..Jt Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2017 with funding from University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign Alternates https://archive.org/details/skullofaelurodon7319barb 47 NEBRASKA CxEOLOGICAL SURVEY Volume 7, Part 3 irb-7 veT v'. 7 I RrGF ;L’;rr; IAR 25 1919 A NEW GENUS AND SPECIES OE RHINOCEROSi Epiaphelops Vikgasectus. FROM THE LOWER MIOCENE OF NEBRASKA. By Harold James Cook. EPIAPHELOPS VIRGASECTUS. Dental Formula, M..^, P.^, C.^^, I.,. Type, right lower jaw, and anterior portion of left lower jaw, No. HC265, collection of the writer. t ^ This genus of the early Miocene Rhinocerotidae is a somewhat unexpected type in the beds where it occurs. Certain fragmentary remains of this, or a closely allied form, have been found, but noth- ing up to date which seemed worth describing. Among the known forms of the American Oligocene, there seems to be nothing strictly prophetic of it. In the most typical rhinoceros known from the White River beds, Caenopus-, we already find a reduction in the lower grinding dentition to six functional teeth. In C. platycephaliim^, we find the first lower premolar present, but vestigeal, and of a variable charac- ter. In the type of Epiaphelops, the first premolar is of good size, and is a functional grinding tooth. Likewise, while the present species is more primitive than C. platycephaliim in this respect, E. virgaseetiis has the typical development of the premolar cusps, not the atypical structure found in platycephaliim. Therefore, while there are several superficial similarities between these two, they are analogies, and Epiaphelops virgaseetiis has obviously descended from a more primitive ancestral stock than Caenopus. It may have descended from some such stock as Trigonias osbornF, Lucas, but comparison of these forms at present appears unprofitable. It is perhaps most closely related, among known forms, (1) Epi^ aphel ops virga sectus ’eiri 'acf)€.Xr]^ Near smooth face twig cutting Notice of a new Genus of Rhinoceros from the Lower Miocene. Science, N. S., Vol. XXXV., No. 893, pp. 219-220, Feb. 9, 1912. (2) Cope, E. D., Am. Nat. XIV, 611, Aug. 1880. (3) Osborn, H. F., Mem. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. Vol. I, Pt. Ill, 1898. (4) Hatcher, J. B., Vol. 7, Part 3 An. Cam. Mus. Vol. I, Pt. HI, 1901. to 22 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY to Aphelops megalodiim, hence the name. It is separated from this form by the presence of a functional P,, a more brachyodont den- tition, and a heavy cingulum, which is developed least on the last molar. Likewise, the last molar shows the greatest tendency to be- come hypsodont. Epiaphelops virgascctus is somewhat larger than Aphelops mega- lodum. Additional good material, judging from fragmentary speci- mens, will show other characters by which this form will be more clearly characterized. It represents an earlier stage in the approxi- mate ancestral line of Aphelops, and may well be a migrant, rather than a direct descendent of any American Oligocene stock. This specimen was secured by the writer during August, 1911, about eighteen miles east of Agate, Nebraska, in one of the old chan- nel beds which are probably a phase of the Upper Harrison. How- ever they contain many types also found in the Lower Harrison, (in- cluding Moropus, Dinohyus, Diceratherium, etc., in species found in the Lower Harrison), and the stratigraphy is such as to make corre- lation difficult. The writer has also found fragments of Epiaphelops in the typical Lower Harrison. Epiaphelops virgasectus. Measurements of teeth. Type. Ml antero-posterior diameter 42 m. m. Ml transverse diameter 31 m. m. M 2 antero-posterior diameter 44 m. m. Mo transverse diameter 31 m. m. Ms antero-posterior diameter 52 m. m. Ms transverse diameter 31 m. m. Pi antero-posterior diameter 17* m. m. Pi transverse diameter 15* m. m. P 2 antero-posterior diameter 26 m. m. P 2 transverse diameter 21 m. m. Ps antero-posterior diameter 32 m. m. Ps transverse diameter 23 m. m. P 4 antero-posterior diameter 36 m. m. P 4 transverse diameter 27 m. m. Incisor, antero-posterior diameter at enamel base 21 m. m. Incisor, transverse diameter at enamel base 34 m. m. Incisor, length from base of enamel 96 m. m. *Approximate measurement. Measurements of jaw. Type. Depth of jaw at base of Ms 84 m. m. Width of jaw below base of Ms 48 m. m. Depth of jaw below base of P 2 64 m. m. Width of jaw below base of P 2 37 m. m. Length of mandibular symphasis 75 m. m. Agate, Nebr., Dec. 1911. Distributed June, 1912. •f. r NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY EPIAPHELOPS VIRC P3 PI PI , PLATE I. >ECTUS, Cook. X>^, FHE LiP:-... OF Ti!t li?ilVERSlTY OF ULIMOIS a y i. 1 T i r I.''-' S'/’ 1 ;^- rJL rb-T Vzi V. 7 Pr.4- MAh 25 919 48 NEBRASKA GEOl.OGICAL SURVEY Y()r>UMK 7, Part 4 A NEW SPECIES OE RHINOCEROS. D I C EK AT II ER I U M LoO M I S I . FROM THE LOWER MIOCENE OF NEBRASKA. By Harold James Cook. Dicerathcriiim loomis? , sp. nov. The type, No. HC260, collection of the writer, consists of a portion of the right upper maxilla, containing P^, MR and M-, and was found by the writer in the Agate Spring Eossil Quarry, during the summer of 1910. A number of jaw fragments and isolated teeth of this form were found, but the writer has been of the o])inion that these specimens represented portions of the deciduous dentition of some of the known species of Diceratherium, so numerous in this quarry. The structure of these teeth was so aberrant that it was taken for granted that they were deciduous teeth, and no careful examination of the specimens was made for nearly a year after they were collected. But after careful examinations, some of these s])ecimens show conclusively that the teeth present are permanent, not deciduous, teeth. Loomis^ has decribed a single tooth — or ]VH, he states — under the name of Diceratherium aberrans, which is somewhat parallel in development to P-^ in the present s])ecies, but it has not Fig. 1. Key to terminology. M- right side, Diceratherium cooki, Peterson. (1) Specific name in honor of Prof. F. B. Loomis of Amherst College, Am- herst, Mass. (2) Loomis, F. B., “Rhinocerotidae of the Lower Miocene”, Am. Jour. Sci. Vol. XXVI, Art. IV, 1908. 30 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY been entirely clear to the writer that this is a valid species, as he has seen deciduous teeth of D. cooki^ in position which closely paralleled it. Still — if the type of D. abcrrans is a permanent tooth — it could be P-^, instead of a molar, in which case it would indicate a second species closely paralleling D. loomisi. Comparing the type of D. aberrans with P-^ of the present species, it is to he noted that the antero-posterior and the transverse diameters of loomisi are about equal, while in aberrans, the antero-posterior diameter considerably exceeds the transverse, and the latter is somewhat larger. D. loomisi is small, about the size of D. schiffi, but with very dif- ferent dentition. The teeth are hrachyodont, with rather heavy, broad roots. The crowns of the molars are comjiressed, much as D. schiffi but the external perpendicular ridge of the paracone is more prominently developed than in schiffi, both actually and in relation to the parastyle. In fact, this external ridge is unusually well developed in MC and M-. The hypocone in and M- is relatively small, and the crochet is unusually developed, touching, and sometimes uniting with, a well developed crista. The protoconule is moderately de- veloped. But in P^ we find a remarkable structure. Both protoloph and metaloph are well developed, and of about equal size, as in D. aberrans. In describing D. abcrrans, Loomis calls the type, “either the first or second upper right-hand molar”. Either his drawing of the type is inverted in printing, or else the tooth is a left, instead of a right, upper. If inverted, the structure is quite similar to that found in P^ of the present species. But if this is a left tooth, then there is a great difference. Loomis states that “the crochet is developed to enormous size” in aberrans. This is true of P-^, MC and M^, in loomisi, but unless the draw- ing of aberrans is inverted, it is the protoconule which is so strongly developed in that type, instead of the crochet. The protoconule is moderately developed in the molars of the present species. The crista is unusually well developed, but not as in aberrans. A large accessory cusp, or loph, rises just posterior to the crista, and extends to the internal cingulum, thus adding greatly to the triturating complexity of the tooth. There is no external cingulum. The internal cingulum is quite strongly developed, but is interrupted by the protoloph and metaloph, and between these two has a tendency to form minute accessory cusps. ( 3 ) Peterson, O. A., Ann. Cam. Miis. Vol. IV No. 1. Vol. 7 , Part 4 . DTCERATIIERIUM LOOMISI 31 Specimens are present in all stages of wear, but unfortunately no skulls of this rather rare type have so far come to light. Another peculiar feature is the location of the infra-orhital foramen. This is situated directly above instead of V-\ as is usual in the Diccratlicrcs. In some instances among contemporary forms, this foramen opens above P“, and this is true in Metacaenopus egregiiis. This led the writer to wonder if there might not he a mis- take in the identification of the teeth. But the extreme transverse Fig. 2. Premolar 4 and molars 1 and 2, right upper, of Diceratherium loomisi, natural size. No. HC2G0. Type. Fig. 3. Premolar 4 and molar 1, right upper, referred to Diceratherium loomisi, natural size. No. HC2G1. compression of the posterior half of the last tooth in the series — in the type — its rather sharp inward turn, the position of the tooth in rela- tion to the beginning of the zygomatic arch, and the whole character of the tooth, would stamp it as M-. The next tooth forward is just what one would expect in M^, to go with this M-, but of course P-^ 32 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY is sometimes completely molariform. This position of the infra- orbital foramen would seem to indicate a very brachycephalic type of sknll, and a rather flat one. Diceratherium loo mi si. Measurements of type. antero-posterior diameter 24 m. m. transverse diameter 26 m. m. Ml antero-posterior diameter 32 m. m. Ml transverse diameter 27 m. m. M2 antero-posterior diameter 35 m. m. M2 transverse diameter 31 m. m. Height of infra-orbital foramen above base of Pi 24 m. m. Same, in D. cooki, (referred specimen, not type) 32 m. m. (The last measurement above was taken from an excellently preserved specimen, which agrees closely to the type of D. cooki, in all measurements). Agate, Nebraska, Dec., 1911. Distributed, August, 1912. b~6“7 /V2-7 V, 7 Vi.b' MAR 25 ’ 49 NEBRASKA GE( )L( )GICA[. SURVEY \ 4 )lume 7, Part 5 FAUNAL LISTS OF THE TERTIARY FORMATIONS OF SIOUX COUNTY, NEBRASKA. By Harold James Cook. Introduction. The object of the faunal lists of the fossil Tertiary mammals here given is to bring up to date a classified list of the genera and species, found in the various Tertiary formations of Sioux County, Nebraska. The region in and about Sioux County is one which abounds in fossil remains of prehistoric animals, and has long been a great collecting ground. But many recent discoveries have added large- ly to the known faunae from this vicinity, and while any such list must necessarily be provisional and incomplete, it is hoped that these lists may prove a useful reference to students of fossil mammals, and to those interested in knowing something of the range of life forms which existed in this region during ages long past. The writer is greatly indebted to the work of Dr. W. D. Mat- thew, in his “Faunal Lists of the Tertiary Mammalia of the West.” (Bull. 361, U. S. G. S.) in compiling this work, especially for the Oligocene lists, which are virtually as he gives them. While all the forms here listed may not have been actually found in Sioux County, all have been found in or adjoining this county, and all are from formations which occur in Sioux County. Owing to the inaccurate data kept by early collectors as to precise localities and levels of the occurrence of any fossil, it is very difficult to place many species accurately, in these respects. Other formations than those herein listed occur in Sioux County, but present knowledge of their faunae is meagre and scarcely worth recording. FAUNAL LISTS OF THE TERTIARY FORMATION LOWER OLIGOCENE Hyaenodon sp. Chadron (White River Group) TITANOTHERIUM ZONE Carnivora (Creodonta) Hyaenodontidae 34 XEBR.\SKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY Carnivora (Fissipedia) Canidae. Daphoeniis dodgci, Scott. “ . sp. Cynodictis sp. Cynodon sp. Felidae. Dinictis fortis, Adams, sp. Perissodactyla Hyracodon sp. Metamynodon sp. Trigonias osborni, Lucas Hyracodontidae Amynodontidae Rhinocerotidae LeptaceratJicriiim trigonogiim, Osborn and Wortman Cacnopus (Subhyracodon) sp. div. “ cf. platycephalus, Osborn and Wortman miti, Cope Lophiodontidae Colodon (Mesatapinis) occidentalis, Leidy Equidae Mesohippus proteiilophiis, Osborn “ Jiypostyliis “ celer, ^larsh Titanotheridae (Brontotheridae) Titaiiotheriiim proiiti, Leidy ‘‘ h el 0 cents, Cope “ ingens, Marsh Megacerops dispar, ^larsh “ tichoceras, Scott and Osborn robiistiis. Marsh brachycephaliis, Osborn bicorniifiis, Osborn “ marsJii, Osborn AUops serotinus. Marsh crassicornis, “ “ ampins “ Symbordon montaniis. Marsh C.r>' I V FAUNAL LIST, TERTIARY FORMATION 35 5o7 V, 7 ^ v> Brontotherium ramosum, Osborn gigas, Marsh ciirtum, “ dolichoceras, Scott and Osborn platycerus, “ “ “ leidyi, Osborn Artiodactyla Kntelodontidae Entelodon crassiim, Marsh sp. div. Perchoerus sp. Tagassuidae Leptochoeridae Stibarns montaniis, Matthew Anthracotheridae Ancodon americamts, Leidy f A nthracotherium sj) . Agriochoeridae (Oreodontidae) Merycoidodon (Orcodon) hybridits, Leidy affinis, Leidy Agriochoerus, sp. Hypertragulidae Leptomeryx sp. div. Heteronieryx dispar, Matthew MIDDLE OLiaOCENE Brule (Lower part) (White River Group) OREODON ZONE. Marsupialia P eratherium fugax, Cope Carnivora (Creodonta) Hyaenodontidae Hyaenodon horridiis, Leidy cruentus, “ criicians, “ paucidens, Osborn and Wortman leptocephaliis, Scott and Osborn must el inns, Scott Carnivora (Fissipedia) Canidae 36 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY Daphoenus vitas, Leidy “ hartshornianiis, Cope “ f cl inns, Scott “ ncbrascensis, Hatcher “ in flatus, Hatcher Cynodictis grcgarius, Cope Cyiwdictis lippincottianus. Cope Mustelidae fOligobunis sp. Felidae Dinictis felina, Leidy “ sqiialidens. Cope “ paucidcns, Riggs Hoplophoneus primaevus, Leidy “ occidentalis, “ “ oreodontis. Cope “ sp. (Transitional to Eusmilus) Insectivora Erinaceidae Protcrix loomisi, Matthew Leptictidae Lcptictis haydcni, Leidy Ictops dakotcnsis, Leidy “ buUatus, Matthew “ porcinus, Leidy Soricidae Protosorcx crassus, Scott Rodent: A Castoridae Eutypomys thomsoni, Matthew Ischyromydae Ischyromys typus, Leidy Muridae Eumys clegans, Leidy Leporidae Palacolagas haydcni, Leidy “ turgidus, Cope Perissodactyla Hyracodontidae Hyracodon ncbrascensis, Leidy “ major, Scott and Osborn Amynodontidae PAUNAL LIST, TERTIARY FORMATION 37 Metaniynodon plaiiifroiis, Scott and Osborn Rhinocerotidae Cacnopiis occidcntalis, Leidy “ CO pel, Osborn “ simplicidcns, Cope Lcptaccratherium trigonodum, Osborn and Wortman “ Hyracodon’ planiccps, Scott and Osborn Lophiodontidae Colodon procuspidatiis, Osborn and Wortman “ dakotensis, “ “ “ “ lougipes, Tapiridae Protapiriis simplex, Wortman and Earle Equidae Mesohippus bairdii, Leidy “ ohliquidens, Osborn Artiodactyla Entelodontidae Entelodon mortoni, Leidy “ ingens, Leidy “ crassiis. Marsh Tagassuidae Perchoerns probus, Leidy “ nanus. Marsh Anthracotheridae Anthracotherium curtum. Marsh Ancodon rostratus, Scott Leptochoeridae Leptochoerus spectabilis, Leidy “ gracilis. Marsh Stibarus quadric uspis, Hatcher Ag-riochoeridae Agriochoerus antiquus, Leidy “ latifrons, “ Merycoidodon culbertsoni, “ “ gracilis '' cf. bullatiis, “ Leptauchenia sp. Hypertragulidae Hypertragulus calcaratus. Cope sp. div. 38 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY Leptomeryx sp. div. Hypisodits minimus, Cope Camelidae Poebrotherium wilsoni, Leidy “ ' labiatum, Cope “ eximiiim, Hay Paratylopiis primacvus, Matthew UPPER OLIGOCENE Brule (Upper part) (White River Group) PROTOCERAS AND LEPTAUCHENIA ZONES. Carnivora (Fissipedia) Canidae Cynodictis temnodon, Wortman and Alattbew Felidae Dinictis bombifrons, Adams Hoplophoneus insolens, “ Eusmihts dakotensis, Hatcher Rodentia Castoridae Steneofiber nebrascensis, Leidy Perissodactyla Hyracodontidae Hyracodon sp. div. Rhinocerotidae Caenopus tridactylus, Osborn playtyccphaliis, Osborn and \\Artman Tapiridae Protapinis obliquidens, Wortman and Farl “ valid us, Hatcher Equidae Mesohippus intermedins, Osborn and Wortman meteulophus, Osborn “ bracliystyhis, Osborn Miohippus valid us, Osborn gidleyi, ^ crassiciispis, Osborn Artiodactyla Entelodontidae FAUNAL LIST, TERTIARY FORMATION 39 Entelodon cf. ingcns, Leidy “ fcrassus, Marsh “ bothrodon, “ " sp. Tagassuidae Perchocrus rohustus, Marsh “ platyops, Cope Leptochoeridae Leptochoerus, sp. Anthracotheridae Anthracothcrium karense, Osborn and Wortman Ancodon brachyrhynchns, “ Agriochoeridae Agriochoents major, Leidy “ gaiidryi, Osborn and Wortman “ migraiis, Marsh Eporcodon ( fEiicrotophiis) major, Leidy Eucrotophus jacksoni, Leidy Leptauchenia sp. Hypertragnlidae Leptomcryx, sp. div. Protoceras ccler. Marsh “ comptiis. Marsh “ nastus, “ Galops cristatiis, Marsh “ consors, “ Camelidae Pseudolobis dakotcnsis, Matthew BASAL MIOCENE Monroe Creek Beds Carnivora Canidae Nothocyon gregorii, Matthew cf. lemur. Cope Mesocyon, sp. Rodentia Castoridae Euhapsis platyceps, Peterson 40 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SL^RVEY Perissodactyla Rliinocerotidae Diceratherium sp. Eqiiidae fParahippus sp. Artiodactyla Agriochoeridae Mcsorcodoii mcgalodon, Peterson Pvomerycochocriis carrikcri, Peterson PJicnacocochts typiis, Peterson Lepfaiichcuia, sp. LOWER MIOCENE Lower Harrison Carniyora SyXDYOCHRAS ZOXE Canidae Dapliocnodon siipiirbiis, Peterson “ periculosus, Cook Nothocyon annectcns, Peterson “ sp. Tcmnocyon Venator, Cook “ percussor, “ Alnstelidae Paroligobiinis simplicidens, Peterson Oligobiinis cf. lepidus, Matthew Rodentia Castoridae Stcncofibcr fossor, Peterson “ barboiiri, “ “ sp. Geomydae Entoptycliiis sp. Leporidae Lepus sp. Perissodactyla Rliinocerotidae Diceratherium cooki, Peterson niobrarense, Peterson arikarense, Barbour^ petersoni, Loomis “ schiffi FAUNA!. LIST, TFRTIAKV FORMATION 41 “ aberrausr “ loomisi, Cook Metacaenopus cgrcgius, Cook ? “ stigcri, Loomis Chalicotheridae Moropiis fclatus, Marsh “ cooki, Barbour “ pctersoni, HollancL “ parvus, Barbour Equidae Parahippus, aff. crenidens, Scott “ sp. “ sp. Foot Note. 1. It is not entirely clear that this is a valid species, and distinct from D. cooki, Peterson. Careful comparative studies are necessary to clear this up. 2. Additional material is necessary to demonstrate the validity of this species. 3. The relationship of M. pctersoni and M. Parvus is not clear. They are probably the same species, in which case pctersoni would have priority. Here again we must wait further evidence. There is either great variation in a few species, or else there are several species of Moropus in the Lower Harrison. Artiodactyla Entelodontidae Dinohyus hollandi, Peterson Entelodon, sp. Tagassuidae Desmathyus siouxcnsis, Peterson Agriochoeridae Pr ornery cochoerus vautasselensis, Peterson fMerychyus harrisouensis ? “ cf. clegans, Leidy “ sp. fMesoreodon sp. Camelidae Stenomyliis gracelis, Peterson “ hitchcocki, Loomis “ crassipes, “ Oxydactylus campestris, Cook sp. Hypertragulidae Syndyoceras cooki, Barbour 42 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY LOWER MIOCENE (Late Phase) Upper Harrison MERY COCHOERUS ZONE Carnivora Canidae Nothocyon sp. Cynodesmus thofnsoni, Matthew Borocyon rohustnm, Peterson Mustelidae Aelurocyon brevifaces, Peterson Rodentia Ajilodontiidae Meniscomys sp. Mylaganlidae Mylagaulid, gen. indet. Perissodactyla Rhinocerotidae Diceratherimn sp. EpaipJiclops virgcisectits, Cook Chalicotheridae Moropiis felatiis, Marsh^ Foot Note. 1. Recent discoveries by the writer would seem to indicate that the original Marsh type of Moropus elatits is from the Upper Harrison. Parahippus nebrascensis, Peterson “ “ tyleri, Loomis ? “ “ sp. Proboscidea fGoniphotheriiim conodon, Cook Dinohyus, sp Desmathyiis sp. Artiodactyla Entelodontidae Tagassuidae _ “ cf. subacquans Pediohyns ferns, Loomis Agriochoeridae Merycochoerits, sp Merychyns minimus, Peterson Camelidae FAUNAL LIST, TERTIARY FORMATION 43 Oxydactyhis longipes, Peterson “ brachyodontus, Peterson “ longirostris, Peterson “ hilli, Loomis “ gihhi, Loomis Steriomylus, sp Protomeryx leonardi, Loomis “ fcedrensis, Matthew Merycodontinae Blastomeryx olcotti, Matthew MIDDLE MIOCENE Sheep Creek Beds Carnivora Canidae indesc. Perissodactyla Equidae severiis, Cope paniensis, Cope isoncsus, Cope sejunctus, Cope indesc. Artiodactyla Camelidae Protolabis angustidens, Cope Procamelus cf. fissidens, Cope Alticameliis leptocolon, Matthew Cervidae (Palaeomerycinae) Palaeomeryx sp. Blastomeryx ? gemmifer, Cope. LOWER PLIOCENE Snake Creek Beds NEOTRAGOCERAS ZONE Carnivora Canidae Amphicyon amnicola, Matthew and Cook “ sp. indet. Amphicyon Cynodesmns sp. TAphelops sp. Mery chip pus cf. “ cf. “ cf. “ cf. 44 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY Aelurodon haydcni validiis, Matthew and Cook “ saeviis scciindiis, Matthew and Cook Tcphrocyon hippophagiis, Matthew and Cook cf. tcmcrariiis, Leidy “ cf. vafer, Leidy “ sp. maj. fCyon sp. Procyonidae Bassariscus antiqiiiis, Matthew and Cook Miistelidae 3 sp. gen. indet. Felidae MacJiacrodont gen. indet. fFcUs cf. maxima, Scott and Osborn Rodentia Mylaganlidae Mylagaiilus cf. monodon (Cope) Castoridae Dipoides brevis, Matthew and Cook Dipoidcs tortus, Leidy H ystricops cf. vcniistiis, Leidy Geomyidae Gcomys cf. bisulcatus, Alarsh Edentata Megalonychidae Gen. indet. Perissodactyla Rhinocerotidae Tcleoccras sp. A ph el ops sp. ? Caen opus sp. Eqnidae H ypohippus cf. affinis, Leidy. Parahippus cf. cognatus i^eidy Mery chip pus, 2 or more sp. N eohip par ion, 3 or more sp. Protohippus, 2 or more sp. Pliohippiis, 3 or more sp. Artiodactyla Dicotylidae Prosthenops cf. crassigenis, Gidley “ sp. FAUNAL LIST, TERTIARY FORMATION 45 Merycoidodontidae Meteorcodon relict us, Matthew and Cook “ “ profcctiis, Matthew and Cook Camelidae Mcgatylopus (jigus, Matthew and Cook Alticamelus procerus, Matthew and Cook “ sp. “ sp. Procamclus sp. “ sp. Cervidae Palacomeryx sp. Cervus sp. Blastomcryx clegaiis, Matthew and Cook “ cf. zvcllsi Matthew Antilocapridae Merycodus cf. nccatus Leidy ? “ sp. maj. ? “ sp. min. Bovidae Ncotragoccnis improvisus, Matthew and Cook Bovid gen. indet. Bison sp. indesc. Proboscidea Elcphantid, gen. indesc. PLEISTOCENE Niobrara River Gravels Bovidae P Bison sp. Cervidae Odocoilcus sp. indesc. Proboscidea Elephantidae Elcphas ? columbi Agate, Nebraska, Dec. 75, ipii. Distributed August, igi2. t>~ I zl . 7 't, Ld 50 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY Volume VII, Part /■ NOTE ON THE OCCURRENCE OF THE MAMMOTH IN SIOUX COUNTY, NEBRASKA. 15 V IIAROIO) JAMES COOK. Owiii^ to the general interest taken in the prehistoric elephanis, mammoths and mastodons, it seems well to record the occurrence of specimens in new localities in order to add to our knowledge of their range. That their distribution was nearly world-wide is becoming common knowledge, and it is interesting to note that they have now been reported from nearly every county in the State. As yet, but one specimen of mammoth, a tooth, has been found in Sioux County. Al- though rather fragmentary, early mastodon remains are abundant in the Snake Creek beds in the southeastern part of the County. In July, 1906, the writer found the first specimen of a mammoth reported from the extreme western part of the State (No. H C 132 , collection of the writer), it was washed out by a flood from the Pleistocene gravels which underlie the surface deposits m the bottom of the Niobrara valley at Agate, Sioux County, Nebraska. This speci- men is a lower left milk molar of Elephas ? columbi, the Columbian Mammoth. It is only slightly damaged, and is well fossilized. The tooth had little wear, so that the posterior eight transverse folds or ridges are unworn, while the anterior seven folds are just worn enough to show the enamel ridges well. The tooth is well-cemented, indi- cating a rather advanced type. The posterior unworn crests furnish an unusually fine example of digitation, from seven to ten tiny cones appearing on each ridge. Although slightly damaged at the posterior end, the tooth is now 160 mm. (about 6j4 in.) long, by 65 mm. (about 2^ in.) wide, by 94 mm. (about in. ) high, and weighs 2^ pounds. The writer recently saw a damaged tooth of another specimen found near Crawford, Dawes County, Nebraska, about 30 miles northeast of Agate. This was secured in a gravel p'l, and is very similar to the specimen mentioned above, and is probably from the same species. This adds one more to the list of counties in the State in which mam- moths are found. About six years ago, Professor F. B. Loomis of Amherst College, Amherst, Massachusetts, found portions of the tusks and skeleton of an immense mammoth, about 40 miles west of Agate, near Rawhide 48 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY Butte, Wyoming. This specimen was not even fossilized. It was found in an alkali pocket on the surface of the prairie, where it had been preserved from decay. The bones had dried and weathered out. d'his occurrence and condition would indicate that the animal had lived very recently, geologically speaking, probably within the last few thousand years. Unfortunately, people living in the region, not realizing the care that must be exercised in exhuming fossil bones, ruined what would other- wise have been a valuable specimen. As a result, Professor Loomis was unable to secure more than fragments. \Mien those not trained in handling fossils find strange bones or teeth, they should not attempt to take them out, but should notify the State Geologist, or some other trained person, at once, and get infor- mation as to proper methods. Many rare and instructive specimens that might easily have been saved, are partly or totally destroyed every year by people who do not curb their curiosity, and who do not wait "^o get competent advice before attempting to remove specimens from their natural matrix. Agate, Nebraska, April 10, 1914. Distributed June 20, 1914. NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY VOLUME 7 , PART 8 , PLATE 1 Crown and side view^s of the left lower molar of Elephas Pcolombi (young). Two-thirds natural size. 51 b-^ 1 t,l NEBRASKA GEOEOGICAl. SURVEY \\)i.uME 7, Part 7 A NEW CANID FROM THE LOWER PLIOCENE OF NEBRASKA 1' E P 1 1 R( ) C Y( ) N M ( ) RT r FE R ]5V HAROrJ) JAMES COOK Type, a left lower jaw, (No. HC270, collection of the writer) with dentition comj^ilete, excei)t the incisors and M.,. Several fragmentary specimens of this animal have been found in the Snake Creek beds, in Sioux County, Nebraska, one of which is figured by Matthew and Cook' but not named. The material in these beds is very fragmentary as a rule, and specimens complete enough to make good ty])es are rare. This sj)ecies was fairly common in the Snake Creek fauna, and bears about the same relation to the smaller T. hip])ophagus, that the modern grey wolf does to the coyote. The animal was about the size of the modern grey wolf. The jaw is a little shorter than the largest Caiiis occidcntalis, but dee])er and heavier. P_^ is very much larger and heavier in the ])resent s])ecies, the other premolars being about the same size, but more crowded than in the wolf. M^ is about the same size as a large wolf, but is heavier, and the heel is shorter. The talonid is evenly bicuspid, and the metaconid very much reduced. M., is larger than in the wolf, and the cusps are more numerous and less pro- nounced. M.:j is double rooted, and is about twice the size of that in the wolf. The canine is large, and nearly round in cross section. The jaw is very heavy, and deep under the molars. It is about the depth of Canis dints under the premolars, but much deeper and sturdier under the molars, the deep, down-curve being very like that in Aelurodon. The ascending ramus is higher and has a narrower coronoid process than either C. dints or C. occidcntalis, and the angle that it makes with the alveolar border is much less acute. The jaw is much broader from the base of M^ to the condyle than in either of the above. The angular process, while slightly damaged in the type specimen, was evidently much less pronounced than in Canis. Pliocene Fauna from Western Nebraska. — W. D. Matthew and H. J. Cook. Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. History, Vol. XXVl, Art. XXVll, P. 376. 50 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY ^re])hrocyon mortifer is nearly one-half larger and heavier than T. hippophagns. AI,, and are relatively, as well as actually, larger, and the three anterior premolars are relatively smaller and lower crowned. P., has not the posterior accessory cusps, so prominent in P^ of T. hippophagns, otherwise the dentition and jaws are very similar. Agate, Nebraska Mav 19, 1914 h)istrihuted July 20, 1914 TEPHROCVON MOFTIFER, SP. NOV. Outside \dc\v of i\at;.ia IHt LIBRAM OF n.o li«lVlK\TV OF iL'-'NO'S NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY TEPHROCVON MORTIFER Inside \’iew of Manible. Natural Size. trit UBKARt OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLIMOIS \ IsTEBPASKA C7 •N£ LIBmY 'OF THE UIIIOIS 1 52 NEBRASKA GEOLOGFCAL SURVEY Volume 7, IVkt (S THOMAS COUNTY DIATOMITI^ By Clarence J. Elmore In July, 1913, the attention of the writer was called by Professor E. 11. Barbour to a deposit of diatomite in Thomas County. A sample of the material had been sent to the (Geological Department of the University of Nebraska by Mr. J. N. Neely of Thedford for identification. Later, a visit was made to the de])osit by the writer in the interest of the Nebraska (Geological Survey. It is located on the ranch of Mr. J. M. McMillan, about twelve miles northeast of Thedford. Jt is in a dei)ression about five acres in extent, surrounded by sand hills. At one edge of this depression about a foot of the surface soil had been removed from a circular area about ten feet in diameter, exposing a layer of diatomite al)out eighteen inches in thickness. The material varied in consistency from an entirely unconsolidated condition to that of hard limestone, the harder portions occurring as nodules from an inch to a foot or more in diameter scattered throughout the unconsolidated portions. These nodules occur promiscuously in the layer and do not seem to be more numerous at one depth than at another. There is practically nothing in any of the material except cal- cium carbonate and the siliceous shells of diatoms. The amount of calcium carbonate varies from 14 per cent in the unconsolidated por- tions to 81 per cent in the nodules. The hardness of the nodules, however, is not in exact proportion to the amount of calcium car- bonate. The hardest nodule contained 71 per cent of the carbonate while the one containing the largest amount of it, 81 per cent, was somewhat softer. The carbonate in the unconsolidated portions varied from 14 per cent to 57 per cent. The species found in the lower part of the layer are identical with those in the upper ])art, and all of these species are found living now in fresh water in Nebraska. The aggregation of species in this deposit is strikingly like that now living in the lakes and rivers of the sand hills, and suggests that this depression was once a lake like some of those still remaining in the region. That it is not the bed of a recent lake now slightly covered by drifting sand is shown by the fact that the deposit is entirely free from sand. Beneath it 52 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY is a layer of coarse sand and above it is the fine sand of which the sand hills are composed, but there is no trace of sand in the layer itself. It must have been deposited before the sand of Nebraska had begun to drift, or in a lake so large that drifting sand could not reach it. The following species were found in the deposit : Achnanthes hungarica, Amphora ovalis, Cocconeis placentula, Cyclotella meneghiniana, Cymbella gastroides, Cymbella cistula, Cym- bella lanceolata, Cystopleura gibba, Cystopleura sorex, Cystopleura turgida, Cystopleura zebra, Cystopleura zebra proboscidea, Uenti- cula elegans, Encyonema prostratum, Encyonema turgidum, Eunotia lunaris, Eragilaria capucina, Eragilaria construens, Gomphonema augur, Gomphonema gracile, Gomphonema montanum, Lysigonium varians, Navicula ambigua craticula, Navicula amphibola, Navicula bacilliformis, Navicula brebissonii, Navicula cryptocephala veneta, Navicula cuspidata, Navicula dicephala, Navicula iridis, Navicula limosa, Navicula major, Navicula mesolepta termes, Navicula oblonga, Navicula radiosa, Navicula sculpta, Navicula sphaerophora, Navicula exima, Navicula viridis, Nitzschia amphibia, Nitzschia amphioxys, Nitzschia brebissonii, Nitzschia palea, Nitzschia punctata, Nitzchia spectabilis, Synedra capitata, Synedra ulna, Surirella ovalis, Surirella saxonica. Grand Island, Nebraska, September, 1913. Distributed July 25, 1914. NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY VOLUME 7, PART 8, PLATE THOMAS COUNTY DIATOM ITE An exposure overlaid by lilack soil. IHt LlBHAUr OF THE Ui^lVEnSITY OF ILLINOIS NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY A'omtme 7, IAkt 9 PROGRESS IN THE STUDY OE NEBRASKA DIATOMS P.V CLARENCE J. El. MORE Eor some time the writer has been engaged u]x)n the study of the recent and fossil diatoms of Nebraska, including some that have been sent in from neighboring states, and ho])es to he able to ])u1jlish a detailed report of the work soon. As far as known very little at- tention is being paid to diatoms in this country at the ])resent time. Being among the most striking and beautiful of microscopic objects, they received more than their due share of attention in the days fol- lowing the invention of the microscope. Diatoms were not only col- lected and described by scientists, but were collected by others actu- ated by some such s])irit as that of the modern postage stamp col- lector. This “diatomania’’ so disgusted real scientists that it was later considered a reflection to be known as a student of diatoms. For this reason the study of Nebraska diatoms is in its pioneer stage. It may be well to briefly define diatoms. They are brown ])lants of microsco])ic size, which live in the water everywhere, and are also frequently found on damp ground. The brownish scum floating on water or coating damp ground is usually composed of diatoms. Some are especially abundant in streams in the winter, under the ice, and for a time in the spring after the ice disappears. Often the entire bottom of a stream is coated to a thickness of an inch or more with a brown, mucus-like slime, which consists almost wholly of diatoms. But by far the larger number of them are found mixed with the green slimes and scums in springs, creeks, ponds, rivers, and swamps, and under such conditions the brown color is not noticeable. Many diatoms have the power of swimming. In Navicula, the most com- mon of freshwater genera, the individuals are boat-shape, and as seen under the microscope swimming through the water, their name Navicula, which means ‘‘little boat,” seems especially fitting. But besides the swimming forms there are some that grow attached by stalks, some that are sessile, (that is, attached without a stalk), some that are united in long bands or threads, and some that are imbedded in a gelatinous mass. In point of size the largest diatom yet found in Nebraska is one- eightieth of an inch long, and it would take about a hundred of the 54 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY smaller ones placed end to end to reach across the head of a pin. In form they are rod-shape, boat-shape, oval, elliptical, or circular. Although they are so small, they are really of great economic im- portance. Springs, ponds, creeks, rivers, and the ocean are filled with them. They form a large part of the food of animals little larger than themselves, and these are in turn food for still larger ones, and so on until even the sharks and whales get part of their food indi- rectly from diatoms. Even the hsh which are used for food by human beings can trace part of their food back to diatoms. But in one way, diatoms differ from all other plants. They are enclosed in glass-like shells, which consist of opal, and when they die the shells persist. Hence remains of nearly all the varieties of diatoms that have ever lived are still in existence. In some places there are layers of earth many feet thick composed almost entirely of diatom shells. In California the depth of one deposit is 4,700 feet. This is known as Diatomite, ‘Tnfusorial Earth,” or “Kiesel- guhr." It is a white or slightly brownish material and looks much like air-slaked lime. It may be easily distinguished from other sub- stances of similar appearance by the fact that it is so light that when dry it will float on water. It is used for making some kinds of silver polish such as “Electro-silicon.” It has great absorbing power, and when made to absorb nitro-glycerine becomes dynamite, though dynamite is now usually made from other material. Large quantities of it are also used as a Alter in the refining of sugar. The following uses of diatomite are quoted from RiesT Eco- nomic Geology : P. 77. “The Summerland Eield is of interest for the reason that Arnold believes the oil to have been derived from diatoms and other organisms found in the Monterey shale.” P. 204. “This material has been used to some extent for abrasive purposes either in the form of a polishing powder or in scouring soaps.” (“Infusorial Earth and Tripoli are terms sometimes applied to Diatomaceous earth. Both are incorrect.”) P. 224. “Diatomaceous earth, on account of its porous charac- ter, was formerly used as an absorbent of nitroglycerine in dyna- mite, but little or none appears to be now employed for this purpose in the United States. It can be used for polishing powders, and as a non-conductor of heat has been occasionally utilized for steam boiler backing, for wrapping steam pipes, and for fire proof cement. NEliRASKA DIATOMS 55 Mixed with clay, or even alone, it can be used for making ])orous partition brick and tile. Some of the California material can be cut into any desired shape, and used as a filter stone or even for build- ing purposes. In Europe, es])ecially in Germany, it has of late years found extended application. It has been used in the ])re])aration (jf arti- ficial fertilizers, especially in the absorption of licjuid manures, in the manufacture of water glass, of various cements, of glazing for tiles, of artificial stone, of ultramarine and various pigments, of aniline and alizarine colors, of ])aper, sealing wax, fireworks, gutta- percha objects, Swedish matches, solidified bromine, scouring powders, papier-mache, and a variety of other articles. There is said to be a large and steadily growing demand for it.” The known dei)osits of diatomite in Nebraska are not large enough to be of any economic importance. Although these de])osits are of little commercial value, they are of great scientific interest. In this connection it should be stated that certain known beds of the State are five to six feet in thickness, and when the diatomite fields are fully explored they may have actual economic value. Among other things, they add their testimony to the fact that in Tertiary times, there were lakes scattered over our great sand hills region, with green scums growing luxuriantly in them. The diatoms that lived in Ne- braska thousands of years ago look exactly like the ones now living here. Their evolution seems to have been completed ages ago. So far, the writer has made out 205 species, which include many forms or so-called varieties. Of these only 11 are round diatoms, the other 194 being of the elongated type. It is interesting to note in this connection that the round diatoms seem to be the simpler and more primitive type, and among modern diatoms, they are typically marine. They are the typical forms found in the older fossil deposits. But the fossil dei^osits of Nebraska, none of which, as far as the writer’s research discloses, are older than the Tertiary consist mainly of long diatoms. They are practically identical with the diatoms now living in the region. Some 107 species of fossil diatoms have been made out, and 100 of these have been found living in the State. The other seven are common freshwater forms, and may be located when a more complete study is made. Friends of the writer have added to his collection of ma- terial and the following localities for diatoms in Nebraska are represented: Agate, Ainsworth, Andrews, Anselmo, Arago, Arbor, Ashland, Aspinwall, Atkinson, Auburn, Bellevue, Blue Springs, Brat- 56 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY ton. Brock. Broken Bow, Brownlee, Brownville, Callaway, Cedar Creek, Chadron, Cherry County, Clear Lake, Cook, Crawford, Crete, Dawson. Dewey Lake. Dismal River, Dunbar. Durly Lake. Emerald, Ewin^, Eairbury, Ealls City, Georgetown. Gordon Creek, Grand Island. Greeley County, Hackl)erry Lake, Halsey, Heming-ford. Holt County. Humboldt, Ithaca, Johnson, Julian, Lincoln, Little Alkali Lake. Lodi, Long Lake, Long Pine, Louisville, iMason City, iMeadow, Helia, Milford, iMinden, iMullen, Nebraska City, Nemaha City, Nio- brara River in Holt County, Omaha. Orella, Osage, Pawnee City, Peru, Pelican Lake, Plattsmouth, Pleasant Dale, Polk. Red Cloud. Roca, Ruby. Rulo, Salem. Seneca, Seward, Sheridan County. South Bend, St. Deroin, St. Paul, Stromsburg. Talmage, Tecumseh, Te- kamah, Thedford, AHlentine, M'ahoo. A\’ann. AWeping AAHter, AAhllow Lake, AAdieeler County, AA oodlawn, and VMrk. This may look like a large number of localities, but since there are about 1,250 towns in the State, only about 7 per cent, of the State, as indicated by towns, is represented, while 93 per cent, has been entirely untouched. Many of these places are represented by only a single sample, while a com- plete research would require hundreds. The fossil material, except one collection furnished by Dean C. E. Bessey, has been secured from Professor E. H. Barbour and from Mr. and Airs. Harold Cook. Eossil diatoms have so far been found in Nebraska only in the following counties: Cherry. Greeley. AATeeler, Thomas, Hooker, and Sioux. The following papers concerning Nebraska Diatoms have been published : Diatomaceae in AA ebber's Catalogue of Nebraska Flora in the report of the Nebraska State Board of Agriculture, 1889, p. 186. Botanical Survev of Nebraska. Report on Collections made in 1892, p. 45. Botanical Survev of Nebraska. Report on Collections made in 1894-5, p. 24. Diatomaceous Deposits of Nebraska, E. H. Barbour, in the Pro- ceedings of the Nebraska Academy of Sciences, A ol. A’, 1894-5, p. 18. Diatomaceous Earth in Nebraska, E. H. Barbour, Nebraska Geo- logical Survey, AMI. I, 1903, p. 193. Preliminary notice of a newly discovered bed of Aliocene Diatoms by Eleanor Barbour. Nebraska Geological Survey, AMI. 3, Part 12, 1910. Grand Island, Nebraska. Alarch, 1914 Distributed July 25, 1914 Li 1 . 10 54 XKHRASKA (;i5( )L( )( ilC'AL SURVKY X'oLrME 7, Part 10 NOTH ON TH15 DKNTITION AAIPHICVON AMXICOLA A (ilOAN'nC F( )SSI I. DOC i;\' II AROIJ) I . C‘()( >K 'The species, Ani])liicv()n ainnicola, \vas fcmnded l)y Matthew and Cook on a left lower jaw from the Snake Creek beds, lower Pliocene, in Sioux County, Nebraska, h'he writer recently secured a second specimen in the same horizon, about one hundred yards from the si)ot where the ori»-inal ty])e was secured, six years pre\ iously. 'Fhis specimen throws additional li^ht upon the dentition of the s])ecies. In the type specimen of A. ainnicola, the teeth were badly worn, so that the cusp arrangement could not he clearly told in M, and AI.,. d'he ])resent sjiecimen is No. l lCv300, collection of the writer. is very like that in I)aph(Enodon superhus, but relatively, as well as actually, more robust ; the metacouid is ])roportionally smaller, the hypoconid larger, and the entoconid reduced. AI., has three well- de\eloped liunodont cus]>s, the two anterior situated transversely, and the third posterior cus]) forming the apex of a right-angled triangle with the other two. AP, wais (pute large, and hacl two roots. ddie molars are very robust in i)roportion to the premolars. P^ is relatively small. In form, it is very like that of D. su])erl)us, Init the crown is lower, and the posteric^r cingulum is not developed, heroin this point forward, the jaw in the type of A. ainnicola was water- worn, and broken off, so that little could be told aliout it. In the ])res- ent specimen, P.. is absent, hut the alveolus indicates a tooth somewhat smaller than P^. It has two roots, and there was a space, not over two millimeters, between it and P^. In front of P.. is a diastema 14 mm. long. P.^ has two roots, and is relatively small. In front of this is another s]3ace 2 mm. long. P^, as indicated by the alveolus^ was nearly the size of Ik,. Between P, and the canine is a diastema 11 mm. long. 1'hough the jaw is broken off, enough is present to indicate an immense canine, whose greatest anteroposterior diameter is 30 mm. below the alveolar border. Idle large third molar is a more primitive tvj^e than that found in Daphoendon superbus. But in the more robust and ])rimitive species, I), periculosus, from the lower Aliocene, we hnd a tyi^e which is more nearly on the ancestral line of the present specimen. NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 'J'liis species is the largest of the known (logs, for the length of the com])lete dental series is nearly 200 mm. However, according to mate- rial recently secured by Professor Sinclair of P^rinceton University, there is a much larger and closely related species, in these beds, and it is now under study. MEASUREMENTS UE AMPHICVOX AMNMCOT.A. P,--i\J.. — length lOS mm. — anteroposterior 39 — transverse width of heel 19 AI.,. — anteroposterior diameter 28 AI.,. — transverse 20.5 Pj. — anteroposterior 22.5 PY — transverse 11 P.,. — anteroposterior 11 P^.,, — transverse 5 PPepth of jaw l)elow Al^ 59 Agate. Xebraska Distributed January 10, 1915 XKKRASKA riEOLOGICAL SI’RVEV VOLUME 7 , PART 10 , PLATE 1 1 1 , I 0 AM PH K'VOX AM MCOLA Side and crown view of left jaw. x %. r •i "T- IHt library OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS / f NEBRy\SKA i,\ii)\A)CACA\. SURVEY \’()iAJiMi-: 7, Rart 12 SOME PEANT CUTICLJAS EROM THE GRANEROS SHALP:S r.Y A. C. VVinTF(AU) During the fall of 1914 Mr. Burnett and the writer were detailed by the Nebraska Geological Survey, under the direction of Dr. IE IT. Barbour, to investigate some mammoth remains near Reynolds, Ne- braska. Idle material embodied in this ]iat)er was collected on this trip. Reynolds is in the southeastern jiart of the State, on Rose Creek, Jefferson County, about 5 miles north of the Kansas line. ddie country around Reynolds is roughened by numerous ravines which expose the underlying strata. A thin mantle of glacial clay and gravel covers the surface which is underlain by Cretaceous beds ranging from Graneros to Dakota. It is sufficient for the ])ur- pose of this paper to state that there are many exposures of the Graneros and Greenhorn along most of the stream channels. It is in the Graneros that the tilant tissue under discussion was found. Samples were collected from two beds about 7 miles a])art. Bed No. 1, lies about one and one-(|uarter miles west of Reynolds along the main channel of Rose Creek, where there is a large ex- posure of clay blending into shale, ddie shale is highly, carbonaceous, being almost black in color and containing small amounts of lignite. Nodules of iron pyrites and stellate masses of gypsum are abundant. It is here that the plant tissue was discovered. I'his tissue occurs in long slender strips which are readily removed from the shale. Mdien immersed in water they become flexible, and are readily rendered transparent by treatment. The tissue is usually found scattered, although masses of it occasionally occur. The second bed lies about seven miles west of Reynolds along a small tributary of Rose Creek. This deposit is on the farm of Mr. J. 1.. Lamb, to whom the writer is indebted for many favors and for his knowledge of the region. This bed is very similar to bed No. 1, though the tissue is not so abundant and there is not so much carbonaceous matter. In bed No. 2 the tissue seems to be dicoty- ledonous, while in bed No. 1 it is coniferous. 78 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY \^ery little change seems to have taken place in the tissue, which, after being treated with nitric acid and ammonia, shows the struc- ture of the leaf epidermis very distinctly. The tissue from bed No. 1 shows a very peculiar structure under the microscope. It is traversed longitudinally by aggregations of cells bounded b}' thick walls. Each of these masses is subdivided into numerous, thin-walled cells of irregular shat)e. The thick walls bounding the large masses show no structure, being simply much thickened cell wall tissue. They anasto- Eig. 1. Caplioniferous leaf tissue, magnihed 120 diameters. mose and have a recticulated aiipearance. (Tigs. 1 and 2.) The cells themselves are regularly rectangular and seem to be arranged tetramer- otisly. d'he stomata seem to be scattered over, and wholly confined to, one snrface, probably the lower. They occur in groups parallel to the longitudinal axis of the leaf, and are abundant, though some parts of the leaf have none. Fig. 3. h'ach stoma is surrounded by two or three subsidiary cells, Figs. 4 and 5. These subsidiary cells do not PLANT CUTICLES, CRANEROS SHALES 79 meet at the ends but form a triangular cell, which is surrounded in some cases by two crescentic cells, ddie stomata measure .03«S by .0364 mm. and 9 to 11 may be found in each square centimeter. No hairs or bydatbodes seem to be ])resent. Wdien this tissue is compared with modern leaf tissue it is found to be very similar to the conifers in the general sbai)e of the stomata and arrangement of Eig. 2. Coniferous tissue showing groups of stomata, a. Magnified SO diameters. parts, although the cell arrangement is decidedly dififerent. Because of this anomalous structure and the occurrence of two fossil fungi belonging to genera which are seldom if ever found on Clymno- sperms, it is impossible to make any definite statements as to exact relationship. The fungi are described in a separate paper. No. 57, Nebraska Geological Survey. 80 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY The tissue from bed No. 2 is very different in occurrence and in structure, and is not so abundant. It is not found in long- strips but in irregular pieces, varying from very small fragments to tbo.se as large as a ])enny. These ])ieces are always ragged and more or less decayed. This seems to be due to the less resistant character of the dicotyledonous tissue. Although but a few fragments were found in Fig. 3 Fig. 4 Fig. 3. The same magniliecl 180 diameters. Notice the thick walls, and tetra- meroiis arrangement of cells. Fig. 4. A single stoma magnified 180 diameters. Fig. 5. Camera Incida drawing of a stoma in the above. the second bed enough was collected to determine their character. Under low ]iower the tissue shows small rectangular cells with the cell walls approximately of uniform thickness, Fig. 6. There are no thick vein-like cell walls, and the arrangement of the cells as a whole seems to he more or less columnar. Under a higher power the major axes of the cells are seen to he. jxirallel in most cases. PLANT CUTICLES, GRANEPOS SHALES 81 Occasionally there are cells which lie at rig-ht angles to the others. It is also to be noted that a few of the cells have a polygonal sha])e, Eig". 7. Idiere seems to he no difference in the shaj)e or arrange- ment of the cells on the np])er and lower epidermis. The stomata occur on one side only, presumably the lower, since this is Generally the case when stomata are confined to one side. In the specimen under discussion they are scattered irregularly over the Eig. 0. Dicotyledonous leaf tissue magnified 80 diameters. whole surface and are not grouped in any regular manner. They are of the common ty])e, as there are no subsidiary cells and the sur- rounding epidermal cells are not arranged in a definite manner. Figs. 8 and 9. The stomata are longer when measured at right angles than when measured parallel to the stomatal opening. They measure .0376 by .03523 mm. Tbe stomata average about 35 to the square centimeter. 82 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY It is impossible to determine to which order of plants this tissue belongs, l)ut it is probably some Angios]')erm. It is well known that a mnltitnde of Angiosperms were living at that time and it would be impossilde to hazard a guess as to the exact identity of this material 1 lowever, there are several classes which need not be considered, namely, all plants having stomata of the Ruhiaceous or Cruciferous tyi)es. In all res])ects it is very like the i)lants which have the simj^le type of stomata and might belong to any of the other orders. Fig. 7 Fig. 8 I'dg. T. Same magnified 180 diameters. Notice thin walls. Eig. 8. Stomata of dicotyledonous leaf tissue magnified 180 diameters. Eig. 9. Camera lucida drawing of the dicotyledonous stoma. The forms just described represent two very divergent types of leaf epidermis and belong to two widely separated groups. Both specimens show that the stomata of that time were very similar to those of the jiresent ; in fact, the entire eiiidermis is very similar to that of modern ])lants. Acknowledgments are due to Dr. Barhour. d'he University of Nebraska Lincoln, ( Ictoher 25, 1915 Distributed March 30, 1916 57 NRBRASKA r,Ki)\A )(;iCAL SUK\ ICV 7, Part 13 A DESCRIITION ()1< 1A\’( ) NIAV I^OSSIP FUNCI \\y A. r. WlIITFOKl) While studying Cretaceous leaf tissue two fuiii^d were found, wliieli it is the purpose of this article to describe. OVULARITES RAKI’.Ol’RI, CKN. KT. SI’. NOW This is represented hy a nuniher of slides coutaininj^ sterile and fertile mycelia, with conidio])hores and conidia. The sterile hypha are lyin^ on the outer ei)ideruns and are always prostrate, forming light fluffy masses, d'hey are very much branched, twining in and out, and apparently never form in balls or in closely aggregated masses, ddiere seems to he no regularity to the brauching for there is no sign of dichotomy, ddie hyphae are sei)tate, forming cells varying from .0141 mm. to .0235 mm. in length and averaging .0047 mm. in width. There were no fertile mycelia found among the sterile ones. Figs. 1 and 2. The fertile mycelia \vere found a short distance from the sterile ones, on the same slide. 44iese were septate and branched hut differ from the above in that they seem to have been more or less ascending, they do not lie as nearly in the same plane as the sterile mycelia. 44iey are of the same width, but are only .01175 mm. in length. Figs. 3, 4 (a ), and 5 (a). 44ie conidiophorcs are borne on the fertile hypha and are elongated. They have many branches w hich are variously arranged, but are never verticillate. The cells are nearly square but are not inflated. The conidia are borne on the ends of these. Figs. 4 (b) and Fig. 5 (b). The conidia are solitary and continuous. They are globose iu all cases. Their attachment to the distinct conidiophorcs is plainly visi- ble. They vary in diameter from .00705 mm. to .0094 mm. Fig. 4 (c) and Fig. 5 (c). If we compare the above with the modern genera of fungi, we find that it agrees most nearly with Ovularia of Saccardo. He says in describing this genus, “Biophilous, hyphae subsimj)le, erect apex more or less distinctly denticulate. Conidia globose or ovoid, continuous, hyaline, solitary, rarely little catenulate.” In speaking o^ 86 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY Eig. 1. Ovularites l)arl)ouri. gen. et. sp. nov. Sterile mycelia. Magnified oGO diameters. Fig. 2 . The above printed on the leaf tissue. TWO NEW FOSSIL FUNGI 87 Fig, 3. Fertile mycelia of above. Magnified 100 diameters. a b c Fig. 4. Fertile mycelia magnified 300 diameters, a. conidiophore. b. conidia. c. hy'phal cell. 88 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY Ovulariopsis, which previously was included with the above, he says, “Sterile hypha recumbent, fertile, ascending. Conidia acrogenous, subclavate.” From the above description, the fungus under dis- cussion proves to be very similar to Ovularia. From the slides it would seem that the mycelia were recumbent in the sterile condition and ascending in the fertile while the conidia are not acrogenous. ddius it does not agree in all particulars with the known Ovularia, but closely enough, however, to be classed as Ovularites. This name is given after the accepted custom of adding “ites” to the generic name in vogue, to any form which cannot be dehnitely located in a living genus, but which is still close enough to warrant an assumption of generic relationship. a I'ig. a. Camera liicida drawing of same. a. hyplial cell. b. conidia. c. con- idiophore. DT.\CXO.Sr.S OF OVUr..\RlTKS PAUl’.OinU, ('.EX. ET. .sp. xov. Ilyphae hranched, se|)tate, sterile recumbent, fertile ascending, col- lected in light fluffy masses but never fascicled. Conidiophores elon- gate, branched, septate, not inflated or verticillate. Conidia globose, .solitary, continuous, smooth. Alycelia hyaline. Cnnvth on a C're- taceous conifer, Craneros shale. PUCCI NITE.S CRET.VCEl’M, .SP. NOV. This fungus was found on the same Cretaceous tissue as the above and lent itself very readily to study. It is represented by numer- ous sori and spores. The only stage rei)resented is the teleuto. The sori are scattered over the leaf surface as small dots which TWO NEW FOSSIL FUNGI 80 in general are round. Many of them are solid and others show simply a ring of s])ores. Each sorus is independent and shows the mycelium of the fungus. The mycelium is septate and branched. It grows inward towards the sorus and is lost in the mass. It also ])ene' trates the leaf tissue so that it is im]X)ssil)le to follow a hypha for any di.stance. The sori are round and vary in diameter from .ILS to .236 mm. Figs. 6, 7, 8 and 9. hdo-. {). Pnccinites cretacciim. Sp. nov. Shows sori magnilied 1.20 diameters. The teleutosiiores are uniseptate with the up])er cell suh-triangular in shape and the lower cell ovate to s])herical. In some of the spores an apical germinal spot can he seen. This is more refractive than the rest of the spore, ddiese teleuto S])ores vary in size, the u])per cell measuring from .00703 to .01175 mm. in width, Figs. 10, 12, and 13. Scattered among the above teleutospores are many mesospores which are one-celled and are always ovate and larger. They measure from .0141 to .0235 mm. in length and from .0141 to 0.1(S4 mm. in 90 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY width, as may be seen from the figures, they are attached to the end of a septate hypha, whose cells are shortened but are longer trans- versely than longitudinally, Figs. 10 and 11. Compared with the modern genera of Puccinea there is a close resemblance. Saccardo says: “Teleutospores for the most part transversely uniseptate, loculate, carrying one germinal pore, pedicil- late, in sori or pulvinii, ])ulverulent." Stevens says of the mesospore, in discussing Puccinea. “Mesospore is a term applied to occasional unicellular forms of Puccinea and related genera which do not usually have unicellular teliospores.” Applying this description to the fossil form under discussion we find that it is unusually suitable, so it seems proper to term the form Puccinites. DIAGNOSIS OF PUCCINITES CRETACEUM, SP. NOV. Teleutospores transversely uniseptate, one germinal spot, upper cell suhtriangular, lower cell globose to ovate, collected in dense sori, circu- lar. Alesospores common, ovate. The above fossil forms add to our knowledge of the fossil fungi and while they throw no light upon the phylogeny of the group, nevertheless they do add to our knowledge of the Cretaceous flora. Acknowledge- ments are due Professor Barbour for assistance and funds for carrying on this investigation. TWO NEW FOSSIL FUNGi 91 Fig. 7. Same as above, magnibed 300 dimeters. Hollow, round sori. a Fig. 8 Fig. 9 Fig. 8. Solid sorus. a. mass of hypha. b. ramifying mycelia. Fig. 9. Same as Fig 8. 92 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY a b c -a- ^ b b d d Fig. 11 Fig. 12 Fig. 13 Fig. 11. Mesospore. a. spore, b. hypha. Fig. 12. Teleutospore. a. upper cell. b. septum, c. lower cell d. hypha. Fig. 13. Teleutospore. a. germinal spot. b. upper cell. c. septum, d. lower cell. e. hypha. The University of Nebraska Lincoln, December 15, 1915 Distributed March 30, 1916 NI^BRASKA (;p:()Ii)(;iCAL SUR\'RY \’()I,UMK 7, J’akt 14 PRESER\ED EPIDERMIS EROM THE CARBONIEEROUS oE ni^:braska 15V A. C. WIIITFORD During llie season of 1912 while studying the Carlicjiiiferoiis of Nebraska, Prof. E. V. Schramm and Mr. j. B. Burnett of the De])art- ment of (ieology, discovered a lied of Enrytiterids near I’ern.* Wdiile collecting in this lied some long, narrow strips of liexilile material, which proved to he i)lant tissue, were found liy Professor Barhonr.- The tissue-bearing stratum is very thin and apparently limited to one small area l^arly in the fall of 1913 I'rofessor Barbour turned over to the writer his collection of |)lant tissue for investigation. The results are embodied in the following re])ort : ddie tissue occurs in a carbonaceous shale, as slender stri])s, varying from jT to 3 inches (12 to 76 mm.) in length and from )4 hj yg inch (6 to 18 mm.) in width. The strips are covered with a film of coal, which is readily removed by treating with nitric acid mixed with potassium nitrate, and then washing in ammonium hydroxide. The tissue, afteF this treatment, is of a light, transi)arent, amber color, and is quite flexible, which greatly facilitates study and makes the t)repa- ration of cross sections ])ossihle. It is not silicifled or calcifled, hut is l)reserved in the same manner as the so-called ])aper-coal from the province of Toula in Russia. Speaking of these beds Seward says, “In the Russian area the Carboniferous or Permian rocks have Ijee^i subjected to little lateral pressure and unlike the beds of the same age in WTstern Europe, they have iK)t been folded and comju'essed by widespread and extensive crust foldings. Instead of the dark seams of coal there occur beds of a dark brown laminated material, made up largely of the cuticles of Leifldodendroid plants." The same lack of metamoiqihism obtains in Nebraska. Mkirboiir, Ncl). Geological Survey, \’ol. 1. pari 12. -l)arl)our. Am. Jr. of Science, \’ol. XXXIX, pj). 1T:s, 174. -Barbour, Neb. Geological Survey, \'ol. 4, Part J(), pp. 22!)-2;)2. 94 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY Tlie color of the tissue is probably clue to au uliuate, which can he largely extracted iu the form of a dark brown lic|uid similar to ammonium ulmate. If a strip of this prepared tissue is held to the light it appears to he composed of a meshwork of small cells similar to the ei^idermis of a modern leaf. When the tissue is examined under the microscope it is found to consist of irregularly shaped elongate cells paralleling the longitundinal axis of the leaf, Figs. 1, 2, 3. Occasionally triangu- lar-sha])ed cells are seen arranged in a radiate manner, hut the great Eig. .1. Epidermis of leaf, magniliecl ilO diameters. majority are of the elongate type. Small round holes occur in nearly every cell, and hairs are of frequent occurrence. The walls of the cells are normal in thickness and show no signs of decomposition. Medium sized stomata are occasionally seen scattered ])romiscu- ously over the surface of the leaf. These stomata are elliptical and measure from .045 to .061 mm. in length and from .017 to .038 mm. in width. Fig. 2 (a). Figs. 4 and 5. In most of the stomata the guard cells are somewhat shrivelled and are either torn from their hinges or crowded to the side. The guard CARBONIFEROUS EPIDERMIS 95 Fig, 2. Leaf epidermis magnified 110 diameters. Showing stomata and white spots which arc hydathodes. Fig. 3 Fig. 4 Fig. 3 . Leaf epidermis magnified 180 diameters, showing shape of epidermal cells and hydathode openings. Fig. 4 . Stoma magnified 180 diameters, a. end cell. h. subsidiary cell, c. guard cell. 90 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY cells are the ordinary tyi)e, but the stomata differ from those of the present time in the shape and arrangement of the subsidiary cells. Idiere are two of the latter on each side. They are rectangular in shape, with the long axis parallel to the longitudinal axis of the stomata. They are ])laced end to end and are bordered on the out- side by tyi)ical e])idermal cells. At each end of the stomata three narrow, elongated cells are usually found extending lengthwise of the a b c d Eig. 5. Camera lucida drawing of stoma, a. subsidiary cell. b. epidermal ceil, c. guard cell. d. end cell. leaf ; in a few cases, however, there occur only two such cells. Ivither 8 or 10 cells always surround each stomata. The subsidiary cells are regularly rectangular in shajte and are thinner than the typical epidermal cells. Adiile it has not been possible to study the hinge arrangement, it has been possible to study a transverse section, determine the shape of the cells, and to determine the fact that no secondary thickening occurs. See Fig. 6. a b c Eig. 6. Transverse section of stoma, a. guard cell. b. subsidiary cell. c. epi- dermal cell. Camera lucida drawing. d'he arrangement of the stomata does not seem to be according to a definite plan exce]it that the major axis lies parallel to the longi- tudinal axis of the leaf. I'here are only about 7 stomata to the stjuare millimeter and these are found on one side of the leaf. This number, as may be seen from the following table, is comparable to the number found in modern (lymnos])erms. The table is after Dr. A. Weise. CARP.ONIKEROITS EPIDERMIS 97 Length Preadth Number N ame Upper Lower Up])er Lower Upper Lower Araucaria .045- .02(;- bedwini 0 .0()4 mm. 0 .0.')2 mm. 0 9-12 i)er scp mm. Finns .045- .045- .o:J2- .o:{2- slrobus .054 mm. .054 mm. .0.‘>8 mm. .o:>8 mna. 9-17 9-10 p.es s(i. mm. Sequoia .048- .020- gigantca 0 .0()1 mm. 0 .0:’>8 mm. 0 8-10 per scp mm. Petula .029- .018- alba 0 .Oib) mm. 0 .024 mm. 0 24 per sq. mm. Corda- .045- .017- ites 0 .0()1 mm. 0 .o:>8 mm. 0 4-7 i)er s([. mm. On most of the cePs there occurs an iinicePular trichome. In many cases these have l)ecome torn from the leaf, leaving the round holes ])rominent on the surface. The trichomes are simply extrusions of the epidermal cell and show no septation. ddieir shaj^e varies from clnh-like to long- triangular. See hdg. 4 (d), 7 (a) and (S. Eig. 7. Trichomes, magnified 180 diameters. Fig. 8. Surface of leaf. a. epidermal cell. b. trichome. c. hole in leaf. As mentioned above, there are jdaces on the epidermis where the cells are arranged in radiate form with an opening into the interior of the leaf. While it is not jiossible to state the exact nature of the structure it is quite probable that they are epidermal glands. They compare closely with those on modern ])lants, as can he seen in figures 9 and 10. In each there is an outer cell covering. 98 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY As can be seen in the figure 11, there is a single glandular cell covering the epidermal cells and a - small opening into the interior. Haherlandt says of these glands, “Many of our native plants are pro- vided with organs which secrete water in the liquid form. Such hydathodes are even more widely distributed among plants inhabiting the humid tropics.” During the Carboniferous age there would apparently be greater necessity for them than at present and it is highly probable that the above structures are indeed hydathodes. Fig. 9 Eig. 9. Calycanthus glaiiciis. After Solereder. a. epidermal cell. b. gland opening, c. cell covering gland. I'ig. 10. Cordaites. a. epidermal cells, b. gland opening, c. cell covering gland. a b Fig. II. TTydatbode. magnified 180 diameters, a. cover cell. b. opening into leaf. If we compare this Cordaitan leaf with other Carboniferous leaves such as those described by Miss W ills in the Geological Magazine for Se|)tember, 1914, we find great similarity. She says, speaking of a Cordaitan cuticle from the Carboniferous of England, “Cells tbick CARRONTFEROUS EPIDERMIS 9!) walled, rectangular, and elongated. Stomata small. There occur circular structures on the leaves whose function is unknown.” This description is similar to that of the ])lant under discussion. See Figs. 12, 13, 14. Fig. 12 Fig. 13 Fig. 14 Fig. 12. Cordaites. After Miss Wills. Fig. 13. Cyclopetris. After Miss Wills. Fig. 14. Neiiropteris heterophylla. After Miss Wills. The shape and structure of the stomata is also similar, as may be seen above, yet it differs markedly from those of the stomata of Cyclopteris and Neiiropteris described by the same author. This is true not only of the stomata but of the shape and arrangement of the cells. On the other hand, if we compare the Cordaitan leaf with that of modern types we find a marked dift'erence between it and any living plant in the shape and arrangement of the parts of the stomata. Various types of stomata in modern jilants are sketched in Figs. 15-21. If these are compared with figure 5 a decided difference will he noted, particularly in the surface view. In the transverse section these are similar to the stomata of water plants, as may he observed by com- paring figure 5 with figure 21. Fig. 15. Pteris type. a. epidermal cell. b. guard cell. c. subsidiar}^ cell. After DeBary. Fig. 16. Piniis type. a. guard cell. b. subsidiary cell. Fig. 17. Poa type. After Flaberlandt. 100 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY Fig. 19. Fig. 18 Fig. 19 Fig. IS. Liliaceous type. Riibiaceous type after Solereder. a. guard cell. b. subsidiary cell. Fig. 21 Fig. 20. Cruciferous type after Solereder. Fig. 21. Transverse section of Alsopbila. Aquatic plant, tion after Haberlandt. Transverse sec- we compare figures 15 to 21 with 5 and 6 we find that the surface views show a decided difference between them, in that the snbsidary cells are dillerently arranged or are wanting. If we compare the transverse sections we find a marked similarity between the stomata of water plants and Cordaites. The arrangement of the guard cells and those immediately surrounding them are similar. The type of stomata developed by this conifer is entirely diffierent from that of any living plant. Tittle light can be thrown upon the question of the climatic con- ditions of that time, for the paucity of the stomata, the presence of subsidiary cells, and hairs suggest xeroidiilous conditions, but the absence of secondary thickening, the shape of the guard cells and the })resence of hydathodes, would suggest a very wet or comparatively moist climate. From other sources we learn that the climate must have been very different from that of today: humidity and the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmos|)here were both greater. W’e C A R r> ( ) N 1 1- E R ( ) U S E P 1 1 ) E R M 1 S 101 are unable to ascertain what changes ini^lit lake place in the stomata of modern plants if the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere were to increase fourfold and ecpial that of Carboniferous times. It is lik-ely that the climatic conditions of that time and the fact that the plants ])robably grew in salt marshes ex])lain the anomalous character of the plant tissue. It is desired to express acknowledgments to 13octors Barbour and Pool and to Mr. Sears for their assistance. niBLIOGRAPlIY Miss Lucy W ills, “Some Carboniferous Plant Cuticles,'’ Geol. ^lag. Sept. 1914. M. R. Zeiller, Ann. des Sci. Nat. S, 6. t. XI IT. Grand ’Eury, Ann. des Mines, Series (S. t. I. B. I4enault, “Cours de botanique fossile.” J. Auermach et H. Trautschold, Nouveaux Memoires de la Soc. imp. des naturalistes de Mocsow, t. XII. liv. I. lcS60. Goeppert, Sitzungsber d. k. byaer Akad. o. W'issenschaften zu Muen- chen. 1861. Bull, de la Soc. botani(iue de France, t. XXXGT. Seward, “Fossil Plants,” \A1. I. p\). 68. Among the books on modern i)lants the following have i)roven most helpful : Haberlandl, “IMiysiological Plant Anatomy.’' Solereder, “Systematic Anatomy of the Dicotyledons.’' DeBary, “Comparative Anatomy of the Phanerogams and I^erns.’' d'he University of Nebraska Lincoln, February 2, 1916 Distributed March 30, 1916 59 NI^BRASKA (\Ki)\A )(ilCAL SURVl^Y X'oLUMK 7, Part 15 r BARITE “DOl.LARS” FROM FRANKIJN COUNTY, NEBRASKA BY J. B. BURNETT I'lie Barite concretions to which the following- ])ara^ra])hs are devoted were found on the south side of the Repiihlican River ot)po- site Bloomington. Here they have weathered ont of the Graneros shale and are scattered alx)nt the hills where this formation is ex- posed. They were first recognized, collected, and named by Dr. 1C If. Barbour in the summer of 1910. The writer has made a study of these forms from the chemical and physical standpoints, the results of which will he found h^low. Before going into a detailed discussion of these forms it might he well to give a few of the properties of barite ; also its mode of occur- rence and deposition, as well as its ])rinciple uses. Barite, commonly known as heavy spar on account of its com])ara- tively high specific gravity (4.5), is the sulphuric acid salt of barium. It is i)ractically insoluble in all acids and water. In the latter it dissolves to the extent of one part to eight hundred-thousand parts. Thus it is less soluble than the sulidiates of either lead, calcium, or strontium. For this reason when a barium-hearing solution comes in contact with either anglesite, anhydrite, or celestite, the barium at once l)egins to take uj) the acid radical and the lead, calcium, or strontium is carried away in solution, leaving the insolul)le barite l)ehind. Barite is isomorphous with anhydrite and celestite, all three minerals occurring in the orthorhombic system of crystallization. The crystals have varying colors, such as white, gray, yellow, brown, or red, according to the impurities which they contain. An absolutely pure barite crystal is colorless and transparent. On being heated before the blowpipe, barite often decrepitates, then wdiitens, and finally fuses at about three, coloring the flame a light green. The crystals are usually tabular, ])arallel to the base. 1'he ])erfect cleavages are parallel to the unit prism and the h axis. I'hese are usually to be observed, and serve to orient the crystal. They are also ekaigate, in habit, parallel to the hrachy-axis; again jjarallel to the macro-axis, l)ut rarely are the crystals elongated ])arallel I0() NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY lo the vertical axis. Parallel growths are common when the crystals are tabular in habit. 1 hey are joined at the base, sometimes yielding a cock's-comb-like surface, or radiated with deep re-entrant angles se])arating the crystals. Barite is a secondary mineral occurring in veins, and in association with sedimentary rocks. In veins it occurs as a gangue mineral, especially with galena, spahlerite, and other sulphides where it has doubtlessly been precipitated from solution by the action of the oxida- tion ])roducts of the sulphides. It occurs also in lenticular deposits in residual clays overlying limestones. These deposits have probably been formed by the rei)lacement of the latter. Such occurrences are found in Washington County, Missouri. It is often found as a secondary mineral in cavities of limestone and sometimes replaces fossils. Beautiful crystals of barite are found on the walls of lead mines of Cornwall ; they occur also in cavities of dolomite in the iron mines of West Cumberland, Ifngland. Barite sometimes acts as the cementing material in sandstones where it must have been formed by a double decomposition. That is to say that some soluble barium compound came in contact with some soluble sulphate which was acting as the cementing material. The result was that both com- ])ounds were broken down, the barium taking on the sulphuric acid radical, dims an insoluble salt was formed, d'his rei)laced the more soluble material which had previously acted as the cementing agent. Barite is found about some springs in the form of sinter, and in pipes in mines, where it has been deposited from mine waters. 'khis mineral is used in tbe manufacture of ])aint as a substitute for white lead, as a hller for paper, and a source of barium salts. Owing to its insolubility, it is also used in the manufacture of rubber goods. Banded varieties are utilized for ornamenial ])urposes. From a chemical analysis of the Barite “Dollars,” the following comjKiunds were found to be present in the i)ercentages here given : Barium sulphate (BaS 04 ) 89.89% Hydrated ferric oxide (2l'ei>():{;)H20) 7.94% Silica (SiOi') 1.63% Water (H^O) 52% -Vlumina (Al^O.!) trace Manganese (probably as MnOi>) trace 99.98% BARTTE “DOLT.ARS” FROM ERANKTJN COUNTY 10? The iron content varies consi(leral)ly in different s])ecimens. This variation ranges from 5.42 to S.31 per cent and results from the incom])lete replacement hy the barium salt. This can he readily seen in the photomicrograph of the cross-section of the concretion, the dark jiatches representing the nnrejilaced iron. This is well shown in figures 3, 5, 6. An exceptionally large ])atch of iron oxide is shown in figure 1, a photomicrograph of a transverse section. This varia- tion in the iron content has a corresponding effect on the anioimt of harium sulphate present which varies aiiproxiniately in the same relative limits as iron oxide. The tabulated analysis given above was obtained from grinding several specimens together nnd taking a uni- form sample of the mixture thus obtained. It no doubt rejiresents the average contents of the concretions taken as a whole. The silica Fig. 1. A large particle of hydrated ferric oxide, magnified .50 diameter.s. occurs as minute inclusions in the iron ])atches. The alumina and manganese occur as impurities, there being only a very small fjuantity of the last two present. The physical properties are as follows : color, dark gray, hardness about 2.5, and specific gravity ranging from 4.05 to 4.22. This varia- tion, of course, is due to the varying quantity of barium present. The concretions are round and disc-shaped, ranging from 1.1 cm. to 7.5 cm in diameter, and from 2.5 mm. to 12 mm. in thickness. Upon examining an unbroken concretion, rows of crystals are seen to radiate from a center as illustrated by figure 2, nos. 1 and 4. A broken s]:)ecimen shows that the crystal growth is normal to the surface of a median disc composed of ferruginous matter and liarium 108 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 1 4 5 6 Fig. 3. Barite “Dollars” from the Graneroiis shale, natural size. sulphate. Closer examination of a cross-section shows that the crystals are arranged in cock’s-coinh-like order about a central axis, ddiis axis is partly ainor])hous and partly crystalline as shown by the ])olariscope. This crystalline matter in the median zone is barium sul])hate. The amorphous matter in some specimens is almost wholly hydrated ferric oxide. In others, it seems to be predominately barium sulphate with a subordinate quantity of iron oxide. In the photomicrographs of the cross-section the entire central zone appears dark. This is due in part to the ferric oxide present and partly to the fact that the amorphous matter transmits only a small amount of light as compared with the crystalline, Figs. 3, 5, 6. BARITE “DOLLARS" FROM FRANKLIN COUNTY 109 Many shales are known to contain niarcasite ‘‘dollars” which have the identical shape and form of those under discussion. It is there- fore quite probable that these concretions have been formed by a simple process of replacement. Percolating- waters carrying barium, either in the form of the hi-carhonate or the chloride have come in contact with forms of iron sul])hide in the process of oxidation and the products of oxidation were ferrous sulphate and sulphuric acid ( FeS^+704-Ho()=FeS()^+LUS()^ ). These compounds acted as the precipitating agents according to the following eciuation : 2HaH^(C( )..).,+FeS()_^+H.,S(),=2BaSO^+ FeH.,(C( ).. )^+2H.,( ) “ +2CO, Idle jirocess of replacement was probably very slow and the cock's- comb structure of the marcasite has generally been retained. Perfect Fig. 4. Section, showing barite psendoniorphs after marcasite, magnilied 100 diameters. crystals are not found because of intergrowth in the process of development. In many places the growth of the crystals is convergent toward a common point from which the marcasite crystals originally grew. The tendency toward convergence is probably due to the fact that in the original marcasite form, the interstices, as shown in any of the cross-sections, were probably filled with ferric oxide, ddiis was due to the partial oxidation of the marcasite jirior to the a])])ear- ance of the barium-hearing solutions, and that only the unaltered ’ portions of i the crystals furnished the precipitating agent. Conse- quently, as the jirocess of rejilacement proceeded, the barite assumed the form of the marcasite crystals. In some specimens the replace- ment seems to have been arrested for a time and then to have con- 110 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY b a d c Fig. 5. Portion of a cross section of a second example, a. central zone of hydrated ferric oxide and barium sulphate, b. secondary crystal growth, c. ferruginous parting, d. primary crystal growth. tinned later. The layers of crystals are separated by a thin parting of ferruginous matter. This is shown in figure 5. It is probably due to the fact that the barium-bearing solutions were diverted to other channels for a time, thus allowing oxidation to take place in the presence of more soluble salts such as those of sodium or calcium. In the subsequent reactions the sulphuric acid radical was carried away by sodium or calcium as Cdauber’s salt, or calcium sulphate, leav- ing the iron in the form of the carbonate. This, upon the loss of carbon dioxide, left the oxide behind. Later the barium solutions reap- Fig. h. Portion of a cross-section showing branched central zone. I’.AklTK "DOLLARS” J^’ROM I^RANKIJN COUNTY 111 Reared and the i)rocess of replacement ])roceeded until the central disc was reached. Here crystallization, in ])erhaps the majority of cases, seems to have stopped almost completely as there are but few traces of crystalline matter in this part of the concretion. 1'his may be attributed to two causes. The central disc of the marcasite “dollar” may have been in the form of the oxide, thus furnishing no ])recipitating agent, or the barium-bearing solutions may have been diverted to other channels. The hrst mentioned cause seems api)lica- ble to concretions in which the central zone consists almost entirely of iron oxide with very little barium sulphate. In the case of those concretions where the central zone is chiefly barium sulphate, the lack of even very small, well-developed crystals is ])robably due to the fact that the central mass of the marcasite concretion was in a crytocrystalline or finely divided crystalline state. Thus it was oxidized more rapidly than the larger crystals and furnished the precipitating agent so rapidly that the barium sulpbate did not have an opportunity to become well i crystallized. This may also explain the fact that this part of the concretion, taking into consideration its relative volume, contains a higher ])ercentage of iron oxide than the rest. The oxidation and precipitation took place so rapidly that some of the iron carbonate thus formed was not allowed to escai)e and subsequently became ferric oxide. Another factor entering into the explanation of the high percentage of iron concentrated along the central part of the concretion, is that the growth was centri])etal. Thus, as replacement continued, the chance for escape of the iron be- came steadily less. As a result there was a greater o])portunity for the bi-carbonate to be converted into the oxide and to be occluded in the mass of the crystals. Aside from the central zone, the concretion is made up of fairly well defined crystals. Barite and marcasite occur in the same forms of the orthorhombic system of crystallization and the only change which took place in the process of replacement was a chemical one. University of Nebraska Distributed April 1 5, 1916 Lincoln, February 1, 1916 Note — Since writing the alwve paper, the author has found large ironstone concretions occurring in the Dakota clays at Burnham, Nel)raska. In these the occurrence of marcasite and pyrite with barite seems to support the above theory in regard to the origin of the barite concretions. An account of these will be given in a paper to follow. 7 (t> M'/ 60 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY VOLUMF 7, PA.RT 16 CERTAIN DAKOTA CONCRETIONS AND THEIR MINERAL CONTE.NTS' By Jerome B. Burnett The Dakota clays at Burnham, Nel)raska, are found to contain a large number of clay ironstone, and clay concretions (Fig. 1). Some of these are found at the base of a five-foot layer of sandstone where the latter grades into the underlying clays. The others occur in a clay bed about twenty-five feet lower in the section (Fig. 1). The forms from the upper layer are highly stained with ferric oxide whereas those from the lower clay stratum show little or no staining. Both forms are, however, of the same general type of concretion ; that is, they were formed at the same time as the sediments and will be described later on. The following is an extract from Grabau’s “Principles of Strati- graphy’' : “Concretions are aggregations of mineral matter which grow by addition internally, externally, or interstitially. From the viewpoint of their origin and relationshi]) to the enclosing rocks, two types are to be distinguished : ( 1 ) those forming as contemporaneous accumulations, afterward buried by clastic or other strata, and (2) those forming in the strata after their deposition. This second grou]) clearly belongs to secondary structures of rocks. “Concretions of calcium carbonate, of barite, of manganese, and concretions composed of fragmental material cemented together l)y phosphate of lime, are among the first group forming at the present time. These forms constitute the uppermost layer of the lithosphere of the deep sea, and they are gradually buried by the accumulation of fine muds. Not infrequently they constitute the foundation on Avhich corals or other sedentary benthonic organisms gain a foothold, and such a concretion in moderately deep water may serve as a nucleus about which a coral reef is built up. Chemically formed oolites and pisolites should be considered under contemporaneous concretions. “The secondarily formed concretions, or those growing in the strata and of later age, are represented by clay ironstone concretions ^“Barite ‘Dollars’ from Franklin County,” together with this paper were sub- mitted to the Department of Geology as undergraduate theses. 114 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY so characteristic of the clay and shale beds, and readily recognized as belonging to the secondary type by the fact that the stratification lines are seen to pass through them.” W hether the formation of the concretions was contemporaneous or subsequent to the deposition of the beds is a matter which is usually solved with little difficulty. In practically all cases there seems to be one point in common, namely, a nucleus about which the particles of mineral matter gradually accumulate. In the type which was formed subsequently to the deposition of Fig. 1. — View of day pit at Burnham, Nebr., with section showing where concretions were found. the strata in which they occur, the precipitating agent seems to have emanated from a nucleus of some sort. In general many concretions have as their nuclei bits of organic matter, such as leaves, small bones, or some animal form, for example a mollusk, crustacean, or fish. In such instances the decomposition of organic matter seems to have furnished the atmosphere which caused the precipita- tion and deposition c:)f mineral matter about the res])ective nuclei. In other cases the same result has been accomplished through the decomposition of inorganic matter, such as suli)hides. Many sul- phates are insoluble to any appreciable extent in water. Thus con- cretions of barite, gypsum, celestite, or anglesite would be readily formed if percolating waters carrying barium, calcium, strontium, or DAKOTA CONCRETIONS 115 lead in solution were to come in contact with some sulphide in the process of oxidation. Concretions of epigenetic formation are gen- erally recognizable by the fact that their exterior form conforms in a general way to the stratification and lamination ])lanes of the surround- ing beds. The tyjie which is formed contem]K)raneously with the (le])osition of the surrounding sediments has a similar origin but develops under different conditions. Here again the ])articles may collect about some foreign body. Very often, however, it is a matter of like attracting like. The concretions found at Iffirnham, Nebraska, may be said to belong to the syngenetic ty])e, for they were formed at the same time the clays were laid down. The nuclei about which they formed have been completely obliterated. The once continuous mass has dried and the interior shrunk, leaving a large cavity with no trace of the nucleus or any clue to its sjiecific nature. In this case it is safe to say that the nucleus was some inorganic body, which upon decomposition furnished no hydrogen suljihide. For had it been of an organic nature hydro-suljihuric acid would almost certainly have been given off and this would have resulted in the formation of iron sulphide in the matrix of the concretion. Chemical and micro- scopic examinations have not shown this to be the case. During the development of these concretions there seems to have been at least two, and probably three, periods during which the clays contained an abundance of water. In the first period, while the 116 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY Dakota Sea still covered these regions, the concretions assumed their general exterior form (Fig. 2). During the following time-interval these concretions dried and the inner parts shrank, leaving the irregular cavities (Fig. 3). At about this time the siderite was deposited. Fol- lowing this came the second h.umid period when the organic matter was decomposed and the sulphides were deposited. Then the concre- Fig. 3. — Broken concretion showing irregular interior cavity. tions seem to have dried out again. Finally we come to the last stage in the mineralization of these forms. This was a relatively moist period during which the barite and kaolinite were deposited. This last interval we may assume to be the jtresent one. The epoch from the incipient formation of the concretions to the well-developed forms containing the different minerals, probably rep- resents a considerable lapse of time. The drying of the concretions was centripetal — that is, they dried from the outside inward; hence the outer shell was formed first. Then as desiccation continued the interior shrank, leaving a large, irregular, ramifying cavity (Fig. 3). To account for this we must assume that the sediments in which the concretions are found must have comjfietely dried out at some period. This in itself would have required an extended period of time, for durable changes in humidity do not take place rapidly. These come about very slowly, usually endure a long time, and then are gradually followed by different conditions. Such neriods probably cannot be computed in terms of less than millions of years. It is obvious that the plant remains which are found in these clays did not undergo decomposition to any extent until the second period in DAKOTA CONCRETIONS 117 which the clays were saturated with water. This was a period during which hydrogen sulphide was liberated and carried in solution into the interior of the concretions. Here it acted upon the iron, forming marcasite or pyrite. Idle included iron was first deposited in the form of siderite. Later on, when the hydrogen sulphide appeared, it acted upon and replaced part of the carbonate. It does not seem reasonable to assume that the iron was carried into the concretion subsequent to its initial drying. Had such been the case, some of the Fig. 4. — Portion of concretion showing marcasite vein filling. iron would have lodged in the matrix and probably would have been acted upon by the hydrogen sulphide to form pyrite or marcasite. None of these minerals, however, have been found in this part of the concretion. From this it seems probable that the nucleus was some ferruginous body. This is at least the case with those forms found at the base of the lower clay beds. The waters in which the bluish-gray concretions were formed probably carried very little iron in solution. This is shown by the fact that the matrix contains very little of this element. In regard to the highly stained concretions at the base of the upper layer, we may safely say that they were colored subsequent to their formation, for a cross-section shows the outermost portion to be most heavily stained. The inner portion becomes less and less stained until the interior cavity is reached. Here the matrix is markedly discolored by the iron which originally acted as the nucleus. 118 NEBRASKA geological SURVEV The manner in which the concretions are stained seems to bear out the theory that there were several periods during which the clays dried out. These were followed by more humid times when the percolating water contained a great quantity of iron in solution. It is even probable that the .iron-bearing solutions did not appear till late in the Cretaceous period. The sandstone bed is uniformly dis- colored with ferric oxide, but this could have been easily accomplished by subsequent percolation of water. So there seems to be little evi- dence to show that the waters were highly charged with iron even at the time of the deposition of this bed. The depth of the staining in the concretions does not grade from a uniformly deep red on the outside to a light brown or yellow on the inner portions, but there seem to be distinct divisions between the successive bands of coloring matter. The outside layer is usually about a centimeter in thickness. This is the darkest in color. Following this is a paler brown layer, then a yellowish-gray band. Thus it would appear that there were three distinct periods when the waters were highly charged with Eig. 5. — Large cluster of marcasite crystals. iron. The periods during which the waters carried considerable quan- tities of iron were probably not of great duration. This is shown not only by the fact that the concretions from the base of the sandstone layer are not wholly discolored by the iron but also by the fact that tlAKOTA CONCRETIONS; no for a depth of more than nineteen feet, the underlying clays are not mottled. Below this the clays are of a uniform dark blnish-gray color. That the occurrence of large (juantities of iron was subse- quent to the deposition of the clay beds, and the formation of the concretions, is plainly shown by the mottled coloration of the upi)er clays. If the waters in which the clays were laid down had carried much iron we would find the beds uniformly colored. After the siderite and i)yrite or marcasite had been formed there seems to have been another period during which the concretions dried Fig. 6. — Small clusters of marcasite crystals. out again, or at least a period when the mineral content of the per- colating water was considerably changed, for during the following time-interval the waters carried barium in solution. Conditions were then oxidizing instead of reducing, as they had been during the deposition of the iron sulphide and carbonate. T'he dissolved oxygen acted upon the sulphides forming ferrous suljthate and sulphuric acid, (FeS.>-j--7( )=F'eS( . The order of deposition of the contained minerals was siderite, pyrite or marcasite, barite, and finally kaolinite. The surface of the interior is drusy with crystals of iron carbonate. They are in the form of positive and negative rhombohedrons. The latter, upon being examined with the hand lens, appear to the eye to be small cubes. This is explained by the fact that the interfacial angles of this form of crystal are 91° 42' and look very much like right angles. In the concretions from the bluish-gray clays these crystals are but slightly discolored with ferric oxide. They range from transparent to 120 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY straw-yellow. In the concretions from the upper layer these crystals are highly discolored. Their color varies from a light brown to a deep brick-red. This shows that a relatively greater quantity of iron was present at the time of the formation of these concretions than at the time of the deposition of the bluish-gray clays. During the second wet interval, when the decomposition of the organic matter is sup- posed to have taken place, the waters were highly charged with car- bon dioxide and some hydrogen sulphide. We may assume that the free carbonic acid acted upon the siderite forming bi-carbonate. This was acted upon by the hydro-sulphuric acid present, resulting in the formation of pyrite or marcasite This may be represented by the following equation : FeH^ ( CO, ) 2+2H ,S+0=FeS2+3H ,0 + 200^. At or near the base of the bluish-gray clays, where we find numerous plant remains, the iron sulphide usually occurs as marcasite. Under Fig. 7. — Interior portion of concretion from lower clay bed showing clusters of pyrite crystals. such conditions we would expect to find a greater quantity of hydrogen sulphide liberated, a more strongly acid solution, and the general re- sults which follow such conditions. The iron sulphide crystals found in these concretions are usually in the orthorhombic form, marcasite. Experiments have shown that the condition necessary for the deposi- DAKOTA CONCRETIONS 121 tion of this form is the presence of a small quantity of free, strong acid such as splphiiricC Under the conditions prevalent considerable hydrogen sulphide was being given off, and it seems safe to say that there was some free sul])huric acid present. The marcasite not only Fig. 8. — Clusters of 1)arite crystals, replacements after marcasite. fills many of the small cracks and crevices in the concretions (Fig. 4), but also is found in small clusters of crystals, usually about a centi- meter across (Figs. 5 and 6). At this point one serious objection presents itself. In the partially decomposed logs found at the base of the bluish-gray clays we often find pyrite instead of marcasite. Here we would expect to find the greatest relative quantity of hydro-sulphuric acid and the solutions would be the least apt to be neutral or only slightly acid. These last named conditions are normally those under which ])yrite is su|)posed to formC The only conclusion that the writer is able to draw at this point is either that pyrite is sometimes formed in strongly acidic solu- tions, or that there was some unknown factor entering in, which caused the solution to be neutral or only slightly acidic. Then too, there are other concretions from this same stratum which contain the ^Phillips’ Mineralogy. NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 1 22 isometric form, pyrite, instead of marcasite (Fig. 7). A full explana- tion of this is not available from the data at hand. However, the fact remains that where the sulphide occurs as marcasite there is relatively a much greater quantity of it present than there is in those concretions where pyrite is found. This in itself shows that there was a greater quantity of hydrogen sulphide present when the marca- site was formed. The pyrite crystals found in these concretions are mostly a bright brassy yellow ; sometimes iridescent on account of a thin coating of ferric oxide. The crystal forms noted were the cube, a combination of the cube and octohedron, and the cube and pyritohedron. In size the crystals vary from those which are microscopic to larger ones having a diameter of several millimeters. Farther up in the bed where there are few plant remains, only a small quantity of hydrogen sulphide was given off, and the concretions contain only siderite and kaolinite. As previously mentioned, the third mineral in the order of deposi- tion was barite. With a single exception, all the concretions in which barite occurs are found near the base of the sandstone bed. These Fig. 9. — Cluster of barite crystals, replacement after marcasite. concretions have been stained to a deep brick-red by percolating waters carrying iron in solution. As mentioned above, the solutions at this time were oxidizing. There was no strong reducing agent such as hydrogen sulphide present. Consequently the oxygen in the water readily acted upon the iron sulphide, forming ferrous sulphate and sulphuric acid. The barium was probably carried in the form of the bi-carbonate. When this compound came in contact with the sulphide forms in the process of oxidation, the insoluble barium sulphate was formed as represented by the following equation — 2BaH2(CO,)2+FeSO,+ H.,S0,=2BaS0,+FeC0.^+3H204-3C02. During this reaction, the barium sulphate simply replaced the iron DAKOTA CONCRETIONS 123 sulphide. Consequently we find barite occurring in the same kind of crystal clusters as the marcasite (Fi^s. 8 and 9 ). In regard to the ])resence of barite in the concretions from this bed and its almost entire absence from those found in the lower stratum, we may assume that tlie period during which the waters carried the barium in solution was relatively short and that the greater part of this element was left in the upper strata. The presence of barite in some of the concretions from the sandstone bed and its absence in others seems to be explained in general by the relative thickness of the walls of the different speci- mens. Those containing barite usually have thinner walls than those in which it does not occur. Thus the liarium-bearing solutions gained access to the interior cavities of these forms more readily than they did in the case of those having thicker walls. The last mineral in the order of deposition was kaolinite, a hydrous aluminum silicate, H_^AloSi.^(),,. This was deposited as a thin coating covering the siderite crystals in many places. This mineral, like barite, occurs most frequently in the concretions having thin walls. It may have gained admission to the interior cavities on account of the ex- treme fineness of its particles, or what seems even more probable, it may have been leached from the matrix of the concretion. The University of Nel)raska Distributed ( )ctol)er 29, 1916 Lincoln, Nebraska ' - ■^ : , ; (f. -.Ii; / ^ . 1 ; . - ■»• -^ *=**?* ^* 301 ■ '* Vi’. ..V -•*• >1'. f - _ :; 0- f. V2* V ■ * m: ::shsa; , s:^_,.. ::v..«-^- '>2^^ 'W--'-%lVX.*ta .' i - ' ' 'j-r. iiH:yERSiTr ii: (tf-rs 1 .1 7 •‘T MAn A 5 !9!9 61 NEBRASKA (;1a()L()(;ICAI. SURVIaV Volume 7, Part 17 DRAINAGIa districts of SOUTHIaASTERN NF.BRASKAi BY CALVIN TURNER MOORE Introduction Throughout certain parts of the United States the importance of drainage is receiving increased recognition each year. The scope of investigations and operations covers many localities that are affected with “springy” lands, swamps, shallow lakes, overflowed lands, and tide lands. Drainage work is wide and varied, ranging in extent of operation from the laying of small tile drains on private properties to the con- struction of large and costly open-cut ditches designed to drain broad areas. The fundamental reason for constructing and maintaining drainage systems is either to increase the productive value of farm land already under cultivation, or to bring into productivity uncultivated tracts. The rapid growth of population in the United States, the increased value of farm land, and the consequent demand for farm products make small and large drainage projects feasible. A few years ago lower land values and lower market prices for farm products would have prohibited the construction of the larger systems of drainage. Government Drainage Work The question of drainage in various parts of the United States has become of such importance that the Department of Agriculture now maintains a staff of drainage engineers. During the fiscal year of 1909-10, twenty-seven men were employed on this staff* and made in- vestigations and surveys in twenty different states and territories. The work of these engineers is classified and described as follows : (1) Improvement of farm lands now under cultivation. (2) Drainage of swamp lands. (3) Reclamation of lands subject to frequent overflow from streams. (4) Drainage of irrigated lands. 1 Editorial Note: This paper was presented as a thesis to the Faculty of the Graduate College in the University of Nebraska in partial fulfillment of require- ments for the degree Master of Arts, Department of Geology. 126 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY (5) Collection of data. (6) Preliminary and reconnaissance work. (7) Dissemination of information. The following, taken from R. D. Marsden’s Report on Drainage Investigations 1909-10, gives the special work on which the field engineers were detailed. “The entire time of one engineer is given to the work of tile drainage in various parts of the humid region where special information and advice upon that subject are needed, and five are stationed in the Western States to study the problems which arise in attempts to drain irrigated lands and to assist the owners who desire to reclaim tracts which have become injured by seepage or by alkali. Other field engineers are employed in examining and reporting upon the status of drainage in various localities, such examinations being made upon special requests, which are filed from time to time with the office. They are also charged with the study of advising engineers, farmers, and others regarding the best practice in drainage, or collect- ing practical and technical data pertaining to methods of reclaiming land, of giving assistance to land owners in the organization of drain- age districts, and of suggesting preliminary plans for reclaiming areas of farm lands on those subject to periodical overflow, all of which may be made useful for agriculture. The office engineers reply to in- quiries received by mail concerning perplexing drainage problems. They also examine plans which are transmitted by mail or in person, and in many instances suggest improvements or modifications which are of great value. They review, check, and edit the reports prepared by the field engineers upon the various projects which they have worked out, and disseminate as far as practicable the information ob- tained by the entire stafif of engineers.” Drainage Work in Nebraska The drainage engineers from the Government stafif have been of con- siderable assistance on several preliminary investigations and surveys for various ])rojects in eastern Nebraska. Some of the localities ex- amined are in Burt, Washington, Saunders, Nemaha, Johnson, Rich- ardson, Otoe, and Sarpy counties. The princijial areas of Nebraska requiring drainage ditches lie along the Missouri River in the northeastern part of the State, along the lower Platte and its tributaries, and along the Greater and Little Nem- aha Rivers and some of their tributaries. DRAINAGE DISTRICTS OE SOUTHEASTERN NER.RASKA 127 1^'ig. 1.— Drainage canal near Bracken, Nemaha Drainage District No. Photographed by E. H. Barbour. 128 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY Drainage Laws of Nebraska 1'lie drainage laws of Nebraska are very liberal when comjiared with those of some other states. The State Board of Irrigation, Highways and Drainage has ''original jurisdiction over all matters pertaining to water rights for irrigation, jiower or other useful purposes, highways and drainage.” (From 1913 Irrigation Laws of Nebraska.) The irrigation laws were expanded to include all drainage projects within the State by the Legislature which convened in 1912, and this clause went into effect July 17, 1913. Each District Board of Sujiervisors is responsible to the State Board for the drainage work in its district. The following section from Article II of the Irrigation Laws of Nebraska ex]dains the filing of plans and specifications with ap])roval by the State Board. “Sec. 41. Drainage district plans . — All plans for proposed drainage districts shall be ajiproved by the State Board before any contract is let or work begun. The State Board through its representatives shall have authority to order any change they may see fit in said plans and require the drainage district to conform thereto, and shall at all times during the construction have the right to inspect said work and make recommendations ])ertaining to the same. Upon request of any inter- ested party or parties of a jiroposed drainage district, the State Board may jirepare for them ])lans and specifications for any proposed drain- age work at actual cost of doing the same.” (Drainage Laws, 1913, page 100.) Co])ies of the Irrigation, Highway, and Drainage Laws of Nebraska may be had on application to the State Engineer’s office at the State Ca])itol Building. The following quotation is a part of the State Engineer’s recom- mendation relative to the passage of a law compelling drainage dis- tricts to file their jilans with the State Board of Irrigation, Highways, and Drainage : “During the past few years there have been a number of drainage districts formed throughout the State. In many cases these have been formed for the purpose of straightening out and shortening the chan- nels of small streams. Several instances have come to the attention of this office where several districts have been formed for the straight- ening out of the channel of the same stream. Different engineers were em|)loyed to work out the ])lan and locate the drainage ditches of each different district. The district higher up on the stream would often DRAINAGE DISTRICTS OF SOUTHEASTERN NEP.RASKA 12!) Eig. 2— Drag-line dredge of Callahan Brothers. Munn and Reise, Margrave’s Ranch, southeast of Preston. Richardson County. District No. 1. Photographed by E. F. Schramm. NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY lao build a canal of larger cross section than the one lower down the stream, which should have been designed to carry more water than the upper one. This shows clearly that one or the other of these canals was not built to the best advantage and economically. “Different questions like this arise which are greatly influenced by the local people, who desire special favors and privileges and the best results for drainage as a whole are not accomplished. It is recom- mended that a kne be compelling all drainage districts to file an application, setting forth all the facts pertaining to their proposed drainage project and that the same be acted upon by the State Board, the sayne as an application for irrigation or power purposes and that the drainage district be required to file detailed plans of their proposed project and that the same be approved by the State Board, subject to any change zvhieh they may see fit to make before the construction zvork can begin. In this way the drainage work of the entire State will be put under the siq^ervision of the State Board, and the State En- gineer may go upon the ground and make such surveys and examina- tions as he may deem necessary, so as to enable him to recommend to the Board and the Drainage Districts the best plan for carrying out the proposed project, which opinion will be unbiased by any local con- ditions or favors that might exist otherwise. Thus a uniform plan for the straightening of the channels of different streams can be suc- cessfully worked out throughout their entire length. “Surveys might be made by the State Engineer's office of different streams and all low and seep lands, showing the best and most feasible ways of draining and straightening and shortening the channels of creeks, so that proi)osed districts could be formed more easily and to a better advantage than they are under the system which is in use at this time.” Drainage \\k)RK in Southeastern Nebraska The remainder of this pa])er deals with the drainage projects on the (ireater and Little Nemaha Rivers in southeastern Nebraska. (Ieographv Tbe area of southeastern Nebraska, with which this rei)ort deals, is located geographically within the following boundaries : The Missouri River on the east, the Nebraska-Kansas State line on the south, the range line between R. 5 E. and R. 6 E. on tbe west, and the township DKAINAGE DISTRICTS OV SOUTHEASTERN NER.RASKA 131 line between T. 10 N. and T. 11 N. on the north. These honndaries include the entire watersheds of the two Nemaha Kivers. ddie actual vratersheds of these two rivers may he described as follows : Practi- cally the entire area of Richardson, Nemaha, Otoe, and Johnson coun- ties, the east third of l^awnee, the northeast corner of Oage, the south- east corner of Lancaster, and a strij) averaging two miles wide along the south line of Cass County. Fig. 3. — The “little dredge” at work on the lateral ^2 mile north of Bracken. Photographed by E. H. Barbour. The number of square miles of watershed by counties is given ap- proximately as : Lancaster . Gage Cass Johnson . . Pawnee . . Otoe Nemaha . . Richardson 110 sq. mi. 100 sq. mi. GO sq. mi. 385 sq. mi. 150 sq. mi. 560 sq. mi. 350 sq. mi. 525 sq. mi. Total 2,240 sq. mi. 132 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY To this total must be added 288 square miles of watershed lying south of the Nebraska-Kansas line, all of which flows into the Greater Nemaha. The salient geographical features and the watersheds of the two Nemahas are shown on the map of Divides of Southeastern Nebraska. Drainage Districts Great Nemaha River: On this river four drainage districts have been incorporated, and a fifth is in process of organization. 1. Richardson County Drainag^e District No. 1 begins at the Vlis- souri River and extends westward to the junction of the North and South Forks of the Nemaha River near Salem, Nebraska, thence along the South Fork to the west line of Sec. 5, T. 1 N., R. 14 E., and along the North Fork to the west line of Sec. 23, T. 2 N., R. 14 E. 2. Richardson County Drainage District No. 2 begins at the u]i- stream end of the North Fork in Richardson County District No. 1, and extends westward to the Pawnee-Richardson County line. 3. Richardson County Drainage District No. 4 begins at the up- stream end of Richardson County No. 1 on the South Fork and ex- tends to the Pawnee-Richardson County line. This district was being organized according to last reports. 4. Pawnee County Drainage District No. 1 begins at the Pawnee- Richardson County line and extends to the Pawnee- Jefferson County line. 5. Johnson County Drainage District No. 1 begins at the Pawnee- Johnson County line and extends up-stream to a iioint 1.5 miles north- west of Sterling, Nebraska, ending in Sec. 21, T. 6 N., R. 9 E. Tuttle Nemaha River: Two districts are incorporated in the valley of this river. 1. Nemaha County Drainage District^ No. 2 begins at the Vlissouri River and extends up-stream to the Nemaha-Otoe County line. 2. Otoe County Drainage District No. 1 liegins at the Nemaha-Otoe County line. There will be three ditches in this district, one along the North Fork, one along Ho])per Creek, and one on the South Fork to the Johnson Countv line. The region within the watersheds of the two Nemahas is entirely agricultural and grazing, though there are some successful brick plants 1 Nemaha County District No. 1 is on Camn Creek. This creek has a catch- ment liasin of approximately 55 square miles. The ditch is small and partly reclaims the Peru Swamp. DRAINAGE DISTRICTS OF SOUTHEASTERN NEBRASKA r.i:\ and a few stone (inarries. There are a few thin coal seams in this field, hut no coal mines are being o]jerated at the ])resent time. A number of the towns have a i)oi)ulation of 1,000 to 2,000, and two or three of them have 5,000 inhabitants. Railway facilities are fairly g(X)d over the entire area, the Chi- cago, Durlington and Quincy, ami the Missouri Pacific Railroads hav- ing the greatest mileage. Topoorapiiy The topography represented within this region is that of mature age, the range of relief being from sea level elevation 850 feet at the Fig. 4. — Callahan Brothers, Miinn and Reise dredger on Margrave’s Ranch southeast of Preston, Richardson County. District No. 1. Photographed hy E. H. Barbour. Missouri River to sea level elevation 1,500 feet in Lancaster County. The valleys of the smaller streams are well incised into the land sur- face, having narrow, well-defined divides, with comparatively broad, even slopes to the stream beds. The larger streams, as a general rule, have broad, flat bottoms which end laterally in stee]) slo]:)es rising abruptly to the uplands. The 134 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY limestone strata outcropping- near the tops of these side-slopes weather much more slowly than the underlying shales and form the sharp bluffs characteristic of these valleys. Hydrography The drainage systems of this area are typically those of a mature topography in a region of moderate relief and rainfall. The streams divide and subdivide until the small intermittent feeders form a com- plete network over the entire area. The perennial streams, especially the larger ones, have developed a continuous and tortuous series of meanders. This is facilitated by the readiness with which the surface formations of the region erode. In many places meander development has progressed to such an extent that the natural stream bed has a course two or three times the length of the ditches that have been constructed. In Richardson County several oxbow lakes have been formed. These furnish positive evidence as to the past behavior of the Great Nemaha. Great Nemaha River: The Great Nemaha heads in the southern part of Lancaster County and drains an area of approximately 1,200 square miles within Nebraska. It also carries the run-off of 290 square miles of northeastern Kansas, which makes a watershed of 1,490 square miles. The waters south of the State line are carried by the South Fork and other streams lying to the east, and they affect only Richardson County Drainage District No. 1. Approximately four- hfths of the watershed lies along the lower half of the stream. Considering the North Fork as the main channel, the Great Nemaha has a general course of S. 60° E. The divide between the North Fork and the Little Nemaha River follows close to the trunk stream of the North Fork along the upper portion of the valley. The lower valley has two large tributaries flowing from the north ; namely, IMuddy Creek and Long Branch. On the south side of the river numerous large tributaries, such as Four IMile, Rattle Snake, Rock, Honey, and W'alnut creeks, empty into the main channel throughout its entire length. These streams carry nearly all the water coming from across the State line. Two-thirds of the watershed lies on the south side of the trunk stream. The approximate number of square miles of watershed draining into the heads of the North Fork drainage districts are: Johnson County District No. 1 150 sq. mi. Pawnee County District No. 1 375 sq. mi. Richardson County District No. 2 475 sq. mi. Richardson County District No. 1 000 sq. mi. DRAINAGE DISTRICTS OF SOUTHEASTERN NEBRASKA 1:55 Lttti.e Nemaha River: The I.ittle Nemaha River, which heads in Lancaster County, drains an area of ai)proximately 1,000 square miles. Its .s^eneral course is nearly S. 45 ^ E. The watershed lies mostly in the upper half of the valley, three-fourths of its area being above the Nemaha-Otoe County line, a condition opposite that of the Great Nemaha. If Hopi)er Creek is considered the main chan- nel, the drainage of the Little Nemaha is very nearly symmetrical to the trunk stream, the drainage areas of the North Fork, Hop])er Creek, and the South Fork being nearly equal. Nemaha County Drainage District No. 2, at its head on the Otoe County line, receives the flow from a catchment basin of 750 scjuare miles. At present Otoe County Drainag^e District No. 1, which was re- cently organized, is making survevs to continue the ditch from Nemaha County District No. 1, U]) North Fork, Ho])per Creek, and South Fork. CiEOT.Or.Y The oldest known ex])osures are Carboniferous and are represented by limestones and shales of Pennsylvanian age. Idiese limestones and shales are found along the steep bluffs which lie between the river valleys proper and the uplands. The next oldest known exposures are represented by limestones and shales of the Permian series. In parts of the western portion of this drainage area, the Carboniferous rocks are overlain unconformably by loosely cemented ferruginous sand- stones of the Dakota series of the Cretaceous period. The Pleistocene epoch is represented by glacial drift which caps the older Carboniferous and Cretaceous formations, and forms most of the hilltops within this area. In some places this drift is in turn capped by Loess. The Loess was probably the deposit of an out- wash plain derived from some later stage of glaciation, possibly the Iowan stage. The drift underlying the Loess is of the Kansan stage. In many places in this drift the pink Sioux quartzite erratics of various sizes are conspicuous. The last epoch represented is the recent. Under this head would come the classification of the soils of the area. The following is taken from the “Soil Survey of Nemaha County, Nebraska,'" and is repre- sentative of the soils of the region under discussion . “The soils in this part of the State may be grouped into three dis- trict divisions. The upland soils are derived from glacial and loessial 13G NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY material, the alluvial terraces from fluvial silts, and the first bottoms from recent stream dej^osits. The upland group embraces the Knox, Marshall, and Carrington series ; the alluvial terraces are classed as W aukesha series and the first bottoms comprise the WTbash and Sarpy series and Riverwash. Most of the soils of the uplands and terraces are silty, and the same is true of most of the first bottoms, except on the Missouri River, where the silty clay loams and very fine sand loams are important. Wfith the exception of the Knox series, and recently deposited soils along the Missouri River, the soils are dark in color and rather high in organic matter.” Fertility, Crops, and Land AWlues In general the soils of both the hill and valley lands of southeastern Nebraska are fertile. The hill lands usually rise steeply from the river valleys to an average elevation of 40 to 60 feet. These uplands are, for the most part, covered with a dark loam from a few inches to several feet in depth. This loam overlies a glacial deposit of variable thickness. Under the glacial deposit are interbedded strata of lime- stones and shales, the outcrops of which form the bluffs along the river valleys, ddiis upland or hill country produces good crops, and is ])articularly adapted to grazing purposes. The bottom land along the rivers and the lower valleys of the larger tributaries has a surface of black loam underlain by clay. There is also a deposit of silt on the surface of the land subject to overflow. These overflowed lands are the most fertile of the region on account of the rich sediment deposited by frequent floods. This fertility has been fairly well tested by the production of crops in districts where ditches are completed. For the past two years the land overflowed before the ditches were excavated has produced the best crops in that jiortion of the State now being considered. The principal crops of southeastern Nebraska are wheat, corn, hay, and other farm ])roducts of secondary importance. The average value of croDs on the hill land is from $18.00 to $22.00 per acre, and during exceptional seasons run as high as $25.00 per acre. The crops on the overflowed land, for several years before draining, were absolute failures, having been destroyed or in some instances carried away by the flood waters. One landowner makes the positive assertion that for a number of years the revenue from a large portion of the overflowed bottoms “did not even pay the taxes.” Several thou- sand acres of the flooded lands, within the two Nemaha River systems. I)kAINA(;K DISTRICTS ()!' SOUTHEASTERN NERRASKA i:?7 were entirely al)an(lone(l for agricultural purposes. Since ditching, however, this same land has i)roduced crops ranking among the best of the entire region. One farm in particular averaged about $2S.OO per acre in 1913. Upland farms are valued at $90.00 to $150.00 ])er acre, owing to their location and the imi)rovements u])on them. The value of the bottom lands is difficult to determine. Before the ditches were assured, and their success determined, some of the farm land lying on the lowest of the overflowed area could not be sold at any ])rice. Farms which were in better locations as regards overflow, are recorded as selling for prices ranging from v$35.00 to v$75.00 an acre. In the districts which have been successfully ditched, the ])rice of 100 per cent bene- fited land has, on a very conservative estimate, doubled in value. A few instances are recorded where the increased value has been as much as 150 per cent. N.vtukal Channels To account for the fre(|uent overflows following the heavier rains, it is necessary to describe the more ])rominent conditions that formerly existed on the trunk streams and larger tributaries. Let us consider the conditions which existed along the Great Nem- aha, as these are representative of the remainder of the area. In the \icinity of Sterling, Johnson County, the river valley proper has a grade of 6.(S feet a mile. This grade decreases toward the mouth of the river until in the eastern pfwtion of Richardson County near Rulo, the grade of the valley is between 2.0 and 2.5 feet a mile. Some of the tributaries, especially those of the upper river valley, have grades of as much as 20.0 feet per mile toward their sources. These streams main- tain comparatively steep grades until they emerge from the bluhfs along the main river valley and flow out on the bottom lands. This higher gradient gives the tributaries, at flood stage especially, much greater velocities as compared with that of the trunk stream. Most of these tributaries he in comparatively narrow valleys which have relatively steep side-slopes and are rather deeply incised into the hill lands. This topograjdiy furnishes ideal conditions for the collection of heavy loads of sediments by rainwaters. As the soils of southeastern Nebraska erode very readily, these side streams carry out large amounts of sediment on the main channel bot- toms and into the trunk stream itself. The topography of the uplands shows plainly the rapid erosion features of this region. 138 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY During floods these rapidly flowing side-streams soon charge the trunk stream with a heavy load of sediment. As the main channel gradient is considerably less than its tributaries, conditions are favora- ble for the deposition of a part of this load along the banks the instant the stream overflows. The load carried by flood waters is the direct cause of the natural levees which lie adjacent to the banks of the rivers. In ])laces these levees rise to a foot or more in height. They are present along both the Nemaha rivers and greatly increase the damage done by floods. Their origin is easily explained by the fact that the instant the laden flood waters leave the channel and flow over the banks, the velocity is checked and therefore a part of the load is deposited, adjacent to the lianks, forming the levees. These levees are not readily apparent, for on the land-side the slopes are very flat and may extend quite a num- ber of rods across the flood plain. Therefore, since the grade slopes from the channel for some distance, as soon as the flood water over- flows a levee, it spreads rapidly over the surface. These levees also impede the return of water to the channel as the overflow recedes, thus holding the water on the bottoms for a longer period of time and this in turn increases the speepage toward the higher lands. This seepage brings about a condition which greatly damages the land immediately adjacent to the overflowed area. The land itself is not under water except at extraordinary flood stage. However, when the flood waters stand on the adjacent areas for three or four days, they seep back into the soil of this land, softening the ground to such ou extent that teams mire deeply and it is impossible for three to ten days after the retreat of the water, to work on this land. Landowners say that the length of time this seep water remains in the soil is almost inconceivable, and the delay in cultivating and harvesting crops often causes serious loss. The trunk streams of this area are flanked by broad flat valleys that terminate in the bluffs which rise to the uplands on either side. In time of flood these valleys, on account of their low lateral gradients, are conducive to a wide spread of water. The entire loss of crops for several years discouraged farmers from cultivating the overflowed bot- toms and these portions of the valleys had grown u]) to wild grass, weeds, and brush. Along the immediate banks was a growth of small timber, brush, and rank weeds such as wild sunflower (Helianthus) and horse-weed (Ambrosia). At high water stage, on account of the many sharp meanders characteristic to this region the stream currents DRAINAGE DISTRICTS OE SOUTHEASTERN NERRASKA i:d (lid a large amount of iinder-cuUing, causing the trees and brush along the banks to slide and fall into the stream beds. The weight of the root-matted sod and the roots which still clung to the bank fre(iuently held such trees in position and some of them even continued to grow in the bed of the stream. At each successive flood, logs, brush, and weeds lodged on these trees, this drift in turn gathered an accumula- tion of sand and silt, which aided in ])reser\ ing the vegetable debris it covered. In the course of a few years many such barriers obstructed the free passage of water through the channel and greatly increased the overflow. Such obstructions in the stream beds greatly impede and sometimes even entirely destroy the scouring ])rocess l)y which streams keep their channels cleared of accumulations of sand and silt. They not only retard the scour, but by checking the velocity, cause the water to de- posit a portion of its load. The eftect of this stream filling process is almost continuous along the trunk streams of both the Great and Little Nemaha rivers. ^ The numerous and tortuous meanders of the Nemaha rivers were another factor of importance in ])roducing overflows. The great length of these meanders considerably reduced the actual grade of the stream. The efifect of this reduced grade is a reduced velocity and conse- quently a reduced volume of water ])assing a given point in a given time. An exam])le of this is brought to notice in Pawnee County Drainage District No. 1, where the velocity of the water in the old channel at bank- full stage was between 3.5 and 4.0 feet per second, while that of the new channel under the same conditions is a little more than 7.0 feet per second. Considering the cross-section areas the same in the two channels, the new channel will deliver about twice the volume of water per unit time as the old channel. Delay in passage of water down stream is the prime cause of overflows and the chief causes of this delay are, as has been stated, obstructions in the stream beds and meanders of the channel. There are numerous minor causes for the delay in deliverv and the increased spread of flood water over the bottom land, but they are not of sufficient importance to demand detailed consideration. Rainfall and Run-off The run-ofif from an area in proportion to the amount of rainfall is dependent upon the condition, of the soil at the time of precipitation. 140 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY A rainfall precipitated after a period of drouth is largely absorbed by the soil and its run-off is less than that of the same amount of rainfall on the same area when the soil is saturated. The character of the precipitation greatly affects the rate of run-off. A rainfall of short duration causes greater height of flood waters than does an equal preci])itation covering a longer period. The rainfall of southeastern Nebraska averages 23 to 24 inches per annum, precipitated chiefly during the growing months. This makes the overflows much more disastrous to crops along the bottoms than they would be if the heavier rains came in the winter or if the rainfall were more evenly distributed throughout the year. As there are very few meter ratings of these streams at times of flood there is little data to present in actual figures. The best record obtainable is from Mr. F. F. Shafer’s report from the Government Drainage Engineer's Oflice on Nemaha County District No. 1, from which is quoted this abbreviated account. “On Nov. 15, 1909, the Great Nemaha was gaged near Tecumseh, Nebr., while running bank- full, and showed a velocity of 4 feet per second or 2.7 miles per hour. This was after a precipitation of 5.40 inches in 40 hours. However, the ground was very dry and absorbed a large amount of the rain- water. This gauging showed a run-off of 1.5 inches in 24 hours. On Nov. 27 and 28, 1909, a rainfall of 1.20 inches in 24 hours caused an overflow in the region of Elk Creek. When computing the cross sec- tion area necessary for the new ditch a run-off of 1.00 inch in 24 hours was used above Yankee Creek and 0.75 inches per 24 hours below Yankee Creek." From 1.5 to 2.0 inches per 24 hours was used on the tributaries. Plans of Improvement Idle general ])lans of improvement for the various districts under consideration are practically the same except for minor details. These plans may he grouped under the following heads : (1) Clearing hanks and right-of-way. (2) Clearing old channels if used. (3) Construction of ditches and laterals. ( 4) Construction of dikes. Clearing P)Anks and RKuiT-oF-Wdw. and Clearini; Oim Chan- nel: — d'hese subjects may he treated together, since the conditions to he obtained are jiractically the same, ddie object of clearing the banks and right-of-way, and the banks and bed of the old channel DRAINAGE DISTRICTS OE SOUTHEASTERN NEBRASKA 141 when used in the proposed system, is to prevent the lied of the drain- age ditch from liecoming olistrncted l)y trees and stumps wliich would be carried into the stream by under-cutting and slides, d'his type of stream has been described under the head of “Conditions of Natural Channels.” d'he specifications for clearing vary somewhat in the dififerent dis- tricts, as regards width of clearing and other details, but on the whole are nearly uniform. Ditches and Laterals : — The main channels throughout the dis- tricts vary only in such details as cross-section area, side slopes, and size of sub-channels. The entire length of the main channels was ex- cavated either by floating dipper dredges or by drag-line dredges. The price per cubic yard for main channel work was from 7^ to cents. The larger laterals were worked with dredges on their lower ])or- tions, and by teams on the upper portions and the small laterals. The contractor usually bids on the drainage work for an entire district, or for a section of a district, and does the dredge work himself while he sublets the team work. Prices for team work are higher than for dredge work. Levees : — There are but few levees needed in these districts. I'he largest one built is that on the north side of the (meat Nemaha begin- ning at the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad embankment near the Missouri River. This levee is 227 stations long (nearly 4 miles) and has an average height of 6 feet. There are several smaller levees ranging from a few hundred feet to one-half mile in length. The plans of imjirovement will be considered more in detail under the district headings. Description of the Field Survey The field survey for a drainage district embraces the i)reliminary survey and the location survey. By the preliminary survey necessarv data is secured for determining the location of the ditch, the grade to be used, and the cross-section area necessary to carry the storm water. This work includes meander- ing the trunk streams and their tributaries, running cross levels, mean- dering the bottom lands to determine the benefited areas, measuring the cross-section of the streams, and the meter rating of the streams at flood periods to determine velocity and run-ofif. 142 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY The location survey is the actual staking out of the ditches. The State law requires location surveys to be measured accurately by chain. The location line must be tied to land survey monuments. Profile levels are run over the located line. As an approximate estimate of the length of time necessary for a field survey and its cost, the following is copied from Mr. F. F. Shafer’s report on Johnson County Drainage District No. 1. It should be noted that two location lines were staked on this piece of work. “The total length of lines run is over 190 miles, classified as follows : Cross levels 43.4 mi. Base levels 12.9 mi. Check levels 11.4 mi. Profile levels • 35.6 mi. Meander of stream 41.0 mi. Meander of bluffs 5.8 mi. Meander levels • 4.4 mi. Location lines 35.6 mi. Total 190.1 mi. “A party of seven men was employed for a period of 35 working days, 3j4 of which were lost on account of bad weather. The party consisted of : — one transitman, one levelman, two rodnien, two axe- men and one teamster. “The total cost of the field work was $992.85, of which $241.88 was paid from a local fund raised for that purpose The cost per mile of line run was $5.50. Cost per located mile of ditch line, $27.90. Cost per square mile of flooded land, $49.60.” Richardson County Drainage District No. 1 Richardson County Drainage District No. 1 was the first district to organize on either of the Nemaha Rivers, and was established in 1904. Mr. C. G. Elliott, of Washington, D. C., Engineer in charge of Drainage Work of the Department of Agriculture, was called to make a preliminary survey and estimate on the work. Lie made his report and recommendations about November 1, 1904. Plans and surveys were made immediately in order that excavation might be begun. Considerable delay was caused, however, by various lawsuits relative to damages and benefits, and further delay was occasioned by the fact that several thousand acres of benefited land lay within the Iowa and the Sac and Fox Indian Reservations. The Iowa tribal lands extend east from No Lleart Creek and along the south bank of the Nemaha River, and the Sac and Fox land is south of the river between No DRAINAGE DISTRICTS OF SOUTHEASTERN NEBRASKA 14:1 Heart Creek on the east and Honey Creek on the west. The law re- quires all benefited lands to be taxed, and necessitated a special act of Congress to make these Indian lands taxable for benefits received from the drainage ditch and to secure the right-of-way across Indian lands. This ditch tax was drawn from the Indian allotment money held in trust by the United States Government. The district extends from the mouth of the Nemaha, where it empties into the Missouri River in Sec. 27, T. 1 N., R. 19 E., up stream to near Salem, thence along the North Fork to the West line of Sec. 23, T. 1 N., R. 14 E., and along the South Fork to the west line of Sec. 5, T. 1 N., R. 14 E. The old river channel has a more tortuous course through this dis- trict than through any of the districts lying up-stream from it. The valley grade is flatter, being about 2 feet per mile at the lower end of the district. The scour is less and the tendency to meander is greater than in the districts lying farther up-stream. Meandering occurs to such an extent that at one particular place in the southwest corner of T. 1 N., R. 18 E., the old channel covers a course of approxi- mately 6 miles in gaining 1 mile down the valley. The number of oxbow lakes on the lower Great Nemaha is evidence of its past be- havior. Horseshoe and Relf are among the larger lakes. Numerous smaller lakes are almost entirely silted up and might be called marshes. Water may stand in these the greater part of the year, or there may be none in very dry seasons. These marshes have broad slopes and when drained may be farmed with the surrounding land. The character of the lower river has changed greatly within the last few decades. Mr. R. E. Grinstead, formerly of Salem, says that there were once numerous rocky fords within the district. The river has silted up its bed, however, until in recent years these fords so filled that teams cannot cross the streams and cattle often mire when going into the channel for water. A number of years ago there were several water-power mills within the district, l)Ut the milldams became so silted up that the wheels had to be raised at the expense of the power. None of these mills were in operation when the district was organized. At certain points drift had collected in the old channel until it formed mats, some of which were several hundred feet in length. At low water stage the water seeped through these but during high water such obstructions destroyed from 30 to 50 per cent of the efifective capacity of the stream. 144 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY The rate of flo\v in the old ehannel at bank-full stage was such that it required five or six days for a float to traverse the distance from Dawson to the Missouri River. A straight line between these two points is approximately 28 miles in length, but the old river channel between these points follows a course which is three or four times that length. The ditch channel makes the distance 31.4 miles from the west end of the district on the South Fork to the Missouri River. For fourteen miles the ditch follows the old river channel. On the North Fork there are nine miles of ditch, of which 5.1 miles are the cleared river channel. Since the ditch was completed a float will traverse the distance from Dawson to the Missouri River at bank-full stage in six or seven hours. A comparison of this rate of delivery of water downstream with that given for the old channel shows that flood conditions are greatly improved, if not entirely overcome. The main ditch cross-section has a base of 30 to 35 feet at grade, with side slopes of 1 vertical to 1 horizontal. The grade is that of the valley, ranging from 3.5 feet per mile at the upper end of the district to 2.0 or less ])er mile near the Missouri River. The specifications called for a subchannel 5 feet wide and 3 feet deep in the middle of the channel. This subchannel was a new scheme, at least new in this region. It is designed to confine the water at low stage to a narrow channel so as to prevent the growth of willows, other trees, and weeds, within the main ditch. The land subject to overflow in the district was approximately 29,300 acres, or a little less than 46 square miles. A large amount of this land received 100 per cent beneflt. The approximate area of the catchment basin above the upper end of the district on the North Fork is given l)y counties as follows: Lancaster 54 sq. mi. Gage too sq. mi. Johnson 265 sq. mi. Pawnee • 151 sq. mi. Otoe 5 sq. mi. Richardson 200 sq. mi. Total i.) sq. mi. The apjiroximate area of the catchment basin above this district, on the South Fork, is : Richardson 95 sq. mi. Pawnee 50 sq. mi. Drainage across Kansas line 125 sq. mi. Total 270 sq. mi. I .MdT f': « ■•{V S X c DRAINAGE DISTRICTS OF SOUTHEASTERN NEP>RASKA 145 This makes a total of 1045 scjiiare miles of water-shed above the up-stream ends of the distriet. Conditions in the district were such that land on the first bot- toms was becoming almost worthless. During protracted rains the river was sometimes out of its hanks for a month, the widest expanse of water at flood stage l)eing about 2 miles. Fig. 5. — Cross-section of main ditch, Drainage District No. 1. Richardson County. Fig. 6.— Cross-section of main ditch, Drainage District No. 2, Richardson County. The drainage district survey estimated the benefited lands at 29,2S?> acres. The engineer evaluated the benefits to all properties as follows : Property Acres Farms, etc 26,910.6.3 Iowa Indians 378.67 Sac and Fox Indians 1,996.65 C., B. & Q. R. R Mo. P. R. R Pu1)lic Highway Total 29,285.95 Value Assessment Per cent 942,864.79 224,679.92 79.21 14,490.00 3,218.32 1.20 75,088.78 19,887.41 6.31 66,100.00 16,014.00 5.56 14,494.11 3,510.00 1.22 77,340.00 18,600.00 6.50 1,190,387.66 285,909.65 100.00 146 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY The following is the engineer's estimate on the project: Working Section 1- 17 Main Channel Section 18- 33 Main Channel Section 34- 46 Main Channel Section 47- 57 North Fork 63- 87 Muddy 104-110 Hally Creek Lateral 95- 99 Tiehen Lateral 100-103 Hard Lateral 88- 94 Falls City Lateral 130-139 Towle Spur 153 Miles Towle Spur 150-152 Muddy Creek 111-113 Vetter Lake Spur 114-122 More Spur 123-124 Randolph Spur 125-127 Bowker Spur 128-129 Roys Creek 60- 61 Iowa Creek 62 Dyke 58- 59 Highway bridges Right-of-way, etc Printing incidentals, engi- neering, etc Protecting works of spillway h'lood Gates Total estimate of cost.. nclusive 360,884 cu. yd. at 11c $ 39.697.24 nclusive 474,342 cu. yd. at 10c 47,434.20 nclusive 426,252 cu. yd. at 10c 42,625.20 nclusive 232,601 cu. yd. at 11c 25,586.11 nclusive 220,904 cu. yd. at 10c 22,090.40 nclusive 45,202 cu. yd. at 11c 4,672.22 nclusive 40,055 cu. yd. at He 4,401.05 nclusive 6,771 cu. yd. at 11c 744.81 nclusive 21,230 cu. yd. at 10c 2,123.00 nclusive 123,820 cu. yd. at 10c 12,387.00 nclusive 3,302 cu. yd. at 11c 363.22 nclusive 20,310 cu. yd. at 12c 2,438.42 nclusive 9,071 cu. yd. at 12c 1,088.42 nclusive 55,055 cu. vd. at 10c 5,505.50 nclusive 5,107 cu. yd. at 10c 510.70 nclusive 12,462 cu. yd. at 10c 1,246.20 nclusive 38,796 cu. yd. at 10c 3,979.60 nclusive 7,222 cu. yd. at 10c 722.20 nclusive 4,713 cu. yd. at 10c 471.30 nclusive 72,378 cu. yd. at 10c 7,237.80 22,740.00 20,000.00 7,500.00 700.00 700.00 $277,264.57 In addition to this it was necessary to clear the old stream channel where it was used, the estimated cost being as follows : Muddy Creek 1.7 miles at $200.00 per mi. $ 340.00 North Fork 5.2 miles at 300.00 per mi. 1,560.00 South Fork 14.0 miles at 500.00 per mi. 7,000.00 Total .$8,900.00 This clearing of old channel makes the entire estimated cost of the project amount to $286,164.57 Since the ditch was completed the damage from overflows has been practically eliminated, except in a few instances when some of the land near Rulo was flooded. The landowners here had petitioned the supervisors to be allowed to rush the work, and had put in a smaller dredge than was used farther up-stream. The result was a smaller cross-section ditch, which could not take care of the water delivered DRAINAGE DTSTkTCTS OF SOUTHEASTERN NEBRASKA l4t by the larger ditch above until its channel was eroded to the approxi- mate cross-section area of the larger ditch. At the present time this smaller ditch has enlarged enough to take care of the water. Mr. R. E. (irinstead, who until recently owned considerable land near Salem, in speaking of the success of the ditch says : “The ditch is taking care of the hood water as is shown by the increase of crops on the hrst bottom. There has been no overhow within the last three years.” The success of the project is best shown by the increase in land prices and by the crops raised on land formerly subject to overhow. Before the construction of the ditch was assured, Mr. Grinstead sold one farm which lay southeast of Salem for $65.00 per acre. This same land cannot he bought for $150.00 per acre. Another farm of 240 acres sold for $25.00 per acre, and the same land cannot he bought for $100.00 per acre. Mr. Keim of Falls City bought 80 acres for $50.00 per acre just after the ditch was completed, and has refused $6000.00 for the place. A certain farm south of Salem which was considered the poorest and wettest farm on the river bottom before ditching raised 50 bushels of wheat to the acre in 1914. Another farm but little better located raised 75 bushels of corn ])er acre. Richardson County Drainage District No. 2 Richardson County Drainage District No. 2 embraces the bottom land, subject to damage from flood water, which lies along the North Fork of the Greater Nemaha River between the east line of Section 22, T. 2 N., R. 14 E., (the up-stream boundary of Richardson County Drainage District No. 1) and the Pawnee-Richardson County line, where the ditch continues as Pawnee County District No. 1. The ditch crosses the county line about one-fourth mile south of the north- west corner of Sec. 18, T. 2 N., R. 13 E. The boundaries of the dis- trict are shown on the map. The old river channel through the district has the characteristic stream bed and meanders of this region. At one place, in Sec. 17, T. 2 N., R. 14 E., a piece of old stream channel has been cut off, leav- ing a feature similar to an oxbow lake. Long Branch, which enters the trunk stream just south of the town of Humboldt, is the only tributary stream of any importance within the district. This side stream is approximately 15 miles in length and drains an area of ])ossibly 60 or 65 square miles. The grade of old stream channel is 148 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURA'EY probably not more than 2 to 2.5 ft. per mile, while the grade of the valley is between 4 and 5 feet per mile, the flat grade of the old channel, compared with the valley grade, being due to the tortuous meanders. In some places the stream traverses 2 or 3 miles in passing 1 mile down the valley. The main ditch channel through this district is slightly over 11 miles in length, and the Long Branch lateral is approximately three-fourths of a mile long. In cutting the main ditch the old stream channel was disregarded, and even in the few places where the two channels co- incided the ditch was cut to grade without reference to the old channel. The cross-section of the main ditch, as shown in flgure 6 is as follows : The base at grade is 13 feet, with a width of 30 feet at the surface of the ground. There is a subchannel 5 feet wide and 3 feet deep excavated in the center of the base, in accordance with the construction generally used in this part of the country. The speciflcations call for a clean 20-foot berm between the edge of the cut and the toe of the waste bank. The waste bank, according to the speciflcations, should occupy a base of 35 feet, but this detail was not rigidly adhered to. The overflow land of the district consists of 5,800 acres, or practi- cally 9 square miles, which lies about equally on either side of the river. The area will average a little less than a mile in width ; the widest expanse, 1.5 miles, lies just west of Humboldt and the narrow- est, three-eighths of a mile, lies about 1^ miles southeast of Hum- boldt. The catchment basin of the North Fork above the Pawnee-Richard- son County line, the upper end of the district, is approximately 575 square miles, lying in the following counties : Lancaster Gage . . . Johnson . Pawnee . Otoe .... 54 sq. mi. 100 sq. mi. 205 sq. mi. 151 sq. mi. 5 sq. mi. Total 575 sq. mi. The conditions in this district before ditching were quite similar to those in other districts on the river, which have been discussed at some length on foregoing pages. The drainage district survey determined that 5,800 acres within the district were overflowed by the rise of the river to usual flood stage. DRAINAGE DISTRICTS OI^' SOUTHEASTERN NERRASKA 14 ‘) 1'he drainage engineer on tliis work estimated the benefits to all land and properties involved, as v$2(S6,000.00, ap])ortioned approximately follows : b'arni land Highways C., B. & Q. Railroads 80 ])cr cent ] 1 per cent i) per cent $288, OOP. 00 ;n.4()0.oo 25. 740. 00 Total 100 per cent $285,200.00 The Board of Siijtervisors decided to make the first assessment large enough to complete the ])roject and avoid the trouble of making a second assessment. Idie 100 ])er cent benefit land was estimated at $20.70 per acre; the actual average cost, however, was $17.00. The cost of the entire jtroject is divided as follows: Organization, administration and working expenses. court costs and attorney fees $ 7.()()4.5t Bridges and dams 5,105.01 Damages for cut-off lands 5,88:5.00 Right-of-way 13.425.4:5 Construction 74,261.01 Total $106,430.76 The difference between the estimated and actual cost of the jiroject, which is something over three dollars ]ier acre for 100 per cent benefit land, is represented by money on deitosit. As late as Alay, 1914 this money was on deposit and will ])robably lie used in the upkeep of the ditch, or it may lie jirorated and returned to the land owners on a majority vote of the district. This district has not had a flood during the five years, which have elapsed since the comjiletion of this ditch and up-to-date. Pfowever, the seasons have been somewhat drier than usual in this region. The district up to this time has had no expense for repairs or upkeep. The grade of the ditch, which is practically the same as that of the valley, or between 4 and 5 feet per mile, is sufficient to take care of landslides or creeps along the banks, as well as to scour its channel. At present the ditch is nearly twice as wide and considerably deeper than when it was first completed. The ditch was excavated by a drag- line dredger. The landowners of the district are well jileased with the success of the ditch. Mr. C. M. Linn, of Humboldt, says that formerly it ivas merely a case of good luck to be able to harvest a crop off* the bottom land that was subject to flood. There had been a series of wet seasons for several years before the ditch was completed, and during these 150 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY years there were no crops at all on the overflowed land. The seasons of 1912 and 1913 were rather dry, and the best crops in the district were those raised on lands lying between the ditch and the old stream channel. There have been some small overflows on the bottom land of the districts above since the ditch was completed, but no overflow within this district, except on the very lowest piece of land, which was covered to a depth of 3 or 4 inches for a few hours, causing no damage, d'he owner said that it did not do a “dollar's worth of damage.” Under the old conditions during floods this same land would have been cov- ered by several feet of water, or “deep enough to swim a horse.” There was a two-inch rain just four days before the writer visited Humboldt in April, 1914, but there were no flood conditions, the water in the channel being nearly down to its normal flow. The following examples of increases in land prices were given by Mr. Linn: The Stabler farm, which lies two miles west of Humboldt, was on the market for years. As this land was overflowed each year no one would ofifer to purchase the place. After the ditch was assured, but before it had been well tested, this place sold for $100 per acre plus the ditch tax, a total of $120.70 per acre. ]\Ir. Linn questions if at present one could buy it for $150 per acre. The owner of the Richard Tosland farm, just west of Humboldt, which has already been mentioned as the first land in the district to overflow, has refused $135 per acre. Before the ditch was assured a buyer for this land could not be found. i\Ir. Nims’ farm, one mile south of Humboldt, is a 540-acre tract, of which 220 acres is first bottom and the remainder second bench and hill land. A few years before the ditch was assured ]\Ir. Nims placed this farm on the market. It was extensively advertised at $65.00 per acre and the closest oft'er was $60.00. Wdiile the farm is not on the market at present Mr. Nims says it would take $150.00 per acre to buy it. Both i\Ir. Idnn and Mr. Nims assert that it is very conservative to say that first bottom land has doubled in value within this district since the success, of the ditch has been assured. In a letter received at this office i\Iav 8, 1915, Mr. Linn says: “WT are refunding $1.50 per acre on 100 per cent land and will have about 83000.00 left for the unkeep of the ditch, which expense up-to-date has been nractically nothing, as the ditch is widening and deepening all the time.” DRAINAGE DISTRICTS Ol^' SOUTHEASTERN NER,RASKA l.H Pawnee County Drainage District No. 1 Pawnee County Drainage District No. 1 includes the Ijottoin land, subject to overtiow, along- the North ]A)rk of the Creater Nemaha River which lies within Pawnee County. This district joins Richard- son County Drainage District No. 2 at the Pawnee-Richardson county line, and Johnson County Drainage District No. 1 at the Johnson- FAiwnee County line. The stream bed of the old river channel is similar to that of the other districts of the area under discussion. Clear and Lynn Creeks are the only side streams of enoug-h inmortance to demand laterals. These streams flow from the west and enter the trunk stream a short distance northeast of the town of Table Rock. The grade of the river valley through the district is about 5.28 feet to the mile. The grade of the old river channel is between 2 and 3 feet per mile. The main ditch channel is i)racticallv 10 miles in length, and the laterals on Clear and Lynn Creeks are each about 1 mile in length. The ditch was excavated throus-h most of the district without regard to the old river channel. In a few places the old channel was used for short distances, as may be seen by referring to the district map. When used, however, it was deepened and cleared, d'he main ditch was designed with a 12-foot base at grade, with side slopes of 1 hori- zontal to 2 vertical. A subchannel 5 feet wide and 3 feet dee]) was excavated in the bottom of the main channel. This subchannel carries the flow at low-water stage. The g-rade line of the main ditch and old stream, the ditch grade is at or below the bottom of the river channel. This allows the flow to follow the ditch at low-water stage. The specifications for the main ditch require a clean berm of 25 feet be- tween the top of the slope and the toe of the waste bank. The above design was adot)ted to save expense in construction. With a fall of 1 foot in 1,000 feet the velocity is enough to safely and rapidly remove all earth material which sloughs in from the sides Most of the caving of hanks occurs when the stream ‘is above low- water stage, as the hanks are then softened. The increased volume and velocity at such times give increased scour and carrying capacity, which soon removes such obstructions. The land of this district formerly damaged bv floods was estimated at 5,731 acres, or a little less than 9 square miles. The boundary of this area, as shown on the map, is very irregular. NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY ]rj2 The catchment basin of the North Fork above the Pawnee-Johnson County line covers ai^proximately 425 square miles. The engineer for the district estimated the watershed above the countv line as 440 square miles. As measured from the Map Showing Divides in South- eastern Nebraska the watershed by counties is as follows: Lancaster Gage .... Johnson , Otoe .... 54 sq. mi. too sq. mi. 265 sq. mi. 5 sq. mi. T otal 424 sq. mi. This area during a maximum flood would contribute about 3,000 cubic feet per second of flood water, and during extraordinary flood stage, which fortunately seldom occurs, the discharge might reach or even exceed 4,000 cubic feet per second. The evaluation of benefits showed 4,731 acres of farm land and other properties, which had received more or less damage from flood water. The Engineer estimated the entire benefits to all property as $331,555.03 which he apportioned as shown below: Land Town lots in Tal)le Rock. , Pawnee County Highways Ta1)le Rock Streets C.. B. & Q. Railway. . . 79.5 per cent $26:^721.5:1 2.1 per cent 6,995.00 1:L1 per cent ' 43,475.00 0.5 per cent 1,500.00 4.8 per cent 15,863.50 Total 100.00 per cent $331,555.03 The work in this district affords an oiqiortunitv to compare the Ifngineer’s estimate of cost units with the actual cost units at which the work was let. Excavation Main Channel Excavation Clear Creek lateral Excavation Lynn Creek lateral Cleaning old channel Right-of-way per acre Consequential damages Organization, administration, etc Highway bridges Total 612,340 sq. yd. OVc $ 58,172.30 8Ric 47,:590 cn. yd. 10 c 4,739.00 10 c :J0,645 cu. yd. 10 c 3,064.50 10 c 7.500 squares 40 c 3,000.00 40 c Mostly 223.45 acres $60.00 13,407.00 $60.00 Some-land higher 2,000.00 10 , 000.00 13,600.00 $107,982.80 Idle channel (if the ditch has a tTrade of 5.2(S feet to the mile. The velocity in this channel when running bank-full is over 7 feet per DRAINAGE DISTRICTS OF SOUTHEASTERN NEBRASKA ir,:5 second, twice the measured velocity of the old river channel. The capacity of the river at maxiinnm flood stage was about 1,500 cubic feet per second. This leaves a volume of approximately 1,500 cubic feet per second to overflow the banks and spread out over the flood plain. The ditch will carry off four times the amount of water in unit lime as the old channel would carry. The new channel does ikT interfere with the carrying capacity of the old channel as very nearly the same volume of water passes through the old channel as ])rior to digging the ditch. The ditch channel, however, is widening and deep- ening its effective cross-section by scour and the sloughing of the sides. The steeper grade, and the absence of meanders, tend to keep the channel swe])t clean. The success of this project is fairly certain, as the ditch has been in operation for some time. However, since its completion, there has been no extraordinary flood stage so one could not possibly say as to the results in such a case, though it is obvious that a flood would not be as destructive as before the comi)letion of the ditch. The beneficial effect of the work is best shown by land prices and the increased crops harvested. Mr. \V. A. Fellers, who owns con- siderable first bottom land near Table Rock, states that lie considers the money spent in ditching an exceedingly good investment. His entire assessment was $2,700.00. One 60-acre tract (all 100 per cent benefit land ) owned by Mr. Fuellers, lies a short distance southeast of Table Rock. He was never sure of harvesting a crop from this land. One season an overflow, following a heavy rainfall farther up the valley, carried away the entire crop of wheat in the shock. Before ditching such overflows would cover the ground for several days and greatly damage the crop. Since ditching, however, if the water rises to the land at all, it begins to recede within two to four hours and does the crops little or no damage. Mr. E. D. Howe, whose farm lies approximately 6 miles north of Table Rock, gives some interesting data on overflowed lands and land prices. Part of his farm is on the North Fork bottom, a considerable portion of it being 100 per cent benefit land. Mr. Howe has had no overflow water on his land since the new channel was completed. In the spring of 1912 melting snow caused a flood across the Johnson County line above his ])lace, but the new channel carried it away with- out the low ground being overflowed. There is one farm, mostly 100 per cent benefit land which had no buyer when listed at $30.00 per acre. After the ditch was assured the 154 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY owner raised his ])rice to $75.00 per aere and later to $90.00 per acre. d'he following is taken from a letter received at this office on May 10, 1915 from Ylr. Howe: “In lime, 1914 heavy rains in Johnson County caused the Nemaha to overflow, destroying wheat and damaging corn. Wdien the flood reached the drainage ditch in Pawnee County, the ditch took care of the water so no damage was done in this district.’’ Johnson County Drainage District No. 1 Johnson County Drainage District No. 1, which lies along the North Fork of the Greater Nemaha River, begins on the down-stream end, at the Pawnee-Johnson County line, in Sec. 3, T. 4 N., R. 12 E., and continues upstream to a point within Sec. 21, T. 6 N., R. 9 E., one and one-half miles northwest of Sterling. Idle old river channel through this district has meandered consid- erably. The grade of the old channel is 2.0 feet to 2.5 feet in the lower part of the district. In the upper part, the meanders are less pronounced and the grade is 3.5 feet to 5 feet per mile. \Try little of the catchment basin along the district lies on the east side of the trunk stream, as the divide between the two Nemahas follows close to the North Fork from Tecumseh to Sterling. On the opposite side of the trunk stream numerous tributaries flow into the North Fork through out the district. Six of these tributaries. Hooker Creek, Deer Creek, P)attie’s Branch, Yankee Creek, Badger Creek, and Elk Creek, are of enough importance to demand laterals. The main ditch channel through the district is divided into four sec- tions. Section No. 1 extends from the head of the district to the junction of the Yankee Creek lateral. Section No. 2 extends from the down-stream end of Section No. 1 to the northwest corner of Sec. 11, T. 5 N., R. 11 E. Section No. 3 consists of the cut-off ditch within Sec. 11, T. 5 N., R. HE. Section 4 consists of the remaining ditch work down stream to the county line. In Sections Nos. 1, 2 and 3, practically none of the old river channel was used, while in Section No. 4 ap])roximately one-half the distance covered by the ditch follows the old channels. There are two levees in this district. The longer one, which is one mile west of Sterling, is one-half mile in length; and the other, just up stream from the point where the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railway crosses the ditch about one mile northwest of Tecumseh, is only 550 feet in length. DRAINAGE DISTRICTS OF SOUTHEASTERN NERRASKA 155 Fig. 7. — Cross-section of main ditch, Drainage District No. 1, upper end, Johnson County. Fig. 8. — Cross-sections 2, 8, and 4, of main ditch, Drainage District No. 1, lower end, Johnson County. Fig. 9. — Cross-section of a lateral. 156 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 10.— Dredge-boat and boat house at mouth of the Little Nemaha River. Photographed by E. E. Schramm. DRAINAGE DISTRICTS OI^' SOUTHEASTERN NERRASKA 157 The main ditch alon^ the North Fork \Tdley has apiiroximately 19.5 miles of new channel and 4 miles of old channel which has been cleared and dee])ened. The laterals are ^iv’en in tabular form below : Hooker Creek lateral 1.50 mi. Deer Creek lateral 55 mi. \Tnkee Creek lateral 5.40 mi. Rattie’s l>ranch lateral • 40 mi. Piadger Creek lateral 55 mi. Elk Creek lateral 1.00 mi. Total length of laterals 7.20 mi. The^ base of the main ditch channel at grade is 10 feet in Section No. 1, and 12 feet in Sections 2, and 4. The laterals all have 8-foot bases at grade. The specifications call for a 9-foot crown on the two levees, with a slope of 4 to 1 on the stream side and 2 to 1 on the land side. These various cross-sections are shown in Figs. 7, 8 and 9. The catchment basin above the head of the district covers approxi- mately 155 square miles. As measured from the May showing the Divides of Southeastern Nebraska the watershed by counties is as follows : Lancaster 54 sq. mi. Gage 75 sq. mi. Tobnson -5 sq. mv Otoe 20 s(i. mi. Total 154 sq. mi. The watershed above the Pawnee-Johnson County line embraces 424 square miles. 14iis leaves 270 scpiare miles of watershed draining into the ditch within the district. The Engineer’s estimate of the yardage is given in detail below : M.\tn Ditch .Sec. No. 1, 10 ft. base est. yardage 501,50!) cii. yds. Sec. No. 2, 12 ft. base est. yardaee 501,054 cn. yds. .Sec. No. 5, 12 ft. base est. yardage 27.682 cn. yds. Sec. No. 4, 12 ft. base est. yardage 200,565 cn. yds. Total 1,051,488 cu. vds. L.\ter.\ls Laterals 8 ft. l)ase slope 1 to 1 6 ft. lierm. Hooker Creek est. yardage 42 516 cn. yds. Deer Creek est. yardage 51.814 cu. yds. Rattie’s Branch est. yardage 28,000 cu. yds. Yankee Creek est. yardage 118,411 cu. yds. Badger Creek est. yardage 18,595 cu. yds. Elk Creek est. vardage 40012 cu. vds. Levee 9 ft. top slope 1^2 to 1 yardage TI.SOO cu. vds. Total 20. ^'48 cu. yds. Grand total yardage 132,536 cu. yds. 158 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY Two assessments had been made by the supervisors up to the time the writer visited the district. The first was $180,000.00 and the sec- ond $60,000.00. At that time the ditch was still in the process of con- struction and had not been tested out. However, there is absolutely no doubt as to its success, since the ditches further down stream have proven successful under conditions more adverse than those in this district. Nemaha County Drainage District No. 2 The Nemaha County Drainage District No. 2 was organized several years ago for the purpose of reclaiming and benefiting the overflowed land, and the land damaged by seepage, which lies along the bottoms of the Little Nemaha River ATlley within Nemaha County. The dis- trict begins on the up-stream and where the river crosses the Nemaha- Otoe County line and continues to the point where the Little Nemaha empties into the Missouri River. Idle land benefited by and subject to assessment for the ditches exca- vacted in this drainage district may be roughly described as an area 22.5 miles in length and a little less than 1.5 miles in width, ddie land in this district is divided into very nearly equal areas by the Little Nemaha River. The benefited area is approximately 31.4 square miles. The entire watershed of this stream is about 1,050 square miles. The portion of the catchment basin draining through the main channel of the river, at the point where it crosses the Nemaha-Otoe County line, is given by counties as follows : Lancaster 5G sq. mi. Cass 5!) sq. mi. Johnson 130 sq. me Otoe 525 sq. mi. Total 760 sq. mi. ddie remaining 280 square miles drains into the main channel down stream from the Nemaha-Otoe County line, and is given by counties as follows : Otoe 31 sq. mi. Nemaha 242 sq. mi. Richardson 7 sq. mi. Total 280 sq. mi. For location of the above drainage see the map of Divides in South- eastern Nebraska. DRAINAGE DISTRICTS OI' SOUTD EASTERN NIGIRASKA l.V.) \:{g_ H. — The Little Nemaha River, about 75 yards al)Ove its juncture with the Missouri River, spanned hy the Turlington bridge. Photographed hy E. F. Schramm. NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY IGO Tlirouglioiit the drainage district under discussion the general course of the river shows^ a peculiar persistency of direction. The stream itself, however, is very crooked, and in places meanders 2 and even 3 miles in passing through a single section. The average grade of the valley is a little less than 4 feet per mile, (actually averaging 0.75 foot in 1,000 feet) so that these meanders, esiiecially in the lower part of the district, reduce the grade on much of the old main channel to slightly over 1.0 feet per mile. A grade as flat as this even in a straight, clean channel would cause very little or no scour. Taking into consideration the many obstructions of the old channel of the river, such as drift-dams, fallen trees, and meanders, it is, therefore, evident that there was no scour. Air. A. AT Alunn, the evaluating engineer for the district, says in his report that in places these barriers of accumulated debris had decreased the eft'ective flow along the main channel by 30 to 35 per cent. This statement may be taken as quite conservative. It is readily seen that this stream, with its tortuous meanders, barriers, flat grade, and low velocity, was in the process of filling its bed, which decreased its effective cross-section area. With the above conditions in mind, it is evident that the flood waters would become more and more destructive. At the time of evaluation of the benefits, over 20,000 acres in Nemaha County sustained more or less damage from actual overflows or from see])age. For eight years before the ditch was completed the growing seasons were wet, and the attending overflows destroyed or greatly damaged the crops each year. Air. Sylvester Reed, of Auburn, says that on some of the 100 per cent benefit lands the “income did not pay the taxes.” The lowest of the overflowed lands were entirely abandoned for agricultural purposes. Idle evaluating engineer rated a very large ])roportion of the 20,085 acres benefited by this drainage system as 100 per cent land. His rating on the 100 per cent benefit land was $40.00 per acre, and the first assessment was $13.71 per acre. This fund was found to be insuf- ficient for the proposed work, so a second assessment of 1^5 per cent of the first was levied, making a total of $15.7665 per acre for 100 per cent lands. The following statement gives a summary of the two assessments, delinquent taxes, and the reduction of the first assessment due to errors : Eirst assessment $ 213 , 124.41 Errors in evaluation 2 , 711.29 $ 210 , 413.12 Delinquent taxes 3 , 862.23 Second assessment iJO.TlS.lG Total $ 244 , 993.81 DRAINAGE DISTRICTS OF SOUTHEASTERN NEP>RASKA K)! 12. — Bottom land, a1)ont lp 2 miles southeast of Nemaha. Typical of Nemaha River bottoms. Photographed F. Schramm. 162 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY This represents the total paid by the landowners of the district. Instead of issuing bonds of a high rate of interest for a term of years, the assessments were levied as a flat tax. The Board of Supervisors decided that the landowners could borrow money at a lower rate of interest than that which would have to be paid on a bond issue, and also that the landowners could pay the jirincipal several years before the bonds could mature. The first assessment of $210,000.00 was col- lected within one year. Below is a summary of the entire assessment list : Landowners $244,993.81 Nemaha Conntv highways 26,339.10 C., B. & Q. Ry. Co 2,226.26 Mo. P. Ry. Co 16.023.07 Total $289,582 24 The County Highway Commissioners made a contract with the dis- trict to construct and maintain all bridges made necessary by the ditches within the district. This was to substitute for the first assess- ment, and the county was to be excused from paying any further assessments. d'he Missouri Pacific Railway Company presented a bill for $18,000.00 for river inijirovcments already completed, to offset their first assessment, and contracted to be excused from further assess- ments. The usual preliminary and location lines were run to obtain the data necessary for the engineer's calculations as to the size of the ditches required. The specifications for the main channel state that the ditch must have a minimum depth of 14 feet. At the Nemaha-Otoe County line the width at grade was to be 16 feet, increasing gradually to 25 feet near the Missouri River. The main channel throughout its entire length has a subchannel 3 feet wide by 5 feet in the center of the ditch. The side slopes were to be 1 foot horizontal to 1 foot vertical, and a clean 10-foot berm was to be left between the top of the bank and the toe of the waste bank. 4'he grade of the main channel averaged 0.7a foot in 1,000 feet. ddie engineer's estimate of the cost of the entire system of drainage was as follows : ■Main channel, 1,641.220 cn. yd. at 9c $147,709.80 Laterals, 61:5,215 cu. yd. at lljAc 70,519.70 Right-of-way damages, etc 20,364.10 County highway Inddges 26,800.00 Railway bridges 7,245.00 Mill site damages 1,869.00 Total $274,507.60 DRAINAGE DISTRICTS OF SOUTHEASTERN NEBRASKA UH The contract for the entire district was let in Noveinl^er, 1909, to the Hummer Construction Com])any of Marion, Oliio. The work on the main channel began in March, 1910, and was finished in December, 1911. Some of the smaller laterals were sulilet and one of these sub- contractors did not finish until late in 1913. The main channel, as let to the head contractor, consisted of 94,911 feet of new main channel (atiproximately 17.98 miles) and 24,659 feet of old river channel to he cleared (ajijiroximately 4.67 miles). This makes the present main channel 22.65 miles in length. The final estimate made after the work was completed is as follows : Main Channel ; Excavation, 1,568,587 cu. yd. at 7^c $121,565.40 Clearing old channel, 25,600 squares at 10c 2,560.00 Excess clearing on right-of-way 54.50 Total cost of main channel $124,17<).00 Total cost of laterals 58.231.28 Total $182,411.18 The expenses of the original organization was $974.06 and that of administration up to April, 1914, was $17,904.43. The district after paying all expenses, salaries and damages to date, have aproximately $5,000.00 left from the entire assessments made. In general, the landowners of the district are well pleased with the success of the ditch work. They say there has been no damage done by flood since the ditch has been in operation. Mr. M. T. Connor, of Auburn, who owns many acres of land on the river bottoms, says that most of the land has douliled in value since the success of the ditch was assured. Land to the south of Auburn that could formerly be bought for $50.00 per acre, is now held at $75.00 to $100.00 per acre. The land prices before the district was organized ranged from $35.00 to $50.00 per acre. Field Work In the spring of 1914 the writer made an extended trip through the drainage districts of the area discussed in this report. This field work was classified as : ( 1 ) Examination of district records. (2) Inspection of ditches, levees, and land subject to overflow. (3) Interviews with landowners relative to conditions, crops, and land values before and after the various districts were ditched. 164 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY Acknowledgment "J'he writer is much indebted to iMessrs. A. R. Keim, C. F. Buckholz, and Judge John Gagnon, of Falls City; i\Ir. R. E. Grimstead, a Drain- age Commissioner, of Salem; Messrs. C. AL Linn and Joy Nims of Humboldt; iMessrs. W. A. Fellers and E. D. Howe of Table Rock; Air. R. C. Gore, engineer, of Tecumseb, and Messrs. Sylvester Reed and M. C. Connors of Auburn, for their courtesy in supplying maps and data; and to Dr. Erwin H. Barbour, State Geologist, and to Prof. E. F. Schramm, of the University of Nebraska, Lincoln, for their ad- vice and assistance. The writer has quoted freely from the reports of Alessrs. Elliott and Frazer, Drainage Engineers for the Department of Agriculture, and Air. D. D. Price, State Engineer of Nebraska. Professor Schramm furnished the photographs for the cuts used in this paper. The dis- trict maps were re-drawn by the writer from the originals which were prepared by Air. A. AT Alunn of Kansas City, Alissouri, and Air. R. C. Gore of Tecumseb, Nebraska. The Alap Showing Divides of South- eastern Nebraska was compiled by the writer from the United States Geological Survey topographic maps and from various county maps. The University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska, June 1915. Distributed February 26, 1917. T 1 I . l«r 02 NiaSRASKA (R'.OLOCICAL SURN'RY \'()LUMK 7, Part 18 NOTJPS ON THP SKUI.P OF MFTORIP)l)ON By Imf>'f ,h' ^ :'4 •■ ■ .IK" ^^«^ •m.y; y^■ , y-.. . . i«,, ,J.,, ’»1< '.S.® / « ‘ 'ff. ' .' ■ , >■ ■,.:t.''''..JSl • V A. » . ? :