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 LIBRARY | 
 
 University of Illinois. 
 
 BOOK. VOLUME. 
 
 CLASS 
 
 
 Accession No. V\A^> 
 
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INTRODU 
 
 ^*>xo 
 
 PRACTICAL 
 
 FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS . 
 
 BY 
 
 THOMAS BALDWIN, M.R.I.A., 
 
 SUPERINTENDENT OF THE AGRICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF NATIONAL 
 EDUCATION IN IRELAND, AND AUTHOR OF VARIOUS 
 TREATISES ON AGRICULTURE. 
 
 MACMILLAN AND CO. 
 i 8 75 * 
 
 [The Right of Translation and Reproduction is Reserved.} 
 
LONDON I 
 
 R. CLAY, SONS, AND TAYLOR, PRINTERS, 
 BREAD STREET HILL. 
 
? 
 
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 o 
 
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 £ 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 Manures. 
 
 I. HOW LAND BECOMES EXHAUSTED I 
 
 II. FARM-YARD MANURE . 5 
 
 III. LIQUID MANURE 8 
 
 IV. ARTIFICIAL MANURES 9 
 
 V. LIME 15 
 
 PART II. 
 
 The Crops to Grow, and How to Grow them. 
 
 I. THE SEVERAL SYSTEMS OF CROPPING . . . . 19 
 
 II. THE POTATO 26 
 
 III. CARROTS AND PARSNIPS 28 
 
 IV. TURNIPS AND MANGOLD WURTZEL 29 
 
 V. CABBAGE AND RAPE 33 
 
 VI. GRAIN CROPS 35 
 
 VII. BEANS AND PEAS 38 
 
 VIII. FORAGE AND HERBAGE CROPS 40 
 
 IX. CLOVERS 42 
 
 X. THE GRASSES 43 
 
 XI. HAYMAKING 49 
 
 XII. ON FLAX 52 
 
IV 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PART III. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Live Stock. 
 
 I. ON THE FOOD OF ANIMALS 55 
 
 II. THE SEVERAL BREEDS OF CATTLE 62 
 
 III. ON THE REARING OF CALVES 65 
 
 IV. THE FEEDING OF MILCH COWS 69 
 
 V. ON DAIRY MANAGEMENT 75 
 
 VI. ON THE FATTENING OF CATTLE ..... 93 
 
 [VII. THE FARM HORSE 97 
 
 VIII. ON SHEEP . . IOO 
 
 IX. ON SWINE 105 
 
 X. ON POULTRY 1 12 
 
 PART IV. 
 
 Cottage Gardening 122 
 
 PART V. 
 
 Farm Management. 
 
 I. ON SOME OF THE DEFECTS IN IRISH AGRI- 
 CULTURE 137 
 
 II. ON CLIMATE AND OTHER MATTERS AFFECTING 
 
 IRISH AGRICULTURE I44 
 
 III. SUGGESTIONS FOR THE BETTER MANAGEMENT 
 
 OF SMALL FARMS . I49 
 
 IV. A FARM OF SIX ACRES 1 59 
 
 V. ONE HORSE FARMS 1 68 
 
 VI. A FARM * OF I40 ACRES OF GOOD DEEP LAND . 1 73 
 
 VII. FARMING ON A LARGE SCALE 1 78 
 
INTRODU 
 
 1 
 
 TO 
 
 PRACTICAL FARMING. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 MANURES. 
 
 I. HOW LAND BECOMES EXHAUSTED. 
 
 1. Plants, like animals, require food. The food 
 of plants consists, in addition to water, of two kinds 
 of matter — namely, fixed and volatile . The fixed 
 matter is made up of ten or twelve substances, derived 
 solely from the soil ; and the volatile of four bodies 
 derived by our cultivated crops partly from the air 
 and partly from the soil, and which fly away into the 
 air under the action of heat, and are, in consequence, 
 called volatile . Many wild* plants have the power of 
 growing on hard rock destitute of any volatile matter ; 
 but cultivated plants, such as the cabbage, require for 
 their full growth a soil containing such matter. We 
 increase the quantity of volatile matter in the soil by 
 laying it down to grass; and by the application of 
 farm-yard manure, of peat, and of other vegetable sub- 
 
 B 
 
2 INTRODUCTION TO [part 
 
 stances. The quantity of this matter in the soil varies 
 very much. Rich gardens contain a great deal of it, 
 and it may be said that, with certain exceptions, the 
 amount required for the growth of crops should 
 increase with their luxuriance and delicacy. Of farm 
 crops, the cabbage and the grasses require it in large 
 quantity. The cabbage should therefore be grown 
 in rich ground. Of the grass family of plants, there 
 is none which luxuriates in a soil rich in combus- 
 tible matter, or matter that can be burnt away, so 
 much as Italian rye-grass, of which more will be said 
 further on, and of which enormous crops are obtained 
 by skilful management on reclaimed bog and moor. 
 The fixed constituents of plants, also called the ash and 
 mineral constituents, are invariably obtained from the 
 soil. A soil deficient in any one, or in more than one 
 of them, is barren. They exist in very different pro- 
 portions in the different families of crops. The com- 
 position of the same sort or variety of crop is pretty 
 constant. 
 
 2. We see, then, that a given weight of any crop 
 must take out of the ground a quantity of fixed or ash 
 constituents. If the crop, or part of it, be sold off the 
 farm, it is evident the total quantity of the ash con- 
 stituents in the soil must be lessened. If the quantity 
 of these constituents sold off were returned to the 
 soil in manure, it would not suffer any deterioration ; 
 but if crop after crop be sold without any manure, 
 it is evident the supply of ash constituents will become 
 less and less, and the yield may be so far reduced that 
 the crop would not pay. This actually occurred in 
 some of the Slave States of America, where the land 
 was so reduced in condition by crops of tobacco fol- 
 lowing each other year after year, that it had for a time 
 to be left untilled, and abandoned to a state of nature. 
 It is occurring at the present moment in other parts 
 of America, in parts of the Australian colonies, and 
 elsewhere. 
 
I.] 
 
 PRACTICAL FA 
 
 i r 
 
 m 
 
 
 fore^pvt 
 :essary to ex- 
 
 3. Before we can apply the k 
 going facts to practical agriculture, 
 plain that only a very small part-^a^y more than 
 the one-hundredth part — of the soil isV aOtny one time 
 in a state to afford food to our crops, the; Btilk of the 
 constituents being locked up in the structure, 
 soil in an unavailable condition — that is, in such a 
 state that the plants cannot use it. The stones in the 
 soil may contain the same substances as the soil itself, 
 yet we know that crops can feed on the soil, but not 
 on the stones. In the course of time, and under the 
 influence of air and moisture, the constituents of the 
 stones become gradually liberated, and thus made fit 
 food for plants. The process is slow, but it is con- 
 tinuous. The stones in our buildings crumble, and 
 so the stone and particles of the soil are gradually 
 worn down, and their constituents converted into 
 plant-food. An interesting illustration of this principle 
 is afforded in the observation that the removal of 
 stones from poor land, when they appear to be in 
 excess, often does harm. The farmer, in ignorance 
 of a better explanation, says the removal of the stones 
 makes the land cold ; the true explanation is to be 
 found chiefly in the circumstance that the stones, by 
 the wearing down of their surface, afford a certain 
 amount of food to the crop. 
 
 4. If we apply the principles which we have so far 
 explained to the occupiers of land in remote or badly- 
 farmed districts, we shall see that the soil, having for 
 ages been made to bear crops without adequate manure, 
 has been reduced to a poor state. Dairy produce, 
 young stock, grain crops, and the potato, have taken 
 out of the land a good deal of its most valuable ash 
 constituents. The potato contains a large amount of 
 potash, and this substance, though abundant in argil- 
 laceous clay, is contained in very small quantity in the 
 light lands in the hands of many of our small farmers. 
 Recent research tends to show that the potato disease 
 
 p. * 
 
4 INTRODUCTION TO [part 
 
 is mitigated by the application of a manure containing 
 potash. 
 
 5 . Of all the component parts of our soils, phos- 
 phate of lime is most liable to become deficient. It 
 exists in ordinary land, especially in light land, in very 
 small quantity ; yet it is contained in grain, in the 
 bones of animals, in dairy produce, and in every 
 species of produce disposed of by the farmer. It has 
 been shown that an enormous quantity of this sub- 
 stance is annually taken out of the soil of this country, 
 — that it is essential to pay proper attention to its 
 restoration, and that a vast number of farms has been 
 reduced to a state bordering on barrenness by the 
 ruinous system hitherto pursued. 
 
 6. That the system of agriculture followed in many 
 parts of the country has reduced the fertility of the soil 
 to a very low condition is known to all experienced 
 persons, and is made plain by reference to the modern 
 practice of applying artificial manures. Under our 
 direction, an application of 2 cwt. per statute acre 
 of the manure now commonly sold at 6s . per cwt. 
 under the name of sicperphosphate of lime, containing 
 48 lbs. of phosphate of lime, increased the yield of 
 turnips on poor light land by nine tons. We have seen 
 similar results on poor light land on the chalk formation 
 in Wiltshire. It will, then, be asked — How comes it 
 that our soil has not been reduced to a state of abso- 
 lute sterility, if it has been for ages subjected to the- 
 process of exhaustion we have described ? The answer 
 is, that the total quantity of its constituents sold off in 
 any one year is very small : in some cases there has 
 been a counter-process of restoration, in the applica- 
 tion of sea-weed, of fish, and other substances ; and 
 plant-food has been liberated by the wearing down of 
 the stones and particles of the soil. When the quantity 
 of matter added or liberated in this way equalled the 
 quantity sold off, the farmer did not experience any 
 deficiency in his crops. When the demand on the soil 
 
PRACTICAL FARMING. 
 
 i.J 
 
 5 
 
 exceeded the quantity of plant-food liberated, he rested 
 his land. Sometimes it was left to cover itself with 
 natural herbage ; sometimes it was rested for a year and 
 fallowed, which means that it was during this year 
 repeatedly ploughed and harrowed, to promote the 
 action of air and moisture in liberating its constituents. 
 It is to be remembered, too, that one of the leading 
 features of modern agriculture is the liberal use of 
 artificial or purchased manures ; and that in a great 
 many instances the farmer has seen the necessity of 
 using marl and composts of various kinds. 
 
 7 . The lamentable consequences likely to arise 
 from a neglect of the great law of exhaustion, which 
 we have endeavoured to expound, have been brought 
 home to us by the Irish famine. It is a matter of 
 scientific certainty that the fearful havoc committed 
 by the potato disease in Ireland was largely owing to 
 the fact that her soil had been reduced by the con- 
 tinued growth of the potato crop, and of other crops, 
 without an adequate return in manure. 
 
 II. FARM-YARD MANURE. 
 
 8. The great means of preserving our soil in a pro- 
 ductive state has been the collection and preservation 
 of farm-yard manure, which consists of the fecal and 
 waste products of the farm. The consideration of 
 this substance, therefore, demands our best attention. 
 
 9. The cow-house, stable, and piggery should be 
 carefully cleaned out at least once a day, and the waste 
 carried to the manure-heap, the site and management 
 of which do not receive adequate attention. In small 
 farm districts it too frequently happens that the manure 
 is accumulated in front of the door of the dwelling- 
 house, giving rise to most offensive effluvia., which 
 often produce disease. Again, we often see small 
 heaps of manure lying loosely here and there about 
 
6 INTRODUCTION TO [part 
 
 the house and offices, by which its substance is wasted, 
 as we shall now explain. 
 
 10. The food of plants is supplied by the mineral 
 kingdom. Animal or vegetable bodies deprived of 
 life soon begin to decay, by which they go back again 
 to the inorganic or mineral kingdom, and become fit 
 to supply the wants of plants. A heap of farm-yard 
 manure, exposed to air, moisture, and a certain degree 
 of heat, decreases in bulk and weight, its combustible 
 constituents being gradually converted into volatile 
 substances, and its ash constituents being liberated 
 and left behind. If the manure be under cover, the 
 diminution in its bulk will be very slow, but it goes on 
 nevertheless, the progress of the change depending on 
 the quantity of air and moisture present, and on the 
 degree of heat. Under the influence of these three 
 agents, nothing would ultimately remain of the 
 manure, even if under cover, but its ash constituents. 
 
 11 . In the manure-heap, this change goes on very 
 slowly. The farmer can accelerate or retard it by 
 varying the quantity of air and moisture. For exam- 
 ple, when we want the manure to rot slowly, we com- 
 press the heap, and thus exclude air. If the season 
 is advancing, and we have reason to fear the manure 
 is not rotting fast enough, we turn the heap, so as to 
 let more air into it. Sometimes it is turned twice in 
 the season ; but this, under ordinary circumstances, 
 should be avoided, as the extra labour is unnecessary. 
 All the valuable products of decay in a manure-heap 
 are soluble in water ; hence it is necessary to prevent 
 the rain from washing them away. The thick, black 
 liquid, which is seen trickling away from the manure- 
 heaps of so many of our farmers, contains the very 
 essence of the manure. 
 
 12. As farm-yard manure is made up of the void- 
 ings of the farm animals, and of the materials used 
 in littering them, it is evident that, when properly 
 made, it contains all the mineral constituents taken 
 
PRACTICAL FARMING. 
 
 7 
 
 i.] 
 
 out of the ground by crops, except what is sold off. 
 It may be regarded as the most perfect of all 
 manures ; for it contains not only every mineral sub- 
 stance found in plants, but also a great deal of volatile 
 matter, derived from the air by the plants from which 
 it is produced. In addition to the materials of which 
 farm-yard manure is made up, it is desirable to collect 
 into a compost-heap weeds and refuse substances. 
 
 13. A cow fed in the house gives about a ton of 
 farm-yard manure per month ; two cows, house-fed 
 throughout the year, or four, during the winter half 
 year, would therefore produce twenty-four tons, which 
 would manure an acre of potatoes or of roots. 
 
 14. When manure or compost-heaps decay, bad 
 smells are, as already explained, generated, which are 
 most injurious to the health of the people. A manure 
 or compost-heap of any kind should not, therefore, 
 be placed in front of the dwelling. 
 
 15. A proper receptacle should be formed for the 
 manure-heap, and, if possible, it should be placed on 
 the north side of the farm-yard. With the view of eco- 
 nomizing labour, |it should be as near as possible 
 to the byre, and stable and piggery ; and, for obvious 
 reasons, it should be as remote as possible from the 
 dairy and dwelling-house. It should also be on 
 level ground ; for if placed on sloping ground, there 
 would be a great loss of the liquid, which would make 
 its way down the slope ; and if placed in a hollow, it 
 becomes too much saturated with rain-water. 
 
 16. Many farmers have a slovenly and wasteful 
 practice of allowing the manure of the byre, stable, 
 and piggery to lie for days and weeks in small loose 
 heaps, exposed to the deteriorating influence of air 
 and rain. 
 
 . To avoid this, the manure-heap should be occa- 
 sionally dressed. If surrounded by a wall, it can 
 easily be kept tidy. In this case the manure from 
 the several offices should be scattered over the 
 
8 INTRODUCTION TO [part 
 
 heap. On small farms, where labour is abundant, 
 the manure-heap should be covered occasionally, 
 and particularly in summer, with a layer of peat, 
 vegetable mould, or earth, to absorb ammonia, and 
 other valuable products of decomposition. When 
 peat exists on the farm or in the neighbourhood, 
 it is one of the best substances to be used 
 for the purpose: the fecal matters of the animals 
 induce the decay of the peat, and thus convert it into 
 good manure. In the absence of peat, the following 
 plan of making manure has been successfully practised 
 on small farms. The site of the dung-heap is made 
 level. There is no channel surrounding it. Earth 
 is placed round about the heap as soon as any manure 
 collects in it ; and when this earth is saturated with 
 the oozing from the manure, it is shovelled on to the 
 top of the heap, and fresh earth put in its place ; and 
 this, when saturated, is again put on top of the fresh 
 dung added. The liquid manure of the cattle is re- 
 ceived in a barrel, and regularly poured on the whole. 
 In this way the earth itself is converted into a valuable 
 fertilizer, not only by the absorption of some of the 
 products formed by the decomposition of the manure, 
 but also by the conversion of some of its own dor- 
 mant constituents into active food for plants. 
 
 III. LIQUID MANURE. 
 
 18. The liquid voided by the domestic animals is 
 commonly called liquid manure, a name which is 
 also given to the drainage of dung-heaps, and to town 
 sewage. 
 
 19 . The most profitable way of disposing of this 
 substance is by causing it to be absorbed by the solid 
 or farm-yard manure. For, firstly, as the liquid and 
 solid excrements of animals differ in composition, a 
 perfect manure is obtained when they are mixed 
 together. Secondly, as the liquid soon begins to fer- 
 
PRACTICAL FAR AUNG. 
 
 9 
 
 i.] 
 
 ment, it promotes the decomposition of the solid 
 manure. Thirdly, as a good deal of the water of 
 liquid manure is evaporated, the cost of conveying it 
 to the land is kept as low as possible. 
 
 20. When liquid manure is disposed of in this way, 
 the litter is made to absorb a good deal of it ; the 
 quantity so absorbed depending on the quantity of 
 litter used. A channel or drain should convey the 
 remainder to a receptacle, which, on a small farm, 
 may consist of a barrel or two, or distillery vats. 
 The large farmer must build a tank of brick or stone. 
 It should be well lined with cement inside, and drained 
 all round, to prevent the water that would otherwise 
 accumulate in the surrounding soil from pressing in 
 the wall. Some or all of the liquid that accumulates 
 in the tank should be occasionally pumped over the 
 manure-heap ; and any of it that cannot be disposed 
 of in this way should be applied to the nearest field 
 of grass. Rain-water should not be permitted to 
 enter the liquid-manure tank, especially in winter, as 
 it does not pay to convey it to the land. 
 
 IV. ARTIFICIAL MANURE. 
 
 21. An artificial manure is, literally speaking, one 
 made by art or by the hand of man, such as the seve- 
 ral kinds of superphosphate. At present the title is 
 
 x synonymous with concentrated manure, and includes 
 such natural products as Peruvian guano, and all sub- 
 stances that contain in a small bulk a large amount of 
 one or more of the most important of the elements of 
 manures. 
 
 22. The reader will understand from what has been 
 already explained, that, in the practice of modern 
 agriculture, phosphate of lime is constantly withdrawn 
 from the soil, and must be restored by applications 
 of manure. The substances used for this purpose are 
 
IO INTRODUCTION TO [part 
 
 farm-yard manure, which we have already considered, 
 and bones, guano, and other concentrated fertilizers, 
 of which we have now to treat. 
 
 23. Manures, like bones and superphosphates, which 
 depend for their efficacy chiefly on phosphates, are 
 called phosphatic manures . 
 
 24. Phosphate of lime being insoluble, or nearly 
 so, in water, but capable of being converted into bi- 
 phosphate of lime (called also superphosphate of lime), 
 which is soluble, by sulphuric or muriatic acid, Liebig 
 suggested the propriety of bringing about this change 
 in bones and other phosphatic manures “ by dis- 
 solving ” them in sulphuric acid. This suggestion laid 
 the foundation of the system of manufacturing the 
 class of artificial manures called “ superphosphate,” 
 which forms one of the most interesting features of 
 modern agriculture. 
 
 25. In chemical language, the terms biphosphate 
 and superphosphate are synonymous ; but the term 
 superphosphate, as commonly used by farmers and 
 manure vendors, is applied to the artificial manure 
 produced when bones or other phosphatic materials 
 are acted on by acid. 
 
 26. A great variety of phosphatic substances may 
 be used for the production of superphosphate. At 
 first, bones were most extensively used ; but science has 
 placed several phosphatic bodies of a fossil or mineral 
 character within our reach, such as coprolite, which 
 is found in Cambridge and Suffolk, apatite, and 
 some species of guano which in the course of ages 
 have been deprived of their volatile matter and re- 
 duced to a fossil or fossil-like state. In coprolites 
 the phosphate of lime is locked up in a state in which 
 it exerts little influence on the crop to which it is ap- 
 plied. The degree to which the phosphate of lime of 
 guano is available depends on the nature of the guano. 
 In Peruvian guano it acts immediately ; while in those 
 kinds of guano which have been reduced to the fossil 
 
PRACTICAL FARMING. 
 
 ii 
 
 u 
 
 or fossil-like state it is so slow in its action that, like 
 coprolites, the application of these guanos does not pay. 
 
 27. It is believed that biphosphate of lime is equally 
 available or active, no matter from what phosphatic 
 material it is derived. And accordingly, the intelligent 
 manufacturer uses, for the production of this com- 
 pound, the substance in which he can buy phosphate 
 of lime at the cheapest rate. 
 
 28. If we mix soluble phosphate of lime with cal- 
 careous matter, we shall find that it is converted into a 
 state more or less insoluble. The same change takes 
 place when superphosphate is applied to land containing 
 calcareous matter. And this being so, it may be asked, 
 why do we go to the expense of making superphos- 
 phate. In answer to this question we have to state, 
 that the particles of the phosphate of lime are more 
 easily dissolved and conveyed into plants in the one 
 case than in the other. An explanation of this is, that 
 the atoms affected by chemical changes are extremely 
 minute, and that the more finely divided a body is the 
 greater surface it presents for the action of water and other 
 agents used by nature for dissolving the food of plants. 
 
 29. The greater part of the superphosphate now in 
 the market is made from mineral phosphate. The 
 manure so made is called “ mineral superphosphate” to 
 distinguish it from superphosphate made from bones. 
 It follows from the explanation already given, that in 
 mineral superphosphate, all, or as much as possible, of 
 the phosphate of lime ought to be converted into 
 biphosphate. If this be not done, the farmer puts 
 into his land a quantity of phosphatic material which 
 may not be worth the cost of carriage. In other words, 
 the farmer should use what we may call a high class 
 superphosphate: such a manure would contain 25 
 or 26 parts of biphosphate of lime, and not more 
 than 2 or 3 parts of phosphate of lime, in every 100 
 parts by weight. 1 
 
 1 It will be understood from the text that the value of mineral 
 superphosphate depends almost entirely on the bij:>hosphate of 
 
12 
 
 INTRODUCTION TO 
 
 [part 
 
 30 . Superphosphate made from bones contains 
 volatile matter, and is capable of affording from one 
 to two per cent, of ammonia. 
 
 31 . Superphosphate, in common with all phosphatic 
 manures, is better adapted to light than heavy soils. 
 It produces the greatest effect on roots, and is es- 
 pecially good for turnips. It is the basis of all the 
 mineral manures sold under the name of mangold- 
 manure, turnip-manure, and potato-manure, the other 
 ingredients being ammonia, and in some cases potash. 
 There is no branch of the farmer’s business so little 
 understood as the proper proportions in which to mix 
 these ingredients. In most cases, artificial manures 
 are made up by manure vendors and others whose 
 knowledge of the wants of crops is very limited. 
 
 32 . Next to phosphate of lime, potash is regarded 
 as the most important of the fixed constituents of 
 crops. Several manufacturers add it to superphosphate. 
 Potash is most useful for potatoes, beans, and clover. 
 According to some, the cheapest source of potash in 
 the market is a German salt called kainits. We have 
 occasionally applied it with advantage to potatoes 
 and beans at the rate of four cwt. per statute acre. 
 We have found that a crop of clover grown on the 
 same land afterwards, in the ordinary course of 
 cropping, has been greatly benefited by the potash. 
 
 33 . Guano is one of the most important concen- 
 trated manures we possess. It is supposed to have 
 once been the excrements of sea-fowl which have 
 accumulated in some parts of the globe. 
 
 34 . There are several kinds of guano in the market. 
 When guano is subjected to the influence of heat, air, 
 and moisture, it undergoes decomposition, like all 
 
 lime it contains. Superphosphate always contains sulphate of 
 lime or gypsum, which is a product of the manufacture, as the 
 reader will learn when he studies agricultural chemistry. The 
 more biphosphate of lime a superphosphate contains, the greater 
 also the quantity of sulphate of lime present. 
 
i.] PRACTICAL FARMING. 13 
 
 other substances of animal and vegetable origin. In 
 the Chinca Islands, from which the principal supply 
 of Peruvian guano used to be obtained, no rain falls, 
 and one of the three conditions essential for decom- 
 position — namely, moisture — is absent ; hence it 
 contained a large quantity of volatile matter, which 
 was capable of affording 15 or 16 per cent, of am- 
 monia. It also contained about 25 per cent, of phos- 
 phate of lime, and 3 J per cent, of potash. The supply 
 of guano in these islands has been all used ; and the 
 guano now sold under the name of Peruvian comes 
 from the mainland, contains less ammonia, and is 
 more variable in composition than Chinca Island 
 guano. Good Peruvian guano now contains about 
 10 per cent, of ammonia. Being so variable in quality 
 the Peruvian government or their agents should mix 
 it in large quantities, so as to produce a manure of 
 uniform composition. 
 
 35 . Manures, like Peruvian guano, which are pur- 
 chased chiefly for their ammonia or nitrogenized 
 matter, and those, like sulphate of ammonia, which 
 depend solely for their action on this substance, are 
 called ammoniacal manures. It is worthy of remark 
 here, that all these manures not only afford their own 
 constituents as food to the crop, but aid in dissolving 
 the insoluble fixed constituents of the soil. 
 
 36 . It is not safe, therefore, to use pure ammoniacal 
 manures frequently on poor light land without farm- 
 yard or some other manure which would add fixed 
 matter to the soil. We have for experimental purposes 
 reduced light land to a state of temporary barrenness 
 by repeated dressings of manure of this class. 
 
 37 . Peruvian guano is applied with advantage to all 
 our cultivated crops. It may be stated generally, that 
 phosphatic manures are best for roots, and ammonia- 
 cal manures for corn and grass. 
 
 38 . Peruvian guano and ammoniacal manures pro- 
 duce a better effect on strong clay than on light or 
 
INTRODUCTION TO 
 
 14 
 
 [part 
 
 sandy land. As a topdressing for corn and grass, 
 especially in spring, Peruvian guano produces a good 
 effect on a great variety of soils, and under a great 
 variety of circumstances. It is applied to these crops 
 at the rate of from 1 to 2 cwt. per statute acre. 
 Numerous experiments have shown, that when from 
 any cause corn is not thriving, an application of ij 
 cwt. of this manure, at a cost of about 1 increases 
 the value of the crops from 30^. to 2/. On pasture 
 land it encourages, in common with all ammoniacal 
 manures, the growth of the stronger grasses, such as 
 cocksfoot ; and by enabling plants to continue grow- 
 ing longer, retards both the harvest and the hay- 
 making. It is seldom applied for roots on light 
 land ; but many farmers consider it superior to super- 
 phosphate on clay land, and equal to it on clay loams, 
 but since the supply of guano from the Chinca Islands 
 became exhausted, we introduce ammoniacal matter 
 into mixed manure in the shape of sulphate of ammonia 
 and nitrate of soda for these crops. On the latter 
 class of soils we have found a mixture of Peruvian 
 guano and superphosphate of lime give excellent 
 results. When Peruvian guano is applied alone for 
 roots on medium soils, the quantity used is about 4 cwt. 
 per statute acre. On sound rich ground which yields 
 a heavy crop an additional cwt. may be applied. 
 
 39 . Sulphate of ammonia and nitrate of soda are 
 the purest ammoniacal nitrogenized manures in use. 
 Sulphate of ammonia is extracted from the liquor of 
 gasworks. Nitrate of soda is met with as a natural 
 product in South America and elsewhere. Neither is 
 applied alone for roots or potatoes ; but they enter in 
 moderate quantity into mixtures for these crops, and 
 are used alone or in mixtures for corn and artificial 
 grass. The propriety of using one in preference to 
 the other, as a source of nitrogen, depends chiefly on 
 the cost, and to a certain extent on the nature of the 
 soil and the crop, as explained elsewhere. 
 
Ij PRACTICAL FARMING. 15 
 
 40. In Patagonia, in several parts of Africa, and 
 in other parts of the globe, guano is also found ; but 
 as rain falls in all those countries, the combustible 
 matter has in the course of time undergone decom- 
 position, its ammonia has been dissipated, and there 
 remains only the phosphate of lime — a circumstance 
 which explains why this species of guano is often called 
 phosphatic. A good specimen of phosphatic guano 
 may contain as much as 70 per cent, of phosphate of 
 lime. Several kinds of it are at present in the market ; 
 but as their phosphates are in the insoluble state, they 
 are seldom applied directly by the farmer, and are 
 used in the manufacture of superphosphate of lime. 
 
 v. LIME. 
 
 41. Lime is the most important mineral manure we 
 possess. It produces several useful effects in the soil. 
 
 42. In common with all the fixed mineral con- 
 stituents of plants, lime must be present in every 
 fertile soil. 
 
 43. Some soils contain acid substances, which keep 
 them in a sour and comparatively infertile state. Lime 
 combines with and neutralizes these acids, and thus 
 fits the soil for growing good crops. 
 
 44. In other cases, infertility or barrenness in soils 
 arises from the presence in them of noxious compounds, 
 such as salts of iron and copper ; and lime has the 
 power of decomposing these compounds, and render- 
 ing them harmless. 
 
 45. Lime promotes the decay of volatile or combus- 
 tible matter. Experience tells us that applications of 
 lime diminish the quantity of this kind of matter in the 
 soil. As the quantity of vegetable matter in the ground 
 increases, so does the necessity for applying lime. This 
 explains the old saying, “The more dung, the more 
 lime.” Peaty soils, which contain a great deal of inert 
 vegetable matter, are much improved by quick-lime. 
 
id INTRODUCTION TO [part 
 
 46. Lime helps to liberate the fixed constituents of 
 the soil. If we mix lime with ground granite, or with 
 pulverized clay soil, we shall find, after a time, a quan- 
 tity of potash and soda liberated : in other words, lime 
 converts some of the dormant fixed mineral matter of 
 the soil into active plant-food, or, as it were, forces 
 the soil to give up to the crops some of its latent con- 
 stituents. This effect is produced much more speedily 
 by quick or caustic than by mild lime (carbonate of 
 lime). 
 
 47. This partly explains why lime produces the 
 greatest effect when first applied to a field, and that 
 the oft-repeated use of lime without any other manure, 
 by stimulating the soil, would ultimately end in ren- 
 dering it sterile. Hence the converse of a proposition 
 stated above, which says that the more dung, the more 
 lime, is also true — namely, the more lime we apply, 
 the greater the necessity for dung — a notion well ex- 
 pressed in the old saying, that “ the use of lime without 
 manure, is sure to make the farm and the farmer poor.” 
 
 48. If we mix quick-lime with Peruvian guano or 
 well-rotted dung, a peculiar smell is felt, caused by 
 the escape of ammonia. Hence, lime should never be 
 permitted to come into contact with either of the ma- 
 nures named, or any other manure containing ammonia. 
 When farm-yard manure and lime are applied to the 
 ground in the same year, the lime should be used be- 
 fore or after the dung. 
 
 49. The state in which lime is applied to land 
 varies with the quality of the land and other circum- 
 stances. The common practice is to cart the lime to 
 the field, make it into a heap or heaps, cover it over 
 with a little earth, and allow it to fall into powder, or 
 to slake spontaneously ; after which it is evenly spread 
 on the land and harrowed in, or otherwise worked into 
 the ground. 
 
 50. The slaking of lime is a chemical process. The 
 lime absorbs and combines with moisture, forming 
 
LJ PRACTICAL FARMING. 17 
 
 hydrate of lime, and causing the development of heat 
 and a swelling of the lime-shells, which soon crumble 
 to powder. The finer the state of subdivision into 
 which the lime falls, the more completely it is distri- 
 buted through the soil, and the more thorough and 
 uniform its action. 
 
 51. When the lime is applied as above described, 
 it absorbs moisture from the air, and is said to slake 
 spontaneously ; and, for general purposes, there is no 
 better way of applying it. Some farmers who use 
 much lime make it into a large heap or heaps, and 
 hasten the slaking process by pouring water upon the 
 mass. If applied immediately after slaking in this 
 way, lime is quickest in its action, as it is in the caustic 
 or hydrate state. 
 
 52. Sometimes, again, the lime is made into a com- 
 post with earth or peat, in which state its action is 
 slower than in either of the preceding states. 
 
 53. It is evident that the propriety of applying it 
 in one or other of these three states depends on the 
 nature of the ground ; also, on whether we wish its 
 action to be quick or slow. When the soil is light or 
 sandy, and deficient in vegetable matter, and its tex- 
 ture open, it is recommended to apply the lime in a 
 state of compost, which contains the lime in the mild 
 state, and also contains other materials in which these 
 soils are deficient. It is said that lime, when applied 
 to light land in the caustic state, encourages the growth 
 of red poppy and other weeds. On the other hand, 
 lime should be applied in as caustic a state as possible 
 to all soils containing much vegetable matter, such as 
 peat and moss, as well as to clays, moors, and other 
 soils undergoing reclamation, and to all soils con- 
 taining injurious substances, such as the salts of iron. 
 
 54. The application of lime to clay-land renders 
 the soil more friable, and, at the same time, converts 
 a good deal of its dormant constituents into the active 
 state. 
 
 c 
 
1 8 INTRODUCTION, &c. [part i. 
 
 55. An excess of moisture in the soil prevents lime 
 from producing its full effects. Hence, wet lands re- 
 quire a greater quantity of lime than those which are 
 naturally dry, or those which have been made so by 
 drainage. In the permanent improvement of clay 
 land, or wet ground of any kind, lime should there- 
 fore be applied after drainage. For the same obvious 
 reason, good farmers put lime upon the ground in dry 
 weather. 
 
 56. Lime is applied with advantage to all crops 
 except flax. 
 
 57. There is a difference of opinion among farmers 
 as to the crops to which it is best to apply lime ; some 
 contend that it should be applied for roots, while 
 others prefer to apply it for grain. Regard being had 
 to its various functions, it cannot be expected to pro- 
 duce its full effects in the year in which it is put upon 
 the land. If, therefore, the farmer has good reason to 
 suppose that one crop in the rotation requires lime 
 more than the rest, it should, if practicable, be used a 
 year before that crop. 
 
PART II. 
 
 THE CROPS TO GROW, AND HOW TO GROW 
 THEM. 
 
 I. THE SEVERAL SYSTEMS OF CROPPING* 
 
 58 . The farmer has found, from practicalexperience 
 that some of his crops, especially clover and turnips, 
 become diseased, or fail altogether, if grown too often 
 on the same soil, and that this is prevented by grow- 
 ing them in regular rotation or succession. The order 
 of succession varies with the soil, market, and other 
 circumstances. 
 
 59 . Scientific men have given several theories of the 
 advantages of growing crops in rotation. 
 
 60 . It is found that about twelve mineral substances 
 are required for the growth of farm crops, and that 
 these minerals exist in very different proportions in 
 the different families of those crops. Thus, while a 
 crop of wheat abstracts from the land 137 lbs. of silica 
 and 34 lbs. of potash per acre, a crop of beans carries 
 off 13 lbs. of silica and 134 lbs. of potash. It was 
 reasonable, therefore, to suppose that if wheat were 
 grown consecutively on the same ground, without an 
 adequate return of silica in manure, the supply of this 
 substance in the soil would become so far reduced as 
 to render it incapable of producing a remunerative 
 crop of wheat : and if, instead of wheat, beans were 
 
 C 2 
 
20 INTRODUCTION TO [part 
 
 continuously grown for a number of years, the quan- 
 tity of potash in the soil would soon become too 
 limited for the wants of the bean crop. It was then 
 suggested that the advantages of alternating these two 
 crops arose from the difference in their chemical com- 
 position ; and that crops should be alternated in 
 accordance with the analysis of their ashes. This 
 constitutes the celebrated mineral theory of the rota- 
 tion of crops. 1 To comprehend the full force of this 
 theory, it is necessary to bear in mind that plants 
 derive all their mineral constituents from the soil, and 
 that the growth of plants is greatly dependent on the 
 state or condition in which these constituents exist in 
 it. For illustrating this, we will take root and corn 
 crops. By the thorough exposure of the soil to the 
 air and its influences during the cultivation of root 
 crops, a large quantity of silica becomes liberated, 
 which is not required by that crop, and remains in the 
 soil for the nourishment of the grain crop, which 
 requires soluble silica in large quantity. 
 
 61. Plants differ very much in their habits of growth ; 
 and this affords an additional reason for alternating 
 
 1 The word mineral has not been always used in the same sense 
 by agricultural writers. Those who use it in the sense stated in 
 the text would restrict its application to the fixed constituents 
 of the soil. In its wider and more correct sense, it is applied 
 to metals, rocks, and other substances met with in the mineral 
 kingdom ; and includes carbonic acid, water, and ammonia, 
 which are component parts of minerals. Much confusion of 
 thought has also resulted from the way in which the words or- 
 ganic and inorganic have been used. An organic body is, properly 
 speaking, the product of living organism. Starch and sugar, 
 fatty matter, gluten and other flesh-forming materials are organic. 
 Matter which is not the product of living organism is inorganic. 
 All mineral matter is inorganic. Organic matter, when it decays, 
 is converted into carbonic acid, water, and ammonia; and thus 
 goes back to the mineral kingdom, in which state alone it can 
 become food for our crops. All organic matter is volatile ; that 
 is, it is capable of being driven off by heat ; but all volatile 
 matter is not organic. 
 
PRACTICAL FARMING. 
 
 21 
 
 II.] 
 
 them. Thus, the corn crops possess a small system 
 of foliage; root crops, on the contrary, have large 
 leaves, which take in from the air carbonic acid and 
 watery vapour, which help to build up the combustible 
 part of their substance. In the same way the grasses 
 which have a large system of leaves, take in a con- 
 siderable quantity of those materials from the air; 
 and, as is well known, by their death and decay the 
 quantity of vegetable (combustible) matter in the soil 
 increases. It is a common practice to allow poor 
 land to remain in grass for a few years, with the view 
 of enriching it in vegetable matter. 
 
 62. Again, the roots of crops penetrate to different 
 depths into the soil, and feed on different parts of it. 
 Root crops — especially parsnips and carrots — send 
 their roots to a great depth into the soil. Grain crops 
 send some of their roots down to a considerable 
 depth, but throw out a great many lateral roots. The 
 natural grasses are essentially surface-rooted plants. 
 Red clover sends its strong tap-root to a great depth. 
 It is manifest that the exhaustion of the soil must be 
 deferred by growing these crops in succession. 
 
 63. One of the greatest practical advantages of the 
 rotation of crops is, that it enables us to keep the land 
 clean. Green crops, owing to the tillage they receive, 
 are called clea?ismg crops. On the other hand, if we 
 grow three or four crops of corn in succession, the 
 land is sure to be overrun with weeds. 
 
 64. Beans and wheat have occasionally been grown 
 alternately on strong clay land. 
 
 65. A three years' course of cropping has been 
 occasionally followed by some* farmers, the order 
 of succession being — 
 
 1st Year. — Root crops manured — such as turnips, mangold 
 wurtzel, &c. 
 
 2nd Year. — Grain crops, laid down with grass and clover 
 seeds. 
 
 3rd Year. — Grass, for house-feeding cattle and for hay. 
 
22 INTRODUCTION TO [part 
 
 This course may be practised on spade-labour farms. 
 There is a very large portion of the farm under crops 
 for feeding cattle, which recommends it to small 
 holders who adopt the system of soiling or house- 
 feeding cattle. The preparation of grass land for 
 roots increases the labour very much ; and besides, in 
 this course, the same crop comes round too often on 
 the land. We have seen this system once adopted as 
 a means of enriching a thin poor clay, and preparing 
 it for another course of cropping. 
 
 66. In the Norfolk four-course rotation, which may 
 be said to be the basis of most of the systems of 
 cropping in use, the order of succession is— 
 
 1st Year. — Root crops manured. 
 
 2nd Year. — A grain crop, laid down with grass and clover, 
 seeds. 
 
 3rd Year. — Artificial grass. 
 
 4th Year. — Grain alone. 
 
 In the drier and warmer districts of England, such 
 as the eastern, southern, and midland counties, wheat 
 follows artificial grass, which is generally clover. In 
 the colder and more humid climates of the north of 
 England, as well as of Scotland and Ireland, oats 
 usually succeed grass. 
 
 67. One fourth of the land is under grass ; and one 
 fourth manured every year. It was by means of this 
 rotation, and by feeding sheep on the turnips where 
 they grew, that extensive tracts of poor light soils in 
 Norfolkshire (from which this rotation takes its name) 
 have been converted into most productive farms. 
 The ‘golden foot” of the sheep consolidated the 
 land, and their droppings enriched it. 
 
 68. It has been found that clover will not bear to be 
 repeated on the same land every fourth year. Turnips, 
 too, when repeated on the same land every fourth 
 year, become subject to a disease called anbury ; and 
 even the corn crops become more precarious when 
 repeated on the land too frequently. Flax cannot be 
 
FRACTICAL FARMING, 
 
 n.] 
 
 23 
 
 introduced oftener than once in eight years. Practical 
 experience teaches that this crop sickness is mitigated 
 by efficient tillage, and by the application of lime. It 
 is also greatly mitigated, if not prevented, by keeping 
 the same crop off the land as far as possible. Now, we 
 can easily accomplish this in any rotation by alterna- 
 ting the several kinds of roots, grasses, &c., among 
 themselves. Thus, if in the four course system we 
 have, this year, turnips in one part of a field, and man- 
 gold in another part, this time four years, when the same 
 field is under roots again, the mangold should be put 
 where the turnips are this year, and vice versa . In 
 this way, turnips are not grown on the land oftener 
 than once in eight years. In the same way, by alter- 
 nating clover and rye-grass, the former comes round 
 on the same land only once in eight years ; and so on 
 of other crops. This principle may be carried out still 
 further. For example, the root crop field may be 
 divided into three parts, and by shifting the turnips 
 from one part to another, they would recur on the 
 same land only once in twelve years ; and, in the 
 same way, by dividing the grass field into three sections, 
 clover would not come round on the same soil oftener 
 than once in twelve years. The farmer who tills well, 
 and manures fairly, does not suffer from clover-sickness 
 or turnip-sickness, when these crops are not repeated 
 oftener than once in eight years ; but if, from poverty 
 of soil, or any other cause, the crops show signs of 
 degeneracy, the rotation may be extended in the way 
 pointed out. 
 
 69. On one of the farms under our management 
 we carry out the foregoing principle as follows : — The 
 root-crop ground is pretty evenly divided between man- 
 golds and turnips. The mangolds are manured with 
 good farmyard dung, and the turnips with artificial 
 ■ manure, or with a mixture of farm manure and artificial 
 manure, if any of the latter remains after manuring 
 the mangolds. The turnips are followed by barley, 
 
24 - INTRODUCTION TO [part 
 
 which gives an even sample ; and with the barley is 
 sown clover. The mangolds are followed by wheat 
 or oats, with Italian rye-grass seed. By alternating 
 mangolds and turnips, when they come round again, 
 the turnip crop recurs on the same soil only once in 
 eight years. 
 
 70 . On that land, barley after roots, well manured 
 with dung, would lodge ; but after artificial manure, it 
 never lodges. 
 
 71 - The Italian rye-grass, which requires rich land, 
 does far better after farmyard, than after artificial, 
 manure. 
 
 72 . By allowing the grass to be unbroken a second 
 year, the Norfolk is converted into the Northumber- 
 land five-course, in which the crops follow in this 
 order — 
 
 ist Vear. — Root crops manured. 
 
 2nd Year. — Grain, with the seeds of artificial grasses, 
 
 3rd Year. — Grass. 
 
 4th Year. — Grass, 2nd year. 
 
 5th Year, — Grain, generally oats. 
 
 This rotation has been extensively followed in the 
 county from which it takes its name, and in the more 
 humid parts of England. The first year’s grass is 
 usually mown and the second pastured. The second 
 year’s grass is never as heavy as that of the first ; but 
 the cost of the former per acre is less, as the seeds, 
 which are expensive, fall on one year’s grass in the 
 four-course rotation. Now, the relative profitableness 
 of the first and second year’s grass depends princi- 
 pally on the soil and climate. In a humid climate 
 like that of the north of England, and many parts of 
 Ireland, the second year’s grass does very well on 
 medium soils for pasturage. It is not suited to small 
 farmers who house-feed their stock, as the second 
 year’s grass is not as profitable for soiling as the first / 
 and if they require pasture for the cattle, the best plan, 
 on the majority of spade-labour holdings, is to keep 
 
PRACTICAL FARMING. 
 
 25 
 
 n.] 
 
 a part of the farm in permanent pasture for the pur- 
 pose, and to put the rest of the land under a rotation 
 which would allow the land to remain in grass only 
 one year. On larger holdings, well fenced, the first 
 course answers well. 
 
 73. By allowing the land to remain three years in 
 grass, we get the following six-course : — 
 
 1st Year. — Root crops and potatoes, manured. 
 
 2nd Year. — Grain, laid down with grass seeds ; the grain crop 
 in this case being almost invariably oats. 
 
 3rd Y ear. — Grass, say for soiling or hay. 
 
 4th Year. — Second year’s grass, for pasture. 
 
 5th Year. — The third year’s grass, also for pasture, 
 
 6th Year. — Oats. 
 
 74. In this rotation one-half the land is in grass, one- 
 sixth in roots and potatoes, and one-third in grain. It 
 would answer very well on lighter land than that for 
 which the five-course is adapted, and more especially for 
 poor, light, and hill-side farms, on which the rearing 
 of young stock is the principal object ; that is, land 
 which is too poor to bear two grain crops in five years. 
 The roots of the grasses enrich the poor land and 
 prepare it for a crop of corn. On hill-side farms a 
 rotation of this kind, which lessens the area under 
 tillage and gives a large proportion of grass for the 
 rearing of sheep and horned cattle, answers very well. 
 The carting of manure and crops in hilly districts is 
 very expensive ; and, besides, the climate of those dis- 
 tricts is better adapted for grass than for any other crop. 
 
 75. By allowing the land to remain in grass a fourth 
 year, we get the seven-course ; and so on. 
 
 76. T he following six-course rotation has been ex- 
 tensively followed in East Lothian, whence it takes ~ 
 the name of the East Lothian Six-Course : — 
 
 1st Year. — Root crops manured, generally turnips. 
 
 2nd Year.— Grain, say barley, laid down with grass seeds. 
 
 3rd Year. — Grass. 
 
 4th Year. — Oats. 
 
 5»h Year. — Potatoes and beans, manured. 
 
 6th Year. — Wheat. 
 
26 INTRODUCTION TO [part 
 
 77. For the first four years the order of succession 
 in this rotation is the same as in the four-course. The 
 oat stubble is then tilled for potatoes and beans, which 
 prepare the land well for wheat. One-half the land is 
 under corn, and each corn crop comes in the place 
 best adapted for it. We have the most valuable farm- 
 crops in this rotation. One- third of the farm is manured 
 every year, namely, one-sixth for roots, and one-sixth 
 for potatoes and beans. The recurrence of the same 
 crop on the land only once in six years prevents crop- 
 sickness. This is essentially a tillage rotation. It is 
 practised in some of the best cultivated districts of 
 Scotland. Probably the average rent of land in those 
 districts is higher than in any other part of the United 
 Kingdom. 
 
 78. There are many other rotations in use, but those 
 which we have described may be said to embody the 
 principles of all. 
 
 79. The introduction of artificial manures, and the 
 use of improved modes of cultivation, have enabled 
 us to modify our systems of cropping very materially. 
 The principles we have expounded, and the systems 
 we have explained will, however, continue to be the 
 foundation of improved farming, especially on all the 
 light and medium tillage lands of the country. 
 
 80. The crops most extensively grown are pota- 
 toes, root-crops, green crops, grain-crops, forage and 
 herbage plants, and flax, 
 
 II. THE POTATO. 
 
 81. The potato is raised by every farmer for his 
 own family, the area put under the crop for the pur- 
 pose depending on the size of the family, and the 
 extent to which the potato enters into their diet. To 
 supply the wants of an ordinary family, half an acre 
 of ground is required. When well manured, this will 
 yield at least three tons of potatoes fit for table, and a 
 
PRACTICAL FARMING. 
 
 27 
 
 11.] 
 
 ton of small ones for feeding pigs and cows. The 
 potato grows in all sorts of land. A rich loamy soil 
 gives the heaviest return; the soundest crop is ob- 
 tained from dry land ; and marshy or boggy ground 
 gives the best potatoes for seed. It is almost in- 
 variably the first crop planted on bog or waste land 
 undergoing improvement. 
 
 82. The potato admits of being planted after any 
 other crop. Many farmers plant it on lea. The ground 
 is deeply ploughed in spring, the grass being com- 
 pletely buried by a “ skim ” coulter or one-horse 
 plough ; the crests of the sods broken down by the 
 grubber or harrow, or both ; the ground ridged or 
 drilled by the double-mould board plough, manure 
 spread in the drills ; and the “ sets ” (cut potatoes) 
 laid over it, ten to twelve inches from set to set, 
 and the whole covered by splitting the drills again 
 with the double mould-board plough. When the 
 plants appear at the surface they are moulded ; and 
 as they grow up the clay is again raised from the 
 furrows against their stems. The weeding of the crop, 
 afterwards, should be properly attended to. 
 
 83. On cottier and small farms, the lea may be 
 dug deeply as early as possible ; when the planting 
 season arrives the surface should be levelled with 
 the spade or harrow, and the manure carted out and 
 deposited in rows; a straight trench opened with 
 the spade to the depth of four inches, the manure 
 deposited in the bottom of this trench, the sets placed 
 over it at intervals of ten inches or a foot, and both 
 manure and sets covered with the clay lifted out of 
 another trench marked off with a garden-line about 
 twenty-four inches from the first. In this second 
 trench manure and sets will in turn be deposited, and 
 covered in with clay taken from a third trench ; and 
 so on. Or, drills may be opened with the shovel 
 twenty-eight inches wide, farm-yard manure spread 
 in the hollows of these drills, the sets placed on it 
 
28 INTRODUCTION TO [part 
 
 at from ten inches to a foot asunder, and both manure 
 and sets covered by splitting the drills. The after- 
 culture consists in digging or grubbing between 
 the rows, to loosen the ground, in keeping down 
 weeds, and putting earth against the stems of the 
 plants. 
 
 84. In the ordinary course of cropping land under 
 rotation, the potato usually follows lea oats, and occu- 
 pies the same place in the rotation as root-crops. In 
 this case the ground is ploughed deeply as early in 
 autumn as possible, and when the proper time for 
 potato-planting arrives, the ground is grubbed or 
 cross-ploughed, harrowed, and made into drills; the 
 manure is applied, and the crop planted and treated 
 as already described. The main crop of potatoes is 
 sown in March, and ioo stones of tubers, cut into 
 sets, will plant a statute acre. For early use, a few 
 drills of kemps should be planted in February. For 
 general use, the following sorts may be recommended 
 for field culture : White Varieties — White Rocks , Scotch 
 Downs , and Regents . Red Varieties — Skerry Blues 
 and Red Rocks . 
 
 85. Crops raised for their fleshy roots are called 
 root-crops ; the roots most commonly grown are 
 carrots and parsnips, turnips and mangolds. 
 
 III. CARROTS AND PARSNIPS. 
 
 86. Carrots and parsnips are deep-rooted plants, 
 and are treated alike. The parsnip is a wholesome 
 and nutritious vegetable, and is saleable at a high 
 price almost everywhere. A variety of carrots, called 
 the White Belgian , is grown in small quantities for 
 feeding horses in winter ; it improves the “ coat ” and 
 appearance of horses. One feed in the day is enough. 
 Both carrots and parsnips require deep, rich ground, 
 which should be dug deeply, a$d, if possible, manured 
 
II. 
 
 PRACTICAL FARMING. 
 
 29 
 
 in autumn. The parsnip admits of being sown as 
 early as the ground can be got ready for it in spring ; 
 the carrot is sown in the end of March or beginning 
 of April. The drills for either crop may be made 
 eighteen inches in width ; when the ordinary drilling 
 plough is used, they must be made two feet wide 
 at least. 
 
 IV. TURNIPS AND MANGOLD WURTZEL. 
 
 87 . Of all root-crops, the turnip is the most gene- 
 rally grown. There are three kinds of it — swedes, 
 Aberdeen or yellow turnips, and white turnips. Swedes 
 are the hardiest and most nutritious ; white turnips 
 are the softest and least nutritious ; and yellow 
 turnips are intermediate in quality between swedes 
 and white turnips. Mangold wurtzel is a newer 
 crop than the turnip. The more it is grown in 
 dry and warm districts, the more it is valued. For 
 the production of milk it is better than any 
 sort of turnips; for fattening purposes it is con- 
 sidered slightly inferior to swedes, but superior to 
 yellow turnips. Mangolds are less liable to casualties 
 than turnips ; and when the ground is rich, and the 
 climate favourable, mangolds give a heavier crop. 
 The crop requires a drier climate than turnips ; and 
 as it is more easily injured by frost, it requires to be 
 stored earlier. It thrives best in the east and south 
 of England. The climate of the north and north-west 
 of England, of many parts of Scotland, and of the west 
 of Ireland, is not so well suited to it. On reclaimed 
 bog and moor it yields a heavier crop than turnips of 
 any kind. The preparation of the ground is, in the 
 main, the same for turnips and mangolds. Both crops 
 usually follow grain, and the stubble should be dug 
 or ploughed deeply in autumn, as soon as the corn is 
 removed. In spring it is forked by the cottier, cleared 
 of weeds, and made into drills twenty-six inches wide. 
 
30 INTRODUCTION TO [part 
 
 When one or more horses are kept, the ground is 
 grubbed, harrowed, and rolled, until it is reduced 
 to a fine state ; it is then cleaned and made into drills. 
 If farm-yard manure is used, it is evenly spread in 
 the bottom of the drills, all lumps being broken; 
 it is then covered in by splitting the drills. The 
 seed is sown by hand on small farms, and by a 
 machine on large farms. There is a slight difference 
 in the mode of sowing turnips and mangolds. When 
 a machine is not available, the turnip is sown in the 
 following way : — A rut is made on the top of the drill 
 with a pointed stick or corner of a hoe ; the seed is 
 deposited in a continuous stream in the rut thus made ; 
 it is covered with a rake, and in dry weather, or on 
 dry ground, the tops of the drills are gently beaten 
 with the back of a spade or shovel, to keep the mois- 
 ture about the seed. In sowing mangolds, openings 
 may be made at intervals of ten or twelve inches with 
 the corner of a hoe ; in each of these holes four or 
 five capsules of seed are deposited, and a little of the 
 finest mould in the bottom or sides of the drills is 
 taken with a shovel, and put over the seed, and the 
 whole gently beaten as before. 
 
 88. Mangolds are sown in the end of April or 
 beginning of May ; swede turnips as soon after as pos- 
 sible, or say from the ioth to the 20th May; yellow 
 turnips from 1st to 20th June ; and white turnips any 
 time in June. The quantity of seed required per acre 
 is — of mangolds, 6 lb. ; of swedes, 5 lb. ; of yellow and 
 white turnips, 6 lb. ; and of carrots and parsnips, 6 lb. 
 to 8 lb. 
 
 89 . On land capable of giving a good crop, man- 
 golds require 25 tons, and swedes 20 tons of farm- 
 yard manure per statute acre. If there is any differ- 
 ence in the quality of the manure, the best of it should 
 be used for mangolds. 
 
 90 . When from any cause a farmer has to raise 
 roots with the aid of artificial manure, the following 
 
li.] PRACTICAL FARMING, . 31 
 
 may be used : — On light land, superphosphate an- 
 swers very well for turnips ; it is applied at a rate 
 varying from 6 cwt. per statute acre on the better 
 sorts of light ground, to 3 cwt. on poor, brashy 
 soils. On medium land, the same money’s worth of 
 a mixture of four parts of superphosphate and one 
 part of sulphSte of ammonia or nitrate of soda 
 gives a satisfactory return ; and for good rich 
 land the manure may contain a little more ammoni- 
 acal or nitrogenized matter. The ammoniacal or 
 nitrogenized matter may be added to superphos- 
 phate by sulphate of ammonia, nitrate of soda, or 
 other substances, taking care, as already suggested, 
 to select one in which it can be purchased on 
 the best terms. The nitrogen of many manures in 
 the market is added to them in shoddy, hair, and 
 other bodies, in which it is not so useful or so soon 
 available. A manure composed of two parts of 
 superphosphate and one part of sulphate of ammonia 
 or nitrate of soda answers for mangolds on good 
 land. This mixture, when used without farm-yard 
 manure, may be applied at the rate of 5 cwt. per 
 statute acre. 
 
 91 . In many cases it happens that the farmer has 
 only as much farm-yard manure as would give an 
 ordinary dressing to one-half or two-thirds of the area 
 of roots he wants to grow. In this case, experience 
 tells us the surest way of obtaining a good crop of 
 roots, and of keeping up the condition of the soil, is 
 to distribute the farm-yard manure over the whole of 
 the ground, using a little more for the mangolds, and 
 supplementing it all round with the mixtures of arti- 
 ficial manures recommended above. If we apply two- 
 thirds of a full quantity of farm-yard manure — for ex- 
 ample, to mangolds — we should use one-third the 
 quantity of artificial manure recommended to be used 
 when no farm-yard manure is applied; and if we 
 apply half a full dressing of farm-yard manure for 
 
INTRODUCTION TO 
 
 [part 
 
 swedes, we should supplement it with half a full 
 dressing of artificial manure ; and so on. 
 
 92. In using farm-yard manure and artificial manure 
 in conjunction, the following is found to be a good 
 mode of applying them by hand : — The farm-yard 
 manure being evenly spread in the bottom of the 
 drills, every second drill is split, and *at the back of 
 the clay thus thrown over the artificial mixture is de- 
 posited by hand ; the remaining drills are then split, 
 and the seed sown, as already pointed out. In this 
 way the plants will find artificial manure within their 
 reach just as they are brairding, which is the most 
 critical period in their growth ; and the farm-yard 
 manure will be available when the roots begin to 
 swell. On large holdings the artificial manure may 
 be scattered broadcast, or distributed with a machine. 
 
 93. Young turnips suffer very much from a pest 
 known as the turnip-fly, which often destroys whole 
 fields. The best safeguards against the ravages of this 
 enemy are to sow plenty of seed, to use artificial 
 manure to force on the young plants, and, when prac- 
 ticable, to use liquid manure for the same purpose. 
 A mixture of salt, soot, and lime spread on the 
 drills, is also found to check the fly ; and when salt 
 and soot cannot be had, lime may be used alone. 
 Mangolds and turnips require to be thinned when 
 the leaves have grown to the length of about two or 
 three inches. It is usual to thin mangolds twice, 
 leaving two plants in each clump at the first thinning, 
 and removing the smaller of the two when it begins to 
 interfere with the other. Turnips are thinned at once, 
 the best plants being retained. The distance from 
 plant to plant, in both crops, varies from ten inches 
 in light ground, to twelve inches, or a little more, in 
 rich land. 
 
 94. In a very dry season a good deal of the seed 
 of mangolds and turnips does not grow at all for want 
 of moisture. The blanks are filled up in several ways. 
 
PRACTICAL FARMING. 
 
 33 
 
 n.] 
 
 First, as both mangolds and swedes bear transplanting 
 very well, a number of plants taken out in thinning 
 them are carefully put in with a dibble or spade. This 
 should be done when the ground is moist ; the great- 
 est care should be taken that the roots are not doubled; 
 and the clay should be so pressed about the roots 
 that on taking one of the leaves between the fingers 
 the plants will not come away. It is also useful to 
 put the plants, for half a day or a day, in clay pud- 
 dled with weak liquid manure. 
 
 95 . Blanks in mangolds or swedes may also be filled 
 up with cabbage-plants, or with late turnips. We 
 generally sow, for this purpose, a mixture of Dale's 
 Hybrid and Greystone turnips. 
 
 86. The after-cultivation of roots consists in hoeing 
 two or three times, to admit air into the soil, and to 
 keep down weeds ; and in digging or grubbing the 
 spaces between the rows, to enable the roots of the 
 plants to go in search of food. 
 
 97 . The following are a few good varieties of root 
 crops: Swede turnips — Starving s Purple Top ; Sut- 
 ton's Champion . Aberdeens — Dale's Hybrid. White 
 turnips — Greystone. Mangold wurzel — Long Red for 
 strong ground and for reclaimed moorland ; Yellow 
 Globe for light and medium land. Oval Yellow is a 
 good intermediate sort. Carrots — White Belgian for 
 feeding horses. Parsnips— Jersey Hollow Crowned. 
 
 IV. CABBAGE AND RAPE. 
 
 98 . Green Crops embrace cabbage and rape, the 
 leaves of which are used in a green state. Both 
 are useful for feeding stock. Neither will keep 
 like root-crops ; but as they admit — more especially 
 the cabbage— of being sown at different times of the 
 year, it is possible to have them coming in for use in 
 succession. For instance, by making three sowings 
 of cabbage-seed, in a well-prepared seed-bed, and by 
 
 D 
 
34 INTRODUCTION TO [part 
 
 putting out the plants in regular succession, we can 
 have a supply throughout the year. One of these 
 sowings is made in August. The crop is transplanted 
 in April, and fit for use in autumn, at a time when 
 grass is scarce, and before any of the root-crop is 
 ready. 
 
 99. The cabbage grows best in a rich, deep soil. 
 It is grown after several crops. The main crop of 
 spring-planted cabbage is generally put into the same 
 place in the rotation as potatoes and roots ; the plants 
 may be dibbled on the top of drills, made and pre- 
 pared in the same way as if for these crops. On 
 spade-labour farms the manure may be forked in, and 
 the cabbage planted, with a dibble, in lines. 
 
 100. Drumhead is the best variety to grow in this 
 way on the farm ; the rows of plants should be two 
 feet six inches apart, and the distance from plant to 
 plant in the lines, eighteen inches. On good land the 
 yield is at least twenty tons per acre. The after-culti- 
 vation of cabbage consists in loosening the earth in 
 the spaces between the drills, keeping down weeds, 
 and putting earth up about the stems of the plants. 
 
 101. Another sowing of cabbage-seed is made in 
 April ; the plants are put out in summer, and are fit 
 for use in winter. Plants of this sowing are used for 
 filling up blanks in mangolds and swedes. The third 
 sowing of seed is made in the third week of July; the 
 plants put out in autumn for use in spring. 
 
 102. Sheep-breeders find the cabbage invaluable food 
 for ewes suckling their lambs in spring. It is found 
 useful to cut up the cabbage with a chaff-cutter, or some 
 other instrument, more especially when feeding is 
 scarce, as the chopped leaves may be mixed with other 
 substances. In the hand-feeding of cows on small 
 farms, we have found this practice very profitable. 
 
 103. It is useless to attempt to grow drumhead 
 cabbage without an application of a ton of good farm- 
 yard manure for every ton of cabbage expected. A 
 
ii.] PRACTICAL FARMING. 35 
 
 variety called Thousand-headed Cabbage gives a heavy 
 crop of leaves, and does not require such rich ground 
 as drumhead. The seed is sown in April; the plants 
 put out in June and July ; and they become fit for use 
 in winter. 
 
 104. Rape is raised in this country principally as a 
 stolen crop between grain and turnips. The stubble 
 is dug or ploughed, and the seed sown broadcast at 
 the rate of from 10 lb. per acre on good ground, to 
 14 lb. on poor land. The seed may also be sown in 
 ruts or drills, sixteen inches asunder. The strong 
 roots of rape loosen up clay-land ; and the crop grows 
 luxuriantly on bog-land. It is necessary to apply some 
 manure to this crop. Ten tons of farm-yard manure, 
 or three cwt. of superphosphate of lime, may be used. 
 
 105. Rape being, like cabbage, a slow-grower while 
 young, the seed is often sown in a seed-bed, and the 
 crop afterwards transplanted. For spring use the seed 
 should be sown in July, and the plants dibbled in 
 October in ground properly prepared for them. Some- 
 times the plants are carefully laid in every second 
 furrow as the ground is being ploughed, a little manure 
 being applied about the roots at the same time. Rape, 
 treated in any of the foregoing ways, yields at the 
 rate of eight or ten tons of feeding per acre ; and 
 on good land twenty tons have been obtained. 
 
 V. GRAIN CROPS. 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 106. The grain-crops raised in this country are 
 wheat, barley, oats, and rye. Since the introduction of 
 free trade, the growth of wheat has declined, as it can 
 be produced cheaper in warmer climates. Good crops, 
 especially of wheat, may, however, be profitably raised 
 after potatoes in some of the southern, eastern, and 
 midland counties of England, in the Lothians, and in 
 the warmer part of Ireland. The crop admits of being 
 
 d 2 
 
36 INTRODUCTION TO [par? 
 
 sown either in autumn or spring. Spring wheat is so 
 uncertain that it is attempted only in exceptional 
 seasons. In several places the growth of wheat is now 
 very much confined to potato-ground, which is cleared 
 in time to admit of the wheat-sowing at the best period, 
 which is the end of October or beginning of November. 
 On clean, level ground the seed is often sown broad- 
 cast, and ploughed in. A favourite mode of sowing 
 wheat after a manured crop, is by ribbing — that is, the 
 ground is made into ridglets or ribs, with a common 
 plough stripped of its mould -board, or with a ribbing 
 machine. The seed is scattered broadcast on the 
 ribbed surface, and covered with a harrow. In the 
 warmer counties of England wheat follows clover in 
 the ordinary course of cropping. In this case the 
 ground should be carefully ploughed, a skim coulter 
 being used to aid in burying the grass. The seed may 
 be sown broadcast on the ploughed surface, and 
 crossed by the harrow. But the crop is more generally 
 sown with a corn-drill. The quantity of seed varies 
 from six to twelve stones per acre, according to the 
 mode of sowing and the quality of the ground. 
 
 107. On rich, dry land, white is better than red 
 wheat ; on inferior soils, red wheat is more certain. 
 A better climate is required for white than for red 
 wheat. Red Chaff White is a favourite white variety. 
 White Irish is hardy and productive. Of red varieties, 
 Spaldings Prolific and White Chaffed Red are very 
 good. 
 
 Barley . 
 
 108 . Of late years the demand for barley has be- 
 come so brisk, that it is a very profitable grain-crop on 
 land in suitable condition. It requires the surface-soil 
 to be rich ; hence it is grown after root-crops. The 
 preparation of the ground consists in ploughing or 
 grubbing across the direction of the drills ; in harrow- 
 ing, and, when necessary, rolling, to produce a proper 
 
ii.] PRACTICAL FARMING . 37 
 
 seed-bed ; in sowing the seed, and covering it with 
 the harrow. The quantity of seed sown per statute 
 acre is about ten stones. The variety of barley known 
 as Chevalier is one of the best in use. Barley is sown 
 in the end of March or beginning of April. The seed 
 is sown in several ways, such as by ribbing, ploughing 
 in, or drilling. 
 
 Oats . 
 
 109. Of all cereals, the oat-crop is most generally 
 suited to the climate of the North and West of Eng- 
 land, as well as to Ireland and Scotland. In the 
 latter countries it is almost the only grain-crop raised 
 on lea. It is also very extensively grown after roots, but 
 on most well-managed farms barley pays after two 
 crops better when the climate is not too wet. On lea 
 ground, well ploughed, the seed is scattered broadcast 
 on the surface ; it falls into the hollows between the 
 slices, and is covered by breaking down with a har- 
 row the crests. When the land is badly ploughed, 
 this mode of sowing does not answer, as a large 
 quantity of the grain is apt to fall so low into holes and 
 fissures, that it does not germinate. To prevent this, 
 the seed should be sown by a drilling machine when 
 available, or covered with the plough. Some farmers 
 sow the seed broadcast, and cover it in with the har- 
 row ; but it cannot be evenly covered in this way. In 
 shallow ground it often becomes necessary to shovel 
 some earth from the furrows over the ridges, so as to 
 secure the necessary covering for the seed. 
 
 110. Speaking generally, our small farmers do not 
 plough their lands to more than half the proper depth 
 for oats. The result is, that the crop is very short, 
 and in dry seasons it partially fails. 
 
 111 . The quantity of seed required per statute acre 
 varies from ten stones in good, to fourteen stones in 
 poor ground. The crop is usually sown about the 
 
38 INTRODUCTION TO [part 
 
 middle of March. Of good varieties we would name 
 the following : — 
 
 White Oats — Potato for good rich ground ; Sandy 
 for medium land. Black Oats — Common Black Oats 
 for poor cold land ; Black Tartary for rich, moory 
 ■ ground, or land which contains a large proportion of 
 vegetable matter. This variety has become a general 
 favourite. A variety called Taw?iey Oats is sown in 
 October, and ripens sooner than any other kind. The 
 common black oats of the country when well selected 
 yields well. Common speckled oats is very hardy. 
 
 Bye- 
 
 112 . Rye is the hardiest of all our grain-crops. It 
 grows in soils too poor, or in situations too exposed or 
 elevated for oats. In Belgium it is grown more ex- 
 tensively than oats or barley, notwithstanding that the 
 summer is drier and warmer than ours ; but there, the 
 rye is harvested so early that it admits of being suc- 
 ceeded by a crop of turnips the same year. This crop 
 may be sown in autumn, in winter, or in spring ; the 
 best time is in the end of October or beginning of 
 November. The quantity of seed used per acre de- 
 pends on the time of sowing — twelve to fourteen stones 
 being the average. Co7nmon Rye is hardy, but a 
 variety called Giant E7iglish is the best The seed is 
 sown and covered in the same way as oats. 
 
 113. We have known poor mountain land, let at 
 6s., to produce 7 6 stones of rye per statute acre. 
 
 114. The yield of the corn-crops is increased, and 
 their quality improved, by a change of seed. On this 
 subject we shall make a remark or two further on* 
 
 VI. BEANS AND PEAS. 
 
 115. Beans and peas being raised for their seed, are 
 sometimes classed as grain-crops ; but, as the seed is 
 
ii.] PRACTICAL FARMING. 39 
 
 inclosed in legumes or pods, they are, with more cor- 
 rectness, called leguminous crops. 
 
 116 . Both these crops are rich in what is called 
 flesh-forming material — that is, they contain in large 
 quantity the substance of flesh or muscle. Hence, 
 they are found useful in feeding horses, which carry 
 heavy loads in cities and large towns. They are also 
 consumed by man; but as they contain little fatty 
 and starchy matter, they have a costive effect, and 
 must be used in moderate quantity. 
 
 117 . The bean is best suited for strong clay-land. 
 It is grown in several ways. Sometimes, as in East 
 Lothian, it is raised in drills like potatoes. In some 
 places it is often sown broadcast. In this case the 
 ground being ploughed, and harrowed when necessary, 
 the seed is scattered by hand, at the rate of four 
 bushels, or more, per statute acre, and covered in the 
 same way as corn. Very heavy crops have been 
 obtained in this way on our heavy clay-lands. 
 
 118 . An expeditious way of sowing beans is to drop 
 the seed in every second furrow as the land is being- 
 ploughed. The plants grow in rows, the space be- 
 tween which can be dug or grubbed and hoed. 
 
 119 . The spring varieties of beans are sown from 
 the 1 st February to the middle of March. The variety 
 known as Russian, or winter bean, is sown in October. 
 
 120. The crop should be cut when the pods, as 
 well as the upper part of the stem, become brown, and 
 when the seed is easily detached from the pod. It is 
 allowed to remain one day in the swath, after which it 
 is bound into small sheaves, stooked, and, in due time, 
 carried to the stack-yard. In suitable land the yield 
 of beans is fully as much as of wheat. 
 
 121 . The pea, like the bean, belongs to the order 
 of leguminous plants. It is divided into two classes, 
 namely, common garden pea, the seed of which is 
 white ; and field or grey pea, the seed of which is 
 of a greyish colour. The pea is regarded as a 
 
40 INTRODUCTION TO [part 
 
 precarious field-crop. The range of soils suited to 
 its growth is limited. It pays best on light, brashy, 
 and calcareous soils. It is sown in the beginning 
 of March. 
 
 VII. FORAGE AND HERBAGE CROPS. 
 
 122. We now come to consider forage and herbage 
 plants which have been divided into artificial and natural 
 grasses. According to this division, artificial grasses 
 include vetches, clover, lucerne, and sanfoin, which 
 are not grasses at all, but are given to cattle chiefly in 
 the green state ; and the rye-grasses, which are true 
 grasses. All these plants are called artificial grasses, 
 because they are cut and given to cattle by hand. 
 
 The Vetch. 
 
 123. The tare or vetch is, in this country, chiefly 
 grown as a stolen crop after corn. The ground — 
 being clean — is dug or ploughed, farm-yard manure at 
 the rate of ten to twelve tons per acre is applied, the 
 seed sown broadcast, the ground harrowed to cover 
 the seed, and some earth shovelled from the furrows to 
 complete the covering. A sowing of it should be 
 made as soon after harvest as the ground can be got 
 ready ; and a second sowing a fortnight later. As the 
 stems of the vetch do not stand erect, it is necessary 
 to sow along with it rye, oats, or Italian rye-grass. 
 Rye may be mixed with the seed of the first sowing, 
 and a mixture of rye-grass and oats with the second, 
 and oats only with the third. This crop yields on an 
 average twelve tons of forage per acre, and affords 
 excellent feeding for all farm animals ; and on small 
 farms it has the advantage of coming into use at a 
 time when other feeding is scarce. The quantity of 
 seed is about two bushels per statute acre, with a 
 bushel of rye, oats, or rye-grass. 
 
 124. As vetch-seed is very dear, farmers ought to 
 
ii.] PRACTICAL FARMING. 41 
 
 allow a small portion of the crop to come to maturity, 
 so as to raise their own seed. 
 
 125. The small farmer who house-feeds in summer 
 may sow in autumn at least twenty perches of this crop 
 for every milch cow kept on the farm. 
 
 126. Vetches sown in spring afford excellent feeding 
 in summer and autumn. Cottiers and small farmers 
 who house-feed their cows in summer ought to use the 
 crop for this purpose. Several sowings of it may be 
 made from February till May, so that the produce of 
 these several sowings may become ready for use in 
 succession. 
 
 Lucerne . 
 
 127. Lucerne, though a very useful forage-crop, is 
 little known in many parts of the country. It grows 
 best in rich land, but is most valuable on medium 
 land. It may be planted in waste corners and places 
 which could not be easily tilled. It is sown along 
 with a corn-crop in the same way as clover and grass- 
 seed ; it is also sown by itself. If sown alone, the 
 ground should be deeply tilled, and made quite even, 
 the surface made into ridglets or ribs, the seed sown, 
 and covered with the rake or harrow. The ruts are 
 made at least fifteen inches apart. The best time for 
 sowing is the middle of April. Twelve pounds of 
 seed per statute acre is enough. If sown broadcast, 
 three or four pounds additional may be used. 
 
 128. One good cutting is sure to be obtained 
 the first year; and on good land two may be 
 produced. In the year after, the crop will be in full 
 bearing, and give three cuttings ; and if the spaces 
 between the rows of plants be hoed after the last 
 cutting in autumn, and a top-dressing of farm-yard 
 manure or of good compost be applied, at the rate of 
 ten tons per acre, it continues to yield a good return 
 for eight or ten years. 
 
 129. Lucerne is one of the first forage^ crops avail- 
 
42 INTRODUCTION TO [part 
 
 able in spring. It is, therefore, of great value to the 
 small farmer who house-feeds, and who often has a 
 difficulty in providing feeding for his animals before 
 the clover or rye-grass is fit for use. The second crop 
 of lucerne becomes fit for use at another critical time 
 —namely, between the first and second cutting of 
 clover or rye-grass. 
 
 Sanfoin . 
 
 130. Sanfoin is somewhat like lucerne in its habits 
 of growth. It may be sown with a corn-crop ; or by 
 itself in the beginning of April, at the rate of two or 
 three bushels of seed per acre. It gives one cutting 
 the first year, and is not fully grown till the second or 
 third year. 
 
 131. This plant is deep-rooted, and is capable of 
 growing in light, calcareous, and stony ground, where 
 rye-grass, clover, or even lucerne, would not pay. 
 Every tillage farmer who holds land of this class should 
 have a plantation of it for the feeding of his cows in 
 summer. 
 
 132. Both lucerne and sanfoin may be made into 
 hay. After eight or ten years these crops die out. 
 The land should be then put under other crops for 
 four or five years, after which either may be sown 
 again in the same ground. 
 
 VIII. CLOVERS. 
 
 133. There are several kinds of clover , the most 
 common being called, after the colour of the blos- 
 soms, red, yellow, and white. Red clover is far the 
 most productive. Being a deep-rooted plant, it is 
 extensively grown in the east and south-east of Eng- 
 land, where, owing to the dry climate, there is not 
 moisture enough in the surface-soil to nourish rye- 
 grasses, which are surface-rooted plants. Red clover 
 grows luxuriantly in these countries ; but if repeated 
 
PRACTICAL FARMING. 
 
 43 
 
 ii.] 
 
 oftener than once in eight years, the land becomes, as 
 already stated, what is called clover-sick, and refuses 
 to grow this plant. The mode of preventing clover- 
 sickness has been already explained. Red clover is 
 sometimes sown alone, but is generally mixed with 
 other seeds, such as rye-grasses. If sown alone, sixteen 
 pounds of seed should be used ; and as the seed is 
 very small, the surface of the ground should be reduced 
 to a very fine state before sowing. Red clover gives 
 two and sometimes three heavy cuttings in the year, 
 after which it begins to die out. Yellow clover is 
 raised as a forage-crop on poor light land, which 
 would not yield red clover. It is not, however, a 
 productive crop. White clover is not sown except in 
 small quantity in mixture for permanent pasture. It 
 affords sweet herbage, and is greatly relished by sheep. 
 
 IX. THE GRASSES. 
 
 134. Of true grasses, the best for forage purposes 
 are named rye-grasses, and are so called because of a 
 slight resemblance they bear to common rye. There 
 are two species of rye-grass in use ; namely, Italian 
 rye-grass and perennial rye-grass. They are very like in 
 appearance, and are grown and used in the same way. 
 Of the two, Italian rye-grass is the more productive. 
 On deep, cool soils, it is, in many places, the best 
 forage-crop we possess. It is most productive in wet 
 climates. The heaviest crops of it are obtained on 
 reclaimed bog in the west of Ireland. It gives two, 
 three, and sometimes four cuttings in the year, in 
 favourable situations. It is generally sown with a 
 corn-crop at the rate of about three bushels of seed 
 per statute acre. 
 
 135. It has been sown alone in autumn, after pota- 
 toes, at the rate of four or five bushels. In this case, 
 it is necessary to sow it not later than September, so 
 that the plants would be sufficiently strong to bear the 
 
44 INTRODUCTION TO [part 
 
 winter’s frost. Enormous crops of it are obtained in 
 this way. 
 
 136. The seed of Italian rye, and indeed all seeds, 
 are grossly adulterated. Farmers would, therefore, do 
 well to save as much of the seed of this crop as would 
 supply their own wants. The second cutting in 
 the season, which is free from weeds, should be used 
 for this purpose. 
 
 137. Perennial rye-grass is often mixed with the 
 Italian, in the ratio of two-thirds Italian to one-third 
 perennial. The Italian grows in tufts, and the peren- 
 nial helps to fill up the spaces between these tufts. 
 On rich soils, Italian grows so rapidly, and the stems 
 and leaves cover the ground so soon, that it is un- 
 necessary to mix anything with it ; but in other places 
 it is better to use the mixture. 
 
 138. On all soils, except those which are very 
 rich, Italian rye-grass begins to die out after the first 
 year. Perennial rye-grass is more lasting ; hence its 
 name. It is not, however, a true perennial plant ; 
 in fact, it rarely lasts more than a year longer than 
 Italian. 
 
 139. There are a great many species of permanent 
 grasses ; but not more than ten of them, which we 
 shall now name, should be sown by the farmer. 
 
 140. Cocksfoot is a productive grass, and is so 
 called from the resemblance of its flower-stalk to a 
 cock’s foot. It grows in all soils except those which 
 are saturated with water, or too light in texture. It 
 is met with in all good meadow-land, and is readily 
 known by its strong leaves, which are numerous, of a 
 deep-green colour, and grow with great rapidity. It 
 should enter into all mixtures for meadow- land. 
 It thrives particularly well in shaded places ; and 
 when mixed with the weaker sorts in such situations, 
 it becomes a support to them, and prevents their 
 foliage from being rotted on the ground. 
 
 141. Timothy , or Meadow Cat stalls is best adapted 
 
Ii.] PRACTICAL FARMING. 45 
 
 for deep, moist soils, and is said to excel all other 
 grasses on strong, tenacious clays. It also grows well 
 on reclaimed moory ground. It should, therefore, 
 form part of all mixtures on such lands for meadow or 
 pasture. The aftergrass of Timothy is very light, 
 which has brought it into disfavour. 
 
 142. Meadow Foxtail is the earliest of the valuable 
 grasses, and forms a large proportion of the herbage 
 in our best pastures. It throws out from the crown 
 of its root long, broad, and succulent leaves, which 
 are renewed with great rapidity — a circumstance 
 which greatly enhances its value for permanent pas- 
 ture. It answers very well for irrigation. As it does 
 not reach its full size for three years, and throws up 
 a comparatively bare stem, it is not sown in mixtures 
 for one or two years’ grass. 
 
 143. Rough-stalked Meadow Grass is very generally 
 met with in good meadows and pastures. It grows 
 most luxuriantly in rich moist soils, and does very 
 well in the shade of trees and in irrigated land, but 
 gets burned up in the heat of summer on light, dry 
 ground. It throws out shoots from the root at the 
 base of the culms, which trail on the ground, and send 
 down small roots at their joints in moist weather. Its 
 habits of growth fit it admirably for being sown along 
 with the more upright kinds of grasses, such as rye- 
 grass and meadow fescue. 
 
 144. Smooth-stalked Meadow Grass is not so valu- 
 able as the last-named plant, which it resembles in 
 some respects. As the names of both indicate, the 
 stem of the one is rougher than that of the other. The 
 root of the rough-stalked meadow-grass is fibrous, or 
 but slightly creeping, whereas the smooth-stalked 
 species has a creeping root. The smooth-stalked 
 meadow-grass, too, is the smaller plant. As a rule, 
 grasses with creeping roots thrive better in light land 
 than grasses with fibrous roots. This grass cannot be 
 recommended for cultivation, except, perhaps, to enter 
 
46 INTRODUCTION TO [part 
 
 in small quantity into mixtures for soils which are too 
 light for more valuable grasses. 
 
 145. Meadow Fescue grows abundantly on rich 
 pasture, especially where the soil is somewhat moist ; 
 but it is not well suited for light, dry land. The stalks 
 are strong and coarse ; but they are greedily eaten by 
 horses and cattle. 
 
 146. Hard Fescue is, perhaps, more abundant in 
 British pastures than any other grass. It thrives in a 
 great variety of soils, but it is best suited for dry, light 
 land, and forms a very large proportion of our sheep- 
 walks. It resists the drought of summer, retains its 
 verdure during winter, and is more productive than its 
 dwarfish habits of growth would indicate. It is a good 
 grass to sow with others in lawns, when it is desired to 
 produce both a pleasing effect and a good return. 
 
 147. Sheep's Fescue forms a large proportion of the 
 herbage of sheep-pastures, especially those in elevated 
 situations. It is a smaller grass, and less productive 
 than either meadow fescue or hard fescue, but it is 
 greatly relished by sheep. 
 
 148. Crested Dogs tail is a grass on the merits ot 
 which there is a great diversity of opinion. Like 
 meadow foxtail, it throws up a number of root-leaves, 
 of which sheep are very fond. Unless pasture which 
 contains much of this grass is kept closely stocked, it 
 throws up hard wiry stems, which sometimes irritate 
 the eyes of sheep, and which neither sheep nor cattle 
 eat until winter. It should, therefore, be used spar- 
 ingly in putting land into grass. It has deep roots 
 which enable it to resist drought. 
 
 149. Sweet-scented Vernal Grass , which is supposed 
 to give out the agreeable odour so characteristic of 
 newly-made hay, is not a productive grass; but it 
 begins to grow early in spring, and continues growing 
 up to a late period in autumn. It should be intro- 
 duced only to a limited extent into any mixture of 
 grass seeds. 
 
PRACTICAL FARMING. 
 
 47 
 
 «.] 
 
 150. Fiorin Grass has a creeping root, each stolon 
 or joint of which is capable of sending independent 
 roots into the ground and producing an independent 
 plant. It gives a weighty crop on salt marshes and 
 reclaimed bog, where other grasses would not thrive. 
 It is also a useful grass on irrigated lands, especially 
 those of a moory or peaty character. Fiorin grass is 
 propagated either from seed, or by chopping up the 
 plant and planting the stolons in rows. 
 
 151. The foregoing list includes the most valuable 
 grasses. There are two others very common in this 
 country which we shall notice, in the hope that they 
 will be avoided by farmers. Soft meadow grass, called 
 also “ Yorkshire Fog* and “ White Hay* is too pre- 
 valent. It is covered with soft, downy hairs, and it is 
 found that all grasses of this kind possess little value. 
 This grass is little better than a weed, yet it often 
 forms a large part of the mixtures sold under the 
 name of white seeds. 
 
 152. Brown grass seeds are obtained from the hay 
 of old meadow land. Large quantities of these seeds 
 are sold in many places for laying land down to per- 
 manent pasture. If the hay contained the proper 
 grasses in the proper proportions, farmers would, to 
 some extent, be justified in buying these seeds ; but 
 as a great deal of the hay sent to market is not made 
 up of the proper grasses, it is not safe to rely on these 
 brown seeds. 
 
 153. The farmer should take every possible precau- 
 tion to procure genuine grass-seeds. He is too much 
 in the habit of buying at a cheap rate what are called 
 white hay-seeds, and which are the sweepings of lofts 
 in which hay made from artificial grasses are kept. 
 These seeds often contain a large quantity of the 
 seed of Yorkshire fog referred to above, as well as 
 the seeds of weeds, whose eradication afterwards costs 
 a great deal of labour. 
 
 154. Creeping Soft Grass is another plant of the 
 
48 INTRODUCTION TO [part 
 
 same class, often met with in meadow and pasture 
 land, but not to the same extent as Yorkshire Fog. 
 It is not only downy and innutritious, but it has a 
 creeping root, which gives it the character of a trouble- 
 some weed. 
 
 155. A rich, clean soil is required to produce good 
 crops of the grasses ; and as their seeds are small and 
 delicate, they also require the seed-bed to be extremely 
 well pulverized. We have seen that the place in the 
 rotation usually assigned to them is after the grain that 
 follows manured roots and potatoes. 
 
 156. Barley is regarded as the best corn-crop with 
 which to sow grasses ; oats is next ; and wheat the 
 least suitable of the three. This partiality for barley 
 arises from several circumstances. The surface soil is 
 reduced to a very fine state for barley, and grass seeds, 
 which are small, require very fine earth. Wheat is 
 generally sown in stiff clay land, which cannot be well 
 prepared for seeds, especially when sown in antumn 
 or winter. On most soils, well managed, grass seeds 
 do remarkably well after wheat. 
 
 157. The mode of sowing grass-seed with spring 
 corn is as follows : — The grain being covered with the 
 harrow to a sufficient depth, the ground is rolled to 
 break all lumps and produce a fine seed-bed, the grass- 
 seeds are then evenly distributed, and harrowed in with 
 a bush-harrow, or seed-harrow (which is much lighter, 
 and has shorter tines than a common harrow), and the 
 ground again rolled. It has been ascertained by care- 
 ful experiments that grass-seeds should not be covered 
 to a greater depth than half an inch. When covered 
 too deeply many of them do not vegetate at all. In 
 order to distribute the seed evenly it is a good plan to 
 sow one half of them up and down and the other half 
 across. In laying down grass-seeds with winter-sown 
 wheat the ground is first harrowed and rolled, if neces- 
 sary. The seeds are then sown, harrowed with a light 
 or seed harrow, and the ground rolled. 
 
PRACTICAL FARMING. 
 
 49 
 
 I ■] 
 
 158. In laying land of good average quality down 
 to permanent pasture, the following mixture may be 
 sown with a corn -crop : 
 
 lb. 
 
 Italian rye-grass ... 5 
 
 Perennial 6 
 
 Cocksfoot .... 7 
 
 Timothy 5 
 
 Rough-stalked meadow 
 
 grass 2 
 
 Meadow Foxtail . . 2 
 
 For sheep-walks, and more especially in elevated 
 situations, Italian rye-grass and cocksfoot are left out, 
 the quantity of perennial rye-grass is diminished and 
 the quantity of hard fescue increased. 
 
 HAYMAKING. 
 
 159. We find that the grasses, while the blades are 
 young, contain more water than at any subsequent 
 period ; that as they grow in size, sugar, fat, and flesh- 
 forming matters are produced ; and that, until the seed 
 begins to grow, they not only continue to increase in 
 bulk, but the quality of a given weight of that bulk 
 improves. If permitted to grow beyond this stage, 
 the feeding quality of the plants is greatly deteriorated, 
 woody fibre being rapidly produced at the expense of 
 the sugar. We may safely assume that, so far as the 
 quantity of the produce (including the aftergrass) is 
 concerned, we obtain the maximum by mowing the 
 grasses when in blossom. As, however, all grasses do 
 not flower at the same time, the following rules may 
 be observed : — 
 
 160. Italian rye-grass should always be mown on 
 the appearance of the flowers. Ordinary rye-grass 
 may be allowed to produce the flowers. Clover is best 
 cut when the heads are in full blossom. Mixed mea- 
 dows should be mown when the bulk of the herbage 
 is in full flower, or when the seeds of the earliest 
 
 E 
 
 lb. 
 
 Meadow fescue ... 2 
 
 Hard fescue .... 4 
 
 Red clover 3 
 
 Yellow clover . . . . 1 
 
 White clover .... 3 
 
 Alsike clover 1 
 
50 INTRODUCTION TO [part 
 
 grasses are fully formed, such as sweet-scented vernal 
 grass and meadow foxtail ; and the seed of the late 
 grasses, such as crested dogstail and meadow fescue, are 
 just beginning to produce the floral organs. Timothy, 
 Italian rye-grass, perennial rye-grass, and cocksfoot 
 generally flower during the latter half of June, which 
 is the proper time for mowing the cultivated grasses. 
 
 161 . The ruling idea in the saving of hay should be 
 to allow it to remain in the field as short a time as 
 is absolutely necessary, and to rick it as soon as it 
 can be done with safety. The time within which this 
 can be accomplished varies with the succulence of the 
 grass and with the weather. In the case of rye-grass, 
 and mixed grasses, from light or dry soils, the period 
 may, by skilful management, be reduced to four days 
 in dry weather ; in rich low-land it takes at least a 
 week or ten days. By delaying the process too long, 
 the hay is burnt up by the sun ; and it is also liable to 
 have its soluble constituents washed out of it by rain. 
 Well-made hay retains its green colour, and possesses 
 an agreeable odour. Hay exposed to too much sun 
 and rain is of a whitish colour, without flavour, and 
 looks dry and coarse like straw. To promote uni- 
 formity in the colour of the hay, all parts of it should 
 be equally exposed to the sun and air. In half-a-day 
 or a day after it is mown — the exact time depending 
 on the character of the grass and the state of the 
 weather — the swath is turned over and shaken. This 
 work is done by the hand or fork on small farms, and 
 by a machine called a hay-tedder on large farms. When 
 both sides become sufficiently exposed to sun and air, 
 the grass is made with forks into cocks, called fork-cocks. 
 Next day these cocks may be opened, and the hay 
 made into larger cocks in the evening. In a day or 
 two after, these cocks may, if necessary, be made into 
 still larger ones, from which the hay may be taken to the 
 stack-yard. Should wet overtake the farmer in making 
 hay, the safest plan is not to meddle with it ; for each 
 
ii.] PRACTICAL FARMING . 51 
 
 time that we turn or disturb it, a fresh surface is exposed 
 to the solvent and deteriorating action of the rain. 
 It will keep quite safely for several days in well-made 
 cocks of 5 cwt. each. 
 
 162. Some farmers who have a very considerable 
 area under meadow do not rake the hay into cocks 
 as described, and are contented with raking it into 
 wind rows in the morning, and opening them out next 
 day, or when necessary, and remaking them in the 
 evening. This system saves labour; but it cannot 
 be practised with safety in humid districts. 
 
 163. The hay crop suffers deterioration chiefly from 
 the following causes : — first, rain ; second, loss of fra- 
 grance by fermentation ; third, loss of colouring matter; 
 fourth, it is allowed to remain in the field until a por- 
 tion of it is rotted away ; and this again involves loss 
 of aftergrass. 
 
 164. Hay contains a considerable quantity of matter 
 soluble in water, varying from 6 to 8 | per cent., which is 
 liable to be washed away by rain. Considering the rain- 
 fall in Ireland, we shall not be considered to overstate 
 the case when we assume that, during the process of hay- 
 making, the Irish farmer permits the rain to run away 
 with 5 per cent, of the valuable constituents of the crop. 
 
 165. The loss of fragrance deteriorates its value to 
 an extent which has never been estimated, and which 
 it is not easy to determine. The peculiar fragrance of 
 hay is produced by a volatile organic compound, 
 which is probably the body that imparts any extra 
 value they possess to those cattle-foods which are 
 puffed off at such exorbitant prices. In excess it pro- 
 duces an injurious effect upon the brain of all animals ; 
 but in moderate quantity it incites a healthy action 
 in the glands that secrete the saliva, without a due 
 quantity of which all nutrient constituents of the food 
 (hay included) cannot be digested and assimilated. 
 
 166. When hay ferments, the alcohol, in the pres- 
 ence of water (rain), dissolves this compound, and 
 
 e 2 
 
52 INTRODUCTION TO [part 
 
 thus destroys the fragrance of the hay, and deteriorates 
 its value. And though we cannot determine with 
 any degree of accuracy the injury done to the hay, 
 yet in practice we find a difference of 50 per cent, 
 in value between well-saved and very badly-saved 
 hay from the same ground . 1 
 
 167. The natural green colour of the grasses should, 
 as far as practicable, be preserved in converting them 
 into hay. The colouring matter is a vegetable fatty 
 or waxy body, which, like that which gives fragrance, 
 is separated by alcohol. When the grasses dry in the 
 open air, this substance becomes oxidized, and the 
 more oxygen it takes in, the more the colour changes. 
 It is evident, therefore, that the sooner hay is ricked 
 the better ; for the longer we expose it to the air, the 
 more it becomes oxidized and diminished in value, f If 
 ricked too soon, however, the loss of fragrance by fer- 
 mentation (without speaking at all of the loss of sugar, 
 &c., from the same cause) would more than counter- 
 balance the advantages of retaining the green colour. 
 
 168. That a considerable quantity of hay is lost 
 annually by being allowed to remain too long in field- 
 cocks is well known to anybody who has travelled 
 much through the country. The portion on the ground, 
 as well as that on the outside of the cocks, is too often 
 only fit for manure. And the aftergrass, as well as 
 the subsequent year's crop (if hay or pasture), suffers 
 to the extent of from 6d \ to is. per acre. If we unite 
 all the foregoing sources, the loss annually sustained 
 in these countries is enormous. 
 
 ON FLAX. 
 
 169. The flax plant affords profitable employment 
 to a large number of persons, and supplies the raw 
 material for the linen industry of the country. 
 
 1 “ A difference of an hour in a very hot, drying day is sup- 
 posed to occasion a loss of 15 to 20 per cent, in the hay, by its 
 being carried beyond the point of perfection.” — Young, Far- 
 mer’s Calender . 
 
it.] PRACTICAL FARMING. S3 
 
 170. Flax suits a variety of soils. It succeeds best 
 in cool land of medium strength. 
 
 171. In order to produce flax of fine fibre, the 
 land should not be too rich. On the other hand, it is 
 useless to grow it on very poor land. There is a great 
 want of skill in the management of the flax-crop in 
 this country. It is grown too often on the same land. 
 In Belgium and the north of France, where first-class 
 fibre is produced, it is -not repeated on the soil until 
 after the lapse of ten or twelve years ; and for the 
 production of fibre for cambric the interval often ex- 
 tends to eighteen years. 
 
 172. On ordinary land, the best place for flax is 
 after lea-oats. If the farmer pursues the five-course 
 rotation on the tillage portion of his land, he can 
 modify it as follows, and repeat the flax on the same 
 ground once in twelve years, thus : — 
 
 i st — Root-crops. 
 
 2 nd — Grain, with seeds. 
 
 3 rd — Grass — 1 st year. 
 
 4 th — Grass — 2 nd year. 
 
 5 th — Lea oats. 
 
 6 th — One-half the field is put under flax. 
 
 The remaining half is cropped with grain, potatoes, 
 rape, or vetches, [according to circumstances. Six 
 years afterwards the flax can be put in this section of 
 the field. In many parts of Ulster flax occupied the 
 whole of the ground every sixth year, and in some cases 
 it was repeated at shorter intervals. The result has 
 been injurious. 
 
 173. The ground, in preparation for flax, should be 
 deeply tilled in autumn; and in spring the surface 
 should be reduced to the finest possible state of tilth. 
 It should also be made as even as possible, to ensure 
 plants of uniform length ; and all root-weeds should 
 be carefully removed. 
 
 174. The seed is sown as early in April as the 
 ground can be got ready for it, the quantity of seed 
 
54 INTRODUCTION, [part ii. 
 
 used being 2J or 3 bushels per statute acre. To en- 
 sure an even braird, it is a good plan to sow one-half 
 the seed by going up and down the field, and the 
 other half by going across it ; and to secure this still 
 further, it is covered in by giving a double stroke of 
 the harrow up and down, one straight across the field, 
 and another in the direction of one of the diagonals. 
 
 175. Flax is fit to pull when the stems become yel- 
 low to about two-thirds their height from the ground. 
 
 176. The bolls, or capsules, which contain the seed, 
 ought to be preserved, as they make excellent feeding 
 for calves and milch cows. A statute acre of flax 
 ought to produce twenty-five stones of scutched fibre, 
 which would bring from 8s. to 12^. a stone. Riga seed 
 is the best for moist soils ; but on strong, low-lying 
 land, Dutch seed is found to give a better return. 
 
 177. In order to obtain fibre of the best quality, 
 the flax is pulled before the seed is fully formed. In 
 this case, the seed is sacrificed. The usual practice in 
 these countries is, however, to pull the crop when the 
 seed changes to a brown colour, and when the stems 
 become yellow to about two-thirds its height from the 
 ground. It is usual to remove the seed in the field 
 by an instrument called a ripple, and to steep the crop 
 immediately after in a pool of suitable soft water. In 
 those parts of the Continent where fibre of the highest 
 value is produced the flax-crop is not steeped until 
 the year after it is grown. 
 
 178. It is an interesting fact that the value of the 
 fibre in different parts of the stem of a flax-plant 
 varies. The middle part is the best, the part next the 
 root is next in value, and the upper part the least 
 valuable of all. In mills which spin first-class thread, 
 advantage is taken of this fact, by using each of these 
 parts separately. 
 
PART III. 
 
 LIVE STOCK. 
 
 I. ON THE FOOD OF ANIMALS. 
 
 179. The nutrition of animals is governed by laws 
 which every person ought to understand. We shall 
 give an outline of these laws by explaining the various 
 purposes served by food in the animal. The compon- 
 ent parts of food may be grouped as follows : — 
 
 1. Water. 
 
 2. Heat-giving materials, such as starch and sugar 
 — compounds identical in composition, and sup- 
 posed to be equal for feeding. 
 
 3. Oil or fatty matter. 
 
 4. Flesh-forming material, such as the gluten of 
 wheat. 
 
 5. Woody or indigestible fibre. 
 
 6. Ash, or mineral matter (a large portion of which 
 is composed of phosphate of lime, the well-known 
 substance of bones). 
 
 180. The value of any feeding substance depends 
 mainly on the proportions in which these six groups 
 exist in it. The food which the animal takes in 
 through its mouth passes into the stomach (or sto- 
 machs, of which the cow and sheep have each four, 
 and the horse and the pig only one each) ; after being 
 acted on by various agents in this organ, the indiges- 
 
56 INTRODUCTION TO [part 
 
 tible or innutritious part passes away through the 
 intestines, and the nutritious part is conveyed to the 
 blood. 
 
 181. Overlooking water, which is a most essential 
 part of food, the constituents we have first to consider 
 are sugar, starch, and similar compounds. These, it 
 has been found, go to support animal heat. Animals 
 could not exist without heat ; and the heat they require 
 is chiefly kept up by the consumption of starch and 
 sugar, which are, therefore, very properly called heat- 
 givers. We know that starch and sugar are also 
 capable of producing fat in the animal body. It is 
 well known, for instance, that more fat is stored up in 
 the bodies of pigs than could be produced by the fatty 
 matter of the food. The temperature of the body of 
 an animal is about the same in all climates, provided 
 it is properly fed. The blood of man, e.g., is as warm 
 in the Arctic as in the Torrid regions of the earth. In 
 the former or colder climate, he must eat more car- 
 bonaceous food, or more starch, sugar and other com- 
 pounds capable of supplying carbon, to keep up animal 
 heat. 
 
 182. The same holds good with regard to live stock. 
 If we leave them exposed to cold they must eat more 
 food to keep up the necessary heat of the body. This 
 shows the necessity of providing suitable shelter for 
 farm animals in winter. 
 
 183. The fat of animals is identical in composition 
 with the fatty or oily matter found in plants ; and it is 
 believed that the fat of the food goes to form the fat of 
 the body. The fatty matter of food is also capable of 
 supplying animal heat. We are convinced of this by 
 the fact that in several northern countries the people 
 do not use any food containing starch, sugar or similar 
 compounds. There is this difference, however, between 
 the fatty and starchy matter of food as producers of 
 animal fat, namely, that an animal can produce its own 
 fat from the fatty matter of its food more readily than 
 
m.] PRACTICAL FARMING. 57 
 
 from compounds not fatty in their nature, such as 
 starch and sugar. A pound of fatty matter is supposed 
 to be equal to two and a half pounds of starchy matter, 
 or sugar, for fattening purposes. The more fatty 
 matter, therefore, any kind of food contains, the better 
 it is adapted for the fattening of stock. Linseed (flax 
 seed) contains 34 per cent., or about one-third of its 
 weight, of oil ; and is, when properly used, one of the 
 most rapid fat producers we have. Used largely it 
 has a laxative effect. The oil is so valuable for 
 other purposes, that the seed is pressed in mills, the 
 oil extracted, and a solid residue or cake is obtained, 
 which contains about twelve per cent, of oil, and is 
 sold under the name of oil-cake or linseed-cake. Oil- 
 cake from linseed, when free from adulteration, is one 
 of the best substances which the farmer can use for 
 fattening cattle and sheep. Rape-seed, which contains 
 a great deal of valuable oil, is also pressed in the same 
 way ; the oil, called colza oil, so extensively used in 
 lamps, is sold to oil merchants, and the cake called 
 rape-cake, which contains about eleven per cent, of 
 oil, is sold to the farmer for feeding stock. Compared 
 with linseed-oil cake, rape-cake appears to be very 
 cheap. It does not, however, agree with cattle or 
 sheep as well as linseed-cake. Before using rape-cake 
 it is recommended to subject it to the action of boiling 
 water. We are of opinion that rape-cake pays best 
 when given to store cattle and milch cows. Notwith- 
 standing the higher price of linseed-cake it pays better 
 than rape-cake in the fattening of cattle or sheep. 
 Rape-cake when adulterated with the seed of wild mus- 
 tard, is injurious to stock. By making a small quantity 
 of it into a paste, the pungent smell, so characteristic 
 of mustard, will be emitted if the cake is adulterated 
 with mustard seed. 
 
 184 . A cake, called cotton cake, is obtained from 
 the seed of the cotton plant. Made from the whole 
 seed, it contains six per cent, of oil, and upwards. 
 
58 INTRODUCTION TO [part 
 
 When first introduced the husk was not ground in any 
 way ; the result was that animals died from inflamma- 
 tion of the intestines, caused by the lodgment therein 
 of this indigestible woody matter ; but, as now manu- 
 factured, it is safe and good for all stock, especially 
 milch cows. When the cake is deprived of this husk, 
 and becomes what is known in the market as “ decor- 
 ticated” cotton cake, it contains io per cent, of oil. 
 This variety answers very well for fattening cattle when 
 first put up to fatten ; but as they advance towards 
 maturity no cake is equal to that which is made from 
 linseed. There are several other kinds of cake, and 
 of artificial feeding substances in the market, such as 
 cocoa-nut cake and palm-nut meal. At a moderate 
 price we have found the latter useful for the produc- 
 tion of an increased flow of milk in farm animals. 
 
 185. The flesh-forming constituents of food supply 
 the muscles of the body. The muscles and all the tis- 
 sues of an animal are continually wearing away. Even 
 in a state of perfect health and repose this process 
 goes on. If we wish the animal to keep up its health 
 and condition, the matter removed in this way must 
 be supplied to it in the food. It has been estimated 
 that a man’s body is renewed in about half-a-dozen 
 years. In flesh and bone, therefore, we are not to-day 
 what we were yesterday. The degree of waste which the 
 body of any animal suffers varies with a great many 
 circumstances. Disease or irritation increases it very 
 much. A sheep suffering from foot-rot does not pro- 
 duce as much mutton from a given quantity of food as 
 when free from this affection. A cow of a restless 
 disposition does not thrive as well as one of quiet 
 temper. 
 
 186. Exercise, whether mental or bodily, accelerates 
 the waste of the tissues. The harder a horse is worked, 
 the more food he requires. It follows, that in fatten- 
 ing cattle, the quieter we keep them the greater the 
 quantity of meat we are likely to get from a given 
 
in.] PRACTICAL FARMING. 59 
 
 quantity of food, because the less of the latter is ex- 
 pended in supplying the waste of the body. 
 
 187. Woody fibres enter very largely into the com- 
 position of our farm crops. It is made up of the 
 same elements as starch, sugar, and gum ; but, as it 
 is indigestible (or nearly so), its chief use is to give 
 bulk to the food, so that it may be detained suffici- 
 ently long in the stomach to be thoroughly acted on. 
 
 188. The mineral constituents of the food are re- 
 quired to supply the mineral matter of the body. The 
 bone and framework of the animal could not be formed 
 without mineral matters; and as these matters are 
 wasted, like the other constituents of the tissues, the 
 food must always afford a fresh supply. If the food is 
 deficient in phosphorus, the bone is weak, and the 
 limbs unable to bear the animal. We have frequently 
 seen young pigs suffering from weakness of the bone, 
 which may be prevented, and where it already exists, 
 sometimes even cured, by affording food rich in the 
 substance of bone. Lime, which is a constituent 
 of phosphate of lime, is required to build up the 
 bone. Phosphate and carbonate of lime exist in the 
 ashes of our pasture grasses and grain crops, the seed 
 of the latter being particularly rich in phosphate 
 of lime. The hard shell of the eggs of poultry is 
 composed principally of carbonate of lime, and instinct 
 teaches the common hen to pick up pieces of mortar, 
 gravel, or chalk, which contain this substance. Iron 
 is an essential constituent of the colouring matter of 
 the blood. Common salt affords two most important 
 constituents, which appear to be necessary for digestion. 
 Man obtains the saline matter necessary for his body 
 in flesh meat, milk, and the common salt which is so 
 universally used at table. Our crops contain com- 
 paratively little common salt, and hence it is used 
 largely by those who live principally on potatoes. 
 The intelligent farmer also gives common salt to his 
 live animals, knowing that it not only causes them to 
 
6o 
 
 INTRODUCTION TO 
 
 [part 
 
 thrive better, but that it also prevents many diseases 
 which would otherwise affect them. Full-grown cattle 
 may occasionally get a couple of ounces of it daily ; 
 horses, from one ounce to two ounces ; sheep and pigs, 
 about half-an-ounce. Grazing cattle and sheep should 
 have access to lumps of rock-salt in the field. Lumps 
 of it may be also placed within reach of stall-fed cattle, 
 or it may be strewed over or mixed with their food. 
 The best way of giving it to horses is by dissolving it 
 in the mashed food which ought to be occasionally 
 prepared for them. It is given to pigs mixed with 
 their food. 
 
 189. We append a table giving the proportions of 
 the foregoing constituents in the several crops and 
 feeding stuffs. 
 
 i 
 
 Kind of F ood. 
 
 Every 100 parts (by weight, say lbs.) 
 contain as follows. 
 
 Water. 
 
 1 Flesh-forming 
 j Matter. 
 
 Starchy and 
 other heat-giving 
 Matter. 
 
 Fatty 
 
 Matter. 
 
 Woody 
 
 Fibre 
 
 Ash. 
 
 i. Seeds. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Wheat .... 
 
 15.0 
 
 12.0 
 
 66. s 
 
 2.0 
 
 2.7 
 
 i -7 
 
 Oats .... 
 
 14.0 
 
 11 . 5 
 
 58.5 
 
 6.0 
 
 7.0 
 
 3 -o 
 
 Barley .... 
 
 16.0 
 
 ro. 5 
 
 65.0 
 
 2.0 
 
 3-5 
 
 3 -o 
 
 Bere (mean of 4 analyses) 
 
 14.2 
 
 10. 1 
 
 62.6 
 
 2.0 
 
 9-03 
 
 2.02 
 
 Rye 
 
 16.0 
 
 9.0 
 
 (66.0) 
 
 8.0 
 
 7.0 
 
 Beans .... 
 
 14.8 
 
 23-3 
 
 47.0 
 
 1 1,5 
 
 10. 0 
 
 3-4 
 
 Peas .... 
 
 14. 1 
 
 23-4 
 
 48.3 
 
 i -7 
 
 10.0 
 
 2.5 
 
 Linseed .... 
 
 7-5 
 
 24.4 
 
 30-7 
 
 34 -o 
 
 
 3-3 
 
 Tares .... 
 
 15-3 
 
 2D. I 
 
 53-9 
 
 1.8 
 
 5-3 
 
 3-4 
 
 Indian Corn 
 
 I 4-5 
 
 IO. O 
 
 61.0 
 
 | 8.0 
 
 5 -o 
 
 i -5 
 
 Rice .... 
 
 14.0 
 
 5-3 
 
 (7* 
 
 *• 5 ) 
 
 2-5 
 
 0.7 
 
 2. Fodder , Straxv , 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Hay, &>c. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Wheat .... 
 
 14.2 
 
 1.79 
 
 29.9 
 
 1. 1 
 
 45-4 
 
 7-5 
 
 Oats 
 
 12. 1 
 
 1.63 
 
 36.6 
 
 1.2 
 
 43-6 
 
 4.8 
 
 Barley .... 
 
 14-3 
 
 1.68 
 
 38.9 
 
 1.0 
 
 39-8 
 
 4-3 
 
 Rye . 
 
 14-3 
 
 2.29 
 
 1 (3 7-d 
 
 43-2 
 
 3-i 
 
III.] 
 
 PRACTICAL FARMING, 
 
 61 
 
 
 Every 100 
 
 parts (by weight, say lbs.) 
 
 
 
 contain as follows. 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 a 
 
 bn 
 
 Tj •£ 
 
 e > 
 
 
 
 
 Kind of Food. 
 
 • 
 
 £ 
 
 tn u 
 
 u 
 
 >> . 
 
 
 
 Wate] 
 
 U <D 
 
 | S 
 
 tarchy 
 
 r heat- 
 
 Matte 
 
 Fatt) 
 
 Matte 
 
 Wood 
 
 Fibre 
 
 Ash. 
 
 
 
 ptl 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 
 Meadow hay (average of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 25 samples) . 
 
 14.6 
 
 8-4 
 
 (43- 6) 
 
 27.1 
 
 6.1 
 
 Meadow hay, very in- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ferior, one year old 
 
 
 4.0 
 
 
 (77-6) 
 
 65.6 
 
 5-2 
 
 Bean straw 
 
 19.4 
 
 3-3 
 
 6.5 I 
 
 1.0 
 
 5-7 
 
 Pea do. ... 
 
 12.0 
 
 12.5 
 
 19.6 | 
 
 23 
 
 47-5 
 
 6.0 
 
 3. Green Food , Roots , &*c. 
 White Turnips (white 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Globe) .... 
 
 90.4 
 
 1. 1 
 
 (5-45) 
 
 2-3 
 
 0.6 
 
 Purple top, Aberdeen, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 collected 5th October . 
 
 89.9 
 
 1.06 
 
 
 (8.2) 
 
 
 0.9 
 
 Swedes .... 
 
 89-5 
 
 1.4 
 
 ( 5 - 9 ) I 
 
 2.5 
 
 0.6 
 
 Mangold- wurzel 
 
 87.8 
 
 i-5 
 
 (8.6) 1 
 
 1. 1 
 
 0.9 
 
 Carrots (white Belgian) . 
 
 87.3 
 
 0.7 
 
 
 (11.2) 
 
 
 0.7 
 
 Parsnips .... 
 
 82.0 
 
 i-3 
 
 
 (15.7) 
 
 
 0.9 
 
 Cabbages^ 1 — $ . 
 
 91. 1 
 94-5 
 
 1.6 
 
 0.9 
 
 
 (5-o6) 
 
 (4-i) 
 
 
 2.2 
 
 0.6 
 
 Potatoes, White rocks 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (seed sample) , 
 
 76.0 
 
 2.0 
 
 15.0 
 
 | 0.2 
 
 1 5-5 
 
 1.0 
 
 Vetches .... 
 
 82.5 
 
 3-8 
 
 (12.4) 
 
 
 i-3 
 
 Rape (green) . . 
 
 87.0 
 
 3-i 
 
 4.0 
 
 0.6 
 
 3-5 
 
 1.6 
 
 Rye (green) . , 
 
 75-4 
 
 2.7 
 
 9- 1 
 
 0.9 
 
 10.5 
 
 i-3 
 
 Furze .... 
 
 72.0 
 
 3-2 
 
 8.2 
 
 1.2 
 
 13-3 
 
 2.1 
 
 4. A rtificial Food. 
 Linseed-cake . 
 
 12.4 
 
 27-3 
 
 34-5 
 
 12.8 
 
 6-5 
 
 6.1 
 
 Rape-cake 
 
 Cotton-cake from whole 
 
 10.7 
 
 29-5 
 
 30.9 
 
 11. 1 
 
 10.0 
 
 7-8 
 
 seed .... 
 Do. with some of the 
 
 ”•3 
 
 23-7 
 
 3i-o 
 
 6.2 
 
 21.2 
 
 6-5 
 
 husks removed, — the 
 “decorticated” cotton- 
 cake of commerce 
 
 9-3 
 
 41.2 
 
 16.4 
 
 16.0 
 
 8.9 
 
 8.0 
 
 Poppy-cake 
 
 6.6 
 
 34-o 
 
 23.2 
 
 11. 0 
 
 n-3 
 
 13.8 
 
 Bran .... 
 
 12.8 
 
 13.8 
 
 50.1 
 
 5-5 
 
 11. 5 
 
 6. 1 
 
 Brewers’ grains 
 
 75.8 
 
 0.6 
 
 1. 1 
 
 ? 
 
 21.2 
 
 1.2 
 
 Do. (draff) 
 
 74-7 
 
 3-6 
 
 
 (20.3) 
 
 
 1-3 
 
 Hemp-cake 
 
 7.2 
 
 21.5 
 
 22.5 
 
 7-9 
 
 I s5 ' 1 
 
 15.8 
 
 Malt dust . 
 
 6.2 
 
 25.6 
 
 1 (59- 4) 
 
 8-7 
 
 Oat dust .... 
 
 5-6 
 
 4.8 
 
 45-7 
 
 3-6 
 
 35-3 
 
 5 -o 
 
 Barley dust 
 
 11. 0 
 
 8.4 
 
 69.7 
 
 3-5 
 
 7-3 
 
 Palm kernel-cake . 
 
 A specimen of condi- 
 
 10.7 
 
 13-4 
 
 27.4 
 
 11.4 
 
 33° 
 
 4.0 
 
 mental food . 
 
 11>4 
 
 n.4 
 
 64.0 
 
 4.1 
 
 6.2 
 
 2.8 
 
62 INTRODUCTION TO [part 
 
 190. This table is a mere approximation to truth. 
 An accurate table cannot be prepared in the present 
 state of science ; for, in the first place, it is well known 
 that soil and climate influence the composition of the 
 same plant very much, and samples of crops raised on 
 soils and in circumstances alike in every way have not 
 been analyzed ; secondly, there are defects in the 
 present mode of determining some of the constituents 
 of food ; thirdly, such a table does not take any cog- 
 nizance of the mechanical condition in which the 
 different kinds of flesh-formers, heat-givers, &c., exist 
 in the food. For example, flesh-forming material may 
 exist in a more digestible state in one food than in 
 another. And so also, in accordance with the old 
 saying, that “ what is one man’s meat is another man’s 
 poison,” a constituent of food may be easily digested in 
 the stomach of one animal, while it may be digested 
 with difficulty, or be altogether incapable of under- 
 going digestion, in the stomach of another. 
 
 II. THE SEVERAL BREEDS OF CATTLE. 
 
 191. The most valuable kind of cattle we possess 
 is the short-horn, which was established in the north- 
 east of England in the last quarter of the eighteenth 
 century. Among the men to whom the world is in- 
 debted, for the great perfection to which this race of 
 animals has been brought, we may mention the brothers 
 Charles and Robert Colling of Darlington, Mr. Bates 
 of Kirklevington, and Messrs. Booth of Wallarby and 
 Killerby. Several other persons also aided in the 
 work. The results of the labours of all these men 
 afford to our farmers a most instructive lesson. For 
 example, Mr. Charles Colling commenced his career 
 with cattle which at the time would bring only ordi- 
 nary market prices, or a shade higher. Yet in about 
 a quarter of a century he brought his cattle to such 
 perfection that at his sale in 1810 forty-seven 
 
hi .] PRACTICAL FARMING. 63 
 
 animals realized 7 , 115 /. 17 s., or an average of 
 
 15 1 /. a piece. 
 
 192. This result was accomplished by the exercise 
 of skill and judgment. The improvement that may 
 be effected in a short time is well illustrated by the 
 following saying of Charles Colling : “ Give me my 
 sight, and the touch of my fingers, and in a half-dozen 
 years I will produce as good a herd as I have sold off. ,; 
 
 193. Animals of this breed have good shape and 
 symmetry, deep and level carcase, fine limbs, and that 
 quiet disposition which is so favourable to fattening. 
 They have a soft mellow hide, which is covered with a 
 soft thick coat of hair. The colour is roan red, red and 
 white, or white. Of these roan is most in favour; red is 
 liked by dairy farmers; and white is objected to by many. 
 
 194. The breed is, on the whole, noted more for the 
 production of flesh and fat than milk ; but this has 
 arisen, as already explained, from the fact that the 
 milking properties have not received sufficient at- 
 tention. Farmers should, therefore, resort to herds 
 in which the two properties are united. A little 
 consideration will enable us to see that animals in 
 which the two properties are blended will best pay 
 most tenant farmers. Milk and its products, butter 
 and cheese, which now bring such high prices, cannot 
 be overlooked. On the other hand, we must rear store 
 stock for the grazier and stall-feeder, and the prices 
 got for these animals depend on their aptitude for 
 fattening, which is known by their style, colour, and 
 quality when handled. It is in this respect that the 
 short-horn is unrivalled. 
 
 195. There are several other valuable breeds of 
 British cattle, such as Hereford, Devon, Ayrshire, 
 Polled cattle, and Kyloe. 
 
 196. The Hereford is an excellent variety for grazing 
 purposes ; but as it does not combine milking, and 
 fattening qualities in the same degree as the short- 
 horn, it cannot compete with the latter for general 
 
64 INTRODUCTION TO [part 
 
 use. One of the best known varieties of this breed is 
 known by its colour, which may be described as red 
 with white face, and white also on the back, and on 
 the underside of the body. 
 
 197. The Devon is of a blood-red colour all over, 
 has a symmetrical carcase, and was in great favour on 
 account of its action when cattle were used for 
 draught more than they are at present. It is not a 
 good milking kind, and is used chiefly for grazing 
 purposes, on its native soil and in similar places. 
 
 198. In England several new breeds have come into 
 existence of late, such as the Norfolk, Suffolk, and Sussex 
 cattle. The more intelligent farmers in these several 
 counties having come to see that nature everywhere 
 impresses certain characters on the animal frame which 
 ought to be preserved, have blended with these cha- 
 racters as many as possible of other qualities which 
 suit their purpose. 
 
 199. The Ayrshire breed is the best we possess for 
 the production of milk ; but being slow in putting on 
 flesh it cannot rival the short-horn. 
 
 200. The Polled cattle of Scotland (of which there 
 are several varieties, namely, Polled-Aberdeen, Polled- 
 Angus, and Polled-Galloway) are very valuable in their 
 own native districts; they fatten well, but are not 
 good milkers. 
 
 201. The Kyloe or West Highland is one of the 
 hardiest breeds of cattle in the British Islands. It 
 has long flowing horns, and is covered with a coat of 
 long and thick hair which protects it from the weather. 
 
 202. The Kerry is the only pure breed in Ireland. 
 It is essentially a mountain breed. It is small in size, 
 exceedingly hardy, and can subsist on poor and ex- 
 posed pasture, and often bears a close resemblance, in 
 size, shape, and colour, to the native cattle of Wales 
 and Brittany. The colour preferred in Kerry is black, 
 with a ridge of white along the spine, and a white 
 streak along the underside of the body. The horns 
 
in. J € PRACTICAL FARMING . 65 
 
 are fine, somewhat long, and turned upwards at the 
 points. The skin is soft, unctuous, and of a fine orange 
 tone, which is visible about the eyes, the ears, and the 
 muzzle. The milk is peculiarly rich and well-flavoured ; 
 and the quantity yielded even on hard fare, is so great, 
 that the Kerry has been styled the poor man’s cow. 
 In colour, size, and shape, the Kerry bears a great 
 likeness to the mountain cattle of Wales, and to those 
 of Brittany, in France. The beef of Kerry cattle, like 
 that of all mountain breeds, is tender and juicy, and 
 commands the highest price in the market. Improved 
 breeds come to maturity earlier ; and if the meat be 
 not equal to that of mountain* cattle, the loss in quality 
 is more than made up in increased quantity. 
 
 IIT. ON THE REARING OF CALVES. 
 
 203. The health and vigour of a full-grown ox de- 
 pends greatly upon the food and care it receives when 
 young. If badly fed and cared while young it cannot 
 be expected to become a profitable beast. 
 
 204. The cow goes in young nine months. A 
 month or six weeks before calving she should be run 
 dry. If the cow be milked up to the time of calving, 
 the calf must suffer, the udder does not spring fully, 
 and the cow herself will not yield the full quantity 01 
 milk that season. 
 
 205. After calving, the cow should get a warm bran 
 mash, or white drink of some kind. For a day she 
 should be fed principally on soft food. 
 
 206. Many farmers allow the calf to suck its dam 
 for some days, believing it to be most natural and best 
 for both. Other farmers, again, who separate the calf 
 from the cow at once, say, that if they are allowed to- 
 gether for some days, the cow not only becomes quite 
 restless when the calf is removed, but goes back in 
 her milk in consequence. 
 
 207. The calf should get its dam’s milk until it is fit 
 
 F 
 
66 INTRODUCTION TO [part 
 
 for dairy purposes. New milk being the most natural 
 food for calves, should be supplied to them for about 
 three weeks. An ordinary sized calf consumes about 
 six quarts of milk daily for this period. It is some- 
 times given in two, and sometimes in three or more 
 feeds daily. 
 
 208. Farmers are aware, to their own heavy loss, 
 that great numbers of calves die every year ; and the 
 loss arises principally from bad food and want of care 
 in feeding. When the food is deficient in quantity or 
 quality, the calf is liable to disease ; and want of care 
 and irregularity in feeding produce disease of the 
 intestines, which is the “most common cause of the 
 mortality of calves in many parts of the kingdom. 
 
 209. It is found very expensive to continue giving 
 new milk to ordinary calves any longer than three 
 weeks. Various substitutes are used, skim-milk being 
 the most common. Gruel, made from both linseed 
 and linseed-cake, and hay-tea, are also used. In pro- 
 viding a substitute for new milk, two things should be 
 observed : first, as new milk is the food intended by 
 nature for the calf, we ought to imitate as far as pos- 
 sible, the proportions in which the several nutritive 
 constituents exist in it ; and, secondly, we must pro- 
 vide a food which the young animal can assimilate. 
 
 210. Skim-milk contains a great deal of the flesh- 
 forming material, as well as of the sugar and mineral 
 matter of new milk, but it is deficient in fatty matter ; 
 in other words, the nutritive constituents do not exist 
 in it in proper proportion. ' 
 
 211. It may therefore be assumed that calves could 
 be reared more cheaply by substituting for some of 
 the skim-milk, gruel made of some food rich in fat- 
 forming and heat-giving material, than by feeding them 
 on skim-milk alone. Linseed jelly, in moderate quan- 
 tity, is excellent food for calves ; but if given too freely 
 it is apt to purge them. The small farmers of Ireland 
 should carefully preserve the seed of the flax plant for 
 
HI.] PRACTICAL FAR MING. 67 
 
 the use of their calves. It is made into jelly by first 
 moistening it in cold water, and afterwards pouring 
 hot water upon it in a common bucket, and covering 
 it with an old] sack, or a piece of old cloth, to keep 
 in the heat, taking care to stir it occasionally, and 
 cover it up again. When the farmer has no linseed of 
 his own he can buy linseed-meal in the shops ; and 
 where the meal cannot be had, linseed-cake may be 
 broken fine and made into gruel. 
 
 212. Hay-tea, obtained by boiling some good hay 
 in water, may also form part of the food of calves. 
 We have had ample experience of the value of this 
 beverage in rearing calves* It is used in many parts of 
 the country by the small farmers, who often, however, 
 make the mistake of relying too much upon it. A 
 mixed diet, composed of skim-milk, jelly made from 
 flax-seed or from linseed-oil cake, and hay-tea, and 
 some ground corn, is a good substitute for new milk. 
 In many parts of the country oatmeal is a favourite food 
 for rearing calves ; we have found a mixture of oat- 
 meal and wheat flour better than oatmeal alone. Car- 
 rigan moss has also been used with advantage by many 
 persons in the rearing of calves. 
 
 213. When the calf is a month old, it should be 
 gradually accustomed to dry food. Mangold-wurzel 
 (of which calves are very fond), or turnips cut up into 
 thin pieces, should be given in troughs ; and oil-cake, 
 finely broken, should be placed within the reach of 
 calves. A wisp of sweet hay should also be suspended 
 in the calf’s crib. This the calf will first lick or suck, 
 and afterwards eat. As it eats more and more of dry 
 food, the quantity of liquid food should be decreased; 
 and at about the age of four months liquid food may 
 be withdrawn altogether. 
 
 214. Calves are in the habit of sucking each other, 
 especially when, owing to carelessness in feeding, or 
 other causes, their digestion is out of order. As this 
 is injurious, it should be prevented by confining each 
 
 f 2 
 
68 
 
 INTRODUCTION TO 
 
 [part 
 
 calf to a separate crib for about six weeks, when there 
 is accommodation enough for it, or by putting nets or 
 baskets on their heads when allowed to run together. 
 
 215. As young calves differ greatly in their habits, 
 we ought to study the peculiarities of each. We 
 should, for example, see that those who drink 
 slowly get ample time and are not disturbed by the 
 others. For this reason, as well as for that just men- 
 tioned, some farmers, who allow their calves to run 
 together, tie them up at meal-time. 
 
 216. Calves are liable to several diseases which 
 are in a great measure prevented by providing them 
 with adequate food, serving it out at regular intervals, 
 mixing it well, when composed of different materials, 
 never giving it to them too warm, avoiding sudden 
 changes of food, and by keeping the animals clean, 
 dry, warm, and quiet. 
 
 217. Many breeders continue to feed the calves in 
 yards, after the liquid food is withdrawn, and give 
 them, during the first summer, green food (such as 
 vetches, corn, or grass), with some hay and cake. 
 This system answers very well when the farmer has 
 good offices and sufficient capital. When calves are 
 weaned from liquid food, they should be allowed to 
 run into a clean, well-sheltered paddock, in which 
 there are hanging trees to shade them from the sun ; 
 and provided with suitable feeding, such as vetches, 
 clover, hay, cake, and ground corn, according to the 
 season and the qualitv of the grass. 
 
 218. As winter approaches, calves require to be 
 carefully housed, and generously fed on good oat, 
 straw or hay, with a little roots. If the farmer should 
 be short of roots, a pound of ground corn given to 
 each daily, with a little flax-seed meal, during the 
 winter months, will aid him in bringing his stores to 
 grass in good condition next season. In the second 
 summer they are put to grass ; in the second winter 
 they are put on fodder and roots, as before. 
 
ill.] PRACTICAL FARMING. 69 
 
 219 . Short-horns, or good half-bred stock intended 
 for the butcher, are at this age put on a fair allowance 
 of food for fattening. Those which are not forward 
 enough for this purpose are to be regarded as stores. 
 
 IV. THE FEEDING OF MILCH COWS. 
 
 220. In Great Britain there are about two millions 
 of milch cows, and in Ireland upwards of one million. 
 For want of skill in producing animals of the right 
 description, of proper shelter in winter, and of proper 
 care and skill in feeding them throughout the year, 
 the average return from these cows is 3/. per cow 
 less than it could be made. 
 
 221. Milch cows should be fed principally in the 
 house during winter, being allowed the run on grass 
 every fine day. In the house they should get some 
 roots, the allowance depending on the quantity of 
 milk they give. House-fed cows in full milk should 
 get three feeds of roots in the day — one in the 
 morning, a second at mid-day, and a third in the 
 evening. In the morning they should get a little more 
 than at any other feed, owing to the long interval 
 between the evening and morning feeds. When the 
 daily allowance is eight stones, three stones may be 
 given in the morning, and two and a half at the mid- 
 day and evening feeds. The cow requires hay at night, 
 and also between the meals. In a few districts chop- 
 ped furze is given to cows in spring, the tender part 
 of the plant only being used. 
 
 222. The troughs of all house-fed cattle should be 
 kept clean, and free from the taint of stale food. 
 
 223 . In summer dairy cows are grazed on all large 
 farms. On many well-managed small farms in the 
 United Kingdom, and on almost all small farms in 
 Belgium, they are house-fed; while, again, on many 
 small farms a mixed system of grazing and house- 
 feeding K adopted. 
 
7© INTRODUCTION TO [part 
 
 224. A great deal has been said on the merits 
 of house-feeding in summer, or on what is called 
 the “ soiling system." We believe that there is no 
 system which gives so great an income to the small 
 farmer, so long as the extra labour which it involves 
 comes from his family; but when all the labour of cut- 
 ting and carrying the grass, and of feeding the cows has 
 to be paid for, the farmer finds a mixed system of soil- 
 ing and grazing, or grazing exclusively, more profitable. 
 
 225. The “ soiling ” system has been followed with 
 great success by the small farmers of several European 
 countries. It is peculiarly well adapted to the circum- 
 stances of the small farmers of this country, more 
 particularly those small holders who have within their 
 own families the labour for carrying it out. It takes 
 from an acre and a half to three acres of the pasture 
 in the hands of many of our small farmers to feed a 
 cow during the summer season ; say from the ist of 
 May to the ist of November. By putting the same 
 land under a judicious rotation of crops, and growing 
 artificial grasses, a far greater return is obtained. On 
 good land a statute acre of one-year-old artificial grass 
 — rye-grass or clover, or a mixture of both— will give 
 three cuttings, weighing about twenty tons, in the 
 year ; and this will supply green grass or “ soil ” to 
 two house-fed cows for about six months. If there is 
 a piece of vetches for summer use, part of the grass 
 can be made into hay for winter use. 
 
 226. Milch-cows, house-fed in summer, should 
 get three feeds of grass in the day. The morning 
 feed in summer should be given at an earlier hour than 
 in winter. The hour for feeding in the evening may 
 also vary with circumstances. From eight to ten 
 stones of grass in the day are given, according to the 
 size of the cows. This would keep them in good 
 milking condition, and if it is desired to fatten them, 
 a few pounds of cake or ground oats and some hay 
 may also be given. 
 
in.] PRACTICAL FARMING. 71 
 
 227. Cattle, house-fed in summer, may get exer- 
 cise for an hour or two daily. If they have access to 
 a piece of pasture, they will eat less grass in the house. 
 The five or six acre farmer who wants to make the 
 most of his holding should have as little permanent 
 pasture as possible ; but a small enclosure in which to 
 exercise his cows is very useful. The small farmer 
 who holds over ten acres of arable land should have a 
 piece of permanent pasture for the same purpose, say 
 half an acre to each cow. When the five-course rota- 
 tion is adopted, the cattle could be fed in the house 
 on the first year’s grass, and let out to graze on the 
 second year’s grass, if there are fences. A partial 
 system of house-feeding, or a mixed system of house- 
 feeding and grazing, is the best for farmers holding 
 about twenty acres of arable land. 
 
 228. Under a mixed system of this kind the cattle 
 could be fed in the house morning and evening in the 
 early part of summer and autumn. At midsummer it 
 would be better to confine them to the house during 
 the heat of day ; and to put them out on pasture in 
 the evening, and bring them into the house next 
 morning. 
 
 229. The small farmer who house-feeds in summer 
 should have some vetches, lucern, sanfoin, rape, or 
 cabbages, or all five, to supplement the grass, and 
 to enable him to make hay for winter use. Milch 
 cows like a change of food ; and besides, in bad 
 seasons, or at particular periods even in good seasons, 
 the grass becomes scarce. This often occurs between 
 the first and second cutting of the grass, at which 
 juncture it would be well to have a plot of vetches. 
 Whenever cattle are suddenly changed from one kind 
 of soft food to another, as, for example, from grass to 
 roots, they are liable to scour. The obvious means 
 of preventing this is to change the food gradually, and 
 to give a sufficient quantity of straw or hav. 
 
 230. When either roots or artificial grass are scarce, 
 
72 INTRODUCTION TO [part 
 
 cows can be made to keep up their milk and condition 
 with the aid of artificial food, or what may be called 
 hand-feeding. There are three periods in the year at 
 which this species of feeding is likely to be required. 
 The first is in spring, after the roots are consumed and 
 before the grass is fit for use. The second occurs in 
 dry summers, about the middle of July; the third is 
 in the end of autumn, when the grass is scarce, and the 
 roots not yet matured. The kinds of artificial food 
 to be used at these critical periods will vary with 
 prices, with the district, and with the value of milk. 
 Cotton-cake may often be used with advantage. Many 
 farmers give bean-meal to dairy cows. Mashed or 
 cooked food increases the flow of milk, but the butter 
 from this sort of food is generally pale in colour and 
 deficient in flavour. Any deficiency in the quality of 
 milk or butter from cooked food, or from what is com- 
 monly called “ hand-feeding,” is generally counter- 
 balanced by the increased quantity obtained. Owing 
 to a scarcity of grass or roots, the cottager and small 
 farmer must often resort to hand-feeding; and we 
 know more than one instance in which a milch cow 
 is maintained throughout the year principally on this 
 sort of food. Near large towns and cities, distillery or 
 brewery grains are used for feeding milch cows, and 
 are found to produce a great flow of milk which is 
 generally thin. As cows fed exclusively on grains 
 milk freely and are apt to lose condition, it is neces- 
 sary to use along with them some other feeding mate- 
 rials. When stored in pits, mixed with a little salt, 
 and the air excluded, grains can be kept for several 
 months. 
 
 23L Bran is good food for milch cows. It is 
 made into a mash by mixing it with hot water in a 
 vessel or vat, breaking any lumps that may collect, and 
 allowing it to remain in the vessel, under cover of 
 some kind, for a couple of hours. Used alone, how- 
 ever, it is not substantial enough ; hence cabbages or 
 
with the bran before adding the hot watek If pf> tiling 
 else is available, cut hay or straw, and a^Httle oibc^ke 
 or Indian-meal stirabout, broken fine; msqfcbe m&shtd 
 up with the bran. The mixture in^^e allowed to 
 remain in the vat until it begins to when it 
 
 should be used. 
 
 232. We have often in summer given a mixture of 
 chopped cabbage, chopped vetches, and of the arti- 
 ficial foods named, to dairy cows. And more than 
 once we have in October, when feeding of all kinds 
 was scarce and dear, added artificial food to the 
 leaves of mangold-wurtzel cut with a machine. 
 
 233. The utmost regularity should be observed in 
 the hours of feeding house-fed milch cows. When the 
 hour of feeding arrives they become anxious, and if 
 not fed then they become restless, and go back in 
 their milk. House-fed cows require also to be cleaned 
 and wisped once a day. In order to keep the air 
 pure, and the cows themselves clean, the byre should 
 be cleaned at least twice a day. 
 
 234. Fresh clover is apt to produce swelling or 
 hoove. Cattle have frequently died from the effects of 
 eating a full feed of wet clover ; and we have seen cattle 
 in very great danger from a large feed of soft Italian 
 rye-grass. To prevent this, the clover or grass should 
 be cut some hours before it is required for use. In the 
 heat of summer, the evening’s feed should be cut in the 
 forenoon, and the forenoon’s feed the evening before. 
 The necessity for this precaution is greatest after rain. 
 When grass, fresh from the scythe, is thrown into a 
 heap, as it frequently is, near the byre, it soon heats, 
 and its feeding value is thereby diminished. Partly 
 for the purpose of preventing this, and partly also for 
 keeping the grass clean, it should be spread on a 
 platform of wooden spars, so as to raise it a few inches 
 above the ground. 
 
 236 . The greater part of our dairy produce is 
 
INTRODUCTION TO 
 
 74 
 
 [part 
 
 obtained from the milk of cows fed on grass during 
 the summer months. The animals are put out to grass 
 when it is fit to support them. The time varies with 
 the climate. 
 
 236. Poor, dry ground, which gives hard herbage, 
 does not make suitable pasturage for dairy cows. Rich, 
 cool land, which gives sappy grass, answers admirably 
 for the purpose. Dairy cows require an abundant 
 supply of good water. Accordingly, low-lying lands 
 are generally devoted to dairy stock. 
 
 237. The ground should be kept as clean and as 
 free from noxious objects of all kinds as possible. The 
 presence of common garlic in the herbage is objec- 
 tionable, as it imparts a bad flavour to the milk. The 
 prevalence of the common buttercup, on the other 
 hand, is regarded with favour. 
 
 238. The land should be well fenced, and laid out 
 in suitable divisions. Hedges should be dressed, and 
 ditches cleared out during winter. The material taken 
 out of the ditches should be spread on those parts 
 of the land which require it most, or made into a 
 compost for subsequent use, and not allowed, as is 
 commonly done, to remain on the brow of the head- 
 land, obstructing the passage of surface-water into the 
 ditches. The headland should rather incline towards 
 the ditch, to facilitate drainage. 
 
 239. When the cows go out first in the season they 
 should be put on the most forward of the grass-fields 
 intended for them ; and they should be shifted from 
 field to field as occasion requires, and as will be 
 explained in the section on fattening stock. 
 
 240. It has been already suggested that dairy cows 
 require an abundant supply of water. If this be not 
 supplied by rivers or natural springs, a pump or pumps 
 must be sunk at suitable points. In some cases the 
 Abyssinian pump has been used with advantage. 
 
 241. It often happens that, for the convenience of 
 the milkers, cows are walked long journeys morning. 
 
PRACTICAL FARMING. 
 
 ill.] 
 
 75 
 
 and evening. This is objectionable, and ought to be 
 avoided as much as possible ; for it not only diminishes 
 the secretion of milk, but has an injurious effect on the 
 quality of that which is yielded. 
 
 242 . There are extensive tracts of poor dairy land 
 in England, Scotland, and Ireland, which would be 
 improved by top-dressing them with bone-manure 
 and suitable composts. In many cases the most pro- 
 fitable course would be to break up these lands, to 
 crop and manure them for a few years, and lay down 
 to grass again in good condition. 
 
 243 . Many of the cows of the ordinary dairy farmers 
 of this country are dry in winter, and often fed exclu- 
 sively on hay. The system is generally attended with 
 waste. In place of part of the hay, a small allowance 
 of roots, say from one to two stones per cow per day 
 should be added, to help to keep the system of the 
 animals in proper tone. 
 
 V. ON DAIRY MANAGEMENT. 
 
 244 . Milk newly drawn from the cow has a tem- 
 perature of about 90° F., which is reduced before it 
 reaches the dairy. It has almost always a slightly 
 alkaline taste, which it gradually loses on exposure to 
 air. It contains, in every ioo parts, about 87 parts of 
 water, 4 parts of fatty matter or butter, 5 parts of a 
 peculiar kind of sugar called milk-sugar, 3J parts of 
 cheesy matter or curd, and f of a part of mineral 
 matter. “ Butter gives it an oily richness, sugar its 
 sweetness, curd its thickness, water its refreshing pro- 
 perties as a drink, and salt its peculiar flavour.” 
 
 245 . Milch cows of a good description give each 
 an average of from 500 to 600 gallons of milk in the 
 year. Of the 3,000,000 dairy cows in Great Britain 
 and Ireland it has been estimated that the average 
 yield does not exceed 300 gallons per cow per annum. 
 
INTRODUCTION TO 
 
 76 
 
 [part 
 
 That this could be considerably increased by the means 
 already suggested does not admit of doubt. 
 
 246. Dairy business divides itself into two great 
 branches ; namely, butter-making and cheese-making. 
 The proper management of either requires much skill 
 and care. The relative advantages of the two sys- 
 tems depend on soil and climate, on the demand 
 for butter and cheese, on proximity to markets, and on 
 other circumstances. In many parts of England, and 
 in parts of Scotland, cheese pays better than butter. 
 In other parts of these countries and in the whole 
 of Ireland butter-making is preferred. In explan- 
 ation of the fact that cheese-making is not prac- 
 tised in Ireland, it may be stated that in most dis- 
 tricts the farmers prefer an article like butter, which 
 commands a ready sale, to one like cheese, which 
 requires to be stored for months before it is brought 
 to market. 
 
 247. We shall offer some remarks on both branches 
 of agricultural industry, premising, that as our object 
 is to instruct the masses, our observations are not in- 
 tended for those who already occupy a leading position 
 in the practice of either. 
 
 248. We shall begin with butter-making. For this 
 purpose a dairy usually consists of two apartments ; 
 namely, the kitchen or working room, and the milk 
 room or dairy proper ; but inasmuch as the majority 
 of the tenant-farmers, to whom we address ourselves, 
 have the dairy attached to their dwelling, the common 
 kitchen answers for the dairy kitchen or working 
 room ; and if, in addition to this, a suitable apartment 
 were provided for the milk, first-class butter could be 
 easily made. In small-farm districts milk is too fre- 
 quently kept in a bedroom, or some other apartment 
 equally unsuited for the purpose. It is well known that 
 milk is easily tainted. The foul air of a bedroom is 
 sure to prove injurious to it, and so is the damp which 
 exists in the air, where the house is badly drained, or 
 
in.] PRACTICAL FARMING. 77 
 
 where the floor is made of clay, or of material which 
 absorbs and retains a large quantity of water. 
 
 249. It is found by experience that the best tem- 
 perature for a dairy is from 56 ° to 58 ° F. It is diffi- 
 cult to keep the temperature of a dairy which faces 
 the south, and is exposed to the influence of the sun's 
 rays, down to this degree during the heat of summer. 
 It is usual, therefore, to give the milk-room or dairy 
 a northern aspect ; but if the situation be exposed, it 
 should be protected by trees from the winter’s blasts. 
 The small farmer’s house and offices are usually 
 thatched in several parts of the kingdom, and when 
 a thatched dairy is ceiled, it answers admirably. 
 As straw is a worse conductor of heat than slates or 
 tiles, it keeps the dairy warm in winter and cool in 
 summer; but unless the house is lofted or ceiled, 
 pieces of straw, and the dirt which collects in the 
 thatch, are continually falling into the milk. Another, 
 and a very strong objection to this form of roof is 
 that the thatch is not durable. The floor of the dairy 
 is made of clay, bricks, tiles, wood, and flags. Clay 
 is most objectionable, because it absorbs and retains 
 moisture. Tiles are expensive ; they are also too 
 porous, and absorb and retain too much moisture. 
 Bricks are still worse. Wood is also expensive, and 
 retains milk and wet in its pores, which predisposes it 
 to rot ; and no sooner does it rot than it contaminates 
 the air and taints the milk. Good, hard flags, carefully 
 set, and made plane on the surface, make the best floor 
 for the farmer’s dairy. Flags are to be had within 
 reasonable distance everywhere. They do not absorb 
 much wet, and if well set they are very durable. 
 Whatever material is used, the floor should be well 
 drained, and raised a few inches above the level of the 
 ground outside. 
 
 250. Several contrivances have been adopted for 
 the purpose of regulating the temperature of dairies. 
 The small farmer, who can afford little or no extra 
 
INTRODUCTION TO 
 
 78 
 
 [part 
 
 outlay for such a purpose, keeps the milk and cream 
 in winter as near the fire as possible, and in summer 
 in a cool out-office, such as a barn. On large farms 
 the proper heat can be easily kept up in winter by cir- 
 culating hot water in metal pipes, the same as in hot- 
 houses. In the best-regulated dairies we have seen 
 the milk coolers are immersed, summer and winter, in 
 troughs of cold water, which, as is well known, is not 
 as liable to changes of temperature as the air. 
 
 251. Milk is greatly injured by the least impurity 
 in the air. The milk-room should, therefore, be well 
 ventilated. It is found that strong currents of air are 
 injurious to milk ; and these are prevented by making 
 the milk-room as lofty as possible, and by admitting 
 fresh air as high up as can conveniently be done. 
 The small farmer, whose means are limited, may at 
 first ventilate his milk-room by having one or more 
 of the window-panes on hinges. 
 
 252. To make good butter, it is necessary to have 
 not only a suitable daily but also proper dairy utensils. 
 Of these, the pans or “ coolers/’ in which the milk is 
 set, first require attention. They are made of different 
 materials. Wood is the most common. It is also 
 the most durable, and, on the whole, the cheapest. 
 The staves are usually made of oak ; and they are 
 bound by iron hoops, which should be galvanized, so 
 as not to require scrubbing. Whatever material is 
 used, the vessel in which milk is set for cream should 
 be shallow, because if there is a considerable depth of 
 milk, the cream takes a longer time to rise than is 
 desirable. From our own observation we should say 
 the depth of milk in the cooler should not exceed four 
 inches, and the depth of the cooler itself should not 
 exceed five and a half inches. 
 
 253. An objection to wooden coolers is the diffi- 
 culty of cleaning them. Milk adheres to the pores of 
 the wood, and is also liable to lodge at the juncture 
 of the sides and bottom ; and if this is not most 
 
PRACTICAL FARMING . 
 
 79 
 
 ill.] 
 
 carefully removed, the butter will suffer. In every- 
 thing connected with the dairy, cleanliness should be 
 most rigidly observed ; and this applies to the floor, 
 walls, and ceiling of the dairy, and to the milk-vessels 
 and other utensils, as well as to the dairymaid herself. 
 All tainting matter is removed from wooden milk- 
 vessels by washing them with warm water, and clean- 
 ing out the sides of the bottom with a sharp-pointed 
 piece of wood. After being partially dried the sides 
 and bottom should be rubbed very hard with a hair 
 brush, and then rinsed, afterwards boiling water is put 
 into them, and they are rinsed again in cold water 
 before being used. 
 
 254. Milk is also set in vessels made of common 
 earthenware, which are cheap and easily cleaned. 
 They are generally glazed inside ; and if the glazing 
 be well done they answer very well ; but, as in the 
 case of Scotch ware, it is often put on so badly that it 
 peels off under the action of hot water, and injures 
 the milk ; Staffordshire ware is usually free from this 
 objection. 
 
 255. White enamelled ware is sometimes used ; it 
 is easily kept clean, the enamelling or glazing does 
 not usually give way ; but it is rather costly for small 
 farmers : a pan about sixteen inches diameter, and of 
 the proper height, costs 4 s. 6 d., being about twice the 
 cost of wood. 
 
 256. Glass has been recommended by amateur 
 farmers. It has all the advantages of white- ware, looks 
 remarkably nice and clean, but for ordinary use it is 
 too dear and easily broken. 
 
 257. Milk pans are also made of metal. Lead is 
 too dear ; and it unites with the acid of milk, of which 
 a little is liable to be found, forming a poisonous salt. 
 This objection applies, though in a less degree, to zinc. 
 When the milk is skimmed at the proper time, little 
 or no acid exists in it, but as other materials answer 
 every purpose, it is needless to run any risk by using 
 
80 INTRODUCTION TO [part 
 
 these metals. Metallic milk-vessels are sometimes 
 enamelled on the inside to obviate the danger arising 
 from the use of metal. We have used milk-pans pre- 
 pared in this way, and nothing could be better as long 
 as the enamelling lasted ; but when hot water is used 
 in cleansing them, the enamelling soon cracks, owing 
 to the expansion and contraction of the metal. Gal- 
 vanized iron answers very well ; and tinned iron is 
 excellent. Coolers of the latter material, made in 
 Birmingham, and capable of containing four gallons of 
 milk, can be had at present for about 3W each. 
 
 258. In these countries butter is obtained from milk 
 by churning either the cream or whole milk. The 
 quality of the butter is influenced more or less by the 
 kind of churn used and the time occupied in churning. 
 In order to know the merits of the several chums in 
 use, as well as to be able to direct the operation of 
 churning, it is necessary to understand the’ nature of 
 milk and cream. 
 
 259. When we examine milk with a microscope we 
 find a vast number of fatty globules or little sacs 
 floating in it. Some of these are cheesy, but the 
 great bulk of them contain fatty matter, or butter. 
 When milk is allowed to stand (as in coolers), the fatty 
 sacs or globules rise to the surface, forming cream. 
 “ Some of the cheesy globules have a tendency to 
 descend, but some of them adhere to and rise with 
 the others, so that cream does not consist solely of 
 fatty matter. A portion of the sugar of the milk rises 
 also with the cream. It is owing to the presence of 
 this sugar that cream soon becomes sour. The pro- 
 portion of cheesy matter in cream depends on the 
 richness of the milk and the temperature at which the 
 milk is kept during the rising of the cream. In cool 
 weather the fatty matter will bring up a larger quantity 
 of curd and form a cream richer in cheesy matter.” 
 
 260. Churning consists in breaking up the coats of 
 the fatty globules, and setting the fat or butter free ; 
 
PRACTICAL FARMING. 
 
 ill.] 
 
 and this is effected by the combined action of friction, 
 heat, and air. It is in the proper combination of 
 these three agents that the perfection of churning con- 
 sists. When the friction is too violent the butter is 
 produced too speedily, is deficient in colour, and does 
 not keep well. Heat facilitates the process of churn- 
 ing. If the temperature is too low the time and fric- 
 tion consumed in churning are so great that the butter 
 becomes soft, is deficient in colour and flavour, and 
 does not keep well. We have found from 56° to 58° 
 the best temperature at which to put cream into the 
 churn, and during churning it rises from 2 0 to 4 0 . The 
 proper temperature can be increased in a variety of 
 ways ; as for example, by immersing the vessel con- 
 taining it in cold water in summer, and in hot water in 
 winter. 
 
 261. The influence of air on the time consumed in 
 churning, as well as on the quality of the butter, is not 
 as well understood as it should be. The oxygen of 
 the air oxidizes the coats of the fatty globules, and 
 thus acts in setting the butter free. In the atmo- 
 spheric churn, the butter is produced by pumping air 
 into the milk. Whatever churn is used, it should not 
 therefore be filled with cream or milk. In the barrel 
 churn, it is necessary to leave one-third of it for air. 
 When the churn is quite filled it is almost impossible 
 to produce butter. We have known ignorant people 
 who, having filled the churn with cream, and finding 
 that the butter could not be produced, ascribed the 
 result to some evil influence exercised over them by a 
 neighbour ! 
 
 262. The churn most commonly used by ordinary 
 farmers is the plunge or upright churn. The friction 
 is produced in this chum by a dash , which is moved 
 down (hence the name plunge) and up by a vertical 
 rod to which it is attached. There is a lid (through 
 which the rod passes) for preventing the milk or cream, 
 as the case may be, from splashing. It is worked by 
 
 G 
 
82 INTRODUCTION TO [part 
 
 hand on small farms, and often by horse, water, or 
 steam power, on large holdings. 
 
 263. The plunge churn is cheap, and the quality 
 of butter produced by it is excellent. The time 
 and labour consumed, however, are considerable, 
 especially when, as in the north of Ireland, the whole 
 milk is churned. 
 
 264. The barrel churn is, on the whole, in greater 
 favour with dairy farmers who churn cream. At the 
 proper temperature, and with the proper quantity of 
 air, it will churn cream in about half an hour. The 
 ends of the barrel rest upon a frame, and the barrel is 
 made to revolve by a handle which is fixed at either 
 end. The wheel should be heavy, so that by its 
 weight or momentum it would (like the fly-wheel of a 
 steam-engine) steady the motion. Barrel churns can 
 be had in all the towns and cities of Ireland. One of 
 the best barrel churns in use is Tinkler’s, which is 
 made of well-seasoned oak ; the axis rests on “ fric- 
 tion rollers,” by which the friction or labour of turn- 
 ing is reduced very much ; the plug for admitting air 
 has a strong elastic spring, by pressing which air is 
 admitted without the necessity of completely stopping 
 the motion . 1 There is, in the middle of the barrel, 
 an opening for putting in the cream or milk, for taking 
 out the butter and buttermilk, and cleaning the churn. 
 This opening must be large enough to admit the hand. 
 
 265. The barrel churn is sometimes objected to on 
 the ground that it is difficult to clean ; but in prac- 
 tice the difficulty is not so g^eat as may appear. By 
 pouring warm water into it, and turning it in opposite 
 directions for a short time, the rinsing of it is greatly 
 facilitated. It is durable, not liable to go out of order, 
 and is, on the whole, a very good sort of churn. 
 
 1 Mr. Tinkler recommends to press this spring or air-valve 
 once for every five or six revolutions of the barrel, for a few 
 minutes at first ; and afterwards the valve is pressed at some- 
 what longer intervals. 
 
ill.] PRACTICAL FARMING. 83 
 
 266. A churn which, from its shape, is called the 
 box churn, is also used. The inside of the bottom of 
 the box is semi-cylindrical, the axis is horizontal, and 
 carries the beaters, which revolve with it. Improve- 
 ments have been made in the box churn in America, 
 where it is used very much. The beaters consist of 
 two pieces of wood placed at right-angles. Sometimes 
 they are all perforated ; sometimes only one-half is 
 perforated. Sometimes, again, one side of the dasher 
 contains a number of cells, presenting the appearance 
 of a honeycomb. In this case, and indeed in all 
 box churns, butter is produced in ten minutes, and 
 occasionally in less time. The churn is filled to the 
 axis, and air passes freely through openings in the lid. 
 A great objection to this churn for general use is, that 
 the work is done so speedily that the butter does not 
 keep long. When the butter is used fresh, it answers 
 remarkably well. Hence we recommend it to those 
 who keep a cow or two for family use. 
 
 267. Various methods have been proposed for 
 determining the quality of milk, some of which are 
 too refined for ordinary farmers. A very simple in- 
 strument, called a lactometer , enables us to determine 
 the percentage of cream in milk. This instrument is 
 a narrow glass tube, graduated from the top down- 
 wards to about one-fifth the entire depth. By allow- 
 ing the milk to rest a sufficient time in this instrument, 
 the percentage of cream is shown on the graduated 
 part of the tube. The comparative quantity of cream 
 in the milk of different cows, or of the same cow un- 
 der different treatment, is shown in this way ; but it is 
 not safe to rely on the lactometer as an absolute test 
 of milk. 
 
 268. Another instrument which is found useful in 
 testing the quality of milk is the hydrometer , which is 
 dipped in the milk, and depends on the principle that 
 as milk is heavier than water in the proportion of 103 
 to 100 , the poorer the milk the deeper the instrument 
 
 G 2 
 
84 INTRODUCTION TO [PART 
 
 sinks in it. This instrument is, then, to some extent, 
 a test of the extent to which milk is adulterated with 
 water. It is not, however, a satisfactory test of the 
 quality of milk. Thus, as cream is lighter than milk, 
 it is evident that milk deprived of its cream is heavier, 
 and would give a higher specific gravity than pure 
 milk. By the use of both lactometer and hydrometer, 
 we can judge very fairly of the quality of milk. 
 
 269. The business of the person who has charge 
 of the dairy begins in the cow-house. She should 
 milk the cows quite dry twice a day, morning and 
 evening. If any milk is left in the udder, it will be 
 absorbed into the system, lessen the secretion of milk, 
 and cause the cow to go dry. Cows should be milked 
 at the same hours every day : if milked at irregular 
 hours, they become restless, refuse to give the full 
 quantity of milk, and go dry sooner than they other- 
 wise would. Another reason for milking cows quite 
 clean is, that the “ strippings,” or milk last drawn, is 
 the richest. 
 
 270. Before commencing to milk, any dirt which 
 may have collected on the udder should be removed. 
 
 271. As soon as the cows are milked, the milk is 
 carried to the dairy ; and the less it is stirred in con- 
 veying it the better, as milk which is agitated much is 
 injured in quality. 
 
 272. As milk newly drawn from the cow usually 
 contains hairs, it is passed through a fine strainer be- 
 fore using or setting it for cream. In the latter case 
 the strainer should be held over the cooler as the milk 
 is poured into it. When set for cream, the milk 
 remains undisturbed till all the cream rises to the 
 surface ; the time required for this varies with the 
 temperature and the depth of the cooler. At a tem- 
 perature of 56° milk is fully creamed in twenty-four 
 to thirty hours. At a higher temperature it takes a 
 shorter, and at a lower temperature a longer time. 
 “ At 34 0 to 37 0 milk maybe kept three weeks without 
 
III.] PRACTICAL FARMING . 85 
 
 throwing up any notable quantity of cream ; but at a 
 temperature of 65 ° and upwards it throws up its 
 cream freely, and sours rapidly/’ 
 
 273. The cream, having risen to the surface, is 
 removed by a skimmer, which is a hollow scoop of 
 wood or metal ; and poured into a deep vessel called 
 a cream-jar. The greatest possible care should be 
 taken to remove the cream before the milk sours, for 
 the “ cream of sour milk never makes good butter.’ , The 
 cream is allowed to ripen, or acquire a slight degree of 
 sourness in the jar, which facilitates the churning, and 
 does no harm to the butter if not permitted to go too 
 far. The time the cream takes to ripen depends on 
 the temperature ; in well-managed dairies it is allowed 
 to remain two or three days, the temperature being 56 °. 
 The dairymaid knows when the cream is ripe for churn- 
 ing by its becoming thick throughout its entire mass. 
 
 274. If the cream of one meal or milking is enough 
 to make a churning, it is kept separate ; if not, the 
 cream of several meals is put into one jar ; and after 
 fresh cream is put into the jar the whole should be 
 stirred with a clean wooden stick. 
 
 275. When the cream is ripe it is put into the 
 churn. The motion of the churn or dash should be 
 somewhat slow at first, say thirty-five revolutions per 
 minute, in a barrel churn of average size ; it should be 
 gradually increased till the cream is slightly broken or 
 gets thinner, when it is increased to about forty or 
 forty-five revolutions per minute, at which it is con- 
 tinued till the globules are well broken, and this is 
 known by the unequal resistance offered to the dash 
 or beaters ; the motion is then slackened to collect 
 the butter. The collection of the butter is, in a barrel 
 churn, facilitated by turning the churn backwards and 
 forwards for a few minutes. When the butter is all 
 collected, the buttermilk is drawn off, cold clean 
 water is put into the churn, and the barrel is turned 
 round to wash it out. 
 
86 INTRODUCTION TO [part 
 
 276. Where whole milk is churned, it is allowed to 
 remain in coolers till it acquires the temperature of the 
 dairy, which requires twelve hours, and sometimes 
 twenty-four. Two or three meals or milkings are then 
 put into a large vessel, where it remains till the whole 
 acquires a slight degree of acidity, without which it 
 could not be churned. The precise stage at which to 
 chum is known by the appearance of a stiff brat upon 
 the surface of the milk, which becomes uneven. This 
 takes place in about thirty-six hours, more in winter, 
 and something less in summer. The circumstance of 
 all the milk not being of the same age does not affect 
 the quality of the butter. The brat should not, on 
 any account, be broken till the milk is put into the 
 churn, as the admission of air would, by producing too 
 much acidity, prove highly injurious. We require a 
 higher temperature for churning whole milk than 
 cream. The best temperature at which to commence 
 churning the former is 65 ° F. ; and this temperature is 
 easily attained in summer by immersing the vessels 
 that contain the milk in cold water, and in winter by 
 placing them in hot water. 
 
 277. As soon as the butter is fully formed it is 
 taken out of the churn and dressed. The dressing of 
 butter requires great care and skill. It is done in a 
 cooler or butter-tub specially made for the purpose, 
 which requires to be kept most scrupulously clean. It 
 is washed with the purest water that is to be had, and 
 cut up with a butter-spade, or broken by the hand, 
 to facilitate the escape of the milk. When the water 
 becomes milky it is removed, and fresh water added ; 
 and this is repeated until the water comes away quite 
 free from colour, for if every particle of the butter- 
 milk is not removed the butter soon becomes rancid. 
 The inferior quality of an enormous quantity of our 
 salted butter arises from want of care in washing it. 
 Butter-milk, particularly that obtained from whole 
 milk, contains caseine or cheesy matter, and if 
 
hi .] PRACTICAL FARMING. 87 
 
 much of this remains in the butter it soon engenders 
 rancidity. 
 
 278. After the butter is thoroughly washed, com- 
 mon salt is added to it. Salt has the valuable property 
 of preserving animal substances from putrefaction. 
 The quantity of salt added to butter depends on the 
 length of time it is intended to be kept before using 
 it. Butter used in the fresh state, or within a short 
 time, requires very little salt. For the London market 
 our best dairy farmers use three-quarters of an ounce 
 of salt to every pound of butter. Many people pre- 
 fer a mixture of half an ounce of salt, a quarter of an 
 ounce of yellow Jamaica sugar, and one-eighth of an 
 ounce of nitre, to salt alone. Butter intended for the 
 Colonies or long keeping requires about an ounce of 
 salt to every pound of butter ; and, in addition, sugar 
 and nitre in the above proportions are sometimes 
 added. The butter called mild-cured is made by 
 mixing a pint of salt to every quarter cwt. of butter. 
 
 279. Cattle fed on roots, more particularly swedes, 
 yield butter of which the taste and flavour are dis- 
 agreeable. By giving the turnips to the cattle imme- 
 diately after milking, the substance which imparts the 
 bad flavour to the butter is removed out of the system, 
 or reduced in quantity, before the next milking ; and 
 any that remains is destroyed by putting a little nitre 
 in the milk-pail ; and in this case no nitre need be 
 added to the butter in salting it. 
 
 280. The salt, or mixture of salt and sugar, or of 
 salt, sugar, and nitre, requires to be thoroughly mixed 
 with the butter. The hand is usually employed in 
 doing this, as well as in working the milk out of the 
 butter. Some object to the hand, alleging that 
 the oily matter secreted from it injures the butter. 
 The secretion of this matter is so copious in some 
 persons that their hands should not be used in dress- 
 ing butter ; and if they have to be employed at all they 
 should be called on to use the butter spade. The 
 
88 INTRODUCTION TO [part 
 
 female hand is, however, usually very delicate ; and, 
 as dairymaids should be persons of cleanly habits, the 
 hand may, in most cases, be safely used. At the 
 same time, we think the cleanest dairymaid may 
 partly use the spade, no matter how delicate her 
 hands ; and, while dressing butter, she should occa- 
 sionally dip her hands in clean cold water. 
 
 281 . As the quality of the salt affects the quality 
 of the butter, it should be procured from a respectable 
 vendor, who is known to keep a fine article fit for the 
 dairy. It should be free from the soluble salts of 
 magnesia and lime, and other impurities. “ Salt is rid 
 of its impurities by pouring boiling water upon it, in 
 the proportion of one quart of water to from half a 
 stone to a stone of salt, stirring the whole occasionally 
 for a couple of hours, and then straining it through a 
 fine clean cloth. The water which passes through 
 contains all the impurities, and may be used for ordi- 
 nary culinary purposes, or mixed with the food of live 
 stock. The salt which remains on the cloth is free 
 from the soluble salts of magnesia and lime, and may 
 be hung up in the cloth till required for use.” 
 
 282. Butter which is to be used fresh is made 
 into prints or rolls ; and if required for long keep- 
 ing or export, it is packed in kegs, firkins, or 
 casks. The firkin should be made of well-seasoned 
 wood, and as staunch and air-tight as possible. It 
 should also be subjected to boiling water, and after- 
 wards immersed in cold clean water for forty-eight 
 hours. This prevents the wood from absorbing the 
 pickle which it is desirable to keep about the butter. 
 The extensive dairy-farmer makes as much butter at a 
 time as fills the firkin or cask. The butter is packed 
 tightly into the vessel, is made level on the top, a 
 piece of clean muslin is laid carefully over it, and the 
 whole covered with a tight-fitting lid. The small 
 farmer requires the butter of several churnings to fill a 
 firkin ; and from want of care and skill in washing, 
 
PRACTICAL FARMING. 
 
 in.] 
 
 dressing, and salting the butter, the contents of the 
 firkin, when bored through by the butter-buyer, often 
 present shades of colour and quality, as numerous as the 
 churnings from which it was made up. This lessens 
 the value of the whole ; and there is also a heavy 
 loss from want of care in packing the butter. Some- 
 times a quantity of brine, or a strong solution of salt 
 in water, is poured over the butter, which makes part 
 of it too salt. Again, some people merely cover the 
 butter by putting on the lid ; and, as a matter of 
 course, the butter is soon tainted by the air between 
 the lid and the butter. Now, the butter of each 
 churning should be stored compactly in the firkin, and 
 it should be covered on the top with a fine piece of 
 clean muslin, over which an air-tight or close-fitting 
 covering of wood, pasteboard, or parchment should 
 be carefully fixed. When the produce of another 
 churning is to be added, the covering is removed, the 
 butter on the surface scraped away and used in the 
 house, the fresh surface is made uneven, the newly- 
 dressed butter added, and the whole covered as before. 
 
 283. It may be well to state, for the information 
 of beginners, that it takes from ten to twelve quarts 
 of good milk to produce a quart of good cream or a 
 pound of butter. 
 
 284. Cheese-making consists in extracting from milk 
 the caseine it contains, and which is seldom less than 
 3 per cent, of its weight. This substance is very 
 nearly identical in composition with the flesh or 
 muscle of animals, hence cheese is used largely as an 
 article of diet by the working classes of England. In 
 separating the caseine we obtain along with it some of 
 the fat or butter of the milk, so that cheese does not 
 consist exclusively of flesh-forming material. 
 
 285. Caseine is held in solution in milk by an 
 alkali, and the leading principle involved in the manu- 
 facture of cheese is to add to the milk some substance 
 which would combine with the alkali, and convert the 
 
90 INTRODUCTION TO [part 
 
 caseine into the insoluble body called curd. Any acid 
 substance will produce this effect partially. When 
 milk sours, lactic acid is produced, and, by combining 
 with the alkali that holds caseine in solution, deposits 
 curd, as every person has seen in the process of 
 making whey. 
 
 286. The substance most universally used in 
 England is rennet, which is an infusion of the fourth 
 stomach of a calf. The stomachs are prepared in a 
 variety of ways. In the dairy districts of Gloucester- 
 shire which we visited, they are “ salted, pickled, and 
 dried ” a year, at least, before they are required for 
 use. It is found that two skins will suffice to coagu- 
 late the milk given by a cow during a season . 1 
 
 287. The quality of cheese varies with the breed 
 of cattle and with their food, but it depends mainly 
 on the mode of manufacture. When a cheese rich in 
 fatty matter is desired, some cream is added to the 
 whole milk, and the rennet added. The cheese 
 known as Stilton is made in this way. The bulk of 
 the cheeses known as Cheddar, Dunlop, Gloucester , 2 
 &c., is made from whole milk. 
 
 288. In some parts of the country the cream of one 
 meal is removed, and the skim-milk added to the next 
 milking, and a cheese inferior in quality obtained from 
 the mixture. Cheese of the lowest quality of all is 
 made from skim-milk. 
 
 289. The details of the manufacture of cheese vary 
 in different districts, but the main principles involved 
 in all are the same. The milk should not be per- 
 mitted to become sour ; and as the usual practice is 
 
 1 In Cheshire two bits of skin, each containing two or three 
 square inches, are put into half a pint of warm water, a tea- 
 spoonful of salt is added, and the infusion coagulates 50 or 60 
 gallons of milk. 
 
 2 Gloucester cheese is made of two sizes, called Single and 
 Double Gloucester. The single Gloucester comes to maturity in 
 two or three months. 
 
in.} PRACTICAL FARMING . 91 
 
 to make the cheese in the morning from both the 
 evening and morning’s milk, it is necessary, in order 
 to prevent the evening’s milk from turning sour in the 
 morning, that the temperature of the milk-room should 
 not exceed the degree already laid down. The morn- 
 ing’s milk, too, must be allowed to lose its animal heat 
 before adding the rennet to it. In summer 75 0 to 
 8o° is a good temperature ; in winter 5 0 more are 
 required. With a temperature from 75° to 8o° coagu- 
 lation takes place in about an hour. 
 
 290 . As Cheddar cheese brings the highest price 
 in the market, and is fast superseding other kinds in 
 England, Scotland, America, and the Continent of 
 Europe, we give an outline of the mode of making it. 
 
 291 . The rennet is added at a temperature of about 
 8o°. In an hour the curd is completely formed, when 
 it is carefully broken by hand, or by a machine specially 
 made for the purpose. The whey is then withdrawn 
 by a tap in the bottom of the vessel, and the curd 
 allowed to subside. To facilitate the removal of the 
 whey, the curd is heaped up from the sides towards the 
 centre of the bottom, which is made convex for the 
 same purpose. It remains in this state until it acquires 
 a proper state of consistency, when it is removed to a 
 shallow cooler, where it remains for a time, varying 
 with the temperature, and from which it is put into 
 the press for a few minutes. It is then removed and 
 passed through a hand-mill, which makes it rather 
 fine, after which, when the curd becomes mature, the 
 finest salt is added, at the rate of 1 lb. to every 56 lbs. 
 of curd. It is then vatted, and again placed in the 
 press ; next morning it is reversed in the vat, and is 
 covered with a clean, coarse cheese-cloth. On the 
 second morning it is again reversed, and receives a 
 calico cloth ; and on the third morning it is taken to 
 the cheese-room, where it becomes fit for market in 
 about two months. The rennet is made by soaking 
 four stomachs, locally called “ veils,” in four quarts of 
 
92 INTRODUCTION TO [part 
 
 water, in which 2 lbs. of salt are dissolved by boiling. 
 This infusion will coagulate the milk of 70 cows 
 during a week. 
 
 292 . In America the system of co-operation has 
 been introduced, with great success, in cheese-making. 
 The milk of several farms is brought to a central 
 factory, where the best skill and the most approved 
 machinery are used. The cheese brings 10s. a cwt. 
 more than that made at separate farms. After de- 
 ducting expenses the receipts are divided among the 
 co-operators in proportion to the quantity of milk 
 supplied by each. This system has also been adopted 
 in several places in England. 
 
 293 . In small dairies the best shape of cheese is 
 the loaf, or “ truckle/' as it is called in the Cheddar 
 district, the diameter being seven and the height ten 
 inches. The weight of such a cheese is from 10 lbs. 
 to 13 lbs. 
 
 294 . The room in which cheese is placed should 
 be dry. A loft is the best place for the purpose, and 
 the temperature should be kept at from 50° to 65°. 
 If the temperature be too high, the sides of the 
 cheese will sometimes crack ; if too low, the evapora- 
 tion, which goes on at the rate of 2 lbs. per day in 
 every ton of fresh cheese, will be too slow, and the 
 moisture will lodge in and about the rind of the 
 cheese, giving it a pale colour, and deteriorating its 
 flavour. 
 
 295 . As the whey from whole milk contains some 
 fatty matter, it is set for cream, and this cream is 
 afterwards churned, and made into butter. When the 
 cheese is well made the quantity of whey butter is 
 about 6 lbs. per cow per annum ; but when badly 
 made, it may be as much as 30 lbs. Whey butter is 
 worth 2 d. or 3 d. per lb. less than butter made from 
 whole milk. 
 
 296 . Every gallon of whole milk produces 1 lb. of 
 cheese during the best part of the cheese-making 
 
HI.] PRACTICAL FARMING. 93 
 
 season, but this is above the average of the whole of 
 it. Assuming the average yield of milk from a dairy 
 cow to be 500 gallons per annum, the annual return 
 from it on the Cheddar system may be estimated 
 thus : — 
 
 440 lbs. cheese, worth, if well made, Sd. per lb. £14 13 4 
 
 6 lbs. whey butter, at 9 d. ... ... ... 046 
 
 V alue of whey for feeding pigs 100 
 
 Value of calf, ictf. to 1 /., say ... ... ... o 10 o. 
 
 £16 7 10 
 
 VI. ON THE FATTENING OF CATTLE. 
 
 297. Of the vast number of animals slaughtered in 
 the United Kingdom, a large number are sent to 
 market in very good condition by the graziers, large 
 farmers, and landed gentry. It is well known, how- 
 ever, to persons acquainted with the cattle trade, that 
 a great many beasts are sold in a half-finished state. 
 The loss on these is very considerable ; for, as every 
 practical man knows, beasts pay better for their keep 
 in the more advanced than in the early stage of 
 fattening. 
 
 298. The fattening of cattle divides itself into two 
 great divisions, grazing and stall-feeding. The former 
 of these is practised principally upon what, by way of 
 distinction, is called fattening land ; and we think 
 that this is a profitable way of managing this class of 
 land. As a rule, one-third of the animals are put on 
 the land in October, one-third at the great May fairs, 
 and the remaining third during summer. The land 
 usually fattens at the rate of two beasts for every 
 three statute acres. By stocking some first-class land 
 less closely it often fattens two sets in the year. 
 Some graziers give cake in troughs on the grass at 
 the rate of 2 lbs. and upwards per head daily. Crushed 
 oats and ground barley are also used for the same 
 purposes ; and when the price of these crops is low, 
 
94 INTRODUCTION TO [part 
 
 and the price of meat is high, it pays very well, if we 
 take into account the improvement which is effected 
 in the land by the dung of the animals. 
 
 299. The grazier shifts his cattle from field to field, 
 so that they may always have a good fresh bite. For 
 this purpose his land may be divided into three or 
 four sections. One is kept free from stock until the 
 most forward beasts need it. The cattle are grazing 
 on section two until section one is ready for them. 
 Section three receives the less forward beasts or dairy 
 stock ; and store cattle and sheep may occupy a 
 fourth section. The animals are regularly shifted 
 from one division to another. Thus, when the stock 
 in section four is transferred to section three, the 
 former is cleared and closed up till it is ready for 
 the most forward beasts ; and so on of the other 
 divisions. It is worthy of remark that, as fattening 
 animals approach ripeness, they require better keep, 
 which, in the case of grazing cattle, means more suc- 
 culent pasture. Grazing cattle also require a plentiful 
 supply of water. It is found beneficial, as already 
 stated, to place rock-salt within their reach, so that 
 they may lick it. The passages leading from field to 
 field should be kept clean to prevent disease of the 
 feet, which keeps up irritation and wastes food. 
 
 300. The fattening of the cattle in houses, com- 
 monly called stall-feeding, is carried on during winter 
 and spring. The animals are v/ithdrawn from grass at 
 the approach of winter, and put under shelter. For 
 about ten days after the animals are put up they 
 should get soft turnips, which prepare them for the 
 more nutritive sorts. From the very commencement 
 the strictest regularity should be observed in the hours 
 of feeding, and the beasts should be kept clean and 
 comfortable all through. Some farmers curry them 
 once a day, and we have no doubt this extra trouble 
 pays remarkably well, as it promotes the healthy 
 action of the skin. The house should be warm, but 
 
PRACTICAL FARMING. 
 
 95 
 
 HI.] 
 
 not so close as to cause sweating, which is injurious. 
 The greatest attention should be paid to the dung, 
 which should be neither too soft nor too hard. When 
 the beasts are put up to fatten the soft turnips gene- 
 rally scour them ; but, if not allowed to go too far, 
 this brings about a healthier action of the entire sys- 
 tem, and by providing dry fodder the excrements are 
 soon restored to their proper consistence. The animals 
 may now receive more fattening food, the kinds and 
 quantities of which vary with the size of the beasts and 
 with the views of the farmer. The kinds of food most 
 commonly given to stall-fed cattle are roots, straw and 
 hay, with oil-cake or corn. The state in which it is 
 best to give these substances to cattle is a subject on 
 which opinions differ widely. A few persons advocate 
 the cooking of the roots. The general opinion is, 
 however, that this does not pay. The advocates of 
 the system say the animals can digest their food with 
 less exertion (which means less waste of tissue) when 
 it is cooked for them. Roots are, however, easily 
 digested ; and, besides, the large quantity of saliva 
 secreted during the mastication of the raw roots pro- 
 motes digestion. We, therefore, consider that it is a 
 waste of food and labour to steam or boil roots. To 
 prevent choking, the roots should be cut into slices 
 not exceeding an inch in thickness. 
 
 301 . Some again reduce the roots to shreds by 
 what is called a pulping-machine, which is serviceable 
 in the feeding of cattle when the farmer wants them 
 to consume and assimilate a large quantity of straw ; 
 that is, for example, when roots are scarce and straw 
 and fodder abundant. By mixing the pulped roots 
 with straw cut into what is called “ chaff,’ 7 by a chaff- 
 cutting machine, cattle can be made to eat a great deal 
 of straw. By allowing the mixture to stand a short 
 time, the fodder is sweetened by the juice of the 
 roots. For milch cows, the mixture ought to under- 
 go a slight degree of acidity, which promotes the 
 
96 INTRODUCTION TO [part 
 
 secretion of milk. For fattening animals this is not 
 desirable. 
 
 302. When oil-cake is given to fattening beasts it 
 should be broken very fine, and given by itself, or 
 strewed upon the turnips. When a chaff-cutter is 
 used, the oil-cake may be made into a mucilage, and 
 poured upon the cut straw or hay. Or the cake or 
 corn may be added to the mixture of prepared roots 
 and chaffed fodder to which we have referred. For 
 feeding purposes corn should be crushed either at the 
 nearest mill, or by a machine specially constructed for 
 the purpose. The farmer who feeds horses and cattle 
 on oats should have an oat “ crusher, to be worked 
 by hand on small and moderate-sized farms, and by 
 water or steam power on large holdings. Every cwt. 
 of oats given to thriving animals (along with roots and 
 good oat straw) produces at least twelve lbs. of beef 
 and tallow. If given to ill-shaped and badly-reared 
 cattle it would not produce so much; but we are clearly 
 of opinion that the beef and manure obtained from 
 the judicious use of oats in cattle-feeding would 
 amount to more than the price at which immense 
 quantities of it have been sold by farmers of late years. 
 
 303. Stall-fed cattle should receive three feeds of 
 roots, or roots and cake or corn, in the day, — one in 
 the morning, one at noon, and one in the evening. 
 They should also receive some good oat straw or hay 
 at night. If fed oftener, they are disturbed more than 
 is desirable. 
 
 304. The question what are the proper quantities 
 of the various kinds of food which ought to be given 
 to stall-fed cattle, has never been fully answered. The 
 usual practice is to give them as much roots and fodder 
 as they can eat. This system often causes waste and 
 loss. From eight to twelve stones of roots in the day, 
 according to the size and condition of the beasts, 
 may be given to each, together with good straw or 
 hay, and some corn or cake. During the first ten 
 
PRACTICAL FARMING. 
 
 III.] 
 
 97 
 
 days or a fortnight, that is, while the animals are on 
 soft turnips, no artificial food is needed, but when put 
 on Swedish turnips, one lb. or two lbs. of corn or cake 
 may be given daily to each, and the allowance may 
 be increased to four lbs. as the period advances. 
 
 VII. THE FARM HORSE. 
 
 305. There are in the United Kingdom upwards 
 of a million and three-quarters of horses, of which 
 more than one-half are used for agricultural purposes. 
 A large proportion of these do not give an adequate 
 amount of work for the food they consume. They 
 are badly shaped and ill-adapted for farm work. 
 Little care is bestowed on their production, and their 
 feeding, especially while young, is also neglected. 
 It is well to impress on the minds of the future farmers 
 of the country that a horse should not be kept on a 
 farm of five or even of ten or twelve acres unless in 
 special cases. Horse labour is one of the most expen- 
 sive items of tillage. It is usually estimated that a 
 pair of horses is required for every forty to fifty acres 
 of tillage land of average quality. A horse kept in 
 fair working condition costs, in round numbers, about 
 ids. a week, exclusive of the labour of the plough- 
 man or carter. This gives a charge of at least i /. an 
 acre for the keep of the horse, which shows the neces- 
 sity of obtaining the greatest possible useful effect 
 from horse power. And this can only be accom- 
 plished by keeping a class of horses suited to the 
 work which they have to perform, by feeding and 
 caring them with the utmost skill and economy, and 
 by employing their time to the best advantage. We 
 shall offer a few remarks on each of those points. 
 
 306. The breeds of agricultural horses most highly 
 esteemed are the Clydesdale and Suffolk Punch. In 
 parts of the West of England a very useful animal has 
 come into use, called the West-country horse. 
 
 H 
 
98 
 
 INTRODUCTION TO 
 
 [part 
 
 307. The first care the horse requires in the 
 morning is to water him, after which he gets his first 
 feed ; and when this is eaten the harness is put on, 
 and the day’s work begins. 
 
 308 . When brought home after his day’s work, the 
 horse requires careful grooming, more especially in 
 wet weather. If the legs are dirty, it is usual to wash 
 them down by the hand, or to walk the horse through 
 a shallow stream of water. The legs should not be 
 wetted above the knees and hocks ; and we should be 
 particularly careful not to wet the belly, for if not well 
 dried afterwards the horse is apt to get inflammation 
 of the bowels. When the horse is watered and 
 groomed he gets his feed. He should be cooled from 
 the heat of the day’s work before he is put into the 
 stable ; and the necessity for taking this precaution 
 becomes all the greater when the stable is small and 
 badly ventilated. Horses very frequently take cold 
 from sudden changes of temperature. Colic often 
 follows injudicious feeding, such as a sudden change 
 to green food, or taking too much cold water after 
 hard work. 
 
 309 . The horse’s feet should be carefully picked 
 every evening before he is put into the stable. He 
 should also be carefully wisped all over to dry the 
 coat and remove dirt, and afterwards curried and 
 brushed. The farmer who is trusting to others should 
 visit the stable every night after the servants have 
 finished their work. He should see that the animals 
 are properly littered ; pass his hand over them to see 
 that they are quite dry, and give them a slap with his 
 hand on one or two points to see that the dirt and 
 dust have been removed. 
 
 310 . Oats and hay may be said to form the staple 
 food of horses. A working horse should not be fed 
 solely on hay, as the quantity which would afford the 
 necessary nutriment is too bulky. Hay is sometimes 
 so badly saved that it is little better than straw ; and 
 
III.] PRACTICAL FARMING. 99 
 
 working horses fed on this kind of hay lose condition. 
 Mouldy hay often produces the disease known as 
 broken wind. This disease is often found to be pro- 
 duced by giving too much hay to horses. A very 
 usual daily allowance of food for farm horses is 1 2 lbs. 
 oats, 2 1 lbs. hay, with occasional mashes at night. 
 
 311. Ground Indian corn is now very generally 
 used in the feeding of hard-wrought horses, such as 
 those employed in omnibuses. When it forms the 
 staple food of animals which are not in full work the 
 disease known as “ grease ” almost invariably occurs. 
 It should therefore form only part of the food of farm 
 horses, unless they are actively employed. As the 
 work slackens the quantity ought to be reduced. 
 
 312. In summer horses get green food, such as 
 cut grass and vetches ; and many farmers put their 
 horses out to grass at night during that season. 
 
 313. When farm work is slack during the winter 
 months, good oat straw is often substituted, partially 
 or wholly, for hay. When it is intended to use a 
 mixture of hay and straw, it is a very good plan to 
 mix them together in the rick. The dry straw pre- 
 vents the hay from heating, and the hay improves the 
 taste and flavour of the straw. We should always 
 select the nicest, cleanest, and shortest straw for 
 horses. 
 
 314. Of root crops the carrot is the best for horse 
 feeding. It is almost invariably given raw. It imparts 
 a nice glossy coat to the animal. The carrot is, how- 
 ever, too innutritious to be solely depended upon as 
 the food of the working horse. 
 
 315. Boiled potatoes are very good for horses ; 
 but they are now too dear to be used in this way. 
 Swedish turnips and mangold-wurtzel have been also 
 used. They are too watery to enter largely into the 
 diet of working animals ; but a mash of boiled Swedish 
 turnips, or mangolds, mixed with a little salt, may be 
 given at night twice a week, with great advantage. 
 
 h 2 
 
INTRODUCTION TO 
 
 too 
 
 [part 
 
 316. In some light land districts, especially in 
 Wales and Ireland, farmers' horses are fed on furze 
 from October till spring. Only the tender shoots of 
 the plant are used, and they are prepared by being 
 chopped and bruised. A daily allowance of three 
 stone of furze prepared in this way will keep a horse 
 in a sleek and fair working condition throughout 
 winter. Furze alone is not adequate food for a farm 
 horse at full work in autumn or spring ; and is not 
 grown except on poor land which refuses to give more 
 valuable crops, on the sides of steep and craggy hills, 
 or when it is planted in the fences. It is estimated 
 that an acre of furze will feed four or five horses for 
 four months. 
 
 VIII. SHEEP. 
 
 317. It has been estimated that the average value 
 of the sheep in the British Islands could be increased 
 5 s. a head in a short time by bestowing proper atten- 
 tion on their production, feeding, and general manage- 
 ment; and as there are upwards of 30 , 000,000 of 
 sheep in the country, this would increase our wealth 
 to the amount of seven and a half millions sterling. 
 
 318. It is in regard to the sheep in the hands of the 
 struggling farmers that the greatest improvement 
 remains to be effected. Those animals are frequently 
 ill-shaped, require three years to come to market, and 
 do not weigh as heavily as well-bred and well-fed 
 sheep at the age of fifteen or sixteen months. Food 
 is thus wasted, the farmer’s capital is turned slowly, 
 and the profit is extremely small. 
 
 319. Sheep are reared for their flesh and wool. 
 The weight of the carcase and the quality of the 
 mutton, as well as the weight of the fleece and the 
 quality or “ staple ” of the wool, vary greatly with the 
 breed. The longer time a sheep takes to come to 
 maturity the better the quality of its mutton, and 
 
III.] PRACTICAL FARMING, iqi 
 
 accordingly the mutton of large and fast- growing im- 
 proved sheep is not as good as that of unimproved 
 or mountain sheep. The Cotswold breed is one of 
 the largest and fastest growing breeds we possess, but 
 the mutton is very low in quality, and sells for one 
 penny a lb. less than good mutton. The Black-faced 
 sheep of Scotland, Welsh sheep and all mountain 
 sheep, give tender and savoury mutton, which always 
 commands the highest price. The mutton of the 
 Southdown breed of sheep is also very good, and 
 brings a higher price than the mutton of the Leicester, 
 and of other favourite breeds. 
 
 320. All our breeds of sheep are usually classified 
 into long-woolled , short-woolled , and intermediate , ac- 
 cording to the length of the wool. Leicester, Lincoln, 
 and Cotswold sheep, whose wool is fully seven inches 
 long, belong to the long-woolled class. When, as in 
 Southdown sheep, the staple of the wool is from two 
 to four inches, the breed is said to be short-woolled ; 
 and the Cheviot and Oxford breeds are examples of 
 the intermediate class. 
 
 321. The Merino breed of sheep 'gives the best 
 wool. Formerly its price was very high ; but the price 
 of Merino and other descriptions of fine wool has been 
 brought down, and the price of long wool advanced, 
 by the remarkable change that has taken place in dress. 
 This change consists in the use of a greater quantity 
 of tweeds and other coarse woollen fabrics, instead of 
 the broad-cloth so much worn thirty years ago. 
 
 322. The most celebrated sheep we possess is the 
 Leicester, which owes its merit to the labour of Bake- 
 well and other able men, who, by the extraordinary 
 improvement effected in this breed, and by the example 
 they afforded, have contributed largely to the progress 
 of modern agriculture. The old Leicester used to take 
 three years to come to maturity, like some of the unim- 
 proved breeds of our own day. The improved Leicester 
 was brought to market at fifteen months old, weighing 
 
102 INTRODUCTION TO [part 
 
 21 lbs. a quarter. The breed requires rich and well 
 sheltered pasture. It has been as useful in improving 
 other breeds of sheep as the short-horn in improving 
 other breeds of cattle. But of late it has been found 
 that a sheep of larger size, and with a heavier fleece, is 
 found to pay better in many districts. 
 
 323. The Lincoln, for instance, has superseded it 
 in many of the low-land districts of the county of that 
 name, and elsewhere. The Leicester was used in the 
 production of the Lincoln. The latter has, however, 
 a larger frame and a heavier fleece. 
 
 324. T he Cotswold is a strong upstanding sheep 
 admirably suited to the Cotswold Hills, which are, in 
 reality, extensive plains of elevated land. The soil is 
 well suited for tillage purposes. Systematic cropping 
 is pursued, and a considerable portion of the turnip 
 crop is eaten where they grow. The Cotswold breed 
 answers well for the purpose. 
 
 325. One of the oldest of modern improved breeds 
 of short-woolled sheep is the Southdown. The quality 
 of both wool and mutton is excellent. The heads and 
 feet are coloured. Owing to the cause already indi- 
 cated farmers found that a larger animal would pay 
 better; and accordingly new breeds have sprung up 
 to take its place. 
 
 326. The first of these was the Shropshire down, 
 which is now highly esteemed on cold lands like those 
 on which it originated. It is also very generally used for 
 the production of what may be called butchers’ lambs. 
 
 327. Still more recently the Shropshire down sheep 
 has in some places yielded to the Oxfordshire down, 
 which is an animal of larger frame and longer wool. 
 The Oxford down is a new breed ; but it promises to 
 pay well in many places. 
 
 328. The Hampshire down sheep is another new 
 breed which, in several parts of the county from which 
 it takes its name, is found to pay better than any 
 other breed. 
 
Hi.] PRACTICAL FARMING. 103 
 
 329. In Ireland a valuable breed of sheep called 
 the Roscommon has been recently established. It 
 has been produced by mixing the Leicester with the 
 native sheep of the West of Ireland, until an animal 
 was produced, which in the opinion of the intelligent 
 flock-owners of that county possessed all the quali- 
 ties they required. They then established the breed 
 in the usual way. The Roscommon is a large long- 
 woolled sheep. It does not arrive at maturity as soon 
 as the Leicester ; but it has a strong constitution, and 
 is possibly the most profitable breed of sheep on the 
 extensive sheep-walks in the West of Ireland in which 
 there is little shelter, and little or no tillage. 
 
 330. As a mountain breed the Cheviot is the best 
 we possess. When the situation is too elevated or 
 exposed for the Cheviot the black-faced sheep of 
 Scotland pays better. There is great room for im- 
 provement of the mountain sheep of many parts of 
 the country by the exercise of care and skill. 
 
 33L Ewes should be made to yean when there is 
 good grass for the lambs. When the farm is exposed, 
 or the climate cold and cutting in spring, lambs should 
 not be dropped early. “ Thousands of lambs/' says 
 Mr. Youatt, “ die every year from the cold to which 
 they are exposed by being dropped too soon. And 
 on the other hand there may be danger and incon- 
 venience if the period of lambing is too late. Hot 
 weather is as fatal to the mother as cold is to the 
 young. It frequently induces a dangerous state of 
 fever; and both the mother and the lamb may then 
 be injured by the luxuriance of the grass. If the 
 lamb falls late in the season, it will be longer ere the 
 ewe can be got ready for the butcher, if she is a draft 
 ewe ; and the early lambs become larger and stronger 
 and better able to resist the cold of the succeeding 
 winter. The weaning time will, therefore, be regulated 
 by the situation of the farm, the nature of the pasture, 
 and the demand for the neighbouring markets/' 
 
104 INTRODUCTION TO [part 
 
 332. As dirt collects in the wool, sheep should be 
 washed in a running stream before being shorn. 
 Many farmers lose very considerably by the filthy 
 state in which they send wool to market. They think 
 that as the dirt adds to the weight of the wool it does 
 not pay them to go to the trouble of washing and 
 preparing it. Common sense should teach them that 
 the buyer will not only cut down the price, according 
 to the impurity of the wool, but make a deduction for 
 the labour of cleaning it. 
 
 333 . As soon as the lambs are weaned, and the 
 ewes quite dry, the shepherd goes through his flock 
 very carefully, and “ culls ” or drafts from it as many 
 of the worst of the old ewes as he can replace from 
 the young flock. 
 
 334. Pasture is the most natural, as it is the most 
 universal food of sheep. Thousands of sheep never 
 get anything else. 
 
 335. In England and Scotland, and on several 
 farms in Ireland, sheep are fattened on roots in winter 
 and spring. Averaged- sized sheep fed exclusively on 
 roots consume about a stone and a half of swedes 
 daily. On this keep a sheep will increase about 5 lbs. 
 a quarter in from four to five months. The increase 
 of the wool in the same period would be about a 
 pound. Roots should be cut and given to fattening 
 sheep in troughs. In this way none of the roots are 
 wasted. By cutting the roots sheep eat more of them 
 and fatten quicker. Roots are not usually cut for 
 store sheep. 
 
 336. In addition to roots, sheep, when intended 
 for fattening, get some hay in racks. 
 
 337. Many farmers give a little cake or corn in ad- 
 dition. At the present prices of meat and wool we 
 believe it pays fully as well to give artificial food to 
 sheep as to cattle. When given, the cake should be 
 broken very fine, and the oats crushed or “ cracked.” 
 About three quarters of a pound of oil-cake or a pound 
 
III.] 
 
 PRACTICAL 
 
 of oats per sheep per day may 
 tage; and when this is given, aldng aVgo fid 
 
 allowance of roots, the period of fattening is shortened 
 about a month, and the sheep turned qnirm better 
 condition. In this way roots are saveo^-^ greate x> 
 number of sheep can be fed, more manure is ohiatfTea 
 and as a matter of course the land improves in quality ; 
 and so long as the farmer does all this judiciously, his 
 own circumstances must improve. 
 
 338. In severe winter and spring weather store 
 sheep and breeding ewes should get hay or roots, or a 
 little of both, if they can be spared. Some farmers 
 give artificial food when hay or roots are not available. 
 It is certainly a mistake not to provide sheep with 
 adequate keep at those seasons. 
 
 339. Ewes which yean before there is a good growth 
 of grass should also have some roots. Mangold-wurt- 
 zel is excellent for this purpose. The allowance of 
 roots must vary with the state of the grass. 
 
 IX. SWINE. 
 
 340. There are in Great Britain and Ireland 
 2 , 500,000 pigs. It has been observed that as many 
 pigs are annually sold as the country contains at 
 the time of taking the Government returns. 
 
 341. Assuming the average value of each pig dis- 
 posed of to be 4 /., the agricultural classes derive four- 
 teen millions sterling from the sale of swine, which is 
 a most important item in our national wealth. That 
 this could be increased without any extra feeding is 
 well known to everybody who is acquainted with the 
 state of the country ; for while it is true that a great 
 improvement has been effected in the quality of our 
 pigs, much remains yet to be done. One of the most 
 noted pig-breeders in England has expressed the 
 opinion, that by bestowing proper attention on the 
 breeding, rearing, and feeding of swine, the quantity 
 
106 INTRODUCTION TO [part 
 
 of meat could be doubled at little more than the pres- 
 ent cost. 
 
 342. The pig has often been called the poor man’s 
 savings’ bank, and the poor man’s friend. It is be- 
 yond all doubt that this animal is of immense advantage 
 to the cottager. A store pig can be purchased at 
 sums varying from a pound upwards. It consumes the 
 offal of the table ; and by a small weekly outlay, 
 which might otherwise be spent on tobacco or intoxi- 
 cating drinks, that weaken mind and body, the animal 
 in a short time becomes worth from 3/. to 5/., and 
 often more. It is in this sense that the pig can be 
 correctly regarded as a savings’ bank ; and when the 
 animal is fairly managed, the poor man cannot invest 
 his savings in any other way that would pay him as 
 well. But besides the profit of the animal, we hold 
 that the feeding of pigs in this way is, in other respects, 
 most beneficial to the people. It engenders habits of 
 forethought and of thrift. The working man, who 
 saves a small sum weekly out of his limited income, 
 and skilfully invests it in feeding a pig or two, is pretty 
 sure to improve his own condition, and to impress the 
 best of all lessons on the minds of his children. 
 
 343. Bigs may be classed in various ways. Thus, 
 according to colour, we have black and white ; accord- 
 ing to size, small, large, and intermediate. As regards 
 size, the farmer must be guided by the demand. A 
 moderate-sized pig suits a cottager best. 
 
 344. In deciding on the kind of pig to keep, 
 we must be guided by circumstances. Many dairy 
 farmers, who have a supply of skim-milk and butter- 
 milk find, now-a-days, that a moderate-sized pig of 
 the Yorkshire breed pays them best. This class of 
 animal grows rapidly, and is easily fed. Since the 
 introduction of the use of sugar for u curing ” bacon, 
 the degree of fatness in pigs, which was previously so 
 much in demand, is not required. Persons who use 
 their pigs for consuming offal, which is comparatively 
 
in.] PRACTICAL FARMING . 107 
 
 innutritious, find a large and slow-growing pig more 
 profitable. 
 
 345. The pure breeds most in demand are the York- 
 shire and Cumberland,, which are white, and the 
 Berkshire and Essex, which are black. The Yorkshire 
 is perhaps most generally used. It is of three sizes, 
 small, medium, and large. The Cumberland is a 
 handsome moderate-sized pig. The Berkshire is re- 
 cognized by the presence of patches of white on the 
 feet and face, and is a hardy breed. The Essex is 
 a newer breed, and more highly prized in several 
 parts of the east and south-east of England. In 
 Suffolk there is also a valuable breed of pigs. 
 
 346. All the improved breeds of pigs possess many 
 points in common ; and the more of these points any 
 pig, whether purely bred or otherwise, possesses, the 
 better he is likely to pay. The head is small ; the eye 
 small and quick, denoting docility, which is essential for 
 profitable feeding. The neck is broad, rises well from 
 behind the ears, and swells out as it joins the shoulders 
 and breast. The breast is wide and deep. The back 
 should be straight or with a slight curve, broad, and 
 covered with flesh of good quality ; the ribs should 
 spring at right angles to the chine. The shoulders 
 are thick, broad, and well covered ; and the thighs 
 thick and well covered within and without, and carry- 
 ing flesh well to the hock. The legs are short, the 
 feet short and round, and furnished with clean claws. 
 The hair is pretty long, fine and silky, and contains 
 few bristles. The skin is thin and supple — neither 
 tight nor loose. The tail is small, curled, and set so 
 that it is not seen at the top when the animal is fat. 
 When viewed from the side, from behind, before, or 
 when a bird’s-eye view is taken, the carcase should 
 present the outline of a rectangle. 
 
 347. The sow goes in youngabout 1 13 days. Making 
 allowance for the time she is suckling her young, she 
 can produce two litters in the year, and when it is 
 
108 INTRODUCTION TO [part 
 
 thought desirable, she will give five litters in two 
 years. The first litter is rarely as numerous or vigor- 
 ous as subsequent ones. Good breeders, who wish to 
 keep up first-class pigs, do not usually breed from pigs 
 of the first litter. A profitable sow has from eight to 
 twelve young ones at a time, ten being a good average. 
 A sow which does not give a fair average number of 
 young ones should be disposed of. A bad nurse, or a 
 sow which eats her young, should also be fattened off 
 as soon as possible. 
 
 348. Sows farrow at all seasons of the year. It is, 
 however, difficult to rear young pigs in cold, harsh 
 weather. It appears to us that for the ordinary 
 farmers of this country, spring, and the end of sum- 
 mer or beginning of autumn, are good periods for 
 farrowing. In the former case there will be plenty of 
 milk to spare for the young pigs at the time of wean- 
 ing, and in the latter case they will be strong before 
 the hard weather sets in. 
 
 349. The sow requires great care for some time 
 before farrowing. As the critical period approaches 
 she should be placed in a sty by herself, if she has not 
 had one already ; and the sty for this purpose should 
 be roomy, say eight to ten feet square. Short straw 
 should be used for litter, as young pigs are liable to 
 be smothered in long straw. As many young pigs are 
 also crushed by their dam against the wall, it is a very 
 good plan to fix a piece of wood all round the sty, at 
 a height of about eight or ten inches from the ground, 
 and projecting about the same distance from the wall, 
 so that the young ones may be forced under it rather 
 than crushed against the wall. 
 
 350. For twenty-four hours after farrowing, the sow 
 should be fed on soft food or slops, which should be 
 given in a warm (not a hot) state. A mash of bran 
 or meal answers very well. 
 
 351. A sow giving suck to a good average litter of 
 young pigs requires to be fed generously. For a time 
 
HI.} PRACTICAL FARMING. 109 
 
 they live on her milk altogether, and if this be deficient 
 they cannot grow big or healthy. Her food ought, if 
 possible, to be given in a cooked state. Should she 
 leave any food in the trough, it is to be removed and 
 given to store pigs. Boiled vegetables, mixed with 
 barley-meal or Indian corn, are very good, and a little 
 bean-meal increases the quantity and improves the 
 quality of the milk. 
 
 352. Young pigs are weaned at theage of two months. 
 They should be weaned gradually, and not separated 
 from the dam all at once. At this age they suck her 
 very often. When we begin to wean they should be 
 allowed to suck her six times a day, then four times, 
 three times, twice, and once a day, after which they 
 may be withdrawn altogether. In this way we avoid 
 sudden changes of food, which are injurious to young 
 pigs, and gradually dry up the sow’s milk. Butter- 
 milk is very good for newly-weaned pigs ; and is much 
 used for the purpose. Boiled roots and cabbages and 
 steamed or boiled potatoes, to which they were accus- 
 tomed before weaning, may be now given to them. No 
 matter what system of feeding is adopted afterwards, 
 any roots and vegetables given for a fortnight after 
 weaning should be cooked. Immediately after wean- 
 ing, young pigs must be fed often, say six times a day, 
 the number of feeds being gradually diminished to 
 three, which is the proper number for stores and fatten- 
 ing pigs. 
 
 353. Young pigs should also have access for a few 
 hours daily to a paddock or field, as moderate exercise 
 promotes health and vigour ; and a plentiful supply of 
 good clean water should be within the reach of both 
 young and old pigs. 
 
 354. From the time of weaning till pigs are put on 
 fattening food they are called stores . The management 
 of store pigs varies with circumstances. When intended 
 for pork they are kept almost constantly in the sties 
 and yards, so that by gaining condition rapidly rather 
 
IIO INTRODUCTION TO [part 
 
 than size, they become fit for sale at the age of nine 
 months or thereabouts. Stores intended for bacon 
 usually get more exercise. Many farmers feed them, 
 principally out of doors during summer. It happens 
 very frequently that this class of store pigs is sadly 
 neglected. They have to subsist on such offal and 
 refuse materials which they can pick up. In this state 
 they may be called the “ natural scavengers of the 
 farm.” Pigs eat offal and refuse material which would 
 otherwise perhaps go to waste, and they pay the 
 ordinary farmer best when they consume the refuse of 
 the farm and garden, of the kitchen, dairy, barn, and 
 corn-fields. It is even doubtful if it is profitable to 
 feed ordinary stores on high or expensive feeding. 
 Offal and refuse substances are not, however, always 
 adequate ; and when this happens store pigs require 
 other food. In the winter months, say from the end 
 of October to the beginning of May, some roots, 
 cabbages, and small or damaged potatoes may be 
 given to them ; and in summer they are kept econo- 
 mically on clover, vetches, and cabbages, which may 
 be given to them in yards, or on grass. To prevent 
 the grass from being injured pigs are ringed. 
 
 355. In fattening pigs we ought to be guided, 
 chiefly by the principles of animal nutrition already' 
 explained. There are, however, points of difference 
 between the food of swine and of ruminants (cattle 
 and sheep). The latter have a set of four stomachs,, 
 which enable them to digest straw and hay, and other 
 bulky substances containing a large quantity of woody 
 fibre. The pig, on the other hand, has only one. 
 stomach, and requires more concentrated food, that 
 is food containing less fibre. 
 
 356. Again, the ratio which the dead weight bears 
 to the live weight, is much higher in pigs than in 
 cattle or sheep ; and a fat pig contains a higher per- 
 centage of fat than a fat cow or a fat sheep. Thus,, 
 while 90 per cent, of the live weight of a fat pig may 
 
PRACTICAL FARMING. 
 
 ill 
 
 III.] 
 
 be pork, a fat cow rarely gives 70 per cent, of beef 
 from its live weight, and it is considered very good for 
 a sheep to give 70 per cent, of mutton. 
 
 357. It is evident, therefore, that fattening pigs re- 
 quire food richer in farinaceous, or starchy, material 
 than cattle or sheep. 
 
 358. The economy of cooking the food of fatten- 
 ing swine is, at the present day, universally admitted. 
 
 359. Omitting offal and refuse substances, the 
 staple food of fattening pigs, at all events in England, 
 is furnished by the grain crops, Indian corn, and the 
 leguminous seeds. 
 
 360. We know farmers who have fattened pigs on 
 ground grain alone, and others who have used Indian 
 meal alone. Many farmers give along with these 
 boiled roots, small and damaged potatoes, bran, pol- 
 lard, ground barley, and other materials. 
 
 301. There are few substances richer in farina- 
 ceous matter, or better adapted for pig feeding, than 
 Indian corn ; and accordingly, a great quantity of it is 
 now used for this purpose both in America and in the 
 British Islands. It is supposed to be one of the most 
 economical kinds of food we can buy for the purpose. 
 According to experiments, 112 lbs. of Indian meal 
 produces 22 lbs. in the live weight of pigs. 
 
 362. Of late years potatoes have become too dear 
 to be given to pigs. Diseased and small potatoes may, 
 however, be used for this purpose. They should be 
 steamed or boiled ; and the water which collects in the 
 steaming vat, as well as that in which potatoes are 
 boiled, should never be given to animals of any 
 kind. Potatoes do not fatten pigs rapidly, and the 
 fat of the pork fed on them is said to be rather soft ; 
 hence it is usual to give some harder feeding along 
 with them. 
 
 363. Fattening pigs are fed three times a day, — in 
 the morning, at noon, and in the evening. They 
 should be fed at the same hours day after day, and get 
 
1 12 INTRODUCTION TO [part 
 
 as much food as they will eat up clean and no more. 
 If at any time a little food is left, it should be given to 
 stores. The troughs should be washed quite clean at 
 regular intervals, for if any food is allowed to remain 
 long in the comers of them it is sure to taint the fresh 
 food. Metal or stone troughs are preferable to wooden 
 ones, as they are more easily cleaned ; and the food 
 is not only more likely to stick to the wood, but the 
 wood itself rots and taints the food. 
 
 364. The pig is, in the minds of a great many 
 people, associated with dirt and filth'; but the truth is, 
 he is, in many respects, cleanly in his habits. For 
 instance, he does not usually foul his litter, but retires 
 to the yard. It is quite certain, that the fattening of 
 swine is eminently promoted by cleanliness. The 
 most careful feeders wash them once a week. If this 
 is considered too troublesome they ought to be rubbed 
 with a good brush or wisp of straw. 
 
 365. Fattening pigs, like other fattening animals, 
 eat more at first than afterwards. When they have put 
 on a good deal of fat the appetite becomes less vora 
 cious, and better-flavoured food is required. It is for 
 this reason that when pigs are put up to fatten they 
 often get more of bulky and succulent food, and as the 
 fattening advances they get more of the richer and 
 more palatable grains. Pigs are fattened on less food 
 in summer than in winter. 
 
 x. POULTRY. 
 
 300. The rearing and feeding of poultry form a 
 most interesting and useful branch of industry. Eggs 
 and poultry increase in value with the increase of our 
 national wealth. In addition to the home supply, the 
 imports of this species amounts to about a million- 
 and-a-half sterling per annum. Of eggs, the number 
 imported exceeds one million a day. 
 
 307. That the home supply could be increased 
 there can be no doubt. In this chapter we propose to 
 
in.] PRACTICAL FARMING. 113 
 
 point out the means by which the tenant farmer 
 and cottager can best aid in promoting this object. 
 
 368. We shall begin with a notice of the pure 
 breeds of poultry best suited for ordinary purposes ; 
 namely, the Dorking, Spanish, and Brahmas. 
 
 369. The Dorkmg is one of the best pure breeds. 
 A bird of this variety is large, has a square well-set 
 body, short whitish legs, and short neck. The flesh is 
 excellent, and the eggs are of good size and flavour. 
 The colour varies, dark grey being preferred. There 
 are five toes to each foot. The average weight of the 
 cock is 8 lbs., and of the hen 6 lbs. The hen makes 
 a good nurse ; but she is slow in sitting. It is, there- 
 fore, necessary to entrust eggs for early birds to 
 foster-mothers, and for this special duty the game 
 hen is the best. 
 
 370. The Spanish is a noble-looking bird, of 
 different hues of colour, black being the most fashion- 
 able. There is a large red single comb, which in the 
 cock is quite erect, and in the hen turns a little to one 
 side. The breed is further known by a lobe of white 
 flesh behind the ear, and by its white face. The hen 
 lays a large, well-flavoured egg, which tapers at both 
 ends, and weighs from 2 \ oz. to 3 J oz., and sometimes 
 more. She belongs to the class of everlasting layers ; 
 that is, she continues laying, without indicating any 
 desire to hatch, a property that enhances the value 
 of the breed for producing eggs : hatching can be 
 done by common hens. 
 
 371. The Brahma is a larger bird than either the 
 Dorking or Spanish, the cock weighing 10 lbs., and 
 the hen about 8 lbs. The flesh is not so delicate as 
 that of the Dorking or Spanish ; but when young it is 
 very good, and it is abundant in quantity. The egg 
 is small, weighing not more than 2 oz., and, in common 
 with the eggs of all fowl of Asiatic origin, it has a buff 
 colour. The hens are great layers, and, being hardy, 
 they give eggs in winter, when neither the Dorking nor 
 
 1 
 
1 1 4 INTRODUCTION TO [part 
 
 Spanish lay. They also make excellent nurses, and by 
 crossing with common fowl give good birds for general 
 use. Being heavy, they are easily confined ; and, for 
 the same reason, the roosts require to be within a foot 
 of the ground. The pullets are fully grown at six 
 months, when they begin to lay. For confined places 
 and general usefulness this is one of the best breeds 
 we know. There are two kinds of Brahmas in the 
 country, the white and the dark. We prefer the 
 latter. 
 
 372. A poultry house consists of one or more 
 rooms, according to the number of birds kept. Any 
 apartment may be fitted up for the purpose ; but if a 
 poultry house is specially built, each room may be six 
 or eight feet long by four feet wide, and not less than 
 twelve feet high, as the air in a low house soon be- 
 comes tainted, and bad air is sure to cause delicacy 
 and disease in poultry. Each compartment should 
 have a door about twenty-one inches wide in one cor- 
 ner, and a yard ten feet wade, facing the south. If 
 distinct breeds are kept, the yards require to be 
 covered with wire. 
 
 373. As damp is most injurious to poultry, the 
 house and yards should be thoroughly drained. The 
 best floor is a layer of broken stones, over which is 
 placed two inches of clay, well pressed down, and the 
 whole covered with fine sand, or with the fine part of 
 well-sifted ashes. The floor should be carefully cleaned 
 every day, and the manure removed two or three times 
 a week. 
 
 374 . Thatch is preferable to slates for poultry 
 houses, as it keeps them warm in winter. It is a good 
 plan to line the walls in winter with a thin layer of 
 long, clean wheat straw. This is done by fastening it 
 at top and bottom with nails and listing. All the 
 straw used in poultry houses should be sprinkled with 
 sulphur, to prevent fleas from being generated in it. 
 Roosting-spars, consisting of the one-half of larch 
 
in.] PRACTICAL FARMING. 115 
 
 poles, about three or four inches in diameter, divested 
 of the bark, and with the semicircular side upwards, 
 should be placed the entire length of each compart- 
 ment, and at a height of two feet from the ground for 
 common poultry, and a foot for heavy birds, such as 
 Brahmas. Nests for laying should be placed along 
 the end farthest from the door, and not over each 
 other. There should, if possible, be a separate room 
 for hatching, ; and if the poultry be valuable, and 
 early birds required, it should be heated. 
 
 375. A quantity of ashes should.be placed within 
 reach of fowls. In this they roll themselves about, by 
 which, it is found, they are kept free from vermin. If 
 ashes be not present, they will scoop out the clay with 
 their toes, which are thereby frequently disfigured. 
 The clay, too, does not destroy vermin as well as 
 ashes. 
 
 376. Many persons place broken shells or lime 
 rubbish in poultry yards, under the belief that it sup- 
 plies material to build up the egg-shell. Poultry take 
 up a little fine gravel to assist the action of the 
 gizzard. 
 
 377. Hens and forward pullets, well cared in 
 winter, lay before Christmas, or at latest, in January, 
 and to keep them laying at this season, they require 
 liberal feeding and as much warmth as possible. Corn 
 is the best food for this purpose. Some farmers give 
 all the tail corn to the hens, and it answers very well. 
 
 378. For ordinary purposes, it is not desirable to 
 hatch eggs before the opening of mild weather in 
 spring. The general brood is hatched in March, 
 April, and May. A second brood is hatched in July, 
 August, and September, after which hatching is not 
 safe. Very early hatching in January or February is 
 not practised, except for show purposes, or in the 
 neighbourhood of cities or large towns, where early 
 chickens bring 5 ^. apiece and upwards. Early 
 chickens require very careful nursing. 
 
 1 2 
 
ii 6 
 
 INTRODUCTION TO 
 
 [part 
 
 .379. A good-sized hen, fully grown, will hatch 
 thirteen eggs ; for pullets, eight are quite enough. 
 Those who breed for show purposes, never expect a 
 hen to hatch more than this number. The period of 
 incubation is twenty-one days. 
 
 380. Pieces of bread from the kitchen, soaked in 
 water, and dried and grated, is excellent food for 
 young chicks. Refuse stirabout, broken fine, is also 
 good * and after a short time they may get small but 
 clean tail corn. Chopped cabbage or lettuce should 
 also be provided for them. Kitchen refuse, especially 
 dripping, dried and broken fine, is found to be bene- 
 ficial. Like other animals they are greatly benefited 
 by a mixed diet. 
 
 381. For ten days or a fortnight, they should, if 
 possible, be fed once an hour during the day; and 
 afterwards they may have the run of a piece of grass, 
 in which shrubs should be grown for shelter. Whole- 
 some water should also be supplied and renewed every 
 day. They will pick up insects for themselves. 
 
 382. T he staple food of fowl is grain. Many give 
 the preference to oats, which is recommended to be 
 ground. Tail corn does very well, especially for com- 
 mon fowl. In whatever state it is given, the corn 
 should be scattered thinly on the ground, so as to 
 give the birds exercise in looking for it. They should 
 never get, at a time, more than they will eat clean. A 
 very good way of fattening poultry is to confine them 
 in cages for a few weeks, and to feed them on corn or 
 meal (which is preferred by most people) made into a 
 paste. They are put up at the age of three or three and 
 a half months in summer, and from four to five months 
 in winter. Birds of an improved description and of 
 this age, will fatten in a fortnight ; older birds may 
 take an additional week. If confined for a longer 
 time, they go backwards. It has been found that five 
 pounds of barley increase the live weight of poultry by 
 one pound. 
 
III.] PRACTICAL FARMING. 1 17 
 
 383. The fattening of fowl is forced by a process 
 called cramming, which consists in pressing more food 
 into the animals than they would otherwise take. The 
 food is generally made into pellets. Birds fattened in 
 this way are called crammed fowl. 
 
 384. As it is found that all animals fatten best in 
 the dark, some persons resort to the barbarous practice 
 of depriving birds of their eyes. 
 
 385. Before being killed, fowls should be fasting 
 for twelve hours ; and, in order to soften the fibre of 
 the flesh, it is necessary to allow young birds to remain 
 killed for a day or two before using them, and old 
 birds require three or four days. 
 
 386. When a fowl is fat, the breast is plump, and 
 fat is easily discovered under the wings ; and all over 
 the body flesh and fat are felt on gently pressing it 
 with the finger. 
 
 387. If a good description of fowl be kept, the 
 hens will lay, on an average, 120 eggs each, at 
 successive periods during the year ; at ninepence 
 a dozen, which is now a low average, this would 
 amount to js. 6d. If fed principally on grain, 
 they will require corn at the rate of half a stone per 
 week for every six birds, with a little chopped vegeta- 
 bles and such kitchen refuse and worms as they can pick 
 up; this gives 4 ^ stones per annum per bird. Using 
 inferior corn, worth say, about 10 ^. per stone, the 
 cost per hen is 3s. 6d., which leaves a handsome mar- 
 gin to pay for kitchen refuse and attendance. 
 
 388. The Goose is the most profitable of the large 
 poultry birds. She is not so difficult or expensive to 
 rear as the turkey, and brings nearly as much money. 
 She requires plenty of ground to roam over in search 
 of food. 
 
 389. The common geese of the country are capa- 
 ble of being improved by care in selecting the parents, 
 and by crossing with a Toulouse bird, the birds of 
 which are large, well shaped, and of a grey colour. 
 
Ii8 INTRODUCTION TO [part 
 
 390. Geese well fed in winter will begin to lay in 
 January, and a good goose lays from fifteen to twenty 
 eggs in the season, and sometimes thirty and upwards. 
 Toulouse geese lay from forty to sixty. In her first 
 season a goose does not lay so many, and her eggs are 
 small. She is in prime laying condition in her third 
 season. 
 
 391. A goose that begins to lay early in January, 
 will show a desire to sit in February. She will hatch 
 from ten to twelve eggs, and the period of incubation 
 is thirty days. A turkey hen is often preferred to a 
 goose for hatching ; and a common hen is often put 
 on four or five eggs. 
 
 392. Goslings receive no food for twelve hours after 
 they appear. Their first food consists of pieces of 
 bread soaked in milk, stirabout, and chopped cabbage. 
 They should have access to a plot of grass and to a 
 limited supply of water at first. A tub sunk in the 
 ground and the water frequently renewed, or a pond, 
 answers better than running water for this purpose ; 
 and we have found that ducks and geese fatten rather 
 better on a limited supply of water, renewed sufficiently 
 often, than when they have access to a running stream. 
 
 393. A gosling well fed is fit for table in three 
 months. A goose put up to fatten takes from three 
 to five weeks, according to its condition at the time, 
 and the degree of fatness required. It consumes at 
 first i lb of corn per day, and f of a lb. afterwards. 
 Young geese are benefited by a run on stubble. A 
 large-sized goose gives i lb. of feathers in the year, 
 which, instead of being plucked all at once, are re- 
 moved at two or three separate periods. 
 
 394. The Duck is prized for its savoury flesh, and 
 gives a large egg, which is not so delicate as that of 
 the hen. It requires little care, thrives everywhere, 
 eats up slugs and insect pests in the garden and in 
 the field, without injury to any crop; hence it is 
 remarkably well suited to cottagers. 
 
in.] PRACTICAL FARMING. 119 
 
 395. The two pure breeds most esteemed in these 
 countries are the Aylesbury, which is large in size, 
 and white in colour, and has a flesh-coloured or pale 
 bill; and the Rouen, which differs from the common 
 brown duck, in being much larger. 
 
 396. Ducks well fed in winter will begin to lay in 
 January or February. 
 
 397. When early ducklings are wanted, the first laid 
 eggs are put under a hen. The period of incubation 
 is thirty days, and the birds should be breaking through 
 the shell at the opening of the first mild weather in 
 spring, before which it is difficult to rear poultry of 
 any kind. In spring, the ducklings are confined in a 
 yard with their nurse for about ten days, and in 
 sufnmer for about three days ; while young they are 
 fed on soft sloppy food, with a little meal, and are 
 provided with water in shallow vessels. After this 
 they are allowed to run into water. After three weeks 
 they may be separated from their nurse. When a 
 month old they are found very useful in the garden in 
 destroying the grubs of insects. Ducks are fattened 
 on meal and water; some milk, when available, may 
 be substituted for the water. 
 
 398. The Tai'key is a valuable bird, but while young 
 it is tender and difficult to rear. In addition to the 
 common kind, there are three pure breeds deserving 
 of notice, namely the Norfolk, Cambridge, and Ameri- 
 can. The Norfolk is the smallest, the hen when fat 
 weighing from 5 lbs. to 6 lbs. The plumage has a 
 rusty jet-black hue. The Cambridge is of various 
 shades of colour, such as black and white, grey and 
 copper-colour, the latter being mostly preferred. The 
 hen when fat weighs 15 lbs., and the cock 25 to 
 30 lbs. It is fast superseding the Norfolk, which is 
 now reared chiefly for use in small families. The 
 American is the most recently domesticated. It is 
 smaller than the Cambridge. Its flesh is well flavoured, 
 and the brilliant lustre of its plumage gives it a splendid 
 
120 INTRODUCTION TO [part 
 
 appearance. When generously fed and skilfully cared, 
 the turkey lays at two and sometimes at three periods 
 in the year; first in spring, second in July, and lastly 
 between Michaelmas and Christmas. The eggs are 
 dropped at intervals of about thirty hours. 
 
 399. An average-sized turkey hen will cover thirteen 
 eggs, and the young birds appear after four weeks’ in- 
 cubation. The eggs laid in spring may be hatched as 
 soon as the turkey hen shows a desire to sit, and are 
 found to give stronger birds for breeding than those 
 laid at any other season. They also give full-sized 
 birds for table at Christmas when the demand is 
 greatest. 
 
 400. For twenty-four hours after the birds break 
 through the shells they require no food, and should 
 be left to receive the warmth of their nurse. After 
 that they should be encouraged to eat crumbs of 
 bread off the hand. Afterwards they get hard boiled 
 eggs, broken fine and mixed with chopped nettles, 
 lettuce, or cabbage. Sprigs of onion leaves or leeks 
 are particularly good for them. 
 
 401 . Turkeys are fast-growing birds and dainty 
 feeders. Their food, therefore, requires to be abun- 
 dant, nutritious, and offered to them very frequently. 
 While they are young it cannot be given too often. 
 Some give it every half-hour during the day, but it is 
 not convenient to give it oftener than once an hour, 
 and even this is troublesome ; but any person who is 
 not prepared to bestow time and trouble on young 
 turkeys should never attempt to rear them at all. 
 They require great care and shelter for eight or ten 
 weeks. The most critical time of all is when they 
 begin to throw out the rough scales and plumage that 
 distinguish the sexes. These absorb a large amount 
 of nourishment, and if adequate food be not supplied 
 at this time the system becomes so much reduced 
 that disease is pretty sure to set in and carry off a 
 large number of the birds. 
 
ill.] PRACTICAL FARMING. 12 1 
 
 402. Turkeys are fattened on grain and water, or 
 grain and milk if it can be spared, with an occasional 
 supply of green food. Small birds in fair condition 
 will fatten in three or four weeks, but large birds may 
 take twice this time. Turkeys which do not receive 
 adequate food while young, are seldom capable of 
 being fattened with advantage. 
 
PART V. 
 
 COTTAGE GARDENING. 
 
 403 . A cottage garden, properly managed, affords 
 a supply of wholesome nutritious food; and is in 
 many situations capable of being made a source of 
 profit. A garden should, therefore, be attached to 
 every dwelling in the country. Its size should vary 
 with the wants and taste of the family, and with other 
 circumstances. About twenty perches may be made 
 to afford a suitable supply of vegetables for the family 
 of a cottager or small farmer. In this case the main 
 crop of potatoes would be raised elsewhere. 
 
 404. In this work we shall confine ourselves to a very 
 simple system of gardening. It is a mistake to propose 
 a complicated style of gardening to the classes for whom 
 we write; and the failure of the attempts hitherto 
 made to extend cottage gardening in this country is 
 owing greatly to the circumstance that the systems 
 described would involve too much labour and expense. 
 
 405. Howis the plotof twenty perches tobe divided? 
 If inclosed with a good fence so much the better. If 
 not, the site should, for the present, be marked out or 
 lined with sods or large stones, and a proper fence 
 afterwards provided as opportunity offers. The walk 
 or walks should be three feet wide. At first it is not 
 absolutely necessary to do more than lay out and 
 level the site of the walk. It would of course be 
 better to complete it at once. The essential qualities 
 
part iv.] PRACTICAL FARMING. 123 
 
 of a good garden walk are, that it should be dry, 
 firm to bear a wheelbarrow, and somewhat elastic 
 under foot. To secure those qualities, it should be 
 drained, the surface soil removed and replaced by a 
 coat of coarse stones or shingle, over which is placed 
 a layer of gravel, and over this again is placed a layer 
 of fine sand. If this should be too expensive for cot- 
 tagers and small farmers, they can remove a little of 
 the surface-soil and put in its place a layer of broken 
 stones, which can gradually be covered with fine gravel, 
 sand, or coal ashes. 
 
 406. Walks are edged with a great variety of sub- 
 stances. The box-plant is very commonly used for 
 the purpose, and, when properly dressed, it looks very 
 nice. This plant grows freely, and is easily propa- 
 gated by slips or cuttings, or by separating its roots. 
 In the gardens of the gentry ornamental tiles, orna- 
 mental castings, and other costly materials are some- 
 times used as edgings. In a very neat and well-cropped 
 garden, we have seen the walks lined with white stones, 
 placed a foot asunder. Strawberries appear to us to 
 make the best edging in the cottage garden. It is not 
 absolutely necessary to have any edging, but it gives 
 a degree of completeness to the appearance of the 
 garden. 
 
 407. We have now to consider the crops to grow in 
 cottage gardens. Assuming that the main crop of 
 Potatoes is raised on the farm, in the garden we should 
 merely grow the earlier and more tender sorts, such 
 as a few drills of kidneys, which may be planted in 
 January, and of kemps, planted in February. A few 
 drills of Flanders, which come in after the kidneys and 
 before the kemps, may also be planted. These sorts 
 should be well manured. They can be used in July, 
 and be followed by York cabbage without manure. 
 
 408. The Cabbage is a most nutritious and wholesome 
 vegetable. It is hardy, and, with a little care, every 
 cottager can have a supply for his table throughout 
 
124 INTRODUCTION TO [part 
 
 the year; and any which is not required for this pur- 
 pose can be given to cows and pigs. 
 
 409. In order to have successive supplies of cabbage 
 throughout the year, it is only necessary to make three 
 sowings; namely, first, in the third week of July; 
 second, in the middle of August ; and third, in April. 
 
 410. Plants from the July sowing are put into the 
 ground in September, October, and November, and 
 are fit for use in spring; those from the August sowing 
 are transplanted in March, April, and May, and are fit 
 for use in summer; and plants of the April sowing 
 are put out in June, July, and August, for winter use. 
 
 411. In making the July and August sowings, it is 
 sufficient for cottagers to use Enfield Market, which is 
 the best variety of York cabbage; and in April, the 
 same sort and Savoy should be sown. 
 
 412. The Cauliflower belongs to the cabbage tribe 
 of plants, and is raised for the flower that grows in 
 the heart of the head. It is a most delicious vege- 
 table. At the table of the cottager it is regarded as 
 a luxury. This crop requires rich ground, plenty of 
 manure, and good treatment. It is planted early in 
 spring, and is fit for use in July. 
 
 413. Broccoli is very like cauliflower, but is a hardier 
 crop, and stands the winter. The seed is sown in 
 April ; and by putting out the plants (transplanting) in 
 succession from the middle of May to the middle of 
 July, supplies of the crop are available for table from 
 Christmas till May. 
 
 414. In the neighbourhood of large towns and cities 
 both cauliflower and broccoli pay well. The cottager 
 or small farmer may grow for his own use from a 
 dozen to two dozen plants of each. 
 
 415. The Ticr?iip is also a useful garden vegetable. 
 Of all varieties of turnips the swede is by far the 
 most nutritious, and is, therefore, the best for the 
 cottager, who should confine his attention chiefly to 
 the production of crops which are capable of affording 
 
iv.] PRACTICAL FARMING. 125 
 
 nourishment to himself and his family. White stone 
 turnips contain very little nutriment, and are used 
 chiefly with boiled mutton. A drill or two of the 
 orange jelly turnip, a yellow-fleshed variety, may be 
 raised. This variety bears the winter. We often have 
 an abundant supply of it in March when other vege- 
 tables are scarce. 
 
 416. The Onion is used throughout the winter. 
 It requires rich ground and plenty of manure, which 
 is applied in autumn, when the ground should be 
 deeply dug in preparation for this crop. The seed 
 is generally sown in the middle of March, the ground 
 being made into beds of about four and a half feet 
 wide, with alleys about a foot in width. The surface 
 of the beds is broken very fine ; drills are opened 
 six to eight inches apart, and about one inch in 
 depth, and the seed sown and covered in with a rake. 
 The Tripoli onion is sown in August, transplanted in 
 spring, and used from June till November. 
 
 417. The Parsnip is an excellent vegetable, and can 
 be sold at a high price in most parts of the country. 
 It is a hardy crop, admitting of being sown as soon 
 as the ground can be got ready for it in spring. In 
 no case should it be sown later than Patrick’s Day. 
 If the soil be trenched or dug deeply before winter, 
 and a liberal supply of well-rotted manure applied, 
 every square perch will yield about two cwt, of this 
 crop. 
 
 418. The Carrot is not so valuable for human use, 
 nor so saleable, as the parsnip, and, consequently, is 
 not so suitable a crop for cottage gardens. Like the 
 parsnip, the carrot requires a deep soil, which, for 
 both, should be trenched or deeply dug before winter. 
 The best soil for the carrot is a deep, rich, sandy loam. 
 On loamy clays the crop is uncertain. The Altringham 
 green-top is the best variety, and it is sown from the 
 middle of March to the middle of April, according to 
 climate and soil. 
 
126 INTRODUCTION TO [part 
 
 419. For parsnips and carrots, the ground is, before 
 sowing, marked off into beds, four feet in width, the 
 alleys being one foot wide : the surface is broken fine, 
 and the seeds sown in ruts made with a hoe, and 
 covered in with a rake : for carrots four, and for 
 parsnips three ruts are made in the bed. 
 
 420= The Bean is an excellent crop for the 
 working man, being both nutritious and easily grown. 
 It is rich in flesh-forming material ; but being deficient 
 in heat-giving and fat-forming matters, it should be 
 used with potatoes, which contain an abundance of 
 this constituent, or with bacon, which contains a good 
 deal of fat. Dwarf prolific is one of the best sorts 
 for cottage gardens. 
 
 421. Peas and beans belong to the same natural 
 order of plants. The pea is one of the most favourite 
 crops in the kitchen-gardens of the gentry, who require 
 it for dinner in regular succession throughout summer 
 and autumn ; and who, during this period, scarcely 
 use any cabbage. To provide a continuous supply of 
 green peas, it is necessary to make successive sowings 
 from February to the middle of July. In the neigh- 
 bourhood of large towns, it would pay cottagers to grow 
 peas for market. For home use, a row of a dwarf 
 variety, such as Early Emperor, which grows three 
 feet high, may be sown in February, and a row of a 
 late variety, such as Dickson’s Favourite, or Har- 
 rison’s Glory, which grows four feet high, may be 
 sown in March. If more than one row is required, 
 the lines should be six feet apart, lettuce and spinach 
 being sown in the alleys. 
 
 422. Some Lettuce should be grown in every 
 garden. It is wholesome food for man, and any 
 not required for human use, can be used with great 
 advantage for pigs and poultry, which are very fond 
 of it. The seed is sown in spring ; the plants put into 
 the ground intended for them in May, and the crop 
 is ready for use throughout June, July and August. 
 
v,] PRACTICAL FARMING. 127 
 
 For domestic use, a single line of it along any side of 
 the plots would be quite enough. The best variety 
 for cottagers is Victoria cabbage lettuce, which is 
 sown ' in succession, during March and April, for 
 summer use; and in July, for use in winter and 
 spring. 
 
 423. Spinach is invariably grown in large gardens. 
 Its use is not well understood by the mass of the 
 people ; but as it has’ very useful properties we would 
 like to see a line, or half a line, of it in the smallest 
 garden. There are two kinds commonly raised, 
 namely, the prickly , which is sown in August and 
 September, and used in winter ; and the round, which 
 is sown at intervals, from April to June, for summer 
 use. Spinach-beet is preferable to the ordinary spinach 
 for cottagers, as it is hardier and less liable to run to 
 seed. The white spinach-beet answers both the 
 purposes of sea-kale and spinach : the. foot-stalk of 
 the leaf being used as a substitute for sea-kale in 
 summer, and the leaf itself as a substitute for 
 spinach. 
 
 424. Celery requires so much manure, that it 
 belongs to the luxuries rather than to the necessaries 
 of the table. If the cottager would wish to grow a 
 line of it, he can do so by sowing in March a few 
 pinches of seed in a well-prepared bed. In the end 
 of May or the beginning of June a trench should be 
 dug to the depth of eighteen inches ; in the bottom of 
 this trench a layer of well-rotted dung is placed; 
 over this a layer of clay is placed, and the young 
 plants carefully pricked in six inches apart. As they 
 grow up they require to be earthed, so as to keep the 
 stalks blanched. If this be not done they are un- 
 wholesome. 
 
 425. We would like to see at least half a dozen 
 plants of Rhubarb in every cottage garden. It is 
 easily propagated, either by sowing the seed in spring, 
 or by separating the roots of old plants, the latter 
 
128 INTRODUCTION TO [part 
 
 mode being usually practised. The ground requires 
 to be trenched and well manured. The roots are 
 planted three or four feet asunder. Myatfs Victoria 
 and Myatf s Linnceus are good varieties. 
 
 428. Pot Herbs are permanent crops; and used 
 for flavouring soups, and for giving a savoury relish 
 to certain dishes. On either side of the entrance 
 walks, or in any corner of the garden, may be planted, 
 in April, a line of thyme, of sage, of marjoram, and 
 of savory. A few tufts of chives would also be useful, 
 and are usually raised from seed or by dividing the 
 roots. 
 
 427. Having noticed the more useful vegetables we 
 shall make a few remarks on hardy fruit-trees suited 
 to farmers and cottagers. 
 
 428. Of all the fruit the Apple is for them the 
 most generally useful. We would suggest the planting 
 of an apple tree in the centre of each plot of the 
 garden. If a greater number of trees is required they 
 should be planted in rows parallel with the walks, the 
 trees being at least six feet asunder, and three feet 
 from the walks. Apple trees should be kept dwarf by 
 pruning, so as not to interfere too much with other 
 crops. The flavour of the fruit of dwarf trees is better 
 than that of large unpruned trees. A good tree will 
 yield a couple of dozen apples the first year, five dozen 
 the year after ; in the third year it will give 300 or 400 
 apples, and in the fourth year it will be capable of 
 bearing the full quantity, which may amount to or 
 exceed 800 . At the lowest estimate these would 
 be worth is. a hundred, and they often bring 2 s. 6d. 
 and 3 ^. wholesale. Twopence a piece have been 
 paid for American apples in the retail shops of our 
 cities and large towns of late. 
 
 429. For making pies, Hawthornden is a most 
 excellent variety. It is a large, white, juicy apple, and 
 gives a heavy crop. A variety called Eclean Vale is 
 another good baking apple, but it is also used at the 
 
PRACTICAL FARMING. 
 
 iv.] 
 
 129 
 
 table. For eating purposes, we can recommend the 
 following sorts . — Ribston Pippin is a dark brown 
 colour, which changes to a speckled yellow as it 
 ripens, and it keeps up to Christmas. Cox's Orange 
 Pippin keeps all the year round, and is a great 
 favourite. Irish Peach apple is an early kind, and 
 will have been all consumed in August when the pippin 
 becomes fit for use. Broivn Russet keeps all the year 
 round, and is a very good variety. 
 
 430. The Pear is not well adapted to cottage 
 gardens, being precarious unless it is well sheltered. 
 
 431. Of bush-fruit, the Gooseberry is the best. A 
 single bush occupies about one square yard, and, it 
 manured every second or third year, will yield a gallon 
 of fruit (worth 6 d.), annually for about twenty years, 
 after which it should be renewed. Yellow Amber is a 
 good sort for early use ; Red Warrmgton is one of the 
 best for general use. 
 
 432. Of Currants , we prefer the red sorts. A bush 
 occupies the same space as the gooseberry, and gives 
 about 5 lbs. of fruit per annum, worth 3 d. a pound. 
 If the bushes bear freely the ground should get a 
 little manure every year ; if not, the manure may be 
 applied every second or third year, as in the case of 
 the gooseberry. Red Champagne and Red Dutch are 
 two good varieties. The bushes should be kept open 
 in the centre. 
 
 433. Of Raspberries the yield is at the rate of 
 about 12 lbs. per square perch. With a fair allowance 
 of manure they continue to bear for twenty years. Of 
 red varieties Antwerp and Falstaff may be recom- 
 mended to the cottager ; and Magnum Bonum gives a 
 heavy crop of yellow fruit, which is not, however, fit 
 for preserving. 
 
 434. November is the best time for planting apple 
 trees, as well as currant, gooseberry, and raspberry 
 bushes. 
 
 435. ft will be useful to give a few simple 
 
 K 
 
130 INTRODUCTION TO [part 
 
 directions on planting, pruning, and training the fruit 
 trees we have named. The apple tree thrives well 
 on any moderately good soil, which is neither too 
 dry nor too wet ; but it lives longest and produces 
 the heaviest crops on rich loams. An excess of iron 
 in the soil or subsoil is injurious to it. The trees are 
 very liable to canker in sandy soils ; while on heavy 
 soils, with cold subsoil, they become diseased and 
 covered with moss. 
 
 436. Before planting, the ground should be pro- 
 perly prepared ; and, when necessary, thoroughly 
 drained. Whether the trees be many or few, it always 
 pays to trench the ground. In wet ground it has been 
 recommended to plant the trees on raised ridges ; but 
 as the roots would eventually go down to the moisture 
 it is better to remove it by drainage. If the soil is not 
 very rich, it should be well manured at the time of 
 trenching. The manure should be well rotted, or, 
 what is better, formed into a compost with turfy or 
 fibrous loam. The compost should be worked in as 
 the trenching proceeds, and covered to the depth of a 
 foot or more. Before commencing to plant, the proper 
 distance between the trees will have to be determined. 
 Wall trees and espaliers should be planted twenty feet 
 apart ; for dwarf standards trained in the pyramidal 
 form, ten feet is enough ; full standards will require 
 twenty-five or thirty feet between the rows, and the 
 same distance between the trees. 
 
 437. The best season for planting is the beginning 
 of November, or as soon as the greater portion of the 
 leaves has dropped off. When circumstances do not 
 admit of planting so early, it can be done with safety, 
 in mild weather, at any time before the sap commences 
 to circulate, which in forward trees generally happens 
 in February. The work cannot be safely performed 
 afterwards. 
 
 438. The spots where the trees are to be planted 
 ought to be marked ; the holes made large enough to 
 
IV.] PRACTICAL FARMING. 131 
 
 enable the roots to be stretched to their full length ; 
 and the compost applied at the rate of one or two 
 barrowfuls for each tree according to the soil. The 
 tree is then planted to the same depth as it was before 
 removal. The hole should be deeper at the sides 
 than in the middle, so as to allow the roots to slope 
 gently downwards from the stem to the extremity. 
 The tree should be taken up with all its roots un- 
 injured ; and any roots that are unavoidably broken 
 should be cut off. In planting, the roots should 
 be spread out evenly over the bottom of the opening. 
 When the roots are properly placed, fine soil should 
 be put over them, taking care to scatter it in the 
 direction of the fibres or small roots, as they might be 
 reversed and injured when the soil is thrown care- 
 lessly against them, as is frequently done. When the 
 hole is about half filled give a gentle treading to the 
 soil about the roots ; then finish the filling, and support 
 the tree with a few stakes. The roots should be pro- 
 tected by “ mulching” the ground over with litter as 
 far as the roots extend. 
 
 439. In planting against walls, the hole should 
 gradually incline downwards so as to give the roots 
 the same dip into the soil as before. The tree should 
 be planted nine inches from the wall, to give the stem 
 room to thicken without danger of pressure against 
 the wall. Much of the success of fruit trees depends 
 on the way they are planted. If the simple suggestions 
 above given are strictly followed, satisfactory results 
 will be obtained. 
 
 440. The rules laid down for planting the apple 
 are equally applicable to all kinds of hardy fru 
 trees. 
 
 441. There are many different methods of training 
 The open dwarf, or as it is commonly called, the 
 “ punch bowl” method is well adapted to the pro- 
 duction of a large crop of fruit, and is especially 
 suitable where the space is limited. Apples, cherries* 
 
 k 2 
 
INTRODUCTION TO [part 
 
 and plums do remarkably well when trained in this 
 way. Pears do better when trained in the pyramidal 
 shape. In order to bring a tree to the desired form 
 as an open dwarf, the following points must be at- 
 tended to : — A tree planted out of a nursery in 
 November should be cut down to within nine inches 
 of the ground the following autumn. The tree will 
 afterwards produce vigorous shoots, three of which 
 should be selected and encouraged to make vigorous 
 growth during the summer; this can be done by 
 pinching out the tops of the most forward shoots. 
 These shoots must be cut back the following winter 
 to within nine inches of the stem. During summer of 
 the succeeding year six shoots are allowed to grow 
 freely. These six branches should now be tied to a 
 hoop six feet in circumference, the branches being 
 secured at equal distances. When the branches are 
 tied to the hoop they should be shortened to within a 
 few inches beyond it. The desired form being ob- 
 tained, the after-pruning consists of spurring, or cutting 
 in the annual summer’s growth to one or two eyes or 
 buds, and shortening the leader or young annual shoot 
 on each branch to six eyes. Care should be taken to 
 keep the centre of all fruit trees open to the sun and 
 air. The branches should never cross or even touch 
 each other. 
 
 442 . In training dwarf pyramids, allow the tree to 
 establish itself for a year, then cut it down to within 
 eighteen inches of the ground. Train a shoot from the 
 uppermost bud upright, and all below this one should 
 turn outwards. In the following winter, the leader is 
 again to be cut back to within eighteen inches of where 
 it was cut the previous year. Proceed in this way 
 until the tree attains the desired height, which should 
 never be greater than ten or twelve feet. The side 
 shoots should be trained in regular tiers one above 
 the other, and lessening in circumference as they get 
 higher. 
 
PRACTICAL FARMING. 
 
 IV]. 
 
 133 
 
 443. The Espalier mode of training is well adapted 
 for either large or small gardens. Of all modes 
 of training it occupies the least space, and the 
 ground between the rows can be cropped to within a 
 foot of the trees. When the tree has been a year 
 established it should be cut down to within eighteen 
 inches of the ground. In summer train the lead- 
 ing shoot upright, and one to the right and another 
 to the left horizontally. The following winter cut 
 back the leader to within a foot of where it was 
 previously cut, and train two additional shoots to the 
 right and left as before ; and continue the same sys- 
 tem of pruning year after year until the tree has filled 
 the space allotted to it. The horizontal branches 
 are cut back every year, leaving only six buds. This 
 mode of pruning applies to wall trees as well as 
 espaliers. 
 
 444. The Strawberry is the best small fruit for the 
 cottager. It is easily propagated, grows freely, and 
 gives an abundant crop of delicious fruit. In June 
 and July the plants produce runners, and, at certain 
 points, each runner throws out a number of bunches 
 of roots, which soon become independent of the 
 main stem, and may be cut off and put out as separate 
 plants. A fresh plantation, made in this way, will bear 
 fruit the subsequent year. It requires to be renewed 
 every third year, as the old plants wear out after three 
 seasons . 
 
 445. Strawberries are planted in rows eighteen 
 inches apart, the plants being placed the same distance 
 asunder in the rows. The ground is hoed in autumn, 
 and farm-yard manure pointed in before winter. A 
 square perch of strawberries treated in this way will 
 yield about 16 lbs. of fruit annually for three years. 
 The price is not less than 4 d. per lb., and it is often a 
 great deal more. 
 
 446. There are a great many varieties of this 
 favourite fruit, Trollope's Victoria and Myatt's Eliza 
 
134 INTRODUCTION TO [part 
 
 are the best for general use. Keen's Seedling is, in the 
 opinion of Sir Joseph Paxton, the best for cottagers. 
 Sir Harry is an excellent strawberry, and of late kinds 
 British Queen is one of the best. 
 
 447. The crops in the garden, as in the field, 
 should succeed in regular rotation, and in accordance 
 with certain scientific principles. It is impossible to 
 lay down rules applicable to all cases. The same crop 
 should not be repeated in the same ground, nor should 
 plants of the same family succeed each other. Straw- 
 berries should never follow strawberries, nor should 
 peas succeed beans. 
 
 448. Potatoes may be followed by cabbage ; onions 
 by parsnips and carrots ; or onions, parsnips, and 
 carrots may come, in the same division, after cabbage. 
 Potatoes may follow cabbage with advantage. As 
 soon as the cabbage is removed in autumn and winter, 
 the ground should be dug deeply and left exposed till 
 spring ; and as the cabbage is always heavily manured, 
 only a small quantity of manure will be required for 
 the potatoes. Again, if celery is grown, it requires to 
 be heavily manured, and may be followed by onions, 
 which require rich soil. 
 
 449. Deep-rooted plants, such as parsnips, should 
 be followed by plants which grow chiefly in the surface 
 soil. A summer crop like peas is followed by broccoli 
 or winter cabbage, and so on. 
 
 450. It may be useful to give one or two 
 sketches illustrating simple plans of laying out cot- 
 tage gardens. 
 
 In No. i the entrance is at a ; the small o’s in 
 the centres of the plots represent apple trees. The 
 walks are lined with strawberries; the dotted line 
 at the top of the garden is intended for bush fruit 
 trees, such as gooseberries and currants. 
 
 451. The walks may be lined with strawberries, 
 except one line on the east, or most shaded part of 
 the walk, to be reserved for parsley, which should be 
 
PRACTICAL FARMING. 
 
 XV.] 
 
 135 
 
 sown in March, in a rut, made one inch in depth, and 
 three inches from the walk. 
 
 No. i. 
 
 No. 2 . 
 
 452. In fig. 2 the entrance is at a , as before ; there 
 is only one walk running straight through the garden, 
 
136 INTRODUCTION , [part IV. 
 
 and it is edged with strawberries ; a row of red 
 currant bushes, b c , is planted across the middle of 
 the garden, dividing it into four squares ; in the 
 centre of each square an apple tree is planted ; in the 
 dotted line in the east, or shaded side of the garden, 
 a row of raspberries may be planted, and in the cor- 
 responding line to the west, we may have gooseberries. 
 Pot herbs may be planted at the top or bottom of the 
 garden. 
 
 453 . The crops grown and the rotation should 
 vary with the wants of the family and with the 
 markets. In the accompanying diagram is explained a 
 system of cropping cottage gardens well suited to the 
 people of this country. 
 
 No. i. 
 
 Kemp potatoes, planted in Feb- 
 ruary ; the ground cleared in July, 
 and planted with Savoy cabbage 
 of the April sowing. This cab- 
 bage will be fit for use in Novem- 
 ber ; so that two crops are obtained 
 in the year. 
 
 No. 2. 
 
 Enfield-Market cabbage, planted 
 in February, which will be fit for 
 use in J une, and may be succeeded 
 by Swede and Orange Jelly tur- 
 nips, giving two crops within the 
 twelve months. 
 
 - 1 
 
 No. 3 . 
 
 Carrots. 
 
 Parsnips. 
 
 Onions. 
 
 The parsnips and onions to be 
 sown in March ; the carrots in 
 April. A second crop cannot be 
 obtained within the year after any 
 of these. The ground should be 
 ridged up in winter. 
 
 No. 4 . 
 
 Peas, beans, and white turnips, 
 sown in March ; removed off the 
 ground in July, and succeeded by j 
 lettuce, cauliflower, and celery, j 
 The lettuce seed should be sown 
 in the last week of May, so as to ; 
 be fit for transplanting after peas 1 
 and beans. The celery and cauli- j 
 flower seed should be sown in ! 
 May. 
 
 454 . By shifting the crops from one plot to another 
 for four years, a four-course rotation would be esta- 
 blished, 
 
PART V. 
 
 ON THE MANAGEMENT OF THE SEVERAL 
 CLASSES OF HOLDINGS IN IRELAND . 
 
 I. ON SOME OF THE DEFECTS IN IRISH AGRICULTURE. 
 
 455 . The surface of Ireland contains upwards of 
 twenty millions of acres ; one-half of it is in permanent 
 grass, one-fourth is under tillage, and the remaining 
 fourth is under water and waste. 
 
 456 . The area under grass is far greater than in any 
 country in Europe similarly circumstanced. The rich 
 fattening lands and all the high hills should be left in 
 pasture ; but it has been estimated that there are four 
 millions of acres of medium land now growing poor 
 grass which would pay far better in tillage. At present 
 the gross return from these four millions of acres does 
 not exceed twice the rent of, say, an acre; if put 
 under a proper system, the yield would amount to five 
 times the rent, and the wealth of the country could be 
 increased to the extent of ^3 an acre, or ^12,000,000 
 a year, which would be available for distribution 
 among labourers, farmers, manure and seed merchants, 
 and shopkeepers of all kinds. In due time, too, the 
 landlords would obtain an increase of rent ; for it is 
 a law of agricultural progress, that anything which 
 increases the farmers’ profits, tends to advance the 
 rent of land. 
 
138 INTRODUCTION TO [part 
 
 457. The average yield of the six millions of acres 
 of grass land that would remain, could, by the appli- 
 cation of correct knowledge, be increased very con- 
 siderably. 
 
 458. The present state of our grass lands arises 
 from — i st, want of skill and care in the cultivation of 
 the land ; 2nd, ignorance on the part of the farmer of 
 the proper grasses to grow on given soils ; 3rd, want 
 of care and skill in sowing them ; and 4th, want of 
 care and attention in weeding the grass land, as well 
 as want of skill in top-dressing it. There is not, 
 perhaps, in Irish small farm management a greater 
 defect than the mode of producing grass. Sometimes 
 the farmer does not sow any grass seeds at all, but 
 allows the land to cover itself with whatever herbage 
 it throws up naturally. Again, thousands of small 
 farmers put their land into grass when it is reduced by 
 corn crops and bad management to such a state of 
 poverty that it will no longer give even a middling 
 crop of grain. Now, of all farm crops, the grasses 
 luxuriate most in rich land. And, accordingly, good 
 farmers never put land into pasture, unless it is in 
 good condition. 
 
 459. The state of the cultivated land of Ireland is 
 also very defective, as is well known to all persons of 
 experience. Throughout the country we meet a great 
 many farmers who till their land in a very creditable 
 way; but it is notorious that on the vast majority of 
 small farms the mode of management is very bad — the 
 tillage shallow and imperfect. 
 
 460. As a rule, Irish small farmers do not follow any 
 systematic course of cropping, or observe any of the 
 principles which modern science suggests. When a 
 proper system of cropping is adopted on tillage land, 
 all parts of the farm are manured in a certain number 
 of years. Under such a system it is all equally 
 enriched ; ' and if the land be well tilled and kept 
 clean, all the crops are heavy and profitable. 
 
V.] 
 
 PRACTICAL FARMING. 
 
 139 
 
 461. Manured root crops form the backbone of the 
 rotation of crops. A great many of the small farmers 
 of Ireland do not grow any manured crops but 
 potatoes. They ought to grow turnips or mangold, 
 or some of both, for feeding their cows in winter and 
 spring. The value of these crops is more fully 
 considered in another section; here it is enough to 
 say that their absence is a great defect in Irish 
 agriculture. 
 
 462. In many parts of the country little or no artifi- 
 cial grass is grown ; and the want of this is, perhaps, 
 the greatest defect in the management of our small 
 farms. On thousands of these farms there is no hay for 
 wintering the cows ; the result is that the animals 
 are dry during winter and spring ; and at the opening 
 of the dairy season in May they come out in a half- 
 starved state. 
 
 463. Tillage is done in a slovenly fashion. Root 
 crops are, as stated above, the basis of improved 
 agriculture; a condition essential to the growth of 
 these crops is to dig or plough the land deeply as 
 early in autumn as possible, so that by the action of 
 the weather during winter, plant food would be 
 liberated, and both weeds and the eggs of insects 
 destroyed. The ground should also be well prepared 
 for the oorn crops at a sufficiently early period. By 
 good, early, and deep tillage, the value of every acre 
 of arable land in Ireland could be increased by at least 
 
 ; so that by this means alone the wealth of Ireland 
 would be increased by upwards of five millions sterling, 
 even without adding to the area of cultivated land. 
 
 464. Sufficient care is not taken to keep the land 
 clean. In some parts of the country weeds are 
 permitted to grow freely, and to shed their seed ; this 
 causes a heavy loss. The yield of the crop is greatly 
 reduced, as the weeds take up the plant food, which 
 would go to feed the crop if the land were kept clean. 
 When weeds are allowed to seed they do the greatest 
 
140 
 
 INTRODUCTION TO 
 
 [part 
 
 mischief; for it is known, that in seeding, plants are 
 severest on the ground. Each seed formed is, more- 
 over, capable of producing a full-grown weed afterwards. 
 It is no uncommon thing to find ten tons of weeds in 
 an acre of potato ground. 
 
 465 . The collection and preservation of farm-yard 
 manure do not receive the attention they deserve. 
 The manure made in the bawns of thousands of the 
 small farmers of Ireland is not, in reality, farm-yard 
 manure at all, but compost. A quantity of clay is 
 carted from the headlands or old ditches, and thrown 
 into yards or pits in front of the dwellings ; and on 
 this is poured daily kitchen refuse, giving rise to 
 effluvia which poisons the air that enters the dwelling. 
 Again, in thousands of cases, manure is left to rot in 
 loose heaps, by which a good deal of its substance 
 passes into the air ; and, in an equally large number 
 of instances, the rain water is permitted to drain away 
 its substance into the nearest rivulets. It is not quite 
 easy to estimate the loss annually incurred in this way 
 by Irish farmers, but we may go near the truth. 
 There are grown every year about 1,500,000 acres of 
 potatoes and root crops ; each acre of these gets, one 
 with another, at least ten tons of farm-yard manure, 
 and each ton of this is not within sixpence of the value 
 it would be if properly made. This gives a gross loss 
 of ^37 5,000 a year; but the loss to the farmer is, in 
 reality, far greater, for deficiency in tillage or manure 
 may reduce the crop one-half. The deficiency of 
 crops in Ireland, arising from bad manures, amounts 
 to several millions sterling per annum. 
 
 468 . In the treatment of all our farm crops, we see 
 bad management everywhere. As already stated, the 
 tillage is imperfect. It is often done too late; the 
 crops are not sown in time ; the proper varieties of 
 crops are not used ; all the crops are often allowed to 
 become over-ripe, by which a large quantity of corn is 
 shed, and the land seriously injured. As an illus- 
 
V,] PRACTICAL FARMING. 141 
 
 tration of this mismanagement we may take the hay 
 crop. First, it is exposed too much to rain, which, 
 as already explained, washes away a large quantity of 
 its nutritive matters. 2nd — It is often exposed too 
 much to the sun, which also lessens its value very 
 considerably. 3rd — By too much exposure, or by 
 fermentation, it suffers loss of fragrance and of colour- 
 ing matter. We know by experience that there is 
 an enormous difference in the feeding value of hay, 
 according to its colour and fragrance. 4th — The hay 
 is commonly allowed to remain so long in cocks in 
 the fields, that the surface of these cocks becomes 
 drenched by rain and bleached by the sun ; and the 
 part in the bottom not only becomes unfit for use, 
 but causes a loss of aftergrass. Putting these several 
 sources of loss together, it was estimated some time 
 ago that, on an average, the hay crop of Ireland is 
 deteriorated to the extent of one-fifth of its value. 1 
 We meadow annually about 1,500,000 acres; the 
 average yield is two tons per acre ; the total produce 
 is, therefore, 3,000,000 tons, which, at £2 10s. per 
 ton, amounts to ^7,500,000; and one-fifth of this, or 
 ;£i, 500,000, is lost. 
 
 467 . The Live Stock of Ireland is not made as 
 profitable as it ought to be. The quality of the animals 
 has increased greatly of late ; but there is still great 
 room for further improvement, especially in the stock 
 kept by small farmers. The gross value of the horses, 
 cattle, sheep, and pigs in Ireland is considerably 
 upwards of forty millions. By better modes of rearing 
 and feeding, this could be increased by one-fifth in 
 five years ; and, as the quality of the animals on the 
 small holdings is the lowest, the greater part of this 
 addition to the wealth of the country would go into 
 the pockets of the small farmers. Evidence of the 
 enormous loss suffered in this way by our small 
 
 1 See the Author’s Pri:e Essay on Haymaking. 
 
142 INTRODUCTION TO [part 
 
 farmers is afforded in the fairs held throughout the 
 country. 
 
 468. Dairy business is badly managed in many 
 parts of Ireland. In butter making alone, there is 
 room for improvement to the extent of £1 per cwt., 
 or ;£i, 000,000 a year. 1 
 
 469. We slaughter annually in Ireland about half a 
 million of beasts, and export to Great Britain about a 
 third of a million. A large number of them are sent 
 to market in very good condition by the graziers, 
 large farmers, and landed gentry of Ireland. It is 
 well known, however, to those who attend the Irish 
 fairs and markets, or witness the shipment of cattle 
 from Irish ports, that a great many beasts are sold, 
 either in a half-finished state, or sent to England as 
 stores. The loss on the former is very considerable ; 
 for, as observed in another section, beasts pay better 
 for their keep in the more advanced than in the early 
 stage of fattening. And again, as our climate is on 
 the whole better adapted for roots than that of Eng- 
 land, we see no reason why a large number of the 
 store cattle now exported should not be fattened in 
 Ireland. It would increase the profit of the farmer 
 and the wealth of the country ; the large quantity of 
 valuable manure obtained would put the land in better 
 condition for other crops, and the labouring class 
 would receive more employment. 
 
 470. The want of proper drainage is another serious 
 defect in Irish agriculture. An excess of water in the 
 soil is most injurious ; it renders the ground cold and 
 the harvest late, and produces effluvia which are 
 injurious to man and animals. 
 
 471. It may be stated as a rule, that all peaty and 
 clay soils are improved by thorough drainage. All 
 grass lands that contain rushes, sedges, and other 
 water plants are also in want of this improvement. 
 
 1 See sections on Dairy Management. 
 
PRACTICAL FARMING. 
 
 H3 
 
 v.] 
 
 We may feel certain, too, that grass lands which have 
 here and there patches of a brownish or unhealthy 
 green through them, contain too much water. We 
 have in Ireland at least 6,000,000 acres of tend in 
 need of drainage. This work could be effected at a 
 cost of ^5 an acre, which would give a rentcharge of 
 5 s. an acre ; but the increased value of the land, con- 
 sequent on drainage, viould be at least 10s. an acre, 
 and on hundred of thousands of acres of bog and 
 clay it would, after a few years, be fully ^1 an acre. 
 Taking the average at 10^. the annual letting value of the 
 land of the country would be increased by ^3,000,000 
 a year. 
 
 472. Many persons will ask, Where is all the capital 
 to execute this work to come from ? We answer that 
 the bulk of it is in the labour of the people. The 
 farming classes of Ireland have a great deal of labour 
 in their families which could be most usefully em- 
 ployed in draining their land. 
 
 473. The state of the fences is not satisfactory in 
 any part of Ireland. In the grazing districts of 
 Leinster the dykes and ditches, being often imperfect, 
 cause great waste of rich land. On the Glasnevin 
 Model Farm, which contains about 180 statute acres, 
 thirteen acres of fence have been levelled. Again, in 
 many parts of the country the fences are inadequate 
 for preventing trespass. 
 
 474. It is desirable that a farm should be divided 
 into square or rectangular fields, which cause little 
 waste of the time of horses and men in cultivating 
 them. These fields should be surrounded with white- 
 thorn hedges, which occupy little ground. 
 
 475. Fences are useful in affording shelter; and 
 they are necessary in enabling the farmer to use his 
 grass land to the best advantage. But the levelling of 
 existing fences, and the erection of straight ones in 
 their place, should not be undertaken without due 
 consideration. Indeed, this improvement, though 
 
144 
 
 INTRODUCTION TO 
 
 [part 
 
 usetul and desirable, is not the one which should be 
 first made in the most neglected of our small farmer 
 districts. 
 
 476 . There are several other defects in Irish 
 farming ; but those which we have mentioned in this 
 chapter will serve to show young farmers what a mine 
 of wealth lies unworked in the soil, and how, by the 
 application of industry and skill, their own wealth, 
 and, consequently, the wealth of the country, could 
 be vastly increased. 
 
 II. ON CLIMATE AND OTHER MATTERS AFFECTING 
 IRISH AGRICULTURE. 
 
 477 . That climate influences the agriculture of a 
 country or district is well known to all intelligent 
 persons. A good illustration is afforded by English 
 agriculture. A range of mountains running from north 
 to south divide England into two agricultual sections ; 
 a greater proportion of corn is raised in the eastern, 
 which is the warmer and drier section, while in the 
 western, which is the colder and more moist, there is 
 a larger proportion of permanent pasture. Ireland 
 has a climate which approaches more to that of the 
 western than the eastern section of England. As com- 
 pared with the corn-growing districts of England there 
 are two defects in the Irish climate, namely, a low 
 summer temperature and a high degree of humidity. 
 Both these defects are overcome to a certain extent 
 by drainage. The thorough drainage of the whole of 
 Ireland could not, however, make the climate equal to 
 that of the east and south-east of England for the 
 growth of grain. This proposition admits of no con- 
 troversy. It is true as any 'law of Nature. Some 
 persons, who take a superficial view of this principle, 
 carry it so far as to say that the climate renders 
 
v.] PRACTICAL FARMING. 145 
 
 Ireland wholly unsuited for tillage farming — a propo- 
 sition which cannot be maintained. 
 
 478 . The climatic phenomena which mainly in- 
 fluence the agriculture of a country or district are the 
 rainfall and temperature. 
 
 479 . The fullest record of the rainfall in the United 
 Kingdom is given in Mr. Symon’s annual publication, 
 according to which the average rainfall of England, 
 Scotland and Ireland, for a period of sixteen years, is 
 represented by the following figures : — 
 
 England . . • 33*7 7 inches 1 
 
 Scotland . . . 34*02 „ 
 
 Ireland . . .31*98 „ 
 
 480 . As these figures are too general, we shall com- 
 pare the rainfall in a few well-known stations in England 
 and Ireland. It is impossible to select places similarly 
 circumstanced as regards the local causes that influence 
 the rainfall; but the following table will explain the 
 matter sufficiently : — 
 
 AVERAGE RAINFALL. 
 
 England. 
 
 Ireland. 
 
 
 Inches. 
 
 
 Inches. 
 
 1. Exeter f in a southern 
 
 
 1. Cork , in a southern 
 
 
 countyand westward 
 
 3 I#I 
 
 county and west- 
 
 
 2. Norwich, in an eastern 
 
 
 ward 
 
 34'4 
 
 county 
 
 26 *7 
 
 2. Dublin , in an eastern 
 
 
 3. Oxford , in a midland 
 
 
 county 
 
 29*1 
 
 county .. 
 
 257 
 
 3. Tullamore, in a mid- 
 
 
 4. Nottinghavi, in a 
 
 
 land county 
 
 25'7 
 
 midland county and 
 
 
 4. Armagh , in a midland 
 
 
 northward 
 
 26*5 
 
 county and northward 
 
 29 ’8 
 
 481 . A glance at the map of the British Islands will 
 show that these stations have not been selected so as 
 to make out a case for the Irish climate. The advan- 
 tage is rather the other way. Yet the table does not 
 go to support the opinion of those who maintain that 
 the climate of Ireland is too wet for tillage farming. 
 
 1 Symon’s British Rainfall for 1872, p. 137. 
 
 L 
 
1 46 INTRODUCTION TO [part 
 
 An ardent supporter of this theory has recently con- 
 tributed a paper to one of the leading agricultural 
 journals, in which he seeks to show that owing to the 
 humidity of the climate of Ireland, the area under grass 
 ought to be increased. His style of reasoning is pecu- 
 liar, to say the least of it. He gives elaborate tables of 
 the rainfall at Valencia, County Kerry, for five years; and 
 finding it to be 53 inches, he would lead us to con- 
 clude that our climate is too wet for arable farming ! 
 
 482. It would be quite as logical for him to main- 
 tain that because the average rainfall at Seawaite, in 
 Cumberland, for the same live years was 15 1 inches, 
 tillage ought to be abandoned in England. 
 
 483. In order to afford a full exposition of the 
 influence of the rainfall on agriculture, it would be 
 necessary to give the quantity of it which falls in the 
 several months, as well as the number of days on 
 which it falls. The size of this treatise precludes us 
 from entering upon an exposition of the kind. Our 
 object is to afford sufficient evidence of the fact that 
 the rainfall in Ireland does not offer any insuperable 
 obstacle to the success of a system of mixed husbandry, 
 such as we expound. 
 
 484. The same may be said of the temperature, the 
 average of which throughout the year is rather higher 
 in Ireland than in England. At Dublin, for example, 
 the average is higher than at Norwich, and at Cork it 
 is higher than at Exeter. In the summer months the 
 temperature is higher in England than in Ireland, and 
 this gives the English farmer an advantage in the 
 growth of wheat and barley ; but in the winter months 
 the temperature in Ireland is higher than in England, 
 and this gives the Irish farmer an advantage in the 
 fattening animals, as well as in the feeding of milch 
 cows and store stock. 
 
 485. Tillage, as practised in the best farmed districts 
 of England and Scotland, consists in thegrowth of roots, 
 of grain, and of artificial grasses, in a certain order which 
 
v,] PRACTICAL FARMING, . 14 ? 
 
 we call the succession or rotation of crops. Now, it is 
 notorious that Ireland is better adapted for the growth 
 of turnips than England. The mangold crop does better 
 in the east and south-east of England than in Ireland ; 
 but, on the whole, a considerable portion of Ireland 
 is favourable to this crop, as regards soil and climate. 
 
 486. Again, the soil and climate of Ireland are pro- 
 verbially favourable to the growth of grasses ; and 
 quite as much so to the growth of the grasses of tillage 
 as of the grasses of permanent pasture. The chief 
 grasses of tillage farming are red clovers and rye 
 grasses. In Ireland heavy crops of red clover are 
 raised ; and far weightier crops of Italian rye-grass are 
 obtained in Ireland than in England. Nay, more, the 
 heaviest crops of this valuable grass are produced in 
 the wettest parts of Ireland. 
 
 487. To complete the succession of crops we require 
 grain. It will be remembered that the order of suc- 
 cession in the common four course rotation is : — 
 
 1 st year — Roots. 
 
 2 nd year — Grain with seeds. 
 
 In England barley is usually selected for this place 
 in the rotation. In many parts of Ireland and of the 
 south of Scotland barley can be successfully grown. 
 
 In the remaining parts of the arable land of Ireland 
 oats can be sown. 
 
 3 rd year — Artificial grass, of which, on the whole, a 
 heavier return is capable of being obtained in Ireland 
 than in England. 
 
 4 th year — Grain. 
 
 In the drier parts of England wheat succeeds arti- 
 ficial grass, which, as already observed, is generally 
 red clover. In Scotland and Ireland oats takes this 
 place in the rotation. 
 
 488. On most well-managed farms of good land lea 
 oats pays in Ireland. When the ground is dry or 
 poor, lea oats is, however, a precarious crop. But lea 
 oats or lea corn of any kind is not an essential part of 
 
 l 2 
 
INTRODUCTION TO 
 
 148 
 
 [part 
 
 tillage farming. In other words, we can pursue a 
 judicious system of tillage without it. In several places 
 we have, in our own practice, abandoned lea oats 
 altogether, and substituted what we call convertible 
 husbandry for alternate husbandry, or for the ordinary 
 rotation of crops. 
 
 489. What is convertible husbandry ? It is the 
 alternation of grass and tillage. A field or fields of 
 grass are broken up according as they show signs of 
 poverty, and cropped with roots and potatoes for one or 
 two years, according to circumstances; after which 
 barley or oats is grown, and the land laid down with 
 suitable grasses. The land is meadowed or grazed the 
 year after, and continued in grass until it again shows 
 signs of poverty. 
 
 490. In pursuing this system, all the principles of 
 improved agriculture can be observed, and the land 
 maintained in a productive state. 
 
 491. To persons accustomed to raise roots after lea 
 oats, the preparation of grass land for turnips or man- 
 golds may appear an objection to this system ; but the 
 simple mode of management described in paragraph 
 546 meets this objection. 
 
 492. It follows from the foregoing facts that Nature 
 does not put any insurmountable difficulty in the way 
 of carrying out a suitable system of tillage farming in 
 Ireland. 
 
 493. Among the obstacles to the extension of tillage 
 farming at present, a prominent place must be assigned 
 to the change that has taken place in the labour 
 market. The tide of emigration from Ireland having 
 greatly reduced the supply of Irish labour, and the 
 growth of manufacturing industry in Great Britain 
 having increased the demand for labour at home, the 
 wages of labour have risen very considerably. The em- 
 ployers complain that the men do not give anything like 
 an equivalent return for the increased wages. The labour 
 maket will in due time settle down into a healthy state . 
 
v.] * PRACTICAL FARMING. 149 
 
 and we may hope that employers will, at no distant 
 day, derive at least as large a return from every shilling 
 expended on labour as before. It is even possible 
 that the rise of wages may excite the inventive power 
 of man so far that, by the introduction of improved 
 mechanical appliances, the cost of producing crops 
 would ultimately be very sensibly reduced, 
 
 III. SUGGESTIONS FOR THE BETTER MANAGEMENT OF 
 SMALL FARMS. 
 
 494. Small farms may be divided into several 
 classes. First of all, there is a vast number of cottier 
 holdings, not one of which is capable of giving con- 
 tinuous employment throughout the year to an able- 
 bodied man, and which should not, in strictness, be 
 called farms at all. The occupiers of these little hold- 
 ings are neither farmers nor labourers, but occupy a sort 
 of intermediate place. In times of distress they suffer 
 great privations. As farming improves and society 
 progresses ; as the wages of farm-labourers rise, and 
 their houses become more comfortable, a number of 
 this class will elect to live by hired labour. In some 
 parts of the country they still form, however, a 
 numerous class. Each holding consists of a few 
 acres of arable land, which, in many cases, has been 
 reclaimed from a state of nature. Potatoes are raised 
 for home use ; a patch of oats is also grown, the pro- 
 duce being either ground into meal, or sold to buy 
 other necessaries; and the remainder is in pasture, 
 generally of the worst description, for grazing a cow. 
 The sales consist of some oats, eggs, and poultry, and 
 a pig or two, and occasionally of a little butter, which, 
 owing to the way it is made up, rarely brings more than 
 two-thirds the price of first-class butter. To these 
 poor people the pig is a valuable savings-bank ; and 
 out of his price the rent is almost invariably paid. 
 
INTRODUCTION TO 
 
 150 
 
 [PART 
 
 Whenever any violent contagious disease, such as the 
 hog-cholera, attacks the pigs of a district, cottier- 
 farmers suffer heavy losses, and require time to pay 
 their rents. The possession of a cow is a great boon 
 to persons of this class, her milk being nutritious and 
 wholesome. 
 
 495. Any holding large enough to give continuous 
 employment to an able-bodied man all the year round 
 may be called a farm. Small farms would begin at 
 this standard, and end with a class on each of which 
 one horse must be kept, but which is not large 
 enough to employ a pair of horses all through the 
 year. 
 
 496 . In improving the condition of both cottier- 
 holders and small farmers, a few leading ideas are 
 applicable. In the present management of the vast 
 majority of them, we find the same absence of any 
 correct mode of cropping; the same injudicious 
 system of raising grain after grain ; and the same want 
 of roots and of artificial grass. By the application of 
 more skill, they could live much better than they do. 
 The prevailing system is to sow oats after potatoes, 
 and to repeat the oat crop until the land gives little 
 more than the seed. The ground is then put under 
 potatoes again, and the same round of oat crops 
 repeated ; or the land, when unable to bear corn, is 
 put under permanent grass. In very many cases no 
 grass seeds are sown, the land being left to cover itself 
 naturally. As a rule, no root crop is raised, nor is 
 there any artificial grass for meadow. A cow, when 
 kept, is half starved in winter, having nothing but 
 the run of the pasture, and a little straw in severe 
 weather. 
 
 497. In place of this, we would suggest, as a begin- 
 ning, that the grain crop after the potatoes should be 
 laid down with artificial grass. In the following year, 
 at least two cuttings of grass will be obtained off this 
 part of the farm. The ground under oats this year 
 
v.] PRACTICAL FARMING. 15 1 
 
 should be cropped next year with potatoes and turnips? 
 or mangolds, or some of each, according to circum- 
 stances. The potatoes will probably require all the 
 farm-yard manure available ; the turnips and mangolds 
 may be raised with the aid of artificial manure. The 
 poorest part of the oat ground should be reserved for 
 the crop or crops to which farm-yard manure is to be 
 applied. 
 
 498. The small farmer need not raise at first more 
 than half a rood of roots for every cow he keeps. He 
 will soon learn to appreciate the value of these crops, 
 not only for cows, but for his pigs. 
 
 499. If, from any cause, the small farmer is com- 
 pelled to sow grain after grain on part of the farm, 
 care should be taken to select for this purpose the 
 best of the stubble, and to top-dress it with artificial 
 manure. 
 
 500. It is very likely nothing will be done to im- 
 prove the pasture-land the first year. A great deal of 
 this kind of pasture is on shallow or rocky soil, which 
 would not admit of tillage. In the ensuing autumn or 
 spring it should be top-dressed with a good compost 
 of clay and lime. For this purpose clay can be taken 
 from old ditches or from headlands. If lime cannot 
 be had conveniently, a good grass manure, at the rate 
 of 2 cwt. per acre, may be mixed with the clay. If an 
 abundant supply of clay can be had, some permanent 
 grass seeds may be sown and harrowed in at the 
 approach of mild weather in spring. Land now bear- 
 ing ba d grass, and which is deep enough for tillage, 
 should be broken up piece by piece, as the means of 
 the farmer will admit, put through a course of tillage, 
 and, if desirable, re-laid down with suitable permanent 
 grasses. By pursuing the system thus briefly sketched, 
 the small farmer can raise as much potatoes as before, 
 and fully as much oats ; and, by the use of roots and 
 hay, and hand-feeding, he can have milk from his cow 
 during the winter, and also be able to keep, during 
 
152 INTRODUCTION TO [part 
 
 winter, a heifer and an extra pig or two. It is useless 
 to expect these small farmers to establish a rotation of 
 crops on their holdings at once ; they could not do it 
 for want of capital. But, by pursuing the course 
 pointed out, the main principle of the rotation of 
 crops is put into practice at once, and the small 
 farmer is not asked to do anything beyond his reach. 
 
 501. It is necessary to make a few remarks on the 
 extra capital required to carry out this system. It 
 has been often remarked that small farmers have no 
 capital to adopt any new. or improved system of man- 
 agement. This objection is invariably made by 
 writers and others who have no practical experience. 
 The author has, in numerous instances, seen the sys- 
 tem he describes followed by small farmers of very 
 slender means. There is no small farmer of good 
 character who cannot get reasonable time to pay for 
 the seeds and artificial manures required to begin 
 with. When the root crops become fit for use, it may 
 be necessary to buy a cow to consume them. Where 
 is the money to come from? We answer, and say, 
 that a great many small farmers, even of those who do 
 not farm in a skilful manner, have, by great frugality 
 and thrift, saved a little money, which is often either 
 lying idle, or is in banks at a very low rate of interest. 
 If laid out in the way suggested above, it would pay 
 a high profit ; in some cases as high as a pound for 
 every pound invested. On the other hand, there is a 
 vast number of small farmers who have not saved 
 money. Some of them may, however, be able to 
 borrow the whole or part of the price of the cow. 
 When this could not be done, we have more than 
 once induced the farmer to sell part of the roots the 
 first year, and with the money so obtained to buy a 
 heifer, which will grow and increase in value : and 
 with the money realized by her sale, a milch cow can 
 be purchased afterwards. 
 
 502. It will be seen that at first we do not urge 
 
PRACTICAL FARMING. 
 
 153 
 
 v.] 
 
 on small farmers to pursue any rotation of crops, ex- 
 perience having taught us that many of the essays and 
 treatises hitherto written on the subject have failed, 
 because they required too much. A notable instance 
 of this has come under the author's notice, in a 
 district in which several of the landed gentry were 
 interested in trying a system of small farm manage- 
 ment suggested in a prize essay. The system advo- 
 cated in the essay referred to is so complicated, that 
 it has not been followed by a single farmer, not even 
 by its author. The rotation suggested would extend 
 over twelve years ; the farmers most in need of advice 
 would forget all about the beginning of it before they 
 should come to the end. To be successful, any system 
 proposed for improving the agricultural practices of 
 small farmers must be simple. From the outset, how- 
 ever, every change made should be sound, so far as it 
 goes ; and it should tend, as far as practicable, towards 
 the course which would ultimately be permanently 
 established as the best on any given farm. How are 
 we to determine this course? 
 
 503 . It is not possible to explain what is best to 
 be done in every case that will occur ; all we can do in 
 this treatise is to give a few general directions, and to 
 illustrate them afterwards by examples. As a rule, it 
 may be stated, that a spade-labour farm should be all 
 under tillage, except a paddock in which the stock 
 could get exercise. The cows should be fed in the 
 house throughout the year : in summer, with grass and 
 a little hay or straw ; in winter they should get roots 
 and fodder, the quantity of roots varying with the 
 quantity of milk the animals give. Cows in full milk 
 get about eight stones of roots per day, with fodder ; 
 dry cows should be fed on straw and hay ; and as the 
 yield of milk decreases, so should the supply of roots, 
 until they are withdrawn altogether; because it does 
 not pay to give roots to dry cows, or to give them in 
 large quantity to cows yielding only a small quantity 
 
iS4 
 
 INTRODUCTION TO 
 
 [PART 
 
 of milk. An occasional feed of roots is, however, 
 useful to cows in calf, as it helps to keep their system 
 in a healthy state. 
 
 504 . The house-feeding of milch cows all the year 
 round is one of the best means of improving the con- 
 dition of our small farmers. It has been one of the 
 mainstays of the small farmers of Belgium. A house- 
 fed cow, of average size and of fair quality, will give 
 from 500 to 600 gallons of milk in the year, or, say 
 550 gallons. If the dairy were managed skilfully, the 
 milk would realize, on an average, 7 \d. per gallon, or 
 jQ 17 per cow. A cow of the same description, under 
 the prevailing mode of treatment, does not give over 
 300 gallons of milk. The house-feeding of cows all 
 through the year involves a good deal of labour ; and 
 when, as on large farms, the whole of the labour has 
 to be paid for, house-feeding in summer does not pay. 
 And as we advance from spade-labour farms to the 
 larger class of small farms, it may be stated that, 
 generally speaking, a modified system of grazing and 
 house-feeding, in summer, answers better than feeding 
 altogether in the house. 
 
 505 . The four-course rotation, or a modification to 
 be explained further on, may be pursued by small 
 farmers of this class. From six to eight acres of arable 
 land put under this rotation is as much as an ordinary 
 family can cultivate with the spade. What they cannot 
 till sufficiently may be put into pasture for the cows 
 and young stock. The areas to be kept in tillage and 
 grass, respectively, depend on a variety of circum- 
 stances, such as the nature of the soil, the extent of 
 the holding, and the quantity of labour available in 
 the family. 
 
 506 . According to the classification we have adopted, 
 a cottier farm is intermediate in size between a cottage 
 garden and a small farm, and is not large enough to 
 give continuous employment throughout the year to 
 an able-bodied man. 
 
V.] 
 
 PRACTICAL FARMING. 
 
 155 
 
 507. As every cottager who has a piece of land 
 should if possible, keep one cow, the question at once 
 arises, what is the smallest area on which she can be 
 maintained all the year round? As this question 
 possesses the deepest interest for a large number of 
 the people of this country, we shall answer it pretty 
 fully. In the first place, it may be remarked that a 
 cow can be house-fed all through the year on purchased 
 feeding. A gentleman of our acquaintance feeds a 
 small cow in his stable all the year round. Her daily 
 allowance of food consists of two and a half pounds of 
 cotton-cake, one pound linseed-cake, and four pounds 
 bran, with hay and water. The cake and bran are 
 prepared in the way to be afterwards described, and 
 divided into three feeds. The animal gets exercise 
 for ten minutes every morning in a lane at the back of 
 the house, and is well groomed with currycomb and 
 brush. Last year her milk averaged eight quarts a 
 day, and supplied the wants of a family of fifteen, 
 including servants. The cost of the cake and bran 
 averaged jd. a day. 
 
 508. Let us now take the case of a cottager in a 
 remote district who wants to feed his cow principally 
 on crops raised on his holding. We find that on two 
 acres of ordinary arable land put under the four-course 
 rotation, a cow can be kept. The two-acre farm 
 would be cropped as follows : — 
 
 1 st — Two roods of roots. 
 
 2nd — Two roods of grain laid down with grass-seeds. 
 
 3rd — Two roods of grass, the greater part of which 
 should be cut with the scythe, and given to the cow 
 in the house, and the remainder made into hay for 
 winter use. 
 
 4th — After the grass we may plant the main crop of 
 potatoes, say one rood ; and the remaining rood may 
 be put under oats. 
 
 The half-acre of roots (turnips and mangolds), if 
 properly managed, will yield ten tons, and afford 1 cwt, 
 
156 * INTRODUCTION TO [part 
 
 of roots per day for six months, which, with suitable 
 hand-feeding, is quite sufficient for a cow in full milk. 
 By top-dressing, and with the aid of a stolen crop of 
 vetches, the half-acre of artificial grass will not only 
 feed the cow in the house for the six months of 
 summer, but give a little hay for winter use. 
 
 509 . The rotation may be varied according to cir- 
 cumstances. When the family is large, the whole of 
 the grass field may be put under potatoes, giving this 
 rotation : — 
 
 ist year — Turnip and mangolds. 
 
 2nd year — Grain, with grass seeds. 
 
 3rd year — Grass for soiling, and hay. 
 
 4th year — Potatoes. 
 
 Roots, after potatoes, require less manure than after 
 lea oats. 
 
 In a good climate, potatoes are ripe in the end of 
 September, when they may be dug, and succeeded by 
 Italian rye-grass. On a small farm of deep, sound 
 land we have pursued the following rotation with great 
 success : — 
 
 ist year — Turnips and mangolds. 
 
 2nd year — Potatoes taken out before the end of 
 September ; the ground being then cleared and sown 
 with Italian rye-grass. 
 
 3rd year — Italian rye-grass. 
 
 4th year — Oats. 
 
 Under the circumstances stated, this is a most pro- 
 fitable course of cropping. In one year we fed, from 
 the 4th April until the end of September, four cows on 
 the produce of five (statute) roods of artificial grass 
 raised in this way. To guard against disappointment, 
 it is well to state, for the information of any person 
 who may be disposed to adopt this system, that the 
 grass seed must be sown not later than September, so 
 that the young plants would be strong enough to resist 
 the winter ; and that plenty of seeds must be sown, 
 say not less than four bushels of pure seed per statute 
 
PRACTICAL FARMING. 
 
 1 57 
 
 v.] 
 
 acre ; and if there is any reason for doubting the purity 
 of the seed, an extra bushel or two may be used. 
 
 510. On light land, Italian rye-grass is so stunted, 
 that the produce of half an acre is not enough to feed 
 a cow during summer. In such a case we have found 
 a plantation of lucerne invaluable ; and when the 
 ground is very light and poor, sainfoin answers better 
 than lucerne. On land of this description we have, in 
 other cases, dispensed with artificial grass altogether, 
 and put in its place occasional sowings of both winter 
 and spring vetches for the summer feeding of the cow. 
 
 511. On several cottier holdings the following three- 
 course rotation has been followed at our suggestion 
 with great success : — 
 
 i st year — Mangolds. 
 
 2nd year — Potatoes. 
 
 3rd year — Vetches, viz : 
 
 (a) Winter vetches, sown in September and Octo- 
 
 ber of the previous year, after the potatoes. 
 These vetches will be fit for use in May, 
 and may be succeeded by Swedish turnips. 
 
 ( b ) Spring vetches, sown in succession, as explained 
 
 elsewhere. Vetches sown in January and 
 February may be followed by turnips. 
 Vetches sown as late as May will not be 
 out of the ground in time to obtain another 
 crop within the year, but will afford food for 
 the cow until the mangold leaves become 
 available. 
 
 With the aid of cabbages from the cottage garden, 
 and of the produce of the plantation of lucerne, and of 
 cake and bran, when necessary, the cottier farmer will 
 not find any difficulty in feeding his cow from April 
 till November, when the roots become available. 
 
 512. On cottier farms horse labour is inadmissible, 
 except for taking out the manure and bringing home 
 the crops ; and even this can be done with the aid of 
 a jennet or donkey. 
 
158 INTRODUCTION TO [part 
 
 513. The essential implements consist of spade, 
 steel digging-fork, hoe, and shovel for field work ; 
 bucket and wheelbarrow, and, when they can be 
 afforded, a root-cutter, a hand-cart, and a machine for 
 cutting straw into 4 chaff/ In due time a metal boiler 
 will be also necessary to prepare hand-feeding for the 
 cow ; but for the present this can be done in the 
 kitchen. There should be a strong wooden or stone 
 trough for mixing and preparing food. A few other 
 small articles will also be necessary. 
 
 514. The offices required are a cow-house, pig-sty, 
 a store-room, and places for poultry and ducks. 
 
 515. The dairy utensils would consist of a milking- 
 pail, a couple of milk-pans, a strainer, a skimmer, and 
 a small churn. The pail should be made of wood, 
 with galvanized iron hoops. A cooler made of tinned 
 iron is very suitable for cottier farms. It is cleaned by 
 dipping it in cold water, and rubbing it lightly with a 
 piece of sponge or fine cloth. When hot water is used 
 and the vessel roughly scrubbed, the tin wears off. A 
 good churn for this class of occupiers is the atmos- 
 pheric , described at page 83 , and which is generally 
 made of thick block-tin, and in which the butter is 
 produced by pumping air into the milk. The whole 
 milk is put into the churn at a temperature of 6 o° • 
 the butter is obtained in five or six minutes ; the 
 buttermilk is not sour, and the butter itself is sweet ; 
 but, like all butter rapidly made, it does not keep 
 long. For churning cream in small quantity, the 
 American box-churn is the best. On cottier farms 
 there is generally great want of proper dairy accommo- 
 dation ; even when a separate apartment is built as a 
 dairy, it is so cold in winter that it is difficult to make 
 good butter. The atmospheric churn, by admitting 
 of being placed in a tub of hot water during the pro- 
 cess of churning, obviates this difficulty to a great 
 extent. In summer, again, it almost invariably happens 
 that the apartments used as dairies by cottagers are 
 
PRACTICAL FARMING . 
 
 V.] 
 
 159 
 
 too warm : and in this case the atmospheric churn 
 may be plunged in cold water. When there are no 
 proper means of keeping down the heat of the dairy 
 in summer, we have found that sweet cream and good 
 butter can be produced by raising the new milk to a 
 tempertaure of 170° before setting it in the coolers. 
 
 IV. A FARM OF SIX ACRES. 
 
 516 . We now proceed to detail the cropping and 
 management of a spade labour farm at Glasnevin. 
 The soil is deep, and above an average in point of 
 natural fertility. The farm consists of 5 acres, 2 roods, 
 and 16 perches, within a ring fence, a small paddock 
 containing 1 rood, 20 perches, and a bye-corner contain- 
 ing 21 perches, cropped with lucerne, which is most 
 useful in helping to keep up a supply of green food for 
 the cows. In severe seasons, for instance, grass is later 
 than usual ; and lucerne, which becomes fit to cut 
 early in April, and fully a fortnight before the grass, 
 is invaluable. The second cutting of grass is also 
 often late, and the second crop of lucerne again comes 
 in opportunely between the last of the first, and the 
 beginning of the second cutting of artificial grass. A 
 stolen crop of vetches is also useful at this period. 
 
 517 . In the spring of 1862, this piece of land was 
 in permanent grass, and having been used for several 
 years previously as a paddock for young stock, the 
 building up of their frames reduced it so much in 
 condition that it was the poorest part of the land at 
 Glasnevin. It was divided into four equal parts, put 
 under rotation, the first year’s crops being : — 
 
 1 st. Root crops — turnips and mangolds — for which 
 the ground was dug to the full depth of a spading, at 
 a cost of 3d. per square perch (statute). 
 
 2nd. One-fourth was put under potatoes, which 
 were grown in lazy beds ; these were followed early 
 
160 INTRODUCTION TO [part 
 
 in October by Italian rye-grass, which was fit for use 
 next April. 
 
 3rd. One fourth was put under lea oats. 
 
 4th. The remaining fourth was left in grass. In 
 February it received a top-dressing (at the rate of 2 cwt. 
 per statute acre) of Peruvian guano ; and some Italian 
 rye-grass seed was harrowed in at the opening of mild 
 weather in spring. In consequence of this treatment, 
 the grass was fit to cut for house-feeding in midsummer, 
 when a cheap cow was purchased, and with the pro- 
 ceeds of her milk a second was bought. Before the 
 end of the year the capital had increased threefold. 
 As soon as the roots became fit for use, towards the 
 end of autumn, the cattle were increased to three, 
 which number is now maintained all the year round. 
 The result of the first year’s operations was, that after 
 charging a rent of ^3 19^. 3d. per statute acre, and 
 ^24 1 os. 10 d. for hired labour, there was a balance 
 of ^33 13s. 5 d. in favour of management. 
 
 518 . This farm has been worked on the four-course 
 rotations since 1862, and it is at present the cleanest, 
 the richest, and one of the best tilled pieces of land in 
 Ireland. Its condition is now better by jQ 8 an acre 
 than it was then, and this increase is the result of deep 
 and efficient tillage and of liberal manuring. Its im- 
 proved condition may be described as floating capital 
 put into it by the tenant ; and it is the interest of the 
 landlords, and of the community at large, that the 
 amount of this capital in the soil should be as high as 
 possible. It is a most powerful instrument of produc- 
 tion, and it is the best guarantee the landlord can have 
 for the punctual payment of his rent. In Belgium, 
 and on the well-managed farms of the United Kingdom, 
 the amount of this floating capital sunk in the soil is 
 enormous. There are in Ireland close on ten millions 
 of acres capable of cultivation ; and if all were tilled 
 and manured as well as the piece of land we are 
 describing, the tenants’ floating capital in it, of which 
 
PRACTICAL FARMING. 
 
 161 
 
 v.] 
 
 vve are now speaking, would be increased to an average 
 of £$ an acre, or ^50,000,000 before ten years. 
 
 519 . It is unnecessary to describe every step taken 
 during the past twelve years to bring this little farm into 
 its present state. It is enough to give a concise account 
 of its working. With the view of exhibiting as simple 
 a system as is consistent with the object in view, the 
 crops raised are few. The roots are confined to man- 
 golds and turnips ; oats is the only grain crop raised ; 
 the artificial grasses consist of Italian rye-grass and a 
 little red clover, together with a patch of lucerne. 
 The small farmer must have potatoes, and in many 
 parts of the country flax is a valuable adjunct; accord- 
 ingly, we have shown where these crops can be intro- 
 duced into the rotation. As regards flax, the author 
 wishes it to be distinctly understood that its cultivation 
 is not an essential part of a system of management for 
 improving the condition of small farmers. It is, in its 
 own proper place, a most valuable and profitable crop ; 
 but there are many instances in which the small farmer 
 would do better without it. 
 
 520 . We have now to make some observations on 
 each of the crops raised. The common four-course 
 rotation is, as already explained, the basis of the 
 systems of modern husbandry most extensively prac- 
 tised ; it is sound in principle, easily understood, and 
 admits of very general application. We have, there- 
 fore, modified this rotation into the following scheme, 
 which gives the cropping of one field for four years in 
 succession : — 
 
 1 st year — Root crops, mangolds and turnips. 
 
 2nd year — Oats, with seeds. The ground being now 
 rich, a strong growing variety of oats is used, so that it 
 may not lodge and rot. It has been already stated 
 that on rich land no artificial grass is equal, in a moist 
 climate, to Italian rye-grass, both as regards certainty 
 and produce ; but on light, dry ground, or in a warm 
 climate, red clover, which has deep roots, and is more 
 
 M 
 
i 62 
 
 INTRODUCTION TO 
 
 — [PART 
 
 independent of surface moisture, gives a better return. 
 To prevent clover-sickness, one-half the field may be 
 put under rye-grass, and the other half under a mixture 
 of rye-grass and clover ; and four years afterwards the 
 places of these crops should be changed. 
 
 3rd year — Artificial grass for house-feeding cows 
 during the summer, and for hay. 
 
 In the 4th year the crop, in the ordinary course, 
 would be oats, commonly called lea oats ; but the field 
 may be subdivided into three parts, and cropped 
 thus : — 
 
 (a) One part lea oats, which illustrates the original 
 rotation. 
 
 (b) One part may be put under flax, the ground 
 being dug deeply and early. 
 
 (c) The remaining part may be devoted to potatoes. 
 
 When, four years afterwards, the same crops come 
 
 round on this field again, the flax should be put where 
 the potatoes are now ; lea oats should be sown where 
 flax is now, and the potatoes where we have now lea 
 oats. Four years later, the crops are again shifted in 
 the same way, so that flax would occur only once in 
 twelve years, by which fibre of good quality is obtained. 
 Flax should not be grown where a good market for it 
 does not exist. 
 
 521 . With the exception of mangolds, all these crops 
 can be successfully raised in every part of the country ; 
 and where, as in mountain districts, the climate is 
 too wet or cold for the mangold crop, turnips can be 
 substituted for it. 
 
 522 . One-half of the farm is devoted to crops for 
 cattle-feeding — namely, one-fourth to roots for winter, 
 and one-fourth to grass for summer, use. The cows 
 are house-fed throughout the year. A small paddock, 
 containing 1 rood and 20 perches, has been recently 
 added to the farm, so that henceforward they can be 
 let out morning and evening for exercise. If the farm 
 were larger, we should increase the paddock, so as to 
 
v.] PRACTICAL FARMING. 163 
 
 give the animals more exercise. Our experience at 
 home, coupled with observations in Belgium, go to 
 prove that much exercise is not essential for the secre- 
 tion of milk, or even for the health of full-grown 
 animals ; but a paddock is necessary when the small 
 farmer rears stock. 
 
 523 . Many persons are astonished when they are 
 told that three cows are maintained all the year round 
 on this little farm, or rather upon the produce of one- 
 half of it. The following facts will make the matter 
 very simple. 
 
 The roots are fit for use in October, and continue 
 sound and good up to April, and longer if required — 
 say, in all, six months, or i 82-§ days. The quantity 
 of roots given to the cows varies from six to eight 
 stones each daily, according to the condition of the 
 beasts. Taking the average at 7 stones a day, we 
 require for each beast 8 tons for the half-year, or, for 
 the three beasts, 24 tons. Any practical man knows 
 that an acre of good land, tilled and manured as it 
 ought to be, must produce upwards of 20 tons per 
 statute acre ; even at this average, the yield of the 
 field of roots would exceed the wants of the animals. 
 In addition to roots, each cow gets from 3! to 7 lbs. 
 of hay, and from 2 to 4 lbs. of what is called concen- 
 trated food in the day ; the kind and quantity of this 
 food depending on the condition of the animal. For 
 the production of milk, a mixture of bran and cotton- 
 cake is the best artificial food. The cake is broken 
 very fine, and then mixed with the bran ; the mixture 
 is steeped over-night in cold water, and in the morning 
 a little warm water added to reduce it to a lukewarm 
 mash. For strippers intended to be fattened off, lin- 
 seed oil-cake, broken fine, is the very best food. Good 
 rape cake may also be used with advantage ; when 
 broken, boiling water should be poured on it to dissi- 
 pate a peculiar pungent substance it contains, and 
 which makes it distasteful to animals. Oats, when 
 
 M 2 
 
1 64 INTRODUCTION TO [part 
 
 cheap, should be crushed and made into mashes, the 
 same as bran ; judiciously used in this way, it is worth 
 anywhere io d. a stone. 
 
 524, Italian rye-grass is fit for use in April, or early 
 in May. It invariably produces two crops or cuttings ; 
 in average good seasons it yields three, and when the 
 season is particularly favourable we obtain as many as 
 four crops. For obvious reasons it should not all 
 come in at once. Accordingly, a third of it is top- 
 dressed with Peruvian guano early in February, at the 
 rate of i| cwt. per statute acre, and the remaining 
 two-thirds at intervals of a fortnight . 1 The result 
 of the top-dressing is, that we soon perceive three 
 distinct divisions in the field ; and these divisions can 
 be used in regular succession. After each cutting, a 
 top-dressing of the same manure is used : the last work 
 done every day being to top-dress the part mown that 
 day, the manure being broken very fine, and applied 
 at the rate of i lb. or ij lb. per square perch. The 
 night’s dew helps to wash it into the soil before the 
 heat of next day’s sun could do it any harm. By this 
 mode of treatment, the artificial grass yields a some- 
 what heavier produce per acre than the roots ; and, as 
 the daily allowance of grass is about the same as of 
 roots, we find that, with the aid of the plot of lucerne 
 and some purchased or concentrated food, the field of 
 grass not only supports three cows for the summer 
 half-year (April to October), but yields hay enough 
 for the whole year. 
 
 525. When either roots or artificial grass are scarce, 
 the cattle can be made to keep up their milk and con- 
 dition on hay and artificial food, or on what may be 
 called hand-feeding. In the middle of July, for 
 instance, in a dry year, when the grass is very back- 
 
 1 We have, of late, used sulphate of ammonia, owing to the 
 difficulty of getting good Peruvian guano. In hot weather we 
 find nitrate of soda rather better than either, as a top-dressing 
 for grass. 
 
v.] PRACTICAL FARMING. 165 
 
 ward, we have provided the following feeding for a 
 number of cows on another farm : — 
 
 6 o’clock a.m. — 3 J lbs. of bran in mash, with hay 
 afterwards. 
 
 12 noon — 2 lbs. of bran, 2 lbs. oil-cake made into 
 mucilage, mixed with 5 lbs. chaffed hay, and the 
 whole given in a moist state. 
 
 6 o’clock, p.m. — Same as morning feed. 
 
 9 o’clock, p.m. — A small quantity of hay. 
 
 Water ad libitum . 
 
 On this feeding cows milk freely, and put on flesh 
 and fat. When a chaff-cutter is used, and particularly 
 in time of scarcity, it is useful to mix cut cabbages, 
 rape, or green food of any kind with cut hay or straw. 
 
 526. We are continually asked if the straw produced 
 on the farm is enough for bedding the cattle all the 
 year round and the answer is in the affirmative. 
 Owing to the treatment the land receives, the yield of 
 straw is very heavy. Sometimes it is so rank as to be 
 liable to lodge, which injures the grain ; to prevent 
 this we clip off, with a sickle, the tops of the plants 
 before the ears begin to appear. In the driest season, 
 the produce of straw on this farm is upwards of two 
 tons per statute acre, and the total quantity produced 
 is enough to litter the animals comfortably for twelve 
 months. In summer, we have limited the amount of 
 bedding to a quarter of a stone of chaffed straw per 
 day for every beast. When necessary, we do the same 
 in winter. The scouring of ditches and sawdust may 
 be used if the straw should run short. 
 
 527. The manure produced from the three cows is 
 enough for the field of roots and the plot of potatoes. 
 A house-fed cow produces, as already stated, at least 
 one ton of manure per month ; by our management 
 more is obtained. If the manure should at any time 
 run short, the deficiency can be readily supplied by 
 using artificial manure for turnips. 
 
 528. It is well to consider the capital required to 
 
1 66 INTRODUCTION TO [part 
 
 start this little farm. We must not overlook the 
 buildings, without which the experiment could not 
 have succeeded. Then, as regards labour, it is to be 
 borne in mind that, excepting horse labour, the greater 
 part, if not the whole of it, would be supplied by the 
 small farmer and his family. Seeds and manures are 
 very generally supplied on credit for three or six 
 months by the most respectable houses ; and the 
 small farmer, when he requires it, will be able to 
 procure reasonable credit for the purchase of these 
 necessaries. Excluding buildings, the capital with 
 which the farm was commenced consisted of : — 
 
 i st — An outlay for hand implements of . j£i ios. 
 
 2nd — The price of a cow . . . ^13 oj*. 
 
 3rd — The small farmer would, in addition, require as 
 much money in hand as would support himself and his 
 family, until the produce should become available. 
 This item will vary with circumstances, such as the 
 time of entry on the farm. In discussions on small 
 farms, the word capital has often been used in a way 
 which has caused misconception. Capital is necessary 
 to every employer of labour ; and no man should start 
 in the management of a farm, however small, without 
 a suitable amount of it. The defective state of our 
 small farms is not, however, owing to want of capital, 
 as is evidenced by the fact that many of them have 
 been in the habit of investing money in banks at a very 
 low rate of interest, or allowing it to lie idle in their 
 houses. Labour is the great agent which produces 
 capital; and there is in all small farm districts an 
 enormous amount of agricultural labour which is not 
 producing anything like the wealth of which it is 
 capable. 
 
 529 , We have now to consider the income derivable 
 from our small farm. The labour represents the work 
 of a man and a boy. They fi?id continuous employment 
 on it throughout the year . While, in summer and 
 winter, small farmers are idle, the hands on this farm 
 
PRACTICAL FARMING. 
 
 v.] 
 
 167 
 
 are as busy as in spring or harvest. As our markets 
 are exceptionally favourable, we shall give the results 
 in a remote district. An ordinary cow, fed and treated 
 as we have suggested, produces upwards of 600 gallons 
 of milk in the year. Let us take it at 500. In any 
 part of the kingdom milk is worth at least 6 ±d. a gallon 
 for butter-making, and for the feeding of pigs and 
 calves. The value of the calves when dropped may be 
 put down as a set-off against casualties. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 Three cows would produce 1500 gallons at 6J per 
 
 gallon 40 12 6 
 
 The oats, after roots, produce on an average more 
 than 160 stones, which are worth, say 10 d. a 
 
 stone, or for the field 9 6 8 
 
 Assuming that one-third of the stubble ground is 
 cropped with flax, we have ir. 34JP. at 5 cwt. 
 per acre = 1 8| stones at 7 j. 6 d. . . . 6 18 9 
 
 Value of flax seed, say for feeding . . . .200 
 
 Lea oats — IR. 34gP. at 140 stones per acre = 65 
 
 stones at 10 d. . . . . . . 2 14 2 
 
 Potatoes — ir. 34|p. at 6 tons per acre = 2 tons 
 
 16 cwt., at 4 ^d. per stone . . . .880 
 
 Profit on pigs (a very low estimate) . . .500 
 
 Profit on poultry . . . . . . .200 
 
 Total value of produce . . .^77 o 1 
 
 From this we must deduct rent, at £2 an acre . .11 o 
 
 Seeds — 
 
 Green crops 
 
 
 , # 
 
 . 0 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 Potatoes 
 
 
 . , 
 
 . 1 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 Oats . 
 
 
 , f 
 
 . I 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Flax . 
 
 
 # t 
 
 . 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Artificial grass 
 
 
 i 
 
 . 1 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 526 
 
 Wear and tear of implements . . . . .200 
 
 Cost of artificial manure, 6 cwt. Peruvian guano, at 
 13 s. 6 d., or its equivalent of sulphate of am- 
 monia or nitrate of soda' . . . , .410 
 
 Cost of artificial cattle food , , , , .600 
 
 Hired horse labour, &c 3 10 o 
 
 Total of out-goings 
 
 32 2 o 
 
1 68 INTRODUCTION TO [part 
 
 Deducting this from the value of the produce, there 
 remains a balance of £ 44 17T. 4 d., or a fraction above 
 17 s. 6 d. per week, which is available for the mainten- 
 ance of the farmer and his family. These figures may 
 appear to prove too much to persons who have had no 
 practical experience themselves of the capabilities of 
 small farmers. We beg to assure those persons that 
 the case has been advisedly understated. There are 
 several small farms under the author’s inspection on 
 which the results considerably exceed those given 
 above. The whole secret may be summed up in one 
 short sentence : The tillage is deep, clean, and efficient ; 
 and the cattle are fed with care and skill. 
 
 530 . It is not to be inferred that farms of the size de- 
 scribed are recommended in preference to larger ones 
 A discussion on the minimum number of acres which a 
 farm should contain is foreign to this work. Vast num- 
 bers of people are planted on small farms throughout the 
 country, and the great question is, how best to im- 
 prove their condition. Without offering any opinion 
 of a controversial character, we would take leave to 
 say that, when a holding is large enough to give 
 continuous employment to an able-bodied man, and 
 occasional employment to members of his family, its 
 skilful cultivation is sure to enable them to pay their 
 way and to live comfortably. 
 
 V. 'ONE-HORSE FARMS. 
 
 531 . A holding which cannot be properly tilled 
 without the use of horse-power, but which is not large 
 enough to employ a pair of horses, may be called a 
 one-horse farm. All operations that require a pair of 
 horses, such as , ploughing, are performed by hiring a 
 second horse, or by co-operation ; that is, two neigh- 
 bouring farmers agree to make up a team, which is 
 employed first upon one and next upon the other farm. 
 
v.] PRACTICAL FARMING. 169 
 
 A difference must occasionally arise as to who shall 
 get the first turn, but, by mutual forbearance, the work 
 progresses in a satisfactory manner. The ploughing 
 of land in autumn, in preparing it for roots and 
 potatoes, is better done by three than by two horses 
 where the ground is sufficiently deep to permit of deep 
 ploughing ; but there is no reason why farmers, each 
 owning one horse, could not combine to make up a 
 team of three, or of four or more horses. The author 
 has had experience of several one-horse farms ; and he 
 can say that by a system such as has been explained, 
 excellent crops have been obtained. It is not to be 
 inferred from this remark that the author favours this 
 class of farms. The truth is, if called upon to sub- 
 divide an unoccupied estate, he would avoid them, 
 partly because the second horse cannot always be 
 procured when work is urgent, and partly because they 
 require a relatively large amount of capital. Thus, 
 for example, those essential implements of tillage — 
 the plough, harrow, roller, and grubber — will cost as 
 much on a one-horse as on a two-horse farm. In 
 Ireland this class of farms is very numerous ; and in 
 England many of our villa farms may be said to belong 
 to the same category. 
 
 532. A one-horse farm may contain from ten to 
 thirty acres, or more, according to the quality of the 
 ground. Part of the farm will be in permanent 
 pasture. Farms of this size rarely afford a sufficient 
 run for sheep. The best plan is to depasture the 
 permanent grass with milch cows or young cattle. 
 Pasture land, which is low-lying and cool, answers best 
 for milch cows, and should be used for the production 
 of butter. There should be a good-sized paddock for 
 calves, and, if possible, a smaller one for pigs. The 
 remaining portion of the farm should be cropped in 
 accordance with some established principle. The 
 simplest rotation in use is the four-course already 
 described. On medium land, such as the greater part 
 
INTRODUCTION TO 
 
 170 
 
 [PART 
 
 of the soil resting on the mountain limestone the five- 
 course rotation answers very well. The crops follow 
 each other in the following order : — 
 
 1 st year — Turnips, mangolds, and potatoes. 
 
 2nd year — Grain, with grass seeds. 
 
 3rd year — Grass, which may be partly made into 
 hay for winter use, and partly used for feeding milch 
 cows in the house, during the hottest part of the day, 
 in summer. 
 
 4th year — Grass for pasture. 
 
 5 th year — Lea oats. 
 
 The second year's grass is never as productive as 
 the first. It is rarely heavy enough for meadow. 
 Hence it is depastured, and this presupposes the 
 existence of fences to confine the animals. 
 
 533 . On upland or mountain ground, the following 
 six-course rotation answers still better : — 
 
 1 st year — Root crops generally, turnips and pota- 
 toes. 
 
 2nd year — Grain, with grass seeds. The oat crop 
 is generally selected, being the most certain in upland 
 districts. 
 
 3rd year — Grass for meadow; part may be given 
 green to the milch cows in the house in hot weather. 
 
 4th year — Grass the second year, which is depastured. 
 
 5 th year — Grass the third year, also depastured. 
 
 6th year — Lea oats. 
 
 In many cases it will be better to break up a field 
 of lea just as it wants it, irrespective of the number of 
 years it is in grass, as we shall more fully explain 
 further on. 
 
 534 . A calf may be reared for every milch cow kept. 
 Should the farmer be so unfortunate as to have cows 
 of a bad description, he should not rear his own 
 calves, as it is a mistake to waste good food and labour 
 on animals of an inferior description, while good ones 
 can be had everywhere at a moderate price. After a 
 few years, it is quite possible for every farmer to come 
 
v.] TACTICAL FARMING. 171 
 
 into possession of a good class of cows, after which 
 he may rear all the calves. By this rotation, a large 
 quantity of straw, and a fair share of hay, can be 
 produced for winter feeding. There will be on the 
 farm a number of dairy cows, of three-year-old heifers, 
 of two-year olds, and of yearlings. A breeding sow 
 may be kept, and when young pigs are in good 
 demand, it would pay to keep a second. Each sow 
 should be so managed as to give two litters in the 
 year. One litter should be fit for weaning when the 
 buttermilk begins to be plenty in May; and the second 
 litter should be forward enough to consume the small 
 potatoes. 
 
 535 . It may be useful to give some details of the 
 working of a well-managed one-horse farm. It is 
 situated near a town, and contains 23 acres, 2 roods, 
 2 perches of arable land, of fair quality. Buildings 
 and roads occupy 3 roods, 37 perches; the garden 
 contains 1 rood, '5 perches ; an area of 7 acres, 3 roods, 
 26 perches is in permanent pasture! for dairy cows; 
 and 14 acres, 1 rood, 10 perches are under rotation. 
 One horse is kept ; and all work, such as ploughing, 
 which requires more than one horse, is done with the 
 aid of a hired horse, or one is employed on the co- 
 operative principle explained. The implements are 
 as few as possible ; and a system of tillage and stock 
 feeding is pursued, suited to the great bulk of the 
 working tenant farmers. The live stock consists of 
 one horse, seven milch cows, and a breeding sow, and 
 sometimes two. There is good demand for new milk, 
 at 2 d. a quart ; and it is more convenient to sell it 
 at this price than to rear calves. A couple of the 
 calves from the best milkers are, however reared. 
 
172 INTRODUCTION TO [part 
 
 536. The crops raised, and the returns obtained 
 from them, are as follows : — 
 
 1 Turnips and mangolds, 3A. 3R. 10P.; the produce 
 is consumed by the stock. 
 
 2 Artificial Grass, 3A. 3R. iop. Of the produce, 
 part is used in a green state, and part made into hay. 
 
 3. Oats, 6a. or. 30P.; the yield is fully 75 barrels, £ s. d . 
 at 14^. per barrel . . . . 52 10 o 
 
 Deduct for horse feeding . . £"10 o o 
 
 ,, seed . . . . 3 10 o 
 
 13 10 o 
 
 39 0 0 
 
 4. Potatoes, 2R. . . . . . . . 15 o o 
 
 5. Garden produce, ir. 9P. . . . . . 10 o o 
 
 6. Pigs . . . . . . . . . 20 o o 
 
 7. Poultry . . . . . . . .500 
 
 8. Dairy produce, 7 cows at £18 . . . . 126 o o 
 
 £215 o o 
 
 The value of the calves is more than an equivalent 
 for deterioration in the value of the cows arising from 
 age or other casualties. 
 
 537. By keeping a young horse, and by the exercise 
 of skill in his purchase, the farmer often sells him at a 
 good profit after the season’s work ; but as all farmers 
 could not do so, it has been left out of the receipts. 
 
 538. The expenses consist of — 
 
 £ x. d. 
 
 Seeds of root crops . 1 10 o 
 
 ,, grasses . . . . . . ,290 
 
 Artificial manure . . . . . . . 5 10 o 
 
 Feeding stuffs . . . . . . . . 12 o o 
 
 Repairs of implements and horse -shoeing . .500 
 
 Sundries . . . . . . . .500 
 
 Rent 52 18 o 
 
 Balance in favour of labour, skill, and capital], . 130 13 o 
 
 £215 o o 
 
 539. An industrious farmer, with the aid of two or 
 
v.] PRACTICAL FARMING. 173 
 
 three sons, according to age, could perform all the 
 manual labour of this farm. Under the present 
 
 management the payment for labour is — 
 
 £ 
 
 s. d. 
 
 A permanent labourer, ioj. a week, or, per 
 
 26 
 
 
 year ... 
 
 0 0 
 
 A permanent woman, $s. a week, or, per year 
 Extra hands, 150 days at u. 6 d. 
 
 13 
 
 0 0 
 
 1 1 
 
 5 0 
 
 
 £50 
 
 5 0 
 
 leaving a balance of £80 8s. in favour of capital and 
 management; this income in the case of a working 
 farmer, would be increased by the amount of the 
 labour performed by himself and his family. 
 
 540. A two-horse is larger than a one-horse farm. 
 The main features of the management of both are the 
 same. As a rule, the occupiers of this class of farms, 
 which vary in size from 40 to 60 acres of arable land, 
 put their own hands to the plough, live frugally, pay 
 high rents, and are well able to meet their engage- 
 ments. 
 
 VI. A FARM OF 140 ACRES OF GOOD DEEP LAND. 
 
 541. The size of this volume precludes us from 
 giving many illustrations of large farm management. 
 A few typical examples will, however, be useful. Our 
 first is a farm, which contains 140 acres of deep sound 
 land, and which has been under our direction for 
 several years. The soil is a moderately rich friable 
 loam, resting on a deep clayey subsoil. The greater 
 part of the land has been drained, the drains being 
 24 feet apart, and from 3 \ to 4 feet deep. 
 
 542. The farm is an irregular strip of land, about 
 three-quarters of a mile in length. Both ends are in 
 permanent pasture, and, together with a few paddocks 
 adjoining the buildings, comprise an area of 56 statute 
 acres. The remainder is under a systematic course of 
 
INTRODUCTION TO 
 
 174 
 
 [part 
 
 cropping, which may be described as a modified four- 
 course expanded into an eight years’ system. The 
 order of succession is as follows : — 
 
 1 st year — Mangolds raised with farmyard manure. 
 
 2nd year — Wheat or oats, laid down with rye- 
 grasses. 
 
 3rd year — Hay. The after-grass is fed off with 
 
 sheep. 
 
 4th year — Potatoes raised with farmyard manure, 
 Part of the field may be cropped with 
 oats, beans, &c., according to circum- 
 stances. 
 
 5th year — Turnips. When this crop follows po- 
 tatoes, it is raised with artificial 
 manure. 
 
 6th year — Barley laid down with a mixture of rye- 
 grasses and clovers. 
 
 7th year — Grass for hay. The aftergrass is fed off 
 with sheep. 
 
 8th year — Lea oats. 
 
 543. The field intended for mangolds is scarified 
 with Clay’s cultivator as soon as the lea oats is re- 
 moved ; and all scutch and other root- weeds picked 
 off. It is then deeply ploughed with a strong plough 
 fitted with a high mould-board. Three strong horses 
 work abreast, and turn over a furrow to the depth of 
 ten or twelve inches. A little of the subsoil (about 
 an inch, sometimes less, seldom more) is brought to 
 the surface by this operation. The succeeding frosts 
 and thaws of winter liberate a quantity of plant food 
 before spring. 
 
 544. Wheat succeeds mangolds when the season 
 admits of its being sown in time. As soon as the 
 mangolds are removed the soil is ploughed, six inches 
 deep, across the direction of the drills. A few strokes 
 of the harrow prepare it for the ribbing-plough, which 
 is generally used for putting in the wheat. The wheat 
 is sown broadcast over the ribbed surface, at the rate 
 
v.] PRACTICAL FARMING. 175 
 
 of ten stones to the acre. A stroke of the harrow 
 along, and another across the ribs, cover the seed. 
 
 545. The grass-seeds sown in this division consist 
 of one bushel perennial, and two bushels of Italian 
 rye-grass per statute acre. The rye-grasses are sur- 
 face-rooted plants, and thrive best when there is 
 plenty of manure in the surface, which is the case 
 after the liberal application of dung used for the 
 mangolds. 
 
 546. The preparation of the lea land for potatoes is 
 as follows : — 
 
 Two ploughs are made to follow each other ; the 
 first, drawn by one horse, takes off two or three inches 
 of the surface and throws it into the furrow ; the other 
 plough, drawn by two and sometimes three horses, 
 turns the sod on top of this ; both together stir the 
 soil to a depth varying from ten to twelve inches. 
 The land treated in this way is, in the following 
 spring, easily prepared for drilling with the grubber 
 and harrow. The drills, for both potatoes and man- 
 golds, are made twenty-eight inches apart ; those for 
 turnips being twenty-six inches wide. As soon as the 
 potatoes are stored, the land is deeply ploughed for 
 turnips, which, as before mentioned, are raised with 
 artificial manure, the supply of home-made manure 
 being all used for the potatoes and mangolds. Two 
 cwts. of nitrate of soda, four of mineral superphosphate, 
 and two or three of kainit, per English acre, are found 
 to be an excellent artificial mixture. 
 
 547. It will be seen that turnips do not recur on 
 the land, in this rotation, oftener than once in eight 
 years. When raised on the same land every fourth 
 year, the crop is liable to ‘ anbury ’ and ‘ finger and 
 toe ; ’ but by extending the period to eight . years, 
 turnips do not suffer from either of these affections. 
 It will also be seen that the clover plant is introduced 
 into the rotation only once in eight years. Previous to 
 this arrangement it was impossible to get a uniformly 
 
176 INTRODUCTION TO [part 
 
 healthy crop of clover to grow. A good plant is now 
 always secured. The deep cultivation has, no doubt, 
 helped to bring about this result ; but it is mainly due 
 to the extension of the period of the recurrence of die 
 plant on the land. 
 
 548. The wire- worm, as is well known, destroys a 
 very considerable part of oats raised on lea. The 
 farm we are now describing was no exception to this 
 rule, until it occurred to the writer to prepare the 
 land in the way above described for potatoes. The 
 grass is skimmed off and completely buried in the 
 last made furrow by the furrow-slice taken by the 
 plough which follows. Instead of using two ploughs 
 for doing this work, we have occasionally done 
 it with one plough fitted with a strong and specially- 
 made skim coulter, and drawn by three horses. 
 The grass must be buried to the depth of at least 
 six inches. 
 
 549. All grain crops, except wheat, are put in with 
 the corn-drill in rows seven or eight inches apart ; oats 
 at the rate of eight stones per statute acre after manured 
 crops, and ten stones after lea ; and barley at the rate 
 of eight stones per acre. 
 
 550. The extent of land under rotation is about 8o 
 acres ; a fourth of this is under roots, three-eighths 
 under grain, a fourth in artificial grass, and an eighth 
 under potatoes. A few acres of winter vetches are 
 grown for the use of horses and milch cows. 
 
 551. The live stock consist of three farm horses, 
 thirty milch cows, ten yearlings, ten two-year-olds, a 
 number of well-bred pigs, fifty breeding ewes, and a 
 flying flock of fifty or sixty sheep to eat down the 
 after-grass. 
 
 552. The farm horses get, in addition to hay, two 
 feeds of oats of six pounds each, and a mash of 
 steamed food, or a feed of carrots at night, for about 
 eight months of the year. During the four summer 
 months, they get one feed of oats daily, with grass or 
 
PRACTICAL FARMING. 
 
 177 
 
 v.] 
 
 vetches. The winter’s mash is made up of steamed 
 mangolds or turnips, of chaff, and concentrated food. 
 
 553. The greater number of the dairy cows have 
 several crosses of pure shorthorn blood in them. 
 There are a few pedigree animals in the herd which 
 have been purchased at favourable opportunities at a 
 trifle above the price of common stock. 
 
 554. Ten of the heifer calves from the best cows 
 are reared every year ; and the rest of the calves are 
 sold to farmers at remunerative prices. The cows are 
 pastured during the summer and autumn. In the 
 warm weather of June and July, they are put into a 
 shed for three or four hours, in the hottest part of the 
 day, and supplied with vetches or rye-grass. Towards 
 the end of autumn, when the nights get long and cold, 
 and the ground wet, they are housed at night, and fed 
 on hay and white turnips. From the first of November, 
 when the grass gets bare, they are fed in the house 
 both day and night ; and receive daily two feeds of pre- 
 pared food and one feed of raw roots. The prepared 
 food consists of a mixture of pulped roots, and chaffed 
 or cut straw, and a little concentrated food, such as 
 cake or corn. This feeding is continued throughout 
 the winter season. As regards the roots, the turnips 
 are used first, and the mangolds afterwards. The 
 cows in full milk get in this way, about seven stones 
 of roots daily in addition to the other substances 
 named. Cows forward in calf, or dry cows, get only 
 one feed of roots daily together with hay. Springers 
 are let out to exercise every mild day. Some of the 
 old or indifferent milkers are fattened off towards 
 spring, when beef is dear ; and their place is filled up 
 by some of the young stock. 
 
 555. Calves are reared from the pail. They get new 
 milk for two weeks : after that age, it is gradually with- 
 drawn, and a mixture of skim-milk and linseed meal 
 mucilage supplied in its place. The skim-milk and 
 meal are given until the animals are four months old, 
 
 N 
 
INTRODUCTION TO 
 
 178 
 
 [part 
 
 and sometimes longer. They are mixed in the pro- 
 portion of six quarts of skim-milk to a pound of linseed 
 meal, and given in two feeds daily. When the nights 
 get cold, the calves are taken into the house, and 
 supplied with pulped roots, oil-cake, and hay. This 
 feeding is continued throughout the winter. One 
 pound of cake, two stones of roots, and as much hay 
 as they eat, constitute their daily keep in winter. In 
 the following summer they are put out on grass ; and 
 in the succeeding winter they have access to an open 
 shed, into which they go at night, and where they are 
 supplied with plenty of good straw in the early part of 
 the season, and with hay later on. No roots are given, 
 but the pasture is well stocked with old grass which, 
 together with the straw, keeps them in good condition. 
 
 VII. FARMING ON A LARGE SCALE. 
 
 556. The examples of farm management described 
 in the foregoing pages being under our own immediate 
 direction, we now propose to draw a few illustrations 
 from other sources. We have carefully inspected a 
 great many farms in each of the four provinces of 
 Ireland ; and, overlooking the fattening lands, which 
 are used for grazing purposes, and upland farms 
 devoted to raising stock, we have invariably observed 
 that a mixed system of tillage and grazing, such 
 as we recommend, pays best. The system requires, 
 however, more capital, acre per acre, than mere 
 grazing. It also involves more varied knowledge, 
 a great deal more skill, and more constant and active 
 supervision on the part of the occupier than pastoral 
 farming. But it is beyond all controversy that a man 
 with a fixed capital who possesses the necessary skill, 
 energy, and industry, will realize a higher percentage 
 by investing that capital in arable or mixed farming 
 than in grazing. It is, however, great folly for any 
 
v.] PRACTICAL FARMING. 179 
 
 person to embark extensively in tillage farming who 
 does not possess the qualifications we have named. 
 
 One of the best managed large farms we know is in 
 County Mayo, and contains 2200 statute acres. 
 
 557 . The history of the farm possesses great 
 public interest. The average rainfall is 37 inches ; in 
 1872 it was as high as 52^ inches. The occupier 
 has aimed at making the largest profit on his capital. 
 
 558 . Of the entire area, 1800 acres are arable, and 
 400 acres consist of ‘ bottom ' land or cut-away bog. 
 Of the 1800 acres of arable land, 300 are kept in 
 permanent pasture for sheep, and 1500 under a system 
 of convertible husbandry. Turnips are often raised 
 after grass, the surface being skimmed and buried by a 
 deep furrow, as already explained. 
 
 559. In this case turnips are followed by wheat 
 with which grass-seeds are sown. Sometimes again 
 the succession of crops, after lea, is — 
 
 1 st — Oats. 
 
 2nd— Turnips. 
 
 3rd — Barley, or oats, with seeds ; followed by grass 
 for two or three years. 
 
 560 . The variety of wheat sown is Grace's Cham- 
 pion. The mixture of grass is — 2 lbs. Alsike clover, 
 
 2 lbs. yellow clover, 4 lbs. white clover, 4 lbs. Ameri- 
 can red clover, 4 lbs. Timothy, 6 lbs. cocksfoot ; with 
 5 lbs. Italian and 8 lbs. of Pacey’s perennial rye- 
 grass. 
 
 561 . There are generally 220 acres of turnips, and 
 about twice as many acres of grain. 
 
 562 . Twenty-six working horses are kept. Across 
 of the Suffolk Punch with the Clydesdale is highly 
 esteemed for draught. 
 
 563 . Sheep form the main source of income. A 
 flock of 1000 ewes is kept; and about 1000 head of 
 sheep of all ages are annually sold. Two hundred 
 tons of turnips are stored for the use of the ewes from 
 the 1 st January to the lambing season. In severe 
 
 N * 
 
180 INTRODUCTION TO [part 
 
 seasons they get a little hand-feeding in addition. 
 Last year, for instance, each ewe got a mixture of 
 ^ lb. bran and i lb. oats daily from the 15th January 
 to the 10th March. 
 
 564 . In autumn, 350 of the best of the ewe lambs 
 are selected to take the place, next year, of old ewes ; 
 the rest are sold. The lambs are weaned in the second 
 week of July; after which they are put on the second 
 or third year’s grass. It is found that calves or 
 lambs are liable to suffer from worms in the bron- 
 chial tubes if fed on the first year’s grass. About one 
 third of the old ewes are ‘ culled ’ out of the flock every 
 year. Some of these are sold to Leinster farmers and 
 graziers, who obtain from them a crop of ‘ market ’ 
 lambs for the butcher, and sell them fat soon after 
 the lambs. 
 
 565 . The wether lambs, and a number of sheep are 
 fattened during winter on turnips. As a preparation 
 for the turnips they are fed on cabbage, of which about 
 eight acres of the Drumhead variety are raised. The 
 crop is consumed on the land, the sheep being folded 
 by nets, and getting hay in movable racks. When 
 the cabbage is consumed the sheep are fed on turnips ; 
 the animals which are forward in condition get each, 
 in addition, 1 lb. of a mixture of linseed cake and 
 crushed oats and barley, together with hay. 
 
 566 . Of black cattle, 120 are fattened every year. 
 These consist of twenty animals reared on the farm. 
 Being of good quality, and liberally fed from the com- 
 mencement, they become fit for the butcher at the age 
 of two years and a half: some of them under this 
 age. We advocate an extension of this system as one 
 of the means of meeting the increasing demand for 
 flesh meat. 
 
 567 . One hundred bullocks are purchased in Oc- 
 tober each year, at two and a half years’ old. They 
 are put on the coarse bottom lands till February, when 
 they are housed, and fed on oat-straw, together with 
 
v.] PRACTICAL FARMING. 1S1 
 
 an allowance of 3 lbs. per beast daily of a mixture of 
 crushed oats and barley. In fine weather they get a 
 run on the bottom lands, and in May they are put out 
 altogether on these lands, and kept there till October, 
 when they are again housed and stall-fed. The usual 
 daily allowance for each animal is eleven stone of 
 turnips, together with artificial food. The turnips are 
 given twice a day, namely, at 5.30 a.m. and 2 p.m. 
 At 11 a.m. the artificial food is given. At first, it 
 consists of 1 lb. of cake, and 2 lbs. of a mixture of 
 crushed oats and barley and light wheat. After 
 Christmas the quantity of cake is increased to 3 lbs. 
 A little hay is given to them for the first six weeks ; 
 and they are supplied with good oat or wheat straw 
 throughout. 
 
 568 . These animals are sent to market from January 
 till March. They pay at the rate of ^1 a month for 
 their keep from the date of purchase. 
 
 569 . The arable portion of this farm, under pre- 
 sent management, produces four and a half times 
 the rent ; if kept in permanent pasture it would not 
 produce more than twice the rent. This simple fact 
 is very suggestive, and clearly indicates one of the 
 ways in which the agricultural wealth of the country 
 could be increased. 
 
 570 . We shall now describe the system of manage- 
 ment pursued in the reclamation and management of a 
 large tract of land in the County Galway. The whole 
 extent in hand is 1700 statute acres, divided into three 
 holdings : namely, Coolarne and Cahertimore, situated 
 five miles north-west of Athenry, containing 1450 
 statute acres, of which 1250 are always in pasture, 
 and the remaining 200 acres are under a course of 
 tillage. Oranmore, containing 100 acres of good land, 
 all in grass, is situated four miles to the east of 
 Galway town ; and Belgard, situated near Kilcock, 
 Co. Kildare, within twenty minutes’ drive by rail of 
 Dublin, contains 150 statute acres of very rich fatten- 
 
1 82 INTRODUCTION TO [part 
 
 in g land. Both Oranmore and Belgard are mainly 
 used for fattening the sheep bred and reared at 
 Coolarne. 
 
 571 , The lands of Coolarne and Cahertimore had 
 been formerly let to small tenants under the Court of 
 Chancery, and were badly farmed. The famine years 
 left the lands tenantless. It then changed hands. 
 The greater part of it was covered with heather. The 
 new proprietor commenced to reclaim the coarse and 
 inferior ground. The heather was cut away with the 
 scythe or hook, and carted into the yards for bedding 
 cattle, or for being put under manure heaps. A piece 
 was fenced in at once, all rough stones removed from 
 the surface, and then let in small plots of an acre or 
 half-acre to the labourers of the surrounding districts, 
 the rent being the cost price of the Peruvian guano 
 with which it was manured, at the rate of 6 cwt. per 
 statute acre. The owners of these plots turned over 
 with the ‘ loy 1 (or long spade) the tough sods which 
 would have resisted any of the ordinary implements of 
 cultivation. On this sod they planted the potatoes, 
 and covered them with clay from the furrows. The 
 proprietor supplied those that had not good seed of 
 their own with all they required, at market price, 
 giving them till November for payment. The furrows 
 were deeply trenched in moulding the potatoes. After 
 the crop was dug, the land got a good ploughing, but 
 not so deep as to bring up the sub-soil ; and it was left 
 in this state during winter. In spring it was harrowed 
 and cross-ploughed, and sown with rape and turnips, 
 which were raised with the aid of a good dressing of 
 artificial manure. In the following winter it was 
 ploughed much deeper than the previous year, and a 
 crop of oats was put in, and laid down with clover and 
 rye-grasses. With the addition of a little top-dressing 
 of bone superphosphate, which was manufactured on 
 the farm, the oat crop generally gave a very good yield. 
 In the following season, with a little additional top- 
 
v.] PRACTICAL FARMING. 183 
 
 dressing, a good crop of meadow was obtained. The 
 following year it was fed with sheep ; and early in 
 winter it was sub-soiled, and quick-lime spread on the 
 surface during the winter, at the rate of 60 barrels per 
 acre. This was harrowed down in spring ; the land 
 was then cross-ploughed, and a crop of mangolds and 
 turnips taken off the entire field. The following year 
 it was sown with oats, and laid down to permanent 
 pasture. An area varying from 40 to 70 acres was 
 reclaimed in this way every year. 
 
 572 . Notwithstanding that several fields have not 
 been stirred since the land was laid down to grass after 
 reclamation, they show no signs of returning to the 
 heather. Part of the land thus improved is capable of 
 carrying four sheep to the statute acre. 
 
 573 . The system pursued at present on the tillage 
 land is well adapted to the circumstances. The per- 
 manent grass is never abundant until the middle of 
 May or 1st of June. A large area of roots and other 
 green food is absolutely necessary to carry the store 
 and breeding stock through the spring until the grass 
 comes round. 
 
 574 . The course of cropping may be understood 
 from the following statement. As soon as a field of 
 grass shows symptoms of deterioration, it is broken up, 
 irrespective of the time it has been laid down, and put 
 through a course of cropping which, in the main, cor- 
 responds with the system pursued in reclaiming the 
 land at first. It may be stated as follows ; 
 
 1st year — Potatoes. 
 
 2nd year — Rape and turnips, raised with artificial 
 manure. 
 
 3rd year — Oats and grass seeds. 
 
 4th year — Part hay, and part pasture. 
 
 5 th year — Pasture. 
 
 6th year — Mangolds and turnips, raised with farm- 
 yard dung and artificial manure. 
 
 7th year — Oats laid down with permanent grass 
 
1 84 INTRODUCTION TO [part 
 
 seeds. The grass is not again broken up until it 
 becomes inferior. 
 
 575 . The potato ground and the field, broken up 
 after two years' grass, are devoted to green crops, 
 which consist of 25 acres of turnips, 10 acres of 
 mangolds, 20 of rape, 4 of carrots, and 4 of cabbages. 
 The turnips and rape, which are put down after 
 potatoes, are manured with a mixture of equal parts 
 of Peruvian guano, mineral superphosphate, and 
 kainit. The mangolds and turnips, which are sown 
 after two years' grass, are manured with farmyard 
 dung and artificial manure. The mangolds get 25 
 tons per English acre, turnips 15 tons of manure, and 
 5 cwt. of the artificial mixture just described, which is 
 spread on the top of the dung with a broadcast dis- 
 tributor. A very strong plough is used for ploughing 
 the grass, and is fitted with a strong subsoil tine, 
 which breaks up the subsoil to the depth of five or 
 six inches. The implement (plough and subsoiler) is 
 worked by three strong horses pulling abreast, and 
 stirs the whole soil to the depth of fourteen or fifteen 
 inches. A man follows and removes loose stones, 
 and marks those that are too firm or too weighty for 
 him. These are subsequently removed. Rape is 
 used for feeding the lambs in October, when the grass 
 begins to run short. Any check to their growth at 
 that season, or, indeed, at any other, would be a great 
 loss; for the stronger they are before winter the 
 better. Twenty acres of this crop are usually sown, 
 and sometimes more. The crop is put down at 
 different parts of the farm, and sometimes different 
 parts of the same field, in order to keep the lambs 
 while on it separated into small lots. White turnip 
 seed is sown in every sixth drill ; and this trains the 
 lambs to eat the rape. Four acres of carrots are 
 sown for the use of the horses in winter, and four 
 acres of spring vetches for summer feeding. The 
 vetches are followed by winter cabbages, which are 
 
v.] PRACTICAL FARMING. ' 185 
 
 found to be very useful for the ewes at the lambing 
 season. Borecale, put down a fortnight later than 
 usual, is the best variety. Two acres of large York 
 and Drumhead cabbages are planted in spring for the 
 use of the sheep in autumn. Six acres of furze 
 meadow afford a large quantity of feeding for the 
 horses in winter. Oats is the principal grain crop 
 grown on the farm. It follows the two divisions 
 of roots. As soon as the roots are removed, the 
 land is ploughed to a depth of seven or eight inches. 
 Before sowing, the ground is grubbed and harrowed 
 as often as is necessary, to reduce it to a proper 
 seed bed. A corn-drill is used, the width be- 
 tween the rows being seven inches; but as one 
 drill could not get over all the land in time, the 
 ribbing plough is also used. Eight stones of seed 
 are used with the drill, and ten or twelve on the 
 ribbed surface. The drilled crop is generally better 
 than the ribbed portion. Black Tartary is the variety 
 sown. About 40 acres of the ‘ seeds ' are cut for 
 hay, and the remainder and all the after grass fed off 
 with sheep, lambs, and calves. On about 20 acres of 
 the best pasture sheep are folded and provided with 
 turnips, meal, and cake until about the 1st of April, 
 when it is closed up for hay. In the end of July this 
 land gives a heavy cutting of short, sweet hay, which 
 is very valuable for feeding the flock. The fields vary 
 in size from 14 to 20 acres ; and all are well fenced 
 with double stone walls, and at the angles facing the 
 prevailing winds, where there are no plantations to 
 give shelter, the walls are raised to the height of nine 
 or ten feet. 
 
 576. Immediately after purchasing this property 
 (which was very bleak, and greatly exposed to westerly 
 winds), the proprietor commenced the formation of 
 belts of planting not unlike the Scotch stells. The 
 work was done during the winter months, when 
 labour was available. There are now 80 acres of 
 
1 86 INTRODUCTION TO [part 
 
 healthy plantations scattered over the farm • the trees 
 are doing well, and affording great shelter during the 
 winter months. In 1873 a sum of ^100 was received 
 for the mere thinning of these plantations. 
 
 577 . The live stock, as may be well supposed , form 
 the principal feature of the management. The regular 
 stock of sheep consists of 500 cross-bred ewes 
 of superior quality. The flock is examined carefully 
 in August, and 130 or 140 of the oldest or worst 
 culled out. The ewes get very little turnips during 
 winter, grass and hay being sufficient to keep them 
 in good condition. After lambing, they are supplied 
 with winter cabbages, pulped turnips, and one 
 pound of meal for each animal ; and hay is 
 provided until the grass is sufficient to keep them. 
 A number of fields are always kept closed, and the 
 sheep are changed on these about once a fortnight ; 
 the ewes while suckling their lambs, and the lambs 
 after being weaned, are always put on the best grass. 
 After being shorn, the animals are branded and 
 dressed with sheep-wash. The lambs are weaned 
 about the 1st of July, and put on good grass 
 for about three weeks. Fresh water is given during 
 very warm weather in troughs, and the pasture is 
 frequently changed. In October they are netted on 
 rape. Soft turnips are supplied to them as soon as 
 the rape is all consumed ; the few roots which were 
 sown with the rape having trained them for living on 
 turnips, as soon as they get them. When they begin 
 to shed their teeth in spring they are supplied with 
 plenty of pulped roots, hay, and a mixture of barley, 
 linseed meal, and locust-bean meal : the latter is 
 relished very much. 
 
 578 . The roots, chaffed hay, and meal are mixed 
 together and put into a sheep-rack, which has a 
 trough underneath. As the trough is emptied, more 
 of the food falls in from the rack above. This is 
 boarded over, and down the sides, to prevent the 
 
v.] PRACTICAL FARM/JVG. 187 
 
 rain from wetting the food, or the wind from carrying 
 away the chaffed hay or meal. There is only a very 
 small quantity of food at any time in the trough, 
 which is constantly supplied as fast as eaten. Fresh 
 food is put into the racks every morning, and any that 
 has not been eaten is taken away and given to the 
 store stock. About half a pound of meal is given to 
 each lamb, and is made up of a mixture of palm-nut, 
 locust-bean, and barley-meal, and sometimes Indian 
 meal and oil-cake, are added so as to vary the food. 
 
 579. About two hundred of the most forward of 
 the weather hoggets are sent to Oran more farm, in the 
 middle of April, and are there put into improved con- 
 dition. They are then sent to Belgard to be finished, 
 and are sold in Dublin in August and September. 
 The others follow in regular succession, and are sold 
 off before winter, except a few scores which are fattened 
 at Coolarne on turnips, and sold during the spring. 
 They weigh on an average 25 to 28 lbs. per quarter. 
 It will be seen that the fattening of these animals 
 commences immediately after weaning, and that it is 
 continued, without interruption, until they are sent to 
 market. 
 
 580. The best of the ewe hoggets are retained in 
 the flock to take the place of the culled ewes, the 
 remainder being sold in the neighbouring fairs, at 
 remunerative prices. 
 
 581. The stock of cattle consists of 60 weanling 
 calves, which are purchased in September at Hospital, 
 Co. Limerick ; and of fifty store animals — some two 
 and a half, others three and a half years old — purchased 
 in fairs nearer home in July and August. The most 
 forward are fattened off in the stalls, and the remain- 
 der are sent in good condition to Belgard, and 
 finished. The calves are fed on the after-grass until 
 October, when they are brought into the straw-yard, 
 divided into small lots, and supplied with soft turnips 
 and hay. They get a run on the grass every day. 
 
i 88 INTRODUCTION, &c. [part v. 
 
 In winter they have pulped turnips, hay, and palm- 
 nut meal. They are fed on the coarsest of the grass 
 on the Coolarne farm during the following summer ; 
 in the succeeding winter they are sent to the upper 
 farm, where there are sheds and coarse grass, and 
 supplied with good oat straw. In spring they get a 
 little hay. Some of these are fattened on the grass 
 at Belgard, and the remainder in the stalls, and all 
 sold off before they are three years old. 
 
 582. The yearly consumption of artificial food at 
 Coolarne is io tons of palm-nut meal, 4 tons of lin- 
 seed cake, 1 ton of locust-bean meal, 2 tons of 
 Indian meal, 5 tons of malt combs, 10 cwt. of linseed 
 meal, and 8 tons of oats, purchased in the neigh- 
 bourhood. 
 
 583. Under the present system of management, 
 Coolarne farm yields four times the rent of the land 
 in its improved condition, or upwards of twenty times 
 the rent in its original state. If left in grass, like many 
 a tract of the same class of land, the gross produce 
 would not exceed the present letting value. This fact 
 cannot fail to afford matter for reflection to those who 
 are desirous of promoting the agricultural prosperity 
 of Ireland. 
 
 THE END. 
 
 LONDON : R. CLAY, S*N9, AND TAYLOR, PRINTERS.