PROGRAM OF STUDIES FOR THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS OF NEW HAMPSHIRE DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION SECOND EDITION 1910 I ! PROGRAM OF STUDIES ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS OF NEW HAMPSHmE DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION SECOND EDITION 1910 MANCHESTER, N. H. PRINTED BY THE JOHN B. CLARKE COMPANY 1910. ^ PEEFACE. At the 1905 session of the General Court, the following concurrent resolution was passed: "That the superintendent of public instruction be author- ized and directed to prepare a course of study as a model for the common schools, and to send one or more copies to every school district in the state/' In accordance with this resolution this program is hereby submitted to the local school authorities of the state. It has been made adaptable, both in its schedules and in its outlines, to all the schools of the state, both city and rural, both graded and ungraded systems. The program is based upon the course of study prepared by the Educational Council and printed by the State Teach- ers' Association in 1903. The present edition embodies no material changes from that of 1905. Such changes as are made are chiefly corrections of evident mistakes in the for- mer edition and such adaptations as five additional years of educational and pedagogical experience have seemed to jus- tify. The superintendent acknowledges the great value of the unpaid services and counsel of many teachers and school officers to whom the thanks of the department are due. In fact, the whole document may fairly be said to represent the teaching experience of the state, as criticisms and suggestions have come to the department from a multitude of teachers. HENRY C. MORRISON, Superintendent of Public Instruction. Concord, July 16, 1910. TABLE OF CONTENTS. Page Introduction 7 Chapter I. Outline of Work 11 II. Daily Time-Table 15 III. Heading 20 IV. Handwriting 32 V. English Language 30 VI. Spelling 49 VII. Grammar 52 VIII. Arithmetic 55 IX. Geography 65 X. Physiology and Hygiene 73 XI. History 78 XII. Civil Government 88 XIII. Music 91 XIV. Drawing 96 XV. Nature Study and Elementary Agri- culture 118 XVI. Manual Training 142 XVII. Plays and Games 152 XVIII. The Teaching of Any Topic 164 XIX. Examinations and Testing 167 Key to Abbreviations Used 169 INTRODUCTION. A program of study, with its subordinate courses, is at best a line to hew to. Until it is actualized in the schools, it is merely a thing of paper. The program here submitted is capable of rendering great service to the local school sys- tems of the state, but it will accomplish little save as it is placed under efficient, expert supervision for interpretation and enforcement. The program, if desired, should be formally adopted by each school board. It is especially recommended that school l)oards, after adopting, neither make nor allow any change to be made for at least several years. One of the banes of school administration is the frequent change of the program. New members of boards, new teachers, new superintendents, are prone to have ideas peculiar to themselves, which they wish to have carried out in the schools. The result is fre- quent changes and destruction of the essential process of cumulation. No program of work, or other school policy, is capable of demonstrating and securing its full good effect short of the time it takes a single class to pass through the full length of school life. Nobody can claim to be all-wise, but it is better to seize upon and follow an opinion which commends itself as sound to those appointed to be in author- ity than to run a race of opinions, with all the inevitable shifting involved. Much time and thought has been given to the preparation of this program, the minds of the teachers of the State have been, so far as possible, ascertained and followed, and the best educational authority of the nation has been consulted. Gaps and inconsistencies have probably crept in, and it will always be a service to the department to have these pointed out. 7 8 INTRODUCTION. It is expected that the institute work of the coming years will be based npon the lines here laid down. Teachers may consult the superintendent by mail or otherwise, and prompt answers will be given so far as the office force of the depart- ment will permit. It is expected that bulletins will from time to time be issued covering important or difficult points of instruction, and the same will be mailed to all who apply for them. Teachers should ask to have their names placed upon the mailing list for such material. School boards are advised to allow and encourage teachers frequently to visit the Normal Schools at Plymouth and Iveene, or some nearby city school system, for observation of practical teaching. The program is laid out on a basis of thirty to thirty-six weeks. Obviously it will be more difficult, but not impos- sible, to accomplish the results called for in the shorter period than in the latter. The chief difference, however, will usually be in point of thoroughness. Furthermore, many schools from their circumstances can accomplish more in thirty than others in thirty-six weeks. In introducing the program where there has previously been no course of study at all, it cannot be expected that the whole school will be able to follow it at once. The enter- ing class can follow from the beginning, and the younger pupils all very closely. The older pupils will have to approx- imate. In a few years, thus, the whole school will be fol- lowing the program. Definitions. Elementary school. Grades I to VIII, inclusive, usually, or the period of school the next preceding the secondary school, the pre-adolescent portion of the child's school life. Secondary school. High school or academy, usually grades IX to XII, inclu- sive, the adolescent portion of the child's school life. The sec- ondary school shows a tendency to reach down and include the last two elementary years, and the whole course of twelve years shows a tendency to shorten. INTRODUCTION. 9 Common school. Originally synonymous with what is now known as ele- mentary school. The ^'^common school" means the school which everybody is supposed to attend, as distinguished from the school of special privilege or opportunity. The secondary school is nearly as much a common school in New Hampshire as is the elementary. Program of study. The whole scheme of studies presented by a school, often inaccurately called course of study. Curriculum. A particular line of study within the program. Used in secondary schools chiefly. Course. The work of a single study for a single year. Grade YI arithmetic is a course. Time-table. The daily schedule of work. Period. A regular subdivision of the time-table. Graded school. A school following a regular program of study and advanc- ing pupils in accordance with their attainments. Classified school. An elementary school in which are enrolled only pupils of the same grade. Grade. Pupils doing the work of the same year. Semi-classified school. An elementary school in which are enrolled pupils of sev- eral different grades, but not of all grades. Mixed school. An elementary school in which pupils of all grades are en- rolled. 10 INTRODUCTION. Primary school. Grades I to IV. Grammar school. Grades V to VIII. Intermediate school. In a system or building consisting of three semi-classified elementary schools the middle is the intermediate. School. A body of pupils in charge of one teacher, for whom a reg- ister is kept. This is the administrative distinction. For convenience all the pupils in a single building are often, in common parlance, spoken of collectively as a school. CHAPTER L OUTLINE OF WOEK. Year Subjects A I. Eeading Writing Elementary Ian Number II. Reading Writing Elementary Ian Number III. Reading Writing Composition Spelling Arithmetic IV. Literature Writing Composition Spelling Arithmetic V. Literature Writing Composition Spelling Arithmetic Geography Physiology and Hygiene Periods Periods per week Subjects per week B 10 Music 3 to 5 5 Drawing 2 i2e 5 Handwork 3 5 Nature 2 to 5 10 Music 3 to 5 5 Drawing 2 ige 5 Handwork 6 5 Nature 2 to 5 5 Music 3 to 5 5 Drawing 2 5 Handwork 3 5 AT J- Nature 2 to 5 5 5 Music 3 to 5 5 Drawing 2 5 Handwork 3 5 Nature 2 to 5 5 3 Music 3 to 5 2 Drawing 2 3 Handwork 3 5 Nature 2 to 5 5 5 11 12 OUTLINE OF WORK. YI. Literature Writing Composition Spelling Arithmetic Geography Physiology and Hygiene VII. VIII. Literature Composition Spelling Grammar Geography History Physiology and Hygiene Literature Composition Spelling Grammar Geography History Civics Physiology and Hygiene Music 3 to 5 Drawing 2 Manual Training 3 Carpentry Sewing Nature 2 to 5 Music 3 to 5 Drawing 2 Manual Training 3 Carpentry Sewing Cooking Nature 2 to 5 Arithmetic 5 Music 3 Drawing 2 Manual Training 3 Carpentry Cooking Sewing Nature 2 to 5 Arithmetic 5 Notes. — This outline is designed for all schools, mixed, classified, and semi-classified. It indicates in a general way what subjects should be under instruction each year and the proportion of time which should be given to each. A and B. The subjects listed in Column A are those which are re- quisite in every school because either required by law, re- quired for admission to high school, or essential as a part of the education of the child who has completed the ele- mentary school course of study. The subjects listed in Col- OUTLINE OF WORK. 13 umn B are more or less optional in character, either because of inability of teachers, lack of money, reluctance to accept new ideas or other cause. It should be understood, how- ever, that every subject in Column B, from the standpoint of educational science and the rights of the child, is as es- sential as any subject in Column B. There is no reason m the nature of things ivhy all should not le taught in every elementary school in the state. Periods. The columns showing number of periods per week indi- cate only how often a subject needs to appear on the daily time-table, — once a day, twice a day, every other day, and so on. Obviously this arrangement will have to be varied somewhat to meet the needs of different schools. On the other hand, the teacher will note carefully that a subject is often taught better when it is combined with some other for a day. For instance, the nature lesson for the day will fre- quently be the geography lesson also. Composition. Xo time is given for composition in years VII and VIII for the reason that written work in the various subjects will furnish abundance of composition material and should be treated as such. Arithmetic. Under competent and thorough teaching, six years is a sufficient period in which to teach all the arithmetic a child needs to know, and arithmetic is therefore transferred to the B column at the beginning of the seventh year. Doubtless most schools will think it necessary to carry arithmetic on throughout the elementary school. See also chapter on arith- metic. Beading. In years I to IV, nature, history, and geography stories should form a large part of the material selected for reading and composition. (See chapters on these subjects.) 14 OUTLINE OF WORK. Eeading, as the process of learning to read, ought to be complete at the end of the third year. After that the prob- lem comes to be teaching the love of good reading, and to mark the distinction, the reading time is thereafter called literature. The years are given in order to show what work children of the different years of school life should be doing. The teacher of an ungraded school is cautioned that these differ- ent years should not ordinarily he used as units for classes. Children of several different years may often be taught in the same class. For instance, in the small ungraded school of twenty pupils or less, all the reading of the eight years can usually be handled in two or three classes; all the spell- ing in two classes; all the writing in one or two classes, and so on. School boards are cautioned that teachers cannot get re- spectable results if their schools are too large or their classes too numerous. If the ungraded school has over thirty pupils, or if it is found impossible to keep the number of regular periods per day at eighteen or under, either another school should be started, or, better, an additional teacher should be employed, and the school can then be partially clas- sified. The time for each period may be as follows: first and sec- ond years, ten to fifteen minutes; third and fourth years, fif- teen to twenty minutes; fifth and sixth years, twenty to twenty-five minutes; seventh and eighth years, thirty minutes. Spelling should not be given more than fifteen minutes to a period in any year; much less will usually give the best re- sults. These time estimates cover the times during which the attention of children of different ages can normally be held, and the teacher should train herself to accomplish les- sons within these time limits. In years I to IV, nature and history stories should form a large part of the material selected for reading and language, or composition exercises. (See courses in reading, language, nature and history.) CHAPTEE IL THE DAILY TIME-TABLE. In making and following a daily time-table, two extremes must be avoided, — on the one hand neglect of the regular order altogether, which is simple lack of system, and on the other such slavish adherence to the time-table as to destroy all spontaneity and let pass the many opportunities created by the special circumstances of the day. The time-table, like the program of study, is an excellent servant but a bad master. Neither will take the place of thoughtfulness in the teacher. The unit of the time-table is the period, and much trouble will be avoided if teachers recognize at the outset that all effective teaching must obey the laws of fatigue and flagging power of attention on the part of pupils. Effective teaching demands not long periods but concentrated attention and forceful instruction. The ordinary limits of attention under favorable conditions may be seen in the following table: Limits op Attention. Grades I to II 10 to 15 minutes. Ill to IV 15 to 20 VtoVI 20 to 25 YlltoVIII....: 25 to 30 Of course the fatigue limit is reached much sooner in some subjects than in others, — soonest in arithmetic and spelling, later in reading and geography, latest in handwork and draw- ing. Again, the power of sustained attention is greatest in the morning, runs down somewhat irregularly until about an hour after the opening of the afternoon session, and then recovers somewhat the last hour of the day. Recess and other diversions give a brief recovery from fatigue, and the 16 16 DAILY TIME-TABLE. general increase of fatigue through the day is much lowered by good light and ventilation, by inspiriting teaching, and by the succession of unlike subjects on the time-table, e. g., by following arithmetic with reading, writing, or handwork. One of the chief benefits of the subjects in Column B of the outline of work is that they draw upon fresh brain areas, and therefore allow time for recovery from fatigue. The construction of a time-table for a classified or . semi- classified elementary school is a comparatively simple matter so long as the laws above mentioned are obeyed. For a mixed school it is a more difficult matter. The following sugges- tions and model are given, but it must be understood that these are only suggestions. The individual teacher must adapt them to her own conditions. Time-table for Mixed School. This time-table assumes a school of twenty to thirty pupils, registering children in each of eight grades, — a set of condi- tions much more difficult than is common. EOEEiNOON. 9.00- - 9.05. Opening exercises. 9.05- - 9.55. Arithmetic and number. 9.55- -10.05. Reading I. 10.05- -10.15. Reading II. 10.15- -10.30. , Composition. • 10.30- -10.40. Recess. 10.40- -10.50. Spelling. 10.50- -11.00. Writing. 11.00- -11.20. Grammar I. 11.20- -11.40. Grammar II. 11.40- -12.00. Nature or music. AFTERNOON. 1.30— 1.50. 1.50— 2.10. Geograpliy I. Geography II. DAILY TIME-TABLE. 17 2.10 — 2.20. Eeading I and elementary language. 2.20 — 2.30. Eeading II and elementary language. 2.30— 2.50. History I. 2.50— 3.10. History II. 3.10— 3.20. Eecess. 3.20— 3.40. Eeading III and IV, alternating. 3.40 — 4.00. Physiology and hygiene (several classes al- ternating). 4.00 — 4.30. Handwork or manual training and draw- ing, alternating. Notes. — The time-table as above outlined can of course be simplified in case there are some grades in which there are no pupils, as is usually the case. As it is, it will be noted that there are but nineteen periods exclusive of recesses in place of the thirty or forty which are often felt to be neces- sary. In following this or any other time-table, and improving upon the same, certain principles must be observed in addi- tion to those already noted. I. The teacher must conceive her schoolroom to be a workshop in which teacher and pupils are working together in the process of learning, rather than a hall of judgment in which the teacher's sole business is to find out whether or not the children have learned lessons. No home work ought to he required in any class or grade of elementary school, rural or urban, mixed or classified. The schoolroom is the place for school work and the child's out-of-school hours ought to be left free. II. Children at about the same degree of attainment in a given subject ought to be handled together. The behests of parents to have separate classes formed for their children should be respectfully but firmly resisted. On the other hand, children of more than average ability should be allowed to advance as rapidly as safety will permit. Both the above principles if followed will have a tendency to reduce the number of classes as the school year goes on. 18 DAILY TIME-TABLE. III. In some cases the school should be handled together, notably in arithmetic, composition, spelling, writing, and handwork. To illustrate, consider a day's teaching in arith- metic. The day has fifty minutes set aside in which to get all the arithmetic out of the way. From elementary number work upward there are perhaps thirty children at all stages of advancement. To hear recitations in the routine manner eight different periods or at least two hours and twenty min- utes would be required. From the nature of the subject, practice by the pupil, in all but the first two years, is more important or at least takes more time than instruction as such. This practice requires some oversight by the teacher and an occasional blackboard recitation. The clock points to 9.05, and the period has begun. Five minutes are devoted to rapid directions to the pupils who need them as to what work to do today. Others know what to do and proceed without directions. A group, or it may be an individual, of the older pupils require some instruction as to the principles of a new pro- cess which they are ready to begin. Ten minutes will take care of this. Then twenty minutes are devoted to the two classes of beginners in number. After that the teacher has five minutes in which to look rapidly over the work of pupils at their seats and ten min- utes for a blackboard recitation from some pupils who have finished a certain process, are ready for recitation, and have been getting their work on the board since the be- ginning of the period. The hour 9.55 has come, and the whole school is done with arithmetic for the day, and at the end of a week inci- dentally have learned more arithmetic than they would have by tediously working over imperfectly comprehended pro- cesses at home and yielding up the result by a routine daily recitation. It would be a great help to have all pupils keep their work in neat notebooks, which the teacher should fur- tlier examine out of class time. DAILY TIME-TABLE. 19 Of course the above is only a suggestion. As the wide- awake teacher gets the knack of handling her work in this way she will improve npon it from day to day, and in most mixed schools in which there are much less than thirty pupils there will be proportionately more time for individual work. IV. By intelligent classification much time can be saved, for, even were there plenty of time, it is by no means neces- sary that there should be a distinct period for every grade. Notably in reading. It is a rare school in which more than four classes in reading are within reason. There will always be a class of beginners who must be handled by themselves, and usually a class of young children somewhat more advanced, the be- ginners of the last year perhaps. After that, two classes at the outside will cover the whole school. It should be observed that reading is not a consecutive subject like arithmetic or grammar. It is not essential that every child should read every book throughout as every other child does. As fast as a pupil acquires power to read he may be allowed to read with the next class. In this way four classes at the beginning of the year may frequently be re- duced to three or even two by the end. V. By alternating yearns work, time may be saved in subjects in which there are more than two consecutive years in the program. For instance, in geography it is not of critical importance whether a pupil studies North America before or after he studies Europe. Hence, assuming that there are four grades in geography, V and VI may be com- bined this year on sixth year work, and next year the same pupils take fifth year work. And so with VI and VII or VII and VIII. VI. By correlation of studies much time in the aggregate can be saved. The program provides for this to some extent outright, as, for instance, when it reduces the amount of time for reading and composition in the upper grades. The alert teacher will find other opportunities from day to day. For instance, when the geography class comes to longitude and time, the subject can take the place of arithmetic for the time being. It is not necessary to teach it in both sub- jects. CHAPTEE III. READING. The main purpose to be kept in mind in teaching reading is the development of the power of thought-getting from the printed or written page. The pupil must be trained from the very beginning to read thoughts, not merely to learn and pronounce words. Teachers are cautioned not to allow even beginners to form the habit of pronouncing a sentence word by word. School boards are advised that a class cannot prop- erly be said to be making progress in reading, unless pupils show by their expression that they comprehend what they are reading. The reading of the common school as a whole may be said to show three phases: First, it is a matter of teaching the mechanics of reading, commonly called teaching to read. This process should be fully complete by the end of the third year. Second, it is a matter of training the voice to clear, dis- tinct, accurate, pleasing enunciation. This process should begin as early as the beginning of the third year, and the teacher must be unceasingly vigilant in its pursuit so long as children are in school, — vigilant not only in the period de- voted to reading, but in those devoted to other subjects as well. Third, it is a matter of leading the child through the teach- ing of reading into some acquaintanceship with the world's best literature. This process should begin with the primer, and not be relaxed so long as the pupil remains in school. Only reading of real literary merit should be supplied, and atfer the third year the books used should be for the most part complete pieces, not collections of selections. The teacher is cautioned that every exercise in arithmetic, 20 READING. 21 history, geography, physiology, civics, composition and gram- mar is also a recitation in reading. Careless, slovenly read- ing of an example in arithmetic on any day may more than offset the gain of the reading lesson for that day. First Year. I. (a) Teach objectively from fifty to one hundred words chosen from the basal reader in nse. Teach these words from the blackboard or chart; both may be nsed to advantage. Keep up a constant review of the words taught, (b) As fast as the stock of words becomes sufficient, sentences should be formed from them, written on the board, and the pupils taught to read them as wholes. II. At the end of from three to five months, the books may be placed in the hands of the children and then the read- ing may be more and more from them. Always see to it that the pupil gets the thought of what he reads. His expression will tell you whether he does or not. After the books are in the pupils' hands, the new words of each lesson should be placed upon the board, studied and learned, before commencing to read. As soon as the pupils begin to get some mastery of the sounds, the children should discover the pronunciation of all new words for themselves. III. After about five months' work, — one or two months with the books, — begin to teach the sounds. Do not give the sounds abstractly. Have the pupils learn them from words which he knows — thus, the sounds m and at from mat; I and ight from light, and so on. Avoid the use of diacritical marks. The pupil can gradu- ally, during the first two years, acquire the knack of distin- guishing the quantity of vowels and the quality of consonants in new words, by inspection of the words in which they occur. For illustration, note the effect of silent e in not and note, mad and made, upon the quantity of the preceding vowel. Do not undertake to complete the mastery of the sounds during the first year. It is two years' work, and then there is a margin left for review and cleaning up in the third year. 22 EEADING. But drill "apon sounds, while it must not be allowed to become irksome, should be unremitting. Facility in reading and ready ability to appreciate the content of reading in the third, fourth, and upper grades will depend in a large measure upon the freeing of the pupil's mind from the mechanics of reading by the sounds drill of the first two years. As fast as sounds become familiar to the class, they should be given quick perception drills daily upon these sounds. Perception cards will be found one of the teacher's most use- ful devices, but many others will be employed by the re- sourceful teacher. The teacher must familiarize herself with the principles of phonics and so become independent of all systems. The capable teacher will invent the best devices of teaching. KBSULTS AT THE END OF THE FIRST YEAR. Pupils should be able to read readily at sight from any ordinary first reader. This is the real test of attainment, not the number of books which the class may have read. A certain number of books to be read are recommended in order to give scope and breadth to the reading, but the num- ber is not to be taken as a prescribed course. Before the close of the first year, see that the children know the alphabet regularly and in order. SUGGESTED LIST OF .READING MATERIAL FOR FIRST YEAR. Graded readers."^ Child Life MacM. Heath Heath Baker & Carpenter MacM. Art Literature R. M. & Co. Stepping Stones to Literature Silver Jones Ginn *Classes will usually need to read several primers and several first readers from the graded list. READING. 23 Supplementary.'^ Sunbonnet Babies E. M. & Co. Overall Boys E. M. & Co. Wideawake Primer L. B. & Co. Folklore Primer and 1st Eeader A. M. & G. Hiawatha Primer H. M. & Co. Fairy Tale and Fable.. A. B. C. Six Xursery Classics Heath So-Fat and Mew-Mew Heath Eugene Field Eeader Scribner Indian Primer A. B. C. Every teacher should have: McMurry's Special Method in Primary Eeading MacM. HalFs How to Teach Eeading Heath Arnold's Eeading: How to Teach It Silver Laing's Eeading Heath Second Yeae. I. From the beginning of the year, review the words and sounds of the first year by the quick perception method. Gradually extend the sound drill to include the more obscure vowels, the initials and the terminals. II. Beginning in September, review rapidly the basal readers of the first year and one or more of the supplemen- tary readers. III. By the first of November at the latest, pupils should be reading from the second reader. The basal readers of the second year may be several of the second readers named be- low, or of like quality. Beginning with this year, it is espe- cially needful that the pupils should have a variety of read- ing. It is destructive of all real progress to keep the class reading over and over again the same set of books. There- fore, in addition to the basal readers, each class should be provided with from five to ten sets of supplementary readers. *Tobe read toward the close of the year. Including primers and first readers, each class ought to read at least ten books from the above list during the first year. 24 READING. Toward the end of the year, give much quick perception drill on sentences. Two courses may be followed. In the first, the pupils turn their backs on the blackboard while a sentence is being written thereon. At the word of the teacher, they turn, glance at the sentence, turn back, and are asked to give the sentence. In the second, pupils are re- quired to glance rapidly over a sentence in the reader, look away, and give the sentence without reference to the book. IIE:S,TJLTS AT THEl END' lOF THE SECOND YEAR. The class should at the end of the second year be able to read at sight readily from any second reader of the graded series listed below. READING MATERIA!/ FOR SECOND YEAR. Graded readers. Child Life, II MacM. Stepping Stones, II Silver Graded Literature, II Merrill Brooks, II A. B. C. Supplementary. Hiawatha Stories H. M. & Co. Around the World, I Silver Eeynard the Fox A. B. C. Wideawake L. B. & Co. Boy Blue and His Friends L. B. & Co. Art Literature A. M. & G. Mother Goose Village .E. M. & Co. Fables and Folk Stories H. M. & Co. Heart of Oak Heath Eskimo Stories R. M. & Co. Including second readers, review first grade work, and supplementary reading, the class ought to read ten books dur- ing the year. The teacher should own for constant study the books for teachers named under the first year's work. READING. 25 Thied Year. I. Eeview and perfect sound drill. II. Eead in review one second reader, beginning at open- ing of fall term. III. Beginning with about the third month, the class should be able to read more and more for cultural values, and less and less for the mechanics of reading. Material for the third year may be selected from the list here given. Six or eight, at least, should be read in class during the year. It is advisable to dispense largely with graded readers from the beginning of the third year. RE'ADIXG MATERIAL FOR THIRD YEAR. Literature. Child's Garden of Verses E. M. & Co. Book of Nature Myths H. M. & Co. Eobinson Crusoe P. S. Pub Co. Gulliver's Travels Eetold A. B. C. Norse Tales E. M. & Co. Fifty Famous Stories A. B. C. Fables and Folk Stories H. M. & Co. Geography. Seven Little Sisters Ginn Each and All Ginn Art Literature A. M. & G. Around the World, II Silver Big People and Little People of Other Lands A. B. C. Nature. Merry Animal Tales L. B. & Co. History. Stories of the Eed Children Ed. Pub. Co. Great Americans for Little Americans. . . . A. B. C. The list of reading material given includes geographical, nature, and history readers. In distributing the year's as- 26 READING. signment, at least three books should be read having the lit- erature basis; after that, history, geography, and nature read- ers may be used. The order of importance is indicated by the order of the words in the last sentence. The teacher may also profitably use material selected by herself, clipped from periodicals like Youth's Companion and St. Nicholas, pasted on cardboard and passed around the class for reading. The teacher should have for constant study one or more of the works on primary reading mentioned in the work of the first year. Silent Reading. One of the teachers' best opportunities first presents itself in this year through silent reading. Bring in, and encourage the children to bring in, good books and newspapers and magazines from home. If there is a public library in town do not fail to utilize it to the utmost for the reinforcement of the school. Take out a school card and keep in the school- room a constant supply of good children's books. Keep all this material where it can be served out to children for silent reading at times when they would otherwise be idle. Occasionally allow two or three pupils to read to the class for a whole period out of a selection from this silent reading material. RBSrULTS AT THE END OF THE THIRD YEAR. Pupils should be able to read fluently practically any se- lection given them, suited to their age in thought. Fourth Year. This year is usually a transition period between: the pri- mary and grammar schools. The reading will be much the same in purpose and method as that of the third year. READING. 2T READING ]\IATERIAL FOR FOURTH YEAR. Literature. Alice in Wonderland MacM. Little Lame Prince ....Heath Heart of Oak Heath Andersen's Fairy Tales H. M. & Co. Fifty Famous Stories Eetold A. B. C. Thirty More Famous Stories A. B. C. Art Literature A. M. & G. Gulliver's Travels Eetold A. B. C. The Niirnburg Stove Ed. Pub. Co. History. Colonial Children Heath Stories of American Life and Adventure. .A. B. C. America's Story Heath Four Great Americans A. B. C. Geography. Seven Little Sisters Ginn Around the World, III Silver Colonial Life in New Hampshire Ginn Cut-up selections, as in third year. Nature, history, and geographical reading, as in third year. Silent reading, as in third year. Scliool Library. It is not expected that any class can read all the books sug- gested under the third, fourth, and following years, nor could most boards afford to buy more than a few sets. But almost any board can afford to buy for the schoolroom, a complete list of single copies of the books named in the lists for years III to VIII, inclusive. Fifth Year. Teach the use of the dictionary and hereafter require all but very unusual words to be looked up by the class for pro- nunciation and definition. This worh should not he left to the 28 ' HEADING. pupils in this year nor the next. The teacher should make a list of all unfamiliar words, which she desires the class to look up, in the next assignment, and place the same on the board. The class may be required to note the pronunciation, with proper diacritical marking, upon slips of paper and bring the same into class on the following day for pronunciation and definition. Never assign a word for looking up without first finding out whether or not the pupils already know it, either all of them or some of them. Never accept a dictionary definition without requiring the pupil to give another in his own terms. Frequently vary the looking-up of the pronunciation of new words with an exercise in the diacritical marking of familiar words. Continue silent reading as in the two preceding years. In this year the teacher may begin to discuss with children books read out of class. The chief aim of reading now is to develop in children a love for the best and the habit of read- ing at home and in the library. Accumulate a school library. (See remarks under fourth year.) Read not less than five of the following list of BEADING MATERIAL FOR FIFTH YEAE. Literature. Wonder Book . H. M. & Co. King of the Golden River Ginn Hiawatha ....H. M. & Co. Water Babies Ginn Arabian Nights Ed. Pub. Co.; A. B. C. Swiss Family Robinson Univ. Pub. Co. Robinson Crusoe MacM. Heidi Ginn History. Ten Boys on the Road from Long Ago Ginn Story of the Greeks A. B. C. Story of the Romans A. B. C. READING. 29 Humane. Black Beauty . . . . , A Dog of Flanders. Ed. Pub. Co. Nature. The Jungle Book . . . Lobo, Eag, and Vixen Secrets of the Woods. . Century Scribners . . . . Ginn Hygiene. Emergencies Ginn Sixth Ykak. Continue dictionary work as in the fifth year. It is usually profitable in this year, in graded schools, to begin to read intensively some suitable piece of literature. For this purpose Longfellow's Hiawatha is recommended. The work should include, beside the reading, many composi- tions, — narrative, descriptive, imitative, — based on the litera- ture. The poem should be illustrated and interpreted by the children through their drawing and by simple dramatics. (See history outline.) A whole term, if needed, is not too long a time to spend in this way, and such work would take the place of the rapid reading of several other books. Of course, other books might be read at the same time, alternat- ing with the intensive reading. Accumulate a school library. (See remarks under fourth year.) The Great Stone Face H. M. & Co. READmG MATERIAL FOR SIXTH YEAR. Literature. Hiawatha Tanglewood Tales .H. M. & Co. H. M. & Co. Story of a Short Life L. B. & Co. History and Citizenship. Beginners^ American History Ginn Story of Our Country H. M. & Co. Abraham Lincoln A. B. C. 30 READING. Stories of the English A. B. C. Lessons for Junior Citizens Ginn Old Testament Stories Ed. Pub. Co. Geography. Carpenter's North America A. B. C. Carpenter's Industrial Readers A. B. C. Hygiene. Good Health Ginn Nature. Ways of Wood Folk Ginn First Book of Birds H. M. & Co. Squirrels and Other Fur Bearers H. M. & Co. Se'-venth and Eighth Years. Use of the dictionar}^ may now be left somewhat more to the pupil, but the teacher is cautioned not to yield to the temptation to neglect this important part of the work. The reading of these two years is more than ever centered on literary values. The historical and geographical reading is now provided for in the periods devoted to those subjects. The reading does not differ materially in its aim from that of the high school. The teacher is especially reminded that the class is reading to develop (a) a love for literature, (b) some acquaintanceship with the best literature, (c) some power of discrimination in the choice of literature. There- fore do not let the work degenerate into mere grammatical and etymological dissection. See remarks on intensive reading under sixth year. Accumulate a school library. (See remarks under fourth year.) READING MATERIAL FOR SElVENTH AND EIGHTH YE^VRS. Litei'ature. The Man Without a Country L. B. & Co. Tom Brown's School Days Ginn KEADING. Evangeline H. M. & Co. Miles Standish H. M. & Co. Snow Bound H. M. & Co. Tales from Shakespeare Ginn Merchant of A^enice H. M. & Co. Sketch-Book Ginn Vision of Sir Lannfal H. M. & Co. Lady of the Lake Ginn Christmas Carol Ginn Tales of the White Hills H. M, & Co. Citizenship. The Young Citizen Heath Hygiene. The Body at Work Ginn Nature. The School of the Woods Ginn Birds and Bees H. M. & Co. Sharp Eyes . . H. M. & Co. Geography. Carpenter's Geography Headers A. B. C. CHAPTER IV. HANDWRITING. First Yeah — First Part. Practice in writing should begin at the outset. All writ- ing during the first term should be done at the blackboard and under the immediate oversight of the teacher. Pupils should not be allowed to use pencils during this term. Arrange the class at the blackboard, compactly enough to permit the teacher to oversee all at once, but not so closely as to interfere with one another's freedom of movement. It is better that not more than ten write at once. Teach pu- pils how to hold chalk, — not like a pen, but between the thumb and fingers, the greater part of the chalk being inside the hand. Begin with the copying of single words. AVrite the word which the pupils are to copy at the place where each is to stand, a little above the level of the children's eyes. Make the letters very round and as simple in form as possible. At the time of the exercise, first show the pupils how to write the word, and then require them to write it below the copy already written. Pass quickly from one to another, critcis- ing, commending, and helping. Give but one direction for improvement at a time, and have the pupil carry that out before taking up any other point. Always erase the faulty exercise before it is rewritten, so that the pupil may always copy the correct form, and not his own faulty work. Make the exercise short, and require as much concentration of ef- fort as possible. After four to six weeks of these exercises, close each exer- cise by erasing the copy word after the pupils have written it several times, and let them try to write it from memory; and thereafter, close each exercise with this memory test. 32 HANDWRITING. 33 After a few weeks^ introduce short sentences on tlie slips. Not more than one new word should appear in a copy. Teach the use of capitals: first word in a sentence, names of persons and places, capital I. First Yeiar — .Second Part. About the twelfth week, introduce writing at the seats. Never during the first year should the teacher leave pupils to accomplish the writing lesson by themselves. Do not require pupils to copy from the Nackhoard. Copying from the board, especially in the case of young children, requires a rapid change of focus, which is extremely harmful to the eyes. Write each exercise on slips of paper, in round letters of good size. Use black ink. Make as many slips as there are pupils. Give each pupil a slip and sheet of paper. The pupils should use black pencils of large diameter and soft enough to make a black line without much pressure. The copy slip should be placed above the top of the paper and the word copied below. Then the pupils should place the copy slip over the word they have written, so as to cover it, and write the word again, and so on. Continue the use of the copy slips throughout the year. In the latter part of the year, teach the pupils from copy slips to write their own names. Teachers should be careful to use themselves the same style of writing which they teach their pupils. Second Year. The writing should be continued from copy slips, as in the first year. Eeview the writing of pupils' own names and thereafter require the pupils' names to be written on all writ- ten exercises. At the close of every writing exercise, remove the copy and require the pupils to write the same from dictation. Give frequent drills in writing over amd over short words like and, the, etc., which occur very often. This is as im- portant as the sound drills in reading. 34 HANDWRITING. Note particularly that handwriting and composition or ele- mentary language may frequently be combined to advantage. Continue practice in writing from copy and dictation. The copies should consist of entire sentences. Teach the pupils never to look from paper to copy in the middle of an effort, but to study the copy until they can shut their eyes and see it; and then strike it off with a single effort, after- ward comparing the result with the copy, and trying to do better next time. Give daily practice in writing over and over the short words frequently used. Insist on the pupil's best effort in every written exercise of whatever Jcind. In a great majority of cases, teachers allow all they build up in the writing or composition or spelling exercise to he torn down in some other. The constructive work of these years should be movement exercises. The problem is to cultivate muscular coordina- tion until a good hand is written subconsciously. See the Rational copy books A. B. C. Practical copy books A. B. C. and especially Modern Business Penmanship A. B. C. The conservative work will be that referred to under third and fourth years, namely, insistence upon the best the pupil is capable of in every written exercise. A composition or examination paper is an exercise in penmanship only when the pupil is trying to make his handwriting the best possible. Regular writing exercises beyond the sixth year are deemed to be unnecessary if the work of the first six years has been well done. If it is felt desirable to carry the work further the outline for years V and VI will serve. Thied and Fourth Yeaes. Fifth and Sixth Years. Morse copy books. Medial copy books Silver . Ginn HANDWKITING. 35 ^^ote particularly that it is no part of the business of the elementary school to produce elegant penmen. That belongs to technical training. The school fails^ however, in so far as it fails to turn out pupils who can write a legible hanri with a reasonable degree of speed. CHAPTEE V. THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. Intboductoey. Under the above heading, only the language of the first two years and the composition of the last six years will be treated. Eeading, in the main, spelling, handwriting, and grammar are outlined in other portions of the Program of Studies. But it should be remembered that all these are, properly speaking, language study, and that every other sub- ject in the program is closely related to language study. I. iMPKESsioiisrAL Language. In this one of the two great branches of language training, the mind is primarily receptive, and the course of mental activity tends from without inward. It is a vitally important side of the work, equally important with the expressional or composition side. Much of it is incidental, but the teacher cannot be successful unless she is willing to make it also sys- tematic. At least three fourths of every well-taught lesson furnishes the time and topic and content for an impressional language lesson. All the reading is impressional language teaching. The teacher must also provide, especially in the lower grades, sufficient specific work along this line, espe- cially in Bar-Reading. It is as important that pupils should be taught to be good listeners, or ear-readers, as it is that they should learn to grasp thought fully and accurately from the printed page. The good primary teacher must be a good story-teller, either nat- urally or by cultivation. She must train her pupils in listen- 36 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 37 ing to, and following, a selection read, a story told, or a topic briefly and cogently presented. The subjects employed for the purpose will naturally be varied in content, including topics from art, literature, current events, history, nature, geography, etc. When the topic is drawn from one of the first three, it will be given its own time in the language period. The regular recitation in history, geography, etc., furnishes the time and topic and content for an impressional language exercise, but the teacher must remember that sho is teaching language as well as the other subject. (See The Teaching of Any Topic.) In story-telling and oral presentation, the teacher should give especial care to the quality of her own English, as that will, consciously or unconsciously, be copied by her pupils. FIRST YEAR. During this year all stories, whenever practicable, should be illustrated by crayon sketches on the blackboard. The stories should be short, simple in structure, full of action, and of such a nature that their essential outlines will cling in the mind strongly enough to enable the child to reproduce them easily. Each exercise should consist of a complete, but brief story. For poetical selections, Stevenson's Child's Garden of Verse will serve as a type of the poems that are likely to appeal to children of this age. Good material may also be found in The Land of Song, Book I, published by Silver, Burdett & Co. The poems should be recited by the teacher to the pupils. The teacher should notice what poems appeal to them most and repeat these frequently. The children may learn these poems as memory gems. The pupils must never be required to learn a poem as a task. When the story has been told, the exercise becomes one in expressional language or composition. The pupils reproduce the story in their own language, being led to use intelli- gently, so far as possible, whatever new words they have heard. During the first year the reproduction will be en- tirely oral. 38 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. SECOND YEAK. During this year, the teacher will continue the story-tell- ing of the first year, and will also begin the reading of stories to the class. Continue the reciting and learning of poems. In telling or reading stories, use a complete story for each exercise, as in the first year. Test the pupils at the end of each selection, remembering that this part is both a means of discovering whether the pupils have correctly understood the selection, and also an exercise in expressional language. The following list of books will be found to contain mate- rial of value to the teacher for the first and second years: How to Tell Stories to Children, Bryant. . . , H. M. & Co. In the Child's World, Poulsson .Milton Bradley Co. Eainy Days and Sunny Days, Patch Milton Bradley Co. Half a Hundred Stories for Little People Milton Bradley Co. In Story Land, Harrison Sigma Pub. Co. Boston Collection of Kindergarten Stories J. L. Hammett Co. The Story Hour, Wiggin H. M. & Co. Kindergarten Stories and Morning Talks, Wiltse . . Ginn Book of Nature Myths, Holbrook H. M. & Co. Myths and Myth Makers, Fiske H. M. & Co. Classic Stories for Little Ones, McMurry Public School Pub. Co., Bloomington, 111. THIRD AND FOURTn YEARS. During these years the impressional language work will be centered chiefly around (a) the regular reading, and (b) stories read by the teacher. The expressional side will take the form mainly of written reproduction. The pupils should bo able to carry in mind a longer story, and in the reproduc- tion manage several connected incidents. THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 39 FIFTH TO EIGHTH YEARS, IXCLUSIYE. During these years, the regular schoolroom work furnishes abundant material and exercise on the impressional side of language study. The only direction given the teacher is, that any lesson well taught is a good lesson in impressional language. Continue throughout the learning of memory gems. If desired, in the last two years, this work may become the learning and reciting of short pieces of literature or extracts thereof as declamations. (II. EXPRESSIONAL LANGUAGE OR COMPOSITION. As the impressional language study is both by eye and by ear, so the expressional is both oral and written. The oral composition is found in the oral reproduction of the first four 3^ears, in the nature study of the same period, in the arithmetic of years III to YIII, in the geography, his- tor}^ civics, physiology, and grammar of years V to A^III. The teacher is cautioned that to neglect the oral recitation is to neglect one of the best opportunities for training in the use of the mother tongue, and that to allow slovenly recita- tions is to destroy in each of several daily exercises ivhatever gain has heen made in the language exercise. AYritten composition is found in not only the regular lan- guage work, but also in every written paper, examination, etc., submitted by pupil to teacher. FIRST YEAR. Oral reproduction. See directions on Impressional Language. The first requisite for language is thought to be expressed. The ideas which are to serve as material for composition should be those furnished by the lessons in reading, in hear- ing stories told by the teacher, in the study of pictures and of nature. The teacher should so develop each of these les- sons as to arouse thought actively in the minds of the pupils. This may be done by relating the objects studied to the chil- 40 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. clren's past experiences and observations and present inter- ests, and by arousing their curiosity regarding the progress of the story told or read. The teacher will aim to secure from them: (a) Speech sufficiently audible to be heard readily by all in the class. (b) Correct pronunciation of all words. Correct the pupil's mispronunciation of words, requiring him to repeat the words correctly. (c) Correct framing of sentences. Correct awkward or ungrammatical forms by giving the right form, requiring pupils to repeat it. Let the teacher repeat only the correct form and let pupils repeat. Dramatization of stories by the children will be found one of the most useful means, not only of oral composition but also of general child development. The teacher who has never tried this form of training will do well to visit some school where it is done, and will find it less difficult than might naturally be expected. It appeals to powerful child- ish instincts. SECOND YE'uiE. Oral reproduction. See directions under first year and under Impressional Language. Dramatization. See first year. Copy a?id dictation. These are important methods of language training in the early years. The copying can usually be done as seat, or busy, work; the dictation for a few minutes on reading time. Wri tten re pro du ction. Begin about the middle of the fall term, soon after the copying of sentences is begun. (See Handwriting.) During this year the written reproduction of stories pre- viously reproduced orally, must be guided by the teacher. A THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 41 good way will be to place upon the board a few questions, the answers to which will be the main points of the reproduced tale. Lunguage forms. At the end of the second year, the pupil should be able to handle readily: (a) capitals, — at the beginning of sentence, in proper names, and in first personal pronoun; (b) the period and the question mark at the end of the sentence. Caution. — Do not rest content with the telief that the majority of the class are competent in this direction. Test your class, instruct, and test again, until you hnoiu that they are competent. Illustration. The written reproduction of this year may often be illus- trated by paper cutting, drawing, etc. Consult the drawing teacher. THIRD YEAR. Do not attempt paragraphing until fifth year. Make each sentence a paragraph. Oral reproduction. As before, but more attention to connected presentation by pupil. Written reproduction. Continue w^ork of second year. In place of the leading question outline of the second year, begin, by the middle of the first term, to place the outline of the story upon the board in suggestive words and phrases and require the pupils to write from this outline. Original writing. By the middle of the year, some original work may be be- gun. The choice of subject is the most important matter. Be sure of two points: (1) that the subject chosen is one upon which each pupil has something to tell; (2) that it is one in which each pupil has an interest. The daily lives of the pupils and the common experiences of the school will 42 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. furnish an abundance of subjects. Picture stories, in which, subjects are suggested by penny pictures passed about the class, furnish some of the best materiaL The subject chosen should be thoroughly talked up with the class and a board outline worked up before the pupils be- gin to write. This work, to be of much value, must be done in the schoolroom and in class time. It cannot be done as a home assignment. Memory ivritincj. Have the class write from memory single stanzas of mem- ory gems. This is as valuable from the cultural standpoint as from that of language training, but it is also one of the most valuable language exercises in the upper primary and lower grammar. Illustration. See second year directions. Copy and dictation. See second year directions. Instruction. Improvement in good use, in the selection of the best words, in the right management of phrases, paragraphs, etc., is a matter of growth and no specific directions can be given. At the best the class will not surpass its teacher in its com- mand of language. Instruction will be based largely on the written work of pupils. Allow no paper to pass uncorrected. If the teacher is un- able to correct a large number of papers, then she should pro- vide for only as many as she can properly correct. After a written exercise, collect papers, mark all errors which the children can and should correct, and note errors which call for instruction. In marking corrections, note that there is an error, but do not indicate what it is. r)efore the next exercise, the pupils should rewrite papers, making cor- rections, and ]iand in tlieir ]ia]iers. Using the errors commonly made l)y the class as a basis, the teacher will at the beginning of the next exercise give a THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 43 few minutes' rapid drill and explanation upon the correct forms. In teaching the new language forms, use of capitals, punc- tuation marks, etc., a period should he set apart for black- board instruction and illustration by the teacher and drill by the class, using typical sentences. Language forms. At the end of the third year, the pupils should be familiar with the use of: capital at beginning of sentences, in names of persons and places, in the first personal pronoun, and in nouns of address; period and question mark at the end of sentences; apostrophe in possessives and common contrac- tions; comma when and or or is omitted. Also with writing of Mr., Mrs., Dr., Rev., and 8t.; the names of days and months, and dates; and the correct use of am, is, and are, ivas and were, lias and liave. Eequire pupils to indent the first line and to write their names, school, and the date on each sheet. Caution. — Do not rest content with the helief that the majority of the class are competent in their use of the above forms. Test, instruct, and test again, until you knoiv that they are competent. FOURTH YEAR. Do not teach the paragraph until the fifth year. Each sen- tence should be in paragraph form. Oral reproduction. During this year more attention should be given to the serial reading of connected stories of some length. At the beginning of each exercise, the pupil should be questioned upon the substance of the last preceding reading. IPse reading time. Written reproduction. See directions under third year. Themes. See directions under third year, especially concerning choice of subject. Some attention should be given this year 44 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. to description, using familiar landmarks and portraits as sub- jects. The teacher will note that an important -opportunity for training in observation is here opened. Letter-writing. Teach the conventional form of a letter, the writing of addresses, and the arrangement of envelope. The pupils should make practical use of this instruction at once by writ- ing to friends, classmates, teacher, etc. Memory writing. See directions under third year. Copy and dictation. See directions under second year. Illustration. See directions under second year, but note that the pupils' reach and power in this direction should be widening and strengthening. Instruction. See directions under third year. Language forms. At the end of the fourth year the pupil should be familiar with the correct use of: Language forms of preceding years; comma with apposi- tives; quotations and quotation marks; the words a, an, the, this, that, these, 'those, tvho, which, what, they, and them; the plural forms of verbs and agreement of noun and, verb; plural nouns in s, es, and plurals formed from singular in y. Do not attempt to teach the grammatical principles under- lying any of the above. Teach objectively, by concrete il- lustrations, and by requiring pupils using incorrect forms to repeat, using correct forms. Caution. — Teach, test, and teach these forms until you Icnow that your class is competent in them. FIFTH AND SIXTH YEABS. The reproduction exercises of the primary school are now more and more provided for by the oral and written work in THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 45 geography, history, physiology, etc. But the teacher is cau- tioned that every such exercise, whether she will or no, is an exercise in English, either impressional or expressional and usually both. Whether such exercise contributes to the building up or tearing down of the work in English will depend on the teacher's diligence, and vigilance in making the exercise one in the use of good English. Paragrapliing. Hitherto, each sentence has formed a paragraph. The teacher will, at the beginning of the fifth year, teach the pupils to gather all the sentences relating to the same topic into one paragraph. The board outline should indicate the paragraph divisions. Written reproduction. Chiefly abstracts of portions of literature read. The ca- pable teacher will make this work very profitable through its correlations with drawing. (See Illustration under third year.) Til ernes. The subjects of themes will still be largely experience nar- ratives and descriptions of familiar objects and scenes. In the preparation of the outline from the beginning of the fifth year the pupils should be taught to depend upon themselves more and more. The following devices are sug- gested: (a) Select a pupil, for each new subject, to prepare an out- line and submit the same to the teacher for criticism and correction. This may afterward be placed upon the board for the use of the class. (b) Eequire each to prepare his own outline, and submit the same to the teacher for discussion and correction before writing. Letter-writing. Teach pupils to plan a letter, first deciding what they wish to tell, and noting their subjects on a bit of paper. Teach them to write to the point, to say what they have to say and 46 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. then stop. The special forms of letter to be studied will be: (a) Invitations and responses. (b) A letter renewing or terminating subscription to peri- odical. (c) A letter applying for a position. (d) Business forms to correlate with arithmetic of sixth year. Letter-writing should be given a practical basis by having pupils correspond with pupils of similar grade in other places. This may be made especially valuable in connection with geography. Such letters will usually elicit a ready response from any part of the English-speaking world. Memorij ivriting. Continue as a daily exercise throughout the fifth and sixth years. (See directions under preceding years.) Instruction. The principal language forms and principles of good use have been covered in the primary school. Instruction now becomes a matter of establishing the habit of good use. The teacher will select from her first set of papers a group of two or three common errors and make a note of them. She will then emphasize that group in all her instruction and correction of papers patiently and diligently until those er- rors are rarely seen. Then, and not till then, she will select another group. Drive home and clinch each nail as you come to it, if you never drive another. Don't teach what you think your pupils ought to know; teach what their papers tell you they do not know. Give few new subjects, but get out of each theme as much training as you can without staling. After the regular corrections have been made, select one paper and have it copied upon the board, word for word, mistakes and all. Have the class correct it minutely, sentence by sentence, and let a ])upil write down the corrected form as fast as it is obtained, upon another part of the board. The next week, or two weeks after, take another pupil's work and so on. THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 47 Do not assign more written work than you can correct well. (See directions on correcting under third year.) Papers written by pupils at home are usually worthless. Do not require, or allow, long papers, — not less than a half-page, nor more than a page and a half, of ordinary com- position paper. SEYE-XTH AND EIGHTH YEARS. The orderly and logical arrangement of themes in para- graphs continues to be the main line of constructive training. The larger part of the teacher's attention will, however, prob- ably go to drill in the use of language forms. ReproductiGii or the writing of abstracts should be dis- pensed with, except on rare occasions, after the end of the sixth year. To find a class doing little but abstract work in the upper grammar or high school may usually be considered evidence of lack of industry on the part of the teacher. Themes. The work of preceding years continued. See directions under fifth and sixth year work especially. When work has been well done by earlier teachers, both on the impressional and on the expressional side, it is not unusual to find some work in seventh and eighth years which has real literary merit. Under such conditions, it is indeed perhaps the exceptional class which does not show something of this sort. This qual- ity should be sought out and encouraged in every possible way. The imaginative theme is perhaps one of the best ways The imaginative theme may be: (a) Simply a conventional short story. In this case, the teacher needs to guard against the mere reproduction by pupils of short stories in current literature. (b) Some pupils can take literary masterpieces, study them, and work up imaginative imitations. Here, too, the teacher must guard against mere reproduction. The plot, for in- stance, may be substantially the same as that of the study, but, if the incidents and characters used in developing the scheme are different, then the result is an imitation and not 48 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. a reproduction. If, on the other hand, plot, incidents, and characters turn out to be the same as those of the study, but with perhaps different names, then the result is simply a reproduction. A great variety of imitations can be secured, and, for pupils of latent literary and artistic sense, this work is most valuable, and is apt to prove to be of absorbing in- terest. The narrative and descriptive work of the preceding years should be continued. In the seventh and eighth years considerable practice in extended working up of material should be given. This, however, would best be done on other than composition time and in connection with other subjects, history and geography particularly. Such a task should have for its object the gath- ering of material of real value to the class, and to carry out this purpose these essays should be read to the class and the class should be required to take notes and to be examined on the researches of their classmates. Such a theme should call for careful study, the looking up of references in encyclope- dias, magazine articles, etc., the arrangement of material, and careful thought as to expression by the pupil. The pupil should not be allowed to make these essays mere abstracts of sources consulted; to avoid this, the pupil should be re- quired to prepare his essay in outline and submit the same to his teacher from time to time for criticism and correction. Finally, the essay should be written in the schoolroom, wholly from outline and notes. Letter-writing. Continue practice of fifth and sixth years, including cor- respondence. Do not limit the latter to New Hampshire or our own country. Letters should go to all parts of the world. Instruction. See directions under preceding years. In the seventh and eighth years, the teacher will have increasing grammatical insight on the part of pupils as an instrument of criticism. I'or illustration, correction, length of themes, etc., see pre- ceding years. III to VI. CHAPTER VI. SPELLING. It should be remembered that the development of good spellers is a process of growth, like the rest of education, and not merely a process of adding word by word to the pupil's store of correct words. It rests heavily upon at least three bases: first, the selection of words to be studied: second, the method of teaching the original lesson; third, the frequent iteration cf difficult words. I. Selectiox of Woeds foe, STrDY. The campaign of developing good spellers must be fought out step by step like other campaigns, each step perfected before the new one is taken. Beginning with the third grade, the teacher must make it her main purpose to see that the child handles correctly those words which he commonly uses at his present age. Therefore, select as spelling lessons the common words which the class misspells in language papers. About once in two weeks in years III to YI, once a month in years YII and YIII, give a test,— an unprepared lesson, — of from twenty to fifty words according to year. Each time note the proportion of misspelled words, and thus gain a rough estimate whether you are gaining or losing. After each test, the misspelled words should be gathered into the teacher's notebook for further lessons and study. As the class goes up through the grades, it will probably be found that fewer and fewer words are misspelled in lan- guage papers and other work, and that the stock of words available for lessons is consequently growing less. Then and not till then may the teacher venture outside this circle of use for the study of rules in the two upper grades and for the study of the less commonly used words. 49 50 SPELLING. Above all^ never select a word simply because you think the children ought to know it. Watch the papers; they will tell you what the class ought to study. II. iNSTRUCTIOJiT. The basis of instruction in spelling is the formation of clear and accurate memory images of words. There seem to be four forms in which a word is imaged to the mind: first, as a seen object; second, as a heard object; third, as certain feel- ings in throat and mouth peculiar to the utterance of that v.'ord; fourth, as a written object. For convenience, let us call them the visual, the auditory, the vocal, and the motor images. The problem then comes to be to so present these images that the necessary associations between them will be formed, and in such wise that one reinforces the other. Outline; for a Lesson. I. Leave the lesson wdiich is to be studied on the board for an hour or two, at least, before taking it up, — each word in syllabic form. In studying the lesson with the class, it is probably best to place the words on the board, in syllabic form, one at a time, for the sake of the greater concentration of attention. II. As each word appears on the board before the class, have the whole class look closely at it for a moment and then call several children to pronounce, spell, and pronounce very distinctly, — always observing the separation into syllables. Finally, have the class together pronounce, spell, and pro- nounce each word. Great care should be taken with the pronunciation, seeing to it that each syllable has its full value, even to the point of exaggerating the sounds of the various vowels and conso- nants. III. Make sure of the understanding of each word before it is finally given. SPELLING. 51 IV. Have the lesson written from dictation as soon as it has been thoroughly studied. And note that this writing is merely rounding out and fixing the dars instruction, — the setting of the motor image: it is not a test, except of the closeness of the pupil's attention and of the force with which, the teacher has presented the lesson. Y. Eepeat all lessons in which the class misspells more than five per cent of the gross total of words given. Do not take more than fifteen minutes for the complete exercise, including the writing. Five to eight minutes for all except writing is sutficient. Give four to six words to a lesson in year III; five to eight in years TV and V; ten in years Y to IX. Spelling matches are an excellent method of review. CHAPTEE VIL GEAMMAE. In the constriictive language work, the aim is to train the pnpil to the adequate expression of his own thoughts. In the study of grammar, the mind is concerned with the analysis of thought already expressed either by the self or by others. The mental attitude of the student in the one subject is the reverse of that in the other. For this reason these two forms of language work (the constructive and the analytic) should not be combined in the same exercise. The first is concrete, the second abstract; both forms of training are necessary to the well-ordered and efficient mind. But the abstract is valueless unless based on several years' effective work in the concrete. This chapter is a statement of the grammatical knowledge which it is deemed desirable that a pupil should have on completing the elementary school rather than a teaching out- line. Teachers will commonly use a text and will follow the outline therein. All portions of any text which deals with logical subtleties or mere grammatical cataloguing should be omitted, such for instance as the difference between copulative and substantive verbs, coordinate and subordinate conjunctions, cognate ob- jects, weak and strong verbs, and the like. The teacher should keep constantly in mind the main object of the teaching of grammar, namely, to put the pupil in possession of a power by which he may know the differ- ence between correct and incorrect speech. Seveinth y,E^R. 1. Study of the sentence. 1. Form, — declarative, interrogative, imperative, exclamatory. 52 GRAMMAR. 53 2. Subject and predicate, — simple and complete. II. Parts of speech. 1. Practice in identifying same until pupils make few, if any, mistakes. 2. Nouns, — common, proper, collective. 3. Verbs, — transitive and intransitive, active and passive. in. Sentence study continued. 1. Modifiers of subject and predicate. 2. Phrases and modifiers. 3. Verb forms, — infinitives and participles and use in the sentence. 4. Simple, compound, and complex sentences. 5. Clauses and their uses. IV. Analysis of sentences. Constant practice from the first in analysis. Toward the end of the year the pupil should be able to analyze any ordinary grammatical sentence. A good method of diagraming will prove to be a great help in enabling pupils to visualize the con- struction of sentences. Eighth Yeak. Eeview seventh year work with much practice in analysis. I. Systematic study of parts of speech. 1. Nouns. a. Gender, — masculine, feminine, common, neuter. b. Number, — singular and plural — rules for formation of number — peculiarities of number. c. Person. d. Case, — nominative, possessive, and ob- jective — appositives — nominative in- dependent and absolute — formation of possessive — objective indirect and indirect object and prepositional ob- ject. 54 GRAMMAR. e. Declension with practice. 2. Pronouns. a. Personal, demonstrative, indefinite. b. Alternative, interrogative, relative. c. Declension with practice. 3. Adjectives. a. Descriptive, demonstrative, numeral. ' b. The articles. c. Comparison. 4. Verbs. a. Transitive and intransitive. b. Voice, mode, modal auxiliaries, — tense, person. c. Verbal nouns. d. Conjugation with practice. 5. Adverbs. a. Simple, interrogative, relative. b. Comparison. II. Parsing with much practice. III. Use as determining part of speech. IV. Practice in analysis and parsing. CHAPTER VIIL ARITHMETIC. In the teaching of arithmetic, two main ends should be kept in view (a) proper mental training, and (b) such power of efficient calculation as the ordinary concerns of life call for. The teacher, or superintendent, whose view is single to the first end is apt to turn out pupils at the end of the common school course who cannot grapple with the ordinary arithmetic of business. He who thinks only of the second usually succeeds in developing merely a limited mechanical, facility in some few processes easily forgotten and incapable of adjustment to strange applications. School boards are especially cautioned that good results in arithmetic are not proportioned to prolonged study of the subject, but rather to skillful teaching. The first six years of school life are ordinarily sufficient for all the arithmetic needed, except for special service like banking; eight years are allowed. It will ordinarily be necessary to use a series of arithme- tics, and the outline of the series in use will be followed. An outline is here given for the purpose, mainly, of indicating the work which should be accomplished, year by year. School boards are advised seldom to change the text-books in use in this subject. Some of the books in use many years ago are still better guides for the average teacher than most of the newer books, admirable as the latter may be under com- petent expert supervision. Results. — At the end of each year, beginning with the third, the class as a whole should be able to show a total gen- eral average of at least seventy per cent on examinations covering all work outlined. 1. Number space objectively to 10. 55 56 ARITHMETIC. Teach in the following order: l-2-4:-8-3-6-12-9-5-10-7. This will giA^e opportunity to teach by grouping and the use of the primary relationships at the same time. Paper cut- tings, blocks, splints, and other objects may be used. Teach names and figures, and teach children to write figures. Do not teach counting; pupils should have picked it up by the time 10 is taught. Teach 4 as 2 2's; 8 as 2 4's, etc. Pupils should be taught to recognize groups as high as 5 without counting. II. Combinations and relations of numbers. Do not allow the children to learn by rote. If the work of Part I has been well done, they will not. The class may be drilled upon the combinations and relations after they have been learned objectively. If a pupil hesitates, require him to rediscover the answer by the use of objects. Part II should be illustrated with simple concrete work or problem. In this connection, teach the inch, foot, and yard. Eesults. — At the end of the year, the pupil should know the number space up to 10; that is, the forty-five combina- tions by addition with the complementary subtraction; should be able to apply them in concrete illustrations; should know the fractional parts J, -J, and i; and should be able to recog- nize and to estimate the length of the inch, foot, and yard. The teacher will find valuable suggestions in the following books: Belfield & Brooks' Eational Elementary Arithmetic S. F. & Co. Hall's Arithmetic Primer ..A. B. C. Smith's Primary Arithmetic Ginn Arithmetic for Beginners Heath Course in Arithmetic. . .N. H. Educational Council Arithmetical Games Cincinnati Game Co. Speer's Arithmetic, Teachers' Manuals Ginn ARITHMETIC. 67 Second Year. I. Xumbers reviewed and extended to 24:, as in first year, bnt not all combinations or relationships. Practice same with percejDtion cards for a few minutes each day throughout the year. II. Counting objects. III. The multiplication tables. On no account should the tables be learned by rote or in the abstract. The pupils should build up the tables by pro- cess of objective discovery, following the lines laid down under first year work. For instance, the table of 4's may be built up by laying groups of 4's, thus: The tables are, however, valueless unless they are memor- ized. Accordingly, as fast as they are constructed, they should be committed to memory. In drilling on tables, whenever the pupil is at fault, he should be given objects and required to find the right answer for himself. IV. Practice in reading and writing figures not higher than 1,000. V. Denominate units of the first year reviewed and liquid and dry measure units, and United States money, taught in the same way. (See notes on first year.) Eoman notation in learning to tell time by the clock, and in learning to read the numbers of chapters. Work should constantly be illustrated by concrete ex- amples, as in the first year. Ee«ults. — At the end of the second year, the pupils should know the fractional parts, ^, -J, ^, etc., up to 1/12, and should be able to apply them concretely; should know the multiplication tables through the 7's; and should be able to recognize and estimate the denominate units taught. 1111 1111 =r.l2. 1111 58 ARITHMETIC. Third Year. I. The mulitiplication tables reviewed, completed, and drilled. The tables should first be taught with a view to the maxi- mum of mental growth. The problem then becomes one of making them an efficient tool for further study. The pupil must be drilled in their use, mainly by the help of perception cards, until he responds instantly, automatically, upon seeing or hearing a combination of numbers from the table. Future capacity for arithmetical work will depend largely upon thoroughness in this work. Exercises with perception cards should be given daily for a few minutes throughout the year. II. Notation and numeration. III. (a) Daily practice in rapid calculation"; (b) simple operations in addition, subtraction, short multiplica- tion, short division. This work should constantly be illustrated and assimilated through simple problems. In the selection of problems, aim to secure those which deal with quantities and conditions fa- miliar to the common experience of children of this age. Illustrations. Find out at home or from your neighbor how much hard coal is required to supply some furnace or stove for one month. At the current price of coal, how much will it cost to supply this stove for one month? For the six cold months? Let the pupils make a list showing the current prices of provisions. Out of this material, make and have the pupils make a great variety of problems. Bear in mind (a) that all work should be done mentally and without paper if possible, that written work should be done only when unwritten work is impossible; and (b) that no problem, either mental or written, should be allowed to pass without explanation by the pupil. IV. Use of fractions already learned in simple operations ARITHMETIC. 59 in addition and subtraction. Visualize all this work with fractions. V. Denominate units reviewed and constantly used in problems. Teach the units of square measure in connection with mul- tiplication. Eesults. — See preliminary note. Refer ernes. See lists of first year. For some of these works it will be necessary to choose the second in the series. Also Southworth-Stone Arithmetic B. H. S. & Co. Fourth Yeae. I. Daily exercises of a few minutes each. ^a) Eapid oalculatiox^ using all previous work as a basis. (b) The multiplication table. (c) Notation and numeration. II. The fundamental processes reviewed. Multiplication and division completed. As in the third year, this work should be illustrated and assimilated by the solution of simple problems. See notes on problems under third year work. Such problems as those given there will be suitable, and problems like the following: How many square feet in the floor of the schoolroom? How many board feet? Find the cost of the floor, teacher supplying the necessary data. A room is well lighted when the floor space is not more than six times the window^ space. Is your schoolroom well lighted? your hall? your room at home? Let the pupils plan to furnish a dining-room and figure the cost. Many additional practical problems can be found in the work of gardening, if the school has a garden. Some simple processes like average may be taught incidentally in connec- tion with problems. in. Continue third year work with fractions and denom- inate units. Have pupils do many actual measurements with the latter in determining data for problems. 60 ARITHMETIC. Results. — At the end of the fourth year, the pupils should know the following so thoroughly that it will never be neces- sary to take them up again: (a) The multiplication tables and all combinations involv- ing simple addition and subtraction. (b) The processes of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. (c) Notation and numeration of integers. (d) The tables of linear, liquid, dry, and square measure, and United States money, using only the units which are within the comprehension and management of the pupils. See: Eational Grammar School Arithmetic, pp. 4-7, 11-18 S. F. & Co. McLellan & Ames' Public School Arithmetic for grammar grades, problems scattered through the first 100 pages MacM. Fifth Year. I. Daily exercises ii^ rapid calculation", using all the work done in preceding years as a basis. II. First half-year. Common fractions: reductions and four processes. Teach only operations with small numbers. Fractions with large terms seldom occur in practice and they are confusing to the beginner. Teach least common multiple and greatest com- mon divisor in connection with fractions, using only such expressions as can be solved by inspection. Do not teach the long processes of either at this time. Second half-year. Decimal fractions: notation and numeration, reductions, four processes, and relations between common and decimal fractions. Problems should constantly be based upon data secured by pupils (a) at home and about the schoolroom and school grounds; (b) in connection with handwork, school gardening, and geography. A large measure of the teacher's success will depend upon her ability to supply and suggest problems of this sort. AlilTHMETIC. 61 The teacher is again reminded that all problems should be solved without pencil and paper whenever possible. The teacher should also remember that problems exist for tlie sake of arithmetic teaching and not arithmetic teaching for the sake of problems. Results. — See preliminary notes. Sixth Yeae. The sixth year is devoted largely to what has commonlv been known as business arithmetic. Much of the work treated under this head in text-books, both ancient and modern, is obsolete in the world of every-day business. The common school should train pupils with sufficient arithmetic to meet the demands of ordinary business. They should not attempt to produce bank clerks, actuaries, expert accountants, etc. I. Daily e'sercises ix rapid calculatiox' based upon all previous work. II. Common and decimal fractions reviewed (12 weeks). Teach the pupils to manage somewhat more difficult frac- tions than last year. Teach factoring and the long processes of greatest common divisor and lowest common multiple. Give constant practice in the notation and numeration of dec- imals; this is one of the points on which pupils most fre- quently fail in the high school. III. The application of decimals to (a) percentage; (b; profit and loss; (c) simple interest; (d) trade discount. See notes on problems under all preceding years. Prob- lems must be made as practical as possible. It is futile to hope to train pupils in the grammar school for alb the appli- cations of arithmetic to business purposes. Much incom- petency in arithmetic has happened on this account. See that pupils are well grounded in the fundamentals and the applications will take care of themselves. If a pupil thor- oughly understands percentage, it will not take him long to master the simple arithmetic of taxes when he needs to. If he is hazy on percentage he will never be able to understand any of its applications. 62 ARITHMETIC. Teach pupils to bill accounts and to draw checks and prom- issory notes. Good collections may be found in: Smith's Grammar School Arithmetic Ginn Winslow's Natural Arithmetic, III A. B. C. Eational Grammar School Arithmetic. .S. F. & Co. McLellan & Ames' Public School Arithmetic for Grammar Grades MacM. Sensenig & Anderson's Introductory Arithmetic. Silver Southworth & Stone's Arithmetics. .B. H. S. & Co. Southworth's Problems in Arithmetic B. H. S. & Co. Hall's Arithmetics A. B. C. Nichols' Arithmetic, V and VI T. B. & Co. AYalsh's New Grammar School Arithmetic .. .Heath (Good for large number of civil service and public . school examination papers.) Eesults. — See preliminary notes. At the end of the sixth year, pupils should know finally, in addition to that already laid down under fourth year, all simple operations in common and decimal fractions. It will not do for the teacher to estimate the ability of the class; her knowledge should be a matter of examination. (See Tests and Examinations.) Seventh Year. I. EaPID CALCULATIONS AS IN PREVIOUS YEARS. II. Review of percentage and its applications. III. Bills, notes, and other business paper and single- entry bookkeeping. IV. Compound numbers (second half-year). Peductions and four processes. Problems under principles enunciated for previous years. P.i:suLTS. — See preliminary notes. ARITHMETIC. 68 Eighth Yeae. I. Rapid icalculations as in peevious yeaes. II. Mensuration. No part of arithmetic is more useful than this. It is of the greatest practical utility, and at the same time is richest in educational values. It is perhaps the hest introduction to the geometry of the high school. As in other years, the daily life and experience of pupils should be levied upon exten- sively for data for problems. The following lines of exercises are suggested: Height of buildings, towers, trees, etc. Distance between points mutually inaccessible in a straight line, as distance across a small pond or through a building. Areas of plane figures, — triangles, quadrilaterals, poly- gons, circles. Surface and solid contents of prisms, pyramids, cylinders, cones, and spheres. Eatio and -proportion and square root should be taught in connection with mensuration as the need of the use becomes evident. In connection with compound numbers, teach the metric system. Do not teach the relations between the metric and the English system until toward the end, and then merely show the pupils where and how they can look up the relation. Do not require them to burden their memories with the nu- merical relations. Teach pupils to recognize and estimate metric units precisely as they did English units in the first year. III. General review (second half-year). For this purpose, it is well to divide the entire course up into a series of topics, twenty-five or thirty, and proceed by a series of tests, pausing for instruction on those only in which the general average of the class falls below some arbitrary standard, say ninety per cent. 6-4 ARITHMETIC. General references on teaching arithmetic: Smith: Teaching of Elementary Mathematics \ MacM. McMurry: Method of the Eecitation MacM. Teachers' College Eecord, Vol. 4, No. 2 . . Columbia Univ. Press McLellan & Dewey: Psychology of Number Appleton CHAPTER IX. GEOGEAPHY. Geography is continuous with the nature study of the four primary years and is at the same time the basis of the geology and astronomy^ the pliysics and chemistry, of tlie high school. Good work in the geography of the grammar school will be conditioned largely on the broad apperceptive mass accumu- lated in (a) the kindergarten and nature study of the earlier school years and (b) in the out-of-school experience of the child. Just in so far as (b) is weak, — ^^as almost always in the cases of town and city children, — so ought (a) to be es- pecially strong. Ability to assimilate science teaching in the high school period will depend largely on the character of the work done in the geography of the grammar school. The character of geography. Before all else teachers and school boards are cautioned that geography is a subject to be understood as deahng with related series of cause and effect, and not a collection of facts to be memorized. Geography is closely related to other school subjects, and the capable teacher will correlate her teaching of geography with that of reading, composition, history, and handwork especially. Apparatus for objective teaching. Just as high school science cannot properly be taught ex- cept by use of the laboratory, so pupils can gain little com- prehension of geographical facts and principles except through actual experience of the concrete facts. The first requisite is time and ability and permission to conduct excursions of the pupils in the fields and woods, by 65 66 GEOGRAPHr. brooks and rivers, the lake shore and seaside, over hills and mountains, and through valleys; and to the seats of the varied industries of the state. The apparatus needed for the schoolroom can mostly be improvised by the teacher, but the following should be pro- vided: (1) Maps in abundance, preferably without names of localities and surface features. The maps of the text-books should furnish all needed information as to names. Maps in text-books should be clear and especially should multiplica- tion of detail be avoided. (2) Illustrative material of all sorts, including samples of industrial products, photographs, clippings from periodicals, government reports and bulletins. This department will from time to time issue bulletins, show- ing lists of the last named which are available for school use. The school board should each year set aside a sum of money for the accumulation of such illustrative material. If pos- sible a stereopticon or porte lumiere should be provided for each building, with lantern slides. (3) A few good globes; ordinarily a single globe for each room will suffice; a spherical blackboard for each building would be useful. Correspondence. A valuable adjunct to the illustrative material named above will be correspondence with pupils of similar age and grade in other towns of this state, in other states, in the English-speaking foreign countries. Letters addressed to Holland, Belgium, the German empire, and France will usu- ally call forth answers. They should be addressed to local superintendents of schools in this country, or to school di- rectors or inspectors in other English-speaking lands. Let- ters should deal largely with descriptions of home industries and history and customs, and wherever possible should en- close photographs illustrating the same. Time alhwances. In order to indicate right proportions, each topic is credited with a certain number of weeks in a year of thirty-six weeks. When the length of the year is other than thirty-six weeks, time allowances must be proportionately reduced. Xo allow- ance is made for review, since every lesson should he a review. GEOGRAPHT. 67 Fifth Yeak, I (8 weeks). Study of soil, hills, mountains, brooks, riv- ers, lakes, the air and ocean, industries, and goYernment. II (2 weeks). Geography of the schoolroom, school grounds, and city or village. ^laps should be made of each of these four units and the children taught to draw to scale. III (2 weeks). The earth. Continents and oceans, the zones and their boundaries. IV. The world as a whole. 1. (18 weeks.) The United States by groups of states. 2. (2 weeks.) The countries in Xorth America north and south of the Tnited States. 3. (4 weeks.) South America. Europe, Asia. Africa, and Australia. (I) Take several excursions. Have children bring into the schoolroom samples of different soils, showing as far as pos- sible process of formation. Hills, mountains, brooks and river valleys, and lake basins should be studied at tlie sand table. Movements of air and water may be illustrated by not- ing the effect of heat on each. The character of the air as a real body occupying space should be demonstrated. Indus- tries and government may be illustrated from local industrial plants and study of home, county, state, and national gov- ernments, naming the persons holding office. (TV) The study of the world as a whole is designed to give merely a superficial view. It should cover (a) physical fea- tures, (b) peoples, (c) industries and products, (d) govern- ment. Each country studied should be mapped by pupils, and especially should the relation of cause and effect in the growth of cities and industries be emphasized. See preliminary notes on apparatus and illustration. Letter-writing. Continue weather records of nature study. Reading for pvpils. Brooks and Brook Baisins Ginn Geographical Xature Studies A. B. C. 68 GEOGRAPHY. How We Are Fed MacM. How We Are Clothed MacM. Glimpses of the World Silver The Frozen North Heath Sixth YIeae. I. The earth. 1. (2 weeks.) The earth's movements, daily and annual, — succession of day and night and change of seasons. 2. (3 weeks.) Winds and ocean currents. 3. (2 weeks.) Distribution of temperature and climatic conditions. 11. ISTorth America — intensive study. 1. (2 weeks.) Physiography, including elementary geo- logical development, plant and animal life. 2. (6 weeks.) The New England States. 3. (3 weeks.) The Middle Atlantic States. 4. (3 weeks.) The Southern States. 5. (3 weeks.) The Central States. 6. (3 weeks.) The Western States. 7. (3 weeks.) Territories and dependencies of United States. 8. (3 weeks.) Countries north of United States. 9. (3 weeks.) Countries south of United States. See notes under fifth year and preliminary notes. (I) All lessons must be completely illustrated and demon- strated objectively, both by teacher and by pupil. For section 1, globes are not essential but useful. A single good globe in the hands of the teacher should be sufficient. For purposes of demonstration by pupils, simple balls are full better than globes. The work under this section should not be considered done until every pupil can take a ball repre- senting the earth and place it at command in the proper posi- tion to represent any annual or diurnal phase. For section 2, some easily controlled source of heat, such as a lamp or an oil stove, will serve all purposes. For section 3, outline maps are needcMl. Pupils should be GEOGRAPHY. 69 sent to the wall map and required to predict from elevations and relation to ocean^ what the climate of different sections of land mass will be. (II) The objects of teaching are outlined under fifth year, namely, (a) physical features, (b) peoples, (c) industries and products, (d) government. To these may be added (e) com- merce and lines of transportation. The controlling general purpose should be relation of cause and effect, showing the reason for the existence of towns, cities, industries, etc. Double time is allotted to the study of the New England States, and they should be studied thoroughly for the sake of the typical instances they contain. The location of Bos- ton, Bangor, Concord, and Manchester and Dover, once well understood, will explain the greater part of the rest of the country, and indeed of the whole world. Current events daily. Letter-writing, as in the fifth year. Weather record continued. Beading for pupils. Fifth year books; also Carpenters North America A. B. C. Our Own Country Silver Tarr and McMurry's Supplement for New England MacM. The Land We Live In L. & S. The Western United States Heath Alice's Visit to the Hawaiian Islands A. B. C. Hawaii and Its People Silver Our American Neighbors Silver Porto Eico Silver Seventh Year. I. The earth. 1. (3 weeks.) Movements of earth, and of air and ocean currents thoroughly reviewed. 2. (2 weeks.) Latitude, longitude, and time. 3. (1 week.) Light zones and heat zones. 70 GEOGRAPHY. 4. (1 week.) Weather maps. II. South America and Europe — intensively. 1. (1 week.) Physiography of South America, and plant and animal life. 2. (2 weeks.) Brazil. 3. (2 weeks.) Argentina. 4. (1 week.) Uruguay and Paraguay. 5. (2 weeks.) The Guianas and A^enezuela. 6. (1 week.) Colombia, Ecuador, Bolivia, and Peru. 7. (1 week.) Chile. 8. (1 week.) Physiography and plant and animal life of Europe. 9. (3 weeks.) The British Islands. 10. (1 week.) Holland and Belgium. 11. (3 weeks.) The German Empire. 12. (3 weeks.) France. 13. (1 week.) Spain and Portugal. 14. (2 weeks.) Austria and Italy. 15. (1 week.) Turkey, Greece, and the Balkan States. 16. (3 weeks.) Russia. 17. (1 week.) Norway, Sweden, and Denmark. (I) Numerous examples in latitude, longitude, and time should be given. Arithmetic time can be used for this pur- pose. Light zones and heat zones should be distinguished. Give some practice in plotting isotherms from data supplied by the daily weather map. Weather maps may be obtained daily by mail on application to the weather l)ureau authorities. Children should be taughc to read them and to observe the daily changes of weather as predicted from the weather maps. (II) See preliminary notes and notes on fifth and sixth year work. An excellent plan for the treatment of Part 11 is to imagine that teacher and pupils are to make a journey to and through the lands wliicli arc studied. Letter- writing continued. Weather record daily throughout the year. GEOGRAPHY. 71 Geographical themes. See chapter on composition for seventh and eighth years. Pupils may be assigned special topics to he worked up and presented to the class. The class should usually he examined^, on what has been read to them. Reading for pupils. South America A. B. C. Europe A. B. C. Geography of the British Isles MacM. King's Geography Eeaders, Book Yl L. & S. Modern Europe Silver Northern Europe Ginn Footprints of Travel Ginn Boyhood in Norway Scribners Eighth Yeae. I. Thorough review of the physical geography of the fifth, sixth, and seventh grades, comprising: 1. (1 week.) Soil. 2. (2 weeks.) The glacial period and its effects. 3. (2 weeks.) Rivers and river valleys. 4. (1 week.) Lakes, the ocean, and coast lines. 5. (2 weeks.) The air and the ocean, and their currents. 6. (1 week.) Rainfall, storms, and climate. 7. (1 week.) The movements of the earth — the earth in space. 8. (1 week.) Light and heat zones. 9. (2 weeks.) Latitude, longitude, and time. II. Asia, Africa, and Australasia — intensive study. 1. (2 weeks.) Asiatic Turkey, Persia, and the Anglo- Russian buffer states. 2. (3 weeks.) The Indian Empire. 3. (3 weeks.) The Chinese Empire and Siberia. 4. (2 weeks.) Japan and Korea. 5. (2 weeks.) Africa. 6. (2 wrecks.) Australia. 7. (2 weeks.) The oceanic islands of (a) the Pacific, (b) the Atlantic. 72 GEOGRAPHY. Ill (7 weeks). General survey of world with special refer- ence to the trade relations of each country with the United States. See preliminary notes and notes on fifth, sixth, and seventh years. Weather record daily. Current events daily. Geographical themes. Reading for pupils. Asia A. B. C. Reader in Physical Geography Longmans Australia and the Islands of the Sea Silver Australia, Our Colonies and other Islands of the Sea A. B. C. Life in Asia Silver Two Girls in China Silver Views in Africa Silver Books far teachers of geography. A Teacher's Manual of Geography, McMurry MacM. Complete Geography, Tarr and McMurry MacM. Commercial Geography, Adams Appleton Lessons in Home Geography, McMurry MacM. Xew Physical Geography, Tarr MacM. Special Method in Geography, McMurry. . . .MacM. Stoddard's Lectures. Teacher's Manual of Geography, Redway .... Heath Topics in Geography, Nichols.. Heath The World's Great Farm, Gaye MacM. Physical Geography, Davis Ginn The Story of Our Continent, Shaler Ginn Type Studies in the Geography of the L^nited States, McMurry MacM. CHAPTEE X. PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. The laws of New Hampshire^ chapter 92, section 6, require that instruction in physiology and hygiene, with special refer- ence to the effects of narcotics and stimulants upon the human system, shall be given in all graded schools above the pri- mary. The following outline is given to indicate the scope and method of treatment in each of the four years of the gram- mar school program. It is presumed, however, that suitable text-books will be selected. The department recommends the use of a graded series of texts for the four years rather than any one text. The Gulick series, Ginn, is one of the best. Provision is made for two or three lessons per week throughout the four years. The subject is a good elemen- tary science, and, in addition to its great practical value, fur- nishes a valuable introduction to the biological sciences of the high school. Teachers and school boards are reminded that no science can be properly taught except on the basis of observation and experiment. For this purpose, instruction in physiology re- quires no laboratory and no expensive material. Nearly everything from a bone to the eye and even the brain can be illustrated by material obtainable from the butcher. On the other hand, the zealous teacher should be wise in the method of illustrating, and especially should be on her guard against experiments or illustrations beyond the power of pupils to comprehend and assimilate. The object and purpose of the study is hygiene rather than anatomy and physiology. The pupils should be taught just 73 74 PEYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. enough of the last two to enable them to understand the first. Instruction in the art of right living is perhaps the most important practical duty of the elementary school. The teacher who has had no higher courses in biology should prepare herself by the careful reading of Martin's Human Body, Henry Holt & Co., or a text of like grade. From the hygienic standpoint, the teacher should see that her name is on the mailing list for bulletins of such boards as the State Board of Health. She will also find the entire Gulick series referred to above to be most useful reading material; also "Preventable Diseases/' by Woods Hutchin- son, H. M. & Co., which ought to be in every public library; also "Civics and Health," Allen, Ginn. Teachers in all years and at all times should hold them- selves responsible to seize opportunities for impressing les- sons in the proper use and care of the body, — lessons of clean- liness, of good sanitation at home and at school, on the pre- vention of colds, etc.; on proper position and carriage; care of the teeth, eyes, and ears. The practical results will de- pend full more upon the hygienic control of the school and the teacher's own good example than upon the regular in- struction. For instance, the tactful and persistent teacher will be 'able not only to teach cleanliness, care of teeth, etc., but also to secure in her pupils the practice of these desir- able personal virtues. Again, a lesson on fresh air is lost if given in a stuffy and overheated schoolroom, which a little exercise of intelligence and industry might convert into a reasonably suitable room. Fifth Y!ear. Tlie sheleton. Parts: the skull, spine, ribs, bones of limbs; how the bones are joined together; how the joints work. The muscles. Use; connection to bones; action — by con- traction and relaxation; difference between muscles and fat. Digestion. The purpose of digestion; the course of food after it enters the mouth and until it is taken up into the blood, explaining the position and appearance of mouth, gul- PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 75 let, stomach, and intestines, — without going into details of processes. The Mood. What the blood is for; the different kinds of blood vessels and how the appearance of the blood in them varies. Respiration. The lungs and their appearance; the great diaphragm muscle; how we breathe; why we breathe; the windpipe and its relation to the gullet. Hygiene. Care of the teeth; bodily cleanliness and why: the sitting posture; lacing and tight shoes; fresh air; tobacco, alcohol, tea, coffee, bad food and bad cooking, and their effect; bad effects of many patent medicines. Sixth Ye;ar. The skeleton. Eeview and teach names of principal bones. Structure of bones and repair of broken bones. The muscles. Eeview. Structure; appearance; show com- position by dissecting a piece of lean meat; identification and use of principal muscles; injuries, — sprains, bruises, etc. Digestion. Eeview. The principal digestive organs and their secretions; the salivary glands; the stomach; the liver and pancreas; the intestines. The hlood. Eeview. The heart as a great pump; the con- nection of the veins and arteries with the heart (do not teach action of the heart). Respiration. Eeview. The circulation of the blood in the lungs and between the lungs and heart; pure and impure blood and what makes the change from one to the other. The action of the kidneys and skin. Hygiene. Eeview. Bodily conditions which invite dis- ease; how diseases spread; the micro-organisms and how they increase and are disseminated; how killed; vaccination and antitoxins; colds and their prevention; pneumonia; tubercu- losis; typhoid fever; scarlet fever. (See also Xature Study.) Emergencies. What to do in cases of burns, blazing cloth- ing, drowning accidents, etc. 76 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. Seveinth Year. The skeleton. Eeview of work of preceding grades. Con- nective tissue; cartilage and tendons; the lubrication of joints and connections; injuries to tendons^ etc. The muscles. Eeview of work of preceding grades. Iden- tification and use of principal muscles — extend the list to perhaps a dozen or fifteen; cultivation of strength and meth- ods of exercise. Digestion. Eeview of work of preceding grades. The ac- tion of the several digestive organs upon the food. The Mood. Eeview of work of preceding grades. The cir- culation and action of the heart. Respiratio7i. Eeview of work of preceding grades. The waste given off by respiration; pure and impure air and ef- fects of each. Let the class determine the cubical contents of the schoolroom and determine whether or not there is sufficient air for each pupil. The nerves. Structure and uses. Hygiene. Eeview. Sanitation: study of the local and state boards of health and their work. Have the class find out all they can about the organization of boards of health, public health laws, what local board is doing, and, if possible, get member of local board to talk to school; — public water sys- tems and their management — let the class find out if the local system is likely to be contaminated and secure a talk from some representative of the local water system if pos- sible — ; private water supply and relation to health of house- hold; milk supply and contaminated milk as a source of some diseases; sewerage systems, both public and private; safe dis- posal of sewage; impure foods and drugs as disease spread- ers; pure food and drugs laws; mosquitoes and other insects and animals as conveyers of disease, and their control. Emergencies. Eeview sixth year work, and so far as pos- sible drill the class in imaginary cases. PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 77 Eighth Year. General review of work of jDreceding years on skeleton, mus- cles, blood, digestion, and respiration. The eye. Its coats and use of each; its nervous connections. Defects of eyesight, — their causes and manifestations. Proper care of the eyes. The ear. Its structure and action. Care of the ear. The nose, the tongue, and tJie skin as the seat of tactile sense. The 'brain and spinal cord. Superficial appearance and larger details of structure. The uses of brain and cord as seats of thought, habit, instinct, etc. Very little which is known of the central nervous system is within the compre- hension of common school pupils. Emergencies. Review and drill as in seventh year. Hygiene. Review of last three years. Cooking: food con- stituents and their values; proper methods of cooking and common improper methods; harmful foods and harmful cook- ing. Household sanitation: elimination of dust; proper ven- tilation; care of sleeping rooms; care of food closets, refrig- erators, etc.; healthful and unhealthful location; care of cel- lar; disposal of waste. CHAPTEE XL HISTORY. The plan of the history course may be summarized as a spi- ral of five parts, each adapted to the dominant interest of the child rather than to a logical method of sequence. The work of the first five years contemplates the laying of a broad basis, both psychologically and historically, for later historical studv. It is not expected that the work of these years will be his- torically systematic, nor that at any moment the pupils will necessarily be able to account for dates or other facts. The emphasis is upon early life, and the work will be considered successful just in proportion as it arouses the interest of chil- dren. A sketch of the plan is here given: 1. Years I and II. Myth and hero tales of all lands. 2. Years III and IV. Eea dings in early colonial and pioneer history. 3. Year V. Eeadings in ancient history. ■i. Year YI. More careful reading of (a) American his- tory (b) English history. 5. Years YII and VIII. Intensive study of American history. Importance of history. History is one of the most important courses in the pro- gram of studies. Upon it are based all the later studies which have to do with the understanding of man in his social and political relations; and especially is it, more than any other formal study of the common school, the basis of an understanding of tlie duties of citizenship. School boards are advised that ample time and apparatus should be given to history, even if other subjects suti'er. 78 HISTORY. 79 Apparatus. The apparatus of history should include: (1) sufficient his- torical supplementary reading and texts; (2) historical maps; (3) photographs and lantern slides, if possible, of historical pictures, persons, and places; (-i) historical material, such as old deeds, letters, and other documents, and old implements and furniture. Much of it can be collected by the teacher. Dramatization. In years I to VI, especially, children are fond of acting. This characteristic is utilized by successful teachers in the dramatization of historical scenes, to the delight and profit of pupils. An historical event capable of such dramatization probably possesses a greatly deepened meaning for the chil- dren who take part in the acting. Suitable events or episodes for dramatization are the fol- lowing: Columbus: his boyhood; the convent episode; his journey and visit at court; the voyages in discovery; his return. Madam Yeardley and the visit of Indians. Church-going on Christmas Day when Madam Yeardley took the Indian. Puritan schools. Puritan churches. Priscilla and John Alden. Miles Standish and the Indians. Paul Eevere. Declaration of Independence. A good variation of dramatization would be: (1) Describing historical people and having children guess who they are. (2) Drawing pictures of historical events or persons on the board for children to guess. (3) Going to places — what historic interest to find. First and Secoxd Years. Story telling. See Impressional Language. The history of these years 80 HISTORY. will all be taken in correlation with language and on language time. The stories should deal mainly with primitive people, or rather with people living under somewhat primitive condi- tions, as did the New England forefathers. Stories of In- dians and the childhood of heroes are also excellent material. The succession of holidays furnishes a good outline and basis of work in both these years, as follows: September and October — Columbus and the Indians. November — Thanksgiving and the Pilgrims. January and February — Stories of Washington, Lincoln, and Franklin. March to June — Memorial Day and Flag Day. Stories of Eevolutionary heroes and Fourth of July. In these years, the teacher should make large use of black- board sketches to illustrate stories. The children will reproduce stories orally. They should also be allowed to illustrate stories by paper cutting, draw- ing, and pasting. Their work will of course be crude, but its educational value is none the less for that. Select scenes from stories, occasionally, to be acted by chil- dren. Material for stories will be found in the readers listed in the chapter on reading, but the teacher will find also a sup- ply in the public library and especially in old traditions of the village or city in which she teaches. There is no objec- tion, but rather an advantage, in selecting from second, third, and fourth readers, pieces for story telling, which the chil- dren will later on read. Third axd Fourth Years. Stonj telling. Continued as in preceding years. Use language time. Stories furnish material for oral and written reproduction, as does also the Historical supplementary reading. See also chapter on reading. The history here of course uses reading time. HISTORY. 81 The dominant interest still is in biography and talcs of pioneer life. Beading material. History Readers for Elementary Schools. . . .MacM. Great Americans for Little Americans. . . .A. B. C. Colonial Children Heath Stories of the Eed Children Ed. Pub. Co. Child Life Readers MacM. Children of the Wigwam /. . . .Ed. Pub. Co. American Pioneers Ed. Pub. Co. Boyhood of Famous Americans. ..... .Ed. Pub. Co. America's Story, I and II Heath Stories of American Life and Adventure. . .A. B, C. Stories of Pioneer Life Heath Explorations and Discoveries Heath Stories of the Indians of Xew England Silver Four Great Americans A. B. C. Colonial Life in Xew Hampshire Ginn Fifth Year. The history of the fifth year will be carried on according to the same principles as in earlier years, through the use of supplementary readers and by way of feeding childish inter- est rather than requiring serious study. The field of inter- est, however, is the region of antiquity, — Hebrew, Greek, and Roman. The reading period will be used for history. History reading will furnish material for themes and for drawing. Dramatization of historical scenes as in previous years. Historical reading. Old Greek Stories A. B. C. Hawthorne's Wonder Book H. M. & Co. Stories of the Bible, II and III Ed. Pub. Co. Ten Boys on the Road from Long Ago Ginn Story of the Greeks A. B. C. 82 HISTORY. Story of the Romans A. B. C. Story of Cassar A. B. C. Achilles and Hector R. M. & Co. Old Testament Stories H. M. & Co. Historical and Biographical Narratives. . . .A. B. C. Sixth Yeiak. The work of the sixth year will be a transition between the work of the preceding and that of the succeeding years. It will be mainly reading still and conducted on reading time, but as the books are read they should be discussed in class and the pupils should be expected to retain a knowledge of the main events, — their order, time, and relationship. First half -year. American history. Beading and text-hoolcs. Montgomery's Beginners' American History. . Grinn Tappan's Our Country's Story H. M. & Co. McMaster's Primary History of the United States. . ' A. B. C. Second half-year. English history. Reading and text-hooks. Blaisdell's Stories from English History Ginn Guerber's Story of the English A. B. C. Warren's The Story of the English Heath Seventh and Eighth Years. The study of United States history throughout the two years. Teachers and school boards are warned that history, like geography, must be taught as a collection of scries of cause and effect to be understood, not as a collection of facts to be memorized. Children in these years who have had an ade- quate basis of extensive historical reading are now prepared HISTORY. 83 to understand history. The purpose of history teaching is now (a) the deA^elopment of the power of studying history, (b) an intelligent appreciation of our country's institutions. History in these years, as in all the preceding years, should be closely correlated with composition. (See chapter on Lan- guage.) The pupils should frequently be given historical topics to work up in the public, or school, library; to be brought to the teacher in outline and noted for criticism; and finally to be written up and read to the class. (See similar note on Geography.) It will be necessary to select and follow some good text in history as the basis of the two years' w^ork, but in order to state the minimum requirement, and to suggest the right pro- portioning of topics, the following outline is given: Seventh year. I. (4 weeks.) Period of discovery and exploration. European conditions in the 15th century. Columbus: life, purpose, results. Other explorers: their motives and accomplishments. II. (6 weeks.) Colonial period. Study the following types of colonies: 1. Virginia type: settlements; representative government; royal governors; character of colonists. 2. New York type: settlements; Dutch rule; royal gov- ernors; relations with neighbors and Indians. 3. Pennsylvania type; settlements; proprietary govern- ment; relations with neighbors and Indians. 4. Massachusetts type: settlements; theocratic govern- ment; sub-colonies of Massachusetts; growth of representative government; relations with mother country; relations with Indians. 5. French-Canadian type: settlements; paternal govern- ment and schemes of the king; relations with Indians; con- trasts with four preceding types. III. (4 weeks.) Struggle between France and England for a continent. The inevitableness of the conflict. 84 HISTORY. Relations of each to Indians. Attitudes of the several colonies. Eeasons for English victory. Effect of war npon the colonies. IV. (12 weeks.) Revolutionary period. Causes leading up to Revolution. Attitude of America as expressed by Patrick Henry and Samuel Adams. Attitude of sympathizers in England as expressed by Edmund Burke and the Earl of Chatham. Attitude of George III. First Continental Congress. Washington: his record and character. Independence: reasons and meaning. Evacuation of Boston and New England. British attempt to isolate New England — White Plains to Saratoga. French alliance. Valley Forge and its lesson of endurance. The navy: Paul Jones. Articles of confederation. War in the South. Yorktown.. Terms of peace treaty. V. (10 weeks.) The Critical period. Not one nation but thirteen. Weakness of the confederation. Commercial warfare; paper money. Constitutional convention. (Compromises. The men of the convention. Eiglilli year. W. (2 weeks.) Rapid review of salient points of seventh year work. Vil. (12 weeks.) First period of expansion. Industrial and commercial growth — early inventions. Foiii-inna Purchase: significance and value. HISTORY. 85 Origin, principles, and growth of the political parties. Causes and results of War of 1812. Monroe Doctrine. Growth of the great West. Nullitieation. State rights. The slavery question, beginning with the constitutional convention. The beginning of the end of the Indian. Causes and results of Mexican War. Eelation of results to the slaver}^ question. Discovery of gold in California and effect on transconti- nental transportation and on emigration from Eastern States. The slavery question in the fifties. The crisis. VIII. (10 weeks.) Period of disruption. Effect of Lincoln's election on southern sentiment. South's reason for secession. North's reasons for resisting secession. Union plan of war: (a) blockade of southern ports; (b) opening of Mississippi; (c) capture of Eichmond. Study the war as a series of campaigns, requiring the class to see the object of each campaign, and the significance of the principal battles. Emancipation and thirteenth amendment. Eesults of the war: settled: (a) state rights and secession; (b) slavery question. Effects of the war (a) on North; (b) on South. IX. (12 weeks.) Eeconstruction and second period of ex- pansion. Plan of reconstruction. Fourteenth and fifteenth amendments. Effect of reconstruction period on the South. Financial condition of United States. The Monroe Doctrine and its application since the Civil War. Territorial expansion since the Civil War. Current events should be a part of the daily work of the 86 HISTORY. schoolroom. They are history in the process of making, are usually to be interpreted by historical reference, and often illustrate some phase of historical study. Beading for teachers. The teacher of history must read, read, read, a long way beyond and outside of the vision of her pupils. She should own a few substantial treatises, both histories and books on teaching history, and should read extensively the public li- brary list, magazine articles, etc. A suggestive list is here- with given. The names of those books which every teacher ought to own are marked *. *Special Method in History, McMurry MacM. * Guide to the Study of American History, Channing & Hart Ginn The Teaching of History and Civics, Bourne / Longmans How to Study and Teach History, Hinsdale Appleton Eeport of the Committee of Seven, N. E. A.. .MacM. The Discovery of America. *The Beginnings of New England. Old Virginia and Her Neighbors. The Dutch and Quaker Colonies. New France and New England. *The Critical Period of American History. The American Revolution, John Fiske. .H. M. & Co. Pioneers of France in the New World. La Salle and the Discovery of the Great West. California and the Oregon Trail. Montcalm and Wolfe, Parkman. .Little, Brown & Co. American History told by Contemporaries, Hart.. MacM. ^Students' History of the United States, Channing MacM. The Winning of the West, Roosevelt G. Putnam's Sons HrSTORY. *An Historical Geograj^hy of the United States, MaeConn Silver Home Life in Colonial Days, Earle MacM. Customs and Fashions of Old Xew England, Earle Scribners Costumes of Colonial Times, Earle Scribners Colonial Era, Fisher Scribners The Story of the Eevolution, Lodge Scribners Nature and Man in America, Shaler Scribners American Statesmen Series H. M. & Co. CHAPTER XIL CIVIL GOVERNMENT. The study of civil government is scheduled for the eighth year. Previously to that time, the pupil should have acquired a considerable knowledge of government from studies in geog- raphy and history, and from supplementary reading. The Study of the eighth year would best he based upon a ouitable text, although this is not essential. The outline which folloAvs is given for the guidance of teachers who have no text, and also for guidance in method of treatment in cases where a text is used. In either case, schoolroom w^ork must be supplemented by visits to the seat of government wherever possible, — to the selectmen's office, to town and school district meetings, to the county court-house, the city hall, the capitol at Concord. Wherever feasible, the class should be taken to meetings of court, city government, and the general court. Whenever the teacher or any pupil has visited Washington, a full account should be given to the class. Civil government is closely connected with the history of the seventh and eighth years. Apparatus. The apparatus of civil government, beside texts, is public documents and reports of all kinds, and especially current events having to do w^ith affairs of government, — local, state, and national. Laljoraiory ivork in civil government is tlie reduction of functions of government to schoolroom illustration and ex- perience. Wherever possible the class should be organized as (a) town meeting and town officers, (b) city government, (c) moot court and county officers, (d) state government. The capable teacher can accomplish great good by correlating her civil government and school management. She may organize CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 89 the school on the basis of self-government, allowing pupils to make laws, elect officers, and enforce their laws — subject to veto power. It is recommended that the study of civil government be based largely on New Hampshire conditions, with but slight reference to historical development, — except in the case of the national government, — or to variations in other states. Such references will be more likely to confuse than to help the pupil's understanding at this stage. I. (12 weeks.) Local government. 1. The town: what the town government does for the people; appropriation of money; assessment and collection of taxes; election and duties of town officers; preservation of order and administration of justice in the town. 2. The city: what the city government does for the people; representative government; election of councils, — • caucuses, etc.; appropriation of money; assessment and col- lection of taxes; election or appointment of city officers; du- ties of several departments; preservation of order and admin- istration of justice in the city. 3. The school district in Xew Hampshire: how it differs from town and city; its revenues, how derived and how ex- pended; its officers. II. (2 weeks.) County government. What the county does for the people and why we need counties in addition to local government. The county revenues — how derived and how expended. The county officers, their election and duties. III. (10 weeks.) The state government. Study of the constitution of New Hampshire. (a) The sources of authority of all government within the state; (b) what the state can do better than towns, cities, or counties. Sources of revenues and appropriation of the same. The state government — how chcsen and duties and powers: (a) general court; (b) governor and council; (c) departments of state government; (d) state courts and their jurisdiction. 90 CIVIL GOVERNMENT. IV. (12 weeks.) The national government. Study of the United States constitution. Eelation of national to state governments. What the United States can do better than towns or cities, counties or states. The national revenues — whence derived and how appro- priated. The national government, — how chosen, duties and powers: (a) congress; (b) president and cabinet; (c) departments of national government; (d) the United States courts and their jurisdiction. CHAPTEE XIII. MUSIC. It is not the mission of the music of the public schools to make musicians any more than it is the mission of reading poetry to make poets. Music is taught precisely as any other subject is taught, primarily for its value in rounding out the development of the educated man or woman. A competent special teacher and supervisor of music is desirable but not essential. Xearly every teacher can sing some, and, since technical excellence is not a matter of pri- mary importance, every teacher should do what she can. Ex- cellent results have sometimes been obtained by teachers who have had an understanding of the elements of music, but who could not sing at all. First Grade. Songs by rote, without any sort of representation, develop the sense of tonality and rhythm through the use of melodic phrases sung with sol fa syllables and with words. Later in the year, if it seems advisable, add to this, for eye-training, the use of the staff, with notes to represent melodies, with the keynote in different positions on the staff. Eote singing and ear training should be the most important feature of the year's work. Second Grade. Rote song work should be prominent throughout the year. Eeview work of the first year. Individual and class drill in singing melodic phrases by syllables and words from dicta- tion work. Staff work in different key positions for eye training. Eeading simple melodies from the chart or black- board or from the book if thought desirable. 91 92 MUSIC. Third Grade. Eote singing. Eeview all previous work in staff drill and dictation. Promote eye training by a study of the staff by lines and spaces in all keys. Individual proficiency in per- ception of the function of the staff degrees, as representing the tones of the scale, should be secured. Review the note reading work of second year briefly. Begin the use of two tones to one beat and practice until class can sing two tones to one beat from the notes during the latter part of the year. Sight singing and rhythm practice. Special attention should be given to the development of the sense of rhythm these first three years. Fourth Grade. The end of the fourth year should find the children able to read simple music at sight in any major key. They should be able to sing sharp four, sharp five, sharp two, and flat seven. They should be able to sing exercises in 2-4, 3-4, and 4-4 measure and to sing readily groups of tones represented by the dotted quarter and eighth notes. They should know the names of the notes and the pitch names. The ability to read music should be utilized by the singing of a large num- ber of songs wholly or partly at sight, and they should be able to sing suitable tM^o-part melodies. Fifth Grade. At the end of the fifth year the class should be able to sing all the sharps and flats from the tone above and some of the flats from the tone below. In rhythm they should be able to sing at sight exercises containing the dotted eighth and sixteenth and the simple forms of G-8 measure, two beats to a measure. They should be able to sing two-part melodies at sight. Sixth Grade. The class should become familiar with all chromatic tones, both sharps and flats, and be able to apply syllables to any MUSIC. 93 melody they have in mind from memory. They should use melodies and exercises in the minor mode and should prac- tice the different forms of the minor scale. They should begin three-part singing. Should begin writing the signatures of the major keys from memory. In rhythm they should study all the forms found in 6-8 measure^ two beats to a measure. Simple songs should be sung at sight without the use of syllables. Sevexth Grade. The class should use chromatic tones with facility. They should sing readily in three parts. They should become fa- miliar with the different forms of the minor scale, their rela- tion to the major scales, and write them with their proper signatures. In rhythm they should be able to read readily all the forms found in 6-8 measure, two beats to a measure, to sing four tones to a beat and should study syncopation. Eighth Grade. The singing of standard songs, the study of composers' lives and introductory history and musical literature should be the leading work. The technical work previously studied should be reviewed and be enlarged upon if it seems desir- able. KoTE. — Special attention is called to the value of written work in all grades above the first. Small beginnings in orig- inal melody may be made in the primary grades, later scale progressions, intervals, phrases of songs learned and melodies from dictation. In upper grades original melodies set to simple couplets and stanzas. In all grades the voices of the children should be light in quality, smooth and free from harshness. All the singing should be intelligent, with good phrasing and proper attention to the sentiment of the words. Standard FA:\riLiAR Songs. The teaching of the standard familiar hymns, national, pa- triotic, and folk songs may be begun in the third year (or ear- 94 MUSIC. lier) and carried forward through succeeding years until all the best of such songs are known by each child, and he is able to sing them from memory. Following is a list of standard familiar songs which each (diild should know by the end of the fifth or sixth year. Hymns general in cliaracter. "Heavenly Father, Sovereign Lord.'' "Come, thou Almighty King." "0, Paradise.'' "Jerusalem the Golden." "Portuguese Hymn." "God Ever Glorious." "Abide With Me." "Onward, Christian Soldiers." "Praise the Lord." Chrisfnias hymns. "It Came Upon the Midnight Clear." "Hark, the Herald Angels Sing." "Holy Night, Silent Night." Naticnal and patriotic. "America." "Battle Hymn of the Eepublic." "Star Spangled Banner." "Red, White, and Blue." "Rally Round the Flag." "Tenting Tonight." "Marching Through Georgia." American Folk Songs. "Old Folks at Home." "Old Kentucky Home." "Massa's in the Cold, Cold Ground." "Home, Sweet Home." "The Dearest Spot." Folk Songs. "Blue Bells of Scotland " "Annie Laurie." MUSIC. 95 "Loch Lomond." "Auld Lang Syne." "The Harp That Once Through Tara's Halls.^ "Oft in the Stilly Night." "Last Eose of Summer." "Watch on the Rhine." "March of the Men of Harlech." "All Through the Xight." CHAPTER XIV. DEAWIXG. Often the school board ma}^ find it advantageous to use a text, or series of texts, for drawing. In that case tlie outline thus provided may be followed. The outline here given is, however, detailed to such an extent the texts will usually be found unnecessary. The object of the teaching of drawing in the public schools is not to make artists, but rather to train the minds of all pupils to an appreciation and enjo^anent of that wdiich 1^= beautiful in form and color. Its practical eft'ect should ap- pear in a heightened good taste in the choice of wearing apparel, furniture, etc., and in the erection and adornment of homes. This subject is peculiarly susceptible of correlation with others, especially with nature, history, literature and compo- sition, geography and manual training. In its relation to other subjects it is recreationary and, when properly taught, ■it should enhance the value of results in rather than detract from other subjects. A competent special teacher should, if possible, be em- ployed; but failing that, the capable regular teacher can ac- complish important results. The outline is planned under the following heads: Natuke Drawing. The representation of plants, animals, and the human fig- ure. Appropriate rendering with pencil and brush, in neutrals and color. Decorative composition. 96 DRAWING. 97 Color. Elements, schemes, harmony. Mixing of pigments. Study of examples of harmonious coloring. Application in representation and decorative design. Pictorial Drawixg. The representation of the appearance of objects. Perspective principles. Eendering with pencil and brush, in neutrals and color. Study of pictures by masters. Composition. Structural Drawing. Structural elements: geometric figures, solids, abstract curves. Elements of beauty: harmonious relation, refinement. Accurate drawing with compasses and ruler. Study of examples of good applied design in common ob- jects, as to fitness to purpose and refinement of form. Designing of common objects. Deoorative Drav^ing. Geometric, floral, and symbolic elements. Arrangement to secure balance, rhythm, and harmony. Study of examples of good design. Designing of borders, surfaces, and panels, in harmonious coloring. First Year, september. Draw sedges, grasses, and fall flowers, as aster and dande- lion, with colored pencil, to show growth and movement. Practice drawing circles and straight lines on the black- board. 98 DRAWING. OCTOBEK. Draw sedges, grasses, and flowers, in circles or oblongs, ])ro- pared by the teacher, and add initial to make a well-balanced arrangement. Study the spectrum and six standard colors, E, 0, Y, G, B, V, and collect illustrations. Make the six-toned spectrum from colored paper. NOVEMBEK, Practice with brush, and fill circles with washes of primary colors, E, Y, B. Draw fruits: orange, lemon, banana; and vegetables: potato, beet, carrot, with colored crayons. Make drawings suggestive of Thanksgiving. DECEMBEK. Practice printing capital letters. Make gift cards or blotters appropriate to the season, using drawings or mounted pictures. Select and study Christmas pictures. JANUARY. Study pictures for the story. Examples for study: A Piper and Pair of Nut Crackers Landseer The Pet Bird Meyer Von Bremen The Holy Night Correggio Practice drawing circles and squares on the blackboard. Draw objects of simple proportions, as a circular fan, a square holder, a watch, in silhouette. FEBRUARY. Draw common animals, as rooster, cat, or rabbit. Make freehand drawings of circle, s(|nare, and oblong. Practice in the use of the ruler, and measurement of inches. DRAWING. ^9 MAKCir. ^laVe drawings of square and oblong, using the ruler. Make a Japanese flag or a cold wave signal from colored paper, and mount on a background. Make a badge from colored paper, and mount on a back- ground. APKIL. Study stripe patterns in contrasted coloring, from collected illustrations. Practice with the brush, and make simple stripe patterns, using a standard color. Begin the study of simple spring flowers with colored pen- cil. MAY. Draw simple spring flowers, as dandelion, buttercup, bluet. Study borders from collected illustrations having simple evi- dent units. Practice arrangement and spacing, and copy simple frets; first laying sticks, afterward drawing. JUNE. Make borders of lines or simple figures. Make borders suitable for handkerchiefs, using plant details or other simple forms as units. Second Year. september. Draw sedges, grasses, and fall flowers, as aster and dande- lion, or seed vessels, as rose hip or poppy head, with colored pencil or brush, to show growth and movement. Practice drawing circles and straight lines on the black- board. OCTOBER. Draw sedges, grasses, flowers or seed vessels, in circles or oblongs, and add initials to make a well-balanced arrange- ment. 100 DRAWING. Eeview the spectrum standards. Study gradation of color, light and dark — key tone, tints and shades, and arrange collected illustrations. Make scales of standards from colored paper. NOVEMBEE. Practice with the brush, and fill circles with flat washes of color, mixing primaries to make secondaries — E plus Y equals 0; Y plus B equals G; B plus E equals V. Draw fruits: orange, lemon, banana, apple, pear, plum; and vegetables: potato, beet, turnip, carrot, squash, onion, with colored crayons, studying characteristic markings and sug- gesting light and dark. Make a drawing suggestive of Thanksgiving. DECEMBER. Practice printing alphabet of capitals. Make gift cards or blotters, using drawings or mounted pic- tures, and add appropriate greetings. Select and study Christmas pictures. JANUARY. Study pictures for the story. Examples for study: A Fascinating Tale Mme. Eonner A Helping Hand Eenouf The Children of the Shell MurilJo Practice drawing circles, squares, triangles, and oblongs, on the blackboard. Draw common objects, as a hand bag, an open fan, a whisk broom, or a simple plant in pot, in silhouette. FEBRUARY. Draw common animals, as rooster, bird, dog, cat, rabbit, to show some characteristic action: eating, running, etc. DRAWING. 101 Make freehand drawings of circle, square, triangle, and ob- long. Practice in the use of the ruler, and measurement of inches and half inches. ]VIARCH. Make drawings of the triangle and oblong, using the ruler. ' Make a Greek cross from colored paper and mount on a background. Make a shield from colored paper and mount on a back- ground. Apply the Greek cross to the decoration of covers for num- ber, language, or other school work. APEIL. Study stripe patterns having wide and narrow stripes of one color, from collected illustrations. Practice with the brush, and make arrangements of broad and narrow stripes in two tones of one standard. Begin the study of buds and spring flowers, with colored pencil and brush. MAY. Draw simple spring flowers, as daisy, dandelion, buttercup, in different positions: top view, side view. Study arrangement and spacing in surface designs, from . collected illustrations of polka dot and other simple patterns. Practice arrangement and spacing, and copy a simple sur- face design. JUNE. Make surface designs, using lines or simple figures as units. Make surface designs, using plant details as units. Third Year. september. Draw sedges, grasses, fall flowers, as aster and dandelion, fall berries, woodbine, or simple brilliantly colored leaves, with colored pencil or brush to show growth and movement. 102 DRAWING. Practice drawing on the blackboard, circles and straight lines, and abstract curves: the curve of force, the reversed curve, and the spiral. Draw sedges, grasses, leaves, flowers or seed vessels in circles or oblongs, and add initials to obtain good space division and balance. Eeview standard colors, tints and shades, and compare black, white, and gray. Stud}^ gradation of color by hues, and arrange collected il- lustrations. Make color groups, each containing a standard and two re- lated hues, from colored paper. Eeview the mixing of primary colors to make secondaries: E plus Y equals 0; Y plus B equals G; B plus E equals V. Fill circles with flat washes of color, modifying standards to make hues: E to VE or OE, 0 to EO or YO, Y to OY or GY, etc. Draw fruits or vegetables singly, and in groups of two or three, with colored crayons or with brush and color, studying characteristic marking, and suggesting variations in hue. Make a drawing suggestive of Thanksgiving. Practice printing alphabet of capitals. Make gift cards, blotters, or calendars, using drawings or mounted pictures, and add appropriate greetings. Select and study Christmas pictures. OCTOBER. N'OYEMBEE. DEOEMBBR. JANUARY. Study pictures for the story. Examples for study: "Can't You Talk?". . Feeding Her Birds.. The Sistine Madonna Eaphael Holmes . .Millet DRAWING. 103 Practice drawing ellipses, triangles, and oblongs of different proportions on the blackboard. Draw common objects, as a jar or jug, chatelaine bag, bowl containing spoon, a simple plant in pot or a toy or doll in silhouette. FEBEUART. Draw common animals, as rooster, bird, dog, cat, mouse, fish, and add some simple object as accessory, as dog and house, mouse and trap, fish in globe. Practice in the use of the ruler, and measurement of inches, half and quarter inches. MARCH. Draw oblongs of different proportions with diameters and diagonals, using the ruler. Make a Maltese cross from colored paper and mount on a background. Make a paper cutter from stiff card and mount on a back- ground. Apply the Maltese cross to the decoration of a cover for number or language papers, or other school work. APRIL. Study simple plaid patterns from collected illustrations. Practice with the brush, and make plaids with broad and narrow stripes, using a standard color and one or two hues. Begin the study of buds and spring flowers with colored pen- cil and brush. MAY. Draw simple spring flowers, as daisy, cowslip, dandelion, buttercup, in different positions: top view, side view. Study arrangement and spacing, in surface designs having simple evident units, from collected illustrations. Practice grouping lines, spots,. or simplest geometric figures to make units. 104 DRAWING. JUNE. Make surface designs, using these units. Make surface designs, using plant details as nnits. Fourth Yeae. septembe^e. Draw simple sprays of leaves, flowers, as aster or marigold, seed pods, as bean or pea, with pencil or brush, giving special attention to lines of growth and character of mass. Practice drawing on the blackboard, circles and straight lines, and abstract curves: the curve of force, the reversed curve, and spiral. OCTOBER. Draw with the brush simple sprays, flowers or seed pods in oblong enclosing forms, arranged to secure good space divi- sion and balance. Study scales of color for values: central tone, tints, and shades. Analyze for their color schemes, natural specimens con- taining two or three tones of one color, using colored paper. NOVEMBER. Make with water color a scale of five tones, having three intermediate tones of gray between black and white. Make a similar scale having the three intermediate tones of one color. Study apparent changes in the size and level of objects, as affected by distance, from collected pictures. Draw fruit or vegetables singly and in simple groups, giv- ing special attention to character, and indicating the separa- tion between background and foreground. DECEMBER. Continue the drawing of simple groups. Make a drawing of some object from memory. DRAWING. 105 Practice printing alphabets of capitals and small letters. Make Christmas cards, using drawings or small pictures and printing appropriate text to make a well-balanced whole. JANUARY. Study pictures for artistic treatment and composition: unity through emphasis of principal object and subordination of de- tails. Examples for study: Kabyl Schreyer Penelope Boothby Eeynolds Madonna and Child Dagnan-Bouveret Write a description of one of the pictures studied, with something of the artist and his other works. The work of the class should include all three. Draw in outline single objects or groups of two objects, arranged decoratiyely within given spaces, and fill with washes of black and gray, or