UNIVERSITY Of ILLINOIS UB«W AT URBANA CHAW^'GH AGRICUiT\WE Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2018 with funding from University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign Alternates https://archive.org/details/protectingperish6686ashb SEp i k\ Unite< Uj; Depai Y[y Agric Office Trans Q u^>o c op, .X Mummy of IUlN0 Culture cmT $ Agricultural Handbook Tropical Products Transport Handbook Abstract August 1987 McGregor, Brian M. 1987. Tropical Products Transport Handbook. U.S. Depart¬ ment of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook No. 668. p. 148. This handbook takes a broad approach to maintenance of quality of fruits, vegeta¬ bles, plants, and flowers during transportation. In that regard, proper planning, grading, packaging, and precooling practices are emphasized as these are particu¬ larly important for crops shipped long distances from areas with tropical and sub¬ tropical climates. The handbook also discusses the choice of mode of transportation, checking the transport equipment before loading, loading practices, and recommended transit and storage procedures. A summary of facts and recom¬ mendations is given for 120 fruits and vegetables, most of these being tropical in origin. Specific information also is given for potted plants, and cut flowers and florist greens. Keywords: air cargo, air circulation, availability, chilling injury, commodity storage, compatibility, ethylene sensitivity, freezing injury, grading, inspections, labeling, loading, mixed loads, modified atmosphere, moisture loss, odor sensitivity, packag¬ ing, precooling, quality, receiving, refrigeration, relative humidity, respiration rates, sanitation, standardization, storage, temperature, temperature recorders, treat¬ ments, transportation, transport equipment, unit loads, ventilation. Mention of companies or commercial products does not imply recommendation or endorsement by the U.S. Department of Agriculture over others not mentioned. United States Department of Agriculture Office of Transportation 't Tropical Products v v Transport Handbook Agriculture Handbook No. 668 By Brian M. McGregor Agricultural Marketing Specialist Export Services Branch U.S. Department of Agriculture Office of Transportation Washington, DC 20250-4500 *WIVf*S , T> 9* 'tl v,Ricuirij(?t. I’-i-'t C5 -1 3 r<, tn & FH t—« CO O H Oh w * j *4 -« ~xi cl i w Q <4 W W 4 3 P«* X v Acknowledgments This handbook was funded by the (J.S. Agency for International Development through the Private Sector Relations Division of the Office of International Cooper¬ ation and Development, U.S. Department of Agriculture. The detailed research conducted over the years by individuals in the U.S. Depart¬ ment of Agriculture, State departments of agriculture, universities, colleges, and in¬ dustry was instrumental in the development of this handbook. Readers are urged to obtain many of the listed references for further details on grading, packaging, precooling, transporting, and storing fruits, vegetables, plants, and cut flowers which are produced in tropical and subtropical areas of the world. The author is grateful to individuals in the USDA and private industry who provid¬ ed comments on the draft manuscript, including B. Hunt Ashby (USDA-OT); R. Tom Hinsch (USDA-ARS); Lawrence A. Risse (USDA-ARS); Karl E. Hoke (USDA- OT); Betsy Nordin (USDA-APHIS); David L. Priester (USDA-AMS); William Armellini (Armellini Express Lines, Inc.); Judi E. Greening (Frieda’s Finest Produce Special¬ ties, Inc.); Dick Kwiatkowski (Union Camp Corp.); and Stephen Tavilla (P. Tavilla Co). This enabled substantial improvements to the text. The following persons provided photographs for the text: William L. Craig (USDA- OT); B. Hunt Ashby (USDA-OT); William Dunton (USDA-OT); Constantine J. Nicho¬ las (USDA-OT); Lawrence A. Risse (USDA-ARS); and James R. Hatton (Semco Manufacturing Co.). William L. Craig also provided the illustrations. Contents Subject Page Introduction viii Plan Ahead Before Growing and Shipping Transport Only Top Quality Products Ensure Quality Control With Grading Grading Practices. Grade Standards. Official Inspections. Maintain Quality With Effective Packaging Materials. Fiberboard Box Styles. Methods. Types of Packs . What Packaging Must Withstand. Standardization. Unit Loads. Pallets. Slipsheets. Labeling and Branding. 6 6 7 10 10 11 30 34 35 40 40 Precool Produce To Ensure Quality Factors. Methods. Precautions. Precooling Equipment. 41 41 42 43 44 Choose The Best Mode of Transport Factors. Equipment. Refrigeration Systems. Insurance . Design Features. Transport Equipment. 46 46 47 47 48 48 49 Check The Transport Equipment Before Loading 56 mi Sub ' ec * Page Use Proper Loading Practices. 57 Methods. 57 Air Circulation. 57 Temperature Control. 57 Bracing. « Pest Control. 50 Air Cargo Equipment. 58 Trailers and Van Containers. 58 Top Air Delivery. 50 Bottom Air Delivery. g-l Top Icing. 61 Temperature Recorders. 82 Mixed Loads. 52 Multi-Temperature Loads. 62 Modified Atmosphere Loads. 53 Ventilation. 53 Loaded Equipment. 53 Use Recommended Transit and Storage Procedures. 66 Mixed Loads and Storage. 66 Compatibility Groups. 57 Chill Sensitivity. 76 Freeze Sensitivity.. . 70 Moisture Loss Sensitivity. 70 Ethylene Sensitivity. 72 Odor Sensitivity. 72 Receiving Procedures. 73 Air Circulation and Sanitation. 73 Tropical and Subtropical Fruits and Vegetables, and Specialty Products. 74 Amaranth. 76 Anise. 76 Artichokes. 76 Asian Pear. 77 Asparagus. 77 Atemoya. 77 Avocado. 78 Babaco. 79 Baby Vegetables. 79 Bananas. 80 Barbados Cherry. 80 Bean Sprouts. 80 Beans. 81 Subject Page Belgian Endive... Bitter Melon. 82 Black Sapote. 82 on Blood Orange. Bok Choy. 83 Boniato. 83 Breadfruit. 83 Broccoli. 84 Brussels Sprouts. 8 ^ Cactus Leaves. 8 ^ Cactus Pears. 85 Caimito. 88 Calabaza. 85 Calamondin. 85 Canistel. 86 Cantaloupe. 88 Carambola. 88 Carrots. 87 Cashew Apple. 87 Cauliflower. 87 Celeriac. 88 Celery. 88 Chayote Squash. 88 Cherimoya. 88 Chinese Broccoli. 89 Chinese Cabbage. 89 Chinese Long Bean. 90 Clementine. 98 Coconut. 88 Corn. 81 Cucumbers. 81 Custard Apple. 91 Daikon. 92 Durian. 92 Eggplant. 92 Feijoa. 92 Figs. 93 Granadilla. 93 Ginger Root .. 93 Grapefruit. 94 Grapes. 94 Guava. 98 Haricot Vert. 98 Horseradish. 98 Jaboticaba. 98 Subject Page Jackfruit. 95 Jaffa Orange. 96 Japanese Eggplant. 96 Jerusalem Artichoke. 96 Jicama. 97 Kiwano. g7 Kiwifruit. 97 Kohlrabi. 98 Kumquat. 98 Leeks. 98 Lemon. 99 L 'me. 99 LO Bok . gg Longan. gg Loquat. 100 Lychee. 100 Malanga. 100 Mamey. 100 Mango. 101 Mangosteen. 101 Melons. 10i 0kra . 102 Oranges. 102 Papaya. 10 3 Passionfruit. 103 Pepino. 103 Peppers. 104 Persimmon. 104 Pineapple. 1 04 Plantain. 105 Pomegranate. 105 Pummelo. 105 Pumpkin. 106 Quince. 106 Raddichio. 106 Rhubarb. 107 Salsify. 107 Sapodilla. 107 Scorzonera. 107 Seedless Cucumbers. 10 q Snow Peas. 10 q Squash. 1 08 Strawberries. 109 Sugar Apple. 109 Subject Page Tamarillo. 110 Tamarind. 110 Tangerines. 110 Taro Root. Ill Tomatillos. 111 Tomatoes. Ill Ugli Fruit. 112 Waterchestnut. 112 Watercress. 112 Watermelon. 113 White Asparagus. 113 White Sapote. 113 Winged Bean. 113 Yam. 114 Yucca Root. 114 Potted Flowering and Foliage Plants.. 119 Cuttings. 119 Treatments.:. 120 Packaging. 120 Transportation. 122 Cut Flowers and Florist Greens. 126 Treatments. 126 Packaging. 127 Refrigeration. 129 Transportation. 130 Storage. 131 Appendix 1. 135 U.S. Regulations and Sources of Information Appendix 2. 140 List of U.S. Grade Standards and Inspection Instructions List of References. 147 VII Introduction The purpose of this handbook is to provide transportation recommendations for fruits and vegetables, live plants, and cut flowers produced in tropical and subtrop¬ ical as well as areas with temperate climates. Guidelines on grading, packaging, precooling, and storage are included, because transportation is merely one part of an integral system of maintaining product quality from the field to the consumer. In order to emphasize the essentials of successful transportation of these perishable products, the information is presented in a brief manner with many illustrations. A summary of information is provided for the products that are listed in the table of contents. The market for tropical fruits and vegetables and specialties has expanded beyond Asian, Hispanic, and other ethnic communities as individuals have become more interested in their personal health, food preparation, and variety in their diet. An in¬ creasingly wider choice of fresh products is available in food stores and fancy restaurants, thanks to the marketing efforts of members of the produce industry. Many of these products are in consumers hands within 2 days of harvest in another part of the world. Transportation and packaging are the key to this success. Advances in transportation and packaging also have helped to increase the availa¬ bility of potted plants and exotic cut flowers. Consumers now purchase these items from roadside vendors and in food stores as well as traditional flower shops and nurseries. Plants and flowers are increasingly used to brighten up businesses and homes. The regions of the world which produce the largest variety and year-round supply of these products t ave tropical or subtropical climates. Many of the items covered in this book are only produced in these areas. Most of the general recommenda¬ tions in this handbook, however, apply to all perishable agricultural products, wherever and whenever they are produced. Advances in greenhouse management, irrigation, biotechnology, and transportation have increased flexibility in the loca¬ tion of production areas. The areas which produce the most perishable products—California, Florida, Texas, Arizona, Hawaii, Puerto Rico, Mexico, Central America, the Caribbean, South America, and Southeast Asia—face marketing challenges due to their distance from the major markets of Eastern and Central United States, Canada, the Far East or Europe. That is why the emphasis of this handbook is on maintaining product quality through proper handling, packaging, transportation, and storage— from the field to the consumer. Plan Ahead Before Growing and Shipping Agriculture is a very competitive, risky business. To minimize risk, growers and shippers must plan ahead and obtain as much information as possible. Communi¬ cation with government authorities, importers, and carriers is necessary; both be¬ fore growing tropical fruits and vegetables, plants, and cut flowers; and thereafter. The grower and shipper must determine the following: • Is the product permitted to enter the destination country, region or State? • Is there a market for the product? • What are the requirements for quantity, quality, packaging, documentation, and frequency of shipments? • Will the projected price received cover production, packaging, transportation, insurance, and marketing costs and allow for a profit? • Will the right kind of transportation equipment be available when the product is ready for shipping? The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) provides information on regulations governing the entry of foreign products to the United States and vice versa. Almost all plant products must have a permit in order to enter the United States. Some countries require a phytosani- tary certificate for U.S. products. Permits and certificates are issued only to the U.S. importer or U.S. exporter. Appendix 1 provides an outline of all U.S. Govern¬ ment regulatory and market information. Growers and shippers should visit with importers to ascertain their reliability and obtain firsthand market information on product quantity, quality, packaging, pricing, and regulations. Most importers will not deal with a shipper who proves to be un¬ reliable in terms of timing, volume, quality, or documentation. Communication with importers and the firms that monitor their financial status should be maintained throughout the year. Timely and accurate information is necessary to minimize the risks of shipping the wrong product or shipping the right product at the wrong time. Cost information should be obtained from suppliers of equipment, packaging, and other materials. Freight rates should be negotiated with carriers. This information can then be compared to projected production costs and estimated product prices. This will allow an estimate to be made of the potential profit and loss in the venture. Air and ocean carriers request that shippers consult with them well in advance to ensure that the necessary equipment will be available at the right time, with freight rates at a level the product can support. Most carriers are willing to work with shippers to try to make a deal work. Shippers can form associations to negotiate time and volume rates with ocean carriers. Port authorities and trade publications of origin and destination countries are the best sources of current information on services provided by competing air and ocean carriers. 1 Transport Only Top Quality Products Under the best circumstances, the quality of fruits, vegetables, live plants, and cut flowers can only be maintained, not improved, during transportation. Most of these products are high-value and very perishable. Therefore product quality should be the highest possible. Products in top quality condition: • have a longer shelf life. • allow more time for transportation, storage, and marketing. • satisfy importers, brokers, and consumers. • increase repeat sales and profits. • help expand markets. Bruised, decaying, or overripe products can ruin an entire shipment and reduce an importer’s confidence in the grower and shipper. Products in this condition: • spread decay to other products in the load. • produce more ethylene gas which causes further ripening and decay. • produce more heat (respiration) which causes further ripening and decay. • lose more water which results in shriveling and wilting. • discourage repeat sales. • reduce profits. During transportation, storage, and marketing, products may be exposed to: • rough handling during loading and unloading. • compression from the overhead weight of other containers of products. • impact and vibration during transportation. • loss of moisture to the surrounding air. • higher than recommended temperatures. • lower than recommended temperatures. • ethylene gas from vehicle exhaust or product ripening. • odors from other products or residues. By selecting and packing only top quality products, shippers can help ensure good arrival condition of fruits and vegetables, plants, and cut flowers transported over long distances. Grading, good packaging, precooling, and proper transportation equipment are essential to maintaining product quality from the field to the consumer. Ensure Quality Control With Grading Grading Practices Importers and consumers of fruits and vegetables, plants, and cut flowers demand high quality fresh products in return for the high prices they pay. Growers and shippers should use the buyer’s specifications for grading to monitor quality, con¬ dition, size, and maturity. While not all products have official grade standards, common sense techniques can be used to ensure the packing and transportation of only high quality items. Since most of these products are new to many people, uniform high quality in ap¬ pearance and taste is essential to increasing importer and consumer willingness to try the products and buy them again. Packing, precooling, refrigerating, transport¬ ing, storing, and selling poor quality products wastes time, money, and materials. Clean and treat products only as necessary: • wash off dirt and debris from harvest operations. • discard bruised, cut, decayed, insect infested, odd sized, immature, or over¬ ripe items. • use only officially approved fungicides/bactericides to limit decay on certain products, strictly in accordance with the label instructions. • use only officially approved wax coatings to reduce moisture loss on certain products, strictly in accordance with the label instructions. • use only officially approved pesticides or procedures for certain products to eliminate insect pests, strictly in accordance with the label instructions and health and safety regulations. • remove field heat (precool) as soon as possible after harvest. • use ethylene gas for certain products to ripen and improve color. Sort and package produce by size and level of maturity: • use voluntary grade standards or buyer’s specifications. • place only uniform sizes or amounts in each shipping container. • place only products with a uniform level of maturity in each container. • clearly mark the grade, size, weight, or count on the container. Equipment manufacturers can provide advice on harvesting, washing, sorting, siz¬ ing, weighing, waxing, drying, precooling, and packaging equipment suitable for a particular operation. The U.S Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the Environ¬ mental Protection Agency (EPA), and chemical companies can provide the most current information on U.S. regulations for fungicides, bactericides, waxes, and pesticides. Foreign countries that regulate the use of these chemicals also can provide information. APHIS must monitor any necessary quarantine treatments of imported and exported products. 3 Grade Standards Official Inspections The USDA Agricultural Marketing Service (AMS) maintains 156 standards covering 85 products as well as inspection instructions. They are listed in Appendix 2 . The standards and instructions give guidance on size, color, shape, texture, maturity, cleanliness, and defects. The standards are voluntary except in the case of the products mentioned below. Under USDA domestic marketing orders only the following items are subject to mandatory grade, size, quality, or maturity regulations: avocados dates filberts grapefruit table grapes kiwifruit limes canned ripe olives onions oranges Irish potatoes prunes raisins tomatoes walnuts Regulations for imports of the above items must conform to the domestic market¬ ing orders and apply only when the marketing orders are in effect. Shippers and importers must keep abreast of the changing dates and scope of the orders. Some U.S. State governments and industry trade associations have grade stan¬ dards or regulations for particular products. Examples are Hawaiian grades for ginger root, papaya, and pineapple; Puerto Rican grades for coconuts; and indus¬ try grades for bananas. Inspections for grade, condition, size, or maturity may be requested by shippers, receivers, importers, or any other financially interested party. The inspections can be done at the shipping point, receiving market, and in the case of imports, at the port of entry. Regardless of whether the inspection is voluntary or mandatory, licensed federal or federal/state agricultural employees will perform the inspection and issue an official inspection certificate. A fee is charged for these inspections. All domestic and imported raw or processed fruit and vegetables are subject to in¬ spection by the FDA for illegal pesticide residues or other contamination according to tolerances established by the EPA. These tolerances are called “defect action levels.” Products with prohibited or excessive pesticide residues or contamination must be reconditioned, reexported, or destroyed. All imported fruits, vegetables, plants, cut flowers, and other plant material are subject to inspection by APHIS for harmful insects, diseases, and prohibited items at the U.S. port of entry. APHIS requests 12 hours notice prior to the arrival of the ship, plane, or truck in order to have inspectors on hand. By prior arrangement, APHIS will inspect products in the country of origin under a preclearance program. Fees are charged for this service. 4 Depending on type of product, insect, or disease, shipments are either released, treated with pesticide and released, destroyed, or reexported. Importers attempting to bring in prohibited items are subject to fines. The U.S. Customs Service assists APHIS in ensuring that agicultural products are properly cleared through the port of entry. When requested by the receiving country, exports of U.S.-grown fruits, vegetables, plants, or cut flowers are inspected for insects or disease and provided with a phytosamtary certificate by APHIS or U.S. State Departments of Agriculture. AMS provides certifications of grade and quality for fresh products and a verification program for frozen or otherwise processed agricultural products. Quality control with grading helps growers and shippers to meet the needs of different markets, pass inspections, become reliable suppliers, and receive higher prices for their products. Quality control reduces the risk of financial loss from downgraded or rejected shipments. 5 Maintain Quality With Effective Packaging Materials Proper packaging of fruits and vegetables, plants, and cut flowers is essential to maintaining product quality during transportation and marketing. In addition to pro¬ tection, packaging in the form of shipping containers, serves to enclose the product and provide a means of handling. It makes no sense to ship high quality, high value, perishable products in poor quality packaging which will lead to damage, decay, low prices, or outright rejection of the products by the buyer. Packaging must withstand: • rough handling during loading and unloading. • compression from the overhead weight of other containers. • impact and vibration during transportation. • high humidity during precooling, transit, and storage. Packaging materials are chosen on the basis of needs of the product, packing method, precooling method, strength, cost, availability, buyer specifications, and freight rates. Importers, buyers, and packaging manufacturers provide valuable recommendations. Materials used include: • fiberboard bins, boxes (glued, stapled, interlocking), lugs, trays, flats, dividers or partitions, and slipsheets. • wood bins, crates (wirebound, nailed), baskets, trays, lugs, pallets. • paper bags, sleeves, wraps, liners, pads, excelsior, and labels. • plastic bins, boxes, trays, bags (mesh, solid), containers, sleeves, film wraps, liners, dividers, and slipsheets. • foam boxes, trays, lugs, sleeves, liners, dividers, and pads. Bins, boxes, crates, trays, lugs, baskets, and bags are considered shipping con¬ tainers. Baskets, however, are difficult to handle in mixed loads of rectangular box¬ es. Bags provide limited product protection. The fiberboard box is the most widely used container. Styles include: • one-piece slotted box in which the glued, stapled, or self-locking flaps (Fig. 1). • two-piece half slotted box with a cover (Fig. 2). • two-piece half slotted box with a full telescoping cover, providing strong walls and corners (Fig. 3). • three-piece Bliss-style box featuring stapled or glued ends providing strong corners (Fig. 4). • one-piece box with a full telescoping cover (Fig. 5). • one-piece box with a tuck-in cover (Fig. 6). • self-locking tray (Fig. 7). • interlocking box with wire or fiberboard tabs or hardboard end inserts and plastic end caps, providing stacking strength and alignment. (Fig. 8). A minimum 1896 kPa (275 lb/in 2 ) bursting test strength fiberboard is recommended for boxes intended for export. The strength is needed for the handlings, transport conditions, and high humidity the boxes must endure. 6 : rboard Box Styles Figure 1. One-piece box. Figure 2. Two-piece box with cover. Figure 3. Full telescoping box. Source: Fibre Box Association (6) i i I ' 1 1 1 Figure 4. Bliss-style box. 7 Fiberboard Box Styles iczir UIZXIZIU Figure 5. One-piece telescoping box. Figure 7. Self-locking tray. Source: Fibre Box Association (6). 8 Materials Fiberboard boxes for products which are packed wet or with ice must be wax- impregnated or coated with water resistant material. The compression strength of untreated fiberboard can be reduced more than one half in conditions of 90 per¬ cent relative humidity. In addition to maintaining box strength, wax helps to reduce the loss of moisture from the product to the fiberboard. All glued boxes should be made with a water resistant adhesive. Holes are provided in most fiberboard boxes to provide ventilation of product heat (respiration) and allow circulation of cold air to the product. Handholds provide a means of handling boxes during loading and unloading. All holes must be designed and placed in a manner that does not substantially weaken the box. Wood crates are still popular with some shippers due to the material strength and resistance to high humidity during precooling, transit, and storage. Wood crates are constructed in a manner that allows a lot of air circulation around the packed product. The majority of fiberboard boxes and wood crates are designed to be stacked top to bottom. Compression strength and product protection are sacrificed when boxes or crates are stacked on their ends or sides. Misaligned boxes can lose up to 30 percent of their strength, while cross-stacked boxes can lose up to 50 percent of their top to bottom compression strength. Various materials are added to shipping containers to provide additional strength and product protection. Dividers or partitions and double or triple thickness sides and ends in fiberboard boxes provide additional compression strength and reduce product damage. Pads, wraps, and sleeves and excelsior also reduce bruising. Pads also are used to provide moisture as with asparagus; provide chemical treatment to reduce de¬ cay as with sulfur dioxide pads for grapes; and absorb ethylene as with potassium permanganate pads in boxes of bananas and flowers. Plastic film liners or bags are used to retain moisture. Perforated plastic is used for most products to allow exchange of gases and avoid excessive humidity. Solid plastic is used to seal the products and provide for a modified atmosphere by reducing the amount of oxygen available for respiration and ripening. This is done for bananas, strawberries, and tomatoes. Paper and polystyrene foam liners help to insulate the product from hot or cold temperatures when they are shipped in unrefrigerated air cargo holds. Wet newsprint is used to provide moisture to fresh cut herbs and flowers. Shippers should check with APHIS prior to utilizing packing materials made out of plant parts such as straw or leaves. Some items are prohibited entry into the Unit¬ ed States and other countries. Soil also is restricted. 9 Methods Types of Packs Packing methods include: • field packing—products are placed in fiberboard boxes or wood crates during harvesting. Some products are wrapped. The filled containers are then taken to a precooling facility to have the field heat removed. • shed packing products are processed or packed indoors or under cover at a central location. The product is brought from the field to the packing shed in bulk in field crates, bins, or trucks. The products are precooled either before or after they are placed in shipping containers. • repacking products are taken out of one container, regraded, and placed in another. This is often done to make smaller containers for the retailer or consumer packages. Types of packs include: • volume fill—products are placed by hand or machine into the container until the desired capacity, weight, or count is reached. • tray or cell pack—products are placed in molded trays or cells which provide separation and reduced bruising. • place pack—products are wrapped and carefully placed in the container. This provides reduced bruising and a pleasing appearance. • consumer pack or prepack—relatively small amounts of product are pack¬ aged, weighed, and labeled for retail sale. • film or shrink wrap—each fruit or vegetable is individually wrapped and sealed in film to reduce moisture loss and decay. The film may be treated with fungicides or other chemicals. • modified atmosphere—individual consumer packs, shipping containers, or pallet loads of containers are sealed with plastic film or bags. The oxygen level is reduced and the carbon dioxide level is increased. This reduces product respira¬ tion and slows the ripening process. Shipping containers must be sized and filled correctly. Containers which are very wide and weigh more than 23 kg (50 lb) encourage rougher handling, product damage, and container failure. Overfilling causes product bruising and excessive bulging of the sides of the container, which leads to decreased compression strength and container failure. Underfilling also causes product damage. The product is bruised as it moves around inside the shipping container during trans¬ port and handling. 10 hat Packaging Must Athstand Rough handling. The pineapple box was dropped during unload¬ ing. The ventilation holes are much too large and too close to the corners. Circular holes, strategically placed, would provide adequate ventilation without reducing the strength of the box. Compression. These melon boxes do not have sufficient strength to withstand multiple handling and the overhead weight of the other containers. 11 Impact and vibration. These melon boxes shifted during trans¬ portation. The boxes do not have sufficient compression strength for stacking in the offset pattern used to provide air cir¬ culation between the layers of boxes. High humidity. Packaging must allow for moisture including top¬ icing or package-icing when recommended for the product. These waxed fiberboard boxes of green onions are meant to be iced. 12 Types of Packs Field packing of celery in one-piece fiberboard boxes. The venti lated boxes are then palletized and taken from the field to a vacuum cooling facility. Shed packing of mushrooms in self-locking fiberboard trays. The mushrooms have been prepacked in fiberboard containers, film wrapped, and labeled for retail sale. 13 Volume-filled interlocking boxes of kiwifruit. The plastic end tabs provide compression strength and interlock the film lined boxes when they are stacked on pallets. Cell-packed passionfruit and feijoas in plastic trays inside fiber- board trays. Posters are provided by the shipper for display in the food store. 14 Place-packed brand-named lemons in a nailed wood crate with colorful tissue paper wrappers, labels, and plastic netting en¬ closing the contents. Place pack of cactus pears in a full telescoping waxed fiber- board box. Each fruit Is wrapped in labeled tissue paper which Includes handling and recipe information for the consumer. 15 Consumer pack of brussels sprouts in a fiberboard tray of one dozen film wrapped 284 g (10 oz) fiberboard baskets labeled for retail sale. Shrink-wrapped seedless cucumbers in a self-locking fiberboard tray. Storage instructions are printed on the box. 16 One-piece fiberboard box of papaya protected with paper pad¬ ding and labeled with brand name stickers. The papaya are packed by count and placed in a single layer. One-piece fiberboard box of potted begonia plants protected with plastic sleeves and a fiberboard divider. 17 FLORIDA SEEDLESS ^ LIMES O FLORIDA SEEDLESS Two-piece fiberboard box of limes with cover, volume-filled to 4.5 kg (10 lb). Full telescoping fiberboard boxes of garlic volume-filled to 13.6 kg (30 lb). Full telescoping box of bunched daffodils held in place with a wood cleat attached to the sides of the box. 18 Full telescoping box of gerbera daisies. Each flower stem is threaded through a hole in a fiberboard holder which is then sta¬ pled to the sides of the box. The stems are secured by a poly¬ styrene foam cleat which also provides compression strength for the box when stacked. Full telescoping wax impregnated fiberboard boxes of asparagus packed vertically, with openings to allow ventilation of heat from product respiration. A moistened pad is provided at the bottom of the box. 19 Full telescoping box of pineapple, packed flat to avoid compres¬ sion damage to the top of the fruit. Each pineapple has a color¬ ful brand name label. Bliss-style fiberboard box of tray packed avocados. Vertical fiberboard tabs interlock the boxes when they are stacked on pallets. The 2 layers of avocados are placed on molded fiber- board trays. Product count and storage instructions are printed on the box. 20 One-piece box with tuck-in cover of cybidium orchids in vials of floral preservative solution. Each orchid is encased in a plastic container. Colorful ribbons supply additional support for the flowers. Self-locking fiberboard tray of tomatoes which are protected from bruising by polystyrene foam sheet dividers. 21 Self-locking fiberboard tray of consumer packed raspberries in 227 ml (1/2 pt) plastic wrapped containers. A fiberboard divider adds compression strength to this full teles¬ coping box of honeydew melons with interlocking top flaps. 22 Fiberboard dividers and shredded paper provide protection from bruising to the horned melons (kiwanos) in this full telescoping fiberboard box. Collapsible wood bins of watermelons with pallet bases provide easier handling with less damage. Fiberboard as well as wood bins also can be used to handle bagged products such as cab¬ bage, calabaza, carrots, and onions. 23 Wirebound wood crate of tangerines. Wirebound crates also are used for many vegetables including beans, eggplant, greens, melons, peppers, and squash. Wirebound wood crate of gypsophila. The flowers are packed wet in a plastic container of floral preservative solution. A paper sleeve protects the flowers from the sides of the crate during handling and transportation. 24 Wirebound wood crate of bunched lillies packed wet in a plastic container. Each bunch is individually protected with plastic sleeves. Nailed wood pyramid crates of asparagus. The crates provide compression strength and ventilation. A moistened pad is placed at the bottom of the asparagus stalks to maintain quality. 25 Nailed wood crates of garlic with wire banding provide additional room for ventilation due to their shape. Plastic film bags of topped carrots. Small holes in the bag allow exchange of gases while still maintaining a high humidity. 26 Plastic mesh bags of shallots. The mesh provides the necessary ventilation for this product which is damaged by moisture and high humidity. Plastic containers of hydroponic lettuce. The containers which provide protection and a high level of humidity and are labeled with consumer information. 27 Plastic sleeves protect these potted begonia plants from han¬ dling damage. Paper and polyester sleeves also are used for pot¬ ted plants. Polystyrene foam box of raddichio with a perforated plastic cover. The raddichio is consumer packed in plastic containers with consumer handling information and recipes. 28 Foam mesh sleeves and shredded paper protect these papaya from bruising. Each fruit is labeled with a brand name sticker. 29 Standardization Due to large number of different container sizes in use, box standards have been developed by the fruit and vegetable and floral industries. Standardized containers: • reduce container inventory for manufacturers and growers. • utilize, with other containers, 90 to 100 percent of the surface of the widely used 1016 mm x 1219 mm (40 x 48 in) standard pallet, with no overhang and little underhang. • provide unit loads and more stable mixed pallet loads. • reduce transportation and marketing costs. Project MUM was developed by the fruit and vegetable industry and the USDA to encourge container standardization and unit loads. The acronym stands for Modularization, Unitization, and Mechanization. Table 1 shows 11 recommended MUM containers arranged on a standard pallet and Table 2 lists current produce shipping containers and their proposed MUM replacements. Standarized shipping containers provide stable unit loads as shown on the left and will help reduce unstable mixed loads as shown on the right. 30 Table 1. Recommended MUM container sizes, listed by outside length and width, arranged on a standard pallet, 1016 mm x 1219 mm (40 in x 48 in). Outside dimensions: 600 x 500 mm (23.62 x 19.68 in) Pallet utilization: 100% Outside dimensions: 500 x 400 mm (19.68 x 15.75 in) Pallet utilization: 100% Outside dimensions: 600 x 400 mm (23.62 x 15.75 in) Pallet utilization: 100% Outside dimensions: 500 x 333 mm (19.68 x 13.11 in) Pallet utilization: 97% Outside dimensions: 600 x 333 mm (23.62 x 13.11 in) Pallet utilization: 99% Outside dimensions: 500 x 300 mm (19.68 x 11.81 in) Pallet utilization: 100% Outside dimensions: 475 x 250 mm (18.70 x 9.84 in) Pallet utilization: 99% Outside dimensions: 400 x 300 mm (15.75 x 11.81 in) Pallet utilization: 100% Outside dimensions: 433 x 333 mm (17.01 x 13.11 in) 435 x 330 mm (17.12 x 12.99 in) Pallet utilization: 96% Outside dimensions: 400 x 250 mm (15.75 x 9 84 in) Pallet utilization: 100% Outside dimensions: 400 x 333 mm (15.75 x 13.11 in) Pallet utilization: 99% 31 Table 2. Current produce shipping containers and their proposed MUM replacement. A current commercial container MUM replacement Outside dimension of Measured gross Capacity Measured gross Produce a current standard weight or printed on Outside weight or item container mm (in) count container cm count Avocados (Haas) 440 x 355 x 184 (17.32 x 13.97 x 7.24) 48 count — 50 x 30 x 18 50 count Beans (green) 392 x 304 x 304 28.5 lb 1 bu 40 x 30 x 30 31.5 lb (15.43 x 11.97 x 11.97) 50 x 30 x 25 28.0 lb Broccoli 508 x 300 x 272 (19.9 x 11.81 x 10.7) 14 bunches — 50 x 30 x 30 14 bunches Cabbage (green) 600 x 425 x 285 (23.62 x 16.73 x 11.22) 17 head — 60 x 40 x 30 18 head Cabbage (green 585 x 360 x 340 14 head 1-3/4 bu 60 X o ■'fr X 30 14 head (approx. 7" diameter) (23.03 x 14.17 x 13.38) Cabbage (red) 641 x 335 x 340 16 head — 50 x 40 x 30 16 head (25.23 x 13.18 x 13.38) Celery (Michigan 3") 515 x 380 x 290 (20.27 x 14.96 x 11.41) 35 count — 50 X -&■ o X 30 38 count Cucumbers (Super Select) 454 x 308 x 305 (17.87 x 12.12 x 12.00) 85 count 1-1/9 50 X o CO X 30 85 count Eggplant 460 x 315 x 305 19 count 1-1/9 bu 50 X CO o X 30 21 count (18.11 x 12.40 x 12.00) Eggplant 365 x 285 x 215 (14.37 x 11.22 x 8.46) — 5/9 bu 40 x 30 x 20 Grapefruit (27) 444 x 305 x 273 (CA) (17.48 x 12.00 x 10.74) 27 count 4/5 bu 50 X o CO X 30 32 count n n 455 x 298 x 261 (FL) (17.91 x 11.73 x 10.27) Grapefruit (36) 444 x 305 x 273 36 count 4/5 bu 50 X o CO X 30 40 count n n 455 x 298 x 261 Grapefruit (40) 444 x 305 x 273 40 count 4/5 bu 50 X o CO X 30 38 count n n 455 x 298 x 261 Grapefruit (48) 444 x 305 x 273 48 count 4/5 bu 50 X CO o X 30 53 count tt n 455 x 298 x 261 Grapes 415 x 360 x 150 23 lb 23.5 lb 50 50 x 40 x x 30 x 11 14 24.0 lb 22.0 lb Greens (spinach, turnip, 515 x 320 x 330 25.5 lb 1-1/4 bu 50 x 40 x 30 25.6 lb kale, collard) (20.27 x 12.59 x 12.99) Lemons (115 & 119) 450 x 300 x 260 115 & 119 4/5 bu 40 x 30 x 30 132 count (17.71 x 11.81 x 10.23) Lemons (165 & 172) 430 x 300 x 280 165 & 172 4/5 bu 40 x 30 x 30 185 count (16.92 x 11.81 x 11.02) Source: Turczyn and Anthony (29). 32 Table 2. Current produce shipping containers and their proposed MUM replacement—Continued. A current commercial container MUM replacement Produce item Outside dimension of Measured gross a current standard weight or container mm (in) count Capacity printed on container Outside cm Measured gross weight or count Lettuce (4-5") 550 x 415 x 285 (21.65 x 16.33 x 11.22) 24 head — 60 x 40 x 30 50 x 40 x 30 40 head 32 head " (4-1/2-5-1/2") 550 x 415 x 285 24 head — 60 x 40 x 30 50 x 30 x 30 30 head 24 head ” (5-1/2-6-1/2") 550 x 410 x 285 24 head — 50 x 40 x 30 18 head Melons (Honeydew) 7-3/4 in 460 x 410 x 210 (18.11 x 16.14 x 8.26) 5 count — 50 x 40 x 21 5 count Okra 484 x 230 x 164 (19.05 x 9.05 x 6.45) 0.436 bu. (V 2 ) 40 x 30 x 15 1/2 bu Oranges (88) 455 x 298 x 261 (FL) (17.91 x 11.73 x 10.27) 88 count 4/5 bu 50 x 30 x 30 ± 10 90 count tt it 444 x 305 x 273 (CA) (17.48 x 12.00 x 10.74 Oranges (100) 455 x 298 x 261 444 x 305 x 273 100 count 4/5 bu 50 x 30 x 30 ± 10 98 count Oranges (113) 455 x 298 x 261 113 count 4/5 bu 50 x 30 x 30 ± 10 110 count ft it 444 x 305 x 273 Peaches (south, 2-1/4") 450 x 290 x 300 (17.71 x 11.41 x 11.81) 41.7 lb — 50 x 30 x 30 45.8 lb Peaches (western) (2-1/4") 445 x 356 x (146 - 171) (17.51 x 14.01 x (5.75 - 6.75) — 25 lb 50 x 30 x 16 26.0 lb (2-3/8") 445 x 356 x (146 - 171) — 25 lb 50 x 30 x 16 23.5 lb (2-7/16") 445 x 356 x (146 - 171) 25 lb 50 x 30 x 16 25.9 lb (2-5/8") 445 x 356 x (146 - 171) 25 lb 50 x 30 x 16 24.0 lb (2-13/16") 445 x 356 x (146 - 171) 25 lb 50 x 30 x 16 24.5 lb (2-7/8") 445 x 356 x (146 - 171) 25 lb 50 x 30 x 16 24.5 lb Pears (110) Source Turczyn and Anthony (29) 457 x 310 x 234 (17 99 x 12 20 x 9 21) 39.5 lb — 40 x 30 x 30 44 8 lb 33 Table 2. Current produce shipping containers and their proposed MUM replacement—Continued. A current commercial container MUM replacement Produce item Outside dimension of a current standard container mm (in) Measured gross weight or count Capacity printed on container Outside cm Measured gross weight or count Peppers (Cuban) 460 x 315 x 305 (18.11 x 12.40 x 12.00) 28.3 lb 1-1/9 bu 50 x 30 x 30 25.8 lb Peppers (green) 452 x 312 x 305 (17.79 x 12.28 x 12.00) 75 count 1-1/9 bu 50 x 30 x 30 75 count Peppers (hot) 405 x 305 x 301 (15.94 x 12.00 x 11.85) — 1 bu 40 x 30 x 30 1 bu Peppers (red) 480 x 306 x 319 (18.89 x 12.04 x 12.55) — 1-1/9 bu 50 x 30 x 30 1-1/9 bu Potatoes (white #1’s) (round reds) 495 x 325 x 240 (19.48 x 12.79 x 9.44) 53.3 lb 50 lb 50 x 30 x 30 57.2 Jumble 45.0 lb-9/5 lb bags Romaine 450 x 305 x 305 (17.71 x 12.00 x 12.00) 17 head 1-1/9 bu 50 x 30 x 30 18 head Squash (Acorn) 460 x 315 x 305 (18.11 x 12.40 x 12.00) 36 count 1-1/9 bu 50 x 30 x 30 33 count Squash (Butternut) 460 x 315 x 305 (18.11 x 12.40 x 12.00) 23 count 1-1/9 bu 50 x 30 x 30 24 count Tomatoes 470 x 300 x 240 (18.50 x 11.81 x 9.44) — 30 lb 50 x 30 x 23 29.5 lb Zucchini 480 X 303 x 316 — 1-1/9 bu 50 x 30 x 30 1-1/9 bu (18.89 x 11.92 x 12.44) Source: Turczyn and Anthony (29). Unit Loads A large number of shippers and receivers have switched from handling individual shipping containers to unit loads on pallets. Most distribution centers are set up to store palletized loads in three tier racks. Unit loads provide for: • reduced handling of individual shipping containers. • less damage to the containers and the products inside. • faster loading and unloading of transportation equipment. • more efficient distribution center operations. • reduced pilferage of products. Unit loads may include some of the following features: • standard wood pallets or slipsheets, 1016 x 1219 mm (40 x 48 in). • fiberboard, plastic or wire vertical interlocking tabs between boxes. • boxes with holes for air circulation, which align when the boxes are stacked squarely on top of one another, corner to corner. • glue between boxes to resist horizontal slipping. • plastic netting around the pallet load of boxes. • fiberboard, plastic, or metal cornerboards. • plastic or metal strapping around the cornerboards and boxes. 34 Pallets Wood pallets must be strong enough to allow storage under load in three tier racks. Provisions for forklift and pallet jack handling are necessary. The design of the bottom of the pallet should not block air circulation Pallets must have an adequate number of top deck boards to support fiberboard boxes. Otherwise the boxes may collapse between deck boards from the overhead weight of the other containers, crush the products, and cause the entire load to lean or fall off the pallet. A sheet of fiberboard with holes for air circulation can be used to distribute weight across the pallet. Boxes must not overhang the edges of the pallets. Overhang can reduce the strength of fiberboard boxes by one-third. This condition also can lead to collapse of the entire load, crushing of the product, and make loading, unloading, and storage in racks difficult. On the other hand, boxes which utilize less than 90 per¬ cent of the pallet surface and do not align with the pallet edge can shift in transit. Pallet loads of shipping containers which are not strapped or netted should have at least the top three layers of containers cross-stacked to provide stability. Some shippers use film wrap, tape, or glue on the top layers in addition to cross¬ stacking. The containers must be strong enough to be cross-stacked without col¬ lapsing. Film wrap should not be used on shipping containers of products that need ventilation. Clear plastic netting wrapped around the pallet load ot full telescoping fiberboard boxes of pineapples provides for a sta¬ ble unit load which can be quickly placed in the storage rack. Cornerboards and plastic strapping pro¬ vide for secure unit loads of apples which are loaded on and off general car¬ go ocean vessels, transported by high¬ way trailers and placed Into storage racks. 35 Clear plastic netting helps to stabilize this load of honeydew melons. The boxes are too weak and are not stacked carefully on top of one another. Corners of boxes must align to obtain the maximum box strength. Plastic strapping and top cornerboards are used to unitize this load of grapes packed in wood lugs. A wood strip is nailed across the top of the two pallet loads to brace it against the trailer wall. 36 Fiberboard locks between the vertical tabs of each interlocking box of table grapes helps to unitize each layer of boxes horizon¬ tally. The plastic end tabs on the boxes unitize the boxes verti¬ cally, providing stacking strength and alignment. A fiberboard sheet with slots and holes for ventilation locks together the vertical fiberboard tabs in the top layer of the load of raspberries. 37 Pallet overhang caused the failure of this pineapple box and damage to the product inside. Boxes lose their compression strength when they are loaded in this manner. Weak oversized boxes damage these watermelons and make handling and storage difficult. The boxes are very heavy when loaded (34 kg (76 lb)) and they are too wide and too long to be handled carefully. The boxes are too big for a standard pallet, causing pallet overhang and crushing of the box and melons. 38 A mixed load of fruit unitized with clear plastic netting is trans¬ ferred by a pallet jack to a local delivery truck. A slipsheet load of frozen potatoes unitized with film wrap is re¬ moved from a rail boxcar by a forklift with a special push/pull at¬ tachment. 39 Slipsheets Labeling and Branding Slipsheets are used by some shippers because they cost less than pallets. They also eliminate the cost of transporting and returning pallets. A special forklift is needed to transfer slipsheet loads to and from the pallets at the shipper’s and receiver’s distribution center. If a receiver does not have the proper handling equipment, the packages are unloaded by hand onto pallets for placement in storage. Shipping containers on slipsheets are cross-stacked, film wrapped, or otherwise unitized with cornerboards and strapping. Slipsheets made of fiberboard or plastic must be strong enough to be clamped and pulled onto the forklift tines or plate for lifting while fully loaded. Fiberboard slipsheets should be wax impregnated when used in wet conditions. Slipsheets used in transportation equipment should have holes for air circulation under the load. The use of slipsheets in refrigerated transportation equipment with shallow floor channels is not recommended due to the need for adequate air circulation under the load. Labeling of shipping containers helps to identify and advertise the products and assists receivers in storing and retrieving them. Fiberboard boxes can be colorfully preprinted with labels. Other container materials require glued, stamped, or sten¬ ciled labeling. Some high quality fruit and vegetables are individually branded for consumer identification with small colorful trademark stickers. Some shippers also provide provide selection, storage, and recipe brochures for the consumer. All con¬ tainers should be clearly labeled and branded in the language of the destination country with the following information: • common name of the product. • net weight, count, and/or volume. • brand name as well as name and address of the packer or shipper. • country of origin. • size and grade, when standards are used. • recommended storage temperature. • special handling instructions. • name of U.S. approved fungicides or bactericides used in packaging. Labeling of consumer packages is mandatory under FDA regulations. In addition to the name of product, net weight, and name and address of the manufacturer, packer or distributor; processed items must have all ingredients listed. The U.S. Customs Service requires the outermost container in which the products will or¬ dinarily reach the ultimate U.S. purchaser must be marked to show the country of origin. Packaging helps sell tropical fruits and vegetables, plants, and cut flowers, especially when the shipping containers are attractively labeled and provide the necessary product protection. 40 Precool Produce to Ensure Quality Fetors Removal of field heat by the process of precooling to a recommended storage temperature and relative humidity is absolutely necessary to maintain the quality of fruits, vegetables, plants, and cut flowers. The quality of most products will rapidly deteriorate if field heat is not removed before loading into transportation equip¬ ment. The rate of respiration and ripening increases two to three times for every 10°C (18°F) above the recommended storage temperature. Refrigerated transportation equipment is designed to maintain temperature and should not be used to remove field heat from products packed in shipping contain¬ ers. The refrigeration units also are not capable of raising or controlling the rela¬ tive humidity. A high temperature difference between the refrigeration unit evaporation coil and the product will increase the loss of product moisture. This will cause the evapora¬ tor to frost and the products to shrivel or wilt and weigh much less. Most fruits and vegetables have a water content between 80 and 95%. Precooling extends product life by reducing: • field heat. • the rate of respiration (heat generated by the product). • the rate of ripening. • the loss of moisture (shriveling and wilting). • the production of ethylene (ripening gas generated by the product). • the spread of decay. The success of precooling is dependent on: • time between harvest and precooling. • type of shipping container if product is packed beforehand. • initial product temperature. • velocity or amount of cold air, water, or ice provided. • final product temperature. • sanitation of the precooling air or water to reduce decay organisms. • maintenance of the recommended temperature after precooling. Precooling should occur as soon as possible after harvest. Harvesting should be done in early morning hours to minimize field heat and the refrigeration load on precooling equipment. Harvested products should be protected from the sun with a covering until they are placed in the precooling facility. Many products are field or shed packed and then precooled. Wirebound wood or nailed crates or wax impregnated fiberboard boxes are used for packed products that are precooled with water or ice after packing. Precooling of products packed in shipping containers and stacked in unitized pallet loads is especially important as air circulation around and through the packaging may be limited during trans¬ portation and storage. 41 Methods Precooling is particularly important for products which produce a lot of heat. The following are examples of products which have high respiration rates and short transit and storage lives: artichokes brussels sprouts onions, green asparagus carrots, bunched okra beans, lima corn, sweet parsley beans, snap endive peas bean sprouts kale raspberries blackberries lettuce spinach broccoli mushrooms strawberries watercress The choice of precooling method depends on the nature, value, and quantity of the product as well as the cost of labor, equipment, and materials. Precooling methods include: • room cooling—stacking containers of products in a refrigerated room. Some products are misted or sprayed with water during room cooling. • forced air cooling or wet pressure cooling—drawing air thru stacks of contain¬ ers of products in a refrigerated room. For some products, water is added to the air. • hydrocooling—flushing product in bulk tanks, bins, or shipping containers with a large quantity of ice water. • vacuum cooling—removing heat from products packed in shipping containers by drawing a vacuum in a chamber. • hydrovacuum cooling—adding moisture to products packed in shipping con¬ tainers before or during the vacuum process, to speed the removal of heat. • package-icing—injecting slush or crushed ice into each shipping container of product. Some operations use bulk containers. Portable ice plants, hydrocoolers, vacuum coolers, forced-air coolers, and package-icing machines are available for use in the fields. This equipment is use¬ ful for remote or small scale operations that cannot justify investment in a fixed precooling facility. Mounted on skids or dollies, the equipment can follow the har¬ vest from field to field and be shared by many growers. Hydrocooling and vacuum cooling are the fastest cooling methods. Cooling times of one half hour are possible. Products and packaging must be able to withstand direct water contact in hydrocooling. In vacuum cooling, it is necessary the products have a large surface area, low density, and high moisture content. The boxes and wrapping must allow ventilation of heat. 42 Precautions Forced air cooling can take 1 or 2 hours depending on the amount of packaging, while room cooling may take 24 to 72 hours. Packaging must allow ventilation of heat for these methods to be successful. Package-icing provides effective cooling and a high relative humidity for products and packaging that can withstand direct contact with ice. Many tropical fruit, vegetables, plants, and cut flowers require much less cooling than products which are cooled to 0°C (32°F). All products should be precooled as near as possible to the recommended storage temperature and relative humidi¬ ty. Product temperatures should be taken in sample shipping containers by insert¬ ing an electronic thermometer into the product. The data should be recorded for future reference. Tables in the sections on Fruits, Vegetables, and Specialty Products; Potted Plants; and Cut Flowers and Florist Greens provide lists of products and their recommended temperatures, relative humidities, and approximate transit and storage lives. Recommended precooling methods also are given for individual fruits and vegetables. Plants and flowers are room cooled. Cut flowers also are forced-air cooled after packing. Since most tropical products are sensitive to chilling injury, care must be taken not to precool or store the products below the recommended temperature. Often the visible effects of chilling injury are delayed until the product is offered for retail sale. These effects include failure to ripen properly, pitting, decay, watery break¬ down, and discoloration in fruits and vegetables. Flowers and plants lose florets or foliage, fail to open, discolor, or wilt. All products are sensitive to decay. Precooling equipment and water should be sanitized continuously with a hypochlorite solution to eliminate decay producing or¬ ganisms. Care also must be taken not to allow products to warm up after precool- mg. Condensation on cool product surfaces at higher air temperatures also spreads decay. The method of transportation, condition of the transport equipment, loading method, and transit and storage practices affect the success of precooling. If the recommended temperature and relative humidity are not maintained after precool- ing, product quality will deteriorate. 43 Precooling Equipment A vacuum cooler can be used for lettuce, celery, and other leafy vegetables. Some products are wetted before going into the cooler to speed the cooling process and reduce moisture loss from the product. Hydrovac coolers add water inside the vacuum chamber. This pallet icing machine is used to inject slush ice into every shipping container in pallet loads of broccoli. It also could be used to ice brussels sprouts, cantaloupe, bunched carrots or radishes, green onions, kale, kohlrabi, leeks, parsley, and sweet corn. 44 A mobile hvdroslush chiller which can be used for pallet bins of artichokes, beans, brussels sprouts, broccoli, cantalopes, caulilower, cucumbers, peas, radishes, sweet corn, and turnips prior to packing. This machine must be connected to a mobile ice making plant. A portable forced air precooling unit as illustrated can be con¬ structed at low cost and placed in a refrigerated storage area. Source: Rij, Thompson, and Farnham (21). 45 Choose the Best Mode of Transportation Factors After precooling, the products must be properly loaded and transported at or near the recommended storage temperature and relative humidity to maintain quality. The design and condition of the transport equipment, and the loading method used are critical to maintaining product quality. The mode of transportation and the carrier should be chosen carefully. The mode of transportation and type of equipment used should be based on: • destination. • value of the product. • degree of product perishability. • amount of product to be transported. • recommended storage temperature and relative humidity. • outside temperature conditions at origin and destination points. • time in transit to reach destination by air, land, or ocean transport. • freight rates negotiated with the carriers. • quality of transportation service. Reliability and quality of transportation service provided by different carriers must be carefully considered along with the rates charged. Services and schedules are established or modified weekly. Sometimes service is abruptly withdrawn. Shippers should contact air and ocean port authorities at their origin and destination loca¬ tions to receive the most current information on available services. Local trade publications also are excellent sources of information, as many carriers and their agents advertise their schedules and destinations. Refrigerated trailers and van containers are recommended for most high volume products with transit and storage lives of a week or more. After transit, there must be enough remaining product life for marketing. Carriers utilizing trailers and con¬ tainers can offer a door-to-door service. This reduces handling, exposure, damage, and theft of the products. Air cargo containers also can be used to provide a door-to-door service. Products transported by air are generally high-value and highly perishable. Freight costs are higher by air. Transit times, however, are in terms of hours instead of days. Many products are shipped in unrefrigerated air containers or on air cargo pallets. This requires close coordination at the origin and destination airports to protect the products when flights are delayed. Cold storage facilities at airports are needed to ensure product quality. Refrigerated air containers are available and should be used when possible. Products which can be shipped in refrigerated trailers and van containers are sometimes shipped by air to take advantage of brief market opportunities, such as the beginning of a season when prices are high and supply is limited. Often an im¬ porter who is first to receive a certain product is able to build goodwill and in¬ crease sales throughout the season. 46 Equipment Refrigeration Systems The following transportation equipment is available: • air cargo containers—for air and highway transport. • air cargo pallets with netting—for air and highway transport. • highway trailers—for highway transport only. • piggyback trailers—for rail, highway, and roll-on/roll-off ocean transport. • van containers—for rail, highway, and lift-on/lift-off ocean transport. • general cargo ocean vessels—handling palletized or individual shipping con¬ tainers in refrigerated holds of the ship. • rail boxcars—handling palletized or individual shipping containers. Information on the cubic capacity and weight limits of air cargo containers and pallets, and refrigerated trailers and van containers is given at the end of this section. The following refrigeration systems are available: • mechanical—using diesel generated electric power over the road and aboard ocean vessels. Van containers are plugged into electrical power at depots and aboard ships. • cryogenic—using liquid or gaseous nitrogen or carbon dioxide, which is vent¬ ed into the cargo compartment. Some products such as leafy green vegetables are not compatible with carbon dioxide refrigeration. • dry ice—using solid blocks of carbon dioxide in special trays or compartments in the cargo area or within individual shipping containers. Shippers must check with airlines prior to using dry ice. If permitted, the containers and accompanying documents must be properly marked to show the amount of dry ice used. Some products such as leafy green vegetables are not compatible with dry ice. Direct contact with dry ice will injure fresh products. • wet ice—using ice within individual shipping containers or on top of a load of containers, either as a supplement or instead of mechanical refrigeration. Many airlines refuse to handle shipping containers with wet ice due to the risk of expen¬ sive damage from leaking containers. Airlines that do permit wet ice require that it be placed in sealed polyethylene bags inside a leakproof container with a moisture absorbent pad. • gel refrigerant—using frozen containers of chemical eutectic gel to maintain temperature within shipping containers This is the refrigeration system preferred by most airlines. • ventilation—using fresh air exchange in the refrigeration system or separate vents to protect products from a buildup of carbon dioxide or ethylene • multitemperature—using a mechanical or cryogenic system to provide two or three temperature conditions in separate compartments of a trailer. • modified atmosphere—adding a specific percentage of nitrogen or carbon di¬ oxide gas to pallet bags or the cargo compartment of refrigerated trailers or van containers to reduce product decay, respiration, and ripening of certain products. 47 Insurance Design Features Regardless of the method of transportation and refrigeration chosen, shippers should purchase trip insurance for each load to reduce their risk of loss. The liabil¬ ity of carriers, importers, brokers, and receivers is often limited. It is difficult to prove negligence when the products are handled by so many different parties from the field to the consumer. Shippers should plan on placing a temperature recorder in the cargo compartment during loading to monitor air temperature during trans¬ portation. The use of these recorders is described in the section on Proper Loading. Long distance transportation through tropical and frigid climates requires rugged well-designed equipment to withstand the transit environment and protect the products. Desirable features in refrigerated trailers up to 14.6 m (48 ft) long and van containers up to 12 m (40 ft) long include: • 41,843 kj/h (40,000 BTU/h) refrigeration capacity at 38°C (100°F) ambient, 2°C (36°F) return air temperature. • a continuously operating high capacity evaporator blower for more even product temperatures and higher relative humidities. • a solid return air bulkhead at the front of the trailer to ensure air circulation throughout the load. • vertical ribs on the rear door to assist in air circulation. • adequate insulation and provisions for heating, when used in areas with ex¬ treme weather. • deep floor grooves or channels, from 51 to 76 mm (2 to 3 in) in depth to pro¬ vide an adequate cross-sectional area for air circulation under loads placed directly on the floor. • supply-air temperature sensing of the operation of the refrigeration unit to reduce product chilling and freezing injury. • provisions for ventilation to prevent ethylene or carbon dioxide buildup, partic¬ ularly in loads of: apples apricots avocados bananas Belgian endive broccoli brussels sprouts cabbage cauliflower cherimoya cucumbers cut flowers plants kiwifruit leafy greens lettuce plantains * provisions for application of modified atmospheres with reduced oxygen and elevated carbon dioxide levels, particularly in loads of: apples bananas mangoes asparagus cherries pears avocados kiwifruit strawberries • air-ride suspension to reduce the amount of shock and vibration transfered to the shipping containers and the products inside. 48 Transport Equipment A refrigerated LD-3 air cargo container with a compartment for dry ice on the upper left hand side. Polystyrene foam blocking used to allow stable loading of boxes of strawberries, papaya, pineapples, and other products over the sloped surface of an LD-3 container. Refrigerated highway trailers up to 14.6 m (48 ft) long carry 85 percent of the fruits, vegetables, plants, and flowers across the United States. Refrigerated piggyback trailers on railroad flatcars and roll¬ on/roll-off ocean vessels are used for long distance hauls from California, Florida, Puerto Rico, and Central America. They are driven to and from railroad and ocean terminals to points of ori¬ gin and destination. 50 Double-stack van container trains are competing with highway and piggyback trailers for westbound backhaul cargo in the Unit¬ ed States. Refrigerated van containers also are transported on chassis on railroad flatcars and on chassis over the road, to and from ocean terminals as shown below. 51 This 18.3 m (60 ft) long mechanically refrigerated railroad boxcar is used for apples, carrots, citrus, onions, and potatoes as well as a limited amount of broccoli, celery, lettuce, and tomatoes. The capacities and dimensions of air cargo containers, air cargo pallets, refrigerat¬ ed trailers, and refrigerated van containers vary from carrier to carrier due to differences in equipment design and manufacture. Carriers should be consulted well in advance of shipping for specifications, availability, and rates. Many carriers provide valuable assistance and information on loading and operating their equipment. Room for air circulation must be provided in transport equipment loaded with agricultural products. The nature of the product, type of packaging, and loading method affect air circulation as well as the total weight and the volume occupied by the load. Maximum cargo weights are limited by carriers to comply with restrictions on par¬ ticular transport and handling equipment or limits enforced by Government agen¬ cies to protect roads and bridges. Due to light product density or load limits, many loads do not utilize the maximum rated weight capacity of the transport equipment. 52 <; Air Cargo Containers: • refrigerated: LD3: Maximum cargo weight: 1400 kg (3100 lb) Dry ice system: 56 kg (125 lb) C0 2 Internal measure: 1460 x 1430 x 1410 mm (57 x 56 x 55 in) Useable volume: 3.5 cu m (122 cu ft) Aircraft: 747, L1011, DC10, A300, A310, 767 LD7/9: Maximum cargo weight: 5450 kg (12,000 lb) Dry ice system: 91 kg (200 lb) C0 2 Internal measure: 2940 x 2020 x 1430 mm (115 x 79 x 56 in) Useable volume: 8.6 cu m (305 cu ft) Aircraft: 747, LI011, DC10, 707 and DC8 freighters LD5/11: Maximum cargo weight: 3200 kg (7100 lb) Dry ice system: 56 kg (125 lb) C0 2 Internal measure: 2940 x 1430 x 1430 mm (115 x 56 x 56 in) Useable volume: 6.0 cu m (210 cu ft) Aircraft: 747, LI Oil, DC10 • insulated: LD3: Maximum cargo weight: 1400 kg (3100 lb) Internal measure: 1534 x 1562 x 1620 mm (60 x 62 x 64 in) Useable volume: 3.7 cu m (131 cu ft) Aircraft: 747, LI011, DC10, A300. A310, 767 ' • dry (uninsulated): LD3: Maximum cargo weight: 1500 kg (3300 lb) Internal measure: 1450 x 1453 x 1550 mm (57 x 57 x 61 in) Useable volume: 4.3 cu m (153 cu ft) Aircraft: 747, L1011, DC10. A300, A310, 767 LD7/9: Non-structural igloo pallet container, contoured or rectangular, with fabric weather cover and full net Structural igloo pallet container, contoured or rectangular Maximum cargo weight: 4350 kg (9600 lb) on 747 aircraft 3700 kg (8150 lb) on LI Oil aircraft Internal measure: 2160 x 3100 x 1550 mm (85 x 122 x 61 in) Useable volume: 10 cu m (348 cu ft) Aircraft: 747, L1011, DC10, 707 and DC8 freighter LD11: Structural igloo pallet container, contoured or rectangular. Maximum cargo weight: 2900 kg (6400 lb) on 747 and DC10 2500 kg (5500 lb) on LI011 aircraft Internal measure: 1470 x 3100 x 1550 mm (58 x 122 x 61 in) Useable volume: 7 cu m (229 cu ft) Aircraft: 747, L1011, DC10 53 fiberboard air cargo containers, shipper supplied: Fiberboard containers can be lined with 19 mm (3/4 in) polystyrene foam board or have a polystyrene foam box insert. For refrigerated shipments, the containers are wax impregnated and lined with a film bag before the foam board is put in place. Refrigeration should be supplied with dry ice or gel pack, as many air carriers do not permit water ice on board. Those that do permit ice require it be sealed in plastic bags and the container be leakproof. EH: Maximum cargo weight: 132 kg (290 lb) External measure: 920 x 560 x 560 mm (36 x 22 x 22 in) Maximum top loading capability: 272 kg (600 lb) Aircraft: All E: Maximum cargo weight: 218 kg (482 lb) External measure: 1070 x 740 x 650 mm (42 x 29 x 25 in) Maximum top loading capability: 272 kg (600 lb) Aircraft: All C08: Maximum cargo weight: 866 kg (1909 lb) External measure: 1070 x 1470 x 1140 mm (42 x 58 x 45 in) Maximum top loading capability: 272 kg (600 lb) Aircraft: 747, LI 011, DC10, A300, A310, 767 C07: Insert for LD3 containers. Maximum cargo weight: 1360 kg (3000 lb) External measure: 1480 x 1420 x 1480 mm (57 x 56 x 57 in) Maximum top loading capability: 544 kg (1200 lb) Aircraft: 747, L1011, DC10, A300, A310, 767 Air Cargo Pallets: PIP: External Measure: 2240 x 3180 mm (88 x 125 in) Maximum cargo weight: 4500 kg (9920 lb) on 747 aircraft 3860 kg (8510 lb) on LI 011 aircraft Maximum loaded height: 1630 mm (64 in), lower deck Useable volume: 10 cu m (341 cu ft) Aircraft: 747, LI 011, DC10, A300 Supplied with cargo nets. P6P: External measure: 2430 x 3180 mm (96 x 125 in) Maximum cargo weight: 4500 kg (9920 lb) Maximum loaded height, main deck: 2438 mm (96 in) Useable volume, main deck: 16 cu m (561 cu ft) Maximum loaded height, lower deck: 1630 mm (64 in) Useable volume lower deck: 11 cu m (388 cu ft) Aircraft: 747, LI 011, DC10, A300. A310, 767 Supplied with cargo nets. P9P: External measure: 1530 x 3180 mm (61 x 125 in) Maximum cargo height: 3090 kg (6810 lb) on 747 and DC10 2635 kg (5810 lb) on LI 011 aircraft Maximum loaded height: 1630 mm (64 in), lower deck Useable volume: 8 cu m (256 cu ft) Aircraft: 747, LI011. DC10, A300 Supplied with cargo nets. Refrigerated Trailers: Many trailers are intermodal. Their upper coupler is designed for piggyback load¬ ing on railroad flatcars with deck-mounted hitches, attachment to similar hitches on roll-on/roll-off barges and vessels, and transport over the highway. 12 m Maximum cargo weight: 22,680 kg (50,000 lb) (40 ft) Internal measure: 12 x 2.26 x 2.49 m (39.33 x 7.42 x 8.17 ft) Useable volume: 62 cu m (2188 cu ft) 13.7 m Maximum cargo weight: 22,680 kg (50,000 lb) (45 ft) Internal measure: 13.84 x 2.19 x 2.36 m (45.42 x 7.17 x 7.75 ft) Useable volume: 66 cu m (2328 cu ft) 14.6 m Maximum cargo weight: 22,680 kg (50,000 lb) (48 ft) Internal measure: 14.26 x 2.45 x 2.50 m (46.77 x 8.04 x 8.21 ft) Useable volume: 80 cu m (2825 cu ft) Refrigerated Van Containers: Containers are intermodal. They are stacked on ocean container vessels and transported one-high on railroad flatcars (COFC) or two-high in double-stack rail¬ cars. When mounted on chassis, they are transported on roll-on roll-off ocean ves¬ sels, highways, and railroad flatcars (TOFC). Due to refrigerated container shortages, some carriers require containers to be unloaded at their terminals in the importing country. 6 m Maximum cargo weight: 19,050 kg (42,000 lb) (20 ft) Internal measure: 5.29 x 2.18 x 2.02 m (17.67 x Useable volume: 23.84 cu m (842 cu ft) 7.29 x 6.75 ft) 12 m Maximum cargo weight: 20.866 kg (46,000 lb) (40 ft) Internal measure: 11.33 x 2.28 x 2.19 m (37.17 12 m High Cube, 2.9 m (9.5 ft) high (40 ft) Maximum cargo weight: 20,866 kg (46,000 lb) Internal measure: 10.89 x 2.18 x 2.32 m (36.33 x Useable volume: 58 14 cu m (2,053 cu ft) 7.29 x 7.75 ft) 55 Check the Transport Equipment Before Loading Most carriers check their transport equipment before presenting it to the shipper for loading. The condition of the equipment is critical to maintaining the quality of the products. Therefore, the shipper also should check the equipment to ensure it is in good working order and meets the needs of the product. Carriers provide guidance on checking and operating the refrigeration systems. All transportation equipment should be checked for: • cleanliness—the load compartment should be regularly steam-cleaned. • damage—walls, floors, doors, ceilings should be in good condition. • temperature control—refrigerated units should be recently calibrated and sup¬ ply continuous air circulation for uniform product temperatures. Shippers should insist on clean equipment. A load of products can be ruined by: • odors from previous shipments. • toxic chemical residues. • insects nesting in the equipment. • decaying remains of agricultural products. • debris blocking drain openings or air circulation along the floor. Shipper should insist on well maintained equipment and check for the following: • damage to walls, ceilings, or floors which can let in the outside heat, cold, moisture, dirt, and insects. • operation and condition of doors, ventilation openings, and seals. • provisions for load locking and bracing. Fcr refrigerated trailers and van containers, the following additional checks are im¬ portant: • with the doors closed, have someone inside the cargo area check for light— door gaskets must seal. A smoke generator also can be used to detect leaks. • the refrigeration unit should cycle from high to low speed when the desired temperature is reached and then back to high speed. • determine the location of the sensing element which controls the discharge air temperature. If it measures return air temperature, the thermostat may have to be set higher to avoid chilling injury or freezing injury of the products. • a solid return air bulkhead should be installed at the front of the trailer. • a heating device should be available for transportation in areas with extreme cold weather. • equipment with a top air delivery system must have a fabric air chute or metal ceiling duct in good condition. 56 Use Proper Loading Practices Methods Air Circulation Temperature Control Products requiring refrigeration should be thoroughly precooled prior to loading into transportation equipment. Product temperatures should be taken with an elec¬ tronic probe thermometer and recorded on the bill of lading for future reference. The load compartment in the equipment also should be precooled to the recom¬ mended transport or storage temperature for the product. Ideally, the loading area should be enclosed and refrigerated with dock seals at the trailer or container doors. Proper loading practices are critical to maintaining temperature and relative humid¬ ity, protecting the products from impact and vibration forces in transit, and preventing insects from entering the load. Special care must be taken when ship¬ ping mixed loads. The products must be compatible. Basic loading methods include: • bulkloading, by machine or hand, of unpackaged commodities. • hand loading individual shipping containers, with or without pallets. • unit loading of palletized or slipsheet loads of containers with pallet jacks or forklifts. Inadequate provisions for air circulation will ruin a load, even in well designed transportation equipment. When possible, shipping containers should be kept off shallow floors and away from flat sidewalls by using pallets, racks, and dunnage. Room for air circulation must be provided under, around and through the load to protect the products from: • heat gain from the outside air during hot weather. • heat generated by the produce through respiration. • concentrations of ethylene from ripening of the products • heat loss to the outside air during extreme cold weather. • chilling injury or freezing injury during operation of the refrigeration unit. Shippers using refrigerated transport equipment should follow the carrier’s recom¬ mendations on loading and setting the temperature of the equipment's load com¬ partment to avoid chilling injury or freezing injury to the products. Discharge air may be colder than the set-point temperature if the refrigeration system operates on return air temperature sensing. Many carriers advise setting the thermostat temperature 1° to 3°C (2-6°F) higher than the recommended temperature of 0°C (32°F) for chilled products. This de¬ pends on the design of the transportation equipment. Newer equipment with supply-air temperature sensing and good air circulation can be operated closer to the recommended temperature. For most tropical fruits and vegetables and plants which have recommended temperatures in the 10° to 21 °C (50-70°F) range, the thermostat is set at or near the recommended temperature. 57 Bracing Pest Control Air Cargo Equipment Trailers and Van Containers Loads should be secured with some of the following materials to prevent vibration and impact damage in transit: • aluminum or wood load locks. • fiberboard honeycomb fillers. • wood blocking and nailing strips. • inflatable kraft paper air bags. • cargo nets and straps. • wood load gates constructed of 25 mm x 102 mm (1 in x 4 in) material. Shippers should avoid loading at night. Insects attracted by light can enter the load and cause problems upon inspection at destination. The loading area should be enclosed to prevent insects from reinfesting treated and packaged products. Fumigations for pest control inside loaded transportation equipment are usually done under supervision by APHIS in accordance with the necessary treatment schedule for a particular product and insect. Cold treatment of certain products during transportation also is used to kill insects. This involves strict temperature control throughout the load for up to 2 weeks. Air cargo containers are loaded by hand or with forklifts when using fiberboard LD-3 container inserts. Polystyrene foam triangular inserts, wood blocking and fiberboard dunnage are recommended to brace shipping containers and provide a level platform on the sloped surface of LD-3 containers. Refrigerated air cargo containers should be used when available. Air cargo pallets are loaded by hand or with forklifts. The loads should be unitized with straps, tape, or cross-stacking of the shipping containers. A weatherproof cover can be placed over the load along with the required cargo netting, provided the pallet load is protected from sunlight. For refrigerated trailers and van containers the following loading practices are recommended: • precool the trailer or container to the recommended transport or storage tem¬ perature. Turn off the refrigeration unit during loading if the loading area is not refrigerated. Otherwise the evaporator will frost due to the warm air drawn in by the unit. • unit loads must be thoroughly precooled as air circulation to some of the ship¬ ping containers may be limited. The containers should have openings for cooling and ventilation of product heat. • avoid loading tightly against flat side walls, use center-line loading for unitized loads. • secure unitized loads with dunnage between the walls and load. • do not block air circulation at the rear door. • secure the rear of both hand-stacked and unitized loads with straps, load gates, or load lock bars to prevent the load from shifting against the rear doors. Figures 9, 10, and 11 illustrate unit loading patterns. Figures 12 and 13 illustrate hand loading patterns. 58 Top Air Delivery Figure 9. Top view of pattern for straight in loading of palletized unit loads. Centerline loading of the pallets is recommended in equipment with flat side walls. 1 ? Figure 10. Top view of an offset loading pattern for straight in loading of palletized unit loads to reduce wall contact in equipment with flat side walls. Center-line loading is preferred. Figure 11. Top view of pattern for alternate loading of pallets used to increase the number of pallet loads when the weight of the product permits. In equipment with top air delivery and shallow floors, it is necessary that the pallets have adequate openings along all four sides for air circulation and forklift and pallet jack entry. Double-faced block pallets should be used for this type of loading. For refrigerated trailers and van containers with top air delivery, these additional practices are necessary to maintain product quality: • hand-stacked loads should be arranged with lengthwise air flow channels, evenly spaced, on every other layer, to ventilate product heat (respiration) This is illustrated in Figure 12. • header stacks must be provided at the front bulkhead of the trailer or van container in hand-stacked loads to connect all the lengthwise channels and allow the air to return to the evaporator 59 Figure 12. Side, end, and detail views of the recommended air-flow hand loading pat¬ tern for trailers or containers with top air delivery. The boxes must be strong enough to permit offset stacking without crushing. A solid return air bulkhead must be in¬ stalled at the front to prevent air from bypassing the load. A header stack is needed at the front of the trailer or container to connect the horizontal air channels and allow the air to return to the evaporator. Pallets should be used in equipment with shallow grooved floors. V.V.V.V.V. vy:'77777777. ■. /, ■///, ■/. 7. 7/77, 7."X. i $ 1 -1 1 -1 3 // \ X H -1 — r — ry T" U- 1 J JJ H t — *► * --** 1 - - ——** -► A a Figure 13. Side and end view of the recommended vertical air flow hand loading pat¬ tern for bottom air delivery trailers and containers. A solid return air bulkhead is a necessary feature of this system. The floor channels at the rear of the load must be blocked to force air through the load. Many researchers, shippers, and carriers feel that the bottom air delivery system provides for easier loading and more even product temperatures. 60 Bottom Air Delivery Top-Icing • fiberboard boxes must be strong enough to support the offset shipping con¬ tainers stacked above. • pallets should be used with hand-stacked loads to provide adequate air circu¬ lation in equipment with flat or shallow grooved floors. • the load should not block the ceiling air chute or duct. For refrigerated trailers and van containers with bottom air delivery, these addition¬ al practices are necessary to maintain product quality: • hand-stacked loads of shipping containers should have bottom to top ventila¬ tion slots which align in the stacks Otherwise there should at least be small verti¬ cal air flow channels between containers as a result of the slight bulge in the sides of the containers. • at least 13 mm (5 in) of space should be provided at the ceiling for return air circulation. • the load should cover most of the floor surface to force more air through the load. The floor channels at the rear of the load should be blocked for this purpose. Top-ice is used for certain products to supplement mechanical refrigeration and help maintain a high humidity. Refrigeration units on trailers and van containers cannot control relative humidity. Top-ice on loads should be applied in rows instead of a solid mass, especially in bottom air delivery equipment. It is important not to block air circulation. The ther¬ mostat on top-iced loads should be set at 2°C (35°F) to prevent freezing of the ice into a solid mass which would block air circulation. Table 3 lists products that should or can be top-iced. These products also can be package-iced. Table 3: Top-icing of products Should be Top-Iced: Can be Top-Iced: beets with tops artichokes, globe broccoli beet greens carrots with tops beets, topped corn, sweet brussels sprouts endive cantaloupes escarole carrots, topped green onions celeriac parsley chard radishes with tops kohlrabi turnips with tops leeks watercress mustard greens radish greens parsnips spinach radishes turnip greens rutabagas turnips 61 Temperature Recorders Mixed Loads Multi-Temperature Loads In addition to trip insurance, all loads should have a small air temperature recorder placed between packages in the area where the warmest temperatures occur. Recorder companies recommend placement on top of the load, near a side wall, one-third of the way in from the rear doors, away from any direct discharge of refrigerated air. Railcars should have two or three recorders. In loads with top-ice or humidity above 95 percent, the recorders should be waterproof or enclosed in a plastic bag. Models are available for frozen food applications. Shippers and receivers must follow the temperature recorder companies instruc¬ tions on documenting the load, starting the recorder, reading the results, and returning it for calibration and certification if necessary. These steps are essential for settling claims over temperature management during transportation. Groups of products suitable for transportation and storage together have been identified. They are listed in Table 4 in the Recommended Transit and Storage section. Tables 5-9 list products according to their sensitivity to chilling, freezing, moisture loss, ethylene, and odors. Similar sized shipping containers should be loaded together in mixed loads for in¬ creased stability. Heavier shipping containers of products should be loaded first, distributed evenly across the floor of the trailer or container. Lighter shipping con¬ tainers can then be placed against or on top of the heavier products. Load lock bars, load gates, and pallets placed in a vertical position can be used to separate and secure stacks of different sized shipping containers. To facilitate inspection of mixed loads at ports of entry, a representative sample of each commodity should be available near the door. This can minimize the unloading of cargo for exami¬ nation. Never load fruit, vegetables, or other food products with non-food cargos that pro¬ vide any risk of contamination through transfer of odor or toxic chemical residues. The longer the transit time, the higher the risks in transporting mixed loads of agricultural products. Therefore it is essential that guidelines be followed as much as possible to maintain quality in distant markets. Trailers with two or three separate compartments can be used to carry loads of products with different temperature requirements. Advance planning is required when loading multi-temperature trailers. The conditions provided by three compart¬ ment trailers may include -18°C (0°F), 0°C (32°F), 10°C (50°F), or ambient for products not requiring refrigeration. The frozen compartment is usually located at the front of the trailer adjacent to the refrigeration unit. Movable bulkheads are placed between the compartments. Separate evaporators or ventilation between compartments provide temperature control for the nonfrozen products. Side doors are needed to access the forward compartments when the trailers are inspected at ports of entry or used to make multiple deliveries on a single run. 62 Modified Atmosphere Loads Ventilation Loaded Equipment Modified atmospheres of reduced oxygen and elevated carbon dioxide and nitro¬ gen are provided to trailers and containers after loading is completed. The trailers and containers must be equipped with channels at the doorway for a plastic film curtain and gas ports for the application of the treatment. The refrigeration unit, walls, ceiling, floor, and doors must adequately seal the in¬ side of the cargo area from outside air. Otherwise the modified atmosphere will quickly dissipate. Warning labels must be applied to the equipment to warn that the atmosphere is not life supporting and that the cargo area must be properly ventilated before personnel enter to unload the cargo. Atmospheres also are modified by adjusting vents on the trailers and containers to reduce either carbon dioxide or ethylene buildup. Leafy green vegetables are sen¬ sitive to carbon dioxide, while many products are sensitive to ethylene. In lieu of ventilation, potassium permanganate pads can be installed in the trailer or contain¬ er at the refrigeration unit to absorb ethylene. A wood load gate is braced against the rear of this load of citrus by wood load locks which are attached to the side walls of this refrigerated trailer. 63 Sleeved potted foliage plants are stacked against the front bulk¬ head of this refrigerated van container. Wood blocking is used to secure the plants. 2 I A horizontal air-flow loading pattern was used in this refrigerated van container load of cantaloupes. 64 A centerline loading pattern is used for shipments of unit loads of strawberries in trailers with flat sidewalls. The strawberries are covered with plastic pallet bags and injected with a modified atmosphere including carbon dioxide. The pallets are braced against each other by inflatable kraft paper air bags and wood blocking. 65 Use Recommended Transit and Storage Procedures Mixed Loads and Storage Harvesting and packaging of most products should be closely coordinated with transportation to minimize time in transit and storage and maximize product fresh¬ ness in the hands of consumers. Some products, however, can be consolidated in storage before or after transportation to obtain lower freight rates or higher prices. During transportation and storage of loads of one product, the temperature and relative humidity should be as close as possible to the recommended levels to achieve the maximum product life. While transport refrigeration unit thermostats are sometimes set higher to avoid freezing injury, storage facilities are better able to control temperature and can provide conditions at the recommended level without damaging the products. During transportation of refrigerated loads in trailers and van containers, the oper¬ ation of the refrigeration unit and temperature of the load compartment should be checked regularly by the carrier. Gauges are provided for this purpose on most equipment. Many van containers also are provided with an exterior electronic or mechanical temperature recorder. Many products are often transported in mixed loads or stored with other products. They must be compatible in terms of: • recommended temperature. • recommended relative humidity. • production of ethylene. • sensitivity to ethylene. • production of odors. • absorption of odors. The following compatibility and sensitivity tables 4-9 1 take the above factors into account for transit and storage periods of 1 day or more. Compromises are made for temperature and humidity levels. In any of the groups, the more valuable products should determine the transit and storage conditions of the other com¬ modities. Information on the compatability of many tropical fruit and vegetables is limited to temperature and relative humidity conditions. Separate transit and storage are recommended for bananas, citrus, nuts, potatoes, onions, plants, cut flowers, florist greens, and nursery stock. 'Souces of information for the compatibility and sensitivity tables are: Debney, Blacker, and Redding (5), Hardenburg, Watada, and Wang (7), Lipton and Harvey (10), Safeway Stores, Inc. (25), Society of American Florists (28). 66 Table 4: Compatability groups Group 1: Fruits and vegetables, 0 to 2°C (32 to 36°F), 90-95% relative humidity. Many products in this group produce ethylene. 1 1 apples apricots Asian pears Barbados cherry beets, topped berries (except cranberries) cashew apple cherries coconuts figs (not with apples) grapes (without sulfur dioxide) horseradish kohlrabi leeks longan loquat lychee mushrooms nectarines oranges* (Florida and Texas) parsnips peaches pears persimmons plums pomegranates prunes quinces radishes rutabagas turnips ’Citrus treated with biphenyl may give odors to other products. Group 2: Fruits and vegetables, 0 to 2°C (32 to 36°F), 95 Many products in this group are sensitive to ethylene! 100% relative humidity. amaranth* anise* artichokes* asparagus bean sprouts beets* Belgian endive berries (except cranberries) bok choy broccoli* brussels sprouts* cabbage* carrots* cauliflower celeriac* celery* cherries corn, sweet* parsley* daikon* parsnips* endive* peas* escarole* pomegranate grapes (without raddichio sulfur dioxide) radishes* horseradish rhubarb Jerusalem artichoke rutabagas* kiwifruit salsify kohlrabi* scorzonera leafy greens snow peas leeks* (not with spinach* figs or grapes) turnips* lettuce waterchestnut lo bok watercress* mushrooms onions, green* (not with figs, grapes, mushrooms, rhubarb, or corn) "these products can be top-iced. Moisture < 32 36 ’ F >' 65 ‘ 75% garlic onions, dry Group 4: Fruits and cactus leaves cactus pears caimito cantaloupes* * clementine cranberries vegetables, 4.5°C (40°F), 90-95% relative humidity. lemons* lychees kumquat mandarin* oranges*(Calif and Arizona) pepmo tamarillo tangelos* tangerines* ugli fruit* yucca root citrus treated with biphenyl may give odors to other products **can be top-iced 67 Table 4: Compatability groups—Continued Group 5: Fruits and vegetables, 10°C (50°F), 85-90% relative humidity. Many of these products are sensitive to ethylene. These products also are sensitive to chilling injury. beans calamondin chayote cucumber eggplant haricot vert kiwano malanga okra olive peppers potatoes, storage pummelo squash, summer (soft shell) tamarind taro root Group 6: Fruits and vegetables, 13 to 15°C (55 to 60°F), 85-90% relative humidity. Many of these products produce ethylene. These products also are sensitive to chill¬ ing injury. atemoya granadilla papayas avocados grapefruit passionfruit babaco guava pineapple bananas jaboticaba plantain bitter melon jackfruit potatoes, new black sapote langsat pumpkin boniato lemons* rambutan breadfruit limes* santol canistel mamey soursop carambola mangoes sugar apple cherimoya mangosteen squash, winter coconuts melons (except (hard shell) feijoa cantaloupes) tomatillos ginger root tomatoes, ripe ‘citrus treated with biphenyl may give odors to other products. Group 7: Fruits and vegetables, 18 to 21 °C (65 to 70°F), 85-90% relative humidity. jicama pears (for ripening) sweetpotatoes tomatoes, mature green watermelon* white sapote yams* ‘separate from pears and tomatoes due to ethylene sensivity. Group 8: Flowers and florist greens, 0 to 2°C (32 to 36°F), 90-95% relative humidity. allium freesia peony, tight aster, China gardenia buds bouvardia hyacinth ranunculus carnation iris, bulbous rose chrysanthemum lily squill crocus lily-of-the-valley sweet pea cymbidium orchid narcissus tulip adiantum (maidenhair) ground pine rhododendren cedar ilex (holly) salal (lemon dagger and wood juniper leaf) ferns mistletoe vaccinium galax woodwardia fern mountain-laurel (huckleberry) Table 4: Compatability groups—Continued Group 9: Flowers and florist greens, 4.5°C (40°F), 90-95% relative humidity. acacia delphinium orchid, alstromeria feverfew cymbidium anemone forget-me-not ornithogalum aster, China foxglove poppy buddleia gaillardia phlox calendula gerbera primrose calla gladiolus protea candytuft gloriosa ranunculus clarkia gypsophilla snapdragon columbine heather snowdrop coreopsis laceflower stance cornflower lilac, forced stephanotis cosmos lupine stevia dahlia marigolds stock daisies mignonette strawflower violet zinnia adiantum (maidenhair) eucalyptus myrtus (myrtle) asparagus (plumosa. hedera philodendren sprenger) ilex (holly) pittosporum buxus(boxwood) leatherleaf (baker pothos camellia fern) scotch-broomern croton leucothoe, drooping smilax, southern dracaena magnolia woodwardia fern Group 10: Flowers and florist greens, 7 to 10°C (45 to 50°F), 90-95% relative hu- midity. anemone eucharis orchid, cattleya bird-of-paradise gloriosa sweet william camellia godetia chamaedora cordyline (ti) podocarpus palm Group 11: Flowers and florist greens, 13 to 15°C (55 to 60°F), 90-95% relative hu- midity. anthurium heliconia poinsetta ginger orchid, vanda diffenbachia staghorn fern 69 Chill Sensitivity Most tropical products are subject to chilling injury when transported or stored at lower than recommended temperatures. This damage often becomes apparent af¬ ter the products warm up. Products injured may show pitting, discoloration, water soaked areas, decay, and failure to ripen. The following Table 5 lists tropical and other products that sensitive to this injury. Table 5: Products sensitive to chilling injury atemoya guavas plantain avocados haricot vert pomegranates babaco jaboticaba potatoes bananas jackfruit potted plants beans jicama pummelo bitter melon kiwano pumpkins black sapote langsat rambutan boniato lemons santol breadfruit iimes sapodilla calabaza malanga soursop calamondin mamey squash camstel mangoes sugar apple- cantaloupe mangosteen sweet potatoes carambola melons tamarillo chayote okra tamarind cherimoya olive taro root cranberries oranges (California tomatillo cucumbers and Arizona) tomatoes custard apple papaya tropical flowers eggplant passionfruit ugli fruit feijoa pepino watermelon ginger root peppers white sapote granadilla grapefruit pineapples yam Freeze Sensitivity Many products are recommended to be transported or stored at temperatures only 1° to 3°C (2-6°F) above their freezing points. Thermostats, however, on some trailers and van containers are set 1° to 3°C (2-6°F) higher than the recommend ed temperature of 0°C (32°F) for chilled products to avoid freezing. The following Table 6 lists a small number of products according to their sensitivity to freezing. Most tropical products are damaged by chilling injury before they freeze. Moisture Loss Sensitivity Most products need to be transported and stored at a high relative humidity. Some products are more susceptible to moisture loss than others. Moisture loss results in wilting and shriveling. To reduce moisture loss, products must be adequately precooled before transit. Some products also are waxed, film-wrapped, package- iced, or top-iced. Relative humidity during transit and storage must be maintained as much as possi¬ ble. Table 7 lists products by their moisture loss rate in storage. 70 Table 6: Products susceptible to freezing injury 1 Most susceptible: apricots asparagus avocados bananas beans, snap berries (except cranberries) cucumbers eggplant lemons lettuce limes okra peaches peppers, sweet plums potatoes squash, summer sweetpotatoes tomatoes Moderately susceptible: apples broccoli, sprouting cabbage, new carrots w/o tops cauliflower celery cranberries grapefruit grapes onions (dry) oranges parsley pears peas radishes, wo tops spinach squash, winter Least susceptible: beets w/o tops brussels sprouts cabbage, mature or savory dates kale kohlrabi parsnips rutabagas salsify turnips w/o tops The most susceptible products will be injured by one light freezing, moderately susceptible products will recover from one or two light freezings, while least susceptible products can be lightly frozen several times. Fresh products that are lightly frozen should not be handled Thawing should be done at 4°C (40 °F). ’Source Hardenburg, Watada, and Wang (7). Table 7: Moisture loss rate of products 1 High Loss Rate: Medium Loss Rate: Medium Loss Rate: apricots avocados parsnips* blackberries artichokes’ pears broccoli* asparagus peas cantaloupes* bananas peppers chard* beets* pomegranates cherries brussels sprouts* quinces Chinese vegetables cabbage' radishes' figs carrots, topped' rhubarb grapes cauliflower, rutabagas* green onions* unwrapped sweet potatoes guavas celeriac' squash, summer kohlrabi celery* (soft shell) leafy greens* coconuts tangerines lychees corn, sweet' tomatoes mangoes cranberries yams mushrooms endive* papayas escarole* Low Loss Rate parsley* grapefruit apples peaches green beans cauliflower, wrapped persimmons leeks* cucumbers, waxed pineapples lemons eggplant plums and prunes lettuce garlic raspberries limes ginger root strawberries nectarines kiwifruit cut flowers okra melons vegetables with tops* oranges onions, dry potatoes pumpkins squash, winter (hard shell) *can be top-iced ’Source largely from Safeway Stores. Inc (25) 71 Ethylene Sensitivity Odor Sensitivity Never transport or store fruits and vegetables that produce a lot of ethylene with products that are sensitive to it. Ethylene can cause premature ripening of some products and will ruin others, such as plants and cut flowers. Cucumbers and celery turn yellow in the presence of ethylene, while lettuce will turn brown. Potas¬ sium permangante pads can be used to absorb ethylene during transit and storage. Table 8 lists products that produce ethylene along with products that are sensitive to it. Table 8: Products that are ethylene producers or ethylene sensitive Ethylene producers: Ethylene sensitive: apples mangosteen bananas, unripe leafy greens apricots nectarines Belgian endive lettuce avocados papayas broccoli okra bananas, ripening passionfruit brussels sprouts parsley cantaloupes peaches cabbage peas cherimoya pears carrots peppers figs persimmons cauliflower potted plants guavas plantains chard spinach honeydew melons plums cucumbers squash kiwifruit, ripe prunes cut flowers sweetpotatoes mamey quinces eggplant watercress mangoes rambutan florist greens watermelon tomatoes green beans kiwifruit, unripe yams Never transport or store odorous products with products that will absorb the odors. Table 9 lists products that produce odors with products that can absorb them. Table 9: Products which produce or absorb odors Odor produced by: Will be absorbed by: apples. cabbage, carrots, celery, figs, onions, meat, eggs, dairy products avocados. pineapples carrots. celery citrus fruit. meat, eggs, dairy products ginger root. eggplant grapes fumigated w/. other fruits and vegetables sulfur dioxide leeks. figs, grapes onions, dry. apples, celery, pears onions, green. corn, figs, grapes, mushrooms, rhubarb pears. cabbage, carrots, celery, onions, potatoes potatoes. apples, pears peppers, green. pineapples “strongly scented. citrus fruit vegetables” 72 Receiving Procedures Before completely unloading a shipment for storage, receivers should check the load to determine if it meets specifications for quality, grade, and packaging. The receiver also should note whether the load was adequately braced and the correct temperature was maintained. Product temperatures in sample shipping containers throughout the load should be taken and recorded, using an electronic probe thermometer. The air temperature recorder should be read if one was placed in the load. Shippers and carriers should be notified of any problems with the product, packaging, loading method, or transportation equipment, so corrective action can be taken. If there is a problem with the load, the receiver, carrier, or shipper can request an inspection by a licensed federal or federal/state inspector. Unresolved disputes over product quality or payment can be referred to the Perishable Agricultural Commodities Act (PACA) Branch of AMS. Further information is given in Appendix 1. Air Circulation and Sanitation Unloaded products need to be protected from direct sun, condensation, ethylene produced by equipment exhaust and other products, and contamination Products needing refrigeration or protection from hot or cold temperatures should be placed in the recommended storage conditions as soon as possible. Otherwise, the efforts of growers, shippers, and carriers to maintain product quality will have been in vain. Uniform air circulation in the storage room at the proper temperature and relative humidity is important to remove product heat from respiration and outside heat en tering through door openings and building surfaces. Doors to refrigerated storage areas should be protected with plastic strip curtains to reduce heat gain during operations. Warm air will quickly reduce relative humidity in the cold storage area. To maintain temperature and relative humidity, the storage room refrigeration sys¬ tem should have a large evaporator surface area, an adequate number of fans, and a humidifier. Temperature control should be by an electronic thermostat. The system must be carefully balanced to avoid free moisture or excessive air flow. Electric forklifts and pallet jacks should be used as they do not produce ethylene. Periodic sanitation of the storage room walls, ceilings, floor, and refrigeration units is necessary to reduce decay organisms and odors. Carbon filters can be used to absorb odors and volatile gases, while potassium permanganate pads can be used to absorb ethylene 73 Tropical and Subtropical Fruits and Vegetables, and Specialty Products Many products that are familiar to consumers such as asparagus, bell peppers, eggplant, grapefruit, melons, oranges, sweet corn, and tomatoes, are either tropi¬ cal in origin or cultivated in areas with tropical and subtropical climates; in addition to areas with temperate climates. These products are included in this book along with many specialty products due to their economic importance and consumer de¬ mand for a year-round supply. Many tropical fruits and vegetables are considered specialty products in the trade due to limited consumer awareness outside of the Asian and Hispanic communi¬ ties. Shippers, retailers, and trade organizations are increasing demand by provid¬ ing recipes and handling information for the consumer. Small illustrated brochures are placed in shipping containers of products for distribution in the food stores. Video tapes and posters also are displayed in the stores. Advertisements, articles, and features are placed in magazines, newspapers, and on television. More research needs to be done on handling, packaging, and transporting many of these items, especially in the areas of postharvest treatments, precooling, and sensitivity to chilling, freezing, moisture loss, ethylene, odors, bruising, and decay. For each product covered in this section, the available information 1 is categorized as follows: Names: Common names and the scientific name of the fruit or vegetable are given to assist the reader in identification and further research of each product. Names often vary by country and region and there is disagreement over the ‘‘correct” common name for many products. Availability: The time of year products are harvested in the United States and for¬ eign countries is given. Not all sources of a product are listed. Due to USDA re¬ quirements, some of these products are not permitted to enter the United States from certain countries until effective quarantine treatments for destructive insects or diseases are developed. Permits are subject to change as treatments are deve¬ loped or as new pest and disease problems arise. A permit from APHIS in the name of the U.S. importer is needed for almost ail plant products entering the United States. The permit may require the product undergo treatment prior to en¬ try. Entry may be restricted to certain ports in the United States. Grades: In lieu of official or industry grades, descriptions of size and appearance are given. Some products such as pineapple are harvested fully ripe, as the ripen¬ ing process will not continue after they are picked. International tropical grading standards are under discussion. U.S. inspection instructions will soon be available for many specialty items. Treatments: Postharvest treatments are mentioned. These treatments must meet the regulations of the importing country. Growers, shippers, and importers should check with APHIS for the status of chemical or cold temperature quarantine treat¬ ments for insects and diseases. Treatments are required based on the type of product, source of the product, type of insect or disease, and port of entry. Precooling: A method is recommended based on the nature of the product. Many products can be cooled by more than one method. Temperature & Relative Humidity: The recommended product temperature and rela¬ tive humidity to be achieved in precooling, transit and storage, to maintain quality, are given. When transporting chilled products, however, some carriers recommend setting the thermostat 1-3°C (2-6°F) higher than the recommended temperature of 0°C (32°F) to avoid freezing injury. Table 10 at the end of this section summarizes the recommended temperature, relative humidity, and approximate transit and storage period for the fruits and vegetables covered in this handbook. Information also is given for other fruits and vegetables. Sensitivity: The sensitivity of the product to chilling injury, freezing injury, moisture loss, ethylene damage, odors, bruising, or decay is highlighted. Many tropical fruits and vegetables are highly perishable. Transit & Storage Life: The time available for transit and storage is estimated for products that are properly packaged and held as close as possible at the recom¬ mended product temperature and relative humidity. Many tropical fruits and vegetables are held at room temperature at the retail store and in the consumers home for ripening. Bananas are ripened before retail display as are some avoca¬ dos, kiwifruit, and tomatoes. Packaging. Commmon package sizes used are listed with approximate weights. Otherwise, a recommendation is made. Standardized or MUM containers, however, should be used when possible. Many tropicai fruits and vegetables are low volume items and can be packaged in 4.5 kg (10 lb) quantities to minimize waste and in¬ crease flexibility in sales. Highly perishable items must be well protected. Transportation: Based on the transit and storage life, a recommendation is made. Since many tropical products are high-value and traded in small quantities, they are often shipped by air, even when surface transportation could be used. Loading. Any special loading considerations or methods are mentioned. Notwithstanding the information presented in this section, shippers should follow the recommendations of the importer for grade, weight, count, type of packaging and method of transportation for tropical fruits and vegetables, and other special¬ ties. A number of firms in the United States specialize in handling these items. They can give the best information for selling to a particular market. 'Sources of information for the following product guidelines are Buishand, Houwing, and Jansen (3), ardenburg, Watada, and Wang (7), Martin (11), Maxwell and Maxwell (12),(13), Ortho Books (15) Pan- tastico (17), Pijpers. Constant, and Jansen (18), The Packer (16), Produce Marketing Association (20), United Fresh Fruit and Vegetable Association (28) Information also was obtained from APHIS. J Ft Brooks & Son, Inc and Freida's Finest Produce Specialties. Inc. 75 Amaranth (Amaranthus dubius) Availability: year-round, California, West Indies. Grade: dark green leaves, handled like spinach. Precooling: hydrocool, package-ice. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 0-2°C (32-36°F) 95-100%. Sensitivity: freezing injury. Transit & Storage Life: 10-14 days. Packaging: waxed fiberboard boxes, wirebound wood crates, 9 kg (20 lb). Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers. Anise (Pimpinella anisum) Availability: year-round, California, Puerto Rico. Grade: U.S. No. 1. Precooling: hydrocool, package-ice. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 0° to 2°C (32-36°F), 90-95%. Sensitivity: freezing injury. Transit & Storage Life: 2-3 weeks. Packaging: one-piece waxed fiberboard box or nailed wood crate, 1-1/2, 2, 2-1/2, or 3 dozen count, 18-23 kg (40-50 lb). Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers. Artichoke, Globe (Cynara scolymus) Availability: year-round, California, peak season March-May; Chile Grades: U.S. No. 1 and No. 2. Precooling: hydrocool Temperature & Relative Humidity: 0°C (32°F), 95-100%. Sensitivity: freezing below -1 °C (30°F); moisture loss; bruising. Transit & Storage Life: 2-3 weeks. Packaging: place-packed by size and count in waxed fiberboard boxes, 10 kg (22 lb.): 18 jumbos, 24 extra large, 36 large, 48 medium, 60 or 72 small. Baby ar¬ tichokes, small or large, are packed loose, 70-120 count. Perforated film liners will help maintain humidity in packaging. Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers, early season and some imports by air cargo containers. Loading: hand-loaded or palletized. Top-ice in trailers. Asian Pear (Apple pear, Sandpear, Pyrus pyrifola) Availability: August-October, depending on variety, California, Washington; Japan; New Zealand. Grade: round like an apple, green, yellow, or yellowish green skin when ripe, de¬ pending on variety. Precooling: room cool. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 1°C (34°F), 90-95%. Sensitivity: freezing injury, moisture loss; ethylene producer. Transit & Storage Life: 5-6 months. Packaging: film lined full telescoping fiberboard box , tray pack, 10 kg (22 lb). Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers. Asparagus (Asparagus officinalis) Availability: California, Washington, New Jersey and several other States. Mexico, Canada, Chile, Guatemala, New Zealand, Australia, the Caribbean. Grade: U S. No. 1 & No.2; Washington Extra Fancy and Fancy jumbo, large or standard; New Jersey 1. Top quality asparagus is straight, 1/2 inch maximum di¬ ameter, and at least two thirds green. Precooling: hydrocool. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 0-2°C (32-36°F), 95-100%. Sensitivity: freezing injury at -1 °C (30°F); moisture loss. Transit & Storage Life: 2-3 weeks Packaging: nailed wood pyramid crates, waxed fiberboard or corrugated plastic pyramid boxes, rectangular waxed fiberboard boxes, loose pack crates contain 14.5 kg (32 lb); 1/2 crates—6-7.7 kg (13-17 lb); boxes—16 bunches. 0.7 kg (1.5 lb) each, totaling 11 kg (25 lb); crates—12 bunches yielding 13.6 kg (30 lb); Bunches are secured with rubber bands or plastic film sleeves with labels. A foam moisture pad is placed in the bottom of boxes and crates to reduce wilting. Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers, general cargo ves¬ sels, some early season and imports by air cargo containers. Loading: hand-loaded or palletized. Wood crates are cross-stacked. Atemoya (Annona squamosa x A. cherimola, hybrid) Availability: August-October, Florida. Grade: heart shaped light green fruit with scales, 89-140 mm (3.5-5.5 in), weighing 284-454 g (10-16 oz). Precooling: forced air, room cool. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 13°C (55°F), 85-90%. Sensitivity: chilling injury; bruising. Transit & Storage Life: 4-6 weeks. Packaging single layer pack in fiberboard box with paper or foam wrapping or ex¬ celsior to reduce bruising 4.5 kg (10 lb). Transportation: highway trailers, air cargo containers. 77 Avocados—Fuerte, Hass, Booth-7 varieties (Persea spp.) Availability: year-round. California with peak supplies in Spring; Florida from August-December with peak supplies in October; Chile, West Indies. Grade: U S. No. 1, Combination, No. 2, No. 3; California regulations. Treatments: controlled ripening with ethylene. Precooling: forced air. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 7°C (45°F) 85-90%. Sensitivity: chilling injury at or below 4°C (39°F); ethylene producer. Transit & Storage Life: 2 weeks. Packaging: two layer tray-packed Bliss boxes and lugs, 11-13 kg. (25-28 lbs); sin¬ gle layer, tray-packed Bliss carton, 5.6 kg (12.5 lbs); single layer cartons 6 kg (13-13.5 lbs). Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers, some imports by air cargo containers. Loading: palletized unit loads with cornerboards and strapping. Avocados—Lula, Booth 1, Booth 8, Taylor, Hickson, Hall Varieties (Persea spp.) Availability: August-December, Florida with peak supplies in October; West Indies. Grade: U.S. No. 1, Combination, No. 2, No. 3. Treatments: controlled ripening with ethylene. Precooling: forced air. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 4°C (39°F) 90-95%. Sensitivity: chilling injury below 4°C (39°F); ethylene producer. Transit & Storage Life: 4-8 weeks. Packaging: two layer tray-packed Bliss boxes and lugs, 11-13 kg. (25-28 lbs); sin¬ gle layer, tray-packed Bliss carton, 5.6 kg (12.5 lbs); single layer cartons 6 kg (13-13.5 lbs). Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers, some imports by air cargo containers. Loading: palletized unit loads with cornerboards and strapping. Avocados—Fuchs, Pollock, Waldin Varieties (Persea spp.) Availability: August-December, Florida with peak supplies in October; West Indies. Grade: U.S. No. 1, Combination, No. 2, No. 3. Treatments: controlled ripening with ethylene. Precooling: forced air. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 13°C (55°F) 85-90%. Sensitivity: chilling injury below 7°C (45°F); ethylene producer. Transit & Storage Life: 2 weeks. Packaging: two layer tray-packed Bliss boxes and lugs, 11-13 kg (25-28 lbs); single layer, tray-packed Bliss carton, 5.6 kg (12.5 lbs); single layer cartons 6 kg (13-13.5 lbs). Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers, some imports by air cargo containers. Loading: palletized unit loads with cornerboards and strapping. 78 Babaco (Carica pentagona) Availability: year-round; November-January, New Zealand. Grade: shipped green, soft golden when fully ripe, 280-400 mm (11-16 in) long. Precooling: hydrocool, forced air. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 7°C (45°F), 85-90%. Sensitivity: chilling injury below 7°C. Transit & Storage Life: 1-3 weeks. Packaging: tray pack in fiberboard cartons with paper excelsior. Transportation: van containers, air cargo containers. Baby Vegetables— artichokes, avocados, beets (gold, red), carrots, cauliflower, celery, corn, eggplant (black, white), leeks, lettuce, kohlrabi, pear tomatoes, pearl onions (purple, red, yellow), scallopini, squash, some with blossums (acorn, courgette-fluer, crookneck, custard marrow or patty pan, lemon drop, royal opal, sunburst, zucchini), turnips (gold, white). Availability: artichokes, March-May; celery, lettuce, September-March; corn, egg¬ plant, pear tomatoes, scallopini, squash, May-Octooer; avocados, beets, carrots, turnips, year-round; California, Florida, Guatemala, France. Grade: These items are for the restaurant/gourmet cooking trade, quality must be very high. Precooling: hydrocool artichokes, beets, carrots, cauliflower, celery, corn, leeks, kohlrabi, turnips. Vacuum cool celery and lettuce. Forced air cool avocados, egg¬ plant, onions, squash, and tomatoes. Package-ice bunched beets, carrots, kohlra¬ bi, leeks, and turnips. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 0°C (32°F), 95-100% artichokes, avocados, beets, carrots, cauliflower, celery, corn, leeks, lettuce, kohlrabi, onions and turnips. 13°C (55°F), 90-95% avocados, eggplant, and squash. Sensitivity: these products are more perishable in terms of bruising, chilling injury, freezing injury, moisture loss, ethylene damage, and odors. Transit & Storage Life: as little as 1 week, especially for products with their tops or blossoms intact. Packaging: waxed fiberboard boxes, holes for ventilation. Artichokes, 120 count; avocados, 4.5 kg (10 lb); bunched beets, 24 count; bunched carrots, 24 count; cauliflower, 24 count; corn, 48 count; eggplant, 4.5 kg (10 lb); bunched kohlrabi, 24 count; bunched leeks, 24 count; lettuce, 24 count; pearl onions, 12—284 g (10 oz) packages, scallopini, 4.5 kg (10 lb); squash, 4.5 kg (10 lb), bunched turnips, 24 count. Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, air cargo containers. Loading: products are often shipped in mixed pallet loads. 79 Bananas (Musa spp.) Availability: year-round, Hawaii, Ecuador, Honduras, Costa Rica, Columbia, Pana¬ ma, Guatemala, Mexico, West Indies. Grade: Industry grades No. 1 and No. 2.; shipped green, color and size are measured in the field prior to harvest. Treatments: ethylene in ripening rooms at 14° to 18° C (58-65° F). Precooling: forced air, room. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 13° to 14°C (55-58°F) 90-95%. Sensitivity: chilling injury below 13°C (55°F); bruising; ethylene producer/ethylene sensitive. Transit & Storage Life: 1-4 weeks. Packaging: film-lined full telescoping fiberboard boxes, 18 kg (40 lb). The liner is sealed by some shippers to obtain a modified atmosphere and delay ripening. Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers, breakbulk vessels. Loading: palletized with netting or hand loaded. Barbados Cherry (Acercla, West Indies Cherry, Malpighia glabra) Availability: April-November, Florida. Grade: bright red, 25 mm (1 in) dia, yellow-orange flesh when ripe, ship only half ripe fruit. Precooling: forced air. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 0°C (32°F), 85-90%. Sensitivity: freeze damage at -1° C (30° F), ripe fruit bruises easily. Transit & Storage Life: 7-8 weeks. Packaging: one piece fiberboard boxes, 5-9 kg (12-20 lb). Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers. Bean Sprouts (Mung bean, Vigna radiata or Soybean, Glycine max) Availability: year-round, United States. Grade: firm sprouts. Precooling: hydrocool. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 0°C (32°F) 95-100%. Sensitivity: freezing injury. Transit & Storage Life: 7-9 days. Packaging: consumer packs in fiberboard boxes, film bags; 227 g (8 oz), 12 count; 0.5 kg (1 lb), 10 count; 2 kg (5 lb); 4.5 kg (10 lb). Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers. Beans, Green or Snap (Phaseolus vulgaris) Availability: year-round, Florida, October-June; many other States ship durinq the summer; Mexico, Canada. Grade: U.S. Fancy, No. 1, Combination, No. 2. Precooling: vacuum or forced air. High respiration rate. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 4 to 7°C (40-45°F), 95% Sensitivity: chilling injury below 4°C (40°F), decay from moisture if held above 7°C (45°F); ethylene sensitive. Transit & Storage Life: 7-10 days. Packaging: w.rebound wood crates, 0.035 cu m (1 bu), 12-14 kg (26-31 lb); partial¬ ly telescoping fiberboard boxes, 11-14 kg (25-30 lbs) and 9-10 kg (20-22 lbs). Transportation: highway and piggyback trailer. Loading: hand loaded or palletized, with provisions for air circulation throughout when the beans are in crates or boxes. Beans, Lima (Phaseolus lunatus) Availability: year-round, peaking in July-October, California and many other States Grade: U.S. Fancy, No. 1, Combination. No. 2. Precooling: vacuum or forced air. High respiration rate. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 5° to 6°C (41-43°F), 95% (unshelled) Sensrnty: chilling mjury below 5°C (41“ F); decay at h,gher temperatures; ethylene sensitive. Transit & Storage Life: 5 days. Packaging: w.rebound wood crates, 0.035 cu m (1 bu), 12-14 kg (26-31 lb)- partial¬ ly telescoping fiberboard boxes, 11-14 kg (25-30 lbs) and 9-10 kg (20-22 lbs). Transportation: highway and piggyback trailer. Loading: hand-loaded or palletized, with provisions for air circulation throughout when the beans are in crates or boxes. Belgian Endive (Witloof Chicory, Cichorium intybus, var. foliosum) Availability: year-round, New York, Belgium, France, The Netherlands Grade, bullet shaped heads. 100-165 mm (4-6.5 in) long, peel outer green leaves before packing Precooling vacuum cool. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 2° to 3°C (36-37 °F), 95-98%. Sensitivity: freezing injury; bruising; light will cause leaves to turn green and bitter ethylene sensitive Transit & Storage Life: 2-4 weeks. Packaging: f.lm-l.ned full telescoping fiberboard boxes or masonite and wood crates with telescoping fiberboard top, 4.5 kg (10 lb) with 48-56 count Each layer is protected from light and moisture loss with dark blue parrifin paper wrapping. K K Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers, air cargo con¬ tainers. Loading. Two boxes are tied together, units are palletized with film wrap or corner- boards and strapping 81 Bitter Melon (Balsam pear, Bitter gourd, Momordica charantia) Availability: year-round, California, Puerto Rico. Grade: wrinkled green skin, up to 340 mm (13 in) long. Precooling: hydrocool, forced air. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 12° to 13°C (54-55°F) 85-90%. Sensitivity: chilling injury. Transit & Storage Life: 2-3 weeks. Packaging: full telescoping fiberboard boxes and wood wirebound crates, wood lugs, 9 kg (20 lb), 18 kg (40 lb). Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers. Black Sapote (Diospyros ebenaster) Availability: December-April, Florida. Grade: dull olive green fruit, 60-120 mm (2.5-4.5 in) diameter, shipped unripe. Precooling: forced air, room cool. Temperature & Re'ative Humidity: 13 to 15°C (55-60°F), 85-90%. Sensitivity: chilling injury. Transit & Storage Life: 2-3 weeks. Packaging: single layer pack in fiberboard box, with wrap or sleeves to limit bruis¬ ing. 4.5 kg (10 lb). Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers, air cargo con¬ tainers. Blood Orange (Citrus sinensus) Availability: November-March, Italy; March-April, California. Grade: pink or red pulp, pink blush on rind, 76 mm (3 in) diameter. Precooling: forced air, room cool. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 4° to 7°C (39-45°F), 90-95%. Sensitivity: chilling injury below 3°C (38°F). Transit & Storage Life: 3-8 weeks. Packaging: full telescoping fiberboard box, 1/2 bu bushel, 14 kg (30 lb), 4/5 bushel, 20 kg (45 lb), place pack, 18 kg (40 lb). Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers. Loading: palletized or cross stacked on slip sheets. Bok Choy (Pak-choi, celery cabbage, Brassica rapa. var. chinesis) Availability: year-round, California, Florida, New York. Grade: white stalks, green leaves, 300 mm (12 in) long. Precooling: vacuum cool, hydrocool, package-ice. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 0°C (32°F), 95-100%. Sensitivity: freezing below 0°C (32°F); ethylene. Transit & Storage Life: 3 weeks. Packaging: bunched. Western Growers Association nailed wood crates, lined with paper, 29-32 kg (65-70 lb); 1/2 wood crate, 14-18 kg (30-40 lb).; 368 mm (14 5 in) w,rebound wood crates, 20-25 kg (45-54 lb) 390 mm (15.5 in) w.rebound wood crates, 23 kg (50 lb); 0.052 cu m (1.5 bushel) wirebound crates 23-24 kg (50-53 Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers. Loading: hand-loaded or palletized. Boniato (Batas, Aerial yam, Dioscorea bulbifera) Availability: year-round, Florida, Puerto Rico. Grade: red skinned yam with white flesh. Treatments: washed and treated with fungicide. Precooling: room cooling, forced air. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 13° to 15°C (55-60°F), 85-90%. Sensitivity: chilling injury below 12°C (54°F). Transit & Storage Life: 4-5 months. Packaging, full telescoping fiberboard boxes and wirebound crates, 23 kg (50 lb) ransportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers. Breadfruit (Panapen, Artocarpus altlis) Availability: year-round, Florida, Puerto Rico, West Indies, Belize. Grade, harvested at all stages-immature. mature green, and yellow-green ripe W300 mm" M C ,p eS '> a eedS ** Pr0CeSSed ' Sold as b^drldts. knobby skin, 100-300 mm (4-12 in) diameter. Precooling: forced air, room cool. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 13 to 15°C (55-60°F) 85-90% Sensitivity: chilling injury below 12°C (54°F), ethylene sensitive Transit & Storage Life: 2-6 weeks. Packaging: full telescop,ng liberboard box. film wrap. 7 kg (15 lb). 18 kq (40 Ibl Transportation: highway and piggyback tra.lers. van containers. a,r cargo con- 83 Broccoli (Brassica oleracea, Botrytis group) Availability: year-round, California, Texas, Oregon, Arizona, Mexico, Canada, Guatemala. Grade: U.S. Fancy, No. 1, and No. 2. Precooling: hydrocool, package-ice. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 0°C (32°F), 95-100%. Sensitivity: very high respiration rate and moisture loss; ethylene will cause yel¬ lowing. Transit & Storage Life: 10-14 days. Packaging: one-piece wax impregnated fiberboard box, package-iced, 14-18 bunches, 10 kg (23 lb); 4.5 kg (10 lb) bulk florets; 1.4 kg (3 lb) mesh bags of florets; 7 kg (15 lb) 76-102 mm (3-4 in) spears; 9.5 kg (21 lb) 152 mm (6 in) spears. Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers. Loading: top-ice. Brussels Sprouts (Brassica oleracea, Gemmifera group) Availability: year-round, California, Mexico Grade: U.S. No. 1 and No. 2. Precooling: hydrocool, forced-air, package-ice. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 0°C (32°F), 95-100% Sensitivity: high respiration and moisture loss rate; ethylene will cause yellowing Transit & Storage Life: 3-5 weeks. Packaging: perforated film-lined waxed fiberboard box, 11 kg (25 lb); fiberboard trays with 12 count 284 g or 340 g (10 or 12 oz) film wrapped cups. Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers. Loading: top-ice. Cactus Leaves (Nopales, Nopalitos, Opuntia ficus indica) Availability: year-round, California, Mexico, Dominican Republic, Italy, Bahamas, Belize, Chile, Haiti. Grade: crisp, green leaves, 6 mm (.25 in) thick, remove thorns. Precooling: forced air, room cool. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 2° to 4°C (36-39°F), 90-95%. Sensitivity: freezing injury, moisture loss. Transit & Storage Life: 2-3 weeks. Packaging: full telescoping waxed fiberboard box or paper lined nailed wood crates, 4.5 kg (10 lb), 9 kg (20 lb). Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers. Cactus Pear (Prickly pear, Tuna, Opuntia ficus indica) Availability: year-round, California, Mexico, Dominican Republic, Italy, Bahamas, Belize, Chile, Haiti. Grade: oval green fruit, 70-100 mm (2.5-4 in), reddish brown when ripe. Precooling: forced air, room cool. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 2° to 4°C (36-39°F), 90-95%. Sensitivity: chilling injury, moisture loss. Transit & Storage Life: 3 weeks. Packaging: full telescoping waxed fiberboard box, tissue wrapped place pack, 45, 50. 60, or 70 count, 8 kg (18 lb). Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, freight containers. Caimito (Star apple, Chrysophyllum cainito) Availability: February-May, Florida. Grade: green or purple fruit depending on variety, 70-80 mm (2.5 to 3 inch) di¬ ameter. Precooling: hydrocool, forced air. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 3°C (37°F) 90% . Sensitivity: chilling injury. Transit & Storage Life: 3 weeks. Packaging: tray packed fiberboard box, 4.5 kg (10 lb). Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers, air cargo con¬ tainers. Calabaza (Cucurbita pepo) Availability: year-round, Florida, New Jersey, Dominican Republic, Costa Rica. Grade pumpkin, many colors, shapes, sizes. Precooling: room cool. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 10° to 13°C (50-55°F), 50-70%. Sensitivity: chilling injury at 4°C (40°F); decay at higher humidities. Transit & Storage Life: 2-3 months. Packaging, plastic mesh sacks, 23 kg (50 lb), bulk fiberboard or wirebound wood bins, 363 kg (800 lb). Transportation: highway or piggyback trailers, van containers. Calamondin (Citrus microcarpa) Availability: year-round, Florida. Grade: greenish-yellow to orange, 20-30 mm (1 to 1-1/4 in) diameter Treatments: waxing, fungicide, ethylene for degreening. Precooling room, forced air Temperature & Relative Humidity: 9° to 10°C (48-50°F) 90%. Sensitivity: chilling injury Transit & Storage Life: 2 weeks. Packaging: full telescoping fiberboard boxes, nailed wood crates with paper lining, 0.028 cu m (4/5 bu), 21 kg (47 lb); 0.017 cu m (1/2 bu) 11 kg (25 lb). Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers. 85 Canistel (Egg fruit, Zapote amarillo, Pouteria campechiana) Availability: year-round, Florida. Grade : yellow-orange skin fruit, 40-120 mm (1.5-5 in) diameter, top shaped. Precooling: room cool. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 13° to 15°C (55-60°F), 85-90%. Sensitivity: chilling injury. Transit & Storage Life: 3 weeks. Packaging: one-piece fiberboard box, wrapped, tray pack, 4.5 kg (10 lb). Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers, air cargo con¬ tainers. Cantaloupes (Cucumis melo) Availability: year-round, California, Texas, Arizona, Mexico, Dominican Republic, Honduras. Grade: U.S. Fancy, No. 1, Commercial, No.2. Treatments: hot water dip to reduce decay. Precooling: hydrocool, forced-air, package-ice. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 2-5°C (36-41 °F), 95% for less than full ripe (3/4 slip), 0-2°C (32-36°F) full ripe (full slip). Sensitivity: chilling injury to less than full ripe melons below 2°C; high moisture loss rate; ethylene producer. Transit & Storage Life: 15 days, less than full ripe, 5-14 days full ripe. Packaging: 1/2 carton, one-piece waxed fiberboard box or wirebound wood crate, 9, 12, 18, or 23 count, 17-19 kg (38-41 lb); 2/3 carton or wirebound or nailed wood crate, 12, 14, 18, 24, or 30 count, 24-25 kg (53-55 lb); standard crate, 32 kg (70 lb); jumbo crate, 18-45 count, 16-18 kg (36-39 lb). Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers. Loading: top-ice. Carambola (Star fruit, Averrhoa carambola) Availability: August-February, Florida; Belize. Grade: firm with shinny skin, ripe fruit has yellow-orange color with brown edges, up to 100 mm (4 in) long, with star shaped cross-section. Precooling: forced air, room. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 9 to 10°C (48-50°F), 85-90%. Sensitivity: chilling injury, moisture loss. Transit & Storage Life: 3-4 weeks. Packaging: two-piece waxed fiberboard box with cover, plastic pad on bottom to reduce bruising, 4-4.5 kg (8-10 lb). Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers. 86 Carrots (Daucus carota) Availability: year-round, California, Texas, Arizona, Florida; Canada. Mexico Grade: Topped carrots, US. Extra No. 1, No. 1, No. 1 Jumbo, and No. 2; bunched carrots, short-trimmed top carrots, U.S. No. 1, Commercial. Treatments: prestorage dip to reduce decay. Precooling: hydrocool, vacuum cool, package-ice. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 0°C (32°F), 98-100%. Sensitivity: high moisture loss rate, especially for bunched carrots; ethylene will cause bitterness. Transit & Storage Life: mature carrots, 7-9 months; bunched carrots, 2 weeks im¬ mature carrots, 4-6 weeks. Packaging, topped carrots in 0.5 kg (1 lb) film bags in master film bag, 23 kg (50 lb), bunched carrots, package-iced, in one-piece waxed fiberboard box 2 dozen bunches, 10-12 kg (23-27 lb). Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers, railroad boxcars Loading: hand-loaded or palletized Cashew Apple (Anacardium occidentale) Availability: Florida. , Grade: red to yellow color, 100-200 mm (4-8 in) long, nut processed too. Precooling: forced air. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 0° to 2°C (32-36°F) 85-90%. Sensitivity: freezing injury. Transit & Storage Life: 5 weeks. Packaging: one-piece fiberboard box, 4.5 kg (10 lb). Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers. Cauliflower (Brassica oleracea, Botrytis group) Availability: year-round, California, Oregon, Arizona, Texas, Canada, Mexico Guatemala. Grade: U.S. No. 1. Treatments: chlorinated water to reduce decay, improve color. Heads covered with leaves during growing to prevent yellowing. Precooling: vacuum cool, hydrocool, hydrovacuum cool. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 0°C (32°F), 95-98%. Sensitivity: freezing injury at -1°C (30°F); ethylene sensitive. Transit & Storage Life: 3-4 weeks. Packaging, wrapped with perforated film, packed in fiberboard trays, 12-16 heads, 10 kg (23 lb); nailed wood crates, 20-23 kg (45-50 lb). Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers. Loading, fiberboard trays are unitized on pallets, crates are hand-loaded. 07 Celeriac (Celery root, Apio, Arraccacia xanthorrhiza) Availability: year-round, California, Puerto Rico, Dominican Republic, Venezuela. Grade: root should be firm with tender flesh, 57-102 mm (2.25 to 4 in) diameter, trim tops and branch roots. Precooling: hydrocool. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 0°C (32°F), 97-99%. Sensitivity: freezing at -1°C (30°F), high moisture loss rate. Transit & Storage Life: 6-8 months. Packaging: fiberboard boxes, wirebound wood crates, 0.039 cu m (1-1/9 bu), 16 kg (35 lb). Other sizes used include 0.028 cu m (4/5 bu), 0.017 cu m (1/2 bu), and 0.020 cu m (5/9 bu). Wood crates are also used, 9 kg (20 lb), 16 kg (35 lb). Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers. Celery (Apium graveolens) Availability: year-round. California, Florida, Michigan, Canada, Mexico, Guatemala. Grade: U.S. Extra No. 1, No. 1, and No. 2. Precooling: vacuum cool, hydrocool, hydrovacuum cool. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 0°C (32°F), 98-100%. Sensitivity: high moisture loss rate; freezing injury at -0.5°C (31 °F); ethylene sen¬ sitive. Transit & Storage Life: 2-3 months. Packaging: one-piece waxed fiberboard box, flat pack, 1-1/2 to 3 dozen, 27-29 kg (60-65 lb), also 368 mm (14.5 in) wirebound crates. Celery hearts in film bags in waxed fiberboard box or paper lined wood crates, 12-18 count, 2-3 stalks per bag, 11-17 kg (24-38 lb). Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers. Loading: palletized or hand-loaded. Chayote Squash (Sechium edule) Availability: September-May, California, Mexico, Central America. New Zealand. Grade: wrinkled white or green skin depending on variety, pear shaped, 76-100 mm (3-4 in) long. Precooling: forced air, room cool. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 7°C (45 °F) 85-90%. Sensitivity: chilling injury; moisture loss; ethylene sensitive Transit & Storage Life: 4-6 weeks. Packaging: fiberboard box with dividers, each piece in a film bag, single layer, 24-30 count, 9 kg (20 lb), Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers. Loading: hand-loaded or unitized on pallets. Cherimoya (Anon, Annona cherimola) Availability: year-round, California, New Zealand. Grade, clip stem close to fruit which should be firm and pale green to creamy yel¬ low, 100 mm (4 in) diameter or more, weighing 250-600 g (8.8-21 oz). Precooling: forced air, room cool. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 13°C (55 °F). Sensitivity: bruising; chilling injury; ethylene producer. Transit & Storage Life: 2-4 weeks. Packaging: single layer pack in fiberboard cartons with paper wrapping, foam sleeves, or excelsior to reduce bruising, 12 count. Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers, air cargo con¬ tainers. Chinese Broccoli (Kailan, Gui Ion. Brassica var.) Availability: Florida, Dominican Republic. Grade: yellow flowered, light green leaved stems. Precooling hydrocool, package-ice. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 0°C (32°F) 95-100%. Sensitivity: freezing injury. Transit & Storage Life: 10-14 days. Packaging: wirebound wood crates, waxed fiberboard boxes, 16-18 kg (35-40 lb) crates, boxes, lugs, 11 kg (25 lb). Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, air cargo containers. Loading: top-ice. Chinese Cabbage (Pe-tsai, Napa, Brassica campestris. var. pekinensis) Availability: year-round, California, Florida, New York, New Jersey. Grade: short leaved stalks, closed head, yellow-green to dark green leaves, up to 580 mm (23 in) long. Precooling: vacuum cool, package-ice. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 0°C (32°F), 95-100%. Sensitivity: freezing injury; high moisture loss rate. Transit & Storage Life: 2-3 months. Packaging: Western Growers Association nailed wood crates, lined with paper, 29-32 kg (65-70 lb); waxed fiberboard boxes or 1/2 wood crate, 14-18 kg (30-40 lb).; 368 mm (14 5 in) wirebound wood crates, 20-25 kg (45-54 lb) 390 mm (15.5 in) wirebound wood crates. 23 kg (50 lb); 0.052 cu m (1-1/2 bu) wirebound crates 23-24 kg (50-53 lb). Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers. 89 Chinese Long Bean (Asparagus bean, Cow pea, Vigna unguiculata ssp. sesqui- pedalis) Availability: year-round, California, Mexico, Dominican Republic. Grade: grey-green pods up to 900 mm (36 in) long, trimmed to 300 mm (12 in). Precooling: hydrocool. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 4° to 7°C (39-45°F) 90-95%. Sensitivity: chilling injury at 3°C (38°F). Transit & Storage Life: 7-10 days. Packaging: wirebound wood crates. 16-18 kg (35-40 lb) Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers. Clementine (Citrus reticulata cv.) Availability: November-February, California, Florida, Morrocco. Grade: flatfish oval deep orange citrus fruit, 50-75 mm (2-3 in) diameter. Treatments: degreen with ethylene gas. Precooling: forced air, room cool. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 4°C (39°F) 90-95%. Sensitivity: chilling injury at 1 °C (34°F). Transit & Storage Life: 2-4 weeks. Packaging: wood lugs, full telescoping fiberboard boxes, 0.017 cu m (1/2 bu), 11 kg (25 lb); 0.028 cu m (4/5 bu), 20 kg (45 lb). Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers. Loading: palletized or on slipsheets. Coconut (Cocos nucifera) Availability: year-round, Puerto Rico, Honduras, Dominican Republic Jamaica. Grade: Puerto Rico No. 1 and No. 2. Treatments: wax coating or film wrap to prevent moisture loss. Precooling: hydrocool, forced air. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 0 to 1.5°C (32-35°F) 80-85% for long term tran¬ sit and storage, 13° to 16°C (55-60°F) 80-85% for 2 weeks or less. Sensitivity: moisture loss; freezing at 3°C (26°F), a rapid temperature change of 8°C (15°F) will cause cracking. Transit & Storage Life: 1-2 months, (2 weeks at room temperature). Packaging: woven plastic or burlap sacks, 40-50 count, 34-36 kg (75-80 lb), full telescoping fiberboard boxes, 20-25 count, 17-18 kg (37-40 lb). Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers. Loading: hand-loaded or palletized with filament tape. Corn, Sweet (Zea mays) Availability: year-round, Florida, New York, California, New Jersey, and many other States; Mexico. Grade: U.S. Fancy, No. 1, and No. 2. Precooling: hydrocool, hydrovacuum cool, package-ice. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 0°C (32°F), 95-98%. Sensitivity: very high respiration rate and moisture loss; freezing at -0.5 °C (31 °F). Transit & Storage Life: 5-8 days. Packaging: wirebound wood crates, 4-1/2 to 5 dozen, 19 kg (42 lb), also waxed fiberboard box, 5 dozen, 23 kg (50 lb). Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers. Loading: hand-loaded, top-iced. Cucumbers (Cucumis sativas) Availability: year-round, Michigan, North Carolina, California, Ohio, South Carolina, Texas, Oregon, Florida and many other States; Mexico, Bahamas, Jamaica, Hon-' duras, Canada, Dominican Republic. Grade: U.S. Fancy, Extra No. 1, No. 1, No. 1 Small, No. 1 Large, and No. 2. Treatments: waxing, fungicides. Precooling: forced-air, hydrocool. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 10-13°C (50-55°F), 95%. Sensitivity: chilling injury below 4.5°C (40°F); moisture loss; ethylene sensitive. Transit & Storage Life: 10-14 days. Packaging: one-piece waxed fiberboard box or wirebound wood crate, 0.039 cu m (1-1/9 bu), 25 kg (55 lb); 0.035 cu m (1 bu), 21 kg (47 lb); place pack 13.6 kg (30 lb). Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers. Loading: palletized or hand-loaded. Custard Apple (Annona reticulata) Availability: November-April, California, Florida, Chile. Grade: spherical yellowish-green fruit with scales, 70-120 mm (3.5-5.5 in). Precooling: forced air, room cool. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 5° to 7°C (41-45°F), 85-90%. Sensitivity: chilling injury; bruising. Transit & Storage Life: 4-6 weeks. Packaging: single layer pack in fiberboard box with paper or foam wrapping or ex¬ celsior to reduce bruising. 5 kg (12 lb). Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers. 91 Daikon (Black radish, Raphanus sativus, var. niger ) Availability: year-round, Florida, California, Dominican Republic, Grade: long white root up to 300 mm (12 in) long, usually topped. Precooling: hydrocool. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 0° to 1°C (32-34°F), 95-100%. Sensitivity: moisture loss. Transit & Storage Life: 4 months, topped; 2 weeks bunched. Packaging: full telescoping fiberboard box, wirebound wood crates, 0.039 cu m (1-1/9 bu), 23 kg (50 lb); boxes, crates, lugs, 11 kg (25 lb). Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers. Durian (Durio zibethinus) Availability: April-July, Bahamas, Dominican Republic, Haiti, Jamaica, Central America, South America. Grade: olive green thorned skin, 150-350 mm (6-14 in) long, 150-250 mm (6-10 in) diameter, weighing up to 18 kg (40 lb); harvest unripe to minimize odor. Precooling: forced air, room. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 4° to 6°C (39-43°F) 85-90%. Sensitivity: gives off a very offensive odor when ripening, keep separate from other products. Transit & Storage Life: 6-8 weeks. Packaging: single layer pack in fiberboard box with film liner, individually wrap each piece. Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers. Loading: do not ship in mixed loads Eggplant (Solanum melongena) Availability: year-round, Florida, New Jersey, Mexico, Dominican Republic, Jamaica. Grade: U.S. Fancy, No. 1, and No. 2. Precooling: forced-air, hydrocool. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 12°C (54°F), 90-95%. Sensitivity: chilling injury at 10°C (50°F); ethylene sensitive; bruising. Transit & Storage Life: 1 week. Packaging: individually paper wrapped, place-packed in one-piece waxed fiber- board boxes or wirebound crates, 0.039 cu m (1-1/9 bu), 15 kg (33 lb). Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers. Loading: palletized or hand-loaded. Feijoa (Pineapple guava, Feijoa sellowiana) Availability: year-round, September-January, California, March-June, New Zealand: Florida. Grade: green skin fruit, 30-100 mm (1.2-4 in) long, 25-50 mm (1-2 in) diameter. Precooling: forced air. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 5° to 10°C (41-50°F), 90%. Sensitivity: chilling injury below 5°C (41 °F). Transit & Storage Life: 2-3 weeks. Packaging: cell packed fiberboard or wood fiats, 25-49 count, 4.5 kg (10 lb). Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers. Figs—Mission, Calimyrna varieties (Ficus carica) Availability: April-September, California. Grade: yellow or purple skin, depending on variety, pear shape, 80 mm (3 5 in) long. Precooling: forced air. Temperature & Relative Humidity: -0.5° to 0°C (31-32°C), 85-90%, Sensitivity: freezing at -2°C (28°F); ethylene producer; bruising. Transit & Storage Life: 7-10 days. Packaging: cell packed, fiberboard tray, 1 layer 2-4 kg (5-8 lb)- 2 layer 5-7 ka (10-15 lb). ’ Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers, air cargo con¬ tainers. Granadilla (Yellow Passionfruit, Passiflora edulis var. flavicarpa ) Availability: year-round, California, New Zealand, Australia, South Africa. Grade: yellow or orange fruit, 50-80 mm (2-3 in) diameter. Precooling: forced air. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 10°C (50°F), 85-90%. Sensitivity: chilling injury. Transit & Storage Life: 3-4 weeks. Packaging: cell packed fiberboard or wood flats, 25-49 count, 4.5 kg (10 lb). Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers, air cargo con¬ tainers. Ginger Root (Zingiber officinale) Availability: year-round, Hawaii, Central America, South America. West Indies. Grade Hawaiian No 1, tight light brown skin. Precooling: forced air, room cool. Temperature & Relative Humidity 13°C (55°F) 65%. Sensitivity: chilling injury, mold growth and sprouting at higher humidities. Transit & Storage Life: 6 months. Packaging: loose pack, full telescoping fiberboard carton, 13.6 kg (30 lb). Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers. 93 Grapefruit (Citrus paradisi) Availability: year-round, Florida, Texas, Arizona, California; Bahamas, Israel, Mexi¬ co, Dominican Republic. Grade: U S. Fancy, No. 1, No. 1 Bright, No. 1 Golden, No. 1 Bronze, No. 1 Rus¬ set, No. 2, No. 2 Bright, No. 2 Russet, Combination, No. 3; Florida Special. Treatments: waxing, fungicide; degreening with ethylene; curing for cold tempera¬ ture storage or cold treatment at 16°C (61 °F) or 21 °C (70°F) for 7 days; cold treatment for fruit fly disinfestation under APHIS supervision. Precooling: room cool. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 10° to 15°C (50-60°F), 85-90% for Florida and Texas grown fruit (Duncan, Pink Seedless, Marsh Seedless, and Ruby Red Seed¬ less varieties) depending on time of season; 14° to 15°C (58-60°F), 85-90% for California and Arizona grown fruit. Sensitivity: chilling injury at 7°C (45°F), early season Florida and Texas fruit may suffer chilling injury below 15°C (60°F). Transit & Storage Life: 6-8 weeks. Packaging: full telescoping fiberboard boxes, 0.028 cu m (4/5 bu), 0.024 cu m (7/10 bu), 18 kg (40 lb). Consumer packs in 4 kg (9 lb) film bags, 6 count; 2 kg (5 lb) film bags, 10 count. Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers. Loading: unitized on slipsheets; hand-loaded. Grapes, Table (Vitus vinefera) Availability: year round, California, Arizona, New York, Michigan, Georgia, Pennsyl vania; Chile, Canada, Mexico Grade: European or Vinefera—U.S. Extra Fancy Table, Extra Fancy Export, Fan¬ cy Table, Fancy Export, No. 1 Table; American—U.S. Fancy Table Grapes, No. 1 Table Grapes, No. 1 Juice Grapes. Grapes will not ripen after harvest. Treatments: sulfur dioxide fumigant for Vinefera grapes only, or sulfur dioxide im¬ pregnated pads to limit decay, 10 ppm maximum residue. Precooling: forced-air cool. Temperature & Relative Humidity: -1 to -0.5°C (30-31 °F) 90-95% for Vinefera grapes; -0.5 to 0°C (31-32°F) 85% for American grapes. Sensitivity: freezing injury, -2°C (28°F) for Vinefera, -1°C (30°F) for American. Transit & Storage Life: 1-6 months for Vinefera varieties, 2-8 weeks for American varieties. Packaging: fiberboard, polystyrene foam, or wood lugs, perforated film liners, 10-11 kg (22-24 lb); some with sulfur dioxide pads. Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers, break-bulk vessels Loading: unitized on pallets with cornerboards and strapping. Guava (Psidium guajava) Availability: September-January, California, January-March and June-October Florida. Grade: harvest at mature green stage, 90-120 mm (3.5-4.7 in) diameter Precooling: forced air Temperature & Relative Humidity: 5° to 10°C (41-50°F) 85-90%. Sensitivity: chilling injury at 2°C (36°F), ethylene producer. Transit & Storage Life: 2-3 weeks. Packaging: cell packed fiberboard or wood flat lined with film, 4.5 kg (10 lb) Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers. Haricot Vert (Phaseolus vulgaris) Availability: year-round France. Belgium, The Netherlands, Senegal Grade: this pole bean has long, straight, thin flat pods which are harvested before maturity for tenderness. Precooling: hydrocool. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 4° to 7°C (39-45°F), 95 % Sensitivity: chilling injury below 3°C (38°F); ethylene sensitive. Transit & Storage Life: 7-10 days. Packaging: fiberboard tray with plastic netting, 5 kg (11 lb). Transportation: air cargo containers, highway trailers. Horseradish (Armoracia rusticana) Availability: year-round, Missouri, Oregon. Grade: U.S. Fancy, No. 1 and No. 2. Treatments: protect from light, otherwise roots will turn green. Precooling: hydrocool, room cool. Temperature & Relative Humidity: -1°C to 0°C (30-32°F) 98-100% Sensitivity: freezing injury at -2°C (28°F), high moisture loss rate. Transit & Storage Life: 10-12 months. Packaging: film bags, 23 kg (50 lb), 27 kg (60 lb), 2 kg (5 lb). Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers. Jaboticaba (Jabotica, Myciaria cauliflora) Availability: March-June, Florida. Grade: dark maroon fruit, 25 mm (1 in) diameter. Precooling: room cool. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 13° to 15°C (55-60°F), 90-95% Sensitivity: chilling injury, moisture loss, absorbs odors. Transit & Storage Life: 2-3 days Packaging: fiberboard flats, 4.5 kg (10 lb). Transportation: air cargo containers. 95 Jackfruit (Jak Fruit, Jaca, Artocarpus heterophyllus) Availability: year-round, Florida, Puerto Rico. Grade: large knobby yellow-green fruit, 200-500 mm (8-20 in) long. Precooling: forced air, room cool. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 13°C (55°F), 85-90% Sensitivity: chilling injury, bruising. Transit & Storage Life: 2-6 weeks. Packaging: wrap, pad or pack with excelsior in full telescoping fiberboard box, 2-3 count. Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers, air cargo con¬ tainers. Jaffa Orange (Citrus sinensis) Availability: year-round, Israel, California. Treatments: ethylene used for degreening. Precooling: forced air. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 8° to 10°C (46-50°F), 85-90%. Sensitivity: chilling injury. Transit & Storage Life: 8-12 weeks. Packaging: full telescoping fiberboard box or nailed wood crate, 4.5 kg (10 lb), 9 kg (20 lb). Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers. Japanese Eggplant (Solanum melongena) Availability: February-April, California, Mexico Grade: white and black varieties, narrow and elongated. Precooling: forced air. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 12°C (54°F), 90-95%. Sensitivity: chilling injury at 10°C (50°F). Transit & Storage Life: 1 week. Packaging: full telescoping fiberboard boxes, 0.039 cu m (1-1/9 bu), 15 kg (33 ib), solid fiberboard boxes, 5 kg (11 Ib). Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers. Jerusalem Artichoke (Sunchoke, Helianthus tuberosus) Availability: October-April, California, Maine. Grade : firm, hard, light brown roots. Precooling: hydrocool. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 0°C (32°C), 90-95%. Sensitivity: freezing at -2.5°C (27.5°F), high moisture loss rate. Transit & Storage Life: 4-5 months Packaging: one-piece fiberboard boxes with 12 consumer packed 340 g (12 oz) or 0.5 kg (1 Ib) film bags. Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers. Jicama (Pachyrhizus tuberosum) Availability: September-June, Florida, Mexico. Grade: bulbous light brown root, up to 200 mm (8 in) across. Treatments: hypochlorite dip to reduce decay. Precooling: room cooling. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 13° to 18°C (55-65°F) 65-70%. Sensitivity: chilling injury at lower temperatures; sprouting at higher temperatures; decay at higher humidities. Transit & Storage Life: 1-2 months. Packaging: full telescoping fiberboard cartons, 9 kg (20 lb). Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers. Kiwanos (Horned Melon, African Horned Cucumber, Cucumis metuliferous) Availability: August-October, California; February-June, New Zealand. Grade, spiked fruit, 100-150 mm (4-6 in) long, yellow-orange when ripe. Precooling: room cool. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 10° to 15°C (50-60°F), 90%. Sensitivity: chilling injury, bruising. Transit & Storage Life: 6 months. Packaging, full telescoping fiberboard box, tray pack with dividers, paper excelsior, 9 count. Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers. Kiwifruit (Chinese gooseberry, Actinidia chinensis) Availability: November-April, California; May-October, New Zealand; also Chile, France, Australia. Grade: U.S. Fancy, U.S. No. 1, U S. No. 2. Size 49 minimum Mandatory inspec¬ tion in California. Treatments: green fruit can be ripened with ethylene. Precooling hydrocool, forced air. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 0°C (32°F), 90-95%. Sensitivity: freezing injury at -2°C (28°F); ethylene producer/ethylene sensitive. Transit & Storage Life: 3-5 months. Packaging film lined, cell packed fiberboard or wood flats, 33, 36, 39 counts the most popular in the range of 25-49 count, 2.5-4 kg (5.5-8.5 lb); film bags, 0.5 kg (1 lb), one-piece fiberboard boxes, film lined, with interlocking plastic end tabs 7 ka (16 lb). Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers. Loading: palletized unit loads. 97 Kohlrabi (Brassica oleracea, convar. acephala, var. gongulodes) Availability: year-round, California. Grade: pale green root with leaves attached, 60-76 mm (2.5-3 in) diameter. Precooling: hydrocool, package-ice. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 0°C (32°F), 98-100%. Sensitivity: freezing injury at -1 °C (30°F); high moisture loss rate. Transit & Storage Life: 2-3 months. Packaging: film lined fiberboard boxes, 12, 18, 24 bunches, 3-5 pieces per bunch package-ice. Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers. Loading: top-ice. Kumquat (Citrus fortunella) Availability: November-July, Florida, California, Chile. Grade: smaii orange citrus, 25-64 mm (1-2.5 in) long. Precooling: forced air. room cool. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 4°C (39°F), 90-95%. Sensitivity: freezing injury. Transit & Storage Life: 2-4 weeks. Packaging: one-piece fiberboard box, 4.5 kg (10 lb); fiberboard box with 16 film bags, 20 count, 227 g (8 oz). Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers, air cargo con¬ tainers. Leeks (Allium ampeloprasum) Availability: year-round, California, New Jersy, Michigan, Virginia. Grade: green leaves on necks blanched 50-76 mm (2-3 in) from root. Precooling: hydrocool, package-ice, vacuum cooling. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 0°C (32°F), 95-100%. Sensitivity: freezing injury at -0.5°C (31 °F), moisture loss. Transit & Storage Life: 2-3 months. Packaging: bunched with rubber band, 1-2 dozen per bunch, in film lined wire- bound or nailed wood crates, or waxed fiberboard boxes, with layers of ice, 1-2 dozen bunches. Sizes include 4/5 bushel, 9 kg (20 lb); 1/2 crate, 14 kg (30 lb). Also packed in 0.5 kg (1 lb) film bags, 10 count. Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers. Loading: hand-loaded or palletized. 98 Lemons (Citrus limon) Availability: year-round, Arizona, California, Florida; Spain. Grade: U.S. No. 1, Export No. 1, Combination, No. 2.; dark green for long term storage. Treatments: waxing, fungicides, curing in storage prior to shipment at at 14.5 to 15.5°C (58-60°F) for 1 to 4 months. Precooling: room cool. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 10-13°C (50-55°F), 85-90%, for conditioned fruit. Sensitivity: chilling injury below 14.5°C (58°F) for unconditioned fruit, below 7°F (45°F) for conditioned fruit. Transit & Storage Life: 1-6 months. Packaging: full telescoping fiberboard box, 17 kg (38 lb). Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers, break-bulk vessels. Loading: unitized on pallets or slipsheets, hand-loaded. Limes—Key, Mexican, Persian varieties, (Citrus aurantiifolia: Citrus latifolia) Availability: year-round. Florida; Mexico, Bahamas, Columbia, Dominican Republic, Haiti, Honduras. Grade: U.S. No. 1, Combination for Persian limes. P r ecooling: room cool Temperature & Relative Humidity: 9° to 10°C (48-50°F), 85-90%. Sensitivity: chilling injury at 4°C (39°F). Transit & Storage Life: 6-8 weeks. Packaging: two-piece box with cover, 4.5 kg (10 lb), full telescoping fiberboard box, 17 kg (38 lb). Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers. Loading: unitized on pallets and slipsheets, hand-loaded. Lo Bok (Black radish, Chinese radish, Raphanus sativus, var. niger) Availability: year-round, California, Dominican Republic. Precooling: hydrocool. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 0° to 2°C (32-36°F), 95-100%. Sensitivity: freezing injury; high moisture loss rate. Transit & Storage Life: 2-4 months. Packaging: full telescoping waxed fiberboard box, wirebound wood crate, 18 kg (40 lb); boxes, crates, lugs 11 kg (25 lb). Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers. Longan (Lungan, Euphoria longana) Availability: July-August, Florida; Bahamas, Dominican Republic, Haiti, Jamaica. Grade: light brown fruit, 25-40 mm (1-1.5 in) diameter. Precooling: forced air cool. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 1.5°C (35°F), 90-95% Sensitivity: freezing injury, high moisture loss rate. Transit & Storage Life: 3-5 weeks Packaging: one-piece fiberboard box, 4.5 kg (10 lb). Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers. 99 Loquat (Japanese plum, Eriobotrya japonica) Availability: year-round; April-May, California; Chile. Grade: pear-shaped, yellow-orange fruit, 30-90 mm (1-3.5 in) long. Precooling: forced air cooi. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 0°C (32°F), 90%. Sensitivity: freezing injury. Transit & Storage Life: 3 weeks. Packaging: cell packed fiberboard or wood flats, 25-49 count, 4.5 kg (10 lb). Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers, air cargo con¬ tainers. Lychee (Litchi, Litchi chinensis) Availability: June-July, Florida, Mexico; September-October, California; Bahamas, Dominican Republic, Haiti, Jamaica. Grade: rough orange-red fruit, 25-50 mm (.5 in) diameter. Precooling: forced air. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 1.5°C (35°F), 90-95%. Sensitivity: freezing injury, high moisture loss rate. Transit & Storage Life: 3-5 weeks Packaging: one-piece fiberboard box, 4.5 kg (10 lb). Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers, air cargo con¬ tainers. Malanga (Cocoyam, Yautia, Xanthosoma spp.) Availability: year-round, Florida, Puerto Rico, Dominican Republic. Grade: brown hairy corms , 100-250 mm (4-10 in) long. Precooling: forced air, room cool. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 7°C (45°F), 70-80%, good ventilation. Sensitivity: chilling injury; decay at higher humidities and temperatures. Transit & Storage Life: 3 months. Packaging: full telescoping ventilated fiberboard boxes, wirebound wood crates, ex¬ celsior to reduce bruising, 11 kg (25 lb), 23 kg (50 lb); burlap or woven plastic sacks, 23 kg (50 lb). Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers. Mamey (Mamey sapote, Calocarpum sapota) Availability: July-October, Florida. Grade: oval, 150-230 mm (6-9 in) long, brown skin, pink flesh, slightly soft when rip Treatments: research needed for acceptable quarantine treatments for entry to the US. Precooling: room cool. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 13° to 18°C (55-65°F), 85-90%. Sensitivity: chilling injury; bruising; moisture loss; ethylene producer. Transit & Storage Life: 2-6 weeks. Packaging: fiberboard flat, wrapped, foam sleeves, or excelsior, 3 kg (7 lb). Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers, air cargo container Mango—Haden, Irwin, Keitt, Kent, Oro, Tommy Atkins varieties. (Mangifera indica) Availability: June-September, Florida; February-September, Puerto Rico, Mexico, West Indies, Central America, Chile. Grade: green-yellow to red blush depending on variety, ship only fruit that has be¬ gun to change from green color. Keitt and Kent are larger varieties, weighing up to 1 kg (36 oz) compared to 0.5 kg (18 oz) for other varieties. Treatments: hot water dip mature-green fruit to retard decay. Use ethylene or room temperature to ripen. EDB fumigation is being replaced with a hot water double¬ dip treatment for fruit fly eradication. Precooling: forced air. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 13°C (55°F), 85-90%. Sensitivity: chilling injury at 10°C (50°F), especially Haden and Keitt varieties; ethylene producer. Transit & Storage Life: 2-3 weeks. Packaging: one layer, two-piece fiberboard box with cover, 9-16 count, 4.5-6 kg (10-13 lb). Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers. Loading: unitized on pallets. Mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana) Availability: year-round, Puerto Rico, Mexico, Belize, West Indies, Trinadad and Tobago. Grade: purple fruit, 40-80 mm (1.5-3 in) diameter, must be picked ripe. Precooling: forced air. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 13°C (55°F), 85-90%. Sensitivity: chilling injury; ethylene producer. Transit & Storage Life: 2-4 weeks Packaging cell packed fiberboard or wood flats, 25-49 count, 4.5 kg (10 lb). Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers. Melons—Casaba, Crenshaw, Honeydew, and Persian varieties (Cucumis melo) Availability: year-round, California, Texas, Arizona, Mexico, Guatemala, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Honduras, Jamaica, Panama. Grade U S, No. 1, Commercial, No. 2. for honeydew melons. Treatments: ethylene treatment for 18-24 hours for uniform ripening of honeydew melons at 20°C (68°F). Precooling: forced air cool. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 7° to 10°C (45-50°F), 90%. Casaba melons should be held at 10°C. Sensitivity: chilling injury below 7°C (45°F); Honeydew is an ethylene producer. Transit & Storage Life: 3 weeks, Casaba, Honeydew; 2 weeks, Crenshaw, Persian. Packaging: 2/3 size box, Bliss style fiberboard box, 184 mm (7.25 in) deep, 4, 5, 6, 8 count, 11-14.5 kg (25-32 lb), also packed in nailed wood crates with excelsior padding Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers Loading: unitized on pallets or hand-loaded 101 Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) Availability: year-round, California, Florida, Texas, Mexico, Dominican Republic. Grade: U.S. No. 1. Precooling: forced air. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 7° to 10°C (45-50°F), 90-95%. Sensitivity: chilling injury below 7°C (45°F); moisture loss, however, do not top-ice or sprinkle with water; bruising; ethylene sensitive. Transit & Storage Life: 7-10 days. Packaging: 0.035 cu m (1 bu) crates, 14 kg (30 lb); 0.020 cu m (5/9 bu) crates, one-piece fiberboard boxes, 11 liter (12 qt) baskets, 8 kg (18 lb). Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers, air cargo con¬ tainers. Oranges—Navel, Valencia, Temple, Parson Brown, Pinneapple, and Hamlin varieties (Citrus sinensis). Availability: year-round, California, Florida, Arizona, Texas; Dominican Republic, Jamaica. Grade: U.S. Fancy, No. 1 Bright, No. 1, Combination, No. 1 Golden, No. 1 Bronze, No. 1 Russet, No. 2 Bright, No. 2, No. 2 Russet, No. 3. Treatments: waxing; fungicides or biphenyl-treated pads in packaging to limit de¬ cay; ethylene for degreening. Precooling: room cool, forced-air, hydrocool. Temperature and Relative Humidity: 3° to 9°C (37-48°F) for California and Arizona grown fruit; 0° to 1 °C (32-34°F) for Florida and Texas grown fruit. Sensitivity: chilling injury below 3°C (38°F) on California and Arizona grown fruit; freezing injury at -0.7°C (31 °F). Transit & Storage Life: 3-8 weeks, California and Arizona grown fruit, 8-12 weeks, Florida and Texas grown fruit. Packaging: full telescoping fiberboard box, place-packed, 18 kg (40 lb); 0.028 cu m (4/5 bu), 20 kg (45 lb); 0.024 cu m (7/10 bu) 20 kg (45 lb); 0.049 cu m (1-2/5 bu), 39 kg (86 lb). Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers. Loading: unitized on slipsheets, pallets, or hand-loaded. 102 Papaya—Pawpaw, Solo varieties, (Carica papaya) Availability: year-round, Florida, Hawaii, Puerto Rico, Mexico, West Indies. Belize, Chile, Phillipines. Grade: Hawaiian No. 1, harvested mature green, marketed one quarter to three quarter ripe, green to yellow-orange. Treatments: hot water double-dip for fruit fly eradication and control of decay, at quarter ripe stage. Ripen at 21° to 27°C (70-81 °F). Precooling: forced air. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 7° to 13°C (45-55°F), 85-90%. Sensitivity: chilling injury below 7 C (45 F): bruising; ethylene producer. Transit & Storage Life: 1-3 weeks. Packaging: foam mesh sleeve on each piece of fruit, foam pad on bottom of box, or paper wrapping. Single layer, one-piece fiberboard box, 6-12 count, 4.5 kg (10 lb). Transportation: air cargo containers, highway and piggyback trailers, van con¬ tainers. Passionfruit (Passiflora edulis) Availability: year-round, April-August, Florida; November-January, California; February-July, New Zealand; Australia. Grade: 50-80 mm (2-3 in) diameter, ripe fruit has purple wrinkled skin. Precooling: forced air. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 7° to 10°C (45-50°F), 95%. Sensitivity: chilling injury, moisture loss; ethylene producer. Transit & Storage Life: 3-5 weeks. Packaging: cell packed fiberboard or wood flat, 25-49 count, 4 5 kg (10 lb). Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers, air cargo con¬ tainers. Pepino (Mellowfruit, Treemelon, Solanum muricatum) Availability: August-December, California; February-June, New Zealand. Grade: oval shaped, 50-100 mm (2-4 in) long, purple stripes on a greenish-yellow skin. Green color will turn yellow when ripe. Precooling: forced air, room cool. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 4°C (39°F), 85-90%. Sensitivity: chilling injury. Transit & Storage Life: 1 month. Packaging: fiberboard tray pack, 4.5 kg (10 lb). Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers. 103 Peppers (Capsicum spp.) Availability: year-round, Florida, Texas, California, Mexico, Dominican Republic; gourmet bell peppers, March-November, Florida, Jamaica, The Netherlands Grade: U.S. Fancy, No. 1, and No. 2. Quality including size and appearance of gourmet peppers is very high. Colors include purple, yellow, red, and white. Treatments: light waxing. Precooling: forced air. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 7° to 13°C (45-55°F), 90-95%. Sensitivity: chilling injury below 42°F; ethylene sensitive. Transit & Storage Life: 2-3 weeks. Packaging: one-piece fiberboard box, 0.039 cu m (1-1/9 bu), 13 kg (28 lb); 0.035 cu m (1 bu), 11 kg (25 lb); gourmet peppers, full telescoping solid fiberboard boxes 5 kg (11 lb). Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers, air cargo con¬ tainers. Loading: palletized or hand-loaded. Persimmon (Diospyros kaki) Availability: year-round; October-January, California; Italy, Israel, Spain. Grade: yellow to orange fruit, 100 mm (4 in) diameter; California State regulations. Treatments: astringency, which causes puckering of the consumers mouth, is re¬ moved with carbon dioxide or ethylene treatments. Ethylene, however, will cause ripening, reducing subsequent shelf life. Precooling: forced air. Temperature & Relative Humidity: -1 °C (30°F), 90%. Sensitivity: freezing injury at -2°C (28°F); ethylene producer. Transit & Storage Life: 3-4 months. Packaging: film lined, tray packed, fiberboard or wood flats, 4-5 kg (9-11 lb), 2 lay¬ er film lined, tray packed, one-piece fiberboard box 10 kg (22 lb). Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers. Pineapple (Ananas comosus) Availability: year-round, Hawaii, Puerto Rico, Mexico, Dominican Republic, Hon¬ duras, Costa Rica, Phillipines, Columbia, Ivory Coast. Grade : U.S. Fancy, No. 1, and No. 2.; Hawaii Fancy, No. 1, and Cocktail. Will not continue to ripen after harvest. Treatments: fungicide to reduce decay. Precooling: forced air, room cool. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 7°to 13°C (45-55°F). Sensitivity: chilling injury below 7°C (45°F). Transit & Storage Life: 2-4 weeks. Packaging: one-piece and full telescoping fiberboard boxes, 9 kg (20 lb), 18 kg (40 lb). Transportation: air cargo containers, highway and piggyback trailers, van con¬ tainers. Loading: hand-loaded and unitized on pallets. 104 Plantain. (Musa sp.) Availability: year-round, Caribbean, Central America, South America. Grade: shipped green. Treatments: ethylene absorbent pads can be placed in the boxes. Precooling: forced air, room cool, cool in transit. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 13° to 14°C (55-58°F), 90-95%. Sensitivity: chilling injury at 12°C (54°F); ethylene producer/ethylene sensitive; bruising. Transit A. Storage Life: 1-5 weeks depending on ripeness. Packaging: film lined full telescoping fiberboard boxes, 23 kg (50 lb). Transportation, highway and oiggyback trailers, van containers. Loading: hand-loaded or unitized on pallets. Pomegranate (Punica granatum) Availability: August-December, California; July-March, Israel. Grade: thick red skinned fruit, 76-100 mm (3-4 in).diameter; California State regu¬ lations. Precooling: hydrocool, forced air. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 5°C (41 °F), 90-95%. Sensitivity, chilling injury after 2 months at 5°C (4i°F), can be held at 0°C (32 F) for 1 month without damage. Transit & Storage Life: 2-3 months. Packaging cell packed or place packed with plastic excelsior, 24-30 count, 2 lay¬ ers, nailed wood lugs or one-piece fiberboard boxes, 11 kg (25 lb). Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers. Loading: unitized on pallets. Pummelo (Citrus grandis) Availability: January-February. California; October-February, Florida; December- April, Israel. Grade: light green to yellow fruit depending on maturity, 200-300 mm (8-12 in) di¬ ameter. Precooling: forced air. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 7° to 9°C (45-48 °F) 85-90% Sensitivity: chilling injury. Transit & Storage Life: 12 weeks. Packaging: two-piece fiberboard boxes, 4 5 kg (10 lb); 0.028 cu m (4/5 bu) full telescoping fiberboard box, 18 kg (40 lb). Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers. 105 Pumpkin (Cucurbita maxima and Cucurbita moschata) Availability: year-round, Colorado, California and many other U.S. StaV.ee ^ Oc¬ tober; Puerto Rico, Costa Rica, Dominican Republic, Jamaica, Ven^ zue | a Grade: colors, sizes vary, depending on variety. Precooling: room cool. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 10° to 13°C (50-55°Fy 50 - 70 % Sensitivity: chilling injury at 4.5°C (45°F). Transit & Storage Life: 2-3 months. Packaging: bulk wood or fiberboard bins, 363-408 kg (800-900 lb); mesh sacks, 23 kg (50 lb); 1/2 wirebound or nailed wood crates, 18 kg (40 lb); 0.039 cu m (1-1/9 bu) crates 19 kg (42 lb). Transportation: nighway and piggyback trailers, van containers. Quince (Cydonia oblonga) Availability: year-round, August-November, California; July-April, Argentina, Chile. \Oi r CtdS. ' round to pear shaped, greenish-yellow fruit, 125 mm (5 in) long. Treatments: fungicides to prevent decay; ripen at 20°C (68°F) for processing. Precooling: forced air, room cooling. Temperature & Relative Humidity: -0.5°C (31 °F), 90-95%. Sensitivity: freezing at -2°C (28°F); ethylene producer. Transit & Storage Life: 2-3 months. Packaging: 2 layer tray pack, wood lugs and one-piece fiberboard boxes, 6 kg (13 lb). Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers. Raddichio (Red-leaved chicory, Cichorium intybus, var. foliosum) Availability: year-round, Italy, Florida, California. Grade: compact small purple heads, 100-125 mm (4-5 in) diameter. Precooling: vacuum cooling. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 0° to 1°C (32-34°F), 95-100%. Sensitivity: freezing below 0°C (32°F), high moisture loss rate. Transit & Storage Life: 2-3 weeks. Packaging: perforated film covered nailed wood, fiberboard or polystyrene foam trays, 16 count, 3 kg (7 lb); plastic containers with 2 heads each and recipe brochures. Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers, air cargo con¬ tainers. 106 Rhubarb (Rheum rhabarbarum) Availability: year-round, Washington, Oregon, California. Grade: U S. Fancy, No. 1, No. 2; Washington State standards for hothouse or cel¬ lar grown, Extra Fancy, Fancy. Trim, leaving 6 mm (1/4 in) leaf top. Precooling: hydrocool, forced air. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 0°C (32°F), 95-100%. Sensitivity: freezing injury at -2°C (28°F); high moisture loss. Transit & Storage Life: 2-4 weeks. Packaging: bunched or loose in heavily waxed, perforated film lined, ventilated one-piece fiberboard box, 9 kg (20 lb); 10 perforated film bags of 25 mm (1 in) long pieces or whole stalks, 0.5 kg (1 lb), in fiberboard box, 4.5 kg (10 lb). Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers. Salsify (Oyster plant, Tragopogon porrifolius) Availability: September-June, California; Belgium, The Netherlands. Costa Rica, West Indies, France. Grade: topped light brown slender roots, 230-300 mm (9-12 in) long Precooling: hydrocool. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 0°C (32°F), 95-98%. Sensitivity: freezing injury at -1 °C (30°F); high moisture loss rate. Transit & Storage Life: 2-4 months. Packaging: 5 film bags, 2 kg (4 lb) each, in solid fiberboard cartons, 10 kg (22 lb). Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers. Sapodilla (Achras sapote) Availability: St. Kitts, St. Lucia. St. Vincent. Grade: oval brown rough surface fruit, 30-80 mm (1-1/4 to 3 in) long. Precooling: room cool. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 16° to 20°C (61-68°F), 85-90%. Sensitivity: chilling injury. Transit & Storage Life: 2-3 weeks. Packaging: cell packed fiberboard or wood flats, 25-49 count, 4.5 kg (10 lb). Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers, air cargo con¬ tainers. Scorzonera (Black Salsify, Scorzonera hispanica) Availability: October-May, Belgium, The Netherlands. Grade: brown-black skinned root, 200-400 mm (8-16 in) long. Precooling: hydrocool, room cool Temperature & Relative Humidity: 0° to 1°C (32-34°F), 95-98%. Sensitivity: freezing injury, moisture loss. Transit & Storage Life 6 months. Packaging: film bags, 2 kg (5 lb), full telescoping fiberboard box, 10 kg (22 lb). Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers. 107 Seedless Cucumbers (Greenhouse cucumbers, Cucumus sativas) Availability: year-round, grown hydroponically in greenhouses in many States, The Netherlands, Spain. Grade: U.S. Fancy, No. 1 and No. 2. Treatments: waxed and shrink-wrapped to reduce moisture loss. Precooling: forced air, room cool. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 10° to 13°C (50-55°F), 85-90%. Sensitivity: chilling injury below 7°(45°F); ethylene will turn cucumbers yellow; moisture loss. Transit & Storage Life: 10-14 days. Packaging: shrink-wrapped, 2 layers in fiberboard trays, 12-20 count, 7 kg (16 lb). Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers, air cargo con¬ tainers. Snow Peas (Sugar peas, Psium sativum, convar. axiphium) Availability: year-round; May-September, California; Florida, Dominican Republic, Guatemala. Grade: flat edible pod varieties; use U.S. Fancy and No. 1. as a guide. Precooling: hydrocool, hydrovacuum cool, forced air, package-ice. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 0° to 1 °C (32-34°F) 90-95%. Sensitivity: freezing injury at -0.5°C (31 °F), moisture loss. Transit & Storage Life: 1-2 weeks. Packaging: one-piece waxed ventilated fiberboard boxes or wirebound wood crates, 4.5 kg (10 lb), 9 kg (20 lb). Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers. Loading: unitized on pallets. Squash, Summer—Soft shell varieties Yellow Straightneck, Yellow Crookneck, White Scallop, Zucchini, Sunburst, Spaghetti, (Cucurbita pepo) Availability: year-round, Florida, California, Texas, and many other States; Mexico, Costa Rica, Dominican Republic, Jamaica. Grade: U.S. No. 1, No. 2. Precooling: room cool, forced-air. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 5° to 10°C (41-50°F), 95%. Sensitivity: chiiling injury below 5°C; bruising; ethylene sensitive. Transit & Storage Life: 1-2 weeks. Packaging: fiberboard boxes, wood lugs, 11-13.5 kg (24-30 lb); 3/4 lugs and boxes, 8-10 kg (18-22 lb), 0.017 cu m (1/2 bu) wood crates, fiberboard boxes, 9.5 kg (21 lb). Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers. Squash, Winter—Hard shell varieties, Acorn or Table Queen, Turban, Delica- ta, Butternut, Sweet Dumpling. Kobocha, Golden Nugget, Buttercup, (Cucurbi- ta Maxima and Cucurbita Moschata) Availability: year-round. Florida, California, Texas, and many other States; Mexico, Costa Rica, Dominican Republic, Jamaica. Grade: U.S. No. 1 and No. 2. Precooling: room cool, forced-air. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 10° to 13°C (50-55°F), 50-70%. Sensitivity: chilling injury below 10° C (50 F); ethylene sensitive. Transit & Storage Life: 2-3 months. Packaging: fiberboard boxes, wood crates, 0.020 cu m (5/9 bu), 9 kg (20 lb), 0.039 cu m (1-1/9 bu) crates, 19 kg (42 lb); wirebound wood crates 20-23 kg (45-50 lb), bulk fiberboard or wood bins 363-408 kg (800-900 !b). Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers. Strawberries (Fragaria spp.) Availability: year-round, California, Florida; Canada, Mexico, New Zealand, Ecu¬ ador, Costa Rica, Chile. Grade: U.S. No. 1, Combination, and No. 2. Gourmet packs with long stems also are offered. Treatments: modified atmosphere packaging to limit decay. Precooling: forced-air. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 0°C (32°C), 90-95%. Sensitivity: freezing at -1°C (30°F). Transit & Storage Life: 5-7 days. Packaging: self-locking fiberboard tray, volume fill, place pack or 12 count 0.5 liter (1 pt) baskets or 6 count 1 liter (1 qt) baskets, 4.5-6 kg (10-13 lb). Pallet loads are covered with a plastic bag and a modified atmosphere of elevated carbon dioxide is applied. Transportation: air cargo containers, highway trailers. Loading: unitized on pallets in trailers. Sugar Apple (Sweetsop, Annona squamosa) Availability: June-September, Florida. Grade scaly green heart shaped fruit, 100 mm (4 in) long. Precooling: forced air, room cool Temperature & Relative Humidity: 7°C (45°F), 85-90% Sensitivity chilling injury; bruising. Transit & Storage Life: 4 weeks. Packaging: wrapped, single layer, one-piece fiberboard box, 4.5 kg, (10 lb). Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers, air cargo con¬ tainers. 109 Tamarillo (Tree tomato, Cyphomandra betacea ) Availability: year-round, New Zealand, Haiti. Grade: oval fruit, orange to red or purple skin depending on ripeness, 40-70 mm (1.5-2.5 in) long. Precooling: forced air, room cool. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 3° to 4°C (37-39°F), 85-90%. Sensitivity: chilling injury. Transit & Storage Life: 10 weeks. Packaging: film lined cell packed fiberboard or wood flats, 25-49 count, 4.5 kg (10 lb). Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers, air cargo con¬ tainers. Tamarind (Tamarindus indica) Availability: year-round; May-July, August-November, Florida; Puerto Rico, Mexico, West Indies, Central America. Grade: both green immature and brown ripe pods are shipped; 50-200 mm (2-8 in) long. Precooling: forced air, room cool. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 7°C (45°F), 90-95%. Sensitivity: chilling injury. Transit & Storage Life: 3-4 weeks Packaging: film lined fiberboard full telescoping boxes, loose pack, 18 kg (40 lb); film bags, 0.5 kg (1 lb), 4.5 kg (10 lb). Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers, air cargo con¬ tainers. Tangerines (Citrus reticulata) Availability: October-May, California, Florida, Arizona, Mexico, Spain. Grade: U.S. Fancy, No. 1, No. 1 Bronze, No. 1 Russet, No. 2, No. 2 Russet and No. 3. Treatments: waxing; fungicides; ethylene for ripening. Precooling: room cool, forced-air. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 4°C (39°F), 90-95%. Sensitivity: chilling injury at 1°C (33°F). Transit & Storage Life: 2-4 weeks. Packaging: full telescoping fiberboard box or wirebound wood crate, 0.028 cu m (4/5 bu), 22 kg (48 lb); 0.017 cu m (1/2 bu), 11 kg (25 lb); 1.4 kg (3 lb) film bags, 16 count. Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers. no Taro Root (Dasheen, Eddo, Colocasia esculenta) Availability: year-round, Florida, Hawaii, American Samoa, Central & South Ameri¬ ca, West Indies. Grade: brown segmented roots, up to 140 mm (5.5 in) long; should be free of cuts to limit decay. Precooling: room cool. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 7° to 10°C (45-50°F) 85-90%. Sensitivity: chilling injury. Transit & Storage Life: 4-5 months. Packaging: burlap sacks, full telescoping fiberboard boxes, 23 kg (50 lb). Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers. Tomatillos (Husk tomatoes, Physalis peruviana) Availability: year-round, California, Mexico, Central America. Grade: green fruit with grayish-brown husks, 40 mm (1.5 in). Precooling: room cool, forced air. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 13° to 15°C (55-G0°F), 85-90%. Sensitivity: chilling injury. Transit & Storage Life: 3 weeks. Packaging: one-piece fiberboard box, 4.5 kg (10 lb). Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers. Tomatoes (Lycopersicon esculentum) Availability: year-round, Florida, California, many other States: Canada, Mexico, Dominican Republic, Jamaica, The Netherlands. Grade: U.S. No. 1, Combination, No. 2, and No. 3. Treatments: ethylene for rapid and unifom ripening. Precooling: room cool, forced-air. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 18° to 22°C (65-72°F), 90-95% for mature green tomatoes; 13° to 15°C (55-60°F) for firm ripe tomatoes. Sensitivity: chilling injury of mature green tomatoes at 13°C (55°F), ripe tomatoes injured below 7°C (45°F); ethylene producer. Transit & Storage Life: 1-3 weeks, mature green; 4-7 days firm-ripe Packaging: fiberboard box with cover, loose pack, 11 kg (25 lb); fiberboard flat tray, 2-layer place pack, 8-11 kg (18-25 lb); fiberboard lug with cover, 3-layer place pack, 11-15 kg (25-33 lb). Transportation: air cargo containers, highway and piggyback trailers, van con¬ tainers. Loading: boxes and lugs are hand-loaded, flats are palletized. in Ugli Fruit (Citrus hybrid) Availability: February-June, Florida, Jamaica. Grade: yellowish-green citrus fruit, 160 mm (6.25 in) diameter. Treatments: degreen with ethylene. Precooling: forced air, room cool. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 4°C (39°F), 90-95%. Sensitivity: chilling injury. Transit & Storage Life: 2-3 weeks. Packaging: full telescoping fiberboard box, 0.028 cu m (4/5 bu), 18 kg (40 lb); 2 kg (4 lb) or 4 kg (9 lb) film bags in fiberboard boxes. Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers. Waterchestnut (Trapa natans, Eleocharis dulcis) Availability: year-round, Georgia. Grade: brown-skinned, bulb-shaped root, 40 mm (1.5 in) diameter. Treatments: sodium hypochlorite dip to reduce decay. Precooling: forced air. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 0° to 2°C (32-36°F), 98-100%. Sensitivity: high moisture loss rate. Transit & Storage Life: 1-2 months. Packaging: packed in film bags with moist sphagnum moss, Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers. Watercress (Nasturtium officinale) Availability: year-round, Florida, California, West Indies. Grade: long thin stalks with heart shaped dark green leaves. Precooling: hydrocool, vacuum cool, package-ice and top-ice in storage Temperature & Relative Humidity: 0°C (32°F), 95-100% Sensitivity: high moisture loss rate; ethylene sensitive. Transit & Storage Life: 2-3 weeks Packaging: bunched, package-iced in heavily waxed one-piece fiberboard boxes or wirebound wood crates with film liners, 12 bunches, 3 kg (7 lb), 24 bunches, 6 kg (13 lb). Bunches also are placed in film bags in boxes. Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers. Loading: palletized loads with top-ice. Watermelon (Citrullus lanatus, cucurbit) Availability: year-round, March-October, Florida, Texas, California, many other States; November-June, Mexico, Panama, Guatemala, El Salvador, Dominican Republic, Venezuela, Honduras, Costa Rica. Grade: U.S. Fancy, No. 1, and No. 2. Precooling: room cool. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 10° to 15°C (50-60°F), 90%. Sensitivity: chilling injury below 10°C: ethylene sensitive. Transit & Storage Life: 2-3 weeks. Packaging: fiberboard flat trays with dividers, 2 or 3 count, 27-34 kg (60-76 lb); bulk fiberboard or wood bins, 454-544 kg (1000-1200 lb). Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers. Loading: some melons are bulk loaded on straw. White Asparagus (Asparagus officinalis, var. altilis) Availability: February-April, California; Belgium, The Netherlands. Grade: U S. No. 1 and No. 2 as a guide. Precooling: hydrocool. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 0° to 2°C (32-36°F), 95-100%. Sensitivity: freezing injury at -1°C (31 °F); high moisture loss rate. Transit & Storage Life: 2-3 weeks. Packaging: wood pyramid crate or fiberboard tray with film sleeved bunches, 4 kg (9 lb), 7 kg (15 lb); moisture pad in crate. Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers. White Sapote (Casimiroa edulis) Availability: May-August, Florida; August-November, California. Grade: yellow to yellowish green fruit, 60-120 mm (2.5 to 4.5 inch) diameter Precooling: room cool. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 19° to 21 °C (67-70°F), 85-90% Sensitivity: chilling injury. Transit & Storage Life: 2-3 weeks. Packaging: wrapped single layer one-piece fiberboard box, 4.5 kg (10 lb). Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers, air cargo con¬ tainers Winged Bean (Asparagus pea, Psophocarpus tetragonolobus) Availability: Florida. Grade: harvest edible pods at one-half to three-fourths maturity for tenderness Precooling: hydrocool, forced air Temperature & Relative Humidity 10°C (50°F) 90%. Sensitivity: chilling injury. Transit & Storage Life 4 weeks. Packaging: 0 017 cu m (1/2 bu) wirebound crates or fiberboard boxes. Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers 113 Yam (Name, Dioscorea spp., including rotundata (white yam), alata (water yam), cayenensis (yellow guinea yam), esculenta (potato yam), bulbifera (aerial yam), trifi- da (cush-cush yam). Availability: year-round, Caribbean, Central America. Treatments: fumigation with methyl bromide; curing at 29° to 32°C (84-90°F) at 90-95% relative humidity for, 4-8 days. Precooling: room cool. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 16°C (61 °F), 70-80%. Sensitivity: chilling injury below 13°C (55°F), decay at higher humidities; ethylene sensitive. Transit & Storage Life: 6-7 months. Packaging: full telescoping fiberboard cartons with paper wrapping or excelsior to reduce bruising, loose pack, 11 kg (25 lb), 23 kg (50 lb). Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers. Loading: hand-loaded or unitized on pallets. Yucca Root (Cassava, Manihot esculenta) Availability: year-round, Florida, Mexico, Central America, South America, West Indies. Grade: thick root, brown skin, white flesh, 150-250 mm (6-10 in) long. Treatments: sodium hypochlorite to reduce decay. Precooling: hydrocool, forced air. Temperature & Relative Humidity: 0° to 5°C (32-41 °F) 85-90%. Sensitivity: bruising. Transit & Storage Life: 1-2 months. Packaging: full telescoping fiberboard boxes, 23 kg (50 lb) with excelsior or paper wrapping and padding. Transportation: highway and piggyback trailers, van containers. 114 Table 10: Recommended temperature and relative humidity, and approximate transit and storage life for fruits and vegetables. Product Amaranth Anise Apples Apricots Artichokes, globe Asian pear Asparagus Atemoya Avocados, Fuerte, Hass Avocados, Lula, Booth-1 Avocados, Fuchs, Pollock Babaco Bananas, green Barbados cherry Bean sprouts Beans, dry Beans, green or snap Beans, lima, in pods Beets, bunched Beets, topped Belgian endive Bitter melon Black sapote Blackberries Blood orange Blueberries Bok choy Bomato Breadfruit Broccoli Brussels sprouts Cabbage, early Cabbage, late Cactus Leaves Cactus Pear Caimito Calabaza Calamondm Camstel Cantaloups (3/4-slip) Cantaloups (full-slip) Carambola Carrots, bunched Carrots, mature Carrots, immature Cashew apple Cauliflower Celeriac Celery Chard Chayote squash °C Temperature °F Relative Humidity (percent) Approximate storage life 0-2 32-36 95-100 10-14 days 0-2 32-36 90-95 2-3 weeks -1-4 30-40 90-95 1-12 months -0.5-0 31-32 90-95 1-3 weeks 0 32 95-100 2-3 weeks 1 34 90-95 5-6 months 0-2 32-35 95-100 2-3 weeks 13 55 85-90 4-6 weeks 7 45 85-90 2 weeks 4 40 90-95 4-8 weeks 13 55 85-90 2 weeks 7 45 85-90 1-3 weeks 13-14 56-58 90-95 1-4 weeks 0 32 85-90 7-8 weeks 0 32 95-100 7-9 days 4-10 40-50 40-50 6-10 months 4-7 40-45 95 7-10 days 5-6 41-43 95 5 days 0 32 98-100 10-14 days 0 32 98-100 4-6 months 2-3 36-38 95-98 2-4 weeks 12-13 53-55 85-90 2-3 weeks 13-15 55-60 85-90 2-3 weeks -0.5-0 31-32 90-95 2-3 days 4-7 40-44 90-95 3-8 weeks -0.5-0 31-32 90-95 2 weeks 0 32 95-100 3 weeks 13-15 55-60 85-90 4-5 months 13-15 55-60 85-90 2-6 weeks 0 32 95-100 10-14 days 0 32 95-100 3-5 weeks 0 32 98-100 3-6 weeks 0 32 98-100 5-6 months 2-4 36-40 90-95 3 weeks 2-4 36-40 90-95 3 weeks 3 38 90 3 weeks 10-13 50-55 50-70 2-3 months 9-10 48-50 90 2 weeks 13-15 55-60 85-90 3 weeks 2-5 36-41 95 15 days 0-2 32-36 95 5-14 days 9-10 48-50 85-90 3-4 weeks 0 32 95-100 2 weeks 0 32 98-100 7-9 months 0 32 98-100 4-6 weeks 0-2 32-36 85-90 5 weeks 0 32 95-98 3-4 weeks 0 32 97-99 6-8 months 0 32 98-100 2-3 months 0 32 95-100 10-14 days 7 45 85-90 4-6 weeks 115 Table 10: Recommended temperature and relative humidity, and approximate transit and storage life for fruits and vegetables—Continued Product Cherimoya Cherries, sour Cherries, sweet Chinese broccoli Chinese cabbage Chinese long bean Clementine Coconuts Collards Corn, sweet Cranberries Cucumbers Currants Custard apples Daikon Dates Dewberries Durian Eggplants Elderberries Endive and escarole Feijoa Figs, fresh Garlic Ginger root Gooseberries Granadilla Grapefruit, Calif. & Ariz. Grapefruit, Fla. & Texas Grapes, Vinifera Grapes. American Greens, leafy Guavas Haricot vert Horseradish Jaboticaba Jackfruit Jaffa orange Japanese eggplant Jerusalem Artichoke Jicama Kale Kiwano Kiwifruit Kohlrabi Kumquats Langsat Leeks Lemons Lettuce Limes Temperature °C °F Relative Humidity (percent) Approximate storage life 13 55 90-95 2-4 weeks 0 32 90-95 3-7 days -1 to -0.5 30-31 90-95 2-3 weeks 0 32 95-100 10-14 days 0 32 95-100 2-3 months 4-7 40-45 90-95 7-10 days 4 40 90-95 2-4 weeks 0-1.5 32-35 80-85 1-2 months 0 32 95-100 10-14 days 0 32 95-98 5-8 days 2-4 36-40 90-95 2-4 months 10 13 50-55 95 10-14 days -0.5-0 31-32 90-95 1-4 weeks 5-7 41-45 85-90 4-6 weeks 0-1 32-34 95-100 4 months -18 or 0 0 or 32 75 6-12 months -0.5-0 31-32 90-95 2-3 days 4-6 39-42 85-90 6-8 weeks 12 54 90-95 1 week -0.5-0 31-32 90-95 1-2 weeks 0 32 95-100 2-3 weeks 5-10 41-50 90 2-3 weeks -0.5-0 31-32 85-90 7-10 days 0 32 65-70 6-7 months 13 55 65 6 months -0.5-0 31-32 90-95 3-4 weeks 10 50 85-90 3-4 weeks 14-15 58-60 85-90 6-8 weeks 10-15 50-60 85-90 6-8 weeks -1 to -0.5 30-31 90-95 1-6 months -0.5-0 31-32 85 2-8 weeks 0 32 95-100 10-14 days 5-10 41-50 90 2-3 weeks 4-7 40-45 95 7-10 days -1-0 30-32 98-100 10-12 months 13-15 55-60 90-95 2-3 days 13 55 85-90 2-6 weeks 8-10 46-50 85-90 8-12 weeks 8-12 46-54 90-95 1 week -0.5-0 31-32 90-95 4-5 months 13-18 55-65 65-70 1-2 months 0 32 95-100 2-3 weeks 10-15 50-60 90 6 months 0 32 90-95 3-5 months 0 32 98-100 2-3 months 4 40 90-95 2-4 weeks 11-14 52-58 85-90 2 weeks 0 32 95-100 2-3 months 10-13 50-55 85-90 1-6 months 0 32 98-100 2-3 weeks 9-10 48-50 85-90 6-8 weeks 116 Table 10: Recommended temperature and relative humidity, and approximate transit and storage life for fruits and vegetables—Continued Temperature Relative Product °C °F Humidity (percent) Approximate storage life Lo bok 0-1.5 32-35 95-100 2-4 months Loganberries -0.5-0 31-32 90-95 2-3 days Longan 1.5 35 90-95 3-5 weeks Loquats 0 32 90 3 weeks Lychees 1.5 35 90-95 3-5 weeks Malanga 7 45 70-80 3 months Mamey 13-15 55-60 90-95 Mangoes 13 55 85-90 2-3 weeks Mangosteen Melons: 13 55 85-90 2-4 weeks Casaba 10 50 90-95 3 weeks Crenshaw 7 45 90-95 2 weeks Honeydew 7 45 90-95 3 weeks Persian 7 45 90-95 2 weeks Mushrooms 0 32 95 3-4 days Nectarines -0.5-0 31-32 90-95 2-4 weeks Okra 7-10 45-50 90-95 7-10 days Olives, fresh 5-10 41-50 85-90 4-6 weeks Onions, green 0 32 95-100 3-4 weeks Onions, dry 0 32 65-70 1-8 months Onion sets 0 32 65-70 6-8 months Oranges. Calif & Ariz. 3-9 38-48 85-90 3-8 weeks Oranges, Fla & Texas 0-1 32-34 85-90 8-12 weeks Papayas 7-13 45-55 85-90 1-3 weeks Passionfruit 7-10 45-50 85-90 3-5 weeks Parsley 0 32 95-100 2-2.5 months Parsnips 0 32 95-100 4-6 months Peaches -0.5-0 31-32 90-95 2-4 weeks Pears -1.5 to -0.5 29-31 90-95 2-7 months Peas, green 0 32 95-98 1-2 weeks Peas, southern 4-5 40-41 95 6-8 days Pepmo 4 40 85-90 1 month Peppers, Chili (dry) 0-10 32-50 60-70 6 months Peppers, sweet 7-13 45-55 90-95 2-3 weeks Persimmons. Japanese -1 30 90 3-4 months Pineapples 7-13 45-55 85-90 2-4 weeks Plantain 13-14 55-58 90-95 1-5 weeks Plums and prunes -0.5-0 31-32 90-95 2-5 weeks Pomegranates 5 41 90-95 2-3 months Potatoes, early crop 10-16 50-60 90-95 10-14 days Potatoes, late crop 4.5-13 40-55 90-95 5-10 months Pummelo 7-9 45-48 85-90 12 weeks Pumpkins 10-13 50-55 50-70 2-3 months Quinces -0 5-0 31-32 90 2-3 months Raddichio 0-1 32-34 95-100 2-3 weeks Radishes, spring 0 32 95-100 3-4 weeks Radishes, winter 0 32 95-100 2-4 months Rambutan 12 54 90-95 1-3 weeks Raspberries -0.5-0 31-32 90-95 2-3 days Rhubarb 0 32 95-100 2-4 weeks Rutabagas 0 32 98-100 4-6 months 117 Table 10: Recommended temperature and relative humidity, and approximate transit and storage life for fruits and vegetables—Continued Temperature Relative Product °C °F Humidity (percent) Approximate storage life Salsify 0 32 95-98 2-4 months Santol 7-9 45-48 85-90 3 weeks Sapodilla 16-20 60-68 85-90 2-3 weeks Scorzonera 0-1 32-34 95-98 6 months Seedless cucumbers 10-13 50-55 85-90 10-14 days Snow peas 0-1 32-34 90-95 1-2 weeks Soursop 13 55 85-90 1-2 weeks Spinach 0 32 95-100 10-14 days Squashes, summer 5-10 41-50 95 1-2 weeks Squashes, winter 10 50 50-70 2-3 months Strawberries 0 32 90-95 5-7 days Sugar apples 7 45 85-90 4 weeks Sweetpotatoes 13-15 55-60 85-90 4-7 months Tamarillos 3-4 37-40 85-95 10 weeks Tamarinds 7 45 90-95 3-4 weeks Tangerines, mandarins, and related citrus fruits 4 40 90-95 2-4 weeks Taro root 7-10 45-50 85-90 4-5 months Tomatillos 13-15 55-60 85-90 3 weeks Tomatoes, mature-green 18-22 65-72 90-95 1-3 weeks Tomatoes, firm-ripe 13-15 55-60 90-95 4-7 days Turnips 0 32 95 4-5 months Turnip greens 0 32 95-100 10-14 days Ugli fruit 4 40 90-95 2-3 weeks Waterchestnuts 0-2 32-36 98-100 1-2 months Watercress 0 32 95-100 2-3 weeks Watermelons 10-15 50-60 90 2-3 weeks White sapote 19-21 67-70 85-90 2-3 weeks White asparagus 0-2 32-36 95-100 2-3 weeks Winged bean 10 50 90 4 weeks Yams 16 61 70-80 6-7 months Yucca root 0-5 32-41 85-90 1-2 months Sources: largely from Hardenburg, Watada. and Wang (7), also from Buishand, Houwing, and Jansen (3), Martin (11), Maxwell and Max¬ well (12),(13), Ortho Books 05), Pantastico (17), Pijpers, Constant, and Jansen (18), The Packer (16), Produce Marketing Association (20), Safeway Stores, Inc. (25), United Fresh Fruit and Vegetable Association (30). Information also was obtained from J.Ft. Brooks & Son, Inc. and Frieda’s Finest Produce Specialties, Inc. 118 Potted Flowering and Foliage Plants Cuttings The market for flowering potted plants and potted foliage plants has grown rapidly. These plants are often shipped long distances, for eventual placement in shopping malls, restaurants, offices and homes. During transportation, plants need protec¬ tion from temperature extremes, moisture loss, bruising, insects, disease, and ethylene. Rooted and unrooted cuttings are exported for potting and growing in greenhouses and then transported for sale in domestic and foreign markets for eventual place¬ ment in office, store, restaurant, or home interiors. The purpose of shipping this' plant material in the form of cuttings is to comply with buyer specifications or, in the case of the United States, restrictions on the importation of soil under Quaran¬ tine 37. The restrictions are necessary to prevent harmful insects and diseases from entering the United States. Shippers and importers should check with APHIS for current information that may apply to their products. Almost all plant material requires a permit to enter the United States. Most other countries also require per¬ mits and certificates. Cuttings should be washed, sprayed with a U.S. approved fungicide and insecti¬ cide when necessary, and coated with a preservative wax based solution to retard moisture loss. Cuttings and other nursery stock can be packed in any of the USDA approved packing materials listed below: buckwheat hulls coral sand from Bermuda, when certified excelsior exfoliated vermiculite ground cork ground peat ground rubber paper perlite polymer stabilized cellulose quarry gravel sawdust shavings-wood or cork sphagnum moss vegetable fiber free of pulp, except sugar cane or cotton fiber In addition to any of the above packing materials, cuttings should be wrapped in newspaper to provide insulation and moisture retention and placed in a strong one-piece or full telescoping waxed fiberboard box, lined with polyethylene film. When shipping to areas with extremely hot or cold weather, the box can be lined with polystyrene foam. The box should be sized to fit on a standard 1016 x 1219 mm (40 x 48 in) pallet Banana boxes are popular with some shippers. Temperatures between 15 to 18°C (60-65°F) at 85-90% relative humidity should be maintained during transportation and storage of most cuttings. Cuttings usually are transported by air cargo when they are exported Some plants may benefit from acclimatization prior to being shipped. This process is described for potted plants. 119 Treatments Packaging Potted plants require careful handling before, during, and after transportation. Researchers have shown that the potted foliage plants benefit when the following adjustments are made before packaging and transportation: • light—high light levels should be reduced by 75% over a 5 week period. • watering—soil should be moist, with water content at 50% of soil capacity dur¬ ing transportation. Soil that is too moist may damage packaging and lead to dis¬ eases, while soil that is too dry will injure plant tissues and lead to a loss of leaves. Plants should be watered one day before shipping. • fertilization—initial fertilizer rates should be reduced by 25-30% over a period of 1 month. No fertilizer should be applied within 1 week of shipping. These adjustments help acclimate plants to darkness in trailers and van containers as well as low light levels in building and home interiors. Plants that are not properly acclimated will suffer a large loss of leaves or chilling injury. Many plants are placed in greenhouses for 1 to 3 months after being trans¬ ported long distances, to regain their vigor or finish growing. Severely injured plants, however, will not recover. The choice of packaging is based on the size of the plant, the amount of foliage, the flexibility of the branches and leaves, as well as their tendency to become en¬ tangled or damaged during loading. Freight rates and desired loading density are additional factors to be considered. In deciding the amount of packaging and subsequent loading procedures, shippers should keep in mind that unprotected plants are subject to cold air and the possi¬ bility of being damaged and bruised. Damaged plants produce more ethylene, which causes leaves to yellow, drop, or curl downward. Flowers on plants affected by ethylene will fail to open, wilt, or fall off. Plants must never be shipped or stored with fruits, vegetables, or cut flowers as these products also give off ethylene. Flowering plants should be shipped separately from foliage plants. Flowers and fruit should be removed from plants transported overseas in van containers. Most potted plants are protected during handling and transportation with kraft paper or clear plastic sleeves. Woven polyester sleeves also are available. The sleeves are designed to be grabbed at the top. This provides a means of quickly handling the plants. Large plants with pot diameters that are 430 mm (17 in) or greater are wrapped with plastic or paper. Smaller plants also are placed in fiberboard boxes with dividers between plants and a moisture resistant tray at the bottom of the box. Polystyrene foam liners should be used when the plants are shipped to areas with extreme hot and cold weather. The boxes should be clearly labeled to show origin and destination and list the contents as live plants, fragile, and perishable. Temperature recommenda¬ tions and arrows indicating “this end up also should be marked on the box. 120 Boxes should be sized to fit on the standard 1016 x 1219 mm (40 x 48 in) pallet The boxes can be unitized on the pallets and, if kept out of direct sunlight, co¬ vered with plastic film to reduce moisture loss and ethylene injury. Recommended standards for potted plant pack sizes and fiberboard box specifications have been developed by the Produce Marketing Association and the Society of American Florists. These are given in Table 11. Table 11. Industry standards for potted plant pack sizes Materials Pot Diameter Number of Pots 76 mm (3.0 in) 28 102 mm (4.0 in) 15 114 mm (4.5 in) 15 127 mm (5.0 in) 10 140 mm (5.5 in) 8 152 mm (6.0 in) 6 165 mm (6.5 in) 6 178 mm (7.0 in) 4 191 mm (7.5 in) 4 203 mm (8.0 in) 4 216 mm (8.5 in) 4 229 mm (9.0 in) 3 254 mm (10 in) 2 357 mm (14 in) 1 724 kPa (250 Ib/in?) bursting test fiberboard. C Flute corrugation, 42 flutes per 0.3 m (linear ft), 3.5 mm (9/64 in) high. Waterproof adhesive. Fiberboard dividers for long distance transport or high relative humidity. Moisture resistant wax or plastic impregnated fiberboard tray Cut-out hand grips for ease in handling. Source: Society of American Florists and the Produce Marketing Association. (28). Plants also are shipped in racks, trays, or “open,” without sleeves or boxes in which case the plants are loaded directly on the trailer or van container floor. In domestic shipments, metal racks are sometimes used which provide a means to quickly roll the plants on and off trailers. The loaded racks can be covered with plastic film. Molded polystyrene foam trays with legs also are available holding 36-100 pots ranging in diameter from 102-152 mm (4-6 in) The plants can be grown and shipped in these trays which are lightweight and stackable. Regardless of the packing method, each plant should have a care and handling tag attached to ensure customer satisfaction. The information provided should in¬ clude a color picture, common name, scientific name, recommended light level, water, and fertilizer requirements and recommended day and night temperatures. 121 Transportation Bottom air delivery trailers and van containers with provisions for shelves, cargo straps, and load locks are recommended for shipping potted plants over long dis¬ tances. Sleeved plants should be loaded in a pyramid or staggered style with the pot edges supporting the weight in stacks. Once half the height of the trailer has been reached, shelving should be installed to support additional plants. Boxed plants that are not palletized aiso may benefit from shelving which reduces the risk of damage from crushing. Boxed, sleeved, and unpackaged plants should be braced with load lock bars, load gates or other wood bracing to keep them from falling and crushing. Large plants can be placed inside old tires for stability. The general recommended temperature range for shipping potted plants is 15 to 18°C (60-65°F) at a relative humidity of 85-90%. Plants grown in the summer and shipped during warm months require warmer shipping temperatures. Lower than recommended temperatures for many plants will cause chilling injury. This leads to wilting and yellowing of the leaves. Higher than recommended temperatures will increase the amount of ethylene produced by the plant while lower humidities will dry out the plants. An air temperature recorder should be placed in every load to monitor the transit temperature. Based on simulated transit research more specific temperature recommendations for 28 different foliage plants are given in Table 12. Information on brief storage periods are given for many potted plants in Table 13. Plants which cannot tolerate dark storage conditions must be unpacked immediately, watered as necessary and held in lighted conditions at 18-24°C (65-75°F). All plants should be protected from cold drafts. 122 Table 12. Suggested shipping temperatures for acclimatized foliage plants 1 Plant name 1-15 days’ shipment 16-30 days' shipment 2 °C °F °C °F Aglaonema, cv. Fransher 13-16 55-60 16-18 60-65 Aglaonema, cv. Silver Queen 16-18 60-65 16-18 60-65 Ardisia crispa 10-13 50-55 — — Aspidistra elatior 10-13 50-55 — — Brassaia actinophylla 10-13 50-55 10-13 50-55 Chamaedorea elegans 13-16 55-60 — — Chamaedorea seifrizii 13-16 55-60 — _ Chrysalidocarpus lutescens 13-18 55-65 16-18 60-65 Codiaeum variegatum 16-18 60-65 16-18 60-65 Cordyline terminalis 16-18 60-65 — — Dieffenbachia picta 16-18 60-65 — _ Dracaena deremensis 16-18 60-65 — _ Dracaena fragrans 16-18 60-65 — — Dracaena marginata 13-18 55-65 16-18 60-65 Ficus bengamina 13-16 55-60 13-16 55-60 Ficus nitida 13-16 55-60 — _ Floweia forsteriana 10-18 50-65 10-18 50-65 Nephrolepis exalt at a 16-18 60-65 — _ Peperomia bicolor 16-18 60-65 — _ Philodendron selloum 13-16 55-60 — _ Philodendron oxycardium 16-18 60-65 — — Phoenix roebelenii 10-13 50-55 _ _ Pleomele reflexa 16-18 60-65 _ _ Rhapis excelsa 10-13 50-55 — _ Shefflera arboricola 10-13 50-55 10-13 50-55 Scindapsus aureus 16-18 60-65 — _ Spathiphyllum, Mauna Loa 10-13 50-55 13-16 55-60 Yucca elephantipes 10-13 50-55 10-13 50-55 'Data are for plants In containers in the dark. Some plants stored without lights for 10 to 14 days will show slight to severe leaf loss and/or yellowing but will recover. 2 Blanks indicate that plant's tolerance to shipping beyond 15 days is unknown Source Hardenburg, Watada, and Wang (7) 123 Table 13. Recommended temperature, relative humidity and storage period for potted plants not acclimated to darkness Relative Common name/ Temperature Humidity Storage Scientific name(s) °C °F (Percent) Period AFRICAN VIOLET 21-24 70-75 * Sainpaulia ionanatha AGLAONEMA 16-21 60-70 65-85 10 days Aglaonema spp. ASPARAGUS 18-21 65-75 * Asparagus densiflorus sprengeri Asparagus setaceus 3 days AZALEA 16 60 Rhododendron hybrid BEGONIA 16-21 60-70 * Begonia x hiemalis BROMELIADS 21-27 70-80 * Aechmea fasciata Neoregelia carolinae tricolor 80-90 5 days CHRYSANTHEMUM 2 35 Chrysanthemum morifolium CYCLAMEN 10 50 80-90 4 days Cyclamen persicum giganteum DIEFFENBACHIA 16-21 60-70 5 days Dieffenbachia spp. DRACAENA 16-24 60-75 7 days Dracaena spp. Cordyline terminalis 14 days EASTER LILY 0-3 32-37 lilium longitlorum, flower buds puffy, white, unopened. 75-85 7 days FERNS 16-24 60-75 Nephrolepis spp. Adiantum raddianum Asplenium nidus Pteris cretica Pteris ensiformis 7 days FICUS 13-21 55-70 65-85 Ficus spp. GLOXINA 16 60 70-90 4 days Sinningia speciosa HIBISCUS 18-24 65-75 * Hibiscus rosa-sinensis KALANCHOE 16 60 4 days Kalanchoe blossfeldiana 124 Table 13. Recommended temperature, relative humidity and storage period for potted plants not acclimated to darkness—Continued Common name/ Scientific name(s) Temperature °C °F Relative Humidity (Percent) Storage Period PALM Chrysalidocarpus lutescens Chamaedorea erumpens Chamaedorea elagans Howeia forsteriana Phoenix roebelenu 10-21 50-70 65-75 10 days PEPEROMIA Peperomia spp. 16-24 60-75 65-85 7 days PHILODENDREN Philodendron spp. 16-24 60-75 65-85 7 days POINSETTA Euphorbia pulcherrima 10-12 50-54 4 days POTHOS Scindapsus aureus 16-24 60-75 65-85 7 days ROSES Rosa hybnda 1-3 34-37 5 days SCHEFFLERA Brassaia actinophylla 13-18 55-65 7 days Brassaia arboracola These plants cannot be stored in darkness at lower temperatures. Source Society of American Florists (27) except data on Easter lilies and roses from Hardenburg, Watada, and Wang (7). Sources for the preceding product guidelines are: Conover and Poole (4), Hardenburg. Watada. and Wang (7), Langefeld (9). Poole and Conover (19). Society of American Florists (27). 125 Cut Flowers and Florist Greens Treatments The market for cut flowers is growing, especially for the more exotic flowers. Flow¬ ers are very perishable. Quality must be very high to ensure time for distribution, consumer acceptance, and repeat purchases. Maintenance of quality requires careful handling from harvest to display in the consumers home. The Society of American Florists (27) has developed important guidelines in this regard. Cut flowers are harvested at various stages of maturity, depending on the cultivar and buyer specifications. Asters, bird-of-paradise, carnations, chrysanthemums, gladioli, iris, roses, and snapdragons are harvested in the tight-bud stage to ex¬ tend shelf life. Other flowers, such as orchids must be fully developed before be¬ ing cut. Damaged and diseased flowers must be immediately discarded as they produce ethylene and spread decay, ruining healthy flowers. On of the most important steps in postharvest treatment of cut flowers is to recut the flower stems at an angle under warm 38° to 44°C (100-110°F) water and place them in a plastic container filled with 100-150 mm (4-6 in) of floral preserva¬ tive solution of the same temperature. At least 25 mm (1 in) of stem should be re¬ moved as well as foliage that would be below the water line in the container. Foliage in water will decay, causing damage to the flowers. Typical solutions contain 1% sugar, a biocide (200 ppm 8-HQC, 8-HQS, or Physan-20; or 50 ppm silver nitrate) and an acidifier (200-600 ppm citric acid or aluminum sulfate; 10-20 ppm when silver nitrate is used). The sugar replaces the stored foods consumed by respiration, while biocides limit bacteria which plug up flower stems. Acidifiers aid in the uptake of water by reducing the pH to 3.5-4.5. The water used in the solutions must be high quality, low in alkalinity and salinity or total disolved solids (less than 200 ppm). Deionized water is recommended. Flouride found in most tap water will damage gladioli and gerbera. Homones and growth regulators, such as N-6 benzyladenine at 10-20 ppm, are oc¬ casionally added to floral preservative solutions. Wetting agents to aid in water up¬ take, such as sodium hypochlorite at 4 ppm or 0.1% bleach, also may be added. Floral preservative solutions should be used at each stage of distribution; by the grower, after storage and prior to shipment, and by the wholesaler, retailer, and consumer after the flowers are received. The solutions can either double or triple the shelf life of many flowers. Some florist greens, which have a longer shelf life to begin with, also benefit from floral preservative. These include boxwood, leather- leaf fern, camellia, eucalyptus, ivy, scotch broom, and podocarpus. In addition to floral preservative solution, special solutions are used by growers, wholesalers, or retailers to achieve beneficial effects. Pulsing solutions containing 10-20% sugar are used for 16-24 hours by growers prior to packaging and transportation to extend shelf life and assist in subsequent opening of carnations, chrysanthemums, gladiola, gypsophila, roses, and bird-of- paradise flowers. Pulsing also is done by some wholesalers. 126 Packaging Bud-opening solutions containing 1.5-2.0% sugar, 200 ppm biocide, and 75-100 ppm acidifier are used at room temperature and high humidity by growers, wholesalers, or retailers for flowers cut in the tight-bud stage. After the flowers open, they should be returned to the recommended storage temperature. Hydrating solutions containing 200-600 ppm acidifier and 0.1% wetting agent are used for 1 to 2 hours to increase the uptake of water by flowers such as roses. These solutions are used by growers, wholesalers, and retailers. Silver thiosulfate (STS) conditioning solutions with silver nitrate are used by grow¬ ers for 1 hour on dry flowers and 2 hours on flowers previously in water to protect them from ethylene damage. Alstroemeria, anemone, carnations, delphinum, freesia, gypsophila, enchantment lily, and snapdragon benefit from STS conditioning. Ger- bera, iris, rubrum lily, orchids, star-of-Bethlehem, and tulips also may benefit. All of these flowers should be held away from chrysanthemums, which produce a lot of ethylene. STS should not be applied more than once. Wholesalers or retailers may apply it if the grower has not. Depending on flower size, desired appearance, or buyer specifications, flowers are bunched with 10, 25 or more blooms per bunch. Gypsophilia, lilies-of-the-valley, miniature carnations, pompon chrysanthemums, spray type orchids, statice. and stevia are handled in this manner. Bunches are tied or banded loosely to avoid damage. They are also wrapped in moisture resistant paper, wet newspaper, or placed in clear plastic sleeves. Flowers are packed in bulk or by count, the total amount depending on the box size and customer order. A 1040 x 255 x 180 mm (41 x 10 x 7 in) box for ex¬ ample is generally packed with 500-600 carnations, 250-300 roses, or 35-40 bunches of pompom chrysanthemums, 10 blooms per bunch. Individual stems such as bird-of-paradise or chrysanthemum or bunches of stems such as freesia and tulips are have their flowers protected with plastic netting or sleeves. More specialized packaging, utilizing fiberboard, has been developed for anthuriums and gerberas to protect the flower heads and hold the stems straight. Orchids with solitary blooms are packed in shredded polyester fiber. The stem ends are placed in small glass vials filled with floral preservative solution. The vi¬ als are taped to the bottom of the box. Tissue paper is used to protect flowers sensitive to condensation such as carnations and daffodils. Most flowers are packed in full telescoping fiberboard boxes lined with polyethy¬ lene film or moisture resistant paper to maintain high humidity. Corrugated plastic boxes and wirebound wood crates also are used by some shippers. Roses are packed in polystyrene foam boxes or fiberboard boxes which are lined with either polystyrene foam or polyurethane foam, for insulation from extreme hot or cold temperatures. 127 Individual flowers or bunches of flowers are carefully placed in the boxes in alter¬ nating layers until the box is filled to the desired capacity without bruising or crushing. Paper padding is used between layers. Plastic liners and moistened shredded paper are used to cushion exotic flowers such as anthuriums, bird-o; paradise, heliconia, and red ginger and provide high humidity. Mixed boxes of flowers that are compatible in temperature requirements are packed for retailers selling a limited volume of special or exotic flowers. Heavier flowers should be individually wrapped and placed on the bottom of the box More fragile fiowers should be placed on top. All boxes of flowers should be full, as filled boxes have a higher humidity. Flowers are secured in boxes with 1 or 2 strips of wood wrapped with paper or a piece of polystyrene fastened to the sides of the box. The wood cleats are nailed between the sides of the box. Bottle caps are used on the outside of the box to prevent the nail from pulling through. Once the flowers are secured they may be covered with additional newspaper or plastic. The box cover is then secured with string or plastic strapping. Roses are often packed with ice in plastic bags or gel pack. Roses also are packed “wet” in boxes with floral preservative solutions secured at the bottom of the box. In this case the roses are packed and stored vertically. Wet pack also is used for circium, gerberas, gypsophila, larkspur, lilies, mini-carnations, and mixed bouquets. Wet packing is primarily restricted to flowers transported by highway trailer. Many airlines restrict the use of ice and water. Those that permit ice, require that it be packed in bags in leak-proof containers, utilizing polystyrene foam or polyethylene film. Some flowers must be packed, or stored and transported vertically to prevent ge¬ otropic bending in which the plant tip orients itself away from the center of gravity. This is true for anemone, calendula, daffodils, freesia, gladioli, ranunculus, and snapdragon which will curve upward when placed horizontally. Florist greens are sometimes package-iced, in wax impregnated or polyethylene film lined fiberboard boxes. Wet newspaper or waxed paper also are used to pro¬ vide high humidity. The Society of American Florists and the Produce Marketing Association have recommended standard fiberboard box sizes to reduce the large number of various containers and packs, provide better stacking and utilization of the standard 1016 x 1219 mm (40 x 48 in) pallet, and increase overall efficiency in distribution. These recommendations are given in Table 14. 128 Table 14. Industry standards for cut flower boxes Outside Dimensions Centimeters L w H L W H 41 X 5 x 7* 104 x 12.5 x 18 41 X 10 x 7** 104 x 25.5 x 18 41 X 20 x 7 104 x 51 x 18 44 X 5 x 8* 112 x 12.5 x 20.5 44 X 10 x 8** 112 x 25.5 x 20.5 44 X 20 x 8 112 x 51 x 20.5 44 X 10 x 6* 112 x 25.5 x 15 44 X 20 x 6** 112 x 51 x 15 44 X 20 x 12 112 x 51 x 30.5 48 X 10 x 6* 122 x 25.5 x 15 48 X 20 x 6* ‘ 122 x 51 x 15 48 X 20 x 12 122 x 51 x 30.5 13 X 7 x 48** (Gladioli) 33 x 18 x 122 13 X 13 x 48 (Gladioli) 33 x 33 x 122 40 X 16 x 4 (Gerbera) 101.5 x 40.5 x 10 41 X 22 x 17.25 (Gerbera) 104 x 53 x 44 30 X 14 « « a> X (Greens) 76 x 35.5 x 23 30 X 14 x 15 (Greens) 76 x 35.5 x 38 13 X 13 x 24 (Iris, Gypsophila) 33 x 33 x 61 13 X 13 x 22 (Wet Pack Roses) 33 x 33 x 56 23 X 18 x 17.5 (Daisy) 58.5 x 45.5 x 44.5 Refrigeration •Quarter Box * * Half Box, Materials Centimeter dimensions are approximate • Minimum 1724 kPa (250 lb/in 2 ) bursting strength fiberboard. • 337 g/m 2 (69 lb/1000 ft 2 ) weight outer liner. • 161 g/m 2 (33 lb/1000 ft 2 ) weight corrugated medium. • 205 g/m 2 (42 lb/1000 ft 2 ) weight inner liner. C Flute corrugation, 42 flutes per 0.3 m (linear ft), 3.5 mm (9/64 in) high. • water repellent wax inner liner for wet product. • Waterproof adhesive. • Properly stapled. Source Society of American Florists and the Produce Marketing Association (28). Precooling and refrigerated storage of cut flowers and florist greens in high humid¬ ity are equally important in maintaining the quality of cut flowers. Precooling should be done as soon as possible after harvest, either before, during or after treatment with floral preservative solutions. Flowers can be placed in a refrigerated room while undergoing treatment, except in the case of bud-opening solutions, which require the flowers to be held at room temperature. Some flowers are stored dry by growers for brief periods until sufficient quantities are available for shipment during special holidays. Precooling is essential before the flowers are placed vertically in closed film lined or wax impregnated fiberboard drums for storage. When placed in fiberboard boxes, the flowers can be precooled immediately after packing, provided sufficient holes are in the box ends or sides to ventilate field and product heat. 129 Transportation Low cost forced air precooling equipment has been developed to quickly cool boxed flowers in refrigerated rooms. The equipment consists of a portable exhaust fan which draws refrigerated air thru the boxes stacked on either side of an aisle in front of the fan. A canvas or plastic tarp is extended across the top of the boxes to the floor enclosing the aisle. The holes in the ends of the boxes must not be blocked by the flower packing materials. Forced air precooling can be accom¬ plished in an hour, while room cooling of packaged flowers can take 24 hours or more, reducing shelf life. All flowers should be precooled, stored and transported at their recommended storage temperatures. These are given in Table 15 at the end of this section. Some flowers and florist greens are tropical in origin and are very sensitive to chilling injury if held or transported at lower temperatures. These tropicals and other chill sensitive flowers and florist greens include: anthurium bird-of-paradise camellia cattleya orchid eucharis euphorbia ginger godetia heliconia poinsetta protea vanda orchid chamaedora cordyline (ti) diffenbachia palm staghorn fern Air cargo is used for the export of cut flowers. Most of the flowers are shipped without refrigeration. This can reduce their shelf life. Fortunately most air transit times are short—a matter of hours. Minimizing product loss requires the use of protective packaging, precooling before loading, close coordination at origin and destination airports, and utilization of cold storage facilities near the airport. Flow¬ ers should not remain on the runway in sunlight or be held in unrefrigerated storage prior to official inspections or pickup by the receiver. Boxes of cut flowers are unitized on air cargo pallets. Plastic strapping around the boxes is recommended to protect the pallet load. The pallets are then secured with the air cargo pallet netting. Some flowers also are transported in air cargo containers. Refrigerated van containers are used for the export of florist greens. With ade¬ quate precooling, the florist greens can withstand transit times of 2 to 3 weeks. Land transportation of cut flowers and florist greens is handled primarily by refrigerated highway trailers. The trailers are either loaded by hand or with pallet jacks. Some carriers have installed metal supports on the sidewalls of trailers for wood shelving. This helps to reduce crushing and damage of flowers on the bot¬ tom of hand-loaded stacks. 130 Most trailers make multiple stops as wholesalers prefer to receive small quantities several times a week. The goal is to minimize inventory and time in storage and maximize the freshness of the flowers in the hands of consumers. Flowers and florist greens are shipped in mixed loads. Mixed loads of cut flowers can create a handling challenge when tropical items sensitive to chilling injury are included. Some carriers place these items in the cab of their tractor-trailer. In this case, however, they are held at higher than recommended temperatures. With in¬ creased volumes of tropical flowers, carriers may consider using multitemperature trailers, bulkheads, or insulated coverings or boxes to protect the flowers from colder temperatures. Flowers and florist greens must never be shipped or stored with fruits or vegeta¬ bles. Ideally, florist greens should be handled separately from flowers, as the florist greens are more sensitive to ethylene, which flowers produce in small amounts. Storage Fruits, vegetables, damaged or diseased flowers, flowers held at higher than recommended temperatures, as well as exhaust gases, produce ethylene which will cause downward bending of flower foliage, failure of buds to open, or open flowers to close or fall off. Florist greens will yellow, and leaves and berries will bend downward or fall off in the presence of ethylene. Damaged or diseased plant material also give off ethylene. Temperature control, ventilation, sanitation, and ethylene absorbent pads are used to minimize damage to flowers and florist greens in transit and storage. Sources tor the preceding product guidelines are: Hardenburg, Watada. and Wang (7), and Society of American Florists (27). 131 Table 15: Recommended temperature, relative humidity, and approximate transit and storage period for cut flowers and florist greens. Storage temperature Approximate Commodity storage °C °F period 1 Cut flowers 2 Acacia 4 40 3-4 days Alstroemeria 4 40 2-3 days Allium 0-2 32-35 2 weeks Anemone 4-7 40-45 2 days Anthurium 4 13 56 2-4 weeks Aster, China 0-4 32-40 1-3 weeks Bird-of-paradise 7-8 45-46 1-3 weeks Bouvardia 0-2 32-35 1 week Buddleia 4 40 1-2 days Calendula 4 40 3-6 days Calla 4 40 1 week Camellia 5 7 45 3-6 days Candytuft 4 40 3 days Carnation -0.5-0 31-32 3-4 weeks Carnation buds -0.5-0 31-32 4-12 weeks Carnation, miniature -0.5-0 31-32 2 weeks Chrysanthemum -0.5-0 31-32 3-4 weeks Clarkia 4 40 3 days Columbine 4 40 2 days Coreopsis 4 40 3-4 days Cornflower 4 40 3 days Cosmos 4 40 3-4 days Crocus 0.5-2 33-36 1-2 weeks Dahlia 4 40 3-5 days Daisy, English 4 40 3 days Daisy, Marguerite 2 36 1-2 weeks Daisy, Shasta 4 40 7-8 days Delphinium 4 40 1-2 days Eucharis 5 7-10 45-50 7-10 days Feverfew 4 40 3 days Foreget-me-not 4 40 1-2 days Foxglove 4 40 1-2 days Freesia 0-0.5 32-33 10-14 days Gaillardia 4 40 3 days Gardenia 5 0-1 32-34 2 weeks Gerbera 1-4 34-40 1-2 weeks Ginger 13 55 4-7 days Gladiolus 2-5 35-42 5-8 days Gloriosa 4-7 40-45 4-7 days See footnotes at end of table. Table 15: Recommended temperature, relative humidity, and approximate transit and storage period for cut flowers and florist greens—Continued Storage Commodity temperature Approximate storage period 1 °C °F Godetia 10 50 1 week Gypsophila 4 40 1-3 weeks Heather 4 40 1-3 weeks Heliconia 12 54 10 days Hyacinth 0-0.5 32-33 2 weeks Iris, bulbous -0.5-0 31-32 1-2 weeks Laceflower 4 40 3 days Lilac, forced 4 40 4-6 days Lily 0-1 32-34 2-3 weeks Lily-of-the-valley -0.5-0 31-32 2-3 weeks Lupine 4 40 3 days Marigolds 4 40 1-2 weeks Mignonette 4 40 3-5 days Narcissus 0-0.5 32-33 1-3 weeks Orchid, cattelya 4 , 5 7-10 45-50 2 weeks Orchid, cymbidium -0.5-4 31-40 2 weeks Orchid, vanda 13 55 5 days Ormthogalum 4 40 4-6 weeks Poppy 4 40 3-5 days Peony,tight buds 0-1 32-34 2-6 weeks Phlox 4 40 1-3 days Pomsettia 10-15 50-60 4-7 days Primrose 4 40 1-2 days Protea 4 40 7-10 days Ranunculus 0-5 32-41 7-10 days Rose (in preservative) 0.5-2 33-35 4-5 days Rose (dry pack) -0.5-0 31-32 2 weeks Snapdragon 4 40 1-2 weeks Snowdrop 4 40 2-4 days Squill 0-0.5 32-33 2 weeks Statice 2-4 35-40 3-4 weeks Stephanotis 5 4 40 1 week Stevia 4 40 3 days Stock 4 40 3-5 days Strawflower, fresh 2-4 35-40 3-4 weeks Sweet pea -0.5-0 31-32 2 weeks Sweet-william 7 45 3-4 days Tulip -0.5-0 31-32 2-3 weeks Violet 1-5 34-41 3-7 days Zinnia 4 40 5-7 days See lootnoles at end table 133 Table 15: Recommended temperature, relative humidity, and approximate transit and storage period for cut flowers and florist greens—Continued Commodity Storage temperature Approximate storage period 1 °C °F Florist greens (decorative foliage) 2 , 3 Adiantum (maidenhair) 0-4 32-40 Asparagus (plumosa) 6 2-4 35-40 2-3 weeks Asparagus (sprenger) 6 2-4 35-40 2-3 weeks Buxus (boxwood) 2-4 35-40 — Camellia 4 40 ... Cedar 6 0 32 ... Chamaedorea 7 45 2-3 weeks Cordyline (ti) 7-10 45-50 2-3 weeks Croton 2-4 35-40 ... Dieffenbachia 13 55 ... Dracaena 2-4 35-40 ... Dagaer & wood ferns 6 0 32 2-3 months Eucalyptus 2-4 35-40 1-3 weeks Galax 6 0 32 — Ground pine 6 0 32 ... Hedera 2-4 35-40 2-3 weeks llex(holly) 6 0-4 32-40 3-5 weeks Juniper 0 32 1-2 months Leatherleaf (baker fern) 1-4 34-40 1-2 months Leucothoe, drooping 2-4 35-40 ... Magnolia 2-4 35-40 2-4 weeks Mistletoe 0 32 3-4 weeks Mountain-laurel 0 32 2-4 weeks Myrtus (myrtle) 2-4 35-40 — Palm 7 45 — Philodendron 2-4 35-40 ... Pittosporum 2-4 35-40 2-3 weeks Podocarpus 7 45 — Pothos 2-4 35-40 ... Rhododendron 0 32 2-4 weeks Salal (lemon leaf) 6 0 32 2-3 weeks Scotch-broom 4 40 2-3 weeks Smilax, southern 6 4 40 ... Staghorn fern 13 55 — Vaccinium (huckleberry) 6 0 32 1-4 weeks Woodwardia fern 0-4 32-40 'Storage periods given should allow satisfactory handling and keeping after removal from storage 2 High relative humidity of 90 to 95 percent recommended in refrigerated storage rooms for cut flowers and florist greens Likely, some flowers for which temperature of 4° is recommended could be stored longer and safely at lower temperatures. 3 At retail level, florist greens held at approximately 4° for only 1 or 2 weeks. Most stored with stems in water, except where noted otherwise. 4 Stems of orchids and some anthuriums should be placed in vials of water. However, some orchids and anthuriums may be stored by dry-pack methods. 5 Not placed in water for handling or storage but may be misted. 6 Usually held in moisture-retentive shipping cases. Source: Hardenburg, Watada. and Wang (7). 134 Appendix 1 U.S. Regulations and Exporters of fruits, vegetables, plants, cut flowers, and other agricultural products Sources of Information must meet the requirements of the origin and destination countries. It is very im¬ portant for importers and exporters to keep informed of the changes in various im¬ port/export laws administered by U.S. Government agencies and their foreign counterparts. These agencies can provide valuable advice and assistance. Follow¬ ing are the addresses of a contact point in each agency and an outline of the agencies functions: Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS): U.S. Department of Agriculture Plant Protection and Quarantine Permit Unit Federal Building Hyattsville, Maryland 20782 USA Telephone 301-436-8645 • issues permits to U.S. importers of foreign agricultural products. Almost all im¬ ported agricultural products require a permit. • inspects all imported agricultural products at the first U.S. port of entry for harmful insects, diseases, and prohibited items. • maintains for each country of the world, a separate list of their agricultural products approved for entry to the United States. These lists are subject to change as products are added or deleted. Call the above telephone number for the latest information on a specific product from a specific country. • provides information on the import requirements of foreign countries, inspec¬ tion services, and Federal Phytosamtary Certificates for U.S. exporters of plant and unprocessed plant products. • supervises quarantine treatments of imported and exported produce. • provides a preclearance program at the requesting foreign country’s expense in which products are inspected in the origin country prior to shipment to the Unit¬ ed States. • works with foreign countries on pest research and eradication programs. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), U.S. Dept, of Health & Human Services: International Affairs Staff 5600 Fishers Lane Rockville, Maryland, 20857 USA Telephone 301-443-4480 • inspects and enforces tolerance levels of pesticide and other contamination of all food products, fresh or processed, except for meat and poultry products, which are inspected by the USDA. • provides single free copies of the publication: Action Levels for Poisonous or Deleterious Substances in Human Food and Animal Feed 135 • enforces labeling requirements of consumer packages. The following informa¬ tion is required in English: name and address of manufacturer, packer or distribu¬ tor, net amount of food in package in “English” units of measure, common or usual name of the food, and ingredients. The same information can be repeated in entirety in foreign languages and metric units. • provides free copies of the publication: Information Materials for the Food and Cosmetic Industries. This lists other publications, many of which are available free. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Office of Pesticides and Toxic Substances 401 M Street, SW Washington, DC 20460 USA Telephone 202-382-4374 • registers and reviews pesticides and establishes tolerances for residue levels in food. • maintains a list of U.S. approved pesticides and tolerance levels. Agricultural Marketing Service (AMS), U.S. Department of Agriculture Information Staff Room 3058-S Washington, D.C. 20250 USA Telephone: 202-447-8998 • enforces marketing orders which apply at certain times of the year to domes¬ tic and imported avocados, dates, filberts, grapefruit, table grapes, kiwifruit, limes, canned ripe olives, onions, oranges, Irish potatoes, prunes, raisins, tomatoes, and walnuts. Importers and exporters should be aware that the scope and effective dates of these orders can change. • enforces the Perishable Agricultural Commodities Act (PACA) which prohibits unfair and fraudulent practices in the marketing of fresh and frozen fruits and vegetables and sets penalties for violations. Commission merchants, dealers, and brokers handling these products in interstate or foreign commerce must be licensed. Growers, shippers, importers, exporters, and retailers should obtain some of the following publications: • The Perishable Agricultural Commodities Act, Fair Trading in the Fruit and Vegetable Industry • The Fruit and Vegetable Grower and PACA (AMS-591) • El Cultivador De Frutas Y Hortalizas Y El Decreto PACA (AMS-591-S) • What Food Retailers Should Know About the Perishable Agricultural Com¬ modities Act (AMS-582) • Perishable Agricultural Commodities Act, 1930, and Regulations. • Rules of Practice Governing Formal Adjudicatory Administrative Proceedings Instituted by the Secretary. 136 • provides official grade standards for some fresh and processed fruits, vegeta¬ bles, nuts, and related products. These standards are voluntary except in the case of products regulated by marketing orders. See Appendix 2 for a list of the grade standards and inspection instructions. Contact AMS for a list of the recently deve¬ loped Market Inspection Instructions for Specialty Fresh Fruits and Vegetables. • provides grading and inspection services at the requestor's expense at certain farms, terminal markets, and U.S. ports of entry. • provides market news and reports on supplies, demand and prices in certain markets of the U.S. concerning fruits, vegetables, and ornamentals. • inspects frozen or otherwise processed products under a verification program to meet the requirements of certain foreign countries. U.S. Customs Service, U.S. Department of the Treasury 1301 Constitution Ave., N.W. Washington, D.C. 20229 USA Telephone: 202-566-2957 • examines imported and exported products for proper documentation, labeling, and the assessment of duties, taxes, and fees. • enforces the regulations of other U.S. Government agencies including those listed above. • combats smuggling and other fraudulent activities. • enforces import quotas. Importers and exporters should obtain a copy of the the U.S. Customs Service publication—Importing Into the United States—from: Superintendent of Documents Government Printing Office Washington, D C. 20402 USA Telephone 202-783-3238 Enclose: $4.25 Agricultural Research Service (ARS), U.S. Department of Agriculture Information Staff Building 005, BARC-W Beltsville, MD 20705 Telephone: 301-344-2264 • conducts production research on plants and animals and postharvest research on plants. • provides APHIS and EPA research results of treatments to combat harmful diseases and insects. Persons needing more information on fruits, vegetables, plants, and flowers may contact ARS horticultural laboratories in the United States including Beltsville, Maryland: Miami, Florida; Orlando, Florida; Fresno, California; Hilo, Hawaii; Honolulu, Hawaii; and Mayaguez, Puerto Rico. 137 Foreign Agricultural Service (FAS), U S. Department of Agriculture Information Division Room 5074-S Washington, DC 20250 Telephone: 202-447-7115 • monitors world agriculture supply and demand and U.S. export sales. • provides marketing assistance to U.S. agricultural exporters both within the United States and abroad through U.S. embassies and trade missions. • implements programs to improve the competitivesness of U.S. exports such as the Export Enhancement Program and the Targeted Export Assistance Program. • administers the Food for Peace (P.L. 480) foreign aid program. Office of International Cooperation and Development (OICD): U.S. Department of Agriculture Private Sector Relations Division Agribusiness Information Center Washington, DC 20250-4300 Telephone 202-653-7911 • provides information on international agricultural trade, investment, marketing, as well as technical information through referrals. • maintains an online data base, which can be accessed by telephone sub¬ scribers. Databases include TELENET, CARINET, CBIN, AGRIDATA, DIALCOM, EDI, and CRIS. Office of Transportation (OT), U.S. Department of Agriculture Washington, DC 20250-4500 Telephone 202-653-6275 • provides technical assistance on international and domestic agricultural trans¬ portation problems. • conducts cooperative technical and economic research with industry and universities to improve the transportation of agricultural products. National Agricultural Library (NAL), U.S. Department of Agriculture Education and Information Staff Beltsville, Maryland 20705 USA Telephone: 301-344-3778 • provides agricultural information through on line computer data bases and lending of publications. • coordinates information with U.S. State land grant college libraries and field libraries. • serves as a center for international agricultural information. 138 Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS), U S. Department of Agriculture Foreign Programs Division Washington, D.C. 20250 USA Telephone: 202-447-7943 • requires that countries exporting meat and poultry products to the United States have inspection systems at least equal to those required in the United States including residue testing and species verification. • reviews foreign inspection systems and plants. • approves labels. • inspects all meat and poultry in the United States including those products which are exported. • provides information on the import requirements of foreign countries. Economic Research Service (ERS), U S. Department of Agriculture Economics Management Staff Washington, D C. 20250 USA Telepone: 202-447-7943 • conducts research in domestic and foreign agricultural economics. • reports situation and outlook, commodity projections, price spreads, and ana¬ lyses of U S. farm commodity programs. 139 Appendix 2 U.S. Grade Standards Write: Fresh Products Branch; USDA-AMS, FV; Room 2056-S, Washington, DC, 20250, for single free copies of any of these standards. Vegetables (Fresh Market) Anise, Sweet. Artichokes, Globe. Asparagus, Fresh. Beans, Lima. Beans, Snap. Beets. Broccoli, Bunched Italian Sprouting Brussels Sprouts . Cabbage . Cantaloups. Carrots, Bunched. Carrots, Topped. Carrots With Short Trimmed Tops . Cauliflower . Celery. Corn, Green . Cucumbers. Cucumbers, Greenhouse. Eggplant. Endive, Escarole or Chicory . Garlic. Greens, Beet. Greens, Collard Or Broccoli. Greens, Dandelion. Greens, Mustard and Turnip. Honeydew And Honey Ball Type Melons Horseradish Roots. Kale . Lettuce . Lettuce, Greenhouse Leaf. Mushrooms. Okra. Onions, Bermuda-Granex-Grano Type . Onions, Creole. Onions, (Other Than Bermuda-Granex- Grano and Creole Types). Onions, Common Green . Onion Sets. Parsley . Parsnips . Peas, Fresh. Peas, Southern. Peppers, Sweet . Potatoes. Potatoes. Seed. Radishes. Rhubarb (Field Grown). Romaine. Shallots, Bunched . Spinach Leaves. Spinach Plants. Established 1930 1926 4/4/46 1/5/38 8/1/36 8/1/55 1930 1/18/54 9/1/45 4/15/61 12/15/37 1928 3/2/42 8/7/39 8/15/46 1927 11/13/53 10/1/34 12/1/33 10/1/64 9/4/44 6/1/59 4/16/53 2/4/55 3/8/53 5/20/37 7/27/36 4/25/34 3/15/34 10/1/34 1928 12/18/28 3/29/37 5/15/41 7/31/44 6/20/47 6/1/35 7/30/30 12/10/45 2/1/34 7/13/56 7/29/46 1917 4/29/72 7/16/54 3/10/33 1928 12/16/46 12/27/46 1931 Amended 3/15/73 5/15/69 4/1/66 7/12/43 6/30/68 9/18/54 12/20/65 9/18/54 3/15/68 4/7/59 5/18/54 3/1/58 10/29/53 4/1/67 12/1/75 9/1/64 7/15/66 3/20/85 4/10/43 10/1/71 2/1/40 6/1/42 12/15/63 2/5/72 10 / 1/68 2 / 1/66 8/10/60 11/19/56 140 Vegetables (Fresh Market)-Continued Established Amended Squash, Fall And Winter Type & Pumpkins. . 11/15/44 10/13/83 Squash, Summer . 3/26/45 1/6/84 Sweetpotatoes. . 7/1/63 Tomatoes, Fresh. . 9/3/34 4/15/76 Tomatoes, Greenhouse. . 4/19/66 Turnips Or Rutabagas . . 8/1/55 Watermelons . . 5/15/37 1/15/78 Vegetables (Fresh Market-Consumer) Broccoli, Italian Sprouting . 10/28/50 Brussels Sprouts . 9/19/50 Carrots, (Bunched Topped, Short Trimmed Tops). . 7/17/54 Celery 3/27/49 Corn (Husked on the Cob). . 5/11/50 Beet Greens . 11/1/58 Kale 8/26/50 Parsnips Potatoes . 12/8/47 Spinach Leaves. 5/19/49 Tomatoes . 10/10/48 Turnips. 8/20/54 Vegetables For Processing Established Amended Asparagus, Green . 2/15/41 4/5/72 Beans, Lima, Fresh Shelled . 1/5/38 6/6/53 Beans, Snap . 4/25/85 7/26/59 Beets 12/5/45 Broccoli. 10/4/59 Cabbage 1/17/44 Carrots 7/30/84 Cauliflower Corn, Sweet 5/15/62 Cucumbers, Pickling . 12/10/36 Mushrooms. Okra Onions Peas, Fresh Shelled, For Canning Or Freezing 1/15/46 Peas, Southern 6/1/65 Peppers, Sweet Potatoes For Chipping Potatoes 4/14/83 Spinach 7/10/56 Sweet Potatoes, For Canning Or Freezing . 7/24/59 Sweet Potatoes. For Dicing Or Pulping 7/23/51 Tomatoes, Italian Type For Canning 5/7/57 Tomatoes, Green 4/15/50 Tomatoes 7/11/83 141 Fruit (Fresh Market) Established Amended Apples . 9/1/37 3/25/76 Apricots. 5/25/28 . Avocados, Florida. 9/3/57 . Blueberries. 6/1/66 . Cherries, Sweet . 1927 5/7/71 Cranberries, Fresh. 8/26/71 . Dewberries And Blackberries. 2/13/28 . Grapes, Bunch. American, (Eastern Type). 7/19/43 9/8/83 Grapes, Juice, (European Or Vinifera Type). 7/20/39 . Grapes, Table, (European Or Vinifera Type). 7/20/39 4/29/83 Grapefruit, (California And Arizona) 3/15/41 1/9/50 Grapefruit, Florida . 9/14/52 12/1/80 Grapefruit, (Texas And States Other Than Florida, California, & Arizona). 11/3/55 10/1/69 Kiwfruit . 9/9/82 . Lemons . 3/15/41 9/1/64 Limes, Persian (Tahiti) . 8/31/52 6/20/58 Nectarines. 7/27/38 4/23/66 Oranges, (California And Arizona). 11/26/49 9/23/57 Oranges And Tangelos, Florida. 10/14/55 12/1/80 Oranges. (Texas And States Other Than Florida, California And Arizona) . 9/14/48 10/1/69 Peaches . 4/22/33 6/15/52 Pears, Summer And Fall. 6/27/40 8/20/55 Pears, Winter. 7/8/40 9/10/55 Pineapples. 12/4/31 2/23/53 Plums And Prunes, Fresh. 5/31/45 6/30/73 Raspberries. 5/29/31 . Strawberries . 11/19/34 7/1/65 Tangerines. 10/27/41 9/18/48 Tangerines, Florida. 10/18/52 12/1/80 Fruit For Processing Apples. 9/2/46 6/6/61 Berries. 6/2/47 Blueberries. 9/5/50 . Cherries, Red Sour, For Manufacture 4/20/41 Cherries, Sweet, For Canning Or Freezing. 6/1/46 Cherries, Sweet, For Export For Sulphur Brining. 5/28/40 Cranberries. 8/24/57 . Currants . 5/18/52 . Grapes, Bunch, American (Eastern Type) For Processing and Freezing. 7/5/43 Grapes, For Processing and Freezing 9/1/77 Peaches, Freestone, For Canning, Freezing Or Pulping. 5/4/42 6/1/66 Pears. 7/1/70 Raspberries. 5/18/52 . Strawberries, Growers’ Stock For Manufacture. 6/1/35 . Strawberries, Washed And Sorted For Freezing. 6/1/35 . 142 Established Amended Nuts and Special Products Almonds, Shelled. Almonds In The Shell. Asparagus Plumosus. Brazil Nuts In the Shell. Christmas Trees. Filberts In The Shell. Gladiolus Corms (Bulbs). Mixed Nuts In The Shell . Peanuts, Shelled Spanish Type Peanuts, Shelled Runner Type. Peanuts, Shelled Virginia Type. Peanuts, Cleaned Virginia Type In The Shell . Pecans, Shelled. Pecans In The Shell. Peonies, Cut, In The Bud . Tomato Plants. Walnuts, Shelled (Juglans regia) . Walnuts (Juglans regia) In The Shell. 8/23/51 8/15/60 8/23/51 7/15/64 6/6/30 10/1/64 8/25/66 11/1/57 4/1/73 9/4/48 9/1/70 4/5/82 8/1/65 8/18/81 9/1/39 7/15/65 9/1/39 7/31/56 8/31/59 11/1/34 8/31/59 10/15/52 7/15/69 10/1/51 10/15/76 4/1/38 12/10/42 1/3/44 1/25/59 9/1/68 9/12/64 11/15/76 U.S. Inspection Instructions Write: Fresh Products Branch; USDA-AMS, FV; Room 2056-S, Washington, DC, 20250, to purchase copies of any of these instructions. Market Latest Issue Cost General 7/66 $19.60 Almonds, Shelled 1.60 Apples 14.00 Bananas 3.10 Beans, Snap And Green Shell 3/55 1.30 Beets, Turnips And Rutabagas . 10/77 4.50 Broccoli, Bunched Italian Sprouting 12/80 3.30 Brussels Sprouts 9/57 80 Cabbage 6/70 3.40 Cantaloups, Honeydew, Honey Ball And Other Similar Melons 9/67 4.20 Carrots, Bunched, And With Short- Trimmed Tops 3/56 2.70 Carrots, Topped 4/66 2.50 Cauliflower 2.10 Celery 9/65 2 80 Cherries, Sweet . . . 7/71 3 90 Citrus, (Oranges-Grapefruit-Lemons) CA & AZ 1/65 5 60 Citrus, (Oranges-Grapefruit- Tangerines) FL 4/83 12.60 Citrus, (Oranges-Grapefruit)Texas And States Other Than FL, CA & AZ) 10/69 4 30 Cranberries 10/72 3 00 Cucumbers 9/70 1.90 Eggplant 11/79 2.30 143 Market-Continued Garlic. Grapes. Greens (Beets, Broccoli, Collard, Dandelion, Mustard, Turnip) . Kiwifruit. Lettuce . Onions (Bermuda-Granex-Grano Type). Onions (Other Than Bermuda-Granex- Grano And Creole Types). Onion Sets . Ornamental Crops . Peaches . Pears. Peas. Fresh. Peppers, Sweet (Other Peppers). Pineapples . Plums and Prunes. Potatoes . Shallots. Spinach Plants & Spinach Leaves . Spinach Leaves And Beet Greens On Basis of Consumer Standards. Sweet Anise, Parsnips, Radishes & Squash . Sweet Potatoes. Tomatoes . Watermelons. Miscellaneous Products, Artichokes, Coconuts Chestnuts, Horseradish Roots, Okra & Rhubarb. Combined Market And Shipping Point Almonds In The Shell. Apricots. Asparagus. Blueberries. Brazil Nuts In The Shell. Christmas Trees. Corn, Green . Filberts In the Shell Limes, Persian (Tahiti) And Florida Avocados. Mushrooms. Nectarines. Peanuts, Milled (Shelled Stock And Cleaned Virginia Type In The Shell Pecans, Shelled. Pecans In The Shell. Strawberries And Other Berries. Walnuts, (Juglans regia) in The Shell And Shelled. Latest Issue 7/56 11/71 11/56 10/82 3/76 3/63 6/78 8/57 3/74 4/70 7/73 9/56 1/81 9/54 9/83 11/76 9/54 8/57 1/59 10/59 12/64 7/83 1/78 9/76 9/65 9/75 1/72 6/66 6/73 7/76 1/74 4/73 11/65 11/66 7/75 9/83 7/69 2/68 3/75 12/74 Cost 1.50 7.70 1.00 2.30 5.30 2.80 6.10 1.30 3.60 3.90 9.20 1.80 7.50 1.60 7.40 9.60 1.00 1.40 1.90 5.00 2.60 6.30 4.40 7.20 1.50 2.80 4.00 1.00 2.40 2.50 3.80 2.00 4.50 90 4.50 11.50 1.70 2.10 4.80 6.30 144 Shipping Point General. Apples . Cabbage Cantaloups, Honeydew, Honey Ball, And Other Similar Melons . Carrots. Cauliflower . Celery . Cherries, Sweet . Citrus, (Oranges & Grapefruit) Texas And States Other Than FL, CA, & AZ Cucumbers . Eggplant. Kiwifruit. Lettuce Onions (Bermuda-Granex-Grano Type). Onions (Other Than Bermuda-Granex- Grano And Creole Types) Peaches . Peanuts, Farmers’ Stock Pears. Potatoes Prunes. Italian Type (With Supple¬ ment for Plums) Amendment I Sweet Potatoes Tomatoes Tomato Plants. Watermelons. Raw Products For Processing General Apples Beans, Fresh Shelled Lima Beans, Snap Berries Blueberries Broccoli Carrots Cauliflower Cherries, Red Sour Corn, Sweet Grapes for Processing And Freezing Mushrooms Okra . Peaches, For Canning, Freezing Or Pulping Pears Peas, Fresh Shelled For Canning or Freezing Peas, Southern Peppers, Sweet Potatoes Spinach Sweetpotatoes Tomatoes Latest Issue 1/66 7/78 11/73 4/67 7/71 7/69 9/57 5/71 10/78 10/70 12/57 10/82 4/76 5/62 5/62 6/69 7/84 7/84 4/78 7/58 2/64 1/85 8/55 3/78 9/79 11/79 2/58 5/60 3/57 10/56 5/60 4/60 10/59 9/60 6/62 11/81 11/62 6/66 6/66 12/70 9/56 6/66 10/56 7/83 6/57 8/68 7/83 Cost 14.00 16.10 3.10 3.40 3.70 1.60 3.10 3.60 6.90 1.30 1.00 2.30 5.30 3.00 3.40 4.50 10.70 5.30 12.00 2.50 2.60 5.50 2.80 3.90 2 40 2.80 1.40 2.10 80 50 1.80 1.30 1.00 60 1.90 4.40 70 1.40 1.00 1.60 2.00 1.20 1.50 5.30 1.20 2 40 4.20 145 Miscellaneous Instructions Latest Issue Cost Apples, Pears and Grapes For Export Canadian Import Requirements. Continuous Inspection. Supplies Purchased By Various Institutions. Inspection On Basis of U.S. Speci- cations For Classification of Damaged Or Repaired Packages Sampling Of In-Shell Brazil Nuts And Pistachio Nuts for Aflatoxin Analysis. Other Regulations Governing Inspection, Certification and Standards for Fresh Fruits, Vegetables, and Other Products. Uniform Grade Nomenclature Policy. 7/71 4.30 2/79 5.40 9/79 2.00 1/66 2.40 8/57 .80 11/72 1.10 12/28/80 1.80 7/1/76 .10 146 List of References (1) American President Companies. 1986. A handbook on shipping perishable commodities. 31 p. APC, Oakland, CA. (2) Ashby, B.H., R.T. Hinsch, L.A. Risse, W.G. Kindya, W.L. Craig, and M.T. Turc- zyn. 1987. Protecting perishable foods during transport by motortruck. U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Handb. 669 (in press). (3) Buishand, T, H.P. Houwing, and K. Jansen. 1986. The complete book of vegetables. 180 p. W.H. Smith Publishing Inc., New York, NY. (4) Conover C.A. and R.T. Poole. 1983. Handling and overseas transportation of acclimatized foliage plants in reefers. 3 p. Univ. Florida, Agr. Res. Center Res. Report RH-1983-1. (5) Debney, H.G., K.J. Blacker, B.J. Redding, J.B. Watkins. 1980. Handling and storage practices for fresh fruits and vegetables. Australian United Fresh Fruit and Vegetable Association. (6) Fibre Box Association. 1984. Fibre box handbook. 105 p. FBA, Chicago, IL. (7) Hardenburg, R.E., A.E. Watada, and C.Y. Wang. 1986. The commercial storage of fruits, vegetables, and florist and nursery stocks. U.S. Dept Agr., Agr. Handb. 66 (revised), 136p. (8) Kasmire, R.F. and R.T. Hinsch. 1982. Factors affecting transit temperatures in truck shipments of fresh produce. 10 p. Univ. CA, Davis. (9) Langefeld, J. 1985. Shipping foliage plants. Grower Talks: 74-86. (10) Lipton, W.J. and J.M. Harvey. 1977. Compatibility of fruits and vegetables dur¬ ing transport in mixed loads. U.S. Dept. Agr., Mktg. Res. Report 1070, 7 p. (11) Martin, F.W., ed. 1984. Handbook of tropical food crops. 296 p. CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton, FL. (12) Maxwell, L.S. and B.M. Maxwell. 1981. Florida fruit. 120 p. Lewis S. Maxwell. Tampa, FL. (13) Maxwell, L.S. and B.M Maxwell. 1984. Florida vegetables. 120 p. Lewis S. Maxwell. Tampa, FL. (14) Nicholas, C.J. 1985. Export handbook for U.S. agricultural products. U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Handb. 593 (revised), 154p. (15) Ortho Books. 1985. All about citrus and subtropical fruit. 96 p. Chevron Chem¬ ical Co., San Francisco, CA (16) The Packer. The Packer 1986 produce availability and merchandising guide. 1986. Vol. 93, No. 53. 376 p. The Packer, Shawnee Mission, KS. 147 (17) Pantastico, E.B. 1975. Postharvest physiology, handling and utilization of trop¬ ical and subtropical fruits and vegetables. AVI Pub. Co., Westport, CT. (18) Pijpers, D., J.C. Constant, and K. Jansen. 1985. The complete book of fruit. 179 p. W.H. Smith Publishers Inc. New York, NY. (19) Poole, R.T. and C.A. Conover. 1983. Packaging of foliage plants for shipment. 3 p. Univ. Florida, ARC Res, Report RH-83-6. (20) Produce Marketing Association. 1985. The foodservice guide to fresh produce. 48 p. PMA, Newark, DE. (21) Rij, R.E., J.F. Thompson, and D.S. Farnham. 1979. Handling, precooling, and temperature management of cut flower crops for truck transportation. U.S. Dept. Agr., Adv. Agr. Tech. Bull. W-5. 26 p. (22) Risse, L.A., W.R. Miller, and T. Moffitt. 1982. Shipping fresh fruits and vegeta¬ bles in mixed loads to the Caribbean. 10 p. U.S. Dept. Agr., Adv. Agr. Tech. Bull. AAT-S-27. (23) Ryall, A.L., and W.J. Lipton. 1979. Handling, transportation and storage of fruits and vegetables. Vol. 1. Vegetables and melons. 2d ed. 610 p. AVI Pub. Co. Westport, CT. (24) Ryall, A.L., and W.T. Pentzer. 1982. Handling, transportation, and storage of fruits and vegetables. Vol. 2. Fruits and tree nuts. 2d ed. 610 p. AVI Pub. Co., Westport, CT. (25) Safeway Stores, Inc. 1986. Transit and storage properties of produce com¬ modities. 1 p. Produce Marketing Association, Newark, DE. (26) Sea-Land Service, Inc. 1984. The shipping of perishables, Sea-Land’s commit¬ ment to excellence. 19 p. Sea-Land Service, Inc., Elizabeth, NJ. (27) Society of American Florists. 1985. Care and handling of flowers and plants. 159 p. SAF, Alexandria, VA. (28) Society of American Florists and the Produce Marketing Association. 1986. Box standards for the floral industry. SAF, Alexandria, VA. (29) Turczyn, M.T. and J.P. Anthony. 1983. MUM replacement containers. 3 p. UFFVA, Alexandria, VA. (30) United Fresh Fruit and Vegetable Association. 1986. Fruit and vegetable facts and pointers, and container net weights. UFFVA, Alexandria, VA. (31) United States Office of International Cooperation and Development. 1985. Agricultural marketing handbook for Caribbean Basin products. U.S. Dept. Agr., Office of Intnatl. Coop. & Develpmt., 200 p. 148 Ur'p' Office of Transportation Agricultural Handbook Number 66 9 Protecting Perishable Foods During Transport by Truck o n n o/ - Contents Introduction I. Important Factors in Protection of Perishables Foods Refrigeration . I Refrigeration Methods . I Mechanical Refrigeration . 2 Ice . 2 Cryogenic Refrigerants . 2 Air Circulation . 3 Top-Air Delivery . 4 Bottom Forced-Air Delivery . 6 Humidity . 6 Insulation . 7 Precooling the Product. 7 Freezing and Chilling Injury . 8 Controlled and Modified Atmospheres .10 II. Preparation for Loading Cleaning and Sanitation . 13 Maintenance of Vehicle Interior . 13 Prccooling or Preheating of the Vehicle . 14 III. Loading Considerations Type of Air Delivery . 15 Type of Shipping Container . 15 Whether Frozen or Nonfrozen . 16 Bracing . 16 Compatibility of Mixed Loads 17 Whether Palletized or Unitized . 18 Length of Transit Period 18 IV'. Loading Methods Basic Terminology 19 Airflow Loading Patterns 19 Bottom Forced-Air Delivery Loading 22 iii Unitized Loading and Handling .23 Unit Load Patterns .27 V. Regulatory Considerations for Truck Construction Materials and Cleaning Compounds. 29 VI. Commodity Requirements Fresh Fruits and Vegetables Apples . 30 Apricots . 31 Artichokes . 31 Asparagus . 31 Avocados . 32 Bananas . 32 Beans (green, snap, or pole). 33 Beans (lima, in pods) . 34 Beets . 34 Beet Tops . 35 Blackberries . 35 Blueberries . 36 Broccoli . 37 Cabbage . 37 Cantaloups . 38 Carrots . 38 Cauliflower . 39 Celery . 39 Cherries . 39 Corn (Sweet) . 40 Cranberries . 41 Cucumbers . 41 Eggplant . 42 Endive and Escarole . 42 Garlic . 42 Grapefruit . 43 Grapes . 43 Kale . 45 Kiwi Fruit . 45 Lemons . 46 Lettuce (head) . 47 Lettuce (leaf). 47 Limes . 48 Mangoes . 48 IV Melons . 48 Mushrooms .49 Okra . 50 Onions (green, shallots and leeks) . 50 Onions (dry) . 50 Oranges . 51 Parsley . 51 Parsnips . 52 Peaches and Nectarines. 52 Pears . 53 Peas (green and snow) . 54 Peppers . 54 Pineapple . 55 Plums and Fresh Prunes . 55 Potatoes . 55 Radishes . 57 Raspberries . 57 Romaine . 58 Rhubarb . 5 g Spinach . 58 Squash and Pumpkins. 59 Strawberries . (,0 Strawberry Plants . 60 Sweet Potatoes . 61 Tangerines . 61 Tomatoes (mature-green). 62 Tomatoes (pink). 62 Tomato (transplants) . 63 Watermelons . 63 Canned Foods 65 Dairy Products Butter and Margarine . 68 Cheeses . 68 Fresh and Cured Meat and Fresh Seafood Boxed Meats . 70 Carcass Meals . 70 Loading Fresh Beef Carcasses. 72 v Frozen Foods 74 Poultry and Eggs Poultry (Fresh ice-packed and fresh-chilled) . 76 Shell Eggs . 76 Appendix I Estimating Mobile Refrigeration Requirements. 79 Sample Refrigeration Requirement Calculation. 83 Appendix II Load Compatibility Groups.-•. 86 Appendix III Table 9— Recommended Protective Services for Perishable Foods During Transit. 91 Selected Bibliography 94 List of Tables Table 1 Table 2 Table 3 Table 4 Table 5 Table 6. Table 7. Table 8. Table 9. .—Sensitivity of Some Fruits and Vegetables to Freezing —Some Fruits and Vegetables Subject to Chilling Injury at Above- Freezing Temperatures —Examples of MUM Container Sizes for Fresh Fruits and Vegetables —Freezing Temperatures of Selected Canned Foods —Ideal Temperatures for Transporting Cheese (from ASFIRAE Refrigeration Handbook, 1986) —Recommended Temperatures and Humidities for Protecting Fresh. Curred and Processed Meat and Seafood During Transit (from ASHRAE Refrigeration Handbook. 1986) —Specific Heat Above and Below Freezing of Certain Perishable Products (from ASHRAE Handbook. 1982 Applications) —Approximate Amount of Respiration Heat Produced by Certain Fruits and Vegetables at the Temperatures Indicated —Recommended Protective Services for Perishable Foods During Transit List of Figures 1. Pathways of air in a trailer equipped with a traditional top-air delivery system. 2. Pathways of air in a trailer equipped with a bottom forced-air delivery system. 3. Effect of different floor configurations on return air space. 4. A typical starter stack at the front bulkhead to allow air to return to the refrigeration unit through lengthwise channels in the load. 5. (a) Crosswise offset stacking of boxes and (b) pyramid stacking of bags to reduce contact of the product with the vehicle walls during extremely hot or cold weather. 6. Dimensional view of a load in a motor truck semitrailer, showing arrangements of containers in rows, stacks, and layers. 7. A typical airflow loading pattern for commodities packed in fiberboard boxes. 8. The airflow loading pattern can be used for both refrigerated and ventilated loads as shown in the above illustrations with bagged commodities. Note the construction of the first or starter stack. This is required to avoid blocking the air channels (see text). 9. An airflow loading pattern for commodities packed in wood wirebound crates. 10. An airflow loading pattern modified to provide full-length and depth air channels between rows. Note: Wooden strips are placed crosswise on layers to stabilize the load. Also, no starter stack is needed with this pattern. 11. A chimney stack loading pattern recommended for vehicles with bottom forced-air delivery. 12. A MUM (Modular, Unitized, Metric) load. 13. Effect of different unit load patterns on the number of cartons contacting the floor and walls in a typical load of lettuce. 14. Overhead view of the three basic pallet or unit load patterns in a highway trailer or container: (a) Pinwheel, (b) straight-in with open space along the walls, and (c) straight-in with open space down the center. 15. Example of method for bracing a load at the rear doors. 16. Example of strapping on a unit load. 17. A winter load of beans in 1-bushel hampers loaded in an alternately inverted layer, row, and stack pattern. 18. Summer, or warm weather, loading pattern for 1-bushel hampers of beans. Note space between rows for air circulation. 19. Bushel tub-baskets shown loaded by the alternately -inverted and -crosswise -offset method. 20. Trays of berries loaded with continuous air channels between rows and with wooden strips across every fourth layer for load stability. 21. Fiberboard boxes of prepackaged grapefruit loaded in a trailer. Note that the boxes are stacked on slip-sheets for unitized handling. 22. Bushel baskets loaded in a nonoffset, bottom-to-bottom and top-to-top alternately inverted pattern and top-iced. 23. A method of loading fiberboard boxes of honeydew melons in a trailer with provision for lengthwise air channels through the middle of the load. 24. An end view of an airflow loading pattern for commodities packed in wooden lugs. Note: Each stack must be the same to maintain continuous lengthwise air channels; and crosswise stripping stabilizes the load. 25. A crosswise-offset-by-layers airflow loading pattern for tomatoes packed in partial telescope fiberboard boxes. 26. Side and end views of a mixed load of hanging forequarters and hindquarters of beef. 27. Rear view of a truckload of eggs in fiberboard boxes. Note the bracing used to secure the load in the area over the rear wheels. Preface This handbook supersedes Agriculture Handbook No. 105, “Protecting Perishable Foods During Transport by Motortruck,” issued in 1956 and revised in 1970. This updated edition reflects the dynamic changes and innovations in the handling and transportation of perishable foods. Some of these are the increasing use of unitization, metrication, and bottom forced-air delivery in trailers. We extend our appreciation to the many individuals and organizations who provided information or other assistance in revising this handbook. For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402 X Introduction The majority of perishable food products in the United States are transported to market in refrigerated truck/trailers. The development of the interstate highway system and trailer- on-flatcar (TOFC or piggyback) services allow fresh fruits and vegetables from production areas as far as the West Coast to be on the supermarket shelves on the East Coast a few days after harvest. Consumers all over the United States enjoy a wide choice of nearly field fresh products all seasons of the year. An estimated 5 percent or $300 million worth of fresh produce is lost annually during the transportation phase of the distribution cycle. To prevent these losses, the shipper and the trucker must know the specific requirements for protecting the commodity being transported The purpose of this publication is to present information on the transportation requirements of the more commonly transported foods in a convenient and usable reference handbook. I. Important Factors in Protection of Perishable Foods Refrigeration The object of refrigeration is to prolong storage and shelf life and to maintain quality by lowering the com¬ modity temperature so that metabolic deterioration and decay by microor¬ ganisms are retarded. To refrigerate, heat must be removed. Heat is a positive and measurable form of ener¬ gy that always radiates or flows toward the cold or refrigeration source. In the United States, heat is measured in British thermal units (Btu). The Btu is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of I lb (0.45 kg) of water 1 °F (0.56°C). The metric equivalent of a Btu is the kilojoule (kj) or 1 Btu = 1.005 kj. A truck refrigeration system must have sufficient capacity to remove heat generated by the following sources: (1) Residual heat from the air inside the trailer. (2) Residual heat in the insulation and inner lining of the trailer. (3) Exterior heat conducted through the floor, walls, and ceiling is depen¬ dent on the temperature differential between the inside and outside air, type and thickness of insulation, and the area of the conducting surfaces. Solar radiation will increase the tem¬ perature of outside surfaces where the trailer body is exposed to the sun. Since a dark surface absorbs more heat than a light one, a polished white or reflective metal outside sur face is preferable. Even a polished surface loses its ability to reflect solar heat if covered with dirt and grime Therefore, the exterior of the vehicle should be kept clean. (4) Infiltration of heat from warm outside air through small holes and cracks increases the refrigeration re¬ quirements considerably. The body and door seals of the trailer should be kept in good repair. (5) Excess heat in the commodity, which may be at a higher temperature than desired when loaded in the vehi¬ cle, should be removed by precooling the product to the desired transit tem¬ perature before loading. (6) Heat of respiration is generated by all fresh fruits and vegetables. Some products, such as asparagus, corn, and strawberries, respire at a higher rate than other products such as apples, oranges, and potatoes. The rate at which respiration heat is generated also varies with the temper¬ ature of the product. It is considera¬ bly less at temperatures near freezing than at normal harvest temperatures. Ventilation holes in the shipping con¬ tainers and load patterns with ventila¬ tion channels assist in the removal of respiration heat. Refrigeration Methods Over the years, a number of methods of refrigerating trucks have been used. These include ice, ice and salt, dry ice, hold-over plate systems, cryogenic systems, and mechanical refrigeration. Today, however, mechanical refrigeration is the predominant type. Trailers refrigerated with cryogenic refrigerants, usually liquid carbon dioxide (CO ) or nitrogen (N,). have been used to some extent over the past two decades, but they have not I made significant inroads over mechanical refrigeration. Mechanical Refrigeration Mechanical refrigeration operates by absorbing heat at one point and dispensing it at another. This is accomplished by circulating a refrigerant (usually freon) between two points. The refrigerant picks up heat through a coil (evaporator) inside the cargo space and discharges it through another coil (condenser) on the outside. The refrigerant is circulated through the system by a pump (compressor), driven by gasoline, diesel, or electrical power. Two types of thermostatically controlled mechanical units are most commonly used on refrigerated trailers. One type (nosemount) has the engine, condenser, and other accessories mounted on the nose of the trailer, with the evaporator coils and air fans directly inside the front of the trailer. The other type (undermount) has the power unit, condenser coil, and accessories under the frame of the trailer, with the evaporator coil and fans inside the front of the trailer. Refrigerated van containers built for intermodal service have the compressor engine and condenser coil recessed flush with the outside surfaces in the front section of the containers. This is so the containers can be evenly stacked aboard containerships. Mechanical refrigeration units are rated according to their ability to remove heat. The capacity ot a unit is expressed in the number of Btu’s per hour that a unit can remove at 100°F (38 °C) outside and at 35 °F (1.7°C) and 0°F (-18°C) inside temperature. The refrigeration capacity needed for a particular vehicle will depend on the amount of heat to be removed and the extra (reserve) capacity desired. Ice Ice is a good refrigeration medium for produce in that 1 lb (0.45 kg) will absorb 144 Btu’s (144.7 kj) of heat. In addition to refrigerating, ice will help maintain humidity inside the vehicle. The main drawbacks for ice are its weight which cuts down on the payload; the difficulty and expense of replenishing ice en route; and the water-resistant shipping containers that are required. At present, the primary use for ice is in crushed or slush form blown over top of produce loads to refrigerate and to maintain high levels of humidity for certain products. This practice is usually referred to as “top icing.” For some produce, block or top ice may be used as an emergency refrigeration source in the event of mechanical unit failure. The recommended procedure for top icing is to apply the crushed ice on top of the load in three lengthwise windrows. The thermostat should be set at 35 °F (1.7°C) to allow the ice to melt steadily during the trip. A colder setting may crust or freeze the ice and block air circulation, thus allowing heat buildup in the interior of the load. Caution must be taken that the crushed top ice is not so cold that it will freeze produce on contact. Ice may come out of cold storage as cold as 25°F (-3.9°C). Cryogenic Refrigerants Cryogenic (low-temperature) refrigerating systems, which use liquid or solid carbon dioxide (COJ or liquid nitrogen (NJ, are available for highway trailers. They are used primarily in delivery operations requiring 1 day or less transit time since supplies of liquid cryogens are not available at truck stops. A major advantage of the cryogenic systems is that they have fewer moving parts to 2 maintain and replace than mechanical systems. Liquid cryogenic systems usually operate by having the liquid refrigerant in pressurized tanks. A temperature-sensing element inside the trailer activates a controller which releases the liquid refrigerant through a spray nozzle at the ceiling of the trailer. The liquid CO, or N, spray flashes into gas as it hits the warmer air in the trailer, thus absorbing the heat. When the desired temperature is reached, the sensing element sends a signal to the controller to shut off the flow of refrigerant. In another type system, the liquid CO is circulated through a coil or plate heat exchanger and the vaporized gas vented outside. Several precautions must be taken where CO or N, gases may have replaced oxygen in a transport vehicle. Most importantly, workers entering a vehicle with concentrations of CO, or N, gases may be rendered unconscious by the lack of oxygen. Therefore, several minutes should be allowed before any person enters a truck after the doors are opened to allow replenishment of oxygen to a normal concentration. Cryogenic refrigerant gases may have an adverse effect on some fresh produce. Most fresh fruits and vegetables will eventually sufftxatc in a l(M) percent N atmosphere, although many products will tolerate high levels of N for a few days without injury High percentages of CO, gas in the atmosphere may cause off-Tlavors, off-colors, and physiological disorders in fresh produce. On the other hand, moderate concentrations of this gas have been successfully used to retard decay and ripening of fruits and vegetables during transit anti storage without harm to the products Generally, N atmospheres arc not harmful to the product, anti C’O atmospheres help retard microbial growth on fresh meal and meat products (see Controlled and Modified Atmospheres). Neither CO, nor N, gas will harm frozen foods. The gas from vaporizing CO, is heavy and settles quickly to the floor of the trailer. Fans should be operated continuously in CO, refrigerated loads of fresh products to prevent freezing in the bottom layers and overheating in the top layers of the load. One lb (0.45 kg) of liquid N, will absorb about 165 Btu’s (165."8 kj) of heat from cargoes held at 0°F (-I8°C) or below and 175 Btu’s (175.9 kj) from those held above 32 °F (0.0°C). The rate of heat absorption for 1 lb (0.45 kg) of liquid CO, at 300 lb per inch (136 kj/6.45 cm) pressure is about 120 Btu’s (120.6 kj) for cargoes below 0°F (-I8°C) and 130 Btu’s (130.7 kj) for cargoes above freezing. Solid CO or dry ice may be in the form of blocks, snow, or pellets, all of which are used as refrigeration mediums in transport vehicles. The most frequent use of solid CO is in frozen food and ice cream delivery trucks. Solid CO, may be used as an emergency refrigerant in the event of mechanical unit breakdown, provided the aforementioned precautions arc taken. Dry ice changes into gas at -109°F (-78.3°C) and has excellent heat absorption properties. It will absorb about 240 Btu’s (241 kj) of heat per lb (0 45 kg) from cargoes at 32°F (0.0°C). Air Circulation Regardless of the mcthixl of refrigeration used, provision should be made for the refrigerated air to circulate uniformly to all parts of the load In warm weather, the primary purpose of air circulation is to carry product heat and heat penetrating walls, floors, and ceiling of the trailer to the refrigeration coil where 3 it can be removed by the refrigeration system. In freezing weather, heated air may be circulated to keep fresh produce from incurring chilling or freezing injury. Air circulation also is important to ensure uniform temperatures throughout the load. Circulating air, like water, tends to take the path of least resistance or short-circuit back to the blower. There are two major methods of circulating air in refrigerated trucks. The overhead or top-air delivery is the conventional method. A bottom- air delivery system has been employed extensively in sea-going containers for over a decade but just recently in highway trailers. Figures 1 and 2 illustrate these two methods of air delivery. Top-Air Delivery In trailers with conventional top-air delivery, air circulation and subsequent load temperatures are enhanced by: 1. Ceiling ducts to direct the air from the blower to the rear of the trailer. 2. Load patterns that provide unblocked air channels throughout the load for the air to follow in returning to the blower intake. 3. Cross bracing at the rear of the load to prevent the load from shifting or toppling backwards and blocking air circulation between the load and the rear doors. At least 4 in (10 cm) of free space should be left between the rear doors and the end of the last stack in the load. Bracing at the rear door is especially important in TOFC or piggyback loads where the trailer may ride backwards on the flatcar and the load is likely to shift toward the rear doors. 4. Floor designs that increase the amount of air that can be circulated under the load. About 240 square inches (1,548 cm 2 ) of Figure 1. Pathways of air in a trailer equipped with a traditional top-air delivery system. 4 Figure 2. Pathways of air in a trailer equipped with a bottom forced-air delivery system RETURN-AIR SPACE UNDER LOAD 325 Sq. Inches ri Jl ■1- trrmn oununii. 45 Sq. Inches DUCT BOARD FLOOR & PALLET 198 Sq Inches run mum arm DUCT BOARD FLOOR ffTTTITTTTTTfi T RAIL FLOOR Figure 3 Effect of different floor configurations on return air spare return air passage arc needed for the average trailer's refrigeration fan to operate at 100 percent capacity. Figure 3 shows the effect of different floor configurations on return air space Where inadequate air circulation space is available, pallets may be positioned on the floor with their stringers running lengthwise of the trailer This practice will help prevent the product from freezing on the floor in cold weather or overheating in hot weather. 5 Rccessed-groovc or inverted-rib sidewalls to provide vertical air channels for cold air to circulate down the sides of the load to reduce the amount of heat conducted across the walls to or from the product 6 Bulkheads designed not to block the air returning to the blower. If 5 the air is blocked, the fan will turn, but not blow air. Some newer trailers have a false bulkhead wall with metal screen or holes in the bottom area for return air passage. If not, the prevailing practice is to set wood pallets on end with the stringers vertical between the bulkhead wall and the first stack of the load. Channels to direct return air to the blower intake also may be constructed by attaching vertical strips at least 2-in (5-cm) thick on the bulkhead wall or by constructing a “starter stack” with vertical channels (figure 4). The top layer, however, should be loaded solidly to force the air to the rear of the vehicle where it will return to the blower intake through air channels and under the full length of the load. First Stack in Trailer Figure 4. A typical starter stack at the front bulkhead to allow air to return to the refrigeration unit through lenghtwise channels in the load. 7. Vented boxes are essential for maximizing the removal of field and respiration heat by circulating air. Products should not be shipped in nonvented containers unless they have a low respiration rate and are precooled to the desired transit temperature before loading. Bottom Forced-Air Delivery A few of the newer refrigerated highway and TOFC trailers and a number of overseas van containers are equipped with bottom or under- the-floor forced-air delivery. In this type system, the air is forced under and up through the load at a rate of 3,000 to 5,000 cubic feet per minute (85 to 142 m 3 s) and at a static pressure of 1.5 to 3 inches of water (0.37 to 0.73 kPa). The air returns to the blower over the top of the load and through the top of the bulkhead. This system works best when the shipping boxes have matching top and bottom vent holes. They should be tightly stacked in register to provide passageways through the matching holes for through-the-load air circulation. If such boxes cannot be used, a small amount of space should be left between rows of the boxes for vertical ventilation. Also, if the boxes are handled on pallets or slipsheets, provision should be made to match holes in the load base with the vent holes in the boxes or the vertical air channels in the unit load. It also is important to block unloaded space over the T-rail floor between the end of the load and the rear doors (see figure 2) to maintain air pressure under the load. Humidity The humidity or moisture content of the air surrounding the fresh fruit and vegetables is an important factor in maintaining quality during transport. Most perishable horticultural products require high relative humidities of 85 to 95 percent to prevent dehydration and to keep them fresh and crisp. 6 Relative humidity, as used in this text, is simply a percentage figure indicating the amount of water vapor in the air in relation to the saturation point of the air at a given temperature. In mechanically refrigerated vehicles, moisture is constantly condensed from the air by the refrigeration coil. In turn, moisture is evaporated from the product to replace the moisture lost at the coil. Some product moisture loss during transit has to be accepted, but it can be minimized by the following practices: • Using top or package ice where possible. • Thorough precooling to reduce the temperature differential between the product and the surrounding air. • Keeping the refrigeration coil only a few degrees colder than the desired transit temperature. • Waxing the product or using semi-permeable wraps to reduce evaporation. Insulation Any vehicle used to transport perishable food products should be well insulated to retard the flow of heat or cold through its walls. Insulating quality is measurable, and the most commonly used units of measure for trucks arc the K and U factors. The lower the K or U factor, the better the insulation. Today, plastic foams arc the predominant material used in insulating refrigerated trailers because they offer a low K factor, arc lightweight, waterproof, and noncorrosivc. Additional insulation advantages arc obtained when the plastic is "foamed in place" filling cracks and crevices that would otherwise allow air leakage. Some newer refrigerated trailer bodies arc constructed of extruded "sandwiched" panels with foam laminated between exterior and interior fiberglass or plastic walls. The extruded panels eliminate metal wall and ceiling support members which greatly reduces heat conductance into the vehicle. The superior insulation characteristics of extruded walls also allow reduced wall thickness and the subsequent advantages of increased load cube and low tare weight. The polished stainless steel and aluminum used for the outside skin on trailers also helps to insulate by reflecting heat rays off the surface of the body. There also are "space age” formulated reflective paints for refrigerated vehicles. The reflecting effect of any material is diminished, however, if the outside of the vehicle is not kept clean. High-quality insulation will be of little value if door seals or seams of the trailer are leaking. For maximum insulation effect, the door seals must be kept properly fitted and in good repair. Precooling the Product To maintain a fresh appearance, prevent decay, and extend the market life of most fresh fruits and vegetables, it is necessary to start lowering the temperature and removing the field heat from the product as s '•a. cx>cxxxx£XXirx:s2f:xxtt:r.j:xxyxKxxx:s xx^s:x\r.T;r x'x-x z js N QQ COQC OS 3QStf.XXX?.CX/.X CXX^ ~ *. .Q»j Bulkhead wall VENTILATED LOAD :o y Blower on Vertical channels ad as plenum WALL A Figure 8 The airflow loading pattern can be used for both refrigerated and ventilated loads as shown in the above illustrations with bagged commodities Note the construction of the first or starter stack, this is a must (see text) Lenghtwise channels through body of load 21 ; i TT H TT H H H hi F- i 1 H -Li- r TT T f) f-f H hi l-T f-f | i r 4 4-i- L 1L Tl ... ' - H j—| hi L L 1 1 f—f i l ii ±i ! r If VERTICAL STRIP Figure 9. An airflow loading pattern for commodities in wood wirebound crates. HfWiHUlJUfT *:J:- ' Y 1 ojS\ m ITT Some trailers have holes drilled halfway up the bulkhead wall to allow air through the wall. If not, vertical strips can be attached to the front of the bulkhead or a starter stack constructed to direct the air to the floor channels running under the bulkhead. For a starter stack, the first stack against the front bulkhead wall is constructed with vertical channels that receive the air flowing through the horizontal channels and return it to the blower as shown in figures 4 and 8. All stacks, except the starter stack, are constructed in the same pattern. With airflow patterns, it is important to load the top layer as solidly as possible or a substantial amount of the blower air may short-circuit back to the front of the vehicle without flowing through the entire load. This can result in cold or hot spots in the load. For vented loads figure 8 illustrates the path taken by ambient air when vented through an airflow loading pattern. If the tractor is equipped with a single exhaust stack, the vent door opposite the exhaust stack should be opened since considerable heat and undesirable gases can enter the load from the exhaust. All available doors should be opened for outgoing air at the rear of the trailer. The airflow patterns can be modified to meet the needs of a variety of products and containers, but the basic principle of the pattern remains that of providing continuous lengthwise channels for air circulation through the load. Various airflow pattern modifications are illustrated in figures throughout this publication. Bottom Forced-Air- Delivery Loading Since bottom forced-air-delivery systems depend on high pressure to force refrigerated air through small holes and crevices in the load, the product should be tightly loaded wall to wall and front to rear in the vehicle. At least 4 in (10 cm) of space should be left between the top of the load and the ceiling. The shipping containers should have vent slots or holes in both their top and bottom and be stacked directly on top of each other to facilitate the vertical flow of air through the load. If the product is loaded on slipsheets or plywood pallets, holes must be 22 Figure 10 An airflow loading pattern modified to provide full- length and depth air channels between rows. Note Wooden strips placed crosswise on layers to stabilize the load Also, no starter stack is needed with this pattern provided in the unit bases that match the vent holes in the shipping containers If a chimney stack pattern is used in a vehicle with bottom-air delivery, the tops of the chimney should be blocked with a box of product to maintain the air pressure under the stack (figure 11). The floor of a bottom forced-air-dclivcry vehicle should not be covered with any solid material for cushioning or insulation for nonfrozen loads or the refrigerated air will be blocked from penetrating the load anti removing field and respiration heat. Unitized Loading and Handling The probability is very high that any food product will be handled in a palletized or unitized load one or more times during transportation and distribution. Most unitized handling is on wooden pallets, but an increasing amount of food products are being handled on slipshects, and in some instances, blocked units which require a special push pull, lift-truck for handling Unitized loading offers the advantages of faster and more efficient loading and unloading than hand stacked loading. There is less manhandling of the product, which reduces the chance of bruising and other physical damage that may increase decay. A major disadvantage of unitized handling is that there is a lack of standardization of both pallet or unit base sizes and shipping container sizes. This results in poor utilization 23 Table 3. Examples of MUM* Containers for Fresh Fruits and Vegetables Outside Dimensions Number Per Layer Pallet Surface Area Utilized 1 1 MM Inches Percentage 600 x 500 (23.62 x 19.69) 4 100 500 x 400 (19.68 x 15.75) 6 100 600 x 400 (23.62 x 15.75) 5 100 500 x 333 (19.68 x 13.11) 7 97 600 x 333 (23.62 x 13.11) 6 99 500 x 300 (19.68 x 11.81) 8 100 475 x 250 (18.70 x 9.84) 10 99 400 x 300 (15.75 x 11.81) 10 100 433 x 333 (17.01 x 13.11) 8 96 400 x 250 (15.74 x 9.84) 12 100 400 x 300 (15.75 x 13.11) 6 99 * = Modularization, Unitization, and Metrication 1 Pallet base = 1200 x 1000 mm (48 x 40 inches) 2 A layer of MUM containers must use at least 90 percent but not greater than 100 percent of the pallet base surface. 24 500mm Figure 12 A MUM (Modular, Unitized. Metric) load of traasport vehicle and warehousing space Food products arc packed in hundreds of different sizes and types of containers. Only a few of these sizes can he stacked evenly on a pallet or unit base so as to maximize the space. Containers that overhang a pallet or that do not stack evenly are Side-loaded LETTUCE ON SLIP-SHEETS Center-loaded v//////////////^ \ 113 cartons 0 cartons Figure 13. Effect of different unit load patterns on the number of cartons contacting the floor and walls in a typical load of lettuce. highly susceptible to collapse or toppling which subsequently damage the product load. To help alleviate these problems, several industry associations and Government agencies have advocated or sponsored “Project MUM.” MUM is the acronym for Modularization. Unitization, and Metrication. Basically this project. through voluntary cooperation, encourages the development of standard shipping container sizes that will modularly stack on a 48- by 40-in or 120- by 100-cm pallet base with 90- to 100-percent surface utilization and no overhang. Examples of modular unit loads and suggested standard sizes for fresh fruit and vegetable products are shown in figure 12 and table 3. 26 Bulkhead wall 1 — — — C Bulkhead wall Figure 14 Overhead view of the three basic pallet or unit load patterns in a highway trailer or container (a) Pinwheel. (b) straight-in with open space along the units, and (c) straight-in with space down the center A good unit load uses 90 to I(X) percent of the load base surface arc used to stabilize some unit loads, but care should be taken to use perforated film with fresh produce loads to assure ventilation Shipping containers used in unit loads should be strong enough to resist bulging when packed Often, unit loads with bulging containers have to be forced in place during loading, resulting in container and product damage. Sometimes, product will settle from vibration during transit and create substantial container bulge. If the containers bulge excessively, mechanical equipment cannot remove the unit loads resulting in manual unloading. Unit Load Patterns Unit load patterns should be designed to reduce the contact of the product shows the effect of unit and pallet load patterns on the amount of product exposed to contact with wall and floor surfaces Reducing the amount of surface contact will improve product arrival temperatures and reduce the chance of the product with the walls and the floor of the trailer, especially if the vehicle is not equipped with inverted ribbed walls, and a floor with T rail channels at least 2 l/4in (6cm) deep f igure 13 warming or freezing in extreme 27 Use wide board to fill space between load and door .>1 Nominal 2x4 (apporox. 38x89mm) . ^ K nr Nominal 1x4 (approx. 19x89mm) - 1 » Figure 15. Example of method for bracing a load at the rear doors. weather conditions. Pallet or unit loads are limited to about three basic patterns which are illustrated in figure 14. The dimensions of the unit base and the interior dimensions of the vehicle will have the most influence on the pattern used. The amount of bulge, overhang, and ventilation requirements will be other determining factors in selecting load patterns for unit loads. Spot gluing or glue pads may be used between layers of the containers in lieu of strapping. Net wraps and stretch or shrink plastic film wraps which consists of little or no underhang and no overhang. The containers are stacked in register and tied to the base with vertical strapping. The use of horizontal strapping and cornerboards will further stabilize and protect the load. Bracing is extremely important for unit loads as they are highly susceptible to shifting. An easily constructed wooden brace to prevent load shifting against the rear door is illustrated in figure 15. An example of strapping a unit load is shown in figure 16. Vertical Straps In some instances, the top two or three layers of the unit load are cross-stacked to stabilize the load. Figure 16. Example of strapping on a unit load. 28 V. Regulatory Considerations for Truck Construction Materials and Cleaning Compounds Questions concerning the approval of construction materials and cleaning compounds used in trucks hauling food products are often received by the USDA. The few regulations that exist do not address vehicle construction explicitly, but are more directed at food processing equipment, facility construction, and packaging. A truck is considered equipment, and baskets, crates, boxes, and plastic or paper wrapping materials are considered packaging. Carcass meats and bulk loads of fruits and vegetables are products most likely to contact the interior surfaces of vehicles. As a general rule, a material needs to be approved if it will be in direct or incidental contact with a food product and there is a chance that the material will impart a toxic substance, cause off colors, or otherwise contaminate the food. Examples of materials necdmg approval are plywood, fiberglass and plastic wall panels, and coating materials, such as paints, used on interior surfaces. Also wood preservatives and plastics used in pallet bins hauling fresh fruits and vegetables or meats must be of food grade or approved or regulated for contact with food. Furthermore, sanitizing and cleansing agents used in cleaning the interior surfaces of vehicles or pallet bins must be of food grade quality. Approval of materials, packaging, and cleaning agents coming in contact with meat and poultry products is obtained through the USDA's Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS). THE FSIS’s Food Ingredient Assessment Division rules on the suitability of cleaning compounds, paints, and other coating materials, packaging materials, and lubricants having direct or indirect contact with meat and poultry products. A listing of such authorized products is published annually as Miscellaneous Publication number 1419 entitled “List of Proprietary Substances and Nonfood Compounds—Authorized for Use Under USDA Inspection and Grading Programs” is available from the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D C. 20402. The telephone number is Area Code (202) 783 038. For all other types of food products, the Food and Drug Administration’s (FDA) Division of Regulatory Guidance should be contacted to find out whether there is an existing regu¬ lation authorizing a food grade rating for a specific compound or material, rhe FDA address is 200 C St SW, Washington, D C. 20204 29 VI. Commodity Requirements Fresh Fruits and Vegetables Apples Recommended transport conditions: • Desired transit temperature: Most varieties: 30° to 32°F(-1.1 to 0.0 °C) Cortland, McIntosh, and Yellow Newtown: 38° to 40°F (3.3° to 4.4°C) • Desired relative humidity: 90 to 95 percent • Highest freezing point: 30.0°F (-1.1 °C) After harvest, most apples are held in bulk bins in cold storage until they are sold. They are then packed in full-telescope corrugated fiberboard boxes for shipment as orders are received. After packing, the apples are palletized for handling to the loading dock where they may remain on the pallets for loading or removed from the pallets and hand-stacked in the trucks. Apples ripen steadily at temperatures above 40°F (4.4°C); therefore, they should be refrigerated immediately af¬ ter harvest. Most varieties should be held and transported in the 30° to 32°F (-1.1 °to 0.0°) temperature range. Some varieties, such as McIn¬ tosh, are subject to chilling injury at long exposure to temperatures below 38° (3.3°). Apples taken from cold storage should be transported at the same temperature in which they were stored. Since most apples are shipped at temperatures near their freezing point, they are quite susceptible to freezing injury. Thermostatically con¬ trolled heating should be used to pre¬ vent both freezing and overheating in extremely cold weather. Mature apples coming from cold storage bruise more easily than those recently harvested and require more careful handling. Apples absorb odors quite readily. They should not be shipped in mixed loads of commodi¬ ties like onions or cabbage, nor in trucks harboring strong odors. Apples also produce ethylene, and they should not be shipped with products sensitive to this gas. Recommended loading methods: • Fiberboard boxes—Nearly all ap¬ ples are shipped in Fiberboard boxes. The apples may be packed in the boxes loose, in polyethylene bags, or in molded trays. The boxes may be stacked either lengthwise or crosswise in the vehicle. Shipments of warm fruit should be loaded with provision for air circula¬ tion between rows of the boxes as shown in Figure 7. If the fruit is shipped from cold storage, the boxes may be stowed tightly together. In shipments that will travel through ex¬ tremely hot or cold weather, the box¬ es should be loaded so as to reduce contact with the sidewalls and floor area and lessen the chance of over¬ heating or freezing damage from heat or cold conducted through the walls. This may be accomplished by using 30 the loading pattern shown in figure 5a and placing pallets on the floor to allow air circulation under the load. Palletized loads should not be loaded directly against the walls unless the walls are grooved to facilitate air cir¬ culation and reduce the surface con¬ tact area (see the section on “Unit Load Patterns” for more information on palletized loading). Apricots Recommended transport conditions: • Desired transit temperature: 32 °F (0°C) • Desired relative humidity: 90 to 95 percent • Highest freezing point: 30.1°F (-1.1°C) Apricots should be firm when shipped, so they will have a 1- to 2-week shelf life. They should be precooled to the desired transit tem¬ perature. Some shippers use forced- air coolers, while others room cool their fruit. Apricots may be shipped with other tree fruit commodities from the same or nearby packing houses. If apricots are shipped in mixed loads that arc top iced, ice should not contact the apricots. Recommended loading methods: • Fiberhoard boxes —Apricots are volume filled to the proper weight and then unitized on disposable woo¬ den pallets. They may be secured with straps or plastic netting. If the apricots arc not prccoolcd to the Iran sit temperature, fiberhoard strips may be placed between the stacks of boxes on the pallet so that cold air may be circulated freely around them During very hot weather, the pallets should be center loaded (sec figure 14b) if the trailer has flat side walls to pre vent heating of the truit next to the wall. Artichokes Recommended transport conditions: • Desired transit temperature: 32 °F (0°C) • Desired relative humidity: 95 to 100 percent • Highest freezing point: 29.9°F (-1.2°C) Artichokes should be precooled as soon as possible after harvest to reduce wilting, weight loss, discolora¬ tion, and decay during marketing. Top ice may be used to prevent wilt¬ ing or loss of turgidity and to keep the buds near the desired transit tem¬ perature for added shelf life. The marketability of artichokes is reduced by bruising or freezing. Severe freez¬ ing turns the buds black and slight freezing causes skin breaks and blisters. Artichokes are packed by count (16-66) in waxed corrugated fiberboard boxes. Recommended loading methods: • Fiberboard boxes —Most artichokes are packed in waxed fiberboard boxes and stacked on bottoms either length¬ wise or crosswise on pallets. See the Unit Load Patterns section for load¬ ing palletized units. Asparagus Recommended transport conditions: • Desired transit temperature: 32° to 35° F (0.0° to l .7°C) • Desired relative humidity: 95 to !(X) percent • Highest freezing point: 30.9° F (-0.6°C) Asparagus is highly perishable. Speed and care arc required during handling and transit to prevent excessive loss of quality. As soon as asparagus is cut, its natural sugars, flavor, and vitamin C begin to diminish rapidly, particularly at temperatures above .36 f- (2.2 C*) Hydrocooling is the most desirable method of prccooling. Asparagus is usually packed in bunches and set upright in the shipping container to prevent bruising of the tender tops To prevent 31 moisture loss and preserve crispness during transit, pressed paperboard or other water-retaining material is placed in the bottom of the pyramid¬ shaped wooden box or waxed corrugated fiberboard box. Both the wooden box or fiberboard box are packed with either 15 or 30 lb (6.8 or 13.6 kg) of asparagus. A modified atmosphere of about 7 percent CO, is beneficial in preventing decay and toughening of fresh asparagus. This is especially true if temperature control cannot be brought below 41° F (5°C). Recommended loading method: • Nailed wooden boxes (pyramid- shaped)—Lengthwise. on bottoms and stacked in register. The slope of the pyramid allows open space for continuous lengthwise air channels on each layer. Some shippers palletize their boxes. See the Unit Load Patterns section for loading of palletized units. • Fiberboard boxes (waxed corru¬ gated) —Lengthwise or crosswise on bottoms and palletized. See the Unit Load Patterns section for loading palletized units. Avocados Recommended transport conditions: • Desired transit temperature: Cold-tolerant varieties: 40° F (4.4° C) Cold-intolerant varieties: 55° F (12.8° C) • Desired relative humidity: 85 to 90 percent • Highest freezing point: 31.5°F (-0.3°C) The optimum transit temperature for cold-tolerant varieties, such as Lula and Booth No. 8, is 40°F (4.4°C). All West Indian varieties, which in¬ clude Fuchs, Pollack, and Walden, are cold-intolerant and should be shipped at 55°F (12.8°C). A few varieties, such as Fuerte, are best shipped at 45 °F (7.2 °C). Gradual ripening of avocados may occur at temperatures as low as 45°F (7.2°C). Above the recommended transit tem¬ perature for the various varieties, the rate of ripening and softening of the fruit increases as the temperature rises. Therefore, it is important that avocados be precooled before they are loaded. Below recommended tem¬ peratures, avocados are susceptible to chilling injury. Common symptoms of chilling injury are a grayish-brown discoloration of the flesh, scalding and/or pitting of the skin, and failure of the fruit to ripen satisfactorily after storage or transit. At temperatures higher than recommended, anthrac- nose or black spot can become seri¬ ous disorders. Recommended loading methods: • Fiberboard boxes —Both California and Florida shippers use fiberboard boxes for packing their avocados. Both areas use predominantly a 1- or 2-layer box, and both areas generally palletize their avocados. A few ship¬ pers do not palletize, but use an air¬ flow pattern similar to that shown in figure 10. See Unit Load Patterns section for palletized loading. Bananas Recommended transport conditions: • Desired transit temperature: 56° to 58°F (13.3° to 14.4°C) • Desired relative humidity: 90 to 95 percent • Highest freezing point: 30.6°F (-0.8°C) Bananas are imported into this coun¬ try and are available year round. The primary exporting countries are Hon¬ duras, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Colom¬ bia, Guatemala, and Panama. The Cavendish is the variety most com¬ monly imported. Bananas are very temperature sensitive and should be transported at temperatures between 56° to 58°F (13.3° to 14.4°C) and a relative humidity of 90 to 95 percent. Exposure of bananas to lower temper¬ atures can cause chilling injury. Higher temperatures may cause rapid 32 and improper ripening. Proper air circulation is required to maintain uniform temperatures throughout the load, since fluctuating temperatures are detrimental to bananas. A fresh air vent should be provided to pre¬ vent ethylene gas buildup inside the trailer which will cause premature ripening. Also, bananas should not be shipped in mixed loads of other produce that are not temperature compatible or with products that produce high amounts of ethylene. Recommended loading methods: • Corrugated fiberboard boxes— Bananas are easily bruised and re¬ quire special handling and packaging for transport. Bananas are transported while still green. They are placed in heavy-duty, film-lined fiberboard boxes with a gross weight of 40 lbs (18 kg) at the country of origin. They are then transported to the United States in refrigerated containers or on break-bulk ships under carefully con¬ trolled temperature and humidity con¬ ditions Bananas transported by break-bulk ships are unloaded and transferred to over-the-road refriger¬ ated trailers for inland transport when they reach the United Stales. Boxes should not be thrown or dropped during handling. Boxes should be placed on their bottoms and not inverted or stacked on their sides. If not palletized, the boxes may be loaded crosswise or lengthwise and stacked tightly together to get a dense load In extremely cold weather, floor racks should be used in vehicles without deep T rail floors to prevent freezing or chilling injury If the walls are not grixivcd, pallet loads should not touch the walls Hand stacked loads should be loaded as shown in figure 5a to reduce the prixluct contact with the walls. Beans (green, snap or pole) Recommended transport conditions: • Desired transit temperature 40° to 45°F (4.4° to 7.2°C) • Desired relative humidits 95 percent • Highest freezing point: 30.7°F (-0.7°C) Green or snap beans are readily at¬ tacked by a number of decay organ¬ isms during storage and transit. Transit temperatures near 45 °F (7.2 °C) will give reasonable protec¬ tion against decay. To prevent chill¬ ing injury, which predisposes beans to russeting and other discoloration, they should not be shipped at temper¬ atures below 40°F (4.4°C). At tem¬ peratures above 50°F (I0.0°C), beans will decay rapidly. Beans should be precooled before shipment but should not be packed wet as russeting and decay can be a problem. Beans should not be top-iced. Recommended loading methods: • Wirebound crates—Most beans are packed in one of three wirebound crate sizes. These crates generally have the same length and width dimensions but vary in height. Wire- bound crates should be loaded length¬ wise on bottoms in an airflow pattern as shown in figure 9. • Fiberboard boxes —Fiberboard box¬ es of beans should be loaded in an airflow pattern similar to figure 7. In¬ creasingly, fiberboard boxes of beans are palletized with about 10 boxes per layer and 5 to 7 boxes high per pallet. See Unit Load Patterns section for loading palletized units. • Bushel hampers Upright on lops and bottoms or alternately inverted. Hampers in each slack should be loaded tightly against those in the preceding stack to prevent the ham¬ pers from tilting. One version of this type of load is called the winter load. In this, the hampers are inverted in every other row. layer, and stack and loaded in close contact with each other This gives a solid and compact load with very small openings be tween hampers (figure 17). The second version is the summer, or warm weather load, in which the hampers arc alternately inverted in • Bushel hampers —Lima beans shipped in bushel hampers should be loaded as shown in figures 17 or 18. • Wirebound crates —Wirebound crates of lima beans should be loaded as shown in figure 9. Beets Recommended protective services: • Desired transit temperature: 32 °F (0.0 °C) • Desired relative humidity: 98 to 100 percent • Highest freezing point: Tops, 31.3°F (-0.4 °C) Roots, 30.3 °F (-0.9 °C) • Top-ice preferable Beets are shipped bunched with tops or loosely packed without tops. Those shipped in bunches are highly perish- Figure 17. A winter load of beans in 1-bushel hampers loaded in an alternately inverted by layer, row, and stack pattern. each layer and stack. The containers in the rows are loaded with half the rows inverted one way and half another, thus allowing continuous lengthway air passages between rows (figure 18). Beans (lima, in pods) Recommended transport conditions: • Desired transit temperature: 37° to 41 °F (2.8° to 5.0°C) • Desired relative humidity: 95 percent • Highest freezing point: 31.0°F (-0.6°C) Fresh lima beans will keep from 5 to 7 days if held and shipped within the desired temperature range. Higher holding temperatures will greatly reduce the market life of the beans. Figure 18. Summer, or warm weather, loading pattern for 1 - bushel hampers of beans. Note space between rows for air circulation. Recommended loading methods: able because of the heat generated by the tops. They should be both package- and top-iced for maximum refrigeration and moisture retention. The leaves of bunched beets are espe¬ cially susceptible to bacterial soft rot. Transit and marketing losses caused by this disease can be controlled by rapid precooling and maintenance of temperatures between 32° and 40 °F. Late-crop beets are topped and may be shipped immediately or stored for later shipment. They are fairly decay- resistant as long as their skins are not broken and cool temperatures are maintained. However, it is desirable to top-ice long-distance shipments in hot weather. Recommended loading methods: • Bunched in wirehound crates — Lengthwise on sides. These contain¬ ers should be loaded on the sides so that no overhead weight will be borne by the product under the top and bot¬ tom bulge of the crate. Each stack of containers should be loaded tightly against the preceding stack to prevent buildup of slack space At least 1 inch of space should be left between rows, and sidewall space should be left to fill with top-ice. • Topped m wirehound crates— Topped beets shipped in wirebound crates and not thoroughly precoolcd should be loaded in an airflow pattern as shown in figure 9. Beet tops Recommended transport conditions: • Desired transit temperature: 32 °F (0°C) • Desired relative humidity: 95 to 100 percent • Highest freezing point 3I.3°F (-0.4°C) • Top-ice and package-ice desired Beet tops, like other leafy vegetables, arc delicate and highly perishable They must be handled with care dur¬ ing loading and transportation to pre¬ vent physical damage that causes broken or bruised leaves or stems and provides an entry point for disease. Beet tops are handled essentially the same as fresh spinach during market¬ ing and distribution. Beet tops may be shipped with package-ice and/or top-ice. Recommended loading methods: • Wirebound crates— When loaded in the transport vehicle, crates may be placed lengthwise or crosswise on bottoms. They should be stacked in straight rows with space between each row for top ice. If top-ice is not used, the boxes should be stacked in an airflow pattern (figure 9) to pro¬ vide adequate air circulation. Adja¬ cent layers of wirebound crates should not be crossed over each other since wirebound crates were not designed to support weight over the midsection. • Baskets or hampers— Baskets and hampers should be alternately invert¬ ed in an offset by layers pattern to provide a dense load with protection against crushing (figure 19). Basket lids should be fastened securely so weight is borne by the basket, not the produce. • Palletized loads— When boxes are palletized, the unit loads should be loaded away from the walls unless the walls are corrugated or ribbed to reduce surface contact and reduce heat transfer through the vehicle walls into the product. Blackberries Recommended transport conditions: • Desired transit temperature: 31° to 32°F (-0.6° to 0°C) • Desired relative humidity: 90 to 95 percent • Highest freezing point 30.5 °F ( 0.8 °C) Fresh blackberries arc highly perisha blc and arc usually not shipped over 35 long distances. Maintaining tempera¬ tures near 32 °F (0°C) is very impor¬ tant. An atmosphere of 10 to 20 percent carbon dioxide (CO,) will help to retard decay. Recommended loading methods: • Fiberboard trays— The corrugated fiberboard trays usually interlock with the tray above and loaded on bottoms in an airflow pattern with wood strips placed crosswise about every fourth layer for stabilization (figure 20). Trays are frequently palletized to minimize handling. The trays of ber¬ ries should be strapped securely to the pallet as in figure 16. The pallets should be loaded in the center of the truck, two-wide, and braced away from the wall so that air can circu¬ late, eliminating the conduction of heat from the trailer walls to the fruit (see figure 14b). Figure 19. Bushel tub-baskets shown loaded by the alternately -inverted and -crosswise -offset method. Figure 20. Trays of berries loaded with continuous air channels between rows and with wooden strips across every fourth layer for load stability. Blueberries Recommended transport conditions: • Desired transit temperature: 31° to 32 °F (-0.6 to 0°C) • Desired relative humidity: 90 to 95 percent • Highest freezing point: 29.7°F (-1 3°C) The three most important commercial varieties of blueberries produced in the United States are the highbush, lowbush, and the rabbit eye. Blueber¬ ries are very temperature sensitive. Temperatures much above the desired transit temperatures cause over¬ ripening, shriveling, and loss of shelf life. Moisture on berries in transit caused by condensation or other sources is detrimental to quality and should be avoided. A minimum of 36 handling, close temperature control, and expedited shipment and market¬ ing are essential for successful sales since blueberries have a shelf life of only about 2 weeks if held under op¬ timum conditions. Holding for longer periods usually results in lower quali¬ ty. Modifying the atmosphere with CO , in conjunction with refrigeration is effective in retarding decay in blueberries but may result in off flavors. Recommended loading methods: • Fiberboard Trays- Blueberries are generally packed in film covered pint (0.47-1) size containers. A plastic film cap is tightly secured on each container by a rubberband Twelve containers of berries are packed in a fiberboard tray. The trays are nearly always palletized for shipment. The pallets should be loaded in the center of the truck, and braced away from the wall, eliminating the conduction of heat from the trailer walls into the fruit (see figure 14b). Broccoli Recommended transport conditions: • Desired transit temperature: 32 °F (0°C) • Desired relative humidity: 95 to 100 percent • Highest freezing point: 30.9 °F (-0.6°C) • Top-ice The respiration rate of broccoli is among the highest for vegetables. Therefore, refrigeration at or just above the desired transit temperature is required at all times Exposing broccoli buds to temperatures above 50°F (IO r, C) for only a short while will result in yellowing and reduced marketability. Fresh air exchange in the trailer is necessary to prevent anaerobic respiration and undersirablc odors Broccoli is usually packed in waxed fiberboard boxes with crushed or liquid ice. After the boxes are loaded, crushed or liquid ice also may be placed over the top of the load. Recommended loading methods: • Fiberboard boxes —Lengthwise on bottoms. Rows should be in good alignment with channels for air circu¬ lation and ice. When the boxes have bottom and top ventilation slots, the boxes should be stacked in register so that the melted water from the ice can run down directly through the product. When broccoli is loaded with other commodities, care should be taken in top-icing to prevent the ice from coming in contact with ice- sensitive commodities. Cabbage Recommended transport conditions: • Desired transit temperature: 32 °F (0°C) • Desired relative humidity: 98 to 1 (X) percent • Highest freezing point: 30.4 °F (-0.9 °C) Cabbage is less perishable than many other leafy vegetables. However, new cabbage will wilt easily with moisture loss and, therefore, should be precoolcd as soon as possible after harvest by hydrocooling or vacuum cooling. Wilting is the major cause of damage during handling and trans¬ porting. Stored cabbage is less likely to wilt during transit than new cab¬ bage. Except for a few new crop shippers, most shippers do not top-ice cabbage. Stored cabbage should not be top-iced. Several types of decay, such as bacterial soft rot and watery soft rot, may damage cabbage during transit if the desired temperature is not maintained. Recommended loading methods: • Wirehound boxes lengthwise on bottoms, unless the crate is badly bulged, then they may be stacked on their sides At the time of packing. 37 bulging of crates should be eliminat¬ ed; bulging causes bruising to the cabbage. Most shippers offset the crates by layers in the trailers to take up slack space and stabilize the load. An airflow pattern (figure 9) should be used for crates of new cabbage that are not top-iced. • Fiberboard boxes —Load lengthwise on bottoms in an airflow pattern (figure 7). The boxes should not be packed with buldges, and the boxes should never be stacked on their sides as maximum strength is realized when boxes are stacked on their bot¬ toms. A few shippers palletize their cabbage four or six boxes per layer and five or six layers high. See Unit Loading Patterns section for loading palletized units. Cantaloups Recommended transport conditions: • Desired transit temperature: 36° to 41 °F (2.2° to 5.0°C) • Desired relative humidity: 95 percent • Highest freezing point: 29.9°F (-1.2°C) After harvest, most cantaloups are room or forced-air cooled to prevent them from becoming soft during long-distance transport. Up to 10 lbs (4.5 kg) of crushed ice may be placed in each box after it is packed. Cantaloups picked at the hard-ripe stage of maturity are subject to chill¬ ing if held at temperatures below 36°F (2.2°C) for longer than 1 week. For normal truck shipments of less than 1 week, temperatures between 32° and 34 °F (0° to 1.1 °C) will not be harmful. Cantaloups packed in moisture-resistant fiberboard boxes may be top-iced. Cantaloups produce ethylene and should not be shipped in mixed loads with ethylene sensitive products such as green leafy vegetables. Recommended loading methods: • Corrugated Fiberboard boxes— These moisture-resistant boxes, hold¬ ing from 9 to 23 cantaloups each, are usually stacked six or seven layers high on pallets. The pallets are load¬ ed by a forklift truck, two pallets across the width of the truck. Drain holes should be clear so that melting ice water will not accumulate on the trailer floor. Carrots Recommended transport conditions: • Desired transit temperature: 32 °F (0°C) • Desired relative humidity: 98 to 100 percent • Highest freezing point: 29.5 °F (-1.4°C) Top-icing is desirable for topped car¬ rots for moisture retention. Carrots are shipped to market loose in bulk bags or fiberboard boxes or prepared in consumer size plastic bags that are in mesh bags or in fiberboard boxes. Carrots should be promptly hydrocooled after harvest to ensure an adequate shelf life. Recommended loading methods: • Open mesh or plastic film bags— Carrots in bags are usually stacked so that, when loaded, the carrots are in a vertical position. The bags should not be stacked so tightly that top-ice cannot infiltrate the load. • Corrugated fiberboard boxes (waxed)— When hand-loaded, fiber- board boxes are loaded lengthwise. Fiberboard boxes also may be stacked on pallets or slipsheets, and loaded by forklift truck. The lower layers of these boxes should be column-stacked to retain the strength, while the upper layers may be cross-stacked to pro¬ vide stability. Carrots in fiberboard boxes are loaded so that they are in horizontal position. 38 Cauliflower Recommended transport conditions: • Desired transit temperature: 32 °F (0°C) • Desired relative humidity: 95 to 98 percent • Highest freezing point: 30.6°F (-0.8°C) Cauliflower should be cooled to the desired transit temperature before loading. Cauliflower may be field or shed-packed, and may be individually wrapped or packed with a plastic film. Some cauliflower is hydrocooled, and some is vacuum- cooled. To control decay, cauliflower should be kept below 40°F (4.4 °C). If cauliflower is packed in moisture- resistant boxes, it can be top-iced. Recommended loading methods: • Corrugated fiberhoard boxes— Most cauliflower is palletized for ease of handling. Although it is usually packed in single layer boxes, the box¬ es arc stacked quite high so that a proper load density can be realized. Care should be taken so that the top layer of boxes does not touch and compress the air-delivery chute, which could restrict airflow and result in freezing damage. Celery Recommended transport conditions: • Desired transit temperature: 32 °F (0°C) • Desired relative humidity: 98 to 100 percent • Highest freezing point: 31.1 °F (-0.5 °C) • Top-tee desirable Celery is a highly perishable vegeta blc. Soon after harvest it should be precooled to below 40°F (4.4°C) b> cither hydrocooling or vacuum¬ cooling. Development of decay is limited by keeping temperatures be low 40°F (4.4°C). After harvest, celery continues to grow and should be packed in the container in such a way that, when the container is filled and closed, the celery is in the up¬ right position. Sometimes celery is sleeved or bagged at the shipping point. Many shippers also prepare celery hearts which are packed one to three stalks per bag or sleeve. A few shippers, who use wirebound crates, may top-ice their celery, but this is not a common practice and is not re¬ quired if the celery is sleeved. Recommended loading patterns: • Wirebound crates —Lengthwise on sides to protect the stalks from damage and allow the celery to con¬ tinue to grow straight. Most celery is hydrocooled or vacuum-cooled before loading. Most shippers stack wire- bound crates of celery with some space between rows of the crates for top-ice to fill. A few shippers load their celery in an airflow pattern with continuous lengthwise air channels between rows as shown in figure 9. • Fiberboard boxes —Most celery that is packed in fiberboard boxes is vacuum-cooled and not top-iced. Most shippers load their celery lengthwise on the box side, seven wide and six or seven layers high A few shippers load their celery in an airflow pattern as shown in figure 7. Most sleeved celery and celery hearts arc packed in fiberboard boxes. Sleeved celery packed in fiberboard boxes is usually loaded in an airflow pattern. Celery hearts are usually packed in fiberboard boxes on their bottoms and loaded lengthwise in the trucks in an airflow type pattern. Some shippers palletize boxes of celery six per layer and six or seven layers high Celery hearts are palle¬ tized 10 per layer and 6 or 7 layers high Sec the Unit Load Pattern sec¬ tion for more information on pallet loading. Cherries Recommended transport conditions: 39 • Desired transit temperature: Sweet cherries: 30° to 31 °F (-1.1° to -0.6°C) Sour cherries: 32 °F (0°C) • Desired relative humidity: 90 to 95 percent • Highest freezing point: Sweet cherries: 28.8°F (-1.8°C) Sour cherries: 29.0°F (-1.7°C) Cherries are highly perishable, and should be refrigerated to 32° to 36 °F (0° to 2.2 °C) before loading. Carbon dioxide gas (CO,) is beneficial in low concentrations and retards decay of sweet cherries during transit. Washington and Oregon cherry ship¬ pers place a polyethylene bag liner in the box. Respiration of the fruit in the bag will build up a sufficient con¬ centration of CO, to retard decay and help maintain a fresh appearance. California shippers do not use box liners. Recommended loading methods: • Wooden lugs— Most cherries are volume-filled. Cherries packed in wooden lugs are unitized on disposa¬ ble wooden pallets and are secured by either strapping or plastic netting. • Corrugated fiberboard boxes— An increasing amount of cherries are shipped in these boxes. Like the woo¬ den lugs, they may be strapped with vertical and horizontal bands, or plas¬ tic netting may be used to secure the boxes to the pallets. See the Unit and Load Patterns sections for more in¬ formation on pallet loading. Corn (sweet) Recommended transport conditions: • Desired transit temperature: 32 °F (0°C) • Desired relative humidity: 95 to 98 percent • Highest freezing point: 30.9°F (°0.6°C) • Top-icing very’ desirable The sugar in freshly harvested sweet corn will turn to starch rapidly unless field heat is removed quickly. At room temperature, corn can lose 50 percent of its sugar in 24 hours. However, if the temperature is lo¬ wered to 32 °F (0°C) soon after har¬ vest, only 24 percent is lost in 4 days. Many of the newer varieties re¬ tain their sugar content for longer periods than the older varieties. In most growing areas, corn is hydrocooled, and in some areas, it is vacuum cooled. Corn has a high respiration rate. Maximum refrigeration is required during transit. In addition, top-ice is very desirable to retain moisture and maintain quality during transit. Top¬ icing is especially desirable to replace moisture lost from the husks during vacuum-cooling process. The top ice should be applied in three windrows, running lengthwise of the trailer. The thermostat should be set at 36 °F (2.2 °C) so that the ice will melt and the water will run down through the load. If the thermostat is set at or be¬ low freezing, the ice will crust on top of the load, block air circulation, and corn in the bottom of the load will heat up. Recommended loading methods: • Wirebound crates —The majority of Florida sweet corn is shipped in wire- bound crates loaded lengthwise on their sides. Good row alignment should be kept with adequate space between rows to allow for top-ice. Another variation for loading wire- bound crates, used successfully by some shippers, is to load the contain¬ ers lengthwise on sides with no space between rows in the first two or three layers. The upper layers have one less row and are offset over the bot¬ tom layers with several inches of space between rows. Wooden strips are placed horizontally across the top of each layer to prevent the contain¬ ers from toppling and blocking the space between rows. This method of loading allows a large volume of top- 40 ice to get in between the rows in the upper layers and the melted water to run directly through the bottom layers. • Fiberboard boxes (waxed )— Lengthwise on bottoms. Fiberboard boxes do not have side or end open¬ ings. However, they have top and bottom openings that allow melted water from top-ice or package-ice to run downward through the layers. These containers should be stacked in register or squarely over one another throughout the load to allow the melt¬ ed water to run through the boxes and for maximum strength of the container. Cranberries Recommended transit conditions: • Desired transit temperature: 36° to 40°F (2.2° to 4.4°C) • Desired relative humidity: 90 to 95 percent • Highest freezing point: 30.4 °F (-0.9 °C) Cranberries are primarily grown in the Northern States of Wisconsin, Massachusetts, New Jersey, Oregon, and Washington, and are harvested and available for fresh distribution from September through December Cranberries can be held at tempera¬ tures of 36° to 40°F (2.2° to 4 4°C) up to 4 months. Cranberries will tolerate temperatures as low as 32 ' J F (0°C) for periods up to 2 weeks; however, exposure for longer periods could cause chilling damage resulting in discoloration and rubbery texture. They must be handled with care since they are susccptablc to bruising injury that results in flattened or depressed areas on the fruit surface. Cranberries should be prccooled to near 4(K'F (4.4 °C) before loading because the insulation effect of the packaging makes it difficult to lower tempera¬ ture during transit Recommended loading methods: • Fiberboard master cartons Stack lengthwise on bottoms. Cranberries for the fresh market are packed in 1-lb film bags or window boxes and shipped in master fiberboard contain¬ ers that will hold 24 1-lb (0.45-kg) packages. The master fiberboard car¬ tons should be stacked lengthwise on bottoms in an airflow type pattern (see figure 7). Cucumbers Recommended transport conditions: • Desired transit temperatures: 50° to 55°F (10.0° to 12.8°C) • Desired relative humid its.' 95 percent • Highest freezing point: 31.1 °F (-0.5 °C) Generally, cucumbers do not require precooling before transit. However, they should be stored so that excess field heat will be removed within 24 hour after harvest, or yellowing will occur. Yellowing also may occur if cucumbers are shipped in mixed loads with tomatoes or other ethylene producing products. Cucumbers are subject to chilling injury if held or transported for longer than 2 days at temperatures below 45°F (7.2 °C). Decay of cucumbers is controlled by maintaining transit temperatures near desired levels; however, at higher temperatures bacterial diseases can be a problem. Cucumbers are very sus¬ ceptible to shriveling, hence, the hu midity during storage and transit should be kept high Also, cucumbers are generally waxed to prevent shriveling. Recommended loading methods: • Fiberboard boxes Most cucumbers are packed in fiberboard boxes of several different si/es If the boxes are hand stacked, they are loaded lengthwise on bottoms in an airflow pattern as shown in figure 7. Many shippers also pallcti/e their cucum hers See the Unit Load Patterns sec lion for pallet loading details 41 Eggplant Recommended transport conditions: • Desired transit temperatures: 46° to 54°F (8.0° to 12.2°C) • Desired relative humidity: 90 to 95 percent • Highest freezing point: 30.6 °F (-0.8 °C) Eggplants that are shipped or stored at temperatures below 46°F (8.0°C) may be subjected to chilling injury. Surface scald or bronzing and pitting are symptoms of chilling injury. Egg¬ plants that have been subjected to chilling temperatures are subject to Alternaria rot when removed from storage and/or transit. Mature egg¬ plants harvested midsummer are high¬ ly susceptible to decay at temperatures higher than 54 °F (12.2°C). Eggplants shrivel very easi¬ ly during transport and storage if relative humidity is not maintained at 90 percent. Recommended loading patterns: • Fiberboard Watt's—Most eggplants are packed in fiberboard boxes. Generally, boxes of eggplants are loaded lengthwise on bottoms in an airflow pattern as shown in figure 7. Many shippers palletize their eggplant boxes eight per layer and five to six layers high. See the Unit Load Pat¬ terns section for loading of palletized units. Endive and Escarole Recommended transport conditions: • Desired transit temperatures: 32 °F (0°C) • Desired relative humidity: 95 to 100 percent • Highest freezing point: 31.9°F (-0.PC) • Top-ice desirable Endive and escarole are highly perishable leafy vegetables similar to lettuce which require maximum refrigeration during transit. They have a high rate of respiration, and it is imperative that they are precooled immediately after harvest by vacuum¬ cooling or hydrocooling. Endive and escarole often are shipped in mixed loads with other products, because most orders for these products are for less than truckload lots. Top-ice or package-ice is desirable. In full truck load shipments, the top-ice should be applied on top of the load in three lengthwise windrows. The thermostat on the refrigeration unit should be set at 36°F (2.2°C) so that the ice will melt slowly and run down through the load. Recommended loading methods: • Fiberboard boxes (waxed )— Lengthwise on bottoms in an airflow pattern if not top-iced (figure 7). If top-iced, the boxes may be loaded lengthwise or crosswise, but should be stacked in register directly on top of each other so that the melted water can run straight down through the holes in the tops and bottoms of the boxes. • Wirebound crates —Lengthwise on bottoms. Some shippers use an air¬ flow pattern (figure 9). If top-iced, most shippers stack the crates with slack space evenly divided between the rows for top-ice to fill. Garlic (dry) Recommended transport conditions: • Desired transit temperature: 32° to 34°F (0° to 1.1 °C) • Desired relative humidity: 65 to 75 percent • Highest freezing point: 30.5 °F (-0.8 °C) Garlic is usually shipped from storage at 32 °F (0°C). In warm weather, care should be taken to load the garlic promptly to reduce moisture condensation on the product. Airflow loading patterns should be used to re- 42 move any condensation that does oc¬ cur. Garlic cloves sprout rapidly at temperatures above 40 °F (4.4 °C) and should not be shipped in mixed loads with odor adsorbing commodities. Ice should not come in contact with garlic. Recommended loading methods • Fiberboard bares—The boxes should be loaded lengthwise on bot¬ toms in an airflow pattern as shown in figure 7. This pattern assures good ventilation in the load to remove con¬ densation and maintenance of the desired transit temperature. Grapefruit Recommended transport conditions: • Desired transit temperatures: Arizona and California: 58° to 60°F (14.4° to 15.6°C) Florida and Texas: Before January I, 60°F (15.6°C) After January I, 50°F (10°C) • Desired relative humidity: 85 to 95 percent • Highest freezing point: 30.0°F (-1.1 °C) Grapefruit is very susceptible to chill¬ ing injury, particularly early in the season. Chilling injury symptoms are pitting or physiological breakdown of the surface of the fruit which can be a means of entry for decay organ¬ isms Many types of decay organisms can attack grapefruit, particularly dur ing early- and latc-season shipments. Most shippers treat their grapefruit with approved fungicides. Curing of grapefruit can counteract some of the adverse effects of low temperature. Curing is accomplished by storing the grapefruit at 60"F (15 6°C) for I week before storing and shipping grapefruit at low temperatures of 32° to 34 °F (°C to 1.1*0. This also can be used as an insect quarantine treat ment. Grapefruit loads may be venti latcd during transit in cool weather. but during warm weather, the loads should be refrigerated. Caution: The most injurious temperature to ship grapefruit for chilling injury is 41 °F (5.0°C). Recommended loading methods: • Fiberboard boxes (loose filled )— Lengthwise or crosswise on bottoms. Most shippers use an airflow pattern (see figure 7). Florida shippers main¬ ly unitize their shipments on slip- sheets with nine boxes per layer and six to seven layers high per slipsheet in a chimney stack. Many California, Arizona, and Texas shippers unitize their shipments on pallets, with seven boxes per layer and seven layers high. See the Unit Load Patterns sec¬ tion for unit load patterns. • Fiberboard box (bag master )— Lengthwise or crosswise on bottoms. Most shippers use an airflow pattern for their bag master containers. In Florida, most shippers unitize their shipments on slipsheets with seven boxes per layer and seven layers high (figure 21). Since most shippers do not precool their fruit, extreme care should be exercised in transporting fruit packed in bag masters. The fruit is packed in polyethylene film or open mesh bags and packed in fiber- board boxes which makes it difficult to cool during transport Grapes Recommended transport conditions- American type: • Desired transit temperatures 32 op (0°C) • Desired relative humidity 85 percent • Highest freezing point 29.7°F (°I.3°C) Kuropean type (vinifera): • Desired transit temperature 30° to 31 °F (-1.1° to -0.6°C) 43 Figure 21. Fiberboard boxes of prepackaged grapefruit loaded in a trailer. Note that the boxes are stacked on slip-sheets for unitized handling. • Desired relative humidity: 90 to 95 percent • Highest freezing point: 28.1 °F (-2.2°C) Grapes should be precooled to near the desired transit temperature before loading, and the temperature should be maintained near 32 °F (0°C) dur¬ ing the transit period. Vinifera grapes are usually fumigated with sulphur di¬ oxide gas (SO,) during storage and before shipment to control the spread of Botrytis (gray mold) and Cladosporium decays. This fumiga¬ tion will not kill infections that start¬ ed before harvest. For grapes that are packed for the export market, top cushion pads may be used that con¬ tain sodium bisulphite which will be slowly released during transportation. Grapes should not be shipped with green onions. Caution! When using SO, gas, cau¬ tion must be taken to prevent injury to workers and equipment. SO, fumes are toxic to humans and will corrode certain metals. Recommended loading methods: • Wood and kraft veneer boxes (lugs)— Lengthwise on bottoms. Grape boxes are palletized and se¬ cured with straps or plastic netting. • Fiberbound boxes— Lengthwise on bottoms. These boxes also are palle¬ tized for shipment. • Expanded polystyrene foam boxes— Lengthwise on bottoms. Some shippers pack their grapes in plastic polystyrene foam boxes, which are then palletized for shipment. Grapes in these foam boxes may take slightly longer to cool than in wood-veneer boxes. Their rate of warmup during loading and after unloading also may 44 be slower. See the Unit Load Patterns section for details on palletized loading. Kale Recommended transport conditions: • Desired transit temperature: 32°F (0.0°C) • Desired relative humidity: 95 to 100 percent • Desired freezing point: 31.1°F (-0.5°C) • Top-ice and package ice desired Kale, a leafy vegetable, has a high rate of respiration. It requires maxi¬ mum refrigeration during handling and transit to maintain its quality. When kale is transported or kept at temperatures above 32 °F (0°C), it may temporarily appear to be in good condition. However, the higher tem¬ peratures will reduce its resistance to decay and yellowing of the leaves, and it will breakdown rapidly when displayed in stores. For precooling and to maintain crisp¬ ness. crushed or liquid ice usually is packed in each container of kale. Liberal amount of top-ice should be placed over nonprcpackagcd loads. Recommended loading methods: • Wirebound crates— When fltxir loaded, the crates can be loaded lengthwise or crosswise on bottoms. The containers should be loaded in good row alinement with the stack space divided between rows for top- ice to fill. All the crates should be set squarely one on top of the other, and all crates in each row should he load¬ ed in the same way. Wircbound crates should not be crossed over each other, because the crates arc not built to support weight over the mid- section. Loads not top-iced should be loaded in an airflow pattern as shown in figure 9. • Fiherhoard boxes (waxed <5 un waxed )— When floor loaded boxes can be placed lengthwise or crosswise on bottoms. Waxed boxes packed with loose kale should be loaded in straight rows with stack space divided between the rows for top-ice to fill. Boxes with prepackaged kale need cold air circulated to each box. This can be accomplished by using airflow pattern as shown in figure 7. When palletized, the unit loads should not touch the trailer walls un¬ less the walls are corrugated or ribbed to allow air circulation. In the wider trailers, a pinwheel pattern may allow for more complete air circula¬ tion. See the Unit Load Patterns sec¬ tion for pallet load diagrams. • Bushel baskets —Baskets with package-ice should be alternately in¬ verted and offset by layers (figure 19). This allows a dense load with good protection against crushing. If the load is top-iced, the baskets should be loaded in a non-offset, bottom-to-bottom and top-to-top, al¬ ternately inverted pattern (figure 22). Kiwi Fruit Recommended transit conditions: • Desired transit temperature: 32 °F (0°C) • Desired relative humidity: 90 to 95 percent • Highest freezing point: 29.0°F (-1,7°C) Kiwi fruit should be cooled to 32°F (0°C) as soon after harvest as possi¬ ble, and it should be maintained at that level during the transit period Caution should be taken to prevent kiwi fruit from being exposed to ethylene gas. Electric fork trucks should be used when handling kiwi fruit, and these fruits should not be shipped in mixed loads with products that generate ethylene, such as apples and other tree fruit. Recommended It fading methods: • Wootl trass lengthwise on hot 45 Figure 22. Bushel Baskets loaded in a nonoffset bottom-to-bottom and top- to-top, alternately inverted pattern and top-iced. toms. Kiwi fruit are packed in single layer preformed plastic trays, covered with plastic fdm to prevent ethylene contamination, and packed in wood trays. The wood trays are stacked on disposable wooden pallets which are secured with straps or netting material. • Corrugated fiberboard boxes — Lengthwise on bottoms, kiwi fruit, packed in preformed plastic trays, may be packed in single layer cor¬ rugated fiberboard boxes with covers, or three fiberboard trays may be packed in a single corrugated fiber- board master container. The boxes usually are treated for moisture 46 resistance. These fiberboard boxes also are palletized. See the Unit Load Patterns section for information on palletized loading. Lemons Recommended transport conditions: • Desired transit temperature: 50 to 55° F (10° to 12.8° C) • Desired relative humidity: 85 to 90 percent • Highest freezing point: 29.4° F (-1.4°C) Lemons are subject to chilling injury (pitting and physiological breakdown) if stored for long periods at temperatures below 58° F (I4.4°C). However, during domestic transit periods of several days, decay by rot and mold is more likely to damage the lemons than cold. Transit temperatures between 50° to 55° F (10° to I2.87°C) will effectively protect against decay without endangering the product with chilling injury. Lemons usually are shipped from cold storage and are near the desired transit temperature when loaded. They may be ventilated if outside temperatures fall within the desired temperature range. Recommended loading methods: • Corrugated fiber hoard box- lengthwise or crosswise on bottoms. The boxes may be loaded tightly together if the fruit is near the desired transit temperature. However, if the fruit is not precooled, an air flow loading pattern with lengthwise air channels should be used, see figure 7. See the Unit Load Patterns section for information on loading palletized loads. Lettuce (head) Recommended transport conditions: • Desired transit temperature: 32°F (0.0°C) • Desired relative humiditv: 98 to I(X) percent • Highest freezing point: 3I .7°F ( 0.2 °C) Lettuce is one of the most perishable and easily damaged of all commercial vegetables Individual lettuce heads usually arc field packed unwrapped or wrapped in plastic film in fiber hoard boxes. The field packed lettuce may he vacuum cooled and placed in cold rooms until ready for loading, or it may be vacuum cooled immediately before loading Because it is difficult to cool lettuce in transit, truckers should take several product tempera¬ tures during loading to be assured that the lettuce is near the desired transport temperature. Lettuce also is sensitive to ethylene gas, and should not be loaded with ethylene producing commodities. In extremely hot or cold weather, lettuce should be load¬ ed up off the floor on pallets or racks and away from the side walls of the trailer to prevent warming or freez¬ ing. Lettuce should not be iced. Recommended loading methods: • Fiherboard bares—Lettuce boxes are usually loaded mechanically by forktrucks in the Western United States. Many different types of load patterns are used, depending on in¬ dividual shippers equipment. Since lettuce heads are of low density and high cube, there is a tendency to load it extremely tight without air chan¬ nels. The trailer width should be measured to make sure it will accom¬ modate the intended width of the load. Extremely tight loads, especial¬ ly in trailers with flat walls, may ex¬ perience overheating or freezing in hot or cold weather respectively. The prevailing practice during hot weather is to load the lettuce on disposable wooden floor racks to allow addition¬ al air flow under the load. See the Unit Load Patterns section for infor¬ mation on palletized loading. Lettuce (leaf) Recommended transport conditions: • Desired transit temperature: 32 °F (0.0 °C) • Desired relative humidity: 98 to 100 percent • Highest freezing point: 31 7°F (-0.2 °C) There arc many types of leaf lettuce including Bibb, Boston, Butter, etc. All of these varieties arc very perish able ami easily damaged l.caf lettuce should be prccooled immediately after 47 harvest by either vacuum or hydrocooling. Once lettuce is precooled, it should be shipped at temperatures as near to 32 °F (0.0 °C) as possible and at a high relative hu¬ midity. At higher temperatures, the rate of respiration is high and bruised areas will disease rapidly. Bacterial soft rot is the most serious disease of lettuce. Recommended loading methods: • Fiberboard boxes (waxed)— Lengthwise on bottom in an airflow pattern (figure 7). There are many kinds and sizes of fiberboard boxes used for shipping leaf lettuce. However, most shippers pack 12 or 24 bunches per box. • Wirebound crates —Lengthwise on bottoms in an air flow pattern as shown in figure 9. Limes Recommended transport conditions: • Desired transit temperature: 48° to 50°F (8.9° to 10.0°C) • Desired relative humidity: 85 to 90 percent • Average freezing point: 29.1 °F (-1.6°C) Limes are picked green and should remain green during marketing for best quality. After harvest, limes are sorted, packed and precooled to around 50 °F (10.0°C) in refrigerated rooms. Limes are subject to attack by blue- and green-mold and stem-end rot. Limes picked when over-mature may develop stylar-end breakdown during transit. Green color is main¬ tained better at lower temperatures, but pitting (chilling injury) may occur when limes are held at temperatures below 45°F (7.2°C). Most limes are shipped in mixed loads particularly with avocados, because they usually are produced and shipped from the same areas. Recommended loading methods: • Fiberboard boxes —Lengthwise on bottoms. Most limes are packed in a fiberboard box containing 10 pounds, but a few are still shipped in a 4/5-bushel fiberboard box. The 4/5-bushel box is usually loaded in an airflow pattern (figure 7) or palletized 9 per layer and 6 layers high. The smaller box is usually palletized 18 per layer and 10 layers high. See the Unit Load Patterns section for palle¬ tized loading. Mangoes Recommended transport conditions: • Desired transit temperature: 55°F (12.8°C) • Desired relative humidity: 85 to 90 percent • Highest freezing point: 30.3 °F (-0.9 °C) Generally, the best transit tempera¬ ture for mangoes is 55 °F (12.8°C). Some varieties can be shipped at low¬ er temperatures of 50°F (10.0°C); however, other varieties are suscepti¬ ble to chilling injury at 55 °F (12.8°C). At temperatures below 50°F (12.8°C) all mangoes are highly susceptible to chilling injury. This is manifested as a grayish scald-like dis¬ coloration of the skin often accompa¬ nied by pitting, uneven ripening, and poor flavor and color development. Recommended loading method: • Fiberboard boxes— Load lengthwise on bottoms in an airflow pattern hav¬ ing unobstructed lengthwise air chan¬ nels as shown figure 7. However, most Florida shippers palletize their mangoes 9 per layer and 12 to 14 high. See Unit Load Patterns section for palletized loading information. Melons (Honeydew, Casaba, Crenshaw, Persian) Recommended transport conditions: • Desired transit temperature: 45° to 50F (7.2° to 10.0°C) 48 • Desired relative humidity: 90 to 95 percent • Highest freezing point: 30.5°F (-0.8°C) Melons are very sensitive to chilling injury (pitting and physiological breakdown), and are easily bruised. Temperatures below 45 °F (7.2 °C) may result in sunken areas on the skin and result in decay. Note: Recent research has shown that honeydew melons may be transported at 36-41 °F (2.2-5.0°C) if they are treated with 1,000 p/m ethylene gas for 24 hours immediately after har¬ vest and then cooled to these temperatures. Honeydew melons do not need to be precooled before loading, but may be cooled by the trailer refrigeration during transit to market. Recommended loading methods: •Corrugated fiherhoard boxes— Melons usually are packed with from 4 to 8 melons per box, which are separated from each other by a cor¬ rugated fiberboard divider to protect them from bruising. Most melon box¬ es are unitized on disposable wixxlcn pallets. Sec the Unit Load Patterns section for information on pallet load¬ ing methods. If the boxes arc hand stacked in the trailer, the boxes may be loaded lengthwise or crosswise. Most vchi clcs will accommodate five rows crosswise on bottoms, with some re¬ maining slack space. This extra space may be used by offsetting the con¬ tainer in alternate layers of the third or middle row, thus creating a con¬ tinuous lengthwise air channel on each layer of the middle row (Sec figure 23). Mushrooms Recommended transit conditions: • Desired transit temperatures: 32 °F (0°C) L % _ % i % % \ l zm wW?/// o o f O O [ 1L.J Figure 23. A method of loading fiberboard boxes of honeydew melons in a trailer with provision for lengthwise air channels through the middle of the load • Desired relative humidity: 95 percent • Highest freezing point: 30.4°F (-0.9°C) Fresh mushrooms arc highly perisha¬ ble with a shelf life of about 1 week under optimum conditions. Prompt cooling after harvest and close tem¬ perature control during transit arc es¬ sential Mushrooms are easily bruised and should be handled carefully. They have a high respiration rate and require adequate air circulation. Moisture from condensation or other sources should he avoided. Mushrooms arc sensitive to water and may develop brown spots and decay rapidly if wet. Fresh mushrooms are generally prepacked in 8-, 12. and lf> ourxc Ml 23. 0 34, and 0.45 kgl consumer packages overwrapped with 49 plastic film. These, in turn, are packed in fiberboard master trays for shipping. Some mushrooms are bulk packed in the fiberboard master trays. A 10- pound (4.5 kg) bulk pack is the most popular size. Nearly all mushrooms are palletized for shipment. See the Unit Load Patterns section for details. Okra Recommended transport conditions: • Desired transit temperature: 45° to 50°F (7.2° to 10.0°C) • Desired relative humidity: 90 to 95 percent • Average freezing point: 28.7°F (-1,8°C) Okra deteriorates rapidly and has a very high rate of respiration at warm temperatures. Okra has a market life of about 10 days. It should not be top-iced, because this will cause water spotting at all temperatures. At temperatures below 45°F (7.7 °C), okra is susceptible to chilling injury which is manifested by surface dis¬ coloration, pitting, and decay. Okra is also easily bruised and bruised areas will blacken rapidly. Recommended loading methods: • Wirebound crates— Lengthwise on bottoms in an airflow pattern as shown in figure 9. • Fiberboard boxes— Lengthwise on bottoms in an airflow pattern similar to figure 7. • Bushel hampers—A few shippers still ship their okra in bushel ham¬ pers. Figures 17 and 18 show how to load hampers of okra for the winter and summer seasons respectively. Onions (green), Shallots and Leeks Recommended transport conditions: • Desired transit temperature: 32 °F (0°C) • Desired relative humidity: 95 to 100 percent • Highest freezing point: Onions (bunch or spring): 30.4°F (-0.9°C) Shallots (white leaf bare): 31.6°F (-0.2°C) Leeks (blanched stalks): 30.7°F (-0.7°C) • Top-ice and/or package-ice Green onions (scallions) and shallots are highly perishable, and should be precooled soon after harvest. Crushed ice in the package and top icing will help to retain moisture and crispness, and reduce yellowing of these products. Leeks should not be loaded with figs or grapes. Recommended loading methods: • Fiberboard boxes (moisture resis¬ tant)— Lengthwise or crosswise on bottoms. Usually they are loaded with other commodities that require top¬ icing and space should be left be¬ tween the rows of boxes or pallets for top-ice to fill. • Wirebound crates —Same as for fiberboard boxes above. Onions (dry) Recommended Transport Conditions: • Desired transit temperature: 32 °F (0°C) • Desired relative humidity: 65 to 70 percent • Highest freezing point: 30.6°F (-0.8 °C) Dry onions store well if held at the proper temperature and humidity and are kept dry after they are cured. Higher temperatures will cause sprouting and decay. Onions removed from cold storage for shipment during warm weather tend to sweat on con¬ tact with the warm air. This condition should be avoided when possible by minimizing exposure of cold product to warm, humid air. Pre-cooling of 50 the vehicle and adequate air circula¬ tion inside the transport vehicle dur¬ ing transit will help minimize condensation of moisture on the product. Dry onions are transported in a variety of ways including 25- and 50- pound (11.3 and 22.7 kg) mesh or plastic bags, 40- pound (18.1 kg) fiberboard cartons and various consumer-size mesh and plastic bags in shipping cartons. Recommended loading methods: • Open mesh or plastic bags — Lengthwise or crosswise on bottoms on floor or pallets. Hand-stacked loads should use an airflow pattern as shown in figure 8. • Fiberboard boxes —Lengthwise on bottoms in an airflow pattern as shown in figure 7. The boxes may be loaded lengthwise or crosswise on pallets. Oranges Recommended transport conditions: • Desired transit temperature: Florida and Texas: 32° to 34°F (0.0° to l.l°C) California and Arizona: 38° to 48 °F (3.3° to 8.8 °C) • Desired relative humidity: 85 to 90 percent • Highest Freezing point: Peel 29.7°F (-l.3°C) Flesh 30.6°F (0.8°C) The preshipment handling of oranges varies by production area and season Generally, the fruit is washed, waxed, treated, and packaged for shipment Most shippers do not prccool their oranges; therefore, fruit temperature depends on ambient tern peraturc. Some shippers do prccool their fruit, particularly in California. All prepackaged oranges in polyethy¬ lene or open mesh should be prccoolcd. because the bags and fiberboard master shipping box make cooling in transit very difficult California and Arizona oranges shipped at temperatures below 38 °F (3.3 °C) are susceptible to chilling in¬ jury and other rind disorders. Oranges from all citrus-producing areas are subject to decay by blue- mold and green-mold rots. In addi¬ tion, Florida and Texas fruit are sus¬ ceptible to stem-end rot. Losses from decays can be reduced by decay inhi¬ bitors, careful handling to prevent skin breaks, and proper refrigeration. Recommended loading methods: • Fiberboard boxes— Lengthwise or crosswise on bottoms. When hand- stacked an airflow loading pattern should be used for shipping citrus (see figure 7). Shipments may also be unitized on slipsheets or pallets. See the Unit Load Patterns section for more information on palletized loading. • Bins—A few shippers may pack oranges in various types of bins which may be constructed of fiber- board, wood, or wire mesh. These bins are generally stacked two high. Some shippers may also pack poly¬ ethylene or open mesh bags of citrus in bins, particularly in the wire mesh bin. Bin loading patterns are the same as the pallet patterns shown in the Unit Load Patterns section for pallet load arrangements. Parsley Recommended transport conditions: • Desired transit temperature: 32 °F (0.0 °C) • Desired relative humidity 95 to l(K) percent • Highest freezing point 30°F (-I.IT) • Top li e or package u e desirable Parsley, a green, leafy herb, keeps well at 32°F (0 0°C) in combination with high humidity Like all leafy plants, parsley has a high rate of respiration, anti its temperature must be lowered quickly to retard respira- 51 tion and spoilage. Usually, parsley is hydrocooled, but some shippers may vacuum-cool. Top-ice and/or package-ice may be used by some shippers to help maintain the natural crispness and appearance of the product. Parsley is normally shipped in less-than-truckload lots. Recommended loading methods: • Fiberboard boxes (waxed) and Wirebound crates —These types of containers should be loaded length¬ wise on bottoms. They are normally loaded in rows across the trailer with slack space divided between rows for top-ice. If top-ice is not used, an air¬ flow pattern as shown in figures 7 and 9 should be used. Parsnips Recommended transport conditions: • Desired transport temperature: 32 °F (0°C) • Desired relative humidity: 98 to 100 percent • Highest freezing point: 30.4 °F (-0.9 °C) • Top-ice or package-ice desirable Parsnips have transit and storage re¬ quirements similar to carrots. They are topped after harvest and will keep up to 4 months if held at 32 °F (0°C) and a high relative humidity. Parsnips have a tendency to shrivel from lack of moisture. Recommended loading methods: • Open mesh or plastic film bags — The general practice is to package parsnips in a plastic film bag and ship with ice. Parsnips in bags are usually stacked so that when loaded the parsnips are in a vertical position. The bags should not be stacked so tightly that top-ice cannot infiltrate the load. Bagged parsnips arc often palletized and top-iced. • Fiberboard boxes (wax impregnat¬ ed)— When handloaded, fiberboard boxes are loaded lengthwise. They should be stacked in register so that the ice melt water can filter down through the stack through the top and bottom vent slots in the boxes. The slack space should be evenly divided between the rows for top-ice to fill. When boxes of parsnips are palle¬ tized, the boxes in the lower layer should be column stacked to retain their strength, the upper layers may be cross-stacked to stabilize the pallet load. Peaches and Nectarines Recommended transport conditions: • Desired transit temperature: 31 to 32 °F (-0.6° to 0°C) • Desired relative humidity: 90 to 95 percent • Highest freezing point: 30.4 °F (-0.9°C) Peaches and nectarines are relatively tender fruits and bruise easily. They are usually harvested and shipped while still firm so that physical injury will be minimized during transit and marketing. To delay ripening and retard decay, these fruits should be promptly cooled to the desired tem¬ perature before loading. Recommended loading methods: • Corrugated fiberboard boxes — Lengthwise on bottoms. These boxes arc usually volume filled with 25 or 30 pounds (11.3 or 15.9 kg), and more than 60 percent are unitized on disposable wooden pallets. Various methods of securing the boxes to the pallets are used. • Wooden lugs— Length wide on bot¬ toms. The fruit is often packed in plastic trays, in either one or two lay¬ ers. In turn, the trays are packed in wooden lugs. These lugs are palle¬ tized. Since peaches and nectarines are a dense product, caution should be exercised that the truck is not overloaded. 52 Hand stacked loads of fruit that are not thoroughly precooled should be loaded using an airflow pattern as shown in figure 24. See the Unit Load Patterns section for instructions on palletized loading. Pears Recommended transport conditions: • Desired transit temperature: 32 °F (0°C) • Desired relative humidity: 90 to 95 percent • Highest freezing point: 29.2°F (-1.6°C) It is essential that pears be cooled as soon after harvest as possible to pro¬ tect their shelf life. The storage life of pears ranges from 2 to 8 months, depending on variety. Extensive warming of the fruits starts the ripen¬ ing process which cannot be reversed. It is, therefore, advisable to transport pears as close to the storage temperature as possible. Recommend loading method: • Corrugated fiberboard boxes — Fiberboard boxes may be volume filled, place packed, or tight filled (vibration settled in the box with the cover tightly secured to the body with (Tcias icjaa ijLtn cu ■ X-im.CAg* s 4 - V r i i oca r i f r w 0T 131V1 i % JLm r r Figure 24 An end-view of an airflow loading pattern for commodities packed in wooden lugs Note: Each stack must be the same to maintain continuous lenghtwise air channels, and crosswise stripping stabilizes the load 53 strapping material or staples). The boxes also may be unitized on dispos¬ able wooden pallets and secured by straps or netting, or they may be loaded directly on the trailer floor, either by hand or by fork truck. A tight hand stack pattern may be used if the pears are precooled to the recommended transit temperature. If the pears are not throughly precooled, an airflow pattern as in figure 7 is recommended. The gross weight of containers of pears may vary considerably, so care should be taken to prevent over¬ loading. • Wooden boxes— Lengthwise on sides in continuous rows tightly together. Some shippers may pack some of their crop in this box which is stacked on its side. Care should be taken not to place any weight on the bulge-packed cover. Peas (green and snow peas in pods) Recommended transport conditions: • Desired transit temperature: 32 °F (0°C) • Desired relative humidity: 95 to 98 percent • Highest freezing point: Pods: 30.9°F (-0.6°C) Shelled peas: 29.9 °F (-1.2°C) • Top-ice required Fresh green peas are extremely perishable and require the utmost care to keep them in salable condition. To retard the sugar in peas from turning to starch, it is essential that their tem¬ perature be lowered and held near 32 °F (0 °C) immediately after har¬ vest. Either hydrocooling or vacuum cooling is desirable. Top-icing after loading is required to help maintain a low temperature and the fresh appear¬ ance of the pods. With less-than- truckload shipments of peas and where top-icing is not feasible, the peas should be packed with crushed ice. Recommended loading methods: • One bushel tub-baskets or hampers— When floorloaded, baskets are stacked alternately bottom-to- bottom and top-to-top (figure 22). This produces a compact load capable of supporting a liberal amount of top- ice with minimum crushing of the product. The baskets should be stowed tightly together to prevent load shifting. Top-ice shold be ap¬ plied so that it fills all spaces be¬ tween the baskets in the load. • Wirebound crates —When floorload¬ ed, the crates should be loaded lengthwise or crosswise on bottoms. Good row alinement should be kept with space between rows distributed evenly for top-ice to fill. All crates should be stacked squarely one on top of the other. Wirebound crates should not be crossed over each other, be¬ cause the crates are not built to sup¬ port weight over the midsection. When palletized, the loads should not be placed against the trailer walls un¬ less the walls are corrugated or ribbed to allow air circulation. • Fiberboard boxes (waxed)— Some peas are packed in wax-coated fiber- board containers that are well venti¬ lated with holes on all faces. Crushed ice is often packed in with the peas. Floor and pallet loading is the same as for wirebound crates. Peppers (sweet) Recommended transport conditions: • Desired transit temperature: 45° to 55°F (7.2° to 12.8 °C) • Desired relative humidity: 90 to 95 percent • Highest freezing point: 30.7°F (-0.7 °C) Mature-green peppers held at temper¬ atures below 45°F (7.2°C) will incur chilling injury. Peppers stored at chilling temperatures develop pitting, scalds, and various decays, and at temperatures above 55 °F (12.8 °C) peppers can develop decay quite 54 rapidly. Generally, peppers are packed in corrugated fiberboard box¬ es but sometimes wirebound crates are used. Recommended loading methods: • Fiberboard boxes —Lengthwise on bottoms. The boxes are usually stacked in an airflow pattern (figure 7). However, many shipments of pep¬ pers are palletized. See the Unit Load Patterns section for information on loading palletized units. • Wirebound crates— Wirebound crates of peppers are loaded in an airflow pattern as shown in figure 9. Pineapple Recommended transport conditions: • Desired transport temperature: Mature-green fruit 50° to 55°F (10° to 13°C) Ripe fruit 45 °F (7.2 °C) • Desired relative humidity: 85 to 90 percent • Highest freezing point: 30.0 °F (-1.1 °C) Cooling and heating temperature con¬ trol may be required. Mature-green pineapples are suscepti¬ ble to chilling damage if exposed to temperatures below 50°F (io°C). Symptoms of chilling injury are im¬ paired ripening, brown or dull shell color, water soaked flesh, wilting of the crown, green spotting, and failure to develop a good flavor Chilled fruit is particularly subject to decay if not kept refrigerated. Recommended loading methods: • Fiberboard boxes arc loaded lengthwise or crosswise on bottoms Boxes often have fiberboard inserts placed between individual fruit to prevent bruising during transit. In ex¬ tremely cold weather, boxes of pineapples should be loaded as shown in figure 5a to reduce product contact with the vehicle walls and possible chilling or freezing injury Plums and Fresh Prunes Recommended transport conditions: • Desired transit temperature: 32 °F (0°C) • Desired relative humidity: 90 to 95 percent • Highest freezing point: 30.5°F (-0.8°C) Plums and fresh prunes should be thoroughly precooled soon after har¬ vest. Generally, plums and prunes are packed and placed in cold-storage rooms for precooling before ship¬ ment. Careful handling is very impor¬ tant because bruising and skin breaks may result in decay and a loss of quality. Recommended loading method: • Corrugated fiberboard boxes— Lengthwise or crosswise on bottoms. A considerable amount of this fruit is tight filled (vibration settled in the box with the cover tightly secured to the body with strapping material or staples), which reduces roller bruising and subsequent discoloration to the skin. The boxes are unitized on dis¬ posable wooden pallets and secured with straps or netting material. Potatoes Recommended transport conditions: • Desired transport temperature: Early crop—for table 50° to 60°F (10° to 15.6°C) for chipping—65° to 70 °F (18.3° to 21.1°C) l^atc crop—for table 40° to 50°F (4.4” to I0°C), for chipping—50° to 60°F (10° to I5.6°C) • Desired relative humidity: 90 percent • Highest freezing point: 30.9°F (-0.6°C) Ventilation, heating, or cooling may be required in transit depending on 55 time of year and outside temperature conditions. Early crop or new potatoes are har¬ vested and shipped from the Southern States during the winter, spring, and early summer. Because these potatoes are shipped before their skin has time to set or mature, they are easily skinned and bruised. Broken skins open the way for decay organisms and tissue browning at the surface and lower the market value of the product. Potatoes, fortunately, have the inherent ability to seal skin breaks by producing suberin and wound periderm, which are essentially new skin. This self-healing process pro¬ ceeds best at a high humidity and temperatures of 60° to 70°F, (15.6° to 21.1 °C). As a rule, early-crop potatoes may be shipped satisfactorily if they are ven¬ tilated. Ventilation will aid in drying if weather permits. Airflow loading patterns should be used to take full advantage of the ventilation. Late-crop potatoes are harvested dur¬ ing the summer and fall. They are al¬ lowed a longer time to mature before being dug; therefore, their skins are set and less prone to injury from han¬ dling. Because of their tougher skins, they do not need the higher tempera¬ ture and humidity for healing re¬ quired by early-crop potatoes. Most late-crop potatoes are grown and stored in the Northern States. They are shipped from storage late in the fall, winter, and early spring. Since many shipments move through areas with subfreezing temperatures, heat is often needed when transport¬ ing potatoes. Fans should be operated with the heating system to circulate the warm air around the load. Freezing damage is most likely in bags on the floor and against the bot¬ tom sidewalls. Cushioning or padding material on the floor will help insu¬ late the product in the bottom layers, and protect against bruising from overhead weight. However, any material that will fill the floor grooves, such as straw, should not be used because it will block warm-air circulation under the load. Several types of suitable floor padding materials are available from commer¬ cial sources. Loading potatoes on wood pallets with the stringers run¬ ning lengthwise also provides a me¬ ans to protect potatoes from freezing at floor level by allowing circulating air under the load. Loads of late-crop potatoes may be ventilated when outside temperatures range between 40° (4.4°C) and 50°F (10°C). At temperatures below or above this range, the vent doors should be closed. Recommended loading methods: • Burlap and paper bags —Most pota¬ toes are packed in consumer bags of plastic film holding 5 or 10 pounds (2.3 or 4.5 kg). These in turn are packed in master paper bags holding 50 pounds (22.7 kg) and palletized. Recent research found that most han¬ dling bruising occurs to potatoes when the bags or boxes are dropped on hard floor or pallet surfaces dur¬ ing loading. Significant increases in bruising damage were found when the drop heights exceeded 30 inches (76 cm). See the Unit Load Patterns sec¬ tion for pallet loading in the vehicle. • Hand-stacked bags of early-crop or new potatoes should be loaded in an airflow pattern as shown in figure 8. Bags of late-crop potatoes may be stacked as shown in figure 5a. It is important to keep the potatoes from directly contacting the walls and floor in extremely cold weather to prevent freezing. • Corrugated fiberboard boxes— Boxes are stacked lengthwise or crosswise on bottoms on floor or uni¬ tized on pallets. New potatoes in box¬ es should be loaded in an airflow pattern as shown in figure 7 to allow intransit drying. • Bulk potatoes for chipping—Most potatoes for chipping are shipped from storage in bulk loads. The pota- 56 toes should always be loaded and transported at the same or slightly warmer temperature than the storage temperature, but never at colder tem¬ peratures. The potatoes should be handled as gently as possible. Rough handling and improper temperatures may cause adverse chemical reactions which increase the sugar content of the potatoes. This subsequently results in undesirable dark colored chips. Truckers should carry an ac¬ curate thermometer for checking pulp temperatures of the potatoes. Bulk chipping potatoes usually are loaded with a bin-piler conveyor with a telescoping boom. They are unloaded with an industrial truck or by gravity flow. Bulkheads of plywood or bags of potatoes are constructed 2 to 4 feet (0.61 to 1.23 m) from the rear doors of the trailers to contain the loose potatoes. Heaters, when required, usually are placed in this open space. A great amount of chipping potaotes are shipped from Far Northern States in the winter and require heating. Propane gas heaters are preferred and predominantly used. The fans need to be operated at all times to circulate the heated air over and under the load. A buildup of carbon dioxide (CO ) also may result in off-colored chips. Therefore, it is important to allow a small amount of outside air or oxy¬ gen to ventilate to the chipping pota¬ toes at all times. Since healers produce extra CO , the doors of the vehicle should be opened about every 3 hours for a few minutes to allow a fresh air exchange in the vehicle when heaters arc operating. Fan oper¬ ation is necessary to circulate fresh air to all parts of the load Chipping potatoes should he processed as soon as possible after unloading. Radishes Recommended transport conditions: • Desired transit temperature: 32 °F (0°C) • Desired relative humidity: 95 to 100 percent • Highest freezing point: 30.7 °F (-0.7 °C) Radishes should be precooled to re¬ move Field heat and preserve their natural crispness. Most radishes are topped and packed in consumer-size plastic-film packages which are shipped in waxed corrugated fiber- board boxes. Some radishes are shipped with their tops on and to keep them fresh, these radishes must have top-ice or package-ice placed in the containers. Topped radishes packed in consumer bags keep well in transit and storage for several weeks, provided the recommended tempera¬ ture and humidity are maintained. Black spotting is a major market dis¬ ease of radishes, but this is controlled effectively at temperatures below 50 °F (10°C). Recommended loading methods: • Waxed fiberboard boxes (consumer packages) —Very few straight loads of radishes are shipped, but when they arc. an airflow type pattern (figure 7) should be used to allow uniform cir¬ culation of refrigerated air throughout the load. • Wirebound crates or fiberboard boxes (bunched radishes with tops)— Lengthwise on bottoms. Good row alignment should be maintained, with the stack space divided between rows for top-ice to fill. Sometimes wixkI slats are placed crosswise between every fourth or fifth layer to maintain row alignment. • Polyethylene hags Ibulk radish es) Bagged radishes also are loaded in an airflow type pattern. This pat¬ tern provides lengthwise air channels for the circulating air. If a full load of bagged radishes is loaded, a head cr stack must be used (see figure 8). Raspberries Recommended transport conditions: 57 • Desired transit temperature: 32 °F (0°C) • Desired relative humidity: 90 to 95 percent • Highest freezing point: black-30.0 °F (-1.1 °C) red-30.9 °F (-0.6 °C) Fresh raspberries are highly perisha¬ ble and are usually not shipped over long distances nor in full truckloads. It is imperative that they be precooled immediately after harvest and main¬ tained at temperatures near 32 °F (0°C) to prevent mold decay. An at¬ mosphere of 10 to 20 percent carbon dioxide (COJ will help to retard decay. Recommended loading method: • Corrugated fiberboard trays — Lengthwise on bottoms. Trays are palletized to minimize handling. The pallets should be loaded in the center of the truck, two wide, and braced away from the walls so that air can circulate between the walls and the product and prevent conduction of heat from the trailer walls to the fruit (see figure 14b). Hand-loaded trays should be stacked as shown in figure 20 . Rhubarb Recommended transport conditions: • Desired transit temperature: 32 °F (0°C) • Desired relative humidity: 95 to 100 percent • Highest freezing point, stalks: 30.3°F (-0.9°C) Fresh rhubarb should be kept at 32 °F (0°C) and at a high humidity to pre¬ vent wilting and shriveling. Bunches or loose stalks of rhubarb usually are wrapped in polyethylene film liners in the shipping containers to prevent moisture loss. The liners should not be sealed. Recommended loading methods: • Fiberboard boxes— Lengthwise or crosswise on pallets. Floor stacked boxes should be lengthwise on bot¬ toms and in an airflow pattern as shown in figure 7. Romaine Recommended transport conditions: • Desired transit temperature: 32 °F (0°C) • Desired relative humidity: 95 percent • Highest freezing point: 31.7°F (-0.2 °C) • Top-ice desirable Romaine is a type of lettuce. Being a leafy vegetable, it is highly perishable and requires maximum refrigeration during transit. It should be either vacuum-cooled or hydrocooled before shipment, depending on the shipper’s facilities. Romaine often is shipped in mixed loads with other products, be¬ cause most orders for this product are for less-than-truckload lots. Recommended loading methods: • Fiberboard boxes (waxed)— Lengthwise on bottoms in an airflow pattern (figure 7). Palletized boxes may be tight stacked if adequately precooled and refrigerated during transit. The pallets should be loaded to the center of the vehicle. The crates are stacked in register with the stack space between rows evenly dis¬ tributed for top-ice to fill. Wood strips placed crosswise between layers may be used to stabilize the load and maintain stack alignment. If top-ice is not used, an airflow load pattern should be used (see figure 9). Spinach Recommended transit conditions: • Desired transit temperature: 32 °F (0°C) • Desired relative humidity: 95 to 100 percent 58 • Highest freezing point: 31.5°F (-0.3 °C) • Top-ice and package-ice desired Fresh spinach is delicate and highly perishable. It must be carefully han¬ dled to prevent mechanical damage to the leaf which would present a poten¬ tial point for disease entry. Fresh spinach must be held at a temperature near 32°F(0°C) and packed with ice to preserve its shelf life of about 10 to 14 days. Spinach should be cooled as soon as possible after harvesting and kept from dehydrating to prevent wilting. Recommended loading methods: • Wirebound crates— When top-iced, the crates of spinach should be loaded lengthwise on bottoms and stacked in straight rows. The slack space should be evenly distributed between rows for top-ice to fill. All top-ice is not used then an airflow stacking pattern as shown in figure 9 should be used. • Fiberboard boxer—Spinach packed in plastic film consumer packs in fiberboard boxes should be loaded in an airflow pattern as in figure 7. Palletized boxes of consumer packs should be stacked in register and se¬ cured with strapping to prevent bruis¬ ing of the tender leaves. Waxed boxes of loose packed spinach should be loaded lengthwise in rows with the slack space evenly divided between rows for top-ice to fill. The boxes should be stacked in register so that melt water can run downward through all containers in (he stack Squash and Pumpkins Recommended transport conditions: Winter squash (Hubbard and Acorn) and pumpkins: • Desired transit temperature: 50° to 55°F (10° to I2.8°C) • Desired relative humiditv: 50 to 70 percent • Highest freezing point. 30.5°F (-O.S’C) Summer squash (yellow crookneck, straightneck, and zucchini): • Desired transit temperature: 41° to 50°F (5° to 10°C) • Desired relative humidity: 95 percent • Highest freezing point: 31.1 °F (-0.5°C) After harvest, winter squash and pumpkins should be allowed to cure at temperatures between 80° and 85°F (26.7° to 29.4°C) for 10 to 20 days to allow healing of mechanical cuts. Cured squash have a storage life of 2 to 6 months. However, they are subject to chilling injury and should not be kept or shipped at tempera¬ tures below 50oF (lOoC) for any length of time. They require low hu¬ midity. Summer squash are harvested and shipped at an immature stage. They are more perishable than winter squash. Their storage life is shorter, and they require lower temperatures and higher humidity during transit. The skin of summer squash is very tender and easily wounded during handling. Summer squash can with¬ stand 32° to 40°F (0° to 4.4°C) tem¬ peratures up to 4 days with little danger of chilling injury. Recommended loading methods: • Wirebound crates— Crates of sum mer squash should be loaded length¬ wise on bottoms in an air flow pattern as shown in figure 9. Crates of winter squash may be tight stacked cither lengthwise or crosswise on bot¬ toms. The crates should be stacked in vertical alignment and never be crossed over each other since the crates arc designed to support the overhead weight on their corners. When palletized, the crates should also be stacked in vertical alincmcnt ami strapped to the pallet. Unit loads should not touch the trailer walls un less the walls arc corrugated or ribbed to allow air circulation be tween the load and walls and prevent freezing in cold weather 59 • Fiberboard boxes —Fiberboard box¬ es of winter squash may be loaded crosswise or lengthwise on bottoms. Boxes of summer squash should be loaded in an airflow pattern as shown in figure 7. • Bulk-bins —Pumpkins often are shipped in bulk bins. If the bins are double stacked, care should be taken not to over fill the bins on the bottom layer or crushing will occur. Strawberries Recommended transport conditions: • Desired transit temperature: 32 °F (0°C) • Desired relative humidity: 90 to 95 percent • Highest freezing point: 30.6°F (-0.8°C) Strawberries are extrememly perisha¬ ble. Even under ideal handling condi¬ tions, they rarely keep more than 10 days after harvest. Low temperatures near to 32 °F (0°C) are essential to control both decay and ripening. Most shippers precool their berries immediately after harvest and before shipment by forced-air cooling to at least 40°F (4.4°C). Strawberries are generally packed 12 pints to an open- top fiberboard tray box. Most boxes are constructed in such a manner that two-tray boxes are connected together with wires and each box is connected to the box below with tabs protruding up into the box above for load sta¬ bility. Most California strawberry shippers palletize their shipments. In some cases a sealed bag is placed over each palletized unit and filled with a modified atmosphere containing about 14 percent CO, gas. The CO, at¬ mosphere helps to control decay and retard ripening. The principal decay likely to affect strawberries in transit are gray-mold and Rhizopus rots. Only sound fruit should be shipped, because decay fungi can easily spread throughout each shipping container. Strawberries require extra careful handling since they are so easily bruised and bruised berries are very susceptible to decay. Recommended loading methods: • Open-top fiberboard tray boxes— Lengthwise and crosswire on bot¬ toms. Most strawberry shippers palle¬ tize their shipments because strawberries are very perishable and susceptible to bruising. Generally, strawberries are palletized 6 per layer and 16 layers high per pallet. Ex¬ treme care should be taken to prevent container shifting on the pallet by us¬ ing strapping and corner boards. Also, extreme care must be exercised in loading palletized units to prevent shifting during transit. Proper bracing is a must for palletized strawberry shipments. The pallet units should be loaded away from the walls to pre¬ vent outside heat from transferring directly into the berries. See the Unit Load Patterns section for information on loading palletized units. Hand- stacked trays should be loaded in trailers as shown in figure 20. Strawberry Plants Recommended transport conditions: • Desired transit temperature: 30° to 32°F (-1.1° to 0.0°C) • Desired relative humidity: 90 to 95 percent Strawberry plants can be dug in late fall or early winter when fully dor¬ mant, and stored bare-rooted at tem¬ peratures of 30° to 32 °F (—1.1 to 0.0°C) in wirebound crates lined with polyethylene film. Temperatures be¬ low 30°F (-1.1 °C) will injure straw¬ berry crowns resulting in poor field performance. Temperature above 32 °F (0.0 °C) may cause top and root growth. Many strawberry plants are harvested in one part of the country and shipped to another part of the country for immediate planting. These strawberry plants can be shipped at slightly higher tempera- 60 tures of 32° to 34 °F (0.0° to 1.1 °C) if transit and delay before planting is less than a week. Strawberry plants are generally packed bare-rooted, predominantly in wirebound crates, polyethylene-lined and precooled be¬ fore shipment. Most strawberry plants are packed in bundles of 25 plants, however, a few growers are packing plants in fiberboard boxes. Recommended loading methods: • Wirebound crates —Lengthwise on bottoms, five crates across with air channels between one and the next two crates, and the other three crates tight against each other. The next lay¬ er is reversed and so forth up to the top layer which is placed on its side to form a tight layer. This pattern al¬ lows lengthwise air channels from the rear of the trailer to the front. • Fiberboard boxes lxngthwi.se on bottoms in an airflow pattern. This pattern provides continuous air chan¬ nels from the rear to the front of the trailer (figure 7). Sweet Potatoes Recommended transport conditions: • Desired transit temperature: 55° to 60°F (12.8° to I5.6"C) • Desired relative humidity: 85 to 90 percent • Highest freezing point: 29.7°F (-1.3°C) Sweet potatoes arc harvested in late summer and fall Some arc shipped immediately to market in the “green” state, noncurcd. The rest arc cured and shipped from storage throughout the year. They arc washed, sorted, and sometimes treat ed with a decay preventive before be mg shipped to market. Also, many shippers wax sweet potatoes and dye them red. Uncurcd sweet potatoes require care ful handling to prevent skin breaks and decay. Cured sweet potatoes are easier to handle. Sweet potatoes arc subject to chilling injury at temper- atues below 50°F (10°C), even if only for a few hours, which may im¬ pair their appearance and culinary qualities. Sprouting may be en¬ couraged at temperatures above 60 °F (I5.6°C); and at temperatures above 70 °F (21.1 °C), growth of decay or¬ ganisms may prevail. Sweet potatoes are predominantly shipped in fiberboard boxes contain¬ ing 50 pounds; however, some are packed in smaller fiberboard boxes, and some are packed in wirebound crates, baskets, or bags. Recommended loading methods: • Fiberboard boxes —Lengthwise on bottoms and offset by layers in an air flow loading pattern as shown in figure 7. This pattern allows for con¬ tinuous lengthwise air channels in al¬ ternate layers for air circulation. A few shippers palletize their shipments with eight boxes per layer and five or seven layers high. Sec the Unit Load Patterns section for loading palletized units. Tangerines Recommended transit conditions: • Desired transit temperature: 40°F (4.4 °C) • Desired relative humidity: 90 to 95 percent • Highest freezing point 30.1 °F ( I. I °C) Tangerines arc highly perishable. During marketing they are very sus ccptiblc to decay by various decay organisms, particularly green- and blue mold rots Careful handling from tree to table helps to prevent bruising and skin breaks that provide ready entrance for decay organisms Other citrus varieties, such as tangelos anti Honey tangerines (Murcott) also need to be handled carefully, because all of these varieties arc thin skinned. Most of these varieties can be shipped at near 32°F (0°C). but 61 Temple oranges and Orlando tangelos should be shipped at 40°F (4.4°C), because they are susceptible to chill¬ ing injury at lower temperatures. Tangerines should be precooled be¬ fore shipment to assure delivery of tangerines at their desirable tem¬ perature. Recommended loading methods: • Fiberboard boxes —Lengthwise on bottoms in an airflow pattern (figure 7). Some shippers unitize the boxes on slipsheets, nine per layer and six or seven layers high. See the Unit Load Patterns section for loading palletized units. • Wirebound crates —Lengthwise on bottoms in an airflow pattern (figure 9). Tomatoes (mature-green) Recommended transport conditions: • Desired transit temperature: 55° to 70°F (12.8° to 21.1°C) • Desired relative humidity: 90 to 95 percent • Highest freezing point: 31.0°F (-0.6°C) Mature-green tomatoes are harvested in the green stage and are washed in chlorinated water, graded, and packed immediately after harvest. After pack¬ ing, the tomatoes are placed in ethy¬ lene degreening rooms at 70 °F (21.1 °C) for about 48 to 72 hours to initiate ripening. After ethylene degreening, the best temperature for transport and storage of tomatoes is between 55° to 70°F (12.8° to 21.1 °C). At temperatures lower than 50°F (10°C) mature-green tomatoes may be subjected to chilling injury and poor internal quality. At tempera¬ tures above 70 °F (21.1 °C), tomatoes may ripen too rapidly and may be subject to extensive decay. Recommended loading methods: • Fiberboard boxes —Most tomatoes are shipped in partial telescope fiber- board boxes. When hand stacked. these boxes should be loaded in an airflow pattern similar to that shown in figure 25. However, most shippers palletize their tomato shipments. See the Unit Load Patterns section. Tomatoes (pink) Recommended transport conditions: • Desired transit temperature: 46° to 50°F (1.2° to 10°C) • Desired relative humidity: 90 to 95 percent • Highest freezing point: 31.1 °F (-0.5 °C) Tomatoes harvested soon after their color begins to redden are called pink tomatoes, but are sometimes errone¬ ously called “vine-ripened” toma¬ toes. Pink tomatoes are not as sensitive to chilling injury as mature- green fruit. Pink tomatoes should be handled carefully to avoid mechanical Figure 25. A crosswise-offset-by- layers airflow loading pattern for tomatoes packed in partial telescope fiberboard boxes. 62 injury. External and internal bruising may affect appearance, color, or flavor, thus reducing quality. Ship¬ ping temperatures for pink tomatoes will depend largely on the number of days in transit and the degree of ripe¬ ness which the receiver may desire. Many shippers precool their pink tomatoes to the desired transit tem¬ perature to maintain desired color level. Pink tomatoes are generally packed in fiberboard boxes with two or three layers per box. Some ship¬ pers tray pack their pink tomatoes in pulp or foam trays. Recommended loading methods: • Fiberboard boxes— Lengthwise on bottoms in a crosswire offset by lay¬ ers air flow pattern as shown in figure 25. Most shippers palletize their shiments of pink tomatoes. See the Unit Load Patterns section for loading palletized units. Tomato Transplants Recommended transport conditions: • Desired transit temperature: 50° to 55 °F (10° to I2.8°C) • Desired relative humidity: 85 to 90 percent • Highest freezing point: 31.0°F (-0.6°C) Tomato transplants arc generally loose-packed in wirebound crates. Depending on ambient temperature at the time of field packing, plant tem¬ peratures may range from 60 J to I00°F (15.6° to 37.9°C). Tempera tures may actually increase from respiration without good refrigeration, when the plants arc packed tightly within the crate. Transit and storage temperatures below 50°F (l()"C) reduce survival of the tomato plant, and temperatures above 60 ®F (15.6°C) reduce plant vigor and may result in yellowing and droppage of leaves, and the plant may eventually decay. Free moisture should not be allowed because it will cause decay, particularly at high temperatures. Recommended loading methods: • Wirebourui crates —The keystone¬ shaped, wirebound crates are loaded lengthwise on their bottoms and directly on top of each other. If all stacks are the same, the shape of the crates allow for lengthwise air chan¬ nels throughout the load. Crosswise loading of one or two stacks to com¬ plete loading at the rear of the trailer should not be done, because this will prevent air circulation by blocking the air channels between the crates. Most truckers will use their vents in addition to refrigeration for cooling, particularly the first night of transit. If vents are used, the truck should be equipped with a bulkhead which will force the air down to the floor and then through the load. Watermelons Recommended protective services: • Desired transit temperature: 50° to 60°F (10° to 15.6°C) • Desired relative humidity: 90 percent • Highest freezing point: 31.3°F (-0.4°C) Watermelons are generally shipped in bulk under ventilation Refrigeration is not required for normal transit periods. At temperatures below 50 °F (l()°C) melons may lose color, and at lower temperatures pitting may occur. Improved flavor and intensified color have been obtained by holding watermelons up to 7 days at room temperature. However, if the melons arc to be in transit for longer than I week they should be refrigerated at SO to 60 P (in to 15.6 Q Watermelons also are sensitive to ethylene and. therefore, should not be shipped with ethylene producing products. Serious transit losses may result when watermelons arc cracked and bruised by improper handling and loading methods Bruising makes the melons more susceptible to decay. When 63 loading bulk melons, cushioning material should be placed on the floor and along the side walls of trailers to protect the melons from bruising. Various types of cushioning material are available to shippers: excelsior, polystyrene foam, straw, etc. Although straw is commonly used, it is not recommended in trailers with floor grooves because it tends to block the air circulation under the load and fill the desired void spaces between melons. In recent years, watermelons also are shipped in fiberboard boxes with two to six melons per box depending on the size of the watermelon and in fiberboard or wooden bins containing 800 to 1,200 pounds (363 to 544 kg) of watermelons. However, over 50 percent of the watermelons are still shipped in bulk. Recommended loading methods: • Bulk —Both the long-type and round-type melons are loaded length¬ wise of the trailer. In this type of load, each even-numbered layer will be one row less in width than in the odd-numbered layers. The number of layers in a particular load depends on the size and weight of trailer, high¬ way weight limitations and the carry¬ ing quality of the melons. • Fiberboard boxes —Lengthwise on bottoms generally one directly on top of another either 4 or 5 boxes wide depending on the size of trailer and the boxes. Any slack space across the width of the trailer is divided be¬ tween the boxes providing lengthwise air channels between each row. Fiberboard boxes of watermelons are frequently palletized. • Bulk bins —Bulk bins of waterme¬ lons are generally stacked two high with the lower bin containing fewer watermelons than the upper bin to prevent crushing of melons in the lower bin. The bins are palletized. See the Unit Load Patterns section for loading of palletized units. 64 Damage claims for canned goods cost carriers millions of dollars annually. A small percentage of damage losses to canned foods in distribution chan¬ nels is caused by rusting of cans or freezing of contents. But, most damage is caused by breaking or denting of the cans during handling by improper contact between the product and other products or objects. There are many ways canned goods can be damaged. Some of the more important factors of concern to truck¬ ers are: • Poorly scaled cases • Careless handling of cans during processing and warehousing • Improper stacking on pallets • Careless handling with mechanical- lift trucks • Loose or slack loading in the vehicle • Improper bracing • Failure to brace remainder of load after a drop-off Poorly scaled cases may let cans or jars fall out during handling The trucker should check cases of canned goods periodically during loading for indications of damage to be sure he is not accepting a load that was heavily damaged before it became his respon¬ sibility. Most of the canned goods today arc unitized for warehousing and ship¬ ment Mishandling of pallets with mcchamcal-lift trucks and poor stack¬ ing of the cases on the pallets are im¬ portant sources of damage. The cases should be stacked on the pallets so that they are flush with the edges of the pallet. If the cases overlap the edges of the pallet, then the mechanical-lift trucks may push against the canned goods instead of the pallet during handling. If the out¬ side edge of the stack is inward from the pallet edges, considerable slack space will be left between the pallets after they are loaded in the vehicle. This will allow the cases to shift about during transit. Another source of damage may be loose pallet boards. A loose edge board will al¬ low pressure to be exerted on the cases in the bottom layer when the pallet is lifted with a fork-lift truck. Pallets should be kept in good repair at all times. Currently, most pallet loads of canned-goods are stretch or shrink wrapped with plastic film before ship¬ ment. This assures integrity of the pallet loads and reduces damage claims. Tight loading is important, whether the shipment is unitized or handload- cd. Any slack space that lets the cases shift or fall will result in damaged goods. The cases or pallet units should be loaded snugly together, and adequate bracing should be placed at the end of the last stack. Should the shipment he split, the end of the last stack should be well braced ami blocked before moving to the next drop-off. Spacers or inflata¬ ble dunnage should he used to fill out 65 crosswise slack. All pallets or stacks should be the same height, unless precautions are taken by bracing or otherwise, to prevent the uneven top layer from shifting. The trucker cannot control all damage that may occur before and during loading. However, he may reduce the chance of being blamed for damage beyond his control by being alert for damaged material before accepting it for loading. He also can control the damage to his shipment by closely su¬ pervising the loading of his vehicle. A good slogan for shippers of canned goods is, “The only right load is a tight load.” The canned food itself is not likely to be damaged by freezing. However, the freezing of the product will en¬ danger the container. Freezing of the canned product may break glass con¬ tainers. Table 4 gives the freezing points of some canned foods. To pro¬ tect canned foods against freezing damage to the containers, shipments Table 4.—Freezing Temperature of Selected Canned Foods Product Applesauce. Asparagus. Beans, green stringless Beans, lima. Beans, with pork .... Beans, strained. Beans, wax, cans .... Beans, wax, glass jars Beets. Carrots . Catsup. Chili sauce. Corn, creamed. Corn, in brine. Corn, vacuum packed Cranberrry sauce Grapefruit juice. Milk, evaporated Mushrooms. Peaches, heavy syrup. Peaches, light syrup. Pears. Peas, Alaska. Peas, sweet. Pea soup. Potted meat. Pumpkin. Salmon . Sardines. Spiced meat . Spinach. Succotash . Sweetpotatoes. Tomatoes. Tomato juice. Tomato soup. Tunafish. Vinegar. Freezing Point °F (°C) 27.6 (-2.4) 30.2 (-1.0) 30.3 (-0.9) 29.6 (-1-3) 28.8 (-1.8) 30.6 (-0.8) 30.3 (-0.9) 30.2 (-1.0) 30.4 (-0.9) 30.3 (-0.9) 19.4 (-7.0) 23.7 (-4.6) 29.6 (-13) 29.4 (-1.4) 29.7 (-1.3) 16.3 (-8.7) 30.2 (-1.0) 29.4 (-1-4) 29.8 (-1.2) 28.6 (-1.9) 27.6 (-2.4) 27.6 (-2.4) 31.0 (-0.6) 29.3 (-1.5) 27.7 (-2.4) 26.0 (-3.3) 30.7 (-0.7) 27.2 (-2.7) 28.2 (-2.1) 22.2 (-5.4) 30.8 (-0.7) 29.9 (-1.2) 29.2 (-1.6) 30.8 (-0.7) 29.8 (-1.2) 27.4 (-2.6) 26.3 (-3.2) 28.7 (-1.8) 66 through areas of intense cold should be heated with thermostatically con¬ trolled heaters. Moisture may condense on cans when they are removed from a low- temperature environment to one with a high temperature. Condensation will cause rust spots on the cans and wrinkling of labels. After a period of storage, rust spots may pinhole the cans with leaks and allow the product to spoil. After arrival at destination, canned foods subjected to low tem¬ peratures should not be unloaded in warm warehouse areas until they have had time to warm up to 50°F. (10°C) or above, or moisture may condense on the cans when they are removed to a warm area. 67 Dairy Products Butter and Margarine Recommended transport conditions: • Desired transit temperature: Butter (fresh), 39°F (3.9°C) Butter (frozen), -10°F (-23.3°C) Margarine, 35 °F (1.7°C) • Desired relative humidity: Butter, 75 to 85 percent. Margarine, 60 to 70 percent. Butter and margarine usually are shipped from cold storage and are at the desired transit temperature when loaded. They are packed in fiber- board boxes that provide some insula¬ tion and allow the product to be exposed to room temperatures for short periods during loading and un¬ loading, without risk of serious damage. However, during shipment the products must be refrigerated at the recommended temperatures to prevent softening and quality deterio¬ ration. Butter and margarine absorb odors very easily. Trucks or trailers previ¬ ously used for hauling odorous products such as fish, cabbage, or onions should be well cleaned and aired before being loaded with butter or margarine. Recommended loading methods: Fiberboard boxes of butter or marga¬ rine may be loaded either crosswise or lengthwise on bottoms. If the products are at the desired transit temperature when loaded, the boxes should be stacked as tightly together as possible to retain the refrigeration already in the product. Air should circulate around the load to remove heat conducted through the walls and floor. Wooden strips can be attached to the interior sidewalls, if the vehicle is not equipped with ribbed walls. Heat from the road bed may reflect up and into the floor and melt butter or margarine loaded on the bottom layers. Therefore, precau¬ tions should be taken in hot weather to keep the product off the floor by using pallets or floor racks if the ve¬ hicle does not have deep grooved floor channels. Cheeses Recommended transport conditions: • Desired transit temperature: 34° to 40°F (1 to 4°C) • Desired relative humidity: 65 to 70 percent • Highest freezing point: (see text) Cheeses need to be protected both from heat and from cold. Most cheese tend to oil off at 68 °F (20.0°C) and above. During oiling off, the fat leaks from the body, and rancidity develops rapidly. On the other hand, subjecting some types of cheeses to low freezing tem¬ peratures will result in texture changes that may not be acceptable to 68 certain consumers. As a general rule, cheese should not be held at tempera¬ tures below 30 °F (-1.1 °C) or above 50 °F (10.0°C). Recommended loading methods: • Same as for butter and margarine. Table 5.—Ideal Temperatures for Transporting Cheese (from ASHRAK Refrigeration Handbook, 1986) Ideal Transit Cheese Temperature °F °C Brick . 30 to 34 -1.1 to 1.1 Camembert . 30 to 34 -1.1 to 1.1 Cheddar. 30 to 34 -1.1 to 1.1 Cottage. 30 to 34 -1.1 to 1.1 Cream. 32 to 34 0.0 to 1.1 Limburger. 30 to 34 -1.1 to 1.1 Neufchatel. 32 to 34 0.0 to 1.1 Process American. 40 to 45 4.4 to 7.2 Process brick. 40 to 45 4.4 to 7.2 Process Limburger. 40 to 45 4.4 to 7.2 Process Swiss. 40 to 45 4.4 to 7.2 Roquefort. 30 to 34 -1.1 to 1.1 Swiss. 30 to 34 -1.1 to 1.1 Cheese foods. 40 to 45 4.4 to 7.2 69 Fresh and Cured Meat and Fresh Seafood Utmost attention should be given to protecting meat products because of their high perishability and value. Growth of microorganisms inherent on meat carcasses are the major cause of deterioration. Proper refrigeration is necessary to retard the growth of these microorganisms and preserve the fresh physical appearance of the products. Dehydration is another fac¬ tor affecting the appearance and mar¬ ketability of fresh beef. Table 6 gives the recommended temperatures and humidities for fresh meat and some processed meat and seafood products during transport. Fresh meats absorb odors readily and should not be loaded in vehicles re¬ taining strong residual odors from other products. Meats should not be shipped in mixed loads with strong odor-producing products such as fish, apples, or onions (see “Load Com¬ patibility” Appendix II). Boxed Meats Currently in the United States, 80 percent of the beef and most other meat animal carcasses are broken into wholesale or retail cuts and packed in corrugated fiberboard boxes before shipment. Most beef cuts are vacuum packaged in plastic film. Nonvacuum packed cuts usually are individually wrapped before boxing or packed in a plastic bag liner inside the boxes. The packaging materials greatly reduce the chance of microbial contamination and dehydration of the meat during transport. It is important that boxed meats be at the desired transit temperature when packed and loaded (table 6) because the insulating effect of the boxes will retard any in-transit cooling by the trailers refrigeration system. Boxed meat products, if at the correct transit temperature when loaded, may be stacked tightly together, since meat does not produce respiration heat. The same principle applies here as with frozen foods. Provisions must be made to keep a blanket of cold air circulating around the load to absorb the heat penetrating the walls and floor of the trailer. If the trailer does not have ribbed walls, in hot weather the boxes should be loaded in a crosswise offset pattern (figure 5) to reduce contact of the load with the walls. A grooved floor or floor racks with 2 inches (5cm) or more space for air circulation under the floor should be provided. In trucks with overhead air delivery, 4 inches (10cm) of space should be left be¬ tween the load and the rear doors. Palletized loads should be loaded away from the walls and toward the center as shown in figure 14b. Carcass Meats Since carcass meats generally are not protected by packaging, extra precau¬ tions are needed to protect the car¬ casses from additional contamination by unsanitary handling, dirt, and strong odors. The interior of the ve¬ hicle must be constructed of or coat¬ ed with materials approved for 70 Table 6.—Recommended Temperatures and Humidities for Protect¬ ing Fresh, Cured, and Processed Meat and Seafood During Transit (from ASHRAE Refrigeration Handbook, 1986) Commodity Temperature Relative Humidity °F °C Percent Fresh meats: Beef. 32 to 34 0.0 to 1.1 88 to 92 Lamb. 32 to 34 0.0 to 1.1 85 to 90 Pork. 32 to 34 0.0 to 1.1 85 to 90 Poultry . 32 0.0 85 to 90 Rabbits. 32 to 34 0.0 to 1.1 90 to 95 Veal. 32 to 34 0.0 to 1.1 90 Cured and processed meats: Bacon: Cured, farm style. 61 to 64 16.0 to 18.0 85 Cured, packer style. 34 to 39 1.0 to 4.0 85 Dried beef (chipped). 50 to 59 10.0 to 15.0 15 Frankfurters. 32 0.0 85 Hams: Light cure. 37 to 41 3.0 to 5.0 80 to 85 Country cure. 50 to 59 10.0 to 15.0 65 to 70 Pork Sausages (bulk or link country and Polish) . 32 0.0 85 Fresh fish: Haddock, Cod, Perch . 31 to 34 -0.6 to 1.1 95 to 100 Hake, Whiting 32 to 34 0.0 to 1.1 95 to 100 Halibut. 31 to 34 -0.6 to 1.1 95 to 100 Herring: Kippered 32 to 36 0.0 to 2.2 80 to 90 Smoked 32 to 36 0.0 to 2.2 80 to 90 Mackerel 32 to 34 0.0 to l .i 95 to 100 Menhaden 34 to 41 1.1 to 5.0 95 to 100 Salmon . 31 to 34 -0.6 to 1.1 95 to 100 Tuna 32 to 36 0.0 to 2.2 95 to 100 Shellfish: Scallop meat 32 to 34 0.0 to 1.1 95 to 100 Shrimp 31 to 34 -0.6 to 1.1 95 to 100 Lobster (American). 41 to 50 5.0 to 10.0 In sea water Oyster, clams (meat and liquid) . 32 to 36 0.0 to 2.2 100 Oyster in shell 41 to 50 5.0 to 10.0 95 to 100 contact with meat by the USDA's Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS). Sec the section on "Regulato¬ ry Considerations for Truck Con struction Materials and Cleaning Compounds." All interior surfaces should be kept in good repair Broken places in the walls and floor harbor dirt and arc difficult to clean Trailers and meat hooks used for hauling meat should be cleaned and inspected before loading. It is recoin mended that the wash water be at least i ho f (82 C) to reduce the number of microorganisms present and to dissolve fat particles adhering to the interior surfaces Sanitizing agents may be used but they must be compounds approved for cleaning meal equipment by the FSIS. 71 Faulty or missing door gaskets and missing floor-drain caps should be replaced to prevent dirt and dust from entering the vehicles. Meat hooks and rails must be free from corrosion or rust that could work loose and fall on the carcasses. Trailers hauling meat carcasses should be precooled before loading in warm weather to prevent moisture from condensing on cold carcasses as they are loaded from refrigerated storage. This creates conditions favorable for the growth of slime¬ forming microorganisms. Moisture also will condense on cold carcasses when doors are opened for delivery stops in warm weather. If at all pos¬ sible, all loading and unloading should be in refrigerated areas. Loading Fresh Beef Carcasses There are many variations in methods for loading fresh beef carcasses in trailers, depending on whether the meat rails run crosswise or length¬ wise, the size of the quarters, the number of quarters to be loaded, etc. Usually the quarters of beef are hung by metal hooks on overhead rails. The forequarters are hung with long hooks inserted through the inside of the rib cavity, usually between the 4th and 5th ribs about 11 inches from the backbone, so the quarters will balance and hang straight. Hindquart¬ ers are hung with short hooks, the hook being inserted through the open¬ ing in the gambrel cord of the shank. Generally, loading is started by hang¬ ing a quarter of beef on each side of the trailer with the bone side against the wall. Other quarters are hung be¬ side these until the crosswise space is filled. An extra quarter may be wedged into any remaining slack space to tighten the load and to pre¬ vent the quarters from swinging and bouncing off the rails. To get maxi¬ mum use of available space, the quarters are nested by loading right- side quarters against right-side quart¬ ers and left-side against left-side. Usually, several crosswise rows of forequarters are loaded and then al¬ ternated with several crosswise rows of hindquarters (figure 26). Some¬ times, quarters are placed on the floor under the hanging quarters. The carcasses should be loaded with the bone side against the floor to prevent misshaping. Clean wrapping paper should always be placed between the floor and the meat. 72 Frozen Foods Frozen foods should be kept at 0°F (-18°C) or lower from the time they are first frozen until readied for con¬ sumption. This is supported in the “Code of Recommended Practices for the Handling and Merchandising of Frozen Foods,” available from the Frozen Food Roundtable, 1055 Tho¬ mas Jefferson St., NW., Washington, D.C. 20007. The “Roundtable” represents the major trade associa¬ tions of the frozen food industry. Trucks transporting frozen food should be equipped with adequate in¬ sulation and refrigeration capacity to maintain an air and product tempera¬ ture of 0°F (-18°C) or lower. To as¬ sist in this, the vehicle also should be equipped with tight-fitting door seals and suitable closures for drain holes to prevent air leakage. Frozen foods should be at or below the desired transit temperature of 0°F (-18°C) when loaded. Since frozen foods do not produce respiration heat, the containers should be loaded in a solid block with minimum contact with the walls. Free air circulation all around the load is essential. It is desirable to have floor channels or floor racks at least 2-1/4-in (6-cm) deep for air circulation under the load. At least 4 in (10 cm) of space should be provided between the load and the rear doors to let air flow freely around the rear of the load. For vehi¬ cles without ribbed walls, some type of stripping on the sidewalls is recommended to allow air circulation between the wall and load. At least 10 in (25 cm) of space should be left between the ceiling and the top of the load for unobstructed airflow over the load. In general, with frozen foods, the goal is to keep the heat that pene¬ trates the vehicle from reaching the cargo by keeping the load encircled with an envelope of cold air. It also should be remembered that any frozen product in contact with the walls will act as a heat sink and ab¬ sorb any heat conducted through the wall. Fluctuating temperatures during dis¬ tribution are very detrimental to the market quality of frozen foods. Recooling frozen foods to the ther¬ mostat set point after even a slight temperature rise causes moisture to migrate from the product to the colder surfaces of the packaging materials. This results in product de¬ hydration and undesired frost build up inside the packages. Product quali¬ ty losses will increase with the amount of temperature rise and fre¬ quency of recooling. Thawing takes place between 15° and 32 °F (°9° and 0°C). Although the changes are not easily recognized, even at tempera¬ tures as low as 0°F (-18°°C), frozen foods may deteriorate from fat oxida¬ tion and enzymatic changes. Certain microorganisms also may develop at temperatures around 20°F (-7°C) and above, adding to deterioration and contamination of the food. The higher the temperature, the greater the rate of deterioration. To prevent warm up or thawing of 74 frozen food during loading, the vehi¬ cle should be precooled by setting the thermostat at 0°F (-18°C) and letting the refrigeration unit operate for at least one-half hour before loading. Truck drivers should be careful to schedule enough time for thorough precooling in warm weather. It is recommended that frozen foods be loaded and unloaded in enclosed areas that do not allow the product to warm up. If enclosed refrigerated loading or unloading areas are not available, the frozen foods should be handled quickly and not allowed to remain in unprotected areas for any length of time. Also, the vehicles should be equipped with curtains or flap doors in the doorway area to conserve refrigeration while the main doors are open. If supplemental or emergency refrigeration is required for frozen food shipments, blocks of dry ice (solid CO) or CO^ snow may be placed on top of tfie load. The fans should be kept running at low speed to uniformly distribute cold air around the load. 75 Poultry and Eggs Poultry (Fresh ice-packed and Fresh-chilled) Recommended transport conditions: • Desired transit temperatures: Fresh ice-packed, 32° to 34°F (0° to 1.1 °C) Fresh chilled, 28° to 32°F (-2.2° to 0°C) • Desired relative humidity: 90 to 95 percent • Average freezing point: 27.0°F (-2.8°C) Fresh poultry is shipped by two methods, ice-packed and chilled. Af¬ ter the birds are dressed they are chilled to 40°F (4.4. °C) or below in cold water. Ice-packed carcasses or parts are placed in wax-treated fiber- board cartons with about 15 pounds (7 kg) of crushed ice. In addition to the refrigeration provided, the direct contact of the ice keeps the poultry fresh by contracting the cell and preventing tissue “weepage.” Fresh-chilled poultry is broken down into cuts after the initial cold-water chilling and packed in consumer-size packages. The packages are placed in a forced air chilling room until the product is slightly above its freezing point. The low temperature assures cell contraction and reduced tissue weepage. Recommended loading methods: • Wax-treated fiberboard boxes — Lengthwise or crosswise on bottoms. The containers should be stacked squarely on each other. Each stack should be tight against the preceding stack. If containers are top-iced, however, space should be left be¬ tween rows for the top-ice fill. Chill-packed poultry should be at the desired transit temperature 28° to 33°F (2.2° to 0.6°C), when it is loaded. The containers should be stacked tightly together, and provision made for refrigerated air to circulate around the load and remove the heat leaking through walls of the vehicle. Handstacked loads should be cross¬ wise offset by layers to reduce the contact area of the product with the sidewalls (see figure 5). Palletized loads should be loaded off the walls as shown in figure 14b. Shell Eggs Recommended transport conditions: • Desired transit temperature: 40 °F to 45 °F (4.4° to 7.2 °C) • Desired relative humidity: 80 to 85 percent • Average freezing point: 28.0°F (-2.2 °C) Shell eggs are both fragile and highly perishable. Even though not outward¬ ly visible, egg quality deteriorates rapidly under poor environmental conditions. The truck or trailer should be thoroughly cleaned and precooled to 45 °F (7.2 °C) before eggs are loaded. Since eggs absorb odors, the vehicle 76 should be free of residual odors. Eggs should not be shipped in mixed loads with other products, especially citrus fruits, onions, or potatoes. Because of their perishability and the insulating effect of the fiberboard boxes and cartons in which they are shipped, eggs should be cooled to at least 45 °F (7.2 °C) before they are loaded. The fiberboard egg boxes do not have vent holes and are taped closed. Also, because the boxes are loaded tightly together in the vehicle to prevent cargo shifting, there is lit¬ tle air circulation through the load. This makes it difficult to remove heat from the product in transit. Since air does not move through the load, it is necessary to provide for perimeter cooling or airflow around the load. Space must be left between the last stack and the rear door. Either grooved floors, pallets, or floor racks must be used to allow air¬ flow under the load. Loading and bracing to prevent cargo shifting are essential because of the fragility of eggs. To prevent forward shifting, the first stack should be loaded snugly against the bulkhead, and each succeeding stack should be tight against the other to leave no lengthwise slack. There are two critical bracing points. The first is at the rear face of the last stack. Here crosswise load-locking devices are needed to prevent the load from shifting backward. The se¬ cond point is the top layers at the rear of the load. Boxes in this area, directly over the rear wheels, are subject to severe up-and-down vibra¬ tions and bouncing. To tie down the load in this area, some truckers place thin sheets of plywood or similar material between several of the layers in the last two stacks. Crosswise load-locking devices may be placed across the middle of the cases in the top layer of stacks at the rear of the vehicle (figure 27). '■ 1 kl 1 4 . ! i 1. . I* 5 P 1 ••■'4 , r " ST # f 1 Hu n □n ■ f -an M y i 1 1 i Figure 27 Rearview of a truck load of eggs in fiberboard boxes Note the bracing used to secure the load in the area over the rear wheels 77 Recommended loading methods: • 30-dozen fiberboard boxes — Lengthwise on bottoms. Nearly all eggs are shipped to market in 30-dozen boxes. These containers should be loaded lengthwise of the vehicle. All containers in each stack must be tight against those in the preceding stack to prevent forward shifting. If the boxes do not use up all the crosswise space in the trailer or truck, and if the leftover space or slack is less than one-half the width of a box, it is recommended that all the slack be concentrated on one wall. Slack should be alternated from sidewall to sidewall by layers. This crosswise-offset-by-layers loading pat¬ tern creates continuous lengthwise air channels along a sidewall in each lay¬ er (figure 5). • Palletized —Many egg shipments are palletized. Generally the cartons of eggs are cross stacked on the pallets for stability. The cartons should be secured to the pallets by both crosswise and vertical strapping or by plastic stretch film. Generally, the pallets are loaded in two length¬ wise rows with each row against a sidewall. Then a row of cartons is hand-stacked in the open space be¬ tween the two rows of pallets. Load locks or other bracing should be placed across the top of the last stack and between the end of the load and the rear doors. 78 Appendix I Estimating Mobil Refrigeration Requirements The number of B.t.u.'s of heatload should be estimated when there is any question as to whether the truck’s refrigeration system has adequate ca¬ pacity. This is particularly important in hot weather, if the pulp tempera¬ ture of the product at loading is con¬ siderably above the desired transit temperature. Shippers who often receive claims of loss from decay should make calculations to determine if the refrigeration capacity is ade¬ quate for each load. Three factors should be considered in estimating the heatload or amount of refrigeration needed to obtain and maintain the proper temperature dur¬ ing transit: • the field or sensible heat (H) left in the commodity and package, • the heat of respiration (H), and • the amount of heat leakage (H) through the walls of the trailer. Add these three factors to get the to¬ tal number of B t.u.'s that must be absorbed by the refrigeration system. Field heat (H) is the amount of heat r that has to be removed from the product and the containers before the desired transit temperature is reached In practice, most products have not been prccoolcd to the desired traasit temperature. This extra refrigeration requirement must be allowed for. To calculate field heat load, use the specific heat (Sp ht.) of the product (table 7) and container, the weight (Wt.) of the product and container, and the temperature differential (TD) as shown in the following formula: H ( = SP.ht x Wt. x TD = B.t.u. Heat of respiration (H ) may be deter¬ mined by using the information in ta¬ ble 4, which gives the amount of heat generated by one ton of a product in 24 hours at different temperatures. To calculate the respiration heat, the following formula can be used: H = Respiration rate (at average transit temperature) x time (no. of days) x Wt. (tons) = B.t.u. Heat leakage (H ) through the trailer body is estimated by determining: • the coefficient of heat transfer (U factor) of the trailer body, • the temperature differential between the thermostat setting and the average expected outside temperature, and • the number of hours the product will be in the vehicle. The U factor for a particular trailer body depends on many variables— type and thickness of insulation, air leakage, differential between the out¬ side and inside air temperatures, and others. Therefore, for the purpose of estimating heat leakage it is impracti¬ cal to give the details of all calcula¬ tion needed to determine the U factor. However, the U factor based on a standard method of rating can be supplied by the manufacturers of some trailers. If the U factor is not readily available, the following may be used for general estimation of heat load: • A factor U = 140 H.t.u./° F/hr. may be used for a modern 48 fool trailer with 2 1/2 inches of plastic foam sidewall insulation. • If the trailer has hern in service 79 over 3 years, then a factor of 180 B.t.u./° F/hr. should be used to ac¬ count for aging or deterioration of the insulation and door seals. H = U x TD x time (hours) = B.t.u. Table 7.—Specific Heat Above and Below Freezing of Certain Perishable Products, (from ASHRAE Refrigeration Handbook, 1986) Fruits and vegetables B.t.u./lb./°F. Above Below Fruits and vegetables B.t.u./lb./°F. Above Below Apples 0 87 0.45 Mushrooms. .93 .47 Apricots. .88 .46 Nectarines. .86 .44 Artichokes (globe) .87 .45 Okra. .92 .46 Asparagus . .94 .48 Onions (dry). .90 .46 Avocados. .72 .40 Oranges. .90 .46 Bananas . .80 .42 Parsley. .88 .45 Beans: Parsnips. .84 .44 Green snap. .91 .47 Peaches . .91 .46 Lima. .73 .40 Pears . .86 .45 Rpets (mots) 90 .46 Peas. .79 .42 Blackberries. .88 .46 Peppers . .94 .47 Blueberries. .86 .45 Pineapples ....... .88 .45 Broccoli. .92 .47 Plums and fresh Brussels sprouts . . .88 .46 Prunes. .88 .45 Cabbage . .94 .47 Potatoes: Cantaloups. .93 .48 Early-crop. .85 .44 Carrots. .90 .46 Late-crop. .82 .43 Casaba and Sweet (see Crenshaw Sweet potatoes) . melons. .94 .48 Prunes (see Plums) Cauliflower. .93 .47 Pumpkins. .92 .47 Celery . .95 .48 Radishes. .95 .48 Cherries. .87 .45 Raspberries: Com (sweet) .... .79 .42 Black . .84 .44 Cranberries. .90 .46 Red. .87 .45 Cucumbers. .97 .49 Rhubarb . .95 .48 Eggplant. .94 .48 Romaine Endive and Escarole .94 .48 (see Lettuce) Figs (fresh). .82 .43 Spinach . .94 .48 Garlic (dry). .69 .40 Squash: Gooseberries .... .90 .46 Summer. .95 .48 Grapefruit . .90 .46 Winter . .88 .45 .86 .45 Strawberries. .92 .47 Honeydew melons .94 .48 Sweetpotatoes . . . . .76 .41 Kale. .89 .46 Tangerines. .90 .46 Leeks . .88 .46 Tomatoes. .95 .48 Lemons . .91 .46 Watermelons. .97 .48 Lettuce (head) . . . .96 .48 Limes. .89 .46 Mangoes . .85 .44 80 Table 7.—Specific Heat Above and Below Freezing of Certain Perishable Products.—Continued Dairy, meat, and poultry products B.t.u./lb./°F Above Below Dairy, meat and poultry products B.t.u./lb./°F Above Below Bacon . .38 .26 Lamb (fresh) . . . .72 .40 Beef (fresh). .77 .41 Milk. .93 .46 Butter. .36 .25 Oleomargarine. . .32 .25 Cheese. .52 .31 Pork (fresh) ... .53 .31 Eggs (shell). .73 .40 Poultry (fresh). . .80 .42 Egg solids (whole) . .22 .21 Smoked sausage .62 .35 Egg yolk solids . . . .23 .21 Veal (fresh) .... .74 .40 Ice Cream. .70 .39 Hams: Cured. .67 .37 Fresh . .53 .31 Fable 8.—Approximate Amount of Respiration Heat Produced by Certain Fruits and Vegetables at the Temperatures Indicated 1 " COMMODITIV B. T.U. PER TON PER 24 HOURS 32 °F. 40 °F. 60 °F. 70 °F. 80 °F. Apples. 700 1,350 4,900 5,700 Apricots. — 5,050 11.700 20,350 — Artichokes. 7,700 10,450 26,400 40,700 50,050 Asparagus. 9,700 18,050 38,500 48,750 93,250 Avocados. — 5,500 24,050 46,250 60,050 Bananas (green).... Beans — — 4.850 7.400 — Green snap 7,250 10.300 38,100 49,200 — Lima (in pod) 4,450 6,100 J 700 34,300 — Beets . 2,700 4,100 7,200 — Blackberries 4,100 7,950 — 38,350 Blueberries. 1,400 2,350 10.550 15,300 22,250 Broccoli, sprouting 4,400 21.400 56,500 68,100 I58,4(X) Brussels sprouts. 4,400 7,700 22.(XX) 28,350 — Cabbage . 1,200 2,200 4,900 8.450 12.350 Carrots 3.300 4,300 8.750 15,500 HI Table 8.—Approximate Amount of Respiration Heat Produced by Certain Fruits and Vegetables at the Temperatures Indicated* COMMODITY B.T.U. PER TON PER 24 HOURS 32 °F. 40 °F. 60 °F. 70 °F. 80 °F. Cauliflower (trimmed) 3,900 4,500 10,100 17,700 24,650 Celery. 1,600 2,400 8,200 14,200 — Cherries: Sour. 2,100 2,850 8,500 9,800 13,650 Sweet. 1,050 2,600 7,700 — — Com (sweet) . 8,950 13,850 35,850 63,700 78,900 Cranberries. 650 950 — 3,200 — Cucumbers. — — 5,300 6,850 8,050 Endive and Escarole (see Leaf lettuce). Figs (fresh). 2,650 12,350 16,700 21,000 Gooseberries . 1,700 2,850 5,950 — — Grapefruit. — 1,000 3,100 4,250 — Grapes: American . 600 1,200 3,500 7,200 8,500 European . 400 1,000 2,400 — 6,050 Kale (whole leaves). . 4,700 8,900 30,250 46,900 — Leeks . 2,900 5,350 21,950 — 24,850 Lemons. 700 1,250 3,650 4,850 5,350 Lettuce: Head. 2,500 3,650 8,450 12,200 18,100 Leaf. 5,100 6,450 13,800 22,100 32,200 Limes. — 800 1,800 2,800 6,650 Mangoes. — 3,500 9,900 24,900 26,400 Melons: Cantaloups . 1.200 2,050 7,950 12,000 14,700 Honey dew. — 900 3,050 5,150 6,700 Watermelons. — 800 — 4,650 — Mushrooms. 7,900 15,600 46,000 63,800 — Nectarines (see Peaches). Okra. 12,250 32,050 57,400 75,900 Onions: Dry. 650 750 2,400 3,650 6,200 Green . 3,600 9,400 17.950 25,800 33,800 Oranges . 750 1,200 4,000 6,200 7,150 Parsnips. 3,000 2,900 8,250 — — Peaches. 1.150 1,700 8.300 17,750 22,350 Pears: Bartlett . 1,100 1,650 8,250 11,000 — Kieffer. 450 — 3,850 4,750 5,300 Peas: (green, in the pod). 8,500 14,450 41,900 66,750 79,200 82 Table 8.—Approximate Amount of Respiration Heat Produced b> Certain Fruits and Vegetables at the Temperatures Indicated* COMMODITIY B.T.U. PER TON PER 24 HOURS 32 °F. 40°F. 60 °F. 70°F. 80 °F. Peppers (sweet). — 2,900 8,500 9,650 12,100 Pineapples . — 400 3,450 7,050 10,800 Plums (including fresh Prunes). 550 1,450 2,700 4,700 10,900 Potatoes: Uncured . — 2,600 4,850 6,950 — Cured . — 1,250 1,950 2,650 — Prunes (see Plums). Radishes (topped) ... 1.400 2,100 7,100 11,250 16,400 Raspberries. 4,700 7,650 20,200 — — Rhubarb (without leaves). 2,350 3,200 8,700 10,650 — Romaine. — 4,550 9,750 15,100 23,850 Spinach . 4,550 10.150 39,350 50,550 _ Squash: Butternut. — — — — 20,650 Yellow straight- neck. 2,700 3,600 18,250 20,050 — Strawberries. 3,300 5,450 17,950 32,800 41,800 Swcetpotatocs: Cured — — 4,800 — — Uncured — — 6,300 — 14,000 Tomatoes: Mature-green — 1,450 4,900 7,650 9,400 Pink — 1,300 5,850 7,500 9,050 Turnips. 1,900 2,150 5,000 5,400 — Watercress. 5,050 10,150 40,700 — — • Source: USDA HandhtMik No 66. 1*16# Sample Refrigeration Requirement Calculation 1 Assume that a trailer is loaded with plums in 30-pound fiberboard boxes: Total pounds = Net wt. of boxes = Total pounds = Sp. ht. of the fruit = Sp. ht. box = Load = Net wt. of fruit = 1,200 boxes 30 pounds per box 36,000 pounds total (18 tons) 2 pounds each 2,400 pounds total 0.88 B.t.u./lb./°F (Table 7) 0.40 B.t.u./lb./°F 2 1. Refrigeration needed to remove the remaining field heat in load: Assumptions: Loading temperature = T = 52 °F Desired transit temperature = T, = 32 °F Temperature differential = T | — T 2 = TD = 52° — 32° = 20 then. Field heat (H ) = Wt. X Sp. ht X TD H product = 36,000 lb. X 0.88 x 20° = 633,000 B.t.u. H boxes = 2,400 lb. X 0.40 X 20° = 19,200 B.t.u. f Total field heat = 633,600 + 19,200 = 652,800 B.t.u. 2. Transit refrigeration requirement for the heat of respiration: Assumptions: If loading temperature = 52° and arrival temperature = 32 °F. then, Average temperature of product during transit = 40 °F. Transit time = 3 days then. Heat of respiration (H) = Respiration rate at average transit temperature 3 X time (days) X wt. (tons) H = 1,450 X 3 X 18 = 78,300 B.t.u. r 84 3. Refrigeration needed for heat leakage through the trailer body: Assumptions: A 48-foot trailer with a U factor = 140 B.t.u./°F/hr. Average outside air temperature = T = 75 °F Thermostat setting = T, = 34 °F 1 * * 4 Temperature differential = TD = T — T = 75 °F — 34 °F = 41 °F thus. Heat leakage (H) = U X TD (avg. outside air—thermostat setting) X time (Hours) = B.t.u. H = 140 X 41 X 72 = 413,280 B.t.u. 4. To get the total number of B.t.u.’s the refrigeration must remove in 3 days: H + H + H = 652,800 + 78,300 + 413,280 = 1,144,380 B.t.u. 5. To determine the amount of refrigeration or refrigerant needed: Mechanical capacity needed = 1,144,380 B.t.u. -5-72 hrs. = 15,894 B.t.u. hr. Ice = total pounds needed for 3-day trip = 1,144,380 B.t.u. -t- 144 5 = 7,947 lb. Liquid nitrogen (N ) = total pounds needed for 3-day trip = 1,144,380 B.t.u. + 175 6 = 6,539 lb. 1 This calculation does not lake into account the following factors: (I) the amount of refrigeration needed to precool the vehicle body; (2) air inside the vehicle, and (3) refrigeration needed to coun¬ teract air leakage around doors and other places in the body. 1 This figure approximates the specific heal of most wood and fiberboard containers ’ Sec Table 4. plums at 40”F. 4 For products with a desired transport temperature near 32 °F, the thermostat should be set several degrees higher to decrease the chance of freezing damage ’ One pound of ice will absorb 144 B.t.u.'s of heal * One pound of liquid nitrogen will absorb approximately 175 B.t.u. of heal at temperatures above 32 *F 85 Appendix II Load Compatibility Groups 1 Group 1 Recommended Transit Conditions: • Temperature: 32°F to 34° F. (0° to 1.5°C.) • Relative humidity: 90 to 95 percent • Atmosphere: Normally used on berries and cherries only—10 to 20 percent CO, • Ice: Never in contact with commodity Note: Most members of this group not compatible with group 6a or 6b because ethylene production by group 1 can be high, and thus harmful to members of group 6a or 6b. • Apples • Apricots • Berries (except cranberries) • Cherries • Figs (not with apples, danger of odor transfer to figs; also see Group 6a) • Grapes (see 2, also see Group 6a) • Peaches • Pears • Persimmons • Plums and prunes • Pomegranates • Quinces 1 Taken from USDA Marketing Research Report No. 1070; “Compatibility of Fmits and Vegetables during Transport in Mixed Loads" by W. J. Lipton and J.M. Harvey, 1977. 2 Grapes: Compatible with other commodities only if the grapes are not fumigated with sulfur dioxide (SO,) in vehicle and if no chemicals that release SO, are included in packages. Group 2 Recommended Transit Conditions: • Temperature: 55° to 65°(13° to 18°) • Relative humidity: 85 to 95 percent 86 • Ice: Never in contact with commodity • Avocados • Bananas • Eggplant (also see Group V) • Grapefruit (see 3 ) 1 Citrus Fruits: Biphenyl, which is used as a fungicide on citrus fruits, may imparl off-odors to other commodities. Oranges and Tangerines—compatibility depends on source. Florida- or Texas-grown oranges are shipped at 32° TO 34° F. (0.0° to l .l 0 C.), but oranges grown in California and Arizona are shipped at 38° to 48° F. (3.3° to 8.8° C.). • Guava • Limes • Mangoes • Muskmelons, other than cantaloupes Casaba Crenshaw Honey Dew Persian • Olive, fresh • Papayas • Pineapples (not with avocados, danger of avocados' odor absorption) • Tomatoes, green • Tomatoes, pink (also see Group 4) • Watermelons (also see Groups 4 and 5 Group 3 Recommended Transit Conditions: • Temperature: 36° to 41° F. (2.5° to 5.0° C.) • Relative humidity: 90 to 95 percent; cantaloupes about 95 percent • Ice: In contact only with cantaloupes • Cantaloupes • Cranberries • Lemons (adjust temperature to other commodity) • Lychces (also sec Group 4) • Oranges • Tangerines Group 4 Recommended Transit Conditions: • Temperature: 40° to 45° F. (4.5° to 7.5° C.); beans 38° to 42° F. (3.5° to 5.5° C.) • Relative humidity: About 95 percent 87 • Ice: Never in contact with commodity • Beans, snap • Lychees (also see Groupe 3) • Okra • Peppers, green (not with beans) • Peppers, red (if with green peppers, temperature adjusted toward top of range) • Squash, summer • Tomatoes, pink (also see Group 2) • Watermelons (also see Groups 2 and 5) Group 5 Recommended Transit Conditions: • Temperature: 40° to 55° F (4.4° to 13°C); ginger not below 55 °F • Relative humudity: 85 to 90 percent • Ice: Never in contact with commodity • Cucumbers • Eggplant (also see Group 2) • Ginger (not with eggplant, also see Group 7) • Grapefruit, Florida (after January 1) and Texas • Potatoes (late crop) • Pumpkin and squashes, winter • Watermelons (temperature adjusted for other members of groups; also see Groups 2 and 4) Group 6a This group, except for figs, grapes, and mushrooms is compatible with Group 6b. Recommended Transit Conditions: • Temperature: 32° to 34° F. (0° to 1.5° C.) • Relative humidity: 95 to 100 percent • Ice: Never in contact with asparagus, figs, grape and mushrooms • Artichokes • Asparagus • Beets, red • Carrots • Endive and escarole • Figs (also see Group 1) • Grapes (also see Group 1) • Greens • Leek (not with figs or grapes) 88 • Lettuce • Mushrooms • Parsley • Parsnips • Peas • Rhubarb • Salsify • Spinach • Sweet com • Watercress Group 6b This group is compatible with Group 6a, except for figs, grapes, and mushrooms. Recommended Transit Conditions: • Temperature: 32° to 34° F. (0° to 1.1° C.) • Relative humidity: 95 to 100 percent • Ice: Contact acceptable for all. • Broccoli • Brussels sprouts • Cabbage • Cauliflower • Celeriac • Horseradish • Kohlrabi • Onions, green (not with rhubarb, figs, or grapes, probably not with mushrooms or sweet com) • Radishes • Rutabagas • Turnips Group 7 Recommended Transit Conditions: • Temperature: 55° to 65° F. (13° to 18° C.) • Relative humidity: 85 to 90 percent • Ice: Never in contact with commodity. • Ginger (also sec Group 5) • Potatoes, early crop (temperatures adjusted for others) • Swcetpotatocs Group 8 Recommended Transit Conditions: • Temperature: 32° to 34° F. (0° to 1.5° C.) • Relative humidity: 65 to 75 percent. • Ice: Never in contact with commodity. • Garlic • Onions, dry 90 Appendix III Table 9.—Recommended Protective Services for Perishable Foods During Transit Product Recommended Transit Temperature Desired Relative Humidity Highest Freezing Point Top-ice and/or 1 Package-ice Preferable °F °C Percent °F °C Fresh fruits and vegetables: Apples. 30 to 40 -1.1 to 4 .4 (depending on variety) 90 to 95 30.0 -1.1 No Apricots. 32 0.0 90 to 95 30.1 -1.1 No Artichokes (globe) . 32 0.0 95 to 100 29.9 -1.2 Yes Asparagus. 32 to 35 0.0 to 1.7 95 to 100 30.9 -0.6 No Avocados: Cold-tolerant varieties. 40 4.4 85 to 90 31.5 -0.3 No Cold-intolerant varieties 55 12.8 85 to 90 31.5 -0.3 No Bananas 56 to 58 13.3 to 14 4 90 to 95 30.6 -0.8 No Beans: Green or snap 40 to 45 4 4 to 7.2 95 30.7 -0.7 No Lima, in pods . 37 to 41 2.8 to 5.0 95 31.0 -0.6 No Beets 32 0.0 98 to 100 30.3 -0.9 Yes Beet tops 32 0.0 95 to 100 31.3 -0.4 Yes Blackberries 31 to 32 -0.6 to 0.0 90 to 95 30.5 -0.8 No Blueberries. 31 to 32 -0.6 to 0.0 ‘8) io 95 29.7 -1.3 No Broccoli 32 0.0 95 to 100 30.9 -0.6 Yes Cabbage 32 0.0 98 to 100 30.4 -0.9 Yes Cantaloups . 36 to 41 2.2 to 5.0 95 29.9 -1.2 No Carrots 32 0.0 98 to 100 29.5 -1.4 Yes Cauliflower 32 0.0 90 to 98 30.6 -0.8 Yes Celery 32 0.0 98 to 100 31.1 -0.5 Yes C'hcrncs: Sweet 30 to 31 -l.l to -0 6 90 to 95 28.8 -1.8 No Sour 32 0.0 90 I ,. 95 29 <) -1.7 No Corn (sweet) 32 0.0 95 to 98 1(1 9 -0.6 Yes Cranberries 36 to 40 2.2 to 4.4 90 to 95 9) 4 -09 No Cucumbers 50 to 55 10 0 to 12.8 95 31 i -0.5 No Eggplants 46 to 54 8 0 to 12.2 90 to 95 30.6 -0 8 No Endive (cscamlc) 32 0.0 90 to 95 '1 9 -0.1 Yes Garlic (dry) . 32 to 34 0 0 to I I 65 to 75 to s -0 8 No Grapefruit Arizona and California 58 m 60 14 0 to 15 6 85 to 90 30.0 -l.l No 91 Table 9.—Recommended Protective Services for Perishable Foods During Transit—Continued Recommended Desired Highest Top-ice and/or 1 Transit Relative Freezing Package-ice Product Temperature Humidity Point Preferable °F °C Percent °F °C Fresh fruits and vegetables:—Continued Florida and Texas . 50 to 60 10.0 to 15.6 85 to 90 30.0 -1.1 No Grapes: American type.... 32 0.0 85 29.7 -1.3 No European type (Vinifera). 30 to 31 -1.1 to -0.6 90 to 95 28.1 -2.2 No Kale. 32 0.0 95 to 100 31.1 -0.5 Yes Kiwi Fruit. 32 0.0 90 to 95 29.0 -1.7 No Lemons. 50 to 55 10.0 to 12.8 85 to 90 29.4 -1.4 No Lettuce . 32 0.0 98 to 100 31.7 -0.2 No Limes . 48 to 50 8.9 to 10.0 85 to 90 29.1 -1.6 No Mangoes. 55 12.8 85 to 90 30.3 -0.9 No Melons: Honey dew, Casaba, Crenshaw, and Persian . 45 to 50 7.2 to 10.0 90 to 95 30.5 -0.8 No Mushrooms. 32 0.0 95 30.4 -0.9 No Okra . 45 to 50 7.2. to 10.0 90 to 95 28.7 -1.8 No Onions (dry). 32 0.0 65 to 70 30.6 -0.8 No Onions (green). 32 0.0 95 to 100 30.4 -0.9 Yes Shallots. 32 0.0 95 to 100 31.6 -0.2 Yes Leeks. 32 0.0 95 to 100 30.7 -0.7 Yes Oranges. 2 32 to 48 0.0 to 8.8 85 to 90 30.6 -0.8 No Parsley. 32 0.0 95 to 100 (flesh) 29.7 -1.3 (peel) 30.0 -1.1 Yes Parsnips. 32 0.0 98 to 100 30.4 -0.9 Yes Peaches and Nectarines. 31 to 32 -0.6 to 0.0 90 to 95 30.4 -0.9 No Pears . 3 32 0.0 90 to 95 29.2 -1.6 No Peas (green, in pods) . . 32 0.0 95 to 98 30.9 -0.6 Yes Peppers (sweet) .... 45 to 55 7.2 to 12.8 90 to 95 (pods) 29.9 -1.2 (shelled) 30.7 -0.7 No Pineapples: Mature-green fruit 50 to 55 10.0 to 13.0 85 to 90 30.0 -1.1 No Ripe fruit. 45 7.2 85 to 90 30.0 -1.1 No Plums and fresh prunes. 32 0.0 90 to 95 30.5 -0.8 No Potatoes: Early-crop for table. 50 to 60 10.0 to 15.6 90 30.9 -0.6 No Potatoes (continued) Early-crop for chipping. 65 to 70 18.3 to 21.1 90 30.9 -0.6 No Late-crop for table 40 to 50 4.4 to 10.0 90 30.9 -0.6 No Late-crop for chipping. 50 to 60 10.0 to 15.6 90 30.9 -0.6 No Radishes. 32 0.0 95 to 100 30.7 -0.7 Yes Raspberries. 32 0.0 90 to 95 30.0 -1.1 No (black) 30.9 -0.6 (red) 92 Table 9.—Recommended Protective Services for Perishable Foods During Transit—Continued Product Recommended Desired T ransit Relative Temperature Humidity Highest Freezing Point Top-ice and/or 1 Package-ice Preferable °F °C Percent °F °C Fresh fruits and vegetables: —Continued Rhubarb. 32 0.0 95 to 100 30.3 -0.9 No Romaine . 32 0.0 95 31.7 -0.2 Yes Spinach. 32 0.0 95 to 100 31.5 -0.3 Yes Squash and Pumpkins: Winter and pumpkins. 50 to 55 10.0 to 12.8 50 to 70 30.5 -0.8 No Summer. 41 to 50 5.0 to 10.0 95 31.1 -0.5 No Strawberries. 32 0.0 90 to 95 30.6 -0.8 No Strawberry plants . 30 to 32 -1.1 to 0.0 90 to 95 — — No Sweet potatoes 55 to 60 12.8 to 15.6 85 to 90 29.7 1-1.3 No Tangerines. 40 4.4 90 to 95 30.1 -1.1 No Tomatoes: Mature-green 55 to 70 12.8 to 21.1 90 to 95 31.0 -0.6 No Pink 46 to 50 7.2 to 10.0 90 to 95 31.1 -0.5 No Tomato transplants 50 to 55 10.0 to 12.8 85 to 90 31.0 -0.6 No Watermelons. 50 to 60 10.0 to 15.6 90 31.3 -0.4 No Canned Foods 4 — — _ _ _ _ Dairy Products: Butter: Fresh 39 3.9 75 to 85 No Frozen . -10 -23.3 No Margarine 35 1.7 60 to 70 No Cheeses 3 34 to 40 1 to 4 65 to 70 No Fresh and Cured Meat and Fresh Seafood , 6 — Frozen Foods . . . 7 — — — — — — Poultry and Kggs: Fresh, ice-packed 32 to 34 0 to I I 90 to 95 27.0 -2.8 Yes Fresh, chilled 28 to 32 -2.2 to 0.0 90 to 95 27.0 -2.8 No Kggs 40 to 45 4.4 to 7.2 80 to 85 28.0 -2.2 No 1 Make uire product* arc packed in moisture resistant containers before applying top or package-ice. ' Florida and Texas oranges shipped from cold storage or those that will he in transit for more than 5 days should be held at 32- 34 “F *|0.o"- to I. I ”C). Arizona and California oranges should be shipped at 38“ to 48 ”F 1 Early Barllctt pears that arc ripened in transit should he shipped at 55-60 *F * Sec text page 63 and table 4 ' Sec text page 6X and table 3. * See text page 70 and tabic 6 ’ All frozen foods should he shipped at 0“F (-I8*C) or colder 93 Selected Bibliography American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning En¬ gineers, ASHRAE Refrigeration Handbook-1986, Atlanta, Georgia Frozen Food Roundtable, Code of Recommended Practices for the Handling and Merchandising of Frozen Foods, Washington, D.C. 20007, September 1981. Hardenburg, R.E., Alley E. Watada, and Chien Yi Wang, The Commer¬ cial Storage of Fruits, Vegetables, and Florist and Nursery Stocks, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C., ARS, Agriculture Hand¬ book No. 66, Revised September 1986, 132 pp. Kasmire, R.F. and R. Tom Hinsch, Factors Affecting Transit Temperatures in Truck Shipments of Fresh Produce, University of California, Davis and USDA-ARS, Fresno, California. Lipton, W.J. and John M. Harvey, Compatibility of Fruits and Vegetables During Transport in Mixed Loads, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C., ARS, MRR-1070, May 1977. Nicholas, C.J., Export Handbook for U.S. Agriculture Products, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C., Agriculture Handbook No. 593, March 1985. Sea-Land Services Inc., The Shipment of Perishable Commodities, $ ea [ Mn( { Services Inc., Elizabeth, New Jersey, 1983. 94 9249900