (Acts xv. 6). His subsequent his- tory we know only by tradition. There can be no doubt that he removed from Jerusalem and settled at Ephesus, though at what time is uncertain. Tradition goes on to relate that in the persecution under Domitian he is taken to Rome, and. there, by his boldness, though not by death, gains the crown of martyrdom. The boiling oil into which he is thrown has no power to hurt him. He is then sent to labor in the mines, and Patmos is the place of his exile. The accession of Nerva frees him from danger, and he returns to Ephesus. Heresies continue to show themselves, but he meets them with the strongest possible protest. The very time of his death lies within the region of conjecture rather than of history, and the dates that have been assigned for it range from A. D. 89 to A. D. 120. John the Baptist was of the priestly race by both parents, for his father Zacharias was him- self a priest of the course of Abia, or Abijah (i Chr. xxiv. 10), ofifering incense at the very time when a son was promised to him; and Elizabeth was of the daughters of Aaron (Luke i. 5). His birth — a birth not according to the ordinary laws of nature, but through the miraculous interposition of almighty power — was foretold by an angel sent from God, and is related at length in the first chap- ter of the Gospel of St. Luke. The birth of John preceded by six months that of our Lord. 96 0? THE JOHN THE BAPTIST John was ordained to be a Nazarite from his birth (Luke i. 15). Dwelling by himself in the wild and thinly peopled region westward of the Dead Sea, he prepared himself for the wonderful office to which he had been divinely called. The very appearance of the holy Bap- tist was of itself a lesson to his countrymen; his dress was that of the old prophets — a gar- ment woven of camel's hair (2 K. i. 8), at- tached to the body by a leathern girdle. His food was such as the desert afforded — locusts (Lev. xi. 22) and wild honey (Ps. Ixxxi. 16). And now the long secluded hermit came forth to the discharge of his office. His supernat- ural birth — his hard ascetic life — his reputa- tion for extraordinary sancity — and the gen- erally prevailing expectation that some great one was about to appear — these causes, with- out the aid of miraculous power, for "John did no miracle" (John x. 41), were sufficient to attract to him a great multitude from "every quarter" (Matt. iii. 5). Brief and startling was his first exhorarion to them, "Repent ye, for the kingdom of heaven is at hand." IMany of every class pressed forward to confess their sins and to be baptized. The preparatory bap- tism of John was a visible sign to the people, and a distinct acknowledgment by them, that a hearty renunciation of sin and a real amend- ment of life were necessary for admission into the kingdom of heaven, which the Baptist pro- claimed to be at hand. But the fundamental distinction between John's baptism unto re- pentance, and that baptism accompanied with the gift of the Holy Spirit which our Lord afterwards ordained, is clearly marked by John himself (]\latt. iii. 11, 12). Jesus himself came from Galilee to Jordan to be baptized of John. [Jesus.] From incidental notices we learn that John and his disciples continued to bap- tize some time after our Lord entered upon his ministry (see John iii. 23, iv. i; Acts xix. 3). We gather also that John instructed his disci- ples in certain moral and religious du- ties, as fasting (^Nlatt. ix. 14; Luke v. 33) and prayer (Luke xi. i). But shortly after he had given his testimony to the Messiah, John's public ministry was brought to a close. In daring disregard of the divine laws, Herod Antipas had taken to himself the wife of his brother Philip ; and when John reproved him for this, as well as for other sins (Luke iii. 19), Herod cast him into prison. The place of his confinement was the castle of Machaerus — a fortress on the eastern shore of the Dead Sea. It was here that reports reached him of the miracles which our Lord was working in Judaea. Respecting the message which John sent to our Saviour, see Jesus p. 188. Noth- JOHN, EPISTLES OF ing but the death of the Baptist would satisfy the resentment of Herodias. A court festival was kept at Machaerus in honor of the king's birthday. After supper, the daughter of Herodias came in ancl danced before the com- pany, and so charmed was the king by her grace that he promised with an oath to give her whatsoever she should ask. Salome, prompted by her abandoned mother, de- manded the head of John the Baptist. Herod gave instructions to an officer of his guard, who went and executed John in the prison, and his head was brought to feast the eyes of the adulteress whose sins he had denounced. His death is supposed to have occurred just before the third passover, in the course of the Lord's ministry. John, Gospel of. No doubt has been enter- tained at any time in the Church, either of the canonical authority of this Gospel, or of its being written by St. John. Ephesus and Pat- mos are the two places mentioned by early writers as the place where this gospel was written ; and the weight of evidence seems to preponderate in favor of Ephesus. The Apostle's sojourn at Ephesus probably began after St. Paul's Epistle to the Ephesians was written, i. e. after A. D. 62. Eusebius speci- fies the fourteenth year of Domitian, i. e. A. D. 95, as the year of his banishment to Patmos. Probably the date of the Gospel may lie about midway between these two, about A. D. 78. i\fter the destruction of Jerusalem A. D, 69, Ephesus probably became the centre of the active life of Eastern Christendom. It con- tained a large church of faithful Christians, a multitude of zealous Jews, an indigenous pop- ulation devoted to the worship of a strange idol whose image was borrowed from the East, its name from the West. The Gospel was obviously addressed primarily to Christians, not to heathens. There can be little doubt that the main object of St. John, v.'ho wrote after the other Evangelists, is to supplement their narratives, which were almost confined to our Lord's life in Galilee. John, The First Epistle General of. There can be no doubt that the Apostle John was the author of this Epistle. Like the Gospel it was probably written from Ephesus, and most likely at the close of the first century. It was primarily meant for the churches of Asia un- der St. John's inspection, to whom he had al- ready orally delivered his doctrine. John, The Second and Third Epistles of. These two Epistles are placed by Eusebius in the class of "disputed" books, and he appears himself to be doubtful whether they were writ- ten by the Evangelist, or by some other John. 197 JONAH JORDAN Jonah (Dove), the fifth of the Minor Proph- ets, according to the order of our Bible, was the son of Aniittai, and a native of Gath- hepher, a town of Lower GaHlee in Zebulun (2 K. xiv. 25). He Hved after the reign of Jehu, when the losses of Israel (2 K. x. 32) be- gan ; and probably not till the latter part of the reign of Jeroboam II. The general opinion is, that Jonah, was the first of the prophets. The king of Nineveh at this time is supposed to have been Pul, who is placed B. C. 750. Our English Bible gives B. C. 862. Having al- ready, as it seems, prophesied to Israel, he was sent to Nineveh.' The time was one of political revival in Israel ; but ere long the Assyrians were to be employed by God as a scourge upon them. The prophet shrank from a commis- sion which he felt sure would result (iv. 2) in the sparing of a hostile city. He attempted therefore to escape to Tarshish. The provi- dence of God, however, watched over him, first in a storm, and then in his being swallowed by a large fish for the space of three days and three nights. [On this subject see art. VVhale.] After his deliverance, Jonah executed his com- mission; and the king, "believing him to be a minister from the supreme deity of the na- tion," and having heard of his miraculous de- liverance, ordered a general fast, and averted the threatened judgment. But the prophet, not from personal, but national feelings, grudged the mercy shown to a heathen nation. He was therefore taught, by the significant les- son of the "gourd," whose growth and decay brought the truth at once home to him, that he was sent to testify by deed, as other proph- ets would afterwards testify by word, the ca- pacity of Gentiles for salvation, and the de- sign of God to make them partakers of it. This was "the sign of the prophet Jonas" (Luke xi. 29, 30). But the resurrection of Christ itself was also shadowed forth in the history of the prophet (Matt. xii. 39, 41, xvi. 4). The mission of Jonah was highly sym- bolical. The facts contained a concealed prophecy. The old tradition made the burial- place of Jonah to be Gathhepher: the modern tradition places it at Nebi-Yunus, opposite Mosul. Jon'athan, that is, "the gift of Jehovah," the eldest son of king Saul. He was regarded in his father's lifetime as heir to the throne. He was also famous as a warrior (i Chron. 12, 2), as is shown by the courage he showed in at- tacking the garrison of the Philistines in com- pany with his armor bearer only. A panic seized the garrison, thence spread to the camp, and thence to the surrounding hordes of marauders; an earthquake combined with the terror of the moment. Saul and his little band had watched in astonishment the wild retreat from the heights of Gibeah ; he now joined in the pursuit. Jonathan had not heard of the rash curse (xiv. 24) which Saul invoked on any one who ate before the evening, and he tasted the honey which lay on the ground as they passed through the forest. Jephthah's dreadful sacrifice would have been repeated ; but the people interposed in behalf of the hero of that great day ; and Jonathan was saved (xiv. 24-41). But the chief interest of his career is derived from the friendship with David, which began on the day of David's re- turn from the victory over the champion of Gath, and continued till his death. Their last meeting was in the forest of Ziph, during Saul's pursuit of David (i Sam. xxiii. 16-18). From this time forth we hear no more till the battle of Gilboa. In that battle he fell, with his two brothers and his father, and his corpse shared their fate (i Sam. xxxi. 2, 8). His ashes were buried first at Jabesh-Gilead (ib. 13), but afterwards removed with those of his father to Zelah in Benjamin (2 Sam. xxi. 12). The news of his death occasioned the cele- brated elegy of David. Jop'pa, or Japho, now Jafifa, a town on the S. W. coast of Palestine, in the portion of Dan (Josh. xix. 46). Having a harbor attached to it — though always, as still, a dangerous one — it became the port of Jerusalem in the days of Solomon, and has been ever since. Here Jonah "took ship to flee from the presence of his Maker." Here, on the house-top of Simon the tanner, "by the seaside," St. Peter had his vision of tolerance (Acts xi. 5). The existing town contains about 4000 inhabitants. Jor'dan (the descender), the one river of Palestine, has a course of little more than 200 miles, from the roots of Anti-Lebanon to the head of the Dead Sea. It is the river of the "great plain" of Palestine — the "Descender" — if not "the river of God" in the book of Psalms, at least that of His chosen people throughout their history. There were fords over against Jericho, to which point the men of Jericho pursued the spies (Josh. ii. 7; comp. Judg. iii. 28). Higher up, perhaps over against Succoth, some way above where the little river Jabbok (Zerka) enters the Jordan, were the fords or passages of Bethbarah (probably the Bethbara of the Gospel), where Gideon lay in wait for the Midianites (Judg. vii. 24), and where the men of Gilead slew the Ephraimites (xii. 6). These fords undoubtedly witnessed the first recorded passage of the Jordan in the O. T. (Gen. xxxii. 10). Jordan was next crossed, over against Jericho, by 98 JORDAN JOSEPH Joshua the son of Nun (Josh. iv. 12, 13). From their vicinity to Jerusalem the lower fords were much used ; David, it is probable, passed over them in one instance to fight the Syrians (2 Sam. X. 17) ; and subsequently, when a fugitive himself, in his way to IMahanaim (xvii. 22) on the east bank. Thus there were two The Jordan Valley. customary places at which the Jordan was fordable ; and it must have been at one of these, if not at both, that baptism was afterwards ad- ministered by St. John, and by the disciples of our Lord. Where our Lo'rd was baptized is not stated expressly ; but it was probably at the upper ford. These fords were rendered so much the more precious in those days from two circumstances. First, it does not appear that there were then any bridges thrown over, or boats regularly established on, the Jordan ; and secondly, because "Jordan overflowed all his banks all the time of harvest" (Josh. iii. 15). The channel or bed of the river became brimful, so that the level of the water and of the banks was then the same. In one sense in- deed, that is, in so far as it was the eastern boundary of the land of Canaan, it was the eastern boundary of the promised land (Num. xxxiv. 12). The Jordan rises from several sources near Panium, and passes through the lakes of Merom and Gennesaret. The two principal features in its course are its descent and its windings. From its fountain-heads to the Dead Sea, it rushes down one continuous inclined plane, only broken by a series of rapids or precipitous falls. Between the lake of Gen- nesaret and the Dead Sea there are 27 rapids ; the depression of the lake of Gennesaret below the level of the Mediterranean is 653 feet; and that of the Dead .Sea 1316 feet. Its sinuosity is not so remarkable in the upper part of its course. The only tributaries to the Jordan below Gennesaret are the Yarmuk (Hieromax) and the Zerka (Jabbok). Not a single city ever crowned the banks of the Jordan. Still Bethshan and Jericho to the W., Gerasa, Pella, and Gadara to the E. of it, were important cities, and caused a good deal of traffic be- tween the two opposite banks. Jo'seph (increase). 1. The elder of the two sons of Jacob by Rachel, is - first mentioned when a youth, seventeen years old. Jacob seems then to have staid at Hebron with the aged Isaac, while his sons kept his flocks. Joseph, we reaxl, brought the evil report of his brethren to his father, and they hated him because his father loved him more than them, as the "son of his old age," and had sliown his preference by making him a dress which appears to have been a long tunic with sleeves, worn by youths and maidens of the richer class (Gen. xxxvii. 2). The hatred of Joseph's brethren was increased by his telling of a dream foreshowing that they would bow down to him, which was followed by another of the same import. They had gone to Shechem to feed the flock ; and Joseph was sent thither from the vale of Hebron by his father to bring him word of their welfare and that of the flock. They were not at Shechem, but were gone to Dothan, which appears to have been not far distant, pasturing their flock like the Arabs of the present day, wherever the wild country was unowned. On Joseph's approach, his brethren, except Reuben, resolved to kill Joseph's Tomb and Mount Gerizim. him ; but Reuben saved him, persuading them to cast him into a dry pit, to the intent that he might restore him to his father. Accordingly, when Joseph was come, they stripped him of his tunic and cast him into the pit, "and they sat down to eat bread ; and they lifted up their eyes and looked, and, behold, a company of Ishmeelites came from Gilead with their cam- 199 JOSEPH els." Juclah suggested to his brethren to sell Joseph to the Ishmaelites, and accordingly they took him out of the pit and sold him "for twenty [shekels] of silver" (ver. 28). His brethren pretended to Jacob that Joseph had been killed by some wild beast, taking to him the tunic stained with a kid's blood. The Midianites sold Joseph in Egypt to Potiphar, "an officer of Pharaoh, captain of the execu- tioners, an Egyptian" (xxxix. 1 ; comp. xxxvii. 36). Joseph prospered in the house of the Egyptian, who, seeing that God blessed him, and pleased with his good service, "set him over his house, and all [that] he had he gave into his hand" (xxxix. 4, comp. 5). His mas- ter's wife, with the well-known profligacy of the Egyptian women, tempted him, and failing, charged him with the crime she would have made him commit. Potiphar, incensed against Joseph, cast him into prison, where he re- mained for at least two years, and perhaps longer. In the prison, as in Potiphar's house, Joseph was found worthy of complete trust, and the keeper of the prison placed everything under his control. After a while, Pharaoh was incensed against two of his officers, "the chief of the cup-bearers" and the "chief of the bakers," and cast them into the prison where Joseph was; Each dreamed a prophetic dream, which Joseph interpreted. "After two years," Joseph's deliverance came. Pharaoh dreamed two prophetic dreams. "He stood by the river [the Nile]. And, behold, coming up out of the river seven kine [or 'heifers'], beautiful in ap- pearance and fat-fleshed ; and they fed in the marsh-grass. And, behold, seven other kine coming up after them out of the. river, evil in appearance, and lean-fleshed" (xli. 1-3). These, afterwards described still more strongly, ate up the first seven, and yet, as is said in the second account, when they had eaten them remained as lean as before (xli. 1-4, 17-21). Then Pharaoh had a second dream : "Behold, seven ears of corn coming up on one stalk, fat [or 'full,' ver. 22] and good. And, behold, seven ears, thin and blasted with the east wind, sprouting forth after them" (ver. 5, 6). These, also described more strongly in the second ac- count, devoured the first seven ears (ver. 5-7, 22-24). In the morning Pharaoh sent for the "scribes" and the "wise men," and they were unable to give him an interpretation. Then the chief of the cup-bearers remembered Joseph, and told Pharaoh how a young Hebrew, "servant to the captain of the execu- tioners," had interpreted his and his fellow- prisoner's dreams. "Then Pharaoh sent and called Joseph, and they made him hasten out of the prison; and he shaved [himself], and JOSEPH changed his raiment, and came unto Pharaoh" (ver. 14). The king then related his dreams, and Joseph, when he had disclaimed human wisdom, declared to him that they were sent of God to forewarn Pharaoh. There was essen- tially but one dream. Both kine and ears symbolized years. There were to be seven years of great plenty in Egypt, and after them seven years of consuming and "very heavy famine." On the interpretation it may be re- marked, th?,t the kine represented the animal products, and the ears of corn the vegetable products, the most important object in each class representing the whole class. Having interpreted the dream, Joseph counselled Pharaoh to choose a wise man and set him over the country, in order that he should take the fifth part of the produce of the seven years of plenty against the years of famine. To this high post the king appointed Joseph, made him not only governor of Egypt, but second only to the sovereign. He also "gave him to wife Asenath daughter of Potipherah, priest [or 'prince'] of On." Joseph's first act was to go throughout all the land of Egypt. During the seven plenteous years there was a very abund- ant produce, and he gathered the fifth part, as he had advised Pharaoh, and laid it up. Be- fore the year of famine Asenath bare Joseph two sons. When the seven good years had passed, the famine began (Gen. xli. 54-57). Famines are not very unfrequent in the history of Egypt [Famine]. After the famine had lasted for a time, apparently two years, Joseph gathered up all the money that was found in the land of Egypt, and in the land of Canaan, for the corn which they bought ; and Joseph brought the money into Pharaoh's house (xlvii. 13, 14). When all the money of Egypt and Canaan was exhausted, barter became neces- sary. Joseph then obtained all the cattle of Egypt, and in the next year, all the land, ex- cept that of the priests, and apparently, as a consequence, the Egyptians themselves. He demanded, however, only a fifth part of the produce as Pharaoh's right. Early in the time of famine, which prevailed equally in Canaan and Egypt, Jacob reproved his helpless sons, and sent them to Egypt, where he knew there was corn to be bought. Benjamin alone he kept with him. Joseph was now governor, an Egyptian in habits and speech. His brethren did not know him, grown, from the boy they had sold, into a man. Joseph remembered his dreams, and behaved to them as a stranger, using, as we afterwards learn, an interpreter, and' spoke hard words to them, and accused them of being spies. In defending themselves they spoke of their household. The whole 200 THE LIBRARY Of T!!£ Joseph story of Joseph's treatment of his brethren is so graphically told in Gen. xlii.-xlv., and is so familiar, that it is unnecessary here to repeat it. After the removal of his family into Egypt, Jacob and his house abode in the land of Goshen, Joseph still ruling the country. Here Jacob, when near his end, gave Joseph a por- tion above his brethren, doubtless including the "parcel of ground"' at Shechem, his future burying-place (comp. John iv. 5). Then he blessed his sons, Joseph most earnestly of all, and died in Eg>'pt. "And Joseph fell upon his face, and wept upon him, and kissed him" (1. i). When he had caused him to be em- balmed by "his servants the physicians," he carried him to Canaan, and laid him in the cave of Machpelah, the burying-place of his fathers. Then it was that his brethren feared that, their father being dead, Joseph would punish them, and that he strove to remove their fears. We know no more of Joseph than that he lived "a hundred and ten years," hav- ing been more than ninety in Egypt ; that he "saw Ephraim's children of the third" [gen- eration], and that "the children also of Machir the son of Manasseh were borne upon Joseph's knees and that dying he took an oath of his brethren that they should carry up his bones to the land of promise : thus showing in his latest action the faith (Heb. xi. 22) which had guided his whole life. Like his father he was embalmed, "and he was put in a coffin in Egypt" (1. 26). His trust Moses kept, and laid the bones of Joseph in his inheritance in Shechem, in-4he territory of Ephraim his off- spring. As to the dynasty which ruled in Egypt during Joseph's residence, see Egypt. 2. Son of Heli, and reputed father of Jesus Christ. All that is told us of Joseph in the N. T. may be summed up in a few words. He was a just man, and of the house apd lineage of David. The public registers also contain his name un- der the reckoning of the house of David (John i. 45; Luke iii. 23; Matt. i. 20; Luke ii. 4). He lived at Nazareth in Galilee, and it is probable that his family had been settled there for at feast two preceding generations, possibly from the time of Matthat, the common grandfather of Joseph and Mary, since Mary lived there too (Luke i. 26, 27). He espoused Mary, the daughter and heir of his uncle Jacob, and be- fore he took her home as his wife received the angelic communication recorded in Matt. i. 20. When Jesus was 12 years old Joseph and Mary took him with them to keep the Passover at Jerusalem, and when they returned to Naza- reth he continued to act as a father to the child Jesus, and was reputed to be so indeed. But here our knowledge of Joseph ends. That he JOSHUA died before our Lord's crucifixion, is indeed tolerably certain, by what is related, John xix. 27, and perhaps Mark vi. 3 may imply that he was then dead. But where, when, or how he died, we know not. Josh'ua (savior, or whose help is Jehovah). His name appears in the various forms of Hoshea, Oshea, Jehoshua, Jeshua, and Jesus. I. The son of Nun, of the tribe of Ephraim (i Chr. vii. 27), and was nearly forty years old when he shared in the hurried triumph of the Exodus. He is mentioned first in connection with the fight against Amalek at Rephidim, when he was chosen by Moses to lead the Israelites (Ex. xvii. 9). When Moses ascended Mount Sinai to receive for the first time the two Tables, Joshua, who is called his minister or servant, accompanied him part of the way, and was the first to accost him in his descent (Ex. xxxii. 17). Soon afterwards he was one of the twelve chiefs who were sent (Num. xiii. 17) to explore the land of Canaan, and one of the two (xiv. 6) who gave an encouraging re- port of their journey. The 40 years of wander- ing were almost passed, and Joshua was one of the few survivors, when Moses, shortly be- fore his death, was directed (Num. xxvii. 18) to invest Joshua solmenly and publicly with definite authority, in connection with Eleazar the priest, over the people. And after this was done, God Himself gave Joshua a charge by the mouth of the dying Lawgiver (Deut. xxxi. 14, 23). Under the direction of God again re- newed (Josh. i. i), Joshua assumed the com- mand of the people at Shittim, sent spies into Jericho, crossed the Jordan, fortified a camp at Gilgal, circumcised the people, kept the pass- over, and was visited by the Captain of the Lord's Host. A miracle made the fall of Jericho more terrible to the Canaanites. In the first attack upon Ai the Israelites were re- pulsed : it fell at the second assault, and the invaders marched to the relief of Gibeon. In the great battle of Bethhoron the Amorites were signally routed, and the south country was open to the Israelites. Joshua returned to the camp at Gilgal, master of half of Palestine. In. the north, at the waters of Merom, he de- feated the Canaanites under Jabin king of Hazor, and pursued his success to the gates of Zidon and into the valley of Lebanon under Hermon. In six years, six tribes with thirty- one petty chiefs were conquered ; amongst others the Anakim — the old terror of Israel — are especially recorded as destroyed every- where except in Philistia. Joshua, now stricken in years, proceeded in conjunction with Eleazar and the heads of the tribes to complete the division of the conquered land ; and when 201 JOSHUA, BOOK OF JUDAH all was allotted, Timnath-serah in Mount Ephraim was assigned by the people as Joshua's peculiar inheritance. After an interval of rest, Joshua convoked an assembly from all Israel. He delivered two solemn addresses, re- minding them of the marvellous fulfilment of God's promises to their fathers, and warning them of the conditions on which their pros- perity depended ; and lastly, he caused them to renew their covenant with God at Shechem, a place already famous in connection with Jacob (Gen. XXXV. 4), and Joseph (Josh. xxiv. 32). He died at the age of no years, and was buried in his own city, Timnath-serah. Joshua, Book of. This book has been re- garded by many critics as a part of the Pentateuch, forming with the latter one com- plete work ; but there do not appear to be suf- ficient grounds for this opinion. The fact that the first sentence of Joshua begins with a con- junction does not show any closer connection between it and the Pentateuch than exists be- tween Judges and it. The references in i. 8, viii. 31, xxiii. 6, xxiv. 26, to the "book of the law" rather show that that book was distinct from Joshua. Other references to events re- corded in the Pentateuch tend in the same di- rection. No quotation (in the strict modern sense of the word) from the Pentateuch can be found in Joshua. — The book may be regarded as consisting of three parts: (I.) The conquest of Canaan; (II.) The partition of Canaan; (HI.) Joshua's farewell. Nothing is really known as to the authorship of the book. Joshua himself is generally named as the author by the Jewish writers and the Christian Fathers ; but no contemporary assertion or suf- ficient historical proof of the fact exists, and it can not be maintained without qualification. Ju'bal, a son of Lamech by Adah, and the inventor of the "harp and organ" (Gen. iv. 21), probably general terms for stringed and wind instruments. Jubilee, The Year of, the fiftieth year after the succession of seven Sabbatical years, in which all the land which had been alienated returned to the families of those to whom it had been allotted in the original distribution, and all bondmen of Hebrew blood were lib- erated. The relation in which it stood to the Sabbatical year and the general directions for its observance are given Lev. xxv. 8-16 and 23-55- Its bearing on lands dedicated to Je- hovah is stated Lev. xxvii. 16-25. There is no mention of the Jubilee in the book of Deuteronomy, and the only other reference to it in the Pentateuch is in Num. xxxvi. 4. The year was inaugurated on the Day of Atone- ment with the blowing of trumpets through- out the land, and by a proclamation' of uni- versal liberty. Josephus states that all debts were remitted in the year of Jubilee but the Scripture speaks of the remission of debts only in connection with the Sabbatical year (Deut. XV. I, 2), and the Jewish writers say expressly that the remission of debts was a point of dis- tinction between the Sabbatical year and the Jubilee. The Jewish writers in general con- sider that the Jubilee was observed till the de- struction of the first temple. The Jubilee is to be regarded as the outer circle of that great Sabbatical system which comprises within it the Sabbatical year, the Sabbatical month, and the Sabbath day. But the Jubilee is more im- mediately connected with the body politic ; and it was only as a member of the state that each person concerned could participate in its pro- visions. It was not distinguished by any pre- scribed religious observance peculiar to itself, like the rites of the Sabbath day and of the Sabbatical month. As far as legislation could go, its provisions tended to restore that equality in outward circumstances which was instituted in the first settlement of the land by Joshua. Judae'a, or Jude'a, a territorial division which succeeded to the overthrow of the ancient landmarks of the tribes of Israel and Judah in their respective captivities. The word first occurs Dan. v. 13 (A. V. "Jewry"), and the first mention of the "province of Judea" is in the book of Ezra (v. 8) ; it is alluded to in Neh. xi. 3 (A. V. "Judah"), and was the result of the division of the Persian empire mentioned by Herodotus (iii. 89-97), under Darius (comp. Esth. viii. 9; Dan. vi. i). In the Apocryphal Books the word "province" is dropped, and throughout the books of Esdras, Tobit, Judith, and Maccabees, the expressions are the "land of Judaea," "Judaea" (A. V. frequently "Jewry"), and throughout the N. T. In a wide and more improper sense, the term Judaea was sometimes extended to the whole country of the Canaanites, its ancient inhabitants; and even in the Gospels we seem to read of the coasts of Judaea "beyond Jordan" (Matt. xix. I ; Mark x. i). Judaea was, in strict language, the name of the third district, west of the Jordan, and south of Samaria. It was made a portion of the Roman province of Syria upon the deposition of Archelaus, the ethnarch of Judea, in A. D. 6, and was governed by a pro- curator, who was subject to the governor of Syria. Ju'dah (praised, celebrated), the fourth son of Jacob and the fourth of Leah, the last before the temporary cessation in the births of her children. His whole-brothers were Reuben, • 202 JUDAH JUDAS Simeon, and Levi, elder than himself — Issachar and Zebulun, younger (see Gen. xxxv. 23). Of Judah's personal character more traits are pre- served than of any other of the patriarchs, with the exception of Joseph. In the matter of the sale of Joseph, he and Reuben stand out in favorable contrast to the rest of the brothers. When a second visit to Egypt for corn had be- come inevitable, it was Judah who, as the mouthpiece of the rest, headed the remon- strance' against the detention of Benjamin by Jacob, and finally undertook to be responsible for the safety of the lad (xliii. 3-10). And when, through Joseph's artifice, the brothers were brought back to the palace, he is again the leader and spokesman of the band. So too it is Judah who is sent before Jacob to smooth the way for him in the land of Goshen (xlvi. 28). This ascendency over his brethren is re- flected in the last words addressed to him by his father. His sons were five. Of these, three were by his Canaanite wife Bath-shua. They are all insignificant, two died early ; and the third, Shelah, does not come prominently for- ward, either in his person or his family. The other two, Pharez and Zerah, were illegitimate sons by the widow of Er, the eldest of the former family. As is not unfrequently the case, the illegitimate sons surpassed the legitimate, and from Pharez, the elder, were descended the royal and other illustrious fami- lies of Judah. The three sons went with their father into Egypt at the time of the final re- moval thither (Gen. xlvi. 12; Ex. i. 2). When we again meet with the families of Judah they occupy a position among the tribes similar to that which their progenitor had taken amongst the patriarchs. The numbers of the tribe at the census at Sinai were 74,600 (Num. i. 26, 27), considerably in advance of any of the others, the largest of which — Dan — numbered 62,700. On the borders of the Promised Land they were 76,500 (xxvi. 22), Dan being still the nearest. During the march through the desert, Judah's place was in the van of the host, on the east side of the Tabernacle, with his kins- men Issachar and Zebulun (ii. 3-9, x. 14). The boundaries and contents of the territory al- lotted to Judah are narrated at great length, and with greater minuteness than the others, in Josh. XV. 20-63. The north boundary, for the most part coincident with the south boundary of Benjamin, began at the em- bouchure of the Jordan, entered the hills ap- parently at or about the present road from Jericho, ran westward to En-shemesh, proba- bly the present Ain-Haud, below Bethany, thence over the Mount of Olives to Enrogel, in the valley beneath Jerusalem ; went along the ravine of Hinnom, under the precipices. of the city, climbed the hill in a N.'^W. direction to the water of the Nephtoah (probably Lifta), and thence by Kirjath-Jearim (probably Kuriet-el-Enab) , Bethshemesh (Ain Shems), Timnath, and Ekron to Jabiieel on the sca- coast. On the east the Dead Sea, and on the west the Mediterranean, formed the bounda- ries. The southern line is hard to determine, since it is denoted by places many of which have not been identified. It left the Dead Sea at its extreme south end, and joined the Medi- terranean at the Wady el-Arish. This terri- tory is in average length about 45 miles, and in average breadth about 50. Ju'dah, Kingdom of. When the disruption of Solomon's kingdom took place at Shechem, only the tribe of Judah followed the house of David. But almost immediately afterwards, when Rehoboam conceived the design of es- tablishing his authority over Israel by force of arms, the tribe of Benjamin also is recorded as obeying his summons, and contributing its warriors to make up his army. Two Benjamite towns, Bethel and Jericho, were included in the northern kingdom. A part, if not all, of the territory of Simeon (i Sam. xxvii. 6; i K. xix. 3; comp. Josh. xix. i) and of Dan (2 Chr. xi. 10; comp. Josh. xix. 41, 42) was recognized as belonging to Judah ; and in the reigns of Abijah and Asa the southern kingdom was en- larged by some additions taken out of the ter- ritory of Ephraim (2 Chr. xiii. 19, xv. 8, xvii. 2). The kingdom of Judah possessed many ad- vantages which secured for it a lojiger con- tinuance than that of Israel. A frontier less exposed to powerful enemies, a soil less fertile, a population hardier and more united, a fixed and venerated centre of administration and re- ligion, an hereditary aristocracy in the sac- erdotal caste, an army always subordinate, a succession of kings which no revolution inter- rupted : — to these and other secondary causes is to be attributed the fact that Judah survived her more populous and more powerful sister kingdom by 135 years, and lasted from B. C. 975 to B. C. 536. Ju'das, the Greek form of the Hebrew name Judah, occurring in the LXX, and N. T. i. The Patriarch Judah (Matt. i. 2, 3). 2. A man residing at Damascus, in "the street which is called Straight," in whose house Saul of Tarsus lodged after his miraculous conversion (Acts ix. 11). Ju'das, surnamed Bar'sabas, a leading mem- ber of the Apostolic church at Jerusalem (Acts XV. 22), endued with the gift of prophecy (ver. 32), chosen with Silas to accompany Paul and Barnabas as delegates to the church at 203 JUDAS ISCARIOT JUDAS ISCARIOT Antiocli, to make known the decree concerning the terms of admission of the Gentile converts (ver. 27). After employing their prophetical gifts for the confirmatipn of the Syrian Chris- tians in the faith, Judas went back to Jeru- salem. Ju'das Iscar'iot (Judas of Kerioth). He is sometimes called "the son of Simon" (John vi. 71, xiii. 2, 26), but more commonly called (the three Synoptic Gospels give no othfer name) Iscariotes (Matt. x. 4; Mark iii. ig; Luke vi. 16, &c.). In the three lists of the Twelve there is added in each case the fact that he was the betrayer.. The name Iscariot has received many interpretations more or less conjectural. The most probable are — (i) From Kerioth (Josh. XV. 25), in the tribe of Judah. On this hypothesis his position among the Twelve, the rest of whom belonged to Galilee (Acts ii. 7), would be exceptional ; and this has led to (2) From Kartha in Galilee (Kartan, A. V. Josh, xxi. 22). (3) From scortea, a leathern apron, the name being applied to him as the bearer of the bag, and = Judas witK the apron. — Of the life of Judas, before the appearance of his name in the lists of the Apostles, we know absolutely nothing. What that appearance im- plies, however, is; that he had previously de- clared himself a disciple. He was drawn, as the others were, by the preaching of the Bap- tist, or his own Messianic hopes, or the "gracious words" of the new Teacher, to leave his former life, and to obey the call of the Prophet of Nazareth. The choice was not made, we must remember, without a prevision of its issue (John. vi. 64). The germs of the evil, in all likelihood, unfolded themselves gradually. The rules to which the Twelve were subject in their first journey (Matt. x. 9, 10) sheltered him from the temptation that would have been most dangerous to him. The new form of life, of which we find the first traces in Luke viii. 3, brought that temptation with it. As soon as the Twelve were recog- nized as a body, travelling hither and thither with their Master, receiving money and other ofiferings, and redistributing what they re- ceived to the poor, it became necessary that some one should act as the steward and almoner of the small society, and this fell to Judas (John xii. 6, xiii. 29). The Galilean or Judaean peasant found himself intrusted with larger sums of money than before, and with this there 'came covetousness, unfaithfulness, embezzlement. It was impossible after this that he could feel at ease with One who as- serted so clearly and sharply the laws of faith- fulness, duty, unselfishness. The narrative of Matt, xxvi., Mark xiv., places this history in close connection with the fact of the betrayal, it loaves the motives of the betrayer to con- jecture. The mere love of money may have been strong enough to make him clutch at the bribe ofifered him. Mingled with this there may have been some feeling of vindictiveness, a vague, confused desire to show that he had power to stop the career of the Teacher who had reproved him. There may have been the thought that, after all, the betrayal could do no harm, that his Master would prove his in- nocence, or by some supernatural manifesta- tion efifect his escape. Another motive has been suggested of an entirely different kind, altering altogether the character of the act. Not the love of money, nor revenge, nor fear, nor disappointment, but policy, a subtle plan to force on the hour of the triumph of the Mes- sianic kingdom, the belief that for this service he would receive as high a place as Peter, or James, or John ; this it was that made him the traitor. Ingenious as this hypothesis is, it fails for that very reason. Of the other motives that have been assigned we need not care to fix on any one, as that which singly led him on. During the days that intervened between the supper at Bethany and the Paschal or quasi- Paschal gathering, he appeared to have con- cealed his treachery. At the last Supper he is present, looking forward to the consummation of his guilt as drawing nearer every hour. Then come the sorrowful words which showed him that his design was known. "One of you shall betray me." After this there comes on him that paroxysm and insanity of guilt as of one whose human soul was possessed by the Spirit of Evil — "Satan entered into him" (John xiii. 27). He knows that garden in which his Master and his companions had so often rested after the weary work of the day. He comes, accompanied by a band of officers and servants (John xviii. 3), with the kiss which was proba- bly the usual salutation of the disciples. The words of Jesus, calm and gentle as they were, showed that this was what embittered the treachery, and made the suffering it inflicted more acute (Luke xxii. 48). What followed in the confusion of that night the Gospels do not record. The fever of the crime passed away. There came back on him the recollec- tion of the sinless righteousness of the Master he had wronged (Matt, xxvii. 3). He repented, and his guilt and all that had tempted him to it became hateful. He carried back the thirty pieces of silver to the chief priests, and con- fessed his sin, hoping perhaps that good might yet be done by this assertion of Christ's in- nocence. Their only answer was to throw the responsibility upon him ; and casting down the 204 JUDAS MACCABAEUS money on the pavement of the Temple, he went and hanged himself. His death was made more horrible to all the inhabitants of Jerusalem by the circumstance recorded by St. Luke in the Acts; but most awful of all is the sentence which was more than once pro- nounced upon him by the Lord, and with which Peter dismisses his name from the Apostles' list, "from which Judas by transgres- sion fell, that he might go to his own place." With a scrupulousness which is the most striking example of religious formalism gloss- ing over moral deformity, the chief priests de- cided that the thirty silver pieces, as the price of blood, must not be put back into the treas- ury; so they purchased with them the potter's field, without the city, as a burial-place for strangers. It seems to be implied in the narra- tive that the field thus purchased was also the place where Judas committed suicide, and the double memorial of the scene and the price of blood was preserved by its name, Aceldama, the field of blood (Matt, xxvii. 3-10; Acts i. 18, 19). It is hardly necessary to point out that "purchased" in the latter passage is an in- stance of k common figure of speech, implying indirect agency. [Aceldama.] Ju'das Maccabae'us. [Maccabees.] Jude, or Ju'das, Lebbeus, and Thadde'us (A. V. "Judas the brother of James"), one of the Twelve Apostles ; a member, together with his namesake "Iscariot," James the son of Alphaeus, and Simon Zelotes, of the last of the three sections of the Apostolic body. The name Judas only, without any distinguishing mark, occurs in the lists given by St. Luke vi. 16; Acts i. 13; and in John xiv. 22 (where we find "Judas not Iscariot" among the Apostles), but the Apostle, has been generally identified with "Lebl)eus whose surname was Thad- dcus" (Matt. X. 3; Mark iii. 18). The name of Jude occurs only once in the Gospel narrative (John xiv. 22). Nothing is certainly known of the later history of the Apostle. Tradition connects him with the foundation of the church at Edessa. Jude, Epistle of. Its author was probably Jude, one of the brethren of Jesus. Although the canonicity of this Epistle was questioned in the earliest ages of the Church, there never was any doubt of its genuineness. The ques- tion was never whether it was the work of an impostor, but whether its author was of sufifi- cient weight to warrant its admission into the Canon. This question was gradually decided in its favor. There are no data from which to determine its date or place of writing. Lard- ner places the time between A. D. 64 and 66, Davidson before A. D. 70, Credner A. D. 80, JUDGES, BOOK OF Calmet, Estius, Witsius, and Ncander, after the death of all the Apostles but John, and perhaps after the fall of Jerusalem. The object of the Epistle is plainly enough announced, ver. 3: the reason for this exhortation is given ver. 4. The larger portion of this Epistle (ver. 3-16) is almost identical in language and sub- ject with a part of the Second Epistle of Peter (2 Pet. ii. 1-19). Judges. The Judges were temporary and special deliverers, sent by God to deliver the Israelites from their oppressors, not supreme magistrates, succeeding to the authority of Moses and Joshua. Their power only extended over portions of the country, and some of them were contemporaneous. Their name in Hebrew is Shophetim, which is the same as that for ordinary judges; nor is it applied to them in a diflferent sense. For, though their first work was that of deliverers and leaders in war, they then administered justice to the people, and their authority supplied the want of a regular government. But the only recognized central authority was still the oracle at Shiloh, which sunk into a system of priestly weakness and disorder under Eli and his sons. Even while the administration of Samuel gave something like a settled government to the South, there was scope for the irregular exploits of Samson on the borders of the Philistines ; and Samuel at last established his authority as Judge and prophet, but still as the servant of Jehovah, only to see it so abused by his sons as to ex- haust the patience of the people, who at length demanded a King, after the pattern of the sur- rounding nations. Judges, Book of, of which the book of Ruth formed originally a part, contains the history from Joshua to Samson. As the history of the Judges occupies by far the greater part of the narrative, and is at the same time the history of the people, the title of the whole book is derived from that portion. The time com- monly assigned to the period contained in this book is 299 years. The dates which are given amount to 410 years when reckoned consecu- tively ; and Acts xiii. 20 would show that this was the computation commonly adopted, as the 450 years seem to result from adding 40 years for Eli to the 410 of this book. But a difficulty is created by xi. 26, and in a still greater degree by i K. vi. i, where the whole period from the Exodus to the building of the Temple is stated as 480 years. On the whole, it seems safer to give up the attempt to ascer- tain the chronology exactly. The successive narratives give us the history of only parts of' the country, and some of the occurrences may have been contemporary (x. 7). 205 JUDGMENT-HALL KID Judgment-hall. The word Praetorium is so translated five times in the A. V. of the N. T. ; and in those five passages it denotes two dif- ferent places. I. In John xviii. 28, 33, xxix. 9, it is the residence which Pilate occupied when he visited Jerusalem. The site of Pilate's prae- torium in Jerusalem has given rise to much dispute, some supposing it to be the palace of King Herod, others the tower of Antonia ; but it was probably the latter, which was then and long afterwards the citadel of Jerusalem. 2. In Acts xxiii. 55, Herod's judgment-hall or praetorium in Caesarea was doubtless a part of that magnificent range of buildings, the erec- tion of which by King Herod is described in Josephus. The word "palace," or "Caesar's court," in the A. V. of Phil. i. 13, is a transla- tion of the same word praetorium. It may here have denoted the quarter of that detach- ment of the Praetorian Guards which was in immediate attendance upon the emperor, and had barracks in Mount Palatine. Ju'dith. I. The daughter of Beeri the Hit- tite, and wife of Esau (Gen. xxvi. 34). 2. The heroine of the apocryphal book which bears her name, who appears as an ideal type of piety (Jud. viii. 6), beauty (xi. 21), courage, and chastity (xvi. 22, fif.). Ju'dith, The Book of, one of the books of the Apocrypha, like that of Tobit, belongs to the earliest specimens of historical fiction. The narrative of the reign of "Nebuchadnezzar king of Nineveh" (i. i), of the campaign of Holo- fernes, and the deliverance of Bethulia, through the stratagem and courage of the Jewish heroine, contains too many and too serious difficulties, both historical and geographical, to allow of the supposition that it is either lit- erally true, or even carefully moulded on truth. It belongs to the Maccabaean period, which it reflects not only in its general spirit, but even in its smaller traits. The text exists at present in two distinct recensions, the Greek and the Latin. The former evidently is the truer representative of the original, and it seems certain that the Latin was derived, in the main, from the Greek by a series of suc- cessive alterations. Juniper (i K. xix. 4, 5; Ps. cxx. 4; Job xxx. 4). The word which is rendered in A. V. juniper is beyond doubt a sort of broom, Genista monosperma, G. raetam of Forskal, answering to the Arabic Rethem. It is very abundant in the desert of Sinai, and affords shade and protection, both in heat and storm, to travellers. The Rothem is a leguminous plant, and bears a white flower. It is also found in Spain, Portugal, and Palestine. Ju'piter (the Greek Zeus). Antiochus Epi- phanes dedicated the Temple at Jerusalem to the service of Zeus Olympius (2 Mace. vi. 2), and at the same time the rival temple on Gerizim was devoted to Zeus Xenius (Jupiter hospitalis, Vulg.). The Olympian Zeus was the national god of the Hellenic race, as well as the supreme ruler of the heathen world, and as such formed the true opposite to Jehovah. The application of the second epithet, "the God of hospitality," is more obscure. Jupiter or Zeus is mentioned in one passage of the N. T., on the occasion of St. Paul's visit to Lystra (Acts xiv. 12, 13), where the expression "Jupiter, which was before their city," means that his temple was outside the city. Ka'desh, Ka'desh-bar'nea (Kadesh means holy: it is the same word as the Arabic name for Jerusalem, El-Khuds). This place, the scene of Miriam's death, was the farthest point which the Israelites reached in their direct road to Canaan; it was also that whence the spies were sent, and where, on their return, the people broke out into murmuring, upon which their strictly penal term of wandering began (Num. xiii. 3, 26, xiv. 29-33, xx. i ; Deut. ii. 14). Ked'ron, properly Kidron. [Kidron.] Ke'rioth. i. A name which occurs among the lists of the towns in the southern district of Judah (Josh. xv. 25). 2. A city of Moab, named by Jeremiah only (Jer. xlviii. 24). Kettle, a vessel for culinary or sacrificial purposes (i Sam. ii. 14). The Hebrew word is also rendered "basket" in Jer. xxiv. 2, "caldron" in 2 Chr. xxxv. 13, and "pot" in Job xli. 20. Key. The key of a native Oriental lock is a piece of wood, from 7 inches to 2 feet in length, fitted with wires or short nails, which, being inserted laterally into the hollow bolt which serves as a lock, raises other pins within the Egyptian Iron Key. staple SO as to allow the bolt to be drawn back. But it is not difficult to open a lock of this kind even without a key, viz. with the finger dipped in paste or other adhesive substance. The passage Cant. v. 4, 5, is thus probably ex- plained. Kid. [Goat.] Kid, Kidron, or Ked'ron), The Brook, a tor- rent or valley — not a "brook," as in the A. V. — j206 KING KING close to Jerusalem. It lay between the city and the Mount of Olives, and was crossed by David in his tlight (2 Sam. xv. 23, comp. 30), and by our Lord on His way to Gethsemane (John xviii. i ; comp. 'Mark xiv. 26; Luke xxii. 39). It is now commonly known as the "Val- ley of Jehoshaphat." The distinguishing pe- culiarity of the Kidron valley is the impurity which appears to have been ascribed to it. In the time of Josiah it was the common ceme- tery of the city (2 K. xxiii. 6, comp. Jer. xxvi. 23)- King. [Bull] King, the name of the Supreme Ruler of the Hebrews during a period of about 500 years previous to the destruction of Jerusalem, B. C. 586. The immediate occasion of the substitu- tion of a regal form of government for that of Judges, seems to have been the siege of Jabesh- Vlew of KedroD. Gilead by Xahash, king of the Ammonites (l Sam. xi. I, xii. 12), and the refusal to allow the inhabitants of that city to capitulate, except on humiliating and cruel conditions (i Sam. xi. 2, 4-6). The conviction seems to have forced itself on the Israelites that they could not resist their formidable neighbor unless they placed themselves under the sway of a king, like sur- rounding nations. Concurrently with this con- viction, disgust had been excited by the cor- rupt administration of justice under the sons of Samuel, and a radical change was desired by them in this respect also (i Sam. viii. 3-5). Ac- cordingly the original idea of a Hebrevi^ l